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NICHOLSON’S DICTIONARY

OF THE

SCIENCE AND PRACTICE

OF

ARCHITECTURE,

BUILDING, CARPENTRY,

ETC. , ETC., ETC.

FROM THE EARLIEST AGES TO THE PRESENT TIME

 

NEW EDITION.

 

EDITED BY

EDWARD LOMAX, ESQ., C.E., AND THOMAS GUNYON, ESQ, ARCH. & C.E.

ILLUSTRATED BY UPWARDS OF 1,600 WORKING DRAWINGS.

VOL. I.

THE LONDON PRINTING AND PUBLISHING COMPANY, LIMITED:
LONDON AND NEW YORK.

     

 

'11; 41.4: EL.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

NA 31
IV 5‘
. fit“. ‘
l 8:: *4
v: I
LIST OF PLATES—VOL. I. efvv’

To the Binder. —The Plates may be bound up in a separate Volume, in the following order, for greater facility of reference. If, however, it be
preferred that they should be bound up with the text, their proper position is assigned to each in the following List.

’ PAGE 2A0:
Nicholson, P. ................................. FRONTISPIECE. Conic Sections, Plate I ........................................ 190
Doorway, East Cloisters, Westminster Abbey, VIGNETTE. Constructive Carpentry, Plate I. ........................... 194
Details, Plate I. ................................................ 1 Do. do. Plate II ............................ 195
Details, Plate V. (Acroteria, 8w.) ........................... 3 Corinthian Order, Plate I ..................................... 204
Details, Plate II. (Arches) ................................. 12 Do. do. Plate II. ................................. 204

. Balusters ......................................................... 25 Corinthian Order, Plate III. ................................. 204
Details, Plate III. (Balcony, 8w.) ........................... 26 Do. do. Plate IV. ................................. 204

‘ Bracketing, Plate I. .......................................... ~12 Curb Roof ...................................................... 218
l Midland Great Western Railway Bridge over the river Cylinder, Plate I. ............................................. 224
l Shannon, Ireland .................................... 63 Details, Plate V. (Letter D.) ................................. 227
‘ Narc Bridge, on the Waterford and Kilkenny Railway 64 Descriptive Geometry, Plate I ............................... 244
Byzantine Architecture, Plate I. ........................... 70 D0. (10. Plate II. ........................... 250

‘ Do. do. Plate II ............................ 73 Do. do. Plate III. ........................... 262
Details, Plate IV. ............................................. 73 Do. do. Plate IV. ........................... 264
Carpentry, Plate I. .......................................... 83 Dog- 46‘5ng Stairs, Plate 1- --------------------------------- 274

1 D0. Plate II. .......................................... 84 Dome, Plate I. ................................................ 282
‘ D0. Plate III. .......................................... 86 Do. Plate II. ................................................ 283
Do. Plate IV. .......................................... 89 Do. Plate III ............................. 284
Do. Plate V. .................. _ ........................ 9 0 Grecian Architecture, Plate I. .............................. 303
Do. Plate VI. .......................................... 91 Doric Order, Plate II. ....................................... 303
Do. Plate VII. ....................................... 92 D0. Plate III. --------------------------------------- 303
Do. Plate VIII. ....................................... 94 Do. Plate IV. ....................................... 303
D0. Plate IX. .......................................... 99 Eddystone Lighthouse, Plate I ......... ' ...................... 345
Do. Plate X. .......................................... 100 Do. do. Plate 11., No. 1 .................. 346
Do. Plate XI. .......................................... 101 Do. (10. Plate 11., N0. 2 ------------------ 346
D0. Plate XII. ....................................... 102 Lighthouse, Plate III. ....................................... 347

I, Do. Plate XIII. ....................................... 104 Do. Plate IV. ....................................... 347
General Plan of St. Paul’s, London; and St. Peter’s, Do. Plate V. .......................................... 348
Rome ................................................... 119 D0. Plate VI ------------------------------------------ 348

l Centering, Plate I .............................................. 138 Do. Plate VII. ....................................... 349
g 1 Do. Plate 11. .......................................... 139 Do. Plate VIII ........................................ 350
I: Do. Plate III ........................................... 139 Ellipsis, Plate I ................................................. 366
3 Centre of Waterloo Bridge .................................... 139 Do. Plate II. ............................................. 367
Chinese Architecture, Plate I. .............................. 147 D0. Plate III. ............................................. 368
Do. do. Plate II ............................... 148 Embankments, Plate I. ....................................... 378

l Do. do. Plate III. .......................... 148 Envelopes of Solids, Plate I .................................. 388
l Army and Navy Club House, Plan ........................ 173 EnveloPe, Plate II ............................................. 388
5 D0. . do. do. Elevation .................. 173 Details, Plate VI. ............................................. 411
: Columns, Plate I. .......................................... 181 Frets, Plate I ................................................. 434

l

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

iv LIST OF PLATES.-—VOL. 1.

PAGE

Frets, Plate II. ................................................ 434
Geometry, Plate I .............. ' ...... . ......................... 4 42
Do. Plate II. .......................................... 443
Do. Plate III ........................................... 446
Semi-Norman and Early English Examples ............... 464
Gothic Architecture, Early English Examples ......... 464
Do. do. Decorated Examples ............... 466
Do. i do. do. (Buttresses, 8w.) ...... 467
Do. do. Perpendicular Examples ......... 469
Centering for Groins .................................. 479
Ribbing for Groins ............................................. 480
Handrailing, Plate VIII. .................................... 489
Do. Plate I... ........................................ 490

 

Handrailing, Plate II. ....................................... ZgI
Do. Plate III. ....................................... 491
Do. Plate IV. .......................... '. ............ 491
Do. Plate V. ................................... 491
Do. Plate VI. ~ 492
Do. Plate VII ........................................ 492

Hinging, Plate I ................................................ 495
Do. Plate II. ............................................. 496

Hip Roof, Plate I ........................... . .................. 498
Do. Plate II ................................ 498
Do. Plate III. .......................................... 499
Do. Plate IV. ...................................... 499

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

EDITORS PREFACE‘

IN preparing the present Edition of this Work, it has been the endeavour of the Editors to
improve by enlargement, rather than by alteration: the former Edition, indeed, had obtained so
high an estimation, as to have become an acknowledged standard Work; it was deemed, therefore,

 

more advantageous, as it was more becoming, to leave the greater part of the Work in its original ‘

condition, more especially such parts as related to Carpentry, and subjects of a kindred nature, in
which our Author is universally accredited as an authority of the highest standing.

Some parts of the old Edition, however, had become obsolete and out of date, and such it
has been considered advisable to expunge, or modify in such .a manner as might make them
suitable to the more advanced knowledge of the present day. Amongst the articles which have
been expunged, the Treatise upon Algebra may be adduced as an illustration of the principles
which have guided the Editors in their selection: such treatises, besides being cumbersome in
a Work of this nature, may be studied to much greater advantage in books exclusively devoted
to the subject. On the other hand, the articles on Bridges, Strength of Materials, the Orders,
and such like, will afford a fair specimen of the treatment of such subjects as required modification
or enlargement. ‘

As an illustration of the new matter which has been added, may be particularly enumerated
a. series of papers treating of the history and characteristics of the various styles of Architecture,
which, it is hoped, may prove an interesting and not unuseful feature in the present Dictionary.

Besides these, many papers of an Archaeological and general, as well as of a practical character, ‘
have been added, and a very large number of Definitions introduced, which were not in the ‘

original Work. Amongst the Archaeological papers, those on Church Architecture and Ecclesiology

in general, may, it is hoped, be referred to with satisfaction; while those of a practical character . 3

may be fairly represented by the articles on Roads, Sewers, Cement, &c.

The Plates contained in the old Work have also been very carefully compared with the text. .

Several errors of importance have been corrected, besides a very large number of others of less
importance, such as would, however, tend to perplex the student, and even render the information
useless to those of more advanced knowledge, who have not the leisure to make the corrections
for themselves. To show the pains that have been taken to render this Edition of the ARCHITECTURAL
DICTIONARY as perfect as possible, a list of the works consulted in preparing the present Edition is
given on the other side.

In fine, the Editors venture to hope, that, while preserving the sterling matter of the original
Work, they have made some Additions and Improvements which may be of service not only to
the student, but also to the mature and experienced practitioner.

EDWARD LOMAX, CIVIL ENGINEER,
THOMAS GUNYON, ARCH. & CIVIL ENGINEER.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

LIST OF WORKS CONSULTED IN PREPARING THE PRESENT EDITION OF THE

ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY.

 

8vo., London.
8vo., London, 1844.

Archaeologia,
Archaeological Journal,

Barr’s Anglican Church Architecture, with some remarks on
Ecclesiastical Furniture, 8vo., Oxford, 1846.

Barrington’s Plain Hints for understanding the Genealogy
and Armorial Bearings of Sovereigns of England, 8vo.,
London, 1843.

Barrington’s Chronological Chart of British Architecture,
fol., London, 1843.

Bartholomew’s Specifications, 8vo., London, 1846.

Bentham’s History of Gothic and Saxon Architecture,
fol., London, 1798.

Bingham’s (J.) Origines Ecclesiasticae, or Antiquities of the
Christian Church, and other Works, with additional anno-

tations, revised and edited by Rev. R. Bingham, 8vo.,
London, 1821-9.

Bloxam’s Glimpse of the Monumental Architecture and

Sculpture from earliest period to 18th century, 12mo.,
London, 1834.

Bloxam’s Principles of Gothic Ecclesiastical Architecture
elucidated by question and answer, 12mo., London, 1843.

Do., do., 9th Edition, 12mo., London, 1849.

Brande, W. T.—Dictionary of Science, Literature, and Art,
8vo., London, 1842.

Brandon, T. A.—Parish Churches, 8vo., London, 1848.

Britton, J .—The Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain,
4to., London, 1801-7.

Britton, J .——-Dictionary of the Architecture and Archaeology
of the Middle Ages, 4to., London, 1838.

Britton, J.—The History and Antiquities of the Cathedral
Church of Salisbury, fol., London, 1814.

Britton, J .—Antiquities of Winchester Cathedral,
London, 1817.

fol.,

 

Britton, J.—-Antiquities of Cathedral Church of Norwich,
fol., London, 1816.

Britton, J.—The History and Antiquities of the Cathedral
Church of Salisbury, fol., London, 1821.

Brown.—Sacred Architecture, 4to., London.

Buck, G. VV.—Practical Essay on Oblique Bridges, 4to.,
London, 1839.

Buckler, J. C—Elevations, Sections, and Details of St.
Peter’s Church, VVilcote, Oxon., fol., Oxford, 1844.

Buckler, J. C ——Views of Cathedral Churches of England I
and Wales, 4to., London, 1822.

Carter, J .—Specimens of Gothic Architecture and Ancient

12mo., London, 1824.

Chambers, Sir lV.—A Treatise on the Decorative Part of
Civil Architecture, edited by Jos. Gwilt, 8vo., London,
1825.

Chambers, Sir VV.—Designs of Chinese Buildings, Furni-
ture, &c., fol., London, 1757.

Coney, J.—Engravings of Ancient Cathedrals in France,
Holland, and Italy, fol., London, 1839.

Cotman, J. S._Architectural Antiquities of Normandy.
fol., London, 1822.

Cotman, J. S.—Etchings Illustrative of Architectural Anti-
quities of Norfolk, fol., London, 1818.

Cranstoun, E.——Elevations, Sections, and Details of Chapel
of St. Bartholomew, near Oxford, fol., Oxford,
1844.

Cresy, E.—Architecture of Middle Ages in Italy, Illustrated _
by Views, Plans, Elevations, Sections, and Details of '
Cathedral of Campo Santo at Pisa, by E. Cresy and ‘
G. L. Taylor, fol., London, 1829.

Cresy, E.—Illustrations of Stone Church, Kent, with A
Historical Account, fol., London, 1840.

Buildings in England,

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

LIST OF WORKS CONSULTED.

—_

 

Dallaway, J.—Discourses upon English Architecture from
Norman Era to Elizabeth,

Davies, E.—Celtic Researches on the Origin, Traditions,
and Language of Ancient Britons, 8vo., London, 1804.
Denisis, J.—Architectura Sacra, 8vo., Exeter, 1818.
Denon, V.—Voyage dans la basse et la haute Egypte,

Paris. 1802.

fol.,

Elmes, J .—-A General and Bibliographical Dictionary of the
Fine Arts, SW. London, 1826.

Fawcett, J .—Churches of York, by Mr. 'Monkhouse and
Mr. E. Bedford ; with Historical and Architectural Notes
by F. Fawcett, 4to., York, 1843.

F1eury.—Ecclesiastical History from A.D. 400 to 429, trans-
lated, with Notes. by J. H. Newman, 8vo., Oxford
1843.

Gray, H.—Tour to the Sepulchres of Etruria.

Grose, FL—Antiquities of England and Wales,
don, 1773-6.

Grose, F.——-Autiquities of Ireland, 8vo., London, 1791~5.

Guilhabaud, J .—-Monuments Auciens et Moderns, Vues
generale et particuliéres, &c.,

Gunn, W.—An Inquiry into the Origin and Influence of
Gothic Architecture, 8vo., London, 1819.

Gwilt, Jos.—Encyclopedia of Architecture,

fol., Lon-

Historical,
Theoretical, and Practical, 8vo., London, 1842.

Gwilt, J .—Rudiments of Architecture, Practical and Theo-
retical, 4to., London, 1826.

Habershon, M.—The Ancient Half-timbered Houses of Eng-
land, fol., London, 1836.

Hakewill, J .—An Attempt to Determine the exact Character
of Elizabethan Architecture, 8vo., London, 1835.

Halfpenny, W.—The Art of Sound Building, fol., Lon-
don, 1725.

Halfpenny, W.—-Practical Architecture,
1736.

Hall, Sir J .—Essay on Origin and Principles of Gothic
Architecture, 4to., London, 1813.

Hawkins, J. E.—A History of Gothic Architecture, with an

8vo., London, 1813.

Hope, Thomas—An Historical Essay on Architecture, 8vo.,
London, 1835.

Hughes, T. S.—Travels in Sicily, Greece, and Albania,
8vo., London, 1830.

Hunt, T. F.—Examples of Tudor Architecture,
don, 1830.

12mo., London,

Investigation of its Principles,

4to., Lon-

[nghirami, F.—Monumenti Etruschi 0 di Etrusco Nome,
4to., Fiesol, 1821-6.

 

1

Kendall.—Gothic Architecture, 8vo., London., 1842.
Knight, H. G.—Ecclesiastical Architecture of Italy, fol.,
London, 1842.

Lloyd, H. E.—-Architectural Beauties of Continental Europe,
(‘01., London, 1831.

Mackenzie, C.—Crosby Place described, 8vo., London, 1842

Mackenzie, F.—Specimens of Gothic Architecture, 4to.,
London.

Mant, R.-—-Church Architecture considered in relation to the
Mind of the Church, 8vo., Belfast, 1843.

Moller, G.—Essay on Origin and Progress of Gothic
Architecture, 8vo., London, 1824.

Murphy, J. C.—-The Arabian Antiquities of Spain, fol.,
London, 1813.

Nash, J.—Mansions of England in the Olden Time, Series
1, 2, 3, fol., London, 1839-41.

Neale, J. P.—Views of Collegiate and Parochial Churches in
Great Britain, 4to., London, 1824-5.

Parnell, Sir H.—A Treatise on Roads.

Petit, J. L.—Remarks on Church Architecture,
don, 1841.

The Practical Builder, 4to., London, 1838.

Pugin, A. W.—Apology for Revival of Christian Architec-
ture, 4to., London, 1843.

Pugin, A. W.—Contrasts, or Parallel between Edifices of
Middle Ages and Present Day, 8vo., London, 1841.

Pugin, A. W.—Glossary of Ecclesiastical Ornament,
London, 1844.

Pugin, A.—Gothic Ornaments selected from variousBuildings
in England and France, 4to., London, 1831.

Pugin, A.—Specimens of Gothic Architecture from Ancient
Edifices in England, 4to., London, 1821.

Pugin, A. W.—The True Principles of Pointed, or Chris-
tian Architecture, 4to., London, 1841.

8vo., Lon-

4to.,

Rich.—Narrative of a Journey to Babylon in 1811—Memoir
on Ruins—Remarks on Topography of Ancient Babylon
by Major Rennell, &c., 8vo., London, 1839.

Richardson, C. J.—Architectural Remains of the Reigns of
Elizabeth and James I., fol., London, 1838-40.

Rickman, T.—An Attempt to discriminate the Styles of
English Architecture from Conquest to Reformation,
8vo., London, 1820.

Rickman, T.——An Essay on Gothic Architecture.
London, 1825.

8vo.,

Shaw, H.—History and Antiquities of Chapel at Luton
Park, fol., London, 1830.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

LIST OF WORKS. CO’NSULTED.

 

Simpson, F.—Series of Ancient Baptismal Fonts chronolo- l
gically arranged, 4to.

Smirke, (Sir R.) Specimens of Continental Architecture,
fol., London, 1806.

Smitln—Panorama of Science and Art, 8vo., London.

Stuart, J.—Antiquities of Athens, fol., London, 1830.

Stuart, R.—Dictionary of Architecture, 3 Vols., 8vo.,
London.
Stukeley, W.-—Palaagraphia Britannica, 4to., London,

1743-52.

Tappen, G.——Professional Observations on the Architecture

8vo., London, 1806.

Tredgold.—Elementary Principles of Carpentry,
don, 1840.

of France and Italy,
4to., Lon-

Vitruvius.—Civil Architecture, by Gwilt, 4to, London,

1626.

Walsh, R.-—An Essay on Ancient Coins, Medals, and Gems
illustrating Progress of Christianity in Early Ages. 2nd
l2mo., London, 1828.

Warton, J .—Essays on Gothic Architecture.

Edition, enlarged,

Wade—Quarterly Papers on Architecture, 4to., London,
1843-4.

Weale.—Rudimentary Treatises, l2mo., London, 1851.

VVhewell, W.--Architectural Notes on German Churches,
8vo., Cambridge, 1842.

Whittington, G. D.—Historical Survey of Ecclesiastical
Architecture of France, 4to., London, 1809.

Wightwick.——Hints to Young Architects,
1846.

Wild, C.—Cathedrals-—l2 Specimens of Ecclesiastical Ar-
chitecture of Middle Ages, fol., London.

Wild, C —Twe1ve Examples of Ecclesiastical Architecture
of France, fol.

8vo., London,

 

. The Builder. ]

Wilkinson, J. G.-—-The Manners and Customs of the Ancient 1

Egyptians, 8vo., London, 1837.

Wilkins, H.———Suite de rues pittoresques des ruines de Pom-
peii, fol., Rome, 1819. i

Willis, R.—Remarks on Architecture of Middle Ages, espe-
cially of Italy, 8vo., Cambridge, 1835. 1

Willis, B.—A Survey of the Cathedrals, 4to., London, 1727. ‘

Wood, J.-—Letters of an Architect from France, Italy, and
Greece, 4t0., London, 1828.

Wood, R.—Ruins of Palmyra, fol., London, 1753.

Wood, R.—Ruins of Balbec, fol., London, 1757.

A Few Words to Church Builders, published by Cambridge
Camden Society, with Appendix, containing List of Fonts,
8vo., Cambridge, 1841.

A Few Words to Churchwardens on Churches and Church

8vo., Cambridge, 1841.

Church Enlargement and Church Arrangement, 8vo., Cam-
bridge, 1843. ,

8vo., London, 1846. I

8vo., Cambridge, 1841-4. 1

A Glossary of Terms used in Grecian, Roman, Italian, and ‘

8vo., London, 1836. !

Gothic Architecture—A Chart of English, Ecclesiastical, or l
Gothic Architecture from Commencement in Saxon dynasty

fol. ;

A Guide to the Architectural Antiquities in Neighbourhood
of Oxford, 8vo., Oxford, 1844-5. i

Instrumenta Ecclesiastica, a Series of Working Designs for ‘
Furniture, Fittings, and Decorations of Churches. Edited
by Cambridge Camden Society, 4to., London, 1844. 1

Prospects of all the Cathedrals and Collegiate Churches of‘
England and Wales, l2mo.

Quarterly Review, Vols. of 1845, 8vo., London, 1815. i

The Student’s Guide to Measuring and Valuing Artificers
Work, 8vo., London, 1843

Ornaments,
Ecclesiastic,
Eccleologist,

Gothic Architecture,

to Sixteenth century,

 

 

 

 

 

 

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‘IHCTDINARY OF

ARCHITECTURE.

 

ABA

ABACI, according to Vitruvius, any flat tabulated sur-
face—The term is applied to the panels of walls formed in
stucco, of which examples may be seen in various remains
of antiquity; and to certain decorations of the walls above
a part of the podium, or dado.

ABACUS, (from Greek, aIBaE,) the uppermost member
of the capital of a column, consisting of a flat rectangular
table contained between two horizontal planes. In all the
existing Doric buildings, with perhaps one or two exceptions,
it is in the form of a parallelopiped of equal rectangular sides.
The same form is preserved in the other orders, but the
thickness is considerably diminished. In the Corinthian and
Composite, however, the sides are of a curvilinear form in
plan. See Dome, IONIC, CORINTHIAN, TUSCAN, and COM-
POSITE ORDERS.

ABATTOIR, a place where cattle, sheep, 8m. are killed,
and prepared to be sold in the market for food. Among
the ancients, such places were altogether apart from meat-
markets. In Paris, some time ago, five public abattoirs were
constructed at the expense ofthe city, containing 236 slaughter-
stalls. There are in each of the five abattoirs furnaces for melt-
ing fat, leaden cisterns and pipes for supplyingwater to all parts
of the establishment, cesspools, cart—sheds and stables for the
use of butchers, water-closets, places for feeding or herding the
beasts, houses for the different functionaries, and lastly, a
large covered sewer which conveys rain and dirty water into
the common sewers of Paris. The abattoirs of Paris have
two or four sets of slaughter—houses, each of them composed
of two buildings separated by an open yard. The different
sheds, divided from each other by stone walls, are about
16 feet by 32, and they have each two entrances—one
opening on the yard, by which the beasts are made to enter,
and the other on the opposite side, by which the meat is
removed according as it is required. Each slaughter-stall
is provided with an ample supply of water, also with a
tank or reservoir situated under the flagging, and with a
mechanical apparatus to enable the men to lift the animals
when killed, for the purpose of hangng them up. These
slaughter—sheds, as well as the yard between them, are
flagged all over with very thick slabs, carefully jointed with
cement made of iron filings, 820., so that no particle of animal
matter may pass through. The ceilings are covered with
plaster, and whitewashed, so as to encourage the greatest
attention to cleanliness. Small holes made in the lower
portions of the doors allow the air to circulate freely; and
lastly, the roofs being made to project about ‘10 feet beyond
the exterior surface of the walls, have the double advantage
of protecting the slaughter-houses from the direct rays of
the sun, and shading the carts in which the meat is conveyed
to market, as well as the men engaged in loading them during
the time they are so occupied. As the use of water in an
abattoir is indispensable, and moreover frequently required,
the means of obtaining and distributing it is one of the
principal points to which the attention of an engineer ought
to be directed. In Paris, there are two houses, or lodges, at

 

ABU

the entrance of each abattoir, for the accommodation of the
superintendent, gate-keeper, and servants connected with
the establishment. Whatever may be the size or extent of
an abattoir, it must have a large drain to conduct the dirty
water, and the various kinds of filth which it necessarily
contains, into a river, or main sewer. In Paris such prin-
cipal drains are built of stone, and are Constructed 3% feet
wide, by 6% high. In addition to the above-mentioned
places, it is requisite to have a yard, in which to put the
manure and useless animal remains, which ought, however,
to be cleaned out every day if possible. This yard ought to
be well supplied with water, and be placed as near as possible
to the mouth of the sewer. It should be paved with stone
or bricks, laid in cement mixed with iron filings.
ABBEY, a monastery, or religious house, governed by a
superior under the title of Abbot. See MONASTERY.
ABBREVIATION, a kind of shorthand, much used by
surveyors in measuring work, and greatly facilitating the
process. See MENSURATION of Artificers’ Works.
ABREUVOIR, or ABREVOIR, (from the French,) in
masonry the interstice, or joint, between two stones, to be
filled up with mortar or cement. See JOIRTS.
ABSTRACT, in artificers’ works, is used in a general
sense, to signify the collecting of sundry articles into one sum,
when the same price is affixed to equal parts of each ; or, to
ascertain measure. See MENSURATION of Artificers’ Works.
ABUTMENT, or BUTMENT, that which receives the end
of, and gives support to anything having a tendency to spread
or thrust outwards ;—or it may be defined as the resisting
surface of a body, on which another body presses in an oblique
direction to the horizon, or in a different direction to the
height or length of the body pressed upon: such are the
abutments of arches and the juggles of truss-posts, which
resist the pressure of the struts or braces. In bridge-building
it is the extreme pillars only of one or a series of arches, and
thus connects the bridge with the bank of a river, &c.
Abutments should be made to resist a greater force than
what is just sufficient to balance the abutting works, provided
there be no rocks to rest upon. The foundation of an abut-
ment, raised upon a sloping bank of rock, gravel, or good
solid earth, will be a great saving of materials and labour;
but if no such natural advantages occur, it will add greatly
to the strength of the abutment to lay the stones with radiat-

ing or summermg jomts, according to the practlce 1n laying I

 

 

the voussoirs, at least as high as the springng of the arch, ?
and this disposition will present a greater resistance to the ‘

lateral thrust of the adjacent arch, than if the stones had been
laid on level beds; and instead of the returning sides from
the side of the aperture of the arch being vertical planes,
they would be much stronger when reclining, and more so if
curved in a vertical direction. See BRIDGES and WALL.
ABUTMENTS. in carpentry and joinery, are the junctions,
or meetings, of two pieces of timber, of which the fibres of
the one run perpendicular to the joint, and those of the other
parallel to it. M. Perronet, the celebrated French architert.

 

 

 

 

ADI

AIS

 

formed the abutments of the timbers, in roofing, in the
arches of circles, making the centre in the other extremity.
With respect to the transverse strain on the various pieces
of a. roof, the abutting joint is of little importance. For
farther explanation, see J OGGLE.

ACADEMY, in antiquity, a public grove or villa, six
stadia (half-a-mile) distant from Athens, which it is said
took its name from one Academus, a citizen of Athens, to
whom it originally belonged, and who appropriated it to

ymnastic sports.

ACANTHUS, an ornament used in the enrichment of the
Corinthian capital, and so called from its resemblance to
the leaves of an acanthaceous plant. It is also commonly
employed in sculptural and architectural enrichments gene-
rally; in the enrichment of modillions, of mouldings, and of
vases, as well as of foliated capitals. In the ancient Roman
models, this ornament is full and luxuriant; while in the
Greek it is characterized by a graceful and restrained sim-
plicity. See ORDERS.

ACCESSES, the passages of communication to the various
apartments of a building. See PASSAGES.

ACCIDENTAL POINT. See VANISHING POINT.

ACCOMPANIMENT, an ornament added to some other
ornament, for the greater beauty of the work.

ACRE, a quantity of land, containing four square roods,
or 160 poles or perches. The acre is in length ten chains,
and one in breadth; consequently contains ten square chains;
and as the chain contains 22 yards in length, there will be
4,840 square yards in the acre. The proportion between the
English and Scottish acre, supposing the feet to be alike in
both, is as 1,089 to 1,369, or nearly as four to five; the
English chain being 66 feet, and the Scottish 74. The
French acre, arpent, contains 1&— English acre, or 54,450
square feet.

ACROLINTHON, or ACROLrNTnos, a colossal statue
placed in the temple of Mars, and situated in the middle of
the citadel of the ancient town of IIalicarnassus.

ACROPOLIS, (from akpog, height, and Tolug, a city) the
fortress or citadel of Athens, which derived its name from
an eminence on which it stood. It was richly adorned by
the Athenians, in the days of their prosperity, with temples,
statues, paintings, and votive gifts to their divinities. Of
this ancient place there are still many fine ruins, some of
which are very entire. Its walls have at different times
been rudely repaired, or rebuilt, as little of the ancient
masonry remains; but numerous fragments of columns,
cornices, and sculptures, are seen in several parts, and
exhibit a ruinous appearance.

ACROTERIA, a term applied to the little pedestals
placed on the pediment or fastigium; one on the apex, and
one on each lower extremity, serving to support statues.
According to Vitruvius, those at the extremes ought to be
half the height of the tympanum, and that in the middle an
eighth part more. Acroteria likewise signify figures placed as
ornaments-or crownings on the tops of temples, or other build-
ings ; they also denote the sharp pinuacles,orspiry hattlements,
which stand in ranges about flat buildings with rails and balus-
ters, and which are sometimes called acroteral ornaments.

ACT, Building. See BUILDING ACT.

ACTUS. in building, a measure used by the Romans, and
equal to 120 Roman feet. See FOOT.

ACUMINATED, ending in a point, or sharp-pointed.

ADIT, or ADITUS, (from adire, to go to,) in general, the
approach or entrance to anything; in which sense we meet
with adit of a house, of a circus, Sac. Adits of a theatre,
aatlus theatri, in antiquity, were doors on the stairs, whereby
persons entered from the outer porticus, and descended into

 

 

 

 

the seats. The term is now generally applied to denote the
opening by which a mine is entered, and which is usually
made in the side of a hill.

ADYTUM, (from a, 5m.) the most retired place in the
pagan temples,‘into which none but the priests were ad-
mitted, and in which the oracles were declared. The word
originally signifies inaccessible, being compounded of a, not,
and 511w or drum), to enter. The sanctum sanctoram, or holy
of holies, of the temple of Solomon, was of the nature of the
pagan adv-rev, or adytum, none but the high-priest being
admitted into it, and that but. once a year, on the great day
of expiation.

ADZE, an edged tool, the iron part of which is called the
blade, and is a small portion of a cylindric surface on both
sides; it has a piece of wood, called the handle, fixed into a
socket at one extremity of it, in a radial direction; and the
other extremity, parallel to the axis of the cylinder, and
consequently at right angles to the handle, is edged with
steel, and ground sharp from the concave side. See TOOLS.

JEDES, in antiquity, a chapel, or inferior kind of temple,
as the agrarium, or treasury, called Eel/38 Salami.

JEDICULA, otherwise called SACELLUM, generally signi-
fied a small temple, but had various significations; some-
times denoting the inner part of the temple, in which the
altar and statue of the deity were placed; at other times, a
niche in the wall, for receiving a statue.

JEDICULUS, in Roman mythology, the deity who pre-
sided over the construction and conservation of buildings.

JEOLUS, in mechanics, a small portable machine, for
refreshing and changing the air in rooms that are too close.

ERIAL PERSPECTIVE, is that which represents
bodies diminished and weakened in proportion to their dis-
tance from the eye, Linear perspective may be,considered
the material guide of the artist, originating in, and governed
by, mathematical science; but a'érial perspective is depen-
dent for its application only on the capacity and perceptions
of the artist.

JESTUARY, in the ancient bath, a secret passage from
the stove into the chambers.

1E"I-IERIUS, an architect, who lived in the beginning
of the sixth century He built the edifice named Chalcis,
in the palace of Constantinople; and is supposed to hare
constructed the strong wall which extends from the sea to
Selimbria, for preventing the incursions of the Bulgarians
and Scythians.

AGGLUTINATE, to unite one part to another.

AGORA, the forum, or market-place, at Athens.

AGYCI, in antiquity, obelisks sacred to Apollo, and
placed in the vestibules of houses

AISLE, or AILE, (from the French aile, a wing, or villi-e,
a path.) When the breadth of a church is divided into three
or five parts, by two or four rows of pillars parallel to the
sides, the church is denominated a three or live aisled fabric.
The middle and principal compartment is called the nave;
the side divisions adjoining, the aisles; or, if the term be
applied to all the compartments, as it lawfully may be, they
are distinguished as the middle and side aisles. In French,
this term is applied to the outlying and returning ends of a
building, called by us wings; such as the columncd ends of
the front of the General Post Otlioe. London. The cccle~
siastical buildings in Great Britain are generally three-aisled ;
and no instance occurs of a tive~aisled church, eXt-cpt a
building at the west end of Durham cathedral; but on the
continent there are several: the great church at Milan is
one. Old St. Peter’s, at Rome, was also a tive-aisled fabric.
It is rather remarkable, that in \Vestttllllstet‘ abbey-church,
and Redclill'e church, at Bristol, the aisles are continued on

 

 

 

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each side of the transept, and in Salisbury cathedral on one
side only; but in no other church in this country. Other
particulars in connection with Aisle will be found under the
articles CHURCH, TRANSEPT, and WING.

ALABASTER. See GYPSUM.

ALZE, two apartments on the right and left of the vesti-
bulum, and separated from it either by columns or walls.

A-LA-GREC, or A-LA-GRECQUE. See FRETs.

ALBARIUM, Opus, in ancient buildings, the incrusta-
tion or covering of the roofs of houses with white plaster,
made of mere lime. The workmen were called albim‘ or
albarii. This is otherwise called Opus album, and differs
from tectorium, which is a common name given to all roofing
or ceiling, including even that formed of lime and sand, or
of lime and marble; whereas albarium was restricted to that
made of lime alone.

ALCOVE, in a sleeping room, is a recess made in the side
for receiving the bed, either wholly or in part. Alcoves
were formerly much in use in bedchambers, and were often
raised upon two or three steps, with a rail at the foot of the
bed; but now they are seldom employed except to obtain
uniformity, or a communication to another apartment. The
word is derived from the Spanish alcoba, and this again from
the Arabic al kubbeh, the place for the bed.

There is little doubt but the alcoves were of Asiatic or
African origin; for we frequently read of them in Arabian
stories and descriptions of Asiatic palaces and gardens.
They were introduced into Spain, from Arabia, by the
Saracens; and by the Spaniards into France, Germany, and
other nations. It is remarkable, that in the designs of
Palladio and other contemporary Italian writers, there are
no examples of alcoves; whence we may reasonably conclude
that they had not become fashionable either in Rome or
Venice. Swinburn mentions two, yet remaining, in the
royal bedchamber of the Moorish palace of Alhambra, at
Granada, which are probably the oldest in Europe. The
word is also applied to a recess or arched seat in a
garden.

ALESSI, a famous architect, born at Perugia, in 1500.
He attained to such eminence in his profession, that he was
applied to from France, Spain, and Germany, for plans of
public buildings. His plan for the monastery of the church
of the Escurial was preferred to those of the ablest archi-
tects of Europe. He died in 1572.

ALHAMBRA, an ancient palace of the Mohammedan
kings of Granada, situated on a hill which runs out to the
east of the town, and surrounded by strong walls flanked by
square towers. These walls were built of a kind of cement
formed of red clay and large pebbles, which, being exposed
to the action of the weather, quickly acquired the solidity and
hardness of stone.

Thelbeauties of this magnificent specimen of Arabian
taste and splendour, have been described a: great length by
Swinburn and other writers, who express the highest admira-
tion of the exquisite taste displayed throughout the whole.

In visiting the Alhambra, the traveller ascends through
a wood of lofty elms, whose interlaced branches shelter him
from the sun’s rays, to the Gate of Justice, and passes
beneath its horse-shoe arch, so characteristic of its Arabian
architecture, to the Plaza de los Algilies, or Squ‘are of
Cisterns.

On the east side of this Plaza is the palace of Charles V.,
a beautiful specimen of the style of the fifth century, by
AlonzoBerrequettc. On the north is the Mesuar, or com-
mon bathing-court, 150 feet long and 56 wide, paved with
white marble, and its walls covered with arabesques of the
most admirable workmanship.

 

From the Mesuar the traveller passes to the Court of the
Lions, which is also paved with white marble, and measures
100 feet by 60. In the centre is a large basin of alabaster
supported by twelve lions, from which rises a smaller one.

From this a large body of water spouts into the air, and,.

falling from one basin to the other, is sent forth through the
mouth of the lions. A gallery, supported by light and ele-
gant columns, surrounds the court ; and at each end projects
a sort of portico or gallery, supported by similar columns.

The Sala de Comares was undoubtedly the richest in the
Alhambra. Its walls are ornamented with arabesques o:
the most exquisite workmanship; its ceiling of cedar-wood,
inlaid with ivory, silver, and mother-of-pearl, While the
softened light, admitted by windows sunk in the immense
thickness of the wall, chastens the splendour of its richness,
and enhances its surprising beauty and magnificence.

Lost in the contemplation of the charming objects which
surround him on all sides, the traveller forgets the world and
its dry realities, and seems transported into one of the
palaces described in the “Arabian .Nz'ghts.”

ALH’TERION, (aheubm, t0 anoint,) the anointing-room
in the bath. .

ALMS-HOUSE, a small hospital, or edifice, endowed
with a revenue for the maintenance of a certain number of
poor, aged, or disabled people.

AMBO, or AMBON, in ancient churches, a kind of pulpit
or desk, ascended by steps. The modern reading-desks have
been gradually substituted for the ancient ambae: there are,
however, remains of them in some Roman churches still to
be seen, as in that of St. John de Lateran, at Rome, where
there are two movable ambae.

AMPHEROSTYLOS, or AMPHIPROSTYLE, in ancient
architecture, a temple with a portico in front, and another in
the rear. The term is derived from app both, «do before,
and 5-ng column, signifying columns on both fronts. See
TEMPLE.

AMPHITHEATRE, (from aludu, around; and Gettrpov,
theatre,) in Roman antiquity, a large edifice, of an elliptic
form, with a series of rising seats or benches disposed around
a spacious area, called the arena, in which the combats of
gladiators, wild beasts, and other sports, were exhibited. It
consisted exteriorly of a wall pierced in its circumference by
two or more ranges of arcades, and interiorly of vaulted
passages radiating from the exterior arcades towards the
arena, and several transverse vaulted corridors opening a free
communication to the stairs at the ends of the passages, and
to every other part of the building; the corridors and ranges
of seats forming elliptical figures parallel to the boundary
wall.

Sometimes, in the middle of the fabric, there was an
intermediate corridor, which, like those on the ground-floor,
surrounded the whole, and served as a common landing-place

to all the staircases that led to the higher galleries; as in the ‘

amphitheatre at Nismes: and sometimes each staircase had its
distinct landing, without any gallery of general communi—
cation; as in the amphitheatre at Verona.

The four passages in the direction of the greater and
lesser axes were generally made wider than the rest, and,
by intersecting arched passages, laid open to the adjoining
passages on either side of them. The principal entrances,
through which the emperor, the senate, and other distin-
guished persons passed, were placed in the direction of the
lesser aXes. The other two led directly to the arena by large
arched gateways, which Were appropriated to the beasts and
gladiators. Through the other passages, the different orders
of people passed to the staircases, which led to the respective
seats. Every arcade around the exterior was numbered as

 

 

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well as the divisions, or wedge-formed parts, called cunei,
which separated the people into difi‘erent orders.

The amphitheatre was regulated by certain laws, by which
each person knew the entry through which he was to pass,
to his appropriate seat. The door-ways, which opened from
the stairs and passages, were denominated vomitoria. The
benches, on which the people sat, were about two feet four
inches broad, and one foot eight inches high. Before every
range of vomitoria, a passage of communication, called a
precinctum, was formed, about four feet eight inches broad,
and bounded on the ascending side by a wall of about three
feet four inches high. Surrounding the arena was a platform
called the podium, which was of greater breadth than the
precinctum, and which was defended on the front by strong
netting, and rails of iron armed with spikes, and also with
strong rollers of timber, which turned vertically to prevent
the hunted animals from leaping over. The emperor’s
pavilion, called the suggestum, was in the podium, at one
extremity of the minor axis of the arena, highly decorated,
and lined with silk. The seats of the most distinguished
persons were also in the podium, and covered with cushions,
while marble benches were in general covered with boards;
but as the podium was not sufficiently large to contain all
the people of high rank, other contiguous places were allotted
for that purpose. Over the spectators, in time of rain or
intense sunshine, a covering of woollen of different colours,
called the velum, was occasionally stretched by means of
pullies and cords, and drawn up or let down at pleasure.—
On the sides of the passages, and under the stairs, on the
ground-story, are many cells and rooms, which were pro-
bably prisons for criminals condemned to fight, or to be
devoured, and in which the beasts might be occasionally
stabled. It was sometimes the practice to give novelty to the
games, by erecting pieces of machinery on the arena, repre-
senting mountains, on which real trees were planted, and
under them hidden caves were formed, from whence the ani-
mals rushed out to encounter the combatants, or to devour
their victims.

Amphitheatres are undoubtedly of Roman invention, and
were at first constructed of timber; and it was not till the
reign of Augustus that one of stone was built by Statilius
Taurus, but this does not appear to have been held in much
estimation, as it was very seldom resorted to. The Roman
amphitheatre, called the Coliseum, or Colosseum, was begun
by the emperor Vespasian, and finished by his son Titus, and
is deservedly celebrated as a prodigy among the ancients.
At the solemn games, when this edifice was dedicated, five
thousand wild beasts, according to Eutropius, and nine thou-
sand, according to Dio, were destroyed on its arena 1Vhen
the hunting was concluded, the arena was suddenly filled
with water, in which aquatic animals were made to contend,
and then a sea-fight ensued. According to Tappen, the
greater axis of the ellipsis of this stupendous edifice was
627 feet, and the lesser, 520. ACCOx‘ding to Desgodetz, the
height of the exterior wall was 156 feet, the greate ‘ axis of
the arena about 264 feet, and the lesser 165 feet; therefore

the medium breadth of the circuit, for seats, galleries, and -

wall, was about 179 or 180 feet—This edifice covered some-
thing more than five acres of ground.

The boundary-wall was pierced by five ranges of aper-
tures, of which the three lower were arcades, having eighty
openings in each range, and the upper two rectangular win-
dows. Its exterior side was decorated with orders, in four
ranges, with continued cntablatnres; the three lower were
colonnades, and the upper a pilastrade.

The lowest order vas Doric, without mutules, triglyphs,
and guttae; but the shafts of the columns terminated with

 

bases: the second was Ionic, with the Attic base; its volutes
were slightly formed, and the dentil band uncut: the third
and fourth orders were Corinthian, with unraflled leaves.
The diameter of the columns, in the several ranges, was two
feet eight inches and three quarters, as also the breadth
of the pilasters; the columns of the lower range were
twenty-six feet high, and each of the others twenty-four
feet only. This makes the Doric columns higher than either
the Ionic or Corinthian, and the altitude of the Ionic and
Corinthian equal to each other, while all the columns have
equal diameters, and are of the same breadth with the pilas-
ters of the upper range. The sima of the cornice of the
lower Corinthian was supported by modillions, without the
intervention of the corona, and the column has a Tuscan
base, The upper Corinthian had its cornice formed in front
by three faces, and a cymatium like an architrave, and sup-
ported by cantalivers, projecting out of the frieze; or the
entablature may be looked upon as an architrave cornice, reck-
oning the frieze and cantalivers a part of it. The whole
edifice was crowned with a blocking course.

The first colonnade was raised on several steps, about
three feet two inches above ground, and the bases of the
columns stood on the uppermost step, which formed the pave-
ment of the entrances. In the superior stories, the piers and
columns were elevated on stylobatae and podia, and the second
and third ranges of arcades stood upon podia also. The
boundary wall was diminished upwards in its thickness on
both sides, but more particularly from the exterior side of
it, in each succeeding story, and the columns of the two
lower ranges projected three quarters of their diameter,
while those of the third range did not project more than the
half; and therefore the axes of the columns of each succeed-
ing range upwards, were more recessed than those of the
inferior range. This recession is more observable in the
upper range of columns than in that immediately below ;
but still more in the pilasters of the third order. The dimi-
nution of the columns commences from the third part of
their height. The straight Sotlits of the fillets and other
horizontal projections rise more in the front than in the rear.
The lower range of the rectangular windows had one window
disposed in every alternate podium, below the upper order ;
and had the upper range of windows in the inter-pilasters
above the imperforated podia. The cornice of the uppermost
order was pierced with square mortises, through which the
awning poles passed to a range of corbels below, something
higher than the middle of the pilasters. Seventy—six of the
lower range of arcades were about thirteen feet four inches
broad, and the four placed upon the extremities of the axes,
about fourteen feet six inches. The lowest range of arcades
radiated vault-wise towards the arena, in a direction almost
at right angles to the curve of the plan of the exterior wall,
and intersecting two vaulted corridors, passed on to the stair-
cases in the same direction. Two other corridors were placed
between these stairs and the wall of the podium, and other
stairs between the second and fourth Corridors. The first
staircases were entered by the second and third corridors,
and those next to the arena by the third corridor only ; this
corridor vas lighted from above, by vertical square holes,
descending through the crown of the vault; and, it is pro-
bable, that the fourth corridor, adjoining the wall of the
podium, vas lighted in the same manner. The second Story
had three corridors, laid open to one another by radiating
passages : the two first were placed over the first and second

 

corridors on the ground-floor, and between the Second and ‘

third were placed stairs, which ascended on the one hand to

the second range of vomitoria, and on the other, to another I
high-groined corridor, forming a mezzanine, wlnch \VEL‘"

 

 

 

 

 

AMP.

G1

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lighted from the floor of the gallery above, and from which
the stairs ascended to the next story. The third story con-
sisted of a double corridor, from which the stairs continued
upwards to the fourth galleries, the interior wall of which
was pierced with windows and doors, or vomitoria, that
opened to the uppermost cunei of benches. On the inside
of the exterior wall are vestiges of stairs which led to a
fifth gallery; this again had four staircases, which led to
a sixth gallery ; and from thence the stairs continued to the
top. The two upper floors were contained in the height of
the pilastrade.

The stone employed in this edifice is the produce of the
neighbourhood of Rome, and is called Travertiue-stone, of
which the exterior walls, the piers between the two outer
corridors, the heads of the passages and corridors, and some
bendstones, are constructed: all the rest is of brick. The
exterior wall is cramped with ligatures of iron, without
cement ; some of the internal walls have remains of plaster
ornaments, and others are lined with marble. The floors
of the corridors are paved with flat bricks. and covered with
a hard incrustation of stucco. This building is supposed to
have contained 100,000 persons ; but it will be found that
by allowing two feet two inches from seat to seat, and one
foot nine inches to the breadth of each person, not more
than 80,000 could be accommodated, even supposing all the
upper galleries to be filled.

“ The proportions of this edifice,” says Tappen, “ were in
such perfect harmony with each other, that there was nothing
gigantic in its appearance, although the greatness of its
dimensions never fails to impress every mind with ideas of
its sublimity.”

A structure of such dimensions, and of such contrivance
and ingenuity as the Colosseum, eclipses the most magnificent
works of the Egyptians and Greeks, and even those of modern
times. The structures of Egypt, such as we may conjecture
from what now remains, have little to recommend them,
except their magnitude and the enormous stones employed
in their construction. For beautiful simplicity, and chastity
of parts, the Greeks excelled every other people; yet the
Romans, though licentious in the detail and embellishments,
showed much ingenuity, not only in the arrangement of their
plans, but in the construction of the elevated parts, both
with regard to the solidity of the work, and the end to be
answered by the design. Our finest embellishments and
best proportions are of Greek origin ; but the Romans have
set us the example in a beautiful diversification of plans.

The Amphitheatre at Verona consisted, formerly, of three
stories of arcades, with pilasters against the piers of each
story, bearing continued entablatures. The pilasters and
arches are all rusticated and unwrought on the face. The
orders which decorate the solid parts of the masonry are of
no legitimate species, but more nearly allied to the Tuscan
than any of the other three. The second pilastrade stands
upon a plinth, and the third upon a triple plinth. The
pilasters of the first and second ranges are very slender,
particularly the second ; those of the third range are double
the breadth of those of the second range, contrary to the
laws of strength. .

The arches forming the heads of the first and second arcades
are extradossed, and project out beyond the rustics, which
form the horizontal courses above; the arches forming the
heads of the third arcades are also extradossed, but each has
another concentric extradossed arch, springing on each side
from the pilaster, with its face in the same plane with the
pilasters, and its inner diameter equal to the clear distance
of the pilasters. The edifice is finished with a blocking
course, resting upon the upper entablature: of the outer

C

 

 

wall only a small part remains. From some mutilated courses
of rustic work, and the lower part of two plain pilasters
which remain, it has been supposed that the building had
also a fourth story. The height of the three existing stories
is about 90 English feet. This edifice was erected without
cement ; the stones being nicely joined with cramps of iron,
covered with lead. The greater axis of the ellipsis of the
plan, according to Desgodetz, is 433 feet 8 inches, and the
lesser 333 feet 4 inches; the greater axis of the arena 237
feet, and that of the lesser 136 feet 8 inches ; the breadth,
for benches and wall, being 100 feet 4 inches; each range
of arches were seventy-two in number, which opening into ‘
the first range of arcades, radiated towards the arena, in
passages and staircases, crossing a corridor surrounding the
whole ; the passages, proceeding forward, crossed two other
surrounding corridors, between which were other stairs.

The second story has one corridor above the exterior lower
one. Above are forty-six tiers of seats, rising by equal
degrees from the arena to the wall upwards. The interior
of this edifice is entire, having been wholly‘reinstated by
the inhabitants, from time to time, for the purpose of
exhibiting plays, and other diversions.

The greatest diameter of the ellipsis of the Amphitheatre
at Nismes is 430 feet, and the least 338 feet; the whole
height 76 feet 6 inches. ~

The elevation consisted of two stories of open arcades and
an attic. Each story had sixty arcades in its circumference,
of which the four placed upon the extremities of the axes
form the grand entrances, and are decorated with pediments.
Against the solid parts of the masonry are Tuscan pilasters,
resting on pedestals, and supporting an entablature which
breaks over them. On the top are short, hollowed stone
corbels, in which, it is supposed, poles were placed, for bear—
ing an awning over the spectators. Many of the rows of
seats are entire.

The remains of the Amphitheatre at Pola, in Istria, consist
of an elliptic wall, pierced around its circumference with 72
arches; containing two stories on one side, and one on the
other, being built on the side of a hill. Above the upper
arcade is an attic, pierced by 72 square-headed windows
which surround the whole: through this are grooves for the
poles that supported the velum. The greatest diameter of
the ellipsis is 416, and the least 337 feet.

The Romans constructed Amphitheatres in England; one
at Dorchester, and one at Ilchester.

AMPHITHURA, (from the Greek, alwptfivpa, both doors,)
in ecclesiastical antiquity, the veil or curtain which divided
the chancel from the rest of the church; so called on
account of its opening in the middle, after the manner of
folding doors.

ANABATHRUM, (from avafiaww, I ascend, ) a kind of
ladder, or steps, by which an eminence may be ascended.
In this sense, we read of the anabathra of theatres, pul-
pits, 8w.

ANAGLYPHICE, or ANAGLYPTICE, (from ava, yxmpw,
to carve or engrave) a species of sculpture wherein the
strokes of the figures are prominent or embossed : in opposi-
tion to the Diaglyplzz'ce, where the strokes art indented.

ANAM ORPHOSIS, (tn/a, pawn) in Perspective and
Painting, amonstrous projection, or a representation of some
image, either on a plane or curved surface, deformed or dis-
torted, but which, in a certain point of view, appears regu-
lar and in just proportion.

ANCHOR, an ornament in form of an anchor, or arrows
head, employed in the echinus, or ovolo, between the borders
which surround the eggs. This anchor, with its concomi-
tants, are generally carved on the ovolo of the Ionic capital,

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ANG

ANG

 

and in the Grecian, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, upon all
large mouldings of this form: they are not employed in the
Grecian Doric, though they are used in the Trajan and
Antonine columns of' the Tuscan order, at Rome.

ANCONES, the trusses or consoles sometimes employed
in the dressings of’ apertures, as an apparent support to the
cornice, upon the flanks of the architrave. In many ancient
doors, the ancones were narrower at the bottom than at the
top, and, in some instances, were not in contact with the
flanks of the architrave, but placed at a small distance from
them; the ancones being further separated from each other.
Vitruvius calls them protltyrides.

ANDREA DE PISA, a sculptor and architect, born at
Pisa, in 1270. He built several castles, and the church of
St. John, at Pistoia; but his skill in architecture was prin-
cipally displayed at Florence, where he erected many man-
sions, enlarged and fortified the palace of the duke, and sur-
rounded it with magnificent towers and gates. On account
of these works, he obtained the right of citizenship. At the
requestof the duke of Athens, he made a model of a citadel,
which he intended to erect for restraining the Florentines.
On this account, they took the alarm, and expelled the duke;
but Andrea passed the remainder of his days at Florence,
cultivating the fine arts, such as painting, poetry, and music,
besides those which were prof'essedly his own. He died in
1345, aged 75.

ANDRON, or ANDRONA, (from avnp, a mom) in antiquity,
an apartment in houses, assigned to the use of men. It was
sometimes called androm'ft's, in opposition to gynecreum, the
apartment appropriated to the use of women. The Greeks
also gave their dining-rooms the title of andron, because the
women were not admitted to feasts in company with the men.
Androna, in ancient writers, denotes a public place where
people met to converse on business, such as our exchanges;
however, it is more particularly used to signify the space or
alley between two houses; and in this sense it was used by
the Greeks, for the passage between two apartments in a
house. This word is sometimes written, andra, andrion, or
andronium, and is of the same import as the Roman term
mesaulte.

ANGLE, rectilinear, (Lat. angulus, the elbow,) according
to Euclid, “the inclination of two straight lines to one an-
other, which meet, but are not in the same direction.” This
definition, it' indeed it may be termed such, is so very indis-
tinct, and even inaccurate, that it has been entirely discarded
by modern mathematicians, who have individually given
many suggestions for its improvement, but have not agreed
so far as to adopt any as a standard definition. \Ve give
the following as one of the most correct :——“ An angle is the
ratio of the plane surface bounded by two infinite right lines
which meet, to the plane surface on all sides indefinitely
extended about the point where they meet.” Thus the A B C
is the ratio of the plane surface, bounded by the straight
lines A B, B C infinitely extended to the unbounded plane of
the paper about the point B. Objections, doubtless, may be
urged against this, as against all other suggestions; but the
subject. is unquestionably a difficult one, as it necessarily
involves the long-disputed question Concerning infinite
magnitudes. The following description, though not
.amounting in preciseness to a definition, affords a very
intelligible notion of the idea intended to be conveyed by
the term, viz: the opening made by two intersecting right
lines.

Comparison of Angles. As every theory respecting the
comparison of infinite spaces is attended with considerable
dilliculty, we shall leave the consideration of the more
'abstruse points of this subject to works of a difl‘erent nature,

 

 

and endeavour to eXplain, as clearly as possible, the method
of comparing angles.

Let A B c, D E F, (see the plate) be two angles formed by
the intersection of the straight lines A B, B C, D E, E F, at the
points B E, respectively.

Apply the angle A B C to angle D E Fin such a manner, that =

the points B E, and the lines B C, E F coincide, then the posi-
tion of' E D with respect to B A is determined.

openings coincide, or, in other words, the angleABC is
equal to the angle D E F. If, however, E D fall between
B C and B A, the opening or angle D E F is less than the
other A B C; if, on the other hand, E D fall without or

Such being ‘
the position of the two figures, if E D fall upon B A, the two 3

beyond B A, the angle D E F is said to be greater than the

angle A B 0.

Again, supposing the angles to be applied as before, and

E D to fall within A B; let E D remain fixed in that position, ‘

but let E F be turned about E D as an axis, until it fall on 3

the opposite side of it; then, if E F coincide with B A, it is
evident that the angle A B C is equal to twice the angle
D E F. In the same manner may be explained the notion of

one angle being three, four, or any number of times greater

or less than another.

It may be necessary to observe, that the magnitude of the
angle in no wise depends upon the length of the intersecting
lines; for, if we suppose a part D d to be cut off from the
side D E, upon applying the angle D E F to angle A B C, as
above, we shall find that the line E dwill still fall in the
same position with respect to A B, as it did before D d
was cut off; and 'will do so, however short E D may become:
until the line, and therefore the angle, ceases to exist.

Again, let us suppose a line starting from a certain station
A B, to revolve round one of its extremities A as a fixed
point 0‘ axis, and to arrive at the situation A 15,; it will
then, with its original position, describe an angle B A B‘. Let
it now continue its revolution, until it has passed over
another space equal to the preceding, and in so doing has
reached the position A 32 ; it will then be readily understood
that the angle B A B2 equals twice the angle B A B, and thus
we might describe an angle any number of times greater
than B A B.

 

Euclid’s notion of an angle has been very much enlarged .

upon by later mathematicians, as we proceed to illustrate
by reference to the last diagram.
A B to continue its revolution to Ba, and thence to B‘ ;
then that A 8‘ forms with its first position the angle B A 8‘,
and thus far Euclid allows; but if the revolution be con-
tinued until A B arrives in the position A 351 so as to form
a straight line with its first position—which event takes
place when it. has performed half a revolution—Euclid no
longer recognizes the opening so formed as an angle. Such,
however, it is reckoned to be by the modems, and that not

‘ without reason; for it will be readily acknowledged that the

opening formed by the lines A B and A B5, is greater than that
formed by A B and A B4, thus showing that such opening is
liable to comparison in the same manne ‘ as any other angle.
The same reasoning will apply to Openings formed by a whole
revolution or more; indeed, the lnoderns do not restrict
the term to any number of revolutions however great.

A RIGHT ANGLE is that traced out by A B while perform
ing a quarter revolution.

Ax OBTUSE ANuLE is that which is greater than one right
angle, and less than two.

Ax ACUTE ANGLE is that which is less than one right
angle. The angle formed when A B has completed one revo-
tion and arrived at A B, is described as four right angles +
angle B A B.

 

-__.._ .~ -~—_.__A\_,,.._. A

Let us conceive the line -
we say ,

 

 

 

 

 

 

ANG

ANN

 

Measurement of Angles. Referring again to the last dia-
gram, it will be seen that the point B in the line A B, during
its revolution round its axis A, describes a circle. Now the
circumference of any circle so described is supposed to be
divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees, each of such
degrees into 60 minutes, and each minute into 60 seconds.
This division is made use of for the measurement of angles
in the following manner :—As the angle traced out by a
whole revolution passes over in its progress 360 Of the larger
divisions, it is styled the angle of 360 degrees ; similarly, the
right angle, which makes only a quarter revolution, is named
the angle of 90 degrees; and so on for angles of any dimen-
sions whatsoever. ‘

The measure of the arc is sometimes used indiscriminately
for that of the angle; but such measurement is, strictly
speaking, incorrect. See ARC.

External ANGLE, in civil architecture; the same as Saliant
ANGLE, which see.

Internal ANGLE, in civil architecture, the same as Re-
entering ANGLE, which see.

Rte-entering, or lie-entrant ANGLE OF A SOLID; an angle
whose vertex recedes, or is turned inwards, from a right
line extended between any two points in the legs ; or it is
a cavity or void, formed by two planes on the surface of the
solid. Artificers call all such angles, made by walls or
partitions, Internal Angles.

Saliant or Sortant ANGLE OF A SOLID, an angle, Of which
the vertex is prominent; or it is the solid matter contained
between two planes inclined to each other in an angle less
than two right angles; or, it is such, that if a point be taken
in each plane, the straight line joining the two points, will
pass through the solidity. Artificers call all such angles,
made by walls or partitions, External Angles.

Solid ANGLE, the mutual inclination of more than two
plane rectilineal angles meeting in a point, and not contained
in the same plane.

ANGLE OF A WALL, the angle contained by the two ver-
tical planes which form the angle of a building. It would
be better denominated the angle of a building, a term suffi-
ciently explanatory of itself; but as it is to be found in other
dictionaries of this nature, it is here inserted. The angle of
a wall is said to be “the point where the two sides meet ;”
but it should be the line where the two sides meet, which is
commonly called by workmen the arris ; still the arris is not
the angle, but the line Of concourse formed by the two sides,
or planes, containing the angle.

ANGLE BAR, in joinery. When a projecting window
stands on a polygonal plan, the upright bar at the meeting
of any two planes of the sides of the window is called an
angle bar. then there are mouldings on the other bars,
the angle bars should be made to mitre with the horizontal
bars on either side Of them. The manner of finding the
section of an angle bar, is shown under the term Raking
MOULDINGS.

ANGLE BRACES; when a quadrangular frame has a timber
opposite each angle, fixed to each of the two sides forming
the angle, and thereby making the inside Of the frame of an
octagonal figure, the timbers so fixed, are called angle-braces,
or diagonal ties, or angle ties ; the angles Of wall-plates are fre-
quently braced in this manner. Also when a well-hole, ofa cir-
cular section, is made through a roof or floor, for a sky-light,
&c., the framing is first made quadrangularly; thei. braces
J are fixed opposite to each angle, and the aperture becomes an

octigon ; and lastly, pieces are again fixed in each angle of
i the octagon, meeting each other in the middle of its sides,
, so as to transform the section of the aperture into a circle,
and thus the well-hole is shaped as required.

 

 

 

 

ANGLE BRACKET. See BRACKETING.

ANGLE RAFTER. See Hipped ROOF.

ANGLE RIB, a curved piece of timber, placed between
those two parts of a coved or arched ceiling, or vault, which
form an angle with each other, so as to range with the com-
mon ribs on each side, or return part. Examples will be
seen under the articles DOME, GROIN, and Hipped ROOF.

ANGLE-STAFFS, or STAFF-BEADS, vertical beads, generally
of wood, fixed to exterior angles, flush with the intended
surface of the plaster, on both sides, for the purpose of
fortifying the angles against accident: they serve also for
floating the plaster. Their section is about three-fourths of
a circle, with a projecting part from the other quarter, by
which they are fastened to the wood bricks, plugging,
or bond-timbers. The section of angle-staffs is sometimes
that of a triple bead, the middle one being larger than that
on either side of it,‘and flush with it and the plaster. Angle-
beads of wood, around the intradosses Of circular arches, are
difficult to bend without cutting or steaming them ; the for-
mer has a very unsightly appearance, and the latter is both
inconvenient and troublesome: for this situation Of angle-
beads, no other material will finish better than the plaster
itself; and it will be sufficiently strong, as at that height it
is more out of the reach Of accident. Whenever wooden
and plaster beads are employed in the same margin, or angle,
they should never join each other, but should always have
an impost to intervene, as, otherwise the joint will show.
In grand finishings no corner beads are employed ; but the
plaster is well gauged, and brought to an arris.

ANGLE TIES. See ANGLE BRACEs.

AN GULAR, something relating to angle.

ANGULAR CAPITAL, is generally applied to the Scam-
mozzian, or modern Ionic capital, which is formed alike on
all the four faces, so as to return at the angles of the build-
ing, as in the Temple of Concord. It is also applied to those
capitals of Grecian edifices which had two fronts alike on
each angle of the building, in order tO face the front and
flank alike, and to correspond to the other capitals, upon the
columns ranged in the flank, as well as in the front. See
PLATE.

ANGULAR CHIMNEY, one which stands in the angle of an
apartment. with the plane of its breast intersecting the adja-
cent walls. For the method of measuring angular chimneys,
see CHIMNEY.

ANGULAR MODILLIONS, those which are placed at the
return Of a cornice, in the diagonal vertical plane, passing
through the angle or mitre of the cornice.

As angular modillions are not to be traced among the ruins
of Grecian edifices, it may be concluded, that they were
seldom or never used by the Greeks ; nor are they to be found
among the ruined edifices of ancient Rome: it is however
probable, that they may have been used in the decline Of the
empire, since they are to be seen in the remains of the palace
of the emperor Diocletian, at Spalatro, in the vestibulum,
and in the temples of Jupiter and .ZEsculapius. The ruined
cities of Balbec and Palmyra exhibit many specimens, in the
large porticos, and in the entablatures of doorways.

ANNULAR VAULT, a vault supported upon two circular
walls ; such as the temple of Bacchus, at Rome; the Temple
church, London; the church of the Holy Sepulchre, at
Cambridge, &c.

ANNULETS, (from the Latin,annulus, a ring,) the annular
fillets between the hypotrachelion and echinus Of the Doric
capital. In the Roman Doric, they are generally three in
number, and of equal size, with rectangular sections. One
side of each annulet is a horizontal sotfit, seen from below,
the other is a. vertical cylindrical surface, having the same

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ANT

APA

 

axis with the column, the projection of each sotfit being equal
to the height of its respective vertical side. In the axisal
section of the Grecian Doric, except in the case of the Doric
portico at Athens, the number of annulets vary from three to
five; the sinkings between each two follow the line of the
echinus, and the outer sides of the fillets form a curve parallel
to that of the sinkings ; the upper side of each is perpendicular
to the curve, and the lower side is concave towards the space
between each two: the concavity begins in a direction per-
pendicular to the curve of the moulding ; the flutings of the
shaft of the column terminate under the lowest annulets.
There are also other names by which an annulet is sometimes
called, as cincture, fillet, and list, or- listella, which are equally
applicable to rectilineal members, and therefore should never
be used but in a general description, where there is some
common property to be explained, as they do not particularly
imply circularity.

ANNULUS, a Cylindrical Ring, a solid formed by the
resolution of a circle about a straight line without the cir-
cumference as an axis, and in the plane of the circle. For
the method of measuring an annulus, see MENSURATION.

ANTJE. When the two parallel side-walls or flanks of
a temple, or other edifice, are protruded or lengthened out
beyond the end of the building, and when each of the two
projections is covered with a vertical body, projecting on
each side, of the thickness of the wall, having a base, a pris-
matic trunk, and a capital, similar to a pilaster ; then these
bodies, or terminations, are called antce. The breadth of
the antze on the flanks of the temple was always less than
in the front; and the two edges of the anta: which faced
each other within, and on the sides of the pronaos, were
equal to the diameter of the columns placed between them,
while that of the opposite, or outsides of the flanks of the
edifice, was much less. The capitals of the antac never cor-
responded with those of the columns, though the mouldings
were more or less enriched, as the order had more or fewer
decorations. In the temple of Minerva Pollias, and the tem-
ple of Apollo Didymaeus, in Ionia, the capitals of the antze
have a strong resemblance to those of the columns; they
having also volutes, though not of the same proportion, nor
depending in the same way ; as these are hung to an upright,
and those to a horizontal hem, connecting the two. Anta:
differ from pilasters, not only in their capitals, but also in
their situation. A portico is said to be “in antis” when
columns are placed between the two antte. See TEMPLE.

ANTECHAMBER, (from the Latin, ante, before, and
camera, a chamber,) an outer chamber, before a principal
one, where servants wait, and strangers are detained till the
person to be spoken with is at leisure.

AN TEFIXJE, blocks with vertical faces placed at
regular intervals on the uppermost member of a cornice,
for the purpose of hiding the ends of the covering
or joint - tiles of the roof. The faces of antefixre are
usually carved with some ornamental device, as a. flower,
leaf, &c.

ANTEMURAL, (from ante, before, and mums, a wall,)
an outer wall, environing the works and walls of a fortified
place, in order to prevent the enemy from approaching too
near. In some writings, it signifies the same as an outwork.

AN'l‘El’AGMENTA, or ANTIPAGMENTS, (from Greek
avn, mryvvpt, tofi.r,) in ancient architecture, the jambs of a
door moulded like an architrave. The lintel returning at
the ends, with similar mouldings, down upon the antipag-
menta, was called the supercilium. Also ‘arved ornaments
of men, animals, &c., placed on the architrave.

ANTERIDES, in ancient architecture, the buttresses
erected to strengthen a wall: they are called in Greek,

 

epswpara, and answer to what our modern builders call
counterforts, and arc/Mutants; by the Italians they are called
barbicane, and speroni, or spurs. They are also sometimes
Called antes, sometimes crismce.

AN'l‘E-ROOM, a room through which a person must pass,
in order to enter into another room. In many constructions
of houses, there is a necessity for introducing ante-rooms,
from the peculiar arrangement of the plan ; and in many
situations, besides being useful, they add both grandeur and
elegance to the design.

ANTES. See ANTE.

ANTIIEMIUS, a distinguished architect, a native of
Tralles, in Asia Minor, and employed by the emperor Jus-
tinian in the construction of various edifices, particularly the
church of St. Sophia, at Constantinople, which he designed,
and also superintended 10,000 workmen in its execution.
Anthemius was also a sculptor, a mathematician, and an
experimental philosopher.

ANTICS, figures of men, beasts, &c., placed as ornaments
to a building.

ANTICUM, the porch before a door; also, that part of
the temple which is called the outer temple, and lies between
the body of the temple, and the portico.

ANTIPORTICO, a word sometimes used to denote a yes-
tibule, or porch, at the entrance of an edifice

ANTIQUARIUM, among the ancients, an apartment in
which their antique monuments were preserved.

ANTIQUE, in a general sense, denotes something an-
cient; but the term is chiefly employed by architects, sculp—
tors, and painters, and applied to works, in their respective
professions, executed by the Romans, or others anterior to their
time; such as the Colosseum at Rome, the temple of Minerva
at Athens, 8:0.

ANTIQUES, a mixed composition of the effigies of men,
inferior animals, utensils, and implements of war, with foli-
age, flowers, and fanciful ornaments. The ornaments on the
walls of the Vatican. at Rome, painted by Raphael, are of
this kind, and were imitated from the grottos of the baths
of Titus, of which there were ample remains in his time. This
species of decoration is frequently called arabesque, or
grotesque; the latter is the more correct appellation, as the
former applies solely to Arabian ornaments, which consisted
of foliages and fruit, without any animal representations.

ANTI S. See TEMPLES, AXLE.

AN' ‘IS'I‘ATES, one of the architects employed in raising
the foundation of the temple of Jupiter Olympus, at Athens.

ANTONINE COLUMN, a pillar, of the Tuscan order,
erected in Rome, by order of the senate, to the memory of the
emperor Antoninus. It is 175 feet in height, viz, 168 feet
above ground, and 7 feet beneath the surface; and has
a. winding staircase, with 198 steps in the ascent, and 56
windows, or loop-holes. The sculpture, and other parts. are
similar to those of Trajan’s column, but the work is greatly
inferior. See COLUMN.

APART, the distance between the nearest surfaces of any
two bodies. This term is much used in building, particu-
larly in the art of carpentry; as, joists are placed from eleven
to twelve inches apart.

APARTMENT, any part of a house that is walled round,
and that may he entered through doors; as kitchen, vesti-
bule, saloon, dining-room, drawing-room, chamber, closet,
library, passage, &c. All the apartments, on the same floor,
taken collectively, when opening one into another, without an
intermediate passage, are called a suite of apartments.

The word apartment may also denote a portion of a large
house, wherein a person may lodge separately, having all
the conveniences requisite to make a "'implete habitation

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

APA 9

APA

 

A complete apartment is said to consist of a hall, a
chamber, an ante - chamber, a closet, and a cabinet, or
ward-robe. ,

When an apartment has one or more of its sides conti-
guous to one or more of the exterior walls, and has no other
apartment above, it may be lighted either through apertures
in the vertical sides of the exterior walls, or by a skylight,
as may be found most eligible.

When an apartment is contiguous to one or more sides of
the building, but has one or more apartments above, it
becomes necessary to light it from apertures in the external
walls. Dining-rooms, withdrawing-rooms, and bed-chambers,
are more Conveniently and agreeably lighted from the exte-
rior walls, than from the roof.

When an apartment is surrounded on all sides by other
apartments, but has no other above, it may be lighted by a
skylight; or, if its height exceed the height of the adjoin-
ing apartments, it may be lighted from windows in the sides,
above the roofs of the surrounding apartments. A saloon,
a staircase, or a dome, is more elegantly lighted in this
manner, than in any other.

\Vhen several contiguous apartments, above each other,
are surrounded on the sides, they may either be lighted
horizontally through the sides by borrowed lights, or verti-
cally, through apertures in the several ceilings and the roof.
Sometimes the situation of passages renders it necessary to
light them in the latter method, by forming apertures through
the several ceilings and the roof, over each other, with a sky-
light at the top, and rails round the openings in the floor.
Granaries and warehouses, consisting of several stories, and
surrounded with buildings, cannot be lighted in any other
way, than from skylights in the roof, and apertures through
the several floors, vertically over each other. To save room,
the space allotted for the passages, upon each floor, may be
directed across the openings, and the openings may be rib—
bed or latticed with strong bars, for walking upon.

The method of proportioning and finding the number of
apertures for lighting an apartment or room, will be seen
under the article WINDOWS; and the proportion of chimneys
to the cubature or side of apartments, is shown under the
article CHIMNEYS.

What relates to the ceilings of apartments, will be found
under the articles, CEILINGS, COMPARTMENT CEILINGS, and
VAULTS.

The proportions of apartments depend much on their use.
The length of rooms may be extended from once to twice
the breadth, and galleries even to three or four times. It is,
however, to be observed in general, that the greater the
cubature of the room, the greater also must be the ratio of
the dimensions of the plan. Thus the dining-room, or
withdrawing-room, in a very small house, may be square,
but that in a large edifice may be a double square, or less,
according as the disposition of the plan of the building may
turn out ; the length of the largest rooms should, however,
never be less than once and one-third of their breadth. As
tn the height, it may be three-fourths of the breadth, when
the ceiling is flat and equal to the breadth, or once and one-
t'ourth of the breadth, when the ceiling is covered or arched,
according to the rise of the arch. It may be thought, that
there might be some ratio between the height and length,
but this idea vanishes when it is considered, that the eye can
only take in a certain portion of the length, and therefore the
comparison must be made with the breadth.

If the apartment be a principal passage, its breadth may be
one~third of the breadth of the principal room; and if it be a
by-passage, or that of a very common house, its breadth
may be one-fourth of the breadth of the principal room:

D

 

 

the height is the height of a story; but the length is inde-
finite.

With respect to the staircase apartment, the area occupied
by the floor depends on the height of the story, the rise and
tread of the steps, the Formation of the plan, the number of
quarter or half paces, and the size of the passage, or lobby,
at the beginning or landing ; also whether the stair be made
single or double ; or whether it consist of one or two revo-
lutions in the height of the story. The propprtion of the
dimensions of the plan of the staircase depends on the pro-
portion of the individual dimensions of each apartment, the
proportion of the area of the plans to one another, and their
disposition. A principal staircase should never consist of two
revolutions. The more of an oblong the plan of a staircase
is, the less room will be required, provided the going of the
steps be placed in the breadth, and that each flight on the
opposite sides consist of an equal number of steps, connected
by windows, between the flights; since by such means the
lobby and landing above are shortened, and also less room is
occupied by the newal. What further relates to staircases,
will be seen under the article STAIRS.

To preserve the best possible proportions in a floor of
apartments, the principal rooms may have flat ceilings ; the
middle—sized ones may have their altitudes reduced by intro-
ducing cove and flat ceilings, cylindrical vaults, domes,
groins, &c., as may be most suitable to their heights; and
the smallest rooms may have mezzanines over them, wherever
they are accessible to back stairs: but when the disparity is
great between the height of the principal rooms, and those
of the middle size, the whole of the rooms in the suite,
except the principal ones, may have mezzanines above; the
middle-sized rooms may have flat ceilings ; and the smaller
rooms arched ceilings. Mezzanine apartments are not only
necessary on this account, but they may be employed with
great advantage, since they afl'ord servants’ lodgings, baths,
wardrobes, &c.

In buildings where beauty and magnificence are preferred
to economy, the halls and galleries may be raised to the height
of two stories. Saloons are most frequently raised the whole
height of the building, and have galleries at the height of
the stories, around their interior circumference, communi-
cating with the various apartments. In general the area
occupied by the saloon, may be half of that occupied by the
dining-room, drawing-room, or principal-room.

The walls of apartments may be ornamented with columns,
pilasters, entablatures, niches, recesses, panels, &c., as also
with foliated and other enrichments.

When an apartment is adorned with an entire order, the
entablature may occupy from one-sixth to one-seventh part
of the height of the order, or of the room itself, when the
ceiling is flat. If a cornice, frieze, and astragal are executed,
instead of the full entablature, their height may be equal to
one-tenth. If a cornice only is executed, its height may be
one-twentieth or one-thirtieth part of the height of the room.
In general, all interior proportions and decorations should be
smaller and more delicate than those of the exterior: pilas-
ters should not project more than one-eighth, or one-tenth
of their breadth; and architraves round apertures should,
in most cases, not exceed one - seventh of the opening.
When the sides of rooms are straight, and are adorned with
columns or pilasters ranged the whole length of each side,
the columns or pilasters may be either single or coupled, as
the piers of the windows may admit: if each extreme pier
be equal to, or more than the half of each intermediate pier,
the columns or pilasters may be placed single, or in couples,
as the breadth of the intermediate piers may allow; but if
each eXtreme pier, or one only of them, be less than the half

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

APE

10

APP

 

of each intermediate pier, it will then be necessary to couple
the pilasters. If one of the extreme piers is greater than the
other, the former may be made equal by forming the end of
the room Cylindrical; if each extreme pier exceed the breadth
of each intermediate pier considerably, then both ends may
be formed into cylindrical surfaces, or otherwise columns
may be introduced at each end, and the entablature eon-
tinued over the columns; the recesses also may be adorned
in a different manner, or one of the ends may be made cylin-
drical, and the other colonnadcd.

Apartments of a quadrangular plan are either constructed
so as to have the same symmetry on the opposite sides; or
to have, no corresponding symmetry whatever, on either pair
of these sides. When bows are introduced into apartments,
they are generally at the ends; but if upon one or both sides,
they should be proportioned to the length. Sometimes, in
very large apartments, with a fireplace at each end, two bows
are introduced.

In the best houses, kitchens, halls, servants’ rooms, and
water—closets, are frequently wainscoted to the height of
about four and a half feet, and coped with a neat moulding,
which is generally a bead.

Halls, passages, staircases, and bedrooms, have frequently
bascs without dado, or surbases. Principal rooms have
always complete pedestals. Apartments laid with stone-
pavenients, should have stone plinths, with wooden bases.

All further information respecting the finishing of apart-
ments, will be found under the heads, CEILINGS, COan'r-
MENT CEILINGS, VAULTS, Doons, WiNnows; and other par-
ticulars relating to distribution will be found in the article
DESIGNING.

APERTURE, an opening through a body. An aperture
in a wall has generally three straight sides, two of which are
perpendicular to the horizon, and the third parallel to it,
connecting the lower ends of the vertical ones. The stones
forming the perpendicular sides are called jambs, the level
side below is called the sill, and the upper part is called the
head. The head of an aperture is either an arch, or a single
stone, or beam.

Aperturcs are either made for entrance, light, or orna-
ment. See Doon, RECESS, and WINDOW.

A narrow aperture may be covered with a single stone, to
such horizontal dimension as may be found convenient to
raise from the quarry.

When the aperture is wide, stones in separate pieces may
be joggled together, in order to form a straight arc/z, as it is
absurdly called by workmen; or the same kind of arch may
be made with radiating joints concealed within the thickness
of the wall, and vertical joints on the front, secured by strings
or cramps of iron, if necessary; when an aperture is very
wide, it becomes necessary to arch it over.

Too great a variety of apertures in the same front ofa
building destroys its uniformity.

The ancient Greeks and Romans made the sides of aper-
tures frequently incline toward each other at the top.

Apertures are sometimes made quite circular or elliptical;
but these forms are not in general use. In apertures of
stone—work, if thejambs be of one entire piece, every alter-
nate stone in the height of the aperture, next to the jambs,
should be bond-stones; likewise, if the jambs consist of
sevnral stones in the height, every alternate jamb—stone
should be, a bond-stone. See STONE VVALLS and WINDOWS,
in MASONRY.

When the heads of apertures are arched, they require to
be supported on centres while building; the method of con-
structing which is shown under the article CENTRE.

”PICK, the highest point or summit of a structure.

 

 

 

AI’ODYTERIUM, (awoéulut, to put qfifi) an apartment at
the entrance of the ancient baths, wherein the bathcrs
undressed.

APOLLODORUS, a most distinguished architect, born
at Damascus, who flourished in the reigns of the emperors
Trajan and Adrian, about the beginning of the second cen-
tury. Under the former, he built the stone bridge over the
Danube, which was esteemed one of the most considerable
undertakings of that prince: he also raised several edifices
round the forum Trajanum, at Rome, among which were
the sculptured column of Trajan, still existing, and a
triumphal arch. _

Historians relate, that as Apollodorus was once conversing
with Trajan about some architectural designs, Adrian inter-
fered, and gave his opinion, which was treated by the artist
with contempt: “ Go,” said he, “and paint gourds, (an
amusement which he knew Adrian to be fond of); for you
are very ignorant of the subject on which we are convers-
ing.” This atfront was not easily to be forgiven or for-
gotten; accordingly, when Adrian had succeeded to the
empire, he sent to Apollodorus the plan of a temple he pur-
posed erecting in honour of Venus, and desired to have his
opinion, which, however, he did not intend to follow, being
only desirous to show that he could do without his services.
Apollodorus wrote his opinion freely, and pointed out such
essential faults in the design, that the emperor could neither
deny nor remedy them. But instead of acknowledging the
merit and genius of the artist, Adrian threw himself into a
violent passion, and banished him; and some time after-
wards, under pretext of some supposed crimes, ordered him
to be put to death.

APOMECOMET RY (from (mm, from, [.an09, distance,
pupae), to measure) the art of measuring things at a dis-
tance.

APOPIIYGE, (mrmpvyuv) a concave quadrantal mould-
ing, joining two vertical members of ditli'rent horizmrtal
projections, and forming an exterior angle with that which
has the greatest projection, and a tangent with the other.
The apophyge is used in the Ionic and Corinthian orders,
for joining the bottom of the shaft to the base, as Wt‘ll as
to connect the top of the shaft to the fillet under the astragal.
The word is originally Greek, and signilies .flig/lt; and
the French call it by a term which implies escape. linglish
architects and buildc ‘s also call it the scape or spring of the
column. See COLUMN.

APOTHECA, (from a-rrortflnpt, to lay aside,) among the
allelents, a store—room.

APOTIIESIS. See ArornroE.

APPEARANCE, in perspective, the projection ofa figure,
body, 850., beingr the same as the representation of an original
object. See l’nnsrnc’rivs.

APPLICATE, in geometry, a right line drawn within a
curve, and bisected by the diameter of the curve, otherwise
called an ordinate.

APPLICATION, in mensuration, the art of applying
one thing to another by approaching or bringing them
together; thus any number of magnitudes of the same
kind, may be compared together by the successive application
of a small magnitude of the same kind to each of them.

ArrLICATloN, in geometry, the act or supposition of placing
one figure upon another, to find whether they be equal or
unequal, which seems to be the primary mode by which the
mind first acquires both the idea and proof of equality. In
this way the first principles of geometry are demonstrated.
Thus, if two triangles have two sides of the one equal to two
sides of the other, and the angle included br. also equal. the"
the two triangles are themselves equal in every respect.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ABA

1]

ARC

 

Conceive the one triangle to be so placed upon the other,
with the two corresponding equal sides upon each other, the
angles included by these sides being equal, the other sides
will also coincide, and the two figures will agree in all
respects. The same may be observed of other figures.

APRON, in plumbing, the same as FLASHING, which
see.

APRON, a platform, or flooring of plank, raised at the
entrance of a dock, against which the gates shut.

APRON-PIECE, or PITCHING-PIECE, a horizontal piece of
timber in a wooden double-flighted stair, for supporting the

carriage pieces or rough strings, and joistings in the half

spaces or landings. The apron-pieces ought to be firmly
wedged into the wall. See S'I‘AIRS.

APRON—LINING, the facing over the apron-piece.

APSIS, (from Greek adug, an arch,) a term generally
applied to any projecting portion of a building, having a
semicircular or polygonal plan, and vaulted roof. In eccle-
siastical structures, it signifies that part where the altar is
situate, and which is reserved exclusively for the clergy. It
differs from chancel in having the form above described. See
CHANCEL.

APSIS GRADATA, a term peculiarly used for the bishop's
seat or throne, in ancient churches, as it was raised on steps,
above the ordinary stalls. It was also denominated exedra,
and in later times, tribune.

APTERAL, a building without columns on its flanks or
sides.

APYROI, (from a, 7rvp, fire,) a name given by the
ancients to altars, on which sacrifice was offered without
fire. In this sense the word is in contradistinction to
empyroi.

AQUEDUCT, or AQUEDUCT, (from Latin aqua, water,
and duco, to lead,) a construction upon or through uneven
ground, for the purpose of forming a level canal for conduct-
ing water from one place to another. Aqueducts were
formed either by erecting one or several rows of arcades
across a valley, and making these arcades support one or
more level canals, upon one or each of the ranges, or by
piercing through mountains which would have interrupted
the watercourse. They were built of stone or brick, and
covered with a vaulted roof, or with flat stones, to shelter
the water from the sun and rain. Some aqueducts were
paved; but others conveyed the water through a natural
channel of clay, to reservoirs or castclla of lead or stone,
whence it was brought to the houses by leaden pipes.

Aqueducts had also ponds disposed at certain distances,
where the sediment of the water might be deposited. When
the water was conveyed under ground, there were openings
at about every 2-10 feet. Some of the Roman aqueducts
brought water from the distance of sixty miles, through
forks and mountains, and over valleys, in places more than
109 feet high. The inclination of the aqueduct, according
to Pliny, was one inch, and, according to Vitruvius, half a
foot in the hundred. The proportion adopted by the moderns
is nearly the same as that mentioned by Pliny. The prin-
cipal aqueducts now remaining are—Aqua Virginia, repaired
by Pope Paul IV.; Aqua Felice, constructed by Pope
Scxtus V.; the Aqua Paulina, repaired by Pope Paul V. in
the year 1611; and that built by Louis XIV. near Main-
tenon, to convey water from the river Bure to Versailles.
This latter is perhaps the largest aqueduct in the world, it
being 7,000 fathoms long, is elevated 2,560 fathoms, and
contains 242.arcades. \’

ARABESQUE, or MORESQUE, an Eastern style of orna-
ment, consisting of a fantastic mixture of foliage, flowers,
fruits, 8w. made use of both in painting and sculpture.

 

Sometimes animal representations are introduced, but such
are not strictly allowable.

ARABO-TEDESCO, a style of architecture, exhibitmg
a mixture of the Moorish, or low Grecian, with the German
Gothic. Of this style is the Baptistry at Pisa, erected by
Dioti Salvi, in 1152. It is a circular building, with an
arcade in the second order, composed of pillars with
Corinthian capitals and plain round arches; between each
arch rises a Gothic pinnacle, and above it is finished by
sharp pediments, which are enriched with foliage terminating
in a trefoil.

ARZEOPAGUS. See AREOPAGUS.

AREOSTYLE, or AREOSTYLOS. See INTERCOLUMNIA-
TION and COLONNADE.

ARJEOSYSTYLE. See COLONNADE.

ARBOR, the principal part of a machine, which serves to
sustain the rest. Also the axle or spindle on which a
machine turns.

ARC (from the Latin areas, a bow) in geometry, a part
of any curve line which does not consist of contrary curve-
tures, for then two or more arcs would be formed, though in
contrary directions.

ARC OF A CIRCLE, any part of the circumference less than
the whole.

The line joming the extremities of an arc is called its
chord.

Arcs are named after the angles which they subtend or
are opposite to, and are measured by such angles and the
radii of the circles to which they belong ;—in other words,
are varies as angle x radius.

ARCS, concentric, are those that have a common centre.

ARCS, equal, such as subtend equal angles in equal
circles.

ARCS, similar, such as subtend equal angles, whether in
equal or unequal circles.

ARCADE, a range of apertures with arched heads, sup-
ported upon square pillars, or other columns. Arcades are
sometimes employed to form porticos instead of colonnades ;
and though they are not so beautiful, they are stronger,
more solid. and less expensive. In such buildings, the
utmost care should be taken that the piers be sufficiently
strong to resist the pressure of the arches, particularly tht
piers at the extremities, for they alone support the whole.

The lateral pressure upon the extreme piers in the range,
will be equal to that on the piers of a single arch, and all the
intermediate piers will be without such lateral pressure; for
the lateral pressures of any two adjoining arches upon the
intermediate pier are equal, and being opposite they destroy
each other’s effect: but the extreme pier having only one
adjoining arch, must be sufliciently strong to withstand the
horizontal thrust of that arch. The greater the weight or
vertical pressure put upon the extreme piers, the more will
these piers be able to counteract the thrust of the adjoining
arch; consequently, if each extreme pier have to support a
wall, the higher the wall, the less dimensions the pier
requires. It is upon this principle, that the slender pillars,
dividing the nave on either side from the aisle, in churches
of the Saxon and pointed styles of architecture, are capable of
withstanding the horizontal thrust of the groins; for if the
insisting wall were taken away, the pillars of most of these
buildings would not be able to withstand the thrust of the
arches for one minute.

Arcades were employed in triumphal arches, theatres,
amphitheatres, and aqueducts of the Romans, and frequently
in their temples: towards the decline of the empire, the
intercolnmns were formed into arcades; but what relates to
their history will be found under the article Anon.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

'.ARC

12

ARC

 

Arcades may be used with propriety in the gates of cities,
*aiaces, gardens, and parks: they are much employed in the
piazzas or squares of Italian cities, and, in general, are of
great use in affording both shade and shelter in hot and rainy
climates; but they are nevertheless a great nuisance to the
inhabitants, as they very much darken their apartments.

Lofty arcades may be employed, with great propriety, in
the courts of palaces and noblemen’s houses. There are vari—
ous methods of decorating the piers of arcades, as with
rustics, columns, pilasters, caryatides, persians, or terms
surmounted with appropriate entablatures. Sometimes the
piers are so broad as to admit of niches between columns or
pilasters. The arch is either surrounded with rustic work,
or with an archivolt, sometimes interrupted at the summit
by a key-stone in the form of console, or mask, or some
other appropriate ornament in sculpture. The archivolt rises
sometimes from a plat-band, or impost, placed on the top of
the piers, and at others from an entablature, supported by
columns on each side of the arch. In some instances, the
arches of arcades are supported entirely by single or coupled
columns, without the entablature, as in the temple of Faunus,
at Rome. This form is far from being agreeable to the eye,
and it wants stability, as the columns would be incapable of
resisting the lateral pressure of the arches, were they not
tied together by a circular wall. In large arches, the key-
stone should never be omitted, and should be carried to the
30th of the architrave, where it will be useful for supporting
the middle of the entablature, which would otherwise have
too great a bearing.

\Vhen columns are detached, as in the triumphal arches
at Rome, it is necessary to break the entablature, and make
its projection in the intercolumns the same as if pilasters
had been used instead of columns, or so much as is just suf-
ficient to relieve it from the naked appearance of the wall:
this is unavoidable in all intercolumns of great width; but
should be practised as little as possible, as it destroys the
genuine use of the entablature. Arcades should never be
much more, nor much less, than double their breadth: the
breadth of the pier should seldom exceed two-thirds, nor be
less than one-third of that of the arcade; and the angular
pier should have an addition of a third or a half, as the
nature of the design may require. The impost should not be
more than one-seventh, nor less than a. ninth; and the archi-
volt not more than one-eighth, nor less than a tenth of the
breadth of the arch. The breadth of the bottom of the key-
stone should be equal to that of the archivolt, and its length
not less than one and a half of its bottom breadth, nor more
than double. In porticos, the thickness of the piers depends on
the width of the portico and the superincumbent building;
but with respect to the beauty of the edifice, it should not
be less than one-quarter, nor more than a third of the breadth
of the arcade. When the arcades form blank recesses, the
backs of which are pierced with doors, windows, or niches,
the recesses should be at least so deep as to keep the most
prominent parts of the dressings entirely within their
surface.

In the upper stories of the theatres and amphitheatres of
the Romans, the arcades stood upon the podiums or inter-
pedestals of the columns, perhaps as much for the purpose
of proportioning the apertures, as to form a proper parapet
for leaning over.

In Got/tic Al'c/iitecture—arcades, whether detached, or
engaged, are of very frequent occurrence; more especially
in the Transition and early English styles. Engaged arcades
are very common indeed, and may be found frequently
running round the interior walls of \a building, as at VVest-
minster Abbey, the Chapter-House, Canterbury, and in

 

 

 

innumerable other instances; in the conventual buildings
at Canterbury is a very fine specimen of a detached arcade.
The engaged form came into very extensive use with the
intersection of the semicircular arch, and was employed in
almost every situation both on the interior and exterior of
buildings, as well as in the decoration of their furniture, such
as fonts, Ste. The arcade indeed was a very prominent, if
not the principal feature in all Gothic architecture, and is
that which adds so greatly to the solemn grandeur of our
noble cathedrals.

This term is also applied to any arched covered way, more
particularly to the close passages recently introduced, such as
the Burlington and Lowther Arcades, which are used as pro-
menades, as well as for purposes of trade.

ARC-BOUTANTS, (from the French, arc, an arch, and
banter, to abut.) See BU'rTnEss.

ARCH. A structure composed of separate inelastic
bodies, arranged in such a manner that their lower surface
shall form the arc of a curve, being supported at its two
extremities.

IIistory. The invention of the arch has been assigned
by different writers respectively to Babylonians, Egyptians,
Greeks, Romans, and Etrurians.

The claim made for the Babylonians rests principally on
a passage found in Strabo, wherein he states, that the Hang-
ing-Gardens were formed by means of arches: a. passage of
Herodotus is also quoted, as favouring the supposition
This historian, speaking of the great gates in the city-wall,
relates, that Nitocris was buried in a chamber above one of
them, and it 'is urged by the supporters of this opinion,
that so heavya superstructure could not have been supported
over an aperture of such dimensions by mere beams, or
indeed by any other contrivance than that of the arch. On
the other side it is argued, that Nitocris would have made
use of the arch in the erection of her bridge, had the prin-
ciples of its construction been understood, instead of the
awkward appli -ation of horizontal timber beams; and with
respect to the gateways, it is stated, that Herodotus, in this
instance, speaks of janibs and lintels, and makes not the
slightest mention of an arch. lit-sides, it is argued, if
the arch was used to any extent, we should certainly find
some vestiges of it in the ruins of that city, whereas the
concurrent testimony of all travellers goes to prove that
none such exist, while lintelling has been found in several
instances, where the arch might have been applied with
advantage.

In favour of the Egyptian title to this distinction, we are
referred to specimens of arched work still to be found in
the remains of Egyptian temples. The first specimen pro-
duced is from~ Abydos, where the root‘ is certainly of an
arched form, but on inspection proves to be constructed
of three horizontal stones; the centre one, which is the
largest, overlapping the two side-ones. The under surface
of these stones is cut out in such a manner as to form
a semicircular arch. The other specimens adduced, are
without doubt true arches, and if their antiquity be allowed.
the question is at once set at rest. TheSe arches are found
at Thebes, and are formed of four courses of bricks arranged
in a semicircle. .If the fact of their antiquity, howeVer, be
admitted, it is difficult to understand why the arch should
not have been more generally, employed.

The same reasoning may be applied in the case of the
.Greeks, for, although it is said that true arches are found
in their works, yet it seems probable that they were not in
use previous to the second or third century before the
Christian era. as, if so, we should naturally expect to find
them employed in many cases where they would have proved

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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13

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most useful. The general arrangement of their buildings
would scarcely have been such as it is, if they had been
acquainted with the principles of the arch.

The first example of any arched construction to be found
among the Romans, is that of the cloaca maxima, or public
sewer, said to have been built by Tarquin. The identity
of the existing remains with the original structure has been
doubted, but in fact this is of no great importance, as there
is no scarcity of examples of this kind, although of somewhat
later date than the reign of Tarquin. There are some who
assign the merit of the introduction of the arch among the
Romans to the Etrusci, and who are not entirely without
reasons for this assumption. They say that Tarquin brought
this knowledge with him from Etruria, his native country,
and that Etrurians were employed by him in the construc-
tion of the sewer; others, however, refer the actual con-
struction to Greeks. It is possible indeed that the Etrurians
may have introduced this form of building, as it is well
known that that people had arrived at some excellence in
the arts at an early period, and also were in close commu-
nication with the Romans ; be this, however, as it may, there
can be no doubt that we are principally indebted to the
latter people for the full development of the power and
utility of the arch; whoever it may have been, who first
became acquainted with the principles, whether Egyptians,
Greeks, Romans, or Etrurians, there never was any doubt
as to the people who carried its knowledge into execution.
As far as the Greeks or their predecessors are concerned,
we might have remained in utter ignorance as to the utility
of this style of building. It is to the Romans we owe our
practical knowledge on the subject ; they it was who made
a worthy application of their knowledge, and put their
theories into extensive execution; and although they em-
ployed this form to a greater extent than perhaps good taste
might sanction; yet this we judge to be the natural pro-
cedure of any people upon first becoming acquainted with
a principle of so peculiar a character and such unlimited
usefulness.

Although the Romans employed arches in the construction
of their edifices, to a very great extent, yet they always
confined them to one torm, namely the semicircular. It is
to the architects of the middle ages we are indebted for the
great variety of figure employed in this kind of construction;
among others we may especially notice the pointed arch,——but
for further information on this subject, we beg to refer the
reader to that particular style of architecture.

0f the forms, do. of arches. Arches are named according
to the curve assumed by them, as circular, elliptical, cycloidal,
parabolical, hyperbolical, catenarian, &c.: circular arches
are again subdivided according to the quantity of the circum-
ference described by them, such as semicircular, segmental
or surbased, containing less than the semicircumference,
surmounted, horse-shoe or Moorish, containing more than
the semicircumference. Arches are also denominated accord-
ing to the method adopted in describing the curve, as two,
three, or four-centred arches; also by the nature of the angle
formed at the apex, thus, pointed arches are distinguished
by the appellation of lancet, equilateral, and depressed.
Further, there are arches of equilibration and of discharge ;
askew and reversed arches.

The separate masses or stones. of which the arch is com-
posed, are called voussoirs or uf'C/l stones, the central or
uppermost of which is called the key-stone. the lowermost,
or those nearest the supports, springers. The highest
point i: an arch is termed the vertex, or crown, the lowest
line the springing line, and the spaces between the crown
and springing line on either side, the lzaunc/zes, or flanks.

E

 

The under or concave surface is denominated the intrados,
the upper or convex the extrados. The supports of an arch
are called piers, abutments, springing walls or reins. Piers
are distinguished from abutments, the former term being
applied to a support to resist a vertical pressure, the latter
an horizontal thrust. The upper parts of the supports on
which the arch rests, or from which it is said to spring, are
named imposts. The span of an arch is the width between
the points, where the intrados meets the imposts on either
side, which in the case of circular arches coincides with the
chord of the arc: the rise is the height of the highest point
in the intrados above the springing or spanning-line.

Arches which have the curves of both intrados and
extrados concentric or parallel, are said to be extradossed ,-
and such as rise from supports at unequal heights, are called
rampant arches. There are other kinds of arches, but these
are more applicable to VAULTING, under which head they
will be treated of.

In order to avoid farther extending this article, we must
refer the reader for the THEORY of the ARCH, to STONE
BRIDGE.

ARCH, TRIUMPEAL; an edifice erected by the Romans
in various situations, but more especially at the entrances
of their cities, in honour of victorious generals, and in later
times of the emperors. These structures were originally
built of brick, but afterwards of stone, or marble; their
form was that of a parallelopipedon, having one, and often
three, arched apertures in the longer side, decorated with
columns, sculpture, and other embellishments; the whole
being surmounted with a heavy attic. When three arches
were employed, they were situate so as to have one large
one in the centre with a smaller one on each side of it.

Under the emperors, triumphal arches became very
numerous, and were made of costly materials richly orna-
mented. The oldest of such structures remaining in Rome
is that of Titus, enriched with sculptures representing the
triumph of that emperor. Two other arches erected in
honour of Trajan are still in existence, the one at Ancona,
the other at Benevento; the former is of white marble of
chaste ornamentation, consisting in part of bronze statues;
the latter has several fine relievos, and is in a state of good
preservation. The above are single-arched; several, however,
were constructed of three arches, amongst the most remark-
able of which are those of Constantine and Septimius
Severus; that of Constantine has been cleared of the soil
which had accumulated to some height round its base, and
is perhaps the most beautiful and complete of any at Rome,
but manifests some discrepancies of parts, as it was built
partially of old materials from an earlier monument of
Trajan; that of Severus is a noble structure, but is much
more dilapidated; it is sixty-one feet in height, seventy-one
in length, and twenty-two in depth, the central archway is
twenty-two feet wide, and thirty-six high, the side ones ten
feet wide, and twenty-two feet high.

But few structures of this kind have been erected by the
moderns; amongst them, however, we may notice one triple
arch of Bonaparte on the Place du Carrousel, and a much
finer one at Milan.

ARCHEION, the treasury, and most secret and retired
place in Grecian temples, where not only the richest trea-
sures appertaining to the deities were deposited, but also
other valuable articles, which they were desirous of keeping
secure. The practice of the Romans was very similar to
that of the Greeks, but they confined the deposition of their
public treasure to the temple of Saturn.

ARCHITECT, (Greek apxog Terrwv, the chieffabricator.)
In considering the correct application of this word, we Shall

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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not confine ourselves to any one period of time. as the word
has been variously applied under different circumstances.
We find the word flpxtTéKTwV employed by Herodotus, and
also by Homer, in their respective works, who seem to have
given to it a very extensive signification. In one and the
same passage, (iii. 60,) Herodotus uses the term in two dif-
ferent senses, for he speaks of the “ architect” of a tunnel
for supplying water, as well as of the “ architect ” of the
great temple of Samos. Homer uses the same term to sig-
nify a carpenter, a house-builder, and also a ship-builder. It
seems probable, then, that in these early ages, the word
“ architect” was not restricted to any one signification, but
was applied as circumstances required. In succeeding ages,
however, when the more perfect civilization of mankind
required structures not only more numerous and more ele-
gant, but also in greater variety, and suited to multifarious
uses, it was found inconvenient, if not utterly impracticable,
for any single individual to qualify himself to superintend
the construction of so great a variety of buildings. Thus
resulted a division of labour: the duties of the “ architect”
were alleviated by allotting to several the task originally
undertaken by one. Thus arose the distinct duties of archi-
tect and engineer, which are again subject to several subdi-
visions, distinct departments of one grand and comprehensive
whole.

ARCHITECTOGRAPHIA, the description of ancient
buildings, as temples, theatres, amphitheatres, triumphal
arches, baths, pyramids, tombs, mausoleums, aqueducts, 8w.

ARCHITECTURE, the art of building. Did we apply
to this word the signification derivable from the original
Greek, we should have before us a very extensive field for
investigation. Custom, however, has limited the application
of the term to the science of erecting artificial structures.

The origin of this department of science is involved in
impenetrable obscurity. .It is reasonable to expect that man,
a being of acute feelings, should soon have sought out some
method of protecting himself against the inconveniences to
which his physical conformation rendered him obnoxious.
Exposed to the vicissitudes of the weather and the variations
of temperature, he must, at a very early period, have dis—
covered some means of shelter and security; the method,
however, which he adopted for effecting this object, is left
entirely to conjecture. Various speculative opinions have
been haaarded on the subject, remarkable for the most part
not more for the inventive imaginations of their authors,
than for the crudeness and absurdity of the speculations
themselves. Vitruvius, the first writer on the subject, has
given a very elaborate, if not very correct account of the
contrivances of our primeval ancestors in the way of house-
building; this account, strange to say, has been transmitted
as an authority from time to time almost down to our own
age, gathering in its progress additional strength from the
names of those who have given credence to its manifold
absurdities.

In considering the subject, we must not forget that man-
kind originally inhabited a warm climate, where the incle-
mency of the weather was comparatively but little felt, and
where consequently there was no need of such defences as in
a. colder region. The chief inconvenience arose probably
from the extreme heat, a natural retreat from which was
found in the shelter afforded by the luxuriant foliage of the
trees. \Ve might reasonably suppose that, as there was no
necessity for a very substantial edifice, tents formed of the
skins of beasts offered in sacrifice, or of other convenient
substance, would have formed the primitive dWellings of
mankind; this, however, there is some reason to suppose,
was not the case, as we read that Jabal was the father

 

 

 

of such as dwelt in tents, whereas Cain had built a city
sometime before J abal’s birth. What this city was, we have
no means of judging; of its materials and its form we are
alike ignorant. The next mention made of a city in the
sacred writings is that of Babylon, which was built by
Nimrod; here it was that the famous tower 'of Babel was
commenced, in the building of which, it is stated, burnt
bricks and slime (bitumen) were made use of. The same
Nimrod is related to have built Nineveh and three other
cities. Whether the above were the first cities that were
built after the flood is left doubtful, for we find no mention
in the sacred history of any Egyptian cities, yet doubtless
such must have existed at a very early period; we cannot,
therefore, say for certain whether the sons of Cush or
Mizraim took the precedence in such works; nor can we
tell whether the buildings seen by Herodotus and other
pagan historians were in any part the same as those whose
erection is mentioned by Moses. These, as well as all other
subjects connected with the early ages of mankind, must
ever remain matters of mere conjecture ; yet with respect to
the latter question, it does appear somewhat worthy of atten-
tion, that Herodotus relates having visited, situate in the
midst of Babylon, a tower of vast dimensions and unusual
height; the coincidence of the two accounts is, to say the
least, remarkable. If we allow the towers spoken of by the
two historians to be identical, and also that the separation of
mankind did not take place, at least to any extent, before
the confusion of languages, we shall have no ditficulty in
accounting for the remarkable affinity of the Persian, Hin-
doo, and Egyptian architecture, especially with reference to
the pyramidal form of their structures: we shall also be
enabled to form some notion of the progress of mankind in
this art, as well as of the nature and method of building at
the period.

We have hitherto been considering the first rise and pro-
gress of architecture in the earliest ages of the world; we
must bear in mind, however, that some people in later ages
have, by some meansror other, lost all traces of the civiliza-
tion of their ancestors. This fact may appear strange, but
it is not our part to account for it in this place ; the fact is
before us, startling perhaps, but undeniable notwithstanding.
\Ve intend here briefly to consider, how those people, after
having lost all their previous knowledge of architectural
science, set about to regain it. And here we might intro-
duce the theory of Vitruvius, but not, as he does, in the shape
of a general fixed rule; for although it may be true, even in
the majority of cases, that the first rude attempts in the
erection of dwellings have been, as he states, of a conical
form, yet this was by no means universally the case. The
fact is, the method of building so much depended upon the
character of the people, the nature of the locality inhabited
by them, as well as that of its productions, upon the materials
and resources for building, and lastly, upon the examples
which nature more prominently set before them; that it is
utterly impossible to lay down any rule as that by which
mankind have been universally governed in the erection of
their first structures.

Although Architecture had its rise doubtless in the con-
struction of buildings for the purposes of shelter and defence,
yet it is no less certain that it is indebted for its rapid
advancement, and its ultimate perfection, to the religious
feelings of mankind. It is in the temples we look for beauty
of design, for appropriateness of embellishment, for grandeur,
ideality, and magnificence. Had it not been for religion,
architecture would never have risen to that eminence which
it so early attained in the sacred edifices of the ancients;
and which haveattracted such universal admiration. It is

 

 

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science, we shall now give a very concise sketch of its pro-

 

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to temples, then, we must look for the progress of a people
in this great art; by them must we compare nations as to
their advancement in skill, taste, and science, as well as in
the general progress of civilization.

Having thus far considered the origin of Architecture as a

gress in different countries.

Our very first steps in entering upon the history of
Architecture are greatly impeded for want of trustworthy
information on the subject. We are left in the dark as to
what style may justly claim precedence in point of time.
Following the account of the creation and civilization of
mankind, as given by Moses, we should naturally enough
look towards the East for the first origin of this, as of all
other arts, and this supposition is confirmed as well by the
concurrent testimony of history, as by the investigation of
the remains of Eastern edifices. But although we may,
without hesitation, yield the priority to the ancient Eastern
edifices as a whole, we still meet with difficulties in assign-
ing its proper position to each separate style. We should
prefer to place the Babylonish or Persian architecture first
on the list, as well for the reason previously assigned, as
that, as far as we are enabled to judge from the specimens
that remain to us in the ruins of Babylon, the buildings of
this style appear to be of ruder construction than those
either of India or Egypt. For this latter cause, we should
give to Egypt the next place, as we find the sculptures of
India of more rounded form, and more elaborate workmanship
than the Egyptian.

In endeavouring to give to each style its relative chrono-
logical position, we do not mean to deny that they were
equally indebted to each other for various improvements at
different periods. We would especially instance the case of
Persepolis, the principal specimen of Persian architecture
remaining to us: here we find truly a great advance upon
the architecture of Babylon, and we can have no doubt
respecting the introduction of some peculiarities of the
Egyptian style. Whatever doubts, however, there may
remain concerning the relations of the above styles, sepa-
rately, in respect of age, there can be none as to their
general resemblance and affinity, or as to their position,
taken as a whole, in the chronology of Architecture.

Next in the order of age comes Grecian Architecture.
Here again Vitruvius has given us some very fanciful sug-
gestions respecting the prototype of the entire edifice, as well
as the origin of its varied details; nothing, however, can be
more absurd than his notions respecting the latter; and as to
the former, he gives the Greeks credit for inventive genius,
which certainly cannot lawfully be claimed for them. We
may, with equally the same justice, yield to them their
boasted title of avroxGereg, as their claims to originality in
their style of building. Obscure as are the traditions respect-
ing the colonization of Greece, we have ample evidence to
show that it was indebted~ to Egypt, Phoenicia, and other
parts of the East, for the majority of its inhabitants; add to
this the similarity existing between the earlier styles of
Grecian architecture, and those of Egypt and Persepolis, and
there can, we think, remain no hesitation in assigning to the
latter the origin of Grecian art. While, however, we refuse
the claims of Greece to originality, we cannot forget how
much we are indebted to her for the introduction of so
many and valuable improvements. In her hands this
department of art arrived at its greatest excellence, insomuch
as to form a new era which for purity and chaste gran-
deur has never been surpassed.

 

The great distinction between the last mentioned and the
Roman style is in the employment of the arch. The use of j

the arch gave the Romans great advantage over all prevmus
nations, and permitted of great variety in the construction of
their buildings. This people aimed rather at utility than
ornament; and although many of their buildings are well
worthy of admiration on account of their appropriateness to
the purposes for which they were intended, and even of some
degree of beauty, yet they may not be compared with the
purity and grandeur of Grecian taste. The Greeks were
lovers of art for its own sake, the Romans for the sake
of the benefits it afl‘orded them. ’We must not, however,
consider the Romans as devoid of taste or original concep-
tion, for they may claim the Corinthian order almost entirely
as their own, and this says not a little for their appreciation
of the beautiful. They had this advantage also over the
the Greeks, that whereas the latter were confined to one
plan, the parallelogrammic, which gave their structures a
monotonous appearance, they, on the contrary, could vary
the form in any way they deemed suitable; and this intro-
duced the practice of grouping, or composition, as it is called.
The introduction of another practice we owe to the Romans,
namely, that of internal decoration. Thus, while the Greeks
may claim the palm for purity of taste, the Romans take
precedence in utility and variety of construction.

Having thus considered the history of our subject from its
earliest commencement to the perfect development of the
great principles of construction, we deem it advisable to
postpone the consideration of the later styles to their respect-
ive heads. We have now arrived at the grand model of all
future eras, and to which all modern styles owe their origin.
The Romans, owing to their wide-spread dominion, have
introduced their knowledge of the arts throughout almost the
entire world, and so their architecture has been the grand
prototype of all succeeding ages. For although the variation
of different styles from each other, and also from their com-
mon pattern, be considerable, yet there can be no doubt as to
the source from whence they all had their origin. It is true
that at first sight, the elaborate edifices of the style known
under the name of Perpendicular, seem to have but little
affinity to the heavy Norman structure; and yet when the
intermediate links are added to the chain by which they are
connected, few persons will be found to question their im-
mediate relation; and certainly the step between the Norman
and late Roman requires but little explanation. Considering,
therefore, the Roman as the foundation upon which medi-
eval, as well as modern architecture was erected, we leave
each style to be considered under its separate title.

It is our intention to enter into a more minute investiga-
tion of this subject under the following heads :—BABYLONIAN
ARCHITECTURE, BYZANTINE, CELTIC, CHINESE,IEGYPT1AN,
ENGLISH, ETRUSCAN, GOTHIC, GREEK, HINDOO, ITALIAN,
MEXICAN, MOOEISH, NORMAN PELASGIAN, PERSIAN, POINTED,
and ROMAN.

ARCHITRAVE, (from apxor; chief; and trabs, a beam)
that division of the entablature which rests upon the
columns, and which may perhaps represent the linteling
beam placed over the columns, and over the intercolumns,
for supporting the cross beams, in the roof of the primitive
wooden structure.

In the remains of ancient Grecian structures, the archi-
trave is of very great height, being nearly equal to the
superior diameter of the column, and in some instances
even more, as in the Doric temples of Theseus at Athens,
Corinth, near the ancient city of that name, Paestum in Italy,
and in the Ionic temple on the river Ilissus at Athens; but
there are few or no instances where it is so high as to be
equal to the inferior diameter. Examples in which the lowest
architraves are to be found are the portico of Philip, king

 

 

 

 

 

 

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of' Macedon, and the Doric portico at Athens; the altitude
of the former being only thirty-eight minutes, and that of
the latter forty minutes, or two-thirds of the bottom dia-
meter. In the remains of Roman buildings, the architraves
are low, being in most cases between two-thirds and three-
fourths of a diameter. The lowest architrave in these
remains is that of the theatre of Marcellus at Rome, which
is only half a diameter. This proportion has been generally
followed in the Doric order by the modern restorers of an-
cient architecture. What relates particularly to the forms
and parts of the architrave of each particular order will be
seen under the heads of TUSCAN, Dome, IONIC, CORINTIIIAN,
and ROMAN ORDERS.

The soflits of the ar hitraves of Grecian buildings are
always found to exceed he upper diameter of the columns;
but in the Roman they are equal.

In the Saxon and early Norman styles of architecture,
arches rise from the capitals of the pillars, instead of being
linteled by the architrave as in the Egyptian, Grecian, and
Roman buildings: this is one of the most striking differ-
ences between ancient architecture and the styles afterwards
practised in the middle ages. _

ARCHITRAVE or A DOOR, a collection of members sur-
rounding the aperture, of a section similar to the architraves
of the Ionic, Corinthian, and Roman orders. The head or
lintel is called the traverse, and the sides the jambs. Vitru-
vius calls the jambs antepagmenta, and the head or traverse
supercz’lium. In the remains of the edifices at Balbec and
Palmyra, and in the palace of Diocletian at Spalatro, the
architrave jambs are often flanked with consoles, which gives
an apparent support to the cornice, and the cornice frequently
rests upon the traverse, without the intervention of the
frieze; but the flank pilasters under the consoles are scarcely
to be met with among ancient ruins, though practised by the
modern Italians, and represented in their works. This is
however an improvement, as it diminishes the apparent
weight of the top, by spreading out the lower part. The
proportion of the architrave to the aperture, in ancient
edifices, varies greatly: the usual proportions given by the
moderns is from one-seventh, to one-sixth part of the open-
ing. When the architrave jambs are flanked with pilasters
and consoles, the breadth may be one-seventh of that of the
aperture, and the breadth of the pilasters two-thirds of that
of the architrave; but when it is unaccompanied with these
ornaments, it ought not to be less than a sixth part of the
breadth of the aperture.

In the ruins of Roman and Grecian buildings the archi-
trave rests upon the floor, and has no flanking consoles; but
in the ruins of Balbec they are supported by plinths.

When there is too much surface of naked wall on each
side of the architrave jambs, the sides of the architrave may
be flanked with pilasters and consoles, in order to reduce the
naked, and proportion it to the dressings Of the front. The
dressing of an aperture may be heightened by adding a cor-
nice, or a cornice and frieze, as the space above will admit;
and if the space above requires further diminution, the alti-
tude of the dressing may be still further increased, by sur-
mounting the cornice with a pediment. When the material
of the architrave is stone, the jambs are either built in
heights corresponding to the courses of the naked of the
wall, or if stones can be procured, each jamb is made of one
entire piece, or sometimes in two or three, according to the
difficulty of raising them from the quarry.

When they are coursed with the work, every alternate
stone should be a bond-stone, and, if the jambs are in one
height, or not coursed, every alternate stone in the altitude
of the naked, adjoining each architrave jamb, should be a

 

 

bond-stone : the fewer pieces the architrave jamb consists of,
the more beautiful will the work appear, therefore one is
preferable to several.

In the arched apertures of ancient buildings, the jambs are
seldom or never moulded as an architrave, but the arch is
frequently ornamented with members of an architrave sec-
tion : these members are called the archivolt, which always
rests upon imposts. The imposts project in most cases from
the naked of the wall, and in a few cases form the capital
of pilasters upon thejambs.

ARCHITRAVE, in joinery, is one constructed of wood.
Architraves may be wrought out of a solid piece of wood ;
this, however, would be attended with a waste of both
stuff and time. The best method is to glue it up in two or
more longitudinal pieces, as may be judged proper from the
combination of its parts. For a full description of this
method, see J OINERY.

ARCHITRAVE CORNICE, is an entablature which consists of
an architrave crowned with a cornice, without the interven-
tion of the frieze. There are few ancient examples where
an architrave cornice is supported by columns or pilasters:
the only ones which we can recollect are, that on the inside
of the portico of the Pantheon, and the entablature of the
third order of the Colosseum at Rome (if it may be so called)
and that supported by the caryatides of the temple of Pan-
drosus at Athens: the imposts of the arch of Septirnius
Severus are also formed like an architrave cornice. The
remains of antiquity exhibit many instances where the
dressings of rectangular apertures are finished with archi-
trave cornices,'as in the temples of Erectheus at Athens,
Vesta at Rome, and in other ruins exhibited in Adam’s
Spalatra, and in VVood’s Balbec and Palmyra.

ARCHITRAVE JAMBS. See ARCHITRAVE OF A DOOR.

ARCHIVAULT. See ARCHIVOLT.

ARCHIVE, an apartment wherein the records or charters
of a state or community are preserved, in order to be con-
sulted occasionally.

The word comes from the Greek apxatov, which signifies
that part of their temples in which the public treasury was
deposited. Colleges and monasteries had all their archives ;
but that of the Romans was restricted to the temple of
Saturn in particular.

ARCHIVOLT, a collection of members on the face
of an arch, adjacent to, and concentric with the intrados,
supported upon the imposts. The word is derived from
the French archivolte, which signifies the same thing as
areas volutus.

The archivolts in Roman and Grecian edifices are formed
upon the face of the arch, with their section perpendicular
to the curve of the intrados and the wall, and similar in
figure to that wrought on the face of an architrave; the
intrados being, in most cases, the surface of a cylinder, and,
in some few cases, that of a cone. In the latter ages of the
Roman empire, arches with archivolts were substituted
instead of the horizontal entablature, by supporting the
arches upon the capitals of columns as imposts. This inno-
vation gave birth to that style of building most commonly
known by the name of Gothic, and forms one of the most
characteristic features of this style of building. The archi-
volts of Saxon edifices were at first very similar to those of
the Romans, but in process of time, the pillars became
clustered with small columns, and each shaft of the clustered
pillar had its separate capital; therefore, in order to make
the bottom extremities of the arch bear equally on the tops
of the pillars, it became necessary to form the archivolt in
deep recession from the soffit, rather in a conical than a
cylindrical surface. The archivolt was separated into several

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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similar divisions, each one consisting of a collection of
mouldings, 'with deep sinkings between.

ARCS DOUBLE UK, the soflits of arches.

AREA, in architecture, is the surface of the ground of
a court, or the bottom of the part of an excavation sunk
below the general surface of the ground, before the basement
story of a building, and level with its floor.

AREA, in geometry, is the quantity of surface on a body,
or the superficial extent of any figure.

ARENA, the plain space in the middle of the Roman
amphitheatre, where the gladiators fought: the same term
was also used by the Romans to denote the amphitheatre
itself. This term is further applied to the body of a temple,
including the whole space between the antae and extreme
wall.

ARENATUM, a word used by Vitruvius to signify a
kind of plaster : mortar made up of lime and sand.

AREOPAGUS, a place near Athens, where the Athenians
held their court ofjustice.

ARONADE, Embattled, a conjunction of several lines,
forming indentations like the boundary of an embattled wall,
except that the middle of every raised part is terminated by
the convex arch of a circle, which arch does not extend to
the length of that part.

ARRIS, the intersection, or line, on which two surfaces
of a body forming an exterior angle meet each other. This
term is much used by all workmen concerned in building,
as the arris of a stone, of a piece of wood, or of any other
material. Though the edge of a body conveys the same
meaning in general language as arris, yet, in building, the
word edge is restrained to those two surfaces of a rectangular
parallelopipedal body, on which the length and thickness
may be measured, as in boards, planks, doors, shutters, and
other framedjoinery.

ARRIS FILLET, a slight piece of timber of a triangular
section, used in raising the slates against chimney shafts,
or against a wall that cuts obliquely across the roof, and in
forming gutters at the upper ends and sides of those kinds
of skylights that have their plane coinciding with that of
the roof.

When the arris fillet is used in raising the slates at the
eaves of a building, it is then called the eaves-board, eaves-
lath, or eaves~catch.

ARRIS GUTTER. See GUTTERING.

ARSENAL, a public store-house for depositing arms or
warlike ammunition.

ASAROTUM, a kind of painted pavement, used by the
Romans before the invention of Mosaic work. The most
celebrated was that painted by Sesus at Pergamus, which
exhibited the appearance of crumbs, as if the floor had not
been swept after dinner.

ASHLAR, among builders, signifies common or free-
stones, as they come from the quarry, of various sizes.

ASHLAR, the facing of squared stones on the front of
a building. When the work is smoothed or rubbed, so as
to take out the marks of the tools by which the stones were
cut, it is called plane ashlar. Tooled ashlar is understood
to be that, the surface of which is wrought in a regular
manner like parallel flutes, and placed perpendicularly in the
building ; but when the surfaces of the stones are cut with
a broad tool, without care or regularity, the work is said to
be random-tooled: when wrought with a narrow tool, it is
said to be chiselled, or boasted: and when the surfaces of
the stones are cut with very narrow tools, the ashlar is said
to be poznted. When the stones project from the joints,
the ashlar is said to be rusticated: in this kind, the faces
may either have a smooth or broken surface. Neither

F

 

 

pointed, chiselled, nor random-tooled ashlar are employed
in good work: in some parts of the country, herring-bone
ashlar, and herring-bone random-tooled ashlar are used.

ASHLARING, is the act of setting an ashlar facing.

'ASHLERING, in carpentry, is the fixing of short upright
quarterings between the rafters and the floor in garrets, in
order to make more convenient rooms by cutting off the
acute angles at the bottom. The triangular spaces on the
sides are either left unoccupied, or formed into cupboards or
closets.

ASIMINTHOS, a large vessel used by the Greeks for
bathing in.

ASPHALTUM, a kind of bituminous substance, found
sometimes in a solid, sometimes in a soft or liquid state, in
various parts of the world. Aspecies of it discovered in
Neufchatel, has been used with great success, as a cement
for walls and pavements; it is very durable in air, and
impenetrable by water. Of late years, various combinations
of Asphaltum with other materials have been employed
under the name of Asphalte, or Asphaltic Cement, for cover-
ing roofs, floors, &c., and for other useful purposes. The best of
these “ Asphaltes ” is that known as “ Claridge’s Asphalte
of Seyssel,” which has a deserved reputation as an excellent
pavement, and valuable material for the different purposes
above named.

ASSEMBLAGE, the joining or uniting of several things
together, or the things themselves so united. Carpenters
and joiners have various kinds of assemblages, as by mortise
and tenon, dove-tailing, 8:0.

ASSEMRLAGE on THE ORDERS, the placing of the columns
upon one another in the several ranges, so that their axes
shall be in the same straight line.

ASSERS, in ancient carpentry, were the lathe which

supported the tiles of the roof: from the projecting ends of ‘

these the denticulated cornice is supposed to have originated:
they were not disposed horizontally, but according to the
inclination of the roof; and hence Vitruvius forbids the use
of dentils in pediments.

AsssRs were also the ribs or brackets of an arched
ceiling.

ASTRAGAL, (from aspayahog, the heel-bone,) a mould-
ing of a semicircular section, projecting from a vertical dia-
meter. It is remarkable that Vitruvius does not mention
any astragal between the shaft and the hypotrachelion of the
Doric and Tuscan columns, as is to be found in the Doric of
the theatre of Marcellus, at Rome; so that it is probable, the
hypotrachelion might be formed without any mouldings what-
ever, by making it recede in a small degree within the shaft,
or by fluting it, as in the column of Trajan. This doctrine
is also very conformable to all the Grecian examples of the
Doric order;'for the hypotrachelion is separated from the
shaft by one, two, or three annular channels, without any
projecting moulding, and the flutes are continued upwards
through tl” hypotrachelion, to meet the under side of the
annulets In the Ionic order of the temple of Erechtheus,
at Athens, the hypotrachelion is however separated from the
shaft by an astragal; and in the temple of Minerva Polias,
at the same place, they are separated by a plain fillet.

In all the other numerous Grecian examples of this order
there is no hypotrachelion: the astragal is placed imme-
diately below the echinus. The same is to be found in the
few remaining Roman examples of this order. In the Corin-
thian and Composite orders, the astragal is never omitted
between the under row of leaves and the shaft, except in the
Corinthian of the monument of Lysicrates, at Athens, which
is one of the oldest examples of this order; where, instead
of the astragal, there is an annular groove, from which, and

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ig—

ATR

ATT

 

from the beauty and delicacy of this example, it seems pro-
bable that the astragal might be originally formed of a metal
ring.

The astragal is a moulding of very frequent application,
not only at the upper ends of the shafts of columns, but also
in their bases and entablatures. It is the simplest of all
mouldings, and the only one which can stand alone by itself,
and project from a plane surface without the aid of a fillet or
straight part.

The Greeks and Romans frequently cut their astragals
into beads, formed alternately of oblate and prolate sphe-
roids, or, instead of prolate spheroids, figures consisting of
double cones, with cylindrical parts between, are intro-
duced: this practice is followed by the moderns with various
innovations.

In the Egyptian architecture, we meet frequently with
clusters of astragals, circumscribing the shafts of the columns;
in various places dividing them into several compartments,
of which some of them are frequently receded vertically with
astragals. The capitals often join upon the tops of the shafts,
Without any horizontal moulding between them.

The astragal and torus are exactly similar figures: the
only distinction is, that when they are compared with the
other, in the same piece of work, the torus is large, and
the astragal small, perhaps not exceeding one-third part
of the diameter of the torus; but in most cases any propor-
tion less, so that it may be sufficiently distinct.

ASULJE, marble chips.

ASYMPTOTE, a straight line, which continually ap-
proaches to a curve without meeting it.

ATHENEUM, or ATHENIEUM, the name applied in
ancient times to public buildings erected for rehearsals and
lectures. In modern times, the title of Athenaeum has been
frequently given to establishments connected with literature
and art, public reading-rooms, &c.; a celebrated club-house
in London is called the Athenaeum.

ATLANTES, ATLANTIDES, or ATLAS. the name given
by the Greeks to the figures or statues of men used to sup-
port entablatures with mutules instead of pilasters or columns.
They were also called ZELAMOan and PERSIANS.

In the architecture of the modern Italians, the Atlantes
are often found supporting the entablature over an entrance
to a palace or garden. At Milan there is a. colossal example
of the former; and the rustic gate to the Farncse Gardens at
Rome is a specimen of the latter.

ATRIUM, a court or hall in the interior of the Roman
noblemen’s houses, of an oblong plan. Three sides of the
atrium were supported on columns, the materials of which,
in later times, were marble. The side opposite to the gate
was called tablz'num, and the other two sides alas. The
tablinum was filled with books, and the records of what any
one had done in his magistracy. It was in the atrium where
the nuptial couch was erected, where anciently the family
used to sup, where the mistress and maid-servants wrought
at spinning and weaving, and where the clients used to wait
on their patrons. The atrium was adorned with pictures,
with statues of their ancestors, and with plate; and was
usually the most splendid and important part of a Roman
house.

In later times, the atrium seems to have been divided into
different parts, separated from one another by hangings,
into which persons were admitted, according to their different
degrees of favour. The atrium was frequently in ancient
times confounded with vestibulum, which was only a recess
on the exterior side of the building, and what is now called
by the Italians loggia.

Even Vitruvius, in chap. iii., book vi., confounds it with

 

 

 

camedium, which was an enclosure still further within the
interior. This author assigns three different proportions to
the length and breadth of the atrium: the first is 5 to 3,
the second 3 to 2, and the third is the ratio which the dia-
gonal of a square has to its side. Their height to the
under side of the ceiling is equal to their length, wanting a
fourth part. The difference between the atrium of a city
and country residence was this. that in the former it was
placed near the entrance, and in the latter, the peristylium
was placed between the atrium and the gate.

The Greeks had no atrium in their houses.
ples an atrium was to be found.

ATRIUM, in ecclesiastical antiquity, a large open court
before a church, making part of what was called the martian,
or ante-temple: it was surrounded with a cloister or portico.
In this apartment the penitents stood to beg the prayers of
the faithful, as they went into the church; and here those
remained who were not suffered to go further into the
church.

ATTIC, is a part of a building standing on the cornice,
similar in form to that of a pedestal, and is either broken or
continued. It is so named from its being supposed to have
been first used in Attica. The use of an attic is to conceal
the roof, and give greater dignity to the design. The
Romans employed attics in their edifices, as may be seen in
the remains of the triumphal arches, and in the forum of
Nerva. In the arch of Constantine, pedestals are raised
over the columns as high as the base of the attic, and these
pedestals are again surmounted with insulated statues. In
the ruins of Athens there are no attics to be found; except
one over a Corinthian colonnade at 'I‘hessalonica, with
breaks forming dwarf pilasters over the columns, and with
statues placed in front of the pilasters, as in the arch of
Constantine. The attic carried round the two courts of the
great temple of Balbec, is also broken into dwarf pilasters
over the columns and pilasters of the order ; and the dwarf
pilasters have blocking courses over them, on which statues
are supposed to have been placed. Attics are very dispro-
portional in the ruins of these ancient edifices, some of them
being nearly one half of the height of the order. The
modems make their height equal to that of the entablature:
as to the proportion of the height of the members, it may be
the same as that for pedestals.

The pilasters employed in attics are sometimes plain, and
at other times panelled; they have no diminution, nor any
regular base and capital. Attics are much used by the
moderns, particularly by Italian architects ; and when
applied to modern houses, they have frequently windows in
the podium or dado.

Amongst the best examples of the use of the attic in
modern public buildings, may be adduced Somerset House,
in the view towards the street.

ATTIC BASE, is that which consists of an upper and lower
torus, a seotia, and fillets between them. It is described by
Vitruvius as follows :—-“ The bases are fixed in their places,
and so proportioned, that, including their plinth, they have
in height half the thickness of the column ; and in projection
what the Greeks call empopav, clip/10mm a quarter : so that
the breadth and length will be once and a half the thickness
of the column. Their height, if they are to be attic, must
be so divided, that the upper part is one-third of the thickness
of the column, and the remainder is left for the plinth. The
plinth being excluded, the remaining part is divided into
four equal parts, and the upper torus has one-fourth: the:
remaining three are equally halved : one-half makes the lower
torus, and the other the scotia, which the Greeks call TPOXL\(:V
troo/ailon, with its squares.”

In some tem-

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

AUG

In many examples, both Grecian and Roman, the fillet
over the trochilus projects as far as the most prominent part
of the upper torus, and leaves a deep recess between the
upper surface of the fillet and lower side of the torus.
This base seems to be as much a favourite of the moderns
as it. was of the ancients.

ATTIC DOOR. See DOOR.

ATTIC ORDER, a term improperly used to denote the pilasters
which are frequently employed in the decoration of an attic.

ATTIC STORY, a term frequently applied to an upper
story of a house.

ATTITUDE, in painting and sculpture, the posture or
action in which a figure or statue is placed.

AT TRIBUTES, in painting and sculpture, are symbols
given to figures.

AUDITORY, in ancient churches, the nave, where the
people stood to be instructed in the gospel.

AUGER, a carpenter’s and joiner’s tool, for boring large
holes with, and formed of a wooden handle, and iron spindle,

 

19 AXI

terminated at the bottom with steel. The modern angers
are pointed and sharpened like a centre-bit, the extremity
of one of the edges being made to cut the wood clean at the
circumference, and the other to cut and take away the core.
the whole length of the radius.

AULA, a court or hall in the ancient Roman houses.

AXE, a tool with a long wooden handle, and a cutting
edge in a plane passing longitudinally through the handle.
Its use is for hewing timber, by cutting it vertically: the
adze being employed in forming horizontal surfaces. The axe
differs from the hatchet in being much larger, and by its
being used with both hands; while the hatchet is used with
one hand only. Axes are also used by stone-cutters and
bricklayers, the particular forms of which depend upon the
quality of the materials. See TOOLS.

AXIS, of a rotative figure, is the straight line passing
through the centres of the circular sections at right angles
to them. In a sphere, any right line passing through its
centre may be the axis.

B.

BAB

BABEL, a city and tower built by Noah’s posterity in the
plain of Shinar. Its precise situation is not ascertained. It
was however within the province of Shinar, and, probably,
the ancient Babylon was but an enlargement of it. Its
situation is supposed to have been on the north-west of
Bagdad, on an extensive plain, between the Euphrates and
the Tigris; as an extensive, insulated, shapeless heap of
ruins is there to be seen, called the tower of Nimrod.

In sacred Scripture we are informed, that the materials of
which this tower was constructed were burnt brick, and
slime for mortar. The slime was of a pitchy substance,
similar probably to bitumen. See ARCHITECTURE.

BABYLONIAN ARCHITECTURE. In commencing
this article, we must premise that we cannot pretend to any
detailed description, as the materials for such an undertaking
are almost entirely wanting. An account of this style of
architecture must needs be very imperfect, when the very
situation of the ancient Babylon remains uncertain. This
once vast city, the metropolis Of one of the great empires
of the world, is now but one mass of undistinguishable
ruins.

Owing to the interest belonging to so ancient and power-
ful an empire, much pains have been taken in the examination
of the remains of the city, but so great is the confusion,
that it has hitherto baffled the exertions of travellers to
determine with certainty the situation and extent of any of
the buildings mentioned by ancient authors: among the
more successful of our modern travellers, we may especially
mention the names Of Rich and Ker Porter; and among
the ancients, those of Herodotus, Strabo, and Diodorus.
We shall proceed to give an account of the city as described
by the latter class of writers.

Herodotus in his usual circumstantial manner, gives us
a very exact and lengthened description. According to his
account, the city was of a quadrangular form, four hundred
and eighty stadia in circuit, divided into two districts by the
river Euphrates: it was defended on all four sides by a
deep trench and wall, of which the following is the method
Of construction. In the first place, the earth was excavated
to form the trench. and, as it was dug up, was carried in

 

BAB

masses of convenient size for bricks to the furnace, and
there burnt; when this process was complete, the bricks
were employed in lining the sides of the ditch, and erecting
the superincumbent wall : the work was cemented together
by bitumen, and bonded at every thirtieth course by layers
of reeds. The wall on each side was a hundred and twenty
stadia in length, fifty royal cubits in thickness, and two
hundred in height : on the top, and on each side of it, was
erected a row of houses of one story in height, facing each
other, and leaving a space or roadway between them, wide
enough to allow four horses to be driven along it abreast.
Where the outer walls met the river, a return wall was
carried along each opposite bank to fortify the city against
attacks from this quarter, and behind th1s again another,
but of smaller dimensions. In the four walls surrounding
the city, were a hundred apertures or entrances closed by
means of brazen gates, from each of which was con-
tinued a street to the corresponding ones on the Opposite
side, intersecting the roads which led from the transverse
walls at right angles. Where the streets met the return
wall along the banks, an Opening was made down to the
river, provided with brazen gates. The city was filled with
houses of three and four stories in height ; and among the
most remarkable buildings, were the temple Of Belus and
the palace, one in each of the principal divisions on either
side of the Euphrates. The former is a very remarkable
building on account of its supposed connection with .the
tower of Babel mentioned in the Mosaical account of the
colonization of the earth. Herodotus glves the following
description :—The tower was of a square plan, surrounded
by a wall of similar form, having each of its sides two stadia
in length: the sides of the structure itself were only half
this length, or one stadium. Our author does not give the
height, but he states that the tower consisted of eight tiers,
which gave to it the appearance of being composed of eight
towers, placed one above the other ; but this in reality was
not the case; such resemblance being occasioned by an
inclined platform winding round outside the building, and
thereby making eight revolutions : this platform formed the
only means of ascent. About halfway up the incline, was

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

BAB

20

BAB

 

a resting-place, and at the highest extremity a large temple
dedicated to the god Bel, or perhaps Baal: there was
another chapel in this building, containing an image of the
god, of which we have no particular description.

Our historian further relates, that Nitocris having tem-
porarily diverted the waters of the Euphrates by a course
outside the city, embanked a part of the river, and made
t descent into it from each of the gates in the return wall.
This embankment was constructed of baked bricks in the
same manner as the walls; a different material, however,
was used by this queen in the construction of a stone bridge,
or perhaps we should more correctly say piers of a bridge,
as the roadway was formed of horizontal timbers, laid, as
seems probable, from pier to pier. The beams were taken
up at night, thus forming a kind of draw-bridge. In the
piers, hewn stones were employed, which were securely
connected together with iron and lead. Another remarkable
work of this reign, was the erection of a building over the
principal gates, to be used as a place of sepulture.

Thus far Herodotus; later authors differ from him in
several particulars, still however preserving the same general
account, Diodorus considerably diminishes the size of the
outer wall, both in length and height, but the difference in
the latter is easily accounted for, as he relates their condition
as they appeared after the time of Darius Hystaspes, who
reduced the height to fifty cubits. Strabo also gives the
circuit of the wall at three hundred and eighty five stadia.
Diodorus further makes mention of two palaces, one on
each side of the river, and connected by means of a bridge
above and a tunnel below; he gives the circuit of the new
palace as sixty stadia, that of the old thirty stadia ; the new
palace was surrounded by circular walls, enriched with
decorations of sculptured animals, painted in colours on the
bricks, and afterwards burnt in. The connecting tunnel
our author states to have been vaulted, being twelve feet in
height, and fifteen broad. This palace also contained the
hanging gardens said to have been built by Nebucliadnezzar
for his wife the Median Amytis. The gardens, occupying
aspace of ground four hundred feet square, consisted of
terraces built one above theother until they reached a height
equal to that of the outer walls of the city ; the terraces
being supported on piers and arches, as stated by Strabo,
over which were laid large flat stones, sixteen feet long by
four in breadth, and above those a layer of reeds mixed with
bitumen, covered with two courses of bricks in cement. The
extreme covering consisted of thick sheets of lead, on which
was placed the mould for the garden. The spaces between
the terraces were formed into magnificent apartments, and
on the highest terrace was a pump, by means of which a
supply of water was raised from the Euphrates to irrigate
the gardens. The ascent to the top was by steps ten feet
in width. Strabo gives us one additional particular respect-
ing the tower belonging to the temple of Belus, namely, the
height, which he states to be one furlong; according to
Wesseling’s reading, however, this particular is given by
Herodotus.

Such is the description afforded by the ancients; let us
now turn to the investigations on this subject by modern
travellers, and in doing so we shall take the liberty of laying
before our readers the account given by Mr. Rich, who has
examined the ruins of this city with perhaps greater care
than any other‘ person. We must premise, that the site of
the ancient city is a matter of dispute, but is allowed to be
situate somewhere in the neighbourhood of I’lillah and
Mohawill. This position has been determined upon on account
of the mounds and heaps of ruins which are found dispersed
about this quarter, on or near the banks of the Euphrates.

 

“The ruins of the eastern quarter,” says Mr. Rich,
“commence about two miles above Hillah, and consist of
two large masses or mounds connected with and lying north
and south of each other, and several smaller ones which
cross the plain at different intervals. These ruins are termi-
nated on the north by the remains of a very extensive build-
ing called the Mujelibé, from the south-east angle of which
proceeds a narrow ridge or mound of earth wearing the
appearance of having been a boundary wall. This ridge
forms a kind of circular inclosure, and joins the south—east
point of the most southerly 0f the two grand masses. The
river-bank, on the south-west of the tomb of Amram, is
skirted by a ruin extending nearly eight hundred yards ; it
is for three hundred yards forty feet perpendicular; a little
above this is a piece of ground formerly the bed of a river ;
here earthen vases with bones were found. From the
east angle of the ruin on the river bank, commences
another mound similar to that first mentioned, but
broader and flatter; this mound is the most southerly
of all the ruins.

“ On taking a view of the ruins from south to north, the
first object that attracts attention is the low mound connected
with the ruin on the south-west of the tomb of Amram: on
it are two small walls close together, and only a few feet in
height and breadth. This ruin, which is called Jumjuma,
and formed part of a Mohammedan oratory, gives its name
to a village a little to the left of it. To this succeeds the
first grand mass of ruins, which is 1100 yards in length, and
800 in its greatest breadth; its figure nearly resembles that
of a quadrant; its height is irregular; but the most elevated
part may be about fifty or sixty feet above the level of the
plain, and it has been dug into for the purpose of procuring
bricks. Just below the highest part of it is a small dome
in an oblong enclosure distinguished by the name of Amran
Ibn Ali. On the north is a valley of 550 yards in length,
the area of which is covered with tussocks of rank grass,
and crossed by a line of ruins of very little elevation. To
this succeeds the second grand mass of ruins, the shape cf
which is nearly a square of 700 yards length and breadth,
and its south-west angle is connected with the north-west
angle of the mounds of Amran by a ridge of considerable
height, and nearly 100 yards in breadth.

“ Not more than 200 yards from the northern extremity
of this mound is a ravine, hollowed out by those who dig for
bricks, in length 100 yards, and 10 feet wide by 40 or 50
deep. On one side of it a few yards of wall remain standing,
the face of which is very clean and perfect, and appears to
have been the front of some building. Under the foundations,
at the southern end, an opening is made, which discovers a
subterranean passage, floored and walled with large bricks
laid in bitumen, and covered over with pieces of sandstone
a yard thick and several yards long; the weight above has
been so great as to have given a considerable degree of
obliquity to the side-walls of the passage; the opening is
nearly seven feet in height, and its course is to the south.
The superstructure over the passage is cemented with bitu-
men, other parts of the ravine with mortar, and the bricks
have all writing upon them.” The souterrain widens consider-
ably as you proceed farther. This passage seems to form
part of the kusr, or palace, and may have been perhaps the
tunnel alluded to by ancient authors. The principal portion
of this ruin, to which alone the term ltasr is applied at pre.
sent by the natives, is situate a little to the west of the
ravine, and presents a remarkably fresh appearance, inso-
much so, that Mr. Rich was not willing, until after a very
close inspection, to allow its claims to being considered an
original Babylonian remain. “It consists,” says he, “of

 

 

 

 

 

BAB

21

BAB

 

several walls and piers, which face the cardinal points, eight
feet in thickness; in some places ornamented with niches,
and in others strengthened by pilasters and buttresses, built
of fine burnt brick still perfectly clean and sharp, laid in
lime cement, of such tenacity that it is almost impossible to
extract a brick whole. The tops of these walls are broken,
and may have been much higher; on the outside they have
in some places been cleared nearly to the foundations; but
the internal spaces formed by them are yet filled with rub-
bish, in some parts almost to the summit. One part of the
wall has been split into three parts, and overthrown as if by
an earthquake; some detached walls of the same kind, stand-
ing at difi‘erent distances, show what remains to have been
only a small part of the original fabric; indeed, it appears
that the passage in the ravine, together with a wall which
crosses its upper end, were connected with it.

“ A mile to the north of the kasr, or palace, five miles
from Hillah, and 950 yards from the river-bank, is a ruin
called the Mujelibé, meaning the overturned; its shape is
oblong, and its height, as well as the measurements of its
sides, irregular. The sides face the cardinal points; the
northern is 200, the southern 219, the eastern 182, and
the western 186 yards in length; and the elevation of the
south-east, or highest angle, is 141 feet. The western face,
which is the least elevated, is the most interesting, on
account of the appearance of building it presents. Near
the summit of it appears a low wall, with interruptions,
built of unburnt bricks mixed up with chopped straw, or
reeds, and cemented with clay-mortar of great thickness,
having between every layer a layer oi reeds; and on the
north side are also some vestiges of a similar construction.
The south-west angle is crowned by something like a turret,
or lantern: the other angles are in a less perfect state, but
may originally have been ornamented in a similar manner.
The western face is lowest and easiest of ascent; the northern
the most difficult. All are worn into furrows by the wea-
ther; and in some places, where several streams of rain-
water have united together, these furrows are of great
depth, and penetrate a considerable way into the mound.
The summit is covered with heaps of rubbish, in digging
into some of which, layers of broken burnt brick, cemented
with mortar, were discovered, and whole bricks with inscrip-
tions are sometimes found. The whole is covered with
innumerable fragments of pottery, brick, bitumen, pebbles,
vitrified brick, or scoria, and even shells, bits of glass and
mother-of-pearl. In the northern face of the Mujelibe, near
the summit, is a niche, or recess, high enough for a man to
stand upright in, at the back of which is a low aperture
leading to a small cavity; whence a passage branches off to
the right, sloping upwards in a westerly direction till it
loses itself in the rubbish.” Receiving intimation that
human remains had been discovered near this spot, our
traveller commenced a strict investigation, and after exca-
vating to some depth through a hollow pier, formed of fine
bricks laid in bitumen, and in size sixty feet square, he met
with several antiques, amongst which were a number of
earthern vessels, some thin and highly gazed. Prosecuting
his labours still further, another passage was laid open; this
cavity was narrow, about ten feet high, composed of both
burnt and unburnt bricks, the latter with a layer of reeds
between every course, except the two lowest, where they
were laid in bitumen. In this passage Mr. Rich discovered
a wooden coffin containing human remains, which presented
the appearance of being of great antiquity. To the north
and west of this mass of ruins, and at about 70 yards dis-
tant from it, runs a low mound, which may have formed an
enclosure round the whole.

 

 

The only ruin of any consequence to be found on the
western side of the Euphrates is that which is termed by
the Arabs the Birs Nemrond, and by the Jews Nebuc/zad-
nezzar’s Prison; it is situate about six miles to the south-
west of I-Iillah, and is perhaps the most remarkable of all
the ruins. Mr. Rich gives us the following descriptiOn:—-
“The Birs Nemrond is a mound of an oblong form, the
total circumference of which is 762 yards. At the eastern
side it is cloven by a deep furrow, and is not more than fifty
or sixty feet high; but at the western side it rises in a conical
figure to the elevation of 198 feet, and on its summit is
a solid pile of brick, thirty-seven feet high by twenty—eight
in breadth, diminishing in thickness to the top, which is
broken and irregular, and rent by a large fissure extending
through a third of its height. It is perforated by small square
holes disposed in rhomboids. The fine burnt bricks of which
it is built have inscriptions on them; and so excellent is the
cement, which appears to be lime-mortar, that it is nearly
impossible to extract one whole. The other parts of the
summit of this hill are occupied by immense fragments of
brickwork of no determinate figure, tumbled together and
converted into solid vitrified masses, the layers of brick
being perfectly discernible. These ruins stand on a pro-
digious mound, the whole of which is itself a ruin, chan-
nelled by the weather, and strewed with fragments of black
stone, sandstone, and marble. In the eastern part, layers of
unburnt brick, but no reeds, are to be seen. In the north
side may be seen traces of building exactly similar to the
brick pile. At the foot of the mound a step may be traced
scarcely elevated above the plain, exceeding in extent, by
several feet each way, the true or measured base; and there
is a quadrangular enclosure round the whole, as at the
Mujelibe, but much more perfect, and of greater dimensions.
At a trifling distance, and parallel with its eastern face, is
a mound not inferior to that of the kasr in elevation, but
much longer than broad; on the top of it are two koubbe‘s, or
oratories: round the Birs are traces of ruins to a considerable
extent.”

Having thus given a description of the ruins as they now
exist, it remains to determine the identity between them, and
the buildings mentioned by ancient authors. On this sub-
ject great differences of opinion exist; the chief difficulty
arising from the almost entire absence of any vestiges of
building on the western side of the Euphrates : this it has
been attempted to obviate in various ways. Major Rennell,
the author of a “Geography of Herodotus,” is of opinion
that the river has left its original bed, and formed a new
channel for itself, which, he says, is a common occurrence in
alluvial tracts of land, such as that upon which Babylon was
situate ; he supposes the ancient course of the river to have
been between the Kasr and Mujelibe. In favour of this
supposition, he quotes the words of Mr. Rich, where he says
that the valley on the north of the Amran Ibn Ali is covered
with tussocks of rank grass ;—this, Major Rennell conjec-
tures to have been the bed of the river. In opposition to
this opinion, Mr. Rich states, that there are no sufficient
grounds for supposing the river to have taken this course,
but rather that the buildings seem entirely to preclude such
idea; besides, he adds, every occasion was made use of to
prevent the alteration in the course of the Euphrates in this
neighbourhood; the possibility of such an occurrence was
obviated by the artificial canals and cuts which were so
numerous in this part of the country. He further accounts
for the existence of the tussocks of rank grass, by the cir-
cumstance of the river occasionally overflowing its banks, and
on its subsidence, leaving some portion of its waters in the
hollows; this appears, we must confess, in some degree to

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

BAB

22

BAB

 

invalidate his former argument; it does seem, however, some-
what premature to suggest any material alteration in the
course of the Euphrates, if difficulties can be accounted for
by any other method; if any alteration is allowed to have
taken place, it seems more reasonable to suppose the original
course to have been through the ravine to the west of the
ruins, especially as a number of bones have been found at
this spot. The difficulty respecting the position of the river,
however, is principally owing to Major Rennell's considerably
contracting the dimensions of the city: he considers the
statements of ancient authors respecting its magnitude as
merely fabulous; but seemingly without any other reason
than their improbability, or rather inaptitude, to our present
notions of a city. If, however, present experience were to
be universally applied, we should, with equal justice, deny
the existence of many erections of which we have ocular
demonstration, for instance, of the Pyramids and Sphinxes of
Egypt. It is true that the circuit of Babylon, as given by
ancient authors, is immense, but it is not entirely unaccounted
for; for Quintus Curtius tells us, that nearly one-half of the
city was occupied in gardens and other cultivated lands, and
not, as modern cities, composed almost entirely of houses.
Internal evidence also respecting the truth of his statement,
is furnished by Herodotus, when he relates that, at the cap-
ture of Babylon by Cyrus, the inhabitants of the interior
parts were not aware of what was taking place until some
time after the circumstances occurred. If we allow the
account of the ancients to be correct in this respect—and
indeed we see little reason to the contrary—our difficulty in
determining the localities of the ancient city will be consider—
ably diminished ; as we shall then be able to discover at least
some remains on both sides‘the Euphrates, though not so
great a number on the western side as we may have been led
to expect.

Another mistake which, in our opinion, Major Rennell has
been led to make, is the determining, at the very commence-
ment of his inquiry, the site of the temple of Belus. “'hether
the position he has assigned it be the correct one, is another
question ; all that we suggest at present is, that such alloca-
tion is, in this case, premature ; it at once puts a limit to free
inquiry, as it determines what must be the relative position
of every other edifice. Mr. Rich, on the other hand, com-
mencing the subject entirely afresh, and taking a more
comprehensive view of the matter, arrives at a different con-
clusion; he gives it as his opinion that the Birs Nemroud
has the better claims to be considered as the ancient tower.
In favour of this opinion it may be observed, that it would
at once obviate the difficulty we have in reconciling the state-
ment of the ancients, respecting the location of the palace and
temple of Belus on opposite sides of the river, with the dis-
coveries of the moderns. But, it may be objected, Herodotus
states that these edifices were in the centre of either division
of the city : now the word used by that author is s’v ,téaw,
which, we think, may be translated literally enough by in
the midst, or even by the preposition within, and certainly
more correctly so than by in the centre. Should, however,
any objection be made to this translation, we would argue
that in so large a space, our author may be allowed a little
latitude in cursorily describing the position of principal build-
ings in the plan of so vast a city. Moreover, we have further
evidence in favour of this assumption, in the remarkable
similarity of‘ the remains to the descriptions we have of the
old edifice. Before proceeding further, we may as well get
rid of one objection which may be urged in Opposition to the
statements we are about to make: the plan of the remains
is an oblong, and not a square, as stated by Herodotus ; now,
we must remind our readers that, although the more common

 

reading states the building to have been of a square plan, yet
that this reading has been with good reason objected to. and
has been altered by Wesseling in his edition; we do not
think, therefore, that this objection ought to have much
weight. To return :—The ruins present the appearance of a
building of 762 yards periphery, surrounded by an outer wall;
the present height of the building is 235 feet, in which space
Mr. Rich discovered traces of three different stages, similar
to those described by Herodotus; and Mr. Buckingham, a
later traveller, in the same space, thinks four stages clearly
discernible. Now, if we add the same height for other four
stages to complete the number of eight as given by Herodo-
tus, we shall find the total height of the building equal to
470 feet, or about a stadium, the height given by the ancients.
This we think amounts to almost conclusive evidence for the
supposition of Mr. Rich; further, however, the appearance
of the kasr answers very well to the description of the
ancient palace, and one part is especially to be noted for its
resemblance to the hanging-gardens : the hollow shaft men-
tioned amongst the discoveries of Mr. Rich, is very similar
to the hollow piers supporting the terraces as described by
Strabo. The author, from whose narrative we have so
copiously extracted, supposes the whole of that mass of
ruins on the eastern bank of the river, enclosed by circular
walls, to have formed a part of the ancient palace, for, says
be, it is manifest that the palace was not merely a single
edifice, but consisted of a number of buildings, surrounded
probably by an outer wall ; and this supposition appears very
probable, especially as it related that the hanging-gardens
were within its precincts. Major Rennell, however, while
he assigns the kasr especially to the palace, and the Mujelibe
to the temple of Belus, considers the circular rampart which
encloses them as an erection of modern date. In opposition
to this notion, Mr. Rich suggests that we have no accounts
of any later erection on this spot, whereas Diodorus expressly
states that the palace was surrounded by circular walls.
Besides this, he brings forward what he considers a con-
vincing proof of its antiquity, which is this—that wherever
bricks engraved with the arrow—headed characters are here
found, they are all placed with the engraved sides downwards
This circumstance he considers sufficient evidence of the
walls having been erected at a very early period ; for during
his extensive researches, he observed that in the old build-
ings the bricks were invariably laid in this particular posi-
tion; in later erections, where the old materials had been
made use of, this peculiarity had not been attended to.

The question respecting the identification of the remains
with the ancient buildings, has elicited congiderable informa-
tion on the subject, and has been very ably treated by many
learned men. A variety of opinions has arisen in conse-
quence of the difficulties with which the subject is attended,
none of which, however, have been broached without good
reason : we are inclined to give the preference to Mr. Rich's
suggestions, but at the same time we must confess that the
other views taken of this case are worthy of most careful
consideration.

\Ve have extended the present article to so great a length,
on account of the interest which must necessarily appertain
to a style of building of such early date. Much as the origi-
nality of the various modes of architecture has been discussed,
and although many weighty reasons have been alleged in
proof of the superior antiquity of some few of the other styles,
of, for instance, the C‘yclopean, the Egyptian, and the Indian ;
yet it seems to us that the Babylonian has a greater claim to
originality than any other. As far as we can discover from
historical records, it is very evident that the first great
empire established in the world was that of Babylon. The

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

BAB

23

BAB

 

account given in the sacred history, and which is confirmed,
as far as may be, by all other historical records, tells us that
the first great kingdom was founded, and the first city built,
by Nimrod, a name which has been preserved by tradition
even up to the present time, and is still held in especial
reverence; thus proving, at least, the existence of such a
person, and his pre—eminent usefulness to the city and people
of Babylon. It may be said, we are well aware, that this is
mere tradition; yet we cannot allow that tradition, even
when it appears in its most absurd colouring, is entirely to
be despised : we cannot account for the promulgation of any
legend that has absolutely no origin, such an idea is indeed
absurd; every traditional story must have some real, tangi-
ble source, and reality cannot but be truth; such stories
may have been embellished, or, if you please, disfigured
by fiction, but they must have their foundation at least in
fact.

Many persons, we know, are very unwilling to assign
much credit to the Mosaical narrative ; but we think we are

‘ fully entitled to claim for it equal authority with that of most

of the other historians who make any reference to the occur-
rences of so early a date, especially as its author is allowed to
be the earliest historian, and for this reason must have lived

, closer to, and have been, we should suppose, more competent
‘ to relate the occurrences of, the times to which he refers.

Claiming so much authority, then, for our author, we would
beg our readers to allow a fair modicum of credit for his
sketch of the early history of Babylon; we say sketch, for
it has no higher pretensions, nor could we naturally expect
any detailed history from an historian living eight hundred
years posterior to the period whose history he is relating.
We may here apply a very sensible remark made by Rollin

; in speaking of the history of this empire : “ where,” he says,

“ certainty is not to be had, I suppose a reasonable person will
be satisfied with probability.” It is true that Moses does
not expressly state that Babylon was the first city, but we
have every reason short of certainty to believe that he
intended to imply as much. In giving the genealogy of
Noah’s descendants, he stops at the name of Nimrod, to tell
us that “ he began to be a mighty one in the earth ;” which
expression, if it does not indeed say in so many words that

i he was the first one who obtained superiority, may, at least,

 

‘ dwelt there.

when taken in connection with all other attendant circum-
stances, imply quite as much ; and it is further told us, that
“the beginning of his kingdom was Babel.” Further on in
the narrative, we are told where and what this Babel was,
as well as when its erection took place, namely, in the time
of Peleg, the fifth from Noah, probably at some particular
period of his life; perhaps shortly after his birth—for, “in
his days was the earth divided :” the causes of this division,
and the particulars of the building of Babel, are related as
follows :—“ The whole earth was of one language, and of
one speech; and it came to pass, as they journeyed from the
cast, that they found a plain in the land of Shinar; and they
And they said, Go to, let us build us a city,
and a tower whose top may reach unto heaven; and let us
make us a name, lest we be scattered abroad upon the face of
the whole earth. And the Lord came down to see the city
and the tower which the children of men builded. And the
Lord said, Behold, the people is one, and they have all
one language; and this they begin to do: and now nothing
will be restrained from them, which they have imagined to
do Go to, let us go down, and there confound their
language, that they may not understand one another’s
speech. So the Lord scattered them abroad from thence
upon the face of all the earth: and they left off to build the
city; therefore is the name of it called Babel.” To any one

 

reading this account, there can, we think, be little doubt, that
it was the writer’s intention to signify, that Babel was the
first permanent erection of any significance, that it was the
' joint erection of all men then in existence, and also that it
was the origin of the city afterwards known by the name of
Babylon.

It now rests with us to shew the identity of the existing
remains, and of the city erected by Nimrod, and in this case
again we must rest content with probability. Now it seems
universally allowed that some part of the mounds are identi-
cal with the ruins described by Herodotus; how large a
portion this may be we do not pretend to assert, but we have
already stated that Mr. Rich includes a large proportion of
the existing remains. We have only in continuation to give
our reasons for considering the buildings described by Hero-
dotus as identical with those referred to by Moses. In the
first place, then, the former writer seems to speak of Babylon as
a very ancient city in his time, and mentions it as a remark-
able occurrence that the tower of Belus was then standing;
he speaks of a long line of kings, and relates that Semiramis
made some improvements in the city, thus implying that the
city had been erected some considerable period before her
reign. This queen is supposed to have lived from twelve
hundred to two thousand years before our era, thus bringing
the erection of the city close upon that of Babel, as recorded
in the Scriptures. Another proof of identity is seen in the
nature of the materials used in the buildings, and in the
manner of their erection, and in these matters the two
accounts perfectly coincide. Moses, in that part of his nar-
rative already quoted, says,—“ And they said one to another,
Go to, let us make brick, and burn them thoroughly; and
they had brick for stone, and slime (bitumen) had they for
mortar.” The account of Herodotus, although of a more
detailed description, agrees in every particular with that just
given ;—we need not refer to it here, as it has already been
given in full. Again, is there not every reason to believe
that the tower of Babel and that of Belus are one and the
same edifice ? Herodotus evidently looks upon the tower as
of very remote origin, as the oldest building in Babylon;
indeed, it seems to be a building remarkable on many
accounts, standing out distinct from all surrounding edifices,
as well by its great height, as by its unusual construction; it
is apparently looked upon by all those who have seen it with
a kind of awe, as though its erection, and every other thing
connected with it, was entirely beyond their comprehen-
sion.

Taking all these circumstances into consideration, we
venture to assert there will be considered sufficient evidence
to satisfy any reasonable person of at least the probable
identity between the buildings referred to in the Mosaical
narrative, and the ruins now in existence, as described by
recent travellers. ~
‘4 The remains of this great city do not afford us an oppor-
tunity of stating, with any preciseness, the style, so to speak,
adopted in its architecture. The buildings generally are
rude, and show but little evidence of constructive science;
they are of gigantic proportions, and very massive, on which
quality they rely chiefly for their strength ; their construc-
tion is indicative of greater antiquity than that of the Indian
or Egyptian styles, for, whereas, in the latter, we find
detached columns, in the Babylonian we see no traces of
them, indeed, the construction is altogether much heavier
and of more barbarous appearance. The edifices were almost
universally composed of bricks, of which there were various
qualities, some dried in the sun, others baked in a kiln; there
was also a finer sort, the clay of which, previous to being
burned, was mixed up with chopped straw or reeds, and these

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

BAB

 

BAD

 

last seem to have been used for facing walls built of the
commoner sort of brick; there is one peculiarity about them,
however, which may not be overlooked, and that is the inden-
tation on their surface of certain marks arranged in parallel
lines, termed arrow or nail-headed characters. These marks
are supposed to represent letters, or words; but, although,
much learned labour has been given to the task, their signi-
fication has not been discovered, nor, indeed, the method of
deciphering them determined upon : similar inscriptions
have been found at Persepolis and Susa, also on some rocks
near Argish, in Armenia, and sometimes, but very rarely, in
Egypt. To return :——The bricks were cemented together with
hot bitumen, but were sometimes laid in clay, and at others
in lime-mortar, and bonded together by straw, or reeds. The
walls, as we have previously mentioned, were of great thick-
ness, strengthened at intervals by pilasters, or buttresses,
which were sometimes adorned with niches. Columns were
not made use of, the nearest approach to the idea being found
in the large hollow piers which supported the hanging-
gardens. The principle of the arch does not seem to have
been understood, although some authors have stated a con-
trary opinion; no examples of its application have been
found, and the fact of inconveniently large masses of sand-
stone having been made use of,in places where the arch
would have been most applicablefi’as in the case of the passage
described by Mr. Rich, is, we think, a conclusive argument
that the principle was not known. (For further information
on this subject we refer to the article on ARCH.) The work-
ing of metals seems to have been in extensive practice, as
Herodotus tells us that all the gates were made of brass.

Although externally their buildings were of this rude
description, the Babylonians evinced some taste in the
interior decorations. Among other modes of ornamentation,
they made use of coloured bricks. These bricks were
painted while in a moist state, and the colours afterwards
burnt in; the subjects represented were usually animals,
standing out in relief from the general surface, and richly
painted in their natural colours. Statues likewise formed a
very usual'mode of decoration.

We have now only to notice that peculiar building, the
Birs Nemroud, of which we have elsewhere given a descrip-
tion; it will, therefore, be unnecessary to enter into detail
here; we would only beg of our readers to notice its peculiar
form, that of a pyramid, and remark, that if this tower be
allowed to be the first erection of importance, it will very
readily account for the circumstance of that form being so
universal in other styles of very early date. This kind of
erection is found, not only in Egyptian and Indian architec-
ture, but also in other styles, whose connection with the
Babylonian is not so easily accounted for; and IIumbolt, in
speaking of a pyramidal mass of ancient Mexico, says,—“ It
is impossible to read the descriptions which Ilerodotus and
Diodorus Siculus have left us of the temple of Jupiter
Bolus, without being struck with the resemblance of that
Babylonian monument to the teocallis of Anahuac.” It is
true that the pyramidal is that form which would most
naturally suggest itself to men unacquaintcd with the con-
trivanccs of art, but we venture to think, that the suggestion
we have above thrown out, is not entirely unworthy of the
attention and consideration of the curious.

llaving at length arrived at the conclusion of this article,
we would apologize for having extended it to a length
which some may be inclined to think unreasonable; when,
however, the interest attaching to such ancient remains, and
the comparatively slight attention the subject has hitherto
obtained, are considered, we feel confident of receiving the
pardon of our readers.

 

BACK,-the side opposite to the face, or breast. In a
recess, upon a quadrangular plan, the face is that surface
from which the recess is made: therefore the back is the
surface which has the two abjacent planes, called the sides,
elbows, or gables. When a piece of timber is fixed in a
level or inclined position, the upper side is called the back,
and the lower, the breast: thus the upper side of the hand-
rail of a stair is called the back. The same is to be under—
stood with regard to the curved ribs of ceilings, and the
rafters of a roof: their upper edges are always called the
backs.

BACK OF A CHIMNEY. See CHIMNEY.

BACK OF A HAND-RAIL, is the upper side of it. Its for-
mation is shown under the articles STAIRS and HAND~
RAILING.

BACK or A HIP—RAFTER. See HIP-ROOF.

BACK LINING OF A SASH-FRAME. See SASII—FRAME.

BACK or A RAFTER, is the upper side of it, in the sloping
plane of the one side of a roof. The manner of forming the
back is shown under RAFTER. See also ROOF, in CAR-
PENTRY.

BACK-SIIUTTERS, or BACK-FLAPs, are additional breadths
hinged to the front shutters, necessary in closing the aperture
completely, when the window is required to be shut. When
the aperture is open, or when light is required, the back-
shutters are concealed in the boxing by the front-shutters.
Back-shutters are generally made thinner than front-shutters,
and framed with bead and butt.

BACK or A STONE, the side opposite to the face, which
is generally rough.

BACK OF A WINDOW, in joinery, is the board, or wain-
scoting, between the sash-frame and the floor, joining
the two elbows, and forming a part of the finish of the room
in which it is placed. It is in general parallel to the face of
the wall, or to the glass, or sash-frame, and, when framed, it
has commonly a single panel with mouldings on the framing,
corresponding to the doors, shutters, elbows, softits, &c. in
the same apartment in which it is placed. The framing of
the back and the skirting are generally in the same plane, or
flush, and the upper edge of the skirting is wrought with a
bead, which conceals the joint between the lower edge of the
rail, and the upper edge of the skirting below it. The top
edge of the upper rail is generally capped with a slip of tim-
ber, level on the top, beaded on the front edge, and tongued
into the sash-frame. The capping bead is returned upon the
two elbows, and has the most prominent part of the con-
vexity flush with the framing of the elbows, as well as that
of the back. Framed backs and elbows for good homes are
generally finished at one and one-eighth inch thick.

BACKING or A RAFTER, or RIB, the formation of an upper
or outer surface, so as to range with the edges of the ribs or
rafters, on either side of it. See also HANGING, or EDGING.

The formation of the inner edges of the ribs for lath—and-
plaster ceiling, is sometimes improperly called backing.

BACKING or A \VALI., is the building which forms the
inner face of the wall, or, the act of building the inner face.
This term is Opposed to facing, which is the outside of the
wall. In stone walls the backing is generally rubble, though
the facing be ashlar.

BADIGEON, a mixture of plaster and free-stone, well
sifted, and ground together: it is used by statuaries to fill up
the small holes, and repair the defects in stones of which
their work is made. The term is also used by joincrs, for a.
composition of saw-dust and strong glue, with which the
chasms of their work are filled. Joiners likewise use for
this purpose, a mixture of whiting and glue. “rhen this is

”PU”

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when it is plained or smoothed ofl“, it will shrink below the
surface.

BAGNIO, a bath. The word is applied by us to houses
which have conveniences for bathing, sweating, and other-
wise cleansing the body. Baguio, in Turkey, is a general
name for the prisons where their slaves are kept. So called
from the baths they contain.

BAGUETT E, a' small astragal moulding, sometimes carved
and enriched with pearls, ribbands, laurels, 8m. When the
baguette is enriched, it is called Chaplet, and when unorna-
mented, bead.

BALBEC, or BAALBEC, a famous city of Syria, celebrated
by the Greeks'and Latins under the name of Heliopolis, the
city of the sun, or Baal. It was surrounded with walls,
which were flanked with towers at regular intervals. The
principal remains consist of the great temple, a smaller
one, called by Mr. Wood the most entire temple, a circular
temple of a singular construction, and a Doric column stand-
ing alone. The longitudinal direction of the great and most
entire temples is east and west. Before the entry to the
great temple are two courts and a portico, which face east-
wards. After passing the portico, we come to an hexagonal
court, surrounded with columns and apartments; we thence
enter a quadrangular court, the area of which is also sur-
rounded with columns: on the north or south side of this

court are seven apartments, or exhedrae; five are rectangular .

on the plan, One stands in the middle, having a semicircular
exhedra on each side of it. These were probably lodging
rooms for the priests. At the other extremity of this court,
upon the south, are columns of a colossal magnitude, being
the remains of the peristyle of the temple. The shafts are
twenty-one feet eight inches in circumference ; and the entire
height of the columns fifty-eight feet.

The columns are all joined with iron cramps, and Without
cement, which is nowhere used in these edifices, but the
surfaces are so close that there is hardly room for the blade
of a knife to be inserted between them. The stones which
compose the sloping wall are of enormous size. On the west
the second course is of stones from twenty-eight to thirty-
five feet long, and nine feet in height: and at the north
angle, over this course, are three stones, which occupy one
hundred and seventy-five feet seven inches. The shafts of
the columns of the great temple consist each of three pieces
which are joined with iron pins about one foot long, and one
foot diameter. Most of the bases had two sockets, one cir-
cular, and the other square. Greek and Roman authors are
entirely silent as to these astonishing ruins.—( Ruins of Bal-
bec, by Wood and Dawkins.)

BALCONY, (from the French balcon,) an open gallery
projecting from the front of a building, surrounded with a
rail or balustrade, of various devices, and supported by can-
talivers, brackets, or columns. It is made of wood, stone,
sometimes of cast-iron, and sometimes also of bar-iron
fashioned into crail-work, of various fanciful figures.

Balconies are generally made on a level with the sills of
the windows of the first floor; sometimes every window in
the range has a separate balcony, each of which is convex to
the street. When there is but one, it is generally placed in
the middle of the length of the front, or extends the whole
length of the front. Sometimes a portico or porch is sur-
mounted with a balcony; in this case the balustrade may be
of stone, as. well as of iron, or wood. When balconies are
used, the windows are generally brought down to the floor,
without adding any additional breadth to the aperture. See
BALUSTRADE.

BALDACHIN, (from the Italian baldacclzino,) a piece of
architecture in the form of a canopy, supported with columns,

H

 

and serving as a covering to an altar. The baldachin sup-
planted the ciboreum, which was of the same nature; but
whereas the former was a canopy, the latter was in form
similar to the monoptral temple described by Vitruvius.

The baldachin in St. Peter's at Rome is of bronze, and
was made by Bernini. The dais, or covering, is supported
on four large twisted columns of the Composite order, on
pedestals of black marble. Above the columns are four
figures of angels; at the top of the covering there is a cross,
and below the entablature the fringe of the banner-like cloth
of the portable baldachin has been imitated. The height is
125 feet 3 inches from the floor of the church to the summit
of the cross, and the whole work is in the highest degree
elegant and graceful.

BALECTION MOULDINGS. See BELECTION MOULD-
INGS.

BALKS, large pieces of timber brought from abroad in
floats: their scantling being from five to twelve inches
square. Balks, in some parts of England, are used for the
summer-beams of a building, also for the poles or rafters laid
over out~houses, or barns.

BALLOON, (from the French 66111072,) a crowning of a
globular form, used by way of an aeroter to a pediment, pillar,
or the like. That on the top of St. Peter’s at Rome is of
brass, about eight feet diameter, and placed at the height of
sixty-seven fathoms.

BALL-FLOVVER, an ornament resembling a ball placed
in a circular flower, the three petals forming a cup round it;
much used as an enrichment to mouldings, and otherwise in
the decorated style of Gothic architecture.

BALLIUM, the space immediately within the outer walls
of an ancient castle. -

BALTHEI, bands, or girdles. This word is used by
Vitruvius for some part of the Ionic volute. The balthei are
supposed to be the mouldings which encompass the bolsters
of the volutes.

BALUSTER, sometimes corruptly called BANISTER, a
small kind of column or pillar belonging to a BALUSTRADE,
(which see.) The various forms of Balusters given in the
accompanying plate, are selected chiefly from Sir \Villiam
Chambers, who has appropriated some of them to the orders
of architecture, as their names express. The two last, deno-
minated Corinthian and Doric, were designed by Mr. Nichol-
son, and their curve is found by an algebraic equation as in
OVAL. Their general form is graceful, and their elegance
may be preserved in any proportion; thus, suppose it were
wished to have a very slender baluster made from the very
stout one, here called DORIC ; divide the length of the balus-
ter required into ten equal parts, and the given baluster into
the same number; draw lines on both, as ordinates; place
the ordinates of the given baluster upon the respective lines
of the one required, and through the extremities draw a
curve, which will complete the baluster sought for.

BALUSTERS OF THE IONIC CAPITAL, the two lateral parts
contained between each front and rear volute, called by
Vitruvius, pulm'nata.

BALUSTRADE, a range of small columns called balus-
ters supporting a cornice, used as a parapet, or as a screen, to
conceal the whole or a part of the roof. It is also sometimes
used as a decoration for terminating the building. Balus-
trades are employed in parapets, on the margins of stairs,
before windows, to enclose terraces, or balconies, by way
of security, 01 sometimes to separate one place from
another. In the theatres and amphitheatres cf the Romans,
the pedestals of the upper orders were always continued
through the arcades, to serve as a parapet for the spectators
to lean over; the lowermost seats next to the arena in the

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

BAN

26

BAP

 

amphitheatres, and those next to the orchestra in the theatres,
were guarded by a parapet, or podium. The walls of ancient
buildings generally terminated with the cornice itself, but
often with a blocking course, or attic. In the monument of
Lysicrates at Athens, the top is finished with finials com-
posed of honeysuckles, solid behind, and open between each
pair of finials; each plant or finial is bordered with a curved
head, and the bottom of each interval with an inverted curve.
Perhaps terminations of this nature might have been em-
ployed in many other Grecian buildings, as some coins seem
to indicate; but this is the only example of the kind. The
temples in Greece are mostly finished with the cornice itself;
which was also the case with many of the Roman temples ; and
as there were no remains of balustrades in ancient buildings,
their antiquity may be doubted: they are, however, repre-
sentedin the works of the earliest Italian writers, who, per-
haps, may have seen them in the ruins of Roman edifices.

When a balustrade finishes a building, and crowns an
order, its height should be proportioned to the architecture
it accompanies, making it never more than four-fifths, nor
less than two - thirds, of the height of the order, not
reckoning the plinth on which it is raised; as the balustrade
itself should be completely seen at a proper point of View.
Balustrades designed for use should always be of the height
of the parapet walls, as they answer the same purpose, being
nothing else than an ornamented parapet; this height should
not exceed three feet and a half, nor be less than three feet.
In the balusters, the plinth of the base, the most prominent
part of the swell, and the abacus of their capital, are gene-
rally in the same straight line: their distance should not
exceed half the breadth of the abacus, or plinths, nor be less
than one-third of this measure. On stairs, or inclined planes,
the same proportions are to be observed as on horizontal ones.
It was formerly customary to make the mouldings of the
balusters follow the inclination of the plane; but this is dif—
ficult to execute, and, when done, not very pleasant to the
eye; though in ornamental iron work, where it is confined
to a general surface passing perpendicularly by the ends of
the steps, it has a very handsome appearance. The breadth
of pedestals, when placed over an order, is regulated by the
top of the shaft, the die being always equal thereto. When
balustrades are placed upon the entablature of an order, over
the intercolumns, or interpilasters, and the base and cornice
of the balustrade continued, so as to break out and form
pedestals over the columns, or pilasters, the breadth of the
die of the pedestals should be equal to the breadth of the top
of the shafts; and when there is' no order, the breadth of
the die never more than its height, and very seldom nar-
rower: the dies of the pilasters may be flanked with half
dies, particularly when the range of balusters is long.

BAND, a narrow flat surface, having its face in a vertical
plane, as the band of the Doric architrave, and the dentil
band, which is the square out of which the dentils are cut.
The word facia, or plat band, is generally applied to broad
members, as the facia of an architrave; and band, to narrow
ones wider than fillets. Band is also the ciucture, around
the shaft of a rusticated column.

BANDED COLUMN, is that which is encircled with bands, or
annular rustics.

BANDELET, or BAND, any flat moulding, or fillet. See
BAND.

BANKER, the stone-bench on which masons cut and
square their work.

BANQUETING-ROOM, an apartment for entertainment,
used among the Romans in the latter ages of the empire. In
ancient times they suppcd in the atrium of their houses, but
in after-times, magnificent saloons, or banqueting-rooms, were

 

built for the more commodious entertainment of their guests-
Lucullus, we are informed by l’lutarch, had several very
grand banqueting-rooms, and the Emperor Claudius had a
very elegant one, named Mercury; but everything of this
kind was outdone by the lustre of the still more celebrated
banqueting house of Nero, called domus aurea, the house of
gold, which, by the circular motion of its ceilings and parti

tions, imitated the revolution of the heavenly bodies, and
represented the (liffercnt seasons of the year, which changed
at every service, and showered down flowers, essences, and

erfumes on the guests.

BAPTISTERY, (from ,ernlo, to was/1,) a building, or
apartment, designed for the administration of baptism.

In ancient times, baptism was performed by immersion,
and the place for the purpose was a pond or stream; but
about the middle of the third century, distinct or insulated
houses were erected for the purpose. In 496, they were
attached to the exterior side of the church, and in the sixth
century, they were brought within the church; but though
there might have been two or more churches in one city ; yet,
in general, there was only one baptistery; and when it be
came fashionable to dedicate the churches, that to which the
baptistery belonged was dedicated to St. John the Baptist.
The baptismal churches in Italy were usually built near
rivers and waters. In later times, the bishop of baptismal
churches granted licenses to other churches to erect bap-
tisteries, taking care at the same time to maintain his own
jurisdiction over the people.

. The baptistery was an octagon building, covered with a
cupola roof, adjacent to the church, but not forming a part
of it.

In the interior was a hall, sufficient to contain a great
number of people, on the sides of which was a number
of apartments; sometimes, instead of these apartments, rooms
were added on the outside, in the manner of cloisters: in the
middle of the hall was an octagon bath, which, strictly speak-
ing, was the baptistery, and from which the whole building
derived its appellation.

The most celebrated baptisteries are those of Rome, Flo-
rence, and Pisa; the most ancient is that of S. Giovanni in
Fonte at Rome, said to have been erected by Constantine the
Great. The plan of this building is octangular; the roof is
supported by eight large polygonal pillars of porphyry under
the cupola, in the centre of the floor is the bath, lined with
marble, with three steps for descending into it: its depth is
about thirty-seven inches and a half. The baptistery an-
nexed to the splendid church of St. Sophia, at Constantinople.
resembled the convocation-room of a cathedral; and was
called illuminatory. In the middle was the bath, and around
it were outer rooms for all concerned in the immersion.

The Baptistery of Florence stands opposite to the principal
entrance of the cathedral. It is octangular in form, with a
diameter of about one hundred feet. In the interior is a
gallery, supported by sixteen large granite columns; the
vaulting is decorated with mosaics, and on the pavement is a.
large circle of copper, with numerical figures, and the signs
of the zodiac on it. The external facades are built of black
and white marble, and the three great bronze doors are Cele-
brated for the beauty of their has-reliefs, and for the marble
and bronze figures above them.

The Baptistery of Pisa is circular; its diameter is 116
feet ; the walls are eight feet high, and the building is raised
on three steps, and surmounted by a dome in the shape of
a pear. This dome, which is covered with lead, is intersected
by long lines of very prominent fretwork, terminating in
another dome, above which is a statue of St. John. The
proportions of the interior are admirable; eight granite

 

 

 

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BAR 27

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columns, placed between four piers, decorated with pilasters,
are arranged round the basement story, these support a
second order of piers, similarly arranged, on whlch rests the
dome. In the middle of the baptistery, is a large octagonal
basin of marble raised on three steps. See FpN'r. .

BAR, a piece of wood, or iron, for fastening any kind of
closure, as a door, or shutter. It IS used as an additional
fastening to a door, attached to the s1de, and_movable to
and fro upon the surface, so as to be inserted or
drawn out of the jamb, head, or sill, at pleasure; and is
most commonly placed on the vertical edge of the door.
Doors and shutters have sometimes bars so long as to be
equal to the whole breadth of the aperture, or something
more ; and frequently made to turn upon a centre on the side
of the door or shutter.

BARS FOR THE SHUTTERS or WINDOWS, are frequently
made with one or more joints, according to the number of
shutters in the breadth of the window, and are fastened by
means of bolts and fore-locks.

BARS or A BOARDED DOOR, are pieces placed on the back,
to which the boards are fastened: bars Of this nature are
more commonly called ledges.

BARS or A SASH, are those slight pieces of wood or metal
which divide the sash-light into two or more compartments,
so as to reduce the large opening into smaller ones of con-
venient dimensions, suitable to the size of the panes of
glass.

Those bars which stand in the intersection of two vertical
planes, are called angle-bars. See ANGLE-BARS.

BAR-IRON. See IRON.

BAR-POSTS, are those which are fastened into the ground,
forming the sides of a field gate, and are mortised so as to
admit of horizontal pieces, called bars, which may be inserted
easily or taken out at pleasure.

BARBACAN, or BARBICAN, in ancient fortifications, was
an advanced work, which frequently covered the draw-bridge
. at the entrance of a castle. The term is likewise applied
to the aperture in walls, called embrasures. See EMBRA-
SURES.

BARBACAN, in architecture, is a long narrow canal, or
opening, left in the walls for water to come in and go out
by, when edifices are placed so as to be liable to be overflown;
or to drain Off the water from a terrace or the like.

BARGE-BOARDS, two boards attached to the gable
ends of a roof, fixed near the extremity of the barge course,
and following the inclination of the roof, used for the purpose
of protecting the under or stuccoed side of the barge course
from the weather. They are found most usually in old
English houses, and being carved in most rich and elaborate
patterns, add great beauty and picturesque effect to the
buildings. They have been of late applied in many instances,
where their utility seems to have been entirely misunder-
stood, and where, instead of protecting, they only serve as a
dead weight to the building. The word is probably derived
from an old Saxon term signifying to shade or cover.

RANGE—COUPLES, two beams mortised and tenoned to-
gether, for strengthening the building. The term is not
much used.

liARGE-COURSE, that part of the tiling which projects
over the gable of a building, and is made up below with
mortar.

BARN, a covered building, for laying up and preserving
all sorts of grain, hay, straw, 8m. The situation of a barn
should be dry and rather elevated, and on the north or north-
east side of a farm-yard; but neither contiguous to the house,
nor to any offices connected with it. Barns may be con-
structed of either stone, brick, or timber, which last may be

 

wooden framing, covered with weather boarding ; but which-
soever of these materials is used, holes should be left in the
walls at intervals, or the doors and windows should have
proper air-flights, so as to admit the ingress and egress of
air freely. The gable-ends are best formed of brick or stone,
on account of their solidity: the covering may either be
thatch or tiles. In the walls of the front and rear of the
building should be two large folding doors, for the con-
venience of carrying in and out a cart or waggon load of
corn in sheaves, or any other bulky produce: these doors
should be of the same breadth with the threshing-floor, to
give more light to the threshers, and admit more air for win-
nowing the grain. Over the threshing—floor, and a little
above the reach of the flail-poles, beams are often laid across,
in order to form a kind of upper-floor, upon Which the
thresher may throw the straw or haulm ; and on the out-side,
over the great doors, it is convenient to have a large pent-
house made, projecting sufficiently, so as to cover a load of
corn or hay, in case a sudden storm should come on before it
can be housed, and also to shelter the poultry in the farm—yard
from bad weather, or too great heat. The hay-barns should
usually be constructed of wood, and not too close: they
are sometimes formed in such a manner, as to be capable of
being moved to different places by wheels or rollers. In
grazing-farms, which do not afford a supply of straw for
thatching, the stacks with movable roofs, erected on strong
upright posts of wood, or what is sometimes termed Dutch
barns, may be useful, as they may be raised or lowered at
pleasure by screws and levers, so as to accommodate them-
selves to the quantity of hay, either in proportion to the crop
or its consumption, while, at the same time, they are cheaper,
more airy, and less troublesome than close barns, in case of
heating. The under-pinning of barns is best of stone or
brick, which may be built to the height of about two feet above
ground ; the sides should be boarded, and the roof covered with
straw or reeds ; but those of the stables on its sides, with slate
or glazed tile; because, as they must be more flat, the water
which runs from the roof of the barn would injure most
other coverings. At each end of the barn, and over the back-
door, small doors, four feet high, should be fixed at the
height of twelve feet from the ground: the two former for
putting in corn at the ends, and the latter for filling the
middle of the barn after the bays are full. All the bays
should have a floor of clay or marl, and the threshing-floor
should be laid with hard bricks, which will be suitable for all
sorts of grain, except wheat or rye ; for threshing these, it will
be advisable to have planks of oak or red deal well fitted
together, and numbered, to be laid down occasionally, and
confined by a frame at their ends.

Barns should be placed upon a declivity, as by this means
they are rendered more durable, less subject to vermin, and
the grain can be kept more sweet and dry than on level
ground: this situation also affords a commodious range of
stalls for cattle.

The invention of the threshing machine has, in a great
measure, altered the construction of barns, as, where they are
made use of, they should be contrived chiefly with a view to
the distribution of straw; the machines being built in the
centre, with the grain-stacks adjoining them, in such a man-
ner, that they may be supplied without the assistance of carts
or horses. The barns, in these cases, need not to be so
large, but they should have granaries provided in them,
which may perhaps be most conveniently placed over the
floors.

BARREL DRAIN, one constructed in the form of a hol-
low cylinder. See DRAIN.

BARROW, or TUMULUS, a hillock or mound of earth,

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

BAS

28

 

BAS

 

anciently raised over the body of a distinguished person.
Barrows are considered as the most ancient sepulchral monu-
ments in the world.

BAS-RELIEF. See BASSO RELIEvo.

BASALT, a hard dark-coloured rock, of igneous origin,
formed of columnar or stratified parts, very useful in building,
paving, 8m. Basalt, when calcined and pulverized, istan ex-
cellent substitute for puzzolana, in the composition of mortar:
by undergoing these operations, it acquires the property of
hardening under water.

BASE, in architecture, is the lowermost part of a body,
consisting of one, or an assemblage of parts, taken in its
altitude, being separated from its upper part, which is a naked
or plain surface.

BASE OF A ROOM, is the lower projecting part, consisting
of two portions, the lower of which is a plain board adjoining
the floor, called the plinth, and the upper consists of one or
more mouldings, which, taken collectively, are called the
base-mouldings. The plinth in the best work is tongued
into a groove in the floor, by which means, the diminution
of breadth in the shrinking never shows any aperture, or
cavity, between its under edge and the floor ; and the upper
edge of the plinth is rebated upon the base. Bedrooms,
lobbies, passages, and staircases, are often finished without
the dado and surbase, as also sometimes vestibules and halls.
Rooms which have pavement-floors, have their bases, in
general, consisting of stone plinths, and wooden base-mould-
ings, which are not so liable to be broken as stone
mouldings.

BASEMENT, the lowest story of a building, on which
an order is placed, consisting of a base, die, and cornice.
The choragic monument of Lysicrates is a beautiful example
of an antique basement. In modern buildings, the height
of the basement will vary according to the character of the
edifice: it is proper, however, to make the basement no
higher than the order of the next story, for this would be
making the base of more importance in the composition than
the body to be supported. If the cellar story is the base-
ment, and if the height does not exceed five or six feet at
the most, it may be plain, or with rustics, or formed into a
continued pedestal ; but if the basement is on the ground
story, the usual manner of decorating it is with rustics, sup-
ported on a base, and surmounted with a crowning string
course: the base may be either a plain or moulded
plinth; and the cornice may either have a platband or
mouldings under it, or may form a cornice of small
projection. The rustics are either of a rectangular or
triangular section, supposing one of the sides of these
sections to be a line extending across the front of the joints.
The joints of the rustics may be from one-eighth to a tenth
part of their height ; the depth of the triangular joints may
be half their breadth; that is, making the two planes by
which they are formed a right angle; and the depth of the
rectangular from one-fourth to one-third of their breadth.
The ancients always marked both directions of the joints
of the rustics, whereas the modems employ not only the
ancient manner, but sometimes make them with horizontal
joints alone ; the latter, however, represent rather a boarded
surface than that ofa stone wall, which must have two direc-
tions ofjoints.

The height of the string course should not exceed the
height of a rustic with its joints; nor the plinth, or
zocholo, be less than the height of the string course.
When the basement is perforated with arcades, the imposts
of the arches may be a plat-baud, which may be equal to
the height of a rustic, exclusive of the joint. When the
string course is a cornice, the base may be moulded,

 

the projection of the cornice being two-thirds of its height,
so as to be less prominent than that which finishes the
building. The height of the cornice may be about one-
eighteenth part of the height of the basement, and that of
the base, about twice as much, divided into six parts, of which
the lower five-sixths form the plinths, and the upper sixth
the mouldings.

BASIL, among carpenters and joiners. the iron side of
the angle of a tool, ground so as to bring the end of the tool
to a cutting edge. If the angle be very thin, the tool will
cut more freely, but is in danger of breaking into notches,
if not duly tempered : to remedy this, it is sometimes found
necessary to grind it thicker.

BASILICA (from Baatkevg, king, and away, house, signi-
fying royal house) a building originally used as a court of
justice. Among the Romans, it was a large hall adjoining
the forum, Where the magistrates judged the people under
cover, which distinguished it from the fora, where they held
their sittings in the open air. Basilicas were in plan
parallelogrammic, divided lengthwise into three or more
aisles, the centre one of which was called the testudo, and
those at the sides portieos. The testudo was covered by a
roof supported on two rows of columns, situate on either
side between it and the adjoining portieos. These portions
were divided vertically by two galleries, one above the other,
which ran round three sides of the building, and were covered
by a lean-to roof, meeting the above-named columns
below their capitals, so as to leave an open space between
the roofs of the porticos and the testudo, for the admission
of light. At that end of the testudo where the gallery was
discontinued, stood a raised platform, on which was placed
the tribunal for the magistrate. The above is as clearly as
can be discovered, a correct description of the ancient
basilica, and agrees in all its principal features with a build-
ing which has been discovered in the ruins of Pompeii.

The proportions of these edifices are given by Vitruvius
as follows :—“ The breadth,” he says, "is not to be less
than a third, nor more than the half of the length, unless
the nature of the place opposes the proportion, and obliges
the symmetry to be different; but if the basilica has too
much length, chalcidicw (supposed to be apartments
on the sides of the tribunal, separated from the body by
a partition) are taken off the ends, as in the basilica of Julia
Aquiliana. The columns of the basilica are made as high
as the porticus is broad; which again is equal to the third part
of the space in the middle. The upper columns are less than
the lower, as above written. The pluteum (a kind of podium
or continued pedestal) which is between the upper columns,
should also be made a fourth part less than the same columns,
that those who walk on the floor above, may not be seen by
the negotiators below. The epistylium, zoplmrus, and comma
Below, are proportioned to the columns, as in my third

00k.

“ Nor will basilieas such as that at the colony of Julia of .

Fanum, which I designed and executed, have less dignity
and beauty, the proportions and symmetry of which are as
follows: The middle testudo, between the columns, is one
hundred and twenty feet long, and sixty feet bread. The
porticus around the testudo, between the walls and columns,
is twenty feet bread. The height of the continued columns,
including their capitals, is fifty feet, and the thickness five,
having behind them parastataa (attached pilasters) twenty
feet high, two feet and a half broad, and one foot and a half
thick, which sustain the beams that bear the floors of the
porticus. Above these are other parastatae, eighteen feet
high, two feet broad, and a foot thick, which also receive
beams sustaining the canthers of the porticus, which are laid

 

F...

 

 

 

 

BAS

BAS»

 

below the roof of the testudo: the remaining space that is
left between the beams which lie over the parastatae, and
those over the columns, is left open in the inter-columns,
in order to give light. The columns in the breadth of the
testudo, including those of the angles to the right and
left, are four ; and in the length, on that side which is next
the forum, including the same angle columns, eight. On the
other side, there are but six columns, including those of the
angles, but the middle two on this side are omitted, that
they may not obstruct the view of the pronaos of the Temple
of Augustus, which is situated in the middle of the side-wall
of the basilica, looking toward the centre of the forum and
Temple of Jupiter. The tribunal, in this building, is formed
in the figure of a. hemicycle : the extent of this hemicycle,
in front, is ferty-six feet, and the recess of the curvature
inward, fifteen feet, so that those who attend the magistrate
obstruct not the negotiants in the basilica.

“ Upon the columns, the compacted beams, made from three
timbers of two feet, are disposed; and these are returned
from the third columns, which are in the interior part, to
the antte that project from the pronaos, and on the right and
left touch the hemicycle.

“ Upon the beams, perpendicularly to the capitals, the pilae
(a kind of blocking for supporting the plates) are placed,
three feet high, and four feet broad, on every side. Over
these, other beams well wrought from two timbers of two
feet, are placed ; upon which the transtraae and capareols
being fixed coincident with the zophorus, antae, and
walls of the pronaos, sustain the culmen the whole length
of the basilica, and another transversely from the middle
over the pronaos of the temple: so that it causes a double
disposition of the fastigium, and gives a handsome appear-
ance to the roof on the outside, and to the lofty testudo
within. The. omission of the ornaments of the epistylium,
and of the upper columns and plutei,diminisl1es the labour
of the work, and saves great part of the expense. The
columns likewise being carried in one continued height up to
the beams of the testudo, increase the magnificence and
dignity of the work.”

In the foregoing description, the proportion which Vitru-
vius assigns to basilicas in general, does not agree with that
which he executed at the colony of Julia of Fanum, which
appears to be of a different construction from the common
form; as, in the former, the ranges of columns which form
the porticos, appear to have been disposed in two heights,
with a gallery between; whereas, in the latter, the columns
were disposed in one range in the height, with attached
pilasters behind, in two rows, one above the other, and the
galleries between the pilasters nearly against the middle of
the columns, resting upon the lower range. Nor are the
proportions the same: for in the former, the breadth is
specified not to be less than a third part of the length, nor
more than, half, “ unless the nature of the place opposes the
proportion ;” the breadth of the latter is, however, more than
the half, for the length of the nave is one hundred and
twenty feet, and the breadth sixty feet; now, adding forty
feet to each, the breadth of the two opposite porticos, will
make the whole length of the building one hundred and
Sle)’ feet, and the breadth of the same one hundred feet,
which is more than the half of one hundred and sixty. In
the general construction, no columns are men‘ioned at the
ends, unless the chalcidicae (which are introduced in order to
proportionate the building) are comparted by columns, but
in the basilica constructed by Vitruvius, porticos are clearly
understood in the breadth, as well as in the length; for he
says, “ The columns in the breadth of the testudo, including
those of the angles to the right and left, are four; and in the

l

 

 

 

length, on that side which is next the forum, including-
the same columns, eight; on the other side there are but six
columns, including those of the angles; because the middle
two on this side are omitted, that they may not obstruct the
view of the pronaos of the Temple of Augustus.” When
Vitruvius speaks of the length and breadth of the basilica,
it is reasonable to suppose, that these were the dimensions
within the walls; but whether ancient edifices of this
description had walls, or were supported upon columns, is

E a desideratum which cannot be ascertained, but in the disco-
. veries of ancient edifices, which are perhaps, as yet, embo-
somed in the earth; and it is to be regretted, that, though

some buildings of a similar description have been discovered,
they are. by no means decided, neither in their proportion nor
constructidn. Fragments of the plan of Rome, taken under
Severus, which still exist, show a part of the basilica
Emiliana, exhibiting two rows of columns on each side,

'. without an exterior wall, which renders it doubtful whether
' they ever were. enclosed or not; perhaps the warmth of the

climate of Italy did, not require it. -
“ It is to Constantine, that the first Christian churches,
known by the name of basilicas, are to be referred. This

Iprince signalized his zeal by the erection of monuments,
- which announced the triumph of' the religion which he had

embraced. He gave his own, palace on the Coelian mount, to
construct on its site a church, which is recognized for the
most ancient Christian basilica. A modern building has
so masked and disfigured the ancient, that only the situation

' and plan of this monument can be discovered.

“ Soon after, he erected the basilica of St. Peter, of the
Vatican. This magnificent edifice was constructed about

: the year 324, upon the site. of the Circus of Nero, and the

Temples of Apollo and Mars, which were destroyed for that
purpose. It was divided internally into five aisles from east

- to west, which terminated, at the end in another aisle from

north to south, in the centre of which was a large niche or
tribunal, giving the Whole the form of a cross.

smaller dimensions; two columns were placed on each wing
of the terminating aisle. The whole was covered, with a flat

‘ ceiling, composed of immense beams, which were cased with
(r gilt metal and Corinthian brass, taken from the temples of
1 Romulus and Jupiter Capitolinus.

A hundred smaller
columns ornamented the shrines and chapels. The walls were

. covered with paintings of religious subjects, and the tribunal
' was enriched with elaborate mosaics.
, of lamps illuminated this temple; in the greater solemnities
‘ 2,400 were reckoned, of which one enormous candelabrum
. contained 1,360. The tombs of pontiffs, kings, cardinals, and
? princes, were reared against the walls, or insulated, in, the
7 ample porticos.

An incredible number

“ This superb temple was respected by Alaric and Totila,

' and remained uninjured in the various fortunes of Rome

during the lapse of twelve centuries; but crumbling with age,
it was at last pulled down by Julius IL, and upon its site

; has arisen the famous basilica, the pride of modern Rome.

“ The third great basilica built by Constantine, that of
St. Paul, on the road to Ostia, still exists. The interior
of this building resembles precisely that of St. Peter, which
has just been described. Of the forty columns enclosing the
great aisle, twenty-four are supposed to have been taken from
the mausoleum of Adrian; they are Corinthian, about three
feet diameter, fluted their whole length, and cabled to one-
third: the columns are of blue-and-white marble, and anti-
quity presents nothing in this kind more precious for the
materials and workmanship. But these beautiful remains

 

The larger '
; aisle was enclosed by forty-eight columns of precious marble,
Iand the lateral aisles had likewise forty-eight columns of

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

BAS

3O

 

BAS

 

s'eem only to be placed there to the disgrace of the rest of
the construction, which is of the age of Constantine and
Theodosius, and which most strikingly exemplifies the rapid
decline of the arts.

“ The churches we have hitherto described, bear a very
complete resemblance to the antique basilica in plan and pro-
portion. The only remarkable difference is, that the superior
galleries are suppressed, in the place of which a wall is
raised upon the columns of the great aisle, which is pierced
with windows, and supports the roof.

“ The church of St. Agnes out of the walls, though not
one of the seven churches of Rome which retain the title, is
however a perfect imitation of the antique basilica. This
resemblance is so complete, that without the testimony of
writers, who inform us that it was built by Constantine, at
the request of Constantia, his sister or daughter, and without
the details of its architecture, which forbid us to date it
higher, it might be taken rather for an ancient tribunal of
justice, than a modern church. It forms an oblong internally,
three sides of which are surrounded with columns forming
the porticos; the fourth side opposite the entrance is recessed
in a semicircle; this is the tribunal. The first order of
columns carries a second, forming an upper gallery, above
which begins the ceiling of the edifice. The shortening of
the columns, recommended by Vitruvius, is observed in the
upper order.

“ We have hitherto observed in the Christian basilicas,
but small variations from the antique construction: they were
still simple quadrilateral halls, divided into three or five
aisles, the numerous columns of which supported the flat ceil-
ing; but the cross-form, the emblem of Christianity, which
began to be adopted in these buildings, operated the most
essential changes in their shape. The intersection of the
crossing aisles produced a centre, which it was natural to
enlarge and make principal in the composition; and the
invention of domes, supported on pendentives, enabled the
architects to give size and dignity to the centre, without
interrupting the vista of the aisles. The church of St.
Sophia, at Constantinople, was the first example of this
form.

“ The seat of the Roman empire being transferred to Con-
stantinople, it is natural to suppose that the disposition of the
ancient St. Peter's of Rome, esteemed at that time the most
magnificent church in the world, was imitated in that which
Constantine erected for his new capital, under the name of
St. Sophia. This last did not exist long: Constantius, the
son of Constantine, raised a new one, which experienced
many disasters. Destroyed in part, and rebuilt under the
reign of Arcadius, it was burnt under Honorius, and re-
established by Theodosius the younger; but a furious sedition
having arisen under Justinian, it was reduced to ashes. This
emperor having appeased the tumult, and wishing to immor-
talize his name by the edifice he was about to erect, assem-
bled from various parts the most famous architects. Anthe-
mius of Trulles, and Isidore of Miletus, were chosen; and
as they had the boldness to attempt a novel construction, they
experienced many difficulties and disasters; but at last they
had the glory of finishing their design.

“The plan of this basilica is a square of about two
hundred and fifty feet. The interior forms a Greek cross,
that is, a cross with equal arms; the aisles are terminated
at two ends by semicircles, and at the other two by square
recesses, in which are placed two ranges of tribunals. The
aisles are vaulted, and the centre, where they intersect, forms
a long square, upon which is raised the dome, of about one
hundred and ten feet diameter. The dome, therefore, is
supported upon the four arches of the uaves and the penden-

 

tives, or spandrel, which connect the square plan of the
centre with the circle of the dome.

“ The general effect of the interior is grand ; but whatever
praises the bold invention of this immense dome may merit,
it must be confessed, that there are times in which princes,
however great and liberal, can only produce imperfect monu-
ments, of which this edifice is a striking example. All the
details of its architecture are defective and barbarous.

“ However, from the communication established between
Greece and Italy at the revival of letters, this basilica, the
last, as well as the most magnificent of the lower empire,
was that which influenced most the form and architecture of
the new temples. The Venetians, in the tenth century,
copied with success the best points in the disposition of
St. Sophia, in the church of St. Mark. This is the first
in Italy which was constructed with a dome supported on
pendenti‘ves; and it is also this which first gave the idea,
which has been imitated in St. Peter’s, of the Vatican, of
accompanying the great dome of a church with smaller and
lower domes, to give it a pyramidal effect.

“ From this time to the erection of the basilica of St.
Peter’s, we find the churches approach, more or less, to the
form of the ancient basilica or the new construction. The
church of Santa Maria del Fiore, of Florence, from the
magnitude of its dome, and the skill which Brunelleschi
displayed in its construction, acquired a celebrity which made
the system of domes prevail; and this system was finally
established in the noble basilica of the Vatican, which has
become the type and example of later ones. The form of
the antique basilica was entirely lost, and the name, which
has been retained, is the only remain of their ancient
resemblance.

“ In the pontificate of Julius II. the beginning of the
sixteenth century, the basilica of St. Peter’s was begun from
the designs of Bramante. This great man formed the idea
of suspending, in the centre of the building, a circular
temple, as large as the Pantheon, or, as he expressed it, to
raise the Pantheon on the temple of peace; and, in fact, we
find great resemblance in size and disposition between these
two edifices and the project of Bramante. He was succeeded
in his office by San Gallo, who almost entirely lost sight of
the original plan; but Michael Angelo, to whom at his death
the undertaking was committed, concentercd the discordant
parts. Michael Angelo died 1564, while he was engaged in
erecting the dome; but he left plans and models, which were
strictly adhered to by his successors Vignola, J. del Porte,
and Fontana, who terminated the dome. The building was
carried on under many succeeding pontifl‘s; and at last, by
lengthening the longitudinal nave, it acquired the form of
the Latin cross; in that particular, approaching to the original
design of Bramante.

“ The general form of this edifice, externally, is an oblong,
with circular projections in three of the sides; the plan of
the interior consists of a Latin cross, the intersection of the
arms of which is enlarged and formed into an octagon; the
head of the long aisles, and the ends of the cross-aisles, are
terminated in hemieycles, and the great naves are accompa-
nied with lateral aisles, and with several enclosed chapels.
The octagon centre supports a circular wall, enriched with
pilastcrs and pierced with windows, above which rises the
magnificent dome.

“ Thus we have traced the progress of the basilica
from the quzulrilateral hall of the ancients, with its single
roof and flat ceiling, supported on ranges of columns, to
the cross-shaped plan, central dome, and vaulted aisles,
supported on massy piers, of the modern cathedral. It
only remains to treat of the——

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

BAS 31

BAS

 

“ Modern BASILICA. We give this name, with Palladio,
to the civil edifices which are found in many Italian cities,
and the destination of which is entirely similar to the antique
basilica.

“ In imitation of the ancients, (says this celebrated archi-
tect,) the cities of Italy construct public halls, which may
rightly be called basilicas, as they form partof the habitatlon
of the supreme magistrate, and in them the judges admlnister
justice. The basilicas of our time (he cont1nues)d1tfer 1n
this from the ancient—that those were level with the ground,
while ours are raised upon arches, in which are shops for
various arts, and the merchandise of the city. There the
prisons are also placed, and other buildings belonging to the
public business. Another difference is, that the modern
basilicas have the porticoes on the outside, while in the
ancient they were only in the interior. Of these halls, there
is a very noble one at Padua; and another at Brescia,
remarkable for its size and ornaments.

“But the most celebrated is that of Vicenza; the exterior
part of which was built by Palladio, and the whole so much
altered that it may pass for his work. The body of the
building is of much greater antiquity, though the date of it
is unknown.

“ Time and various accidents had reduced this edifice to
such a state of decay, that it was necessary to think seriously
of preventing its total ruin: for this purpose, the most
eminent architects were consulted, and the design of Palladio
was approved. He removed the ancient loggias, and substi-
tuted new portieoes, of a very beautiful invention. These
form two galleries in height, the lower order of which is
ornamented with Doric engaged columns, at very wide
intervals, to answer to the internal pillars of the old building;
the space between each column is occupied by an arch, rest-
ing on two small columns of the same order, and a pilaster
at each side against the large columns, which leaves a space
between it and the small columns, of two diameters. The
upper portieo of Ionic columns, is disposed in the same man-
ner, and a balustrade is placed in the archways. The enta—
blature of the large orders is profiled over each column.

" This edifice is about one hundred and fifty feet long, and
sixty feet broad; the hall is raised above the ground twenty-
six feet; it is formed by vaults supported on pillars, and the
whole is covered with a wooden dome.”—Rees's Cyclopedia.

BASKET, a kind of vase in the form of a basket, filled
with flowers, or fruits, or both, used for terminating a
decoration.

BASSE-COUR, a court separated from the principal
one, and destined for the stables, coach-horses, and livery-
servants. In a country place, it denotes the yard where
the cattle, fowls, 8:0. are kept: it is called by the French
”mudgerze.

BASSO-RELIEVO, (Italian; Bas-relief, French) in
sculpture, is the representation of figures projecting from a
back ground, so as to give relief. It is a general term, com-
prehending three distinct species of sculpture. Low relief,
sometimes also called bassou'elievo, is that in which no part
of the sculpture is detached from the back ground: high-
relief, or alto-relievo, is that in which the grosser parts are
only attached, while the smaller parts are free: mean-relief,
or mezzo-relievo, is a term which some use for a kind of
sculpture between the two. Mezzo-relievo is distinguished
from alto by having no part entirely disconnected from the
plane surface, and from basso-rclievo in having the parts
most remote from the back ground, most relieved, whereas
the latter has SUch parts least relieved. In the former the

outline is less, in the latter more apparent than the forms
Within it. ‘

 

These terms are of modern date, and probably invented in
the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The Greeks denominated
relievo, or low-relief, by the term anaglypta (Pliny, lib. 33,
c. 11,) and alto-relievo was distinguished by the word
toreuticeu, or rounded, (Pliny, lib. 34, c. 8,) although this
term was occasionally applied to any kind of relief. As

.architecture is highly indebted to sculpture for some of its

most elegant decorations, it will be proper to give some
account in this place of the basso-relievos of the ancients.

In point of antiquity, the Egyptian stands first: a know-
ledge of their sculpture will be best obtained from the writ-
ings of those who have actually visited and surveyed their
ruined edifices; in conformity with this, the following
description from Denon will, perhaps, be acceptable :———“ The
hieroglyphics, which are executed in three different manners,
are also of three species, and may take their date from as
many periods. From the examination of the difi'erent
edifices which have fallen under my eye, I imagine that the
most ancient of these characters are only simple outlines, cut
in without relief, and very deep; the next in point of age,
and which produce the least effect, are simply in a very
shallow relief; and‘the third, which seem to belong to a more
improved age, and are executed at Tentyra more perfectly
than in any other part of Egypt, are in relief below the level
of the outline. By the side of the figures which compose
these tabular pieces of sculpture, there are some hieroglyphics
which appear to be only the explanation of the subjects at
large, and in which the forms are more simplified, so as to
give a more rapid inscription, or a kind of short-hand, if we
may apply the term to sculpture.

“ A fourth kind of hieroglyphics appears to be devoted
simply to ornament: we have improperly termed it, I know
not why, the arabesque. It was adopted by the Greeks,
and, in the age of Augustus, was introduced among the
Romans; and in the fifteenth century, during the restoration
of the arts, it was transmitted by them to us, as a fantastic
decoration, the peculiar taste of which formed all its merit.
Among the Egyptians, who employed these ornaments with
equal taste, every object had a meaning or moral, and at the
same time formed the decoration of the friezes, cornices, and
surbasements of their architecture. I have discovered at
Tentyra the representations of the peristyles of temples in
caryatides, which are executed in painting at the baths of
Titus, and have been copied by Raphael, and which we con-
stantly ape in our rooms, without suspecting that the
Egyptians have given us the first models of them.” Again,
in describing the temple of Latopolis, Denon says, “The
hieroglyphics in relief, with which it is covered within and
without, are executed with great care; they contain, among
other subjects, a zodiac, and large figures of men with croco-
diles’ heads: the capitals, though all different, have a very
fine effect; and as an additional proof that the Egyptians
borrowed nothing from other people, we may remark, that
they have taken all the ornaments, of which those capitals
are composed, from the productions of their own country,
such as the lotus, the palm-tree, the vine, the rush, 8m. 8:0.”
The most ancient and most simple kind of basso-relievos,
used by the Egyptians, was cut by recessing the grounds as
much as the projection of the figures, so that the surround-
ing surfaces, by forming a kind of border, both threw a shade
upon the figures and defended them from injury, which they
were liable to, as the granite out of which they were cut was
of a very brittle nature; by this means much labour was
saved in the execution.

The Egyptians also employed basso-relievo without any
surrounding border, all the figures being raised from the
same naked, such as in the palace of Karnac, and those

 

 

 

 

 

BAS

32

BAT ‘

 

described in the Bird’s Well, of which there is a specimen in
the hall of the British Museum. The material is soft cal-
careous stone, in very low relief. The outlines of Egyptian
sculpture are ungraceful, and the execution shows a want of
the knowledge of anatomy: it may be remarked as somewhat
singular, that quadrupeds are more accurately represented
in their sculpture than human figures.

The basso-relievos found in the excavations of the Indian
temples bear a strong resemblance to those of the Egyptians,
but are inferior in point of proportion; the heads are too
large. Whether the Indian or Egyptian sculpture is the most
ancient, is not known; but if simplicity is to be our
criterion, we would say the latter. See Daniell’s Ant.

The Persians employed basso-relievos in their architec-
tural decorations, as may be seen in the palace of Persepolis,
and in the royal tombs. The figures are arranged in hori-
zontal and vertical lines, and resemble the later hieroglyphics
of Egypt, though the dress is very different: those of the
Egyptians being particularly distinguished by the hair arti-
ficially curled, the hood, the mitre, the close tunic, and apron
of papyrus; the Hindoos, by the necklaces, bracelets, and
anklets; the Persians, by long beards, and hair ending in
small curls, caps, and full tunics, with regular folds and large
sleeves; the Medes, by close tunics. The drapery of the
Persian figures is more natural than that of the Egyptians;
but it cannot be inferred from this, that the figures themselves
are of better sculpture, as instances may be shown to the
contrary, in the obelisk of Sesostris, in the palace of Karnac,
and in the Theban tombs, where the execution is not only
more perfect, but the positions of the human figures more
varied. See Denon’s Egypt, and Le Brag/72’s Travels.

The Grecians excelled all contemporary nations in the art
of sculpture, as well as in architecture and geometry; the
numerous remains of their edifices show the perfection which
they had attained in exquisite workmanship, beautiful pro-
portion, and easy and graceful attitudes. They profess to
have had their first rudiments from Egypt, and this is com-
pletely verified in their first productions, which were similar
to those of the Egyptians; however, the art did not long
remain stationary; from daily observation, and a strict adhe-
rence to nature, they advanced rapidly in the science, and at
last, by a knowledge of anatomy, it was brought to such
a degree of perfection, that their remaining sculptures have
become the very standard of excellence, a criterion which
the moderns have never surpassed, and but seldom equalled.
Who can behold the scul ture in the pediments and friezes
of the Parthenon, and ot rer remains of Athenian grandeur,
without astonishment?

The pediments of this temple were adorned with entire
and separate statues, although from their situation, and the
deep shadows cast by them on the tympanum, they must
have had the appearance of figures in high relief. The
figures in the metopes were in alto, whilst those in the cella
were in basso-relievo. This arrangement leads us to notice
the great judgment which the Greeks exercised in the selec-
tion of the different kinds of sculpture, according to the
nature of the situation they were intended to occupy. \Ve
find that they almost invariably placed separate statues, and
sculptures in high relief on the exterior of their buildings, or
in such places as had the advantage of the open light; while,
on the contrary, they reserved those in basso-relievo for
interiors, where the Lght was not- freely admitted; and this
they did evidently for this reason, viz. that in all situations,
and under all circumstances, their sculptures might be distinct
and intelligible. It needs no argument to prove that figures
in high relief are mere readily discernible, when the light is
permitted to play equally on all sides of them. Were such

 

 

 

 

figures placed in an imperfectly lighted situation, they would
be almost unintelligible, from the shadows which they would
throw upon each other. On the other hand, the flatness of
basso-relievo, while it obviated the projection of shadows
beyond its own surface, ensured the distinctness of the out-
lines, and gave to the figures an appearance of rotundity.
Mezzo-relievo is only adapted for near inspection. The
temples of Theseus and Phigaleia, as well as that of Minerva,
were remarkable for the beauty of their sculptures.

The basso-relievos of the Romans were, perhaps, at first,
confined to their tombs. They never attained a just
knowledge, or taste, of the art of sculpture. Their best
works were executed by Grecian artists, and are chiefly to
be found in the triumphal arches, which are richly charged
with basso-relievos. The art attained its greatest perfection
in the reign of Augustus, and was greatly on the decline in
the time of Constantine. In more modern times, the Italians
and Florentines are the only people who arrived at any
degree of excellence in sculptures of this kind; and even
they departed from the original purity of the Greeks, by
attempting to express in their works the effect of perspective
We are indebted to Flaxman for the introduction of a purer
taste into this country; his style may be considered as a
nearer approach to the simplicity of the ancients, than that
of either the Italians or the Florentines.

BASTION, or BATOON. See TORUS.

BAT, a part ofa brick.

BATH, a house with accommodation for bathing.

structures, and contained hot and cold baths, gymnasia,
ambulatories, and even libraries. The most remarkable are
those of Agrippa, Titus, Diocletian, and Caracalla.

The practice of bathing having been more generally adopted
in this country within the last few years, has caused various
structures to be erected for the purpose. These, however,

are but of small dimensions, and have little pretensions to ;

architectural embellishment.

BATTEN, a scantling of stuff, from two to six inches

broad, and from five-eighths to two inches thick. Battens
are employed in the boarding of floors, and also upon walls,
in order to secure the laths on which the plaster is laid.

Barres-Doors. See DOOR.

BATTEN-FLOOR. See BOARDED-FLOORS.

BATTENING, the act of fixing battens to walls, in order
to secure the laths over which the plaster is laid; or, the
battens in the state of being fixed for that purpose. The
battens employed are generally about two inches broad, and
three-fourths of an inch thick; they may, however, be of
various thicknesses, according to the distances the several
fixed points in their length are from each other.
distance in the clear is from eleven inches to one foot.

 

The ‘

ancient baths at Rome were very spacious and magnificent Q

Their

Previous to the fixing of battens, either equidistant bond- -

timbers should be built in the wall, or the wall should be.
plugged equidistantly, and the plugs cut off flush with its
surface. In London, plugs are generally placed at the dis

tance of one foot or fourteen inches from centre to centre in '

the length of the batten. Battens upon exterior walls,
quarters in partition walls, the ceiling and bridging joists

of a naked floor, also the common joists for supporting the ‘

boarding of a floor, are fixed at the same distance, viz. from
eleven to twelve inches in the clear.

of bond-timbers or plugs. then battens are attached to
a wall, they are generally fixed in vertical lines : and when
fixed to the surface of a brick or stone vault, the intrados
of which may be generated by a plane revolving about an
axis, they ought to be placed in planes tending to the axis ;

“'hen battens are fixed ’
against fines, iron holdfasts are necessarily employed instead

 

 

 

 

BAT

as, in this position they have only to be fixed in straight
lines, in cases where the intrados is straight towards the
axis : such cases occur when the vault is a portion of a cone
or cylinder. When the intrados is curved towards the axis,
the battens will bend very readily. Great care should be
taken to regulate the faces of the battens, so as to be as
nearly equidistant as possible from the intended surface of
the plaster. Though battens are employed in floors, neither
the act of laying them, nor the floor formed of them after—
wards, is called battem'ng ; they are more commonly called
boarding. Every piece of masonry or brick-work, which is
not sufficiently dry, should be battened for lath and plaster;
particularly that which is executed in a wet season. When
the windows are boarded, and the walls of a room not suffi-
ciently thick to contain the shutters, the surface of the
plastering is brought out so as to give the architrave a
proper projection, and quarterings are used for supporting
the lath and plaster, instead of battens. The like practice
is observed, when the breast of a chimney projects into the
room, in order to cover the recesses, and make the whole
side flush, or in the same surface with the breast.

BATTER, the declension of a wall from the perpen-
dicular : if a plummet be freely suspended from any part of
a wall by a plumb-rule, the line coinciding with the draught,
and the bottom part of the rule only touching the wall, then
the wall is said to batter. This property applies both to
straight and circular walls. A wall may be made to batter
in any degree, by using a battering-rule, instead of a plumb-
rule ; that is, a rule which has the plummet draught oblique
to the edge of the rule which is to be applied to the wall.
This obliquity is best calculated by the rule of proportion, viz.
if the whole height of the building batters at a given distance,
what will a given length of rule batter? This distance being
found, the top of the rule must be so much broader than the
bottom, that is, reckoning from the draught to the edge applied
to the wall, for the direction of the other edge is of no conse-
quence. Upon this principle, even a body with a curved
vertical section may be built ; but in this case the rule will
not shift ; if the building stands on a circular plan, it can only
be applied at the same altitude all round; and to carry the
building to the summit, a new rule must be made at convenient
portions of each successive altitude.

BATTLED-EMBATTLED, is when the top of a wall
has a double row of battlements, formed of a conjunction of
straight lines at right angles to each other, both embrasures
and rising parts being double ; the lower part of each
embrasure less than the upper, and consequently the lower
part of each riser broader than the upper.

BATTLEMEN TS, indentations on the top of a wall,
parapet, or other building. They were first used in ancient
fortifications, and were afterwards applied to churches and
other-buildings, as mere ornaments. Their outline is generally
a conjunction of straight lines at right angles to each other ;
each indentation having two interior right angles, and each
named part two exterior right angles. Sometimes the hori-
zontal section of the rising part is a rectangle, while the
bottom of the battlement, and top of the projecting part,
slope downward, so as to form an obtuse angle with the face
ofthe wall; occasionally, however, the plans of the upright sides
of the battlements form the same obtuse angle as the bottom
and. top of the rising part. At other times both vertical and
horizontal sections are right angles, ornamented equally all
round with mouldings, or with a small square projecture:
when the vertical sides of the embrasures are perpendicular
to the face, the sloping cope generally terminates with a
torus or large astragal. In process of time battlements were
not confined to crown the principal walls of the building;

 

 

BEA

but were employed in the finish of subordinate parts: they
are to be found in the decorations of the transoms of windows,
as in those of King Henry the Seventh’s chapel, at West-
minster. In this, and in every other case, they are propor-
tioned to the architecture they accompany. The battlements
employed in the florid style, were perforated in a most
beautiful manner, with openings variously formed in sym-
metrical figures : such are the latticed battlements, and those
formed of polyfoils, &c. The battlements used in this style
of building, have not always their parts at right angles to
each other, but frequently the standing parts, or those which
form the sides of the openings, are raised in the manner of
a pediment.

BAULK, a piece of timber, from four to ten inches
square.

BAULK-ROOFING, is when the framing is constructed of
baulk-timber.

BAY, the open space in a window included between
the mullions, otherwise called a day or light. Also the
quadrangular space between the principal ribs of a groined
roof, across which the diagonal ribs are extended ; or the
spaces between the principal divisions of a timber roof.
The term is also applied to that part of a building situated
between two buttresses.

BAY or A BARN, that part situate between the threshing
floor and the end of the building, used for depositing the
refuse hay or the corn previous to threshing.

BAY or JOISTS, the joisting between two binding joists,
or between two girders, when there are no binding joists.

BAY WINDOW, a projecting window of a polygonal plan,
and rising from the ground or the basement of the building.
See Bow AND ORIEL WINDOWS. ~

BAZAR, or BAZAAR, among the Turks and Persians, an
exchange, where the finest stuffs and wares are sold. Some
are open like market—places, others are covered with lofty
ceilings, with pierced domes to give light. In these, jewellers,
goldsmiths, and other dealers in the richest wares, have their
shops.

BEAD, in joinery, a moulding of a circular section, stuck
on the edge of a piece of stufl“, by a plane of the same name.
Beads are of two kinds, one of which is flush with the sur-
face, and the other raised: the former is called a quirk-bead,
and the latter a cock-bead.

BEAD and BUTT WORK, in joinery, a piece of framing
having the panels flush with the framing, and stuck or run
upon the two edges, which have the grain of the wood in
their direction.

BEAD and QUIRK, is when a head is stuck on the edge of
a piece of stuff, flush with the surface, with one quirk only,
or without being returned on the other surface.

BEAD and DOUBLE QUIRK. See RETURN BEAD.

BEAD and FLUSH WORK, in joinery, a piece of framed
work, having a bead run upon every edge of the framing
which adjoins to each edge of the included panel.

BEAD, BUTT, and SQUARE VVonK, a piece of framing,
having bead and butt upon one side, and square on the other.
Bead, butt, and square work is chiefly used in doors.

BEAD, FLUSH, and SQUARE, a piece of framing, having
bead and flush on one side, and nothing but square work on
the other; chiefly used in doors.

BEAK, a little pendent fillet, left on the edge of the
larmier, which forms a canal behind, for preventing the
water from running down the lower bed of the cornice.
Sometimes the beak is formed by a channel or groove, re-
cessed on the soffit of the larmier upwards. In the Ionic
temple on the Ilyssus, at Athens, the canal occupies the
whole breadth of the sofiit, and so deeply recessed, that the

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

BEA

34

BED

 

lower bed of the cornice is wrought almost out of the height
of the recess.

BEAK-HEAD MOULDING, a moulding used very commonly
in Norman architecture, consisting of ornaments of a
peculiar character, placed at regular intervals on a simple
moulding. The ornaments may be described as grotesque
heads, some apparently of animals, and some approaching
the human form, but all invariably terminating in a pointed
mouth, or beak as it were, whence their name. Although
such ornaments were very frequent, they were of very
various designs, two similar ones being seldom found in the
same moulding.

BEAKING JOINT, in carpentry, is when the heading joints
of the boards of a floor fall in the same straight line. This
word is not used in London.

BEAM, when used in a building, is a piece of timber, or
sometimes of metal, for sustaining a weight, or counteracting
two equal and opposite forces, either drawing or compressing it
in the direction of its length: when it is employed as a lintel,
it supports a weight,- when as a tie-beam, it is drawn or
extended; and when as a collar-beam, it is compressed. The
word beam is most frequently subjoined to another word,
used adjectively, or in apposition, which shows the use, situa-
tion, or form of the beam: as tie-beam, collar-beam, dragon-
beam, straining—beam, camber-beam, hammer-beam, binding-
heam, girding-heam, truss-beam, summer—beam, &c. Some
of these are also used simply, as, Collar, instead of collar-
beam; lintel, instead of lintel-beam; girder, instead of gird-
ing-beam; summer, instead of summer-beam. Lintels and
girders are almost constantly used alone, and bressummers
and joists are never used in composition. “hat is here called
collar-beam, is, in old writers, termed wind-beam, strutobeam,
0r strutting-beam.

A beam is either lengthened by building it in thicknesses,
or by lapping or splicing the ends upon each other, and
bolting them through. See BUILDING OF BEAMS and
SCARFING. For the manner of strengthening beams, see
TRUSS-BEAMS.

BEAM COMPASS, an instrument, consisting of wood or
metal, with sliding sockets, carrying steel or pencil points,
used for describing large circles, beyond the reach of common
compasses.

BEAM-FILLING, the building of masonry, or brick-work,
from the level of the under edges of the beams, to that of
their upper edges. Beam-filling occurs either between
joists, or floor-beams, or in filling up the triangular space
between the top of the wall-plate of the roof, and the lower
edges of the rafters, or even to the under surface of the
boarding or lath, for slates, tiles, or thatching. This opera-
tion is necessary in garret-rooms, where the walls form sides
of apartments; where the tie-beams are placed above the
bottom of the rafters, and where the sides of the apartments
are not to he battened and lathed for plaster, in order to
straight the walls. Even in all other cases it is preferable,
for the sake of comfort, to beam-fill the spaces.

BEARER, a prop, or anything that supports a body
in any place; as a wall, post, strut, 8:0. In guttering,
bearers are short pieces of timber for supporting the board-
mg.

BEARING OF A PIECE OF TIMBER, the unsupported distance
between the two points or props from which it is suspended;
or the distance between two props where there is no inter-
vening support.

A piece of timber, having any number of supports, one
being placed at each extreme, will have as many bearings,
wanting one, as there are supports: thus, a piece of timber
extended in length over two rooms as joists, will have three

 

supports and two bearings: here the bearers are the two most
distant walls and the partition.

BEARING, at the ends of a piece of timber, in building is
the distance which the ends of that piece are inserted in the
walls or piers; as joists are inserted at least nine inches in
walls. and the lintel or lintels of an aperture, nine inches at
least into each pier.

BEARING WALL, or PARTITION, in a building, is a wall
which rests upon the solid, and which supports some part of
the building, as another wall or partition, either transversely,
or in the same direction. When the supporting wall, and the
wall supported, are both in the same direction, the wall sup-
ported is said to have a solid beafing; but if a wall, or parti-
tion, is not supported below throughout its length, it is said
to have a false bearing, or as many false bearings as there are
intervals below the wall or partition.

BEATER, an implement in plastering, used by the
labourers, for tempering or incorporating the lime, sand, and
hair together; which make the composition called lime and
hair, used in first and second coatings, and sometimes, in
ordinary rooms, even for finishing coats.

BED-CHAMBERS, or BED-ROOMS, are those in which
beds are placed; when very small, they are called bed-
closets.

BEI)s OF A STONE, the two surfaces which generally inter-
sect the face of the work in horizontal lines, or in lines nearly
so: the higher surface is called the upper-bed, and the lower
the under—bed. In the general run of walling, they are the
two surfaces which are placed level in the building. In the
parapets of bridges they intersect the facing, most fre-
quently in lines parallel to the road-way, but are level in the
thickness. In every species of vaulting, where all the sec-
tions of the intrados of a vault are similar figures, or parallel
straight lines, the beds are those surfaces which intersect the
intrados in horizontal lines. Of this class are the heads
of circular domes, which have spherical or spheroidal intra-
dosses; vaults with conic intradosses, and vertical axes ;
and vaults with cylindrical intradOSScs and horizontal
axes, &0.

BEDS OF A STONE, in cylindrical vaulting, are those two
surfaces which intersect the intrados of the vault, in lines
parallel to the axis of the cylinder.

BEDS 0? A STONE, in conic vaulting with a horizontal axis,
are those two surfaces which, if produced, would intersect the
axis of the cone. The beds of stones, in spherical vaulting,
are, or should be, parts of the surfaces of so many cones,
ending in a common vertex, as there are courses of stone.
If the vault be a hemisphere, the under beds of all the stones
in the lowest course or planes, and the upper beds, form part
of the surface of a very obtuse-angled cone. In every course of
stones, the conic surface formed by the lower beds is that
of a cone, with a more obtuse angle than the surface formed
by the upper beds of the same course; hence the cones of
every successive joint upwards, have their vertical angles
continually less, so as to end at last with the axis itself. In
vaulting with a conic intrados and vertical axis, the joints
form the surfaces of so many distinct cones, which have
their vertex in the axis, and which have equal vertical angles,
and their surfaces equidistant. In cylindrical, or conic vault-
ing, with a horizontal axis, the beds of the stones are in
planes tending to the axis.

In arching, the beds are called summen'ngs ,- but more pro-
perly, radiations, or radiated joints.

BED or A SLATE, the lower side placed in contiguity with
the boarding or the rafter“.

BED MOULDING, that portion of a cornice which is situated
immediately below the corona.

 

 

 

 

 

‘ the purpose of sustaining one or two bells.

 

 

 

BEN

35

BER

 

BEETLE, a large mallet for driving piles, and cleaving
wood.

BELECTION MOULDINGS, in joinery, are those which
surround the panels, and project without the surface of the
framing in doors, or other panelled framing: Belectlon
mouldings are never stuck on the framing, which is frequently
the case with those which are within or below the surface.
They are used in the best work of grand finishings.

BELF RY, that part of a steeple wherein the bells are
hung. This is sometimes called, by writers of the middle
age, campam'le. Bells are generally suspended by means of
frame-work, which is supported on stone corbels; sometimes,
however, the framing is made to bear on a recess formed in
the wall, which is the better method, as the vibration caused
by ringing has less power to disturb the masonry. Bells for
the same reason should be hung as low as practicable.

BELFRY, is more particularly applied to the timber-work,
by which the bells are supported.

BELL, of the Corinthian and Composite capitals, is the
vase or tambour concealed beneath the acanthus leaves, or
other ornament: its horizontal section is everywhere a circle;
the bottom part rises vertically from the top of the shaft, and
proceeds upwards in a straight line to a considerable distance;
from thence it changes into a concavity, which terminates
with the fillet, in the manner of the scape or apophyge.

BELL-COT, BELL-GABLE, or BELL-TURRET. A small
open turret situate on the apex of the gable of small Gothic
churches, generally at the east or west end of the nave, for
It is sometimes
of an hexagonal or multangular plan, covered with a pyra-
midal roof, or spire, of which kind there is a beautiful specimen
at Corston Church, Wiltshire; it most generally, however,
consists of a continuation of a certain width of the gable
wall to a considerable height above the apex, the part above
which is perforated with one or more arched apertures in
which the bells are hung; above this again the roof is finished
in the form of a gable, and the whole surmounted by a finial
or cross. Examples of such gables frequently occur; we may
instance an elegant one at Skelton near York. Plain timber
bell-cots of square plan and low pyramidal roof, are very
common in Essex.

Bell-gables at the eastern extremity of the \nave were
generally appropriated to the sanctus or sacringe bell, which
was rung when the priest pronounced the Ter-sanctus, as
also at the elevation of the host.

BELL-ROOF, that of which the vertical section perpendi-
cular to the wall, or to its springing line, is a curve of con-
trary flexure; it being concave at the bottom, and convex at
the top. A bell—roof is of that kind of ogee-roofs, called the
sima recta roof.

BELT, in masonry, a course of stones projecting from the
naked, either moulded, plain, fluted, or enriched with pateras
at regular intervals, which again may be either plain or fluted.

BELVEDERE, or LOOK-OUT, is a turret, or some part of
an edifice raised above the roof, for the purpose of affording
a view of surrounding scenery. The term is also applied to
single edifices or temples, sometimes erected in gardens and
pleasure-grounds, used for the above purpose, as well as to
beautify the landscape. Belvederes are very common in Italy
and France, and some of them are very magnificent: the
most celebrated is that built by Bramante in the Vatican.

. BENCH, the table on which joinery for the use of build-
ing is prepared. See JOINERY.

BENCH-HOOK, a movable pin, passing through a mortise
in the top of the bench, for preventing the stuff wrought by
the plane from sliding.

BEND. See BENDING.

 

 

BENDA. See FASCIA.

BENDING, the act of the incurvation of a body from a
straight to a crooked form. A piece of timber, such as
a plank, may be very conveniently bent, by placing it within a
long hollow prismatic trunk, opened only at one end for its
insertion; the end through which it is introduced is then
shut close, and the one extremity of a steam-pipe having been
inserted in a hole in one of the sides or ends of the trunk,
all the crevices are shut, and the steam is admitted.

When the plank has remained for a certain time, it may be
taken out, and should be immediately bent round the convex
surface of an inflexible body, made on purpose: when it has
been properly fixed to the body, it is to remain till it is quite
cold, or properly stiff, and it will retain its form: after this,
it may be taken off and dressed, and lastly fixed in its
intended situation. The practice of ship-building proves
that plank-wood, of almost any thickness, may be brought
to any degree of curvature, by the effect of heat, which
seems to mollify the cementing matter, so as to permit the
fibres to slide over one another. This may be effected either
by boiling or heating; but by heating, it is very difficult to
introduce a uniform temperature throughout the parts of the
body to be bent. For thick planks a sand-stove, similar to
the sand-bath used in chemical operations, is employed; but
for thin planks, a vapour-stove.

BERNINI, GIOVANNI LORENZO, born 1598, died
1680. His father, Pietro Bernini, a Florentine, was a painter
and sculptor of more than common talents. Giovanni’s first
work in architecture was the great central altar of St. Peter’s,
remarkable for its twisted columns; its novelty, singularity,
and the difiiculty of its execution surprised, and had many
imitators. By desire of the pope, he adorned with niches
the four great piers which support the cupola of St. Peter’s.
He was employed in the construction of the palace Barberini,
particularly in that of the stairs, the great hall, and the
principal front. The front has on the lower floor a Doric,
very well understood; but the application of so many cor-
nices, and the great arched windows, do not add to the
beauty of the structure. The front of the Propaganda Fide, is
also the work of Bernini: that building threatened ruin,
to prevent which he erected a battering basement, which
increased at the same time both the beauty and strength of
the structure. Urban VIII. wishing to complete the front
of St. Peter's, which, according to the design of Maderno,
required, at its extremities, two steeples, gave the commission
to Bernini. He designed and executed the fine fountain of
the Piazza Navona. For Prince Ludovisi, he begun a great
palace, which in its principal front presented five faces; this
edifice was afterwards converted into a great law-court,
called Curia Innocenziana, one of the finest palaces in
Rome. Alexander VII. gave him many works to execute,
among which is the piazza before St. Peter’s. By order of
this pope, he planned many buildings, among which is
remarkable, the palace of Santi Apostoli. The very elegant
church, of an elliptic figure, of the Novitiate of the Jesuits,
is likewise his. Louis XIV. and Colbert his minister, both
admirers of the fine arts, ordered Bernini to make drawings
for the palace of the Louvre, for which building the first
architects were stimulated; these drawings pleased so much,
that the monarch sent him his portrait set in gems, and
wrote very engaging letters to the pope, and to Bernini him-
self, that he might go to France to execute them. In conse-
quence of which, though an old man, he left Rome, and went
to Paris, where he was received as if the only man worthy
to work for Louis XIV. When Bernini had seen the front of
the Louvre, by Perault, he said publicly, that his coming to
France was useless, where there were architects (f the first

 

 

 

 

 

 

n..—

 

BIT

BLO

 

class. This trait does more honour to Bernini, than all his
abilities as an architect. In fact, with regard to architecture,
which he was sent principally for to France, he did nothing.
He made the king’s bust, and during the eight months he
staid in France, he was paid at the rate of five pounds a day;
and received at last a gift Of 50,000 crowns, and an annual
pension of 2000, and a pension for his son, whom he took
with him, of 500. When he returned to Rome, in gratitude
to his majesty, he made an equestrian statue, which was
placed in Versailles. Under Pope Clement IX. he embellished
the bridge of St. Angelo with an elegant iron balustrade.

BEVEL, the oblique angle which the two surfaces of a
body make with one another ; the name also of an instrument
for taking oblique angles. That which is most commonly
used, has the stock mortised to receive the blade, which is
fixed to the stock by a pin, and made to form any angle by
that means: this is particularly useful when one or a few
angles are to be taken. In some places, for the want of space,
this bevel cannot be applied: to accommodate this circum-
stance, the blade is made to shift in the stock; so that either
part from the pin may be of any given length. The blade
is made to pass through the pin by a longitudinal mortise,
and fixed fast to the stock by means of a screw, after Setting
it to the angle. When many things are to be wrought to the
same angle, an immovable bevel should be used, particularly
when the blade, or stock, or both, are incurvated: when the
interior angle is used, this bevel is called a joint-hook. In
working the intradosses, and radiating beds of stone arches,
a joint-hook should be employed; one of the sides is incur-
vated to the arch, and the other straight side is a part of the
radius produced: the workman must here observe, that this
hook will apply, whatever he the thickness of the stones.

BILLET MOULDING, a moulding peculiar to Norman
architecture, consisting of small cylinders placed lengthwise
at regular distances in a concave semicircular moulding. The
entire moulding consisted generally Of two rows or tiers ; the
cylinders in each tier ranged in such a manner that one
cylinder should not come immediately above or below another,
but they were placed alternately so that a space was always
Opposed to a cylinder, and vice versd. A square billet, called
also corbel-bole, is likewise found. This differs from the above,
inasmuch as the billets are cubes instead of cylinders, and
are placed on a flat band, or on the naked walling, their
usual Office being to support a blocking course.

BINDING JOIST S, those beams in a floor, which support
transversely the bridgings above, and the ceiling-joists below.
See BRIDGING FLOORS.

When binding joists are placed parallel to the chimney-
side of a room, the extreme one on this side ought never to
be placed close to the breast, but at a distance equal to the
breadth of the slab, in order to allow for the throwing of the
brick trimmer for the support of the hearth.

BINDING-RAFTERS, the same as PURLINS.

BIRD’S-MOUTH, an interior angle cut on the end of a
piece Of timber, in order to rest firmly upon an exterior
angle of another piece.

BIT, a boring instrument, so constructed as to be inserted
or taken out of a handle, called a stock, by means of a spriiw.
The general form of the handle is divided into five parts, all
in the same plane, the middle and two extreme parts being
parallel. The two extreme parts are in the same straight
line, one of them has a brass end, with a socket for contain-
ing the bit, which when fixed falls into the same straight
line with the other end of the stock; the farther end has
a knob so attached as to remain stationary, while all the
other parts of the apparatus may be turned round by means
of the projecting part of the handle.

 

BITS are of various kinds, depending on their use:

Shell BITS are used for boring wood, and have an interior
cylindric concavity for containing the core.

Centre BITS, are those which run upon a centre in the
middle of the breadth ; one extremity is formed into a cutting
edge, which cuts the wood across the grain around the cir-
cumference, and the radius on the other side of the centre
contains a cutting edge, the whole length of this radius, and
projects forward from the face of the bit, so as to take out
the core, which in the act of boring forms a spiral.

The use of the centre-bit, is to form a large cylindric hole
or excavation, having the upper point of the axis of the
cylinder given on the surface of the wood. The centre of
the bit is fixed into this point, then placing the axis of the
stock and bit in the intended direction, the head being placed
against the breast, turn it swiftly round by the handle, and
the core will be discharged by rising upwards. Centre bits
are of different diameters.

Countersinks, are bits for widening the upper part of a
hole, in wood or iron, to take in the head of a screw or pin,
so as not to appear above the surface of the wood. Counter-
sinks have from two to twelve cutters around the surface of
a cone, which contains a vertical angle of ninety degrees.
Countersinks for iron have two cutting edges, and those for
wood and brass, the greatest number.

Bimers, are bits for widening holes, and for this purpose
are of a pyramidal structure, having their vertical angle
about 3% degrees. In the use of rimers, the hole must be
first pierced by means of a drill or punch. The operation
of a rimer is rather scraping than boring. Rimers for boring
brass, have their horizontal sections of a semicircular figure,
and those for iron, polygonal. .

Taper Shell BITS, are conical within and without, with
their horizontal sections crescent-formed. The use of shell—
bits is to widen holes in wood.

Besides the above bits, some stocks are provided with
a screwdriver, for sinking small screws into wood with
greater rapidity than could be done by hand.

BITUMEN, a tenacious matter, used in early Eastern
structures, instead of mortar. The walls of Babylon, we are
informed, were cemented with this matter. See ASPIIALTUM.

BLANK DOOR, is that which is either shut to prevent ‘

passage, or placed in the back of a recess, where there is no
entrance, so as to appear like a real door.
BLANK WINDOW, is that which is made to appear like

a real window ; but is only formed in the recess of a wall. .‘

\Vhen it is necessary to introduce blank windows, in order
to preserve the symmetry, it is much better to build the
apertures as the other real windows, provided that flues or
funnels do not interfere, and instead of representing the
sashes with paint, real sashes should be introduced: the
panes of glass may be painted on the back.

BLINDS, screens forming an appendage to a window, for

the purpose either of excluding light, or ot'preventing persons .

outside from seeing into the interior of an apartment. Blinds
are made of various materials, and of forms too numerous
and too well known to need description in this work.
BLOCKING-COURSE, or simply BLOCKING, in masonry,
a course of stones laid on the top Of the cornice, crowning
the walls. The blocking-courses were used by the ancients
to terminate the walls of a building, as well as attics.
pilastrade of the arch of the Goldsmiths, at Rome, is sur-
rounded with a blocking-course, the height of which is
nearly equal to the breadth of the pilasters. The height
of that on the Colosseum is nearly once and a half of the

The ;

pilasters, or nearly equal to the cornice and frieze taken .
together: the same may be said of the amphitheatre at ’

 

 

 

 

 

 

BOA 3

n
4

BOA

 

Verona. The blocking-course of the temple of Jupiter,
at Spalatro, is in height something less than the upper
diameter of the column. . . .

BLOCKINGS, in joinery, are small pieces of timber fitted m,
and glued or fixed! to the interior angle of two boards, or
other pieces, in order to give additional strength to the joint.
In gluing up columns, the staves are all successwely glued,
and strengthened with blockings ; also the risers and treads
of stairs, and all other joinings that- require more additional
strength than what their own joints. will give. Blockings
are always concealed from the sight.

BLONDEL, JOHN FRANCIS, died 1773, at Metz.
He constructed the royal abbey of St. Louis, with a square
and street, leading directly opposite to the cathedral; he
erected also the town-house, with a. building opposite, and
farther on barracks, with magazines over; them. The fine
front of the parliament-house, and the sumptuous palace of
the bishop, are also his works. He showed no less ability
at Strasburg, where, in 1768, he took the plan of- that
city, and built there barracks for infantry and cavalry,
a hall or amphitheatre, with three tiers of boxes, a royal:
square, 3 senate-house, a market, and various stone bridges.
This celebrated architect, besides other works executed at
Paris and elsewhere, furnished the plates of the last edition
of D’Avilen on French architecture, in three volumes, with
six hundred plates of the principal edifices in France. T hese,
three volumes were to have been followed by five others.
He established an architectural school at Paris, in 1744.
In the middle of all this work he became a writer for the
French Encyclopedia; but his great work, of universal
utility, is the Course of Architecture, the result, as he says,
of forty years" experience and researches. The work is
divided into three parts ;; the first regards beauty or decora-
tion, and is comprised in two volumes in octavo, with the
volume of figures ;, the second treats of convenience or dis-
tribution, and contains the. like number of volumes; the
third part, on the solidity of building, the author did not live
to complete.

BOARD, a piece of timber, of an oblong or trapezoidal
section, and Of any length. All timbers less than two inches
and a half in thickness, and more than four inches broad,
may be called boards.

When boards are of a trapezoidal section, that is, thinner
on one edge than the other, they are called feather-edged-
boards. Boards broader than nine inches, are called planks.
Fir boards are called deals; these are generally imported
into England ready sawed, because they are prepared cheaper
abroad, by means of saw-mills. Fir boards, one inch and
a quarter thick, are called whole-deal,- and those full half
an inch thick, are called slit-deal.

BOARDED FLOORS, are those covered with boards.
The operation of boarding floors may commence as soon as
the windows are in, and the plaster dry. The preparations
of the boards for this purpose are as follow. They should
be planed on their best face, and set out to season till the
natural sap has been quite expelled. See SEASONING OF
WOOD. They may next be planed smooth, shot and squared
upon one edge ; the opposite edges are brought to a breadth,
by drawing a line on the face parallel to the other edge with
a flooring gauge ; they are then gauged to a thickness with
a common gauge, and rebated down on the back to the lines
drawn by the gauge. The next thing to be done is to try
the joists, whether they be level or not ; if they are found
to be depressed in the middle, they must be furred up ;. and
if found to be protuberant, must be reduced by the adze:
the former is more generally the case. The boards employed
in flooring are either battens. or deals of greater breadth.

 

With reference to. quality, battens are divided into three
classes ; the best kind is that free from knots, shakes,
sap wood, or cross-grained stuff; and well matched, that
is, selected with the greatest care ; the second best is
that in which. only small but sound knots are permitted,
and free from shakes and sapwood : the most common kind
is that which is left after taking; away the best and
second-best.

With regard to the joints of flooring-boards, they are
either quite square, plowed and tongued, rebated, or doweled:
in fixing them they are nailed either upon one or both edges.
They are always necessarily nailed! on both edges when the
joints are plain or square, without dowels. When they are
doweled, they may be nailed on one or both edges ; but in
the best doweled: work, the outer edge only is nailed, by
driving the brad obliquely through that edge, without piercing
the surface Of the boards, so that the surface of the floor,
when cleaned Off, appears without blemish. In. laying boarded
floors, the boards are sometimes laid one after another ; or
otherwise, one is first laid, then another, leaving- an interval
something less than the breadth of three, four, or five boards
in contact ; so that if the first and sixth boards are laid, there
will be an interval something less than the breadth of four
boards. Now place the four intermediate boards in contact
with each other, and the two outer edges in contact with
the edgesof the first and sixth boards already laid. The space
left, as. above mentioned, being somewhat less than the width
of four b0ards,,will not allow this number to lie flat, but will
cause them. to. assume the form of an arch, having the under
parts of the edges in close contact, while the upper parts
will remain open. In order therefore to bring them to a. level
and the joints close, two or more workmen mustjump upon
the ridges till they have brought the under sides of the
boards close to the joists,‘when they are fixed in their places
with brads. In this. last method the boards are said to be
folded. This mode is only adopted when the boards are not
sufficiently seasoned, or suspected to be so. In order to
make close work, it is obvious, that the two edges, forming
each of the three joints of the second and third, third and
fourth, fourth and fifth boards, must form angles with the
faces, each less than a right angle. The eleventh board is
fixed as the sixth, and the seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth,
are inserted as the second, third, fourth, and fifth; and so on
till the completion. The headings are either, square, splayed,
or plowed and tongued. When it is necessary to have a
heading in the length of the floor, it should always be upon
ajoist, and one heading should never meet another. When
floors are doweled, it is more necessary to place dowels over
the middle of the inter-joist than over the joists, in order to
prevent the edge of the one board from passing that of the
other. When the boards are only bradded upon one edge,
the brads are most frequently concealed, by driving flooring-
brads slantingly through the outer edge of every successive
board without piercing the upper surface.

In adzing away the under—sides of the boards opposite to
the joists in order to equalize their thickness, the greatest
care should be taken to chip them straight, and exactly down
to the rebates, as the soundness of the floor depends on this.
Boards employed in flooring houses are from an inch to an
inch and a half thick. The best floors are those that are laid
with the best battens.

BOARDING-.JOISTS, are those joists in naked flooring
to which the boards are fixed.

BOARDING, ngfi‘er. See LUFFER-BOARDS, and Levin:-
BOARDS.

BOARDING FOR PUGGING OR DEAFENING.
BOARDING.

See SOUND-

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

lf‘wxfi

BOL

38

BON

 

BOARDING FOR. SLATING, are boards nailed to the rafters
for fixing the slates. They are in general about three-
quarters or seven-eighths of an inch thick, the sides are
most commonly rough, the edges either rough, shot, plowed
and tongued, or rebated, and sometimes sprung, that is,
beveled, so as to prevent the rain from running through
the joints. Boarding for slates may be made so as to take
away the lateral pressure from the walls, by disposing the
boards in the form of a truss. Upon the lower edge of
the boarding must be fixed the eaves-lath or board, and also
against all walls that are either at right angles to, or forming
an acute angle with the ridge, or a right or obtuse angle
with the wall-plate. The eaves-lath at the bottom is for
raising the lower ends of the under row of slates which form
the cave. T hose placed against walls in the positions now
mentioned are for raising the slates, in order to make the
water run off from the wall, as otherwise it would make
its way below the lead and down the joint, between the end
of the slates and the wall. Boarding for slates should be
yellow deal without sap, which, as well as weather-boarding,
is measured by the superficial foot, and valued in the bill by
the square of one hundred superficial feet.

BOARDING FOR LEADEN PLATFORMS AND GUTTERS, is sel-
dom less than one and one—eighth, or one and one-quarter
inch thick, most frequently with rough joints only.

BOARDING FOR LINING WALLS, is commonly about five-
eighths or three-quarters of an inch thick, plowed and tongued
together.

BOARDING Fo-R OUTSIDE WALLS. 'See WEATHER-BOARDING.
BOARDS, Listed, are those reduced in their breadth by

taking away the sap-wood.
BOARDS, Lever, are those placed in the opening of an

aperture made to turn on centres at the ends, in one move- ‘

ment, so as to admit or exclude the air at pleasure.

BOARDS FOR THE VALLEYS or A ROOF.
BOARDS.

BOASTER, or BOASTING-TOOL, iii-masonry. See MA SONIC
TOOLS.

BOASTING, in stone-cutting, is pairing the stone with
a broad chisel and mallet, but not in uniform lines.

BOASTING, in carving, is the rough cutting round the
ornaments, so as .to reduce them to their contours or out-
lines, before the incisions are made for forming the raffels
or minute parts.

BODY OF A NICIIE, is that part of the recess which has
its superficies vertical. .If the lower part is cylindrical, and
the upper part Spherical, the lower part is the body, and the
upper part is called t 1e head. See NICIIE.

BODY OF A ROOM-z where there are recesses in the ends or
sides, the principal part, from which the recesses are made,
is called the body.

BODY RANGE or A GRO‘IN. When two openings inter-
sect each other, the widest is called the body range. See
GROIN.

BOFFRAND, GERMAIN, an architect born at Nantes, in
1667, and died at Paris, aged eighty-seven. He built several
grand edifices, and executed a number of bridges, canals, &c.
He also wrote on the principles of architecture.—D’Argen-
ville Du Fresnoy.

BOLSTERS. Sec BALUSTERS or THE IONIC CAPITAL.

BOLT, in joinery, an iron fastening for a door, moved by
the hand, and catching in a staple or notch to receive it.

BOLTS are of various kinds: plate, spring, andflush bolts,
are for fastening doors and windows.

There are also round bolts, of various sizes, for large doors
and gates, and some curious brass bolts for folding-doors,
wmch have plates set on the edge of the door, extending the

See VALLEY- ‘

 

whole length, so that by a turn of the knob-handle in the centre
of the door, the bolts shut up and down at the same time; and
by turning the contrary way the bolts are relieved, and both
doors open at once, without farther trouble; these are mostly
used when it is necessary to lay two rooms into one. As these
bolts are expensive, there are others nearly on the same prin-
ciple, denominated spring-latch bolts, about thirteen inches
long, with a stout plate: two of these are required to a pair
of doors, one at the top, and the other at the bottom : each
bolt is shut by a spring, against which the right hand presses,
and being shut, both are secured.

BOLT OF A LOCK, the iron part by which it is fastened
into the jamb, in the act of turning it by the key. Of these
there are two kinds: one, which, in the closing of the door,
shuts of itself, and is called a spring-boil,- the other, which
is shut by the key, is called a dormant—bolt.

BOLTS, are also large iron cylindrical pins, with round
knobs at one end of a greater diameter, and a slit at the
other end, through which a pin or fore-lock passes, for
making fast the bar of a door, window-shutter, or the like.
These are particularly called round-bolts, or window-bolts.

BOLTS OF IRON, in carpentry, are those square or cylin-
drical pins which pass through two or more pieces of
timber, with a broad knob at one end, and a nut screwed
to the other, for securing them together. Bolts of this
description must always be proportioned to the size and stress
of the timbers so connected.

BOMON, in Grecian antiquity, an altar to a god.

BONANNO, an architect who flourished about 1174. He
built the famous tower at ‘Pisa, in conjunction with Guillaume,
a German.——Felebien.

BONARROTTI, BUONAROTI, or BONAROTA, MICHAEL
ANGELO, a celebrated painter, sculptor, and architect, born
at Chiusi, in Tuscany, in the year 1474. His talents were SO
early developed, that he is figuratively said to have been born
a painter; and his parents Observing the turn of his genius,
put him under the tuition of Dominico Ghirlandaio, whom he
soon surpassed; for at the age of sixteen he executed some
pieces rivaling even those of antiquity. ‘Under the auspices
of that great patron of the arts, Lorenzo di Medicis, he estab-
lished an academy for painting and sculpture at Florence;
which on account of the troubles of the house of Medici, he
afterwards removed to Bologna. At the age of twenty-nine,
he was employed by ‘Pope Julius II. to construct a grand
mausoleum; but before it was finished, he returned to Flo-
rence in disgust, on account of some pecuniary matters. From
Florence he would have gone to Constantinople, whither he
had been invited by the grand Signor, to build a bridge from
that city to Pera, had he not been prevailed upon to return
to Rome by Soderini, the gonfalonier, or holy standard-
bearer. This officer recommended him to his brother, Cardinal
Sederini, who introduced him to the pope, at Bologna. Here
he met with an envious competitor, in the person of Lazzari
Bramante d'Urbino, who had been employed by the pope,
and was unwilling to share his honours and profits with
another. He endeavoured :to excite a spirit of discontent in
Bonarrotti, byinsinuating that the pope was too much offended
at his former conduct, to permit him to resume the building
of the mausoleum; and to the pope he represented, that as
Bonarrotti was a painter, he might be more advantageously
employed in painting the arch of the Sextine chapel, at Rome,
than in any other work. It should seem from this, that
Bonarrotti had not yet displayed those talents as arpainter,
with which he afterwards fascinated the world; for it is cer-
tain that Bramante, considering him as a dangerous rival,
meant nothing less than his complete disgrace. Bonarrotti,
however, though contrary to his inclination, paint-ed the arch,

 

 

 

 

 

 

BON

89 BON

 

 

 

so much to the pope’s satisfaction, that he was taken into
greater favour than ever: .

Pope Leo X. ordered him to make a desrgn for the front of
the church of St. Laurence, at Florence, for whlch also seve-
ral other architects had given in drawings, but Bonarrotti’s
being preferred, he was sent to. Florence to superintend the
building; the vestry of which is reckoned among hrs best
productions. In this city he also built the Medicean Library,
the niches and staircase of which are of a very curious con.-
struction.

On the death of Sangallo, in 1546, the pope, Paul III.
appointed Bonarrotti architect of St. Peters, at. Rome, an
appointment which he at first declined; but being vested
with unlimited powers for carrying on the work, he not only
accepted it, but even refused any remuneration for his
labours. Sangallo had left a model for finishing the build-
ing, which had cost 4184 Roman crowns, and occupied some
years in making; according to which the edifice itself could
not have been completed in fifty years and upwards. The
first use Bonarrotti made of his extensive commission was to
set this model aside; and in fifteen days he produced another,
for the small cost of twenty-five crowns, by which he pro-
posed to raise that venerable pile with far greater facility and
expedition, and with more majestic grandeur, than the plans
of any of his predecessors could have given it. The four
great piers, by which the cupola was to be supported, had
been erected by Bramante, but they were so very weak, that
succeeding architects had found it necessary to strengthen
them. Bonarrotti thinking them still insuflicient for the
purpose, he enlarged them to their present gigantic size, and
contrived to leave voids, like wells, in them, probably for the
purpose of keeping them dry. Similar vacuities he left
in the principal walls, through which he carried a winding
staircase, so wide, and u on so gentle an ascent, that he was
enabled to convey materials to the height of the level of the
arches on beasts of burden. The great cornice over the
arches differs from the common cornice, in having less pro-
jection and fewer members; and the imposts of the pilasters
have a greater projection. In each of the two curved extre-
mities of the transept, it had been intended by former archi-
tects to place eight tabernacles, or altars; but Bonarrotti
reduced their number to three, and threw an arch over them,
subdivided into a few well-proportioned compartments; and
to prevent any alterations in his design by future architects,
he built the whole so solid that it could not conveniently
be changed. He lived, however, to see the building carried
to the height of the tambour on which the cupola was to be
laid, when, on account of his age, his friends urged him to

should be spoiled by the incapacity or whim of a succeeding
architect. With this request be 'complied, and formed one
of clay, which he afterwards caused to be made of more
durable materials, by Giovanni Farnese. This model was
universally approved, and finally executed in the pontificate
of Sextus V. Whilst Bonarrotti was engaged in the build-
ing of St. Peter’s, the officers called conservators, in the
time of Paul III. resolved to reduce the Capitol to an useful
and conrenient shape, for which purpose they applied to
Bonarrotti. He accordingly began the Senators’ Palace, in
the centre, ascended from without by a double flight of steps,
landing on a level introduced between the two flights. The
wing, denominated the Conservatorium, is entirely from his
design. The ground-floor consists .of an external and an
internal portico, supported by sixty-eight columns of the
Ionic order, surmounted with that elegant capital, the inven-
tion of which is attributed to himself. There is, however,
a great blemish in this part of the building; for, in order to

 

 

frame a model of the dome, lest what he had already done .

 

give a due proportion to the width of the portico, the columns
are niched into the wall, an expedient never productive of
beautiful effect. About this time, he also finished the Far-
nesian Palace, which had been begun by Sangallo. He
likewise designed and executed the gate, called Porto Pia,
the architecture of which is not very regular: of many other
gates designed by him, it is uncertain whether any of them
were ever constructed, but they are all of the same irregular
taste. The great central hall of the Dioclesian baths was
converted into a church from a design of his; as were the
chapel of the Strozzi family, at Florence, and the college of
the Sapienza, except the part where the church is situated;
it is upon the whole a very fine edifice,

Old age having at length rendered this great architect
incapable of personal exertions, Nanni Bigio was secretly
commissioned by the pope to superintend the building of St.
Peter’s, but with strict orders to adhere minutely to the plans
and model of Bonarrotti, who died in 1564, in his 90th year,
before the dome was completed. His body was transported .
to Florence, by order of Comes de Medicis, where it received
the most splendid funeral honours, and a superb mausoleum
was erected to his memory, at the expense of the grand duke.

BOND, in building, in a general sense, is the manner of
making two or more bodies fast together.

BOND, in masonry, or brickwork, is the disposition of stones
or bricks in building. It is a principle in every kind of bond
to prevent vertical joints falling upon one another. When a
course of masonry has any number of stones placed at regular
intervals in the length of that course, and the lengths of the
stone placed in the thickness of the wall, and when there are
two or more intermediate stones in the same course, with
their lengths placed horizontally on the facing or surface,
between each two of the former stones _: this kind of bond is
called header and stretcher. The stones which have their
length placed in the thickness of the wall are called headers,
and those which have their longest horizontal dimensions
placed in the exterior, or front, are called stretchers,

Where masonry consists of rubble-work, and where the

stones are not disposed in courses, the jambs of apertures,
should there be any, are generally built with ashlar; every
second stone in the height of each jamb is inserted so as to
pass through the whole thickness of. the wall: and the hori-
zontal dimension on the facing of every intermediate stone is
much greater than that of those which are inserted the whole
thickness. The stones that are inserted the whole thickness
of the wall are called heading jambs, and the intermediate
stones which have their length placed horizontally in the face,
are called stretching jambs.
* BOND, Heart, in masonry, is, when two stones which
appear in the front and rear of a wall meet in the centre of
it, and when a third stone is placed over the joint, in order
to bind the facing and backing together, where otherwise it
would be expensive to insert stones the whole thickness of
the wall.

BOND-STONES, are those used in uncoursed rubble walling,
that have their longest horizontal dimension placed in the
thickness of the work: these should be placed at regular
intervals, both altitudinally and horizontally, so that every
stone of one row may fall between every two of each adjacent
row. Bond-stones that are inserted the whole thickness of
masonry are called perpends or perpend—Stones. Bond-stones
only differ from headers in this, that bond—stones are used
to bind rubble and brickwork, and headers are laid in regular
courses, with an equal number of headers between every two
stretchers.

BOND, English, is, when every two courses of bricks with
the length of the bri the inserted in the thickness of the wall.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

BON

BOR

 

has one course between them, with their lengths placed
horizontally 1n the front of the wall: the courses in which
the length of the bricks is placed in the thickness of the wall,
are called beading-courses ,- and those which have the length
of the bricks placed horizontally in the face of the work, are
called stretching-courses.

.BOND, Flemish, in brickwork, is that which has one header
between every two stretchers, and one stretcher between every
two headers throughout the same course.

This is considered the neatest and most beautiful ; but is
attended with great inconvenience in the execution, and in
most cases does not unite the" parts of a wall with the same
degree of firmness as the English bond. '

Those who are desirous to enter into an examination of the
comparative merits of these two species of Bond, will be
gratified in the perusal of Mr. G. Saunders’ Tract on Brick-
bond ; it is sufficient in this place to observe generally, that
Whatever advantages are gained by the Flemish Bond in tying
a wall together in its thickness, are lost in the longitudinal
bond; and vice verse. To remove this inconvenience, in
thick walls, some builders place the bricks in the core at
an angle of forty-five degrees, called herring-bone, parallel to
each other throughout the length of every course, but reversed
in the alternate courses; so that the bricks cross each other
at right angles. But even here, though the bricks in the
core have sufficient bond, the sides are very imperfectly tied
to the core, on account of the triangular interstices formed by
the oblique direction of the internal bricks against the flat
edges of those on the outside.

With respect to English bond, it may be remarked, that as
the longitudinal extent of a brick is nine inches, and its
breadth four and a half; it is usual—to prevent two vertical
joints from running over each other at the end of the
first stretcher from the corner, after placing the return
corner stretcher, which becomes a header in the face that
the stretcher is in below, and occupies half the length of this
stretcher—to place a quarter brick on the side, so that the two
together extend six inches and three-quarters, leaving a lap
of two inches and a half for the next header. The but thus
introduced is called a closer. A similar effect might be
obtained by introducing a three-quarter bat at the corner of
the stretching course, and then the corner header being laid
over it, a lap of two inches and a half will be left at the end
of the stretchers below, for the next header, which being
laid, the joint below the stretchers will coincide with its
middle.

BOND-TIMBERS, are those horizontal pieces, built in stone
or brick walls, for strengthening the building, and securing
the battening, lath, and plaster: also the horizontal mould-
ings, or finishings of wood.

Bond-timbers disposed in tires, at altitudes corresponding
to those of the horizontal mouldings, in the finishing of apart-
ments, as behind skirtings, bases, and surbases, are called
' common-bond; the scantling of which is generally four inches
broad in the thickness of the wall, and two inches and a half
thick in the altitude of the wall, so as to be equal in thick-
ness to a course of bricks. Bond-timbers placed in or near the
middle of the story, of eight inches wide in the thickness of
the wall, and five inches and a half deep (or about the length
and thickness of two bricks) in the altitude of the wall, are
called chain-timbers, or chain-bond. In brick buildings, when
the lintels of a range of windows are considerably below the
ceiling, the lintels may be continued through the walls as
bond-timbers: in this case the thickness of the bond-timbers
should be regulated by the necessary thickness of the lintels.
When bond-timbers are also the wall-plates of floors or
roofs, their scantling is generally the same as that of the

 

chain-bond. The whole of the plate and chain-bond should
be continued on one side of each internal wall, where the
funnels or flues permit, as well as on the inside of the external
walls, and properly notched and fastened at the angles. Bond-
timbers will, in most cases, prevent a building from cracking,
where the foundation is infirm: they are easily executed in
brickwork, or in coursed stone-work ; but in rubble-stone it is
difficult, as the work must be leveled at every height in
which they are disposer]; for which reason plugging is pre-
ferable in such work. Plugging has one very material
advantage over bond-timbers, that in case of fire, the walls
are less liable to tumble or warp, for they are not reduced in
their thickness ; but this must he the case where bond-timbers
are employed, as they form a part of the thickness of the walls
themselves. Bond-timbers should be avoided in damp situa-
tions, such as basements of houses, as they are liable to rot
and thus render the buildings insecure.

Within the last few years, a practice has arisen of intro-
ducing iron-hoop in place of bond—timber. Several strips or
lengths of hoop are laid on at every four or five courses
of bricks, and worked in as bond-timbers are—sometimes
they are placed at intervals of three or four feet in the height
of walls. It is pretended that great advantages, as regards
danger from fire, result from this practice, but we are
strongly inclined to the opinion that whatever good may
arise from the incombustible nature of the material, is more
than counterbalanced by the absence of the same strength
as that given by timber-bond.

BONDS, are all the timbers disposed in the walls of a house,
such as bond:timbers,1intels, and wall-plates. See FIR, in BOND.

BONING, in carpentry and masonry, is the act of making
a plane surface by the direction of the eye. It is by boning
with two straight edges that joiners try up their work,
whether it be in or out of winding, that is, Whether the
surface be twisted or a plane.

Many country masons and ‘

 

bricklayers level the tops of their walls without an instru- .
ment, by boning them with the contour of the surface of the ‘

sea, where it is not apparently terminated with land on the
other side. This mode comes so near the truth, even though
the building be raised a considerable distance above the sur-
face of the water, that the difference cannot be perceived
upon the common levels.

BONOMI, Josmx, an architect, born in Italy, and died ;

in 1808. He was an associate of the Royal Academy in
London. He built several mansions and villas, and was
esteemed an artist of superior abilities.

BOOTH, a temporary wooden building.

BORDERS, are three pieces of wood which are generally
mitered together round the slab of a chimney, flush with
the surface of the floor.

BORING, the act of perforating a solid. For the purpose ‘

of boring wood, joiners use a centre-bit, nose-bit, shell-bit,
and auger-bit, each kind of which is of many sizes. See BIT.
BORROMINI, FRANCISCO, born in 1599, in Bissone,
diocese of Como. His father was an architect, and much
employed by the Casa, or family of Visconti. Francisco
was sent, at an early age, to Milan, to study sculpture ; and,
at seventeen years of age, he went to Rome to be instructed
in architecture, by his relation, Carlo Maderno, who also
had him instructed in geometry. Maderno set him to take
fair copies of his drawings, and made him execute the che-
rubim on either side of the small doors of St. Peter’s, which,
with the drapery and festoons over the arches, are the only
works of Borromini‘s chisel. He delighted in painting, and
some of his pictures are very good, among which is one of
the fathers della Chiesa Nuova, in Rome. On Maderno’s
death, Borromini was made architect of St. Peter’s, and :

 

 

 

 

BUS

41

BOX

 

remained a little while under the direction of Bernini ; but
becoming first emulous of him, then envious, and finally his
enemy, he endeavoured to get more commissmns for work,
and in fact was employed in a vast number of buildings,
where, trying to surpass Bernini in novelties, he laid a51de
the common rules, and bewildered his imagination and talents
in a labyrinth of extravagances. At the bottom of the
court of the Sapienza, he built a church With a concave
front, on a polygonal plan, with its sides alternately concave
and convex; the exterior of the cupola, which is surrounded
above by a balustrade, has a similar figure ; the convex part
being formed into steps, interrupted by buttresses. But the
lantern is, still more whimsical, having its vase in a zig-zag
form, on which is erected a spiral staircase, sustaining a
crown of metal with a ball and cross at top. However, the
greatest delirium of Borromini, is the style of the church of
San Carlino alle Quattro Fontane. So many right, concave,
and convex lines, so many columns upon columns of different
proportions, with windows, niches, and sculptures, in so
small a front, cannot but excite pity for the derangement
of the mind by which they were projected. The oratory of
the fathers della Chiesa Nuova, has likewise its front com-
posed of orbiculated and right lines; wnere everything is
deranged and out of order : undulating coronaa, which,
instead of helping the discharge of the water, retain it;
delicate mouldings under great weights; mouldings of a
strange and new form; breaks only in the architrave of the
entablature; prominences, contortions, and every kind of
absurdity. There appears, nevertheless, in this building
a something harmonious and handsome, but better adapted
(as Bernini said) to a country-house or villa, than to the
second edifice of a city. The flat arch of the oratory is
rather wonderful, being of a much larger size than that of
Santa Martina, made by Cortona. Though it supports above
it the weight of the great library, the wall of one of its larger
sides is not flanked with counterforts, but stands insulated,
fronting the street. The habitation of these fathers of the
oratory, is one of the best buildings of Borromini, yet it is
not without its whimsicalities, in the portieos and loggias of
the Cloisters, supported by a single Composite pilaster : the
tower of the clock is likewise mixtilinear. The best work
of Borromini, is the front of St. Agnes, in the Piazza N avona.
The king of Spain, wishing to modernize and enlarge his
palace at Rome, Borromini was commissioned to do it ; for
which purpose he made a drawing, and though it was never
executed, it gave such satisfaction, that the monarch honoured
the author with the cross of St; James, and made him a
present of 1000 dollars. Pope Urban VIII. likewise created
him knight of Christ, gave him 3000 dollars, and settled an
annual pension on him. Part of the palace Barberini ; the
whole of the monastery and church of the Madonna de’ Sette
Dolori, at the foot of San Pietro Montorio ; and the palace
of Rufina, at Frescati, were built by this architect ; he also
modernized the palace Falconnier, and embellished that of
Spada. Besides these, he executed many other works, and sent
to various countries designs of buildings, which produced him
fame and riches. Borromini was one of the first men of his
age for the elevation of his genius, and one of the last for
the ridiculous use he made of it. The frenzy which he had
displayed in scientific pursuits, extended, as he advanced in
years, to moral objects; and he at length died, a lunatic,
by his own hands, in 1667.

BOSS, a projecting ornament placed on the intersections
of groins, usually carved in the form of a leaf or other orna-
mental foliage, or, in the later periods of Gothic architec-
ture, richly sculptured with armorial bearings. Bosses were
employed in vaulting not for mere ornament, but formed an

)1

 

 

 

essential feature in the construction, as they tended by their
weight to retain the voussoirs in their respective positions,
and to confine the arches, so as to counteract any tendency
to upward motion; they formed, in fact, the key-stones of
the vault, binding the whole work firmly together.—Bosses
are used in other situations as ornaments to mouldings, 8m.

BOSS, among bricklayers, a wooden vessel in which the
labourers put the mortar to be used in tiling. It has an iron
hook, with which it is hung on the laths or on a ladder.

BOSSAGE, the projection of stones laid rough in a build-
ing, to be afterwards carved into mouldings or ornaments.
Bossages are also projecting rustic quoins in a building, with
indentures or channels at the joints. The channels are some-
times square, sometimes chamfered, or beveled, and sometimes
circular. .

BOULANGER, NICHOLAS ANTHONY, an architect, born
at Paris, 1722, and died in 1759, aged thirty-seven. He
became so eminent in architecture and mathematics, though
entirely of his own study, that he was made engineer to the
baron of Thiers, and afterwards appointed superintendent of
the highways and bridges. He was author of some articles
in the Encyclopedia, and several other works.

BOULDER WALLS, are those built of round flints, or
pebbles, laid in strong mortar, used where the sea has a beach
cast up, or where there are plenty of flints.

BOUND MASONRY. See STONE WALLS.

BOUNDARY COLUMN. See COLUMN.

BOW, a part of some buildings projecting forward from
the face of the wall, and raised from a plan generally on the
arc of a circle, so as to form the segment of a cylinder. It
is sometimes, however, raised from a plan consisting of three
sides, two external obtuse angles, formed by each two conti-
guous sides, and two internal obtuse angles, formed by the
wall and the sides which adjoin thereto. A bow, raised from
a polygonal plan, with three, four, or five vertical sides ; or a
prism, so disposed, is termed a canted, or polygonal bow. In
some buildings the bow is carried to the whole height, in
others, only to one or two stories.

BOW, among draughtsmen, denotes a beam of wood or
brass, with three long screws that direct a lath Of wood
or steel to an arch, used in drawing flat arches, or in pro—
jections of the sphere.

BOVV—W’INDOVV, a window projecting from the general
face of a building on a curvilinear plan, and rising from the
ground or basement. See BAY and ORIEL WINDOWS.

BOX, in its most general acceptation, denotes a case for
holding anything.

BOX OF A BIB-SAW, two thin iron plates fixed to a handle.
In one of the iron plates is an opening to receive a wedge, by
which it is fixed to the saw.

Box FOR MITERING. See MITRE-Box.

BOX OF A THEATRE, one of the compartments of a gallery.

BOXINGS OF A WINDOW, are the two cases, one on each
side of the window, into which each of the adjacent shutters
is folded, when light is required in the room. The leaves
which appear in the front Of each boxing, are denominated
front shutters; and those in the back, are called back flaps.
In order to estimate the breadth of flaps, and the depth of
boxing-room; suppose each boxing to be filled with the
shutters which are to cover half the breadth of the opening:
add the thicknesses of all the folds together, with as many
one-sixteenths of an inch as there are breadths, and the sum
is the depth of the boxing. Thus, suppose a window to be
four feet wide, placed in a brick wall eighteen inches thick,
let the sash-frame be six inches thick, and placed four inches
and a half from the face of the wall, or the breadth of a
brick; this will reduce the wall to seven inches and a half

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

BRA

42

 

thick; to this add the necessary thickness for lath and plaster,
about two inches, gives nine inches and a half for the breadth
of the shutter: nine inches and a half will be contained in
twenty-four inches, or the half of four feet, twice, with a
remainder; therefore there must be three leaves or folds in
a shutter, viz., a front leaf, and two back flaps. The front
leaf should be necessarily the whole breadth of ‘ the boxing,
or nine inches and a half; and the two back flaps between
them, the remainder between nine inches and a half and
twenty-four inches, that is, fourteen inches and a half. The
back flap should always be the least, in order that the shutters
may go freely into the boxing ; the middle one, therefore, may
be eight inches, and the back one six inches and a half, for
9%+8+6—1—= 24; but if the flaps are rebate'd into one another,
which is most commonly the case, whatever be the breadth
of the rebate and the number of them, then so much more
ought to be added to the whole breadth. In the present
example, the three folds will require two rebates; let each
rebate be a quarter of an inch, then, instead of reckoning
twenty-four, it must be twenty-four inches and a half, and as
no alteration can be made on the front flap, it must be added
to one of the back flaps; the three flaps may therefore stand
thus, 9%+8;1§+6§:24%. Besides this allowance in breadth,
there is another for the rebate at the meeting in the middle
of the window of the two back flaps; if this rebate be a
quarter of an inch also, it may be added to the shutters on
either side of the window, or it may be divided in any pro-
portion between: let it be equally divided, then the breadth
of the flaps may stand thus, 9%+8%+6§:24g. To find
the thickness, suppose the front flap to be one inch and
a half, the two back flaps each one inch and a quarter, then
l§+ Uf-l- 1%+—,35:4T35, for the depth of the boxing-room. If
there is a back-lining, that must be taken also into the account.
When shutters are in many folds, they are troublesome to
shut, and this must always be the case in thin walls, or with
wide windows. To remedy this, the architraves are either
made to project considerably before the plaster, or the lath
and plaster are brought to a considerable distance from the
rough wall.

BOYLE, RICHARD, Earl of Burlington. Never was pro-
tection and great wealth more generously and more judici-
ously diffused than by this great person, who had every
quality of a genius and an artist, except envy. He spent
great sums in contributing to public works, and was known
to choose, that the expense should fall upon himself, rather
than that his country should be deprived of some beautiful
edifices. His enthusiasm for the works of Inigo Jones was
so active, that he repaired the church of Covent-Garden,
because it was the production of that great master. With the
same zeal for pure architecture, he assisted Kent in publish-
ing the designs for Whitehall, and gave a beautiful edition of
the Public Baths, from the drawings of Palladio, whose
papers he procured with great cost. Besides the works on his
own estate at Lonsborough, in Yorkshire, he new-fronted
his house in Piccadilly, built by his father, and added the
grand colonnade within the court. The other works designed
by Lord Burlington, were the dormitory of \Vestminster
school; the Assembly-Room, at York; Lord Harrington’s at
Petersham; the Duke of Richmond’s house at \Vhitehall;
and General \Vade’s in Cork street.

BRACE. See TRUSS, and ANGLE-BRACES.

BRACKET, a small support fixed against a wall to sustain
anything. Brackets are composed out of various materials—
wood, stone, metal, &c., and may be made susceptible of any
ornamentation.

BRACKET FOR SIIELVES. When the shelves are broad,
the brackets are small trusses, consisting of a vertical piece,

 

a horizontal piece, and a strut; but when the shelves are
small, the brackets are solid pieces of boards, most commonly
with an ogee figure on their outer side.

BRACKETS in Gothic architecture are usually of very ele-
gant design, and are mostly sculptured to represent angels,
heads, foliage, and many other beautiful devices. They are.
used to support statues under niches, pillars which have
their bases at a height above the ground, and for various
other purposes.

BRACKETS FOR STAIRS, are sometimes used under the ends
of wooden steps, next to the well-hole, by way of ornament,
for they have only the appearance of support.

BRACKETING, a diSposition of small pieces of board.
equidistantly placed in the angles formed by the ceiling and
the walls of an apartment, with their planes at right angles
to the common intersection, so as to be partly upon the ceil-
ing and partly upon the walls; their faces or edges being so
arranged, as to touch any level line that is everywhere equally
distant from the wall or walls which may form the perimeter
or circumference of the apartment. The level line equi-
distant from, or parallel to the walls, will either be a straight
line or a curve, according as the walls are carried upwards
from a straight or circular plan.

Bracketing is necessary in supporting the lath and plaster
of cornices and coves. The edges of the brackets to which
the lath is fixed, are so formed as to be as nearly equidistant
from the surface of the intended cornice or cove as possible,
and may be placed about an inch within the said surface.
Their common distance from middle to middle may be about
a foot or fourteen inches. Small cornices require no brackets ;
but in large cornices, and particularly in coves, they are
indispensably necessary, to save the plaster. In apartments
formed by walls with plain surfaces, besides the brackets
which are arranged at right angles to the lines of concourse
of the ceilings and the walls, there are other brackets placed,

one in each angle, in a vertical plane, bisecting the angle‘

formed by each two adjacent sides of the room, at the mitre
of the cornice, denominated angle-brackets.

Let Fig. 1 be the plan of the end of a room, the internal
side being A B C D E F G H, and let there be a break, 0 D E r,-
as the breast ofa chimney. Let Fig. 2 be part of the plan
enlarged, showing an internal angle at C, and an external
angle at D: let N O P Q represent the face of the rough wall,
and B C D E the finish of the plaster; then the space between
N 0 and B C, 0 P and C D, P Q and D E will be the space for
the battening, lath, and plaster. Let Fig. 3 be a section of
the cornice, intended to be run by the plasterer, and let the
shadowed part be the form of the common brackets: let I K,
I K, &c., Fig. 2, be the projections or seats of the common
brackets, each equal to A B, Fig. 3, and let L 0 and M P be
the seats of the angle-brackets; L 0 being that of the internal
bracket, and M P that of the external bracket. Besides the
projection beyond the finishing surface of the plaster, there
must be added the thickness of the battening, lath, and
plaster. As the lath terminates upon the angle-brackets,
and as they require to be ranged in the same surface with
the edges of the common brackets, they are here made
double, or in two thicknesses. Let it now be required to find
the form of the brackets, either for mouldings, as Fig. 3, or
for a cove: make A B, Figs. 4 and 5, equal to the projection
ofthe common bracket: draw B b perpendicular and equal to
A n, and join A I): place or draw the form of the bracket
with the ceiling edge of it upon AB: take any number of
points, G, H, I, K, &c., in the ranging edge of the bracket, at
the concourse of every two lines, or in the curve, and draw
G A, II C, I D, K E, &c., perpendicular to A B: produce H C. I n,
K E, &c., to meet A b in c, d, e, &c., draw Ag, c h, d i, e k, &C.

 

 

 

 

\

ERAQKE'TEE'G . -- _ , PIATE 1., .

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BRA

BRA

 

perpendicular to A b, and make .A_g, c h, d.i’ ek, See, each
equal to A G, o H, D I, E K, &c., and jom the pomts g,h, 2, k,.&c.
if the ranging edge of the common bracket is made of straight
lines; or draw a curve if the common bracket is a cove:
then will A g, h, i, k, 8:0. to b, be the form of the angular
bracket, whether for the external or internal angle, and
g, h, i, k, &c., the ranging edge 3. the parts G H and g It are
supposed to be within the finished surface of the‘plaster.
Fig. 6 shows the bracket for an acute angle, and Fig. 7 for
an obtuse angle; but except the. quantity of the angle, the
method of finding the forms is exactly the same as in Figs. 4
and 5. The common bracket of Figs. 4, 5, and 7, is laid
down upon the ceiling line; but that of Fig. 6 is laid down
upon the base line. In the common brackets of Figs. 5 and 6,
the projections and heights are equal; but in Fig. 7, the
height B C is greater than the projection A B: the shadowed
parts of Figs. 6 and 7 represent the thickness of the batten-
ing, lath, and plaster. Figs. 8, 9, 10, 11, show the ranging
both for external and internal angles. See RANGING.

BRACKETING, for lath and plaster, is variously named
according to the figure of the ceiling which it sustains; as
groin-bracketing, spandrel—bracketing, &c. In all cases the
brackets are so disposed, that their edges will be parallel to
the surface of the plaster when finished: the distance between
the edges of the brackets and the surface of the plaster, is,
in general, about three-fourths or seven-eighths of an inch,
which includes the space for battening, lath, and plaster. See
Cove, DOME, Gnom, PENDENTIVE, SPANDREL, SPHERICAL,
and SPHEROIDAL BRACKETING.

BRADS, in joinery, are slender nails without spreading
heads, except a projection from one of their narrow sides. The
intention is to drive them within the surface of the wood, by
means of a hammer and punch, and fill the cavity to the sur-
face with putty, and thus conceal them entirely. There are
several kinds of them, as joiners’ brads, flooring brads, &c.

BRAMANTE, LAZZARI, D'URBINO, a celebrated archi-
tect, born at Caste] Durante, (or, according to some accounts,
at Femagnano,) in the province of Urbino, about the year
1444. The family of which he was a branch, was poor,
though respectable, by whom he was designed for a painter:
his early years were spent in the study of this art, but his
taste and talents for architecture outran every other con-
sideration, till at length he devoted himself altogether to it.
He travelled first in Lombardy, and having made some
observations on the cathedral of Milan, he went to Rome,
where he executed some paintings for the church of St. John
de Later-an, which are now lost. His great care was to
examine and measure all the precious remains of antiquity,
both within and out of Rome: be measured all that he could
of the Villa Adriana, at Tivoli; and in pursuit of similar
objects, went even so far as Naples.

This devotedness to his favourite science attracted the
notice of many patrons of the fine arts, and among the rest,
of Cardinal Oliviero Caratfii, who employed him to rebuild
the convent della Puce, at Naples, which established his
reputation. The work itself is not of the most exquisite
character, but it procured him the title of architect to his
holiness Pope Alexander VI., there being at that time no
artists of superior talents in the papal dominions. The foun-
tain of Trastevere, and another fountain, which formerly
stood in the square before St. Peter’s, were of his workman-
ship. He also had a considerable share in building the
palace della. Cancellaria, the church of San Lorenzo Damaso,
and the palace of San Giacomo Scosciacavalli; all these, as
Well as the convent della-Puce, above noticed, are built. in
travertine, on the outside; but their meagre style is a striking
evidence that in the days of Bramante architecture was only

 

 

reviving, and was not completely purged from barbarous
intermixtures. In such an age the genius of Bramante
could not but shine, and be retained his lustre, as being
without an equal in invention, as well as in execution, till,
towards the decline of his life, the superior powers of Michael
Angelo Bonarrotti bore away the palm of science, and the
voice of public applause. See BONARROTTI.

When Julius II. obtained the papal chair, he appointed
Bramante superintendent of his buildings, and employed him
to execute his grand project of uniting the Belvedere to the
palace of the Vatican, by means of a magnificent court. In
his turn, Bramante engaged the pope in the favourite design
of pulling down the church of St. Peter’s, and erecting a new
basilica, after the model of the Pantheon, on a scale that
should astonish the world. With this View, he made many
drawings, and used great diligence to produce one having
two steeples with the front between them, as may be seen on
the medals struck by Corodasso, in honour of Bramante and
his patrons Julius II. and Leo X. The plan was that of a
Latin cross, and was well constructed, though of an un-
equalled magnitude. Three naves were formed by means of
colonnades; the principal nave of very fair proportions, and
the whole productive of the finest effect. The cupola had
the same dimensions with that of the Pantheon ; the external
steps were also similar. Indeed the plan of the whole
basilica bore a strong resemblance to the Pantheon, having
eight piers, between each two of which were two columns,
forming three openings, or passages. This design being
approved of by the pope, part of the old church was pulled
down, and the foundation of the new structure laid, in the
year 1506. The building was carried on with great celerity
as high as the entablature, the arches over the four great
piers were turned, and the principal chapel, opposite the
door, was erected, when death put an end to his labours, in
1514, in his 70th year. The continuation of this work was
given to Michael Angelo Bonarrotti, who also did not live
to see it completed. Bramante’s successors made so many
alterations upon his original design, that scarcely anything
besides the four great arches over the tribune can be said to
be his. His remains were interred in St. Peter’s, and the
solemnity was honoured by the presence of the papal court,
and all the professors of the fine arts in Rome and its neigh-
bourhood.

Besides the works above described, Bramante constructed
a whimsical staircase, with the three orders of architecture,
in the Vatican. The elegant circular temple in the cloister
of San Pietro Monterio,'though esteemed as one of his best»
performances, has many defects; for instance, the doorWay
cuts into two pilasters; the balustrade is a continued series
of balusters without pedestals; and the ornament at the top
of the cupola is clumsy and heavy. Out of the walls of Todi,
Bramante built an insulated temple, encrusted on the exterior
with white stone; the plan is that ofa Greek cross, with a fine
cupola in the centre; and the whole has an air of being the
model of St. Peter's. In finishing the chapel within the basilica,
be revived the use of the ancient stuccos. He made many
designs of palaces and temples, both within and without the
walls of Rome, and began the palace, which was afterwards
finished by Raffaello, with columns of brick covered with
plaster, then a new invention; but this edifice was destroyed
to make room for the colonnade of St. Peter’s; and the palace
which he began for the Duchess Eleonora Gonzaga, wife of
Francis Duke of Urban, was never completed, owing to the
deaths of both duke and duchess.

BRANCHES, are the diagonal ribs of a Gothic vault,
rising upwards from the tops of the pillars to the apex, and
seeming to support the ceiling or vault.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

BRE

BRI

 

BRANDRITH, or BRANDRETTE, a fence round the mouth
of a well.

BRASSES, sepulchral engravings on large or small brass
plates, let into slabs in the pavement of our ancient churches,
portraying the efligies of illustrious personages, with the
accompaniments of buildings, 8:0. The greater part of the
efligies are as large as life. The various colours for the dresses,
armours, and coats of arms, in many instances, were laid on
in enamel, the attitudes well drawn, and the lines both of
dresses and architecture made out with precision and truth
of imitation.

BREADTH, the greatest extension of a body at right
angles to the length.

BREAK, a projecting part of the front of a building,
carried up through one or more stories in a vertical surface.
In its general acceptation, it implies only a part, which
stands forward in a plane parallel to the other parts of the
front behind the break ; or a cylindric wall concentric with a
receding one, and in this it comprehends not only the parallel
projecting face, but the two flank parts which join the
parallel walls. The break therefore forms, with the receding
part or parts, two external and two internal angles. The
term is, however, not restricted to this disposition of the
planes, or cylindric faces of the building, it may also imply a
bow, whether cylindric or canted. N0 break can be formed
unless it have at least one internal angle, or, if the building
adjoin on both sides, there will be at least two internal angles.
Small breaks, or those projecting only a few inches, never
add to the effect of the building.

A building may have either one, two, or several breaks in
a front. When the disposition of the rooms naturally falls
into same plane on the inside of the front wall, no break
should be admitted, because, in this case, it can only project
a few inches. Breaks only fritter away the parts of a small
building, and destroy the beauty and elegance which arises
from the simplicity of its figure; but in large buildings they
give the utmost splendour to the design, provided they have
bold projections, and appear as distinct parts of the building,
so that if the other connecting parts be supposed to be taken
away, they would be so many insulated buildings, insisting
each upon a simple rectangular plan. The greatest effect
would, therefore, be produced by giving each part or break
its separate roof, termination, or covering. For this reason,
breaks should either be left lower, or carried higher than the
main body, or the connecting part or parts of the building.
When a break is carried higher than the connecting part or
parts, it must have an entire roof, or uniform termination all
round its four walls. '

In the ancient architecture of Greece, the walls insisted
upon simple rectangular plans, and therefore had no internal
angles, and consequently no breaks. The Romans indulged
in buildings consisting of greater variety of parts than the
Greeks, and formed many of their principal edifices with
breaks.

When the upper part of a front wall is intended to be one
continued plane, with a break or breaks in the lower part or
story, the superior continued wall, may either be supported
upon a row of columns arched above the intervals in long
apartments, or with one arch, when the front horizontal
dimension is small, and finished as above.

Breaks in cylindric walls destroy the harmony arising from
the continuity of the figure, and should therefore be rejected
in every round edifice.

BREAK-IN, among carpenters, is to cut or break a hole in
brickwork with the ripping chisel, for the purpose of insert-
ing timber, as to receive plugs, or the end of a beam, or other
piece of timber.

 

 

BREAK-JOINT, in masonry or brick-work, is when two
stones are placed contiguous to each other, with a. third
stone laid across the joint, so as to cover a part or the whole
of the surface of both stones, in order to bind the work
together.

BREAST OF A CHIMNEY. See CHIMNEY.

BREAST OF A WINDOW, the masonry or brick-work which
forms the back of the recess and the parapet, for leaning upon,
under the window-sill.

BREAST WALL, a retaining wall at the foot of a slope.

BRESSUMMER, or BREAST SUMMER, in building, a
lintel-beam in the exterior walls, supported by wooden or
iron posts, or by brick or stone pillars, for sustaining the
superincumbent part of the wall. Bressummers are used in the
construction of shops, where it is necessary to have the win-
dow as large as possible, and consequently the pillars as small
as possible, in order to give light, and show articles for sale
to advantage.

Where breast-summers are used for this purpose, the
superincumbent mass should be strengthened by an arch of
discharge or otherwise, for, if not so, they will be found of
great injury to the building through the shrinkage of the
timber. Where this precaution is not attended to, it almost
invariably occurs that the brick-work above is fractured in its
settlement, and in some cases to a very considerable extent.

Cast—iron beams are occasionally used for breast-summers,
but although they have an advantage in not. being liable to
rot, and are naturally incombustible, yet they are by no means
eligible for the purpose. Cast-iron should never be subjected
to cross strain, as, although it may bear a certain weight
with safety, the least addition or disturbance will cause it
to break. In cases of fire, cast-iron is much less secure than
wood, for it soon becomes red-hot, and in this state, upon the
slightest contact with water, will snap asunder; whereas tim-
bers, if of sufficient scantling, are seldom entirely consumed,
usually only charred on their exposed surfaces.

Bressummers were a necessary part in the construction of
old timber buildings, where it was requisite to have them
not only for binding the building together, but for the sup—

 

port of every floor, and also of the roof. They were likewise ‘

placed at the bottom of the building as a foundation to the
whole structure, and called sills. See SUMMER.

BRICK, an artificial kind of stone, composed in general
of earth and sand, or coal Cinders, 0r ashes, well mixed toge-
ther, and tempered with water, then dried in the sun, and
finally burned to a proper degree of hardness in a kiln, or in
a heap or stack, denominated a clamp.

The antiquity of bricks seems to be coeval with the first
edifices after the Deluge; the tower and city of Babel being
built of them; as also most of the early structures of Egypt.
The Greeks chiefly used three kinds of bricks: the first
sort was called AtEwpov, bricks of two palms; the second
Terpadopov, (3f four palms; the third Hevradopm', affine
palms. Besides these, they also had bricks of just half the
above dimensions, used for making their work more solid,
and for giving an agreeable diversity to its appearance.

The Romans began to build with bricks towards the decline
of the republic : according to Pliny, those most in use were
a foot and a half long, and a foot broad ; which agrees with
the dimensions of several Roman bricks found in England,
viz. seventeen inches in length, by eleven in breadth, of our
measure. Sir Ilenry \Valton speaks of some bricks at
Venice, of which stately columns were built: they were
first formed in a circular mould, and cut, prior to their being
burned, into four or more sections; afterwards, in layingr
they were jointed so closely and exactly, that the pillars had
the appearance of being composed of one entire piece.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

BRI

45

RBI

 

For the purposes of building, bricks claim a decided
superiority over stone, not only as belng lighter, and more
eaSily worked ; but also because their porous texture facili-
tates their union with the mortar, and makes them less liable
to attract or retain damp and moisture, .

In England, the mould in which bricks are formed, 13 ten
inches in length, by five in breadth: the bricks when burned
are about nine inches long, four inches and a half broad, and
two inches and a half thick. The degree of shrinkage, how-
ever, is various, according to the purity andtemper of the
clay, and the intensity of the heat to which 11: 1s exposed in
the burning.

The earth selected for brick-making should be of the
purest kind ; though indeed bricks may be made of any kind
of earth that is free from stones, and even of sea-ooze ; but
it is not every soil that will burn red, which is a property
peculiar to earths containing ferruginous particles. In this
country, bricks are chiefly made either of stiff clay, or of a
hazelly-yellowish-coloured fat earth, commonly called loam.
The former produces hard red bricks, incapable of rubbing
or cutting ; the latter is mostly found near London, and gives
a neat gray-coloured brick, which yields freely to the axe
and rubbing-stone, though equally durable with the harder
red brick made in more distant parts. The earth, of what-
ever quality, should be dug in the autumn, and suffered to
remain in a heap till the next spring, that it may be well
penetrated by the air, and particularly by the winter’s frc-sts,
which by pulverizing the more tenacious particles, greatly
assist the operations of mixing and tempering. Indeed, for
the best bricks, two or three years will not be found too long
to submit the earth to the action of the atmosphere, in order
to render it free in the working. In making up this heap
for the season, the soil and ashes or sand are to be laid in
alternate layers or strata ; each stratum containing such
a quantity as the stiffness of the soil may admit or require.
For making such bricks as will stand the fiercest fires,
Sturbridge clay and Windsor loam are esteemed the best.

In tempering the earth, much judgment is required as to
the quantity of sand to be thrown into the mass, for too
much renders the bricks heavy and brittle, and too little
leaves them liable to shrink and crack in the burning. The
London practice of mixing sea-coal ashes, and in the country
of adding light sandy earth to the loam, not only makes it work
easy and with greater expedition, but tends also to save fuel.

With reference to the proportion which should be observed
in mixing the different ingredients, it is impossible to lay
down any fixed rules, as such proportion must entirely
depend upon the particular quality of the materials employed.
The principal of these consist of clay, marl, and loam, with
the admixture of sand, chalk, breeze, &c. IVe shall here
give the particular uses to which the accessories are applied,
but must leave it entirely to individual instances to determine
in what manner each of them must be made use of. The
clay of course is the principal matter, and forms the body of
the brick, but before this can be made available for building,
it has to be agglutinated together by means of sand vitrified
by heat. Clay is composed for the most part of alumina
and silica combined with a small quantity of lime, and occa-
sionally of magnesia and alkali. Usually speaking, clay
requires additional sand to be used as a flux, but it happens
sometimes to contain sufficient in itself; when this is the
case, no addition of course will be required. If the silica
be in excess, it will on the contrary require the addition of
some dry substance to hold the mass together, as otherwise
the silica will fuse and run when under the action of great
heat; for this purpose the chalk is used: if, however, too
much be added, the bricks will become porous and friable.

N

 

The heat, as above stated, is produced by means of the breeze,
but the quantity of this also must be regulated according to
the nature of the clay you have to use ; if it contains a large
quantity of sand, less breeze will be required, not only to
prevent the silica from running, but also because silica con«
tains a large portion of oxygen; should, however, the clay
contain a free proportion of lime, more breeze will be required,
for the reason that lime has but little oxygen in its compo-
sition. Thus it will be seen how impracticable it is to lay
down any general rule in this case ; the proportion of each
ingredient to be added, can only be determined by careful
observations in individual instances. 1

Every stony particle should be carefully cleared out of the
earth, before the workman begins his operation of tempering;
it should then be well trodden or beat, and frequently turned
over, with the addition of as little water as possible, till the
soil and ashes, or sand, are so completely incorporated
as to form a paste of a tough viscous substance. If in
this operation too much water be used, the paste will become
almost as dry and brittle as the soil of which itis composed ;
but by a judicious management, as to the quantity of water,
and the mode of administering it, the bricks become smooth,
solid, and durable.

For the preparation or tempering of the soil, the workman
is provided with a long hoe, in form like a mattock, a shovel,
and a scoop. The hoe is for pulling down the soil from the
great heap, which is then chopped backwards with the shovel,
in order to turn it as often as may be necessary, and to
incorporate the ashes, or sand, and soil, thoroughly together.
The use of the scoop is for throwing water over the portion
so pulled down with the hoe, to bring it to a more ductile
state, and render it easier for tempering. IVhen the mass
is sufficiently mixed, it is removed in barrows to the pugmill.
This mill consists principally of a strong barrel, firmly fixed
on two transverse beams, having in its centre a vertical bar,
kept in position by two shoulders attached to the sides of the
barrel, and working on the transverse beams at their inter-
section as on a pivot. On the top of this bar is placed
a horizontal beam, by means of perpendiculars suspended
from which, the horse is attached. On that part of the bar
which is within the barrel, is fixed several iron knives, by
the revolution of which the masticated clay is forced through
a hole in the bottom of the barrel, when it is cut off in pieces
with a -" cuck—hold,” or concave shovel, and laid on one side.
A quantity of sand is then thrown over it, and it is kept for
use under a covering of sacking or matting, to preserve it
from the sun and air.

The moulding-table is placed under a movable shed, and
is strewed with dry sand. A boy, with the cuck-hold, cuts
off as much. as he can carry in his arms, from the prepared
mass, and brings it to the table, where a girl receives it, and
rolls out a lump rather larger than the mould will contain.
The moulder receives this lump from the girl, throws it into
his mould, previously dipped in dry sand, and with a flat
smooth stick, about eight inches long, kept for the purpose
in a pan of water, strikes off the overplus of the soil: he then
turns the brick out of the mould upon a thin board, rather
larger than the brick, upon which it is removed by a boy,
and placed on a light barrow, having a lattice-work frame
raised about three feet above the wheel, and about eighteen
inches at the handles, forming an inclined plane. On this
lattice-frame the new-made bricks are laid, and sand is thrown
over them, to prevent their sticking to each other, as well
as to preserve them in a certain degree from cracking in
drying on the hacks. The hacks for drying, are each wide
enough for two bricks to be placed edgcways across, with a
passage between the heads, for the admission of air, to

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

BRI 40

BR!

 

facilitate the circulation of which, the bricks are generally
laid in a diagonal direction. The hacks are usually carried
eight bricks high; the bottom bricks at the ends are com-
monly old ones. ‘

In showery weather, the bricks on the hacks are to be
carefully covered with wheat or rye straw, to keep them dry;
unless sheds or roofs be erected over the hacks, as is done
in some country places; but in London this is impracticable,
from the very great extent of the grounds.

In fine weather the bricks will be dry enough for turning,
in a few days; in doing which they are reset more open
than at first; and in six or eight days more they will be
ready for burning.

The best bricks, that is, those made of the best materials,
and well tempered, as they are harder and more ponderous, so
they require half as much more earth, and longer time for
drying and burning, than the common sort, which are light,
spongy, and full of cracks. The well drying of bricks before
they are burned, prevents their cracking and crumbling in
the kiln or clamp.

In the vicinity of London, bricks are commonly burned
in clamps ; farther in the country, it is the custom to burn
them in kilns. In building the clamps, the bricks are laid
after the manner of arches in the kilns, with a vacancy
between every two bricks, for the fire to play through ; yet
with this difference, that instead of arching, the vacuity for
the fuel is spanned over, by making the layers project one
over the other from each side, till they meet at top. The
flue is about the width of a brick, carried up straight on both
sides about three feet; it is then nearly filled with dry bavins,
or wood, on which is laid a covering of sea-coal and Cinders
(or breeze, as they are called); the arch is then overspanned,
and layers of breeze are strewed over the clamp, as well as
between the rows of bricks.

When the clamp is about the width of six feet, another
flue is made, in every respect similar to the first: this is
repeated at every distance of six feet, throughout the whole
clamp, which when completed, is surrounded with old bricks,
if there be any on the grounds, if not, with some of the
driest unbaked ones, that have been reserved for the purpose.
On the top of all, a thick layer of breeze is laid. The wood
is then kindled, which gives fire to the coal; and when all is
consumed, which will be in about twenty or thirty days
if the weather be tolerable, the bricks are concluded to be
sufficiently burned. Should there be no immediate hurry
for the bricks, the flues may be placed nine feet asunder,
and the fuel left to burn slowly.

If the fire in the clamp burns well, the mouths of the fines
are stopped with old bricks, plastered over with clay. The
outside of the whole clamp is also plastered with clay, if the
weather be precarious, or if the fire burn too furiously; and
against any side particularly exposed to the rain, &0. screens
are laid, made of reeds, worked into frames about six feet;
high, and sufficiently wide to be moved about with ease.

This is the ordinary method of manufacturing common
gray-stocks. But washed malms, or marls, are made with still
_ greater attention. A circular recess is built, about four feet
high, and from ten to twelve feet in diameter, paved at the
bottom, with a horse-wheel placed in its centre, from which
a beam extends to the outside, for the horse to turn it by.
The earth is then raised to a level with the top of the recess,
on which a platform is laid, for the horse to walk upon. This
mill is always placed as near a well or spring as possible, and
a pump is set up, to supply it with water. A harrow, made
to fit the interior of the recess, thick-set with long iron teeth,
and well loaded, is chained to the beam of the wheel, to which
the horse is harnessed. Previously to putting the machine in

 

motion, the soil, as prepared in the heap in the ordinary
manner, is brought in barrows, and distributed regularly
round the recess, with the addition of a sufficient quantity of
water; the horse then moves on, and drags the harrow, which
forces its way into the soil, admits the water into it, and by
tearing and separating its particles, not only mixes the ingre-
dients, but also affords an opportunity for stones and other
heavy substances to fall to the bottom. Fresh soil and water
continue to be added till the recess is full.

On one side of the recess, and as near to it as possible,
a hollow square is prepared, about 18 inches or two feet
deep. The soil being sufficiently harrowed and purified,
and reduced to a kind of liquid paste, is ladled out of the
recess, and by means of wooden troughs conveyed into this
square pit; care being taken to leave the sediment behind,
which is afterwards to be cleared out and thrown on the sides
of the recess. The fluid soil diffuses itself over the hollow
square, or pit, where it settles of an equal thickness, and
remains till wanted for use, the superfluous water being either
drained away or evaporated, by exposure to the atmosphere.
\Vhen one of these square pits is full, another is made by its
side, and so on progressively, till as much soil is prepared as
is likely to be wanted for the season.

In the country, bricks are always burned in kilns, whereby
much waste is prevented, less fuel consumed, and the bricks
are more expeditiously burned. A kiln is usually thirteen
feet long, by ten feet six inches wide, about twelve feet in
height, and will burn 20,000 bricks at a time. The walls are
about one foot two inches thick, and incline inward towards
the top, so that the area of the upper part is not more than
114 square feet. The bricks are set on flat arches, having
holes left between them resembling lattice-work. The bricks
being set in the kiln, and covered with pieces of broken bricks
or tiles, some wood is put in and kindled, to dry them gra-
dually; this is continued till the bricks are pretty dry, which
is known by the smoke turning from a darkish to a trans-
parent colour. The burning then takes place, and is effected
by putting in brushwood, furze, heath, faggots, &c., but
before these are put in, the mouths of the kiln are stopped
with pieces of brick, called sizinlog, piled one upon another,
and closed over with wet brick earth. This shinlog is carried
just high enough to leave room sufficient to thrust in a faggot
at a time; the fire is then made up, and continued till the
arches assume a whitish appearance, and the flames appear
through the top of the kiln; upon which the fire is slackened,
and the kiln cools by degrees. This process is continued, alter-
nately heating and slackening, till the bricks are thoroughly
burned, which is generally in the space of forty-eight hours.

The practice of steeping bricks in water after they have
been once burned, and then burning them again, renders
them more than doubly durable—Gold/zam.

Many attempts have been made to introduce machinery in
the practice of brickmaking, but with little success, as is evi~
dent from the old practice continuing so generally in use.

The most usual varieties of bricks consist of marls, stocks,
and place-bricks, but there is very little difference in the
manufacture. Maris are prepared and tempered with the
greatest care; but the construction of the clamp for burning
them is similar to that for other bricks, though more caution
is required not to overheat them, and to see that the fire
burn equally and ditfusively throughout the clamp or kiln
The finest marls, calledflrsts, are selected as cutting bricks,
for arches of doorways, windoi 's, and quoins; for which pur-
pose they are rubbed to their proper dimensions and form.
The next best, termed seconds, are used for principal fronts.
The cleanly pale yellow colour of marls, added to their smooth
texture and superior durability, give them a pre-eminence

 

 

 

 

 

 

BRI ‘ 47

BRI

 

above other sorts of bricks. Gray-stocks are somewhat like
the seconds, but of an inferior quality. Place-bricks, some-
times called peckings, sandal, or samel-bricks, are such as,
from being outside in a kiln or clamp, have not been thoroughly
burned, and are consequently soft, of a more uneven texture,
and a red colour. There are also burrs, .or clinker-bricks,
such as from being too violently acted upon by the fire, have
vitrified in the kiln, and sometimes several are found run
together. .

Tied—stocks are made in the country, and burned in kilns.
They owe their colour to the nature of the clay of which
they are formed, which is always used tolerably pure. The
best sort are used as cutting bricks, and are called red-
rubbers. In old buildings they are frequently to be seen,
ground to a fine smooth surface, and set in putty, instead of
mortar, as ornaments over arches, windows, doorways, 8w.
Though many very beautiful specimens of red brickwork are
to be met with, yet these bricks can seldom be judiciously used
for the front—walls of buildings. The colour is much too
heavy, and in summer conveys an unpleasant idea of heat to
the mind;-to which may be added, that as in the fronts
of most buildings of any consequence, more or less of stone-
work is introduced, there is something harsh in the contrast
between the red bricks and the cold colour of the stones ; and
even where no stone is employed, there is always some wood
used, which being painted white, by no means lessens the
objection. Gray-stocks match so much better with the colour
both of stone and paint, that they have obtained a universal
preference in London and its immediate Vicinity.

At Hedgerly, a village near Windsor, red bricks, about
one inch and a half thick, of a very firm texture, are made ;
they will stand the greatest violence of fire, and are called
Windsor bricks, and sometimes fire-bricks.

Bricks for paving are of the same dimensions with Windsor
bricks, viz., nine inches long, four inches and a half broad,
and one inch and a half thick. Besides these, there are what
are called paving-tiles, which are made of stronger clay, of
a red colour. The largest are about twelve inches square,
and one inch and a half thick; the next size, though called
ten-inch tiles, are about nine inches square, and one inch and
a quarter thick. See TILES.

Besides the foregoing varieties, the following are worth
notice, though some of them are not much in use: 1. The
ordinary I’aris brick is eight inches long, four inches broad,
and two inches thick, French measure, which makes them
rather larger than ours. 2. Buttress, or plaster bricks, made
with a notch at one end, half the length of the brick; used
for binding work built with great bricks. 3. Capping bricks,
used for the purpose which their name denotes. 4. Great
bricks, used in fence walls, are twelve inches long, six inches
broad, and_ three thick. 5. Cogging bricks, for making the
indented works under the capping of walls built with great
bricks. G. Compass bricks, of a circular form, for steyning
wells. 7. Concave, or hollow bricks, made flat on one side,
like an ordinary brick, and hollowed on the other side; used
for drains and water-courses. 8. Buick, or Flemish bricks,
used lll paving yards, stables, &c., also for lining soap-boilers,
Cisterns, and vaults. 9. Feather-edged bricks, made of the
same size with the ordinary statute bricks, but thinner on one
edge than on the other: they are used for pinning up brick
panels in timber buildings.

BRICK-NOGGING, a wall constructed with a row of posts
or quarters, disposed at three feet apart, and with brickwork,
so as to fill up the intervals. This kind of walling is gene-
rally eithcr the thickness or breadth of a brick, and the
woodwork flush on both sides with the faces of the bricks.
In brick-nogging, thin pieces of timber, reaching horizontally

 

 

N.

from post to post, are disposed so as to form the brickwork
between every two posts or quarters, into several compart-
ments in the height of the story; each piece being inserted
between two courses of brick, with its edges flush with the
faces of the wall.

BRICK AND STUD. See BRICK-NOGGING.

BRICK-KILN, a building erected in the form of the frustum
of a cone, for the purpose of burning bricks.

BRICKLAYER, a workman who builds with bricks.
His business, in London, includes walling, tiling, and paving
with bricks or tiles; some jobbing -masters also under-
take plastering. Country bricklayers unite bricklaying,
plastering, and not unfrequently masonry. The bricklayer’s
materials are bricks, tiles, mortar, laths, nails, and tile-pins;
with which he is supplied while at work by a labourer, who
likewise makes the mortar.

Bricklayers form a very numerous body of artisans in this
country. A good workman can lay 1,500 bricks daily in
walls. His wages in London are from five to six shillings
a day. The immense demand for bricklayers Caused by the
extensive works connected with railways, and the great
increase of building operations in the last few years, have
enabled good workmen to command almost any amount of
wages.

BRICKLAYERS, in London, are, by a charter granted in
1568, a corporate company, consisting of a master, two war-
dens, twenty assistants, and seventy-eight on the livery.

BRICKLAYING, BRICKVVORK, the art of building
or erecting walls or edifices with bricks, cemented together
with mortar, cement, 8:0. For the materials, &c., used in
this business, see the articles BRICK, BRICKLAYER, MORTAR,
TILES, CEMENT, &c.

The first thing to be attended to, in bricklaying, is to dig
trenches for the foundations, after which the ground must be
tried with an iron crow, or rammer, to see that it is sound:
if it appear to shake, it must be bored with a well-sinker’s
tool, in order to ascertain Whether the shake be local or
general. If the soil prove generally firm, the looser parts, if
not very deep, may be dug up till a solid bed he got at, on
which a pier or piers may be built, as hereafter described;
if the ground he not very loose, it may be made good by
ramming into it large stones, close packed together, or dry
brick rubbish, of a breadth at the bottom proportioned to the
intended insisting weight; but if the ground he very bad,
it must be piled and planked, to ensure the safety of the
structure.

In building upon an inclined plane, or rising ground, the
foundation ought to rise with the inclination of the ground,
in a series of level steps, which will ensure a firm bed for
the courses, and prevent them from sliding, as they would be
apt to do if built on inclined planes ; and in wet seasons the
moisture in the foundation would induce the inclined parts
to descend towards the lowest parts, to the manifest danger
of fracturing the walls, and destroying the building.

\Vhen the ground proves loose to a great depth in places
over which it is intended to make windows, doors, or other
apertures, while the sides on which the piers must stand are
firm, it is a good practice to turn inverted arches under such
intended windows, 8w. Indeed this is a necessary precau-
tion in all cases where the depth of wall below the aperture
will admit of it. For the small base of the piers will more
easily penetrate the ground, than one continued base; and
as the piers may be permitted to descend, in a certain degree,
so long as they can be kept from spreading, they will carry
the arch with them, compressing the ground, and forcing it
to reaction against the sides of the inverted arch, which if
closely jointed, so far from yielding, will, with the abutting

 

 

\

 

 

 

 

 

BRI

piers, operate as a solid body. Whereas, if this expedient of
inverted arches be not adopted, the low piece of wall under
the aperture, not having a sufficient vertical dimension, will
give way by the resistance of the ground upon its base, and
not only fracture the brickwork between the apertures, but
also the window-sills. Hence it is evident that these arches
should be turned with the greatest exactness, and should be
in height at least half their width. The parabolic curve will
be found most effectual in resisting the reaction of the
ground; it being the form most adapted to the laws of
uniform pressure.

The bed of the piers ought to be of equal solidity through-

out ; for though the bottom of the trench may be firm enough,
yet if there be any difference in substance, the settlement will
be partial, the amount thereof varying according to the soft-
ness of the ground; consequently the piers on the softer ground
will settle more than those on the firmer, and occasion a ver-
tical fracture in the superstructure.
. Should the solid parts of the trench be found under the
intended apertures, and the softer parts where piers are to be
built, the reverse of the above practice must be resorted to,
viz.: build piers on the firm ground, and suspend arches, not
inverted, between them ; in performing which, attention must
be paid to the insisting pier, whether it will cover the arch,
or not; for if the middle of the pier rest over the middle of
the summit of the arch, the narrower the pier is, the greater
should be the curvature Of the arch at its apex. “rhen sus-
pended arches are used, the intrados ought to be clear, that
the arch may have its full effect. Here also, as before, the
ground on which the piers are erected should be of equal
firmness, lest the building be injured by an unequal settling,
which is attended with much more mischievous consequences
than where the ground, from being uniformly soft, permits
the piers to descend equally, in which case the building is
seldom or never damaged.

When it is necessary to ram foundations, the stones, being
previously chopped or hammer-dressed, so as to have them as
little taper as possible, should be laid of a breadth propor-
tioned to the weight intended to be rested on them, and
rammed closely together with a heavy rammer. In ordinary
cases, the lower bed of stones may project about a foot on
each side of the wall, on which another course may be laid,
so as to bring the upper bed of stones upon a general level
with that of the trench, projecting about eight inches on
either side of the wall, or receding four inches on each side
within the lower course. Care should be taken that the
joints of every upper course fall as nearly as possible upon
the middle of the stones in the course innnediately beneath
it; a principle also to be strictly adhered to in every kind of
walling; for in all the modes, various as they are, of laying
stones or bricks, the uniform object is to obtain the greatest
lap one upon the other.

The directions for preparing a solid foundation, refer to
the general practice amongst builders before the introduction
of concrete. The now almost universal use of the latter, as
a certain, convenient, and ready means of obtaining a secure
foundation, has rendered it necessary to give a description of
the mode in which this material is generally used.

The ground having been examined as described in the first
part of this article, a sufficient depth must be excavated in
the bottom of the trenches, to allow of throwing in a quan-
tity of concrete, varying in breadth and depth, according to
the size and character of the building to be erected, and the
necessary width of the footings.

The concrete is composed of different materials, and pro-
portions of those materials, as the qualities of sand, lime, &c.,
are most conveniently obtained in the 10 ‘ality of the building.

48.

 

BRI I

4

The concrete used in and near London is generally composed
of Thames ballast and fresh-burned stone-lime, (ground to
powder without slacking,) in the proportions of from one-fifth
to one-ninth of lime to one of the ballast. These ingredients
should be well blended together dry, and as small a quantity
of water added as will bring them to the consistency of mor-
tar; and then, after turning over the materials with the
shovel once or twice, thrown as quickly as possible into the
foundation, from a height of several feet. It sets very
quickly, so that it is desirable that the mixture should be
made at, or close to the height from which it is thrown, and
then spread and brought to a level as expeditiously as pos-
sible. See CONCRETE.

Having premised thus much on foundations, we proceed
to the Operation of walling; the first object in which is the
due preparation of the cementing material.

Mortar is most commonly used in modern brick buildings.
It is composed of lime, gray or white, but gray or stone-lime
is the better, mixed with river—sand, or road-sand, in the
proportion of one of gray lime to two and a half of sand, and
one of white or chalk-lime to two of sand.

In slacking the lime, no more water should be used than is
barely sufficient to reduce it to powder; and it should be
covered with a layer of sand, in order to prevent the gas,
wherein is the virtue of the lime, from flying Off. It is best
to slack the lime in small quantities, about a bushel at a time,
in order to secure its qualities in the mortar, which would
evaporate were it to remain slacked any length of time before
being used. See MORTAR.

The mortar, when about to be used, should be beaten three
or four times, and turned over with the beater, so as to
incorporate the lime and sand, and break the knots that pass
through the sieve: this not only renders the texture more
uniform, but ‘by admitting the air into the body and pores of
the mortar, makes it much stronger. Should the mortar
stand any length of time after this Operation, without being
used, it must be beaten again: it should be observed, that in
these beatings very little water should be used; though in
hot and dry weather the mortar may be kept considerably
softer than in winter. .

In dry weather, and for firm work, the best mortar must
be used, and the bricks should be wettcd, or dipped in water
as they are laid; but in damp weather, the latter precaution
will be unnecessary. The wetting of the bricks causes them
to adhere to the mortar, which they will never do if laid dry,
and covered with sand or dust, as they may be removed with-
out the adhesion of a single particle of the mortar.

In laying the foundations of walls, the first courses are
always laid broader than the wall intended to be carried up;
these courses are called the footings, and the prqjections are
called set-offs; there are generally two inches in each pro-
jection.

In working up the wall, not more than four or five feet
of any part should be built at a time; for as all walls shrink
immediately after building, the part which is first brought
up will settle before the adjacent part is brought up to it;
and the shrinking of the latter will consequently cause the
two parts to separate. Unless it be to accommodate the
carpenter, &c., no part of a wall should be carried higher
than one scaffold, without having its contingent parts added
to it. In carrying up any particular part, the ends should

be regularly sloped off, so as to reCeive the bond of the

adjoining parts, on the right and le it.

In laying bricks, there are four kinds of BOND; vi)_'.,
English-bond, Flemish-bond, Herring-bond, and Garden-
wall-bond. The two first are principally used in modern
brickwork, the others only occasionally.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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49

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In English-bond, a row of bricks laid lengthwise on the
length of the wall, is crossed by a row With its breadth-1n
the said length, and so on alternately. The courses in which
the lengths of the bricks are disposed through the length of
the wall, are called stretching courses, and the bricks,
stretchers: the courses in which the lengths of the bricks
run in the thickness of the walls, are called heading courses,
and the bricks, headers. The other sort of bond, called
Flemish-bond, consists in placing a header and a stretcher
alternately in the same course. See BOND, English, &c.

When new walls are to be built into old it is usual to cut
a chase, or draw a brick at every other course in the old
work, and tooth in the new work. When it is intended to
add walls to buildings, these toothings are left.

The most difficult work for a bricklayer to execute is the
groining or intersection of arches in vaults, where every brick
has to be cut to a different bed. This and the arches called
gauged arches, either circular or straight, require the neatest
workmanship. Some straight arches are made roughly; that
is, the bricks are inclined each‘ way, parallel to each other, on
the respective skewbacks, or shoulders of the arch, until the
Sofiit-ends of the bricks touch, when the vacant space at t0p
is filled with two bricks, fo‘rming a wedge: this arch, like other
straight arches, is constructed on a camber slip, or piece of
wood slightly curved on the upper side for a centering.

In steining wells, a centre must first be made, consisting of
a boarding, of inch or inch-and-half stuff, ledged within with
three circular rings, upon which the bricks are laid, all
headers. The gaps between the bricks towards the boarding
are to be filled in with tile or pieces of brick. As the well-
sinker excavates the ground, the centre with its load of bricks
sinks, and another, similarly charged, is laid upon it, another
upon that, and so on, till the well is completed; the centering
remaining permanently fixed with the brick-work. This is
the method generally adopted in London, at least where the
soil is sandy and loose; where it is firm, centerings are not
requisite. In the country, among many other methods, the
following most prevails: rings of timber, without the exterior
boarding, are used; upon the first ring, four or five feet of
bricks are laid, then a second ring, and so on. But this is
far inferior to the mode above described, as the sides of the
brick-work are apt to bilge in sinking, particularly if great
care be not taken in filling and ramming the sides uniformly,
so as to keep the pressure regular and equal. In steining
wells, and in the construction of cesspools, a rod of brick-work
will require at least 4,760 bricks.

In winter, it is essential to preserve the unfinished wall, as
much as possible, from the alternate effects of rain and frost,
than which nothing is more destructive to a building; the
rain by penetrating into the very heart of the bricks and
mortar, and the frost by converting the water, so lodged, into
ice, expanding its bulk, and bursting or crumbling the
materials in which it is contained. The decay of buildings,
Commonly attributed to the effects of time, is, in reality,
occasioned by this operation and counter-operation of the rain
and frost, but as, in finished edifices, they have only a verti-
cal surface to act upon, their effects are not rapidly extended.
In an unfinished wall, there is a horizontal surface, by which
both rain and frost find an easy access into the body of the
work; care must therefore be taken to exclude them, by a
sufficient covering, as soon as the frost or stormy weather
sets in, either of straw, which is most usually employed, or of
weather—boarding, placed in the form of a stone coping, so as
to throw off the water equally on either side: but in the
latter case, it is advisable to have a good body of straw under
the wood, as no precaution can he too great, for the security
and strength of the work.

0

 

A variety of pleasing cornices and ornaments may be
formed in brick-work, by the disposition of the bricks, fre-
quently without cutting them, or, if cut, chamfering only
may be used ; but a great defect is frequently to be observed
in these ornaments, particularly in the bilging of the arches
over windows. This arises from mere carelessness in rubbing
the bricks too much oil“, on the inside; whereas, if due care
were taken to rub them exact to the gauge on the inside, that
they bear upon the front edges, their geometrical bearings
being united, they would all tend to one centre, and produce
a. well-proportioned and pleasing effect.

A rod of brickwork was taken from the original standard
of 16% feet square, and consequently the superficial rod con—
tained 272.25 square feet, or 272% square feet; but as the
quarter was found troublesome in calculation, 272 superficial
feet was admitted as the standard for brickwork ; the result
is the same in practice, when it is considered that equal values
will be found by annexing the proportional price per rod to
each; and indeed, if the same price be appropriated to each,
the difference would be so trifling as not to be worth the
trouble of calculating. The standard thickness of a brick
wall is 1% brick in length, therefore if 272 square feet be mul-
tiplied by 13% inches, the result is 306 cubic feet in the rod.

A red of standard brickwork with mortar, will require
4,500 bricks at a medium, allowing for waste; this number
will depend upon the closeness of the joints, and the size of
the bricks. The mortar in a rod of brickwork will require
1% cwt. of chalk-lime, or 1 cwt. of stone-lime, and 2% loads
of sand with stone-lime, or 2 loads with chalk-lime.

In walling, a foot of reduced brickwork will require 17
bricks. A foot superficial of marl facing laid in Flemish
bond, will require 8 bricks; and a foot superficial of gauged
arches, 10 bricks. In paving, a yard will require 82 paving-
bricks, or 48 stock-bricks, or 144 Dutch clinkers laid on edge,
or 36 bricks laid flat.

In tiling, 100 superficial feet make a square. A square
will require, of plain tiles, 800 at a 6 inch gauge, 700 at
a 7-inch gauge, or 600 at an 8—inch gauge. The distance
of the laths will depend upon the pitch of the roof, and
may require a 6, 7, or 8-inch gauge: thus, a kirb roof will
require a gauge of 7% or 8 inches in the kirb part, and the
upper part 6, 6%, or 7 inches, the distance being less as the
angle of elevation is less. A square of plain tiling will
require a bundle of laths, more or less according to the pitch,
two bushels of lime and one of sand, and a peek of tile-pins
at least. The laths are sold in bundles, which generally con-
sist of 3, 4, and 5-fect lengths; the 3-feet are 8 score, the 4-feet
6 score, and the 5-feet 5 score to the bundle. The nails used
in lathing, are fourpenny. They are purchased by the long
hundred, viz., six score to each hundred, and charged by the
bricklayer by the short hundred, viz., five score to the
hundred. The rates of charge by the hundred are as their
names imply, viz., fourpenny, fourpence per hundred; six-
penny, Sixpence per hundred. The number of nails required
to a bundle of five-feet laths are 500, and to a bundle of six-
feet laths 600. A square of pan-tiling will require 180 tiles,
laid at a 10-inch gauge, and a bundle of laths. The bundle
consists of 12 laths, 10 feet long.

In lime measure, 25 striked bushels, or 100 peeks, is a
hundred of lime ; 8 gallons, or 2,150g cubic inches, is
a bushel dry measure; and 268% cubic inches is a gallon.

In sand measure, 24 heaped bushels, or 30 striked bushels,
is a load, and 24 cubic feet weigh a ton. In mortar measure,
27 cubic feet make a load, which contains half a hundred of
lime, with a proportional quantity of sand; 1,134 cubic inches
make a hod, which is 9 inches by 9, and 14 inches long;
2 hods of mortar make a bushel nearly.

I

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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50

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A ton weight contains 2312- cubic feet of sand, 17% of clay,
or 18 of earth, or 330 bricks.

A. cubic foot. contains 951b. of sand, 1351b. of clay, or
1241b. of common earth, or 125 bricks.

To measure trenches for fozmdations.—-All kinds of exca-
vations of earth are measured by the number of cubic yards
which they contain; therefore, to find the number of cubic
yards in a trench, find the solidity of the trench in cubic feet,
which divide by 27, the number of cubic feet in a yard, and
the quotient, if any, is the answer in cubic yards, and the
remainder, if any, shows cubic feet.

Example—The length of a trench is 62 feet, the vertical
depth 2 feet 6 inches, and the breadth 2 feet 9 inches.

62

9i

27) 4‘26 3 (15 yards 21 feet, the answer.
2

7

——___

156
135

—.

21

In the horizontal dimensions, if the trench is wider at the
top than at the bottom, as is generally the case, and equal
at the ends, take half the sum of the two dimensions for
a mean breadth, and if the breadth of one end of the trench
exceed that of the other, so as to have two mean breadths
differing from each other, take half the sum of the two added
together, as a mean breadth for the whole.

Or, take a mean dimension in the middle of the length, and
the middle of the height, and proceed as in the above operation.

The footing of a wall is the projecting courses of brickwork
under the wall, spread out to prevent it from sinking.

To measure the footing of a u-all.——l\[nltiply the length
and the height of the courses together, then multiply the
product by the number of half bricks in the mean breadth :
divide the last product by 3, and the quotient is the answer
in reduced feet.

The number of half bricks in the mean breadth will be
found by adding the number of half bricks in each course
together, and dividing the sum by the number of courses ;
or take half the sum of the half bricks in the upper and
lowermost courses : but if the» number of courses is odd, this
trouble may be saved by taking the number of half bricks
in the middle course for the mean breadth.

Also, instead’of measuring the height of the footing, it is
usual to allow three inches to each course in height; or multiply
the number of courses by 3, which gives the height in inches.

Example—The footing of a wall is 62 feet in length, and
consists of 3 courses, the middle course of which consists
of 3% bricks ; how many feet of reduced work are in the
said footing ?

G2 0
0 9

.—_.___

46 6
7 number of half bricks in mean breadth.

3) 325 ii—
108 ft. 6 in. of reduced brickwork.

Tofind the number of rods contained in a piece of brick-
work. Rule I.—If the wall be at the standard thickness,

 

 

divide the area of the wall by 272, and the quotient, if any,
will be the answer in rods, and the remainder, if any, in
feet : but if the wall be less or more than a brick and a half
in thickness, multiply the area of the wall by the number of
half bricks, that is, the number of half lengths of a brick ;
divide the product by 3, and the wall will be reduced to the
standard of 1% brick thick. Divide tne quotient by 272, and
this quotient will give the number of rods required.

Rule II.—-Divide the number of cubic feet contained in the
wall by 306, and the quotient, if any, will show the number of
rods, and the remainder, if any, the number of cubic feet.

Rule III.—Multiply the number of cubic feet in the wall
by 8 ; divide the product by 9, and the quotient will give
the area of the wall at the standard: divide the standard
area by 272, and this quotient, if any, will show the number
of rods; the remainder, if any, is the reduced feet. The rea-
son of this rule maybe thus shown : TAT =_1__=_1_
JX 212 9X 34 306
which is a divisor of a rod, without any regard to the standard.

Example—The length of a wall is sixty-two feet, the
height fifteen feet, and the breadth equal to the length of
two bricks and a half: how many rods of brickwork are
contained in the wall ?

Operation by Rule I.
62
15
310
62

__

930
5 number of half bricks.

3) 4650

272 ) 1550 ( 5 rods 190 feet, the answer.
1360

190
Operation by Rule II.

62
15

310
62
030
1 10
38 ‘J

v-n...

1 IO
930

306 )1743
1530

 

 

 

 

 

C

0 ( 5 rods 213 feet, the answer.

 

213
Operation by Rule III.
62
15
310
62
930
1 10 6
38 9 0
775
930

1743 9
8
9) 13950 0
272 ) 1550 ( 5 rods 190 feet, the answer.
1860

 

190

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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In the calculation of brickwork, where there are several
walls of different thicknesses, it will be quite unnecessary
to use the divisors 3 and 272, as will be hereafter shown.

In measuring walls within the districts to which the
building act extends, it is customary to take the length of
front walls within thebuilding, and the length of party walls
from the front to the rear faces of the building, in order to
appropriate more easily the share of each proprietor; but in
country houses, which stand insulated, and which have their
adjoining faces of the same workmanship, e1t-her of the two
pair of parallel walls may be taken the whole length of the
external faces, and the dimensions of the other pair of parallel
walls should be taken perpendicularly from the interior sides
of the said walls, or the horizontal stretch of the interior
side of either. '

In measuring for workmanship only, it is customary to
allow the length of each wall on the external side ; or, if all
the adjoining walls are of the same workmanship, to girt the
whole on the outside; and consequently, if the building be
a rectangle, the contents will by this means exceed the real
quantity by four square pillars, each the height of the build-
ing, and in horizontal dimensions the thickness of each wall.
This is a compensation for plumbing the angles; but this
practice is unfair with regard to materials.

In measuring walls that are faced with bricks of a superior
quality, the London surveyors measure the whole as if com-
mon work, and allow so much per rod for the facing, as the
quality of the bricks and superior excellence of the work may
deserve. The facing may be reckoned at two-thirds of a brick.

In taking the dimensions of the brickwork in the different
stories, the height of each part, as high as it goes of the same
thickness, must be taken ; and the contents of each part
computed separately, the offsets being always below the joists,
and consequently the wall the same thickness throughout,
from the ceiling of one floor to the ceiling of another.

All apertures and recesses from any of the faces are to be
deducted, but an allowance per foot lineal should be granted
upon every right angle, whether external or internal, except
that two external angles are formed by a brick in breadth,
and then only one of them must be accounted for. This
allowance is in consequence of plumbing the faces which
constitute the said angles ; but if the bricks are cut so as to
form oblique angles, this allowance should be at least double.

It is customary, in almost every part of the country, in
measuring for workmanship, to find the contents of the walls
as if solid, without deducting the vacuities, so that upon this
principle, if the apertures be ever so large, they must, at all
events, be accounted as solid ; and, in this instance, the pro-
prietor would be greatly overcharged by the workman.

Again, in apertures of small breadth, the trouble in plumb-
ing at the returns is equally the same at the same height as
if ever so wide; but in case the voids are less than the
lineal allowance, there would be a manifest loss to the master
workman. It is much to be wished that such an allowance
as above-mentioned should be established, in order to do away
the uncertainty of computing the quantity of walling, such
as to be often above, and sometimes below the real value of
workmanship.

Gauged arches are sometimes deducted and charged sepa-
rately, and sometimes not ; but it is the same whether they
are deducted or not, as the extra price must be allowed in
the former case, and the whole price allowed in the latter,
which is much the more troublesome of the two. Gauged
arches are at least five times the trouble of the best marl facing.

To measure the vacuity of a rectangular window—Find
the solidity that would fill the outside vacuity from the face
of the wall to the reveal, or outside of the sash-frame ; the

 

solidity that would fill the vacuity from the outside of the
sash-frame to the vertical plane of the extension of the back
upwards; and the solidity that would fill the vacuity con-
tained between the vertical plane of the back and the internal
face of the wall ; then add these three solidities together, and
the sum will be the solidity that will fill the whole void;
then add the allowances.

0r theta—Find the area of each of the three vacuities
parallel to the face of the wall; multiply each area by each
respective number of half bricks in the thickness of the wall,
add the three products together; divide the sum by 3, and
the quotient reduces the contents in superficial feet to the
standard thickness.

' In taking the dimensions of brickwork, inches are generally
neglected.

Example—Suppose the height of the outer vacuity, from
the sill to the under side of the head, to be 10 feet, the
breadth 4 feet 6 inches, and the thickness half a brick; the
height of the middle vacuity from the sill t0 the under side
of the wooden lintels, to be 10 feet 3 inches, the breadth
5 feet 2 inches, and the thickness also % a brick, and the
inside vacuity, from the floor to the under side of the said
lintels, 13 feet; the mean breadth, supposing the inside to
splay, to be 5 feet 6 inches, and the depth of the recess 1%
brick: required the solidity that will fill the void.

Operation for the outside vacuity.

10
4%

.—

4O
5

45

—.

Operation for the middle vacuity.

 

10 3 O
5 2 0
1 8 6

51 3 0

52 11 G

 

 

Operation for the inside vacuity.

 

 

 

 

l3

5%

65

6 6 ft. in. sec.
45 0 O

71 6 52 11 6

3 214 6 0

214 6 3)312 5 6

1 10 the solid that will
fill the vacuity.

104

To calculate the price of a rod of brickwork—This will
depend upon the quality of the bricks and the goodness of
the workmanship; for in building foundations and party-
Walls, which are commonly done with place-bricks, the brick-
layer may easily lay 1,500 bricks in a day: in garden-walls,
barns, and common country houses, where greater nicety is
required in jointing, he may lay about 1,000 per day; and in
gray-stock, or marl fronts, done with great care, he will
hardly exceed 500 in the day. The expense per rod will also
depend upon the articles of living, and consequently upon the
times. One example, however, will be sufficient; the prices
of materials and labour may be had from a Price Book. In the

 

 

 

 

 

 

BRI

52

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following statement, the work is supposed to be a well-built
gray-stock front, the rates of charge according to the present
London prices for 1848.

£. 8. d.
To 4,500 gray-stock bricks, prime cost at E 8 ll 0
38s. per thousand .........................
1% cwt. lime, at 14s. per cwt ....... . ......... .. 1 1 0
2 loads sand, at 5s. per load .................. 0 10 O
3} of a day of a labourer to slack, chaff, 8w. 0 2 7
the mortar, 3s. 6d. per day .................. i %
Bricklayer 5 days, 55. 6d. ........... . ......... 1 7 6
Labourer 5 days, 3s. 6d ................ ..... 0 17 6
£12 9 7%
Add 1% per cent for scaffolding, &c ......... . 0 3 4%
Add 15 per cent profit on the prime cost... 1 17 6
£14 10 6

In making the calculation of a wall where the bricks of
the facing are of a superior quality to the backing, it is pro-
per to observe, that the number of bricks in the facing of
a rod of F lemish-bond work will vary from 1,500 to 2,000,
according 'to the size of the bricks and closeness of the
joints; this number of bricks must be deducted from the
whole number that would constitute a rod; and each number
of bricks must be valued according to their respective
qualities.

The following example will sufliciently explain the appli-
cation of the foregoing rules in the measurement of the front
wall of a house. -

Example—Suppose the front wall of a house to be four
stories high, and the length 26 feet; the footing to consist of
place-bricks in four courses, which are respectively, 5, 4%, 4,
and 3% bricks in breadth; the basement part of the wall to be
built with gray-stocks, 11 feet in height, and 3 bricks in
thickness; the parlour part of the wall to be 11 feet in height,
and 2% bricks in thickness; the one-pair-of—stairs, or principal
floor, to be 13 feet in height and 2 bricks in thickness; the
chamber floor to be 10 feet in height and 1% brick in thick-
ness; the three upper stories to be of gray-stock work, faced
with marls; in each of the basement and entrance stories are
to be two windows and a door, and three windows in each of
the upper stories: the whole of the windows, as well as the
doors, to be 4 feet in width; the windows in the basement to
be 6 feet in height, and not recessed in the inside below the
sash-frame: those in the parlour-story to be 8% feet in height,
recessed from the inside of the room below the sash-frame,
which is to be placed two feet above the surface of the floor;
those in the drawing-room story to descend to the bottom, and
to be in height 10 feet. The upper windows to be 6 feet
9 inches in height, and 2% feet above the surface of the floor,
the head of the basement door to be upon a level with the
windows, and the jambs 8% feet high. The street-door to
entrance, or parlour-story, to be semicircular, and the top of
the arch upon a level with the soflits of the heads of the
windows; the sash-frames to be all sunk within the jambs
in 4 inch reveals'; likewise the under sides of the wooden
lintels above the level of the soflits of the brick heads, to be
recessed 3 inches upward, and the door-frames 13 inches into
thejambs, and also 3 inches into the head; all the windows
and doors to have rubbed and gauged arches: the arches of
the windows to be ll inches broad, and in height equal to
four courses of the wall. Their mean length, or horizontal
dimension, to be 4% feet; the soilits to be the breadth of
a brick, or 4% inches, and the length is consequently four feet,
the breadth of the windows: the arch of the door to be 9
inches broad on the face, and as much on the soffit: how
much will the whole amount to, supposing the rod of place-
bricks to be £12. 15s. the rod of gray-stock work to be
£14. 10s. the extra facing of best marl stocks to be Sixpence

 

per foot superficial, the extra price of the rubbed and gauged
arches 3s. per foot, and the lineal foot of angles in apertures
to be a penny per foot: likewise, what will be the price of a
rod, supposing the apertures not deducted, and what will be
the rate if they are deducted, without making any other extra
charge whatever; so that the profit of the master bricklayer
shall be the same in either case?

The dimensions are generally taken with two five-feet rods,
and entered in a book, ruled perpendicularly for the purpose.
In brick-work it will be convenient to have three columns
contiguous to each other on the left hand; the first vertical
column to contain the dimensions, and to be only bounded by
one vertical line on the right-hand side of the column: the
dimensions of the same surface to be written one under the
other, putting the like denominations in vertical rows ;
the number of times any work is repeated is put on the left
of the upper dimension, and separated from it by a curve;
the number of half bricks are to be written in the adjoin-
ing right—hand column, ruled on both sides, and in a horizontal
line with either dimension.

It would answer little purpose to show the work arising
by squaring the dimensions. It may be proper to observe, in
order to avoid numerous repetitions of division, that the
dimensions of the surfaces, in length and breadth, must be
multiplied together, and the product multiplied by the num-
ber of times, if more than once repeated, and this last pro-
duct again by the number of half bricks in the thickness
of the work: but if the outline of the surface of the work be
circular, or any figure whatever, the quantity of surface must
be found by the rules for measuring that figure, and repeated
the number of times, and this product by the number of half
bricks in the thickness of the work, as before. These products
may be found by beginning with any of the multipliers, and
using any one of the remaining ones in each succeeding
product until their number is exhausted; the result is to
be placed in a third adjoining column on the right, in a
horizontal row with either of the dimensions. The dimen-
sions, the number of half bricks, and contents of every
two surfaces, are to be separated from each other by a hori-
zontal line. The numbers in the third column are the con-
tents of the work reduced to a wall, half a brick thick; and
consequently, any number of contents of the same species of
work may be added together, and reduced to the standard by
dividing the sum by 3; and if rods are required, the quotient
must be divided by 272, which will save immense labour.

The following is a specimen of the Dimension Book: The
lineal measures are as in the preceding description, and are
supposed to be taken in order, as they succeed each other,
beginning with the basement part of the building, whether of
the same kind or not, in order to prevent frequent returning
to the same place.

\Vhere the same dimension is often repeated in different
parts of the building, it would be unnecessary to insert the
number of times they occur in every part; it is sufficient to
make a memorandum of the number to be found in each
place, on the waste, and then the number of times it is
repeated in the whole may be inserted in the Dimension
Book at last.

In each of the different stories, the same order, if possible,
is repeated, that mistakes of overlooking any of the articles
may be prevented.

Every other part will be sufficiently evident by inspection,
and by attending to the general description in the example,
except the semicircular head of door-way, the dimensions of
which are set down in the same manner as the others, and the
squaring is found by the rules for measuring a circle. Now
the multiplier for the area of a circle reduced to duodecimals

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

BRI 53

BRI

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

is 9 in. 5 sec.; the dimensions are 4 feet by 2 ; these multi-
plied together give 8 ; this product again multiplied by 9 1n.
5 sec. gives 6 ft. 3 m. 4 sec. and the repeated by 2, the
number of half bricks on the exterior part of the aperture,
gives 12 ft. 6 m. as the seconds are always unnoticed.
Dimension Book, with the Conlenls.
— 26 0 Footing of wall with place-bricks
1 0 8% 221 o
26 0 Part of the wall opposite basement, of gray-
“ 0 6 1716 0 stock brick-work
2( 6 0 Exterior part of the apertures of the two
4 0 1 48 0 windows
2( 6 3 Interior part of ditto
4 8 5 291 8
4(18 3 External and internal quoins of windows
73 0
3 6— Exterior part of the aperture of door-way
4 0 2 68 0
8 9 Interior part of ditto
4 8 4 163 4
2(29 9 51 (3 Quoins of door-way
26 0 Part of the wall opposite parlour, or entrance
11 0 5 1430 0 stoi‘)’
2(‘8 6 External parts of apertures of windows
4 0 1 68 0
2( 8 9 Middle parts of ditto
4 8 1 81 8
2(10 9 Internal parts of ditto
4 8 3 301 0
4(28 0 112 0 Quoins of windows
8 6 External part of aperture of street-door, ex-
4 0 2 68 0 eluding the circular head
8 6 Interior part of aperture of street-door, ex-
4 6 3 114 9 eluding the circular head -
4 0 Exterior part of aperture of semicircular
2 0 2 12 6 head of street door
4 6 Interior part of ditto
2 3 3 23 10
2(25 6 51 0 Straight quoins of door-way
‘26 0 Part of the wall opposite the one pair, or
13 0 4 1352 0 principal story
3(10 0 Exterior part of the aperture of windows
4 0 1 120 0
3(16 3 Interior part of ditto
4 8 3 430 6
li( 30 6 183 0 Quoins of windows
26 0 Part of the wall opposite attic story
10 0 3 780 0
3( 6 9 Exterior parts of apertures
4 0 l 81 0
3( 7 0 Middle parts of ditto
4 8 1 98 O
3( 9 6 Interior parts of ditto
4 8 1 133 O
6(90 9 124 6 Quoins of windows

 

 

 

 

 

P

l.
v

Sundry Extras.

 

 

 

 

 

 

11(4 6 Rubbed and gauged faces of arches in all the
0 8 33 0 windows
4 0 Rubbed and gauged arch of doorway
2 O 5 6
11(4 0 Sofiits in ditto
0 4 14 8
34 O Marl facing, including apertures
26 O 884 0
2(8 6 Deduction of parlour windows from marl facing
4 0 68 0
3(10 0 Deduction of the one-pair windows from marl
4 0 120 O facing
3(6 9 Deduction of attic windows from marl facings
4 O 81 0
8 6 Deduction of the area of doorway from marl
4 O 34 0 facing, excluding the semicircle
4 O Deduction of the semicircular head of doorway
2 0 6 3 from marl facing.

 

The dimensions are most frequently wrought upon the
waste, or upon the right-hand side of the leaf of the Dimen-
sion Book, which is very convenient, as the work may be
inspected should any mistake be apprehended.

The arranging of the several kinds of work into columns,
so as that each column may contain the same kind through-
out, is called an abstract. This arrangement saves much
trouble in the calculation, reduces the whole into a very small
compass in homogeneous kinds, and prevents the confusion
which would otherwise arise from the multitude of parts in
a complex building.

The following is an abstract of the whole: The contents
are placed in vertical columns, which are in number equal to
the number of kinds of work, every number of the same kind
being arranged in the same column. The order of each kind
or species of work is the same as they occur in the Dimension
Book; for example, 221 footing of walls, with place-bricks,
first occurs; this is entered in the first column of the abstract:
1716, basement wall of gray-stock brickwork next occurs;
these bricks and work being of a different quality, are
entered in the second column of the abstract: 48, the exte-
rior part of the apertures next occurs; this is the same kind
of work as the last, but as the former is a measure of both
solids and voids, and this is only a part of the measure of the
voids, the 48 is placed in an adjoining column. The next
number is 291 .. 8 ; this is a deduction of the same kind, and
is therefore inserted in the abstract below the 48: the next
that occurs is 73 feet of quoins lineal measure; this, being
different from the preceding, is entered in a fourth column.
The next that occur in the Dimension Book, are 68 and
163 .. 4, external and internal parts of the aperture of door-
way; being voids of the same kind as the preceding, they are
successively entered in the third column, below the 291 .. 8.
The next that occurs is 51 .. 6, quoins of doorway, and is
entered in the fourth column. The next that occurs is
1430 .. O, the part of the wall opposite parlour, or entrance-
story; now, though this is gray-stock work, faced with
marles, it is taken only as a gray-stock wall, and is therefore
entered in the second column; the difference of price for the
superior quality of bricks and work being afterwards made
up by affixing an extra price to the superficial contents of
this part of the wall, and thus for all that follows. The
whole being inserted, each column is added together, and in
the quality of the brick-work the sum of the voids is taken

 

 

 

 

 

 

BRI '54

BRI

 

from the whole; the remainder is divided by 3, which gives
the superficial contents in feet of the surface of a wall reduced
to L21 brick in thickness; the deductions being negative quan-
tities, no farther notice is taken of them; the sums of the
other columns being positive, the price is affixed to each
common measure, whether a foot or a rod, &c. and the value
of each quantity is found by this common measure; then the
quantities, with the prices of their common measures and
values, are inserted in a bill; the whole being reduced into
a sum, gives the amount of the whole money for the wall.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Abstract.
The Whole of the walling re-
duced to é a brick thick, taken Quoins of
Footing of wall as gray-stock work without apertures by
of place-bricks. regard to the facing. the lineal
foot.
Contents of the wall. Deductions.
3)221 0 1716 0 48 0
1430 0 291 8 73 0
73 8 1352 0 68 0 51 G
780 0 163 4 112 0
—— G8 0 51 0
5278 0 81 8 183 0
2103 3 301 0 124 6
~-——— 68 0
3)3174 9 114 9 595 0
-—— l2 6
272)1058(3 R 23 10
816 120 O
430 6
242 81 O
98 0
133 O
2103 3
Rubbed Marl facing in superficial feet.
and gauged
arches. Contents. Deductions.
ft. in. ft. in. ft. in.
37 1 884 0 68 O
16 6 309 3 120 O
81 0
53 7 57 9 34 0
6 3
309 3

 

 

 

The next thing to be done is to affix the price of the
common measure to each of the above species of work, and
from this, to calculate the quantity of each ; then insert the
several sums in a bill, as follows :

Bill.
Rods. Feet. :8. s. (I.

0 73?;* Superficial of place-brick work reduced E 3 8 51
to the standard at £12. 15s. per rod 4

3 242 Superficial of gray-stock work reduced to ’6 8 0
the standard at £14. 10s. per rod ...... o

O 595 Feet lineal of quoins in apertures at 1d 0 9 7
per foot ..................................... . ~

0 535 Superficial of rubbed and gauged work I 8 0 6
at 3s. per foot ............ . ......... S

0 .5742~ Superficial of marl facing at 6d per foot 14 7 4%

£ 84 13 103-
* 4% not noticed in the calculation.

In the foregoing admeasurement, the quoins are valued
by the foot lineal, in addition, and the method of making out
the contents is different from that commonly used; but
though the allowance is strictly just, and the practice shorter
and less liable to mistake than that in common use; that

 

there should be nothing wanting to gratify those who may
still favour the customary method, the admeasurement is
here repeated in the usual way. The mark thus — signifies
a deduction.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

_ , The dimensions are frequently
Dimen Contents. 'Ih‘ qunared upon the waste on the
ft. in. ft- in. brick . margin of the Dimension Book;
26 O Footmg- the following is a specimen:

1
1 0 26 0 4‘ First. Second.
4 8 8 9

26 0 286 o 3 Walling e 3 4 s

11 0 ,
28 0 35 O
2 6 8—48 0 ; Windows 1 2 211
4 2 11
6 3 29 2
2 4 8—58 4 2;. Ditto 2 4o 10
58 4

8 6—34 o 1 Doorway

4 0 Third. _Fourth.

3 9—40 10 2 Ditto 8 9 4 3

4 8 8 9

4 8 _
26 5 10 0 3 6 0
11 g 286 0 2; Walling 35 0 37 4

4O 10 0 40 10 0

2 i g— 68 O 5 Windows —- -———
The operations are wrought in

2 8 9 , various ways: as in the first and
4 8 _ 81 8 2 Dltto second, by aliquot parts; the third
and fourth by duodecimals. These

2 10 9 ' , various modes serve to confirm

4 8 _100 4 1‘ D itto each other. The third and fourth

are the same dimension, but the

8 6 , factors are inverted in respect of

4 0 _ 34 0 1 Ditto C: each other.

_ 4 4 6
4 6
. 0 8 l 1 6
4 0-— 6 3 1 Ditto 9 5 9 0
2 0
G 0 3 4 10 1 G
_ 4 __ 1 .tt 6 0 0 9 5
‘ 2 3 7 11 4 D1 0
76 6 3 4 4 2 7 6
‘~ 0 2 . - q 7 7 1 6
13 0 338 0 \l allmg
7 11 4 l 6

3 12 21—120 o 2 Windows
The mark thus 0 signifies a
3 10 3 semicircle. The method of find-

4 8 —l43 (3 1% Ditto ing the semicircular area is shown

in the two examples above; first

”(1 0 by multiplying the dimensions
i0) 0 260 0 1% Walling together, and multiplying the pro-

duct by 9 inches and 5 seconds, as
3 (‘ 0 above, or by calling the feet inches,

4’ 0 — 81 0 2 Windows as in the first operation, and multi-

plying by 9 feet 5 inches.

7 0 .

3 4 8— 98 0 4 Ditto
3 9 (3 .
4 8-133 0 1 Ditto 1

 

 

 

 

 

 

The above contents are abstracted by inserting each area
in a separate column, according to the number of half bricks
it is thick.

In the following abstract, the several parts of each column
are collected : the sum or amount is multiplied by the number
of half bricks, and the product divided by 3 ; then the positive
quantities are added together, and the negative ones added
together, their ditlbrence is the real quantity in reduced feet,
by dividing which by 2’2, the answer will be obtained in rods.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

B R I 55 B R I
Wall, including Apertures. Deductions from Wall.
45 bricks. 3 bricks. 2% bricks. 2 bricks. 1} brick. 2} bricks. 2 bricks. 15 brick. 1 brick. 5- brick.
Footing of ft. in: ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in.
place bricks
.____— 286 0 286 0 338 0 260 0 58 4 4O 10 100 4 34 0 48 0
ft. in. 6 5 4 450 8 5 4 38 3 34 0 68 O
26 0 .___ , .— — 476 8 7 11 6 3 81 8
84301716 0 3)1430 0 3) 1352 0 572 O 3) 291 8 3) 163 4 143 6 120 O
97 2 74 3 81 0
208 0 572 0 476 8 450 8 1759 4 97 2 54 5 54 5 2 98 0
13 0 700 1 1 49 6 133 0
._____ —-——— 209 10 3) 148 6
3) 221 0 272) 1058 5(3 rds. 629 8
816 700 11 49 6 1
73 8 '—
242 feet. 3) 629 8
209 10

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Instead of dividing by 3, as in the above abstract, it
would be easier to add the products of the half brickwork,
both for the walling and for the deductions, and substract

the deductions from the walling; divide the difference
by 3, and the quotient by 272, should it be found neces-
sary.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Wall, including Apertures. Deductions from Wall.

441 bricks.|3 bricks. 2% bricks. 2bricks. 1% brick. 2% bricks. 2bricks. 1:} brick. 1 brick. igbrick.
ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in.
26 O 286 0 286 0 338 0 260 0 58 4 40 10 100 4 34 0 48 0

8% 6 5 4 3 5 4 38 ~ 3 34 O 68 0
7 11 6 3 81 8
208 O 1716 0 1430 0 1352 0 780 0 291 8 163 4 143 6 120 0
l3 0 1352 0 74 3 81 0
1430 0 290 0 2 98 0
221 0 1716 0 3 133 0
—— 148 6
5278 0 870 0 629 8
2103 2 291 8 1
———- 163 4
3) 3174 10 148 6 629 8
—— 629 8
272)1058 3(3 rods 242 feet. ——
816 2103 2
24-2 l

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The other parts of the above abstracts are as in the pre-
ceding, and are, therefore, not again repeated.

A wall common to two houses, the properties of different
persons, is termed a party wall; but if a building stands
insulated, the walls which join the entrance to the rear front
are called flank walls. Chimneys are generally carried up,
either in party walls, flank walls, or partition walls, and some-
times in all of them; but never, or very seldom, in the front or
rear walls. When the walls which contain the chimneys are
thin, it becomes necessary to form a projection of sufficient
breadth and depth, for the reception of the fines, or as many
of them as can be collected into one stack. This projection
is generally a rectangular prism, showing three vertical sides,
and is termed the chimney-breast, or breast of the chimney.

The method of measuring the solid contents of every part
of a building, is to reduce all the parts into rectangular
prisms, and then find the solid contents of each prism. It
frequently happens, that walls consist of a cluster of prisms,
which may be differently divided, in order to separate them.
All apertures or cavities of any consequence, ought to be
deducted from the measure, whether the proprietor or the
contractor find the materials; but as every return or termi-
nation requires more trouble than a continued wall, an allow-
ance ought to be made in lineal measure, upon every foot of

 

angles, or terminations, as before-mentioned, for the trouble
of plumbing, leveling, and straighting. It is true, that a
great length of wall requires several intermediate plumbings,
but then, as they are only regulated upon the face, the trouble
is small in comparison to what is required in a vertical termi-
nation, or a deflection of the wall from its course, by another
return wall at an angle with it; and as these plumbings may
be made at regular distances, the parts of the wall may be
said to be uniformly built, and the same in all equal lengths
of walls, and the time proportional to the quantity under the
same circumstances of height and thickness, and therefore
the area or solidity is a fair ratio of the price : and farther it
is evident, that the greater the number of apertures or vacui-
ties, in the same length of wall, the more trouble will
they occasion the workmen, since more time is required
to form the sides of the apertures, or the boundaries of the
vacuities. In this case, therefore, the time of completing a
wall of given dimensions, even with the same quality of work,
depends upon the number of quoins that are to be built, and
consequently cannot be determined by the solidity of the wall,
but jointly by this measure and the lineal quantity of angles;
for the solidity is not as the time, when the number of quoins
are increased, and consequently the price not as the time;
but the price may be made up by the increase of the angles.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

BRI

56

BR!

 

It is likewise evident, that in building quoins, while the
workmen continue at the same rate of work, the lineal quantity
is in the same ratio as the time, and therefore this lineal
measure is a fair representation of the value of the work. In
carrying up a wall of the same horizontal length, where
there are no vacuities, the quantity of work performed by the
same number of bricklayers is equal in equal times, but the
work requires an additional number of labourers as the height
increases, to supply the materials: in this case also, the
quantity of surface is a fair representation of the value of
the work, in respect of the bricklayers, but an additional sum
must be added as the work proceeds, and this increase would
be the terms of an arithmetical progression; for suppose the
materials at the foot of the scaffold, and the scaffolding erected
at regular heights; now it is evident, that Whatever time the
labouref requires to mount the first scaffold, he would require
a time double, triple, quadruple, the first, &c., to mount the
second, third, fourth scaffold, &c.: the sum of all these times
is the whole time. There should also be a uniform increase
of price for the use of scaffolding, as well as for an additional
number of labourers, as the work is carried upwards. From
the aggregate of these circumstances, it is evident, that the
value of the labour, with respect to the bricklayers, may be
fairly estimated by the quantity of surface, of equal thickness,
but an increase of price must be allowed for labourers and
scaffolding.

To measure and value party walls, flan/a walls, and par-
tition walls with fines—F ind the cubical contents of the
whole, or each part of the wall, in feet, according to its figure,
or the figures into which it may be resolved; deduct the
vacuities, multiply the remainder by 8, and divide the pro-
duct by 9, and the work will be reduced to the standard;
then take the lineal measure of all the quoins, whether exter-
nal or internal, the proper rate being affixed to each common
measure, and it will give the value of the whole.

In measuring walls containing chimneys, it is not cus-
tomary to deduct the fines; but this practice, with regard to
the materials, is unjust, though perhaps, by taking the labour
and materials together, the overcharge, with respect to the
quantity of bricks and mortar, may, in some degree, com-
pensate for the loss of time; on the other hand, should the
proprietor find the materials, it is not customary to allow for
the trouble of forming the flues, which is therefore a loss to
the contractor, or to the workman who engages to execute his
part by measure or task-work.

With regard to the allowance for the lineal measure of
quoins, we regret to observe, that the practice is not general,
and, so far as we know, has only as yet taken place in outside
and inside splays, and the angles of groins: we admit that
every innovation, not founded upon reason, ought to be
resisted; but as we are convinced of the justice of this mode,
we have here ventured to introduce this as a general practice,
which ought to be followed in every case, whether the quoins
be vertical, or horizontal, or curved ; and an appropriate price
should be affixed to each species of quoins, whether external
or internal, right-angled or oblique, curves or right lines, as
the trouble is greater in external than in internal angles,
greater in oblique than in right angles, greater in curved quoins
than in straight ones, and still greater in groins, where the
angles are continually varying, than in curves where the
angles are the same throughout.

If the brick-work of the footing of a wall project equally on
each side, and if the bricks be of the same kind as the wall
above, take the height of the wall from the bottom of the
footing, as high as it goes of the same thickness; multiply
that by the length and the thickness, and reserve this solidity;
then multiply the length of the wall, the height of the footing,

 

and its projection with the addition of half a brick, will give
the solidity of the footing; add these two solidities together,
and the sum will be the solidity of the wall, from which
deduct the vacuities, and the remainder will be the quantity
of solid work.

If the breast of a chimney project from the surface of the
wall, and be parallel thereto, the best method is to take the
horizontal and vertical dimension of the face, multiply these
together, and the product by the thickness taken in the thin-
nest part, taking no notice of the breast of the chimney; then
find the solidity of the breast itself; add these solidities
together, and the sum will give the solidity of the wall,
including the vacuities, which must be deducted for the real
solidity; after taking the dimensions for the quantity of
brick-work, the lineal quantity of angles should be taken, and
entered in the Dimension Book.

Nothing more is necessary to be said of the shaft, than to

ake its dimension in height, and horizontally in breadth and

thickness, in order to ascertain the solidity; and then take
the lineal quantity of angles, and enter them all in the Dimen-
sion Book.

If a chimney is placed in the angle, with the face of the
breast intersecting the two sides of the wall, the breast of
the chimney must be considered as a triangular prism; to
find the solidity, therefore, multiply the area of the base by
the height of the surface of the front or breast, and the pro-
duct is the solidity.

To take the dimensions : from the intersections of the front
of the breast into the two adjacent walls, draw two lines on
the floor parallel to each adjacent wall, then will the triangle
on the floor, included. between the front and these lines, be
equal to the triangular base of the chimney. In order to
obtain the area of the triangular base, the dimensions may be
taken in three various ways, almost equally easy; but as con-
venient a method is to take the extent of the base, which is the
horizontal dimension of the breast, and multiply that by half
the perpendicular; or, multiply the whole perpendicular by
half the base, for the area of the surface on which the prism
stands ; but as fractions arise by the halving of odd numbers,
it would be better in such cases to multiply the whole per-
pendicular by the whole base, and half the product will give
the area of the prismatic base, which is that of the chimney
breast.

Sometimes the front of the chimney-breast does not
intersect the walls, but is projected out from each adjacent
wall by two returning vertical planes of equal breadth, each
at a right angle with the adjacent wall: in this case the
triangular prism is measured as before; but as the part
between the prism and the wall is frequently constructed
with burrs, an inferior kind of brick, this part will then
consist of two rectangular prisms, and there is nothing more
to do than to measure them as such; then deducting the
vacuity of the fire-place from the triangular prism, the
remainder will be the true solidity of this prism. In the
former case, when the plane of the breast intersects the two
sides of the room, a lineal allowance per foot ought to be
made for the inside splays, and in the latter case, where the
plane of the breast does not intersect the adjacent walls,
there will be two outside splays, and two internal right
angles ; in this case, there must be an allowance for outside
splays, and the internal right angles, per foot, running each
according to its respective qualities: and in both cases it
would only be fair to allow for the vertical extent of the
angles of the fire-place. It is not here meant that these
allowances should be made according to the present prices,
which are adapted so as to include hinderances at a hazard,

without any foundation in common reason, but that the
O

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

BRI 57

BRI

 

price per rod should be reduced in an adequate degree, and
each kind. valued by its common measure, in proportion to
the time it requires to perform a given portion.

A row of plain tiles laid edge to edge, with their broad
surfaces parallel to the termination of a wall, so as to project
over the wall at right angles to the vertical surface, is called
single plain tile creasing, and if two rows are laid one above
the other, the one row breaking the joints of the other, then
these two rows are called double plain tile creasing; over
the plain tile creasing a row of bricks are on edge, with
their length in the thickness of the wall, called a barge
course, or cope.

In gables which terminate with plain tile creasing, coped
with brick, in order to form the sloping bed for the tile
creasing, the bricks must be cut, which is a considerable
trouble; the sloping of the bricks thus, is called cut splay.
Plain tile creasing and cut splay are charged by the foot run,
and sometimes the latter by the foot superficial.

A brick wall made in panels between quarters, is called
brick-nogging. This kind of work is generally measured
by the yard square, with the quarters and nogging pieces
included in the measure ; but the apertures should be deducted,
and the lineal measure of the angles allowed.

Pointing is the filling up of the joints of the bricks on the
face, after the wall is built, with mortar, so as to be regular.
Pointing is of two kinds. In either, the mortar in the joints
is well raked out, and filled again with blue mortar : in the
one kind, the courses are simply marked with the edge of a
trowel; in this state it is called flatjoz'nt pointing. If, in
addition to flat joint pointing, plaster be inserted in the joint
with a regular projection, and neatly pared to a parallel
breadth, this state is called tuck pointing, or tuck-joint point-
ing, formerly tack and patt. .

Pointing is measured by the foot superficial, including in
the price, mortar, labour, and scaffolding.

Rubbed and gauged work is set either in putty or mortar,
and is measured either by the foot run, or by the foot super-
ficial, according to the construction.

The circular parts of drains may be either reduced to the
standard, or to the cubic foot, and the number of rods taken
if required. The mean dimension of the arch will be found
by taking the half sum of the exterior and interior circum-
ferences ; but perhaps it might be proper to make the price
of the common measure, whether it be a foot, or a yard, or
a rod, greater, as the diameter is less ; but as the reciprocal ratio
would increase the price in small diameters too much, perhaps
prices at certain diameters would be a sufficient regulation.

Circular walls are measured in the same way, by finding
a mean girt, which is to be multiplied by the height and
thickness; but all work should be valued in proportion to
the time required to perform a given portion of it, but in
equal portions of straight and curved walls of the same kind
of workmanship, the curved portion will require a greater
price than the straight portion.

In measuring canted bows, the sides are measured as
Continued straight walls, but the angles on the exterior side
of the building, whether they are external or internal, are
allowed for in addition, and paid for under the denomination
of Iran qf bird’s-mouth,- all angles within the building, if
oblique, from whatever cause they are formed, whether by
straight or circular bows, or the splays of windows, are
allowed for, under the denomination of run of cut splay.
I‘hese_allowances are certainly what ought in justice to be,
and this is fulfilling, in part, what has been so much insisted
ypon; but allowances should extend to right angles also:
if the bricks be made to the splay, then the charge need not
be greater than when the angles are right.

0.

 

Brick cornices are charged by the foot run, but as there
are many kinds, and these executed with more or less difli-
culty, the price will depend on this, and also upon the value
of the materials.

Garden walls are measured the same as other walls, but
if they are interrupted with piers, the thin part may be
measured as in common walling, and the piers by themselves,
and the additional allowance for the right angles, at per foot
run, should be granted. The coping is measured by itself,
according to its kind. .

The common measure for tiling, is a square of 10 feet, each
side containing an area of 100 superficial feet. Not only the
price of new work is valued by this measure, but also strip-
ping and re-tiling of old roofs; but if any quantity of new
tiles are used, they are charged separately, and the superficial
quantity of old tiles that would fill the places of the new, are
computed, and deducted from the old. In plain tiling, as the
rafters are generally made three-quarters of the breadth of
the building, the surface of the roof is exactly equal to the
area, and a half more, of the length and breadth of the build-
ing, or the space contained between the sides of the covering
and ends. This being kept in View, will save much trouble
in calculation.

Paving is laid either with bricks or tiles, and is measured
by the yard square. The price per yard will depend on
whether the bricks are laid flat or on edge, or whether laid
with bricks or tiles, or of what size tiles, or whether any of
these be laid in sand or in mortar.

The mensuration of groins and vaults will be shown under
their respective heads.

That this work may be generally useful, we shall here
subjoin the customs of several other parts of the United
Kingdom, as well as the foregoing, which are calculated for
London and its neighbourhood, or work done in the country
by London masters.

In most counties, brick walls are measured by the yard,
without reducing the thickness of the work to the standard,
and fixing a price per yard according to the thickness.

In Cumberland, walls are mostly measured by the yard,
and rated according to the thickness of the work: they have
also a standard thickness of 18 inches, and their rod or rood
is 49 square yards; these are also used by masons in the
country, but neither the standard nor the rod are frequently
used; apertures are always included for workmanship. In
measuring the breasts of chimneys, they take the horizontal
girt from wall to wall, to this they add the number of withs,
or divisions between the flues, reckoning each with 3 inches,
for the whole breadth; the height of the story, or as high as
the work goes on uniformly, is the other dimension of the
face, and the thickness is reckoned 9-inch work. In mea-
suring a chimney-shaft, they girt it all round, then add the
number of withs for the breadth, as before, and if there is
only one row of flues, they reckon the thickness a 9-inch
wall.

In Scotland, the brickwork of outside walls is generally
measured by the rood of 36 square feet, and this measure is
almost, if not quite, general. In Glasgow, the standard
thickness is 14 inches, or 1% brick, the same as London; and
walls of less thickness are generally measured by the yard,
and the rate of price is according to the thickness of the
work. Chimney shafts, or stalks as they are there called,
are girt about for their horizontal dimension, and the altitude
of the shaft, together with half its thickness, is the other
dimension of the face; and the thickness is reckoned a brick
and a half. In measuring the breasts of chimneys, they take
the breadth of the face, and one return for the length, and
the other dimension of the face is the height as far as the

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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work goes of a uniform quality and thickness; the thick-
ness is what the breast really projects. Vacuities for doors
and windows are not deducted from outside work.

In Ireland, the common measure is a perch of 21 square
feet, being 21 feet long, and 1 foot high: the standard thick-
ness is 9 inches only. The custom there, as also in most
country places in Great Britain, was to include the openings.
A 4-inch wall is reckoned two-thirds of a 9-inch wall; and
a 3-inch wall, half a 9-inch wall. In the centering of sewer
vaulting, half the arch is allowed; and in groin vaulting, the
whole arches are done at so much per piece, according to
their kind; splayed jambs, cant quoins, &c., by the running
foot.

For further information on measuring, the reader is referred
to a valuable little work, called “ The Student’s Guide to the
Practice of Measuring and Valuing Artifieers’ Works,” pub-
lished by Weale, London.

Materials in bricklaying are charged as follows :—

Fine bricks, red rubbers, best marl stocks for cutters,
second best, pickings, common bricks, place bricks, paving
bricks, kiln-burnt bricks, and Dutch clinkers, by the thou-
sand.

Red rubbers, kiln-burnt bricks, and fire-bricks, are also
sold by the hundred.

Foot-tiles and ten—inch tiles, either by the hundred or
thousand.

Sunk foot-tiles, and ten-inch tiles, with five holes, by the
piece.

Pantiles, plain tiles, and nine—inch tiles, by the thousand.

Oven-tiles, VVelch oven-tiles, VVelch fire-lumps, fire-bricks,
and chimney-pots, are sold by the piece.

Sand, clay, and loam, by the load: lime sometimes by the
hundredweight.

Dutch terras, Parker’s Roman cement, and lime, by the
bushel.

Pantile laths, oak laths, double and single, for slating, are
sold by the bundle or load.

Hair and mortar by the load.

Mortar, lime, and hair fine stuff, Parker’s cement, and
blue pointing—mortar, are sold by the hod. Hair is some-
times sold by the bushel.

Hip hooks and T nails by the piece.

In the former edition of this work was inserted a number
of tables, showing the prices and quantities of materials; but
as there are now published several useful price-books, in
which this kind of information is given, it has been con-
sidered better to refer to them than occupy so large a portion
of our limited space as the tables would necessarily occupy.

BRIDGE, a structure of wood, stone, brick, iron, or other
material, raised over a river, pond, lake, or any intervening

space, for the purpose of affording a convenient mode of'

passage for men or animals. The extreme supports of a
bridge are called the butments, or abutments. See ABUTMENT.
If composed of more than one opening, the intermediate sup-
porters are called piers: the protecting walls or fpnces on
each side are called parapcts.

\Vhen the bridge is intended for both foot-passengers and
carriages, the sides are generally raised, and sometimes paved
with flag-stones, and are called banquettes, or jbot-patlzs ;
the middle part, being reserved for carriages, is the road, or
carnage-way.

In this place we propose to give a slight historical sketch
of the rise, progress, and present state of bridge-building,
exemplified in descriptions of the most celebrated edifices of
the kind in various parts of the world. Under the respective
heads of STONE BRIDGE, ’I‘innER BRIDGE, IRON BRIDGE,
SUSPENSION BRIDGE, &c., will be found the required infor-

 

mation on each of these several branches of this important
subject; and some account will be given of the theory under
STONE-BRIDGE.

The origin of bridges, there can be no doubt, takes its date
very far back in the annals of the human race, though we
have no documents by which to trace their progressive
improvement, from the trunk of a tree, rudely thrown by
accident or choice over a stream, to the convenient and stu-
pendous edifices of more modern times

It is probable that the first bridges were composed of
lintels of wood or stone, stretching from bank to bank; or
if the breadth of the river or valley to be passed were con-
siderable, resting on piers or posts fixed in the bed of the
river. In a strong current, the frequent piers or posts
required for the support of lintels, would, by contracting the
water-way, increase it to a torrent, obstructive of navigation,
and ruinous to the piers themselves. In constructing bridges
therefore over rapid rivers, it would be found essential to
their stability, that the openings between the supporters
should be as wide as possible, and every facility given to the
free passage of the water; and as this could be effected only
by the use of stone arches or wood trusses, there can be no
doubt that these inventions were perfected before bridges of
importance had become common.

There are still remaining bridges of great antiquity built
by the Romans, but we are not acquainted with the earliest
history of so useful a contrivance. It is by many supposed
that the Greeks very soon adopted the use of arches, but at
any rate they do not appear to have applied them to other
purposes than "for covering apertures in their buildings. See
ARCH, ARCHITECTURE. Nor had they a bridge over the
Cephisus, which crossed the high-road between Athens and
Eleusis, till the Emperor Adrian erected one. In the Old
Testament there is no mention of a bridge, and perhaps the
bridge of Semiramis, at Babylon, may be considered the
oldest on record.

The Chinese lay claim to a high antiquity for their skill
in bridge-building by means of arches. Several of these
structures are of great magnitude, built of stone, and turned
on arches in the usual manner; others are constructed with
stones from five to ten feet in length, so cut as each to form
the segment of an arc, which consequently has no key-stone;
ribs of wood being fitted to the convexity of the arch, and
bolted through the stones by iron bars, fastened in the solid
parts of the bridge.

The suspension-bridges of South America are of a very
extraordinary character, and from the lightness of their mate-
rials, their oscillation, and the great height at which they are
sometimes suspended, present to the startled traveller objects
at once alarming and picturesque, and well calculated to try
the strongest nerve. See Sterxslox-BRIDGE.

The Roman bridges are described by Bergier, as possessing
all the requisites met with in a modern bridge; they consisted
of piers, arches, butments, carriage-ways, and raised ban-
quettes or foot-paths separated from the road by a railing,
and sometimes furnished with a cover to shelter passengers
from the weather. Their solidity and proportions prove they
must have been constructed on sound principles.

The superintemlence and care of bridges was always an
important object with the Romans; it was at first committed
to the priests, who thence obtained the name of poutf/z‘ces,
afterwards it was given to the censors and curators of roads;
and at last the emperors took it into their own hands. In the
middle ages, the building of bridges was esteemed to be an
act of religion; and about the close of the twelfth century,
St. Benezet founded a regular order of hospitallers, under the
denomination of pontg'fices, or bridge-builders, whose pro

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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'vince it was to erect bridges, appoint ferries, and entertain tra-
vellers in hospitals built on the banks of rivers.

Of the bridges of antiquity, that built by Trajan across the
Danube, near the town of VVarhel, in Hungary, is allowed
to have been the most magnificent. It was destroyed by
Adrian, but some of the piers may still be seen.

The remains of a bridge, bearing as strong marks of _ ruined
magnificence as any of antiquity, are to be met with at the
bottom of a hill, on which the town of Narni is seated, on
the road between Loretto and Rome. This bridge was built
by Augustus, to join two mountains, between which flows the
river Nera, and to enable the inhabitants of Narni to pass on
a level from one mountain to the other. It was of an extra-
ordinary height, and its whole length, 850 palms (637% feet).
It consisted of four large unequal arches.

The next considerable Roman work of this kind is the
P072! du Garde, about three leagues from Nismes; which
serves the double purpose of a bridge over the Gardon, and
an aqueduct for supplying the people of Nismes with water.
The bridge, which consists of six arches, is about 465 feet in
length, and supports a second series of 11 arches, which are
continued beyond the extremities of the bridge, and form a
junction with the slope of the mountains on either side; it is
about 780 feet long. Over these is a third series of 35 arches,
much smaller than those below, 850 feet in length, support-
ing a canal on a level with the two mountains, along which
the water is conveyed to Nismes by a continued aqueduct.
This extraordinary edifice is built with very large stones,
held together by iron cramps without cement. The whole
height is 190 feet above the lower river.

The bridge of St. Esprit, near Lyons, is of Roman origin,
and has long been deemed one of the finest and boldest 0f the
ancient bridges of France. Its whole length is upwards of
800 yards; it is very crooked, bends in several places, and
makes many unequal angles, particularly in those parts where
the river has the strongest current. The arches run from
15 to 20 fathoms in width. The feet or bottoms of the piers
consist, in their lower parts, of several courses of footings
jutting out like steps; and are each protected by two pedes-
tals, projecting from them. Between the large arches are
smaller apertures, like windows, reaching nearly to the tops
of the pedestals, about the middle of the pier. This mode of
construction was adopted with a View to break gradually
the mighty force of the Rhone: the several courses of steps,
jutting out from the piers, oppose and break the stream by
portions, and prevent it from operating with its whole force
upon the fabric at once; and when the flood rises so high as
to cover the steps and pedestals, the small arches, or windows,
allow the water to pass freely, which otherwise would have
clicked in the upper part of the great arches, and endangered
by their being forced up.

The city of Valenza de Alcantara, in Spain, is celebrated
for its ancient bridge over the Tajo, or Tagus, about 25 miles
from Madrid, built in the time of the Emperor Trajan; and,
as appears from an inscription over one of its arches, by the
people of Lusitania, who were assessed to defray the expense.
It is 200 feet above the water, and though consisting of only
six arches, is 670 feet in length, and 28 in breadth. At the
entrance of the bridge is a small chapel dug in the rock by
the pagans, who dedicated it to Trajan; but when the Chris-
tians obtained possession, they consecrated it to St. Julian.

Near the old town of Brioude, in the Lower Auvergne, or
department of the Upper Loire, is a stupendous stone bridge,
of one arch, the largest with which we are acquainted. It is
attributed to the Romans, and stretches over the whole stream
of the Allier. The extremities of the arch rest on a natural
rock, which occasions the spring on one side to be lower than

 

on the other; it is formed of squared stones in two ranks;
the rest of the fabric is of rubble-work. The span of the
arch is 181 feet; its greatest height, from the level of the
water to its intrados, 68 feet eight inches; and the breadth
of the bridge, 13 feet.

The bridge of Avignon was begun in the year 1176, and
finished in 1188, probably under the direction of St. Benezet
and the fraternity of hospitallers, over whom he presided; it.
consisted of 18 arches, and was about 1,000 yards in length.
The road-way was so narrow, that two carriages could not
pass each other in any part ; this had caused it to be deserted
by all but foot-passengers long before its destruction, which
happened in 1699, by one of those violent inundations com-
mon to the Rhone. Many of the ruinous-decayed arches still
remain.

The city of Venice has nearly 500 handsome bridges of
one arch, and various sizes, over the canals, &c.; most of them
are of white stone, similar to that with which the streets are
paved, without any balusters or fence on either side. Of these
the principal is the Rialto, esteemed, when erected, a master-
piece of art. It was begun in 1588, and finished in 1591,
after a design of Michael Angelo, and consists of one bold
flat arch, nearly 100 feet wide, and only 23 in height from
the level of the water. Its breadth, which is 43 feet, is
divided into three narrow streets, by two rows of shops: the
middle street is the widest, and in the centre there is an
arched aperture, by which the three streets communicate
with each other. At each end of the bridge is an ascent of
56 steps, and the prospect from its summit is both lively and
magnificent. The foundation extends 90 feet, and rests upon
12,000 elm piles: the whole exterior of the bridge, as well
as of the shops, is of marble. The building cost the Republic
250,000 ducats.

The most stupendous and magnificent work ever executed
in the department we are now speaking of, is the aqueduct
bridge of Alcantara, near the city of Lisbon. It was begun
in the reign of John V. king of Portugal, in the year 1713,
and was finished on the sixth of August, 1732, under the
superintendence of Brigadier Mansel dc Maya. The aque-
duct commences at a spring near Ribeira de Caranque, about
three leagues and a half from Lisbon, to which city the
water is conveyed for the supply of the inhabitants. The
aqueduct passes subterraneously through the hills, receiving
in its course the waters of several springs, and stretches
across many valleys on the tops of magnificent ranges of
arches, of which, that crossing the vale of Alcantara is the
principal. When the water emerges from its subterraneous
passage, it is received in two channels on the tops of these
arches, each about 12 inches deep; it generally flows at
about the depth of seven inches, yielding an abundant supply
for the city and its environs. The interior height of this
building is 13 feet, and between the streams is a paved walk
or foot-path. The subterraneous passages are continued of
the same height and width throughout the whole extent
of the works, and are lighted and ventilated by openings to
the surface of the hills through which they pass. Over each
of these openings are turrets or square towers, with strong
latticed windows, to prevent mischievous persons from
throwing stones, 8:0. into the aqueduct. These turrets are
16 in number, each 16 feet square, and rising 23 feet six
inches above the roof of the aqueduct ; the number of win-
dows is 79, each three feet seven inches long, by 13 inches
wide, railed with iron and latticed with bars. Beneath every
second turret is an arched doorway into the aqueduct. The
water-channel under the grand arch is about 21 feet in width,
and seven feet in depth ; but this channel is dry, except in
very rainy seasons. There is, indeed, a small stream con-

 

 

 

 

 

 

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stantly running through the vale of Alcantara, but it is
conveyed by a very narrow channel under the pavement
beneath the grand arch, and then continues its course through
the valley in a stream between two and three feet wide, till
it falls into the Tagus, about two miles below. This remark-
able structure consists of 35 arches, of various dimensions.
The eighth is the grand arch, which is 108 feet five inches
in the span, and 227- feet in height: the other arches vary
from 21 feet ten inches, to 72 feet in width. The total
length of the piers and arches is 2,464 feet. The expense
of erecting this work, and keeping it in repair, has hitherto
been defrayed by the trifling rate of one rey on every pound
of meat sold in the markets of Lisbon.

In France, besides the Roman structures already noticed,
there are many bridges of more recent date, remarkable both
for their size and the boldness of their construction : among
these may be mentioned the bridge of Neuilly, built between
the years 1768 and 1780, by M. Perronet. It crosses the
Seine, on a line with the grand avenue of the Champs Elysécs,
in the front of the Tuilleries; it is level on the top, and
consists of five equal arches, 120 feet French (128 feet English)
in the span, with a rise of 30 French feet (32 feet English).
The piers are 14 feet thick, and the bridge itself 48 feet
broad. The arches, which are elliptic, are composed of 11
arcs of circles, of different diameters : the upper portion
of the arch was formed with a circle of 160 feet radius,
which, by its settlement during the building and after remo-
ving the centres, became flattened to an arc of a circle of
259 feet radius, differing so little from a platband, that the
rise of the curve in a length of 33 feet, amounts to no more
than six inches nine lines.

At Mantes is a bridge of three arches, likewise over the
Seine. It was begun in 1757, by M. Hupeau, and finished
by M. Perronet. The centre arch is 120 feet French (128
feet English) in the span ; the side arches are each 12 feet
less. The piers are 251; feet wide, and the abutments 29
feet thick.

1n the year 1771, M. Regemortes constructed a flat bridge
over the river Allier, at Moulins, consisting of 13 semi-ellip-
tical arches, of 64 feet span each, and 24 feet high.

Over the river Oise, on the great road from Paris into
Flanders, is the bridge of St. Maxence, 41 feet wide, built
by M. Perronet. The arches, three in number, each describe
the segment of a circle, whose radius is 118 feet, leaving a
water-way of 77 feet. The piers are singularly Constructed ;
each being composed of four cylindrical pillars, nine feet in
diameter, leaving between them three spaces or intereolum-
niations, which are arched over; those on the outsides are
closed with a thin walling, and the middle one is left open.

The last foreign bridge we shall notice, is that of Orleans,
over the Loire, built by M. Hupeau, between the years 1750
and 1760. It comprises nine oval arches, described from
three centres, which spring at 12 inches above low water.
The middle arch is 106 feet in span, with a rise of 30 feet ;
the extreme arches at either end, are each 98 feet wide, and
26 feet high; the intermediate arches increase gradually in
dimensions as they approach the centre. The four middle
piers are 19 feet wide; the others, 18 feet each; and the
abutments 23%,- feet thick; making the whole length of the
bridge 1,100 feet.

\Ve come now to speak of bridges in our own country,
beginning with those of the greatest antiquity. The Gothic
triangular bridge at Croyland, Lineolnshire, is supposed to
be the most ancient structure remaining entire in the king-
dom. It was erected about the year 860, but for what pur-
pose, it is difficult, if not altogether impossible to determine ;
it is, however. obvious that utility was not the motive of the

 

builder ; though it may be allowed to claim the qualities of
boldness of design and singularity of construction, as power-
fully as any bridge in Europe. It is formed by three semi-
arches, whose bases stand in the circumference of a circle,
equidistant from each other, and uniting at the top. This
curious trizme formation has led many persons to imagine,
that the architect intended thereby to suggest an idea of the
Holy Trinity: nor is this improbable, considering the age
in which it was built. The ascent on either side of the
semi-arches is by steps paved with small stones, and so steep
that foot-passengers only can go over the bridge. Horsemen
and carriages frequently go under it, as the river is in that
place but shallow. Although this structure has been built
for so many centuries, the arches are still sound and free
from fissures, and the building in general exhibits very
trifling marks of decay.

The bridge of Burton-upon-Trent is 1,545 feet in length.
It consists of 34 arches, all of free-stone, and is strong and
lofty. It was erected in the 12th century, by Bernard,
abbot of Burton.

Near Old Aberdeen is a celebrated Gothic bridge, over
the river Den.

The centre arch of the bridge at York is 82% feet wide,
and 27 feet high.

At W'inston, Yorkshire, is a bridge of a. single arch, 108
feet nine inches in width, built of rubble stone, for the small
cost of £500. It was designed by Sir Thomas Robinson,
and built by John Johnson, a common mason, of lValsingham,
in the year 1762.

At Kelso, is an elegant stone bridge over the Tweed,
built by Mr. Rennie. It is quite level at the top,‘ having
five elliptical arches, each of 72 feet span; every pier has
a circular projection, on which stand two Doric pilasters,
supporting a simple block cornice. This bridge cost about
£13,000 exclusive of the new roads at each end, which cost
about £3,000 more.

Mr. Rennie also constructed the aqueduct bridge over the
river Lune, at Lancaster, which is considered as one of the
most magnificent works of the kind extant. At the place
where it is built, the water is deep and the bottom bad : the
foundations are therefore laid 20 feet below the surface of
the water, on a flooring of timber resting on piles. The
arches are five in number, of 70 feet span each,'and rise
about 39 feet above the surface of the water. It has a hand-
some cornice, and every part is finished in the best manner.
The total height from the surface of the river, to that of the
canal, is 57 feet; and the canal admits barges of 60 tons
burden to navigate upon it. The foundation alone of this
building cost £15,000 and the superstructure more than
double that sum, although the stone was obtained from a
quarry less than a mile and a half from the spot.

The bridge over the Pease, or Peaths, between Dunbar
and Berwick-upon-Tweed, is rather an uncommon structure.
It crosses a deep ravine, and consists of four semicircular
arches. The arch on the east side of the ravine is 54 feet
wide ; the second 55 feet; the third 52 feet ; and the fourth,
or western arch, 48 feet. From the bottom of the ravine to
the surface of the road, the height is 124 feet. It was designed
and built by the late Mr. D. Henderson, of Edinburgh.

The bridges of Edinburgh are built, not over water, but
over dry land. They are distinguished by the name of
.ZVort/z Bridge and South Bridge, and afford an easy com-
munication between the New Town and the royalty and
suburbs on either side of it. The Noith Bridge, which forms
the main communication between the Old and New Towns,
was projected in the year l763; but the contract for build
ing was not signed till the 2lst of August, 1765. The

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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architect was Mr. William Mylne, who agreed with the
town-council of Edinburgh to finish the work for £10,140,
and to uphold it for ten years. It was also to be finished
before Martinmas, 1769; but on the 8th of August that
year, when the work was nearly completed, the vaults and
side walls on the south fell down. This misfortune was
occasioned by the foundation having been laid upon the
rubbish of the houses which had long before been built on
the north side of the High-street; and which had been
thrown out into the hollow to the northward; of this rub-
bish there was a depth of no less than eight feet between the
foundation of the bridge and the solid earth. Besides this
deficiency in the foundation, an immense load of earth, which
had been laid over the vaults and arches, in order to raise
the bridge to a proper level, had, no doubt, contributed to
produce the catastrophe above-mentioned. The bridge was
repaired by pulling down some parts of the side walls, and
afterwards rebuilding them; strengthening them in others
with chain bars; removing the quantity of earth laid upon
the vaults, and supplying its place with hollow arches, 8:0.
The whole was supported at the south end by very strong
buttresses and counterforts on each side; but on the north it
has only a single support. The whole length of the bridge,
from High-street, in the Old Town, to Princes-street, in the
New Town, is 1,125 feet; the total length of the piers and
arches, is 3l0 feet. The width of the three great arches, is
72 feet each; of the piers 13% feet; and of the small arches,
each 20 feet. The height of the great arches, from the base
to the top of the parapet, is 68 feet; the breadth of the
bridge, within the wall over the arches, is 40 feet; and the
breadth at each end, 50 feet. The South Bridge is in a line
with the North Bridge, so as to make but one street, crossing
the High-street almost at right angles. It consists of twenty-
two arches of different. sizes ; but only one of them is visible,
viz. the large one over the Cow-gate; and even this is small
in comparison with those of the North Bridge, being no more
than 30 feet wide, and 31 feet high. On the south, it ter-
minates at the University on one hand, and the Royal
Infirmary on the other.

The aqueduct bridge at Glasgow, over the river Kelvin,
which conducts the great canal from the Forth to the Clyde,
is the work of that great engineer, Mr. Smeaton. Its length
between the abutments, or land-piers, is 245 feet; the arches,
which are four in number, are each 50 feet in span, rising
15 feet 3 inches, from 15% feet above the footing of the piers;
the three piers are each 15 feet thick, and 54 feet high, ex-
clusive of the footing. The extrados is a straight surface for
the canal. This bridge is constructed upon true mechanical
principles, and the parapet is recessed opposite to the arches
in order to resist the pressure of the water in the canal. The
land-piers are also ingeniously contrived to be concave out-
wardly, so as to spread out at the base.

The bridge at Perth was erected between the year 1766
and 1771, according to a plan by Smeaton, under the
patronage of the late Earl of Kinnoul. It consists of ten
arches, one of which is a land arch. The clear water-way is
589% feet; the extent of all the arches, 730% feet; and the
wing-walls 176 feet: so that the total length of the bridge is
906%,i feet. The expense of building amounted to £26,446
125. 3d. and was defrayed by public subscription. Blenheim
bridge consists of three arches, the chief of which is 101%
feet in the span.

Oneofthemostextraordinarybridgesin Great Britain, is that
over the Tafl“, near Llantrissent, in Glamorganshire, called
by the \Velch Pont-y-tgi-Pridd. It is the work of William
Edwards, an uneducated mason of the country, who engaged,
in 1746, to erect a new bridge at this place, which for

R

 

 

elegance of design, and neatness of execution, surpasses any
thing-ofthe kind throughout the Principality. The description
and history of the progress of this bridge, we shall borrow
from Mr. Malkin‘s Tour in South FVales: “It consisted of
three arches, elegantly light in their construction. The hewn
stones were excellently well dressed and closely jointed. It
was admired by all who saw it. But this river runs through
a very deep vale, that is more than usually woody, and
crowded about with mountains. It is also to be considered,
that many other rivers, of no mean capacity, as the Crue, the
Bargoed Taff, and the Cunno, besides almost numberless
brooks, that run through long, deep, and well-wooded vales
or glens, fall into the Tafl', in its progress. The descents
into these vales from the mountains being in general very
steep, the waters, in long and heavy rains, collect into these
rivers with great rapidity and force, raising floods, that in
their description would appear absolutely incredible to the
inhabitants of open and flat countries, where the rivers are
neither so precipitate in their courses, nor have hills on each
side to swell them with their torrents. Such a flood unfor-
tunately occurred soon after the completion of this under-
taking, which tore up the largest trees by the roots, and
carried them down the river to the bridge, where the arches
were not sufficiently wide to admit of their passage: here
therefore they were detained. Brush-wood, weeds, hay,
straw, and whatever lay in the way of the flood, came down,
and collected about the branches of the trees, that stuck fast
in the arches, and chokedthe free current of the water. In
consequence of this obstruction, a thick and strong dam was
formed, and the aggregate of so many collected streams
being unable to get any farther, the waters rose to a pro-
digious height, and by the force of their pressure carried the
bridge entirely away! Edwards had given security for the
stability of his bridge during the space of seven years; it
had stood only about two years and a half; of course he was
obliged to erect another, and he proceeded on his duty with
all possible speed. The second bridge was of one arch, for
the purpose of admitting freely under it whatever incum-
brances the floods might bring down. The span or chord of
this arch was 140 feet; its altitude 35 feet; the segment
of a circle, whose diameter was 170 feet. The arch was
finished, but the parapets were not yet erected, when such
was the pressure of the unavoidably ponderous work over the
haunches, that it sprang in the middle, and the key-stones
were forced out! This was a severe blow to a man, who
had hitherto met with nothing but misfortune in an enterprise
which was to establish or ruin him in his profession. \Villiam
Edwards, however, possessed a courage which did not easily
forsake him; he engaged in it a third time, and by means of
cylindrical holes through the haunches, so reduced their
weight, that there was no longer any danger to be appre-

hended. The second bridge fell in 1751; the third, which
has stood ever since, was completed in 1755.” The breadth

of this bridge is about 11 feet in the widest part: but in
order to strengthen it horizontally, it is contracted towards
the centre by seven off-sets, so that the road-way is there
one foot nine inches narrower than at the extremities. It
consists of a single arch, HO feet in width, forming the seg-
ment of a circle of 175 feet; its height is 35 feet. This
arch is between 40 and 50 feet wider than that of the cele-
brated Rialto, at Venice, and its additional altitude only in
proportion. In each haunch are three cylindrical openings
running quite through, from side to side, like circular wi'n-
dows: the diameter of the lowest is nine feet; of the middle
one, six feet; and of the uppermost, three feet.

Besides the bridges already mentioned, there are other
neat and elegant structures in various parts of Great

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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62

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Britain and Ireland. In the latter kingdom, we cannot
refrain from noticing the bridge over the Liffey, above
Dublin, called Sarah, or Island Bridge, built in the year
1792, by Mr. Alexander Stevens, a mason of Edinburgh.
It consists of a single elliptical arch, 106 feet wide, rising
only 22 feet; and is consequently six feet wider than the
Rialto, at Venice, and one foot less in altitude. The city of
Dublin has likewise five other bridges over the Litfey,
of which the two following are particularly worth notice:
Arran, or Queen’s Bridge, originally erected in the year
1684, but being destroyed by a flood in 1763, was rebuilt of
hewn stone, and finished in 1768. It is built in a handsome
light style, and consists of three arches, with paved ban—
quettes for foot-passengers, on each side of the carriage-way,
guarded with stone balusters. The other is Essex Bridge,
first built in 1681, taken down in 1753, and rebuilt after the
model of Westminster Bridge. It has five arches, the
buttresses between which, support semicircular niches, pro-
jecting from the parapet; between these niches are balus-
trades, which are continued to the ends of the bridge. The
foot-ways are flagged, and the whole is constructed of hewn
stone, in very fine taste.

We come now to those magnificent examples of bridge archi-
tecture, equalling any that the Romans have left, and surpass-
ing all others in the world—the bridges of London. Each
of these noble structures may be considered almost perfect in its
kind, and as affording a specimen ofthe application in its gran—
dest form, of the peculiar material of which it is constructed.

Four of these fine bridges are built of stone—namely,
London Bridge, Blackfriars Bridge, Waterloo Bridge, and
\Vestminster Bridge. They will be fully described under
STONE BRIDGE. Southwark Bridge, built of iron, under
IRON BRIDGE. And the beautiful new bridge lately com-
pleted at Hunger-ford, by Brunel, the celebrated engineer,
under SUSPENSION BRIDGE.

Among Bridges of I'Vood, (for the principles and methods
of constructing which, see TIMBER BRIDGE,) the first that
attracts our notice is the bridge of Caesar across the Rhine.
It consisted of a double row of piles, leaning to the course of
the stream, and joined together at the distance of two feet
from each other. Forty feet lower down the river, was
another double row of piles, leaning against the stream, and
towards the former row. Between the double piles, which
were well rammed into the bed of the river, long beams, two
feet thick, were placed, and held fast at each end by two
braces. These beams being joined by transverse pieces, the
whole was surmounted with hurdles. To preserve this struc-
ture from injury by the force of the water, the supporters were
guarded with piles as buttresses; and above the bridge, other
piles were placed, to stop the progress of trees or timber,
which by accident might fall into the river, or be designedly
floated down by an enemy, to destroy the work.

The bridge over the Cismone, a river falling from the
mountains which separate Italy from Germany, is described
by Palladio as an interesting object to the builder and architect.
The river where this bridge is erected is 100 feet wide; and
because the current is very rapid, and great quantities of
timber are floated down it by the mountaineers, the bridge
was constructed of a single span. The width is divided
into six equal parts, and at the end of each part, except at
the banks, which are strengthened with pilasters of stone, are
placed the beams that form the breadth of the bridge. On
these, leaving a little space at their ends, other beams are
placed lengthwise, constituting the sides. The king-posts
are disposed on either side, over both beams, connected with
the projecting ends of those forming the breadth, by means
of iron bolts and pins.

 

 

 

At Wittengen, in Switzerland, is a very curious bridge.
the contrivance of Ulrick Grubenhamm, an uneducated car-
penter of Tutfen, in the canton of Appenzel, celebrated for
several works of the same nature. It consists of two wooden
arches parallel to each other, with the roadway hanging
between them. The span is 230 feet, and rises only five
feet. The arches approach the catenarian shape, and are
built of seven courses of solid oak logs, in lengths of 12 or
14 feet, and 16 inches and upwards in thickness. By
picking these logs of a natural shape suited to the intended
curve, the wood is nowhere trimmed across the grain. The
logs being laid one upon the other, with their abutting joints
carefully alternated, have the appearance of a wooden wall:
instead of being pinned together, they are surrounded with
straps of iron, at every distance of five feet, and fastened by
bolts and keys. The abutments are the natural rock. The
road-way intersects these arches at about the middle of their
height, and is supported by cross joists, resting on a long
horizontal beam, connected with the arches on either side by
uprights bolted into them. Three of the spaces between
these uprights have struts or braces, giving the upper work
a sort of trussing in that part. The whole is covered with a
roof, projecting over the arches on each side of the roadway,
to defend the timbers from the injuries of the weather. This
bridge is of more than sufficient strength to bear any load
that can be laid upon it, though the attempt to truss the ends
demonstrates that the builder was ignorant of true architec-
tural principles.

"In I754, Grubenhamm erected another bridge, upon a plan
nearly similar to the foregoing, at Schaffhausen, where the
river (the Rhine) is nearly 390 feet wide. The current is
very rapid at this spot, and had destroyed several stone
bridges, when Grubenhamm offered to throw a wooden
bridge across, of a single span; but the magistrates were
alarmed at the proposition, on account of the breadth of the
river, and would scarcely listen to it: at last they consented
that he should build a bridge, provided he would divide it
into two spans, and use the middle pier of the late stone
bridge as a support at their junction. Grubenhamm complied
with the wish of the magistrates, so far as to divide his bridge
into two unequal parts, the span of the one being 172 feet,
and of the other, 193, both appearing to rest upon the old
pier, though he contrived to leave it doubtful whether they
really did so or not. This structure cost £8,000 sterling, and
travellers inform us, that though it sustained the most heavily
laden waggons in perfect security, yet the weight of a single
foot-paSsengel‘ caused it to tremble under him. It was
destroyed by the French, when they evacuated Schafi'hausen,
in April, 1799.

Among wooden—bridges, the Schuylkill bridges at Philadel-
phia, in America, are very remarkable.

\Vooden-bridges, unsupported by posts or pillars, and sus-
tained only by butments at the ends, have obtained the deno-
mination of I’mdmt or [{anging Bridges, by some also called
Philosophical Bridges, of which Palladio has described three
modes of erecting; such is the bridge over the Cismone,
already described. Doctor “rallis has likewise given the
design of a timber bridge, 70 feet long, without any pillars,
which may be useful where supports cannot be conveniently
erected; and Doctor Plott assures us, that formerly there was
a large bridge over the castle ditch at Tutbury, in Stafford-
shire, made of short timbers, none of them above a yard in
length, yet not supported from beneath, either by pillars or
arches. The Spaniards use bridges of this kind for crossing
the torrents of Peru, over which it would be difficult, not to
say impossible, to throw more solid structures, either of wood
or stone. Some of these hanging-bridges are sutliciently strong

 

 

 

 

 

 

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and broad for loaded mules to pass along them with safety.
In China, these flying bridges are constructed of an almost
incredible magnitude; the Philosophical T ransactions contain
the figure of one, consisting of a Single arch, 400 cubits long,
' 0 in hei ht.

anifigficat charlie in modern bridge-building has been effected
by the introduction of iron, and the use of chain onsuspen-
sion-bridges. The invention of Iron Bridges is said to be
exclusively English, but Duhalde gives the merit of it to the
Chinese; be that as it may, there is no country where there
has been so extensive an application of the discovery, or in
which has been erected so many fine bridges of iron as in
Great Britain. The first was set up at Colebrook Dale,
Shropshire, in the year 1797, and was speedily succeeded by
numerous others in all parts of the United Kingdom; for a
description of which we must refer to IRON BRIDGE.

Draw Bridges are of wood or iron, sometimes of both, with
stone abutments. They are placed over navigable canals and
rivers, or used in fortified places for the purpose of shutting
out the enemy, and are of varied construction. Some are
fastened at one end by hinges, so that the other end may be
raised or lowered at pleasure. The most common method of
doing this is by a kind of balance, called plgers, in which case
the bridge when drawn up stands erect, to preclude a passage
across a. moat, 8L0. Others are so constructed as to be drawn
back, or thrust forward, as occasion may require. On small
canals, &c., draw-bridges consist of one leaf only; but on
larger navigations, wet-docks, &c., they are of two pieces,
meeting in the middle, and forming an arch, which are raised
or lowered by means of balance frames, movable on the tops
of uprights suited in height to the magnitude of the bridge;
such as that at Bristol, over the Frome. Such bridges, how-
ever, having been found inconvenient from their tackling
catching the yards and rigging ofvessels passing through them,
a kind of bridge, diverse from all the preceding, has been in-
vented, called a Swivel Bridge: these, on small rivers, are only
of one frame, or leaf, and turn on a centre, or series of balls or
rollers; but when made on a wider scale, they consist of two
parts, one 011 each side of the channel, and meeting in the
centre. The most complete of this kind are those con—
structed at the VVest-India and London Docks; the latter
spans 40 feet, and is 15 feet wide in the road-way. It con-
sists of cast-iron ribs, about 1% inch thick, turning on a num-
ber of concentric rollers, which move between two circular
east—iron rings, very nicely turned : each leaf has a flap, which
lets down by a screw, and abuts upon the stone-work on
either side, forming the whole bridge, when shut, into an arch
capable of bearing any weight that can possibly pass over it.
The whole apparatus weighs 85 tons; but it moves with so
muuh case, that it can be opened and shut in less than three
minutes.

Suspension Bridges have only lately been introduced into
this country, though known to the Chinese from a very early
period. The iron-chain bridge of Yunnan is supposed to have
been erected about A.D. 65, in the reign of the emperor
Mingus, and is described as very similar in principle to the
Hammersmith Suspension Bridge near London. In Kircher’s
('liina Illustrata, it is stated, that the chord-line is of the
length of 200 cubits. In the Asiatic Researches, Turner
gives a very interesting account of the singular bridges
erected by the natives of Bootan. These bridges are of
varied construction, but admirably adapted to the circum-
stances for which they are intended. Over the widest river
in Bootan, there is an iron bridge, consisting of a number of
iron chains, which support a matted platform; and two chains
are stretched above, parallel to the sides, to support a matted
border, which is absolutely necessary for the safety of the

 

 

 

 

 

passenger, who is certainly not quite at his ease till he has
landed from this swinging, unsteady footing. At another
place, a bridge for foot-passengers is formed of two parallel
chains, round which creepers are loosely twisted, from which
planks are suspended, the end of one plank resting upon the
other without being confined.

In the rude suspension bridge of South America, with
its ropes of twisted bark, and its platform of cross pieces of
wood interwoven in them, or the platform attached imme-
diately to the sustaining ropes, the form assumed, the cate-
narian curve, is the same as in the more perfect structures of
modern times—and one traces easily the transition from the
simple but effective contrivance of the untutored Indian, to
the master-pieces of the genius of a Telford. See SUSPEN-
SION BRIDGE.

Bridges of Boats are made of boats, either of copper, tin,
or wood, fastened across the stream by means of anchors or
stakes, and laid over with planks. The earliest instance
upon record of this kind of bridge, was that laid by Darius
Hystaspes over the Ister, or Danube, in his Scythian expedi-
tion, 508 years before the Christian era. The same monarch
also crossed the Thracian Bosphorus with 700,000 men, by
means of a bridge of boats; the strait being five stadia, or
1,008 yards in width. Modern armies carry with them tin
or copper boats, called pontoons, to be ready on any emer-
gency: several of them, placed side by side, across the river,
till they reach the opposite shore, with planks laid upon
them, form a plane for the soldiers to march on. At Beaucaire,
Rouen, and Seville, are very fine stationary bridges of boats,
which rise and fall with the tide: that at Rouen is nearly
300 yards long, and paved with stone, so that laden carriages
and horses, as well as foot-passengers, go over it in safety.
In the absence of pontoons, military bridges have been made
of blown bladders, hollow casks, sheaves of rushes, 8:0.
covered over with planks.

When bridges of this kind do not extend over the whole
breadth of the river, but are contrived to float from one side
to the other, they are termed Flying or Floating Bridges.
A bridge of this description is generally composed of several
boats connected with each other by a flooring of planks, and
surrounded by a railing. This stage or raft is furniShed
with one or more masts, according to its dimensions, to
which is fastened a strong cable, supported at proper dis-
tances by boats, and extending to an anchor, in the middle of
the water, where it is made secure. The bridge thus becomes
movable, like a pendulum, from one side of the river to the
other, with the assistance only of a rudder. Such bridges
were formerly sometimes constructed of two stories, for the
more expeditious passage of a great number-of men.

Another kind of flying bridge is formed of two platforms,
laid one upon the other, and by means of cords and pullies
the uppermost is made to run out beyond the lower platform,
till its farther extremity rests against the place it was
designed to reach. In the Histoire de l’Acadc’mie Rogale des
Sciences, for the year 1713, page 104, is a description of a
floating bridge, which lays itself on the opposite side ofa river.

Under this head we have now to describe one of the most
useful and ingenious constructions of modern science and
engineering skill—the steam Floating Bridge invented by
Mr. J. M. Rendel, the eminent civil engineer. The first
bridge on this principle was erected by Mr. Rendel across
the estuary of the Dart at Dartmouth, about the year 1832,
and a similar one was established about two years after,
across the Hamoaze, between Torpoint and Devonport.

A very full description of the latter, accompanied by
elaborate drawings, has been furnished to the Institution of
Civil Engineers by Mr. Rendel himself, and from the first

 

 

 

 

 

 

BRI

64

BRU

 

volume of the “Transactions” of the Institution, we have
extracted the following brief sketch.

The medium width of the river at the site of the bridge
may be taken at about 2,350 feet, the strength of the current
after heavy land-floods is very great, and the site so much
exposed, that it is not uncommon for the ships lying in the
vicinity of the bridge to drag their moorings. The bridge
is a large flat-bottomed vessel, of a width nearly equal to
its length. The vessel is divided in the direction of its
length into three parts—the middle one being appropriated
to the machinery—each of the side divisions to carriages, 8w.
These side divisions or decks are raised about 2 feet above
the line Of flotation, and by means of movable platforms, an
easy communication is afforded with the shore on embarking
or landing. The bridge is guided by two chains, which
passing through it over cast-iron wheels, are laid across the
river and fastened to the opposite shores, forming as it were
a road along which the vessel travels backwards and forwards.

The moving power employed is two small steam-engines
turning a shaft, on each end of which is a large iron wheel
whereon the guide-chains rest. The peripheries Of these
wheels are cast with sockets fitted to the links of the chains,
so that when the bridge is put in motion by the steam-
engines, it is moved in the reverse direction of, and with the
same velocity as the wheels. The ends of the chains have
balance-weights attached to them, which rise or fall as the
tension of the chains becomes more or less.

A similar bridge has been established at Portsmouth, and
plies between that place and Gosport.

Under this article we may also mention Portable Bridges,
which are easily taken to pieces, and as readily put together
again. M. Couplet speaks of a bridge of this kind, 200 feet
long, carried by 40 men.

Writers on architecture have bestowed considerable atten-
tion on the subject of bridge-building, which isjustly esteemed
as one of the most noble and striking specimens Of human
art. The earliest of these is Alberti, a native Of Florence,
who flourished about the middle of the 15th century ; he
has given several judicious precepts, which, with little
alteration, were afterwards laid down by Palladio, SerliO,
and Scamozzi. The best Of these rules are likewise given
by Goldman and Baukhurst, as well as by Hawkesmoor, in
his History of London Bridge—M. Gautier has written a
large volume on bridges, ancient and modern—M. Belidor
has treated on this subject, in his Architecture IIydraulique;
as has M. Parent, in his Essais et Recherchés flIat/iematiques,
vol. iii.—De 1a Hire, too, has touched on it, in his Traité
de Illechanique.—-Perronet has given the result of his expe—
rience in a magnificent work, which has acquired him great
credit in France.———Bosset has given an excellent treatise on
bridge-buildin g, in the Mémoires dc l’Académie.—Regemortes
published, in 1771, an account of the bridge built by him
over the Allier, at Moulins—In 1760, Mr. Riou published
a work, entitled, Short Principles for the Architecture of
Bridges; and Mr. Semple has given some excellent prac-
tical remarks in his Treatise on Building in PVater, published
in 1776. Other writers on the construction and principles
Of arches and bridges, are Muller, Labelye, Atwood,
Emerson, and Dr. Hutton.

When a bridge is constructed of stone, and arched over,
it requires, in the act of building,.to be supported upon
a mould, called a centre ,- the construction of which is shown
under the article CENTRE.

BRIDGE BOARD. See NOTCII BOARD.

BRIDGE OVER: when there are any number of parallel
timbers, and another piece fixed transversely over them,
then the transverse piece is said to bridge over the other

 

 

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parallel pieces. In framed roofing, the common rafters
bridge over the purlins; likewise in framed flooring, the
upper joists, to which the boarding is fixed, bridge over
the beams or binding joists, and are therefore called bridging
ozsts.

J BRIDGE STONE, a. stone laid from the pavement to the
entrance-door of a house, over a sunk area, not supported
by an arch.

BRIDGED GUTTERS, those made with boards, sup-
ported below with bearers, and covered above with lead.

BRIDGING FLOORS, those in which bridging joists
are used. See NAKED FLOORING.

BRIDGING JOIsrs, those which are sustained by transverse
beams below, called bindingjoists; also those on which the
boarding for walking upon is nailed or fixed. See NAKED
FLOORING.

BRIDGINGS, or BRIDGING PIECES.
PIECES, and STRUTTING PIECES.

BRING UP, a term used by workmen for carrying up
the walls to a certain height: they say, “ bring up that part ;”
but the term carry up is more frequently used.

BROACH, an Old English term for a spire, still in use
in the north Of England. The term is specifically applied
to spires which spring directly from the eaves of the tower

 

See STRAINING .

or other substructure, without the intervention of a parapet. -

This kind of spire is confined more especially to the earlier
styles of Gothic architecture ; in the later ones, the parapet
is seldom dispensed with.

BROAD-STONE, the same as FREE-STONE.

BRONZE; a compound Of copper and other metals,

especially zinc. It is used for cannon, medals, 8m.

BRONZE also denotes any piece of sculpture made of bronze

metal, as statues, busts, &c., whether in imitation of the
antique, or representing a modern prototype. The method
Of casting bronzes is described under CASTING.

BROWN, a dusky colour inclining to redness. Of this
there are various shades, distinguished by different appella-
tions, as Spanish brown, sad brown, tawny brown, London
brown, and close brown. Spanish brown is a dark dull red,
[of a horseflesh colour, ofgreat use to painters, being generally
used in house-painting, for priming the timber work, or first
coating. The best is that of a deep colour, and free from
stones. It is best and brightest when burnt in the fire till
it is red-hot. The various browns used in drawing are
BISTRE, COLOGNE EARTH, and UMBER.

BRUNELLESCHI, PHILIP, the son of a notary, born at
Florence in 1377, was at first designed for the bar; but
not liking that profession, he was apprenticed to a goldsmith.
His genius, however, turned him to the study of sculpture,
geometry, and architecture.

The first model by which he 1

formed his taste in architecture was the church of St. John, "

at Florence, a building of good style, and much inclining to
the antique; he afterwards went to Rome, to study the

ancient monuments there, the best of which he measured ,

and took drawings from; and he is said to have first dis-
tinguished the three ancient orders.

\Vhen the Florentines first thought of raising a dome upon
the church of St. Mary del Fiore, they invited all the. prin-
cipal architects of Europe to a consultation, at which Bru-
nelleschi proposed a double cupola, with a space between the
inner and outer vaults, sutlicient to admit of staircases and
passages to the top. This idea was deemed so preposterous,
that he was actually turned out of the assembly, for having
presumed to insult the good sense and judgment of so many
experienced artists, who had never heard of such a thing,
and held it to be impracticable. Undaunted by this treat-
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of his scheme, and demonstrated it by drawings and models :
but the clamour excited by his brother artists ran so high
for a time, that he was looked upon as a downright madman!
At length, however, the violence of prejudice began to sub-
side, and when it was seen that the rest of the architects
produced nothing eligible for the purpose, the deputies, who
had the management of the building, sent for Brunelleschi,
listened candidly to what he had to propose, examined his
drawings and models, and finally set him to work, under
certain restrictions: they also appointed him an assistant,
but his complete ignorance soon manifested itself and he was
dismissed. Brunelleschi being thus left at liberty, the
citizens saw with admiration a magnificent cupola arise over
their church, which Michael Angelo himself pronounced to
be a masterpiece of science. This cupola is octangular,
154 cubits (Flemish) in height, on which rises a lantern of
thirty-eight cubits, surmounted with a ball of four cubits,
and a cross of eight cubits; making a total of 202 cubits,
a height never before attempted on such a plan. Brunelleschi
died before the lantern was quite finished, but he left a
model, and recommended on his death-bed, that it should
be loaded with the heaviest marble. The portico that was
to have surrounded the tambour still remains unfinished.
The peculiarity of this celebrated cupola is, that it has no
counter-torts.

Brunelleschi built the abbey for the regular canons at
Fiesole, under the direction and patronage of Cosmo de
Medicis; it is a convenient cheerful edifice, and the orna-
ments are in a chaste style. He also constructed several
military works. A great part of the church of St. Laurence,
at Florence, was built by Brunelleschi, but he died before
it vas completed, and his successors committed so many
blunders in finishing it, that the original design is very
much mutilated. The palace of Pitti, at Florence, was
likewise begun from his designs ; and so completely did the
tide of public favour turn in his behalf, that his fellow-
citizens elected him to the ofiice of magistrate. But it was
after his death, that his talents were most appreciated, and
his merit fully acknowledged as the reviver of pure archi-
tecture. He died in 1444, aged 67, honoured and esteemed by
all who knew him, and was buried in St. Mary’s cathedral.

BU CCULA, in antiquity, denotes the umbo, or prominent
part of a shield.

BUDGET, a kind of pocket used by bricklayers, for bold-
ing nails when they lath for tiling.

BUFFET, a cabinet or cupboard for plate, glasses, or
china-ware. In former times, these were frequently made
very ornamental, in the form of niches, and left open in the
front in order to show the furniture. The buffet is now
rarely seen, except in old-fashioned houses; in modern
establishments it has been superseded by the sideboard.

BUILDER, a person who contracts to build, or rear up
edifices.

BUILDING, in general, is a mass formed by the junction
of materials. When a building is stationary, and erected for
dwelling in, or for some useful purpose or ornament, it is
called an edg'fice. Those who intend to build, should make
choice of an architect who is known to be a man of ability
and of tried experience and integrity. The proprietor should
then explain as clearly as possible his ideas and intentions
respecting the proposed building, to enable the architect to
furnish the requisite plans and estimates. These should be
carefully examined and gone into, so that the proprietor
be perfectly satisficd that his wishes are understood, and the
cost of carrying them into effect brought within the extent
of his means or inclinations. The whole management ought
then to be committed to the architect, with full liberty in the

 

 

choice of masters for the execution of the respective depart
ments. The architect should then proceed to make Out a
specification, and contract for each individual branch con-
cerned in the business, and put them into the hands of
respectable tradesmen; if the estimates appear to be reason—
able, the contracts should be signed. There are many kinds
of work for which, however, from novelty in execution, it
would be impossible to anticipate a price: but if the work
consist of similar repetitions or parts, the value of one part
being known, by taking an account of the time, that of the
others will follow, and then the estimated expense of the
whole may be ascertained. There are many proprietors
whose ideas are never fixed, and no sooner is work done titan
it is undone: in such a case, the work should be done by
measure and value, affixing a regular price to every corres-
ponding article; and an account should be taken of the work
pulled down. In whatever way the work be valued, there
should be a person employed, stationary in the building,
called a clerk oft/Le war/ts, whose business it is to give direc-
tions for fixing, and to superintend all parts of the execution ;
to keep the workmen’s time, to give in weekly reports, and
to examine the work, should it happen to be prepared out of
the building.

The drawings necessary in the construction of an edifice
are, plans of the several stories, elevations of the facades, a
transverse and a longitudinal section at least, horizontal and
vertical sections of all the difficult parts, and a detail of all
the mouldings and ornaments at large. These ought to be
committed to the care of the clerk of the works. It is not
very easy for an architect to furnish all the detail before a
building is to be estimated; but if time would permit this to
be done, the contractors would be able to undertake the work
at the lowest rate, and this would in a great measure super-
sede the necessity of the addition, which is too generally
found necessary to cover the uncertainty of estimating large
works.

lVith regard to building in general, it must be obvious,
that to the taste, judgment, and science of the architect,
must be left the selection of the character and style of the
building to be erected; no certain rules can be given to form
the general contour of an edifice, but the middle part ought
to have some commanding feature, and the general outline of
the whole should approach to a pyramidal form. Large edi-
fices are susceptible of great splendour, by an agreeable
variety of parts; but the beauty of a small building consists
in the simplicity and symmetry of its surfaces.

The regularly repeated columns, entablatures, and other
ornaments which may adorn a circular building, create the
most pleasing feelings, and in a straight building also, the
uniformity and succession of parts are usually delightful to
the observer, hence the gratifying sensation arising from long
ranges of colonnades, as in the Grecian temples and the aisles
of churches: but the preceding observation, with respect to
the entablature, does not apply in a straight building. The
entablatures may either be broken or continued, according to
the use of the columns; the outline of the building being
still preserved in either case: for when the repetitions are
fac-similes of each other, the eye will judge of the figure of
the building the same, whether the entablature be continued
or interrupted, which is not the case in rotund edifices.
then columns are placed so remote from each other, as not
to be capable of supporting an entablature, or not sufficiently
near to excite the idea, the entablatures may be broken, as
in the triumphal arches at Rome, where the columns are
introduced to support the ornaments of triumph. In the
peribolus of the Grecian temples, the broken entablatures
are not only beautiful, but the repetition of the order itself

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

66‘

BUI

 

is useful in reinforcing the strength of the enclosure, and
thus performing the office of buttresses to the walls. Much
of the agreeable sensation in viewing our venerable antique-
modern churches, arises from the uniform succession of the
buttresses and their ornaments.

For farther particulars, with regard to the exterior of a
building, we must refer the reader to the term BREAK.

With regard to situation, a building should be placed in
a salubrious and mild atmosphere, free from noxious exha-
lations, within the reach of the rays of the sun, so as to
make it cheerful, and to have a plentiful supply of water and
coal, as likewise of all other necessaries of life: it should be
surrounded with an agreeable variety of woods and walks,
and ought to have an easy access to the highway. The situ-
ation should be commanding, but not so high as to expose the
building to the fury of heavy Winds.

With regard to the plan of a building, the disposition of
the apartments must be agreeable to the intention of the
design, and in general the rooms ought to be all entered by
one common passage; for farther particulars on this head,
see APARTMENT, CHIMNEY, PASSAGE, Roor, Room, and
S'I‘AIRCASE.

The modern method of placing a bedchamber and dress-
ing—room together, each with its separate door to the com-
mon passage, and likewise with a door common to each other,
is very convenient. The mode of uniting, when necessary,
two or more rooms by means of folding-doors, is a very
great improvement, particularly in small houses. The hall,
or entrance, should at least have one chimney, and if con-
nected with the staircase 0‘ a lofty saloon, the heat will be
of essential service in warming the whole house. Double
doors are useful in preserving a uniform temperature.

Besides double external doors, for the exclusion of cold
winds, double windows should be used for winter apartments.

The proper distribution of rooms must be regulated by the
course of the sun, in order to avoid the extremes of the sum-
mer’s heat and winter’s cold. Bedchambers are properly
situated towards the east, in order to regulate the time of
rising. Every house ought to have two sitting-rooms, to
accommodate the extreme seasons of the year; that for the
summer ought to be disposed in the north, and that for
the winter in the south. D ‘awing—rooms and dining-parlours
are best situated in the west, as they are generally used in
the afternoon, that the declining sun may throw an agree-
able shade upon objects; these matters, however, frequently
depend upon other circumstances of convenience.

The drawing-rooms should be so disposed, as to be easily
converted into one room, by throwing open the folding-
doors. In country mansions, the kitchen should be as near
the dining-room as convenient, but so disposed with regard
to the passage of Communication, as to prevent the efiluvia
from escaping to other principal parts of the house. The
offices connected with the kitchen should be gene 'ally placed
towards the north; but in town-houses this cannot always be
done, and therefore regard must be had to circumstances.
The larder, however, must always be placed beyond the
influence of the heat of the kitchen. Galleries for paintings,
and museums, that require a steady light, should have
a northern aspect.

Windows ought to be made vertically one above tne other,
and not too war the angles of the building; and in large
edifices, where the walls are thick, their jambs ought to be.
splayed or beveled, for a more full distribution of light.
Lofty windows, descending to the floor, or nearly so, with a
projecting balcony in front of the building, defended by a
railing of cast-iron, are both h‘althy and agreeable. Sky-
lights, in cold climates like ours, are productive of many

 

inconveniences, as they admit of cold air, (lamps, rain, and
snow, and thereby waste the heat generated in the house.
They ought therefore never to be admitted, except for stairs
and balls; but when this admission is necessary, their aper-
tures should be of sufficient dimensions, not to hinder the
passage of the sun’s rays.

The plans of buildings may be of Various forms; the circle
is the most capacious of all figures, under the same perimeter,
and a building erected upon a circular plan, is also the most
strong, durable, and beautiful of all others; but its compart-
ments are not convenient in dwelling-houses, on account of a
waste of room occasioned by the disposition of angular furni-
ture; so that the loss in this respect more than counter-
balances the quantity of area gained by the property of its
figure. Circular buildings are also the most expensive, and,
on account of the impossibility of dividing them into compart-
ments without distortion, they are unfit for the purpose of
private edifices: on this account they were employed by the
ancients only in their temples and amphitheatres, which had
no need of compartition. In modern mansions, entire cylin-
dric or polygonal buildings are seldom or never used, except
in parts which form single apartments upon a floor, as in
towers or bows. Though very beautiful forms of edifices
may be reared upon rectilineal plans, a judicious arrange-
ment of apartments formed both of plane and curved sur-
faces will make a most agreeable variety.

Of all buildings upon plans of equilateral and equi-angular
polygons, the triangle contains the least area, and on account
of the acuteness of its angles, rectangular furniture cannot be
disposal on. its area without very considerable waste; the
employment of this figure, therefore, occasions not only a loss
of surface from its property, but a loss also in placing of
furniture: it may, however, be observed, in buildings erected
upon equilateral and equi-angular polygons, the greater the
number of sides the plan has, the less loss of area will be
sustained on account of the property of the figure; but those
with obtuse angles will still have the same objections on
account of the furniture. Various figures may be adopted
occasionally, for the sake of variety, when the loss of room is
not an object ; but for general use, the rectangular disposition
of an edifice is the most convenient, as it will compart ad
iyg/z‘nitum into rectangular figures, which is the best form of
furniture for general use.

The accessories of a building are ornaments borrowed
from sculpture and painting; but wherever they are intro-
duced, they ought to be in character, and to indicate in some
measure its destination. Figures representing animals are
of a higher class than those of foliage or vegetables: the
former were, generally employed by the Greeks, particularly
in the principal parts of their edifices, though sometimes the
small parts were covered with foliage, in which the honey-
suckle was most predominant. The Romans, whose taste
was inferior to that of the Greeks, indulged in both. It is
to the remains of the edifices of these two nations, that the
architect must have recourse for the embellishments of the
fabric.

Of all the ornaments applicable to buildings, columns are
the most splendid and dignified, and no invention has yet.
been able to supplant the three Grecian orders, though a
lapse of more than two thousand years has past. Pilasters are
not only very beautiful, but when wrought in with the work,
they reinforce the strength of the walls, and consequently
the whole fabric; but they have neither the dignity nor the
graceful appearance of columns.

The materials used in the construction of edifices are of
anions kinds, as timber, earth, mortar, chalk, stone, marble,
iron, &e..: every plac : adopts, in the general construction of its

 

 

 

 

 

BUS 67

BUT

 

buildings, those materials which are its own native produc-
tions, or those of other places which can be procured by an
easy carriage.

The chief writers on building, Whose works have been
transmitted to our hands, are Vitruvius, Alberti, Serlio,
Scammozzi, Vignola, Palladio, Baldus, Barbarus, Blondel,
Catanei, Demoniosius, Friard, Goldman, Perrault, Rivius,
Gulielmus, Langley, Ware, and some living authors. See
ARCHITECTURE and HOUSE.

BUILDING, in masonry, is the art of joming stones together,
with or without cement, so as to form the whole or part of
an edifice. Building also signifies the mass or body formed
by the junction of stones with regular surfaces. In this sense
it is the same with masonry, or a piece of masonry. Masonry
always implies building; but building does not always imply
masonry. See MASONRY.

BUILDING ACT, the act passed in the year 1844,
known as 7 8c 8 Vict. cap. 84, for regulating the construction
and the use of buildings in the metropolis and its neighbour-
hood, within certain limits defined by the act.

As this act is usually appended to Price Books, &c.
we have thought it unnecessary to occupy space by giving it
here at length.

BUILDING OF BEAMS, the joining of two, or several
pieces of timber together in one thickness, and of several
pieces in one length, by means of bolts, so as to form a beam
of given dimensions, which it would be impossible to obtain
from a single piece of timber. Beams thus built, are stronger
than such as are scarfed, provided their joints be judiciously
strapped across on the exterior sides; and their construction
does not require so much waste of timber. Not only beams,
but ribs for vaulted roofs, may be built so as to be stronger,
and require less timber in their fabrication, than those which
are scarfed; and if due attention be paid to their curves,
no trussing will be necessary. The practice of building
a compound timber, so as to form one mass, or piece,
which would perform the function of a single piece, will
be found under the article RIB. Other particulars, with
regard to the lengthening of beams, will be found under
SCARFING.

BULKER, a term used in Lincolnshire for a beam or
rafter.

BULLEN-NAILS, those with round heads and short
shanks, tinned and lacquered: there are about three sizes of
them, which are used in the hangings of rooms.

BULVVARK, in ancient fortification, is nearly the same
with bastion in the modern. See RAMPART and TORUS.

BUNDLE PILLAR, in Gothic architecture, a column
consisting of a number of small pillars around its circum-
fcrence.

BUSCHETTO, a distinguished Grecian architect, born
in the isle of Dulichio, and employed, in 1016, by the republic
of Pisa, in erecting their cathedral church. This has been
reckoned one of the most sumptuous edifices in Italy. He
died at Pisa, where he had a monument erected to his
memory, with an inscription, intimating his superior know-
ledge of the mechanical powers. He had many disciples,
and is regarded as the founder of modern architectural
science in Italy. 9

BUST, or BUSTO, in sculpture, tnat portion of the human
figure, which comprehends the head, neck, breast, and
shoulders. The Italians also apply this term to a greater
portion of the human figure, as low as the hips, with or
without the head and arms, as in the busts of many illus-
trious ancient Romans. The word is probably derived from
the Latin bustum. These pieces of sculpture are generally
phloed upon a pedestal or console.

 

 

 

H P___,___... ,

BUT-HINGES, those employed in hanging closures, as
doors, shutters, easements, &c., placed on the edges with the
knuckle projecting on the side on which the closure is to
open, and the other edges stopping against a small piece of
wood left on the thickness of the closure, so as to keep the
arris entire. It is customary to sink the thickness of the
hinges flush with the surface of the edge of the closure, and
the tail part one-half into the jamb. There are several kinds
of but—hinges, such as, stop but-hinges, which only permit the
closure to open to a right angle, or perhaps little more, with-
out breaking the hinge; rising but-hinges, which turn upon
a screw, employed in doors, and cause the door to rise in the
act of opening, so as to clear a carpet in the apartment.
Slip—of but-Izinges, are those employed where a door or
window-blind requires to be taken off occasionally.

BUTMENT. See ABUTMENT and STONE BRIDGE.

BUTMEHT CHEEKS, the two solid parts on each side of
a mortise: the thickness of each of the cheeks should be
equal to that of the mortise, when there is no circumstance
which may require them to be of a different thickness.

BUT T-END of a piece of timber, the largest end next to
the root.

BUTT-JOINT, in hand-railing, a joint at right angles to
the curve of the rail. See HAND-RAILING.

BUT TERY, the store-room for provisions.
is generally north.

BUTTING-JOINT, that which is formed by the surfaces
of two pieces of wood, of which the one surface is perpen-
dicular to the fibres, and the other in their direction, or
making an oblique angle with them ;—as the joints which the
struts and braces in carpentry make with the truss-posts.

BUTTON, a small piece of wood or metal, made to turn
round a centre, for fastening a. door, or any other kind of
closure. The centre is commonly a nail, which should be
made round where it is to turn, and the head made smooth.

BUTTON OF A LOCK, a round head for moving the bolt.

BUT”RESS, an erection serving to support a wall or
other building, which is either too high otherwise to main-
tain its position, or is pressed against from the other side
by an adventitious force.

Buttresses are so frequent in Gothic architecture as to
become a marked and principal feature in buildings of that
style ; they are placed around the exterior sides of the
edifice, usually one between every two windows, and one or
two at each of the angles of the building. In the earlier
erections, each angle was supported by two buttresses, (lis-
posed so as to leave their sides parallel to the planes of the
walls; but in later examples, for the sake of giving a lighter
appearance to the building, as well as for economizing
materials, only one buttress was used, situate in such a
manner as to receive the direct drift of the vaulting, having
its sides parallel to the vertical diagonal plane which bisects
the angle formed by the two planes of the adjoining faces
of the building. The use of these projections is not so much
to support the weight of the walls, as to resist the outward
thrust of the roof, more especially when vaulted.

There are two kinds of buttresses used in Gothic build-
ings; those that are formed of vertical planes, and attached
to the walls, are called pillared buttresses; those which rise
from the pillared buttresses upon the sides of the aisles, with
an arch-formed intrados, and sloping extrados or top, are
called flying buttresses, arc boutants, or are]; buttresses.

In few instances perhaps have the mediteval architects
shown greater constructive skill than in the erection of
buttresses, as is more especially evidenced in their larger
structures, such as cathedrals, where by means of them the
active force of the vaulting, which would otherwise overthrow

Its situation

 

 

 

 

 

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the walls, is borne down harmless outside the’ building into
the earth. By the arc-boutants the drift is carried over the
aisles to the upper part of the main buttresses, where, by
the gravity of the super-imposed pinnacles, the direction of
the force is changed, so that from an horizontal thrust, it
becomes or at least approaches to a vertical pressure, which
again is carried through the mass of the buttress to the
ground at its base. No material is thrown away, all is
pressed into active service, what does not answer a useful
end, is removed, and nothing added merely for ornament;
an instance of the latter has been shown in the case of the
surmounting pinnacle; which, although by a superficial
observer it might be considered as mere ornament, is in
reality of the utmost importance in the construction ; as an
example of the previous statement, may be produced the
buttresses at Westminster Hall, from which a considerable
portion near the ground and adjoining the walls, being of
no service, has been entirely cut away.

Pillared buttresses are enriched with pinnacles, niches,
statues, and other ornaments. Flying buttresses are often
perforated, particularly in the later examples, in which the
perforations assume the form of polyfoils, flambeaux, and
other beautiful devices. A rich specimen is to be found in
Henry the Seventh’s chapel at Westminster, where the
buttresses are of a wonderfully light and gorgeous appear-
ance; the main buttresses also in this instance are of a very
elaborate description.

BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE, a style of architec-
ture bordering on the Romanesque, which prevailed in
Greece and its dependencies during the early ages of Chris--
tianity.

This style may be said to have commenced with the estab-
lishment of the Eastern empire, when Constantine trans-
ferred the seat of government from Rome to Byzantium,
from the name of which city it also derives its distinguishing
appellation. Some writers indeed have gone so far as to
state that the first Christian emperor removed from the
ancient city for the Sole purpose of obtaining greater
freedom in the establishment of his new religion; solici».
tons for its purity, that it might remain unpolluted by
any mixture with the ancient rites, distinct from pagan-
ism even in its architecture. Hope, to whom we are
indebted for much information on the subject, states this as
his opinion, and says that Constantine, having evaded the
restraint which his new creed was subject to at Rome by his
removal to Byzantium, set himself diligently to work to
establish it on a firm basis: one great object which pre—
sented itself to his notice, was the erection of appropriate
places of worship, which were much needed, the number of
Christians exceeding that of pagans, and there being no
previous edifices either of a civil or religious character,
which could be conveniently adapted to the purpose. Archi-
tects, therefore, Were left entirely to their own resources,
unless indeed they were willing to copy that class of edifices
adopted in the old metropolis; but this does not seem to have
been their object, they desired rather to form an entirely
new style of building; there weer besides no existing edifices
of any note, whose materials might tempt their 1e1noval to
the new structu1es, and so, to a certain extent, determine
their construction, as had been the case at Ronie. Under
such circumstances originated the peculiar style of architec-
ture which has been since denominated Byzantine.

We have before noticed that the Christians had already
outnumbered their heathen adversaries in this city, and as
their religion was daily acquiring more and more proselytes,
the want of churches must have been daily more appa-
rent; it would be reasonable to suppose, therefore, that

 

 

 

a vast number must have been at once erected, and such
indeed seems to have 'been the case, for we are told that no
less than eighteen hundred were endowed between the reigns
of Constantine and Justinian, a period of little more than
two hundred years. Few of these, however, remain, many
of the oldest of them were destroyed by earthquakes and
fires, principally in the reign of Zeno; and all that sur-
vived that period, in the sedition of A.D. 532. This out-
break happened in the time of Justinian, who set zealously
to work to repair the losses which had been sustained, and
vied with his illustrious predecessor in the erection and
restoration of Christian chu1ches.

It must not be supposed that this style of building was all
this time confined to its original locality; it had spread
rapidly throughout the Eastern empire; where the Eastern
church extended, there also did its architecture extend, from
the city of the chief bishop through the whole patriarchate
under his jurisdiction. It is remarkable, however, how
rarely it found its way into Western Christendom; the first
instance of its appearance in that quarter, was the church
of S. Nazareo e Celso, at Ravenna, in the year A.D. 4-10.
This church was erected by Galla I’lacidia, daughter of
Theodosius, afterwards married to Constantius Caesar, and
mother of Valentinian; she was regent of the “'estern
empire for some time during the minority of her son, and
seems to have been a zealous promoter of the Christian reli-
gion; the erection of many churches is attributed to her,
amongst which are three or four in this same city of Ravenna.
The next we hear of Byzantine architecture in Italy
A.D. 517, at Ravenna again, in the church of S. Vitale,
which was erected by Julianus, the treasurer, under the
direction of Justinian. The reign of this prince is remark-
able for the number of buildings of all kinds erected ; bridges,
aqueducts, roads, fortresses, and a var1ety of works of public
utility were undertaken throughout the provinces, but the
number of churches erected surpassed that of all other struc-
tures; new ones were constructed, and old ones re-editied,
of which last a great number, as already stated, had been
destroyed in the insurrection which occurred in this reign.
Of all the restorations which this emperor effected, the most
remarkable is that of S. Sophia, at Constantinople; this
church he entirely rebuilt, preserving, however, as it would
appcz 11‘, the original plan.

In this s 1111c reign the Ostrogoths were driven out of Italy
by Nurses, one of Justinian’s generals, and the “Estern
empire again brought under the rule of one sovereign, which
circumstance led to a further introduction westward of
Byzantine architectlne. Its p1ogress however, Seems to
have been 1no1e limited than might have been expected, tor,
with the exception ot some of the principal cities where the
viceroys held their court, we see but few instances of its
adoption. \Ve have alwady alluded to Ravenna, which was
the salt of the principal exarchate, and have now only to
refer to the cases of Ancona and \enice, 111 the to1mer of
which 1s found the church oi S. Ciriaco, and in the latter
that of S. Mark, though the existence of this style in the
latter city is perhaps attributable rather tothe mercantile
intercourse of the Venetians with the East, than to the
authority of the emperor over the western shores of the
Adriatic. \Ve have now quoted all the principal examples
of this style that have been discovered in the west, at least
on the one side the Alps; we make this reservation, for
Ilope, quoting Fleury, says that the style crossed the Alps,
and is to be seen in the old city of Atlas, on the Mediterra-
nean, in the church of S. Ccsarius, an erection of the sixth
century; he further states that it eventually reached as far
north as Paris. Be this as it may, however, putting all the

 

 

 

 

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examples together, it is certain that they number much
lower than would naturally be expected; a fact not easily to
be accounted for, were it not for one circumstance, the
rivalry that existed between the eastern and western
churches. As early as the second century, a serious division
arose between them respecting the time of celebrating Easter,
which proceeded to such an extent, that Victor, bishop of
Rome, separated his opponents from his communion. The
Roman church, owing to its connection with the metropolis
of the empire, as well as from other causes, had obtained an
early distinction, which, in process of time, became invidious
from the pertinacity with which it was claimed, and the
encroachments which it gave rise to under individual
bishops. W'hen, however, Constantine removed his court to
Byzantium, the see of Constantinople rose suddenly to dig-
nity and power, and showed itself a formidable rival to that
of Rome, and a serious hinderance to its usurpations ; thus
originated a determined jealousy between the two churches,
which was manifested by the constant differences which
occurred between them, of which there were no less than
four in little more than a century and a half, one of twenty-
five years’ duration, and which led eventually to the final
separation in the eleventh century. It is to this rivalry we
attribute the paucity of examples in this style of architecture
to be met with in the Western empire; an opinion confirmed
by Mr. Gally Knight, who, alluding to the subject of our
article, says, “ This plan became a favourite in the East, and
was adhered to in those parts with the greater tenacity, in
consequence of the schism which subsequently took place
between the pope of Rome and the patriarch of Constantino-
ple. There was to be a difference in everything. The
Greeks insistetf upon the square form of their own inven-
tions; whilst all the nations which continued to acknowledge
the supremacy of the pope, continued to employ the long
form, which was persevered in at Rome.” A reviewer of
the work from which this extract is made, remarks, “ Mr.
Knight’s observations with regard to the antagonism of the
eastern and the western churches are entirely correct.
Except when favoured by peculiar political relations, it is
remarkable how little influence was exerted in Italy by
Byzantine art. Ravenna and Venice are almost the only
localities where we may trace any decided imitation of the
type of Constantinople.”

There is one passage in this ex t which we would
desire to qualify, for although Byzantine architecture, as a
style, does not seem to have been employed to any extent in
the “fest, still it cannot be said that it possessed no influence
in that quarter. That many of its features were imitated in
succeeding styles cannot be doubted; its principal charac-
teristics are evident in most of the Lombardic churches, and
in the other styles which prevailed in Western Christendom.
The Greek church was seldom copied entire ; but its different
parts were adopted in buildings otherwise of a different cha-
racter; for instance, in some cases the Greek dome appears
in conjunction with the Latin cross; in others, the Greek
plan alone is imitated; in others again, both appear toge-
ther; so that were it not for some peculiarity of arrangement
or detail, it would be difficult to decide to which style the
building might belong. This kind of influence was exerted
not only in Italy, but throughout the whole of Western
Europe.

In A.I). 568, the Lombards made their appearance in
Italy, and from that time dates the downfall of the previous
styles of art, and the introduction of that mode which is
entitled, after their designation, Lombardic; not that this
may be strictly said to be a new style, but rather a modifi-
cation of those already existing; still its characteristics are

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so marked as readily to distinguish it from its predecessors.
After this period we see little more of Byzantine architecture
beyond the locality where it first originated; in the East
it seems to have held out until the invasion of the Ottomans.

The distinguishing characteristic of Byzantine architecture
is the dome, a feature which distinguishes it at once from
all preceding styles, and no less surely, though perhaps less
readily, from its successors; in the one case by its mere
presence, in the other by its peculiar form. The adaptation
of the sphere throughout the building, may be said to be the
mark of the style, for it is used not only in the case of the
principal dome, but in a modified form as the covering of
the building in every part where it can possibly be applied,
as instanced in the conchs over the apsides or extremities of
the aisles. We might perhaps speak more generally, and
lay down the circle as the standard figure of construction,
for it appears everywhere, in plan, in section, and in eleva-
tion, or, as Hope says, “Arches rising over arches, and
cupolas over cupolas, we may say, that all which in the
temples of Athens had been straight, and angular, and square,
in the churches of Constantinople became curved and rounded,
concave within and convex without.” The plan of the
buildings was generally that of a cross inscribed in a square,
having each of the arms of an equal length, and not greatly
prolonged. At the angles of the square formed at the inter.
section of the cross were situate four piers, supporting as
many arches, whose spandrils converged so as to unite in
the form of a circle towards their summit, which again sup-
ported the crowning dome. The four arms of the cross
terminated in apsides of semicircular plan, and were likewise
covered with semi-cupolas, closing over the arches which
supported the central dome. The principal entrance was
preceded by a porch, and this again by an atrium or open
quadrangle, which is seldom omitted in the Eastern churches.
The church of S. Sophia is said to have had four distinct
nartheces besides the atrium. The domes in this style are
generally flat or depressed, of a vertical section less than
a semicircle, that of S. Sophia is noted as having been
remarkably low; the materials of their construction were
always of a light description, frequently hollow jars of a
somewhat cylindrical form, fitting one in the other, and made
of earthenware or some light substance. The thrust of the
dome was most usually resisted by pendentives or brackets
Springing from the angles of walls, which were square, and
carried up to support the base of the dome ; but this method
was not universally adopted, for in the Church of S. Vitale
at Ravenna, the dome is supported by a series of small
arches; in this case, however, the plan of the walls is not
square, but octagon.

The minor points of distinction are to be found in the
details, of which the follovVing are the most remarkable.
The heads of apertures are for the most part of a semicircular
form, sometimes however of a larger, sometimes of a lesser
segment; not unfrequently at a late period, stilted arches
are used, that is, semicircular arches having the lower
extremities continued downwards perpendicularly ;—this
method seems to have been adopted for the sake of preserving
the same level when arches of different spans were employed.
Besides these forms, pointed arches are occasionally met

-with, also apertures having triangular or pedimental heads.

Another peculiarity is the frequent employment of a series
of successive arches. The only remaining distinction which
we shall notice has reference to the capitals of the columns,
which are square tapering blocks of the form of truncated
pyramids having the apex downwards ; they are little better
than plain blocks, their only ornamentation consisting of
foliation in low relief, or a sort of basket-work which is

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

BYZ

70

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peculiar to this style of architecture. Nothing further need
be said respecting its characteristics, the dome of itself is
almost a sufficient feature to stamp the character of the type.

The origin of this mode of building is variously attributed
by various writers ; some will have it that it is but a modi-
fication of the Basilican style, with the addition of the dome,
which necessitated the shortening of the oblong of the
Basilica; but this, which is considered as merely an addition,
is the principal feature both in construction and design. It
is true, the plan of the Basilica was an oblong, and that of
the Byzantine buildings a square, but surely it does not fol-

'low that the latter should have been borrowed from the

former; as a matter-of-fact it may be so, but there is no
prima—facie evidence in favour of such an opinion, from the
mere similarity of plan. Others attribute its origin to the
baptisteries, or to the sepulchral chapels built by Constantine,
such as that of S. Costanza, the burial-place of Constantia,
his daughter, or the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem, and it
must be confessed that these offer a greater resemblance
to the Greek churches than do the Basilicas: others again
are of opinion that this was entirely a new style without
any previous model, owing its origin to the skill and concep—
tion of the Byzantine architects. The question remains,
how are these differences to be settled ? Not, we presume,
by following any one opinion to the exclusion of the others,
but by granting a moderate credit to all. We believe that
they all speak truly, but that no one of them speaks the
whole truth; it is probable that Byzantine architecture owes
its origin to each and all of the above sources,—-—to one per-
haps more than another, but not to one to the exclusion of
another. We would say that it owed its existence not a
little to the two first causes, but more especially to the last,
for as Mr. Knight, in describing the church of S. Vitale,
says, “The chief architectural novelty in this building, is
the dome. No vaulting of any kind had ever been hitherto
employed in the roofs of churches, much less that most skil-
ful and admired of all vaulting, the cupola, or dome; a mode
of covering buildings perfectly well understood by the
Romans, but discontinued as art declined, and, for the first
time, reproduced by the Greek architects of Constantinople,
in the instance of S. Sophia.”

\Vith the insufficient materials we have to work upon, it
would be futile to attempt a detailed classification of the
examples belonging to this style. It is to be regretted that
our knowledge on the subject is so scanty, but we trust
that some of our travellers will take an interest in those
hitherto neglected remains of Christian art. That there is
a scarcity of examples we can hardly suppose; we believe
that Asia Minor would afford ample materials for a proper
investigation. The only writer we know of who has essayed
an arrangement of known examples, and their division into
classes, is M. Couchaud in his book on the liglises Byzan-
tines en Gréce. It is true he seems to include some examples
under this style, which other authors do not suppose to
belong to it, but he has given considerable attention to the
subject, and his opinions cannot but be worth consideration.
lle commences by dividing the buildings into three classes,
to each of which he assigns a particular period. The first
period is comprised between the fourth and sixth centuries,
the second between the sixth and eleventh, and the third
between the eleventh and the invasion by the Ottomans.
\Ve cannot do better than follow his own description as
closely as possible.

Few of the churches of the first period, says be, are
now extant; lut we learn from the historian Eusebius,
that they were in plan either round or octagon, and were
surmounted by a. dome. Of this description was the

 

church erected by Constantine at Antioch, which was of
the latter class, and that erected by his mother Helena,
in Syria, of the circular form. The churches of S. Marcellin
and S. Constance at Rome, as well as that of S. Vitale at
Ravenna, afford further examples of the historian’s descrip-
tion. The plans in both cases, whether circular or octagonal,
terminated of a square form, and upon the plans thus pro-
duced were erected the facades ; the most ancient of which
are simple parallelopipeds, terminated at their summit by
a cornice of stone or marble, and sometimes of bricks, so
placed as to form salient and re-entering angles. Pediments
showing the slope of the roof do not appear in the facades,
for the use of timber had already been discarded by the
Greeks in the formation of their roofs, which were now
either flat or spherical. One or more gates gave admittance
into the church, and these were generally adorned with deep
mouldings; the lintels were relieved by an arch of discharge.
\Ve have said that all the churches of this period were sur-
mounted by domes; these were pierced at their lower
extremity by a multitude of apertures, which lighted the
interior of the cupola. According to Eusebius and S. Paul
of Seieucia, the domes were covered with lead and occasionally
gilded, but all those which are still to be found in Greece
are covered with tiles of terra cotta. The lateral facades
differ little from the principal one ; they are each of them
provided with an entrance. The apsides, generally three
in number, symbolizing the three Persons of the Holy
Trinity, were of a. simple plan, which was more frequently
circular than polygonal: their sides were pierced with one
or more apertures or windows. In theinterior of the church
the nave was always preceded by a porch or vestibule. A
gallery for the female portion of the congregation was carried
along the nave as far as the sanctuary, and was lighted by
windows situated over the principal facade, and sometimes
by others in the side facades. The principal difference
between the styles of the two empires, is shown in the length
of the nave, which in the Greek churches is much shorter
than in the basilicas of the west. In the centre of the church
were four piers supporting the dome, which was erected on
a square plan, the angles being filled up by very ingenious
contrivances technically termed pendentives. The extremities
of the nave were covered by two hemispherical cupolas.

Such are the principal features of the edifices which
were erected from the time of Constantine to the middle of
the sixth century. ‘

An enumeration of the peculiarities of the second period
will help to give us an idea of the progress made by Justinian
in the Christian architecture of this era.

The first edifice which presents itself to our notice is the
smaller church of S. Sophia at Constantinople, converted
into a mosque after the invasion of the Ottomans. The plan
of the exterior is that of a square surrounding an octagon,
the form of that of S. Vitale at Ravenna. In the interior
the galleries for females were carried round the first story,
and the nave covered, as in the preceding period, with a
dome. From this let us pass on to the larger church of the
same name, a building erected by Justinian to replace one
which had not long previously been destroyed by fire. In
plan this is similar to the smaller church, with the exception
that the octagon is slightly prolonged. The interior gal-
leries are similar to those already described, but the dome is
more rich and beautiful than in all previous examples, and
pierced with a larger number of apertures. The effect pro-
duced by this building was great, as is evidenced by the
influence which it obtained throughout the Eastern empire.
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and transepts, at last became so general, that externally you
could scarcely discover a straight line towards the summit
of the building. The churches of “ the Almighty,” and of
the monastery at Constantinople, which still preserve the roof
of this period, ofi‘er remarkable examples of this combination
of vaulting; and the method, which was employed in a great
number of instances, is still to be seen in most of the isles of
the Archipelago. In this period the domes were increased in
number, and at last were carried even over the porch; the
side facades follow the same form as the principal one, and
the rear end of the edifice terminates in a polygonal apsis,
pierced with windows of two or three compartments. In
the interior decoration mosaics took the place of the marble
slabs previously employed, which were retained only in the
surbasements. The nave was simplified ; square piers were
substituted for columns, which gradually disappeared, and the
pendentives were modified and somewhat varied. The vaults
were divided by horizontal rings, and decorated with paint-
ings; the centre of the cupola being occupied by a colossal
head of Christ, surrounded by angels. The domes belonging
to the latter portion of this period differed from the preceding,
inasmuch as the windows encroached upon the spherical part,
whereas before they had been confined to the base. This
second period, as may readily be seen, added greatly to the
embellishment of Byzantine architecture, and eventually con—
siderably modified its character.

In the third period, the systems of Italy and Greece were
united; the division indeed owes its origin, in a great mea-
sure, to the Roman basilica, as is manifested by the gable
ends of the wall showing the inclination of the roof. Athens
furnishes a number of examples, in which the influence of
\Vestern type is particularly noticeable. The galleries for
females were now dispensed with, and a portion of the area of
the church set apart for their service in the transepts. The
influence of this new mode, however, was more especially
shown in the profusion and richness of the ornaments em-
ployed in the details of the buildings.

Paintings in fresco took the place of mosaics, and were
multiplied to such an extent, that at last the very marble
which previously adorned the surbasement, was imitated by
this means.

Semicircular vaults covered the whole length of the
church; the windows were closed up with slabs of stone or
marble, pierced with small circular apertures to admit
light; and the doors began to be of more elaborate work-
manship; the interior arrangement remained the same as
before. This last period, which has been said to end with
the invasion of the Turks, may be considered as continuing
for some time longer, during which the arts remained sta-
tionary in Greece, up to the period of the last war of inde-
pcndcnce.

It now only remains to give some description of a few of
the churches which have been alluded to in a previous part
of this article: we cannot do better than commence with
that of S. Sophia, which forms a fair type of the whole
style. The following extract is taken from the Encyclopedia
zlletropolituna :—- ‘

“The cathedral of S. Sophia, at Constantinople, which
had been built by Constantine, having been twice destroyed
by fire, was rebuilt finally by Justinian, about A.D. 532.
His architect, Anthemius, gave the design, and the emperor
every day superintended the work, which was completed in
about six years from the time of laying the foundation; the
magnificence of the edifice so well satisfied the emperor, that
he is said to have glorified himself with the reflection that in
it he had exceeded Solomon himself.

“ The plan of the interior is that of a Greek cross, the

 

 

 

 

 

four arms of which are of equal length; the central part is
a square, the sides of which are each about 115 feet long.
At each angle of the square a massive pier‘of travertine
stone has been carried to the height of 86 feet from the
pavement, and four semicircular arches stretch across the
intervals over the sides of the square, and rest upon the piers.
The interior angles between the four piers in the central
square are filled up, from the springing points of the four
arches, in a concave form, to a horizontal plane passing
through their vertices, which are at 143 feet above the pave-
ment; so that, at the level of the vertices, the interior edge
of the part filled up becomes a circle, the diameter of which
is equal to the side of the central square. Upon this circle,
as a base, is raised the principal dome, the form of which is
that of a segment of a sphere, which is said to be equal in
height to one-sixth of the diameter of the base. On both
the eastern and western sides of the square, in the centre of
the church, is a semicircular recess, the diameter of which
is nearly equal to the side of the square; it is carried up to
the same height as the piers, and terminates in a half-dome,
or quadrant of a sphere, its base restng upon the hemi-
cylindrical wall of the recess, and its vertical side coinciding
with the arch raised between the piers on the face of the
building; the flat side of each recess and dome being open
towards the interior of the church. These quadrantal
domes were intended to resist the lateral thrust of the
arches raised on the northern and southern sides of the
church, but ’they were found insufficient, for the arches
pushed away the half—dome on the eastern side twice, and it
could only be made to stand by constructing the great dome
of pumice stone and very light bricks obtained from Rhodes,
by filling up the arches with others of smaller dimensions,
and by carrying an enormous arch-buttress from a massive
wall beyond the building to the foot of the dome.

“ At the extremities of the semicircular recesses, in a line
running east and west through the centre of the church, are
smaller recesses, the plan of one of which terminates in
a semicircle, and of the other in a right line; these recesses
are built to the height of the springing of the four principal
arches, and are crowned by quadrantal domes, which, as well
as the recesses, are open towards the interior. In each of the
two principal hemicylindrical recesses between the great
piers, and the other recesses just mentioned, are formed two
other cylindrical recesses, open towards the interior, and
covered by quadrantal domes. All the recesses and domes
are perforated by rows of small windows to obtain light.

“ On both the northern and southern sides of the square,
in the interior of the church, is a grand vestibule forming
a square on the plan; the roof of each consists of three
hemicylindrical vaults extending from north to south, and
of another vault of the same kind crossing the former at
right angles through the middle, and forming, by their inter-
sections, three groined arches; these vaults are supported
by massive pillars, which have bases, but no plinths; the
upper part of their capitals resemble the volutes of the Ionic
order, but the lower part seems to be a barbarous imitation
of the Corinthian base. Above these vestibules are galleries
exactly similar to them, and, probably, appropriated to
women during the performance of divine Service. The
whole church is surrounded by Cloisters, and enclosed by
four walls, forming one great rectangle on the plan. The
exterior does not correspond with the internal grandeur
of the edifice, being surrounded by clumsy buttresses. The
entrance is by a portico as long as the church, and about
36 feet wide; this is ornamented with pilasters, and com-
municates with the interior by five doorways of marble,
sculptured with figures in bats-relief. Contiguous to this

 

 

 

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BYZ

72

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vestibule, and parallel to it, is another, which has nine
doorways of bronze.

“ After twenty years, the Eastern dome was thrown
down by an earthquake, but it was immediately restored
by the persevering industry of Justinian ; and it now
remains, after a lapse of thirteen centuries, a stately monu-
ment to his fame.”

The next description, that of S. Vitale, Ravenna, is given
by Mr. Gwilt, in his Encyclopaedia of Architecture.

“ The exterior walls are formed in a regular octagon,
whose diameter is 128 feet. Within this octagon is another
concentric one, 54 feet in diameter, from the eight piers
whereof—55 feet in height—a hemispherical vault is
gathered over, and over this is a timber conical roof. The
peculiarity exhibited in the construction of the cupola is,
that the spandrils are filled in with earthen vases, and that
round the exterior of its base, semicircular—headed windows
are introduced, each of which is subdivided into two aper-
tures of similar forms. Between every two piers hemi-
cylindrical recesses are formed, each covered by a semi-
dome, whose vertex is 48 feet from the pavement, and each
of them contains two windows, subdivided into three spaces
by two columns of the Corinthian order, supporting semi-
circular-headed arches. Between the piers and the external
walls are two corridors, which surround the whole building,
in two stories, one above the other, each covered by hemi-
cylindrical vaulting. The upper corridor, above the vault, is
covered with a sloping or lean-to roof.”

Mr. Hope adds the following particulars :—“ S. Vitale,”
says he, “ built under Justinian in 53-1, announces itself at
first sight as a work of Greek architects, and a kindred pro-
duction with S. Sophia, and the others of Constantinople.
Its form, round without, though octagonal within; its two
tiers of arcades supported on pillars; its larger arcades or
apsides, containing lesser arches or pillars; its square capi-
tals, partly of basket-work, and its coating of Mosaic, at once
complete the resemblance and establish the relationship.”

The next descriptions, of S. Ciriaco, at Ancona, and
S. Mark’s, Venice, are taken from Mr. Gally Knight’s beau-
tiful work on the Ecclesiastical Architecture of Italy.

“ Ancona was one of the towns of Italy which remained
longest in the hands of the emperors of the East. Muratori
informs us, that in the year 1174 Ancona was governed by
an officer appointed by the Emperor Comnenus, and he adds,
that the Emperor Frederick saw with impatience that rem—
nant of Oriental power 'in the heart of the \Vestern Empire.
These circumstances will sufficiently account for the plan
and style of S. Ciriaco, which, constructed under the domi—
nation of the Greeks, is Greek in all its parts.

“ N0 certain record of the date of this building has been
preserved, but from an inscription still extant, it appears
that the bodies of SS. Ciriaco, Marcellino, and Liberio, Were
deposited in the crypt of this church in the year 1097.
Almost invariably, when the bodies of saints were trans-
lated, a new church was prepared for their reception, and the
translation usually took place when the building was suffi-
ciently advanced for the performance of divine service, but
before the work was entirely completed. \Ve further find,
that Bernard, Bishop of Ancona, consecrated a high-altar
in 1128, and that in 1189 Bishop Beraldus added a chapel,
and encrUsted the walls of the interior of the church with
marble. From all these circumstances, it may be inferred,
that this cathedral was begun about the middle of the
eleventh century, and completed in the course of the
twelfth. It is highly probable that the Saracens, who
landed at Ancona in 983, and committed extensive devas-
tations, maltreated the cathedral, which was then in exist-

 

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ence, and made it necessary to provide another in peaceable
times.

“ The cathedral was originally dedicated to S. Lawrence,
and retained that name till so late as the fourteenth century,
but finally the local favourite obtained the ascendant. The
body of S. Ciriaco was originally imported from the East by
the empress Galla Placidia in the fifth century, and by her
deposited in the cathedral which then existed at Ancona.

“ S. Ciriaco is on a large scale. The plan exactly repre-
sents the Greek cross, and was probably supplied by a Greek
architect. The centre of the building is surmounted by the
Eastern cupola. The building appears to have been erected
without any deviation from the original design, and for the
most part remains as it was at first constructed. The prin-
cipal porch, which projects boldly, and is enriched with
numerous mouldings, must have been a subsequent addition,
as the courses of the stones of which it is composed, do not
correspond with those of the church. In the interior, pillars
supporting round arches, divide the nave from the aisles.
The capitals of these pillars imitate the Corinthian, and
exhibit no admixture of the Lombard imagery, which, at
the time when the cathedral was built, prevailed in the north
of Italy. The cupola is supported by piers and arches.
The arches under the dome are pointed, but are evidently
alterations. These pointed arches may have been introduced
by the celebrated architect, Margaritone, who flourished in
the second half of the thirteenth century. Margaritone was
very much employed at Ancona, and to him the entire con-
struction of S. Ciriaco is attributed erroneously by Vasari.
Margaritone may have added the porch.

“The plan of S. Mark’s, like that of S. Sophia, is a
Greek cross, with the addition of spacious porticos. The
centre of the building is covered with a dome, and over
the centre of each of the arms of the cross, rises a smaller
cupola. All the remaining parts of the building are covered
with vaults, in constructing which, the Greeks had become
expert, and which are much to be preferred to the wooden
roofs of the old basilicas. Colonnades and round arches
separate the nave from the aisles in each of the four com-
partments, and support galleries above. The capitals of the
pillars imitate the Corinthian, and are free from the ima-
gery which at that time abounded in the other churches of
Italy. It is computed, that in the decoration of the build-
ing, without and within, above five hundred pillars are
employed.

“ The pillars are all of marble, and were chiefly brought
from Greece and other parts of the Levant. “’hilst S.
Mark’s was building, every vessel that cleared out of Venice
for the East, was obliged to bring back pillars and mar—
bles for the work in which the republic took so general
an interest.

“ The external appearance of S. Mark’s is no less Byzan-
tine than its interior, but less resembles S. Sophia from
the increased numbers and elevation of its eupolas. Suc-
ceeding generations endeavour to outstrip their predecesSors,
and in the interval which had elapsed between the construc-
tion of S. Sophia and that of S. Mark’s, the Greek archi-
tects had multiplied the feature which had obtained so much
admi ‘ation, and had sought to give it additional importance,
and surmounted the hemisphere of the dome with a second
cupola of wood covered with lead. This change was imparted
to the Venetian copy.

“ Another Byzantine feature is conspicuous in the exterior
of the building in the tiers of round arches by which the
flank walls are relieved. “'ith a. singular contrast to
the habits of their forefathers, who inflexibly adhered
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every line into a curve, and introduced a semi-arch wherever
they could, even in the shape of windows, which were often
what in modern phraseology would be termed fan-lights.
The front is on the same principle: a second tier of semi-
circular arches rises over the portico, which consists of no
less than five semicircular entrances decorated with numer-
ous pillars; the summit is crowned with spiral and pyra-
midal forms, partaking more of the character of the pointed
style than of the round. Altogether, the exterior of S.
Mark’s is a strange mixture, but it is venerable and pictu-
resque.”

 

The last description which we shall give is that of S.
Theodore, at Athens ; it is extracted from M. Couchaud.

“ Of all the churches which Athens possesses, S. Theodore
is certainly the most complete, since it has three apsides, a
dome and belfry; but the fresco painting in the interior has
decayed. The altar-screen, the furniture, and the pulpit, have
been replaced. It is constructed of a porous stone, separated
by courses of brick; the only peculiarity which it offers is
a frieze in terra cotta, running along the front facade, and the
two side facades, which are pierced with doors of singular
proportion, and having a horse-shoe-headed arch.”

C.

CAA

CAABA, a part of the temple of Mecca, to which the
Mahometans principally address themselves in prayer. It
consists of a stone edifice, nearly square, and is said, by the
followers of Mahomet, to have been first built by Abraham
and his son Ishmael.

The word is Arabic, caaba, and caabah; a name which
some have given to this building, on account of its height,
which exceeded that of the other buildings in Mecca ; but
others, with more appearance of propriety, derive the name
from its quadrangular form.

This edifice is so ancient, that its original use, and the
name ofits builder, are lost in a cloud of idle traditions ; it
is not improbable, however, that it was built by some of the
immediate descendants of Ishmael. But, whatever was
the original destination of the building, it does not seem to
have been a temple, as the door was not placed in the middle
of the structure;'and for many ages there was no worship
performed in it, though thepagan Arabs went in procession
round it. It is most probable, however, that the Caaba was
primarily designed for religious purposes ; and it is certain,
that it was held in the highest veneration long before the
birth of Mahomet. Having undergone several reparations,
it was, a few years after his birth, rebuilt, on the old foun-
dation, by the tribe of Koreish, who had acquired possession
of it, either by fraud or force. It was afterwards repaired
by Abdallah Eben Zobeir, the calif of Mecca; and again
rebuilt by Yussof, surnamed Al Hejaj, in the seventy-fourth
year of the Hegira, with some alterations, in the form in
which it now remains.

The length of the Caaba is twenty-four cubits, from north
to south ; its breadth, from east to west, twenty-three cubits;
the door, which is on the east side, is raised four cubits from
the ground, and the floor is on a level with the threshold
of the door. The Caaba has a double roof, supported by
three nctangular pillars of aloes-wood. The outside of the
building is covered with rich black damask, adorned with
an embroidered band of gold, which is changed every year,
and which is provided by the Turkish emperors. At some
distance, the Caaba is surrounded, but not entirely, with
a circular enclosure of pillars, joined at the bottom by a low
balustrade, and towards the top by bars of silver. Without
this enclosure, on the south, north, and west sides of the
Caaba, are three buildings, which are the oratories, or places
where three of the orthodox sects assemble to perform their
devotions; and towards the south-east stands the edifice
wl‘uch covers the well Zemzem, the treasury, and the cupola
of A1 Abbas. All these buildings are enclosed, at a con-
ciderable distance, by a magnificent piazza, or square colon-

~ U

,V__ ,_ha____v- 8“”,A" A

 

CAI

nade, covered with cupolas. From each angle of this piazza
rises a minaret, with a double gallery, adorned with a gilded
spire and crescent, as are the cupolas which cover the piazza.
Between the pillars of both enclosures, hang a great number
of lamps, which are constantly kept lighted by night.

CABLE, a moulding of a convex circular section, rising
from the back or concave surface of a flute, so that its most
prominent part may be in the same surface as the fillet, on
each side of the flute; the surface of the flute being that of
a concave cylinder, while that of the cable is the surface
of a convex cylinder, with the axes of the cylinders parallel
to each other. A cable represents a rope or staff laid in the
flute ; it is always shorter than the flute, and placed at the
lower end‘of it.

Cable mouldings of a somewhat different character are
made use of in Norman architecture; they represent cables
or twisted ropes, laid in mouldings of a concave circular
section, and having one half or greater portion of their bodies
exposed, and projecting from their beds.

CABLED FLUTES, such flutes as are filled with cables.

CABLING, the filling of flutes with cables, or the cables
themselves so disposed. Cabling the flutes of columns was
not in very frequent use in the works of antiquity. The
flutes of the columns of the arch of Constantine are filled
with cables to about one-third of the height of the shafts.
Most of the columns in the ruins of Balbec, Palmyra, and
Dioclesian’s palace at Spalatra, have neither flutes nor cables
Cabling has sometimes been practised in modern times,
without fluting, as in the church of Sapienza, at Rome.
See FLUTEs.

CAGE, in carpentry, an outer work of timber, enclosing

other works within it; as, the cage of a stair, is the wooden
wall that encloses it.
I CAISSON, in water-building, a large chest of strong
timber, made water-tight, and used in large and rapid rivers
for building the pier of a bridge. The bottom consists of
a grating of timber, so contrived as to be detached from the
sides when necessary. The ground under the intended
pier is first levelled, and the caisson being launched and
floated to a proper position, is sunk, and the pier built as
high as the level of the water, or nearly so ; then the sides
are detached, and the bottom remains as a foundation for
the pier.

The most considerable work that has come to our know-
ledge, where caissons have been used, is Westminster Bridge ;
of this, therefore, a particular account may be acceptable.
Each of the caissons contained 150 loads of fir timber, and
more tonnage than a man-of-War of 40 guns; their size was

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

——

nearly 80 feet from point to point, and 30 feet in breadth ;
the sides, 10 feet in height, were formed of timbers, laid
horizontally over each other, pinned with oak trunnels, and
framed together at all corners, except the salient angles,
where they were secured by proper iron work, which being
unscrewed, would permit the sides of the caisson, had it been
found necessary, to divide into two parts. These sides were
planked across the timbers, inside and outside, with 3-inch
planks, in a vertical position. The thickness of the sides
was 18 inches at the bottom and 15 inches at the top; and in
order to strengthen them the more, every angle, except the
two points, had three oaken knee-timbers, properly bolted
and secured. These sides, when finished, were fastened to
the bottom, or grating, by twenty-eight pieces of timber
on the out-side, and eighteen within, called straps, about
8 inches broad and 3 inches thick, reaching and lapping over
the tops of the sides; the lower parts of these straps were
dovetailed to the outer kirb of the grating, and kept to their
places by iron wedges. The purpose of these straps and
wedges was, that when the pier was built up sufficiently high
above low-water mark, to render the caisson no longer
necessary for the masons to work in, the wedges being
drawn up, gave liberty to clear the straps from the mortises,
in consequence of which the sides rose by their own buoyancy,
leaving the grating under the foundation of the pier.

The pressure of the water upon the sides of the caisson
was resisted by means of a ground timber, or ribbon, H
inches wide and 7 inches thick, pinned upon the upper row
of timbers of the grating; and the top of the sides was
secured by a sufficient number of beams laid across, which
also served to support a floor on which the labourers stood,
to hoist the stones out of the lighters, and to lower them
into the caisson.

The caisson was also provided with a sluice to admit the
water. The method of working was as follows: a pit being
dug and levelled in the proper situation for the pier, of the
same shape as the caisson, and about 5 feet wider all round;
the caisson was brought to its position, a few of the lower
courses of the pier built in it, and sunk once or twice, to
prove the level of the foundation ; then, being finally fixed,
the masons worked in the usual method of tide-work. About
two hours before low—water, the sluice of the caisson, kept
open till then, lest the water, flowing to the height of many
more feet on the outside than on the inside, should float the
caisson and all the stone-work out of its true place, was shut
down, and the water pumped low enough, without waiting
for the low ebb of the tide, for the masons to set and cramp
the stone-work of the succeeding courses. Then when the
tide had risen to a considerable height, the sluice was opened
again, and the water admitted; and as the caisson was pur-
posely built but 16 feet high, to save useless expense, the
high tides flowed some feet above the sides, but without any
damage or inconvenience to the works. In this manner the
work proceeded till the pier rose to the surface of the caisson ;
when the sides were floated away, to serve at another pier.
(Labelye’s Description of Westminster Bridge.)

CAISSON, signifies also the sunken panel in a vaulted
ceiling, or in the soflit of a cornice.

CALATHUS, the work-basket of Minerva: also a hand-
basket, made of light wood or rushes, used by the women
for gathering flowers, after the example of ll'linerva. The
figure of the calathus, as represented in ancient monuments,
is narrow at the bottom, and widens upwards in its horizontal
dimensions. Also a cup used in sacrifices.

CALCAREOUS CEMENTS. See CEMENTS.

CALCAItaous EARTH, a sort of earth which becomes
friable by burning, and is afterwards reduced to a fine pow-

 

 

CAL 74

 

CAM

der by mixing it with water; it also efi'ervésces with acids.
It is frequently to be met with in a friable or compact state,
in the form of chalk. See LIMESTONE and GYPSUM.

CALENDARIO, PHILIP, a celebrated architect and
sculptor, who flourished at Venice about the year 1354, and
constructed those beautiful porticos round the Palace of
S. Mark, which established his fame.

CALIBRE, or CALIBER, the greatest extent or diameter
of a round body.

CALIBRE Commssas, or CALLIPERS, a pair of compasses
with bent legs, for taking the thickness of a convex or con-
cave body in various parts.

CALIDUCTS, (from calor, heat, and ducere, to lead.)
pipes or canals disposed along the walls of houses and apart—
ments, used by the ancients for conveying heat to the remote

arts of the house, from one common furnace.

CALLIMACHUS, a celebrated architect of antiquity,
inventor of the Corinthian order.

CALOTTE, a concavity in form of a cup or niche, lathed
and plastered, to diminish the height of a chapel, cabinet, or
alcove, which would otherwise be too elevated for the
breadth.

CAMAROSIS, (from xayapoew, to arch over,) an elevation
terminated with an arched or vaulted head.

CAMBl‘LR, an arch on the top of an aperture, or on the
top of a beam ; hence camber windows.

CALIBER BEAMS, those which are cut with an obtuse
angle on the upper edge, forming a declivity each way from
the middle of their length; they are used in truncated roofs,
where, after being covered with boards, the boards are again
covered with lead, in order to discharge the rain - water
towards each edge of the flat, or platform.

Cambered beams are employed in a multitude of situations
where great strength is required. All beams which are so
situate as to be subject to cross—strain should be camber-ed.
Instances of cross-strain occur in bressummers, which are
loaded with a wall, and of course are most affected by the
gravity of its materials where the bearing is greatest, which
will be in their mid-length. A weight applied in this man-
ner will have the etfect of pressing the centre below the
level of the ends of the beam, and thus fracturing the super—
incumbent wall; and besides this, will tend to snap and tear
asunder the timber; and although, on account of its great
scantl‘ing, such an event rarely, if ever, occurs, yet it strains
the beam in the direction of its length, a test which timber
should not be subjected to. Moreover, in all cases where
beams of any great length are employed, the gravity of the
timber itself will weigh them down midway, even where
they are subjected to no additional weight, as in the case
of the tie-beams of a truss. In all these instances the diffi-
culty may be obviated by cambering the timber upwards.
This method not only ensures that the beam shall be level
after settlement, but entirely alters the nature and operation
of the force ; for whereas previously the beams were strained
or extended, this tension, by the employment of a camber, is
changed into a pressure, so that the tendency instead of
being to tear the particles asunder, and thus weaken or break
the. timber, is rather to press them more closely together, and
render the beam firmer and more compact.

Further, all timber is liable to shrinkage by the evapora-
tion of the moisture which is always present in a greater or
less degree, and thereby becomes of smaller dimensions than
when first inserted in a building. This defect may be recti»
tied as far as the length is concerned, by cambering to such
a degree, that when the wood is completely dry, it may tall
into a horizontal position, or nearly so. The extent to which
the beam should be bent is a matter of nice calculation, and

 

 

l
l
l

l

 

 

(JAN

75

CAP

 

the regulation of it must be left to experience. In trusses the
camber of the tie-beam should not be too great, as if so, it
will tend to thrust out and derange the principals. When
bressummers occur one above another, the higher ones should
he cambered to a greater extent than those below, the camber
increasing in direct proportion to the number of bressummers
beneath it.

CAMERATED, arched.

CAMES, in glazing, small slender rods of cast lead, about
12 or 14 inches long, to be drawn through a vice, in order to
make turned lead; each such bar is called a came.

CAMP CEILING, a ceiling formed by one or more
planes, with inclinations rising at an internal obtuse angle
from the Sides of the apartment, and most frequently enclos-
ing a level plane in the middle, in the manner of a coved
ceiling. This kind of ceiling is chiefly used in garrets,
where otherwise there would be a want of head-room.

CAMPANA, the body of the Corinthian capital, otherwise
called the vase or bell, from its figure.

CAMPANILE, (from campana, a bell,) a bell-tower,
chiefly in use among the Italians. It was sometimes a dis-
tinct and separate building of itself; but more commonly
adjoining to the church, so as to make a part of the fabric,
usually at the west end. Several of these towers are remark-
able for being considerably out of the perpendicular, of
which those of Pisa and Bologna are the most celebrated.

Campaniles were erected to a great height; that of Cre-
moua, the highest in Italy, is 395 feet high; that of Flo-
rence, built by Giotto, 267 feet, of a square plan, the sides
of which are 45 feet in length. The leaning tower of Pisa
is 150 feet in height, and 13 feet out of the perpendicular.

CANAL OF THE IONIC VOLUTE, the spiral channel or

- sinking on the face, which begins at the eye, in a point, and

expands in width until the whole number of revolutions are
completed. In the volutes of the Ionic order of the temples
of Minerva Polias and Erectheus, at Athens, are several
l:anals, which begin and end in the manner above described.

CANAL is also used for a FLUTE.

CANAL OF THE LARMIER, the channel recessed upwards on
the sotiit, for preventing the rain-water from reaching the
bed or lower part of the cornice. See BEAK.

CANARIHERE, or GUEmTE, a small turret, sometimes
of wood, and sometimes of stone; used as a sentry-box on

i the salient angles of works, as places of shelter for sentinels.
; They were formerly constructed on castles, and used for

firing, or discharging anything unseen in unmolested security.

CANCELLI, latticed windows, or those made with cross-
bars of wood or iron. Also balusters or rails, especially
those which separate the chancel from the body of the

‘ church.

' DACHIN.

CANOPY, a magnificent covering suspended over an
altar, throne, tribunal, pulpit, chair, or the like. See BAL-
It also denotes the projecting head Of Gothic
niches or tabernacles.

CANT, a term used by carpenters, signifying to turn
a piece of timber, which is brought in the wrong way for
their work. Also, the external angle made by any two

. planes of a solid or building.

CANT MOULDING, a bevelled surface, or one that is

‘ neither perpendicular to the horizon nor to the vertical sur-

. face of the body or building.

These mouldings are of very

‘ remote antiquity, and have an efl’ect similar to the Grecian

echinus. A cant moulding, instead of the echinus, is applied
to the capital of the columns of the portico of Philip, king of
Macedon, and in many other situations, both of Grecian and
Roman edifices, as is exhibited in Stewart’s Ruins of Athens,
in the Ionian Antiquities, and in Adams’s Ruins of the

 

Palace of Dioclesian, at Spalatra, in Dalmatia. The
mouldings of our first Saxon buildings were originally very
simple, consisting only of surfaces perpendicular and parallel
to the naked of the walls; though afterwards they were
formed not only of squares, but of cants also. These simple
forms continued in use for some time after the Conquest ;
and even when a great variety of curved forms came to be
introduced, they were never entirely laid aside; we find them
frequently employed in the windows of castellated buildings,
and other parts.

CANTED COLUMN, a column of which the horizontal sec-
tions are polygons, consisting of straight sides instead of
concave sides or flutes. Canted columns are not frequently
to be met with in the works Of the ancients, yet examples
may be seen in the columns of the portico of Philip, king of
Macedon, and of the temple of Cora. The cants of columns
are difficult to execute with truth, so as to preserve the
arrises in the proper contour of the column, and in a vertical
plane passing through its axis; and when done, they want
the beautiful contrast Of light and shade, which is so con-
spicuous in the flutings Of the Grecian Doric.

CANTING, the cutting away a part of an angular body
at one of its angles, so that the section may be a parallelo-
gram, the edges of which are parallel from the intersection
of the adjoining planes.

CANTALIVERS, those blocks which are placed at regu-
lar distances, projecting at right angles from the surface of
the wall, and supporting the upper members of a cornice,
the eaves of a house, or balcony: they answer the same pur-
pose as modillions, mutules, blocks, or brackets, although
they are applied to more trivial purposes; modillions, mu-
tules, &c., being employed in regular architecture. Canta-
livers are frequently made of timber, or cast iron, and pro-
ject to a great distance. Those used in the cornice of St.
Paul’s, Covent Garden, are of timber, and project one-fourth
of the height of the column.

CANTHARUS, among ecclesiastical writers, a fountain
or cistern in the middle of the atrium, before the ancient
churches, wherein people washed their hands and faces before
they entered.

CANTHARUS OF A FOUNTAIN, with the Romans, the part,
or apparatus, out of which the water issued; it was of
various fanciful forms, sometimes resembling a shell, at
others, an animal vomiting the water from its mouth, and
sometimes the stream issued through the eyes.

CANTHERS, or CANTERH, in ancient carpentry, the
common rafters of a roof, or those placed in vertical planes
at right angles to the ridge or eaves of the building.

CANTING STAIRS. See STAIRS.

CANTONED BUILDING, a building whose angles are
adorned with columns, pilasters, rustic quoins, or anything
that projects beyond the naked of the wall.

CANTONED COLUMNS. See COLUMNS.

CAP, the mouldings which form the head of a pier or
pilaster.

CAP, in joinery, the uppermost part of an assemblage of
principal or subordinate parts. The term‘is applied to the
capital of a column, the cornice of a door, the capping or
uppermost member of the surbase Of a room, the hand-rail
of a stair, when supported by an iron strap, 8:0.

CAPACITY, in geometry, the solid content of a body.

CAPITAL, (capitello, Italian ; from the Latin, caput, the
head) the assemblage of mouldings or ornaments above the
shaft of a column, on which the entablature rests; in other
words, the head of the column. Capitals are variously com-
posed, some with simple mouldings, others with mouldings,
foliage, and volutes.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CAP "

CAP

 

The capitals used in the architecture of the Greeks,
though with numberless minute variations of ornaments and
proportions, arrange themselves into three general classes,
and offer the most obvious distinctions between the orders.

In all the orders, the capital is divided from the shaft by
some small member, as an astragal and fillet, or by one or
three channels, which are always accounted a part of the
shaft; so much of the column, therefore, as appears above
this member, belongs to the capital.

The Doric capital consists of a neck, which is a continua-
tion of the shaft, with its fluting, several fillets, varying from
three to five in number, a bold projecting ovolo, and a massy
abacus, of a square form, which covers the whole.

The Ionic capital consists of an ovolo above the astragal
of the shaft; a band, or festoon, upon the ovolo, on the front
and rear of the capital, with volutes on the right and left,
suspended from the ends of each band, or festoon ; and,
lastly, a thin moulded abacus crowns the whole.

The Corinthian capital, which is more richly ornamented,
consists of a vase, two rows of leaves attached to the vase,
volutes, caulicoli, which spring between each two of the
upper row of leaves, and, lastly, an abacus, which is not only
moulded on all the four edges, but formed into a concavity
from the two extremities of each of the said edges.

From this description of Grecian capitals, it will be seen
that though the parts are generally so very unlike as to be
incapable of comparison, yet they in variety maintain a
general resemblance.

The variations to be found in different ancient examples
of the same order, will be described under their respective
heads.

With regard to the Tuscan capital, there are no authenti-
cated remains of the order of which it is a part; and the
precepts of Vitruvius on this head are so obscure, that
modern compilers of systems of architecture have, of course,
varied exceedingly in their designs; so that the order which
passes under this name, must be regarded rather as a modern
than an ancient invention. It is made to differ from the
modern Doric by an air of poverty and rudeness, and by the
suppression of the triglyphs, mutules, and other members.

The Composite appears never to have been admitted as a
separate order by the ancients.

From the remains of Egyptian antiquities, we find that
their architects had no certain rules; and it is rather singu-
lar, that though the buildings themselves were constructed
with the greatest simplicity, their capitals are of infinite
variety; many of them possessing richness of decoration,
although devoid of the simple elegance which is the charac-
teristic of the Grecian orders. The ornaments are, in general,
accurate imitations of the natural productions of the country,
such as the lotus, the reed, or the palm.

The temples of the ancient inhabitants of Hindostan,
works of dateless antiquity, present many capitals of extra-
ordinary form and composition. In some, we find repre
sented the figures of elephants and horses, apparently
crouching under the weight of the ceiling. Capitals, very
similar in idea, are also found in the ruins of Persepolis,
composed of horses and camels.

As Roman art degenerated with the decline of the empire,
the capitals from the ancient edifices were used indiscrimi-
nately in the new structures; and this led, in later times, to
the employment of a variety of capitals in the same edifice.
The first alteration we find in the form of this member of the
column, is in the erections of that style of architecture known
as Byzantine, in which the capitals are in the shape of a
truncated pyramid of four sides, placed in an inverted posi-
tion, havmg the apex downwards; the surface is ornamented

 

 

with foliations in low relief, or with a sort of basket-work,
which is a distinguishing feature of the style to which it
belongs. A nearer approach to their original is shown at a
later period, in the style whose introduction is attributed to
the Lombards; in this, which is merely a modification of the
dcbased Roman, some of the capitals bear a great resemblance
to the Corinthian, although far inferior to their original in
simplicity and elegance; there are, however, other examples
ofa far different description, both in form and ornamenta-
tion; some ornamented with designs in low relief, others
again of a grotesque character. If we include the Norman
in this style, to which it certainly bears a close affinity, we
shall have a great variety of forms, to be noted indeed rather
for their variety and massive appearance, than for beauty of
outline or decoration.

But of all capitals, those found in buildings in the modes
commonly comprised under the term Gothic, hold a lofty
pre-eminence both for variety and tastefulness. “'hat can
be more chaste and elegant than the ornamentation of the
early English? or what more graceful and natural than
the foliage of the decorated capital? As to variety, it was the
governing principle of decoration, there seldom being found
many repetitions of one form in the same building. Nature
was their model, by her alone were their designs limited, so
long at least as their skill was suflicient to imitate her
productions.

CAPITAL, Angular. See ANGULAR CAPITAL.

CAPITAL or A BALUSTER, one similar to those of the
Tuscan or Doric orders.

CAPITAL' OF A LANTERN, the covering by which it is
terminated, either in a bell-shape, the form of a cupola, that
of a spire, or in any regular figure whatever.

CAPITAL OF A TRIGLYPH, the projecting band which
surmounts the plain vertical area, or face, and which is dis-
posed in a plane parallel to the said face. The capital of the
triglyph of the Grecian Doric projects but a. very small
distance, and is not returned on the flanks, except at the
angular triglyphs, and this only upon each face of the build-
ing; but in the Roman Doric, the capital of the triglyph
projects more than that of the Grecian, and is returned
with the same projection on the flanks as in the face.

CAPITOL, a celebrated rock, or hill, at Rome, whereon
stood many ancient edifices, with the house of Romulus, Ste.

Among the many celebrated edifices that formerly occupied
this hill, the principal was the Asylum, erected by Romulus,
in order to people his new city. The house of Romulus

'as composed of canes, rushes, &c.; and every year the
priests superstitiously repaired it with similar materials.
Here was the 'l‘abularium, or Archive, where were deposited
the laws and consulta of the senate, and every other public
act, written on tables of bronze. Vespasian repaired the
Capitol, and had three thousand new tables made, the former
having been defaced when the library and other buildings
were destroyed by lightning. It is supposed to have stood
where the arches and Doric columns are now seen, behind
the Senators’ Palace, towards the Campo Vaccino. Here
was the Curia Calabra. Here also stood the house of Manlius,
the defender of the rock, destroyed on account of the treachery
of its master. The temple of Juno Moneta was built on its
site. The number of temples on this hill was very consider-
able: some make them amount to sixty. But the great
quantity of statues in marble, metal, silver, and gold, erected
to heroes who had deserved well of the republic, causing
great confusion, Augustus removed great part of them to
the Campus Martins.

All these noble edifices, once the ornament of the mistress
of the world, have fallen a victim to the ravages of time,

 

 

 

 

CAR 7

" \ CAR

 

and the still more destructive plunder of invading barbarians.
At first this hill was only. accessible from the south; but after
the Campus Martins was inhabited, another road was opened
towards the north. The first among the moderns who pro-
moted the decoration of the Campidoglio was Pope Paul III.
who, afteradesign of Bonarrotti, constructed the spacious steps.

CAPREOLS, in Roman carpentry, the struts or braces
of a trussed roof.

CARACOL, is used sometimes to denote a staircase in the
form Ofa helix, or spiral.

CARAVAN SERA, in the East, a large building, or inn,
for the reception of travellers, and the lodging of caravans.
It. is usually a large square of buildings, with a court in the
middle, surrounded with galleries and arches, under which
runs a kind of banquette, or elevation, some feet high, where
travellers rest themselves, and make their lodging as well as
they can; their baggage, and the beasts that carry them,
being fastened to the foot of the banquette. Over the gate
there are frequently small chambers, which the caravan-
seraskier, or director, lets out at a very dear rate, to such as
wish to be. retired.

CARCASE, the work of a house before it is either lathed
or plastered, or the floors laid.

CARCASE, or NAKED FLOORING, that which supports the
boarding above, for walking upon, and the ceiling below, by
a grated frame of timber, consisting of three tiers of beams,
called joists; the middle tier being transverse to the other
two. The beams of the middle tier, called bindingjoists,
support the other two tiers: the beams forming the upper
tier, called bridgings, or bridgingjoists, support the boarding,
and are frequently notched upon the binding-joists: the
lowest row of beams, called ceiling-joists, are either framed
into the binding-joists, with pulley or chase mortises, flush
with the under edges Of the said joists, or are notched and
nailed to them below. \Vhen the floor is very much extended
in both dimensions, another set of large beams, called girders,
the whole depth of the three tiers, are introduced, for short-
ening the bearings of the binding-joists, which are mortised
and tenoned into the girder on both sides Of it. The under
edges of the binding-joists should be so framed, as to be below
the under side of the intermediate girder, about half an inch,
to prevent the ceiling from cracking; and the girder must
be furred, to range with the under edge of the ceiling joists.
The general scantlings of these timbers are as follow, viz.
girders, 12 by 13 inches; binding-joists, 10 by 4; bridging-
joists, 5 by 2125; and ceiling-joists, 3 by 2%. The distance
which these timbers are commonly placed in the clear is as
follows: the binding-joists from 4 to 6 feet, which is also
that of the ceiling-joists; and the bridgings 11 or 12 inches
apart. As the girders go the whole length of the room, they
nave no fixed hearing; when they extend to 20 feet and
upwards, they should be trussed. “’hen the breadth of a
room extends to 30 feet and upwards, the girders should
be framed like the truss Of a partition, with an upper and
lower beam, and with posts, braces, and struts: for this
purpose, a sufficient depth for the floor should be allowed,
from two to three feet. Girders should never be placed over
openings, unless they be supported by strong arches. When
a lintelled opening comes under the place where the end of
the girder should be, the end Of the girder must be changed
to the nearest solid hearing, which will throw its direction
into an oblique position. The wall-hold for girders in brick
buildings, may be from 9 to 12 inches, and for binding-joists,
6 inches. In stone buildings, for girders, from one foot to
two feet, according to the thickness of the wall, and for
binding-joists, 9 inches. In thick walls there may be two

 

rows of wall-plates.

CARCASE ROOFING, that which supports the covering by
a grated frame of timber-work, consisting of three tiers of
timber, parallel to each other, and to the sloping surface
of the covering. The most general disposition of the tim
hers is the following : the first tier and support is a row of
timbers, inclined to the pitch of the roof, supported at various
points by other timbers, which, with the inclined timbers,
form as many vertical frames, perpendicular to the sides of
the building as there are inclined timbers: each frame is
called a truss: the inclined timbers in the upper part of the
truss are called principal rafters: the principal rafters support
a set of horizontal timbers transversely, and parallel to each
other, called purlins: the purlins support the third and last
tier of timbers of the frame, transversely or parallel to the
principal rafters: the timbers of the last tier are called
bridging, or common rafters. The upper surfaces of the
principals, those of the purlins, and those of the common
rafters, are sometimes framed flush with each other, or in
the same inclined plane, in order to save room, or to conceal
more of the roof: in this way the purlins must be tenoned,
and the principals mortised to receive them; the small rafters
and purlins are also tenoned and mortised together. But the
best and strongest mode of carcase framing is, to make the
purlins bridge over the principals, and the common rafters
over the purlins. The principals rest upon a horizontal piece
of timber, 0n the wall head, called the raising, or wall plate:
when the purlins bridge over the principals, and the small
rafters over the purlins, the small rafters rest at the bottom
upon a piece of timber called a pole-plate. The manner of
joining the timbers in carcase roofing and flooring, may be
seen in the article CARPENTRY ; other particulars relative to
roofing, may be seen under ROOFING, TRUSS, and BOARDING.

Sometimes the covering is only supported by purlins rest-
ing upon the principal rafters; in this case, the length of the
boards is disposed parallel to the principal rafters; but this
position does not give so great strength to the roof as that
which is horizontal.

CARDINAL SCAPI, in Romanjoinery, the stiles ofdoors.

CARINA, in Roman antiquity, a building in the form of
a ship.

CARNEDDE, in British antiquity, heaps of stones; sup-
posed to be druidical remains for confirming and comme-
morating covenants.

CAROLITIC COLUMN. See COLUMN.

CARPENTER (from the French, charpentier; formed
from charpente, timber: or, probably, from the Latin, car-
pentarius, a maker of carpenta, or carriages,) an artificer,
Whose business it is to cut, form, and join timber, for the
purpose of strengthening and supporting various parts neces-
sary in the construction of buildings.

CARPENTER’s RULE, is generally used in taking dimen-
sions, and in casting up the contents of timber and artificers’
work.

It consists of two equal pieces of box, each one foot in
length, connected together by a folding joint; in one of these
equal pieces there is a slider, and four lines marked at the
right-hand, A, B, C, D; two of these lines, B, C, are upon the
slider, and the other two, A, D, upon the rule. Three of
these lines, viz., A, B, C, are called double lines, because they
proceed from one to ten twice over in the length; these
three lines are all exactly alike, both in numbers and division.
They are numbered from the left hand towards the right,
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, l, which stands in the middle; the
numbers then go on again to 10, which stands at the right-
hand end of the rule. These numbers have no determinate
value of their own, but depend upon the value you set on
the unit at the left hand of this part of the rule; thus if you

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CAR

78

CAR

 

call it 1, the 1 in the middle will be 10, the other figures
which follow will be 20, 30, &c., and the 10 at the right-
liand end will be 100. If the first, or left-hand unit be
called 10, the middle 1 will be 100, and the following figures
will be 200, 300, 400, 860. and the 10 at the right-hand end
will be 1000; and thus, whatever be the value of the first
unit, the second unit in the middle is always ten times
greater; and whatever is the value of the first and second
unit, the following numbers to the right denote so many
times that value as the number expresses.

The fourth line, D, called the girt line, is a single line,
proceeding from 4 to 40. Upon it are marked w G at
17' 15, and A G at 18-95, the wine and ale gauge points, to
make it serve the purpose of a gauging-rule.

The use of the double lines, A and B, is for working the
rule of proportion, and finding the areas of plane figures.
And the use of the girt line D, and the other double line C, is
for measuring of timber. On the other part of this side of
the rule, there is a table of the value of a load, or 50 cubic
feet, of timber, at all prices, from sixpence to twenty-four
pence, or two shillings, per foot.

On the other side of the rule are several plane scales,
divided into 12th parts, marked inch, %, %, i, &c. signifying
that the inch, 13 inch, 8w. are each divided into 12 parts.
These scales are useful for planning dimensions that are
taken in feet and inches. The edge of the rule is divided
into inches, and each of these inches into eight parts, repre-
senting half inches, quarter inches, and half quarters.

In this description, the rule is supposed to be folded; let
it now be opened, and pull out the slider, you will find the
back of it divided like the edge of the rule, so that altogether
it will measure one yard, or three feet, in length. The
slide is very useful in taking inside dimensions for any
length not less than one foot, nor greater than three feet.

Some rules have other scales and tables upon them; as a
table of board measure, one of timber measure, a line for
showing what length for any breadth will make a foot square,
also a line showing what length for any thickness will make
a solid foot. The former line serves to complete the table
of board measure, and the latter the table of timber
measure.

The thickness of the rule is generally about a quarter of
an inch ; this face is divided into inches and tenths, and num-
bered, when the rule is opened, from the right—hand towards
the left, 10, 20, 30, 8:0. to 100, which falls upon the joint.
The other half is numbered in the same manner, and the
same way. The scales serve for taking dimensions in feet,
tenths, and hundredths of a foot, when the contents are found
by decimals.

CARPENTER’S SQUARE, a square, of which both stock and
blade consist of an iron plate, of one piece; it is in size
and construction as follows :—one leg is 18 inches in length,
numbered on the outer edge, from the exterior angle, with
the bottom of the figures adjacent to the interior edge: the
other leg is 12 inches long, and numbered from the extre-
mity towards 'the angle; the figures are read from the
internal angle, as on the other side; each of the legs is about
an inch broad. This implement is not only used as a square,
but also as a level and measuring rule. Its application as a
square, in taking measures, is so easy as not to require ex-
ample; but its use in taking angles may be thus illustrated :
suppose it Were required to take the angle which the heel of
a rafter makes with the back; apply the end of the short
leg of the square to the point of the heel and back, with the
edge of the square level across the plate ; extend a chalk line
from the ridge of the roof to the said heel-point, and the
(division on the perpendicular leg of the square which the line

 

falls upon, will mark the inches, and show how far it deviates
from the square in 12 inches.

CARPENTER’S WORK, in the mensuration of artificers’ work,
includes the taking of the dimensions of every description of
timber necessary in the construction of buildings, finding their
contents, and valuing the same.

The works done by the carpenter, in the general construc-
tion of buildings, are the preparation of piles, sleepers, and
planking, or other large timbers in the foundations, center-
ings to vaults, wall-plates, lintels, and bond-timbers, naked
flooring, partitioning, roofing, battening to walls, ribbed ceil-
ings to form vaulting for lath and plaster, &c. These are
not necessarily used in the construction of every edifice: piling
and planking, or other timbers used in the foundation, are
only incidental, depending upon the insufficiency of the
ground to be built upon; the remaining articles may be
all used in the most substantial and elegantly constructed
houses.

Large and plain articles, where a. uniform quantity of
materials and workmanship is expended, are generally mea-
sured by the square of 100 superficial feet.

Piles may be made at per piece, and driven by the foot
run, according to their diameter, and the quality of the
ground.

Sleepers and planking are measured and valued by taking
the superficial contents in yards or squares.

Plain centering is measured by the square; but as the
ribs and boarding are two different qualities of work, they
ought to be measured and valued separately; one dimension
of the boarding is taken by girting it round the arch, the
other is the length of the vault.

Centering for groins should be measured and valued as
common centering, but in addition thereto, the angles should
be paid for by the foot run, over and above; that is, the ribs
and boarding ought to be measured and valued separately,
according to the exact superficial contents of each, and the
angles by the lineal foot for workmanship in fitting the ribs
and boards, and for the waste of wood occasioned by the
operation. \Vall-plates, lintels, and bond-timbers, are mea-
sured by the cubic foot, under the denomination of fir-in-
bond.

Naked flooring may either be measured and valued by the
square, or by the cubic foot, according to the description of
the work, and the quantity of timber employed. In forming
an idea of its value, it is proper to observe, that in equal
cubic quantities of small and large timbers, the small timbers
will have a greater superficies than the large ones, and there—
fore the saving will not be in a ratio with the solid contents;
consequently the value of the workmanship will not follow the
cubic quantity or said ratio. The difliculty of handling tim-
bers of the same length increases with the weight or solidity,
as the greater quantity requires greater power to handle it,
and consequently a greater expenditure of time: and though
the time may not be exactly in a ratio with the solid quantity,
there will be no great ditfcrenee. as the respective sections will
not vary considerably in their dimensions; and as the value of
the sawing upon a cubic foot is comparatively small to that of
the work done by the carpenter, the whole value of labour
and materials may be ascertained with sufficient accuracy
where the work is uniformly of one description.

In naked flooring, where girders are introduced, they
interrupt the uniformity of the Work by mortises and tenons.
In this respect, the price ascertained by the cubic quantity
of the girders, would not be sutlicient at the same rate per
foot, as the other parts, not only on account of the great dif-
ference of size, but as it is cut full of mortises to receive

l the tenons of the binding- joists, it occasions a still greater

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CAR

79 CAR

 

disparity in the quantity of workmanship. A correct method,
therefore, of valuing labour and materials, would be to
measure and value the whole by the cubic quantity, and
allow an additional rate upon every solid foot of girders; or
if the binding-joists were not inserted in the girders at the
usual distances, a fixed price for every mortise and tenon, in
proportion to their size, which would keep a ratio with the
area of the end of the girder.

As the binding-joists are sometimes pulley or chase mor-
tised, to receive the ceiling-joists, and sometimes notched to
receive the bridging-joists over them, they ought to be classed
by themselves, at a superior price per foot cube, or at an
additional price for the workmanship, above that of common
ioisting: this should always be allowed according to the
description of workmanship, whether the ceiling’joists be put
in with pulley mortises and tenons, or the bridgings notched
or adzed down.

Partitions may be measured by the cubic foot, but the sills,
top pieces, and door heads, should be measured by themselves,
according to the solid quantity, at an additional rate, because
both the uniform solidity, and the uniform quantity of work-
manship, are interrupted by them. In trussed partitions, the
braces should be rated by the foot cube, at a superior price to
that of the quartering, for the trouble of fitting the ends of
the uprights upon their upper and lower sides, and for form-
ing the abutments at the ends.

In roofing, all the timbers should be measured by the cubic
foot, classed as the difficulty of execution, or as the waste
occasioned, may require. Common rafters may be rated the
same as joisting or quartering; purlins at a superior price,
for the trouble of fitting or notching down the common
rafters: the notching of the purlins themselves, upon these
principles, should be valued at per piece or notch. The
various parts of trusses should be arranged separately; the
ioggles should be paid for at per piece, including the tenons at
the ends of the struts; the mortising tie-beams and princi-
pals, and making the tenons of the truss-posts, should like-
wise go together; and the mortising and tenoning at the ends
of tie - beams and principals, in another class; strapping
should be paid for according to the number of bolts. In all
these matters, regard must be had to the size and description
of the work: common or bridging rafter-feet at per piece.

Battening to walls is best measured by the square, accord—
ing to the dimensions and distances in the clear of the bat-
tening.

Ribbed ceilings should be measured according to the cubic
quantity, making a proper allowance for the great waste of
stufl'; the price of labour will be regulated by the descrip-
tion of the work, and also by the cubic quantity of timber.

'l‘rinnners should be measured separately, at such a price
as to include not only the mortises and tenons of the joisting
inserted into them, but the tenons at their extremities, and
the mortises of the trimming joists, which are to receive
them. In this way, it would be unnecessary to take any
account of the tenons at the ends of the bridging-joists, or of
the mortises in the trimming-joists to receive the ends of the
trimmer.

It would be endless to enumerate the various methods of
measuring each particular species of carpenter’s work; the
leading articles only are here observed.

. As soon as the shell of a building is finished, that is, pre-
Vlous to the floors being laid, or the ceilings lathed and plas-
tered, all the timbers should be measured, that no doubt may
exrst as to the actual scantlings of the timbers, or of the
description of the workmanship.

.ln taking the dimensions, it must be observed, that all
pieces which have tenons, must be measured to the extre-

 

 

 

 

mities of the tenons. Principal timbers, as binding-joists
and girders, go at least nine inches into the wall, or one-third
of its thickness, if more than 27 inches.

In taking the dimensions of bond-timbers and wall-plates,
the several laps must be added to the lengths. When there
is a necessity for cutting out parallel pieces from the sides of
truss-posts, as in king or queen posts, if the pieces cut out
exceed 2% feet in length, and 2% inches in thickness, they
should be deemed pieces fit for use; but their lengths should
not be reckoned so long by six inches, as the saw can hardly
be entered with less waste.

The boarding of the roof is measured by the square,
according to the thickness and quantity of the boards, and
the manner of jointing them. In measuring for labour and
materials, the most accurate method is, first, to find the cubical
contents, the price of the cubic foot, including the prime cost,
carting, sawing, waste, and the master’s profit ; then add the
price of labour, properly measured, in the same manner as for
the journeyman. Labour and materials are variable, and ’
have no relation whatever to each other; consequently they
cannot be reduced to single tables. The value of the cubic
foot may be calculated by having the prime cost of the load,
or 50 cubic feet: for example, let it be required to find
the price of a cubic foot, when the price of the load is £10.

 

 

£ 8. d.
50 feet cube fir, prime cost ............................. 10 0 O
Cartage ...................................................... 0 5 0
Sawing ....................................................... 0 10 0
7 feet cube waste .......................................... l 8 0

12 3 0
20 per cent profit on the above ........ . ................ 2 8 7
Master's price per load ................................. £14 11 7

 

Then as 50 cubic feet are to one cubic foot, so is
£14. 11s. 7d. the price of 50 cubic feet, to the price of
one cubic foot. Thus,

£ s. d.
50 : 1 z: 14 ll 7

20

291

12

5,0) 349,9
12) 69%!

59

So that the price of the cubic foot wants only the fiftieth
part of a penny to be 5s. 10d. This is the rate of the mas-
ter’s price for the fir, exclusive of labour.

The foregoing are the methods by which the various parts
of workmanship should be analyzed, in order to discover a
legitimate ratio of prices: but we regret to add, that no par-
ticular account of time has been kept, in which the execution
of certain uniform portions of work have been done, and by
which alone we are enabled to give accurate calculations. The
method of lumping work by the square, is not to be depended
on, in the general admeasurement of buildings, as the surface
is not always of a uniform description of workmanship;
thus, in hipped roofs, the greatest trouble is at the hips, in
cutting and fitting the jack-rafters, which are fixed at equal
distances thereon, and therefore such a price may be fixed
upon the cubic quantity of hips and vallies, as will not only

 

 

 

 

 

CAR

80

(JAR

 

pay for the workmanship in themselves, but also for the
trouble of cutting and fitting the jack-rafters.

It is impossible to fix a proper rate, including both
materials and workmanship, as the one may be stationary,
while the other is variable. With respect to materials, the
value of any quantity may be easily ascertained, whatever he
the price per load; but the far greater difficulty lies in fixing
proper rates of workmanship; however, admitting that the
time of executing every species of work were known, there
would be no difficulty in establishing certain uniform quan-
tities, which would give the real value at any time; the fol-
lowing is a specimen of the several rates of workmanship, by
which the prices may be regulated at any time, admitting
them to be right for the present. Each rate consists gene-
rally ot' three places of decimals on the right side of the point,
and sometimes an integer on the left side. This table shows
also the customary methods of measuring.

To find the price of the common measure of any kind of
workmanship, at any time— Multiply the wages of the
workman by the rate; then, whatever denomination the
wages is per day, the integers of' the product, if any, will be
of the same denomination, and the decimals will be parts of
the same.

Example—The centering of cylindric vaults is 2.033 per
square; now let the wages per day be 5 shillings, or 60
pence; then 2.033 x 5:10.165 shillings per square, and by
multiplying the decimal parts by 12, we obtain the pence.
Thus—-

.165
12
1.980 penny, or very near two pence;
so that the value of a square of centering is nearly 10s. 2d.

Again, suppose the wages to be 58. 6d. per day, then
2033 x 5% : 11.181 shillings, or lls. 2d. nearly: and thus
for any other example.

Continuation of Table IV.
Fired

per square.
Single framed floor-case and
tail bays ..................... 2. 130
For every extra-cased bay
add per square ...... . 484
Framed floors, with girders,
binding, and ceiling-joists 3.581

Ground joists bedded. . . 775
Ground-joists bedded and
framed to chimneys ...... .968

Ground-joists pinned down
on plates, and framed t0
chimneys .................. l . 065

per ft run.

Girders reversed and bolted .097
Truss girder-braces 4 inches

by 4

If any of the above works he

done in oak, add one-

..........................

third.
TABLE V.
ROOFS.
Common Shed Roofing.
Fixed

per square.
One story high ............... .968
Two stories.............. ....... 1.033
'l‘hree stories .................. l . 113

Single Span Roofing.
One story high ............... 1 .065
Two stories high ............... 1 . 113
Three stories high ............ l .210

If the above have purlins,
add per square .194; or
if the purlins be framed
diagonally, add double,
or ..................... .388

Ilips and valleys ............
In common kirb roofing, add
extra per square when one
side is kirbed .......... 194

When three sides .357

When four sides ...... .516

Girt roofing, with framed
principals, collar-beams,
and purlins ..................

Framed with principals,
beams, king-posts, pur-
lins, and common rafters

If the principals and rafters
are framed flush,and the
purlins housed in, add
.387 per square to the
above.

.08

2.323

3.484

struction of buildings.

 

Continuation of Table V.
Fixed
per square.
Framed with principals,
beams, king-posts, queen-
posts, and common raft-

ers, three stories ............ 4 .549
The same, four stories ...... 4.84

per ft run.

Hips and valleys ............ .145

Hip, and ridge rolls fixed on

 

iron ........................... .048
Bedded plates to common
span roofing ............... .008
Bedded plates to framed
roofing, as above ..... .028
Diagonal and dragon pieces .065
Angular ties and struts ...... .032
Rafter-feet and eaves-board .032
TABLE VI.
GUTTERING.
per ft super.
One or 1} inch deal, and
bearers, including 6-inch
side layer board ............ .057
The same in kirb roofs ...... .073

 

TABLE VII.

FURRINGS 0R BATTENINGS.
per square.

Ifthe stuff be % inch by 1% .872
But if the stuff is to be cut

out, add . 146 per square.
Battenings with quarters, 3

inches by 2 ................. .92
Battening to quarters, 3

inches by 2, to window

piers ........................ 1 .355
If the battens be fixed to

plugs, add . 29 per square.
When any of the above are

circular on the plan, add

half as much more.

 

TABLE VIII.

BRACKETING, INCLUDING
PLUGGING.

Fixed
per ft. super.
To straight cornices ......... .089
'1‘0 cored straight cornices... .065
If circular on the plan, add
one half more.
To groins in passages less
than 4 feet wide ............ . 16'.
To the same, above 4 feet. . l2]

CARPENTRY, the art of employing timbers in the con-

The important and useful art to which the general name

 

 

TABLE I. TABLE III.
CENTERING. QUARTER PARTITIONS-
. Fixed
Fired _ ,
per squale.
per square. Common four inch ............. 1 .033
For cylindric plain vaults... 2.033 Five inch ........................ 1 .113
per ft. super. Six inch ........................ I . 307
For groins ..................... .057 Six inch circular plan ...... 1 . 888
For gauged brickwork ...... .073 'l‘russed frame with king-
For brick trimmers bridge- post ........................... 1 .743
wise .......................... . 041 Trussed, both king and queen
For coach-head trimmers... .057 posts .................. 226
per ft run. __
For apertures ................. . . 02
TABLE IV.
. NAKED FLOORING.
'lABLE II. Fired
MISCELLANIES. _ Pf” 811W"!-
. Ceiling floor, framed, With
Fired tie - beams, binding, and
perft. run. ceiling-joists .............. . l . 355
Fir-in-bond and wood bricks . 008 Ceiling floor with tie-beams
Fir-in-templcts, lintels, and and ceiling-joists only 1 .065
turning pieces ............... .0'25 Ceiling-joists only ............ .646
Planing fir from the saw, Single framed floor,trimmed
per foot super. ...... .017 to chimney and well-holes,
Rebating fir up to 2 inches less than 9 inches deep l .355
b ' ......................... .. 025 The same, above 9 inches... 1. (346
Itebating from 2 inches by% The same, it' trimmed to
to 3 inches by 1;} ......... .041 party walls, add extra per
Single beading up to 2- inch .008 square ............... .388
Single quirk beading from Single framed floor, with
g- inch to 1% ............... .012 one girder ..... . ........... . 1.936
Return beads to be paid for Strutting to be paid for
at a double rate extra

 

 

of carpentry is given, is so intimately connected with'the
comforts and requirements of man, in every stage of eivdized
society, that no apology can be necessary for the length to
which our observations on it must necessarily extend.
work especially devoted to architecture, it of course must
occupy a prominent place; for carpentry may be considered
of so great importance, that no man may pretend to be an
architect who is not well acquainted with its principles and
its practice. Carpentry may be divided into two grand
branches—Carpentry and Joinery. The first includes the
larger and rougher kinds of work, or that which is essential
to the construction and stability of an edifice : and, generally,

 

i all the work wherein timber is valued by the cubical foot.

111 a .

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

T

CAR

81

CAR

 

Joinery, (called by the French menuiserie, from menu, small,
and bois, wood, or small wood employed in that art) includes
all the interior finishings and ornamental work, and is gene-
rally valued by the superficial foot.

Carpentry itself is properly divided into three branches,
viz., descriptive, constructive, and mechanical.

Descriptive carpentry shows the lines or methods for
forming every species of work in plano, by the rules of geo-
metry. To this branch of the art, sometimes called “ finding,”
the celebrated Monze gave the name of descriptive geometry.

Constructive carpentry shows the practice of reducing the
wood into forms, and joining the parts, according to the
intention or design of the architect, and thereby forming a
complete whole.

ZlIechanical carpentry shows the relative strength of tim-
bers, and the strains to which they may be subjected by their
arrangement and disposition.

In this article, after a few preliminary observations on
what may be termed the “HISTORY” of carpentry, it is
intended to give such definitions as may conduce to a com-
prehension of the theory and practice of the art, and then to
show the progressive improvements made by the several
English writers in carpentry; the various rules for forming
the timbers, and for the individual operations, being shown
under their respective heads. See particularly CONSTRUCTIVE,
DESCRIPTIVE, and MECHANICAL CARPENTRY.

[Jittery—This art is of such general and important use, that
there can be no doubt of its being of the highest antiquity.
Little of its history, however, has been transmitted to us
from the ancients. Pliny and Vitruvius are almost the only
authors whose writings on the subject have reached modern
times; but as their observations are merely confined to the
choice and felling of timber, they are of no use as to the
constructive part, and only demonstrate that such an art
existed.

The practice of carpentry in its rudest form must of
necessity have commenced in the very earliest ages; for in
the first attempts at the construction of the primitive build-
ings of those days, carpentry must have been brought into
exercise. It is probable that the necessity of introducing
the pediment roof, occasioned the first use of timber frames,
and consequently the art of carpentry in building. The
invention of the pediment roof is justly attributed to the
u‘rreeks; as the oldest buildings of this description are to be
found in their country; they also appear to have used tim-
ber for other purposes, as in the framing of floors, and the
construction of rustic buildings.

In warm countries, furnishing stone or marble, it is pro-
bable that the use of timber was not very frequent, and that
it was confined to movable articles, where lightness was an
essential quality; we must, therefore, not look to these cli-
mates for any traces of the art.

The next great people, in succession of time, to the Greeks,
were the Romans, who seem to have employed timber for
all, or nearly all, the purposes that the moderns are ac-
quainted with. They not only constructed their roofs, but
whole buildings, of timber: in Vitruvius we have a descrip-
tion of their manner of constructing the architraves of Tuscan
temples, and of the foundation of arched ceilings and doors,
in timber work. The Romans also used wooden cornices.
The theatres and amphitheatres at Rome, and in different
parts of Itaiy, were at first constructed of timber ; as we read
of the wooden theatre of Pompey, and the amphitheatre
built of the same material, by Augustus, to exhibit the shows
on account of the victory at Actium. The roofs of the
Roman buildings were not always concealed; the timbers
were sometimes exposed, and in magnificent buildings

Y

 

 

they were gilt, as in the basilica of St. Peter, erected by
Constantine ; sometimes they were encrusted with bronze.

Though circumstances require certain dispositions of tim-
bers in a building, the timbers will still admit of infinite
decoration, without injury; and sometimes so much as at
first view to conceal the principal use. In the middle ages,
carpentry partook of the style of building called Got/tic ; the
roofs were pitched very high, but were frequently defective,
on account of the want of tie-beams, which were omitted in
order to obtain more lofty ceilings; height being one of the
predominant features of this species of architecture.

Carpentry has been cultivated by the modern Italians.
Serlio, in his first book, exhibits a construction for naked
flooring, with timbers shorter than either of the dimensions
of the area to be covered; in the fourth book he shows some
very curious and strong methods of framing doors, according
to the principles of trussed work; and in the seventh book.
he has some very good forms for the trusses of roofs. The
wooden bridges of Palladio are most excellent examples.

Among the French, the construction of wooden domes has
been improved by Philibert Delorme, and Moulineau; and
the centerings of arches and bridges by Perronet.

In England, the very curious construction of naked floor-
ing, exhibited in the works of Serlio, has been demonstrated
and improved by Dr. Wallis, and carried into execution, in
the theatre of Oxford, by Sir Christopher Wren, who also
designed the wooden trussing of the dome of St. Paul’s, and
contrived a very curious scaffolding, which supported itself
without anything below it, for the purpose of building and
painting the interior dome. The art of carpentry has been
much cultivated of late years in England, so that it has now
begun to assume a scientific form. In accuracy and celerity
of execution our workmen are unequalled.

Of late years the improvements in the manufacture of
iron, both cast and wrought, have caused the introduction of
that material into buildings in every variety of form—as
girders, beams, &c. The floors, and sometimes even the
roofs of those intended to be secured from fire, have been
constructed of iron; and iron hooping is now used instead
of bond-timbers in walls. The use of this material, how-
ever, as a substitute for wood, does not change the principle,
as both materials are affected by the same gravitating laws.

The operations to which timber is subjected, from the
time of its arrival in the carpenter’s yard, in its natural
state, to the period of its final employment in a building,
may be classed under two general heads; as, those which
relate to individual pieces, and those that relate to their
connection with others.

Under the first head is the pit-saw, by which whole pieces
of timber are divided, and reduced into scantlings. This
term (from the French, enclzantillon) means the dimensions
in breadth and thickness, without respect to the length.

Planing is the operation of reducing the wood to a smooth
surface, by means of an instrument called a plane, which
consists of a chisel fixed in a frame, serving at once as a
handle and a regulator to the edge, which cuts the wood in
thin shavings as the plane is moved to and fro by the work-
man. The operations of the plane, besides that of reducing
timber to a uniform surface, are those of grooving, rebating,
and moulding: the latter not being necessary in carpentry,
we shall only describe the former two: Grooving is the
reducing of a piece of timber below the surface, so as to take
away a prism, and thereby leave a channel consisting of two
surfaces of equal breadths, and another surface, of equal
breadth, joining the other two, parallel to the surface from
which the recess is made, generally forming two individual
right angles.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CAR

82

CAR

 

Rebating is the reducing of a piece of timber, by taking
away a prism at the angle, so as to leave only two sides,
each of a parallel breadth, forming an internal angle, gene-
rally 3. right angle: so that in grooving and rebating, the
groove or rebate is always less than the original depth of
the stufi“ or piece out of which it is formed. The latter
operation is particularly used in door-cases and the frames
of casement-windows; the rebate forming a kind of ledge
for the door or casement to stop against.

The implements which the carpenter has occasion to
employ in the several operations, will be seen under the
head TOOLS.

The principal operations, after the pieces are formed,
consist in the joining of timbers: two pieces of timber may
be joined so as to form either one, two, or four angles,
oblique or right. A notched joint is formed by cutting out
of the thickness of each piece, a part in the form of a
parallelopiped; so that when the two pieces are joined, the
substance left at the reduced thickness of the one piece, fills
the excavation of the other, as far as it goes into its depth.
If the thickness of the part left be equal to that of the part
taken away in each piece, and the thickness of the part left
of the one piece be equal to the thickness of the part left of
the other piece, the joint is then said to be halved. In
making one angle, the recess or excavation is formed at the
end of each piece, and consists of two plane surfaces, one
perpendicular, the other parallel to the two opposite faces,
and in the plane of the angle. In forming two right angles,
one piece must, of course, project on both sides of the other,
and the other only on one side; the excavation or recess
made in that which projects on both sides, consists of three
plane surfaces, one being parallel, and the other two at right
angles to the faces; the excavation or recess made in that
which projects on one side, consists of two plane surfaces,
in the like positions. In forming four right angles, the
notch of each piece consists of three sides, two of which are
at right angles, and the other parallel to the faces. One
piece of timber may also be joined to another, so as to form
only one or two adjacent angles, by notching one piece on
three sides at the ends, and so forming a projecting prism,
called a tenon, the sides of which are respectively parallel
to the sides of the piece, and by excavating the end of the
other piece, to receive the tenon, which is made to fit exactly.
The two pieces thus formed at one or more angles to each
other, may, if found necessary, be fixed by means of wooden
pins, or nails, spikes, screws, bolts, straps, or other metal
fastenings.

The two celebrated Italian authors, Serlio and Palladio,
have given designs in carpentry. The British authors who
have written on this useful art, are Godfrey Richards, at
the end of his Translation of the First Book of Andrew
Palladio, third edition printed 1676; Moxon’s hlcchanical
Exercises, second edition printed 1693; Halfpenny’s Art of
Sound Building, printed 1725 ; The Carpenters Companion,
by Smith, printed 1733; Ancient filasonry, by Batty Lang-
ley, printed 1733; The British Carpenter, by Francis Price,
printed 1735 ; The Gentleman’s and Builder’s Repository,
by Edward IIoppus, printed 1738; The Builder’s Complete
Assistant, by Batty Langley, printed in 1738; The Builder‘s
and W'orhman‘s Treasury, by Batty Langley, printed in
1741 ; The Builder’s Jewel, by the same author; The Lon-
don Art of Building, by \Villiam Salmon, the third edition,
printed in 1748 ; The British Architect, by Abraham Swan,
second edition printed in 1750; Designs in Carpentry, by
the same author, printed in 1759 ; several pieces of carpentry,
in A Complete Body of Architecture, written by Isaac Ware,
published in 1768; The Carpenter’s and Joiner‘s Repository,

 

 

 

by William Pain, printed in 1778; The Carpenter's Pocket
Directory, by the same author, printed in 1780; The Golden
Rule, by the same, printed in 1781 ; The British Palladio,
by the same, printed 1788; The Practical Builder, by the
same author; The Practical [louse Carpenter, by the same
author, printed in 1791. The following are productions of
the Author of the present Work: The Carpenter’s JVew
Guide, in 1792; The Carpenter’s and Joiner’s Assistant,
printed in 1792. Likewise, the various articles on carpentry,
in Rees’ Cyclopwdia; A Treatise on Carpentry, in the
Edinburgh Encyclopedia; and a treatise on the same subject,
in his flIechanical Exercises. A long article on Carpentry,
in 3. Supplement to the Encyclopedia Britannica, was written
by Professor Robison, of Edinburgh; and an article on
Carpentry, in A Course of Lectures on lVatural Philosophy
and the [Mechanical Arts, by Thomas Young, M. D. late
Professor of Natural Philosophy in the Royal Institution
of Great Britain.

We shall here give extracts from these authors, in order
to mark the various methods and progressive improvements
in the scientific and practical parts of carpentry, particularly
that part which relates to geometrical description.

Godfrey Richards, in his general title, at the end of the
translation above referred to, writes thus :

“ 0f Roofs—Rules and instructions for framing all man-
ner of roofs, whether square or bevel, either above or under
pitch, according to the best manner practised in England.

“Also to find the length of the hips and sleepers, with
the back or hip mould, never yet published by any architect,

 

modern or antique; a curiosity worth the regard, even of 1

the most curious workman; exactly demonstrated in the
following rules and designs, by that ingenious architect,
Mr. “'illiam Pope, of London.

“Having raised the walls to their designed height, and

made the vaults, laid the joists, brought up the stairs, and i
perfbrmed all those things spoken of before; we are now to ‘

raise the roof, which embracing every part of the building,
and with its weight equally pressing upon the walls, is a.
band to all the Work; and besides defends the inhabitants
from rain, from snow, from the burning sun, and from the
moisture of the night; adds no small help to the building,
casting off from the walls the rain water, which although
for a while it seems to do but little hurt, yet in process of
time is the cause of much damage. The first men (as saith
Vitruvius) built their houses with flat roofs, but finding that

thereby they were not defended from the weather, they :

(constrained by necessity) began to make them ridged (that
is to say) raised in the middle. These roofs are to be raised
to a higher or lon'er pitch, according to the country in which
they are; wherefore in Germany, by reason of the great
quantity of snow that falls there, they raise their roofs to a
very great pitch, and cover them with shingles, which are
Small pieces of wood, or of thin slate or tiles; for if they
should raise them otherwise, they would be ruined by reason
of the weight of the snow. But we, who dwell in a more
temperate country, ought to choose such a pitch as may secure
the building, and be of a handsome form : therefore we divide
the breadth of the roof into four equal parts, and take three,
which makes the most agreeable pitch for our country, and
is the foundation for the raising of any manner of roof,
whether square or bevel; as appears in the following designs
and descriptions.”

“ The manner (y‘framing a floor, with the names of each
member. (See CARPENTRY, Plate 1. Figure l.

“1. The thickness of the wall, and lintel or wall-plate;
and if it be in timber-work, then a bressummer

 

 

 

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83 CAR

 

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“ 2. The summer.
“ 3. Girders framed into the summer.
“ 4. Spaces between the joists.
“ 5. Joists.
“ 6. Trimmers for the chimney way.
“ 7. Trimmers for the staircase, or well - hole for the
stairs.”

Figure 2.—“ 0f the Design.

“ AA The breadth of the house, cantalivers, cornices,

and eaves.

“ A B The length of the raftings and furrings, which ought

to be three-fourths of the breadth of the house, A A.

“The principal rafters to be cut with a knee (as in the
Design) that they may the better support themselves and the
burthen over them, upon the upright of the wall, and also
secure that part from the dripping in of the rain, which
otherwise would happen if the rafters were made straight
and furred.

“The beams to the roof, or girder to the garret floor,
ought to project without the work, as far as the furring or
shredding, which is the projecture of the cornice.

“ This manner of framing the roof will be useful from 20
to 30 feet, or thereabouts.

“ 1. Ground plate.

“ 2. Girder, or binding interdnce, or bressummer.

“ 3. Beam to the roof, or girder to the garret floor.

“ 4. Principal post, and upright brick wall.

“ 5. Braces.

“ 6. Quarters.

“ 7. Interduces.

“ 8. Prick-post, or window-post.

“ 9. J aumes, or door-posts.

“ 10. King—piece, or joggle-piece.

“ ll. Struts.

“ 12. Collar-beam, strut-beam, wind-beam, or top-beam.

“ 13. Door head.

“ 14. Principal rafters.

“ l5. Furrings, or shreddings.

“ l6. Ends of the lintels and pieces.

“ 17. Bedding, moulding of the cornice over the windows,
and space between.

“ 18 Knees of the principal rafters, which are to be of one
mece.

“ 19. Purline mortises.”

Figure. 3. “Design of the gable end, or roof—Let the whole
length of the gable end, or roof, A A, be 20 feet, divide the
same into four equal parts ; take thereof three for the length
of the principal rafter, AB, and placing that perpendicular
from the point C, to the point D,'beget the length of the
sleeper AD, which will be 18 feet. And the length of
the dormer’s principal rafter, from A to E, when laid to its
pitch upon the back of the principals, will reach to the level
line F B, or top of the principal rafter; and this is a general
rule for all breadths.

“ 1. Summer, or beam.

“2. King-piece, crown-post, or joggle-piece.

“3. Braces, or struts.

“4. Principal rafters.

“ 5. The sleeper.

“ 6. Purline of the dormer.

“7. Principal rafter of the dormer.

‘8. Single rafter of the dormer, standing on the sleeper
and purline.

“ 9. Point of the sleeper.

1“ 1(2’, 11. The thickness of the wall and lintels, or wall-
p ates.

 

 

Figure 4.—“ 0f the Italian or hip roof

“ AA The breadth of the roof, being 20 feet.

“AB The length of the sleepers or hips, being 18 feet,

which is proportionable to the breadth of the house.

“ E D The height of the roof perpendicular.

“ CD The length of the hip, and the angle which it
maketh upon the diagonal line, which is showed by the
pricked line G, from F to C.

“ l, 2. The wall and lintels.

“ 3. Dragon-beam for the hip to stand on.

“ 4. Beam on summer, wherein the dragon-beams are
framed.

“ 5. King-piece, or crown-post. ,

“ 6. Struts or braces from the crown-post to the hip-
rafter.

“ 7. Hips, as they make the angle equal to the breadth of
the house.

“8. Hips, as they make the angle in the diagonal lines
from corner to corner.

“9. The additional length which the hips make upon
the diagonal lines, more than the breadth of the house.”

“ Offlat rot)fs.—(CARpENan, Plate II. Fig. l.)—lVithin
a camber-beam and rafters joggled in, whose weight lieth
not chiefly'in the middle, and may be so made, that, without
hanging up the beam, the principals may discharge the
weight; and how drips may be made to walk on.

“ l. Camber-beam.

“ 2. Principals joggled into the camber-beam.

“ 3. The place where the principals are joggled in.

“4. Puncheons, or braces.

“5. Drips to walk on, and may be made with the less
current, that the roof may be made the more pitch, for the
strengthening thereof: and may be made higher or lower,
according to the building and discretion of the architect.

“ 6. Battlement.”

Figure 2.—“A flat roof with a crown -post, or king-
piece.”

Figure 3.—“ 0f the hip roof—~Instructi0ns tofind the length
and back of the hip, so as it may answer the side and the
end of the perpendicular line of the gable end, the two
shirts, the side of the roof in plano, or lying in ledgment
with the hip and gable end, the diagonal and perpendicular
lines being laid down proportional to any breadth or
length, by which the most ingenious may serve himself, and
an ordinary capacity (already acquainted with the use of
the ruler and compass) may plainly demonstrate all the
parts of a roof; whether square or bevel, above pitch or
under pitch, by lines of proportion, as may appear in the
Design following :—

“ Suppose the roof 20 feet broad, and in length 30, 40, or
50 feet, more or less. Let A B C D be the sides and ends of
the said roof, one end to be hipped, the other a gable end;
draw the lines A B C D the breadth and length of the roof;
then draw the gable end A B E, whose sides or principal
rafters being three—fourths of the breadth of the house, then
draw the perpendicular line E F, the height of the gable end,
which line is of general use to level the ridge of all roofs;
and if the other end be hipped, as in the Design, D C G, then
it serves to find the length of the hip, and the back of the
hip, so that it may answer both sides and ends of the roof;
always observing, that the middle of the breadth of the house
is as I H; then draw the line K L N through the centre 1,
which will make right angles to the line E F H G, both in
bevel and square houses. Then extend the line A B, on both
sides to 0, being the length of A E, or E B, the length of the
principal rafters, or three-fourths of the breadth of the house

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CAR

84 CAR

 

So will 0 N and 0 K make the length of the ridge I F; and K D
and C N, the two skirts.

“ To find the length of the hip—Draw the diagonal line
DI and 10, over which the hip is to hang when in its due
place; then take the perpendicular line E F, and place it from
the point I to P P, perpendicular to the diagonal or base lines
D I and I C, at I ; so is I P and I P, the pitch of the hip, equal
to the gable end, E F : and when erected, will hang perpen-
dicular to the point I ; then take P D, the hypothenuse of the
triangle D I P, and C P, the hypothenuse of the triangle 0 I P,
placing them from D to G, and C to G gives the length of the
hip D G C, and when laid to their pitch, will all meet perpen-
dicular to the point I.

“ To find the back of the hip, so that it may answer both
sides and ends of the roof, whether square or bevel—Lay
the ruler from the point L to the point H, and from the point H
to M, and mark where it cuts the diagonal lines D I and I C at
Q Q ; then set one foot of the compasses on the point Q, and
extend the other foot to the hip lines DP and C P, at the
nearest distance ; with that, mark the point R upon the same
diagonal lines : then draw the pricked lines I I? u and II R M,
which make the back of the hip for the two corners of that
roof

“ This rule serves for all roofs, whether over or under
pitch.”

Figure 4.—“ 0f roofs bevel at one end, and square at the
other; the gable end square, and the bevel end hipped.

“ Suppose the breadth of the roof to be 20 feet, the length
more on one side than on the other, as in the Design, A B C D,
then draw the gable end, A E B, whose sides, from A to E, and
from E to B, are three-fourths of the breadth of the house, or
the length of the principal rafters ; then draw the perpendi-
cular, E F, the height of the roof from the floor; and, if
kneed, then from the top of the knee, as in the design of a
kneed rafter, before-going.

“ The sides of the roof, which make the ridge G H I K, to
be drawn as described in the foregoing design.

“Divide the breadth of the roof in two equal parts, as
F L Q, then take the distance L N, which is the half breadth
of the house, and make it parallel to C Q D, as M I. M, and L
will be the point whose perpendiculars, OT, will meet the
principals, rafters, and hips.”

“ To find the length of each hip, distinct one from the
other.—-0f the longest hips—Draw the diagonal line L C, and
take the height of the gable end, E F, and place it perpendi-
cular to L C, at 0 ; so have you the height. of the roof per-
pendicular from 0 L, equal to E F, the gable end; and the
line 0 C will be the length of the hip-rafter, which will be
equal to C H, the skirt for that side of the hip, and C P the
side of that hip end.

“ To find the back of the longest hip, C 0.—Lay the ruler
from the point M to Q, and mark where it cuts the diagonal
line at R; then set the foot of the compasses at the point R,
and extend the other foot till it touch the line C 0 at the
nearest distance; then make it touch the diagonal line at s,
then draw the lines M s Q, which is the back of the hip for
that corner of the roof.

“ To find the shortest hip—Draw the diagonal L D, and

take E F, the perpendicular of the gable end, as before, and
place it from I. to T, perpendicular to I. D; then draw the
line T D, which is the length of the hip for that corner,
and is equal to the skirt, D I, and the side of that hip, D P,
which, when erected, will meet with the other principals,
perpendicular to the point L.

“ To find the back of the bin—Lay the ruler from the
point Q, to the point M, and mark where it cuts the diagonal
line L D, at v: extend the compasses from the point v, to

 

touch the line T D at the nearest distance. and carry that
distance on the diagonal line to the point W; then draw the
pricked lines M W Q, which will make the back of that
hip fit for that bevel corner.

“ And this rule serves for all bevel roofs, whether over or
under pitch.”

Figure 5.——“ Of a roof bevel at both ends, and broader at
one end than the other.

“ A B C D. The length and breadth of the house.

“ E F G. The length of the rafters, or pitch between
the widest and narrowest ends, about the middle of the
house, to stand over the pricked line T T, for the foot F
to stand on the one T, the foot G to stand on the
other T.

“ II II. The point of the two hip ends, when brought to
their due place, will be perpendicular to P P, and will
meet the sides I K, L M, over the points P P.

“ O, 0, 0, 0. The points of the perpendiculars, and length
of the hips, from A B C D.

“ Q, Q, Q, Q. The backs of the hips, or hip—mould to each
corner.

“ R, R, R, R. The points to find out Q, the point for each
back.

“ s s, s S. The lines representing half the breadth of the
house, parallel to each end.

“ T T. Representing the middle of the house.

“ Notwithstanding the bevel ends, you may place your
beams for your principal rafters to stand on a square, or so
near a square as may be, or between both, as from the ends
of the pricked lines 1 K, L M, bringing the outside of them
straight under P P, which will be more handsome for the
house in the inside, although it bevels outward.”

The foregoing descriptions and diagrams contain all that
is said on carpentry by Godfrey Richards; we shall now
add a few observations.

In the explanation of Figure 1, Plate I., CARPENTRY, we
have the names of the several timbers which constitute a.
floor, and the manner in which they are disposed. In this-
explanation, and the plan which accompanies it, we find
girders, summers, and bressummers. The summer runs
parallel to the front of the building; another piece of timber
is placed in the front, parallel to, and in the same level with
the summer; if the front timber terminate the apertures at
their height, and the wall be of brick, this timber is called
a lintel; but if the lower side of the timber do not termi-
nate the windows, it is called a wall-plate. If the front wall
is constructed of timber-work, then the level piece of timber
in the floor, and in the front of the house, is called a bres--
summer, which in modern carpentry, when employed in the:
same otlice, still retains that name; and hence the term
brcssummer signifies a summer in the breast or front of thc
building. The use of the summer was to support the end:
of the adjacent girders; and the bressummer was not onl:
to support the end of the one girder, but to tie the fron
together. In the present construction of houses, summer
are not employed. In old carpentry, the girders supporting
the joisting were sustained at their ends by the summers ano
bressummers, lintels, or wall~plates. In modern carpentry
the girders are sustained by opposite walls, upon plates 0
lintels, and are still used over every extensive bearing t'
support the joisting.

In modern timber - buildings, and partitions, the sam'
names are still used for the same things, as in old carpentry
wherever the things themselves are employed, except in
few instances, viz., the interduces are now called interties
the middle beam of the roof went by several names, t
collar-beam, strut-beam, wind-beam, or top-beam ,- but (

 

 

 

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don, by the author now quoted.

frey Richards.

common height.

ribs fixed in the returns.

Initre bracket.”

A C into any number of equal parts,

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Thus much for the work published by Godfrey Richards.
The carpentry published in Moxon’s Mechanical Exer-
cises, contains nothing more than the names and applications
of timbers, which are the same as those described by God-

these names only that of collar-beam is retained. At pre-
sent we have no hneed-raflers, therefore neither furrings nor
shreddings are necessary, as in Figure 2; the prick—posts
are now called jambposts, window, or door-posts ; the ver-
tical timber hanging from the vertical angle of the roof,
and supporting the principals, went formerly under the
names of hing-piece, crown-post, or goggle-post,- but now it
retains only the name of hing- post.
employed in London and its vicinity is here alluded to.

The timbers in the internal angles, at the meeting of the
two inclined sides of a roof, were formerly called sleepers,
but now they are termed valley-pieces, or valley-rafters, see
Figure 3; in which may be seen also a method of finding the
length of the hip, without making any plan of the roof.

Plate II. Figures 3, 4, 5, show the manner of finding the
lengths and backs of the hips, as at present. The discovery
of this principle is generously ascribed to Mr. Pope, of Lon-

The nomenclature

In The Art of Sound Building, Mr. Halfpenny shows the
methods of tracing the angle-brackets of coves, regular and
irregular groins, the common ribs in each return being of one

The following specimens will show what has been done
by this author. He likewise shows how to find the arch for
the aperture of a Window, of a given width and height, so as
the angles may be in vertical planes, according to legitimate
principles; but he does not, in any instance, show the method
of beveling the edge of the angle-ribs, so as to range with

Plate III. Figure l. “ Tofind the angle or mitre-brachet
of a cove—First, draw the base A B of the regular bracket,
and from A draw A D, perpendicular and equal to it, and
draw the line D B, and continue the line D A to C, so that A C
be also equal to A B; then extending your compasses from
A to B, and setting one foot in A, with the other describe the
arch, or quarter of a circle C B, and from the point D draw D F,
perpendicular to D B, and equal to D A, or A C, and another
as B E from B, likewise equal to D A, and draw the line F E,
which will be parallel to D B. This being done, divide A B
into a number of equal parts, not exceeding two inches and
a half, and through the divisions of them draw lines parallel
to A C, to touch the arch C B, which continue out to the
line D B, and this line will be divided likewise into the same
number of equal parts as A B is. Lastly, from the divisions
of the line D B, draw lines parallel to D F, and in each of them,
from D B, lay off its respective parallel (from A B to the arch
B C) and at the points whereat they end, stick small nails, or
pins, and take a thin lath, and bend it round the nails, or pins,
observing that it touches them all, and with a pencil, or any-
thing else proper to make a mark, describe the arch F B round
the edges of the lath; and this is the arch for the an

gle or

Figure 2. “If the lesser arch of an irregular groin be
a'given semicircle, it is required to form a larger one (not
a semicircle) so that the intersection of those two arches shall
beget, or make the arch-line of the angle to hang perpen-
dicular over its base; as also to draw that arch-line of the
angle—First, draw the lines AB and C D, to represent the
walls from whence the arches spring, and draw the line C B,
and on the line A 0 describe the semicircle A E C, and divide

from whence draw paral-

 

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. atN.

lel lines to C D, to touch or come to the arch A E C, and if

 

these parallels are continued out to the line CB, they will
divide it into the same number of equal parts as A C is ; and
if from each of the divisions of this last line parallels to A 0
are drawn, they will divide the line A B into the same num-
ber of equal parts as A C, or C B, is divided into. This being
done, continue AC to I, so that A I be equal to Ef; and con-
tinue DB to K, so that K B be likewise equal to Bf; or A I,
and draw the line I K. Moreover, at the points C and B raise
the perpendiculars C N and B 0 to C B, each of the same length
as E f; or A1, or BK, and draw the .line NO. Lastly, from
the divisions of A B, draw parallels to A I (that is, continue the
parallels drawn from the divisions of the line C B to the line
I K) and from the divisions of C B parallels to C N. Then set
off the heights or lengths of each of the parallels in the
semicircle A E C, upon the correspondent parallels to A I and
C N, and stick in nails Whereat they terminate ; and if a lath
be bent round them, so as to touch them all, and a pencil be
moved round the edge of it, the arches A H B and C M B will
be found ; which was required to be done.

“ Note—The pricked lines in this, and all other examples
of this kind, show that one parallel line has a relation with
the other. For example : the lines f E, g H, l M, are all
equal to one another ; so that if the three arches A H B, A E C,
and 0 MB, were raised perpendicularly upon the lines AB,
A C, and C B, and a line drawn from H to M, and another from
M to E ; then would the line M H be parallel to, and directly
over the pricked line lg. In like manner, the line E M would
be parallel to, and directly over the pricked line f l. Under-
stand the same of the other parallels and pricked lines in this
figure, and any others of the like nature.”

Figure 3.-—“ Having one centre given for an unequal-
sided groin, to form the other, so that the intersection thereof
shall produce the angle, or mitre-arch, to hang perpendi-
cularly over its base ; and, moreover, to draw the curve
thereofI—Draw the lines A B and B D, and D C and C A, each
equal to one another, to represent the walls from whence the
arches spring, and on the line A B describe the given arch
A F B. This being done, divide the line A B into any number
of equal parts, from whence raise perpendiculars to A B to
touch the arch A F B, and draw the diagonal lines A D and B 0.
Then take the line E F, and set it perpendicular to the lines
A c, A D, C D, c B, B D, from A to o, from A to I, from C to P,
from C to S, from C to L, from D to K, from D to T, from D to V,
and from B to M, and from B to z, and draw the straight lines
o P, I K, s T, L M, and v 2. Now divide the base lines B D, D c,
C A, AD, and B C, each into the same number of equal parts as
A B is divided into, and from the points of division draw
parallel lines to touch the lines o P, s T, v z, L M, and I K.
Then take the lengths of the perpendiculars to A B, drawn to
touch the given arch A F B, and set them off in the correspon-
dent parallels drawn from the points of division of the several
bases upwards, and the arches B 3/ D, D v C, C q A, A h D, and
C n B, will be described as in the foregoing examples (Figures
2 and 3) whose heights a: g, w v, r g, g h, and g n, are each
equal to E F, as likewise all the other correspondent heights,
from the bases to the curves that are formec .”

Figure 4.—“ The arch line of a large ceiling, or vault,
supposed to be semicircular, being given: how to form the
curve of a lesser arch, that shall intersect the side thereof, to
give way for doors or windows, so that their intersection shall
produce the groin to hang perpendicularly over its base; as
also to form the curve-line thereofi—First, draw the lines
A B, B D, D C, and C A, to represent the walls from whence the
arches spring, and describe the two given semicircular arches
A 0 B, C L D, and in the line B D set off the span of the inter-
secting arch from v to t. This being done, set off the height
you design to raise the lesser arch v z t from g in the line A B,

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

l

 

 

 

 

86

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perpendicularly to touch the arch in h, and from 'v to r, and
t to u, and draw the line r u, which halve in the point z, and
draw the line z y, parallel to v r, or t u. Then strain a line,
or lay a straight rule from h through g, towards a; as also
from z through 3/, towards x, and these two lines will cut one
another at ac, from whence to the points '0 and t, draw the
lines a: v and w t. Now set offg h perpendicular to a: t from
w to w, and from t to s, and draw the line 8 w, and divide g B
into any number of equal parts at pleasure, from the divisions
of which, draw perpendiculars to g B, to touch the arch A o B
between the points B and h, and divide v y and g t, the halves
of the base '0 t, each into the same number of equal parts as
g B, is divided into: as likewise the base as t, and from the
points of division draw parallel lines to touch the lines u r
and S w. This being done, take the lengths of the lines that
were drawn from the points of division of g B, perpendicu-
larly to touch the part B h of the arch A 0 B, and set them off
in the correspondent parallels from 3/ v to z r, and from g t to
z u; as likewise from a: t to w s. Then, if at the extent of
each line, as you set it off in the parallels, you stick in nails,
as in the foregoing examples, and bend a thin rule about them,
you will describe the sought arches v z t and w t, whereof
v z t is the true intersecting arch, and w t the curve line of
the groin that is correspondent thereto.

“ After the very same manner the arches h m z and h p are
drawn.”

In his explanations of the diagrams, he is tolerably intelli-
gent; but he has departed from truth and reason in the two
following problems :—

“ The arch of a round tower, or any other circular build-
ing, being given, wherein a semicircular window is to stand,
how to find a centre, so that the mason or bricklayer shall
twin their arches thereon without crippling them. (See
Plate III. Figure 5.)

“ First, draw the arch A F B, from the centre E, to represent
the arch line of the wall, and set the width of the window
from D to C, which halve at H, and draw the line L M, which
halve at N; from whence describe the semicircle L 0 M. This
being done, divide the semi-diameter L N into any number of
equal parts, from the division of which, draw parallel lines
to 0 N, the arch of the quadrant, which parallels continue out
to divide the arch F G into the same number of parts as L N
is; and from the points of division in the arch F C draw
perpendiculars to the parallels, each equal in length to the
correspondent parallel of the quadrant L 0; and from the
points of the divisions of the line H 0 (made by continuing
out of each of the aforesaid parallels) draw right lines to the
extreme points of the aforesaid perpendiculars, as from G
to II. This being done, if the line G H be laid off in the
parallel 0 N, continued out. from H to I, and the rest of
these lines last drawn be laid off in the respective con-
tinuations of the parallels, the extreme points of these
lines being joined. will form the curve C 1 ; which, when
set in its due position, will hang perpendicular over the
arch C F, having its points Coinciding with the ex-
tremities of the perpendiculars drawn from the divisions
of the arch C F.”

Figure 6.——“ The centre whereon the arch of a bow—window
is turned being given, how to find another centre that shall
answer parallel to it, according to the upper edge of the
surface of the arch—First, describe the arch B K C, according
to the directions laid down in the last problem, and set the
width of the flat surface of the arch from B to A, and from c
to D; and draw the lines A D, B C, and halve them at F and E,
from whence draw a perpendicular of a length at pleasure to
H. Then in any convenient place (Figure 6, No. 2) draw a
line at pleasure, as from A to G, and from A draw to A G the

 

 

 

perpendicular A F. Then take E I, in N0 1, and set it from
A to B, No. 2, and F I from A to c. This being done, take the
semi—diameter B E, or E C, No. l, and set it from A to D, No. 2.
Also, take A B, or C D, and set it from D to E, and draw the
line E C, which set in the line B H, from F to g. Again, take
the width of the flat surface of the arch A B, or C D, and set
it in the line E H, from K to 7, and divide the remainder from
7 to g, into seven equal parts. Also, divide the arch B K, into
seven equal parts. Then take K 1, in the line B H, between
your compasses, and setting one foot in l, with the other
strike the arch 1 at pleasure: then take K 2, and strike the arch
2: also take K 3, K 4, K 5, and K 6, severally, and strike the
arches 3, 4, 5, and 6. \Vhen this is done, open your com-
passes, and divide from A to g, keeping the points of them on
those arches, till you have gotten seven equal distances from
A to g; at the points of which, if nails be stuck in, and a thin
rule be bent round them from A to g. along the edge thereof the
arch A g may be drawn. And in like manner may the arch
D g be drawn.”

This description is so far intelligible, that we perfectly
understand his geometrical process; but it is so void of truth,
that no geometrical reasoning can be applied, unless it were
to prove the contrary of his assertion: the arch which would
be required to stand perpendicularly over such a plan upon
a semicircular centre, would not be in the same plane, which
is the case with the one he has found, and asserted to be
right.

In the construction of the ribs of niches for plastering, he
is extremely obscure, and takes only the most common and
easy cases'; such as might occur to every one, even to those
who are not much in the habit of thinking, as the reader will
observe in the following quotations 2——

Figure 7.-—“ 110w to form a semicircular niche with ribs,
as is usual when it is to be plastered—First, describe the
semicircular plate A C B, as also the semicircular front rib
A D B, equal to it, and fix the plate A C B level in the place
where it is to continue, and upon it set the front rib A D B
perpendicular on A B. This being done, describe the quad-
rautal ribs D c, D E, D F, D G, and D H, each equal to A D or B D,
and place them about 8% inches from one another, on the plate
A C B, as at C, E, F, G, and B, so as to meet in one point, at D,
on the crown of the front rib A D B; and thus is one half of
the work finished. And after the same manner may the
other he done.”

Figure 8.———“IIow to form an elliptical niche, with ribs.

for plastering—First, describe Figure 8, No. 1 and 2, k n m
being a semi—ellipsis, representing the plate whereon the ribs
stand, and being equal to A D B, or A e B. The pricked lines
L 72,1. 0,1. p, I. q. L r, and I. :12, represent the base lines of the ribs
e D,fD, g D, h D, i D, and B D; so likewise do the lines 5 t, s u,
s v, s w, s .r, and s g,- and the perpendiculars a t, b a, c v, d w,
e 1', and f3], do represent the rising of the ribs e D,fD, g D,
h D, i D, and b D, which is equal in length to C D; observing
that within those lines the tlitl'erent arch of each rib is to be
described, viz. the arch s a is a quadrant of a circle, having
t for its centre, and is equal to the arch of the rib e D :—The
lines S u, s :, equal to z b, b u, are the semi-transverse and
conjugate axes of a semi-ellipsis, whose arch, s b. is equal t(
the arch of the rib f D, which may be struck either with:
trammel, or by the intersection of lines. Moreover, the line:
s z, s 1:, equal to v c, c z, are the semi-transverse and conjugan
axes of a semi-ellipsis, whose arch is equal to the arch of thq
rib g D; and so of the rest.

“ Now having the ribs all ready, set the front rib, AD‘
perpendicular on the plate A e B, as at A B, and fix the fee
of the short ribs on the plate A e B, as at e,f, g, h, i, whic
correspond with the points n, o, p, q, r, and their point

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‘ a, b, c, d, e, to the crown of the front rib at D; and thus

i may you finish your work.” .

I We now proceed to Smith’s Carpenter’s Companion, and
though he presents nothing new in geometrical principles,
his observations are very judicious and worthy of transcrip-

. tion ; and his practical remarks, though perhaps objectionable
I in a few instances. are more to the purpose of a general
connected detail of what should be done in the constructive
part of carpentry, and more systematic, than those of most
other writers; though the examples and designs which he
shows are not generally the best. He begins his introduc-
tion thus :

“ The usefulness of carpenter’s work in building, and the
little notice taken of it by authors who have treated of
architecture, and the few there be that rightly understand
it, prompted me to write the following treatise.

“ Carpenter’s work is one of the most valuable branches
of architecture; it was contemporary with the first ages of
the world; and with the knowledge of this art, Noah closely
and firmly connected those timbers in the ark, which were

 

, so nicely wrought, that they not only kept the water from

penetrating into it, but were proof against the tempest and

 

the rolling billows, when, in its womb, it carried all the
tenants of the earth and air.

“ Those naval preparations, through all ages of the. world,
as well as those stupendous temples and edifices, erected in
all countries, demonstrate the perfection of this art. The
innumerable floating buildings, which roll from one country
to another, through tempestuous storms, tossed from the
mountain’s height to the depths of the ocean, without injuring
the vessel, evidently Show the vast use and judgment of
carpenter’s work.

“But as that branch of it which relates to templar or

, domal uses, is the subject of this work, I shall only treat
- of its usefulness in them; and may venture to affirm that

carpenter’s work is the chief tie and connection of a building,
supplying the ligaments which bind the walls together.

“ The bond-timbers, which strengthen and tie the angles
of a building, and prevent its separating, is the work of the
carpenter. Linteling over doors and windows, with other
dischargements of weight, it is his care to perform.

“Bond timbers in cross walls, when settlements happen,
if they are well applied, prevent the cracking of the walls,
for they keep the whole together, and every part settleth
alike, which would fill the buildings with gaps and chasms
if neglected.

“ Next for the floors ; the rightly framing them, by trussing
the girders, by placing them on joists, so that they come
near no funnels of chimneys ; the manner of tenanting,
tusking, framing of timbers for chimneys, stairs, &c. I say,
all these it is the business of the carpenter to see carefully
performed.

“Partitions of timber, their manner of trussing to prevent
cracking, settlements, 8m. and the discharge of weight of
girders, beams, or cross walls, is carpenter’s work; as is,
likewise, the framing of timber bridges.

“Roofs of various sorts, for common houses, large edifiIyes,
or churches, their manner of framing, the height of their
pitch, their strength, usefulness, &c., with the various manner
of performing all these works, is the subject of this treatise,
which I have rendered intelligible to every capacity, by
designs of several sorts, and have described them in such
a manner, as will render the work useful to carpenters;
particularly to those who are unacquainted with the manner
of performing these operations of framing.

“The first thing which the carpenter must consider, for
the carrying on a building, is the plan, in which you are to

 

prepare your timber, in having it cut into proper scantlings
which shall be hereafter noted.

“ You are to prepare for lintelings and bond-timbers; for
lintels over doors or windows. stuff of five inches thick and
seven broad, and it is a slight way of building to put in any
of less scantling ; as for door-cases, their manner of making,
and scantlings of stuff, it is needless to speak of; it is the
best way to have them put in when the foundations are
brought up high enough for them. Bond-timbers should
be dovetailed at the angles of the building and cross walls.
And here note, that it is a durable, though expensive way,
to have all fir timber, which is laid in the walls of the build-
ing, to be pitched with pitch and grease mixed together; the
quantity of grease, one pound to four pounds of pitch. All
these things are the care of the carpenter.

“Bond-timbers should be four or five inches thick for
cross walls, and in the angles of a building, six or seven
inches, and proportionably broad; six or eight feet long in
each wall; and it would not be amiss to place them six or
eight feet distant all the height of the building, in every
angle and cross wall; these, if a building be on an infirm
foundation, cause the whole to settle together, and prevent
the cracks and fractures which happen, if this be neglected.

“ We come now to the floors, in which these ‘things are
to be observed—the magnitude of the room, the manner of
framing, and the scantlings of the timber. For the first,
you are to observe to lay the girders always the shortest
way, and not to have ajoist at any time exceeding twelve
feet in length.

“The first common method of framing floors, is where
the joists are framed flush with the top of the girder.”
(The trimming-joists supposed to come against chimneys and

stairs, are always thicker than common joists, being weakened ‘

by mortising.) “ The scantling of joists, when a floor is framed
in this manner, ought to be as followeth :

 

 

 

Common J oists. Trimmers.
Scantling U Scantling
ft’ long. in inches. ft' 1011‘” in inches.
5 7 by i 5 7 by 3
6 7 by s 6 7 by 4
8 7 by 2% 7 7 by 5
9 8 by 3 8 8 by 4
10 8 by i 9 8 by 5
11 8 by 3% 10 9 by 6

12 9 by 4

 

“ These are such proportions as will render the work
sufficiently capable of sustaining any common weight.

“ The next manner of framing floors is with binding—joists
framed flush with the under side of the girder; and about
three or four inches below the top of the girder, to receive
the bridgings, which are those which lie across the binding.
joists, and are pinned down to them with pins of wood, or
spikes of iron. These binding-joists should be framed about
three feet, or three feet six inches distant from one another,
and their thickness four or five inches, or in the proportion
to the length of their bearing, as trimming-joists.

“ These floors, if they settle out of a level with the build.
ing, are made level when the bridgings are put in, which is
generally after the building is covered in, and near c0m-
pleted; they are generally double-tenanted. The binding.
joists are chased, and the ceiling-joists tenanted into them,
and put in generally after the building is up. These ceiling.
joists should be 13 or 14 inches apart, and the scantling
2 or 3 inches square, and in large buildings 3 and 4. As for
the bridgings, which lie on the top of the binding-joists, they

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CAR

88

CAR

 

may be placed 12 or 14 inches distant, their scantling 3 and
4, or 3%; and 5, their bearing being only from binding-joist
to joist, which is 3 feet, or 3 feet 6 inches, and these are
laid even with the top of the girder, to receive the boarding.
We come now to speak of girders; and first, for their
scantling, take these proportions :

 

 

 

 

ft. long Scantling in
inches.

B. D.

10 8 by 10

12 81} by 10
14 9 by 10%
16 9% by 102}

18 10 by 11

2O 11 by 12

22 11% by 13

24 12 by 14

 

“ And observe, that as every weight, added to the weight
of the timber in the floor, in itself occasions it to settle, the
girders should be cut camber; if a 10 feet bearing, half an
inch camber; if 20 feet bearing, an inch camber, 850., in pro-
portion to the length of the bearing.

“ And farther to strengthen the girder, and prevent its
sagging, as it is called among workmen, that is, its bending
downwards, I have given you several ways of trussing gir-
ders, which have been most of them practised.

“ The manner of trussing these girders, is, first, to saw
the girder down the middle, the deepest way; then take two
pieces of dry oak, about 4% or 5 inches wide, and 4 inches
thick; let half the piece be let into one side of the girder and
half into the other.

“ Another way, which is by cutting the girder through,
and driving a wedge against the ends of the trusses. When
these are thus prepared, bolt them together with iron bolts
and keys; or much rather, a screw at the end of the bolt.

“ Some carpenters cut their girders down the middle, and
bolt them together, without trussing, only changing the ends
different from what they grew, whereby the grain of the wood
is crossed, and it becomes much stronger than if it had con-
tinued without sawing down the middle, and thus putting it
together.

“ Some, in trussing girders, make use of other trusses.

“ The girder being thus trussed and put together, proceed
in framing the joists, as in common floors. The strongest way
being double-tenanting and tusking, as is shown in the hind-
ing-joists. Before I leave this part of floors, I shall observe
to you, that the best and most workmanlike manner of
framing floors, is to plane the upper edge of your joists
straight; for the straighter and truer your joists lie, the truer
your boarding will lie, which is a great ornament to a mag-
nificent room; but if you frame without binding-joists, and
lay on bridgings, plane the bridgings, and lay them very
straight and level; this care taken will save a great deal of
trouble in laying down the boarding, which you are often
forced to chip and fur up, to make them lie even, and those
furrings are not only troublesome, but are apt to give way,
and occasion the creeking of the boards as you walk on them.
It would be a good way to turn arches of brick over the ends
of the girders of the floors, because if any alteration happens,
they are easily taken out.

“ I come now to partitions of timber, with their manner
of framing. Timber partitions have these properties attend-
ing them: they take up less room, and are cheaper than those
of brick.

“ As to roofs, there is a plate to go round a building, which

 

 

may or may not be deemed a part of the roof; it may be
deemed the foundation and tie of the roof and walls; or it
may be taken as only that on which the roof lieth. These
plates are to be dovetailed at the angles, and tenanted toge-
ther in their length, several ways. The beams of the roof,
which serve as girders to the ceiling-floors, (and into which
all the principal rafters of the roof are tenanted) are dove-
tailed, or what by workmen is termed cogged down, to the
plate, which prevents its flying out from the foot of the
rafter, whose butment is against it; and in the angles of a
building, pieces dovetailed across the angles of the plate,
serve to keep it from spreading, and is the foot of the hip.

“ The common pitch of roofs is to have the rafter’s length,
if it span the building at once, to be three—fourths of the
breadth of the building. Some make them flatter, as a pedi-
ment pitch; and the old Gothic way was to make them the
whole breadth.

“ The common pitch is not only unpleasing to the eye, but
is attended with this inconvenience; if there is a gutter
round the building, the steepness of the roof occasions the
rain to come with so sudden a velocity into the pipes which
are to convey the water from the gutters, that they fill the
gutter; and sometimes so fast, that the water runneth over
the covering of the roof, and does great injury to the tim-

ber, &c., of the building; and the steeper the roof is, the .

longer the rafters, and the greater quantity of timber must
be used in the roof, as well as the more weight from the great
quantity of timber, and the weakening the principal timbers,
by adding more to its own weight.

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“ And the pediment pitch is inconvenient, in lying too :
flat, for those climates so frequently subject to rain, and ‘
heavy snows, which last would press and vastly incommode 1

the building, and would lie much longer on the roof, its

declivity being so small; besides, in keen winds, attended ‘
with rain. the rain would drive in under the covering of slate “

or tiles, and create much decay in the timber.
“ Proportion of beams whose bearing varieth; take the
following rule:

 

 

 

0%egigtn Scantling in
in feet. Inches.

12 6 by 8
16 6} by 8,1!
20 6% by 9
24 7 by 9.
28 7;- by 9:
3‘2 8 by 10
36 8% by 10;
40 8:} by 1 1
44 9 by 12

 

“ The principal rafter should be nearly as thick at the
bottom as the beam, and diminish in its length one-fifth or
one—sixth of its breadth; the king-posts should be as thick
as the top of the principal rafter, and the breadth according
to the bigness of the struts you intend to let into them, the
middle part being left something broader than the thickness.

“ Struts may diminish, as the rafters do, one-fifth or one-
sixth of their length. In placing struts and collar-beams, the
dividing the rafter into as many equal parts as you propose
bearings, is the rule, because every part of the principal will
have its equal distant bearings.

“ Purlins are of the same thickness as the principal rafter,
and the proportion of the breadth is six to eight; that is, if
the rafter be six inches thick, let the purlins be six inches
thick, and eight inches broad; if it be nine inches thick, the
breadth of the purlins is twelve inches broad, 830.

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“ NB. The purlins are those pieces into which the small
rafters are tenanted, and they are tenanted into the principal
rafter. Length of purlins is generally from six to eleven feet,
not exceeding that length.

“ Small rafters: their scantlings two inches and a half, and
four inches; three inches, and four inches and a half; and
three inches and a half, and five inches; according to the
magnitude of the roof and length of the rafters. Small
rafters should not exceed seven feet in length in a purlined
roof; if it happen that the length of the principal be above
fifteen feet, it is best to put in two tier of purlins in the
length of the rafter.”

In respect to the construction of roofs for coves, he has the
following observations: “ The use of coving a room of con-
siderable height, is, first, the making of it much lighter than
it would otherwise be, if level in the ceiling; the rays of
light in a cove are reflected back again into the room, which
would be otherwise lost and confused in a roof with a flat
ceiling.

“Likewise, all rooms with circular roofs or ceilings are
more commodious and useful for entertainment, for music,
&c. The angles of incidence are always equal to those of
reflection; so the undulation of sounds flying on any cove or
spherical part of a building, reverberate on the audience; and
if spherical, no part of the sphere can receive the vibration,
but it will return in the same direction from whence the
undulation first began. The reflecting rays of light, and the
i-m'erberation of sounds, proceed from the same cause, and
from incidents naturally affecting the eye and the ear.”

It may be proper here to state, that though the reflection
of sound is analogous to that of the rays of light, the laws
and modifications by which sound is propagated to the ear,
are less perfectly understood: it may, however, be observed,
that in vaulted apartments, it is necessary to reduce the pitch
of the voice, and to speak slowly and distinctly. The best
writers recommend the ceilings of theatres to be arched, as
has been practised in some of the most distinguished edifices
of this kind in Europe. .

This author likewise gives the method of finding the
length of hips, both with and without a plan, as shown by
j Godfrey Richards, at the end of his Translation of the First
‘ Book of Palladio.

The work of Mr. Smith contains, in all, thirty-three plates
of carpentry, arranged in the same order as he has treated
the subject. Of these, twenty are plates of roofs, some of
which are tolerably good examples, and at the end are five
plates of timber bridges. His methods of joining-work are
shown in the following descriptions and their corresponding
diagrams.

Plate IV. shows his method of cooking beams down upon
the wall-plates; Figure 1, by two dovetails, and Figure 2, by
three dovetails. Dovetailing is a very bad method at the
best; for, when the taper is small, the shrinking of the
timber allows the beam to be drawn out of the socket in
proportion to the quantity to which it is reduced in its
breadth. The fewer the number of dovetails in the breadth,
the weaker will the end of the beam be, or otherwise they
must have less taper; and if the number of dovetails are
increased, the parts of them formed on the end of the beam
will be apt to split off. But, in modern Carpentry, the
beam can never be drawn from the wall-plate, as the abutting
parts are in a plane perpendicular to the length of the
beams. v

Figure 3, shows his method of framing wall-plates at the
angles, with the diagonal and dragon pieces, where all the
timbers appear to be let in flush with each other. This
mode is much inferior to the present practice, where both the

 

 

 

angle-tie and dragon-piece are fixed above the plates, which
position not only allows a much firmer hold one to another,
but also a much better support for the hip-rafter to stand
upon.

Figure 4, represents four different methods, shown by him.
for naked flooring. “The first method of framing is that
marked A, where the joists are framed flush with the top of
the girder; the two cross joists, marked a and b, are called
trimming-joists; that marked a is supposed to come against
a chimney; that marked 6 is the stairs.” Here he shows
that the joists a and I), should be thicker than the common
joists, because of the mortising; but with equal reason he
should have allowed the joists c, d, e, into which the joists a
and b are framed, to have also been stronger; for one mortise
in the middle of a. beam will weaken the beam as much as if
it had been cut full of mortises. He gives no name to the
joists c, d, e, which should have been named, in order to trans-
fer the idea from one to another, without circumlocution, or
having recourse to description. His next manner of framing
floors is that shown at B. “ The six joists marked (2 are the
binding-joists framed flush with the under side of the girder,
and about three or four inches below the top of the girder, to
receive the bridgings, which are those marked m in the floor,
and which lie across the binding-joists,” at C. In the other
compartment, D, are shown the ceiling-joists, 72, the bridgings
being supposed to be removed for the purpose of showing
them.

Figures 5, 6, 7, 8, he says, show the manner of tenoning
the binding-joists, the tenons being generally made double.

Figures 9, 10, 11, 12, he observes, are common tenoning,
which seems to imply a less sufficient method than the former.
These last four examples, with the single tenons on the end
of each, are much to be preferred to the double ones on the
ends of Figures 5, 6, 7, 8, which are not only difficult to
execute, but are calculated to weaken the mortised piece,
which is to receive them, by the slanting shoulders of the
tenons; his observation is the very reverse of what is now
asserted, as he observes, in page 17 of his work, “the
strongest way being double tenanting and tusking, as is shown
in the binding-joists.”

Figures 13, 14, 15, and 16, are exhibited in the third plate
of his work, but he does not describe them ; we suppose them
to show the method of lengthening beams. The two methods,
Figures 15 and 16, are extravagant ideas, being not only
difficult to execute, but weak as a tie, and incapable of making
a sufficient resistance to a longitudinal strain.

Figures 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, are various
methods which he shows for trussing girders. He observes,
that the trussing pieces or cores are let half into each flitch,
and the scantlings of these pieces to be about 4% or 5 inches
wide, and 4 inches thick. Figure 18, he says, “is another
way, which is by cutting the girder through, and driving a
wedge against the ends of the trusses, as the wedge d,- when
these are thus prepared, bolt them together with iron bolts
and keys, or, much rather, a screw at the end of the bolt.”
This method, though not the best, is certainly a tolerable
approximation to what may be called good. He does not
mention how the pieces a, u, are to be tightened in Figure 17.
He observes, that “some in trussing girders, make use of
other trusses,” as in Figures 20 and 21. These hardly de-
serve comment, being the weakest forms that can be con-
ceived. The trussed girders represented by Figures 24 and
25, he claims as his invention, with one inverted arch, which
he proposes to be of iron. Nothing could be more unmean—
ing than these examples.

The observation which he makes in respect to Figure 24,
is void of principle, and contrary to mechanical strength;

2 A ’

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CAR

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his words are, “ The upper arched one I take to be of great
strength, though the trusses are inverted; for the pressure
being upon an arch whose butment is good, I think a great
Weight can no way occasion the bending of the girder.”

We come now to the British Carpenter. Though Mr.
Price’s order of treating his work is not so regular as the
method adopted by Smith, his descriptions and observations
are very correct ; and, with the exception of a few references,
there is hardly anything wrong.

This author begins with the scarfing of beams, as repre-
sented in Plate V. of our Work, Figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. He
says that the methods shown by the diagrams 3, 4, 5, 6, are
the strongest; perhaps in consequence of their being tabled
into one another ; and that represented by Figure 6, has this
property, that the pieces may be put together without any
waste at the ends; he observes, that it is not his intention to
limit the lengths of these scarfings, but only to show the man-
ner of tabling the pieces together: he might also have said,
that though nothing determinate with regard to the lengths
of scarfings could be done, the greater the extent of the
joint in the direction of the fibres of the beam, the more will
it be disposed to resist separation, though there will be a
greater waste of timber. Those represented by Price are
much superior to those in Smith’s work.

He then describes the method of trussing girders of greater
extent than 24 feet, as we have shown in Figures 7 and 8;
and proposes that the pieces which are to constitute the core
be made of good dry straight-grained English oak, 4 inches
by 3, or 6 by 4, as the strength may require, and let half into
each piece ; the pieces of the core being inserted in the one
half, so as to abut firmly at the ends, and the two flitehes put
together so that the internal braces may abut firmly at the
ends of the other flitch, and then bolted together, will com-
plete the girder ; he prefers that of Figure 8, to Figure 7, as,
being divided into three parts, it raises the pitch of the braces,
and though the middle part is left untrussed, it may be looked
upon as an inflexible solid, as the proportion of the breadth
to the length is reduced much nearer to a ratio of equality
than the dimensions of the whole beam, the depth being the
same in both cases. The flitches, he observes, may be mor-
tised through at the lower end of each truss, and the core
tightened by wedges driven therein. Girders constructed in
the manner of these two examples are much better calculated
to perform their office, than those before given by Smith,
which are void of every principle of mechanical science.

This author then speaks of the method taught by Alberti,
as follows :—“ Take two pieces or flitches, being well dried,
and turn the but end of the one to the top end of the other,
without trussing at all, and bolt or screw them together.”

Mr. Price then proceeds to the various joints in roofing, as
in Figure 9, which represents thejunctions 0f the struts and
principals with a king-post.

Figure 10, is another mode, which he uses where the
breadth of the bottom of the truss-post will not. allow a right-
angled abutment to the direction of the strut: he makes the
angle on the end of the tenon, with good reason, equal to the
angle made by the shoulder, but on the contrary side, so that
the two abutments may contract each other’s etl‘orts in moving
the strut up or down on the side of the said post.

Figure 11, represents his method of forming the end of the
tie-beam and lower end of the principal, so as to form a joint
with double mortise and tenon, which, he says, presents
greater resistance than when made with single mortise and
tenon.

Figure 12.—No. 1 and 2, show the proportion which the
mortise or tenon ought to have to the breadth of the
stuff, either for the joints of roofs or truss partitions, by

90

 

CAR

making the tenon or the mortise one-fourth of the breadth of
the whole, and keeping the mortise and tenon in the
middle. '

Figure 13. No. 1 and 2, another mode for the same pur-
pose, not much in request at the present time.

Figure 14. No. 1 and 2, the manner ofjoining the binding-
joists and girders in floors, the same as used in the present
time, with a tusk or sloping shoulder, and the double resist-
ance or butment. ,

Figure 15. “ No. 1 is called a bridgingfloor, as being
framed with a binding or strong joist in every three or four
feet distance, and flush to the bottom of the girder, so that
when the house is covered in, you pin down your bridgings
thereon, and flush with the top of your girder; and this is the
best way of carcase-fiooring.” The section of this floor taken
transversely across the binding—joists is shown at No. 2,
Figure 15. Mr. Price observes, that the best way to lay
girders, “is not to lay them over doors or windows, nor too
near chimneys ; and, at the same time, to have the boards lie
all one way ;” and hence the oblique position of the girder, as
here represented, is occasioned by the fireplace.

Figure 16. No. 1, a carcase-floor with single joists, or
without bridging-joists. These are framed flush with the
top of the girder, “and have every third or fourth joist the
depth of the girder, and those between more shallow.” No. 2
shows the ends of the joists, and the ceiling—joists framed
into the deepjoists. No. 3, the sides of the deep joists, with
the pulley-mortises, in order to receive the ceiling-joists.

Mr. Price then proceeds to lay down the sides of roofs in
plano, and shows the backings of the hips in the same man-
ner as has been detailed by Godfrey Richards in the former
part of this article, according to Pope’s principle.

We shall here transcribe one of his examples, in which he
attempts to show, for the first time, a method for finding the
joints of purlins upon hip-rafters: his process, which is as
follows, is tedious; his diagram and explanation are both
obscure and defective, but show some novelty of form and
geometrical skill in lines.

“ Admit the plan (Plate VI., Figure 1, No. l) was required
to be enclosed with a hipped roof: first, find the middle of
it, asf; then draw the bases of your several hips, as of, hf,
cf; df, and ef; resolve on some pitch or height, as in No. 2,
at f g; to this section bring all the bases of your respective
hips, as the letters of reference show ; this gives you the
length of each respective hip; therefore, from the section
No. 2, you describe the skirts round the plan No. l, as a bg,
h cg, c d g, deg, and e ag, which form the roof required.

“ To find the back of any hip, do thus: Draw a line at
pleasure, crossing the base of the hips at right angles, as the
line h i, which crosses the base of the hip cf; observe where
it passes through the sides of the plan; on the base line of
this hip, raise its section from No. l, as cgf; lastly, place
one foot of your compasses in the intersection, as at g ; Open
the other foot, till it touch the hip cg at its nearest distance;
draw a small section till it cross the base, as at 12; so is
h h hi the back of that hip ; and is the most exact, and easiest
method that ever was delivered jbr this purpose ,- the shadowed
part, 0, is the section of the supposed timber the hip is
shaped out of, being cut off at right angles with its side and
back. \Vhat is said of this explains the hip of; whose back
is lm n, and its section P is shaped so as to have the purlin
come square against it; the letters of reference show the
rest.”

“ To find the side joint of a purlin (in case the hip be
not shaped as above) so as to cut it bgatemplet, supposing
there be no room, or occasion to frame it into the hip—For
example, take any two hips from the plan No. l, as ef and

 

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a f; WlllL'I to keep from confusion is transferred as to No. 3,
and admit the plan of the purlin to be 0 p ; first, raise the
sections of the hips from No. 2, as efg and afg, as the letters
show; then raise perpendiculars at 0 and p to the back of
the hips, as 0 q and p r ; lastly, draw a line from the point q,
and at right angles from the back of the hip eg (as it is so
near to a square, or else it should be drawn from the back of
a rafter standing at right angles with the sides of the plan)
observe where it cuts the base line, as at s ,- draw the line 3 t
parallel to the purlin: lastly, draw the line tr. From all
which you take the templet Q in T (see No.4) in the follow-
ing manner: Draw the line at w in No. 3 at right angles
from the side a e, which transfer to No. 4, as u w,- take from
No.3 the distances u s and u t, and transfer them to No. 4;
take also the distances .2: 0 and mp in No. 3, and transfer them
to No. 4; take also the distances 3 q in No. 3, and transfer to
No. 4, as so,- lastly, take from No. 3 the distances t 7', and
transfer to N0. 4, as tp ; so that Q is the templet to cut the
side. and the skirt eag is the templet to cut the back. I
think any farther explanation needless, because by a little
serious inspection, the reader may see that all the lines
necessary to be understood in a roof, are contained in this
Plate.

“ That is, all the parts of a roof may be cut by templets,
as these lines, and the explanations of them, do direct; and
although I have shown but one example for the cutting of
any purlin that comes against a hip, as explained in him,
(Figure 1, No. 1) I hope it will be sufficient, because the
method in l, m, 72, cuts off all such difficulties, and is equally
strong.”

In this description, he is unintelligible, vague, and erro-
neous: there is a certain tendency towards the principle, but
he loses sight of it. He is negligent in directing his reader
to raise perpendiculars at 0 and p, the bases of the two hip-
rafters, instead of raisinga section at right angles to the base
and to the wall-plate a 6. He tells us to “ draw the line it w
in s (which is here No. 3) at right angles from the side a e,
which transfer to T (or No. 4) as u w ;” but he makes no use
of this line, which is the line on which the width of the tem-
plet should have been extended. Then he says : “ Take
from s (No. 3) the distances u s and u t, and transfer them
to T (No. 4); take also the distances x 0 and xp in S (No. 3),
and transfer them to T (No. 4);” but he does not show how
the distance between the lines p o and ts are obtained in T
(No. 4); and thus, after a long and tedious description, he
leaves the construction vague, and obtains nothing but uncer-
tainty. We shall here complete what he has unsuccessfully
attempted.

Let the same plan afe be laid down at No. 5, as at No. 3;
draw fw perpendicular, and fg parallel to a e ; make
equal to the height of the roof, and join g 10; let p 0 be the
place of the purlin, parallel to a 8, meeting the bases of the
hips at o and p,- produce p0 to meet to g at q; draw gu
perpendicular to wg, meetingfw at u ; parallel to a e, draw
tn .9, meeting the bases fa and fe of the hips at t and s.

In No. 6, draw U x, which make equal to u g, No. 5;

draw T U s and 1’ X0 perpendicular to U X ; make U s, U T,
x o, x r, respectively to u s, u t, x 0, mp, and join T P and
Sf}; then P o s T is the templet required, or any parallel por-
tion of its breadth.
_ The reader will observe that this is found by much fewer
lines; and there is no occasion for raising the sections of the
hips, but only the section of the rafter at right angles to the.
wall-plate.

No. 7 is another invention of the author of this Dictionary,
founded upon the same principle as No. 5 and 6; but the
construction is confined to one diagram. thus: Let A B C be

 

 

the seat of the part of the roof; describe the section C d e as
before: draw Cfperpendicular to de, cutting de inf; from
C d cut of Cg equal to of; parallel to AB draw k], cutting
AC and B C in k and l; likewise draw [21' parallel to AB;
perpendicular to k I draw I: m and Zn, cutting hi at m and
n,- and join 0 m and C n,- then will the angles at m and 72 of
the triangle C m n be those required for forming the end of
the purlin, in order to form a junction with the hip-rafter.

We now return to Mr. Price, who in laying down the
framing of roofs in plano, or in ledgement, begins thus:
“ Every man who frames roofs, does first piece his plates,
cock or dovetail down his beams on the said plates, and pre-
pare pieces on which his hips are to stand; as appears in
this plan Q, at Y and Z.” (See Figure 2.)

“Then he frames his principals, as R, and likewise his
hips, as s, into pieces prepared for them to stand on; and
although all these respectively are framed for the generality
on the floor, and when in practice is the best way, they are
here placed by themselves to avoid confusion.

“I hope the pricked lines are enough to show that the
skirts T, V, W, X, are laid out agreeably to the plan Q; and in
which are shown that one purlin lies above the strut, and the
other below it; for if they were all to lie in a right line, in
the first place it cuts the stuff to pieces, so as to weaken it
still more, and at the same time you lose your pinning.

“Here is shown a method to turn up your hips without
backing at all; and is thus: your hips being first framed
into the pieces they are to stand on, take a broad board, or
small panel, lay it on the place where your respective hip
stands, and there mortise it as if it was your beam; cut otf
the corners of it, so as to make its angles agreeable to your
plan, whether square or bevel; lastly, when you come to
turn up your hip in framing the skirts, slip this mould, as Y,
upon the tenon at the foot of your hip, and then give it a
tack with a nail, and the angles of that board will turn up
a hip as desired, and is far preferable to any other method
whatever.

“But because sometimes buildings must be bevel, and
necessity requires the beams to be laid so, to miss some
chimney or window; therefore let A (Figure 3) represent
a bevel plan, whose beams also lie bevel at the time of
framing ; and that is just as much as half the beam that the
rafter stands on; the skirts B, c, D, E, are the same way
shown as before.

“I hope it will not be taken ill, my saying that a man
must be deprived of sense, who would run into almost endless
trouble of cutting his timbers all bevel, unless some unavoid-
able necessity require it, but rather use the method I propose
in plate E.” (That is, Figure 2 of this article.)

The method of laying roofs in plano is first shown by
Price. It seems to have been much practised in his time,
and indeed till lately; but to perform the work in this way,
requires the most ample space, and the utmost care. of the
carpenter in placing his timbers; without this it will be
difficult to bring the work together with exactness. In the
present practice, the timbers may be all cut to their lengths
and angles before they are applied to their places, and then
they maybe fitted together on the ground, before they are
raised on the building.

In roofing, his rules for finding the pitch of the rafters
for different coverings, are these (page 15 of his work) :
“ A leaden covering requires the height two-eighths or one-
fourth of the breadth of the beam; a pantile covering, three-
eighths ; and plain tiles, four-eighths or one-half, which
brings the vertical angle of the roof to a square.”

But in the following plate, 11, of his Work, he is not very
consistent ; he delivers different rules, which are to the

 

 

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CAR

 

following purpose : “ divide the breadth into six equal parts
for pan-tiles, into seven for slates, and into eight for plain
tiles ; then in each of these the whole number, wanting two,
will be the height of the roof; that is, pantile g, slates g1,
and plain tiles g, of the breadth of the beam.”

The following observations, with respect to the trusses of
roofs, are very judicious :

“ That the less in number the divisions or pieces are, that
compose each truss, the stronger it is; for even the shrinking
of the wood will let a well-framed truss sag or drop in pro-
cess of time; for which reason I cannot help recommending
English oak, particularly for king-posts.” He recommends
square bolts in preference to round ones ; “for this reason :
if you use a round bolt, it must follow the auger, and cannot
be helped; by this helping the auger-hole, that is, taking
off the corners of the wood, you may draw a strap exceed-
ingly close, and at the same time it embraces the grain of
the wood in a much firmer manner than a round one can
possibly do.” With respect to strapping, he observes; “ If
it be objected that there is too much trust reposed on the
iron-work, may it not be asked, if any common strap at the
bottom of a king-post was ever known to break by continual
pressure ? Witness the straps in a theatre, to which is fixed
a prodigious weight.” With respect to timbers, he says,
‘.‘ If purlins are used, they ought to be agreeable in number
to their supports ;” “but if bridged, need not be regarded.”

The following designs, which he shows for the fronts of
buildings, which are required to haveithe ground story open,
and supported with story-posts, may be useful to some:

“In Figure 4, is shown the manner of a timber front,
supposed to be open underneath, in form of an arcade. And
for such Open fronts, the foundation should be laid on reversed
arches, which will strengthen it very much ; by this means,
the ground bears between one post or pillar and the other,
as well as under the same.

“ If on it you would have brickwork, or even stone, then
support the bressunnner, as is shown in Figure 5, which
manner of framing renders it as strong between the posts,
or pillars, as it is directly on the same, and this seems suffi-
cient to explain proper bearings for partitions.”

Mr. Price then proceeds to circular domes, and in their
construction shows, for the first time, how the purlins are to
be squared ; his description is as follows :

“ Of what has hitherto been described, nothing appears so
beautiful when done, as domes or circular roofs ; and, as far
as I can perceive, nothing has appeared so difficult in doing,
therefore it will be proper to speak something of them.”

Plate VII. Figure l.—“Let B represent a plan, in which
let I), b, I), be the plate on the supposed wall; and let 0, c, c,
be the kirb on which stands a lantern, or cupola; also let
a, a, (1, represent the principal ribs.

“ From the plan B make the section A; in which the kirb
or plate I) should be in two thicknesses; as also that ofc;
by which it is made stronger; and indeed the principal ribs
would be much better to be in two thicknesses. The best
timber for this use is English oak; because abundance of
that naturally grows crooked. As to the curve or sweep
of this dome A, it is a semicircle; although in that point,
every one may use his pleasure; and in it are described the
purlins d, e, from which perpendiculars are dropped to the
plan B; so thatfis the mould the lower purlins are to be cut
out by, before they are shaped or squared for use; and that
of g is the mould for the upper purlins. I ‘ather show it
with purlins, because under this head may be shown the
manner of framing circular roofs in form of a cone.

“To shape these purlins, observe, in A, as at d and 9,
they are so squared, that the joints of the supposed small

 

ribs are equal. Observe, as at e, the corners of the purlin,
from which the perpendiculars are let fall to the plan B.
So that your purlin being first cut out to the thickness
required, as appears in e, and also to the sweep f; so that
k is the mould for the bottom, and l the mould for the top ;
by which, and the lines for the corners of the said purlin e,
the same may be truly shaped and squared.

“ N.B. This particular ought to be well digested, it being
a principal observation in a circular roof.

“ From the purlin d, in the section A, pcrpendiculars
are dropped to the plan B; in which it appears that h
is the mould for the top, and ithe mould for the bottom;
so may this be squared, which completes the performance.
As to other particulars, due inspection Will explain them.
If any should say, a dome cannot be done so safe without
a cavity as usual, let them view St. Stephen’s, VValbrook,
Stock’s-market, built by that great architect, Sir Christopher
Wren.”

He then shows the method of covering polygonal buildings :

Plate VII. Figure 2. “ Let A be the plan, the upper part
of which is half an octagon. It is observable that a circular
roof, as B, should extend no farther than the upright of its
support, and there made so as to carry ott'the water; whereas
an ogee roof, as C, may extend to the extremity of the cor-
nice, without injury to its strength, or offence to the eye of
the most curious: also, a hollow roof, as D, may extend
to the extremity of the cornice.

“It appears to me, that many angles of a cupola give it
beauty; therefore the sweep E (Figure 2) is a regular curve,
the base line I}: being taken from the angle of the octagon
in the plan A, as at l k. This curve, B, is divided into a
number of equal parts, in order to trace the common rib, F,
from the said angular rib E: observe, in A, the base of the
common rib,f], which is placed in F, as from I to j: con-
tinue the perpendicular, l, at pleasure; take the base 1 k
in E, on which are the perpendiculars dropped from the curve,
and observe to place that distance, I: l in F, from] in F, to
any part where it cuts the perpendicular l in F, as at m;
from these divisions raise perpendiculars, so by continuing
the base lines from the divisions in 1-1, to these perpendiculars
in F, their intersection or meeting is a curve, or S‘Vt‘t'p,
exactly agreeable, and which, indeed, may serve as a standard
rule to trace any moulding whatever.

“ To back the said angle-bracket, I), observe to describe
the thickness of it on your plan, as in A at 1:, which shows
how much your mould must be shifted, as may appear in I).
This also may be observed to be a general rule for the backing
of any bracket.”

These methods are certainly founded on truth, but his
diagrams are not laid down in the most obvious way; being
so scattered as not only to be tiresome to the eye, but to
occasion also a long and tedious description. He then pro-
ceeds with the centerings of-groins, as follows :

Figure 3. “Let A be the plan of a vault to be centered
for groins. At a,b,c.d, are piers, generally prepared in
with the foundation, which bearthe weight of the brickwork.
First, resolve on the curve you would have, as (160, being a.
semi-circle, which is shown by the section B. Begin in A at
dec; centre through as it were a common vault, and board
it; which being done, to make your groin set centres, as from
a to c, and from b to (I, divide the curve dec into four equal
parts, as at g andf; so are 9 cf small centres, you will want
to nail on the centres first boarded, whose place or plan is
at It; these small Centres may be put in at pleasure, according
to the bearing of your boards, that is, as to the distance between
arch centre. To make your groin straight on its base, at
some little height over the centres, strain a line from :3 to c,

 

 

 

 

 

 

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or from d to a, from which drop perpendiculars on your
boarding, first fixed at as many places as you please ; there
drive in nails, and bend a straight rod till it touch them all;
and then, with a pencil or chalk, describe the curve so formed,
to which bring the boards to be nailed on these little centres,
and their joints will form a straight groin.”

Figure 4. “ Let C be a plan of greater extent, and which
suppose to be supported by two piers, as j; l. The section D
is composed of entire semicircles, then consequently your
curves in the section E will be elliptical, as b n d, and may
be described with a trammel. \Vhat was said in A explains
this at one View.

“ If these pillars should be in the way, View the plan and
sections again: first, form the principal curve, as D at a gh 6,
being an ellipsis, so that the centres will be a Gothic sweep
against the windows, as ega: trace the curve dh b in E,
agreeable to eg a in D, with which centre it, as shown in A,
and make good your groins to the sides: lastly, make a flat
centre, as at g h ih, which flatness is shown in either of the
profiles or sections D and E, and fix it on your centres before
completed, which doubtless due inspection will make plain,
and hereby you avoid the pillars, which are equally firm.

“ NB. The cause of these centres against the windows
being a Gothic arch, proceeds from their making part of the
whole sweep or arch, which though it does not add to its
beauty, it does to its strength in a particular manner.”

After showing how to find the groined lines, as it were by
a mere mechanical process, the method of finding the groined
lines on the body centre, he then shows how the same may
be found upon true geometrical principles, which may be
looked upon as the foundation of all kinds of cylindrical
soflits.

“ Regarding variety, I have given here another method
for vaults, and which, indeed, may give more pleasure to the
reader, as being a curiosity never before published, and may
appear more intelligible than that in the foregoing.”

Figure 5. “ View the plan G and its section H, which is
composed of entire semicircles, as bfe : see also the section I,
which is 'an ellipsis traced from bf e in H; but for use,
nothing is more true than the trammel.

“ See this plan again, and also its section I, from which is
described the curvilinear face K, and also the face of the
semicircular arches, as L, all being alike. And this is what
I call a more accurate method for finding the groin, so as to
be straight over its base, and at the same time gives a standard
rule whereby to account for any curve, or face of a ceiling
whatever. The curve in I is divided regularly, though seem-
ingly into unequal parts, which being drawn to the groin in
the plan G, as appears by the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
and which are transferred into L at l, 2, 3, Ste. Also the
circle bfe in H is divided into eighteen equal parts; the half
consequently into nine, which appears from I) to e in L. This
method doubtless will be plain, and therefore needs no far-
ther explanation.

“ That of K belongs to the section 1, extended as it were,
and that of L belongs to one of the small arches of H, also
stretched out, they being all alike.”

Here it must be observed, that he has stretched out the
piers, which are of no use, the covering only being wanted,
and he has extended all the compartments of the plan in
plane at K, which is absurd, one of each being all that is
necessary; for they cannot be extended in contiguity, nor
any two contiguous parts on the plan, though each adjoining
Dart may be done separately.

“ N.B. To find the groin by a more common method, do
thus: Erect a straight piece of a board, or the like, on the
zorner of the pier the groin springs from, and drive in a nail

2 B

 

at the point of the groin’s meeting, on which fasten one end
of a chalked line, straining it tight, slide it down the side of
the said straight piece, and it will form the groin so as to
stand perpendicularly over its base.”

Mr. Price then proceeds to the methods of covering the
parts of coved ceilings adjoining the angles, and also the
coverings of domes, as follows:

Plate VIII. Figure 1. “ Suppose M to be the plan of a
ceiling, as a l) c d, and it is required 1to have a large frame,
gulcchi, or pannel.—First, produce some side or end of the
room, as N. Let it. be required to describe the curvilinear
face of the cove. The extent of the end of the said room
is a bfe, and it is coved one-fourth part of the height,
at m b. The said frame or panel being 9 h; the quarter
circle-m g is divided into eight equal parts, which are trans-
ferred to P, so that m g h l is the face of 0, as stretched or
extended out, on which anything proposed to be described
therein may be truly performed.

Figure 2. “In Q is shown the plan of a niche, or dome:
if a niche, let it he demanded to be fineered with walnut-
tree, 860. If a dome, let it be required to be covered with
boards or lead. Divide it into any number of parts, as here
into nine, which transfer to s, as appears from h to l. Describe
the section also, as R, being a quarter of a circle, which
divide into any number of parts, as here into five, as is
shown in the figure from h to 2', which transfer in the plan Q
from a tof; middle some one division, as from 4 to 5; then
take those distances from R, and transfer them to s, as from
fto 5, so that each division is halved or middled, asfa,fa :
on these lines place the distances from Q, as at e, d, c, l),
to l, 2, 3, 4, in s, and these will form such curves as
shall meet.

“ N.B. The more parts it is divided into, the better and
truer it will be performed.”

In this description, he is far from being clear, as we shall
here explain. “ Take the distances from R, and transfer
them to s, asfrom f to 5.” But the extent of the line from
fto a at s does not contain the whole stretch of the arch hi
0f the section R, as it contains only four of the equal parts,
whereas there are five; one part should have been described
to be below the linefff; &c., as the diagram s shows. The
words “ so that each division is halved, as,fa, fa,” (30., have
no (meaning. “ On these lines place the distancesfrom Q, as
at e, d, c, l), to l, 2, 3, 4, in s, and these willform such curves
as shall meet .-” this is extremely obscure, and ought to have
been thus described: From the points I) c, d e, in Q, describe
the several arcs meeting each of the radii afand a 4; then
at s, through the divisions, 1,2, 3, 4, draw lines at right
. angles; upon these lines, and on each side of the said points,
1, 2, 3, 4, set off the several arcs at Q, beginning withf4,
at the bottom of S, and through the points on each side of the
linefa describe the two curves, and the space comprehended
between them and the bottom line is the board required.

It must be observed, that though it is sometimes conve-
nient to detach the parts of a diagram when it Would occupy
too much space, it is by no means so obvious as one con-
nected figure. In this respect, Mr. Price is very obscure, in
transferring to so many different figures.

He then shows the nature of oblique or rampant arches,
the tracing of, and the manner of finding the base or seat of
the angle ribs of an annular groin, as follows:

Figure 3. “ That of A, is supposed to be the mitre-bracket
of a cove, whose projection is b‘c; and the height thereof

\ is a l); the curve being a segment, or part of a circle, let it
he demanded to trace a curve from it, as B, which shall be
agreeable thereto, if applied as a common bracket, e d being
its height, as before, and ef its projection; first, divide the

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CAR

94

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given curve A, into a number of parts, or take points thereon
promiscuously, which will answer as well. From these divi-
sions, or points, drop perpendiculars to some straight line, as
that of a c, observing their meeting with the said line a c;
and in practice take off all these distances on a lath, or rod,
applying the proper end thereof to the projection of the com-
mon bracket B, as f; observing where the other end passes
through the perpendicular line e d, as at 9; there raise
indefinite perpendiculars from the said points, then draw
the line df. Lastly, transfer the distances, as from the
straight line a c, in A, to the figures, to that of df in B;
which, no doubt, inspection will explain, more especially if
the letters and figures be duly observed.

“ Now view the same figure A again; and admit it were
the curve of a common bracket, let it be demanded to trace
a mitre or angle bracket from it, as 0; g It being its height
as before, and hi its projection (the method of finding which
in either case, no doubt, will be well known to every one :)
take the line, as ac in A, which in practice (as was before
observed) I suppose to be on a rod, or lath, with its divisions,
or points on it, and transfer it to C, as gk; then draw
the line 9 i; lastly, from the said points on the line 9 k, draw
base lines, observing their meeting the line 9 i; at which
respective places raise perpendiculars, and transfer your
several heights from A, as before, observing to place each in
its due position. And although the abundance of points
should render this method somewhat confused, it may be
evaded by making but few points, and driving nails therein,
round which a straight lath being bent till it touch them all,
the curve may be described with a pencil, &c.

“ N.B. This may serve as a general rule for all such
curves as are not regular, or cannot be formed with a tram-
mel, supposing either to be the given curve. The principal
curve being formed on any plain superficies, it may be taken
off on a lath, as before was observed; and by it the required
curve may be described on a piece of slit deal, &c., of a width
equal to the deflection of the arch from a straight line, with
an allowance of wood capable of holding it together.

Figure 4. “ That of D, represents a common bracket for
a plastered cornice, whose shape the plasterer ought always
to be consulted for: let it be required to trace a corner, or
angle-bracket from it, as E; first, draw base lines from the
respective angles a, I), c, d, to the line i r, as l, 2, 3, 4; also
perpendiculars to the line 7' s, as 5, 6, 7, 8 ; and (because an
example for finding the projecture of the angle or mitre
bracket, may be required) observe to make r u equal to r s ,-
so is u s the projecture of the said angle or mitre bracket;
and the points will be 20, x, 3/, 2; so that by transferring this
said line with its points as before to E, as also those of the
height as before, draw perpendicular and base lines, when, as
no doubt inspection shows, their meeting gives the shape of the
bracket as desired, and this also may serve as a standard rule
in any such case. As to shifting this mould (in practice) so
as to give the said angle-bracket its true back, there seems
to have been enough said in plate P.

“ Such things as the construction and use of lines, are not
conceived by every one; therefore, because I would omit
nothing that I think would prove useful, I have inserted
several more examples of t‘acery, the knowledge of which
seems indispensably necessary.

Figure 5. “ That of T is a regular semicircle, as a I) c, from
which is traced the raking (or rampant) one U~; that of W is
a regular ellipsis, as def; from which is traced the raking
one x; that of Y is a regular segment (or part of a circle)
asg/ti, from which is traced the raking one z; the man-
ner whereof being so plain, a farther explanation seems
needless.

 

“ As to the particular use of this kind of arches, I must
leave to the determination of the curious, and have nothing
farther to say on that head, than that if occasion require
either of them to be executed, there is no other true way to
describe them.

Figure 6. “ That of F is a plan of circular groins, whose
extent is a bed, an example of which may be seen in St.
Clement’s Danes, Strand, and in several other circular build-
ings ; and, in my opinion, is a curiosity worthy of regard. To
find the plan of these groins, do thus: Divide from a to 6, into
a number of parts, as into ten; the lines a b and dc being
continued, meet in a point as 9, being the centre of the
curves (1 d and b c ; from which strike curves from the points
in a b to do : divide also from a to d, into ten parts, which
being drawn to the centre 9, divides the line b 0 into the same
number of parts equally; so that the meeting of these lines is
the plan of the groins, as a e c and b e d, and their upright is
H, I, K, L, each being traced from the semicircle a bf in G,
being the principal curve. As to the method whereby
it is done, enough has been said of the foregoing examples
to explain it; the letters of reference show plainly what part
of the plan each curve belongs to, which being bent agree-
able thereto, will strictly correspond with each other.

“N.B. If the principal curve had been a segment, or part
of a circle, or an ellipsis, the method of performing would
have been the same.

“ This plan would be difficult in performance, if required
to be ribbed with timber for plastering, but if to be centered
for brickwork, it would be much easier; because the centres
might be placed as from the line a b to that of c d, as in a
common vanlt. The curves of each centre would be dif-
ferent, on account of its being taper, but the height is equal;
these centres should be boarded as others are, the boards
requiring to be taper only.

“ To make groins so as to hang over the plan, the sides
a b e and c de must not be centered as usual; but have ribs
agreeable to the plan, and placed horizontally, so that the
boards would stand as it were upright; as in domes, which
was explained in the foregoing plates, which shows the method
for finding the curvilinear form of any ceiling.

“N.B. The foregoing must be well understood, in order
to describe on the centres first boarded, the accura e curve
of the groin; which can be done by no other method than
is there shown.

“ If this plan were to be executed with ribs of timber for
plastering, then the groins must be performed by the
methods, as will be hereafter inserted, for the twisted rails
for staircases, on account of their plan not being a regular
curve.”

This method of constructing an annular groin, is of no
other use than that of finding the seats of the lines of con-
Course of the meeting of the curved sideS. It does not show
how the boarding is to be formed geometrically, neither does
it give the least idea of constructing the ribs of a plaster
groin. The line of concourse of the two sides may be
obtained by plumbing up from the base, but even this cir-
cumstance is not mentioned by Mr.Priee, nor any other
application of this construction. If it were required to con-
struct the ribbing for a plaster groin, the method here shown
is perfectly adapted to the formation of the ribs in thick-
nesses, as the whole of the ribs round the curves are extended
in plano. But the glueing up of the ribs in thicknesses is
altogether nugatory, when applied to the purposes of car-
pentry. Another mode, which we would propose, in order
to bring this method into use in groin ribbing, is, to get the
ribs cut into two thicknesses, say lfi-inch stutf, and kerf each
of them from one side; then put the two kerfed sides toge-

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ther, and nail or bolt them to the curve: to prevent them
from extending before they are fixed, nail a temporary piece
across the two extremities, and set them in their places;
then when the other ribs are nailed against them, they will

remain firm, and this without much trouble of construction.
—In this operation, the kerfs must run in lines perpen-
dicular to the base, otherwise they will not bend to the
plan. .

A TABLE FOR THE SCANTLINGS OF TIMBER.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A Proportion for Timbers for small Buildings. A Proportion for Timbers for large Buildings.
Bearing Posts of Fir Bearing Posts of Oak Bearing Posts of Fir Bearing Posts of Oak
Height Scantling Height Scantling Height Scantling Height Scantling
if 8 feet 4 in. square if 10 feet 6 in. square if 8 feet 5 in. square if 8 feet 8 in. square
10 5 12 8 12 8 12 12
12 6 14 10 16 10 16 16
. Girders of Fir Girders of Oak Girders of Fir Girders of Oak
Bearing Scantling Bearing Scantling Bearing Scantling Bearing Scantling
if 16 feet 8 in. by 11 if 16 feet 10 in. by 13 if 16 feet 9% in. by 13 if 16 feet 12 in by 14
20 10 12% 20 12 14 20 12 14 20 15 15
24 12 14 24 14 15 24 13% 15 24 18 16
J oists of Fir J oists of Oak J oists of Fir J oists of Oak
Bearing Scantling Bearing Scantling Bearing Scantling Bearing Scantling
if 6 feet 5 in. by 2-,1 if 6 feet 5 in.by 3 if 6 feet 5 in. by 3 if 6 feet 6 in. by 3
9 612- 2‘ 9 75 3 9 7% 3 9 9 3
12 8 2% 12 10 3 12 10 3 12 12 3
‘ Bridgings of Fir Bi-idgings of Oak Bridgings of Fir Bridgings of Oak
Bearing Scantling Bearing Scantllng Bearing Scantling Bearing Scantling
if 6 feet 4 in. by 2% if 6 feet 4 in. by 3 if 6 feet 4 in. by 3 if 6 feet 5 in. by 3%
8 5 2% 8 5% 3 8 5% 3 8 6% 3*
10 6 3 10 7 3 10 7 3 10 8 3%.
Small Rafters of Fir Small Rafters of Oak Small Rafters of Fir Small Rafters of Oak
Bearing Scantling Bearing Scantling Bearing scantling Bearing scantling
if 8 feet 3% in. by 2% if 8 feet 4% in. by 3 if 8 feet 4% in. by 3 if 8 feet 5% in. by 3
10 412. 2% 10 5k 3 10 5% 3 10 7 3
12 5% 2% l2 6% 3 12 6% 3 12 9 3
Beams of Fir, or Ties Beams of Oak, or Ties Beams of Fir, or Ties Beams of Oak, or Ties
Length Scantling Length Scantling Length Scantling Length Scantling
if 30 feet 6 in. by 7 if 30 feet 7 in.by 8 if 30 feet 7 in. by 8 if 30 feet 8 in.by 9
45 9 8% 45 10 115 45 10 11% 45 ll' 12%
60 12 11 60 13 15 60 13 15 60 14 16
Principal Rafters of Fir Principal Rafters of Oak Principal Rafters of Fir Principal Rafters of Oak
Scantling Scantling Scantling Scaiitling
Length Top Bottom Length Top Bottom Length Top Bottom Length Top Bottom
if 24 ft. 5in.&6 6in. &7 if 24 ft. 7in. 6:8 8in.&9 if 24 ft. 7in. 5:8 8in.&9 if 24 ft. Sin. &9 9in.&10
36 6g 8 8 10 36 8 9 9 10; 36 8 9 9 105 36 9 10 10 12
48 8 10 10 12 48 9 10 10 12 48 9 10 10 12 48 10 12 12 14

 

 

 

 

 

“Although this table seems so plain as to need no expla-
nation, it may not be amiss to observe some particulars, such
as that all binding or strong joists ought to be half as thick
again as common joists; that is, if a common joist be given
three inches thick, a binding-joist should be four inches and
a half thick, although the same depth.

“ Observe also, that if conveniency do not allow of posts
in partitions being square, in such cases, multiply the square
of the side of the posts, as here given, by itself: for instance,
if it be six inches square, then as six times six is thirty-six,
consequently to keep this post nearly to the same strength,
find some number that shall agree thereto; as suppose the
partition to be four inches thick, then let your post be nine
inches the other way, so that nine times four is thirty-six,
being the same as six times six; so that the strength is
nearly the same, although being equal in its squares is best
for the strength.

“Posts that- go the height of two or three stories, need
not hold this proportion, because at every floor it will meet
Wltll a tie; admit a post was required of thirty feet high,
and in this height there were three stories, two of ten feet,

 

and one of eight. Look for posts of fir of ten feet high, their
scantling is five inches square, 2'. e. twenty-five square inches ;
which double for the two stories.

“ And take also that of eight feet high, being four inches
square, 2’. e. sixteen square inches, all which being added
together, make sixty-four square inches; so that such a post
would be eight inches square. On occaSion it may be lessened
in each story as it rises. .

“ I do not insist that the scantlings of timber ought to be
exactly as by this table is expressed, but may be varied in
some respects, as the workmen shall see fit; the reason of
its being inserted, is in consideration of the scanthngs' of
timber, as formerly settled by act of parliament, .and which,
if compared, will prove the necessity and use of this table.

“ As to plates on walls, or bressummers to supportwalls,
I do not find they can come into any regular proportion, as
the rest do, therefore must be left to discretion.

“And as I have herein described a great variety of the
principal things requisite to be known by every carpenter, I
shall conclude this part with my wishes that it may prove as
useful as my earnest endeavours have been to make it so.”

 

 

 

 

 

CAR 96

. CAR

/

 

It is singular that in the foregoing table, the oak scantlings
are greater than those of fir. Oak is more cohesive than fir,
but fir is less compressible by forces acting in the direction
of the fibres; oak is therefore more fit for ties, and fir for
struts, or straining pieces. But Mr. Price, in this table,
inconsiderately and indiscriminately makes the oak scantlings
larger than those of fir.

The following observations, in the introduction to Price’s
work, are very judicious, and worthy of transcription.

“ Nevertheless, it may not be improper, in this place, to
mention some general observations. There is a moisture in
all timber; therefore all bearing timber Ought to have a
moderate camber, or roundness: for till that moisture is in
some sort dried out, the said timber will sag with its own
weight; and that chiefly is the reason girders are trussed when
used, as in its place will be shown. But here observe, that
girders are best trussed when they are first sawn out, for by
their drying and shrinking, it tightens the trusses in them
yet more.

“ Observe also, that all beams, or ties, be cut, or forced in
framing, to a camber, or roundness, such as an inch in the
length of’eighteen feet; and that principal rafters be also
cut, or forced up to a camber, or roundness, as before: the
reason of this is, all trusses, though ever so well framed, by
the shrinking of the timber, and weight of the covering, will
sag, and sometimes so much as to offend the eye of the
beholder; so that by this preparation your truss will ever
appear well.

“ Also observe, that all case-bays, either in floors or roofs,
.do not exceed twelve feet if possible; that is, do not let
your joists in floors, your purlins in roofs, 8w. exceed twelve

feet in their length, or bearing; but rather let the hearing be.

eight, nine, or ten feet ;- which should be observed in forming
a plan.

“Also, in bridging-floors, do not place your binding or
strong joists above three, four, or five feet apart; and that
your bridgings or common joists are not above ten or twelve
inches apart, that is, between one joist and the other.

“ Here also observe, never to make double tenants or tenons
for bearing uses, such as bindingejoists, common joists, or
purlins; for, in the first place, it weakens very much what-
ever you frame it into; and, in the second place, it is a rarity
to have a draught in both tenons, that is, to draw your joint
close by the pin; for the said pin, by passing through both
tenons, (if there is a draught to each,) must bend so much,
that without the pin be as tough as wire, it must needs break
in driving, and consequently do more hurt than good.”

We are now come to Mr. Batty Langley, in whose nume-
rous publications are to be found many particulars relating
to Carpentry. In his Builder's Complete Assistant, published
1738, page H7, the fourth edition, he has the following
observations :—

“When partitions have solid bearings throughout their
whole extent, they have no need to be trussed; but when
they can be supported but in some particular places, then
they require to be trussed in such a manner, that the whole
weight shall rest perpendicularly upon the places appointed
for their support, and nowhere else. Partitions are made of
diiferent heights, to carry one, two, or more floors, as the
kinds of buildings require.

“ The first things to be considered in works of this kind
arc—the weight that is to be supported, the goodness and
kind of timber that is to be employed, and proper scantlings
necessary for that purpose.”

So far his observations are tolerable; but his subsequent rea-
sonings are drawn rather from his own caprice, than from the
principles of science, as will be seen in the following quotations:

 

“ The strength of timber in general is always in propor-
tion to the quantity of solid matter it contains. The quan-
tity of solid matter in timber is always more or less, as the
timber is more or less heavy; hence it is, that all heavy
woods, as oak, box, mahogany, lignum-vitae, &c., are stronger
than elder, deal, sycamore, &c., which are lighter or (rather)
less heavy; and, indeed, for the same reason, iron is not so
strong as steel, which is heavier than iron; and steel is not
so strong as brass or copper, which are both heavier than
steel. To prove this, make two equal cubes of any two
kinds of timber, suppose the one of fir, the other of oak;
weigh them singly, and note their respective weights; this
done, prepare two pieces of the same timbers, of equal
lengths, suppose each five feet in length, and let each be
tried up as nearly square as can be, but to such scantlings,
that the weight of a piece of oak may be to the weight of
a piece of fir, as the cube of oak is to the cube of fir; then
those two pieces being laid horizontally hollow, with equal
bearings, and being loaded'in their middles with increased
equal weights, it will be seen that they will bend or sag
equally, which is a demonstration that their strengths are to
each other as the quantity of solid matter contained in
them.”

This is reasoning only from conjecture, and therefore the
consequence must be erroneous. The relation between weight
and strength is not general. In some instances the very
reverse takes place to what this author asserts.

“ As the whole weight on partitions is supported by the
principal post, their scantlings must be first considered, and
this should be done in two different manners, viz., first,
when the quarters, commonly called studs, are to be filled
with brickwork, and rendered thereon; and, lastly, when to
be lathed and plastered on both sides. '

“ When the quarters are to be filled between with brick-
work, the thickness of the principal posts should be as much
less than the breadth of a brick, as twice the thickness of a.
lath; so that when these posts are lathed to hold on the ren-
dering, the laths on both sides may be flush with the surfaces
of the brickwork. And to give these posts a sufficient
strength, their breadth must be increased at discretion; but
when the quarters are to be lathed on both sides, or when
wainscoting is to be placed against the partitioning, then the
thickness of the posts may be made greater at pleasure. The
usual scantlings for the principal posts of fir, of 8 feet in
height, is 4 or 5 inches square; of 10 feet in height, 5 or 6
inches square; of 12 feet in height, 6 or 7 inches square; of
H feet in height, 7 or S eight inches square; of 16 feet in
height, from S) to 10 inches square. But these last, in my
opinion, are full large, where no very great weight is to be
supported. As oak is much stronger than fir, the scantling
of oak-posts need not be so large as those of fir; and there-
fore the scantlings assigned by Mr. Price, in his Treatise of
Carpentry, are absurd, as being much larger than those he
has assigned for lir-roofs. To find the just scantling of oaken
posts that shall have the same strength of any given tir-posts,
this is the rule:

“ As the weight of a cube of fir is to the weight of a cube of
oak of the same magnitude, so is the area of the square end
of any lir-post to the area of the end of an oaken post, and
whose square root is equal to the side of the oaken post
required.”

He might as well have asserted, that as the weight of a
cube of steel is to the weight of a cube of lead, .50 is the
area of the square end of any steel bar to the area of the end
of any lcaden bar; which proposition would have led to mani-
fest falsehood. ln the rule he has not mentioned the length,
which, if taken into the consideration, would bring a very

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CAR‘ w

CAR

 

different result; as timber is considerably weakened by its
length. The rule is therefore not only erroneous, but defec-
tive also.

With respect to Mr. Price's table, we have only to observe
that as there are no details of experiments on the strength of
oak and fir, when employed as posts, we cannot decide in this
matter. It must, however, be observed, that the fibres of fir
are straight, whilst those of oak are very crooked; whence it
is reasonable to conclude that a body with straight fibres is
better adapted to resist compression than one whose fibres
are crooked; and this supposition is strengthened, if not con-
firmed, by the experiments of Muchenbreuk, who asserts,
that though oak will suspend half as much again as fir, it
3 will not, as a pillar, support two-thirds of that load. N ow if
‘ we can put any dependence on these experiments, fir should

be used in cases of compression, as in story-posts, partitions,
&c., and oak in cases of tension, as ties, truss-posts, Sac.

“ The distances of principal posts are generally about ten
feet, and of the quarters about fourteen inches; but when
they are to be lathed on both sides, the distances of the quar-
ters should be such as will be agreeable to the lengths of the
laths, otherwise there will be a great waste in the laths. The
thicknesses of ground-plates and risings are generally from
two inches and a half to four inches, and are scarfed
together.”

With respect to lintels, bond-timbers, and naked flooring,
he observes as follows:

“ For the better disposing of the weight imposed on
girders, lintels should always be firmly bedded on a sufficient
number of short pieces of oak, laid across the walls, vul-
garly called templets, which are of excellent use.

“ Let girders be laid in piers, or in lintels over windows;
it will in both these cases be commendable to turn small
arches over their ends, that in case their ends are first
decayed, they may be renewed at pleasure, without disturb-

, ing any part of the brickwork; and for their preservation,
anoint their ends with melted pitch and grease, viz., of pitch
four, of grease one; and, indeed, were lintels to be covered
with pitch and grease also, it would contribute very greatly
to their duration.

“ In the carrying up the several walls of buildings, it
should be carefully observed, to lay in bond-timbers on tem-
plets, as aforesaid, at every six or seven feet in height,
cogged down and braced together with diagonal pieces at
every angle, which, will bind the whole together in the
most substantial manner, and prevent fractures by unequal
settlement.

“ The distances of girders should never exceed twelve
feet, and their scantlings must be proportioned according to
their lengths; as by experience it is known that a scantling
of 11 inches by 8 inches is sufficient for a fir-girder of 10 feet
in length, the area of whose end is 88 inches, it is very easy
to find the proper scantling for a girder of any greater length,
suppose 20 feet, by this rule: As 10 feet, the length of the
first girder, is to 88, the area of its end, so is 20 feet, the
length of the second girder, to 176, the area of its end.

“ Now to find its scantlings, that, being multiplied into each
other, shall produce 176 inches, the area found, one of them
must be given, viz., either the depth or thickness. In this
example, the given depth shall be 12 inches, therefore divide
176 by 12, and the quotient is 14 inches and two-thirds,
which is the other scantling, or breadth required.”

. In this example, the length is regarded; but in the first

instance, in the dimensions of the given piece, he does not

say which of them is the depth. This should have been

noticed, as the strength of a piece of wood with its greater

dimension diSposed vertically, is to the strength of the same
2 c

 

piece with its less dimension in the same position, as the
greater dimension is to the less. Another uncertainty will
arise from the proportion ; for if the scantlings are not in the
same ratio, the strength will be more or less in the one, as
the vertical dimension may be greater in proportion to the
horizontal than those of the other piece. Mr. Langley should
have noticed this also. He has assumed 12 inches as the
depth, then finds the breadth to be 14 inches and two-thirds,
by dividing 176 by 12; but this is only guessing at the pro-
portion, which might be properly stated by the rules of
algebra, as follows: What two numbers are those, whose pro-
duct is 176, and whose proportion is in the ratio of 11 to 8?
Take a: for the greater, andy for the less of the two num-
bers; then we have '

a: y = 176
a: : y : : 11 : 8
8 x = 11 3/
From the first equation we have
176
x = —
3/
ll y
and from the second, a: : —
8
Therefore, 11 3/ __ 176
8 — 3/
ll 3/2 : 1408
3/2 : 128
consequently, y = (128) 71,- : 11.3 nearly;

and by dividing by 11.3 inches, the depth, we should then
have the breadth. \Ve have here taken it for granted, that
the former part of his proposition is true, but, indeed, nothing
can be more erroneous; for their lengths are not in the ratio
of the areas of their sections, when the pieces are of equal
strength, but their lengths are in the ratio of the breadth
multiplied into the square of the depth ; or if their sections
be similar figures, the lengths will be in the same ratio as
the cubes of their vertical dimensions. By this method, if
two pieces of timber were of the same thickness, and of equal
strength, the lengths would be as the depths; whereas they
are as the square of the depths. So that, besides the ambi—
guity of his rule, allowing the data to be properly fixed, the
results would give the dimensions of the section much too
great, in calculating from a given beam of less length to one
of a greater; and much too small in calculating from a
greater length to a smaller one. In calculating the strength
of beams, it is material to recollect the loss of strength in
large beams, occasioned by their weight, as the strength of
beams is not in the same ratio with the stress occasioned by
their weights, but in a much less degree: but as we shall
hereafter discuss this subject, under the article STRENGTH OE‘
MATERIALS, we shall for the present take leave of the sub-
ject, and return to our author.

“ To prevent the sagging of short girders, it is usual to
cut them camber; that is, to cut them with an angle in the
midst of their lengths, so that their middles shall rise above
the level of their ends, as many half inches as the girder
contains times ten feet. And, indeed, girders of the greatest
length, although trussed, should be cut camber in the same
manner.”

It may be proper here to notice, that the cambering of gir-
ders does not prevent them from sagging, though perhaps it
may obviate their becoming concave on the upper side. \Vith
regard to trussing girders, the flitches should not be cut to a
camber, but brought into this state in the act of trussing.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CAB .98

CAR

 

l

“ The next order is joists, of which there are five kinds,
viz., common-joists, binding-joists, trimming-joists, bridging-
joists, and ceiling-joists. First, common-joists are used in
ordinary buildings, whose scantlings in fir are generally made
as fellows, viz.-:

 

Common joists, as used in
small buildings.

 

 

Length Scantling in
in _ feet. inches.
6 6;- by 2
9 65 by 2
12 8 by 2

 

In this table, it may be observed, the increase is not very
regular: why should the scantling of the joist 9 feet in
length, be no more than that of 6 feet? This must be a.
mistake.

“ But in large buildings, the scantlings are much larger, '

where it is common to make joists of the following dimensions:

 

Common joists, as employed
in large buildings.

 

 

Length Scantling in
in feet. inches.

6 5 by 3

9 7% by 3

12 10 by 3

 

“ As oak is much heavier than fir, it is customary to make
the scantlings of oak-joists larger than those of fir ; but
I believe it to be entirely wrong, for the reason before given,
relating to the strength of timber.

“ Secondly, binding-joists are generally made half as thick
again as common-joists of the same lengths;” and “ are framed
flush with the under surface of the girders, to receive the
ceiling-joists, and about 3 or 4 inches below their upper sur-
faces, to receive the bridging-joists ; so that the upper surfaces
of the bridging-joists may be exactly flush or level with the
girder to receive the boarding.

“ The distances that binding-joists should be laid at, should
not exceed 6 feet, though some lay them at greater distances,
which is not so well, because the bridging and ceiling-joists
must be made of larger scantlings to carry the weight of the
ceiling and boarding, and consequently a greater quantity of
timber must be employed. But, however, as this particular
is at the will of the carpenter, I shall only add, that the
scantlings for bridgings of fir, to their several lengths, are
as follOw:

 

Bridgings of fir.

 

 

Bearing. Scantling.
feet inches by inches

6 4 by 3

8 5 by 3

10 7 by 3

 

“ Their distances from each other, about 12 or 14 inches.”

He then proceeds with roofs, as follows:

“ As the common method of framing the trusses of prin-
cipal rafters of large roofs, is to lay the whole weight of the
beam and covering upon the feet, they therefore should be

 

secured at the beam with iron straps, to prevent their flying
out, in case that the ,tenons should fail; but as I apprehend
this method was capable of improvement, I therefore con-
sidered, that if under the lower parts of principal rafters,
there be discharging struts framed into the beams and pricked
posts, they will discharge the principal rafters from the
greatest part of the whole weight.”

This is certainly an improvement, but not of his, as it is to
be found in Price’s Carpentry, among his designs of roofs;
it gives an additional security to the principal rafters, so that
if the outer abutment should fail, the roof will still be sup-
ported by the inner one.

He gives the scantlings of fir-timbers in a roof, as follows:

 

 

 

Beams.
Length Scantling.
feet inches by inches.
‘80 6 by 7
45 9 by 7
60 10 by 8;
75 10% by 10
90 12 by 10;,

 

 

Principal Rafters.

 

 

Length Scantling at Top. Scantling at Bottom.
feet inches by inches. inches by inches.
21 5 by 6 7 by
36 7 by 6 9 by 7
41 9 by 7 10 by 7}
60 10 by 74- 10 by 9
72 10 by 9 11 by 9}

 

 

 

Small Rafters.

 

 

Length Scantling.
fleet inches by inches.

8 4% by 3

10 5 by 3

12 6 by 3

 

Besides the formation of the end of a purlin, attempted
by Price, Langley also notices the bevels of the jack-rafters.
We now come to the description of his diagrams.

“ The Figures 1 and 2, Plate 9, are examples of floors
made of short lengths, which I have given for the diversion
of the curious.”

These floors are of a similar construction with those shown
in the works of Dr. “rallis. Godfrey Richards, our first
author, has also inserted two kinds of floors of this nature,
one constructed of hexagons and triangles, the other consist-
ing of squares laid diagonally in respect of the plan, with a.
hexagon in the middle. These examples were executed at
the old Somerset House, and were at that time a novelty in
England. This species of naked-flooring may be seen in the
works of Serlio. It had its origin in Italy, and was thence
transported to this country. Though from the principles of
construction, the timbers mutually support each other, this
species of joisting has not been found advantageous, either
in saving of expense, or with reSpect to strength, but the
contrary ; it has therefore in modern works been dis»
continued.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Figure 3. “represents the section of a girder; b 6, 8m,
parts of two binding—joists, tenoned into the girder; a a, &c.,
the ends of bridging-joists; e e, boarding on the bridgings;
d d, &c., mortises in the binding-joists to receive the teno'ns of
the ceiling-joists; as also the mortises b c, b c, &c., but these
last are those which are called pulley—mortises, into which the
ceiling-joists are slid. To understand this more plainly, (see
Figure 4) the figures f f f f are added, which represent the
sections of so many binding-joists; gg, &c., the sections of
small joists between them; am: a side-view of a bridging-
joist; filth, ceiling-joists tenoned into the, binding-joists,
flush with their bottoms, as aforesaid, to receive the lath and
plaster.”

Figures 5 and 6 are parts of Figures 3 and 4, enlarged.

The joists g g, in Figure 4, add considerable expense, with-
out being of adequate service. '-

Figures 7, 8, 9, 10, are scarfings shown in plate 50, of his
work; but he takes no notice of them in the text, and indeed
they are not deserving of it; we have already noticed those
in Smith's work, to which these of Langley’s have a near
affinity.

Figure 11, represented in plate 53 of his work, is not
noticed in the text, but the following words are written over
the top of the figure: “A new method for trussing-beams,
girders, &c., by Batty Langley.”

The showing of such ridiculous constructions in carpentry,
has certainly lessened the credit of this author, as permitting
fancy to take the place of judgment, in cases where strength
alone was the object.

Figure 12 is his method of laying roofs in ledgement; he
only differs from Price in this particular, that he lays all the
rafter feet next to the wall-plates, whereas Price lays them
the contrary way. Price’s disposition is more convenient in
practice, but Langley’s more natural for building up.

Figures 13 and 14 are his methods of tracing angle-
brackets, and are the same in principle as that shown by
Halfpenny, which was an example for a right angle. But
Langley, always profuse in his figures, and pompous in his
text, has not only shown the description of angle—brackets for
right angles, but also for obtuse and acute angles, likewise
for ovolos, cavettos, cimarectas, and cima-reversas, as if the
same principle did not apply to all forms alike.

In Figure 15, his description is as follows: “ The curva-
tures of hip-rafters to polygonal roofs, that is, those whose
plans are polygons, are also found by transposing the ordi-
nates of a principal rafter (which must be given) upon the
base of a hip-rafter.

“ Suppose in” (Figure 15) ,“ a d to be the base, over which
the cavetto principal rafter cd, is to stand: and let a e be the
base of a hip-rafter: divide a d into equal parts, and draw
the ordinates 2, 1; 4, 3, &c., on the line a d,- divide a e in
the same manner as a d, and on the line ae draw the ordi-
nates 1, 2; 3, 4; 5, 6, &c., and from the point I), through
the points 2, 4, 6, 8, &c., trace the curve of the hip-rafter, as
required.” ‘

This disposition of confining the parts into one connected
diagram is more obvious to learners than Mr. Price’s, but
even this of Langley's is not shown to the utmost advantage;
for why divide the bases into equal parts, as this equality
causes the curvature of the ribs and the curving sides of the
covering to be divided unequally? Though the covering is
shown in the figure, he has given no description of it in
the text.

Figure 16, shows his method of covering niches or domes,
explained as follOws : “ Let afc be the plan of the head of
a semi-circi lar niche, and complete the circle a f c d. Draw
the diamete s a b c and dbf continued out towards e at plea-

 

sure. Makefr andfs each equal to one-fourth of af; then
r s will be equal to half a]; and draw the lines r b and s b,
divide b (1 into any number of equal parts, and draw the ordi-
nates l, 8 ; 2, 9 ;‘ 3, 10, &c., and on the points where those
ordinates cut the semi-diameter b d, with the radius of each
semi-ordinate, describe semi-circles, as the dotted semi-circles
in. the figure. Make ef equal to the curve af; makefp
equal toa 1 ;f0 equal to a2;fn equal to (13 ;fm equal
toa4;flequal toa5;fk equal toa6; andfgequal to
a 7. On the point e describe the arches 13, 14; 11, 12; 9, 10;
&c. Bisect the half part of each of the dotted semi-circles,
asfc in one; 1, 8, in two; 3, 9, in four; 5,10, in six; 7,11,
in eight; 9, 12, in ten; 11, 13, in twelve; and 13, 14, in
fourteen {makefh andfg each equal to half the archfi;
p 1 andp 2 each equal to half the arch 1, 2 ; o 3, 0 4, each
equal to half the arch 3, 4; and so, in like manner, 72 5 and
n 6, to the half arch 5, 6, &c. From the point e, through the
points 12, 11, 9, 7, &c., and 14, 12, 10, 850., trace the curves
e It and eg; then four such pieces as eg Ii will cover the head
of the niche, as required.”

This is certainly a very tiresome method, as each of the
semi-circles must be divided into equal parts; but why divide
each quadrant into two, which he has directed ? as the more
the parts, the truer the covering will be. If the arches a d and
c d had been divided into equal parts, the covering could
have been traced with more exactness, as there is a very
long space beginning with the point e, without any guide,
and is as much as the three lower spaces taken together: an
equality of the parts in a d and c d would have been produc-
tive of the parts eg, g It, kl, &c. also equal to each other,
and consequently the distances of the points in the curves
e h and e g, though not exactly equal, would have been
nearly so.

The description given by Mr. Price for the covering of
domes, is defective ; but his aim was at a much more con-
venient method than this of Langley’s, which requires ample
space, and is very troublesome and tedious in practice, with-
out obtaining any greater accuracy. The reader must observe;
that in strictness of principle, no flat surface, however thin,
can be made to comply with a spheric surface ; yet if com-
paratively a very small portion of the flat surface be taken,
it may be made so nearly to coincide with the spheric, as not
to be detected by the eye, which is as near aswe ever need
in practice ; and thus the narrower the board, the’ more
nearly will its surface comply with the spheric surface; but
as we shall have occasion to speak of this in another place,
we shall leave it for the present, and proceed to show his
methods of finding the coverings of solids.

Figure 17, “ represents the manner of covering the outside
of a cone ; the arch e a being made equal to the circumfer-
ence e, which is equal to the base of the cone : this figure is
exhibited here to show, that the sotfits of a semi-circular
headed window, whose splay is continued all round, is no
more than the lower superficies of a semi-cone; for if the
splay were continued, it would meet in a point.”

In this respect he is right; but no covering can be more
easy to conceive, except that of a right cylinder. The
method of covering an oblique cylinder he never could obtain,
as the edges which should coincide with the elliptic sections
are all exhibited in straight lines. See Plate 74, at the end
of his Builder’s Complete Assistant; neither has he ever been
able to obtain the covering of the ungula of a right cone,
or of its complement when out to produce an elliptic sec-
tion, so that the edge of his covering may coincide with the
said elliptic section, and its surface with the curved surface
of the cone.

Figure 18. “ The superficies of these frustums are laid out

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CAR

100

CAR

 

as follows.” “ On (1 describe the arch cml, &c. e equal to
the circumference of the base of the cone, which divide into
eight equal parts, at the points m, l, h, i, &c. and draw the
lines am, a l, a h, &c. Draw 6 1, parallel to d c, and divide
ic into four equal parts. Make a 5, a 11, each equal to
a 4; make a 6, a 10, each equal to a 3; make a 7, a 9, each
equal to a 2; make a 8 equal to a 1. Through the points
11, 10, 9, 8, and 7, 6, 5, trace the curves e 8 and 8 c,- then
the figure 0 8 e i c is the superficies of the side.”

What has the division of the line i c to do with the prin-
ciple? This equality is not founded upon any part of the
construction of the solid, and consequently the method can
never obtain a true cover or envelope; indeed, it is so void
of science as not to deserve any farther notice. In the next
place, he attempts to find the envelope of a part of a semi-
cuneoid, contained between two concentric cylindric surfaces,
or of the covering or lining of the sofiit of a window turned
upon a centre, which has either an elliptic or circular section,
everywhere parallel to its end, and to coincide with the
superficies of a circular wall, or the head of an aperture
splaying on the sides, and level at the crown. But are we
now to expect that this will be accomplished, unless by acci-
dent, when he has already failed in obtaining methods for
the description of much more simple envelopes, viz. for cylin-
ders and cones cut obliquely? The reader will, however,
attend to his description, which is as follows, and then
judge for himself.

The descriptions of the following diagrams are equally
deficient in method, and void of principle: his diagrams,
also, are full of redundant lines. He begins the text without
announcing the purpose of the operation, so that the reader
must be kept in the dark till the conclusion.

Plate X. Figure l. “ 0f straight, circular, and elliptical
arches in circular walls—The first work to be done, is the
making of the centres, to turn these kinds of arches upon,
which may be thus performed: Let GHIK be the plan of
a circular building, and at Figure 6, it is required to make
a centre for a semi-circular arch to the window, whose diameter
without is ad, and within 72 m. Bisect a d inf; and describe
the semi-circle ap (1. Divide a d into any number of equal
parts at the points 6, 4, 2, &c. and draw the ordinates 6, 6 ;
4, 4; 2, 2, 8m. Divide n m into the same number of equal
parts, and make the ordinates 6, 5; 4, 3; 2, 1, 8:0. equal to
the ordinates 6, 6; 4, 4; 2, 2, 8:0. and through the points
5, 3, l, h, 8w. trace the curve 72 h m, then ap d and n h m
will be the two ribs for the centre: this being done, place
the ribs perpendicular over the lines a d and n m, and cover
them, as centres usually are, and then, applying the edge of
a plumb-rule to the divers parts of the inside and outside
of the window’s bottom, the top of the rule will give the
several points at which the inside and outside of the covering
is to be cut off, so as to stand exactly over the inside and
outside of the building, and then the centre will be completed
as required.”

It is hardly possible to conceive anything so unscientific
as this description. In describing and forming the centre
for the head of the required aperture, he is accurate 3' but
when we are told to apply “ the edge of a plumb-rule to the
divers parts of the inside and outside of the window’s bottom,”
and that “ the top of the rule will give the several points at
which the inside and outside of the covering are to be cut
off, so as to stand exactly over the inside and outside of the
building; and” that “ the centre will be completed as required,”
he is altogether intolerable; for besides being tedious to an
extreme, it is no more than every mechanic could have easily
conceived. In forming the centre, it would be better to form
the inside curve with a trammel, which would obviate the

 

tedious work of dividing the base of each curve into equal
parts, as well as the transferring of the ordinates of the semi-
circle to those of the ellipses, and then, at last, either tracing
the elliptic curve by hand, or bending a thin slip of wood
round pins or nails stuck in the points. At all events, even
in the operation of tracing, the dividing of the bases into
equal parts is a very bad practice, as it alWays leaves so large
and so quick a portion of the curve at each extremity to be
guessed at ; but here it is admissible, on account of the fol-
lowing diagrams connected therewith. -

“ To divide the courses in the arch of this window—On a
flat panel, &c. draw a line, as be, in Figure 7, make afo
equal to the curve a c d, also make a b and 0 e each equal
to the intended height of the brick arch. Make f p, in
Figure 7, equal tofp, in Figure 6; also make a l) and o e,
in Figure 7, each equal to b a, in Figure 6; then the points
I) and e will be the extremes of the arch. Make p r, in
Figure 7, equal to b a, the given height of the arch, and
through the points I) r e and a p 0 describe two semi-ellipses,
which divide into courses as before taught, and which will
be the face of the arch required."

This operation produces nothing, as he does not show its
application to practice, in the formation of the stones or bricks
to their proper shapes.

“ Tofind the angles or bevels of the under part of each
c0urse.——-Continue the splay backs of the window m dand
n a until they meet in F. On F, with the radius F n and
F a, describe the arches n g 1) and afs, making 72 g 1; equal
to the girt of the arch n h m. Make n 6, n 4, rt 2, n 3/, 8:0.
on the arch n 3/ v, equal to n 6, n 4, n 2, n g, &c. on the
curve n h m, and draw the lines 6 F, 4 F, 2 F, g F, &c.
Make the ordinates 6, 5 ; 4, 3; 2, 1 ; g 1', 8w. on the lines
6 F, 4 F, &c. equal to the ordinates 5, 6; 3, 4; l, 2; h i, 8w.
on the line 72 m and through the points 5, 3, 1, x, &c. trace
the curve 22 :r n. In the same manner transfer the ordinates
5,6; 3,4; 1,2; of} &c.on the lineadtothearchsfa,
as from 5 to 6, from 4 to 3, &c. and trace the curve s c a;
and then will the figure n xv so a be the sotfito of the window
laid out, and which being divided into the same number of
equal parts,-as the under part of the arch ap 0, Figure 7,
and lines drawn to the centre F, as is done in Figure 2, to
the centre A, by the lines 2, 2, 2, &c. those lines will give
the bevel of every course in sotlito, as required.”

Here is an attempt to find the lining or envelope of a

 

cuneoid or cono-cuneus, in a circular wall, for the sotlits of 1

the stones or bricks; and had he succeeded, his endeavours

would have been so far right: but the method which he J

follows has no relation to the construction of the centre
itself, and is therefore extremely erroneous. Nor can the
same method be applied to the covering of a cone, though
the affinity or relation is much nearer in the latter solid than

in the former, and, consequently, the envelope here found j

would cover a cone more nearly than the surface of a cuneoid.

But, indeed, though very near approaches have been made ‘

to the cuneoidal surface, its determinate figure has never
been exactly shown on a plane: however, the geometrical
construction may be laid out on the surface of the solid itSelf,
and all curves, corresponding to given ones on the plan,
found with the utmost accuracy. The other parts of Figure 7,
are not described in the text, but seem to contain lines with-
out meaning. The following is all that is said of Figure:
l, 2, 4, and 5:

Figure 5 “is another example of a semi-elliptical arch,
whose front is Figure 2. Also Figure 4, is a third example
of a scheme arch, whose front is Figure 8. And Figure l.
is a fourth example of a straight arch, which, in general. are
performed by the aforesaid rule.”

 

 

 

 

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Here the text is unintelligible, and the discovery of the
principles, by inspection, still more so. .

"Passing from the The Builder‘s Complete Asszstant, we
come next to The Builder’s and Workman’s Treasury of
Designs, by the same Author. The portion of this work
which treats of carpentry, is contained in an appendix at the
end, consisting of fourteen plates.

In Plate XI. Figures 1 and 2, Nos. 1, 2, 3, of each Figure,
are shown two methods of lengthening beams: but there is
no other description than what is exhibited at the top of
the plate, viz., “ The splicing or lengthening of beams
explained.”

The two pieces are tabled together, by a very different
method to what any former author has exhibited. The tables
are concealed, showing on the outside, when bolted together,
as in No. 3 of each Figure, an oblique continued joint. The
construction is ingenious, as it prevents their separation with-
out breaking the tables by a longitudinal strain; but the diffi-
culty of fitting them together with accuracy, and the tedious
process, renders them unfit for practice.

Langley’s Geometrical Principles of Roofing are similar
to those of the preceding author; but for the sake of show-
ing the terms applicable to different purposes, and his method
of treating the subject, we shall extract a few of his descrip-
tions : “ a be d (Figure 3) plan of the raising; ef the cen-
tral line; im, lo, base lines of the outward principals;
ag, g c, b h, h d, base lines of the hips; g h base of the ridge;
h n base line of the middle pair of principals; eg, hf; base
lines of the single principals, which meet the hips in the
points gh; ih l, m n0, dovetail mortises in the raising, to
receive the dovetails or cauhs 1, 2, 3, of the beams A B C ;
(Figure 10) pp, dovetail mortises to receive the angle-braces,
as p, p. Figure 4. D, a cauk or dovetail at large; E, the
dovetail-mortises in the raising, to receive the dovetail or
cank 1).”

Figure 4. “ a b c d, plan of the raising;fg,fg,fg, beams
cauked down on the raising; pp, pp, &c., angle-braces
cauhed down in like manner; a e, b e, c e, d e, dragon-pieces to
receive the feet of the hip-rafters ; a h, b h, c h, d h, hip-
rafters ; a h h, the angle at the top ; and h a h the angle of
the foot of the hip ah.”

Figure 5. “ To find the angle of a hip in any regular
. or irregular building—RULE. On any part of its base line,
as c, draw a right line at right angles, asfg; set up the hip,
f as hb, and from c draw cd perpendicular to the hip h b;
. make ce equal to cd, and draw the linesfe, e g; then the
anglefeg is the angle of the back required.”

These descriptions are tolerably clear ; the technical terms
used by him, are raising, base-line, hips, back of the hip,
principals, dovetail-mortises, cauhs, angle-braces, and dragon-
pieces. Raising is used by Moxon, in his [Mechanical Exer-
cises, but is vaguely defined by that author ; base-lines, hips,
back of the hip, and principal rafters, are used by Godfrey
Richards, in his Constructions quoqfs, in finding the lengths
and backings of hip-rafters. This last-mentioned author
names the diagonal beams under the hips, dragon-beams,-
Langley calls them dragon-pieces. What Langley spells
cauhs, Price spells cocks. Angle-braces are not, that we have
observed, named by any author before Langley, who also
names jack-rafters, in Plate 5, of his Builder’s and PVorh-
man’s ’l'reasurg.

There is a work, not mentioned in the list of authors, by
Edward Oakley, Architect, which, in point of priority, ought
to have stood evenbefore Smith‘s Carpenter’s Companion, it
being dated in the title-page 1730: another work was like-
wise published by Edward Hoppus, Surveyor, the second
L edition of which, as appears fgom the title-page. was published

D

 

 

 

 

in 1738; when the first edition was published we do not
know, but probably about the same time as Oakley’s, or
before. With respect to carpentry, these two works are nearly
alike, as to the number of the problems, their order, the
method of treating them, and the end intended; one seems to
have been copied from the other, and the first of the two
to have been taken from Halfpenny’s Artof Sound Building,
with the exception of a problem, which is exhibited in a plate,
and explained in each of these authors, for covering of the
head of a niche or dome, with boards, to bend with their
joints in vertical planes, passing through its axis. This pro-
blem is thus explained by Oakley:

Figure 6. “ To make a niche or globe, with thin boards
or to cover them with paper or pasteboard.——Admit af
(No. l) to be the plan of a semi-circular niche; c efd (No. 2)
to be the board, paper, or pasteboard, of a given width, 0 d
or ef Divide the semi-circle af 1 into equal divisions, accord-
ing to the breadth of (No. 2) as a b, b c, c at, de, eg, gh, h i, ih,
and h l; draw the lines, b u, c u, du, e u, g u, h u, iu, h u,
and let. fall perpendiculars on the line a l, from the points
b, c, d, e, g, h, i, h. Upon the centre u, with the intervals,
m, 0, r, and t, describe semi-circles; set the girt of the arch
af or fl, on the board, g c, (No. 2) as c a and db, which
divide into so many equal parts as there are semi-circles, as in
(No. 2.) Divide (No.2) in the midst, as by the line uw;
take the arch a b, and set it equally on each side of the line
u w, as at a b; set the arch m n, in like manner, on u w, as
at m n, and so on to ts,- then by sticking in small tacks at
the points a, m, o, r, t, and u, on the one side of uw, and
at the points b, n, p, q, and s, on the other side of u w, by
applying a thin ruler from a to u, and b to u, the curve lines
on each side will be given, which may be described by a pen-
cil, &c., which is the true mould for every piece in a globe or
niche, which was required.”

Here it must be observed, that the division of the semi-
circle (No. 1) is erroneous; for if the quadrant aforfl be
considered as a vertical section of the dome, it is evident it
should have been divided into the same number of parts as
the length of the board (No. 2;) and the several lengths of
the one equal to those of the other; but af or fl is only
divided into 4% equal parts, while the board is divided into
5; which inequality causes the board to be too narrow towards
the top, and to swell out too much at the bottom, as shown
in the following figure.

In The London Art quuilding, written by Salmon, there
is nothing new in construction. His geometrical principles
of rooting are like those by Godfrey Richards; besides which,
he treats of no other subject, except a few designs of roofs.

The British Architect, the production of Mr. Abraham
Swan, is not- very abundant in curious constructions of car-
pentry, yet there are some ideas worthy of notice.

Figure 7, No. 1, “ Shows the backing of the hip.” “ Divide
the thickness of the hip into two equal parts; then having
found the pitch of your hip, as is shown in (No. 2) set one of
these parts upon the base line, from b to a, and it shows what
wood is to be taken ofl‘.

“ If the side of the building comes in with a bevel, as the
dotted line h, in (No. 1) then transfer half the thickness of
the hip, from d to c, in (No. 3) and take the distancefe, in
(No. 1) and set it from c to g, in (No. 3.) This will show how
much is to be taken off the hip, when the building bevels.”

It is strange that this author should have departed so far
from Pope’s scientific method, as first shown by Godfrey
Richards, in order to adopt one so mechanical, more liable to
inaccuracy, and less expeditious.

With respect to groins, all that Swan has said on this sub-
ject, is contained in the following words:

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Figure 8, “exhibits an arch boarded over, wherein the
several figures 1, 2, 3, 860., represent so many ribs, or jack-
rafters, set upon the circular body of the arch, in order for
another arch to intersect it, where those boarded over the
groins are formed.” We learn nothing from this, but the man-
ner of placing the jack-ribs on the body of the arch. Price
describes the method of placing these low ribs upon the
boarding, and calls them small centres; but his diagram is
different, and not near so clear.

In the boarding of domes with the joints in horizontal
planes, Swan has shown the first. ideas of the subject :
Figure 9, “ represents a circular body. To find the curve
of any lath or margin to be bent round this body, parallel to
its base.

“ Let the points b and c represent the margin which you
intend to bend round; then draw a right line through these
points, to meet the perpendicular or diameter produced, as in
a, and it gives the length a b the shorter, and a c the longer
radius for striking the curve required.”

This author has nothing more of novelty in the art of
carpentry.

Our next author is Mr. William Pain. In his British
Palladio, he shows the methods of hip-bracketing for coves,
and plaster cornices, as follows: Plate XII. Figure I,"D
is an angle-bracket for an internal angle, which are (is) traced
by ordinates.” Figure 2, “ E is an angle-bracket for a plaster
cornice, at an internal angle ; F, an external angle, allowing
one inch for lath and plaster.” The formation of angle—brackets
is so easy, that a very little reflection, on inspecting the figure,
will show the method adopted, without description : but still
something more might have been said on the practical part.

From The Builder's Golden Rule, the following diagrams,
with their descriptions, are taken. “ The backing of curve-
line hips, and tracing them—Figure 3, (No. l) is the rib of
a dome, and (No. 2) is the hip traced from it. Divide the
given rib (No. 1) into five parts, on the base line, and draw
the ordinates 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5, 5 ; then divide the base
line of the hip into the same number of parts; take them
from (No. 1) and set them on (No. 2); then tack in nails
at the points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ; bend a thin slip round, and mark
as that curve directs, which gives the hip-mould. To back
the hip, take from (No. 3) the plan of the hip, 1, 2, and set
it on the hip at the bottom 1, 2; then shift the hip-mould
to 2, and out to the top: mark it by, and that will be the
wood to come ofi‘ for the backing of the hip.” The practice
of dividing the base of the given rib, and the base of the
required rib into equal parts, was first shown by Halfpenny,
and now by our present author, Pain; and though the prin-
ciple is true, the practice is bad, as it leaves so great a por-
tion of the curve to be traced by the eye, where it rises from
the base; and though it is not necessary that each base should
be divided into equal parts, or into any series of parts which
shall have a given proportion to each other, yet it would be
. ‘better to divide the curve of the given rib into equal parts,
then divide the base of the required rib in the same propor-
tion; and the arcs of‘ the required rib terminated by the
upper extremities of each two ordinates, will be very nearly,
if not quite, proportional; that is, the distance between the
tracing points will be nearer where the curve is quickest,
and where the greater number of points are most required.

Figure 4, shows “the backing for a straight hip. You
are to observe that the piece of wood be of the same thick-
ness as the hips, and form of the curve, for the little part you
want; then cut it to the pitch of the hip at foot, set it on
the plan, and mark it by that, which will give the backing
exactly ; and so for any other. Or, if you draw a line
parallel with the base line, and take off 1-, 2, on the plan

 

(No. 2) and set it on the said lines 1, 2, all the way up,
and mark by the mould, it will give the backing in any case
required, straight or curved.”

This general and correct principle was first noticed by Price.

Figure 5. “ The method of caving the angles, when there
is a circle or oval in the centre of the ceiling—Draw the
centre part, touching the sides and ends ; then draw another
to the extreme of the angles, parallel with the centre; then
draw the semicircular arch A, and from that trace the side
arches B, n, and the rib C, C, C, C, which is a mould to cut
all the brackets for the angles ; as is plain to inspection by
the lines on the plan.”

This principle is erroneous, and the description deficient.

There is no respect paid to the elliptic base; but the brackets
are traced upon the principle of angle-brackets. The sections
of any body must depend upon the construction of that body,
or upon its properties», thus, if a body is intended to have
this property, that all parallel sections are to be similar
figures, and if the method of forming it is not founded upon
this principle, the body is not what it was intended to be,
but something else ; the construction will therefore be erro-
neous. All sections of a body must be found by describing
the seats of the curves of as many parallel sections as may
be thought sufficient, on one of the largest of them; then
having a given or transverse section, that will cut all the
parallel sections of the body, all other sections whatever may
be found : but our author, Mr. Pain, forms the section of all
bodies like those of prisms, without attending to the pro-
perties of the body required, as is the case in the example
before us. _
__ In the first edition of his Practical IIouse Carpenter, he
has presented the diagram ofan interior circular dome, formed
into pendentives by bracketing the spandrels above, and
traced according to the same erroneous principle : but after
the publication of the Carpenter’s A7910 Guide, by the author
of this Work, the error was corrected, in the second edition
of the said Practical IIouse Carpenter, so as to correspond
with the legitimate principle, first published in the Carpenter’s
.New Guide: his description, which is very short, is partly
contained in the text, and partly on the plate : in the text,
he says, Figure 6, “is a conical skylight, showing how to
bracket the angles of the ceiling under the kirb, the hip-mould
g at the angle is traced from the rib b, and that mould would
do to cut all the ribs at the angles, as shown at the angle a.”

\Vliat is here said, refers to the diagrams in the first edition;
but the text stands in the sixth edition, as in the first, though
the diagram is altered in the second and succeeding editions.
There is no rib b, nor angle (1, shown on the improved diagram.
On the plate he writes thus: “F dome with a skylight on
the top. g, g, moulds for the ribs of the dome ; a, a, the
kirb of the light.” This latter description refers to the
diagram as it now stands.

The skylight on the top is exhibited in a very erroneous
manner, being inconsistent with the principles of any kind
of projection that we are acquainted with. The plan of the
bracketing, and the ribs of the domical part, are shown by
a common ichnographical projection, while the skylight is
exhibited in a kind of false perspective, and being without
any connection with the kirb on which it is placed, it has
the appearance of being raised upon its edge, resting upon
two points in the kirb.

Figure 7, “is an ogce roof, whose plan is a pentagon, and
shows the method of drawing the polygon figure to any given
side ; make a radius of that side, and draw the arches 2, 6;
divide one of these arches into six parts, and turn them to
the centre line, as shown by the letters and figures 5 d, 4 e, &c.;
the centre 6 will draw a circle to receive the side 5 times,

 

 

 

   

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6 is the centre to receive the side 6 times, d seven times, and
so on to i, which is the centre to draw the circle to receive
the side twelve times.”

This problem should have been classed in practical geometry,
as it has no reference whatever to carpentry. It is only true
in the hexagon and dodecagon, and is very incorrect for the
description of polygons upon a given straight line, which
have fewer sides than six. In his diagram, he shows the
method of describing the hip from the common rib being
given ; but the text contains no description of it.

Figure 8, “is a dome, whose plan is a hexagon, and shows
how to divide a circle into any number of parts: divide one-
fourth of the circle into the number of parts you would have
the circle, as, l, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and always take four of them.
To find the backing of the curve-line hips, lay down the plan
of the hip at.the angle, as a; then take the distance 1, 2, at
bottom, tack in a nail, then shift the hip-mould, and marking
by it, as 12, 34, 56, 78, 9, 10, will show the wood to come
off.” In this description, Mr. Pain proposes to find the
division of a circle into any number of parts ; but as he does
not mention any fixed ratio of these parts, they may be taken
at pleasure, without rule; but allowing that he had neglected
to name this condition, under which the circle was to be
divided, and suppose that he meant the parts to be equal,
and to be found by a general method ; there is no regular
rule of performing this problem but by an approximation.
If we allow that the quadrant can be divided into equal parts,
we must also allow that the whole circle will contain four
times that number of parts ; but the division of the quadrant
into equal parts is equally impossible with that of the whole
circle; the rule is therefore absurd, and consequently it is
only accomplishing one absurdity by another, and wasting
the reader’s time to no purpose. In this problem, as in the
last, he has also neglected to inform his reader how the hip
is found, though it is sufficiently clear on the plate to present
the idea of forming it to any intelligent person.

Figure 9, “is a dome on a circular plan ; a and b show
the section of the horizontal rib.” ‘

Figure 10, “is a dome on an elliptic plan ; the centres for
the mould of the horizontal ribs d d, are a a, b b, c c, d d;
_ the place of that rib on the plan is found by dropping dot
lines from the sections dd: 0 c on the top, is designed for
a skylight.” These descriptions are unintelligible.

Plate XIII. Figure l, “ shows the method for cutting the
boards to cover the dome; divide the dome into as many
parts as you think it will take boards, and draw lines to cut
the edges of each board, and where they meet the centre line,
that is the centre for the edge of each board. This is drawn
one inch to a foot.” This has already been shown and
described by Swan, but he is deficient in not representing the
boards as Pain has done; the description of the'former, how-
ever, though short, is much clearer than that of the latter.

Figure 2, is taken from the Practical IIouse Carpenter,
but the description is to be found neither in the text nor on
the plate. It must therefore be left to the sagacity of the
reader to find it out. \Ve suppose the diagram to represent
the method of covering a dome by bending the boards with
the joints on vertical planes passing through the axis. This
method has already been shown by several of the preceding
authors, of whom Price and Langley are the most accurate,
and differ most as to the mode of ascertaining the form of the
board, but come to the same result at last.

Oakley, Hoppus, and Price, perform the operation by
straight ordinates, whereas Langley and Pain do it by curved
ordinates: one method ascertains the form with as much accu-
racy as the other, but the operation with straight ordinates
requires much less trouble than the other. Pain e-ven shows

 

many more lines than are sufficient, which snperabundance
makes his diagram much less intelligible to the understanding
of his reader. The concentric arcs, which he has used as
ordinates, are erroneous in principle, though the use of them
does not affect the practice, as we shall here show.

Figure 3. “Let A B C be half the section of a dome passing
through its vertical axis; divide the curve A B into as many
equal parts as the number of boards of which the covering
is to consist; through each point in the circumference draw
a line to the centre C; and through each of the same points
draw another line at right angles to the respective radii, and
produce them upwards, as also the axis C B, so as to cut each
of the tangents from the several points in the curve; then
each of these tangents, so limited, are the radii of the suc-
cessive ordinates; the tangent at the bottom is of infinite
length, the next is limited, and the succeeding‘ones become
gradually shorter.and shorter, till the tangent and the arc
become nearly of one length. So that the ordinates of the
board, exhibited in Figure 4, are arcs of radii, respectively
equal to the tangents; consequently, the bottom ordinate of
the board is a straight line, the next is the arc of a circle
of a very flat curvature, the next is an arc of greater curva-
ture, and so each are becoming quicker and quicker in its
curvature, till they reach the summit of the board, which is
the last centre.”

The most eligible method in practice, founded upon evi-
dent principles, is to suppose the dome to become an equi-
lateral and equiangular polygon, and suppose the axal section
A B C, Figure 5, perpendicular to one of the sides of the dome
to be given, and the curve A B to be divided into equal parts,
and suppose the parts to be extended upon BC produced;
then, if lines be drawn through the divisions of the curve,
and through the points of division in C B, produced perpen-
dicular to the said BC; and if BD be drawn perpendicular
to BC, equal to half the width of a board, and D Cjoined,
and the ordinates produced so as to meet D C; then, if the
lines parallel to B D, contained within the triangle B D C be
successively taken towards C, and applied on the perpen-
diculars from and on each side of C D produced; then if curves
be drawn through the points at the extremities, they will ter-
minate the edges of a board, which will accurately cover a
side of the polygonal dome.

Let us now suppose the number of sides of this dome to
be very great, then the sides will vary only in a very small'
degree, either from the inscribing or circumscribing sphere,
and this variation will decrease as the number of sides is
increased, and the excess or defect would become insensible;
and if we suppose the sides to be infinite, the board which
covers the side of the polygonal dome will accurately cover
the inscribing or circumscribing spherical dome. This latter
method is founded upon principle, but that of forming the
bottom ends of the boards into curves is totally destitute of it.

Figure 6, from Pain’s Britt's/i Palladio, which he says “is
a pentagon to be covered with a domical roof. To find the
curve of the boarding, divide the girth or curve of the rib on
the back into as many parts as you please, as here into four,
and draw them to the base-line of the rib ea, as 7, 8, 9;
stretch out ab, the middle of the side, and 99, 88, 77,
parallel thereto; then take one of the divisions 0n the girth

'of the rib, and set off from e to 7, 8, 9, b, and where that

cuts the lines 7 7, 8 8, 9 9, b, there tack in nails, and bend
a thin slip to the nails, and mark from e to b, as that curve
directs; this will be one edge of the covering: prick these
marks on the other side of the line a b, and proceed as before;
then will the covering or boarding be complete. The cover-
ing or boarding of (Figure 7) is found in the same man-
ner, which is very plain to inspection; the girth of” the

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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“rib being stretched out, and the parts set on as above
directed.”

When he says, “ stretch out a b, the middle of the side, and
9 9, 8 8, 7 7, parallel thereto,” he is not intelligible; however,
if we understand that a b is drawn at right angles to the side
8 d of the polygon, and 9 9, 8 8, 7 7, drawn parallel thereto,
the method which he uses will be found to be correct, and,
we believe, original.

Figure 8, “ shows the method for getting out the veneer,
or cover for an elliptical dome or niche. Divide the circum-
ference of one quarter of the plan into any number of parts,
as here into 8, and draw them to the centre 4; let the first
line from the transverse diameter be the edge of the veneer;
the second line will be the middle of the next veneer; the
third will be the other edge of it, and so on : continue this
line out at pleasure: consider this line as a base, and draw
thereon a section of the dome, as No. 1; then divide the cir—
cumference into four parts, draw them to the base-line at right
angles, and transfer those distances to the corresponding line
on the plan ; then take the four parts on the girth, and run
them on the line stretched out, 1, 2, 3, 4, this will be the
length of the veneer; set the compasses on the plan, and
strike a curve-line of this radius; then continue the middle
line of the veneer, and where it intersects, that curve-line
will be the point of veneer next the top of the dome; from
this point set off the divisions l, 2, 3, on the circumference
by curve-lines; then take the width of the divisions 1, 2, 3,
from the middle line of the plan, and set them on the same
line stretched out to cut them at their respective distances,
the points of intersection will be the breadth of that side of
the veneer; connect them by a curve-line from the plan to the
point, and you have one edge complete. For the veneer on
the transverse diameter, this edge will serve as a mould; or
you may set the half of the veneer t0 the other side of the
plan, and draw a chord-line from these points; set this otf
that distance of the arch (the little curve) to be outside, and
draw a line parallel to the chord—line, on which set off the
breadth of the veneer on both sides, then with the whole
length of the other veneer in the compasses, set one foot on
that breadth, and strike a curve-line to cut the middle line
on the transverse diameter; or repeat the curve from the
other side, and where they cross will be the point of that

veneer, from whence set off the divisions, and proceed as

before. But as the radii of an oval are of different lengths,
to get the other edge of the veneer, make a section as before,
see No. 2, and set 01f, as before, the divisions on the base and
plan, and strike the divisions 0n the girth, from the point of
the veneer stretched out, intersect them from the plan, and
those points connected will give the other side of that veneer,
which will be a mould for the next adjoining; proceed again
for every veneer by transferring that length from the plan,
and the shortest length from the point; repeat the same
operation for every veneer required.

lVote. “ The conjugate and transverse diameters will have
the two sides of the veneer equal. Observe, only four parts
are used, to prevent confusion in the figure; but the greater
number of parts, the truer the line. Again, if your boards
will suit, divide the plan to their number, and proceed as
before for every board respectively.”

This method is so absurd in every particular, that the
coverings obtained are erroneous in the greatest degree;
indeed, it leaves no room for argument, and we shall only
observe, that in the true form of the boards, between the
extremities of the greater and less axis, in any one of the
four quarters, one side of the board would be concave and
the other convex, where the dome has a considerable differ-
ence in its axis; and the greater this eccentricity or differ-

 

ence, the greater will be the degree of curvature of the con-
cavity and convexity of the sides of these boards.

Figure 9. No. 1, shows groins and arches, of different
descriptions, from the Practical House Carpenter. Pain
divides this figure into several others, and distinguishes them
by letters of the alphabet. He only gives the following
description on the plate : “ K centering for groins. L is a half
groin cutting under pitch, for a door or window. G a Welsh
groin cutting under pitch. M is the method of tracing the
ribs and hips for a groin ceiling.” Figure 9, No. 2, “N is
a mould to bend over the body range; K, to get the lines
to set the jack-ribs by.” The reader who has not already
acquired a competent knowledge of geometrical lines, will
profit but little from this description. The showing of the
jack-ribs upon the diagram is an improvement. Swan has
shown them perspectively, but the geometrical method of
representing them is more serviceable to the workman, as it
shows the lengths of the ribs distinctly. He observes that
“ G is a Welsh groin cutting under pitch,” but he does not
show how the crooked line, which he has exhibited, is obtained;
and even if he had shown it, the method of constructing the
rib would still have been wanting. In the mould N, for
groin-centering, in order to find the place, or curve—lines,
on the boarding, for fixing the jack-ribs, he has given no
description, either in the text or on the plate, except that he
writes, “the arch line a stretched out,” and “ half the base-
line b,” upon the respective sides; and, consequently, we
have no other instructions to inform us how the mould x is
found, than by inspecting the figure itself, and tracing out
the operation by the connection of the lines ; and even then
we are left in the dark as to its application. The moulds for
groin-centering upon this principle, were first shown by
Price, as well for finding the angles of the jack-ribs, as the
form of the boarding.

Figure 10, from the Practical IIouse Carpenter, “is a bevel
roof; the sides are parallel on one part of the plan, the other
bevels. To frame this roof in ledgment, the principal rafters
must be framed to a level base; that is, the ends of the
beams all of one height from the face of the plate; when
you come to lay them the other way, to frame in the purlins,
there must be winding sticks held to the bases of the rafters,
which winding sticks must be all out of winding; and as the
width of the building diminishes, the backs of the rafters
will lie in winding, as they will when in their places; and
mind that they are backed according to the bevel of the plan.
for turning them up to tumble in the purlins; by this method
the business may be well completed.” Allowing that the
heels of the rafters are cut to their proper bevels with the
backs, the application of winding sticks to such short distances
will never make the sides fall accurately into their proper
winding. This is altogether a mechanical operation; but it
would have been no difficult task to have shown an operation
strictly geometrical.

The foregoing remarks will be found to contain a fair and
impartial statement ofthe geometrical improvements and errors
of the several writers on Carpentry, at least as far as they
have come to our knowledge : we shall now, in conclusion,
draw a general result from the whole of their theories, and
endeavour to trace the progress of the art towards its present
state of comparative perfection.

The method of bracketing hip-rafters, which is said to be
the invention of a Mr. Pope, of London, was originally pre-
sented to the public by Godfrey Richards, who also first
represented roofs in ledgements, in order to ascertain the
several lengths and angles which the rafters make with each
other.

The use of the trammel in common cases; the description

  

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of a curve through points, by bending a lath, or slip of wood;
cove-bracketing, and the construction of ribs in groined
ceilings, disposed in vertical planes, were first shown by
Halfpenny. In the latter, however, he divides the bases into
equal parts, in order to place the ordinates, which is incon-
venient ; for the equi-distance of the ordinates leaves a very
large portion of the curves at each extremity, where they
are quickest, to be traced only by the eye. This writer also
first described the formation of spherical and spheroidal niches,
upon semi-circular and Semi-elliptic plans, with semi-circular
and semi-elliptic faces, under the names of semi-circular and
elliptic niches.

To Price we owe the mode of framing roofs in ledgement,
with all the beams ‘and rafters laid out on a plane ; though
it must be remembered that the general outline had been
previously described by Godfrey Richards. The squaring
of the purlin of a circular dome, and of a conic roof or sky-
light; the backing of angle-brackets (and consequently of
ribs in general) by shifting the mould of the rib; the ordi-
nary construction of groin—centering, and moulds for drawing
the diagonal lines at the feet of thejack-ribs; the covering
of domes, by bending the boards from the base to the vertex;
and the stretching out of the surfaces of coved ceilings, were
also first described by this writer. ,

To the writings of Batty Langley we are indebted for the
extension of the superficies of polygonal roofs with curvilinear
rafters; and likewise the covering of the frustum of a semi-
cone for a sofiit in a straight wall, with the axis of the cone
at right angles to the plane of the wall.

The principle of forming boards to cover a dome, with the
joints running in horizontal planes, or on the surface of a
eone with a vertical axis, was laid down by Swan.

That of extending the superficies of a semi-cylinder on a
plane, for the soffit of an aperture in a circular wall, with
the axis of the cylinder at right angles to the surface of such
wall, so as to cover the surface of the cylinder contained
between the two walls and each spring of the aperture, was
first exhibited by Pain; as was likewise the principle of
squaring purlins for an elliptic dome, though very imperfectly.

The sum total of the geometrical constructions by these
writers, may be comprised as follows: the use of the trammel ;
drawing curved lines through points; ascertaining the lengths
of rafters, and the backing of hips for both straight and
curvilinear rafters; framing of roofs in ledgement, whether
rectangular or bevel on the plan ; squaring purlins for circular
or elliptic domes and cones ; the construction of curvilinear
ribs for angle-brackets, polygonal roofs, and plaster groins ;
centerings of groins ; forming a conic soifit in a straight
wall, with the axis of the cone at right angles to its surface;
forming a cylindric soflit in a circular wall, with an horizontal
aXis : and the covering of polygonal roofs or domes with
boards, whose joints fall either in horizontal or vertical planes.
. These inventions, however, are far from being laid down
in the most happy manner. The text of these authors is
frequently obscure, and their diagrams, which have little
connection with it, are badly projected, and little calculated
to inform : they have likewise so far neglected the requisite
arrangement, that their subjects are thrown together in a
pmnnscumis jumble, without either attention to the affinity
0f their principles, or their order of succession in practice.

()t the several works quoted, Price’s alone can justly claim
the title of a treatise on carpentry.

Langley is in general tolerably intelligent; he has treated on
all that has been done by his predecessors, and has attempted
many tlllngs of his own ; but his labours have not been suc-

‘ cesst’ul.
In the diagrams of Pain, we find some useful practical
2 n

 

 

 

hints ; but his errors are numerous, and his inventions few.
His text, also, is more unintelligible than that of any writer
who preceded him in this art.

The inventions and discoveries of the writers quoted, may
be reduced to the following: Sections of prisms at right
angles to one side or plane of the prism ; coverings of
prismatic and conic surfaces, in the most simple cases; and
the method of ascertaining the lengths and backings of hips.
To these principles, the Author of the ARCHITECTURAL
DICTIONARY has added those of the intersection of one plane
with another, the latter resting on three lines perpendicular
to the former; the geometrical construction of all cases in
spherical trigonometry, by solid angles; sections of a prism,
cone, or cuneoid, through any three given points; the section
of a prism making a given angle with a given parallelo-
grammatic section of such prism, and passing through any
given line 011 the said section ; the section of a cone passing
through any line on a given axal or vertical section, and
making a given angle with that section ; the section through
any three given points on the surface of a body, of such
property that all sections parallel to a certain plane will be
similar figures, having the seats and heights of the points
upon one of the similar planes, and another section of the
body in a given position to that plan, cutting all the said
similar sections ; the sections of various other bodies, whose
properties are defined ; the formation of the edge of a thin
pliable surface, which, when bent upon the surface of a prism,
may coincide in its edge with a section passing through any
three given points on the surface of the said prism; the
formation of the edge of a surface, to fit a conic section,
passing through any three given points on the surface of the
cone, while such surface and that of the cone coincide ; the
formation of the edge of a thin pliable surface to fit the sec-
tion of a body cut by any prismatic surface, while the pliable
surface coincides with that of the section made by the pris-
matic surface; the properties of the body being such, that
all sections parallel to a certain plane will be similar figures,
given a section of the body parallel to one of these sections,
and another cutting all the said similar sections in a given
position, and the intersections of the given planes on each
other.

These subjects include the finding of the sections of cylin-
ders and cones, spheres and spheroids, and the coverings of
these bodies, under the circumstances already stated. To these,
the author has added the following inventions or discoveries,
viz., the method of extending the surface of a cylinder or

_cy1indroid, being the centre of an arched aperture in an

oblique wall, terminated by the faces of the said wall; and
the covering of the surface of a part of a semi-cone, being
the centre of an aperture, with its axis oblique to the surface
of the wall which terminates such covering. In ascending
groins, he has likewise shown the centering for brickwork,
and ribbing for plastering; the construction of polygonal and
annular groins, both level and ascending in a spiral, whether
for centering or ribbing; cylindro-cylindric arches, or what
are commonly, but improperly, denominated Welsh arches;
spherical niches, both for straight and circular walls, under
any circumstances: the true methods of constructing penden-
tive or spandral ceilings, either spherical or spheroidal; the
bevels of purlins in all positions to the common rafters; the
formation of boards for covering spherical domes, without
laying down either plan or section of the dome, entirely
within the boards themselves; the forming of the lower
boards, without centres, in the covering of a dome, with the
joints in horizontal planes ; the formation of boards to cover
a spheroidal dome, with the joints of the boards in vertical
planes; the covering of an elliptic dome with one mould

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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only; the covering of a spheroidal dome with boards having
their. joints in parallel vertical planes; the construction of
a dome with horizontal ribs, without taking the trouble to
square them by horizontal and vertical faces; the method of
cutting purlins and jack-rafters to fit the hips, without laying
the roof in ledgment; principles for the equilibrium of poly-
gonal roofs without ties, so that the rafters may obtain a given
ratio among themselves, provided the abutments be sufficient;
a principle for preventing rafters without intermediate ties,
from having any lateral pressure ;——these two latter inven-
tions have been several years before the public, in the archi-
tectural plates of Rees’s Cyclopedia. To these might be
added various other principles of less importance, which it is
not necessary to recapitulate in this place. In most of the
subjects above alluded to, he has given more than one method
of operation, and in some instances he has multiplied his
examples to five or six different modes of practice. One or
two of the inventions in the foregoing list, he acknowledges,
are only his own by their new application, the principles
being known prior to his time; but he has adapted them to
subjects to which they were never before applied; and he
conceives that it requires at least as much ingenuity, and is
frequently attended with more utility, to be able to apply an
old or well-known principle to an useful object, as to discover
a principle destitute of practical application: he has, therefore,
not scrupled to include them in the list of his discoveries.
Nor has he, while thus claiming credit for himself, denied it
to others; as may be seen in his remarks on Pain’s lining of
a cylindric sotiit in a circular wall, the principle of which was
previously laid down by Price, in his centerings of groins.
The inventions which the author has thus appropriated to
himself, are the following: the application of the principle
of covering the surface of the frustum of a cone to a spheroidal
dome, with the joints in vertical planes ; the application of the
principle of covering an oblong spheroidal dome by one mould
only; and the application of the principle shown by Price,
in his centering of groins, to a cylindric soflit for an aper-
ture in a straight wall, with its axis oblique to the surface
of such wall; which latter was likewise attempted by Pain,
but without success.

The author has not been able fully to satisfy himself as to
the extension of the surface for the head of an aperture,
splaying in the sides and level on the crown, so that the aper-
ture shall form a semi-circle on one side of the wall, and a
semi-ellipsis on the other; or a semi-ellipsis on each side, but
of different horizontal dimensions, though of the same height.
He is, however, convinced, that though the form be not geome-
trically true, it is much more correct than anything attempted
by Langley or Pain; and on it, he has accordingly founded
the principle by which alone the nature of the Solid itself
can be understood. And though unsuccessful in his attempts
to extend the surface exactly, he has had the satisfaction of
laying down such lines as will apply to the surface of the
solid with far greater accuracy and dispatch, than could be
obtained by the mechanical operation of plumbing the lines
from the plan; by applying the distances on the plan upon
their respective level lines on the surface of the solid, all
drawn from one vertictl line resting on the point where the
two sides of the splay come in contact. By this means the
line of every wall may be found correctly on the surface,
whether the wall be straight or curved, or whether the axis
of the solid stand oblique or at right angles to its sur-
face; which cannot be done by any other method hitherto
attempted.

In conclusion, it may be observed, that writers on carpen-
try have frequently been unsuccessful, for want- of grounding
their schemes upon the simple principles of the bodies they

106

 

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wished to construct; by losing sight of which, they have
fallen into puerile operations, and drawn erroneous infer- ‘
ences.

In the course of this work, we shall treat of the several
branches of the building art, and each article of those
branches, in a manner similar to this on Carpentry; and all
inventions, as well useful as otherwise, with every unsuccess- ,
ful attempt at geometrical construction, will be noticed under 1
their respective heads.

It is now only necessary to observe, briefly, that as the
arrangement and classification of the subjects, as well as the
mode of conceiving and presenting them in the diagrams, are
altogether different from those adopted by the writers who
have preceded us in this department, so it is believed, that
this method will display the art of carpentry in a novel point
of view, and reduce it to that pure scientific form it has never
hitherto acquired. But notwithstanding all that has been
done, and the great advances made in the art since the pub-
lication of the various works we have been examining, it is
evident that the subject is not exhausted,‘but is still suscep-
tible of many improvements. Such improvements will
doubtless be effected, in time, by the labours of abler
men who will carry to perfection the science and prac-
tice of an art so important and so interesting as that of
Carpentry.

CARPION, a Grecian architect, who wrote a treatise on
the Temple of Minerva, in the citadel of Athens.

CARRIAGE or A WOODEN STAIR, the frame of timber-
work which supports the steps.

The carriage of a flight of steps, supported on one side by p
a wall, generally consists of two pieces of timber, inclined to
the pitch of the stair. These pieces are called rough-strings, =
or carnages. ‘

When a geometrical stair consists of two alternate flights,
with a half pace between, the carriage of the half pace con~
sists of a beam parallel to the risers of the steps, and several
joists framed into the beam, for the support of the boardina.
The beam which sustains the joists, is called the apron-piece, 1
and that which sustains the rough strings at the upper end, ‘;
is called a pitching-piece. The joists of the half pace are ;
sometimes tenoned into the pitching-piece, and sometimes ‘
bridge over it; but the steps of both flights are supported by
string-pieces, as before. The upper ends of the string-pieces
at the landing, rest upon an horizontal piece of timber, deno-
minated an apron-piece. i

If the steps wind round a circular newel, the carriage of I
the circular part consists of uprights and bearers, the latter ‘
of which are wedged into the wall ; though it will answer the
purpose as well, to frame them into a string placed against
the wall. The uprights and bearers are either framed with
mortises and tenons, or are dovetailed together.

\Vhen the staircase is of the dog-leg kind, with winders and
a close newcl, the carriage is formed of bearers let into the
wall, and fixed to the newel post. For more information, see
S'i‘Atu-CAslNG and HAND-RAILING.

CAR'l‘ELLI. See CARTOL‘CIIES. 1

CARTON, or CARTOON (a French term, signifying thick _
paper, or pastcboard ), in painting, a design on strong paper,
to be afterwards chalked through, and transferred on a newly- ‘
plastered wall, which is to be painted in fresco. The word
is also used for a coloured design, that is to be wrought into
mosaic or tapestry.

CAR'l‘OL‘CllES, or CARTOOZES (French, from the Italian |
Cartoccz'o ), a kind of blocks or modillions, used in the cornices
of waiuscoted apartments; diti'ering from modillions in being .
confined to the interior, whereas modillions are applied both ;
externally and internally. :

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CARTOUCHES, are ornaments representing a scroll of paper,
usually in the form of a tablet, with wavings, whereon is
some inscription or device.

They are sometimes drawn on paper, as in the titles of
maps, &c., and are sometimes made of stone, brick, plaster,
wood, &c., for buildings.

Norden uses this term to signify the winged globe, usually
placed over the middle aperture of Egyptian buildings.

CARVED WORK, all those mouldings, planes, or other
surfaces which are cut into ornaments, representing, in
relief or in recession, foliages, animals, utensils, historical
events, 8m.

Mouldings are generally carved with leaves, honeysuckles,
lions’ heads, beadsfegg and tongue, egg and dart, guilloches,
reeds, flutes, 8w. Tori are carved with guilloches, reeds, and
flutes. Astragals are carved with beads, of various forms,
strung together.

Ovolos, with egg and tongue, and at the corners with honey-
sucklcs, as in Grecian architecture; or with egg and dart, and
sometimes with leaves, as in Roman architecture.

Sima-rectas, with honeysuckles, of various forms, con-
nected with scrolls and lions’ heads at certain intervals, as in
Grecian architecture; or with leaves of various kinds, as
in Roman architecture. Sima-inversas, with leaves, stalks,
&c., enclosed in borders.

Facias and large surfaces, with foliage interwoven or wind-
ing, or with historical subjects from the heathen mythology,
and sometimes with flutes, fillets, 8:0.

But of all carved work, none is so beautiful as that left us
by the Gothic architects. Of the styles comprised, under
this denomination, carving is one principal feature, and it is
surprising to what perfection the art arrived; during this
period of the dark ages, as they are called, it advanced gra-
dually, and passed through many stages ere it arrived at its
full maturity, from the simple and somewhat barbaric mould-
ings of the Normans, to the luxuriant foliage of the Deco-
rated, or the elaborate richness of the Florid styles; and yet
even the carving of the earlier periods is by no means to be
despised; the specimens belonging to the Early English
style, although somewhat stiff and harsh, possessed a sim-
plicity and chasteness which was never afterwards surpassed.
The Decorated style lays claim to the highest rank in carved
enrichment, it approaches nearest to nature; indeed, it is
almost nature herself, only changed in substance; everything
connected with this period is full of grace and elegance. In
the next, or Perpendicular style, the flowing lines of the pre-
ceding period were deserted for the straight; or if curved lines
were introduced, they were of a character purely geometrical;
the method adopted was rather artificial than natural, and we
see but few examples of foliage, such as is found in the pre-
vious styles; there was, however, an elaborateness and
exuberance at this period never before attempted; in some
instances, to such an extent was carved enrichment employed,
that scarcely any portion of the plane surface was discernible.
This is very conspicuous in the fan-work, as it is termed,
which was introduced into the vaulted roofs; we would espe-
cially cite, as an example, the roof of Henry the Seventh’s
Chapel, Westminster, than which, we suppose, there exists
not a more elaborate specimen of carving, at least in a work
of each magnitude. The light and beautiful pendents of this
chapel afford a magnificent specimen of the most enriched
and delicate sculpture. Other examples of the same kind,
are St. George’s Chapel, Windsor, and the Chapel of King's
College, Cambridge. Equally beautiful specimens of carving,
sometimes even of a more minute description, may be seen
in works of a smaller kind, such as fonts, altar-screens, &c.,
more especially in the latter, in some of which the elabo-

 

’surface.

 

ration is carried to so great an extent, that nothing less
than a close and diligent inspection will suffice to unfold its
beauties.

CARVEL-BUILT, in ship-building, when the edges
of the planks join each other, the vessel is said to be cared-
built. This term is used in contradistinction to clinker-built,
which is when the edges of the planks are lapped upon each
other.

CARVER, an artist employed in the carving of wood.

CARVING, in general, is the art of cutting a body by
recession, in order to form upon it various fanciful represen-
tations, as foliages, flowers, fruit, animals, landscapes, or his-
torical events, either in relief, or recessed within a general
In this sense, carving comprehends both statuary
and engraving, the latter either upon wood, stone, metal, or
any other material.

In a more particular sense, carving is the art of cutting
wood, as in the above definition. See CARVED WORK.

CARYATIC, whatever relates to the ancient country of
the Carians.

CARYATIC ORDER, an order of architecture, whose entabla-
ture is supported by female figures instead of columns: the
figures themselves are called Caryatidce, Caryates, or Cam'ans.

The Caryatic order differs from the Persian in having the
entablature supported by females, whereas in the latter it is
supported by males. See PERSIAN ORDER.

The history of these orders, as related by Vitruvius, is as
follows:

“ Caria, a city of Peloponnesus, having joined with the
Persians against the Grecian states, and the Greeks having
put an end to the war by a glorious victory, with one consent
declared war against the Caryatides. They took the city,
destroyed it, slew the men, and led the matrons into capti-
vity, not permitting them to wear the habits and ornaments
of their sex: they were not only led in triumph, but were
loaded with scorn, and kept in continual servitude, thus suffer—
ing for the crimes of their city. The architects, therefore, of
those days, introduced their efligies sustaining weights, in the
public buildings, that the remembrance of the crime of
the Caryatides might be transmitted to posterity. The
Lacedaemonians, likewise, under the command of Pausanias,
the son of Cleombrotus, having, at the battle of Platea, with
a small number, vanquished a numerous army of Persians,
solemnized the triumph, by erecting, with the spoils and
plunder, the Persian portico, as a trophy, by which to trans-
mit to posterity the remembrance of the valour and honour
of the citizens; introducing therein the statues of the cap-
tives, adorned with habits in the barbarian manner, support-
ing the roof.”

Whether this account is correct, in any respect, seems
doubtful; it is certainly incorrect as far as it relates to the
origin of the order, but whether its distinguishing appellation
is rightly attributed to the above circumstances, remains
a matter for consideration; we think the evidence is decidedly
against Vitruvius. In the.first place, be it remembered, there
is no allusion made to such circumstances by the Greek his-
torians; and in an inscription brought from Athens by Dr.
Chandler, containing a description of the temple of Pandrosus,
the figures are called Kopat, or damsels, and are thence natu-
rally supposed to represent the maidens engaged in the
celebration of the Panathenaic festival. Mr. Gwilt, who was
the first to remark upon the incorrectness of the account of
Vitruvius, is of opinion, that the figures were named after
the goddess Diana, to whom the title Caryatis was given by
the Lacedasmonians, from the circumstance of her having
made known to them the story of Carya, daughter of Dion,
king of Laconia, who was turned into a nut-tree by Bacchus.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CAR

108

 

With respect to the epithet, Caryatis, we are inclined to
think rather that the goddess obtained this surname from
being worshipped especially at Carya, near Sparta, where she
had a temple, and where also the Lacedaemonian virgins cele-
brated an annual festival in honour of her; but as regards
the main point in question, we think there can be little doubt
but that, as is evidenced by an old commentator on Statius,
the term Caryatides was applied to the virgins employed
in the service of Diana, and that female figures were first
employed in the architecture of the Greek temples as repre—
sentations of the virgins engaged about the service of the
deity to whom the temples were dedicated.

That the figures of men and animals were used for the
purpose of supports in the place of columns, long before they
were so employed by the Greeks, is well known. That
they were not uncommon in Egypt, we learn from Diodorus
Siculus, who informs us, that the roof of the hall in the
sepulchre of King Osymandyas, was supported by animals
instead of pillars, each composed of a single stone, and
twenty—four feet in height. Psammeticus also employed
colossal statues twelve cubits in height in the propylaaum
which he erected on the east side of the temple at Memphis.

In Denon’s Travels in Egypt, we find, among other frag-
ments, representations of five insulated pilasters or pillars,
bearing an entablature; the fronts of which are decorated
with priests or divinities.

We find several instances of a similar application of men
and animals, in one case of elephants, in the temples of
India, as in the temple of Elephanta, that near Vellore,
and several others.

The molten sea, spoken of in Holy \Vrit, was supported
by twelve bulls; and in the Odyssey of Homer, book vii.
verse 118, we find the effigies of animals, both rational and
irrational, employed as decorations. We do not learn, how-
ever, that these latter representations were employed as
columns to support an entablature; and there is reason to
believe that they were nothing more than ornamental sculp-
tures. In Stewart’s Antiquities of Athens, we find a most
beautiful specimen of Caryatic figures supporting an entabla-
ture, consisting of an architrave cornice of a very elegant
profile.

The examples to be found amongst the Greeks are those
in the temple, of Pandrosus, and five specimens out of six
previously existing, supporting an entablature adjacent to
the temple of Erectheus. In this case there is no frieze,
but the entablature is carried to an extraordinary height.

Various fragments of male figures are also met with among
the Roman antiquities, which, from their attitudes and orna-
ments, appear to have supported the entablatures of buildings.

Besides Caryatides and Persians, it is sometimes customary
to support the entablatures with figures, of which the upper
part represents the. head and breast of the human body, and
the lower part an inverted frustum of a square pyramid, with
the feet sometimes projecting out below, as if the body had
been partly cased : figures of this form are called Termini;
and had their origin in stones used by the. ancients for mark-
ing out the limits of property belonging to individuals. Nutna
l’onipilius, in order to render these boundaries sacred, con-
verted the Terminus into a deity, and built a temple, dedicated
to him. on the 'I‘arpeian Mount, wherein he was represented
by a stone, which in the course of time was sculptured into
the form of a human head and shoulders, with the lower
parts as we have just described. On particular occasions,
this idol was adorned with garlands.

Persian figures are generally charged with a Doric enta-
blature ; the Caryatides, with an Ionic or Corinthian archi-
trave cornice; and the Termini, with an entablature of any

 

of the three Grecian orders, according as they were them-
selves decorated. ,

Male figures may be introduced with propriety, in arsenals, i
or galleries of armour, in guard-rooms, and other places
devoted to military affairs; they may either represent the
figures of captives, or of martial virtues; such as Strength,
Valour, Wisdom, Prudence, Fortitude, 8w. 1

As these figures should be of a striking character, they
may be of any colossal size that will agree with the archi—
tecture of other parts of the building.

In composing Caryatides, the most graceful attitudes and
pleasant features should be chosen; and, to prevent an
appearance of stiffness, the drapery and features should be
varied in the different figures of the range; at the same
time, a general uniformity of shape should be preserved
throughout. They should always be of a moderate size, or
they will appear monstrous, and destroy those sensations,
which representations of the fair sex ought to inspire.

Le Clerc says they may be advantageously employed for
sustaining the canopy of a throne; in which case, they
should be represented under the figures and symbols of heroic
virtues. In banqueting-rooms, ball-rooms, or other apart-
ments of recreation, they must hear such characteristics as
are calculated to inspire mirth, and promote festivity.

As Termini are susceptible of a variety of decorations,
they may be employed as embellishments for gardens and
fields; where they may represent Jupiter, the protector of
boundaries; or some of the rural deities, as Pan, Flora,
Pomona, Vertumnus, Ceres, Priapus, Faunns, Sylvanus,
Nymphs, and'Satyrs. They are also much employed in
chimney-pieces and other interior compositions.

CASE (from the French, caisse), an outside covering.
envelope, box, or sheath ; applied generally to such coverings
as completely surround the object enclosed. In building, it
means the shell or carcase of a house.

CASE-BAYS, in naked flooring, the joists framed between
a pair of girders. Flooring-joists framed with one of their
ends let into a girder, and their other ends inserted in the
wall, are called tail-bays. The case-bays of floors and roofs
should not exceed ten feet.

CASE OF A DOOR, a wooden frame, in which the door is
hung; door-cases are either constructed of architraves and
linings, or wrought framed, rebated, and beaded; in the latter
case. they are called door—frames.

CASE OF A STAIR, a name given to a wall by which
a staircase is surroundetil.

CASED, a term in masonry, indicating that the outside
of a building is covered or faced with materials of better
quality than those of the backing or inside of the walls.
Thus brick walls are frequently cased with stone, or with
the best kind of bricks. See “CALL.

Castcn Sasu-Fnamzs, have their vertical sides hollow, to
conceal the weights for hanging the sashes. See SASiI—FHAME.

CASEMATE, a cove, or hollow cylindrical moulding,
the section of which is from one-sixth to one-fourth part of
a circle.

CASEMENTS, sashes or glass frames. opening on hinges,
and revolving upon one of their vertical edges. “'hen
a casement fills the whole aperture, it is called a single case-
ment,- and when two are used, they are called double case-
menis,fiildiny easements, or French sashes.

Casements are more liable to admit rain, wind, or snow,
in stormy weather, than vertical sliding sashes, particularly
at the bottom. when they open from the inside.

CASING or 'l‘nuncu-lVonK, is when the outside of a
timber building is plastered all over with mortar; after which
it is made to resemble stonework, by striking it, while wet,

CAS l
|
l
‘l

 

 

 

 

 

CAS

with the edge of a trowel, or other implement, guided by a
rule. This operation is best performed on heart laths, because
the mortar is apt to cause a rapid decay in sap laths. The
coating is commonly laid in two thicknesses, the second being
applied before the first is dry.

CAST (from the Danish, kaster, to throw), in plastering,
a piece of insulated plaster, originally formed in a cavity,
the bottom of which is the reverse of the face of the cast.

The operation is thus performed : a small quantity of
plaster of Paris is mixed with water in a bason, or pan, and
stirred up with a spatula, till thoroughly incorporated; more
plaster is then added by degrees, till the mixture assumes

 

 

 

a moderate consistency, such as to flow on all sides when
poured on a horizbntal surface; the mould being slightly
oiled or greased, to prevent adhesion, the liquid plaster is
poured in, so as to fill the mould, or something more. When
stiffened in a small degree, the superfluous parts are scraped
off to the middle, or in several parts at the edges ; when it
begins to heat, which happens in a few minutes, it will be
sufficiently hard: then, if the mould be made of wax, it may
be removed by bending it away from the cast, gently at the
edges, quite round, using the parts left on the surface as
handles; and proceeding gradually towards the centre, till
the cast is quite relieved; but if the material of the mould
be brimstone, a slight knock on the back will relieve it. As
this operation can only be performed in the direction of a
straight line, no part of the cast near the bottom of the mould
must project from this line to a greater distance than any
part more remote, otherwise it cannot be drawn out without
breaking such projections. If more relief is required, than
what can be given by the mould, the cast must be undercut
with a knife.

If the impression can be relieved of the mould, the cast
may be of one piece ; otherwise it must be made in several
segments, and in such manner as may best conceal thejoinings.

Plaster casts are sometimes used for mouldings, instead
of working them by hand, in situations where .they cannot
be conveniently run with a mould.

An exact representation of an original piece of sculpture,
or even of a living animal, may be taken, whether generally
concave or convex, by using the original as a mould; on
which, having first oiled or greased the parts in a slight
degree, pour the plaster, as just directed; and this impression
is in its turn to be used as a mould, and will give a fac-simile
of the original.

Pliny mentions the casting of faces from nature, as being
early in practice among the Greeks.

This useful art supplies the painter and sculptor with
exact representations from nature, whether of men, brute
animals, draperies, or plants; it multiplies models of all
kinds, and is now brought to such perfection, that casts of
antique statues are made perfectly similar to their prototypes,
except only with respect to colour and materials.

The introduction of plaster in architectural decorations,
dates from the prevalence of the style called by us the
Elizabethan, but its influence is more conspicuous during
the succeeding or Italian style. It was first employed in
Cill‘Ved and paneled wainscoting, and in the enrichment of
the highly-decorated ceilings, which were a prominent feature
in buildings of the period. At the first onset, however, the
plaster was not cast, but each individual ornament moulded
by hand, fixed in the situation which it was intended after-
wards to occupy; it was indeed merely the substitution of
plaster for wood, and the only advantage consisted in the
facility with which the former could be carved, whereas
the execution of the latter was diflicult. This advantage
was further extended at the commencement of the eighteenth

2 r

 

109

 

 

 

GAS

century, by casting the plaster ornaments in moulds previously
prepared for the purpose, so that from a single mould might
be produced a number of casts, thus reducing the expense
considerably. Soon afterwards, another material was employed
in similar decorations; this was the pulp of paper, which was
very generally used, though not so extensively as plaster;
through the poverty of the designs in this material, as well
as the imperfection in the machinery of those days, it fell
into disuse, and was at last entirely superseded by plaster.
The latter material, however, could not produce the desired
ultimatum, it answered very well so long as the Greek style
of ornamentation prevailed; but when this was superseded
by the French, Flemish, and Elizabethan, its defects were
seriously felt: it was by no means calculated to express the
fantastic forms of the latter, or the luxuriant richness of
the former styles, especially when, as was frequently the
case, the design was marked by bold projection and deep
undercutting. This difficulty led to a new trial of the
carton pierre, or papier maché as it is now called, which, by
the aid of improved machinery, and a greater knowledge
of chemical and general science, has been advanced to a high
state of excellence, and is in every respect superior to plaster
casts previously employed. One invaluable advantage it
possesses, is, that it preserves the indents and undercutting
of the original or mould, however much recessed; in fact, it
can readily be made to assume any form, however intricate.
Add to this its hardness and durability, its adaptation to
external ornaments, for it is known to have remained unin-
jured for many years, though exposed to the vicissitudes of
the weather; its indestructibility by vermin, its lightness,
and its sharpness, and truth of outline, and its superiority
to plaster, will not be for a moment questioned. In many
of the above particulars, it is superior even to wood, to which
it is in some respects similar, for it may be cut with a saw
or chisel, bent by heat or steam, and even planed and smoothed
with sand-paper. Further, its lightness will allow it to be
fixed in any situation, without fear of displacement, and it
requires but nails or screws, and even in some cases only
needle—points, to secure it firmly in its position. It holds
pre-eminence over plaster, inasmuch as it will receive
colour very readily, and gilding much more so than the
generality of materials to which such enrichment is applied.

Another article which has of late been introduced as a
substitute for the above materials, is embossed leather, which
in some instances is superior to either of them. It can be
made to assume any degree of relief short of the complete
round, and it preserves all the sharpness and fineness of out-
line possessed by the mould from which it is cast. The
moulds in this process are of metal, into which the leather
previously prepared by steaming, is forced by a combination
of hydraulic and pneumatic pressure, by which extraordinary
power the finest lines on the mould are repeated with the
greatest accuracy in the copy. It might be supposed from
the nature of the material, that this delicacy of outline would
be deteriorated by time, or that the cast might be altogether
destroyed by damp; but there is really no ground for appre-
hensions of this nature, as the casts are found under all
circumstances to preserve, undiminished in the minutest
details, the form transferred to them from the original mould,
and to be improved and hardened rather than injured by age.
This material has an advantage in the facility with which it
can be made to imitate old carved work; indeed, when intro-
duced in the restoration of such works, it is difficult to
distinguish the original from the imitation ; it ma be
coloured or gilded as desired. It is applicable to all kinds
of interior decorations, such as cornices, friezes, 81c. and has
been employed even in the entire paneling of rooms.

 

 

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CAS

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Another material which, until very recently, was entirely
unknown to us, but which, since its first introduction, has
come into extensive use, threatens to prove a formidable
rival to the above-mentioned articles—we allude to Gutta
Percha. This substance has not been tested sufficiently to
allow us to speak decidedly as to its applicability to the pur-
poses we are considering; it is moulded into cornices, panels,
and other forms of architectural decoration, and is on many
accounts eligible for such uses; it can be moulded, cast,
stamped, or embossed, into any form however elaborate, and
is susceptible of colour; it has, however, disadvantages which
for the present must preclude its employment ; for, although
it promises considerable hardness, it is readily injured by
contact with any sharp body; besides this, it is liable to
soften and liquify when exposed to an elevated temperature.
This last defect has been modified by a process to which the
material is subjected in its manufacture, which is termed
metallo-thionising, but still it has not been entirely removed.
The properties of this production, however, have not yet
been sufficiently developed to decide upon its capabilities;
many improvements will doubtless be introduced into its
manufacture, as its nature becomes more fully understood.

CAST, among plumbers, a little brazen funnel at one end
Of a mould, for casting pipes without soldering, through
which the melted metal is poured into the mould.

CAST, Rough. See ROUGH CAST.

CASTELLA, or CASTLES, in British antiquity, one of the
three kinds of fortifications built along the line of the wall
of Severus, the other two sorts being denominated stations and
towers. The Castella were neither so large nor strong as the
stations, but much more numerous, there being in this wall no
fewer than 81. The figure of the castellum was cubical, 66
feet in each dimension, fortified on every side by thick and
lofty walls, but without any ditch, except on the north side,
where also the wall was raised much above its general
height, and with the adjoining ditch formed the fortification.
The castella were placed in the intervals between the stations,
generally at the distance of about seven furlongs from each
other, and guards were constantly kept in them, consisting of
a certain number of men, detached from the nearest stations.
See CASTLE.

CASTELLA, in Roman antiquity, also denoted the reservoirs,
in which the waters from the aqueducts were collected, whence
the city was supplied by leaden pipes.

CASTELLATED HOUSES, those mansions which suc-
ceeded the castles and fortified residences of the feudal
barons; they still preserved the appearance of strength,
although in reality incapable of defence against a regular
force. These buildings were provided with battlements and
turrets, rather for ornament, however, than for practical
purposes.

The windows are generally closed horizontally with labels
over them; the apertures are sometimes divided by mullions,
consisting of one or more munnions in the breadth, and one
or two transoms in the height, by which the great opening is

1 divided into several smaller apertures, sometimes arched under

the lintels, and sometimes also under the transoms. One of
the most remarkable of these edifices is Haddon-Hall, Derby-
shire.

CASTING, the act of taking the impression of any sur-
face, whether plain or sculptured, by pourng a liquid matter
on that surface. See CAST.

CASTING, in joinery and carpentry, is said Of a piece of
timber, when its sides are bent or twisted frotn their original
surfaces, by the fibres being unequally heated, dried, or
moistened; or by being naturally disposed in diti‘ei'ent direc—
tions; or the twist may, perhaps, arise from ditferent degrees

 

of hardness in the body, occasioned by knots, 8w. This effect
is otherwise called warping.

CASTING or BRICK on STONE WALLS. See ROUGH CAST.

CASTING OF BRONZES, is thus performed: The figure to be
cast from must have a mould made on it, consisting of a mix-
ture of plaster-of-paris and brick-dust, in the proportion of
not more than one-third of the former, to two-thirds of the
latter. The thickness of this mould must be according to its
length and breadth, in order to be sufficiently strong. Little
channels, tending upwards, should be cut in various parts of the
joints, to give vent to the air forced out by the metal as it runs
into the mould. After the mould is made, a thin layer of clay
is spread smoothly and uniformly over its inner surface, of the
intended thickness of the bronze; the mould is then closed,
and its cavity filled with a composition of two-thirds brick-
dust and one-third plaster, mixed with water, to form the core;
previous to which, should the work be of any magnitude, it
will be necessary to insert strongr iron bars within the mould,
to secure it from accidents, and to facilitate the removal of
the core. The mould being then opened, and the clay
removed, is with the core thoroughly dried; to effect which
more perfectly, they are exposed to the action of a charcoal
fire or lighted straw ; great attention is required to this part
of the process, for should the least moisture be suffered to
remain, the mould will burst, and the cast be blown to pieces,
to the great danger of the lives or limbs of the workmen.
\Vhen the mould is finally closed, the cord must be supported
in its place by short bars of bronze, running from the mould
into the core. The whole then is bound round with iron
bars, proportioned in strength to the weight of the cast, and
laid in a proper situation for receiving the metal, supported
by dry materials, as sand-stones, 8m. to prevent accidents.
In placing the mould, due care must be taken to connect its
mouth with the reservoirs, by means of a channel on an
inclined plane, that the liquid metal may run freely. The
form of the furnace, and mode of running, are similar to those
practised in' bell-founding.

CASTING 0F LEAD. See PLUMBING.

 

CASTLE (from the Latin, castellum, a diminutive of ‘

castrum), in ancient writers, a town or village surrounded
with a ditch, and wall furnished with towers at intervals, and
guarded by a body of troops.

Castellum originally seems to have signified a smaller fort,
for a little garison. Though Suetonius uses the word where
the fortification was large enough to contain a cohort.

According to Vegetius, the castella were often, like towns,
built on the borders of the empire, where there were con-
stant guards, and fences against the enemy.

IIorsley takes them for much the same with what were
otherwise denominated stations. See CASTELLA.

CASTLE, in a modern sense, is a place fortified either by
nature or by art, in a city or country, to keep the people in
their duty, or to resist an enemy. In the more extensive
interpretation of the word, it includes the various methods of
encampment, but in its stricter meaning, it is usually applied
to buildings walled with stone, and intended for residence as
well as for defence. Few branches of historical research have
been so little attended to, as that which relates to military archi-
tecture. Castles, indeed, such as we now see them, were of
late introduction to the world. ll’hether we may rank them
with the accommodations of life brought by the crusaders
from the East, Is doubtful: but thus much seems tolerably
certain, that it was in France, England, Germany, Switzer-
land, and Savoy, that the system of castellation first prevailed.
In Italy, till the Normans got possession of Naples and Sicily,
castles were comparatively tew. “'e may at least date
their general adoption in Europe with the feudal system

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

LI "I "_ 7 '7.

CAS

The early British fortifications seem to have been little more
than mere entrenchments of earth. Caesar, however, penetrated
not far enough to know the true nature of the British for-
tresses; and in his work, De Bella Gallico (lib. v. section 17),
has given only the description of a lowland camp. In all
parts of England, there is a vast number of strong entrench-
ments of a very peculiar kind, situated chiefly on the tops of
natural hills, and which can be attributed to none of the dif-
ferent people who have ever dwelt in the adjacent country,
but the ancient Britons. That they may have been used at
different times, and occupied upon emergencies, by the sub-
sequent inhabitants of the island, is no more than probable;
but there are many, and undoubted reasons, for deeming
them the strong posts and fastnesses of the aboriginal settlers,
where they lodged their wives, formed their garrisons, and
made their stand. That the Britons were accustomed to
fortify such places, we have the authority of Tacitus, who,
describing the strongholds formed and resorted to by Carac-
tacus, says, “ Tunc montihus arduz's, et sz' qua clementer
accedi poterant, in modum valli saxa prcestruit.”—Annal.
lib. xii. sect. 33. One of these entrenchments still makes a
formidable appearance on a mountain hanging over the vale
of Nannerch, in Flintshire, called Moel-Arthur. But their
situation being so high that they could have no supply of
water except from the clouds, they were often liable to be
untenable for a considerable time together.

One of the most important of these fastnesses in our own
country, is the Herefordshire Beacon, situated on a spot that
could not but be an object of the utmost attention to the
original inhabitants of those territories, which afterwards
were deemed distinctly England and Wales, from the very
division here formed. It is on the summit of one of the
highest of the Malvern hills, and is known by the name just
mentioned. It has been by turns attributed to the Romans,
the Saxons, and the Danes, but its construction as a strong-
hold shows it was designed as a security for the whole
adjacent country on any emergency, Another of these for-
tresses is at Bruff, in Statfordshire, which has been described
by Mr. Pennant, in his Journey from Chester, p. 47, and
exactly answers the account of Tacitus. It is placed on the
summit of a hill, surrounded by two deep ditches, and has a
rampart formed of stone. Other instances are adduced by
Mr. Pennant, in his Tour in Wales, and by Mr. King, in the
first volume of the Illunimenta Antigua: but a stronger
instance than all, perhaps, is given by Mr. Gough, in the
Additions to Camden, vol. ii. p. 404, where he shows that the
true Caer Caradoc, the very fortress alluded to in the sen-
tence we have quoted, which, if not the royal seat of Carac-
taeus, seems to have been at least his stronghold, was in
Shropshire, two miles south of Clun, and three from Coxal,
being a large camp, three times as long as it is broad, on the
point of a hill, accessible only one way, and defended on the
north side by very deep double ditches, in the solid rock;
whilst on the east, the steepness of the ground renders it
impregnable. On the south it has only one ditch, for the
same reason: and the principal entrance is on the west side,
fenced with double works; whilst to the south-west it is
even fenced with triple works. The most extraordinary,
however, of all these kinds of fortresses, is situated in Caer-
narvonshire, called Tre’r Caerz', or The Town of Fortresses.
The plan and elevation of this ancient stronghold and abode
is given by Mr. Pennant, in his Tour in Wales, vol. ii. p.
206. On the accessible side it was defended by three rude
Walls of stone; the upper ones being lofty, about fifteen feet
high, and sixteen broad; exhibiting a grand and extensive
front. The space on the top is an irregular area; but the
whole is filled with cells, some round, and some oval, and

111

 

. the legion.

C A S
some also oblong or square. Several of the round ones were
fifteen feet in diameter; which brings to mind the houses of
the ancient Gauls, described by Strabo; and of those that were
oblong, there was at least one even thirty feet in length. Of
the same kind of fortresses were Penmaen Mawr, in Caernar-
vonshire, Warton Cragg, in Lancashire, Old Oswestry, in
Shropshire; the irregular encampment of Maiden Castle, near
Dorchester; and probably Old Sarum, whose character was
new-modelled by the Romans. Mr. King, in the Mum'menta
Antigua, vol. i. p. 63, considers the dens in the mountains and
the thickets, of Scripture, as strongholds or hill-fortresses
of the kind described. When Samson had made a great
slaughter of the Philistines, we are told he went and dwelt
in the top of the rock Elam; where we find, afterwards,
three thousand men of Judah went up to confer with him.
That hill-fortresses were used in the earliest ages, there can
be little doubt. The Israelites, when their land was invaded
by Jabin, the king of Canaan, in consequence of an exhorta-
tion from Deborah the prophetess, assembled to make their
stand upon mount Tabor. Among the Indians of South
America, strongholds, of a similar nature to those of
Britain, have been frequently discovered. Ulloa’s Voyage to
South America, vol. i. p. 503-504. And a very curious
instance of the attack and surrender of one in Sogdiana, in
Asia, in the time of Alexander the Great, is related by
Quintus Curtius, lib. vii. chap. xi. The anecdote is worth
the reference of the reader.

The British mode of warfare appears to have received but
little alteration from the introduction of Roman tactics. Till
finally subdued, their princes showed abilities both in the
command of armies and in the conduct of war; they chose
their ground judiciously; formed able plans of active opera-
tions; and availed themselves of all the advantages of local
knowledge: but to the fortresses described, if we may rely
on the testimonies of our ancient writers, they did not very
frequently retire. Their deficiencies both in the attack, the
construction, and the defence of such places, must have been
very obvious even to themselves; and as they delighted to
live, so they usually chose to fight, in open plains. Their
impatient courage, and their aversion from labour, made
them unable to endure the delays and fatigues of defending or
besieging the castles of their time; and they often reproached
the Romans with cowardice, for raising such solid works
about their camps and stations. See Boadicea’s famous
speech to her army, in Xz'philin, ew Dione in Nerone.

Of the Roman military works in this country, they were
for the greater part temporary; many, however, were
stationary posts; and some few, to the retention of which the
greatest importance was attached, became walled castra.

Caesar, in the work already quoted, De Bell. Gall. lib. vii.
describes one of his camps as fortified very much in the man-

ner of a walled city. A few of the Roman stations in our .

own country assist in throwing light on the description; and,
in short, such as were so surrounded, appear to have been
the link of connection between the British earth-work and
the feudal castle.

Richborough, Portchester, and Pevensey, are the three
greatest fortresses the Romans have left us. Richborough,
the very earliest in order of time, is supposed to have been
begun in the year 43, in the reign of Claudius; but not to
have been completed till 205, under the direction of emperor
Severus. There are in this distinguished fortress, says Mr.
King, (Mum'menta Antigua, vol. ii. p. 8) still plainly to be
traced all the principal parts of one of the very greatest and
most perfect of the stationary camps. The upper division
for the general and chief officers, and the lower division for
In the former, the przetorium with its parade;

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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and the sacellum, or small temple, for depositing the ensigns.
In the walls too are the traces of the four great gates; the
decuman, the practorian, and the two posterns. The great
courses of stone, with which the wall is formed, are separated
from each other by alternate layers, composed entirely of a
double course of bricks each; as in the walls of Verulam,
Silchester, and other of our Roman towns.

The Roman remains at Portchester are not perhaps so
clearly to be traced; since, having been constantly used as a
fortress in succeeding ages, it has received vast and extremely
various additions: and presents us with specimens of military
architecture in almost every period, from the Normans to the
time of Queen Elizabeth.

Similar alterations to those first mentioned, have given so
strong a turn to the general character of Pevensey, that its
real tera has been sometimes doubted; though portions of the
Roman wall, as well as the decuman gate, may be easily and
accurately traced.

Here too it may not be irrelevant to observe, that the
castle at Colchester, in Essex, has been sometimes taken for
a Roman fortress. And this not only because it has many of
the same sort of tiles which are found in Roman walls, but
because they are laid in the same manner, with bands.
Though, if the building be examined with attention, there
may be traced, in almost every part, evident marks either
of the later Saxon or Norman workmanship: and though
many of the tiles which are used in it may have been gathered
from the remains of Roman buildings, the greater part
appears to have been made on purpose. See the Arc/twologia,
vol. iv. p. 33.

That in the Roman times, however, there must have been
many other such walled stations as those at Richborough,
Portchester, and Pevensey, there can be little doubt. The
Saxons, in the course of their long wars with the Britons,
may be fairly supposed to have destroyed many of the fortifi-
cations which had been thus erected: and after their final
settlement, they neglected to repair those which remained, or
to build many of their own. By these means the country
became open and defenceless; which greatly facilitated the
incursions of the Danes, who met with little obstruction from
fortified places. That there was, however, something like a
castle at Bamborough, in Northumberland, we have the con-
current testimony of historians, as Matthew of Westminster,
p. 193, sub ann. 547. Saxon Chronicle, p. 19. Roger
Hoved. p. 238, b. Bede, lib. iii. chap. vi. p. 12 : a castle at
Corfe, in Dorsetshire, is said to have existed in the days of
Edgar. Gongh’s Add. to Camden, vol. i. p. 49. King's III/mi-
menta Antigua, vol. iii. p. 209. Portchester castle, during
this period, probably retained its designation. And Mr.
King, Illanimenta Antigua, vol. iii. p. 211, has taken consi-
derable pains to prove that the fortress at Castleton, in Derby-
shire, is of as high antiquity.

Alfred the Great, however, seems to have been the first of
our princes with whom the building of castles became an
object of national policy. Though, if Asser’s authority may
be received, they were not exactly what the reader, at the
first mention of their name, might take them for; since they
were composed not only of stone, but of wood; Asser dc Rel).
gestis Alfi'edi, p. 17, 18. Elfleda, too, his daughter, gover—
ness of Mercia, who seems to have been the only person in
the kingdom who properly complied with the commands, and
imitated the example, of her illustrious father, and who in-
herited more of the wisdom and spirit of Alfred than any of
his children, not only followed his steps by fighting many
battles with the Danes, but built not less than eight castles
in the space of three y tars, to check their incursions. llen.
Hunt. 115”. p. 20;}. A still more remarkable instance of the

 

knowledge of castle-building at a short period subsequent to
this, may be found in W'illiam of Malmesbury, chap. vi. when
he mentions the rebuilding of Exeter by Athelstan, who died
in 941. “ Urbem igitur illam,” says the historian, “ quam con-
taminatce gentis repurgz'o dcfcecaverat, turribus munivit, mum
ex quadratic lapidz'bus cimcit.” And from the few remains of
the fortifications of this period, we find, that the walls pre-
cisely answer Malmesbury’s description. They were faced
with these four-square stones both within and without, and
the intermediate space between the facings, was filled up
with rubble or rough flint-stones, mixed together with a
strong and permanent cement. It is to this period too, that
the most judicious of our writers have referred the castle at
Colchester, which has been already mentioned. Its form is
four-square, flanked at the four corners with strong towers,
and it is about two hundred and twenty-four yards in circum-
ference on the outside, all projections and windings included;
the four sides nearly facing the four cardinal points. Some
have even gone so far as to call this venerable ruin British ;
others, as we have already said, have attributed it, with a
greater share of plausibility, to the Romans; but Camden
and our better writers ascribe it to Edward the Elder, who
repaired the walls and rebuilt the town, in the beginning of
the 10th century.

Still, however, the paucity of strong posts in the island
during every period of the Anglo-Saxon history, may be
constantly observed. And it is more than probable that to
this defect we may attribute the defeat of Harold; since it
became necessary that all should be risked upon the issue of
a single battle. The Conqueror, himself, was evidently sen-
sible that the want of fortified places in England had greatly
facilitated his conquest, and might, at any time, also facilitate
his expulsion. He therefore made all possible haste to
remedy the defect, by building magnificent and strong castles
in all the towns within the royal demesnes. “ “'illiam,” says
Matthew Paris, “excelled all his predecessors in building
castles, and greatly harassed his subjects and vassals with
these works.” Matthew Paris, III'st. p. 8. col. 2. And his
earls, barons, and even prelates, imitated his example; and it
was the first care of every one who received the grant of an
estate from the crown, to build a castle upon it, for his
defence and residence. The disputes about the succession,
in the following reigns, kept up this spirit for building great
and strong castles. \Villiam Rufus was still a greater builder
than his father; and Henry I. was not idle in adding to their
number. “ William Rufus,” says Henry Knyghton, col.
2373, “was much addicted to building royal castles and
palaces, as the castles of Dover, “'indsor, Norwich, Exeter,
the palace of Westminster, and many others, testify; nor was
there any king of England before him that erected so many,
and such noble edifices.” Though of one or two of these,
\Villiam Rufus was only the improver. But the rage for
building castles never prevailed so much in any period of
the English history as in the turbulent reign of Stephen,
between 1135 and 115—1.
the Saxon Chronicle, p. 238, every one, who was able, built
a castle; so that the poor people were worn out with the toil
of these buildings, and the whole kingdom was covered with
castles. And this last expression will hardly appear too
strong, when we are informed, that, besides all the castles
before that time in England, no fewer than eleven hundred
and fifteen were raised from the foundation, in the short
space of nineteen years—Rad. dc Diceto, col. 528. “Stephen,”
says llolinshed, \‘01. iii. fol. 50, “began to repent himself,
although too late, for that he had granted license to so
many of his subjects to build castles within their own
grounds.”

In this reign, says the writer, of

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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An art, Dr. Henry observes, (History of Britain, vol. vi.
p. 188, 8vo.) so much practised as architecture was in this
period, must have been much improved. That it really
was so, will appear from the following very brief description of

the most common form and structure of a royal castle, or .

of that of a great earl, baron, or prelate, in this period ; and
as- these castles served both for residence and defence, this
description will serve both for an account of the domestic
and military architecture of those times, which cannot well
be separated. '

The situation of the castles of the Anglo-Norman kings
and barons was most commonly on an eminence, and near
a river; a situation on several accounts eligible. The
whole site of the castle (which was frequently of great
extent and irregular figure) was surrounded by a deep and
broad ditch, sometimes filled with water, and sometimes dry,
called the fosse. Before the great gate was an outwork,
called a barbacan, or antemuml, which was a strong and
high wall, with turrets upon it, designed for the defence of
the gate and drawbridge. On the inside of the ditch stood
the wall of the castle, about eight or ten feet thick, and
between twenty and thirty feet high, with a parapet, and a
kind of embrasures, called crennels, on the top. On this
wall, at proper distances, square towers, of two or three
stories high, were built, which served for lodging some of
the principal officers of the proprietor of the castle, and for
other purposes; and on the inside were erected lodgings
for the common servants or retainers, granaries, storehouses,
and other necessary ofiices. On the top of this wall, and
on the flat roofs of these buildings, stood the defenders of
the castle, when it was besieged, and from thence discharged
arrows, darts, and stones, on the besiegers. The great gate
of the castle stood in the course of this wall, and was strongly
fortified with a tower on each side, and rooms over the
passage, which was closed with thick folding-doors of oak,
often plated with iron, and with an iron portcullis, 0r grate,
let down from above. Within this outward wall was a large
open space, or court, called, in the largest and most perfect
castles, the outer bugle or ballium, in which stood commonly
a church or chapel. On the inside of this outer bayle was
another ditch, wall, gate, and towers, enclosing the inner
bayle, or court, within which the chief tower, or keep, was
built. This was a very large square fabric, four or five
stories high, having small windows in prodigious thick walls,
which rendered the apartments within it dark and gloomy.
This great tower was the palace of the prince, prelate, or
baron, to whom the castle belonged, and the residence of the
constable or governor. Under ground were dismal dark
vaults, for the confinement of prisoners, which made it some-
times be called the dungeon. In this building, also, was
the great hall, in which the owner displayed his hospitality,
by entertaining his numerous friends and followers. At one
end of the great halls of castles, palaces, and monasteries,
there was a place raised a little above the rest of the floor,
called the dais, where the chief table stood, at which persons
of the highest rank dined. Though there were unquestionably
great variations in the structure of castles and palaces in this
period, yet the most perfect and magnificent of them seem
to have been constructed on the above plan. Such, to give
one example, was the famous castle of Bedford, as appears
from the following account of the manner in which it was
taken by Henry III. A.1). 1224, from Matthew Paris, Iflst.
Angl. p. 221-2. The castle was taken by four assaults.
“In the first, was taken the barbacan; in the second, the
outer ballia; at the third attack, the wall by the old tower
was thrown down by the miners, where, with great danger,
they possessed themselves of the inner ballia, through a Chink;

2 G

 

 

 

 

at the fourth assault, the miners set fire to the tower, so that
the smoke burst out, and the tower itself was cloven to
that degree, as to show visibly some broad chinks ; whereupon
the enemy surrendered.”

As Britain abounded in this period in fortified towns and
castles, much of the art of war, of course, consisted in
defending and assaulting strong places; and a knowledge
of the application of them in this period may be obtained
from the relation of the siege of Exeter castle by king
Stephen, in the year 1136. See the Gesta Regis Stepham,
apud Duchesn, p. 934. It is perhaps the most consummate
specimen of the military skill of that age with which we are
acquainted. And it may be enough to observe, that after
this siege had lasted three months, and king Stephen had
expended upon it in machines, arms, and other things, no
less than 15,000 marks, equal in efficacy to 150,000 pounds
of our money, the besieged were obliged to surrender for
Want of water. Henry’s [fist quritain, vol. vi. p. 217.

Berkeley, which was originally founded in the reign of
Stephen, is one of the best remains we are now possessed
of, of an ancient feudal castle. But the changes which almost
all these buildings have undergone in subsequent times, may
bejudged of by those which have taken place at Berkeley.
The buildings within the inmost only of the three gates are
said to have been the work of Henry II. when duke of
Normandy; while the two outermost, with all the buildings
belonging to them, except the keep, are referred to the latter
end of the reign of Henry II. and to those of the second and
third Edwards. The hall and the two chapels are of the
latter period; and the great kitchen, adjoining to the keep,
was of the work of Henry VII.

Among the castles which Mr. King has endeavoured to
appropriate to the early Norman period, are those of Notting-
ham, Lincoln, and Clifford’s tower at York, all erected by
the Conqueror: Arc/zeal. vol. vi. p. 257. The remains of
all these, he observes, fully illustrate the Norman mode of
constructing such edifices. Tickhill, in the neighbourhood
of Doncaster, appears to have been another of these castles,
ibid. 267; and Pontefract bespeaks a Norman design, with
rude and imperfect alterations. All of these appear to have
been erected upon artificial mounts, and nearly cover the
whole area of the summit of the respective hills on which
they are situated.

Tunbridge castle, in Kent, built by Richard de Clare,
about the time of William Rufus, is mentioned by Mr. King,
as a specimen of the later Norman structures; and he has
been very accurate in his description of it; ibid. 270.
Gundulph, who directed the building of the Tower of Lon-
don, in 1078, and the'castle at Rochester, he describes to have
introduced a great manyjudicious alterations, and not only
to have increased the security, but the magnificence of our
military piles; and observes, that the castle at Rochester is
a complete specimen of all that he effected. Newark, which
Mr. King afterwards mentions, is an instance of a prelate’s
castle in the reign of Stephen : and the keep of Knaresborough,
of the time of Henry 111., completes the specimens it may be
proper to mention of the irregular style of castle-building
which prevailed during the interval between the Norman
Conquest and the middle of the thirteenth century.

To these succeeded the magnificent piles of Edward I.,
more convenient and more stately, and containing not only
many towers, but great halls, and sometimes even religious
houses. The best style of military architecture in this period
was displayed in the castles of Caernarvon, Conway, and
Caerphilly; and it is singular to observe that many of our
more ancient castles were then increased with additions in
the same sumptuous style.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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After the age of Edward I. we find another kind of castle
introduced, approaching nearer to the idea of modern palaces.
The first of these was that at Windsor, built by Edward III.
who employed William of Wykeham as his architect. This
convenient and enlarged style of building was soon imitated,
on a lesser scale, by the nobles of the realm; and two
remarkable instances, wherein convenience and magnificence
were singularly blended at this period, may be found in the
castles of Harewood and Spotford, in Yorkshire. The im-
provements at Kenilworth afford another instance of the
great enlargement which our castles, during this age, were
accustomed to receive: and Naworth, in Cumberland, is
another of the best specimens that can probably be referred
to. Caistor, in Norfolk, affords the style of Henry the
Sixth’s reign. It was built by Sir John Fastolf, who died
in 1459.

To these venerable piles succeeded the castellated houses;
mansions adorned with turrets, and battlements; but utterly
incapable of defence, except against a rude mob, armed with
clubs and staves, on whom the gates might be shut; yet still
mansions almost quite devoid of all real elegance, or com-
fortable convenience, and fitted only to entertain a herd of
retainers wallowing in licentiousness. At the same time,
however, they discover marks of economy and good manage-
ment, which enabled their hospitable lords to support such
rude revels, and to keep up their state, even better than
many of their more refined successors. Of these buildings
one of the most perfect and most curious, now remaining,
is Haddon House, in Derbyshire; castellated and embattled,
in all the apparent forms of regular defence; but really
without the least means of resistance in its original construc—
tion. The description Mr. King has given of it, Arc/awol.
vol. vi. p. 347, is, however, too long to be extracted, and
too curious to be abridged.

After this kind of building, the magnificent quadrangular
houses of the reign of Henry VIII. succeeded; of which
the most beautiful and genuine models, perhaps, were those
of Cowdray, in Sussex, and Penshurst, the seat of the
Sidney family, in Kent.

Without referring to the stately buildings of Elizabeth’s
reign, it may be enough to say, that here ends the history
of the English castle. The block-houses of Calshot, Hurst,
Sandown, Sandgate, and South Sea, are the last instances of
such buildings ever intended for a stand, and seem strongly
to mark the revolution which has taken place in our defensive
system of war.

The total change in military tactics brought about by the
invention of gunpowder and artillery; the more settled state
of the nation, Scotland becoming part of the dominions of
the kings of England; the respectable footing of our navy,
whose wooden walls secure us from invasions; and the abo-
lition of the feudal system,—all conspired to render castles of
little use or consequence, as fortresses: so the great improve-
ments in arts and sciences, and their constant attendant, the
increase of luxury, made our nobility and gentry build them-
selves more pleasant and airy dwellings; relinquishing the
ancient dreary mansions of their forefathers, where the enjoy-
ment of light and air was sacrificed to the consideration of
strength; and whose best rooms, according to our modern
refined notions, have more the appearance of gaols and
dungeons for prisoners, than apartments for the reception of
a rich and powerful baron.

However, in the reign of Charles I., a little before the
breaking out of the civil war, some inquiry into the state
of these buildings seems to have taken place; for on the
22nd of January, 1636, a commission was issued, appointing
lieutenant-colonel Francis Coningsby, commissionary-general

 

of and for all the castles and fortifications in England and
Wales, with an allowance of 13s. 4d. a day, to be paid out
of the cheques and defalcations that should be made by him
from time to time; or, in default thereof, out of the Treasury.
Whether this office was really instituted for the purpose of
scrutinizing into the state of these fortresses, as foreseeing
the events which afterwards happened; or whether it was
only formed to gratify some favourite, does not appear.
During the troubles of that reign, some ancient castles
were garrisoned and defended, several of which, particularly
Corfe castle, in Dorsetshire, were afterwards destroyed, by
order of the parliament; since that period, they have been
abandoned to the mercy of time, weather, and the more
unsparing hands of avaricious men. The last have proved
the most destructive; many of these monuments of ancient
magnificence having been by them demolished for the sake
of the materials: by which the country has been deprived of
those remains of antiquity, so essential, in the eyes of
foreigners, to the dignity of a nation; and which, if rightly
considered, tended to inspire the beholder with a love for the
now happy establishment; by leading him to compare the pre-
sent with those times when such buildings were erected:
times when this unhappy kingdom was distracted by intes-
tine wars; when the son was armed against the father, and
brother slaughtered brother; when the lives, honour, and pro-
perty of the wretched inhabitants depended on the nod of an 1
arbitrary king, or were subject to the more tyrannical and
capricious wills of lawless and foreign barons.

The few castles existing in the Saxon time, were, pro-
bably,- on occasion of war, or invasions, garrisoned by the
national militia, and, at other times, slightly guarded by
the domestics of the princes or great personages who resided
in them; but after the Conquest, when all the estates were
converted into baronies, held by kni-ght’s service, castle-guard,
coming under that denomination, was among the duties to
which particular tenants were liable. From these services
the bishops and abbots, who, till the time of the Normans,
had held their lands in frank-almoign, or free alms, were, by
this new regulation, not exempted; they were not, indeed,
like the laity, obliged to personal service, it being sufficient
that they provided fit and able persons to ofiiciate in their ;
stead. This was, however, at first vigorously opposed by i

l

Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury; who, being obliged to
find some knights to attend King “'illiam Rufus in his wars
in \Vales, complained of it as an innovation and infringement
of the rights and immunities of the church.

It was no uncommon thing for the Conqueror, and the l
kings of those days, to grant estates to men of approved fide- i
lity and valour, on condition that they should perform castle- i
guard, with a certain number of men, for some specified time; i
and sometimes they were likewise bound by their tenures to f
keep in repair some tower or bulwark, as was the case at 3
Dover castle.

In process of time, these services were commuted for
annual rents, sometimes styled ward-penny, and u'ayt-fce,
but commonly castle-guard rents ; payable on fixed days,
under prodigious penalties, called sur-sizes. At Rochester,
if a man failed in the payment of his rent of castle-guard
on the feast of St. Andrew, his debt was doubled every tide,
during the time for which the payment was delayed. These
were afterwards restrained by an act of parliament, made in
the reign of King Henry VIII., and finally annihilated, with
the tenures by knight’s service, in the time of Charles II.
Such castles as were private property, were guarded either
by mercenary soldiers. or the tenants of the lord or owner.

Castles which belonged to the crown, or fell to it either by
forfeiture or escheat (circumstances that frequently happened

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CAT

115 ‘

CAT

 

in the distracted reigns of the feudal times) were generally
committed to the custody of some trusty person, who seems
to have been indifi'erently styled governor or constable. Some-
times also they were put into the possession of the sheriff of
the county, who often converted them into prisons. That
officer was then accountable to the exchequer, for the farm
or produce of the lands belonging to the places entrusted to
his care, as well as all other profits: he was likewise, in case
of war or invasion, obliged to victual and furnish them with
munition out of the issues of his county; to which he was
directed by writ of privy seal. Variety of these writs,
temp. Edw. 111., may be seen in Madox’s History of the
Exchequer,- and it appears, from the same authority, that
the barons of the exchequer were sometimes appointed to
survey these castles, and the state of the buildings and works
carrying on therein.—Rees’s Cyclopedia.

CASTRA, the Latin name for a camp.

CASTS. See CAST and CASTING.

CATABASION (from xarafiaww, I descend ), in the Greek
church, a hollow place under the altar, wherein the relics
were kept, and through which was the descent into the
vaults beneath.

CATABULUM, a building, or stable, in which the beasts
of burden and carriages were kept for the public service.
The ancient Christians were sometimes condemned to serve
in the catabula.

CATACAUSTIC CURVE. See CAUSTIC CURVE.

CATACOMB, a grotto or subterraneous place for the
interment of the dead. ‘

In Italy, this term is particularly applied to an assemblage
of subterraneous sepulchres, three leagues from Rome, in the
Via Appia. Each catacomb is three feet wide, and eight or
ten feet high, running in the form of an alley or gallery, and
communicating with each other. Some authors imagine them
to be the cells wherein the primitive Christians hid them-
selves; and others take them to be the burial-places of the
early Romans, before the practice of burning the dead was
introduced.

The most celebrated catacombs are those of Egypt,
wherein the ancient inhabitants deposited their mummies.
The descent into them is through a square aperture with
holes in the sides, for the feet, somewhat like an upright
ladder. These excavations are hewn out of the solid rock,
which consists of free—stone, and the walls are adorned with
hieroglyphics, and representations of utensils and implements
of war. See Poeock, Norden, and Denon.

CATADROME, an engine used in building, for lifting and
letting down great weights.

CATAFALCO (from the Italian), a decoration, of archi-
tecture, sculpture, or painting, raised on a scaffold, on which
to exhibit a coffin or cenotaph, in a funeral solemnity.

CATCH-DRAIN, in the construction of canals, the same
as counter-drain; sometimes it also implies the feeders of a
reservorr.

CATENARIA, a mechanical curve, which a heavy flex-
ible body, of uniform thickness, would form itself into, if
hung freely from its two extremities. The famous Galileo
first investigated the nature of this curve, and supposed it to
be a parabola. This problem, after being... proposed by
Mons. J. Bernouillé, was first solved by Dr. D. Gregory, who
also affirmed, that the inverted catenaria was the best. figure
for the arch of a bridge; the intrados of which, however,
must depend entirely upon the curvature of the extrados.

CATHEDRAL, (from the Greek, xaUeBpa, a chair;
derived from xaflziupat, sedeo, I sit,) the head church of a.
diocese, wherein is the see or seat of a bishop.

During the first ages of the church, cathedrals were pro-

 

bably more numerous than other churches, as we know that
there was a bishop in every town of importance wherever
the Christian religion prevailed. The bishop, the head of
the church, was assisted in the services of religion by his
priests and deacons, the bishop, however, retaining the more
important duties, such as preaching and the administration
of the sacraments, which he seldom delegated to the assistant
presbyters, unless necessitated so to do. ‘In process of time,

as occasion offered, other churches were formed, subject to

the mother-church and to the jurisdiction of its bishop; at
this early period. however, it cannot be doubted but that the
proportion of bishops to the lower order of the clergy was
much greater than at the present day, and consequently the
number of cathedrals or bishops’ sees must have been more
numerous. It is not our intention, however, in this place, to
dwell at length upon the general subject ; we would confine
ourselves more especially to our own country, and will ac-
cordingly proceed to investigate the accounts we have left us
of the early cathedrals of Great Britain.

No one, probably, would think of controverting the fact
of the early introduction of Christianity into this country; it
may indeed be questioned whether Saint Paul, or Saint Joseph,
or the British king Lucius, be the benefactor to whom we
owe its introduction ; but its existence here during the first
century will scarcely admit of a. doubt. We know further
that the British church was episcopally governed, for we

hear of the presence of‘British bishops at the council of 1

Arles, as early as the connnencement of the fourth century;
and we have consequently every reason to conclude that the
episcopal form of government was co-existent with the
church, and further, that if churches existed at all, some
such churches must have been cathedrals.

We cannot speak with any degree of certainty of the date,
form, or material of the first cathedrals. Dr. Milner says,
that a cathedral was erected by Lucius, at Winchester, of the
enormous length of 600 feet, as early as the close of the
second century. Whether the dimensions given do not belie
the whole statement must be left to the judgment of indi-
viduals; but there is good reason to believe that churches did
exist at this period, as we hear of their demolition during the
Diocletian persecution, which took place A.D. 303.

Upon the success of the Pagan-Saxons, the Christian
churches of England were of course destroyed, whilst those
in “Tales and south—west of England, where the British
Christians had retreated, were considerably increased; this
was especially the case with monasteries, which served in
a measure as places of safety, and in building which the
Britons followed the salutary advice of Saint Germain. Upon
the conversion of the Saxons by Saint Augustine, churches
again made their appearance in Kent, as We learn that a
cathedral was erected by that missionary-bishop at Canter-
bury, and dedicated under the title of Christ Church. At a
not much later period we hear of the foundation of the
cathedral churches of Saints Paul and Andrew, the one at
London and the other at Rochester. Shortly after Augus-
tine’s mission in the south, the wonderful success of Paulinus
in the northern parts of the island, in converting the king,

 

Edwin, and his pagan subjects, gave rise to the cathedral of 1

York. It is stated that Edwin first erected a church of tim-
ber in this city, but afterwards built a larger church of stone,
in which'the timber one was enclosed. Paulinus, again suc-

cessful at Lincoln, caused to be erected a church of stone, of 1

“ admirable workmanship,” as Bede tells us.

Stephen Eddy, a writer older than Bede, informs us that
Wilfrid, bishop of York, finding, upon taking possession of
his see, that the old church built by Edwin and Oswald was
in a dilapidated condition, set about repairing it—“ skilfully

 

 

 

 

 

 

'oA'r

roofing it with lead, and preventing the entrance of birds
and rain by putting glass into the windows, yet such glass as
allowed the light to shine within ;” and our author goes on
to state that the same Wilfrid built a new church at Ripon,
of polished stone, “ with columns variously ornamented, and
porches.” The account of the dedication of this church is
given in full, and is the earliest description of the kind
extant.

A curious and somewhat detailed account is given by the
Monk of Ramsey, of the construction of the church at Ram-
sey existing previously to the one dedicated in his time. He
says, “it was raised on a solid foundation, driven in by the
battering-ram, and had two towers above the roofs: the
lesser was in front at the west end ; the greater, at the inter-
section of the four parts of the building, reste on four
columns, connected together by arches carried from one to
the other.” He further adds, that this church was obliged
to be pulled down, and a new one erected in its stead, in
consequence of a settlement in the central tower, which ren-
dered the entire building unsafe—T hat this church was of
stone can scarcely be doubted, after perusing the above
narrative; but we have direct and explicit mention of the
fact, for the same author, in describing the labours of the
workmen, says: “ Some brought the stones, others made
the cement, while others attended to the machines for raising
the stones; so that in a short time was seen the sacred
edifice with its two towers, where previously there had been
but a barren waste.”

A curious representation of an Anglo-Saxon Church is to
be seen in an Illuminated Pontifical in the Public Library
at Rouen, containing the order for the dedication and con-
secration of churches; the date of which is ascribed by some
to the eighth, and by others to the tenth, century; that the
manuscript is of English origin has never been doubted.
This miniature in black outline represents the ceremony of
dedication. The form of the church is remarkably similar
to that of our existing cathedrals, which is more especially
noticeable in the form of the towers and spires, the symboli-
cal cock on the steeple, and the ornamental hinges of the
door.

We are here naturally led into some inquiry respecting the
materials, form, and disposition of these early cathedrals.
The materials employed by the Anglo-Saxons seem to have
been wood and stone, but during what time either material was
used cannot easily be determined; whether they were both
used at the same, period, under different circumstances, or
whether at any point of time the one was superseded by the
other, we are unable to learn. It has been supposed, and
with some plausibility, that wooden churches were erected
by the Scotch and Irish missionaries, and the more substan-
tial fabrics by those from Rome, and this idea seems to be
borne out by Bede, who states “that Adrian, the first bishop
of Lindisfarne, having departed this life, Finan, sent and
ordained by the Scots, succeeded him, and built a church in
the island after the method of the Scots; which was built
not of stone, but of hewn oak, and covered with reeds.”
This writer adds, that “ Eadbert, the seventh bishop, took off
the thatch, and covered both the walls and roof with lead.”
It seems very reasonable likewise that the Roman missionaries,
who had been used to the structures of Italy, should not feel
satisfied with mere wooden buildings. It is true it seems to
be noted as somewhat unusual, that \Vilfrid built a church at
Ripon of polished stone, yet the novelty may not have con-
sisted i.: the erection being of stone, but rather in the fact of
the stone being smoothed or polished; for it is probable that
the first buildings, after the Roman manner, were of rough
.mdressed stone, there being neither time, means, nor workmen

116 ‘

 

CAT

to complete a more finished structure. It is very probable
that Wilfrid’s church was built by Italian workmen, as we
know that he had frequented Rome, and was a man too
zealous in promoting the temporal splendour of the church, to
allow any opportunity of forwarding his object to slip past
unimproved. There can be little doubt but that in process
of time the employment of stone entirely superseded that of
timber.

N o inconsiderable notion is afforded us of the form and dis-
position of the parts of the early cathedrals, from an account
already referred to—we allude to that of the church at Ramsey.
From this description we gather that the plan of the church
was cruciform, with a tower rising from the intersection, and
another at the west end of the church.

lVe learn from Wolstan, that there was a tower at the west
end of the old church at Winchester, but that in the new
structure the tower was towards the eastern extremity, and
of the last it is related that it consisted of five stories, in each
of which were four windows looking towards the cardinal
points.

Further, in the miniature of the Illuminated Pontifical
above described, we notice that the tower is surmounted by a
steeple, a fact which, were it not for other considerations,
would almost tempt us to refer the manuscript to a much
later date, as we know that such additions were not very
frequent, even in the Norman period; indeed, the idea of a.
Saxon cathedral afforded us by these descriptions, approaches
very nearly to actual existing specimens of much later date.
We must not conclude from these accounts that all churches
of this date were cruciform, for we learn the contrary from
Bede, who speaks of churches as square ; some have supposed
that Ramsey was the first instance of a cruciform edifice, but
this was not the case, as is evinced by a metrical description
of a cathedral, written long before its erection.

Having thus far considered the nature of the Saxon cathe-
drals, we arrive at the Norman era, during which a great
number were erected; but as We have no lack of existing
examples of this period, we do not think it requisite to pur-
sue a detailed inquiry any furtherzwe shall now proceed to
some description of the cathedrals of the present day.

The term Cathedral includes generally the whole of the
buildings connected with the bishop’s see, including the
church, chapter-house, chapels, Cloisters, dormitories, refec-
tories, residences for those engaged in attendance on the
bishop, and in the services of the cathedral, and buildings for
a variety of uses; it is applied, however, in a more especial
sense, only to the church, and to such application we shall
confine ourselves in the following remarks.

The plan of our old cathedral churches is invariably that

 

of a Latin cross, having the nave in the longest arm, the .

transepts in the two cross arms, and the choir, comprising the
remaining length of the church, to the east of the nave; the
English always placing their altar at the east end, which was
more frequently square, than either circular or multangular,
as in the continental churches. Not unusually the plan was
extended further eastward, to provide for an additional chapel,
dedicated to our Ladye, and Sometimes, though much less

frequently, a similar, but smaller projection, was added at

the west end : this was the Galilee porch, so named, as we

learn from Gervase, from the passage of Scripture—“He I

gocth before you into Galilee, there ye shall see him,"—
this being the place where the monks were allowed to see their
female relatives; here was also the station of catechumens,
and the resting-place of corpses previous to their interment.
In some instances we find a double trausept, east and west of
each other, as at Canterbury; the additional arm is accounted
for symbolically as representing the inscription placed above

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CAT

117

CAT

 

the head of our Lord at his crucifixion, the lower symboliz-
ing the cross-piece on which the arms were extended. It
is noticed in some cathedrals that the eastern extremity is
not in the same line with the nave, but. bent on one side, as it
were; this is explained in a similar manner as marking the
inclination of the head of our Lord while 011 the cross. At
the west end of the nave, on each side of it, were situated the
towers, and another at the intersection of the nave and tran-
septs, all of which were in some cases surmounted with spires;
sometimes this addition was restricted to the western towers,
but it is frequently omitted altogether, when the towers are
usually carried to a greater elevation. At Exeter, we meet
with the towers forming the transept, and at Peterborough
with one at the northern extremity of the west transept.
Internally the nave and choir are divided into three aisles,
the central one being carried up above the others. This
tripartite division is seldom carried out in the transepts, in
which, however, we sometimes find one aisle as at Durham,
and sometimes two as at Westminster and Bristol. The
aisles are separated from the body of the church by an arcade,
immediately above which the vaultng commences; in the
body, however, between the arcade and vaulting, are inter-
posed two stories, the lower one consisting of a gallery called
triforia, opening into the nave and choir by means of a small
arcade, and supposed to have been appropriated to the nuns;
and the upper, termed the Clerc-story, in which were placed
the windows for lighting the central avenue of the church.
In Bath Cathedral, the triforia are omitted, and their place
supplied by a string-course.

An approximation to the proportions of the different mea-

* surements of cathedral churches is given by Brown “rillis,

as follows :—The height is generally equal to the breadth of
the nave and aisles; the cross, in which the transepts and
intermediate space are contained, is extended half the length
of the whole fabric, as is likewise the nave; the side—aisles
equal half the breadth and height of the nave, and the spires
and tower have a mean proportion between the length of the
nave 'and that of the transept.

The above description will give a general idea of the con-
struction of our cathedrals; but from the exceptions already
noticed, it will be understood that no rule applies invariably
to all buildings of the kind ; for although the plans are in all
cases similar, and the arrangement of the parts of the edifice
systematic, yet we find not one cathedral in any respect a
copy of another.

We now proceed to give some account of the edifices
of this rank preserved to us in the present day, of which we
have 21 in England, and 4 in Wales. There were also
13 in Scotland, and 22 in Ireland. In addition to the num-

ber already mentioned, we have in England one modern-

cathedral, Saint Paul’s, London ; besides which the collegiate
church at Manchester has recently been elevated to the
dignity of a bishop’s see; but as the latter was never con-
structed for such a purpose, we do not think it can be
correctly included with the others as an architectural
example.

The following is an account of the elections of cathedral
churches 111 England, and additions made to them, arranged
in chronological 01der: -——

'10 the period of the Anglo- Normans, or between 1066
and 1170, including the reigns of William I. and 11.,
Henry 1., Stephen, and the first sixteen yeals of Hemy II,
we may attribute the western front and nave of Rochester
cathedral; the nave, north aisle, and the chapels lound the
choir of that at Gloucester; the original substructure of
Exeter cathedral with its t1ansepts and towels , the centr‘ial
tower and transept of Winton cathedral , the nave of that at

2 H

 

i

Chiche‘ster , the north transept of that at Ely; the choir of
Peterborough cathedral; the oldest part of the western front
and cent1alo tower of that at Lincoln , the central church of
Durham, excepting the additional transept on the east; the
nave and tower of Norwich ; and many arches of Worcester
cathedral.

In the period between 1170 and 1220, including the latter
part of the reign of Henry II., and the reigns of Richard I.
and John, the older Ladye chapel and chapter-house of Bris-
tol were erected ; as were likewise the choir and round
tower (called Becket’s Crown) at Canterbury ; the nave and
chapter-house at Oxford; the nave and choir of Norwich
cathedral ; the western towers at Ely; the transepts of
Peterborough ; the presbytery, Chichester ; the transept,
tower, and choir of that at Hereford ; the nave and choir of
W'ells cathedral (begun) ; and the chapter-house of Chester.

I11 the period between 1220 and 1300, including the
reigns of Henry III. and part of Edward I., were erected
the nave and arches beyond the transept of Lincoln cathe-
dral; the north and south transepts of York minster; the
choir and transept, Rochester ; an additional transept to the
cathedral of Durham ; the tower and whole western front of
that of Wells ; the choir at Carlisle ; the presbytery and
south transept at Ely; the transept and choir at Worcester ;
and the whole of Salisbury cathedral.

In the period between 1300 and 1400, including the latter
part of the reign of Edward I , and the reigns of Edward II.
and III. and Richard II, the nave and choir of Exeter
cathedral were erected ; and that at Lichfield was built
uniformly; additions were made to the central tower at Lin-
coln ; the nave of Worcester cathedral was built, as were the
nave, choir, and western front of York minster ; also the
transepts at Canterbury and Gloucester ; the spire and tower
at Norwich ; the spire and additions to Salisbury cathedral ;
the Cloisters were begun at Gloucester; the nave and choir
were erected at Bristol, as well as the spire and choir at
Chichester ; our Lady’s chapel at Ely; and the chapter-
house and Cloisters (now destroyed) at Hereford.

In the period between 1400 and 1460, including the reigns-
of Henry IV., V., and VI., were erected the choir of Glou-
cester cathedral ; the nave of that of Canterbury; Bishop
Beckingtons addition to Wells cathedral; and that of Lin-
coln, from the upper transept to the great east window.

111 the period between 1460 to 1547, viz., from the reign
of Edward 1V. to the end of that of Henry VIII., were
erected our Lady’s chapel at Gloucester; the roof of the
choir of Oxford cathedral; the choir of that of Chester;
Alcocke’s chapel at Ely; the Ladye chapel, Peterborough;
the north porch, Hereford ; and the exterior of the choir at
\Vinchester.

The following particulars respecting the English Cathe-
drals are extracted principally from the works of Britton
and Dallawayz—

PECULIARITIES.

Bath—The unusual height of the Clerc-story.

Bristol—Had no nave, the present choir being formed out of
the Ladye chapel.

Canterbury—111s grand entrance is under the south tower.
The ma1ble columns of the choir with Romanesque capi-
tals, and the octangular chapel called Becket’s crown.

Chester—Extraordinary size of the south transept.

Clzichester—Double aisles to nave, and detached campanile at
its north-west angle.

Durham—The chapel of our Ladye placed at the east end as
a second transept ; the Galilee placed before, and distinct
from the facade.

Ely—A single western tower connected with the nave ;——the

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

/

CAT

118

CAT

 

octangular tower ;-—the Ladye chapel detached from choir,
and a Galilee in a perfect state.

Exeter—The skreen before the west front, and towers at
either end of the transept. This cathedral was completed
according to the original plan.

Lincoln—The arches in the west front, the work of Remi-
gius; the Galilee and double transept.

Lichfield—-'1‘11e three stone spires.

Norwich—The roof of the nave, and the west end, with the
Erpingham gateway.

Peterborough—The triple arcade before the west front eighty-
two feet high; the double towers with spires at the western
angles; tower at the southern extremity of the north-west
transept, and the Galilee.

Rochester—The choir longer than the nave.

Salisbury—The complete uniformity of style; the height of
the central spire, and the double elliptic inverted arch
under the tower, as at Wells.

Winchester—The longest nave.

York—T he double aisles t0 the transept; the largest win-
dow; the square louvre, and the absence of cloisters.

REMARKABLE PARTS.

Bath—The tower has four turrets, without pinnacles, and is
oblong in plan, which is owing to the narrowness of the
transept; the aisles are very low, and there is no triforium
in the nave, but merely a plain string-course. There is an
alto-relievo of Jacob’s ladder at the west end.

Bristol—Has no external flying buttresses, the walls of the
nave being supported by the roofs of the aisles, which are
formed of complicated open arches; the aisles and nave
are of equal height, only forty-three feet.

Canterbury—The crypt, which is of greater extent, and more
lofty than any other in England ; the central tower and the
apsidal form of the east end.

Chester—The unequal dimensions of the north and south
transepts, the latter being wider, and nearly as long as
the nave, with aisles on each side, while the former is
unusually short, and of the same width as the central
tower; the aisles of the choir also extend beyond it east-
ward, and form the aisles of the Ladye chapel.

Chichester—Has the earliest specimen of a vaulted roof; its
spire greatly resembles that of Salisbury.

Durham—Pillars of nave curiously striated; the Galilee
measures 50 feet by 78 feet.

Exeter—Possesses almost the only example of a group in

sculpture, which is in the triforia of the transept, and

represents a concert of musical instruments.

Ely—The octangular lantern, which is 71 feet in diameter,
and 142 feet from the ground, supplied the place of a lofty
central tower which fell down a short time—previous to the
erection of the lantern. There exists one of the earliest
specimens of the pointed arch in the tower and transept.

Gloucester—The eastern termination is apsidal; and the
cloisters, the most perfect and beautiful in England, un-
usually situate on the north side of the church.

Lincoln—Old west front; the large and beautiful south
porch, and east facade; the Galilee. The central tower
had a Spire higher than Salisbury, which was blown down
A. D. 1547. This church is remarkable for its sculpture,
and has a curious has-relief of the Deluge over the west
door, and of the Last Judgment over the south porch.

Lichfield—Is nearly uniform, and was completed through-
out on the original plan. The east end is apsidal in plan.

ZVorwz'ch—The end of the choir is octangular, and the clois-
ters are very spacious.

Peterborough—The grand facade and portico, remarkable for
their fine proportions; the Galilee and apsidal termination,
also the west transept, which is placed immediately at the
west end.

Rochester—The west facade is one of the most perfect speci-
mens of Norman; the choir is longer than the nave.

Salisbury—Is the most uniform cathedral in England, and
has a lofty and beautiful spire, only seven inches thick.

PVeIls—T he west front is noted as bearing a resemblance to
the facades of Continental cathedrals; it is filled with
statues ; the central tower is supported on an inverted arch
as at Salisbury.

I’Vinchester—Is remarkable for its fine nave; the choir is
under the central tower.

[Vorcester—The style and proportions of the nave are con-
sidered beautiful.

York—The aisles surrounding the whole church are of the
same dimensions throughout; the rose window, which is
22 feet 6 inches in diameter, is the finest in England;
the choir is under the tower, as at “'inchester.

The suhjoined Tables maybe found useful ; the former, from
the works of Dallaway, gives the dates of the principal por-
tions of the English Cathedrals; the latter, compiled princi-
pally from Britton’s Antiquities, shovs their dimensions. It
will be noticed that Mr. Dallaway’s dates do not agree in every
case with those above given.

 

Dates of the Principal Portions qf the English Cathedrals.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Cathedrals. Nave. Choir. Aisles. Transept. Tower. Cathedrals. Nave. Choir. l Aisles. 'l‘ransept- Tower.
Bath ......... 1532 1500 15321121. 1500 1500 Lichfield ......... 1295 1295 l 1295 1295 1295 W.
1570 ch. 1532 i 1430 Cent.
Bristol ...... 1332 1332 1311 S. 1463 Lincoln ......... 1200 1200 . 1200 1:100 W. 1254 Cent.
140:; N. i 1306 E. 1279 W.
Canterbury ..... . 1420 1174 1174 1174 up. 1070 N. W. Norwich ........ 1171 1195 1171 113.. 1195 1006 -
1379 lwr 1400 S. W. 1160 ch.
1500 Cent. Oxford ......... 1120 1 120 1120 1199. 1‘32
Carlisle ..... . 1150 1303 11501111. 1353 1400 l’ctcrborough... 1175 1160 1175 na. 1272 W.
1363 ch. 1160 ch.
Chester 1485 1485 1320 N 1508 Rochester ...... 1030 1227 10801111. 1080
Chichester ...... 1125 1217 11251121. 1217 N. 1217 W. 1927011.
1217 ch. 1320 s 1282 Cent. Salisbury ...... 1917 1230 l 1217 na. 1274 1217
Durham 1093 1233 1230 1230 W. 1230 ch.
1205 Cent. Wells .......... .. 1239 | 12:39 1239 1239 1450 w.
Ely ...... . ...... 117-1 1235 1133 N. 117-1 W. 1465 Cent.
1:528 Cent. Winchester ...... 1394 i 149:1 13941111. 1070 1070
Exeter............ 1307 1318 13071111. 1280 1128 140301.
13181-11. Worcester . . . 1218 i 1L18 l 1218 12181wr 1379.
Gloucester . ..... 1089 1357 108211111. 1330 S. 1457 I i 1380 up.
13101-11. 1375 N. York ............ 1201 1301 1201 113. 1227 1301 W.
Hereford ......... 100.5 1115 100.3 1005 up. 1216 w. l 1301 ch. ‘ 14-20 Cent.
114s lwr l

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Admeasurements of the principal parts of the most remarkable Cathedral Churches of Great Britain, given in English feet.
A large portion of this Table is extracted from Britton’s Works.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

E t Extreme - . . Centre West
11:21:36 Breadth. Nave. Chou'. Transept. Tower. Towers West Front
Cathedrals. r- a: g: 1.. - .d .c g; . - A: 3 . 3:? '5 3‘3 .c: '23
g _,_, o .5 a «'33 a 5 H: <3 5 u 85 "" ..5 +1 +2
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382%:sees'Bcfii’fiagg's‘afi'agas
1 m E. m H H m m; m A mg m .—1 an n ma. m m .3 m
nCanterbury ...... 545 516 170 158 188 27 73 80 132 86 76 1.33 40 75; 230 1533 93 107
1 34 79
York ..... . ......... 518 480 241 220 210 43 110 93 130 100 100 220 98 93 200 196 140 137
Bristol ............ 203 174 127 113 76 69 54 174 29 50 133
Carlisle ............ 242 210 130 116 107 72 .. 116 18
Chester ........... 375 312 112 100 120 41 84 80 84 100 44
b Chichester ......... 410 386 151 131 146 26 100 65 68 60 65 131 34 65 3005 955
Durham ......... 507 476 194 170 203 37 82 70 93 79 70 170 59 210 143 117 105
enly ............... 535 517 190 179 203 30 74 101 74 70 179 78 1707 215 142 112
Exeter ............ 408 382 155 140 96 31 72 66 123 72 66 140 30 72 153 113 100
Gloucester ......... 427 406 154 142 160 33 35 68 110 83 85 142 35 70 223 95 33
‘1 Hereford ......... 3.50 326 174 145 125 28 70 63 76 72 60 13?} 53: 60 160 95
3.3
'Litchfield ......... 403 379 ‘177 149 143 26 66 58 145 69 57 149 45 57 252“ 20012 100' 93
‘Lincoln ............ 505 440 242 218 176 37 78 81 118 80 75 2&8 61 74 264 209 175 132
1 5 3713
sNorwich ......... 415 384 200 180 205 28 70 75 130 72 85 180 28 72 30914 83 93
h Oxford ............ 168 156 116 102 61 22 53 45 54 52 45 102 21 45 145'5
‘Peterborough 480 427 198 184 234 35 79 73 90 79 183 58 73 143 150 153 115
15516
"Rochester ......... 383 362 170 144 140 32 73 55 145 85 55 132 32 55 156 95 93
0 58 55‘7
'Salisbury ......... 474 450 230 206 196 32 78 81 152 78 81 226 57 81 40420 112 115
1 5 44 8119
Wells ............... 415 385 155 130 164 32 70 68 82 32 73 130 68 68 165 125 148 115
Winchester ...... 556 520 230 208 240 32 88 78 113 88 67 208 81 80 148 128 130
“Worcester ......... 425 386 145 127 174 30 78 67 90 73 61 :37 31 66 r 193 . .
. ' 24 6621
use Paul’s ......... 512 462 283 228 170 39 102 90 '97 102 90 2'28 97 90 360” 210 177 138
001d St. Paul’s 690 130 102 165 42‘“ 88 248 53423 .
weStmmS‘er 530 475 215 195 154 30 68 105 136 72 105 195 73 105 225 110 141
Abbey Church
St. Asaph ......... 1 79 119 68 60 60 32 60 108 ... 93
Bangor ............ 214 141 60 34 53 96 32 . 60
St. David ......... 307 124 ... 76 46 80 148 127
p Llandafl' ......... 270 80 .. . 90
“Man .............. 113 2'2 . 66
r St. Patrick ...... 300 ... .. 157 22325
Dunblane ......... ‘216 . .. 76 . s 120
'Elgin............... 264 35 114 ... 1982 8427
‘Glasgow ......... 370 339 155 30 62 90 97 62 90 22028 120”
Iona ...... ......... 160 i 70 ... 75
" Kirkwall ......... 256 . . . . . . l 70 . . . . 1339'0

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

‘ Has two transepts: ' East transept; 3 West I b ‘5 With spire.
transept ; 3 South-west tOWer.

b 5 Including spire ; 6 South-west tower.

° 7 Octagonal lantern; there is a projection or
transept at the west end, forming a galilee.

‘ “ North end with aisle; there are two tran-
‘septs; 9 East transept.

" ” and ‘2 With spires.

f 1138 two transepts ; ‘3 East transept.

Y “ With spire.

sept.

Many cathedrals of architecture similar to our own, are
to be seen on the Continent, of the more noted of which we
shall give a short description. One of the great points of'
distinction between the English and foreign cathedrals, is
the superior magnitude of the latter, which is evidenced
more in the height than in any other dimension z—a circum-
stance which will be apparent, when it is told that the west
front of York Minster could be placed beneath the choir-
roofs of Beauvais or Amiens cathedrals; the length of the
continental buildings, however, does not bear so great a

illas projection or transept at the western
extremity , ‘5 tower over north -west tran-

k Has two transepts ; ‘7 East transept.
' Has two transepts ; '9 East transept.

'11 Has two transepts ; 2‘ East transept.
1‘ 22 Top of cress over dome.

° 93 To top of spire ; '1‘ without aisles.

P Has two western towers.

‘1 No side aisles.

1' 25 With spire.

I 9‘5 With spire; 7’ Without spire; length 0
ladye chapel eastward 28 feet, extending the
whole Width of the cathedral.

l 28 To the extremity of the spire ; 2" At north-
west angle.

“ 3° With spire.

proportion to their breadth as in England, so that they lose
that perspective efl‘ect afforded by the long vista of arcades
which forms so beautiful a feature in our cathedrals. Another
distinguishing characteristic in the foreign churches is
afforded in the magnificence of the grand facades, of which
full one moiety is occupied by the portal. In our works
the entrance is of small dimensions, and is subservient to.
the window above it, but in theirs it forms the principal
object, being splayed from the door to the exterior surface
of the wall, and the space thus formed, occupied with columns.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CAT

niches, statues, and other embellishments; the upper part
of this splay is of course of an arched form, and the tympanum
over the door-head is frequently filled with large groups of
sculpture. The upper half of the facade is occupied by a
circular or rose window of great magnitude. This arrange-
ment is frequently carried out in the ends of the transepts.
Further we have to notice the apsidal forms of the east end,
the numerous chapels surrounding the choir, and the great
height of the roof, which in France is in a great measure
concealed by lofty parapets, but in Germany, where it is
even more lofty, is left exposed. Internally, the foreign
structures are remarkable for the great height of the body
and aisles, and simplicity of the vaulting; for the apsidal
termination with its vaulted roof, and the size of the rose
windows of the nave and transepts. The body of the build-
ing is frequently divided laterally into five parts, having a
central nave with a double aisle on each side of it.

The following cathedrals are remarkable for their—

Entrance Porches—Rheims, Strasburg, and Rouen.
Rose windows—Strasburg, Notre Dame, S. Ouen, Rouen,
and Rheims.

120

 

CAT

Towers and spires—Strashurg, Mechlin, Antwerp, Ulm,
Cologne, Friburg, Louvain, and Vienna. The height
of that of Strasburg is 550 feet; that of Louvain (now
fallen) 533 feet; and that of Vienna, 465 feet. Stras-
burg, Friburg, and Constance, are noted for their spires
of open work or pierced tracery.

The cathedrals of Freidburgh and Frankenburgh have
the nave and aisles of the same height, and that of Freidburgh
has the side aisles nearly as wide as the nave. St. Lorenzo,
Nuremburgh, has a choir loftier than the nave, and the
cathedral at Worms is celebrated for its two choirs.

S. Peter’s, Rome, is the most spacious cathedral, after which
follow those of Cologne and Milan, of which the former has
never been completed; it was commenced in the middle of
the thirteenth century, but the choir is the only portion that
was finished, the nave is carried up only half its intended
height. This building, if entire, would be perhaps the most
magnificent cathedral in existence, but there seems but a
remote probability of its completion : it is said to be adorned
with 4,973 pinnacles, 576 statues, 128 windows, 160 flying
buttresses, 104 pillars, and 9 entrances, while Milan boasts
of 4,400 statues, and 160 columns of white marble.

Admeasurements of some of the more remarkable Continental Cathedrals, given in English feet.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

g) Nave. Choir. Aisles. Transept. s5 . «5 2 .5 E as 5'

Name of 8 . _ . ~ 5 ,3 .3 g t“ 3 E g

‘ F. "5 5‘3 *5 S 5‘ *z 7:". :‘r :1 : 7.3 a g .1: 3—5 gnu

Cathedial. E .5.” '3 f}, a) g .50 .3 :0 ED '3 2: :3 E s I: :E :3 2’;

g a“. 8 '5 E. a 5 9: ‘5 a 3 r. :2 S ' a 7 a

’4 it :11 v—I m E m if. A m g o

' Amiens ............ 415 220 42 132 130 42 129 18 180 42 150 210
”Bayeux ,,,,,,,,,,,, 296 140 48 76 118 36 17 113 224 230

c Chartres _________ 376 222 46 108 1 14 46 21 195 40 103 378 l
4 Notre Dame ...... 492 244 42 157 38 221
e ‘Rheims ............ 439 38 116 22 150 93 140 93 2.53
I Rouen ............ 408 -- . . . 90 ... 1 64 . . . . . 93 53'). 2 .
8 S. Owen ......... 416 24.4 34 100 102 130 , 9.40
h Antwerp ......... 500 230 466 360
' Cologne ............ 532 160 160 80 2.30 432 5:32
Friburg ............ 399 86 . . .. . 372
Ulm ............... 416 140 . 166 490
1‘ Florence ......... 491 132 139 294 463 . .

Milan ............ 493 279 32 283 197 356

Rome—S. Peter 669 442 396 432 . .

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

I Has two western towers.
b Has two western towers, and a central one.
‘ ‘ With spire. Has double aisles round choir.

.4 Has double aisles of equal dimensions, with ‘2 With spire.

CATHERINE WHEEL, a large ornament in the upper
compartment of the windows of Gothic structures; of a
circular outline, filled interiorly with a rosette, or radiating
divisions, and beautifully variegated. '

Catherine-wheel windows are supposed to have been
borrowed from our continental neighbours, in the. 14th
century. In foreign cathedrals, such windows are of enor-
mous magnitude, and of frequent occurrence; as they are
commonly met with, not only in the end walls of the trausept,
as with us, but also in the western facade immediately above
the entrance. There is a very fine one in the cathedral of
Rheims; and in the great church of St. Oiien, at Rouen,
are two; one of which, of great diameter, is called [a rose.
Winchester cathedral has likewise a very large one; but it

galleries over them. The south rose window
is 45 feet 6 inches in diameter.
8 Has two western towers.

 

is still exceeded by one at Cheltenham, in Gloucestershire.

E Ladye chapel 62 feet long.

h With spires.

1 Has double aisles continued all round the
church.

k Exterior dome.

In St. Peter’s church, Westminster, there is one in each
transept.

CATIIETUS, a line falling perpendicularly upon another
line or surface.

CA'I‘IIETUS, in architecture, according to Vitruvius, is a
right line drawn perpemlicularly from the under arris, or
line of the sima-inversa at each flank of the Ionic capital,
to the centre of the eye of each volute. It must, however,
be remarked, that the cathetus drawn in this manner, does
not apply to all ancient examples of this order.

CATTLE SIIEl), or CATTLE HOUSE, in rural economy,
an erection for the purpose. ofeontaining cattle while feeding,
or otherwise. ‘In order to make the feeding of cattle advan-
tageous, it is most important that the cattle sheds should be
placed in the most'eonvenient situations with respect to the

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

C A T

121

CAT

 

fields from which the food is to be brought. In large farms,
movable sheds with temporary yards may be erected
according as different fields are in grass or roots, and a great
saving of carriage thereby effected, both in the bringing the
food to the cattle, and carting the dung unto the land ; a clay
bottom should be selected, in a high and dry spot, if possible,
and it should ever be borne in mind, that, with cattle, as
with human beings, cleanliness, free ventilation, and perfect
drainage are indispensable to perfect health and a sound
condition of the body.

Cattle sheds are most cheaply constructed when placed
against walls or other buildings. If they are to be erected
in an isolated situation, the expense of the double shed will
be much less than that of the single one, to contain the same
number of cattle.

Every building of this description should be capable of
being well aired, by a. free ventilation; and so constructed
as to require the least possible labour in giving the food and
clearing away the dung; the stalls should he so placed as to
keep the cattle dry and clean, with sufficient drains to carry
away, and reservoirs to receive the ordure. The greater
number of the air-holes should be in the roof; and if the
building have gables, there should be a window in each, as
high as possible, with moveable boards, or air flights, as in
granary windows, which may be easily opened or shut, by
means of a small rope. These precautions will not only
conduce to the health of the cattle, but tend to preserve the
timbers, which, from the alternate wetting by the breath,
and drying, would otherwise soon go to decay.

In single sheds, the cattle are, in many parts of the country,
fastened to stakes about three feet distant from each other,
ranged in a line parallel to the wall, at the distance of about
‘18 or 20 inches from it, thus leaving sufficient space for
laying down the food; but this plan is inconvenient, as it
obliges the feeder to pass between the cattle when he feeds
them, and is consequently attended with loss of time, and
is sometimes dangerous.

The best construction is that which admits a sufficient
space for a passage before the cattle, for the feeder to pass
along with a wheel-barrow, when he distributes their food.
In single sheds, three feet will be sufficient for the width of
this passage; and in double Sheds, the heads of the.cattle
should face each other, and the breadth of the passage need
not be increased beyond four feet.

Where cattle are fed from the outside, through holes left
for the purpose, many inconveniences may arise from wet
weather, a severe frost, or a heavy fall of snow ; but when
fed within, no change of weather can have any influence on
their feeding; particularly if due care be taken to keep the
provender dry and under cover.

.In single sheds, it would be convenient to have a provender-
loft above the cattle, for holding, occasionally, hay and straw;
aloft of this kind might be provided with flaps in the floor-
ing, furnished with hinges, which, when opened, would
afford an easy access for putting in the fodder from the cart,
and enable the feeder to throw it into the racks when
required. In this case the roof may be supported by posts
or pillars, about three or four feet high, on the top of the
Wall, and eight or ten feet distant from each other; the flaps
may he lifted by rings, and be made stationary in any
required position, by a catch.

In many places, cows and oxen are bound to stakes, with-
out any stalls, or divisions between them. In some parts,
cows are bound in pairs, with a slight division between
them; in others, they are not bound, but every cow or 0X
has a separate stall, divided from the rest by wooden rails,
so that they cannot get out, and so narrow that they cannot

2 I

 

turn round. Many feeders think the cattle thrive better in
stalls of this description, than when they are bound. At
each stake there should be a trough for holding provendei,
and between these two troughs there should be another for
water, common to the cattle on both sides ; this water-trough,
which, as well as the others, may be of stone, and of one
piece, may be supplied by a pipe from a cistern or reservoir;
and over them should be a perpendicular rack for straw or
hay. But though the double stalls, here recommended, are
much used for milch cows in different parts of England,
they have, in general, only one provender-trough for each
cow, and none for water.

In paving stalls for cattle, the declivity is in general too
great, which occasions them to stand uneasy. The best
mode is similar to that of paving stables. ~Wood has lately
been used with advantage for paving stalls.

In many places, it is the practice to fasten the heads of
the cattle between two stakes; by which they can neither lie
down in comfort, nor dislodge or destroy those tormenting
vermin, which frequently prey upon them. No animal can
thrive when confined in this manner.

As the dung of cows and oxen is of a liquid nature, it may
perhaps be carried off by means of an iron grating, placed
behind each animal, as nearly as can be, in the spot where it
usually drops, and immediately over the stall drain, or over a
wooden spout, which being continued in a sufficient slope, to a.
pit or reservoir without, will, with the assistance of water occa-
sionallythrown down,emptyitself therein. Should any obstruc-
tion occur, the aid of a rake or a hoe, fitted to the drain, may be
easily applied; especially if the drain be only covered with a
strong plank, which may be taken up when necessary. The
greater part of the dung being thus carried away,the remainder
will be easily removed. Such a contrivance would save much
labour, and facilitate the keeping of cattle clean; it would
also be the means of saving a great deal of litter, when scarce
or dear. On this part of the subject it may be observed, that
the waste of urine and dung, too often seen in even well-con-
ducted farms, is much to be deprecated and lamented—every-
thing of the kind is valuable, and should be conducted to
proper reservoirs judiciously constructed and arranged for
the purpose, to be afterwards used on the land.

Where a great number of cattle are kept, the erection of
sheds or feeding houses on a circular plan, proves very
economical, and saves much labour, though a little more
expensive in the first cost. In this form of building, the
animals stand all round with their tails rtowards the external
wall, leaving a sufiicient passage or gangway behind, for
them to pass to and from their stalls; proper openings are
also to be left in the wall, for discharging the dung, which
may fall into covered pits on the outside. The openings
should be so contrived, as to be capable of being shut up in
severe weather. The area, or space in the middle, is con-
verted to the use of feeding and attendance; and, to render
the plan complete, there should be a room above, to
store up the different sorts of food that the cattle may
require.

The oblong plan likewise admits of much room and con-
venience, and is a form in which many cattle houses have
been lately erected. In this kind of shed, the length of fifty
or sixty feet affords room for a great number of cattle. The
roof is made shelving, 14 feet in the highest part, and six or
seven in the lowest. The place for the reception of the cattle
is separated from that wherein the dung is to be deposited,
by a wall, or other convenient division, and may be about 18
or 20 feet within, to afford good room. The stalls are tWelve
feet long, and from 4 feet to 4 feet 6 inches wide ; leaving
gang-ways at the heads and behind the cattle, 3 feet or 34;

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CAU

feet in breadth. Each stall has two doors, the one for admission
of the cattle, the other for the persons who attend them; and
when the buildings are of great length, it may be convenient
to have additional doors at each end. There should likewise

122

be a water-trough in each stall, and where a stream can be ‘

made to run through the whole range, it is productive of great
advantage. The boxes, or mangers, for particular sorts of
food, as well as racks for hay, are also necessary to render
these buildings complete. The bottom of the stalls may be
formed of strong planking, laid so as to have a very slight
descent, and perforated with holes for the passage of the urine
into the reservoir. There should also be openings in the wall,
behind the cattle, between every two stalls, of" about two feet
square, for discharging the dung, with proper shutters fitted
to them. Each stall should likewise have a wooden window,
of about the same size, for the admission of light and for free
ventilation, placed as high as the house or shed will admit.
The reservoir for the dung or urine should extend the whole

length of the building. For farther particulars on this subject, 1

see Cow-HOUSE.

CAUKING, or COOKING, the mode of fixing the tie-beams I

of a roof, or the binding-joists of a floor, down to the wall-
plates. This was formerly done by dovetailing, in the follow-
ing manner :——a,small part of the depth of the beam at the
end of the under side was cut in the form of a dovetail, and
a corresponding notch, to receive it, was formed on the
upper side of the wall—plate, across its breadth; making, of
course, the wide part of the dovetail towards the exterior
part of the wall, so that the beams, when laid in their notches,
and the roof finished, would tend greatly to prevent the walls
from separating, though strained by inward pressure, or even
if having a tendency to spread through accidents or bad
workmanship. But beams fixed according to this mode,
having been found liable to be drawn to a certain degree out
of the notches in the wall-plates, from the shrinking of the
timber; a more secure mode has succeeded, which prevents
all possibility of one being drawn out of the other, however
unseasoned the stufi' may be, or however affected by changes
of weather. See COCKING.

CAULICOLES (from caulis, a stalk or stem), in the
Corinthian capital, eight stalks between each two of the
upper row of leaves, ramifying upwards, each into two
foliated branches, and seeming to support the volutes under
the abacus; each branch supporting one of the sixteen
volutes, or helices, two of which are placed at each angle,
and two in the middle of each face of the abacus.

CAULKING, in ship-building, the operation of driv-
ing a quantity of oakum, or old untwisted ropes, into
the seams of the planks in the . sides or decks of a
ship, to secure the interior from water.
is driven very hard into the seams, it is covered with
hot melted pitch, or rosin, to prevent the water from rot-
ting it.

CAULKING IRONS, chisels for driving the oakum into the
seams ; in caulking, these chisels are some broad, some round,
and others grooved.

CAUSIClVAY, in the most usual sense, denotes a common

hard raised way, maintained and repaired with stones and ;

rubbish.
It also signifies a massive construction of stone, stakes, and

After the oaknm ,

l

 

fascines; or an elevation of fat viscous earth, well beaten; .

serving either as a road across wet marshy places, or as a
mole to retain the waters of a pond, or prevent a river from
overflowing low lands.

CAUSTIC CURVE, in the higher geometry, a curve
formed by the concourse of the rays of light reflected from

some other curve. It is not of much use in building, as

C E I
this reflection only forms one of the known curves, which are
all specified under their respective heads.

CAVJEDIUM (from the Latin, cava and wdz'um), a vacant
space within the body of a building; in a Roman house, it

was what we now call a court. According to Vitruvius, there 3

were five kinds of cavaadia, denominated Tuscan, Corinthian,
tetrastyle, displuvz'nated, and testudinated.

The Tuscan cavaedium had a roof projecting from each wall,
leaving an aperture in the middle; it was suspended on
the walls without the intervention of any support from pillars
or columns.

 

The Corinthian ca vaedium was similar to the Tuscan, except 1

that the roof was supported by columns.
The tetrastyle, as its name implies, had one column at each
of the four angles of the roof, for its support.

The displuvinated, being without any roof, admitted a free .

access of the light to the windows of the surrounding rooms,
and was therefore calculated for winter apartments.

The testudinated, which was covered with a vault or con-
cave ceiling, rising from the walls, was used when the span
or impetus was not very great; the space above being used
for various kinds of apartments. The latter, however, can
hardly be deemed a court, though it comes under the general
denomination of cavaedium.

CAVAZION, CAVASION, or CAVATION, an excavation '

made in the ground for the foundation of a building.

CAVE, a subterraneous hollow place, or the space dug out
for cellarage and other purposes below the basement rooms of
a house. A common allowance for this is one-sixth of the
height of the building. Caves, without doubt, were among
the first habitations of men, before they became acquainted
with the method of rearing a covering for shelter. They
were also used in the early ages as receptacles for the
dead.

CAVEA, in the ancient amphitheatres, properly signified
the place where the wild beasts were kept; but the word
was also applied to the middle part, called the arena, and
frequently denoted the whole of the interior of the amphi-
theatres, as well as of the theatres.

CAVETTO (Italian, a diminutive of the Latin, cavus,

hollow), a concave moulding or cove, the curvature of whose ‘
section does not exceed the quarter of a circle ; its projection ‘

may be equal to its altitude, and should never be less than
two-thirds of it. The cavetto, which is the reverse of the
ovolo, or quarter-round, is sometimes used in the bed and
crowning mouldings of cornices; and forms the upper mem-
ber of the architrave of some of the most beautiful Grecian
Ionics. The hollow moulding used in the bases between the
tori, &c., is also called a cat‘etto.

CEILING (from the Latin, cwlum, the sky, or celare, to ‘

cover), the inside of the roof, or top of an apartment, opposed
to the surface of the floor. Ceilings may be either flat, or
covcd, or both. Coved ceilings are sometimes concave round
the margin and flat in the middle, or otherwise they are
vaulted. w0e VAULT. The former occupy from one-fifth to
one-fourth of the height of the room. The principal sections
of vaulted ceilings may be of various segments, equal to, or
less than semicircles, as may be most suitable to the height of
the room.

Flat ceilings are adorned with large compartments, or
foliages and other ornaments, or with both.

Compartment ceilings are either formed by raising mould-
ings on the surface, or by depressing the panels within a
moulded enclosure, which may be partly raised upon, and
parly recessed within the framing, or entirely recessed. The
figures/of the panels may be either polygonal, circular, or
elliptical. ' ‘he ceilings of the porticos, and ot‘ the interior of

 

 

 

 

 

 

CEI

123

CEL

 

ancient temples, were comparted, and the panels deeply
recessed ; the prominent parts between them representing, it
is said, the ancient manner of framing the beams of wood
which composed the floors. The mouldings on the sides of
the panels are sunk in one, two, or several degrees, like
inverted steps; and the bottoms of panels are most frequently
decorated with roses. The figures of these compartments are
mostly equilateral and equiangular. Triangles were seldom
used; but we find squares, hexagons, and octagons in great
abundance. The framing around the panels, in Grecian and
Roman examples, is constantly parallel, or of equal breadth ;
therefore, when squares are introduced, there is no other
variety; but hexagons will join in contiguity with one
another, or form the interstices into lozenges, or equilateral
triangles. Octagons naturally form two varieties, viz., that
of its own figure, and squares in the interstices ; this kind of
compartment is called cqfl'ering, and the recessed parts cqfl’ers,
which are used not only in plain ceilings, but also in cylin-
drical vaults.

The borders of the coffering are generally terminated with
belts, charged most frequently with foliage; and sometimes,
again, the foliage is bordered with guilloches, as in the Tem-
ple of Peace, at Rome.

In the ceiling of the entire temple at Balbec, coffers are
disposed around the cylindrical vault in one row, rising over
each intercolumn, and between every row of coffers is a pro-
iecting belt, ornamented with a guilloche, corresponding with
two semi-attached columns, in the same vertical plane; one

3 Column supporting each springing of the belt.

The ceilings of the ancients were commonly relieved by

‘ colour and gilding in various designs, which must have
‘ greatly added to the effect of the whole edifice; this practice

 

 

‘ such like

has been adopted in the new entrance-hall of the British
Museum with very great success.

The moderns follow the practice of the ancients in their
cupolas and cylindrical vaults, ornamenting them with coffers
and belts; and the belts again with frets, guilloches, or foliages.
Small panels are ornamented with roses, and large ones with
foliage or historical subjects. The grounds may be gilt, and
the ornaments white, partly coloured, or streaked with gold;
or the ornaments may be gilt, and the grounds white, pearl,
straw-colour, light-blue, or any tint that may agree best with
the ornaments. _ -

Some ceilings are painted, either wholly or in various com-
partments only. then a ceiling is painted to represent the
sky, it ought to be upon a plane or spheric surface, without
being coved at the edges.

Ceilings plane and coved are much employed in modern
apartments; they seem to be a kind of medium between the
horizontal and the various arched forms practised by the
ancients: they do not require so much height as the latter;
but they are neither so graceful nor yet so grand.

Vaulted ceilings are more expensive than plane ones;
but they are also susceptible of a greater variety of embel-
lishments.

When a ceiling is made on the under side of the rafters of
a roof, it is said to be camp-ceilcd, or tent—ceded.

'l‘he timbers of ceilings in Gothic edifices are seldom plas-
t‘mib although examples are occasionally found, as at
Rochester Cathedral, of the Decorated period, which is
divided by moulded ribs of wood. The timber ceilings are
either flat, concave, circular, or ranging with the principal
timbers of the roof; sometimes, however, we have vaulted
ceilings of timber, as at “Tinchester Cathedral. “Then flat,

. the ceilings are divided into panels by moulded ribs, which

at their intersection are enriched with bosses, pendants, or
ornaments; sometimes large panels are subdivided

 

 

 

by mouldings of a smaller section. The concave ceilings,
which present the form of a barrel vault, have most frequently
only a single,rib running along the top; when others are
introduced, it is but sparingly. In all cases, ceilings were
enriched with gilding and colours of the most brilliant kind,
examples of which are constantly being brought to light
during the restoration of old churches.

Plaster was very much used in the ceilings of Elizabeth’s
time and the succeeding reigns, in which period the ceilings
were generally flat, divided into panels by ribs, which, as well as
the panels themselves, were often adorned with an exuberance
of decoration moulded in the plaster, of which we have many
beautiful specimens.

Sofit amounts to nearly the same thing as a ceiling, except
that the former is applied to the under sides of apertures and
cornices, and the latter to a more extended space, as the top
or side of an apartment opposite to "the floor. The under
surface of an arch is also called the sofl‘it, or intrados, whether
it be the head of an aperture, or extended over an apartment.

Arched ceilings are described under the article VAULT.

CEILING, is also understood to be the lath and plaster at
the top of a room, or on the under side of common or ceiling
joists. ‘

CEILING, in carpentry, the joisting, ribbing, or bracketing
for supporting the lath and plaster of the upper surface, or
ceiling of a room. There are various kinds of ceilings, as
plane ceilings, cove ceilings, and plane and cove ceilings.
Under cove ceilings may be classed several other kinds, as
waggon—headed, or cylindrical ceilings, dome ceilings, groin
ceilings, and spandrel ceilings. For bracketing these different
figures, see the words BRACKETING and RIBBING; for the
definition of arch ceiling, see VAULT.

CEILING-FLOOR, the joisting and ceiling supported by the
beams of the roof.

CEILING-JOISTS, small beams, which are either mortised
into the sides of the binding-joists with pulley-mortises, or
notched upOn, and nailed up to the under sides of the said
joists. This last mode takes away from the height of the
room; but it is easier to execute, and is thought to be less
liable to break the plaster, than when the ends of the ceiling-
joists are inserted in pulley-mortises. When girders are
introduced in the floor, the under sides of the girders must
be furred, to correspond with the level of the under edges of
the ceiling-joists.

CELL, in carpentry. See SILL.

CELLA, in Roman antiquity, was variously applied. It
denoted, in temples, the interior or most retired place, called
by the Greeks, naos; and in baths, various apartments, as
the frigidaria, tepidaria, caldaria, 8:0. It was also used to
denote the apartments of prostitutes, and the bed-chambers
of domestics.

CELLA, was likewise applied to monasteries, to denote
a lesser one, subordinate to a greater; and was even applied,
vice versa, to rich monasteries not dependent on any.

CELLAR, in ancient writers, a conservatory for provisions,
whether to eat or drink. The term comes from the Latin
celarium, and is of the same import with cell/1.

CELLAR, as now used, is generally applied to an apartment
in which liquors are deposited. Cellars are commonly placed
in the lower story of the dwelling-house, sunk beneath the
surface of the ground ; sometimes they are placed under
ground, and are entered from the area before the building ;
they are sometimes also placed in out-houses. When they
are placed within the dwelling-house, or contiguous to an
out-building, they should have a north exposure.
should be kept cool, and consequently remote from any place
that would communicate heat, and care should be taken to

 

 

Cellars .‘

 

l
l

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CEL l

24 CEL

 

preserve them of as uniform temperature as possible: for this
purpose they should be constructed with double walls and
double vaults,-leaving a hollow space all round.

Cellars, and other places vaulted under ground, were
called by the Greeks lag/paged. ,

CELLARAGE, the number of cellars which a dwelling-
house requires, whether one or many.

CELTIC, or DRUIDICAL ARCHITECTURE. A term applied
to a class of structures composed of rough unhewn stones of
great size, the erection of which is generally attributed to
that family of mankind classed under the name of Celts,
more especially to the Druids. ,

These erections are of various descriptions, some consist-
ing of a single stone, others comprising many hundreds, their
arrangement also differs very greatly, yet at the same time
there is a general similarity which readily marks their rela-
tion. The remains are more numerous in this country than
in any other, but they are by no means confined to it, similar
erections being found not only in the neighbouring islands,
in France, Germany, the Netherlands, Portugal, Sweden,
and Denmark, but also in Phoenicia, Palestine, India, Mala-
bar, Persia and China, and even in the western continent.

To account for the existence of these works in such
remote regions, their construction has been attributed to the
Celtze. These Celts, or Gauls, as they were termed by
the Romans, are supposed to be descendants of Gomer, the
son of Japhet, whose posterity were called after his name,
Gomerians, a title which is identical with the Cimmerians of
the Greeks, and the Cimbri of the Latins. That the Celtae
were a branch of the same stock as the Cimmerians, is gene-
rally allowed, and it would seem, that they followed in their
migrations a south-westerly course, while the Cimmerians
pursued a northern, and afterwards a westerly direction.
When and where the great family separated is not so univer-
sally agreed upon, some writers asserting that they divided
before they took their departure from the East, others main-
taining that the separation (lid not take place before they had
advanced some distance into Europe. The latter class of
writers, who rest mainly on the authority of Herodotus, sup-
pose that the two branches of the one family travelled toge—
ther until they were overtaken and harassed by the Scy-
thians, when a large number, the Celtic, moved southward,
and spread westward from Asia Minor to Italy, and after-
wards to Spain and Britain. It is certain that the Cimme-
rians were closely followed by the succeeding horde of
emigrants, the Scythians, and were by them continually
pressed further westwards; it is also generally allowed, that
Great Britain was peopled principally by the northern hordes
who passed through Denmark and Gaul. If we follow the
theory of those who place the separation at the later period
on this side the Sea of Azoph, we shall have to account in
some other manner for the existence of Celtic remains
in Syria and Phoenicia, as well as in India. This difliculty
is obviated by attributing the introduction of such a mode of
building into this country to the Phoenicians; but then we are
left to account for the appearance ofthe same in the north. The
supporters of this opinion quote the statement of Caesar, that
Druidism originated in Britain, and was carried thence to
Gaul; and from whom, say they, are the Britons likely to have
learned it, but from the Phoenicians, with whom we know they
carried on a trade in tin, and who, on account of the advan-
tages obtained from that traffic, were very jealous of their
knowledge of the island being extended to other nations; it
is allowed, that the structures we are considering were closely
alliei to Druidism. But this theory, as we said before,
‘aises the difficulty about the existence of similar works in
the north. unless it be admitted indeed that the Phoenicians ,

and the northern tribes are of the same family, and if so,
we allow its early separation, which is the fact for which the
opposite party contend; the only difference being this, that
in one case, we need only account for one separation:
while in the other, we must necessarily suppose a second.
The fact of the identity of the Phoenicians with the
northern tribes of the Cimmerians does not rest solely on his-
toric evidence, it is also demonstrable from other facts, such
as the common origin of their languages, and the similarity
of their customs and religious observances. As far as the
former is concerned, there seems to be sufficient evidence to
show that. the Hebrew, Phoenician, Sanscrit, Irish, and
Manx languages, are derived from the same source; and as
regards the latter, Dr. Borlase, in his attempt to controvert
the opinion, admits that the customs and ceremonies of Asia
and of Northern Europe were known and practised by the
British Druids, although he maintains that the Britons had
several Observances which were peculiar to themselves. It
would indeed seem that Druidism appeared in a more
matured and systematic form in these islands, than else-
where, and this is but reasonable, for, as was before remarked,
the Cimbrians were a nomadic race, and were constantly
being driven forward by the Scythians ; until, as a last
resource, they crossed the German ocean into Britain : here
defended on all sides by the sea, they had but little to fear
from their aggressors, and were precluded from making fur-
ther movements westward; here therefore they permanently
settled, and betook themselves to the arts of peace, and thus
was their religion elaborated and reduced to a system; and as, l
in the case of Numa, and the early Romans, religion estab-
lished peace, so in this instance did peace establish and i
extend religion. 1

From the above observations, we think, may reasonably .
be drawn the following conclusions, namely, that the erection l
of all structures of this kind is to be attributed to one race
of people, and their appearance in such ditferent and distant l
quarters to the fact of that race being migratory or nomadic.

The monuments erected by the Celts may be divided and
classed as follows :—Lithoi, composed severally of one, two,
and three stones, to the first of which is applied the distin-
guishing appellation monolithon, and to the last, that of
trilithon. They have all the common name of Cromlehs.
After these come the kist-vaens, or chests, composed of four
stones, and lastly, circles comprising a large number of stones.
Further, we have logan, or rocking-stones, tolmen stones,
cheese—rings, and cairns.

The most simple of these structures are the monolithoi,
or single stones, of which we find a great number in various
parts of the British Islands. The first mention of such stones
we tind, is of that set up by Jacob after his dream, which he
named Bethel; the next is that set up by Joshua under an
oak by the sanctuary, as a witness unto the Israelites, lest
they denied their God. Another stone is spoken of at a later
period, called the stone of Abel, upon which the ark was
rested; and another, which was placed by Samuel between
Mizpeh and Shen as a memorial of the Divine assistance.
“'e read also of the stone I‘Izel, and the great stone in Gibeon.
Many such stones are seen in Palestine at the present day, but
not in the places mentioned in the Old Testament. The same
kind of stones are almost universal in India, few, if any, of the
temples being without them; there are two also in Tyre. It
is suggested, that the pillars of Hercules were of this class,
and with some probability, as Arrian says, that “ Gades was
built by the Phoenicians; the sacrifices and ceremonies there
performed are all after the Phoenician manner ;" and Strabo
adds, that there were here two pillars dedicated to Hercules
Plato mentions a pillar connected in some way with the

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CEL

12

5 CEL

 

Amazons, and similar lithoi were to be seen at Megara,
at Cheronaea, in Thessaly, Ionia, and Mauritania, one also
within the walls of Athens. Cyrus erected obelisks over the
grave of Abradates, king of Susa, and over those of his Wife
and officers. Further north we find such stones in Denmark,
Sweden, Scotland, Ireland, and in our own country.

As these stones are of necessity much alike in all cases,
we need only give a description of one, to afford a general
idea of the whole of them; we select that of Rudstone, in
the East Riding of Yorkshire. It stands about four yards
from the north-east corner of Rudstone Church, and rises
above the ground twenty-four feet; if, as is stated, it mea-
sures the same below ground, its total length will be forty-
eight feet; its breadth is six feet, and thickness two feet;
all four sides are slightly convex. The stone is of a very hard
quality, and its weight is calculated at above forty tons.

The uses of the monolithoi seem to have been various. That
some were used as sepulcliral monuments, is allowed by all;
and some allow them to have had no other use; such was the
pillar set up by Jacob over Rachel’s grave, also those erected
by Cyrus, as before mentioned. Some were trophies of vic-
tories, as that erected by Samuel after his defeat of the Phi-
listines; some were witnesses to covenants, as that set up by
Jacob and Laban, and that of Joshua; whilst others are
merely boundary stones.

Similar in description are the curious round towers so pre-
valent in Ireland. which are generally found in the locality
of a Christian church. a situation which is accounted for by the
supposition that the Christian missionaries were accustomed
to rear their edifices near the spot where the pagan temples
had stood. It is certain that these towers are very old, as
they were considered ancient even in the twelfth century;
they vary both in height and construction, but their general
appearance is that of a circular obelisk tapering gradually
towards the summit, and finishing in a conical roof. See
RoUND TOWERS.

These obelisks are also termed Cromlehs, a word signifying
a stone of adoration ; also Bothal, which doubtless is the same
as the llebrew, Bethel, both terms signifying the House of
God. Under these names are also included monuments
of two or three stones, the former comprising an upright
pillar with a cross-piece on the top, and the latter two
upright stones, with a third at the top, stretching from one
to the other; the latter are named likewise trilithons.

Next to the lithoi, or cromlehs, stand the kist-vaens, or
monuments of four stones, consisting of three uprights, and
one horizontal stone covering the whole; they are often
found in, or near circles, and are frequently accompanied
with barrows of various kinds. Kist-vaen is a Welsh term,
and signifies stone-chest, but the term quoit is frequently
applied to the same structures, more especially in Cornwall,
and there is one near Cloyne, in Ireland, named Carig-Croith,
which is interpreted Sun’s House. Such monuments are
found in abundance, and in every quarter of the globe; we
select one as a specimen, Kit’s Coty House, Kent.

This monument stands near to the village of Aylesford,
and is thus described by Stowe:-—“ It consists of four flat
stones, one of them standing upright, between two others,
inclosing the edges of the first, and the fourth laid flat upon
the other three, and is of such height that men may stand on
either side the middle stone in time of storm or tempest, safe
from Wind and rain, being defended with the breadth of the
stones, having one at their backs, one on either side, and
the fourth over their heads.” “About a coit’s cast from this
monument, lieth another great stone, a great part thereof in
the-ground, as fallen down where the same had been afiixcd.”
lliis description answers very well to its appearance at the

2 K

-__._‘ , ,._, _ .__,__.. _,

 

present day, with the exception that the separate stone last
mentioned, is now entirely buried in the ground. The
dimensions are given as follows in Grose’s Antiquities :——
“ Upright stone on the north or north-west side, eight feet
high, eight feet broad, two feet thick; estimated weight, eight
tons and a half. Upright stone on the south or south-east
side, eight feet high, seven and a half feet broad, two feet
thick; estimated weight, eight tons. Upright stone between
these, very irregular; medium dimensions, five feet high,
five feet broad, fourteen inches thick; estimated weight
about two tons. Upper stone very irregular; eleven feet
long, eight feet broad, two feet thick; estimated weight
about ten tons seven hundred-weight.”

Monuments of the same description are to be seen in
Palestine, the following account of some of which is given
by Captains Irby and Maiigles:—“ On the banks of the
Jordan, at the foot of the mountain, we observed some very
singular, interesting, and certainly very ancient tombs, com-
posed of great rough stones, resembling what is called Kit’s
Coty House, in Kent. They are built of two long side-
stones, with one at each end, and a small door in front,
mostly facing the north; this door was of stone. All were
of rough stones, apparently not hewn, but found in flat frag-
ments, many of which are seen about the spot in huge flakes.
Over the whole was laid an immense flat piece, projecting
both at the sides and ends. What rendered these tombs more
remarkable was, that the interior was not long enough for
a body, being only five feet. This is occasioned by both the
front and back stones being considerably within the ends of
the side ones. There are about twenty-seven of these tombs,
very irregularly situated.” This description would answer
very well for our own erections of the kind, were it not for
the second stone and doorway, no traces of which are to be
found in these islands. Sir Richard Colt Hoare gives two
representations of similar stones in Malabar, but he does
not accompany them with any description.

Numerous monuments of this kind are to be found through-
out the British Isles, but they occur most frequently in Corn-
wall and Wales, also in the Isle of Anglesea, the last resort
of the Druids, and in Ireland.

What the use of these caves were is not agreed upon,
some claiming them as sacrificial altars, others as tombs, and
others again as simply sacred constructions answering to the
ark or sacred chest of the Jews. The former position is
maintained by King, who, after referring to the account given
by the Romans of the human sacrifices of the Druids, con-
tends for the peculiar applicability of such erections to
that purpose; but his opinions do not seem to be borne out
by facts. As a decisive argument in the matter, he cites an
instance of a structure of the kind existing in the county of
Louth, Ireland, which is called the killing-stone; but if this
hold good as a proof, 3. similar one may be advanced for the
second class of opinions, in the case of the Trevethy Stone
in Cornwall, the word Trevedi signifying, in the British
language, it is said, the Place of Graves; and besides this,
Kit’s Coty House is transferred into Catigern’s house of coits,
the term coit being translated large flat stone. This place is
so named, it is averred, from the fact of Catigern being
buried there, after the battle with Hengist and Horsa, which
occurred at Aylesford, and in which he was slain.

We have now arrived at the largest and most interesting
class of monuments, the Druidical circles ; they consist
of one or more circles of upright stones placed at short
intervals from each other ; the circles are usually concentric,
but we have not unfrequently two smaller circles placed side
by side within a larger one, and the whole surrounded with
a circular ditch and vallum. The stones composing the cir-

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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126

CEL

 

cles are not always single, but sometimes consist of trilithons
sometimes of kist-vaens. Such erections are found in various
localities, although more frequently in this country than else-
where. Mention is made of them in the Sacred writings in
more than one instance: Moses is said to have erected an
altar, and twelve pillars, according to the twelve tribes of
Israel, ere he ascended the mount to receive the law; he also
gives directions to the Israelites at a later period, that upon
crossing Jordan they should set up in mount Ebal great
stones, and plaster them with plaster, and especially orders
that they should be whole stones, and unwrought; we
accordingly find Joshua setting up twelve stones in the
midst of Jordan, and taking twelve further forward, and
pitching them in Gilgal, as a memorial of the passage of the
Jordan ;-—it is worthy of remark, that the word Gilgal signi-
fies a wheel or circle, and doubtless the place was so named
from the circle of stones there set up. Such circles are found
likewise in Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and Iceland, in
which last place they are termed Doom circles; they are
spoken of by Clarke as existing in the Troad, and Sir
\Villiam Ouseley gives views and description of one to be
seen in Persia; but what is most remarkable, there exist
three in America, one upon a high rock on the bank of the
river Winnipigon.

Such structures were unquestionably temples in which the
Druidical services were performed, and not only so, but they
seem to have been the prototype of all heathen temples, for
we gather from authentic sources, that the most ancient
heathen faues were all open to the sky without roof of any
kind. It is argued by some, that they were used merely for
civil purposes, or that some of them at least were exclusively
so employed; that they were all so employed we do
not for a moment doubt, but we contend that they were all
likewise employed for sacred purposes, indeed, the govern-
ment of the people was so implicit with their religion, that
the Druids were at one and the same time both priests and
rulers.

The circles are supposed by some to have been closely con-
nected with astrology, and indeed the agreement of the
number and arrangement of the stones with the divisions
of the ancient cycles is remarkable, as will be seen by
referring to the tables of Dr. Stukeley, which are given
in the following page.

The most remarkable of the circular erections in Great
Britain are those of Stonehenge and Abury, both of which
are situate in the neighbourhood of Salisbury Plain. The
former, about seven miles north of Salisbury, is approached
by a broad avenue protected on either side by a vallum, or
long mound of earth; this avenue leads into a large circular
platform three hundred feet in diameter, enclosed from the
surrounding plain by means of a vallum fifteen feet in
height, with a ditch on either side of it, and, as some sup-
pose, by an inner circle of stones, some few having been
found in immediate proximity to the outer circle. In the
avenue, at a distance of about a hundred feet from the cir-
cular ditch, is a large stone inclining towards you as you
approach, and a similar one in the ditch at the entrance.
Passing onwards in a straight direction you approach a large
number of stones composing the temple, more especially so
termed, which consists of an outer circle of stones four-
teen feet in height, seventeen of which still remain, six
scattered in various parts of the circle, but eleven on the
north-east side, at equal distances from each other, forming
a continuous Segment of a circle, thus demonstrating the
form and position of the whole. This circle consisted
originally of thirty stones, surmounted by a continuous impost
of large flat stones, which were fitted on to the uprights by

 

mortise and tenon, and formed a complete and regular circle.
Within this enclosure is another of a similar figure, and
eighty-three feet in diameter, composed of the same number
of stones, which however are of smaller dimensions and
without imposts. Within this again were five separate
structures, termed trilithons, each consisting of two large
stones surmounted with an impost, and having three smaller
stones a short distance in advance. These structures were
situate, one immediately opposite the avenue, and two on
each side of it, leaving an unoccupied space for an entrance.
The larger upright stones were more lofty than any of the
others, one of them measuring upwards of twenty-one and
a half feet in height; thus overtopping all the outer circles.
In front of the central trilithon, is placed, by Stukeley, a low
flat stone, supposed to be the altar. The avenue noticed at
the commencement of this description is continued in a north-
easterly direction for a distance of about a third of a mile,
where it separates into two branches, the one leading south-
ward between two rows of barrows, the other in the opposite
direction for more than a mile and a half to a spot called the
cursus, which is a flat tract of land, bounded on each side
by banks and ditches, and at its extremities by barrows or
tumuli.

The erection at Abury, although of more rude construc-
tion than Stonehenge, is of more stupendous dimensions;
few of the stones remain at the present day, great numbers
having been employed in the erection of the neighbouring
town, yet we have accounts of many which existed at a pre-
vious period, with the aid of which, and of his own experi-
enced judgment, Dr. Stukeley made out a plan of the original
structure entire. It consisted of a large circular enclosure
of more than twenty-eight acres, surrounded with a great
vallum and ditch, the inner slope of the former measuring
eighty feet, its circumference at the apex being four thousand
four hundred and forty-two feet. On the inner side of the
ditch, and close upon its bank, was a circle thirteen hundred
feet in diameter, composed of one hundred immense stones
of an average height of seventeen feet, and placed at a. dis-
tance of about twenty-seven feet from each other. Within
this outer circle were two smaller ones, situate side by side-
on a diameter running from north-west to south-east, of the
more northerly of which some stones of great size are still
standing. These circles consist of two concentric rows of
stone, within which, in the southern circle, was a central
obelisk, towards which, it is said, the worshippers used to
turn during the celebration of the rites, and in the same
position, on the northern circle, a structure termed a cove,
consisting of three large stones placed towards each other at
an obtuse angle. The distance of the centres of the north
and south circles is given at five hundred and eighteen feet,
and the distances of their circumferences at eighty-six feet,
thus determining the length of the diameters, four hundred
and thirty-two feet. These admeasurements, however, must
be received with some reserve, as the remains were so scanty
at the time they were taken, as to leave the exact position of
the circles or their centres a matter of great uncertainty.
Of this structure, which it is calculated could originally
boast in all of more than six hundred stones, but few portions
remain, the rest having been employed either in the erection
of the town of the same name, which stands within its
boundaries, or in constructing and repairing its roads.

From two entrances on the southern side of the exterior
circle, extend two avenues, each formed by a double line ofi
upright stones, and of more than a mile in length. One
of them running in a south-easterly direction, the breadth of t
which averages fifty feet, led to an elliptical piece of ground
on the top of a hill called the Hackpen, enclosed within two

 

 

 

U... _,_. _.__-.__._. ___. x.

 

 

 

 

 

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127

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hundred upright stones, and surroundedon all sides with
barrows. The south-western avenue, conSIStmg of about two
hundred stones. is nearly a mile and a half in length, and
terminates 111 a single stone. It has to be remarked, that
both these avenues run in a curved direction, and are. hence
by some supposed to represent a serpent, thus connecting the
religion of the Druids with the early and prevalent supersti-
tion of serpent-worship; the western avenue answers to the
tail of the reptile; the large circle to the body; whlle the head
is represented by the Hackpen, aword which, 1n some lan-
guages, signifies serpent. The Circles of this portion of the
structure are concentric, the outer one containing forty stones,
having a diameter of one hundred and fifty feet, and the
inner, which is comprised of eighteen stones, a diameter of
fbl‘ty-eigllt feet.

Between the two avenues just mentioned, are three mounds,
or hills, one of which, situate at the extreme south, and nearly
midway between the extremities of the avenues, is remark-
able as being the largest artificial mound in Europe; it IS
named Silbury Hill. The base of this mound covers a space
of five acres and thirty-four perches, and its circumference
is two thousand and twenty-seven feet; the perpendicular
height is one hundred and seventy feet, the length of the
slope three hundred and sixteen feet, and the diameter of
the platform, at its apex, one hundred and twenty feet.
Besides this and other erections connected with Abury, are
a variety of Druidical remains scattered in all directions for
some distance round the great circle.

The number of stones employed at Abury and Sonehenge,
with their distribution, as given by Dr. Stukeley :—

 

ABURY. STONEHENGE.
Stones. Stones.
The great circle contains ...... 100 The great-circle uprights ...... 30
North temple, outer circle 30 The great-circle imposts 30
North temple, inner circle 12 Inner circle ..................... 40
South temple, outer circle 30 Trilithon uprights ............... 10
South temple, inner circle 12 Trilithon imposts .......... 5
The cove and altar ............... 4 Inmost stones .................. 19
Obelisk and altar ............... 2 Altar .............................. 1
The eastern avenue ............ 200 Stones within the vallum ...... 2
The western avenue ............ 200 Large table stone ............... 1
Ilackpen, outer circle ......... 40 Distant pillar ................... .. 1
llackpen, inner circle ......... 18 Stone at entrance ............... 1
Long stone-cove jambs ........ l
The Ring stone .................. 1
Closing stone of tail ............ 1
Total ............ 652 Total ............ 140

Mr. Toland gives the following account of a remarkable
structure of this kind. “In the isle of Lewis,” he says, “at the
village of Classerniss, there is one of these temples very
remarkable. The circle consists of twelve obelisks, about
seven feet high each, and distant from each other six feet.
In the centre stands a stone thirteen feet high, in the perfect
shape of the rudder of a ship. Directly south from the
circle, there stand four obelisks running out in a line; as
also another such line due east, and a third to the west, the
number and distances of the stones being in these wings
the same; so that this temple, the most entire that can be,
is at the same time both round and winged. But to the
north, there reach, by way of avenue, two straight ranges
of obelisks, of the same bigness and distances with those of
the circle; yet the ranges themselves are eight feet distant,
and each consisting of nineteen stones, the thirty-ninth being
the entrance to the avenue.” Dr. Borlase mentions three cir-
cles of stone in the parish of St. Clare, Cornwall, called the
Hurlers, which are separate and distinct from each other, but
whose centres are in one straight line.

Amongst some few of the more important circles besides

 

 

 

those already mentioned, may be classed that of Stanton
Drew, consisting originally of three circles, of the larger
of which five stones remain, and of the smaller, a larger numo
her; the stones are much inferior in point of size to those
already described. Rollrich is another circle of stones near
Chipping Norton, Oxfordshire, the highest of which is not
more than five feet above the ground ; they are irregular, and
of unequal height. Another is found near Penrith, Cumber-
land, which consists of seventy-seven stones, each ten feet in
height, and before them, at the entrance, stands a single one
by itself, fifteen feet high. Similar structures are found in
other parts of England, Scotland, and the Isles, but none of
them approaching in size those of Abury or Stonehenge.

There exists at Carnac, in Brittany, a monument, which
in size approaches nearer to Abury than any other such
work, but which, in its form and general character, is perfectly
unique; it is of ruder formation than either Abury or Stone-
henge, “ and consists of eleven rows of unwrought pieces of
rock or stone, merely set up on end in the earth, without
any pieces crossing them at top. These stones are of great
thickness, but not eXceeding nine or twelve feet in height;
there may be some few fifteen feet. The rows are placed from
fifteen to eighteen paces from each other, extending in length
-—taking rather a semi-circular direction—above half a mile,
on unequal ground, and towards one end upon a hilly site.
When the length of these rows is considered, there must have
been nearly three hundred stones in each, and there are
eleven rows; this will give some idea of the immensity of
the work, and the labour such a construction required. It is
said that there are above four thousand stones still remain-
ing.” This account is taken from Mrs. Stoddart’s Tour in
Normandy and Brittany; but a French writer gives the size
of some of the stones at twenty-one and twenty-two feet,
and he especially alludes to one specimen, which was twenty-
two feet high, twelve broad, and six deep; its weight is given
at two hundred and fifty-seven thousand pounds.

Logan stones, or rocking-stones, as they are less technically
termed, are stones, often of an immense size, poised on others,
or on natural rocks, in such a peculiar manner, as to move with
the slightest touch. They seem to have been erected at vari-
ous times and places. They were known to the Greeks, and
called by them N00: spybvxot, or live stones, also named
Petrae Ambrosiae, from the ceremony they underwent of
being anointed with oil. Pliny takes notice of one erected
by Lycippus, at Tarentum, and also of one at Cyzicum,
which is said to have been left by the Argonauts; but the
most celebrated was the Gygonean stone, near the Pillars of
Hercules, of which Ptolemy Hephaestion relates, that it
stands near the ocean, and may be moved with the stalk of an
asphodel, but cannot be removed by any force. Pliny like-
wise says of one at Harpava, in Asia, that it is of so strange
and wonderful :1 nature, that if even a finger is laid on it, it
will move, but if you thrust it with your whole body, it will
not move at all.

These stones are very common in Britain ; there are
several in Cornwall and Yorkshire, as also in Scotland,
where they are called Claca Breath, or stones of judgment;
it is known that there existed formerly several in the island
of Iona, which have since been destroyed. In some cases
the stone rests on two points, in others on one; it is said that
the junction was formed in one instance in Scotland, where
the stone had been removed, by a protuberant knob in the
upper stone fitting into a socket.

A stone of this nature is that near Penzance, Cornwall,
named Men-amber; it is eleven feet in length, four feet in
depth, and six in width. Its equilibrium was destroyed
by Cromwell’s soldiers by breaking otlY a portion. Another

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CED

128 CEM

 

logan stone situate at Land’s End, is said to weigh seventy
tons, it stands on one of a stupendous group of granite rocks
which rise to a prodigious altitude, and overhang the sea;
it was thrown down by a ship’s crew, but the good sense
of the inhabitants obliged them to replace it.

Borlase was the first to notice a structure of a somewhat
different character to the last, called Tolmen, or, Hole of
Stone, consisting of a large stone supported at two points
by others, leaving a space between them, through which
it is supposed devotees passed for religious purposes. Of
a similar opening at the extremity of Malabar Hill, in the
island of Bombay, a writer says—“ This place is used by
the Gentoos as a purification for their sins, which they say
is effected by their going in at the opening below, and
emerging out of the cavity above.” We find stones of this
kind in Cornwall and in Ireland, the most noted is that in
the parish of Constantine, Cornwall, which is thus described
by Dr. Borlase :—“ It is one vast egg-like stone, placed on
the points of two natural rocks, so that a man may creep
under the great one, and between its supporters, through
a passage about three feet wide, and as much high. The
longest diameter of this stone is thirty—three feet, the depth
thirteen feet, and the breadth eighteen feet six inches.
I measured one half of the circumference, and found it,
according to my computation, forty-eight feet and a half,
so that this stone is ninety—seven feet in circumference,
about sixty feet across the middle, and by the best informa-
tion I can get, contains at least seven hundred and fifty tons
of stone. Getting up a ladder to View the top of it, we
found the whole surface worked like an imperfect or mutilated
honey-comb, into basons; one much larger than the rest
was at the south end, about seven feet long; another at the
north, about five; the rest smaller, seldom more than one
foot, often not so much: the sides and shape irregular.
Most of these basons discharge into the two principal ones
(which lie in the middle of the surface) those only excepted
which are near the brim of the stone, and they have little
lips or channels which discharge the water they collect over
the sides of the Tolmcn ; and the flat rocks which lie under-
neath, receive the droppings in basons cut into their surfaces.
This stone is no less wonderful for its position than for its
size, for although the under part is nearly semicircular, yet
it rests on the two large rocks, and so slight and detached
does it stand, that it touches the two under stones, but as
it were on their points.

Wring-cheeses, so named from their resemblance in form
to an ancient cheese-press, consist of large masses of stone
placed one upon the other for several tiers, the whole resting
on a base ofmuch smaller dimensions than the superincumbent
mass. By some it is contended that they are merely the
productions of nature, but it seems more reasonable to sup-
pose, that at least some art has been employed in their
formation. They are by some termed rock-idols, under
the supposition that they were worshipped as gods.

One such monument, situate in the parish of St. Clare,
Cornwall, Dr. Borlase thus describes :-—“ The rock now
called Wring-cheese, is a group of rocks that attracts the
admiration of all travellers. On the top stone of this, were
two regular basons; part of one of which has been broken
off. The upper stone was, as I am informed, a logan or
rocking-stone, and might, when it was entire, be easily moved
with a pole, but now great part of that weight which kept
it on poise, is taken away. The whole heap of stone is
thirty-two feet high, the great weight of the upper part and
the slenderness of the under part make every one wonder
how such an ill-grounded pile could resist, for so many ages,
he storms of such an exposed situation.” Mr. I-Iayman

 

 

Rooke mentions one situate on Brimham Craggs, Yorkshire,
the circumference of which is forty-six feet, and the pedestal
on which it rests, only one foot by two feet seven inches.

Cairns are conical heaps of loose stones frequently found
on the top of hills or artificial tumuli; the term is derived
by Mr. Roland from two Hebrew words, signifying coped
heaps. On these are supposed to have been kindled fires,
at which certain religious ceremonies took place, such as
that mentioned as being observed by the Israelites in making
their children pass through the fire, in imitation of their
heathen neighbours; thus connecting the customs of the
British Druids with those of Asia and Phoenicia. From
these Druidical practices may have arisen perchanee the
ordeal by fire of later times.

At New Grange, near Drogheda, Ireland, is a curious
sepulchral pyramid of stone, formed of pebble stones, the
weight of the solid contents of which amounted to no less
than one hundred and eighty-nine thousand tons. The plan
of this monument is curvilinear, and covers about two acres
of ground, and is surrounded by a number of large unhewn
stones, rising about seven feet above the ground; the height
of the pyramid is calculated at seventy feet. A great
number of stones, removed for paving and other purposes,
led to the discovery of a passage leading into an interior
vaulted apartment. This passage began about forty feet
within the body of the work, and is entirely composed of
large flag stones ; its length is sixty-one feet, the width three
feet, and the height varies from two to nine feet. This
passage leads into an octangular vaulted apartment, whose
diameter is seventeen feet, and its height twenty ; the vault
or dome is remarkable as being composed of overlapping
horizontal stones, the upper ones projecting inwardly beyond
the lower, sustained in their position by having a larger
portion of each stone upon the one beneath it, than projects
towards the interior ; this construction is exactly similar to
that of the Tomb of Agamemnon, or treasury of Atreus at
Mycene. The side of this irregular octagon immediately
opposite the entrance, is formed into a niche, as are also two
sides at the right and left, similar to the erections called
kist-vaens, the last two containing each a rock-bason. This
building is, we believe, the only one of its kind existing in
Britain.

We have not included the barrows or tumuli in the list
of monuments to be considered, simply because they can
scarcely be considered to have any great connection with
Architecture, but as they are closely allied to the structures
we have been considering, we ought not to pass them by
without notice. They are mere mounds of earth, of various
shapes, raised, as is supposed, over the graves of memof rank,
and are found in great numbers in the neighbourhood of the
larger monuments: some of them are of oblong shape, raised
like coped tombs, some triangular, some circular and oval,
of which again some are convex, some concave. Some are
of the shape of bowls, and some of bells, while others are of
a conical form; occasionally two are formed together, and
are called twin-barrows, but more frequently they are seen
separate. Many of them have been opened, and are found
to contain not only human remains, but also spear heads and
other implements of war, besides articles of domestic use,
such as earthen vessels and the like. Their contents deter-
mine as well their use, as the date of their formation.

CEMENT, the word cement may be defined as any
glutinous or other substance, capable of uniting bodies in
close cohesion, or making them adhere firmly together, so as
to form of the whole one solid mass—as mortar, glue, solder,
asphaltum, 8w. Cements are of various kinds, but, for conve-

 

vience, may be divided into NATURAL and ARTIFICIAL.

 

 

 

 

 

CEM

129

CEM

 

Natural cements are found in Russia, France, and other
countries, and indeed the Substance so extensively used in
England, and very improperly termed Roman cement, is
nothing more than a natural cement, resulting from a slight
calcination of a calcareous mineral, containing about 31 per
cent of ochreous clay, and a few hundredths of carbonate
of magnesia and manganese. It may be observed, that
when the proportion of clay in calcareous minerals exceeds
27 to 30 per cent, it is seldom converted into lime by
calcination, but they then furnish a kind of natural cement,
which can be used by pulverizing it, and kneading it With
water.

There are some natural cements which do not set in water
for many days, but these are now rarely used ; those which
solidify quickly, being generally preferred. The adhesrve
power of some cements in the open air, is very remarkable;
and we have ourselves seen 33 bricks stuck to one another
by Roman cement, and projecting at right angles from the
side of a wall.

The argillaceous limestones, and the artificial mixtures
of pure lime and clay, in the proportions requisite to con-
stitute hydraulic lime by the ordinary calcination, become
natural or artificial cements, when they have been subjected
merely to a simple incandescence, kept up for some minutes.

Calcareous cements may be classed according to the three
following divisions, namely, simple calcareous cements, water
cements, maltha, and mastics. ‘

lst, Simple calcareous cements include those kinds of
mortar which are employed in land-building, and consist
of lime, sand, and fresh water.

Calcnreous earths are converted into quick-lime by burn-
ing, which being wetted with water falls into an impalpable
powder, with great extrication of heat: and if in this state
it is beat with sand and water, the mass will concrete and
become a stony substance, which will be more or less perfect
according to its treatment, or to the quality and quantities
of ingredients.

When carbonated lime has been thoroughly burned, it is
deprived of its water, and all, or nearly all, of its carbonic
acid. Much of the water, during the process of calcination,
being carried off in the form of steam.

Lime-stone loses about 3 of its weight by burning, and
when fully burned, falls freely, and will produce something
more than double the quantity of powder, or slacked lime, in
measure, that the burnt lime-stone consisted of.

Quick-lime, by being exposed to the air, absorbs carbonic
acid with greater or less rapidity, as its texture is less or
more hard; and this, by continued exposure, becomes unfit
for the composition of mortar; hence it is that quick-lime
made of chalk, cannot be kept for the same length of time
between the burning and slacking, as that made from
stone.

Marble, chalk, and limestone, with respect to their use in
cements, may be divided into two kinds—simple lime-stone,
or pure carbonate of lime, and argillo-ferruginous lime, which
contains from 711, to Tl? of clay, and oxide of iron, previous to
calcination: there are no external marks by which these can
be distinguished from each other, but whatever may have
been the colour in the crude state, the former, when calcined,
becomes white, and the latter more or less of an ochrey
tinge. The white kinds are more abundant, and when made
into mortar will admit of a greater portion of sand than the
brown, consequently are more generally employed in the
composition of mortar; but the brown lime is by far the best
for all kinds of cement. If white, brown, and shell lime,
recently slacked, be separately beat up with a little water
Into a stiff paste, it will be found that the white lime, whether

2:.

 

made from chalk, lime-stone, or marble, will not acquire any
degree of hardness; the brown lime will become considerably
indurated; and the shell lime will be concreted into a firm
cement, which, though it will fall to pieces in water, is well
qualified for interior finishings, where it can be kept dry.

It was the opinion of the ancients, and is still received
among our modern builders, that the hardest lime-stone fur—
nishes the best lime for mortar; but the experiments of
Dr. Higgins and Mr. Smeaton have proved this to be a mis-
take, and that the softest chalk lime, if thoroughly burned,
is equally durable with the hardest stone lime, or even
marble: but though stone and chalk lime are equally good
under this condition, there is a very important practical
difference between them ; as the chalk lime absorbs carbonic
acid with much greater avidity; and if it be only partially
calcined, will, on the application of water, fall into a coarse
powder, which stone lime will not do.

For making mortar, the lime should be immediately used
from the kiln; and in slacking it, no more water should be
allowed than what is just sufficient: and for this purpose
Dr. Higgins recommends lime—water.

The sand made use of should be perfectly clean; if there
is any mixture of clay or mud, it should be divested of either,
or both, by washing it in running water. Mr. Smeaton has
fully shown by experiments, that mortar, though of the best
quality, when mixed with a small proportion of unburnt
clay, never acquires that hardness, which, without this addi-
tion, it speedily would have attained. If sea-sand be used,
it requires to be well washed with fresh water, to dissolve
the salt with which it is mixed, otherwise the cement into
which it enters, never becomes thoroughly dry and hard.
The sharper and coarser the sand is, the stronger is the
mortar; also a less proportion of lime is necessary. It is
therefore more profitable to use the largest proportion of
sand, as this ingredient is the cheapest in the composition.

The best proportion of lime and sand in the composition
of mortar is yet a desideratum.

It may be affirmed, in general, that no more lime is
required to a given quantity of sand, than what is just
suflicient to surround the particles, or to use the least lime,
so as to preserve the necessary degree of plasticity. Mortar
in which sand predominates, requires less water in preparing,
and therefore sets sooner: it is harder, and less liable to crack
in drying; for this reason, that lime shrinks greatly in dry-
ing, while sand retains its original magnitude. We are
informed by Vitruvius, lib. ii. chap. v., that the Roman
builders allowed three parts of pit sand, or two of river or
sea. sand, to one of lime; but Pliny, Hist. A’at. lib. xxxvi.,
prescribes four parts of coarse sharp pit sand, and only one
of lime. The general proportion given by our London
builders, is 1%- cwt., or thirty-seven bushels of lime, and 271,-
loads of sand; but if proper care were taken in the
burning of the lime, the quality of the sand, and in temper-
ing the materials, a much greater quantity of'sand might
be admitted.

Mr. Smeaton observes, that there is scarcely any mortar
but which, if the lime be well burned, and the composition
well beaten in the making, will require two measures
of sand to one of unslacked lime; and it is singular, that

 

 

the more the mortar is wrought or beat, a greater proportion L

of sand may be admitted. He found that by good beating,

the same quantity of lime would take in one measure of :

terras, and three of clean sand, which seems to be the
greatest useful proportion.

Dr. Higgins found that a certain proportion of coarse and
fine sand improved the composition of mortar; the best
proportion of ingredients, according to experiments mad-3

 

 

 

E
i l I
l
l
l
x

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GEM

130

 

CEM

 

by him, is as follows, by measure: Lime, newly slacked, one
part; fine sand, three parts; coarse sand, four parts. He
also found that an addition of onevfourth part of the quantity
of lime, of burnt bone-ashes, improved the mortar, by
giving it tenacity, and rendering it less liable to crack in
drying.

The mortar should be made under ground, then covered
up, and kept there for a considerable length of time, the
longer the better; and when it is to be used, it should be
beat up afresh. This makes it set sooner, renders it less
liable to crack, and harder when dry.

The stony consistence which it acquires in drying, is
owing to the absorption of carbonic acid, and a combination
of part of the water with the lime: and hence it is that lime
that has been long kept after burning is unfit for the purpose
of mortar, for in the course of keeping, so much carbonic
acid has been imbibed as to have little better effect, in
a composition of sand and water, than chalk or lime-stone
reduced to a powder from the crude state, would have in
place of it.

Grout is a cement, containing a larger proportion of water
than is employed in common mortar, so as to make it suffi-
ciently fluid to penetrate the narrow irregular interstices
of rough stone walls. Grout should be made of mortar
that has been long kept and thoroughly beat, as it will then
concrete in the space of a day: whereas, if this precaution
be neglected, it will be a long time before it sets, and may
even refuse setting for ever. See GROUT.

Mortar made of pure lime, sand, and water, may be
employed in the linings of reservoirs and aqueducts, pro-
vided it have sufficient time to dry; but if the water be
put in while it is wet, it will fall to pieces in a short time;
and, consequently, if the circumstances of the building be
such as render it impracticable to keep out the water, it
should not be used: there are, however, certain ingredients
put into common mortar, by which it is made to set imme-
diately under water, or if the quick-lime contain in itself a.
certain portion of burnt clay, it will possess this property.

From the friable and crumbling nature of our mortar,
a notion has been entertained by many persons, that the
ancients possessed a process in its fabrication, which has been
lost at the present day; but the experiments of Mr. Smeaton,
Dr. Higgins, and others, have shown this notion to be un-
founded, and that nothing more is wanting than that the
chalk, lime-stone, or marble, be well burned, and thoroughly
slacked immediately, and to mix it up with a certain propor-
tion of clean large-grain sharp sand, and as small a quantity
of water as will be sufficient for working it; to keep it
a considerable time from the external air, and to beat it over
again before it is used: the cement thus made will be suffi-
ciently hard.

The practice of our modern builders, is to spare their
labour, and to increase the quantity of materials they pro-
duce, without any regard to its goodness: the badness of our
modern mortar is to be attributed both to the faulty nature
of the materials, and to the slovenly and hasty methods of
using it. This is remarkably instanced in London, where
the lime employed is chalk lime, indifl‘erently burnt, con-
veyed from Essex or Kent, a distance of ten or twenty
miles, then kept many days without any precaution to pre-
vent the access of external air. Now, in the course of this
time it has absorbed so much carbonic acid as nearly to lose
its cementing properties, and though chalk lime is equally
good with the hardest lime-stone, when thoroughly burned,
yet, by this treatment, when it is slacked, it falls into a thin
powder, and the core or unburned lumps are ground down,
and mixed up in the mortar, and not rejected, as it ought to be.

 

The sand is equally defective, consisting of small globular
grains, containing a large proportion of clay, which prevents
it from drying, and attaining the necessary degree of hard-
ness. These materials being compounded in the most hasty
manner, and beat up with water in this imperfect state, can-
not fail of producing a crumbling and bad mortar; and to
complete the miserable composition, screened rubbish, and
the scraping of roads, are thrown in, as substitutes for
pure sand.

How very different was the practice of the Romans ! The
lime which they employed was perfectly burnt, the sand
sharp, clean, and large-grained: when these ingredients were
mixed in due proportion, with a small quantity of water, the
mass was put into a wooden mortar, and beaten with a. heavy
wooden or iron pestle, till the composition adhered to the
mortar; being thus far prepared, they kept it till it was at
least three years old. The heating of mortar is of the utmost
consequence to its durability, and it would appear that the
effect produced by it, is owing to something more than a mere
mechanical mixture. See MORTAR.

\Vater cements are such as are impervious to water: they
are generally made of common mortar, or of pure lime and
water, with the addition of some other ingredient to give it
the property of hardening under water.

For this purpose there are several kinds of ingredients, as
puzzolana, cellular basalt, or wakke, compact basalt, coal-
ashes, coal-Cinders, wood-ashes, pumice-stone, brick-dust=
powder of quick-lime, forge-scales, roasted iron-ore, 8m.

The cement employed by Mr. Smeaton, in the construction
of the Eddystone lighthouse, was composed of equal parts.
by measure, of slacked Aberthaw lime and puzzolana; this
proportion was thought advisable, as the building was exposec
to the utmost violence of the sea: but for other aquatic
works, as locks, basins, canals, 810., a composition made 0
lime, puzzolana, sand, and water, in the following proportion
viz., two bushels of slacked Aberthaw lime, one bushel o
puzzolana, and three of clean sand, has been found ver:
etfectual. It is well known, that sand and lime, mixed toge'
ther with care, will incorporate and form a mortar imper
vious to water, and sufficient even for the linings of cistern
and reservoirs; but then the mortar must be hardened befor‘
it is exposed to the water, or otherwise it will crumble t.
pieces ; and therefore, if the situation be such as to requir
the mortar to be dried in a. certain time, the use of thi
cement must be abandoned.

Among the ancient nations, the Romans appear to hav
been the only people who practised building in water to an
great extent, particularlyin the sea. The discovery of puzzolan
is attributed to the following circumstance, among this grez
people. The Bay of Baiae, like our fashionable watering
places, was the summer resort of all the wealthy in Rome
the inhabitants of this place did not content themselves wit
erecting their houses as near the shore as possible, but the
even constructed moles and small islands, on which the
erected their summer-houses in the more sheltered parts‘
the bay. By the fortunate discovery of an earthy substanc
at the neighbouring town of Puteoli, they were enabled
build both expeditiously and securely in water. From th
circumstance, the earth thus discovered was called pale“
Putcolanus, “ powder of Puteoli,” “ Puteolean powder,” c
as it is now denominated, puzzolana, which is a mineral
a light porous, friable nature, and of a red colour, suppos~
to be formed by concretion of the volcanic ashes of Vesuvii
near to which mountain the town of Puteoli is situated. T"
original material seems to be a ferruginous clay, whit:
baked and calcined by the force of volcanic fire, and mix;
with common mortar, not only enables it to acquire a reman.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CEM

able hardness in the air, but to become as firm as stone under
water. The only preparation which puzzolana undergoes, Is
that of pounding and sifting, by .WllICll it IS reduced to
a coarse powder; in this state it is beaten up With hme,
either with or without sand, which forms a mass of remark-
able tenacity, that sets under water with great celerity, and
at last acquires a strength and hardness equal to those of
' free-stone. ‘ _

Among the nations of modern Europe, none have practised
the art of building under water to so great an extent as the
Dutch, to whom we are indebted for the discovery of another
valuable material, admirably adapted for aquatic works:
this substance is called terms, or truss, and is nothing more
than wakke, or cellular basalt. It is procured chiefly from
Bockenheim, Frankfort on the Maine, and Andernach, whence
it is transported down the Rhine, in large quantities, to
Holland, and is prepared by grinding and sifting, so as
to reduce it to the consistence of coarse sand; when it is
mixed, in the following manner, with blue argillaceous lime
from the banks of the Scheldt. They take such a quantity
of quick-lime as may be judged sufficient for a. week, and
spread it in a kind of bason, in a stratum about a foot thick,
and sprinkle it with water; this is covered with a stratum
of terras, of about the same thickness, and thus left for two
or three days; it is then beaten into a mixture, and left
for two days longer; after which such portions as are wanted
for daily Consumption are taken from the mass, and beaten
up again previous to being used—This is the celebrated
terras mortar, with which the mounds and other aquatic
works, used, as a defence for protecting the low lands of
Holland, against the incursions of the sea, are consolidated.

The proportion of the ingredients for teams mortar, as
used in Britain in the construction of our water-works, is
the same as practised by the Dutch, viz., one measure of
quick-lime and two of slacked, in the dry powder, mixed
with one measure of terras, and well beaten together to the
consistence of a paste, using as little water as possible.

Another kind, almost equally good, and considerably
cheaper, is composed of two measures of slacked lime, one
of terras, and three of coarse sand; but this composition
requires more labour in beating than the foregoing, and pro-
duces three measures and a half of excellent mortar. When
the building is composed of rough stones, which leave irre-
gular interstices and large cavities, the joints may be filled
with pebble mortar, which is thus composed: Take two mea—
sures of slacked argillaceous lime, half a measure of terras,
or puzzolana, one of coarse sand, one of fine sand, and 'four
of small pebbles screened and washed, and mix them toge-
ther. Pebble mortar was a favourite cement among the
Romans, and has been used, ever since their time, in those
works wherein a large quantity of mortar is required.

Terras mortar will only acquire its proper hardness under
water; for if permitted to dry by exposure to the air, it
never arrives at the same degree of hardness as if the same
lime had been mixed with good clean common sand, and is
very friable and crumbling; but when kept aways wet,
it throws out a substance something like the concretion in
lime-stone caverns, called stalactite, which substance acquires
a considerable hardness, and in time becomes so exuberant
us to deform the face of the walls.

.Although the Dutch terras has hitherto been prepared
With cellular basalt, it appears, from the experiments of
Morveau, that the common compact basalt, if previously
calcined, will answer nearly the same purpose. Compact
basalt abounds in all the districts where coal is raised, and

may therefore be procured easily, and calcined with the
refuse coal.

 

 

131

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In some parts of the Low Countries, coal-ashes are sub-
stituted for terras with very good effect, of which the valu-
able cendre'e de Tournay is a striking instance. The deep
blue argillo-ferruginous lime-stone of the Scheldt is burnt
in kilns, with a slaty kind of pit—coal found in the neigh-
bourhood. When the calcination of the lime is completed,
the pieces are taken out, and a considerable quantity of dust
and small fragments remain at the bottom of the kiln. This
refuse, consisting of coal-ash, mixed with about one-fourth
of lime—dust, is called the cendrée, and is thus made into
mortar with lime: Put a bushel of the materials into any
suitable vessel, and sprinkle it with as much water as is
sufficient to slack the lime; then take another bushel, and
treat it in the same manner; and so on, till the vessel is
filled. In this state it remains some weeks, and may be kept
for a much longer time, if covered with moist earth. A
strong open trough, containing about two cubic feet, is filled
about two-thirds with cement in the above state, and by
means of a heavy iron pestle, suspended at the end of an
elastic pole, is well beaten for about half an hour; at the
end of this time it becomes of the consistence of soft mortar,
and is then laid in the shade from three to six days, according
to the dryness of the air. When sufficiently dry, it is beaten
again for half an hour, as before; and the oftener it is
beaten, the better will be the cement; three or four hours,
however, are sufficient to reduce it to the consistence of a
uniform smooth paste. After this period it becomes too
stifl“, on account of the evaporation of its water, as no more
of this fluid is allowed to enter the composition than what
was at first employed to slack the lime. The cement, thus
prepared, is found in a few minutes to unite so firmly, upon
brick or stone, that still water may be let in immediately
upon the work, without any inconvenience; and by keeping
it dry for twenty-four hours, it has nothing farther to fear
from the most rapid current.

A composition of a similar nature, is the blue mortar,
commonly used in London, for setting the coping of buildings.
and other works much exposed to the weather. It is made
with coal Cinders and lime, but is seldom prepared with the
requisite attention.

Ash-mortar is used in some parts of England, and is
prepared by slacking two bushels of fresh meagre lime, and
mixing it with three bushels of wood ashes ; this mass is to
lie till it is cold, and then to be well beaten ; in this state
it is kept for a considerable time without injury, and even
with advantage, provided it be thoroughly beaten twice or
thrice over before it is used. This cement is superior to
terras mortar, in situations alternately exposed to wet and
dry; but under water, terras mortar has the advantage.

The scales which are detached by the hammering of red-
hot iron, have been long known as an excellent material in
water-works. Mr. Smeaton appears to have been the first
person who tried the relative strength of mortar made of the
oxide of iron, and several other compositions. The scales
being pulverized and sifted, and incorporated with lime, are
found to produce a cement equally powerful with puzzolana
mortar, when employed in the same quantity. Mr. Smeaton
having been successful in his experiments on these materials,
was induced to try others of a similar nature. Having
substituted roasted iron ore for the scales, he found that this
also gave to mortar the property of hardening under water,
though it required to be used in greater proportions than
either puzzolana or terras. Two bushels of argillaceous
lime, two of iron ore, and one of sand, being carefully mixed,
produce 3.22 cubic feet cement, fully equal to terras mortar.
If the common white lime be employed, it would be advisable
to use equal quantities of all the three ingredients

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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I32

CEM

 

With respect to the water used in the preparation of
aquatic cements, that of rivers or ponds, where it can be
procured, is to be preferred to spring water: but for works
exposed to the action of the sea, it is usually more convenient,
and equally advantageous in other respects, to use salt water.

The Loriot-mortar is a composition which at one time had
obtained considerable celebrity in France, and was employed
in many large works. It was invented, about seventy years
ago, by M. Loriot, who imagined that he had discovered the
process used by the Romans. The principle of the invention
consisted in adding to any quantity of mortar, made in the
usual way with lime and sand, but prepared rather thinner
than usual, a certain portion of quick-lime in powder. The
lime-powder being well incorporated with the mortar, the
mass heated, and in a few minutes acquired a consistence
equal to the best plaster-of—Paris; at the end of two days
it became as dry as an ordinary cement at the end of several
months; and when the ingredients were well proportioned,
it set without any cracking. The quantity of powder varied
from 7} to g. of the other materials, according to the quality
of the lime: too much, burning and drying up the mass ; and
with too little, its peculiar advantages being lost. The pro-
portions are essential, but can only be determined by actual
experiment.

Loriot’s process was at one time, as we have observed,
very much in vogue, but has now fallen into disuse. Founded
on the false conception that the induration of mortars was
the mere result of a more or less rapid desiccation, and
presuming it to be possible to obtain this end by the intro-
duction of a powerful absorbent, it met with the usual fate
of error, and sunk into disrepute.

Mr. Smeaton says of this composition—“I have made
trial of this method, both in small and in large; for however
little likelihood of advantage a proposition may contain, yet,
When this concerns a physical process, nothing can be safely
concluded but from actual trial; and I must candidly own
that the effect was much better than I had expected; for
I found the composition not only set more readily than mortar
as commonly made up, but much less liable to crack, and
consequently, if this cement was made use of in water-build-
ing, it was less apt to re-dissolve, because it would more
speedily get set to a firmer consistence, and so as more ably
to resist the water from entering its pores; but when the
water was brought upon it, in whatever state of hardness
it was at the time, it at best remained in that state without
any further induration, while the water remained upon it ;
and, as I expect, would so remain, till it had some opportunity
of acquiring hardness by further drying.”

Indeed, for the purpose of quick concretion, various
materials are recommended to be added, such as brick and
tile powder, and forge scales. The following is an approved
receipt: one measure of bricks, finely pounded; two mea-
sures of fine river-sand; old slacked lime in sufficient quan-
tity to make a mortar in the usual manner, and sulliciently
liquid to quench the lime powder, which is added to the same
quantity as that of the pulverized bricks.

It is somewhat extraordinary, that a process similar to the
composition of the Loriot-mortar is described in A Treatise
on Building in Water, by George Semple, printed in Dublin,
1776. In discoursing on the good qualities of the roach-
lime of Ireland, Mr. Semple remarks, that “it has some
useful qualities, not much known among the generality of
workmen. As for instance, our lime-stone will make
exceeding good terras for water-works, for which purpose
you are to prepare it thus : get your roach-lime brought to
you hot from the kiln, and immediately pound, or grind it

with a wooden maul, on a smooth large stone, on a dry J

 

 

 

boarded floor, till you make it as fine as flour; then, without
loss of time, sift it through a coarse hair or wire sieve, and
to the quantity of a hod of your setting mortar (which on
this account should be poorer than ordinary) put in two or
three shovelfuls of this fine flour of the roach-lime, and let
two men, for expedition’s sake, beat them together, with
such beaters as the plasterers make use of, and then use
it immediately. This, I can assure you, will not only stand
as well, but is really preferable to any terras.” The memoir
of M. Loriot was published in 1774, only two years previous
to this treatise of Semple, who appears to have been a man
rather of practice and experience than of reading ; and,
besides, in the book quoted from, he expressly, though
incidentally, mentions his ignorance of the French language.
We are justified, therefore, in stating that the knowledge
of the advantages of mixing quick-lime powder in mortar,
was not confined to M. Loriot, though it might have been
an original invention in him, and that he was the first who.
drew the public attention to the process, and used it in any;
considerable works.

We have now to notice the valuable Treatise of M. Vicat,;
the celebrated French engineer, on the Composition of Mor-
tars and Cements. This scientific and elaborate work has
been made extensively known in this country, by the able
manner in which it has been translated by Captain J. T.
Smith, of the Madras Engineers. The labours of this gen-
tleman have given increased value to M. Vicat’s work, and
the numerous notes, tables, and other information, added tc
the original work by Captain Smith, will be found most use-
ful to the professional man, and well worth his careful and
attentive study.

In this place we shall briefly describe the mode pursuet
by M. Vicat in the manufacture of the Artificial Hgdraulzl
Limes, he so strongly recommends. \Ve shall have occasior
to return to his work hereafter, when on the subject 0
CONCRETE.

The practice of M. Vicat seems to have been principal]:
directed to the adoption of the hydraulic limes, in preferenc:
to the more energetic cements so generally used in this country
but his investigations have been conducted on so compre
hensive a scale, that the processes laid down by him for th
manufacture of artificial hydraulic compounds are capable 0
application to almost every requirement of the Architect 0
Engineer, or to almost every situation.

The opinion so decidedly expressed by M. Vicat, that th
superior adhesion of the hydraulic limes, must inevitabl.
lead’ to their general adoption in this country, in preferenc
to our (so—called) Roman cements, has been much combate
by practical men. It may be said, without entering into a dis
cussion of the question, that it appears to be one on whic
a contrariety of opinion may be occasioned by a ditl‘erence (
situation and circumstances. Thus, in comparing the merit
of the two systems, it is important to consider, that, in one
the means of minute mechanical division are an essentiz
element, in the other that it is unnecessary; and that thi
element, which in one situation may be obtained at a chea
rate, in another may be expensive and unattainable.

The hydraulic limes, therefore, which do not require to 1:
ground previous to use, are at all events most suitable fc
those situations where the facilities of mechanical agency car
not be resorted to, while the ground cements are bette
adapted to the vicinity of a large capital, where it is of littl ‘
importance that the builder becomes dependent upon other
for his supply.

The difl‘erence, in fact, consists in this, that the groun
cements, of whatever kind, will ever be furnished by mam
facturers, whereas the hydraulic limes may at all times t

 

 

 

 

CEM

prepared by the common workman, without machinery, and
at a cost not much exceeding that of common lime. . '

The description given by M. Vicat of the mode in which
the artificial hydraulic limes are prepared IS as follows :—
“ The artificial hydraulic limes are prepared by two methods:
the most perfect, but also the most expensxve,cons1sts in
mixing with rich lime slacked in any way, a certain prepor-
tion of clay, and calcining the mixture; this IS termed arti-
ficial lime twice kilned.” . ‘

“ By the second process, we substitute for the lime any
very soft calcareous substance (such, for instance, as chalk),
which it is easy to bruise and reduce to a paste With water.
In this way a great saving is effected, but at the same time
is procured an artificial lime of good quality, though not
equal to that derived from the first process, 1n consquence
of the rather less perfect amalgamation of the mixture. .

“ We see that by being able to regulate the proportions,
we can also give to the factitious lime whatever degree of
energy we please, and cause it. at pleasure to equal or surpass
the natural hydraulic limes.” .

“ We usually take twenty parts of dry clay to eighty parts
of very rich lime, or to one hundred and forty of carbonate
of lime. This refers to the lime in the unslacked condition,
or to the uncalcined mineral. If the lime be slacked, the
proportion should be increased to 110 parts. But if the lime
or its carbonate should already be at all mixed with clay in
the natural state, then fifteen parts of clay will be sufficient.
Moreover, it is proper to determine the proportions for
every locality.”

“The mixture here described,” adds Captain Smith in
a note, “is such as to produce the hydraulic limes, whose
properties are similar to the Aberthaw, the analysis of which
shows it to correspond nearly with the proportions here
recommended, as it consists of 86.2 of carbonate of lime to
11.2 clay, (with 2.6 water and carbonaceous matter), being
at the rate of 18.2 parts clay, to 140 of the carbonate of lime.
The cements now in use in England, are much quicker
setting than these, and differ in being unslacked. They con-
tain a greater proportion of clay, but may be manufactured
artificially with equal ease, by combining such relative
quantities of chalk, or lime, and clay, as will suit the purpose
intended. Parker’s Patent Cement, as analyzed by Sir
Humphrey Davy, contains 45 per cent of clay to 55 carbonate
of lime ; the Yorkshire cement, 34 clay to 62 carbonate of
lime; the Sheppey, 32 clay to 66 carbonate of lime; and
the Harwich, which is a quicker-setting cement, 47 clay to
49 carbonate of lime.” It seems to be evident from the
experiments of M. Vicat, that the manufacture of artificial
cements may be almost infinitely varied by the admixture
of different ingredients. The character, quality, and propor-
tions of these must be the result of actual practice and
experiment, for so different may be the chemical properties
of apparently similar materials, that no results, however
successful in one locality, can be trusted to with certainty
in another. It is only necessary to add, that in all cases,
particular attention should be paid to the perfect amalgama-
tion of the materials; and the degree of calcination best
suited to it should be carefully observed, before attempting
the manufacture on a large scale.

The process made use of at a. manufactory of artificial lime
at Meudon, near Paris, is thus described by M. Vicat—“ The
materials made use of are the chalk of the country, and the
clay of Vaurigard, which is previously broken up into lumps
of the size of one’s fist. A millstone set up edgeways, and
a strong wheel with spokes and felloes, firmly attached to a
set of barrows and rakes, are set in motion by a two-horse
gm, in a circular basin of about two metres (six feet and a

2 M

133

 

GEM

half English) radius. In the middle of the basin is a pillar
of masonry, on which turns the vertical arbor to which the
whole system is fixed: into this basin, to which water is
conveyed by means of a cock, they throw successively four
measures of chalk, and one measure of clay. After an hour
and a half working, they obtain about 1.50 metres cube
(nearly 53 cubic feet English), of a thin pulp, which they
draw off by means of a conduit pierced horizontally on a level
with the bottom of the basin. The fluid descends by its own
weight; first into one excavation, then into a second, then
a third, and so on to a fourth or fifth. These excavations
communicate with one another at top; when the first is full,
the fresh liquid, as it arrives. as well as the supernatant
fluid, flow over into the second excavation ; from the Second
into the third, and so on to the last, the clear Water from
which drains off into a cesspool. Other excavations, cut in
steps like the preceding, serve to receive the fresh products
of the work, whilst the material in the first series acquires
the consistency necessary for moulding. The smaller the
depth of the pans in relation to their superficies, the sooner
is the above-mentioned consistency obtained.

“ The mass is now subdivided into solids of a regular form,
by means of a mould. This operation is executed with
rapidity. A moulder, working by the piece, makes on an
average five thousand prisms a day, which will measure about
six cubic metres (211.8 cubic feet English). These prisms
are arranged on drying shelves, where in a short time they
acquire the degree of desiccation and hardness proper for
calcination.”

These artificial limes are intended to supply the place of
the natural ones in those countries where argillaceous lime~
stone cannot be obtained. The price at which they were
sold in Paris a few years back, was about £2. 55. per cubic
yard English.

.Malt/za, and mastic, are cements, whose hardness depends
on the oily or mucilaginous substances that enter into their
composition. The use of these is at present very limited in
Europe; but they were highly esteemed by the ancients,
especially for stucco. The maltlza of the Greeks seems to
have been more simple than that employed by the Roman
architects; at least we are informed, that Panmmas, the
brother of Phidias, lined the inside of the temple of Minerva,
at Elis, with stucco, in which the usual ingredients of sand
and lime were mixed up with milk, instead of water, some
saffron being added, to give it a yellow tinge. The Roman
maltha, according to Pliny, was prepared as follows: Take
fresh-burnt lime, and slack it with wine, then beat it up very
well in a mortar, with hogs’ lard and figs: this cement, if
well made, is excessively tenacious, and in a short time
becomes harder than stone; the surface to which it is to be
applied is to be previously oiled, in order to make it adhere.
Another kind almost equally strong, and considerably cheaper,
was prepared by beating up together fine slacked lime, pul-
verized iron scales, and bullocks' blood.

In the preparation of maltIza, as well as of every other kind
of mortar, so much depends on the manipulation, and on the
care and long beating of the ingredients, that those countries
in which labour is of the least value,vpossess, in general, the
best mortar. Hence, no doubt, principally arises the unrivaled
excellence of the mortar made by the Tunisians, and other
inhabitants of the northern coast of Africa. Dr. Shaw gives
the following account of their manner of preparing their
mortar: One measure of sand, two of wood-ashes, and three
of lime, being previously sifted, are mixed together, and
sprinkled with a little water; after the mass has been beaten
some time, a little oil is added : the beating is carried on for
three or four days successively, and, as the evaporation in

 

 

 

4 we.“

 

 

 

 

 

C E M 134

CEM

 

that hot climate is considerable, the cement is kept in a proper
degree of softness by the alternate addition of small quantities
of water and oil. The cement, being completed, is applied in
the usual manner, and speedily acquires a stony hardness.

The term malt/ta is also applied to a variety of bitumen
or mineral pitch of a viscid and tenacious character; unctuous
to the touch, and exhaling a bituminous odour. This sub-
stance, as also Asphalte, (see ASPHALTE ), has been success-
fully used as a cement.

The celebrated chunam, of India, is a species of maltlza
which has been used in that country from time immemorial.
The method in which it is prepared at Madras is as follows :—

Take fifteen bushels of pit-sand, and fifteen bushels of
stone-lime; slack the latter with water, and when it has
fallen to powder, mix the two ingredients together, and let
them remain for three days untouched. Dissolve 20 lbs. of
molasses in water, and boil a peek of gramm, (a kind of pea),
and a peek of mirabolans to a jelly; mix the three liquors,
and incorporate part of the mixture very accurately with the
lime and sand, so as to make a very fluid cement; some short
tow is then to be beaten well into it, and it will be fit for use.
The bricks are to be bedded in as thin a layer as possible of this
mortar; and when the workmen leave off, though but for an
hour, the part where they recommence working is to be well
moistened with some of the above liquor before the appli-
cation of fresh mortar. When this composition is used for
stucco, the whites of four eggs, and four ounces of butter-
milk, are to be mixed up with every half bushel of cement,
and the composition is to be immediately applied.

Mastic is an external composition possessing peculiar pro-
perties, which, in some cases, render it superior to Roman
cement, having the power of resisting heat and adhering to
iron, copper, and even glass, with equal tenacity. It is
generally applied to the exteriors of mansions, but it may
also be very beneficially used for laying the floors of halls,
kitchens, &c.

Mastic was first introduced from France by Hamlin, but
is now sold only by Messrs. Francis and White, at Nine
Elms. It is composed of pounded stone, silver sand, litharge,
and red lead, and, when manufactured, has the appearance of
very fine sand. The manner of working Mastic is entirely
different from that of Roman cement.

To one cwt. of Mastic add one gallon of linseed—oil, and let
them be well incorporated by the labourer, which must be
effected by treading them together with the feet until the
amalgamation is complete, which may be easily ascertained by
smoothing a portion of the mixture with the shovel: should
any bright spots be observable, the treadng must be again
and again repeated until they completely disappear, when it
is considered fit for use.

The manner in which Mastic is used is as follows :—The
joints of the brickwork being well cleaned out, the work
must be correctly plumbed up by means of flat-headed nails,
and screeds, for the guidance of the floating-rule, formed with
Roman cement, and kept about one inch in breadth. This
being done, the bricks must be well saturated with boiled lin-
seed-oil of the best quality, and the Mastic laid 011 with the
hands, assisted occasionally by the laying-trowel, until the
space between the screeds be covered to the thickness
required. The floating-rule is then passed carefully over
the work; and when the space between the screeds is suffi-
ciently filled up, it must be floated with a hand-float, com-
posed of sycamore or beech, until it assumes the same
appearance as highly-polished stone. Thus a space of large
dimensions must be' followed up until the whole is completed,
\\ hen the screeds must be cut out, their places filled with
Mastic, and compactly hand-floated into the rest of the work.

 

Within the last few years various compositions have been
invented for the covering of the exteriors of buildings, such
as Roman Cement, Terra Cotta, Bailey’s Composition, and a
host of others, all more or less patronized by the public.

It would be impossible for us to give descriptions of
all these compositions; but we shall shortly explain the
mode of preparing and using the Roman cement. This cement,
familiarly known among plasterers as Compo, was first intro-
duced to public notice by Messrs. Parker and Wyatt, who
took out a patent for it, and who succeeded in obtaining for
it an extensive sale.

It is prepared from the kind of stone called clay-balls, or
septaria, by being, after the manner of manufacturing plaster,
first broken into pieces of a convenient size, slowlyU calcined
in kilns or ovens, and afterwards ground to a fine powder,
and put into proper casks, great care being taken to preserve
it from damp. Two parts of this composition, with three
parts of clean grit—sand, will form a very durable substitute
for stone. In selecting the sand, great care must be taken
to procure it free from clay or mud, and of a sharp and bind-
ing quality, or it must be washed until perfectly clean.

This composition, when it is intended to compo, as it is
termed, the exterior of a building, is thus used :—

After the walls have been well soaked with water, the
cement must be prepared by the hawke-boy on a stiff board
made for the purpose, adding as much water as brings it to
the consistency of paste, but no more must be mixed than
can be used in ten minutes. It must be laid on with the
greatest possible expedition, in one coat of three-quarters
of an inch in thickness, and after being well-adjusted with
the floating-rule, the hand-float must be incessantly used to
bring it to a firm and solid surface before it sets, which it
does in about fifteen minutes.

The work should then be drawn and jointed to imitate
well-bonded masonry, and afterwards coloured with a wash
composed of five ounces of copperas to every gallon of water
—a sufficient quantity of fresh lime and cement—and to the
whole adding the colours necessary to imitate any particular
stone that may be required.

Terra Cotta, or artificial stone, is an excellent and durable
composition, advantageously used at the present day for all
kinds of exterior decoration. It is a compound of pipe—clay,
stone-bottles, glass, and flint, well pounded together, and
sifted through a fine sieve, a small portion of silver-sand
afterwards added.

Bailey’s Composition is also a valuable invention, which has
been used with great advantage in various situations, without
being at all injured by winter. The exteriors of many of
the public buildings in the metropolis are covered with this
composition, amongst which is the Colosseum in the Regent‘s
Park.

It is simply a mixture of lime and sand, the strength of
the lime being preserved by the peculiar manner in which it
is prepared In its manufacture, chalk should never be
used; it ought always to be made from lime-stone, or car-
bonate of lime. The lime, being taken before being slacked
and ground to powder, must be placed 1n iron- -bound casks to
prevent the admission of air or damp. “'hen used, it must
be mixed with one-third its quantity of sharp river-sand, the
manner of working it being the same as that of Roman i
cement. See MORTAR, GROUT, STUCCO, and CONCRETE. ‘

CEME ',1‘ERY a sacred place, set apart for the burial of
the dead. The term is of Greek de1ivation, signitying “a l
place of rest or sleep,” and was applied by the early Christians ‘
to common places of interment. ‘

The subject of burial in towns has of late occupied so
prominent a place in public estimation, that the description

 

 

 

 

l
l
l

 

 

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135

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of a few of the great receptacles for the dead lately established
in or near the metropolis, cannot be out of place m a work of
this kind; the more especially, that the professional talent
of the architect has, not unfrequently, been called into
action, to furnish designs for the buildings connected with
public cemeteries, if not for the ornamental gardens, smce it
has become the fashion of the day to make these “Cities of the
dead.”

From the verv earliest ages the disposal of the bodies of
the dead has been a necessary, and with many nations, a
sacred duty. Among some we find that a superstitious
veneration for those who had “passed away;” the necessity of
funeral rites to secure the future happiness of the deceased ;
and the crime attached to the violation of the tomb, formed
a part both of their civil and religious code. The practice of
burying the dead in the earth is probably the oldest, as it is
the simplest mode of disposing of them; but the custom of
burning the body, and afterwards collecting the ashes, and
depositing them in a tomb, or urn, became very general
amongst the Greeks and Romans. The Egyptians do not
seem to have ever adopted this practice; and even amongst
the ancient Greeks and Romans, it seems likely that inter-
ment in the earth was mostly resorted to by the lower orders.
At the present day, all European nations deposit their dead
in the earth, and the ceremony of burning is extinct.

The establishment of public cemeteries is now becoming
general in the neighbourhood of large cities; a practice pro-
bably suggested to us by the customs of the Orientals, with
whom the burial-places of their departed friends are objects
of peculiar care, and who cultivate, with extreme affection
and solicitude, the flowers and trees with which it is their
1 delight to adorn them.

“Among the first objects that present themselves to a
stranger entering Turkey,” remarks a recent writer, “are
the groves of cypress extending in dark masses along the
shores. These are the last resting-places of the Turks ; and
their sad and solemn shade, far more gloomy than any which
Christian usage has adopted, informs the traveller that he is
now among a grave and serious people.

The situation of cemeteries is of great importance, both
with regard to the public health, and from considerations of
convenience. Among the Greeks we find that they were
usually without the cities. Among the Romans the tombs
were generally placed by the sides of the public roads. The
early Christians followed the custom of the Romans, but they
afterwards transferred their burial-places to the vicinity of
the churches, and within towns. This insalubrious practice,
it is to be hoped, will soon entirely cease, and the health of
the living be no longer endangered by the too close proximity
of the graves of the dead.

Cemeteries should be placed on high ground, and to the
north of habitations, so that southerly winds should not blow
over the houses, charged with the putrid exhalations; 10W
wet places should be avoided, and care should be taken that
bodies be not interred near wells, or rivers, from which
people are supplied with water.

It may not be uninteresting here to state that extra-mural,
or suburban cemeteries, formed part of the plan of the cele-
brated Sir Christopher Wren, for the rebuilding of London
after the great fire, “ I would wish,” says he, “that all burials
in churches might be disallowed, which is not only unwhole-
some, but the pavements can never be kept even, nor the
pews upright ; and if the church-yard be close about
the church, this is also inconvenient, because the ground
being continually raised by the graves, occasions in time a
descent by steps into the church, which renders it damp, and
the walls green, as appears evidently in all old churches.”

 

 

 

He then proceeds to recommend, that a piece of ground,
being purchased in the fields, should then be “ enclosed with
a strong brick wall, and having a walk round, and two cross
walks, decently planted with yew-trees. The four quarters
to serve four parishes, where the dead need not be disturbed
at the pleasure of the sexton.

“In these places beautiful monuments may be erected;
but yet the dimensions should be regulated by an architect,
and not left to the fancy of every mason; for thus the rich
with large marble tombs would shoulder out the poor: when
a pyramid, a good bust, or statue on a proper pedestal, will
take up little room in the quarters, and be properer than
figures lying on marble beds ; the walls will contain
escutcheons and memorials for the dead, and the real good
air and walks for the living.”

Though the cemeteries which have been formed are pro-
nounced to be only improvements on the places of burial in
this country, and far below what it would yet be practicable
to accomplish ; they have indisputably been viewed with
public satisfaction, and have created desires of further
advances by the erection of national cemeteries. Abroad the
national cemeteries have obtained the deepest hold on the
affections of the population. They have been established
near to all the large towns in the United States. To some
of them a horticultural garden is attached ; the garden-walks
being connected with the places of interment, which, though
decorated, are kept apart. These cemeteries are places of
public resort, and are there observed, as in other countries,
to have a powerful effect in soothing the grief of those
who have departed friends, and in refining the feelings
of all.

At Constantinople, the place of promenade for Europeans
is the cemetery at Pera, which is planted with cypress, and
has a delightful position on the side of a hill overlooking
the Golden Horn. The greatest public cemetery attached to
that capital is at Scutari, which forms a beautiful grove. In
Russia, almost every town of importance has its burial-place,
at a distance from the town, laid out by the architect of the
government. It is always well planted with trees, and is
frequently ornamented with sculpture. Nearly every Ger-
man town has its cemetery, planted and ornamented. In
Turkey, Russia, and Germany, the poorer classes have the
advantages of interment in the national cemeteries.

One of the most celebrated cemeteries in Europe is that of
Pére 1a Chaise, but in this, as in all the cemeteries of Paris,
it has been a subject of complaint, that the graves of the
poor are neglected and little cared for, amidst the splendid
monuments and sculptured ornaments which mark the tombs
of the higher classes.

The first attempt at a metropolitan cemetery, in imitation
of that of Pere la Chaise, was made by the General Cemetery
Company, who, in the year 1833, opened to the public their
new and extensive burial-ground at Kensall Green. This
cemetery occupies above fifty acres of ground, which is taste-
fully laid out with flowers and plants; well-gravelled walks
lead to various parts of the ground; and yews, evergreens,
and shrubs, deemed appropriate to a place of sepulture, orna-
ment and diversify the landscape. On the road-side, the
cemetery is bounded by a high wall, afi'ording protection and
seclusion ; on the other side, towards the canal, an open iron
palisading permits an uninterrupted view of the country,
which here presents a prospect both extensive and beautiful.
At the entrance there is a handsome gateway, from whicha cen-
tral walk leads to the church in the consecrated portion of the
cemetery. In this building are solemnized the funeral rites
according to the Church of England. In front of the church
a large circle is appropriated to many of the more splendid

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CEM

136

CEN

 

tombs and mausoleums, and beneath it are extensive cata-
combs.

In the unconsecrated part of the cemetery, set apart for the
burial of Dissenters of every denomination, a neat chapel has
been erected for the performance of service according to their
several forms of worship. The principal feature of this
chapel is a rather handsome Doric colonnade, and near it also
are catacombs.

The establishment of the cemetery at Kensall Green was
immediately followed by that of several others in the suburbs
of London; one of the most picturesque of these is Highgate
Cemetery, situated on the rising slope of the hill behind
Highgate Church. Here, the natural beauty of the ground
has been tastefully made use of, and the result produced is
pleasing, if viewed as a pleasure-garden, though certainly con-
veying but little of that solemnity of thought and feeling we
are accustomed to associate with a burial-place for the dead.

The southern entrance, in Swain’s Lane, is in a style com-
pounded of Gothic of all periods, exhibiting more of tawdry
decoration than the sobriety which should have characterized
it. The Egyptian style has been selected for the catacombs,
which are approached through an arched avenue, with an
entrance flanked by two obelisks. This passage, in the
upper part of the grounds, is lined on each side by a range of
sepulchral chambers, and leads into another avenue, forming
a circular walk between similar chambers, each of which has
its Egyptian doorway. These sepulchres, amounting alto-
gether to forty-six, besides eighteen others in the first men-
tioned avenue, form as many sides of two polygons, an outer
and inner one. Midway is an ascent, first by a single flight
of steps, and then by others on each side, leading to a terrace
overlooking the catacombs, from which they present a
striking appearance ; the summit of the inner polygon
being covered with earth, and having a large cedar in the
centre. The back wall of this terrace is in a semi-Gothic
style, crowned by a fancy open-work parapet, placed before
another terrace, under the south end of the Gothic Church,
erected a few years ago by Mr. Vulliamy. The prospect from
this terrace is exceedingly beautiful.

Norwood Cemetery occupies about forty acres, on the
north-west side of a hill to the east of St. Luke’s, Norwood.
The entrance is an open arch, which, with the lodge
adjoining it, are in much better taste than that of Highgate,
although, had there been a gateway, the design would have
been greatly improved. There are two chapels—one for
members of the Church of England, the other for Dissenters
—- though varying somewhat in design, there is great
similarity in their style, which is a sober, but correct
Gothic. The principal objection is the injudicious position
of these two buildings, which, from being too near together,
neither form distinct architectural pictures, nor group so as
to form one design. The architect is Mr. W. Tite.

Abney Park Cemetery contains about thirty acres, and
displays evidence of a simple and pure taste, in its buildings
and general arrangement. The entrance, if wanting in
architectural composition, has something bold and effective
in its general appearance. The four piers are lofty and well-
proportioned masses, constructed of Portland stone, upon
granite plinths, and are surmounted by handsome coved cap-
pings, in the Egyptian style. The lodges are in the same
style, and extend the frontage to 118 feet, 40 of which are
occupied by the piers and gates in the centre. The effect of
this entrance is greatly enhanced by the park-like aspect of the
grounds, and the fine old trees with which they are adorned.
Nearly in a line with the entrance is the chapel, in the early

pointed style, with lancet windows. The architect is Mr.
W. Hosking.

 

The South London Cemetery comprises fifty acres of (it y
well-drained land, in one of the most beautiful spots within
the vicinity of the metropolis. It is situate at Nunhead,
between Peckham Rye and New Cross. The grounds are
most tastefully laid out—there are handsome lodges, a resi-
dence for the superintendant, episcopal and dissenters’
chapels, and extensive catacombs. The architectural ar-
rangements were superintended by Mr. Bunnings.

The West of London Cemetery, situate at Earl’s Court,
consists of about forty acres. The buildings, 8m. in the
Italian-Doric style, are of a similar character to those pre-
viously described, and the grounds are laid out in the
pleasure—garden manner, so popular with those who have
the management and designing of Cemeteries. It would be
well, were a few hints taken from the solemn, beautiful
burial-places of the Orientals, in laying out such establish-
ments in this country.

CENOTAPH (from the Greek, Kal'ormplov) an honorary
monument erected to the memory of the dead, when the
funeral rites have been performed in some other place.

CENTAUR, in heathen mythology, a fabulous monster,
with the head and breast of a man, and the body of a horse.

CENTERING, the act of making a centre, or the centre
itself. See CENTRE.

CENTERING TO TRIMMERS, the centre made to support
a brick arch suspended between the wooden trimmer and
the wall, for supporting the hearth or slab.

CENTRE, or CENTER, (Greek, KEVTPOV, a point, or punc-
ture,) in a general sense, denotes a point equally remote from
the extremes of a line, figure, or body; or the middle of a
line, or plane, by which a figure or body is divided into, two
equal parts ; or the middle point, so dividing a line, plane, or
solid, that some certain effects are equal on all its sides.

CENTRE OF GRAVITY, that point at which all the
weight of a mass might be collected, without disturbing
the equilibrium of any system of which the mass forms a
part. Thus, if a lever were balanced by means of two solid
spheres of uniform density hung at the ends, the equilibrium
would still remain, if all the matter of either of the spheres
could be concentrated at its centre. The centre of the
sphere is then its centre of gravity.

CENTRE OF PRESSURE, the point at which the whole
amount of pressure may be applied, with the same effect as
it has when distributed.

CENTRE, in building, is a combination of timber-beams,
so disposed as to form a frame, the convex side of which,
when boarded over, corresponds to the concavity of an arch ;
or the wooden mould, used for turning an arch of stone or
brick during the time of erection.

Centre of a cylindric or cylindroidal arch, which rises
more than the breadth of a plank, is a number of boards
supported transversely by one or more vertical frames, or
trusses, as the length of the cylinder, or that of its axis,
may require.

Centre for a groined arch upon a rectangular plan is thus
constructed: Make the centre for one of the cylinders, or
cylindroids, viz. that of the greatest diameter, when there
is a difference, as if there had been no other cylinder crossing
it; find out the places on the surface of this cylindric or
cylindroidal centre, where the surface of the transverse vault
would intersect: fix the whole ribs on the cross vault, and
parts of ribs on the surface of the vault already completed,
observing to keep the outer edge of these ribs the thickness
of the boards within the intended surface of the intrados of
the arch; when this transverse vault is boarded over, the
boards will intersect the lines drawn on the first centre,
and the surfaces of the boards of each vault will form the

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GEN

137

CEN

 

true surface of the groined centre, on which the stone or
brick arch is to be turned.

The frames or trusses which support the boarding are
frequently called ribs; and the short ribs which are fixed
to the boarding, and made to range with the whole ribs, are
called jack-ribs.

Under the word STONE-BRIDGE, &c., the theory and
construction of arches will be described; in the present
article we propose to show how the archstones are supported
till the arch is completed; and the most commodious and
least expensive manner in which this can be accomplished.

The proper construction of such supports, or the best mode
of framing the centres for large works, has always been
considered so important a subject, that it has occupied the
attention, and exercised the talents, of the most eminent
engineers and architects. The principal object to be kept
in view is, to fix the various parts of the centering in such
a manner, as to support, without change of shape, the weight
of the materials that are to come upon them, throughout the
whole progress of the work, from the springing of the arch
to the fixing of the key-stone. This object has not always
been sufliciently attended to by the professional men, either
of this, or of other countries; for in many instances it has
been ascertained that the centres of bridges, from the injudi-
cious principles of their construction, have changed their
shape considerably, or entirely failed before the arch was
complete; and in consequence of change of shape only, the
arches built upon them have varied, both in form and strength,
from the intention of the engineer. In the large works of
this kind, however, erected in Great Britain, our best engineers
have constructed their centres on principles calculated to sup-
port every weight, and resist every strain to which they
might be exposed.

“ The qualities of a good centre,” says Tredgold, “ consist
in its being a suflicient support for the weight or pressure
of the arch-stones, without any sensible change of form
throughout the progress of the work, from the springing of
the arch to the fixing of the key-stone. It should be capable
of being easily and safely removed, and designed so that it
may be erected at a comparatively small expense.”

The centre of a large vault, as that of a bridge, is con-
structed of trusses disposed equidistantly in vertical parallel
planes, and boarded over so that the convexity of the boarding
may coincide with the intended internal intrados of the arch.
The distance of the ribs may be disposed at from three to
eight feet, according to the strength of the boarding and
weight of the arch. In very large works, a bridging is laid
for every course of arch-stones, with blockings between, to
keep them at regular distances. The ring-stones do not
always rest upon these bridgings; planks being sometimes
put between, that they may be cut away afterwards, to
separate the centre and the intrados from each other, in order
to ascertain whether there are any settlements, to repair the
damages, and put the arch in a state of equilibrium.

Where the river is not navigable, the trusses may be con-
structed with a, beam at the bottom: in this case, there is no
difficulty. The forms for the trusses of roofs with tie-beams,
may form the grand or principal part of the truss for the
centre. But when the river is navigable, the centre requires
as large an opening as is consistent with its strength, in
order that vessels may pass under it; and as the horizontal
tie is interrupted, this disposition of the timbers will require
much greater skill in the carpenter.

If the river over which a bridge is to be built be not
navigable, the manner of constructing the centre is so easy,
that it would be unnecessary to give any examples here ;
but where the river is navigable, instead of the horizontal

2 N

 

tie, a number of ties are disposed around the polygon, forming
the interior part of the centre; but as in many practical cases
the most judicious and well-skilled theorist might be deceived
as to the equilibrium of the arch to be supported, or the
points in which it has the most tendency to fall, it would be
very difficult to say what are ties and what are strutts; and
even if the true pressure of the arch could be ascertained,
the knowledge of this alone would not be sufficient; for the
same parts of the vaults, in the process of execution, vary
their pressure in every succeeding additional part, and what
was a tie at one time, becomes sometimes a strutt; while a
strutt, on the contrary, will become a tie, either in building,
or at the completion of the vault. This ought to be well
considered ; and where the pressure is doubtful, or any of
the lengths of timber forming the centre are ascertained
to be in the two different states above mentioned, such
timbers should be made to act in either case.

Though the timbers upon which the vault immediately
rests, cannot be supported transversely throughout, the other
pieces, which support the arch from the several pressing
points, may all be made to act, by ajudicicus arrangement,
in the direction of their lengths. The abutting joints, which
are pressed, will be sufficiently resisted, when their shoulders
are made perpendicular to the direction of their force, and
with the small tenon; but if the timbers are drawn in a
direction of their length, the joints ought to be strapped

The beauty of every truss is to have as few quadrilaterals
as possible. All the openings should be triangles: the inter-
section of the timber should be as direct as possible. Oblique
directions exert prodigious strains, which require timbers
of very large sections to withstand them, and press upon the
abutments so much as to make the whole truss sag by the
compression of the intermediate joggles.

If proper attention be paid to these, circumstances, and
the bearings of the timbers be well ascertained, a centre,
constructed upon such principles, must answer its intended
purpose, provided a proper estimate be taken of the com-
municating forces during the execution of the vault, and the
centre be well secured at its abutment.

A centre for the arch of a bridge over a navigable river,
may either be accomplished with one centre around the
interior of the entire arch, supported between the piers ; or,
if the span of the arch will admit, the aperture may be sub-
divided into two or more apertures, by one or more supporters,
each consisting of one or more posts of wood, braced together
when necessary; these supporters, together with the sides
of the stone piers, support the centre of the aperture, on
which the stone arch is to be erected over the whole. By this
mode, the centering is much more simple in its construction
and requires fewer timbers, and these of smaller scantlings
than when made in one centre.

If a centre be truly constructed, every point of the vault
to be built ought to be supported, without giving any trans-
verse strain to the incumbent part of the centre: but this is
impracticable ; for, as it would require a multiplicity ofjoints,
it would, from the shrinking of the timber, be lesssuflicient
than if composed of few pieces, supporting only a certain
number of points disposed at judicious distances,_leaving the
intervals to be supported by timbers in which the super-
incumbent part of the arch might act transversely, but still
presenting such a resistance, as not to be materially bent or
put out of form by the load of the arch above.

By these precautions, the centre will be constructed so as
not to yield, or give way, though the load should vary during
the erection of the arch, and will stand as. firm as if the
whole had been constructed out of a single solid: the only
thing to be attended to, as before observed, being, to make

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CEN

 

 

the timbers sufliciently strong to withstand either tension
or compression.

There are several other principles of constructing the ribs
of centering; one of these may be that of a large truss,
spanning the whole opening, having its vertex supporting
the summit of the arch, and its rafters, or principal braces,
supporting other subordinate trusses which resist the pressure
of the arch at other intermediate points. ,

Of this kind is that of the bridge of Orleans, by M. Hupeau,
one of the boldest centres ever executed in Europe. Another
principle is that of two independent trusses, one supporting
the sides or haunches of the arch, and the other the crown.
Of this construction was the centering of the nave and tran-
septs of St. Peter’s church, at Rome, by Michael Angelo, and
two centres by Pitot. Another principle of centering is that
of inscribed equilateral polygons; that is, the exterior beams,
supporting the curve, are of equal lengths, and joined toge-
ther in the form of a polygon: another polygon is formed
within this, having its angles in the middle of the sides of the
former, and so on, alternately, until there are as many poly-
gons inscribed as will make the centering sufficiently strong
or stiff. This mode of centering may be of two kinds: one,
when the angles are fixed at their junction to the sides of the
last polygon with bolts; bridles, or double truss-pieces, being
put over the angles to prevent a transverse strain at the sec-
tion of the timbers where the two pieces meet, and to support
the curve above. The other kind is, when the polygons act
independently of each other; these polygons are brought into
action by bridles, which support the curve, and act upon the
angular points of each other’s polygon. Of this kind were
the centering of the bridges of Cravant, Nogent, Mayence,
and Neuilly, constructed by Perronet. Though these center-
ings have been executed to very large spans, the last men-
tioned being 120 feet, their equilibrium is by no means so
secure as when the angles of the inner polygon are fastened
to that immediately preceding, as is evident from the infor—
mation given of the erection of these bridges, by the ingenious
architect who has favoured the world with a treatise on this
subject.

Another principle of centering is that of Westminster and
Blackfriars bridges, London. They Consist of a series of
trusses, each supporting a point in the arch, the principal
braces having their lower extremities abutting below, at each
end of the centering, on the striking-plates. and at the upper
end, upon apron-pieces, which are bolted to the curve that
supports bridgings for binding the pieces which compose them
together at their junction. There is one disadvantage under
which this mode labours; that is, the frequent intersection of
the principal braces with each other: they must either be
halved one upon the other, otherwise they must be discon-
tinued, and made in various lengths. Both these modes
diminish their lateral strength, and consequently make them
much more liable to buckle than when whole ; but of the two,
that of halving is to be preferred; as by the braces being in
one length, there can be no sagging occasioned by interme-
diate joggles, and the braces may be rendered sufficiently
secure, laterally, by running straps longitudinally across
the notched part on each side, bolting these straps to the
braces.

Lastly, another mode of centering may be that of a number
of quadrilateral frames abutting on each other. having their
joints radiating to a centre, in the manner of the wedge-stones
of an arch in masonry. These frames should all be resolved
into triangles by one or two diagonals, according to the kind
of strain, keeping in view that a piece, which is a tie in one
diagonal, is, in the other diagonal of the same quadrilateral,
a strutt ; but if the kind of strain on any frame be not well

 

 

 

ascertained, it would be better to place two diagonals, halv< d l
upon each other. The frames are to be secured with keys or V
bolts, and by this precaution each frame will be rendered
quite immovable.
The general principle of construction is a series of trian-
gles, of which every two are connected by a common side.
Plate 1., Figure 1. Let A B C D E F G be the curve of an
arch which requires a centre; let the points A, B, C, &c. be
connected so as to form the equilateral polygon, A B C D E F G,
and join AC, CE, aml EG; the timbers thus disposed will J
form three triangles, which may be looked upon as so many
solids, revolvable about the angular points A, C, E, G; sup- ;
pose now, that these are to be in equilibrium, the smallest i
force on either side would throw it down, and therefore, I
without other connecting timbers, it would be unfit for the i
purpose of a centre. 3,
Figure 2. Let A B C D E F G be the curve of an arch which i
requires a centre ; first, form the equilateral polygon, A B C D l
1
l
I

 

E F G, with the timbers A B, B C, C D, &c., and fix the timbers
A C, C E, E G, as before, which will form three triangles,
movable round A, C, E, G; let the timbers B D and D F be
fastened, and thus the whole will be immutable; so that if ‘
supported at the points A and G, and a force applied at any
other of the angles B, C, D, or F, the timbers will be all in a
state of tension, or in a state of compression, and the whole
may be looked upon as a solid body; for suppose the triangle
A B C to be supported at the points A and B, the point C, and
the other two sides, B C, C A, will be fixed; and because B C D
is a triangle, and the points B and C are fixed, the point D,
and consequently the sides C D and D B; in like manner, since
C D E is a triangle, and the points C and D fixed, the point E
will also be fixed, and therefore the sides D E and E C. The
same may be shown, in like manner, for the points F and G.
Suppose, then, two equal and opposite forces applied at the
points A and G, in the plane of the figure, the figure can
neither be extended out, nor compressed together. The
pieces A II, H B, and G I, I F, are of no other use than to make
the centre stand firmly on its base. This disposition of the
timbers will cause them to occupy the least possible space.

If the timbers are fixed at the points k, l, m, n, 0,1),
Figure 2, the same immutability of figure may be demon--
strated; for, suppose the points A and H to be fixed, the
point It will also be fixed; the points A andk being fiXed, the
point B of the triangle A k B; again, the points B and It being-
fixed, the point I will also be fixed: in the same manner, all,
the remaining points, C, m, D, n, E, o, F, p, G, I, will be proved
to be stationary in respect of the points A, II; and the whole:
figure being kept in equilibrio by any three forces, acting in
the plane of the figure, at any three angles, the action of the
forces will only tend to compress or extend the timbers in a.
direction of their length.

In the construction of this truss, the triangular parts may
be constructed all in the same plane, as in Figure l ; and the
pieces BD and DF may be halved upon the pieces 0 A and
E G; but the utmost care must be taken to secure the several
pieces concurring at each of the angles, by bolting or iron
straps, as no dependence 'an be put in any such joint without
iron: but perhaps the best method of any is to halve the
thickness of the pieces A C, C E, E G, at the points C and E,
and also the pieces A B, B C; C D, 1) E; E F, F G; at the point:
B, n, F: then bolting the ends A and c of the pieces B A, B C
the ends C and E of the pieces D C and D E, and the ends 1
and G of the pieces FE and FG, and then fixing doublet
braces B D, D F, that is, fixing B D upon one side of the truss.
and another upon the other side of the truss, opposite to iti
also fixing D F upon one side, and another opposite to it.

The disposition of the timbers forming only a series 0

 

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i the principal rafters are braced from the lower queen-posts to
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' no occasion for bridles, or double trussing-pieces, as in those
. of Pitot, of the same construction.

3 but for these there was evidently no occasion, as the pres-

GEN

139

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quadrilaterals, gives nothing but immutability of figure. It
can only derive its stiffness from the reSIstance of the
joints. '

Figure 3 shows the manner of forming a centre by two
polygons, of which the interior one is secured to the exterior:
in this there is no occasion for double trussmg-pieces, as the
parts of the inscribed polygon act either as strutts or ties to
that of the circumscribing one. . .

Figure 4 is the manner of forming the rib for .a centre, by
two independent trusses; in this form of centering there 18

Figure 5 is the manner of constructing a centre, according
to I’erronet, with four polygons, independent of each other,
but with this improvement, that the lower extremities of each
ring of polygons are framed into the two abutments; this
gives a much firmer base than if they were all to meet at the
same place, and renders the centre much stronger, by making
the angles more acute. In this it becomes also necessary to
have bridles, otherwise the exterior polygon only would be
effective.

figure 6 is the manner of constructing a centre with three
polygons, which are all secured to each other. In this, truss-
pieces become necessary, otherwise the angles of the inner
polygon would bend the sides of that next to it.

Plate 11., Figure 1, is the design of a centre, its principle
being that of two roofs intersecting each other. In this
example, the forces which are communicated to the various
parts of the frame, are resisted longitudinally, either by com-
pression or extension; and no force is exerted transversely
on any part, excepting the curved pieces in contact with the
boardingr supporting the arch-stones.

figure 2 is the design of a centre ; it is first framed in one
large truss, like a common roof, with two principal rafters,
and a collar-beam ; each of the rafters becomes a tie for the
two small trusses above, which are framed in the manner of
a roof, with queen-posts and braces. The lower angles of

This truss is free from transverse strains in all
its parts, except the curve, which supports the arch-stones ;
and, if well secured at the abutments, an arch of immense
weight may be sustained by it.

Figure 3 is the celebrated centre used at Blackfriars
Bridge. The names of the timbers are as follows :

A. Timbers which support the centering.

B, C. Upper and lower striking-plates, cased with copper.

n. Wedge between striking - plates, for lowering the
centre.

E. Double trussing-pieces, to confine braces.

F. Apron-pieces, to strengthen rib of centre.

G. Bridgings laid on the back of the ribs.

1!. Blocks between bridgings, to keep them at equal dis-
tances.

1. Small braces, to confine the ribs tight.

K. Iron straps bolted to trussing-pieces and apron-pieces.

L. Ends of beam at the feet of truss-pieces.

M. Principal braces.

The centre used at Westminster Bridge was formed by
independent trusses, consisting of two rafters ; the intersec-
tions all supposed to be halved together, and firmly strapped
across the notchings. Double truss-pieces were also used,

sure would be directed to the abutments, or to two opposite
points of the arch in the same level.

The annexed plate is a perspective view of the centering
of one of the arches of Waterloo Bridge. This magnificent
bridge was built under the direction of the late Mr. John

 

 

Rennie, and is a noble specimen of simplicity of design, skil-
ful arrangement, and solidity of execution. The centre was
composed of eight frames or trusses, and, though somewhat
complicated, was on the whole a. judicious combination ;
exhibiting rather an excess than a deficiency of strength.

In the erection of Chester Bridge, finished in 1832, an
entirely different principle was adopted in the construction
and the mode of relieving the centre; it is thus described in
the Transactions of the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Vol. I. :—

“ The centre on which the stupendous arch of Chester new
bridge was raised, and which is stated by Mr. Hartley, (the
engineer of the bridge,) to have been exclusively designed by
Mr. Trubshaw, claims a detailed notice, from the novelty of
the principle it was formed on, the efliciency with which it
did its work, and the economy that attended its use. The
centre consisted of six ribs in width, and the span of the arch
was divided into four spaces by means of three nearly equi-
distant piers of stone built in the river, from which the tim-
bers spread fan-like towards the sofiit, so as to take their
load endwise. The lower extremities of these radiating
beams rested in cast-iron shoe—plates on the tops of the piers,
and the upper ends were bound together by two thicknesses
of 4-inch planking bending round, as nearly as they could be
made, in the true curve of the arch. . On the rim thus formed,
the lagging, or covering, which was 4% inches thick, was
supported over each rib by a pair of folding wedges, 15 or
16 inches long, by 10 or 12 inches broad, and tapering about
1%,— inch ; for every course of arch-stones in the bridge, there
were therefore six pairs of striking wedges. The horizontal
timber of the centre was only 13 inches deep, and the six
ribs were tied together transversely near the top, by thorough
bolts of inch iron, but with a view not to weaken and injure
the timber more than was absolutely necessary, the least pos-
sible of iron was used.”

This centre thus differs essentially from any other hitherto
employed; each rib, instead of forming one connected piece
of frame-work, consisting in this of four independent parts,
and hardly any transverse strain has to be resisted. It has
also this advantage, that the bearings may be gradually
relieved, or tightened at one place, and slackened at another,
as may be necessary, because the wedges are in this construc-
tion borne by the centre, instead of the centre being borne by
the wedges.

In striking centres it is of great advantage to be able to
sufi‘er them to rest at any part of the operation; for it is
important that the arch in taking its proper bearing do not
acquire any sensible degree of velocity, or settle too rapidly.
The centre, says Alberti, should always be eased a little as
soon as the arch is completed, in order that the arch-stones
may take their proper bearings before the mortar becomes
hard. If the mortar be suffered to dry before the centre be
lowered, the arch will break at the joints in settling, and the
connection of the arch will be destroyed. In small centres,
the wedges are driven back with mauls, men being stationed
at each pair of wedges for that purpose. But in larger works
a beam is mounted, as a battering-ram, to drive the wedge-
formed blocks back. The French engineers, in removing
centres, destroy, by little and little, the ends of the principal
supports; a work of difficulty, as well as danger, and which
cannot be done with so much regularity in this way as by
wedges. See IRON BRIDGE, STONE BRIDGE, and SUSPENSION
BRIDGE.

CENTRE, in geometry, a point in a figure or solid, such that
if any straight line be supposed to pass through the point
until it terminate on both sides of the figure or solid, the line
will be bisected. Figures of this property are infinite. Some

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHA

110

CHA

 

of them are the circle, ellipsis, parallelograms of every spe-
cies, &c.; and some solids of this nature are the sphere,
spheroids, parallelepipeds, 8w.

In a circle, the centre is everywhere at an equal distance
from the circumference. In a sphere, the centre is every
where at the same distance from the surface. In the ellipsis,
any two straight lines passing through the centre, terminat-
ing at each end on the circumference, and making equal
angles with either axis, are equal; or the four lines drawn
from the centre to the circumference, are equal. The same
property applies to the opposite hyperbolas.

CENTRES OF A DOOR, two pivots, round which the door is
made to revolve.

CENTROLINEAD, an instrument for drawing converging
lines, when the point of intersection is inaccessible.

CENTRY-GARTH, an old English term for a burial—
ground.

CEROFERARIUM,
paschal taper.

CEROMA, the anointing-room in ancient baths and
gymnasia.

CESTOPHORI, sculptures of females bearing the cestus,
or marriage-girdle.

CESSPOOL. See SESSPOOL.

CHAIN-TIMBER, in brick houses, a timber of larger
dimensions than common bond, placed in the middle of the
height of the story, for strengthening the building; the
scantling of chain-timber is 8 inches by 5 inches, or 8%
inches by 5% inches, viz., equal to the length and breadth of
a brick.

CHALCIDICJE, a large magnificent hall, belonging to a
tribunal, or court ofjustice. Vitruvius employs the term for
the auditory of a basilica; and other ancient writers use it
for an apartment in which the gods were supposed to sup.

CHALICE, the cup used to contain the wine at the cele-
bration of the eucharist. In early ages, chalices were made
of glass, wood, or horn; but in the council of Rheims,
A.D.' 847, the materials for the chalice were restricted to
gold or silver. The rim of the chalice should never turn
over.

CHALK, an opaque mineral, of a yellowish white, or
rather of a snow colour, of a fine earthy fracture, without
lustre, breaking into blunt-edged angular fragments; when
contaminated with iron, it has more or less of an ochrey
tinge, and stains the fingers; but when pure, it is very soft
and almost friable, gives a white streak, has a meagre feel,
and adheres to the tongue. It efibrvesces violently with
acids; and when mixed with iron, becomes harder and
heavier: its specific gravity varies from 2'4 to 2'6. It
occurs generally in a mass, sometimes disseminated, or invest-
ing other minerals.

In a state of purity, it appears to be composed only of
water, lime, carbonic acid, and a small quantity of alumine.
Mr. Kirwan obtained the following analysis :

a candlestick used to hold the

3 water

53 lime

42 carbonic acid
2 alumine

—_

100

Chalk occurs in thick beds, nearly horizontal, alternating
with thin layers of flint nodules, which are also irregularly
dispersed through its substance. It contains a vast quantity
of the relics of disorganized marine bodies, and often the
hard parts of amphibious and land animals, as the heads and
vertebrae of crocodiles, elephants’ teeth, 8m.

 

Chalk beds occur frequently in the east and south parts of
England, in the north-east of France, in Poland, and in some
parts of the Danish islands.

Its uses are numerous; it is employed in walling or vaulting,
as building-stone; many of the groins or vaults of our Gothic

churches are constructed with it; it is also employed in the 3

composition of mortar, in countries where limestone is less
abundant; and when well burnt, is found not much inferior
to lime-stone. .

CHAMBER, (from the Latin, camera, derived from the
Greek, xapapa, a vault, or curve,) a vaulted apartment, a part
of a lodging. This term was formerly applied to any room,
and sometimes even to a suite of apartments; but in modern
times it is used to designate rooms ordinarily intended for
sleeping in. The proportion of its horizontal dimensions may
be varied, to accommodate different circumstances, which
may occur either in the form of a building, or in the disposi-
tion of the apartments, from the square to the proportion, of
which the breadth is two-thirds of the length; its altitude
may be three-fourths of the breadth. The word originally
implied a vaulted apartment.

In building bed-chambers, the situation of the bed, as well
as of the fire-place, ought to be attended to, as should the
disposition of the windows, when they can be shifted without
destroying the symmetry of the exterior. If the bed and
fire-place be opposite to each other, the fire-place may be in
the middle of its own side; but if it should be found neces-
sary to have the bed on the same side of the room with the
fire-place, on_ account of doors or windows, or both, then the
chimney ought to be placed in the middle of the remaining
distance between the bed and the wall, the bed being sup-
posed to stand at one extremity. The situation of doors
may be the same as in other apartments ; passage-doors should
be within about two feet of the angle of the room, on what-
ever side they are made; and may either be on the same
side with the fire-place, or on the opposite side to the fire-
place, or in the return side, opposite to the window, next to
the farther corner from the fire-side of the room.

The bed ought to be so placed as to be out of the current
of air, which usually rushes from the door to the fire-place.

The most eligible figure of chambers, for furniture, is the
rectangle ; though sometimes the circle, ellipsis, or octagon,
may be allowed to some particular room, for the sake of
variety. Besides passage~doors, it is convenient for cham-
bers to communicate with each other, or with a dressing-
room.

CHAMBER or A LOCK, in inland navigation, the Space ‘

between the gates, in which a boat rises and sinks from one
leVel to another, in order to pass the lock.

CHAMBER-STORY, a story of a house appropriated to bed-
rooms. In good houses it should never be less than 10 feet
high; and in mansions 12, or even 15 feet high. Chambers
should not be too high, because it is difficult to warm them;
nor too low, as it is prejudicial to the health.

CHAMBERS, SIR \VILLIAM, a distinguished architect,
is said to have derived his descent from the ancient family of
Chalmers, in Scotland, barons of Tartas, in France. He was
born, however, at Stockholm, in Sweden, where his father
had resided for many years, in order to prosecute certain
claims he had on the government of that country.
very young man, he made a voyage to China, as supercargo
in the service of the Swedish East India Company, and pro-
bably thus acquired his taste for the Asiatic style of ornament.
At the very early age of eighteen, we find him established in
London as an architect and draughtsman, in which capacities
he soon acquired considerable reputation; and obtaining an
introduction to Lord Bute. shortly afterwards was appointed

 

 

“'hen a a

 

 

 

 

CHA

141

CHA

 

through that nobleman’s influence drawing-master to the
Prince of Wales, afterwards George III. .

He was employed, soon after the access1on of George III.,
to lay out the gardens at Kew, and there displayed, Without
restraint, his predilection for the Chinese style, both .Of
architecture and gardening, decorating the royal gardens with
numerous temples, pagodas, and other Asxatic buildings.
Being patronized by the King and Princess-dowager, he was
employed as architect to the-most conmderable buildings of
the day; and was also appomted Surveyor-General to the
Board of Works in Somerset House, a situation worth at
least two thousand pounds a year. Sir William died in
1796, leaving a large fortune. As an architect, although his
taste was fantastic, he frequently displayed a certain gran-
deur in his designs, and in the disposition of interior arrange-
ments particularly, showed considerable ingenuity and prac-
tical ability. His chefld’wuvres are his staircases, particularly
that in the Italian villa he erected for the Earl of Besborough,
at Roehampton; and also those at Lord Gower’s and the
Royal Antiquarian Society’s.

In the time of Sir W. Chambers, pure Greek architecture
was only beginning to be known in England ; and at first its
introduction was not much favoured. The indiscriminate
adoption of Greek models for public buildings in London has
filled the metropolis with structures quite unsuited in external
form to improve the appearance of a large city, and often ill
adapted, in their internal arrangements, to the purposes for
which they are designed. Instead of large masses and lofty
buildings, the streets of London are crowded with mean
porticos and pigmy pillars, attached to edifices of so little
elevation, and so much out up into small parts, as to suffer
by comparison even with many of the adjoining houses.

The street-front of Somerset House, Chambers’s best work,
is, in all respects, better adapted to a great city, than the
Greek models which are now too generally adopted; and the
river-front forms one of the boldest architectural objects in
the metropolis, particularly when beheld from the water.
Its extent and elevation, and the majestic breadth and range
of its terrace, give it an air of grandeur exceedingly striking
and imposing.

The works published by Sir \Villiam Chambers were-
A Treatise on Civil Architecture, of which a new edition, by
Joseph Gwilt, Esq , F.S.A., appeared in 1824. Plans,
Elevations, Sections, and Perspective Views of the Gardens
of Kew; Chinese Designs; and Chinese Gardening. His
Treatise on Civil Architecture, though prejudiced against
Grecian architecture in favour of the Roman, is an excellent
work.

CHAMBRANLE, the border of stone, or the wooden
frame, surrounding the three sides of a door, window, or
chimney; the head of the chambranle is called the traverse,
and the two sides, the ascendants.

When the chambranle is plain, it is called a band, case, or
frame. In an ordinary door, it is called the door-case ; in a
window, the windowframe ; in the latter case, it comprehends
also the sill. When the chambranle is moulded with one or
more faces, and bordered outwardly with one or several
mouldings, it is called an architrave ; though it should rather
be said to be architrave-moulded, being only an imitation of
that division of the entablature of an order.

CIIAMFERED, Rustic. See RUSTIC.

CHAMFERET, a half scotia, being a kind of furrow, or
gutter, on a column ; called also strict, and strict.

CHAMFERING, KaerTEtV, to bend, the act of cutting the
Edge of anything, which was originally right-angled, aslope,
01‘ bevel; so that when placed in its destined situation, the
Plane formed by this cutting may be inclined to the

2 o

 

 

horizon, while the other parts are perpendicular and parallel
to it.

A chamfer differs from a splay in being smaller, and in
cutting off an equal portion from either side. In Gothic
architecture chamfers are very frequent, and are often orna~
mented with mouldings and foliage at their terminations.

CHAMP, a flat surface, the ground of relieved sculpture,
or engravmg.

CHAMPAIN LINE, a conjunction of straight lines,
forming indentations similar to the projecting parts; the sides
of each ascending part, which are also the sides of the alter-
nate indentations, being parallel to each other ; the bottom of
each indentation being formed of three internal angles, and
the top of each projecting part of three external angles; each
ascendant and each indentation being shaped alike on both
sides; that is, the corresponding angles and lines, whether of
the ascendants, or in the depressions, being equal.

CHANCEL, that part of a church which is appropriated
to the clergy and others officiating in the public services.

The term comes from the Latin, cancellus, which, in the
lower Latin, is used in the same sense, from cancelli, lattices,
or cross-bars, which anciently partitioned the chancel from
the other part of the church.

Externally, the chancel is distinguished as a projection at
the east end, of smaller dimensions than the nave, and with-
out aisles; so that when the body of the church is accom-
panied by aisles, it is very readily recognized, and in other
cases by its proportionate dimensions. Sometimes, however,
the chancel is of the same size and height as the nave, and
the aisles are continued to its eastern extremity; but even in
this case the division may be shown by means of a belfry on
the apex of the roof at that spot or by some other such
method; in some instances there is no distinction externally.
Internally the chancel is usually separated from the nave by
a lofty arch, in the spandrils above which is often a picture
of the Last. Judgment; a further separation is effected by an
ornamental screen of wood or stone, more frequently of the
former, panelled and pierced in open tracery, surmounting
which was, in former times, the rood-loft, or gallery in which
the rood, or large crucifix, accompanied by the images of the
blessed Virgin and St. John, was placed, facing the west end
of the church. Here the level of the flooring was raised by
one or more steps, and again before you arrive at the plat-
form on which stood the altar; in one or two cases the chancel
is depressed below the level of the nave, but these are purely
exceptions.

I'Vhen the aisles of the nave are continued eastward, the
only division consists of the screen and steps; but the dis-
tinction will be effected by some difference in the roof, or by
the superior quality of the decoration. In such cases the
aisles are partitioned off from the chancel by other screens or
pal-closes.

The chancel is lighted by the east window, which should
be the most important in the building, and by two or more in
the north and south walls, according to its length. There is
a door in one of the side-walls, towards the east end, for the
priest, leading into the vestry, or forming his entrance into
the church. The roof is of a more elaborate character than
that in other parts of the structure, as indeed are all the
enrichments. The floor was often covered with encaustic tiles,
with devices of various colours painted on their surface,
while the aisles in the body of the edifice were paved with
tiles of a plainer description; the whole of the walls were
sometimes decorated with colour and rich hangings, a method
which has of late been adopted with success in one or two
churches in London.

In the centre of the eastern wall was the altar, and on the

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHA 142

CHA

 

south of it the piscina, usually formed by a recess in the
eastern extremity of the south wall, and used to wash the
sacred vessels, to contain which, when not in use, was pro-
vided an aumbry or cupboard near the piscina, and taken out
of the thickness of the south or north wall, furnished with a
door and means of securing it. Adjacent to the piscina are
sometimes found, especially in the larger churches, seats for
the officiating priests. These sedilla, as they are termed,
consisted of stone or wooden seats, varying in number from
one to five, the more usual number being three, raised in
gradation one above the other, according to the rank of the
clergy who were to occupy them ; when of stone, they are
more generally cut out of the thickness of the wall ; when of
wood, they may be movable. Westward of these, disposed on
each side of the chancel, are the seats for the choristers, con-
sisting of two or three rows, one in front of the other and a
little below it. Occasionally these seats are returned in front
of the rood screen, and in that case they always face eastward
toward the altar.

In the north wall of some chancels is found an arched
recess, which sometimes contained a stone tomb, occasionally
that of the founder; this was the holy sepulchre on which
the ceremonies commemorative of our Lord’s burial and
resurrection were celebrated at the season of Easter. Where
there is no sepulchre, a movable wooden structure was
employed for the purpose.

The principal feature of the chancel is the altar. This is
an elevated table of an oblong shape, constructed of either
wood or stone; in thefirst ages of the church, up to the
fifth century, they were generally made of the former mate-
rial, though stone was recommended by Pope Sylvester,
early in the fourth century. The council of Hippo forbad
the use of wood, as did also that of Epone, in France, at the
commencement of the sixth century, from which period they
have been made of stone. Stone altars were disused in
England at the Reformation, and so few survived the turmoils
of this period, and of the succeeding rebellion, that we have
scarcely an entire example left; those in the chantries and
side-chapels are almost the only ones that escaped destruction.
The high altar of Arundel church, Sussex, which was pre-
served by being enclosed in wood, will give us a fair idea of
their form and construction. It consists of a slab 12 feet six
inches long, by 4 feet wide, and 2% inches in thickness, sup-
ported on a solid stone 3 feet 6 inches in height, and quite
plain; in some cases, however, the front and sides were
carved in panels and various devices, and richly coloured.
Sometimes the slab is supported on stone legs, and sometimes
on brackets, as at Broughton Castle, Oxford; it was gene—
rally marked on its upper surface with five crosses in reces-
sion, one in the centre, and one in each corner, representing
the five wounds of our Lord. In the church of Porlock, Somer-
setshire, the crosses do not appear on the slab, but are found
in the centre panel in the face of the supporting masonry.

That part of the east wall immediately above the altar is
frequently ornamented with a reredos of tabernacle work, or
a series of enriched arches ; sometimes this space is occupied
by a triptych, or painting of three compartments, often repre-
senting the crucifixion.

“Pertaining to the high altar,” says Mr. Bloxam, in his
valuable little manual, “ which was covered with a frontal
and cloths, and anciently enclosed at the sides, with curtains
suspended on rods of iron projecting from the wall, 'as a
crucifix, which succeeded to the simple cross placed on the
altars of the Anglo-Saxon churches ; a pair of candlesticks,
generally with spikes instead of sockets, on which lights or
tapers were fixed ; a pix, in which the host was kept reserved
for the sick ; a pair of cructs, of metal, in which were con-

 

 

 

tained the wine and water preparatory to their admixture in
the eucharistic cup ; a sacring bell ; a pax table, of silver or
other metal, for the kiss of peace, which took place shortly
before the host was received in communion ; a stoup, or stok,
of metal, with a sprinkle for holy water ; a censer, or thurible ;
and a ship—a vessel so called—to hold frankincense; a chris-
matory, an offering basin, a basin which was used when the
priest washed his hands ; and a chalice and paten.”

Another part of the furniture of the chancel is the credence-
table, or table of prothesis, on which the elements were plated
previous to consecration, usually situate on the north side of
the altar. This is of much smaller dimensions than the
altar, sometimes of stone richly panelled, as at the church of
Holy Cross, near Winchester, and Fyfield, Berks, where it
is in shape semi-octagonal ; they were sometimes also of
wood, a specimen of which is pointed out at Chipping-
VVarden, Northamptonshire, the date of which is A.D. 1627.

The credence is very frequently found in the form of a shelf '-

above the piscina, and under the same niche and canopy.

We must not forget to mention the lettern, or desk, from
whence the lessons were read, which was placed at the
western end of the chancel ; it was generally of brass, some-
times in the shape of an eagle with expanded wings, and
sometimes forming a sloping desk, with the slope on one or
two sides, in all cases supported on an ornamental stem.
Eastward of this, immediately in front of the altar-steps, was
the fald-stool, a low, sloping desk, at which the priest knelt
at the Litany.

The chancels of our old churches vary so much in size and
proportion," that it is impossible to lay down any rule by
which their dimensions may be determined ; we always find
them, however, of sufficient space to form a prominent feature
in the building ; sometimes they are as long, or longer than
the nave, but this practice we would not recommend for
adoption. It may be laid down as a general rule, that the
chancel be well defined and fully developed, yet not of so
great length as to prevent the voice of the celebrant being
heard throughout the nave; on an average, we may give the
length of 30 feet as a standard for most modern churches, but
of course this dimension will vary with the size and width of
the church. The materials and workmanship in this part of
the edifice should always be of the very best description, and
the ornamentation more rich and frequent; care must be
taken to avoid the use of any decoration except such as is of
a strictly religious character, and adapted to its particular
situation: all meretricious ornament should be at once dis-
carded; severity is wanted, not display.

CHANDELIER, a candlestick, lamp, 8m. suspended by
a chain. rope, or bracket.

ClIANDRY, a room where candles and other lights
are kept.

CHANNEL, a canal, or long gutter, sunk within the
surface of a body.

CHANNEL OF THE LARMIER, a hollow soflit, or canal, under
the corona, which forms the pendent on the front. See Bl-IAK.

CHANNEL OF THE VOLU'rE, in the Ionic capital, is the
hollow spiral, sinking between the fillets. See CANAL on THE
IONIC VOLUTE.

CHANNEL STONES, in paving, are those prepared for
gutters or channels, for collecting and turning otf the rain—
water with a (mrrent.

CllAN'l‘LATE, in building, a piece of wood fastened
near the ends of the rafters, and projecting beyond the wall,
to support two or three rows of tiles, so placed as to prevent
the rain-water from trickling down the walls.

CHANTRY, or CIIAUNTKY, was anciently a church or chapel,
endowed with lands, or other yearly revenues, for the mainte-

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHA

nance of one or more priests, daily saying or singing mass for
the souls of the‘donors, and such others as they appointed.

CHANTRIES, are also small chapels attached to a church,
and are sometimes external additions to the church; but
more frequently, especially in cathedrals and the larger
churches, erections within it; they are separated ofl‘ufrom
the body of the church by screens of open work surrounding
and enclosing the tombs of the founders, and are usually
provided with an altar at the east, with its appendages, such
as piscina, aumbry, 860. Many beautiful specimens are to
be found in our cathedral and abbey churches, and amongst
the most costly may be enumerated those of Henry V. and
Henry VII. at \Vestminster, the latter of which is, as is well
known, of great size and magnificence; of Edward IV. at
“lindsor; of Edward II. at Gloucester ; and of Bishops
\Vaynfleet, Beaufort, and Wykeham at Winchester.

CHAPEL, a small detached building for divine service, sub-
ordinate to, and usually dependent on, the parish church, from
which it is distinguished by the fewer privileges belonging to
it, such as having no proper priest attached, or being deprived
of the power of having baptism administered within it.

CHAPEL, is also a building adjoined to a church, as a part
thereof, having only a desk, 8m. to read prayers in, and, in
the Romish churches, an altar, 8:0. to celebrate mass on;
but without any baptistry or font.

The eighteen chapels on the sides of King’s College chapel,
Cambridge, are formed between the buttresses; most of them
Were originally provided with altars: those on the south
side of this magnificent building, are appropriated to the
college library.

Previous to the Reformation, nearly all castles, palaces, man-
sions, and religious establishments, were provided with private
chapels. These were either detached buildings, 01' portions of
the entire edifice constructed and set apart for sacred purposes.

CHAPEL, also denotes the deep recesses made in the walls
of ancient edifices, and is of a similar signification to what
is otherwise called exhedrw, by Vitruvius ; thus the Roman
Pantheon has seven chapels in its circumference, the entry
corresponding to what otherwise Inight have been the eighth;
and the sides of the courts of the great temple at Balbec
are full of chapels, or cw/zedraa. Those of the rectangular
court of this temple, and those of the Pantheon, are alternated
with circular and rectangular plans, and most elegantly
decorated with columns in the front towards the interior.
The semicircular recess at the end of the basilica, and at the
end of our most ancient churches, is often denominated
chapel. Smaller recesses in ancient edifices, for containing
statues, are denominated shrines, or niches.

ClIAPITER, the same as CAPITAL, which see.

Cnarrrnns WITII MOULDINGS, are those without foliage,
or other ornaments, as the Tuscan and Doric capitals.

Length Breadth.
Int. Ext. Int.

Height.
Ext. lnt

BRISTOL

143

 

CHA

I

CHAPITERS WITH SCULPTURES, are those that are adorned
with foliage and other carved ornaments; the finest yet
invented is the Corinthian capital.

CHAPLET, a small ornament cut into olives, beads, &c. ;
a sort of fillet.

CHAPTER-HOUSE (from capitulum) a place belonging
to a cathedral, or collegiate church, wherein the assemblies
of the clergy were held.

The greater number of chapter-houses were connected with
the cloisters of the church to which they belonged, by which
means they were approached from the church; but, at Wells,
York, and Litchfield, they are adjacent to the north transcpt,
in the first case being considerably elevated above the level
of the church; they are seldom found westward of the tran-
Sept. The earlier of these edifices, dating of the eleventh
and twelfth centuries, are in plan parallelogramic, termina-
ting sometimes toward the east in a semicircle, as at Durham
Cathedral; at later periods we find them octangular or
polygonal, while that of 1Vorcester is circular internally, with
ten sides on the exterior. In elevation the walls are supported
by buttresses—that of Lincoln with flying buttresses—with
one or more windows between each pair, the whole being
covered in the later instances, with a very high-pitched roof
gathering from each side of the building, and terminating
in a point at its apex. Below the windows, in the interior,
runs a continuous seat or bench-table, backed with a series
of niches or arcades, and at the east end, facing the entrance,
stand three stone Seats, usually of greater elevation than the
rest, appropriated to the superior members of the chapter.
The ceiling is more frequently vaulted. Among the
earlier specimens may be enumerated Durham, probably
the oldest, parallelogramic, with circular east end ; Gloucester,
Bristol, Oxford, Chester, Canterbury, and Exeter, all of
which are rectangular. The first variation seems to have
been at Worcester, which is circular within and decagonal
without; the vaulting of the interior being supported by
a central pillar and brackets in the side-walls. Of the
remainder, Lincoln has ten sides, the vaulting supported by
a central column and flying buttresses, which last appendage
forms its peculiarity ; Wells, Lichfield, Salisbury, and York,
only eight sides, the vaulting sustained, as in the previous
examples, that of York only excepted, Where the vaulting
is carried across the building in a single span of forty-seven
feet. Wells chapter-house is erected over a crypt, a pecu-
liarity which it shares with that of Westminster; that of
Lichfield, although octangular, has two of its opposite sides
of longer dimensions than the others, in which respect it is
perfectly unique; while that of Salisbury is perhaps of all
specimens the most beautiful.

The subjoined LIST OF CHAPTER-HOUSES IN ENGLAND,
(from Britton’s valuable works,) may be found useful.

_ Rectangular.
43ft 53ft 25lt 36ft 26ft Date 1142 ; adjoins S. transept ; approached from cloistcr by a vestibule ; vaulted roof.
N. of transept ; entrance from cloister ; vaulted roof with wood and tracery ; large B. audW. windows.

Temp. Henry II ; S. of transcpt; entrance from Cloister.
One side remains 5 and joins S. transept with slyp between.
About 1150; separated from S. transept by passage.
Before 1200; 140 feet diameter including buttresses.

Temp. Henry III. ; octagon; central column; over crypt.

S. of transept ; entered from Cloister; vestibule; about 1260.

CANTERBURY ...... 87 99 35 45 52
varnsrnn 68 77 35 44 Very lofty entrance from Cloister ; arched roof.
DURHAM .......... .. 78 90 36 45 Date 1133 ; semicircular end ; taken down.
Cnnsrra ............ 5O 58 26 36 36
eronn ............... 54 64 24 34
Exl-z'rut ............... 55 62 28 38 50 Lower part about 1230—upper part 1427.
thcnssrnn 8:5
LLANDAI’F ........... . 23 27 21 26 Early pointed.

Octagonal POI? anal c.
Woncssrrn ...... 55 65 55 65 , J9 , é
LINcoLN 62 70 62 7O 42
LienriizLD ...... 45 54 28 36 About 1200; large vestibule.
\‘l rsrinxsrnn ...... 58 66 58 66
\\ ELLS ............... 55 65 55 65 42 Over crypt; small vestibule.
llmtsronn ......... 45 45 Decagon ; fragment remaining.
Sausumw ........ 53 58 53 58 52
103K 57 70 57 70

Connected with N. transept by vestibule ; vaulted roof, of wood.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHE 144 CHI

 

CHAPT REL, from chapz'ter, the capitals of pillars and
pilasters, which support arches, commonly called impost.
See IMPOST.

CHARGED, a term in architecture, implying that one
member of an edifice is sustained by another; in which case,
the latter is said to be charged with the former. Thus,
a frieze, or other surface, when ornamented, is said to be
charged with the ornament; but when the ornament is too
abundant, it is said to be over-charged; a column supporting
an entablature is said to be charged with the entablature.

CHAR or CHARE; an old term equivalent to the word
hewn or wrought; thus charred stone is hewn stone, as
distinguished from rubble.

CHARNEL—HOUSE (Latin, caro-carms, flesh) a vaulted
apartment, beneath or adjoining a church, in which human
bones are deposited.

CHARTOPHYLACIUM (Greek, xap'rng, paper, and
ovxaaaew to guard), the place where records were kept.

CHASE-MORTISE, or PULLEY-MORTISE, a long mortise
cut lengthwise in one of a pair of parallel timbers, for insert-
ing the one end of a transverse timber, by making the trans-
verse to revolve round a centre at the other end, which is
fixed into the other parallel timber. This is applicable to
ceiling-joists, where the binding-joists are the parallel timbers
first fixed, and the ceiling—joists are the transverse joints.

CHAUNTRY. See CHANTRY.

CHECKERED, or CHEQUERED, a surface is said to be
checkered, when it is divided into a number of equal coliti—
guous parallelograms, alternately coloured. The term is
sometimes applied to reticulated masonry. See RETICULATED
and MASONRY.

CHEEKS among mechanics, are those pieces of a machine
which form corresponding sides, or which are double and
alike : two equal and similar parts, generally placed parallel
to each other. .

CHEEKS or A MORTISE, the two solid parts upon the sid s
of the mortise. The thickness of each cheek should never
be less than that of the mortise, except mouldings on the
styles require it to be otherwise.

CHEESF-ROOM, a room appropriated for the reception
of cheeses after they are made. Rooms of this description
should be lined round the walls, and fitted up with shelves,
having one or more stages, according to the size of the room,
and proper gangways for commodious passage. In places
where much cheese is manufactured, the dairy-room may be
placed below, the shelf—room immediately above, and lofts
over the shelf-room, with trap-doors through each floor.
This will save much carriage, and be very advantageous for
the drying of cheeses.

CHEQUERS, in masonry, stones in the facings of walls,
having all their joints continued in straight lines, without
interruption, or breaking joints. \Valls constructed in this
manner, are of the very worst description, particularly when
the joints are made horizontal and vertical. Those consisting
of diagonal joints, or joints inclined to the horizon, were
used by the Romans. See MASONRY and RETICULATED.

CHEST, in bridge-building, the sameas CAISSON, which see.

CHEVET (French), the eastern end of a church, when of
acircular or polygonal form: equivalent to APSIS, which see.

CHEVRON-\VORK, a zig-zag ornament, sometimes called
the dancette, usual in the archivolts of Saxon and Norman
arches. The outline of chevron-work is a conjunction of
right lines, of equal lengths, alternately disposed, so as to
form exterior and interior angles, with the exterior angles
equal to the interior ones; and all the angular points in the
same straight line, or in the same curve line, when they are
the ornaments of arches.

 

 

 

The lines of chevron-work are similar to what is deno-
minated indented lines in heraldry, and not unlike the inden-
tations or teeth of a joiner’s hand-saw; the only difference
being the greater inclination of the teeth on one side than
on the other; but in chevron-work, they are equally inclined
to the line passing through the angular points.

CHIMNEY (from the French, cheminée, derived from
the Latin, caminas, borrowed from the Greek, Ira/111mg, a
chimney, from Kala), [burn ), that part of a building wherein
the fire is contained, and through which the smoke passes
away.

The chimney generally consists of an opening in, and
through a wall, upwards, beginning at the floor on one side
of an apartment, and ascending within the thickness of the
wall, till it comes in contact with the atmosphere, above
the roof of the building.

The parts of the chimney, and of the wall in which it is
inserted, are denominated as ftllows:

The opening, facing the room, being the place where the
fire is put, is termed the fire-place.

The stone, marble, or plate, under the fire-place, is called
the hearth.

That on the same level, before the fire-place, is called
the slab.

The vertical sides of the Opening, at the extremities of
the hearth, forming also a part of the face of the wall of the
apartment, are called jambs.

The head of the fire-place, resting at its extremities on
the jambs, presenting one face vertical in the surface of the
wall, and another towards the hearth, is called the mantel.

The whole hollow, trom the fire-place, to the top of the
wall, is denominated thefannel.

That part of the funnel which continually contracts, or
diminishes in its horizontal dimensions, as it ascends, is
termed the gathering, or by some, the gathering of the
wings.

The long narrow prismatic tube, over the gathering, or
that part of the funnel which has its horizontal dimensions
the same throughout the altitude of the chimney, is called
theflue.

That part between the gathering and flue, is denominated
the throat.

That part of the wall which faces the apartment, and
forms the side of the funnel parallel thereto, or that part of
the wall which forms the sides of the funnels of several tire-
places, is called the breast.

In an outside wall, the side of the funnel opposite the
breast, is called the hach.

When there are two or more chimneys in the same wall,
the divisions between them, or the solid parts of brick. stone,
or metal, are called 'u‘iths. A gable, partition, or party—wall,
containing a collection of chimneys, is termed a stack of
chimneys.

The turret above the roof, for discharging the smoke into
the air, of one, two, 0‘ a collection of chimneys, is called
the chinmez -shqft; and the horizontal surface, or the upper
part of the said shaft, the chimneg-top.

“'hen the parallel sides of the jambs are faced with stone,
marble, or metal, so as to form four obtuse angles, \‘iz., two
internally with the back, and two externally with the breast
or side of the apartment, making the horizontal dimension of
the outside of the fire-place of greater extension than that
of the back, the facings are called cm'ings.

1n stone walls of ordinary buildings, the most common
dimensions for the sections of the fines of sitting-rooms
are from twelve to fourteen inches square, and for the brick-
work, nine by fourteen inches. The section of the flue must,

.__.___.__~,..~\ __ Mgfiwu. .‘fi

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHI

“5

CHI

 

however, be proportioned to the section of the fire, which
when found necessary to vary from ordinary cases, should be
equal to the said horizontal section of the fire, or nearly so.

To prevent smoke, the chimney ought to be so constructed,
that a current of air may pass immediately over the fire, so
as to be rarefied in its passage, and not to pass entirely
through the fire, as many have erroneously imagined. For
this purpose, the throat should be so near to the fire, as to
prevent the cold air from passing over it, and 1ts horlzontal
dimension in the thickness of the wall should not exceed
four inches and a half, or five inches at most.

This contraction is to be formed by facing up the back,
and beveling the covings, so that no cold air may be admitted
by the ends of the fire; by thus obliging the overplus above
the quantity necessary to produce combustion, to pass over
the fire, it becomes so heated, as to consume the smoke in
part, and to drive the remaining portion before it, with cele-
rity and violence.

The covings are in general placed at an angle of one
hundred and thirty-five degrees with the back and breast,
and should be made to form an abrupt plane on their top, so
as to break the current of a sudden gust of wind.

The greater the quantity of rarefied air that passes up the
flue, and in general the higher the chimney, the more celerity
and force will it ascend with. The flue ought, therefore, to
be carried as high as conveniency will admit.

To prevent the absorption of heat, the back and covings
should be constructed of white materials, or, if not, they
should be covered with plaster, and whitened as often as
they become black, and thus they will reflect a greater quan-
tity of heat.

Most metals absorb the heat, and are therefore unfavour-
able for this purpose.

The back and covings are most conveniently put up after
the house is built. The introduction and general use of
“ registers,” has obviated any difficulty in this respect; they
form a great improvement on the old method.

Some of the principles in the construction of chimneys are
very well ascertained, others are not easily discovered till tried.

The tops of flues should not have such wide apertures, as
to permit a greater quantity of air to rush down the chimney,
and counteract the force of the ascending rarefied stream.

Smoky chimneys are frequently occasioned by the situation
of doors in a room, the grate being placed too low, or the
mantel too high. There are many cases in which it is not
easy to discover the cause; but if once known, it may be
easily removed.

Flues with circular sections are, with some reason, sup-
posed to be more favourable for the venting of smoke, than
those whose sections are square or rectangular.

There is much difference of opinion as to the origin of

chimneys. They do not seem to have been in use among the
classics, as they are not found, as VVinkelmann informs us,
amongst the ruins of Herculaneum, although coals have been
discovered in some of the rooms, from which he conjectures
that. the Romans used charcoal fires; Mr. Lysons, however,
describes a fire-place, which he found in one of the rooms of
the Roman villa at Bignor, in Sussex. There does not seem
to be any evidence of the use of chimneys in England before
the twelfth century, when we meet with them in the castles
of Rochester, Hedingham, &c., also in a Norman house at
Winwall in Norfolk, in these cases, however, the flue is
carried up only a short distance in the thickness of the wall,
and is then turned out at the back, the apertures being small
oblOng holes Shortly afterwards we meet with flues carried
up the whole height of the wall, as at the castles of Conis-
borough, Newcastle, Sherbourne, &c., as also at Christ
2 r

 

___.______‘. M“... W.

Church, Hants. At this period the shafts were carried up
to a considerable height, and are generally circular; in after
times the forms varied considerably, and terminated fre-
quently with a spire, pinnacle, or gable, with apertures of
ornamental forms in the sides underneath for the escape of
the smoke. During the fourteenth century the shafts were
very short, and of great variety of forms. In the fifteenth,
the shafts were more usually octangular, sometimes square,.
with the aperture at the top; at the latter end of this cen-
tury we find clustered shafts, which afterwards became so
common in Elizabethan buildings. These clustered chimneys
are most frequently of brick, variously and elaborately orna-
mented all the way up the shaft, and indeed form a very
prominent and beautiful feature in buildings of this period.
Fine specimens of the kind are to be seen at Hampton
Court Palace, Eton College, East Basham Hall, Norfolk, and
all the larger buildings of the Elizabethan style; examples
in stone, though more rare, exist at Bodiam Castle, Sussex,
and on houses at South Petherton and Lambrook, Somer-
setshire.

CHINESE ARCHITECTURE, that which is used by
the inhabitants of China, and employed in their temples and
other edifices. It would be very difficult to give such
a definition as should point out the species of architecture
practised by the Chinese; we must therefore have recourse
to the descriptions of those who have drawn and actually
measured their edifices with care. To the attainment of this,
our materials are few. Sir William Chambers is the only
author we are acquainted with, who has given representations
of Chinese edifices from measurement, and who was able to
discriminate, as an architect, those characteristic forms by
which it is distinguished from other species of architecture,
and to mark out its peculiar features. In his preface he
observes:

“ To praise too much or too little, are two excesses which
it is equally difficult to avoid. The knowledge of the Chi-
nese, their policy and skill in the arts, have been praised
without bounds ; and the excessive encomiums that have been
given them, show with What force novelty strikes us, and
how natural it is to pass from esteem to admiration.

“ I am far from joining in the over-strained eulogies of the
Chinese. If I find among them wisdom and sublimity, it is
only when I compare them with the people that surround
them; nor shalll put them on a parallel with the inhabitants,
either ancient or modern, of our quarter of the world. At
the same time, we must acknowledge, that our attention is
due to this distinct and singular race of men, who, separated
from the polished nations of the world, have, without any
model to assist them, been able of themselves to mature the
sciences and invent the arts.

“ Everything that regards a people so extraordinary, has
a claim to our attention; but though we are pretty well
instructed in most things respecting them, we are very little
so in their architecture. Many descriptions that have been
hitherto given us of their edifices, are unintelligible, the best
give but indistinct and confused ideas of them, and none of
the drawings deserve the least attention.

“ Those which I at present offer to the public, are drawn
from sketches and measures that I took at Canton some years
ago. I took them merely to satisfy my own curiosity. I had
not the least intention to publish them; and they would not
have appeared at present, had I not yielded to the solicita—
tions of several amateurs of the fine arts. They have thought
them worthy of the attention of the public, and that they
might be useful in stopping the course of those extravagant
productions, that appear every day, under the name of Chi-
nese; although the most part of them are pure works of

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHI

fancy, and the rest only mutilated representations that have
been copied from porcelain and various paintings on paper.

“ What is really Chinese, has at least the merit of being
original. Seldom, or never, have this people copied or
imitated the inventions of other nations. Our most authentic
accounts agree on this point. Their government, their cus-
toms, their dress, and almost everything else, have continued
unchanged for thousands of years. Their architecture has,
besides, a remarkable resemblance to that of the ancients;
and this is the more surprising, as there is not the least pro-
bability that the one has been borrowed from the other.

“In the Chinese architecture, as well as that of the
ancients, the general form of almost all their compositions
tends to that of the pyramid. In both, the columns serve
for supports, and in both the columns have diminutions and
bases, which in many respects are similar. The entrelas, so
common in ancient edifices, are often seen in those of the
Chinese. The ting of the Chinese differs but little from the
peripteron of the Greeks. The atrium, and the monopterous
and prostyle temples, have a considerable resemblance to
some among the Chinese; and the manner in which they
construct their walls is on the same principle with the
revinctum and emplccton, described by Vitruvius. There
is, besides, a great resemblance between the utensils of the
ancients and the Chinese; both are composed of similar parts,
combined in a similar manner.

“ It is by no means my intention, in publishing a book on
Chinese architecture, to bring in vogue a taste so inferior to
the ancient, and so little suited to our climate. But the
architecture of one of the most extraordinary people of the
universe offers an interesting phenomenon to a lover of
the fine arts; and an architect ought to be acquainted with
so singular a manner of building. The knowledge of it is,
at least, curious; it may even be useful on particular occa-
sions. An architect is sometimes asked for Chinese compo-
sitions; and, in certain cases, they may be judicious. For
though, in general, the architecture of China is not suitable

[to Europe, yet, in parks and gardens, where the extent

demands a great variety, or in large palaces that contain
numerous enfilades of apartments, I do not think that it
would be improper to decorate some of the most inconsiderable
pieces in the Chinese taste. Variety never fails to please,
and novelty, when there is nothing disagreeable or shocking
in it, often holds the place of beauty. At the time that the
Greek architecture prevailed the most among the Romans,
history informs us that Adrian, wno was himself an archi-
tect, erected, at his country seat at Tivoli, several buildings
in the style of the Egyptians and some other nations.

“ The grandeur or the richness of the materials is not the
distinguishing characteristic of the Chinese edifices. But
there is a singularity in their manner, a justness in their
proportion, a simplicity, sometimes even a beauty, in their
form, that deserves our attention. I look upon them as gew-
gaws in architecture; and if singularity, prettiness, or neat-
ness in the work, give a place to trifles in the cabinets of the
curious, we may likewise introduce Chinese buildings among
compositions of a better kint .”

Sir William has above noticed the pyramidal form of
Chinese structures, and indeed the similarity of the architec-
ture of this extraordinary people with that of all the early
nations in this respect, is worthy of notice ; yet the resem-
blance of their buildings to tents is even more remarkable, so
striking indeed is it, that some travellers have compared their
cities to vast encampments. The Chinese, like all the Tartar
tribes, were a nomadic race ; and doubtless in their wander-
ings were accustomed to employ tents, coverings portable and
readily erected, to defend them from the heat and inclemen-

1'16

 

CHI

cies of the weather, and when they settled permanently, pre-
served the same form in the construction of their dwellings.
The construction of their buildings is indeed remarkable, and
tends to confirm the foregoing statement ; for, as Mr. Gwilt
remarks, “though the carpentry of which they are raised
has for ages been subjected to the same forms, when we con-
sider the natural march of human invention, especially in
cases of necessity, we cannot believe that, in a country where
the primitive construction was of timber, the coverings of
dwellings would have been at once sosimple and so light. Their
framing seems as though prepared merely fora canvas covering.
Again, we have, if more were wanting, another proof, in the
posts employed for the support of their roofs. On them we
find nothing resting analogous to the architecture for receiv-
ing and supporting the upper timbers of the carpentry; on
the contrary, the roof projects over and beyond the posts or
columns, whose upper extremities are hidden by the eaves,
thus superseding the use of a capital. A canvas covering
requires but a slender support, hence lightness is a leading
feature in the edifices of China; whilst other materials than
those which formed tents have been substituted for them, the
forms of the original type have been preserved, making this
lightness the more singular, inasmuch as the slightest analogy
between those of the original and the copy is imperceptible.
This change of material prevents in the copy the appearance
of solidity, and seems a defect in the style, unless we refer
to the type.”

Another peculiarity which strikes the European upon first
beholding a Chinese city, is the gaiety of their buildings,
arising from the prevalent application of colour. Their roofs
are composed of coloured and glazed tiles, their floors of
variegated stone or marble, and their porticos not only
coloured with the brightest tints, but also profusely varnished,
all uniting to produce an effect altogether different from that
presented by all other styles.

Sir \Villiam then proceeds with the work as follows:

“ T/ze Temples of the C/zinese. A great number of tem-
ples are to be seen at Canton. The Europeans call them
commonly pagodas. Many of these temples are extremely
small, and consist only of one single apartment. Some others
have a court, surrounded with galleries, at the end of which
is a tiny, where the idols are placed; and there are a few,
which are composed of many courts, surrounded with galle-
ries. The bonzes, or priests, have cells there, and the idols
different halls. These are properly convents, and some of
them have a great number of bonzes, who are attached to
them by particular vows, and who live in them in the exact
observance of certain rules.

“ The most considerable of these pagodas is that of Homing,
in the southern suburb, Plate 1., Figure 1. It occupies a great
extent of ground; and accordingly it contains, besides the tem-
ples of the idols, appartments for two hundred bonzes, hospi-
tals for many animals, a large kitchen-garden, and a burying-
ground. The priests and animals are buried promiscuously,
and equally honoured by monuments and epitaphs.

“The first object that presents itself, is a court of con-
siderable extent. In it are three rows of trees, which lead to
an open vestibule, A, to which the ascent is by a few steps, 8.
From this first vestibule, we pass to a second, C, wherein are
four colossal figures in stucco; they are seated, and hold in
their hands divers emblems. This vestibule opens into
another large court, D, surrounded by colonnades, E. and cells
for the bonzes, F. Four pavilions, G, are placed in it, on
socles. These pavilions are the temples; the two stories, of
which they are composed, are filled with idols, and the bonZes
perform their religious service in them. At the four corners
of the court are four other pavilions, H, where the. superior

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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bonzes have their apartments; and under these columns,
between the cells, are four halls, I, occupied by idols.

“ On each side of this great court are two other small
courts, K, surrounded with buildings. One is for the kit-
chen, L, and for the refectories, M; the other serves for the
hospitals, N, of which we shall speak.

“ I do not give the elevation of the great court, because it
could not have the suitable dimensions, without occupying at
least three plates. The pavilions are of different forms; but
they all present a very similar appearance, and the pro-
portions between the colonnades and the pavilions are also
nearly the same. The boxes or cells of the bonzes are of
stone, they are very small, and admit no light but by the
door. The bodies of the pavilions are built of the same
material, and the columns which surround them, as well as
the colonnades, are of wood, having bases of marble. All the
buildings are covered with tiles, made of a coarse kind of
porcelain, painted green, and varnished.

“The same plan is observed in all the temples of this
kind ; and by detaching from them the three pavilions that
occupy the middle of the great court, we may form an idea
of the manner in which Chinese edifices of great extent are
planned, or laid out. The imperial palace, those of the
princes of the blood, the palaces of the mandarins, the Kong
Quaens, or colleges of letters, are all disposed nearly in the
same manner; the principal difference consists in the number
and extent of the courts.

“ The edifices that the Chinese make use of for religious
purposes, are not, like those of the ancients, of any appropriate
form; the particular kind of construction that they call ting,
or ltong, enters indifferently into all kinds of edifices, they
are seen in almost all temples, in all palaces, above the gates
of towns, and, in short, in all buildings where they wish to
show magnificence.

“ I have seen, in several quarters of Canton, four different
kinds of tings. The three first are found in temples, and the
fourth in many gardens.

“The most common form in these temples is seen in
Plate 1., (see Chambers’ work ) It is a pretty exact copy of
the ting of the Nagada of Cochin-china, in the eastern suburb.
I have measured many buildings of this kind; but have found
so much difference in their proportions, that I am inclined to
think the architects, in that particular, follow no exact rule,
but that every one varies the proportion according to his
fancy.

“ In the drawing that I have given, the edifice is, as they
all are, raised 011 a base ; the ascent to it is by three steps.
It is a square, surrounded by a colonnade of twenty columns,
which support a roof surmounted by a wooden balustrade,
which contains a gallery, or passage, surrounding the whole
sceond story.

“The second story has the same figure and the same
dimensions as the first. It is covered with a roof, of a con-
struction peculiar to the Chinese; the angles are enriched
with ornaments of sculpture representing dragons.

“ The breadth of the edifice, measuring it from the exte-
rior surface of the columns, is equal to the height ; and the
diameter of the body of the building takes two-thirds of the
breadth. The height of the order makes two-thirds of the
diameter of the body, and the height of the second story is
equal to two-thirds of the height of the first. The columns
have in height nine of their diameters, the bases two, and
the beams and brackets, which hold the place of capitals,
only one. That is also the elevation of the entrelases, which
make the turn of the colonnade under the first roof, and
which forms a kind of frieze.

“ The second kind of ting differs so little from that which

 

I have just described, that it has not appeared to me neces-
sary to give a drawing of it. The first story is the same,
and all the difference of the second, is, that it is neither sur-
rounded with a gallery nor with a balustrade, and that the
roof which covers the colonnade comes close to the wall.

“ The third kind is represented, Plate I., Figure 3. This
drawing has been taken from several edifices of this kind;
and particularly from one of the pavilions of the pagoda of
Honang. The first story differs little from that of the first
ting,- but the second has columns on two of its sides, which
stand out and form covered galleries. I have seen, in some
of these buildings, a continued colonnade all round the second
story; but the form was not so agreeable to the sight as that
which I have represented.

“ There is very little difference between the proportions of
this drawing and that of Plate I. The columns of the first
story are, in height, eight of their diameters, and the bases
one. All the columns, except those of the corners, have
eight brackets at the top of their shafts, which form a kind of
very clumsy capitals. This ornament, very common in
Chinese edifices, is not at all pleasing to our eyes. The
columns of the second orders are in diameter about four-fifths
of the diameter of the first. Their height is six diameters
and a half, and they are without bases. Under the second .
roof is seen an entrelas all around, composed of circles and
squares. The corners of the two roofs are enriched with
ornaments, which represent monsters and foliage; and the
top is ornamented with two dolphins at the two extremities,
and in the middle with a great fleuron resembling a tulip.

“ These three forms are more frequent than any other in
the temples of China, and especially in those of much extent.
For the small temples they often use the model shown in
Plate 1., Figure 2. Sometimes, as may be seen in that
drawing, the edifice is shut before by movable gates, having
four columns that advance in the manner of pro—style temples.
At other times the building is quite open in the front, and
has simply four columns that support the roof.

“ I have seen at Canton some other forms of temples; but
none of them appeared to me worthy of representation except
two little buildings, of wood, raised in the courts of one of
the pagodas of the western suburb. (Figures 2 and 3, of
Plate III. he gives the plans of them.) These are two pavilions,
that cover two iron vases, that the Chinese use in the sacrifices
of gilt paper, which they make to their idols on festival days;
they are both octagons, and composed of eight columns, which
support a roof surmounted with a lamp, and other ornaments,
which are represented in the drawing. Figure 3, is a little
raised, and surrounded with steps. The columns have bases
of a profile little different from the attic. A frieze charged
with inscriptions in large Chinese characters, surround the
space between the columns under the roof. The lantern has
eight sides, it is covered with a roof in sima inversa, and on
the top is seen an ornament consisting of a small globe
surrounded with leaves and flowers.”

Figure 2, “is raised on a socle, and surrounded with an
entrelas of masonry. There are no bases to the columns,
and under the first roof is seen an ornament composed of
interwoven lozenges. The lamp has eight little columns,
without bases or capitals, which support a conic roof, orna-
mented with eight dolphins, each of which rests on one of
the columns. The top of the building consists of a pierced
ball, whose top ends in a flower.

“ The proportions of these little temples may be deduced
from the scale that I have annexed to the drawings.”

“ Towers, or Tarts—The Chinese give the name of taa
to their towers, and the Europeans call them (as well as
temples) pagodas: they are very common in China. Du

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

C 11 I
Halde says, that in some provinces they are in every city,
and even in every considerable village. The most remarkable
of these edifices are the famous porcelain tower of Nang-king
and that of Tong-chang-fou. They are both very magnificent.

“The form of these taas is pretty uniform: they are
octagons, divided into seven, eight, and sometimes ten stories,
which diminish gradually both in height and breadth, from
the base to the top. Every story has a kind of cornice,
which supports a roof, at the corners of which are hung
copper bells, and is surrounded with a narrow gallery bor-
dered with a balustrade. These edifices have commonly
a long pole at the top, surrounded by several circles of iron,
supported by eight chains, tied by one end to the top of the
pole, and by the other to the angles of the roof of the highest
story.”

The origin and objects of these towers have been the cause
of much discussion amongst European antiquaries, nor has
the question been as yet satisfactorily settled, some considering
them as merely commemorative, some as campaniles or belfries,
some as landmarks and beacons, while others assert that they
are sepulchral, and produce as a confirmation of their opinion
the discovery of a stone coffin fitted in the pedestal of the
tower of Ardmore. Vallency affirms that they were fire-
towers erected to Baal, while others no less learned identify
them with the round towers of Ireland. This last idea may
appear extravagant at first sight, yet upon further examina-
tion it will be found equally as reasonable as any of the
preceding. The Irish towers are generally believed to be of
Celtic origin, erected by the same hands as the structures
of Stonehenge, and others similar to them scattered over the
British Isles; now, strange to say, we have the same class of
erections in China, in the province of Keang-nan, and in a
locality famed not more for its romantic scenery than its
ancient legends: here we find not only the monolithon, or
single upright column, the counterpart of those already
described under Celtic Architecture; but even the most per-
fect form of Druidical structures, the circle, and several of the
intermediate erections, proving without doubt the connection
between them, and the remains of Celtic erection in the remote
west. Add to this, that towers are found in close proximity
with such structures, and it must be allowed that their supposed
identity with those of Ireland is not indulged without some
reason.

Plate III. Figure l, “ represents one of these towers, which
are found on the banks of the Ta-ho, between Canton and
Hoang-pou. It is approached by three steps, and consists of
seven stories.
gates, and contains an octagonal chamber, in the middle of
which is a staircase conducting to the second story. The
stairs of the other stories are placed in a similar manner.
The cornices over the several stories are all alike, consisting
of a fillet and large cavetto, enriched with representations of
shell-fish ; an ornament as common in the edifices of China,
as in those of the ancients. The roofs are turned up at the
corners, and, with the exception of the lowest, are ornamented
with leaves and bells. The pole on the top is surmounted with
a globe, from which descend chains, that are fixed to the angles
of the highest story, and around them are nine iron hoops.
I have not set down the stairs of the different stories in the
drawing, to prevent confusion.”

The porcelain tower of Nan-king is octagonal in plan, forty
feet in diameter, and consists of nine stories, diminishing in
size as the structure rises, and surmounted with a cupola and
gilded ball. From this ball arod of iron rises, and from its
highest extremity eight chains descend, from which seventy-
two bells are suspended. Each story is covered by a projecting
roof of coloured tiles, and the total height of the building is

148

The first story is pierced with four arched

 

-AA n~___~_._4. .

CHI

variously estimated at three hundred and forty-six, two hun-
dred and fifty-eight, and two hundred and thirty-six feet.

“ The inner part or body of the walls,” says Mr. Wright,
“is brick, but the inside lining and the facing without, of
beautiful white glazed porcelain slabs, fixed in the masonry
by means of deep keys, cut likea half T in the brick. The
projecting roof of each story consists of green and yellow
porcelain tiles in alternate perpendicular rows ; and running
up each angle, is a moulding of larger tiles glazed and
coloured red and green alternately. From each story pro-
jects a balcony, enclosed by a light balustrade of green
porcelain, upon which open four doorways, set to the
cardinal points, their arches being elegantly turned with
glazed tiles, cast in all imaginable fancies of design, and
variation of colour, representing deities, demons, and monsters
of all descriptions.” Bells are suspended from dragons’
mouths at the angles of every story, making with those
attached to the chains of the cupola, a total number of one
hundred and fifty-two.

“ Several otherforms of buildings used in China—I have
given descriptions of three kinds of tings, that I saw in
different temples at Canton. It remains for me to speak of
a fourth kind, which is found in gardens. These edifices
are in general composed only of twelve columns, raised on
a socle, which serve to support the roof.

“ The building that served me for a model, was placed
in the middle of a small lake, in a garden in China; its
singularity made me give it the preference.

“ The base that supports it is pretty high. A balustrade
surrounds it. The bases of the twelve columns of this
pavilion have a profile very similar to that of a Tuscan base
of Palladio. The roof, which rests on these columns, is
crowned with a lantern. The idea of this ornament is taken
from those which surmount the towers. The tops of the
shafts of the columns are pierced by beams that support
the roof, having their extremities ornamented with little
grotesque heads and bells. A frieze ornamented with an
entrelas, goes all round, under the roof, in the spaces between
the columns.”

Sir William describes another pavilion thus: “ It is the
same with that of a temple with one wing; but the elevation
is different. It is composed of ten columns, which support
a roof and a lantern, covered in the form of a cone, and
terminated by a ball.

“ The paylous, or triumphal arches, are very common in
China. There are many in Canton; but none, that I have
seen, have any beauty.

“ IIouses of the Chinese—T he distribution of their houses
is perfectly uniform; and it would be improper, and even
dangerous, for an individual to depart from the general mode.
Le Compte tells us of a mandarin, who having built a house
higher and more beautiful than those of his neighbours, was
accused before the Emperor, and, fearing the consequence,
he pulled down his house, without waiting for the sovereign’s
decision.

“The Chinese lay out more than half of the ground
occupied for their houses in courts and narrow walks; those
of the merchants of Canton, which are close by the water,
are narrow and very long; but there is no difference in the
disposition of their interior. The level ground is crossed
in its length by a broad walk, passing through the middle,
and stretching from the street to the river. On each side
are the apartments, consisting of a saloon for receiving visits,
a bed-chamber, and sometimes a study, or closet. Before
each set of apartments is a court, having a tishpoud, or
cistern, at its extremity, containing an artificial rock in the
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plants; all which form a miniature landscape, of picturesque
appearance. Some of the fish are so familiar, that they come
to the surface of the water, and allow themselves to be‘fed
with the hand. The sides of the courts are ornamented
sometimes with flower-pots, and sometimes with shrubs in
flower, vines, or bamboos, forming green arbours. In the
middle, upon a pedestal, a large porcelain vase is generally
placed, filled with those beautiful flowers, called lzen-koa.
They also frequently keep in these little courts, pheasants,
bantam-hens, and other curious birds.

“The great chamber, or saloon, is commonly from 18 to
20 feet in length, and about 20 feet in breadth. The side
which looks to the court, is entirely open; but a screen of
:anes, which is let down at pleasure, keeps out the rain and
the rays of the sun. The pavement is composed of pieces
of stone or marble, of several colours. The side walls are
covered with screens, to the height of three or four feet from
the ground; and the upper part is neatly decorated with
white, crimson, or gilt paper.

“Instead of paintings, the Chinese hang up large pieces
of satin, or of paper, set in frames, and painted in imitation
of marble or bamboo, on which are written, in characters of
azure blue, proverbs and distichs of morality, taken from the
principal Chinese philosophers. They also sometimes have
leaves of white paper, quite smooth, containing large charac-
ters, traced by some skilful hand, in China ink ; this orna-
ment is much esteemed. The bottom of the drawing-room
is composed of folding-doors, over which is a lattice, covered
with painted gauze, for the admission of light into the bed-
chamber. The doors, which are of wood, are of very neat
workmanship, ornamented with different characters and
figures, and sometimes richly varnished and painted red,
blue, yellow, or some other colour.

“In the middle of the lower part of the chamber, and
above a table which contains various ornaments, a very large
leaf of thick paper is frequently suspended, covered with
ancient Chinese paintings of different figures, enclosed in
squares. The Chinese have a great veneration for these
ornaments, under the idea that the painters were inspired;
and the connoisseurs pretend to distinguish the hands of the
several masters, and give a very great price for such as pass
for originals. I have seen many of these paintings: they
usually consist of landscapes or figures, drawn with China
ink, on white paper. In general they are touched with spirit,
but they are too incorrect, and too little finished, to deserve
much attention.

“ The furniture of the large room consists of chairs, stools,
and tables, made of rosewood, ebony, varnished wood, and
sometimes simply of bamboo, which, though cheap, is very
neat. When the furniture is of wood, the tops of the stools
are often of marble or of porcelain; and though such seats
are very hard, they are very agreeable in a climate where the
heat of the summer is excessive. On small tables, or stands,
four or five feet high, placed in a corner of the room, are seen
dishes of citrons, and other odoriferous fruits, branches of
coral in porcelain vases, and glass globes containing gold-
fishes, with a kind of herb something similar to fennel. They
also decorate their tables, which are made only for ornament,
with small landscapes, 'composed of shell-work, plants, and
a kind of lily that grows among pebbles covered with water.
They have also artificial landscapes, made of ivory, crystal,
amber, pearl, and precious stones. I have seen some that cost
a thousand taels, (more than three hundred guineas), but
they are mere toys, and wretched imitations of nature.
Besides these landscapes, the tables are ornamented with
porcelain vases of various kinds, and small copper vessels,
the latter of which are much esteemed. The forms of these

2 Q

 

 

vessels are generally simple and agreeable; the Chinese say
they were made two thousand years ago, by some of their
most celebrated artists; and such as are really antique, (for
there are some counterfeits ), sell at an excessive price; one .
of them sometimes costs no less than three hundred pounds.
They are kept in small pasteboard boxes, and are only shown
on great occasions; nobody touches them but the master,
and, to keep them clean, he brushes them from time to time
with a hair-pencil, made solely for the purpose.

“ Lamps form the most prominent ornaments of the cham-
bers; there are generally four of them hanging from the
ceiling, by cords of silk. They are of various shapes, as
square, octagon, &c., and are composed of an extremely fine
silken stuff; decorated with very neat drawings of flowers,
birds, and landscapes.

“A partition of folding-doors separates the large room
from the bed-chamber. I have already observed, that, in
warm weather, these doors are left open all night, for the
admission of cool air. The chamber is very small, and has
no other furniture than the bed and some varnished clothes-
trunks. The beds are sometimes extremely magnificent: the
bedsteads, or frames, which very much resemble those of
Europe, are of rosewood engraved, or of lackered wood;
the curtains are of taffety, or gauze, sometimes flowered
with gold, and commonly dyed blue or purple. A band of
embroidered satin, about a foot in breadth, goes round the
whole top of the bed; the emboidery is in compartments, of
various forms, and represents flowers, landscapes, or human
figures, accompanied with moral sentences and fables, written
with China ink and vermilion.

“ By the side of the bed-chamber is a passage, leading to
the cabinet, which is always enclosed by walls, and lighted
by windows. The walls are ornamented, like those of the
saloon, with moral sentences and antique pictures; the fur-
niture consists of arm-chairs, settees, and tables. The books
are disposed on shelves, and on a table near the window, lie
the pencils, and other things necessary for writing, the
instruments used for arithmetical calculations, and some select
books, all laid out in great order.

“ Besides these apartments, there are also the dining-room,
the kitchen, the apartment for the domestics, the bath, the
privy, the office, or counting-house, and, towards the street,
the shop.

“ Such is the distribution of the houses of all the mer-
chants at Canton. Those of other people only differ in
having their general plan accommodated to the ground on
which they are built: for the apartments, the courts, and other
conveniences, have everywhere the order just described.

“ The Icon, or upper-story, consists of many great halls,
occupying all the breadth of the house, above the apartments
of the ground-floor. They are used occasionally as cham-
bers, for lodging strangers. In every house there is a number
of shutters, two or three feet broad, and ten or twelve feet
high. When they wish to make chambers, they fix these
shutters to the floor and ceiling, and in a few hours make as
many apartments as they wish. Some of these shutters are
cut from the top to within four feet of the ground, and the
openings filled with very thin oyster-shells, which are suffi-
ciently transparent to admit daylight. All the windows in
China are made of these shells.

“ In one of these great halls, and commonly in that next
the door, the image and altar of the domestic idol are placed,
so that all who enter may see it. The rest of the second
story is divided into apartments for the family; and over the
shops are the rooms for the shop-keepers.

“ The sides of the Chinese houses next the street, are
altogether plain,'or employed as shops. There is no opening

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHI

160

CHO

 

except the door, before which a mat is hung, or a screen is
placed, to prevent passengers from looking m. The houses
of the merchants of Canton have a very gay and handsome
appearance towards the river.

“ The materials used for building are wood and brick.
The latter are either simply dried in the sun, or baked in
an oven. The walls of the houses are commonly about
eighteen inches thick, and the bricks, which are about the
size of our own, are used in the following manner: the masons
place three or four beds at the foundation, entirely solid ; after
which, they dispose their bricks alternately length and
breadthwise, along the two sides of the wall, so that those
laid across touch one another, and occupy the Whole breadth,
but those placed lengthwise have a space between them; on
this layer, or bed, a second is laid, with all the bricks length-
wise, and the joinings of the cross-bricks in the first layer,
are covered with a whole brick in this. The work is thus
continued, alternately, to the top; and by this means, the
expense of work and time, as well as the weight of the wall,
are very much diminished.

“ The tiles that cover the roofs, are plain and semi—cylin-
drical; the latter are laid on the joinings of the former, and
the manner in which they are supported, is represented in
Plate III. The Chinese, like the Goths, always let the wood
appear withinside the eeiling;~for which reason, the beams
and columns are frequently made of precious wood, and
sometimes they are richly inlaid with ivory, copper, and
mother-of-pearl.

“ Various kinds (3)" columns used by the Chinese—Columns
are at least as common in Chinese edifices as in those of the
Europeans. They support the. roof, and are commonly made
of wood, with bases of stone, or marble, having no capitals;
but, instead, the top of the shaft is crossed by the beams.
Their height is from 8 to 12 diameters, diminishing gradually
towards the top, while the lower part of the shaft terminates
in an ovolo, producing an effect just the reverse of the
terminations of the ancient columns. This peculiarity is
observable in the drawings of the Antiquities of Egypt, pub-
lished by Captain Norden, some time ago. The bases show
a great diversity of profile; none of them are very hand-
some, but the most regular that I have seen, are the six
represented in Plate III.” See Chambers’ Wrork.

Figure 2, No. l, “is taken from the eolonnade that sur-
rounds the court of the pagoda of Cochinchina: the column
is about seven diameters in height, and the base one. This
profile is very common.”

Figure 2, No. 2, “is taken from one of the temples of the
same pagoda, represented in Plate I. It is the only place
where I have seen this kind of column. They are about nine
diameters high, and their base two.”

Figure 3, “is taken from the colonnade of the great court
of the pagoda of Honanrr. The height of the column is nine
diameters, and that of the base one. The ends of the beams
are ornamented with heads of monsters, terminating in foliage,
and the brackets that support them come out of the mouths
of grotesque heads, out in half-relief on the columns.”

Figure 4, “is taken from a little pagoda in the eastern
suburb of Canton. The height of the column is eight dia-
meters and a half, and that of the base three-fourths of the
diameter. The ends of the beams represent heads of dragons,
and all the wood-work of the ceiling is ornamented with mon-
sters and foliage, in inlaid work of copper, ebony, ivory, and
mother-of-pearl.”

Figures 5 and 6, “the transverse elevation of Figures
3 and 4.”

figure 7, “is seen in almost all the houses of the Chinese.
Their height is from 8 to 12 diameters, and sometimes more;

 

that of the base is from one-half to two-thirds of the diameter.
The profile resembles one of the Tuscan bases of Palladio.”

Figure 8, “is found in almost all the pagodas, with some
little varieties. The model from which I have taken my
drawing, is in a little pagoda, in the street where are the
European factories. The columns are octagonal, and of
stone. Eight diameters of the circumscribed circle make
the height; and they have no diminution toward the base.
The bases are the most regular that I have seen in China,
and much resemble the attic base of the ancients. Their
height is equal to double one of the sides of the column.

“ The particular divisions of all these profiles are marked
at the side of each drawing.

“The insides of the temples, represented in Plates I.
and II. (see Chambers,) are quite plain; having no orna-
ments beside the idols. The buildings represented in Plate II.
Figures 3 and 4, have no ceilings; the beams which support
the roofs are seen; and their joinings are according to the
principles of that in Plate III. The interior of the tower
in Plate III. is also quite plain.”

We must not omit to mention the Great Wall; it consists
of an earthen mound supported on each side by walls of
brick and masonry, the thickness of the whole being twenty-
five feet at the base, diminishing to fifteen at a height of
fifteen feet, which is the level of the platform; but this
platform is defended on either side by a parapet five feet in
height, thus making the total height of the wall twenty feet.
At intervals of about two hundred paces are towers, rising
to a height of thirty-seven feet, and measuring forty feet
square at the base, and thirty feet at the top; there are
however some larger towers, which consist of two stories,
and are about forty-eight feet in height. This wall is carried
round a great portion of the empire, passing over in its way
mountains, valleys, and rivers, and is altogether fifteen
hundred miles in length.

CHIP, a small piece cut away from any material, by an
acute-angled instrument.

CHISEL, an instrument used in masonry, carpentry, and
joinery, and also by statuaries and carvers, for cutting, either
by the impulse of pressure, or of the blows of a mallet or
hammer. There are several kinds of chisels used in car-
pentry and joinery; as, the former, the paring-chisel, the
gauge, the mortise-chisel, the socket-chisel, and the ripping-
ckisel. These names they have obtained from the uses to
which they are respectively applied. See TOOLS, TOOLING.

CHISELED WORK, in masonry, stones that have a chiseled
surface.

CHIT, an instrument for cleaving laths.

CHOIR, (from xopog, Greek, chorus ;) that part of the
church in which the choir or singers are located, and the
services for the most part performed. The term is some-
times made equivalent to chancel, and defined as that portion
of the building eastward of the nave appropriated to the
priests, but incorrectly so, as the choir does not extend to
the extreme east. The fourth council of Toledo directs
“the priests and deacons to communicate before the altar,
the inferior in the quire, and the people without the quire ;”
thus making a distinction between the choir and sanctuary,
or division in which the altar stood. In fact, the chancel is
divided into two parts—the choir, and the presbytery or
sanctuary; the former containing the singers and inferior
ministers; the latter the altar, and the superior officiating
clergy. The choir was at the western end of the chancel,
separated from the nave by one or more steps and the road
screen, and from the sanctuary by steps only; it contained
seats or stalls on either side, which were returned sometimes on
the western extremity in front of the screen, the returns always

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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facing the altar: in large churches, there are generally two
or three ranges of such stalls rising a step or two in succes-
sion above each other. When there are aisles at the sides
of the choir, which is generally the case in cathedrals and
the more important churches, they are separated from it
either by a screen of open work, or by the stalls being carried
up to a considerable elevation; the latter method is more
usual in cathedrals, where the higher stalls are canopied, and
enriched with tabernacle work: In our cathedrals, the choir
is situate more generally to the east of the tower, but is
sometimes seen under the tower, as at York and Winchester.

The choir was originally separated from the altar, and
elevated in the form of a theatre, enclosed all round with
a balustrade: on each side was a pulpit, from which the
epistles and gospel were sung; as may still be seen, at Rome,
in the churches of St. Clement and St. Pancratius, the only
two remaining in the original form. It was separated from
the nave in the time of Constantine, and enclosed with a
balustrade, covered with curtains, which were not to be
opened till after the consecration. In the twelfth century,
the choir was surrounded with walls.

In nunneries, the choir is a large hall, adjoining the body
of the church, but separated by a grate, where the devotees
chant the service.

CHORAGIC MONUMENT of Lysicrates, at Athens.
See MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES.

CHORD, the extent between the two extremities of an
arch.

CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE, a designation applied
by some to Gothic art exclusively, but in our opinion,
unreasonably; because, although Gothic is doubtless the
perfection of Christian art, and the best adapted for religious
purposes, and in that respect more fairly entitled to the name
than any other style, still we think all others ought not to
be excluded from the title, since some of them, such as
Byzantine and Lombardic, owe their origin entirely to
Christianity, and were never profaned by being applied
to pagan usages. The term ought to include all styles of
building invented by the Christians, and adapted to religious
purposes, differing essentially from pagan architecture.

CHRONOLOGICAL COLUMN. See COLUMN.

CHURCH, (Greek, Kvptov oucog, the Lord’s house,) a
Christian edifice set apart for the public celebration of divine
service.

Churches vary in size, magnificence, and architectural
features, according to their rank and situation; and are
denominated accordingly: thus we have metropolitan,
patriarchal, cathedral, cardinal, conventual, collegiate,
monastic, and parish churches; for a description of which,
we must refer to each separate title, more especially to
CATHEDRAL and MONASTERY. Under this article we shall
confine ourselves more particularly to the consideration of
parish churches ; as, however, the distribution and architec-
tural peculiarities of churches vary considerably in different
countries, we must premise further, that we include only the
parish churches of our own country. The history and pro-
gress of Church Architecture in this and other countries,
and a comparison of the whole, will be treated of under the
title of ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE.

As there is a general similarity in the division and arrange-
ment of parts in all churches of whatever date or situation,
it may not be out of place at the commencement of this
article, to say something of the primitive churches, as far as
relates to these particulars. The earliest buildings erected
for the purpose of Christian worship, or at least the earliest
of which we have any account, as also the first in which
Christians had an opportunity of following their own mode

 

 

of construction, are those which owe their existence to the
zeal of Constantine the Great; and the most ancient and
most perfect model of these new remaining, is that of Saint
Clement at Rome. From this and some few other structures
at Rome, we are enabled to determine, to a certain extent,
the form of the churches of that period ; and our conclusions
derived from this source, are confirmed by Eusebius, who
has left us a description of a Greek church of his own time.
From these combined authorities, we learn that the plans of
such buildings were either oblong or cruciform, and were
divided into distinct portions as follows :—-At the entrance
to the church was the vestibule or narthex, in which were
stationed the catechumens and penitents of various stages,
and which was frequently divided into two or more parts,
each of which was destined for a different class of penitents,
the outermost for those who were under the more severe
censures of the church, and the innermost for the catechumens;
this last division was termed vap6n£,ferula, because those
who were admitted into it, began to be subject to the disci-
pline of the church. These vestibules or porticos led to the
nave properly so called, in which were assembled the body
of the faithful; and which was divided in its width into
three or more parts—a central one, with an aisle on each side
of it. In the central avenue or body of the building, and
at the remote end of the nave, was the choir, shut off from
the other parts of the church by a rail or otherwise ; in this
were the ambones or pulpits for reading, as also the seats for
the choristers, and here was the greater portion of the service
performed. From the choir was an ascent of steps to the
sanctuary, which was of an apsidal form, having seats all
round for the priests, and a more elevated one in the centre
of them for the bishop, immediately in front of which stood
the altar. Attached to the church, but forming a distinct
erection, was the baptistery, in which persons were admitted
into fellowship with the body of believers. Having thus
given a rapid sketch of a primitive church, we shall pass to
the consideration of our more immediate subject, begging our
readers to bear in mind the preceding observations, while we
describe the form and arrangement of our English churches.
In speaking of our parochial churches, we would be under-
stood to refer solely to those erected before the Reformation,
in the styles usually denominated Gothic. This is not the
place, even were argument necessary, to discuss the com-
parative merits of the Italian and Gothic styles, or their
adaptation to sacred purposes. The improved taste of the
age has led to the preference of the latter, and there are few
of the present day who would be found to question its cor-
rectness. Gothic is the prevailing fashion now, as was
Italian in the preceding generations; apart from this, how-
ever, we think there can be no man of correct taste and
unbiassedjudgment, but would prefer the quiet unobtrusive
simplicity of our old parish churches, to the more pompous
grandeur of those of the last two centuries. Nothing can
be more diverse than the impressions conveyed by the two——
the one, solemn, subdued, and peaceful; the other, secular,
showy, and luxurious : it is astonishing how completely the
application of the two styles to the same general form, will
change the features and general appearance of an edifice.
Our parish churbhes are perfectly unique ; different from
what we find elsewhere, they form quite a national charac-
teristic, of which an Englishman may indeed be proud.
Their origin is attributed to Archbishop Theodore, who
noting the inconvenience which arose from the previous
practice of sending priests from the cathedral into the neigh-
bouring hamlets, adopted the plan of distributing each diocese
into manageable districts or parishes, with a resident pastor
to take charge of each ; he carried out his idea by instigating

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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the Saxon thanes in the erection and endowment of churches
within the precincts of their own estates. The plan thus
commenced, was found to be so advantageous, that lt.WaS
carried out and enlarged upOn by the succeeding generations.
We shall not stop here to inquire into the form and construc-
tion of the earlier churches of this island, but refer the
reader, as well to the articles above mentioned, as also to
that on SAXON ARCHITECTURE, and proceed at once to the
general description of a church.

0f the parts or divisions—T here are two parts, and only
two parts, absolutely essential to a church; nave and chancel.
These it must have, or it is not entitled to the designation
of a church; without the former it is no more than a chapel,
and without the latter, little better than a mere lecture-room.
A church consisting only of the above divisions, is one of
the most simple form, few, however, are found without some
further additions: the first addition is that of a porch on
one side of the building, forming a covered entrance into
the church. Buildings consisting simply of these three
parts are not unfrequent, nor devoid of beauty, although but
seldom imitated in the present day. In larger churches, the
capacity of the nave is increased by the addition of one or
two aisles, more frequently of one on each side of the body
of the building, thus dividing the nave transversely into three
avenues, and affording greater accommodation for worshippers,
without enlarging the chancel, as this part does not so much
require spaciousness as length. In some cases it is true, the aisles
were continued eastward, so as to encroach upon the chancel,
and sometimes extended its whole length; the spaces thus
gained, were used for the most part for chapels, and contained
side-altars with their appurtenances. These chapels were
dedicated, the one in honour of the Virgin, which was more
frequently 011 the southern side, and the other in the name
of the patron or other saint. Churches with only one aisle,
are constantly to be met with.

Another division of a church which we have not yet
noticed, and which, though not an essential, forms a most
imposing feature, is the tower; this is situated most usually
at the western end of the nave, or at the intersection
of the nave and transepts, when the church is cruciform;
and in its most perfect and beautiful state is surmounted
by a lofty spire. We have now arrived at the most com-
plete form of a parish church, which consists of a nave
flanked on either side by an aisle; a chancel at the east,
and a tower at the western extremity of the same, with a
projecting porch towards the western end of the south aisle.
This is the most frequent form of our smaller churches, but
not the only one; we not unfrequently find them in the shape
of a cross, which is doubtless the most appropriate and
expressive form that could be adopted in the erection of a
Christian temple; but the simple parallelogram is on many
accounts the more convenient, nor is it so greatly inferior
in symbolical meaning; for while the cross plan portrays the
emblem of Christianity, the latter is an evident representation
of the ark in which Noah was preserved, which has ever
been considered a type of the Christian church.

0f the position of Churches.—Almost all the old churches
of this country range east and west, having the chance] at
the eastern extremity ; nor is this merely a local peculiarity,
but a universal custom ; such was the practice of all Chris-
tians from the earliest ages. It is true, exceptions are to be
found, but not more than sufficient to prove the rule. The
church dedicated by Paulinus, bishop of Nola, to the memory
of S. Felix, is an instance of deviation from the usual position,
but of this it is related, that it was not built so as to face
the east, “ as was usual,” but so as to turn towards another
church previously dedicated to that saint; and Socrates,

 

describing the church at Antioch, tells us, that it stood in
a different posture from other churches, the altar not being
at the east end, but at the west. The canonical position is
ordered in the apostolical constitutions. When we state that
the chancel pointed eastward, we do not mean to say that it
faced that quarter precisely ; very few churches indeed
do this, the orientation varying in many instances considerably
north or south; such variation is said to have arisen from
the practice of pointing the church to that part of the horizon
where the sun rose on the day of the patron saint.

0f the exterior elevation—The smaller churches present
to us an elevation of only one story of rough walling, pierced
at intervals with windows, which are usually filled with
tracery; those at the east and west 'ends, being of larger
dimensions than those in the side walls. At the angles of
the building, the outline is broken by massive projecting
buttresses, and at other situations where they are required
for the support of the building; they are sometimes seen
between every two windows. A more imposing projection
is afforded by the porch on one side; this is carried up nearly
as high as the side walls, and is surmounted by ahigh-pitched
gable roof; it is formed either of rubble, with or without
windows, or of wood, in which material we have many
beautiful specimens of the ,later styles pierced and carved in
the most elaborate manner ; some of the plainer ones, how-
ever, form very picturesque additions to a small church.

The chancel, in most cases, is of smaller dimensions than
the nave, both in width and height, and forms a picturesque
break in the elevation; but in some cases it is of the same
size as the nave, and occasionally, though rarely, larger in
both dimensions, showing a western wall projecting beyond
the nave on all its sides. There is a priest’s door in one side
of the chancel, and sometimes a-vestry, the form and eleva-
tion of which varies in different examples.

The whole of the building is covered by a-high-pitched
gable roof of lead, slate, or tile, and sometimes of shingles
or thatch, the eaves projecting a little beyond the walls;
parapets are not found, except in large churches. A very
beautiful addition is frequently to be seen on the apex of
the western gable, consisting either of a continuation of a
part of the gable in a vertical direction, pierced with arched
apertures to contain the bells, and finished with a gable top ;
or otherwise of a little turret of four or more sides, to be
employed for the same purpose : the eastern gable is for the
most part finished with an ornamental cross.

In the larger churches of three aisles, the elevation consists
most frequently of two stories, the lower one similar to that
already described, and an upper one called the clere-story,
which is carried up above the arches which separate the nave
and aisles, and pierced with windows of a smaller descrip-
tion, sometimes with mere quatrefoils or other small apertures.
In very large churches, the clere-story windows are often
larger than those of the aisles. The nave is covered as before
with a gable roof, but the aisles with a lean-to, sloping upwards 9
from the exterior walls to the clere-story, with a much more '
gentle acclivity. In some three-aisled churches, where the
width is not considerable, the gable roof spans both nave and
aisles ; sometimes in one inclination, but at others, the incli-
nation over the aisles is considerably depressed ; in such cases
there is of course no clere-story. 0n the other hand, when
a church is of a great width, especially when the additional
width is in the aisles, we have three gable roofs, one over
the nave, and a similar one over each aisle ; the gable ends
of such churches have a very pleasing appearance ; they have
no clere-story, and the chancel is mostly but a continuation
of the nave; not unfrequently the aisles are continued the
whole length of the building in such churches.

 

 

 

 

 

 

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In cruciform churches, the elevation, with the exception
of such difi’erences as the plan necessitates, is for the most
part similar to that of the more common forms. .

0f the Tower.——A beautiful appendage to a church is .the
Tower, nor is it added merely for effect ; its principal object
is perhaps to contain the bells, which require to be suspended
at a considerable height, in order that they may be heard at
a distance ; another end which it serves, is to point out the
situation of the sacred building, and, as some suppose, to act
as a beacon or landmark for the guidance of travellers: an
instance of a tower serving this purpose, may be pointed out
at Boston, Lincolnshire, as also at Dundry, near Bristol, at
both of which places the towers are raised to an extraordinary
height. The tower is very generally surmounted by a spire,
which serves as a most efficient covering, while at the same
time it gives additional height, and forms a beautiful finish-
ing, “pointing,” as it does, “in silence heavenward.” It is
remarked that spires are not so frequent in elevated situations,
or in level tracts of land, as they are in valleys and in wooded
country; which fact would seem to imply that they were
added more especially for pointing out the spot occupied by
the house of prayer.

The situation of the tower with respect to the church is
various; sometimes we see it at the end, sometimes in the
middle of an aisle, frequently at the west end of the nave,
and occasionally between nave and chancel ; in short, almost
in every situation, except at the eastern extremity of the
chancel. Its plan is usually square, though occasionally we
find it octagonal, and even circular, and sometimes square
at the lower part, but finished ofl' at the top in an octagonal
form ; in elevation, the outline is broken by buttresses pro-
jecting considerably at each angle, and, where there is no
spire, is frequently found a stair turret running up in the
corner next the church, and continued some little distance
above the parapet. The base or lower story of the tower is
usually plain and massive, but the upper portion is of a more
elaborate appearance, being pierced with windows, the
heads filled with tracery, and the lower parts with louvre-
boarding. V‘Vhen there is no spire, the tower is finished with
a parapet, battlemented or otherwise; and in later examples,
the parapet is not omitted, even when there is a spire, and
is sometimes enriched by continuing the buttresses above the
tower, in the shape of pinnacles. During the earlier periods
of English architecture, the spires sprang direct from the
caves of the tower, without the intervention of a parapet.

Spires are, in plan, square or multangular, most frequently
octagonal; sometimes they spring from the tower on a square
plan, which at a short elevation is merged in the octagonal ;
some spring from the tower at a greater angle than others,
but all terminate in a point surmounted by a vane, often by
the symbolical cock, the emblem of St. Peter’s fall, which
proposes an opportune warning to the passers-by, not to neglect
the aid of divine power, but to “ watch and pray, lest they
likewise enter into temptation.” The elevation of the spire
is relieved by one or two tiers of spire-lights, which are small
open windows, carried up vertically, and therefore projecting
from the line of spire as they rise upwards. Spires are built
either ofstone or ofwood, in which latter case, they are usually
covered either with lead, slate, or shingles; and though not so
imposing as those of stone, have a very picturesque appearance.
Towers of wood are very frequentin Sussex, Surrey, and Essex;
they are surmounted with low spires, the whole being covered
with weather-boarding, with small apertures of luffer-boarding
for windows: wooden bell-cots of a similar description are
commonly to be met with in Essex. Detached towers are not
of frequent occurrence in this country, but several are to be
found, especially in Lincolnshire.

2 R

 

boards protected by lead or other covering.

 

0f the internal structure—The principal portion of the
structure to which the eye is directed, in the interior is the
chancel; this is entered from the nave under an arch, termed
the chancel-arch, and is elevated from the body of the church
on a raised platform, which is ascended by three or more steps ;
a further separation is effected by the rood screen, which is
carried across the opening formed by the arch, and stretches
from pier to pier. In three-aisled structures, the aisles are
separated from the nave by an arcade or series of arches,
supporting in most cases a clere-story, to admit light into
the body of the church. The proportion between the width
of the nave and aisles, varies considerably; in some cases,
the aisles being less than half the width of the nave, and in
others, of nearly equal dimensions.

The roofing throughout the church is composed in by far
the majority .of instances, of timber, the few exceptions,
which are in the larger churches, being of stone vaulting.
In roofs of the former kind, the timbers were originally open
to view, and not concealed, as too many of them are at the
present day, with a flat plastervceiling. The timbers were
of oak, and consisted of principals, purlins, and common
rafters, the whole of which were boarded over, and the
The principals
are placed at regular intervals, dividing the roof into a num-
ber of bays or compartments, each inclosing several common
rafters, and are partially supported either on corbels, or on
the capitals of shafts ascending from the floor; they are
formed either of collars with Collar braces continued to the
lower part of the rafter, of collars with intersecting collar
braces, of intersecting braces only, or of timbers disposed in
the form of an arch, and in many other ways which will be
discussed in the proper place; tie beams are seldom used :
in most instances the timbers are plain, but in many, of the
later ones more especially, a considerable degree of ornamen
tation is introduced in the shape of carved bosses, open
panelling, and such like.

0f the internal arrangement—On entering the church
through the wicket, at the entrance of the porch, we some-
times notice on the right-hand side of the door, often pro- -
jecting from the wall, and partially covered by a niche, a
stone bason, which is called a stoup, or aspersorium, from its
use, which was to contain the holy water, with which, in
olden times, the worshippers sprinkled or crossed themselves
before entering into the body of the church. This was a very
ancient practice, and was adopted in a somewhat different
shape by the early church; the small stoup, in fact, is a sub-
stitute for the fountain to be seen in front of some of the
Constantinian churches, at which Christians were accustomed
to wash before entering the sanctuary; the custom is typical
of the purity of mind which should accompany our devotions.
Before proceeding further, we may notice the stone seat, or
bench-table, which runs along the sides of the porch, and is
occasionally covered with an arcade, and sometimes sur-
mounted with a window to give light to the porch: in ancient
times, several religious ceremonies took place in the porch,
especially those preliminary to baptism and matrimony.
Having passed under the inner arch of the porch, we
are now fairly in the church, and the first object to
attract our attention is the font, which is placed always near
the principal entrance, as being the most fitting situation for
the performance of that rite by which men are admitted into the
membership of the church; the exact locality is not fixed,
being sometimes in the central avenue of the nave opposite
the entrance, and at others under one of the arches of the
aisle near the porch, in which case it frequently adjoins one
of the adjacent pillars; it is not unfrequently raised on a
series of steps, which give it a. more imposing appearance,

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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and has always a space left around it for the accommodation
of the priest, sponsors, 8:0. ; for the former there is sometimes
a kneeling-stone on the west side. Fonts in a perfect state
are provided with covers, generally of wood, some flat, and
others of a pyramidal form more or less enriched. We here
speak of fonts as they were in former times, not as they are
now found in old churches, for the original ones are some-
times not only moved from their ancient positions, but even
taken out of the church, and altogether discarded.

On proceeding further into the church, the next object which
probably strikes our eye is the chancel, and at its extremity
the altar, with its appendages, but as this has been described
in its proper place, we shall not stop to re-consider it here;
and besides this, in fixing our attention on the more striking
portion of the edifice, we have overlooked the pulpit. Few
pulpits are to be met with of an earlier date than the fifteenth
century, the oldest which remain are of stone, built up with
the fabric, from which circumstance we may infer that they
are coeval with the entire structure ; there is a beautiful spe-
cimen at Beaulieu, Hants, which is attached to the wall, and
entered by a staircase partly cut out of its thickness; another
specimen is to be found in the church of the Holy Trinity,
Coventry, which is attached to one of the piers of the build-
ing. The later pulpits are of oak, usually of an octagonal
form, having the sides panelled and enriched with carving,
and the whole sometimes surmounted with a richly-groined
canopy projecting over the head of the preacher. The posi-
tion of the pulpit was probably always at the north-east or
south-east end of the nave, near the arch which separates the
nave and chancel.

We have now to consider the form and arrangement of the
pews. There are few churches which have not suffered
severely by the removal of their ancient seats, and the sub-
stitution of close boxes, with high backs; the old seats were
low, with very low backs, so as not to destroy or shut out
a full view of the church. The backs and seats of such low
benches were fitted at either end into a standard, which
served at the same time as a support and finish, being fre-
quently carved in panels, and sometimes finished at the top
with a poppy-head, or knop of foliage; at other times they
were quite plain, with only a simple moulding, or even chamfer
at the top: between every two benches was an open space
left for ingress and egress to and from the seats, which were
never closed with doors. These benches were all arranged
north and south, so that the congregation might face the east,
having an avenue between them in the centre of the nave,
and another leading into it from the entrance, which, in three-
aisled churches, must have been carried right across the
church, to give access to another avenue leading to the seats
in either aisle. These formed the only seats in the church
for the laity; it is scarcely necessary to add, that galleries
never formed a part of the original arrangement.

0f the internal decoration—'l‘here is one method of deco-
ration so universally applied in our ancient churches, that we
cannot pass it over unnoticed; it consists in the application
of colour; the roof, the floor, the walls, the furniture and
ornaments, and, not to omit the principal feature, the win-
dows, nay, even the very books, were all enriched with gild-
ing and colour. In paving, the use ofencaustic tiles of various
colours and patterns was most common, but besides these, the
floors were not unfrequently COVered w1th mosaic work, as
instanced at the Prior’s Chapel, Ely, where in the chancel
immediately in front of the altar was represented “the tempt-
ation” in this method, the other parts of the floor being
adorned with ordinary patterns. Frequent specimens of paint-
ing on the roof have been lately brought to light, a very usual
method of decorating which is by a powdering of gilt stars on

 

an azure ground. Few restorations take place without some
additional testimony to the employment of fresco paintings,
which have been previously concealed by successive coatings
of plaster and whitewash. Mr. Poole, speaking of the internal
decoration of churches, says—“ Besides the immense variety
of Scriptural and other subjects which are found sculptured on
the walls and roofs of our Gothic churches, we have also
sometimes fresco paintings, covering great portions of the
walls. These paintings have, for the most part, been covered
with the successive coats of whitewash and yellow ochre,
with which the churchwardens have literally daubed the
interior as well as the exterior of churches; as if, to their
eyes, whiteness and yellowness were the only two elements
of beauty. Accident has discovered several of them, and
more are being discovered every day. The most remarkable
with which I am acquainted is in the church of the Holy
Trinity, Coventry; the subject is one which cannot be un-
profitably suggested to Christians,—the last judgment; and
it is treated in a manner by no means deficient in expression.
At Preston, in Sussex, is another fresco, discovered also acci-
dentally; one of the subjects is the murder of Thomas
a Becket; the story is minutely and well told. Another
subject is the archangel Michael weighing the soul of a Chris-
tian, which appears in one side of a pair of scales, against
the devil, in the form of a boar’s head, in the opposite scale. By
the intervention of a female saint, most probably the blessed
Virgin, who stands by, the soul is manifestly the weightier.

“ In the late remains of Rotheram church, several frescos
were discovered, especially a large one over the nave arch,
of our blessed Lord and the twelve apostles, with other saints
and angels in act of adoration. The figures were much
destroyed in the process of laying them bare; and they are
now covered over again. Might they not have been restored?”
This question we shall leave for future consideration; mean-
while, we may remark, that many specimens of fresco have
been discovered since the above was written, and no doubt
fresh discoveries will be made as the process of restoration
goes on in our ancient churches.

Another old method ofdecorating the walls, the appropriate-
ness of which cannot be questioned, is by covering them with
texts of Scripture, on which our previous author, Mr. Poole,
remarks as follows:—“ The most simple occupant of the walls
of churches is a series of passages from the Sacred Scriptures,
or of moral sentences of tried wisdom and appropriate ten-
dency. The introduction of the inscriptions is very ancient.
Bingham gives us several instances, and, among others, two
distichs written over the doors of the church, one on the
outside, exhorting men to enter the church with a pure
and peaceable heart :—

‘ Pax tibi sit quicunque Dei penetralia Christi
Pectore pacifico candidus ingrederis ;’
and the other within, requiring those who go out of the
church to leave at least their heart behind them :—
‘ Quisquis ab cede Dei perfectis ordine votis
Egrederis, remea corpore, corde manc.’

“ St. Ambrose tells us of an appropriate passage of Scrip-
ture, written on the walls of that part of the church which
was allotted to the virgins. And besides these moral lessons
and texts of Scripture, records of the dedication of the church
were sometimes inscribed on the walls ; such was that written
by the altar of Sancta Sophia, by Justinian.

“ To convey some notion how appropriately such passages

may be selected and arranged, and how impressive may be ‘

their general effect, we will adduce the whole series of
inscriptions from a small chapel at Luton, in Bedfordshire.
This chapel, which is now the property of the Marquis of
Bute, was built by one of the Napier family, in the reign

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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of James I., and the beautiful wainscoting with which it is
fitted up, was brought from Tittenhanger, where it had been
fixed by Sir Thomas Pope, in 1548.

“ Over the principal doorway are the words, Domus Dei
porta coeli: ‘The House of God is the Gate of Heaven ;’
and on the north and south side of the entrance: Laudate
eum juvenes, laudate eum virgines, ‘ Praise Him, ye young
men; praise Him, ye maidens,’ from Psalm cxlviii. 12. On
the two transverses of a. beautifully carved door, is an inscrip-
tion from Psalm cxviii. 20, Porta Domini, Justi intrabunt,
‘ This is the gate of the Lord, the just shall enter in.’
reference to a nearer approach to the altar, we have the
words—Lavabo inter innocentes manus meas, et circumdabo
altare tuum Domine: ‘I will wash my hands among the
innocent, and I will compass thine altar, O Lord :’ and on
the altar itself not only are the names of our blessed Lord,
found in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, as they were inscribed
by Pilate on his cross, but also the following passages from
Heb. xiii. 10; Matt. xxvi. 27; 1 Peter i. 12; and 1 Cor.
xi. 24, 25 : Habemus altare—Ex hoc omnes—in quae desid-
erant Angeli prospicere—Hoc in memoriam mei : ‘ We have
an altar—Eat ye all of this—Into which the angels desire
to look—Do this in remembrance of me.’ Even the singular
addition of a chimney-piece in this chapel, has its appropriate
inscription : Ecce ignis et lignum, ubi est victima holocausti?
‘Behold the fire and the wood, but where is the victim of
the whole burnt offering ?’ ”—Gen. xxii. 7.

Such was the decoration of the walls of our old churches,
nor were the details or furniture neglected, but all enriched
with colour, and the smaller parts with gilding. The rich-
ness produced by this treatment, which might otherwise have
appeared too glaring, was chastened and softened down by
the dim religious light shed through the storied panes of the
stained windows, which, while they added to the general efl‘ect,
imparted a chasteness throughout the whole structure. An
old church in all its glory, must have been truly beautiful.

0f the materials.—Our old churches were most generally
built of stone, and the majority of them of rough unhewn
rag or rubble, built up into the fabric in the same state as
brought from the quarry; the individual stones were small,
and not all of the same size ; they varied likewise in shape,
not being built up in regular courses, but fitted together as
neatly as circumstances would permit; the longer spaces
being filled up with smaller stones, and the lesser ones with
cement. This masonry was bonded at intervals by longer
stones running through the work, and at the angles by coins
of more regular workmanship. The dressings of the building,
such as the jambs and finishings of windows, doorways, and
other apertures, as well as the pinnacles, water-tables, string-
courses, mouldings, and all other portions of the edifice which
required much labour, were of some more manageable stone,
such as Caen; and in some of the more highly embellished
structures, of Purbeck marble. In some localities, flint is
employed, instead of rubble, more especially in Norfolk and
Suffolk, not unfrequently in Essex and other counties; in
many cases of this kind, the walls are made up of flints,
inserted in a kind of framework of freestone, which method,
with the aid of good cement, produces a very durable and
not unpleasing structure. Nor are these the only materials
employed in the construction of churches ; we occasionally
meet with brick and wood as substitutes for stone, more
frequently than elsewhere, in the county of Essex. Brick,
however, was not used during the best periods of ecclesiastical
architecture, nor does it produce an effect so pleasing to the
eye, as either of the before-mentioned materials; their colour,
red, is not nearly so agreeable as the more subdued tones of
flint or rubble. The walls, in all the above cases, were

 

155

With '

 

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of great thickness, which tended not only to the greater
stability of the structure, but also to maintain an equability
of temperature in the interior. A good specimen of a wooden
church is that of Greenstead, Essex, which has recently been
restored, and of which the following description, previous
to its restoration, is given in one of Weale’s Quarterly
Papers :—

“The timber walls, which,” says the writer, “I take to
be of oak, though some imagine them to be of chestnut-wood,
are but six feet in height on the outside, including the sill;
they are not, as usually described, ‘ half-trees,’ but have had
a portion of the centre or heart out out, probably to furnish
beams for the construction of the roof and sills ; the outside
or slabs thus left, were placed on the sill, but by what kind
of tenon they are there retained, does not appear ; While the
upper ends, being roughly adzed off to a thin edge, are let
into a groove, and which, with the piece of timber in which
it is cut, runs the whole length of the building itself; the
door-posts are of square timber, and these are secured in
the above-mentioned groove by small wooden pins, still firm
and strong—a truly wonderful example of the durability of
British oak. At the west end I had an opportunity of
examining the very heart of the timber; to the edge of an
exceedingly good pocket—knife, it appeared like iron, and has
acquired from age a colour approaching to ebony, but of a
more beautiful brown ; and if any conclusion may be drawn
from the appearance of the building, I see no reason why it
should not endure as long as it has already existed. The
outsides of all the trees are furrowed to the depth of about
an inch into long stringy ridges by the decay of the softer
parts of the timber, but these ridges seem equally hard as the
heart of the wood itself ; the north doorway, which measures
only four feet five inches in height by two feet five inches
in width, is at present closed with masonry ; but the aperture
must have been original. It is generally thought that the
woodwork of the roof is coeval with the walls, and it was
most likely formerly covered with thatch, as Bede describes,
and as may still be seen on many village churches in the
county of Norfolk.

“ The body of the church is lighted by windows in the
roof, but these are decidedly of a recent date; what little
light its interior enjoyed in its primitive state, was probably
admitted from the east end, if any windows existed at all.

“ How the interior was originally finished, cannot be now
determined; at the present moment it is kept in a very neat
and reputable state ; its walls and ceiling are plastered and
whitewashed, and its area affords sufficient accommodation
for the population of the parish.”

The nave is the portion of the church here alluded to, for
the chancel is not of the same material, and is of a later date ;
the tower is also of wood weather-boarded, with luffer boards
for the admission of light.

Since the above account was written, this unique little
edifice has been restored, under the superintendence of
Messrs. Wyatt and Brandon ; and in an article on the sub-
ject, to be found in “ The Builder,” a short period subsequent
to its restoration, the following remarks occur. The writer,
in combating Mr. Suckling’s opinions as to the timbers being
less than half-trees, says—“ We see no evidence of this, for
the timbers were evidently left rough, and the dimensions
prove them to have been, as nearly as may be, ‘ half-trees.’
These uprights,” he continues, “were laid on an oak sill,
8 inches by 8 inches, and tenoned into a groove 1% inch deep,
and secured with oak pins. The sill on the south side was
laid on the actual earth; that on the north side had, in two
places, some rough flints, without any mortar driven under.
The roof-plates averaged 7 inches by 7 inches, and had

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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6 CHU

 

a groove corresponding with the sill, into which the uprights
were tenoned and pinned. The plates were also of oak, but
they and the sills were very roughly hewn, in some parts
being 10 inches by 10 inches, and in others 6 inches by
6 inches, or 7 inches.

“ There were twenty-five planks or uprights on the north
side, and twenty-one on the south side. The uprights in
the north side, were the least decayed. Those on the south
side required an average of 5 inches of rotten wood to be
removed, those on the north about 1 inch only, and the
heights of the uprights, as now refixed, measuring between
plate and sill, are on the north side 4 feet 8 inches, on the
south side 4 feet 4 inches, the sills being bedded on a few
courses of brickwork in cement, to keep them clear of damp.
The uprights were tongued together at the junction with
oak strips, and a most effectual means it proved of keeping
out the wet; for although the interior was plastered, there
was no evidence, in any part, of wet having driven in at the
feather-edge junction of the uprights—a strange contrast to
many of our modern churches, where, with all the adjuncts
of stone and mortar, it is found no easy matter to keep out
the driving weather from the south-west.

“ The roof was heavy, and without any particular character;
it consisted of a tie-beam, at less than six feet from the floor,
with struts. The covering'was tile.”

We have given the description of this little church at so
great length, because we think buildings erected after this
manner would form very good substitutes for those un-
ecclesiastical-looking structures termed Temporary Churches,
which are become so fashionable now-a-days ; and not only
so, but might be even “erected as permanent ones, in places
where a better could not be provided.

0f symbolism—Although many persons are so far preju-
diced against the system as to deny the existence of symbolical
meaning in the peculiarstructure and arrangementof churches,
to the unprejudiced mind there can be little doubt of the fact.
It is true that some of the advocates of the system have
carried it to too great a length, and have strained their point
to such an extent as to appropriate a deep theological meaning
to the smallest details, yet this should not hinder us from giving
attention and credit to those who hold themselves within
reasonable limits. This idea respecting the aesthetic charac-
ter of ecclesiastical buildings, has but lately been brought
into general notice, but it is no new fancy; on the contrary,
we find mention of it in the writings of the early Christians.
The following passage is from the Apostolical Constitutions :
—“ When thou callest an assembly of the church, as one that
is the commander of a great ship, appoint the assemblies to
be made with all possible skill; charging the deacons, as
mariners, to prepare places for the brethren, as for passengers,
with all care and decency. And first let the church be long,
like a ship, looking towards the east, with its vestries on
either side at the east end. In the centre, let the bishop’s
throne be placed, and let the presbyters be seated on both
sides of him; and let the deacons stand near at hand, in
close and small garments, for they are like the mariners and
managers of the ship.” As we have before remarked, the
material structure of the church was from the earliest period
considered emblematical of the ark of Noah. Similar allusions
to that just quoted, are constantly occurring in the patristic
writings; thus S. Ambrose tells us why baptisteries should
be octagonal, and Clement of Alexandria gives rules by
which the selection of sacred emblems should be guided;
Eusebius informs us that Constantine surrounded the apsis
of the church of S. Cross with twelve pillars, according to
the number of the twelve apostles; and Hermas, in his
visions, represents the building of the spiritual temple under

 

 

figures wholly taken from the material fabric. But of all
writers on the subject, Durandus is the most copious, and is
held up as the highest authority in such matters. Mr. Lewis,
in his description of Kilpeck church, Herefordshire, is one
who has of late brought the subject of symbolism into notice;
he is one of those, however, who in our opinion have laboured
to apply the system to a greater extent than is warranted by
facts; he enlists every portion of the fabric, even to the
minutest details, to illustrate his views, and makes the
arrangement of the sacred edifice to indicate the minutiae of
theological doctrine. Mr. Poole, in his lectures on church
arrangement, does not attempt so much ; he maintains “ that
ecclesiastical architecture is a language; that it has always,
so long as it has deserved its name, aimed at expression;
and not at mere accommodation without splendour, or even
at splendour without a spirit and a meaning: that from the
first it was rational; that it had a soul and a sense which it
laboured to embody and convey to the beholder: that its
language was not only expressive, but appropriate; that it
aimed not only at accommodating a congregation, but at
elevating their devotions and informing their minds.” He
is of opinion that the greater mysteries of our religion are
symbolized in the fundamental design of the structure, while
other Christian verities are set forth in the minor arrange-
ments and in the ornamental details. For instance, the
mystery of the Trinity is symbolized by the threefold division
of our churches into nave, and aisles, and perhaps in the
longitudinal division into nave, choir, and chance], otherwise
the division into nave and chancel is said to point out the
division of clergy and laity: but the aesthetic principle is
more evident in our larger churches; thus in our cathedrals
we have the form of the cross in the ground-plan, also the
threefold division of body and aisles, as well as of nave,
transept, and choir; we have likewise the same number of
divisions vertically in the lower arcade, triforia, and clere-
story, as also in the exterior elevation in the central and two
western towers. Mr. Poole concludes—“ On a review, then,
of the facts mentioned, we may safely conclude, that, from
the first, there has been a sufficient degree of uniformity in
Christian churches, to indicate a unity of design, which could
not be accidental; that the origin of that unity is to be
found in the desire to symbolize the truths of our holy
religion in every apt manner, and, above all, in the sacred
edifices of the Christians.” “ A Gothic church, in its perfec-
tion, is an exposition of the distinctive doctrines of Chris-
tianity, clothed upon with a material form ; and is, as
Coleridge has so forcibly expressed it, ‘the petrifaction of
our religion.’ ”

As church-architecture is receiving a fair modicum of
attention at the present time, and churches are being multi-
plied to keep pace with the requirements of a vastly-increasing
population, it may not be out of place, in a work which pre-
tends rather to useful and practical information, than to
amusing recreation, to give some rules for the guidance of
those who are called upon to prepare plans and designs for
church-buildings

In the first place, then, let the architect consider well the
amount which is to be laid out in the erection, for this must
determine every other consideration ; if the amount be small,
do not let him attempt a large or highly-decorative building.
He must first take care to ensure soundness and strength in
the construction, and leave the details to be considered after-
wards ; if, after calculating the cost of the mere wailing and
other necessary parts of the structure, he finds he has suffi-
cient to construct them in a substantial manner, and money
to spare, let him then decide upon the amount of decoration.
It is better to erect plain walling, so that it be solid and well-

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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157

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built, than to add enrichment upon enrichment upon walls
which are scarcely able to support them. Let strength be the
object sought to be attained, not show; mere ostentatious
display is quite out of character in a sacred edifice. This
leads us to the next rulez—let every material employed be
real; if funds are not sufficient for the best materials, use the
more common, but do not attempt to hide them, let them
appear what they are in reality, in their true colours, and
not stain or plaster them to resemble things of a superior
description; the building may not appear so rich, but it will
bear the stamp of reality and truth, which will carry a con-
viction of its superiority to minds perhaps unwilling to yield
to its demands.

0f construction.—The best material for the walling is
undoubtedlv stone, and of this, we suppose, that which
is dressed and squared should be preferred; we do not speak
with certainty in this case, for there decidedly are advantages
attached to undressed, uncoursed masonry; the very uneven-
ness imparts a richness and variety of colour to the material,
and a play of light and shade over the surface, which is not
attainable in an even or smooth wall; but besides this, there
is another superiority in the contrast which is afforded
between the naked wall and the more finished dressings of
the apertures. But even if this matter be left undecided, it
will make but little difference in the present day, for few
architects have funds at their disposal to allow them a choice
between the two. The stone best adapted for the purpose, in
the practice of the present time, is rag or rubble, which is
unexpensive, and at the same time durable; it may be pro~
cured in most localities without much trouble. Whatever be
the nature of the stone, it is not necessary nor desirable that
it be quarried in large masses, the smaller the better, so far, at
least, as is consistent with a due regard to the safety and
expense of construction; when the stones are large, they
are apt to catch the eye, and lead it away from the more
detailed portions of the building, whereas, if the separate
stones be of small size, and more especially if they be of
irregular outline, and random-coursed, they will render the
more important features distinct and effective. For this same
reason, the finished stones of the apertures, and such like,
should not all be of the same size, either in length or height,
so as to form a regular line at theirjunction, with the rubble
masonry, for, if so, they will divert the attention from the
main outline and decoration of the windows, &c., which the
eye ought to catch at the first glance; but besides this, if the
jamb-stones be of different lengths, they will form a more
efficient bond with the main wall. The latter remarks will
apply to all buildings, whatever be the materials of which
they are composed.

With regard to the selection and laying of stones, the best
plan is to use them as they come to hand, studying neither
their shape nor situation too closely; a wall, constructed
in this manner, will look natural, and therefore far better,
than when the stones are broken or placed in a peculiar
manner for the sake of appearance. In no cases attempt to
make the joints over close. The dressings will of course be
formed of a stone which may be easy to work: Caen is a
good stone for the purpose, but if this is not to be obtained,
some kind of freestone may be discovered in the neighbour-
hood, available for such service. The nature of the stone
required will vary of course with the degree of carved
enrichment to which it is to be subjected.

there flint is abundant and more readily procurable than
other kinds of stone, it may be used with advantage, as is
evidenced by many an old structure. Care should be taken
that it be well bonded and cemented together, otherwise it
will not be so secure as rubble masonry ; in some cases, which

2 s

._m_lifl/—- .4 \.___.,__ M__,. ,_ .

 

we have before alluded to, the walls are formed of a sort of
frame-work of freestone, the intermediate spaces being filled
in with small squared flints. In new work the effect of flint
is not so good as could be desired, but it improves by age;
the contrast between it and the freestone being modified in
process of time; old buildings of this material have a very
pleasing effect.

If none of the above materials can be procured without
much difficulty, brick is not to be discarded, although not to
be recommended unless under peculiar circumstances. If you
are compelled to use it, do not attempt to disguise it by
stucco, a brick church is better than an imitation stone one;
plaster may be used occasionally to preserve a wall, but, if
so, let its nature and its purport be at once evident. Churches
of red brick are to be found in Essex, but they are of a late
period, and are not to be imitated unless absolutely necessary.
In general cases, rag or rubble is preferable, not only in
appearance, but even in economy.

Timber, though by no means a desirable material, may in
special cases be employed. A church of this description has
already been noticed and described, it will therefore be un-
necessary here to enter into a consideration of its construction.
While upon this subject we cannot conclude without again
suggesting, whether churches built after the fashion of that
at Greenstead, above described, would not be more appro-
priate structures for temporary churches, than those which at
the present day pass under that denomination.

In all the above cases, let the walls be of considerable
thickness, as this tends not only to the security of the struc-
ture, but also, as we have said before, to the preservation of
an equable temperature in the interior.

0f tlze covering—The best covering for the roof is lead,
of sufficient thickness—71b. lead is a good quality—but it
has its disadvantages; in the first place it is expensive, and
therefore not suitable for the present time; it also requires
great care in laying, and unless pure, and of good quality, is
liable to corrode. Slates are not objectionable if they be of
a good colour, but the common blue slate does not harmonize
well with the masonry; very fair specimens are to be pro-
cured from the north of England. Tiles and thatch are fre-
quently found on old churches; the former may be employed.
but the latter is objectionable, for reasons which will be
obvious to every reader. Rag-stones may be used for the pur-
pose, as may also shingles; the latter are eligible on account
of their lightness, and other qualities, but they are not secure
against fire.

0ft/ze internal wood-work—The roof, benches, screens, and
other wood-work should be of oak, if expense is no obstacle;
however, fir, walnut, and other inferior timber, are more gene-
rally employed now-a-days ; but whatever is used, it should not
be stained or grained, to resemble wood of a superior quality ;
it may be prepared in any manner which will tend to its pre-

, servation, and in this way its appearance may sometimes be

improved. Deal may be employed when the funds will not
admit of a better substitute. Varnish is now frequently used,
but we think it better avoided; at least, allow it a sufficient
time to dry, before the church is to be used for service.

0f theflooring.—-The best materials for paving the floor
are encaustic tiles, ornamented in appropriate-coloured devices;
plain tiles, however, will answer very well for the nave, they
should be placed diamond-wise, the alternate ones being of
the same colour with a differently-coloured one between; red
and black are the common colours. The enriched encaustic
tiles may be judiciously reserved for the chancel; plain tiles
are well introduced even here, for they serve as a contrast,
as also to throw out the patterns of the richer sort.

Qf metal-work—The metals are used for a variety of pur-

 

 

 

 

 

 

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poses, the more costly in the furniture of a church, but we
shall here confine ourselves to the ornamental iron-work, used
for hinges, locks, bars, and such like, many beautiful speci-
mens of which are preserved to us in our old churches. We
must, at starting, lay down, as a rule, that iron, for these
purposes, should be wrought, not cast; the latter class of
iron-work is always a failure. These ornaments should not be
painted, but, to preserve them from rust, it is recommended
that they be dipped when red-hot in grease, and left to cool;
the same purpose will be answered by coating them with
some incorrosive metal.

0f style—The best style for adoption in parish-churches
is undoubtedly the Decorated, from the middle of the thir-
teenth to the middle of the fourteenth century. During this
period Christian art was at its perfection, and soon after
began to lose its character for genuine simplicity; the intro—
duction of the depressed arch, and the excessive embellish-
ment of the later style, was the commencement of its down-
ward course. We would not, however, confine the architect
to a single style; Early English is well adapted for large
churches, and may occasionally be made available for smaller
ones, while Perpendicular is appropriately employed for
churches in cities and large towns, sometimes even with
greater advantage than Decorated, which is particularly the
case when a church, being closely surrounded with other
buildings, requires large Windows on those sides which are
more open to the light. For the generality of churches, how-
ever, the Decorated is by far the most suitable, it is equally
adapted for a plain, as for a more highly-finished structure,
and has a natural grace which ensures its perfection, in what-
ever situation it be placed; it will admit of the highest elabo-
ration, so far at least as is consistent with purity, or of the
plainest construction, without sacrificing any of its inherent
beauties; on the other hand, the Perpendicular style must be
highly enriched, or otherwise it will appear meagre, and is
therefore unsuitable, except for an expensive edifice. \Ve have
said nothing of Norman, but we must not pass it over in
silence; it is decidedly not so appropriate as any of the above-
mentioned styles for parish-churches, and yet we should be
sorry to see it entirely discarded; it must not be recom-
mended, but it has its peculiar beauties, which doubtless will
always secure to it some share of public favour.

0f the plan—The amount of money at the disposal of the
architect, as it determines the material to be employed, will
likewise, to a certain extent, govern the size, and therefore
the plan and arrangement of the building. The ground-plan
will also depend, in a great measure, on the site allotted for
the building. For very small churches, the best arrangement
is the most simple, viz.; that of the parallelogram, divided
into nave and chancel, which division need not be shown on
the exterior, although it is very desirable that it should be
so, and in this case the chancel is marked by its smaller
dimensions in height and breadth; the chancel should always
be separated from the nave in the interior by an open screen
of wood-work, as also by being elevated on one or more steps.
An important and inexpensive addition may be made to this
plan in the shape of a porch, which may be either of wood or
stone, and should be placed, unless there be any strong reason
to the contrary, towards the western end of the south side.
A further imprm'ement will consist in the erection of a bell-
turret, or gable, either on the western gable, or on that
between the nave and chancel; this again need not. be expen-
sive, in some cases it may be made of wood, in which mate-
rial we have a sufficiency of ancient examples; but it is best,
of course, of stone; of whichever material it be constructed,
it always forms a very marked and beautiful feature in a small
church. we should be rejoiced to see a larger number of

158

 

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such small structures as the above erected at the present day,
when all seem to aim at an edifice of much greater preten-
sions, even though they have, it may be, scarcely sufficient
funds for the erection of one of the more simple structures
in an efficient manner. Towers placed between the nave and
chancel are not unfrequent in some parts of England.

If accommodation for a larger number of worshippers be
required, one or more aisles must be added to the nave. A
nave with two aisles is the perfect form, but both aisles need
not be built at the same time, unless the number of the con-
gregation require it, and there are ample funds for its erec-
tion. At the same time, never build only one aisle for the
sake of appearing extraordinary, nor unless there is an
intention of erecting a corresponding one at some future
period; for this reason, when a single aisle is adopted, let the
opposite wall of the nave be built with arches of construc-
tion, so that when the second aisle is added, it may be neces-
sary only to remove the masonry between the arches. This
last method might be adopted with advantage in the first
class of churches. We may remark here, once for all, that it
is by no means necessary that the opposite sides of a church
should exactly correspond.

This last is the most eligible form of structure for ordinary
churches, to contain, say from two hundred persons and
upwards. For churches of this capacity the first-mentioned
form is not adapted, as, when so large accommodation is
required, you would be compelled to extend the nave to an
inconvenient breadth; twenty-five feet is the greatest dimen-
sion allowable in a small church without aisles; when aisles
are added, their breadth, as a general rule, should be to that
of the nave in the proportion of two to five, but'this ratio is
not fixed, it varies in different examples.

If still greater accommodation be required, it may be
obtained by continuing the aisles on one or both sides of the
chancel, from which they should be shut off by parcloses of
open work; but this addition is not a desirable one, and
should be adopted only in such places as the architect is
cramped for room. A more legitimate method of obtaining
greater space in general instances is by annexing a tower,
which should open into the church by a lofty arch. This,
though not essential to a church, forms one of the most
striking and picturesque features, and when the means will
admit of it, should never be omitted; though, on the other
hand, the essentials should in no case be sacrificed to
obtain it.

Oj'tlze position of the tween—The standard situation of the
tower is at the west end of the nave, although there are very
many exceptions to this position, amongst which are the

 

following, instances of which are given by the Ecclesiological 3
Society :—west end of either aisle; middle or east end of 5

either aisle; north or south of chancel; north side of a second
north aisle; north or south side of nave; north-west and

south-west angle of nave; north-east or south—east of nave; i

All these "
u o . n l
posmons are allowable, when Circumstances require the tower i

middle of nave and western end of the chancel:

to be so placed; as a general rule, however, we. think it
advisable to retain it at the west end of the nave. At one
time architects restricted themselves entirely to this rule,
however more eligible any other situation might have been :
now, on the ctmtrary, it is the exception to see the towers in
this position. We think both at. fault, the former following one
arrangement too closely, simply it would appear for the sake
of preserving an exact correspondence in both sides of the
building, even at the risk of losing other advantages; while
the latter seek out extraordium‘y positions merely for the sake
of their novelty, and for the purpose of exciting surprise.
The nature and shape of the ground, as well as the internal

 

 

 

 

 

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arrangement, should decide the question. In cruciform
churches the proper location of the tower is over the inter-
section of nave and transept, but in addition to other posi-
tions, the following are satisfactory—at the north end of the
north, and the south end of the south transept. Sometimes,
though rarely in this country, we find the tower detached from
the church, similarly to the campaniles of the continent.

Atowercan scarcely be said to be perfect withouta spire, and
in churches in which the earlier styles are adopted, this fea-
ture should never be omitted; in the Perpendicular it is not
of so great consequence, though even then desirable. Spires
need not always be carried up to a great height, although the
loftier the better, nor need they be invariably of stone, those
made of shingles are very beautiful objects in rural districts,
and those covered with lead or slates are not to be despised;
in some counties we find both tower and spire constructed
of weather-boarding. In passing, we cannot help noticing,
that in many of our modern churches, the towers have not
sufficient breadth, which gives them an appearance of poverty
and meagreness. We suggest, whether it would not be
better, where towers are deemed necessary, to lay the foun-
dation of a more substantial structure, and to leave it incom-
plete until the requisite funds are provided. Our old
church-builders always went to work on this principle, Which
accounts for the single aisle, and many other irregularities,
as, for instance, difference of style in the different portions
of a church. This plan might be carried out with advantage
in the present day, not only in the larger parts of the struc-
ture, but also in the finishing of details, &c. The plan of the
tower is generally square or rectangular, supported at its
angles by massive buttresses, which add greatly to its appear-
ance; not unfrequently a turret, containing a staircase, is
added at one angle, which affords a picturesque irregularity,
especially if it be carried up above the main building; this is
particularly the case in the later styles.

Another addition which will be required, is the sacristy
or vestry; its position should be on the north side of the
chancel, with which it should communicate by a door: it
should never be of large dimensions or imposing design. This
is the only part of a church where a chimney is allowable.

Up to this point we have made scarcely any mention of
cruciform churches, not because we do not think this a
beautiful form, but rather because it is ill adapted to present
circumstances. Such a plan is doubtless the most expressive
of any for a Christian church, but it is not the most economical;
it does not economize space. It is true the cross arms may
be used for the accommodation of worshippers, but not with-
out great inconvenience ; persons placed there will not be as
it were with the rest of the congregation, they must look
a different way, and not only so, but must be hid from the
altar and the greater portion of the performance ofthe services;
in fact, transepts were not intended for this purpose, as is
evident by there being seldom found any seats in this position,
and even when such are seen, they are mostly subsequent
additions. Besides all this, the cross form is more expensive
in construction. W'hen funds are ample, transepts may well
be added, but not otherwise.

Ofapertures.—These consist of doors and windows, and
to both of them one remark will apply: do not make them
too large; for with respect to the former, it may be said that
they are seldom made an important feature in English
architecture, not even in Our cathedrals; and as regards the
latter, small windows are advantageous on many accounts,
not only are they more unassuming than larger ones, but
they answer the present times—when stained glass through-
out the building is scarcely to be looked for—by admitting
less light, and if stained glass is to be inserted, they require

 

 

~._'_..— ‘. MW- 7 «,A

but a small quantity. A great mistake, in our opinion, is
very generally made in the present day, in allowing too
great an area for lighting a church, either by making the
windows too numerous, or too large; a glare of light is not
desirable in a church, it interferes with people’s devotion;
we want asubdued tone, that “ dim religious light” which was
admitted of old through the stained windows, and this is to
be procured rather by diminishing than increasing the area
admitting light. With reference to the position of doors,
there should be one small one for the priest in the south side
of the chancel, another at the porch, and a third, generally
speaking, opposite the last; in transeptal churches, there
may be one at the west end, and another on the west side
of one of the transepts.

We have previously hinted, that it is not at all necessary
that the corresponding parts of the building should be in
every respect uniform: the same remark holds equally true
as to detail, as it does in respect of the main features of
construction; the windows and other apertures need not be
placed at exactly the same distances apart, nor is it necessary
that the windows on both sides of the church should in every
particular correspond ; a buttress should not be placed between
every two windows, or at every corner of the building,
merely for the sake of appearance, nor indeed should they
be employed at all, unless requisite. The governing prin-
ciple in such matters, should be to use nothing more than is
wanted, and place things just where they are required; if
this rule were attended to, it would save a vast deal of
unnecessary trouble, and produce in the end a far more
satisfactory, because more natural, appearance. “ How often
do we see,” says a writer for the Ecclesiological Society,
“a simple village church, consisting of low and rough stone
walls, surmounted, and almost overwhelmed, by an immense
roof, and pierced with some two or three plain windows,
between as many bold irregular buttresses on each side ; or
having a short massive tower placed at one angle, or in some
seemingly accidental position, which nevertheless every one
confesses to be as picturesque, and beautiful, and church-like
an edifice as the most critical eye could wish to behold!
while a modern design, with all its would-be elegancies of
trim regular buttress, parapet, and pinnacles, would cost
twice the money, and will not look like a church after all.
Here perhaps one half of the money is laid out first in pro-
curing, and then in smoothing and squaring great masses of
stone, or in working some extravagant and incongruous orna-
ment; whereas the small and rude hammer-dressed ashlar
or rubble work of the ancient model, has a far better appear-
ance, and allows a larger expenditure where it is most
wanted, in the arrangements of the interior.”

This leads us to remark, that the interior should be the
main object of consideration, and should never be sacrificed
to make way for a showy exterior, although this is too
frequently the case with modern churches; it was far different
with our ancestors. Of the interior, the chancel is that part
on which the architect's best attention should be given. The
interiors of our old churches, as we have previously stated,
were enriched in the most splendid manner, all the finest
productions of art were lavished upon them, the sculptor
and painter vied with each other in their decoration—and why
should it not be so now? Surely paintings in fresco would
be preferable to yellow-ochre and whitewash, nor do we see
any moral objection to pictorial representations in our churches,
there can be no fear of people worshipping pictures now-a-
days, the greater fear is for the want, not the excess, of
reverence; they are the books of the unlearned, and serve
not only to instruct the ignorant in matters which they would
not otherwise know, but also bring before the attention of

 

 

 

 

 

 

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the more learned, things of which otherwise they might be
forgetful. But if objections still be urged against the employ-
ment of the painter’s highest branch of art, surely there can
be no exception brought against such decoration as we have
described as occurring at Luton Church. The employment
of texts of Scripture delineated on the walls, is sanctioned
by the order of the church, when she enjoins in her eighty-
second canon—“ That the ten commandments be set up on
the east end of every church and chapel, where the people
may best see and read the same : and other chosen sentences
written upon the walls of the said churches and chapels, in
places convenient.” Passages of Scripture well selected and
appropriately arranged, would form at the same time a very
useful and beautiful appendage to the walls of our churches;
though, as we think, scarcely equal to the more pictorial
illustration advocated above. We should be glad to see the
interior of our places of worship relieved from the coldness
which ever hangs about bare walls; let at least some coloured
decorations be introduced into the chancel, if nowhere else.

0f the roof—Open roofs, those in which all the beams
and rafters are visible, should of course be adopted, the use
of ceiling is now almost quite exploded ; roofs of this kind
not only afford an appearance of greater height to the build-
ing, but also have a perspective effect, by the repetition of
the same parts, which adds to the apparent length of the
church ; indeed, the same building covered at one time with
an open roof, and at another with a flat ceiling, would
present two such very different aspects, as scarcely to be
recognized as i entical. Various forms may be used, of
which, whether ’h or simple, beautiful ancient examples
are to be found; iri‘ small churches, where the span is incon-
siderable, the arched form may be used with advantage; the
amount of trussing increases of course with the span. Tie-
beams are scarcely admissible, as they detract from the
aspiring principle developed in church architecture, and
arrest the eye in its progress upwards; they have in a small
degree the same effect as a flat ceiling: there is, however,
seldom occasion for their employment, they are not requisite
in a high—pitched roof, especially where the walls of the
building are of considerable thickness; the thrust is rather
vertical than horizontal.

0fpews.——Let all the seats be low open benches with low
backs, the lower the better, as far as convenience will allow;
for as the height increases, so must the distance from each
other; if this circumstance be not attended to, the high back
will be found to be in the way: a convenient height is two
feet six, preserving the same measurement between every
two seats. The benches must be arranged across the church
so as to face the east, and in such a manner as to allow of
easy access to every part of the church; for this purpose,
there should be a main passage running along the centre of
the nave five or six feet wide, and another of the same
measurement across the church, connecting the north and
south doors; smaller passages are necessary along the aisles,
and at the east end of the nave. In small churches, the
standards at the ends of the seats should be of a plain
character, but in the larger ones they may be carved and
finished at the top with poppy heads, 8cc.

Ofgalleries.——Galleries should on no account be admitted
into a church; they entirely spoil its appearance, cutting up
windows, and sometimes pillars, into two or more pieces,
hiding the roof, marring the proportions, and obstructing
a fair view of the interior; they are noisy, ill-ventilated, and
clumsy, and not only are they ill-ventilated themselves, but
they interfere with the proper circulation of air in the aisles
beneath them, and by their principle of over-crowding
a church, assist materially in vitiating the air throughout

 

 

the building. And what is the advantage proposed to be
effected by them ?——the economizing of space, that is, the
obtaining of an increase of accommodation at a small expense:
but do they effect this object ? decidedly not: the additional
space obtained by their adoption is very trifling, for from the
total area of the gallery must be deducted, not only the main
passage leading at the back of the seats throughout its length,
but also the numerous cross passages branching from it to
afford convenient access to the different parts of the gallery,
so that in fact, in the majority of cases, a full third, and in
some instances nearly one half of the area obtained is lost
in passages of communication; add to this the space occupied
in the aisles by the piers or other supports, and it will be
evident that the advantages in point of accommodation are
very small. When, bearing all this in mind, we consider
that the walling is frequently carried up to a greater height
than otherwise necessary, for the sake ofintroducing agallery,
we shall scarcely be prepared to defend such excrescences
on the score of economy.

0f the principal furniture—The first object which needs
a few remarks is the font ; it should invariably be of stone,
as ordered by the church, and of a size sufficient for the
immersion of infants ; there should be a drain leading from
the bottom of the bowl down into the earth, to carry off the
water used in the service, and the bowl, when not in use,
should be protected by a cover. The situation of the font
must be near the entrance in the nave, and should have
sufficient space left round it for the priest, sponsors, and
others immediately concerned in the rite. The pulpit, which
may be of' wood or stone, should be at the south—east or
north-east end of the nave, either detached, or built up with
the wall or pier, and should not be elevated at too great
a height: ifthere be a choice of situation, the north side of
the nave is the preferable position. We need say nothing
in this place respecting the furniture of the chancel, as it has
already been described under that title; we may only add,
that we should be glad to see the whole of it introduced into
our modern churches, even to the rood screen, which is so
much objected to by some, on account of its being, as they
say, a Romish invention, whereas in fact it has been employed
in the Eastern as well as the \Vestern church, from the very
earliest period.

Of the lighting, warming, and ventilation of churches.—
The best method of lighting a church is by candles, which
may be held either in standards fixed or movable, or in
chandeliers made after the pattern of the ancient corona:
lucis. Gas is cheaper than wax-lights, we are aware, but
a trifling additional expense should scarcely be a consideration
in such a matter; besides, amongst other disadvantages, the
glare of gas-lights is but ill adapted to the solemnity of
a church, and the heat emitted from them is oppressive and
somniferous. A fire-place is hardly admissible into a church,
and stoves, hot air or water pipes, should never be attempted,
they are unsafe, as well as unhealthy. The best method of
regulating the temperature of a church is by building sub-
stantial walls, and efficient drains, allowing a free circulation
of air, and keeping the whole building in good and proper
repair. If 10w benches, and high-pitched open roofs be
adopted, while galleries and gas-lights are at the same time
discarded, there will be little difficulty as to ventilation.

Qf the restoration of'churvhes—Little need be said on this
head, the main point to be attended to is, the reducing the
building as nearly as possible to its original state, in structure,
arrangement, and decoration ; it most frequently happens, that
the minutiae of the old structure are not traceable, and in such
cases thejudgment of the architect is called into action, but
where the old arrangement is perceptible, it should always be

 

 

 

 

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followed in the restoration. The first thing to be attended
to is the drainage, many old churches being destroyed by
damp; in very many cases the earth of the church-yard Will
be found to have accumulated to a considerable height above
the floor of the church, and this of course should be at once
removed, and a proper ventilation given, to dry the foun-
dations. The interior walls should be carefully cleansed of
the many coats of whitewash, so that, in case any vestiges
of painting remain, they may not be destroyed for want. of
proper caution; the same care should be taken 1n removmg
the plaster and whitewash from the ornamental details ; flat
ceilings likewise should be removed Wllh. caution, as. they
were frequently added merely to hide exrstlng defects 1n the
roof. Structural restoration should be first attended to,
after that the arrangement, and lastly the decoration.

0f the enlargement of churches. ——Architects are not
unfrequently called upon to afford increase of accommodation
in old churches; it may therefore not be out of place to
point out as briefly as possible how this may be best effected.
The first step is to calculate how much additional accom-
modation may be obtained by a proper re-arrangement of
the seats, and a substitution of low benches in the place
of the modern pews, and to regulate for further additions
accordingly. Churches in which additions are advisable,
are the following: those which consist only of nave and
chancel, which may be enlarged by the addition of one
or more aisles to the nave, and of a tower, if requisite;
——-those consisting of nave, chancel, and one aisle, where
accommodation is naturally increased in completing the
church by the addition of an aisle on the opposite side of
the nave, an addition frequently contemplated by the
founders, as is manifested by the existence of arches of
construction in the nave-wall;——those again consisting of a
nave and chancel, with tower between the two, may be
enlarged by adding transepts, which, in cases of necessity,
may be used for worshippers. Of churches comprising a nave
with two aisles, a chancel and a tower, increased space may
be obtained by a continuation of the aisles to the extremity,
or nearly the extremity, of the chancel, or by adding another
aisle to the nave. Either of these plans may be adopted in
cases of great need, but they are by no means to be recom-
mended; in both cases the same objection holds, that the
people are packed into situations which are not convenient
for public worship; in the first case, they are made to look
in a different direction from those in the body of the church,
which interferes with the apparent unity of the worshippers,
and, in the latter, a great portion of them are excluded
from a proper view of the chancel. In such cases it would
be much more advisable to erect a new church or chapel,
however small or unimposing, but this necessitates other
expenses, and is not always practicable; where it is possible,
it should be adopted in preference. The Rev. J. L. Petit, in
his Remarks on Church—Architecture, recommends additions
to the chancel to be made in almost all cases where enlarge-
ment is required; but we must differ from him in this matter,
for, be it remembered, that in our old churches, these projec-
tions were not used by the congregation, but were employed
as side-chapels; in fact, their existence is attributable to the
corruptions of the church of Rome: such additions maybe
used for the location of the organ, or such like purposes, but
not, if avoidable, for the accommodation of worshippers. In
other churches where none of the above methods are available,
it is better not to attempt enlargement; the lengthening of
the nave is a poor expedient, which may at once destroy the
proportions and mar the unity of the original design.

We here take leave of a subject which we are rejoiced to
say is daily receiving increased attention. Some few years

2 'r

 

 

since, our ecclesiastical structures were looked upon as rem~
nants of by-gone days, to be wondered at for their associations
and antiquities, but scarcely to be imitated in modern times;
but of late a new light has appeared, infusing spirit and
animation into the old buildings, and we no longer look at
them as the relics of a barbarous age, but as examples
most fitting to be followed in all sacred structures; they
formed once the lore of the antiquarian, they are now the
models of the architect. It is a matter of wonder how rapidly
knowledge, on this subject, has been acquired; it is asyet
imperfect, but is progressing satisfactorily; fresh discoveries
are being made continually, and ere long we shall have a
goodly number of useful text-books on the subject. We
must not forget, that the first impulse in the right direction
was afforded by the Cambridge Camden Society, to which the
gratitude of every lover of our old parish-churches will be
readily accorded. We have now Architectural Societies of
a similar kind established all over the country, to which, in
conjunction with the labours and researches of private archi-
tects, we look for a great increase of information. An addi-
tional incitement to this study has been given by the erection
of so many churches in various parts of the country, in most
of which a vast improvement may be observed on buildings of
a similar kind erected in previous years; it is true they are
not all, perhaps but few, without faults, many of them are
faulty in numerous respects, yet, as a whole, they are very
satisfactory; we cannot do better in concluding this article,
than repeat the remarks of Mr. Petit on the progress of
church-architecture, and the impediments which the profes-
sional man has to encounter in its advancement. “ So great,”
says he, “are the actual and inherent difficulties of his art,

 

and so grievously are they multiplied by external causes, s0 ‘

limited and restricted is he by the perverseness of others,
so many conflicting tastes and opinions has he to consult, so
beset is he on every side by the ostentatious views of one, the
parsimony of another, the private interests of a third, and
the overweening ignorance of the greater number, that it is
a marvel his work should ever be respectable; and we cannot
deny that many of our modern churches are extremely
creditable to the taste and skill of their designers. Let those
who speak of the labours of the architect with flippancy, or
censure them with unkindness or severity, reflect upon the dif-
ficulties he has to encounter ; of no other art are the principles
and beauties more deeply hidden in the treasury of nature,
and to be searched out with greater toil and diligence.”
CHURCH-HOUSE, a building in which meetings were
held for the transaction of church matters and parish business;
it was sometimes a room situate over the porch.
CHURCH-YARD, the space of ground surrounding the

church, used as a cemetery or burial-ground. The entrance .

to our old church-yards was frequently through a gate
covered with a projecting roof, called the lych-gate, under

which the coffin was rested before entering the ground; and

opposite the porch, was a lofty stone cross elevated on one

or more steps, and frequently adorned with the emblems of .

the Evangelists, and other enrichments.
planted a yew-tree, whose boughs were carried in procession
on Palm Sunday, and used at other times to decorate the
interior of the church.

The unwholesome practice of interment in towns is being
discontinued, and consequently the church-yard in such cases
is in a great measure dispensed with; where practicable,
however, the church should be contained within a walled
enclosure. The best model for an extra-mural cemetery,
is that lately planned at Oxford: cemeteries are usually
objectionable, on account of being made the subjects of
speculation and pecuniary profit.

Near the cross was 9

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CIR

162

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CIBORIUM, in ecclesiastical antiquity, the covering of
an altar ; being an insulated edifice, consisting of four columns
supporting a dome. The ciborium was used during the lower
and middle ages; but was afterwards superseded by the
baldachin. See BALDACHIN.

The most magnificent ciborium ever known, was that
erected by Justinian, in the church of St. Sophia, at Con-
stantinople. It consisted of four large red marble columns,
supporting a silver dome, surmounted with a globe of massy
gold, weighing 118 pounds, and surrounded with lilies of
gold, falling in festoons, weighing 116 pounds; and in the
middle was a cross of the same metal, weighing 75 pounds,
covered with the most rare and precious jewels.

CILERY, the drapery or foliage on the heads of columns.

CILL. See SILL.

CIMA. See SIMA, MOULDINGS.

CIMA-INVERSA. See SIMA-INVERSA, MOULDINGS.

CIMA~REC'I‘A. See SIMA-RECTA, MOULDINGS.

CIMBIA, a fillet, string, list, or cincture.

CIMELIARCH, in English churches, the room where
the plate, vestments, &c. are kept.

CINCTURE, or CEINCTURE, an annular fillet, of a cylin-
dric surface, at the ends of a column, connected to the shaft
by the apophyge, or scape. The cincture at the top of the
column, is named also collarino.

CINQUEFOIL, an ornament in the pointed style of
architecture, consisting of five cuspidated divisions, or curved
pendants, inscribed in a pointed arch, or in a circular ring,
applied to windows and panels. The cinquefoil inscribed in
a circle, is a rosette of five equal leaves, with an open space
in the middle ; the leaves being formed by the open spaces,
and not by the solids or cusps.

CIPPUS, a small low column, sometimes without a base
or capital, and most frequently bearing an inscription. The
cippus was used for various purposes among the ancients:
when placed on a road, it indicated the distances of places ;
in other respects, the cippi were employed as memorials of
remarkable events, as landmarks, and for bearing sepulchral
epitaphs. Also the prison of a castle.

CIRCLE (from the Latin, circulus) a plane figure con-
tained under one line, called the circumference, which is such
that all lines drawn to it, from a certain point within the
figure, are equal; and the point from which the lines may
be thus drawn, is called the centre of the circle.

A circumference may be thus described: if the end of a
right line be placed upon a fixed point, and kept upon that
point while the other end is carried progressively forward,
or round, until it come to the place whence the motion began,
the moveable extremity will thus trace out the circumference
of a circle.

In order to obtain the measurements of angles, the circum-
ferences of all circles are supposed to be divided into 360 equal
parts, called degrees,- each degree is supposed to be divided
into 60 equal parts, called minutes; each minute is divided
into 60 equal parts, called seconds; each second is supposed
to be divided into 60 equal parts, called thirds; which are
again divided and subdivided ad irgfim'mm. Any denomi—
nation, whether of degrees, minutes, seconds, &c. is known
by a peculiar character, written over the right-hand figure
of that denomination ; thus, 0, written over the right-hand
figure of a number, shows that number to represent degrees;
the character thus, ', written over the right-hand figure of
a number, shows the number thus distinguished to represent
minutes ; e. g. 1360 24’ 48” 57’”, 8:0. represents 136 degrees,
24 minutes, 48 seconds, 57 thirds, 8:0. ; and, as similar arcs
are such as are contained under the same, or equal angles,
they contain the same number of degrees, &c., the number

 

of parts of the arc of a circle, described from the meeting of
two lines forming an angle, and comprehended between them,
is the true measure of the angle ; for the number of parts is
still the same, whatever be the radius of the arc, or of the
circle, the parts being greater as the radius is greater. The
arc of the circle being supposed to be divided into 360 equal
parts, the radius will be found to be equal to the chord of 60 ;
because the circle contains six equilateral triangles, whose
bases are chords to the circle, whose summits meet in the
centre, and whose sides are radii to the circle. And since
the sixth part of 360°, or of a whole circle, is 60°, the chord
of 60 is therefore equal to the radius. The parts of the arc
may be measured by parts of the radii, which are always
supposed to contain the same number: for if there be two
arcs described from the angular point of an angle, between
the legs, these arcs may be measured in parts of their
respective radii.

The circle is the most capacious of all plane figures; that
is, it contains the greatest area under equal perimeters, or has
the least perimeter enclosing the same area.

The area of a circle is equal to the area of a triangle, the
base of which is equal to the circumference, and the perpen-
dicular equal to the radius, and consequently equal to a
rectangle, whose breadth is equal to the radius, and the
length equal to the semi-circumference.

Circles, like other similar plane figures, are to one another
as the squares of their diameters.

The ratio of the diameter of a circle to its circumference,
has never been exactly ascertained. Archimedes was the
first, in his book De Dimensione Circuli, who gave the ratio
in small numbers, being that of 7 to 22, which is still the
most useful for practical purposes. Vieta carried the approxi-
mation to ten places of figures, by means of circumscribed
and inscribed polygons of 393,216 sides, showing the ratio
to be as 10,000,000,000 to 31,415,926,536 nearly, the
circumference being greater

than 31,415,926,535
but less than 31,415,926,537
Van Colen carried the approximate ratio to 36 places of
figures ; which number was recalculated and confirmed
by VVillebrod Snell. Mr. Abraham Sharp extended the
ratio to 72 places of figures, which was afterwards extended
to 100 places by the ingenious Mr. Machin ; and, lastly,
M. De Lagny, in the filemoires de l’Acad., 1719, has carried
this ratio to the amazing extent of 128 places of figures.

In approximating the circumference or area of a circle
from the diameter, the first authors had recourse to inscribed
and circumscribed polygons; since it was found that the
circumference of the circle was greater than the perimeter
of the inscribed polygon, but less than that of the circum-
scribing one ; and, that when the polygon contained a great
number of sides, the circumference of the circle did not differ
materially from either, it would be still more nearly equal to
the arithmetical mean of the two. And, to give the reader
an idea how very near the circumference obtained by this
means is to the truth, the circumscribed and inscribed
polygons may be taken of such a number of sides, as that
their perimeters will be each expressed by any given number
of figures of the same value, from unity, either taken indi-
vidually, or as a whole number, and consequently the circum—
ference of the circle may be expressed, or carried to any
degree of accuracy required.

But the method of obtaining the circumference by this
means, being found exceedingly laborious, other methods,
by a series of fractions, have been invented, so as not only
to be much more easy in the calculation, but also to show
how the terms may be continued at pleasure, by inspectior

 

 

i
t
l

 

 

 

 

 

 

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163

CIR

 

only. Dr. Wallis was the first who expressed the area of
a circle, in terms of the diameter, by an infinite series, and
showed that, if the square of the diameter was 1, the area
would be

 

3x3x5x5x7x7 9 25 49
,&c.or-,X—- X —-,&c.
2X4X4X6x6x8 8 24 48

Other series were also found by Lord Brounker, Sir Isaac
Newton, and Dr. Gregory. The most convenient forms of
expressing the circumference, are shown in the following
statement, where 0 represents the circumference, the diameter
being unity :

l l l l l

 

 

4 l I + + 8:
c‘ x(l—§+3_7 9—11 1315’“)
~/12 x I -——l 1 + l 8:
= _ __ —— C.
c (1 331+ 5.32 7.3' 9.3" )
8 1 1 1 1 1
c: x —_ _. __ __ ,
1.1.3 + 1.3.5 3.5.7 5.7.9. 7.9.11’ )
2 1 1 1.3 1.3.5
c:8x(—————-—————- ———,&c. )
3 5 4.7 4.6.9 4.6.8.11
2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1.3 x 1
”=4‘/ x( x 8—2 x542"x 7‘4.6.23 9
1.3.5 1
—- x -—’&c. )
4.6.8.2‘ 11
x 1 1 1 1.3 x1 1.3.5
”=4X @- 2 3,-2.4 3 2.4.6 7 2.4.6.8
1
X g kc )

One of the most useful properties of a circle is that when
two straight lines, or chords, out each other, the rectangle
of the segments of the one line is equal to the rectangle of the
segments of the other line. This property may be very con-
veniently applied to finding the centre of the segment of a
circle, or the length of the radius, the chord and the versed
sine of the arc being given. The rule is as follows : Divide
the square of the half chord by the versed sine, add the versed
sine to the quotient, and half the sum is the radius of the
circle.

The diameter of a circle being given, to find the circum-
ference: say, As 7 is to 22, so is the diameter to the cir-
cumference nearly. This rule will be sufficiently accurate
for the most practical purposes; but if greater accuracy be
required, multiply the given diameter by 3.1416, and the
product will be the circumference, or very near. When
the circumference is given to find the diameter, divide the
circumference by 3.1416, and the quotient will be the dia-
meter. Or, say, As 22 is to 7, so is the circumference to the
diameter.

To find the length of an arc, the radius and number of
degrees being given; say, As 180, the number of degrees in
a semi-circle, is to the number of degrees in the are, so is
3.1416 times the radius to the length of the arc. When the
chord of the arc, and the chord of half the are are given ;—
Subtract the chord of the are from eight times the chord of
half the arc, and divide the remainder by 3, which will give
the length nearly. When the chord and versed-sine are
known ;——Firstly, find the diameter, from which subtract the
versed-sine multiplied by .82, and divide the remainder by 23—
of the versed-sine; add 1 to this quotient, and multiply by
the chord, which will give the length of the arc.

 

 

The area of a circle, whose diameter is unity, has been
found to be .7854 nearly; and since the area of a circle is as
the square of its diameter, the areas of all circles will there-
fore be ascertained by the following rule: Multiply the square
of the diameter by .7854, and the product will be the area ot
the circle.

But it may sometimes appear, that the circumference only
can be ascertained, the diameter being inaccessible: in this
case, also, the areas of circles are as the squares of their cir-
cumferences. It has been found, that when the circumference
of a circle is unity, the area of the circle is .07958. There-
fore the rule may be thus: Multiply the square of the cir-
cumference by .07958, and the product will be the area of the
circle nearly.

Though either the diameter or the circumference is suffi-
cient to find the area of the circle, yet, if the dimension of
each can be easily ascertained, the operation of finding the area
is much shorter. This may be done by multiplying the radius
into the semi-circumference; the product will be the area.

By this rule, the standard area, when the diameter or the
circumference is unity, as in the two preceding rules, will be
easily ascertained, by halving the ratio of the diameter 1 to
the circumference 3.1416: for,

2)3.1416

1.5708 half the circumference.
.5 half the diameter, or the radius.

.78540 the area of the circle by the last

rule, when the diameter is unity.

Again, when the circumference is unity, the diameter will
be found to be .31830 nearly.

Then, .31830 —:— 2 = .15915 the semi - circumference,
and l. -+- 2 : .5 the radius.

Therefore .15915 x .5 = .079575 or .07958 nearly.

To find the area of a sector, when the number of degrees
in the are are known; say, As 360, the number of degrees in
the whole circle, is to the number of degrees in the arc of the
sector, so is the area of the circle to the area of the sector.
When the radius, and the whole or half the length of the arc
are given; multiply the diameter by the arc of the sector, and
divide the product by 4; or, multiply the radius by half the
length of the arc; in either case, the result will be the area
of the sector.

To find the area of a segment. Having found the area of
the sector, subtract from it the area of the triangle, when the
segment is less than a semi-circle, and add, when greater, or;
Divide the cube of the versed-sine by twice the chord, and
add the quotient to two-thirds of the product of the chord
and versed-sine.

As we must necessarily frequently recur to the subject
of this article hereafter, we think it convenient to refer the
reader for further information thereon to GEOMETRY, PER-
SPECTIVE, Sac.

CIRCULAR ROOFS, are those roofs whose horizontal sections
are circular. '

CIRCULAR WINDING STAIRS, are such as have a cylindrical
case, or walled enclosure, with the planes of the risers of the
steps tending to the axis of the cylinder.

CIRCULAR WORK, a term applied to all work with cylin-
drical surfaces.

CIRCULAR- CIRCULAR, or CYLINDRO-CYLINDRIC WORK,
whatever work is formed by the intersection of two cylinders,
whose axes are not in the same direction. The line formed
by the intersection of the surfaces, is called by mathema-
ticians, a line qf doublc curvature.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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164

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CIRCUMFERENCE, the curve-line by which the area
of a circle is bounded.

CIRCUMFERENTOR, (Latin, circumferre), an instru-
ment used by surveyors in taking angles; it consists of
a brass circle and index, in one piece, commonly about
seven inches in diameter, an index about fourteen inches
long, and an inch and a half broad. On the circle is a
card, or compass, divided into 360 degrees; the meridian
line of which answers to the middle of the breadth of the
index. There is also soldered on the circumference a brass
ring, on which screws another ring with a flat glass in it, so
as to form a kind of box for the needle, suspended on a pivot
in the centre of the circle. There are also two sights to
screw on, and slide up and down the index, as also a ball and
socket screwed on the under side of the circle, to receive the
head of the tripod or stand.

CIRCUMSCRIBE, to draw a figure round another; the
one being rectilinear, and the other either rectilinear or
circular, with the sides of one touchingall the angles of the
other.

CIRCUMVALLATION, a round enclosure of trenches,
or fortifications.

This word, from the Latin vallo, or vallum, denotes pro-
perly the wall, or rampart thrown up, but as the rampart
is formed by entrenching, and the trench makes a part of the
fortification, the word is applied to both.

CIRCUMVOLUTION, (from the Latin, circumvolutus)
the act of rolling round. In architecture, this term is applied
to the spirals of the Ionic capital; every turn of which is
called a circumvolution. In the most ancient examples of the
Ionic order, the volute has three circumvolutions, or revo-
lutions, as they are otherwise called; but that of the temple
of Minerva Polias, at Priene, has four. See VOLUTE, SPIRAL,
and IONIC ORDER.

CIRCUS, in antiquity, a large enclosed space, adapted for
chariot-races, an amusement to which the Romans were
passionately attached. The name Circus does not convey an
exact idea of the form of this building, which both in its
outline and its use resembled the Greek stadium.

There were many circi in Rome, of which the Circus
Maximus, and the Circus Agonalis, were perhaps the largest.
The former may still be distinctly traced; the latter retains
its external form only in the Piazza Navona of Rome. This
species of edifice appears to have been very early introduced
among the Romans, and, like many of the first public edifices,
was of a temporary character, and constructed of wood.

The first permanent circus, at Rome, was said to have been
built by Tarquinius Priscus, and was situated in a valley
between the Palatine and Aventine hills. On this site was
afterwards erected the Circus Maximus, which was enlarged
by Julius Caesar, and rebuilt and richly ornamented by
Augustus. In the time of Nero it was burnt down; Trajan
repaired it, and increased its dimensions so much, as to con-
tain the whole Roman people. The exterior of the circus,
except at the carcerw, consisted of two stories, adorned with
columns, and finished with a terrace. The ground-floor was
occupied by merchants, except on the days appointed for the
games. Augustus brought an obelisk from Egypt 126 feet
high, and placed it in this circus. Constantius also erected in
it the obelisk now called the Lateran, which is the largest of
all the Roman obelisks.

The Flaminian circus was of considerable magnitude. Its
only remains are ruins beneath the present pavement of the
city. There are several other circi, the ruins of which may
be traced; but that which demands our attention most, is the
circus of Caracalla, as very considerable traces of its ancient
form are yet to be seen.

 

.Several of the circi in Rome, were exteriorly surrounded
with magnificent porticos, except on the side where the
carcerae were placed. Others were simply enclosed with
a wall, pierced with doors and windows, as in the circus of
Caracalla. The lower part of the circumference of the circus,
beneath the seats, together with the porticos, formed long
galleries of arcades, or fornices ; serving in part for an access
to the staircases leading to the seats, and in part for the shops
of various traders. The staircases of different circi were ,
variously distributed, according to the judgment of the archi-
tect. The principal staircases led to a number of little doors
in the podium, which was a long open platform, or passage,
encompassing the edifice at an elevation of some feet from the
area of the circus. The persons of the imperial family, the I
principal magistrates, and the pontifl's, only were admitted
into the podium. Behind the podium there was a little wall
with a precinctum, in which small doors were distributed.
The seats rose one above another, their whole height, in the
manner of steps, and were supported on the inclined vault of
the gallery or portico beneath them, and ascended from the
podium to the top of the external wall. '

The great circi, as well as the theatres and amphitheatres,
were divided into several ranges of seats, for the purpose of
placing the spectators according to their condition. The seats
began from the wall at the back of the podium, and after
setting off a sufficient number for persons of the first rank,
the staircase of seats was interrupted by the omission of two
or three, which formed an ambulatory, or via, similar to the
podium, at every certain number of seats. Separate staircases
led to each via, through doors in the precinctum ; these aper-
tures were called vomitoria. As the spectators entered by
these passages at the top of the ranges of seats, they would
have to descend to occupy the first rows of each moeniana,
and since the seats themselves were too high to serve as steps,
staircases, called scalares, formed by cutting down a seat into
two steps, were provided. The scalares were placed opposite
the vomitoria, beginning from the via, and descending to the ‘
lower seat of each range; by this means the ranges were
divided into a number of compartments, called cunei, as in the
theatres and amphitheatres; in the latter they obtained this
name from their radial direction, and though the sides of the
circus were straight, and the compartments consequently of
a rectangular form, they were called cunei, from usage.

Over the seats was a portico, or covered gallery, for the
accommodation of the lower class of people. The place for
the emperor was called pulvinar, the situation of which is
not known: it is supposed to have been a magnificent logia.
To render the seats more comfortable, they were covered
with wood.

The extremity of the circus, opposite to the semicircular
end, was called the oppidum, and consisted of a series of thir-
teen arcades. The centre arch, of the same height, but wider
than the rest, served as an entrance to the circus. At each
extremity of the oppidum, was a tower, which surmounted
every other part of the edifice. This combination of arches
and towers, seen at a distance, gave the idea of a castle, whence
was derived the name of oppidum. To what purpose these
towers were appropriated, is not known. The twelve remain-
ing arcades were the carcerze. whence the chariot-race began.
These carcerte were placed six on each side of the entrance,
which was intended for the use of the processions, and are so
disposed, by the inclination of the chord-line of the segment
on which they may be said to be set off, that the starting of
the twelve chariots was equalized. The divisions of the
arcades within, on the front, were ornamented with Hermes
supporting a cornice, in the manner of Caryatides : the _
carceras were closed with grated doors, to the height of the L.

 

 

 

 

 

 

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018

 

springing of the arch, and the semicircular opening above
was filled with a marble lattice. Two of these lattices, very
elegantly ornamented, are at present to be found in the court
of the palace Mattei, which is founded upon a part of the
F laminian Circus. The top of the carcerae formed a terrace,
upon which was placed the tribune of the consul.

The spina, as being dedicated to the gods, was the most
sacred place in the circus. It consisted of a platform, nearly
two-thirds of the length of the circus, and, running down the
middle of the arena, divided itself nearly into two equal
parts, resembling the spine of a fish, whence it took its name.
At the extremities of the spina were placed the metae, or
goals, which consisted of three cones placed in a triangle. On
the summits of these cones was placed a large egg, in memo-
rial of the eggs of Castor and Pollux. The metae rested
upon the vault of a semicircular temple or chapel, a little
wider than the spina. The circular part of these little chapels
was at the first goal, turned towards the triumphal gate, and
their entrances were in passages between them and the spina.
The long extent of the spina was ornamented with columns,
statues, and altars. It is remarkable that the spina was not
situated in the middle of the arena, nor parallel to the sides
of the circus, but in an inclined direction, so that the course
was wider on the right side of the circus, where it began,
than on the left, and diminished gradually all the way. The
reason seems to be this, that the chariots, starting all toge-
ther, required more room in the first course, than when they
came in separately.

In several of the circi, the arena was surrounded at the
foot of the podium with a canal, called euripus, which was
10 feet wide, and probably of the same depth, for the defence
Jf the spectators, in cases where the podium was not suffi-
ciently elevated: it does not appear, however, to have been
absolutely necessary, since Nero had that of the Circus
Maximus covered over, in order to enlarge its area; neither
is there any euripus in the circus of Caracalla.

The following description of the games exhibited in the
circus may be interesting. These games, according to tra-
dition, were instituted by Romulus, under the name of Con-
sulia, in honour of the god Consus (Neptune) They were
exhibited on various occasions, and for various purposes,
sometimes by the magistrates, sometimes by private citizens.
The games were opened by a grand procession from the
capital to the circus, in which the images of the gods were
borne in carriages, followed by dancers, musicians, combatants,
and others; and, last of all, by the priests, to perform the
sacred rites. The exhibition consisted chiefly of chariot and
horse races ; the charioteers were divided into four classes,
distinguished by the colours of their dresses. The order in
which the chariots stood was determined by lot; and the
signal for starting was given by dropping a cloth. The
chariot which first ran seven times round the course, was
victorious, and the driver, after being proclaimed by the
herald, was crowned by a palmvwreath, and received a sum
of money. Besides these races, were contests in running,
leaping, boxing, wrestling, and throwing the discus. Wrestlers
were anointed with ointment by slaves; boxers used gloves
strengthened with lead or iron, to give force to their blows ;
the combatants were almost entirely naked, and all underwent
a preparatory training and dieting—sometimes sea-fights
(naumachia) were represented, and Julius Caesar revived
the exhibition of mock-fights by young noblemen on horse-
back.

The most attractive of these public entertainments, how-
ever, were the combats of wild beasts, either with one
another, or with men. Great expense was incurred to
provide the beasts for this exhibition, and they were collected

2 u

 

for the purpose from the most remote parts of the empire.
The men engaged in such contests, were either forced to
the combat as a punishment, or induced to enter it by sums
of money. The beasts were kept in inclosures (vivaria)
till the time appointed for the show. So passionately fond
were the people of these games, that the expression Panem
et Circenses, ‘Bread and the Circensian Games,’ was com-
monly used to signify the two prime necessaries of life to the
Roman populace. The splendour of these exhibitions increased
in the latter days of the republic, and the number of rare
wild animals that were exhibited but to be destroyed, is
almost incredible. It is said, that on one occasion, Pompey
exhibited five hundred lions, which were all despatched in
five days.

CISOID, or CISSOID, in geometry, a curve line of the
second order, invented by Diocles, an ancient Greek geome-
trician, for the purpose of finding two mean proportionals
between two given lines, of such property, as that if on the
extremity, B, of the diameter, A B, of the circle, A OB, the
indefinite perpendicular, C B D, be erected, and if from this,
several lines be drawn to the other extremity, A, to cut the
circle in I, 0, N, and if upon these lines be set the correspond-
ing equal distances, viz. H M:A I, F 0 2A 0, C L :A N, &c.,
then the curve line drawn through all the points, M, 0, L, is
the cisoid. Other methods of constructing this curve may
be seen in Newton’s Universal Arithmetic, and Emerson on
Curve Lines. ‘

CISTERN, an artificial reservoir or receptacle for holding
water, beer, or other liquor, as in domestic uses, breweries,
and distilleries.

Cisterns of earth must be lined with good cement, to
make them retain the water, and the bottoms should be
covered with sand to keep it sweet.

Water for the use of a house, may be preserved in the
cellar, where a cistern or cisterns may be constructed in the
following manner: first lay a good bed of sound well-tempered
clay, for a bottom, on which place a flooring of bricks, or
impervious stones, cemented with plaster-of-paris, or terms-
mortar. The sides should then be built up, leaving a space
between them and the walls of the house, which is afterwards
to be filled up with clay, well rammed down ; this will keep
the water from oozing, and effectually preserve the founda-
tion of the house. As a substitute for plaster—of-paris, or
terms-mortar, a composition of slacked lime sifted, linseed
oil and tow or cotton, will be found very serviceable.
A cistern of this kind, viz. of clay lined with bricks, will
answer in any shady place, as well as in a cellar, provided
it be kept covered. And though the cistern be not always
full of water, the clay will not lose its requisite degree of
moisture.

When a cistern is to be made above ground, it may be
constructed of planks, plain or straight jointed, put together
with white lead, and pinned to bearers and uprights. If the
cistern be large, suppose 10 feet in altitude, and 20 feet
square, the planks may be 2g-inch yellow deals, the joists
and uprights may be 4 inches thick, and 6 inches deep, placed
about 2 feet 6 inches distant from each other. There should
be two pins at each intersection of a board and upright, or
bearer; every pin may be three-fourths of an inch thick, and
wedged again with a small pin at the narrow end, to prevent
the possibility of its drawing: the pins should all have a
draught, to bring the joists as close as possible. This cistern,
placed upon a firm well-tempered bed of clay, should be
surrounded with a stone or brick wall, at 8 or 12 inches
distance, and the cavity filled in with clay, as above described.
This will retain the water, and answer extremely well for
the supply of a city or village.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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166

CLA

 

If the cistern be to be raised on high, where walls cannot
be constructed around, it may be made of timber, in the
foregoing manner, and lined with lead: but as this lining
tends to contaminate the water, the casing of the exterior with
stone or brick, with puddle between it and the wooden
cistern, should be adopted when practicable.

A cistern may be constructed for watering cattle, by exca-
vating the ground where there is a descent, and covering the
bottom and sides with two coats of tough clay, each coat about
six inches thick, well rammed; the bottom being covered
with flag-stones, the clay will remain moist, and free from
cracks, though not covered with water. But this is trouble-
some; for, should the clay happen to crack in any part, it
would be necessary to go over the work again.

In a chalky soil, 3. cistern may be formed by digging
a hole, and covering the bottom smoothly with chalk rubbish,
which, when wetted by the rain, should be rammed well.
Afterwards cattle may be turned in to tread it tilllquite firm,
and then it will be impervious to the water.

CITADEL (from the French, citadelle, a diminutive of
the Italian, citta) a small city.

CITADEL, is also a small fortification, consisting of four,
five, or six sides, with bastions, by which it is distinguished
from a castle, and usually joined to towns, and sometimes
erected on commanding eminences within them.

Citadels may be either square, rectangular, pentagonal,
hexagonal, or, indeed, of any figure ; but the pentagonal is
most commonly adopted. The hexagonal is generally con-
sidered as too large, and requiring too great an expenditure
for the advantages to be derived from it; and the quadrangular
is incapable of making a sufficient defence. Citadels are also
sometimes made in the form of a star fort.

The exterior sides of the citadel, when its plan is regular,
are generally, each about 150 toises, or fathoms; but this
extension may be varied according to circumstances.

\Vhen the citadel is erected on a hill, or eminence, within
the fortifications of the place, it is well calculated to keep
the inhabitants in awe, if the garrison be sufficiently provided;
but it is of little use against an enemy, when once in posses-
sion of the town itself.

The citadel will require a stronger fortification than the
town, to prevent its being attacked first by the enemy, who,
getting possession of it, will soon become masters of the town.
A citadel has, for the most part, two gates, the one for com-
municating with the town, and the other with the country;
the gate communicating with the town, is used in case of an
insurrection or sedition, or after the town has capitulated,
for the garrison to retire into the citadel; the other gate,
which communicates with the country, is for receiving
assistance and succours when placed under extremities.
The citadel generally takes up two sides of the fortification
of the parts which adjoin to it, and should be so constructed,
that the ditch of the place may be defended as directly as
possible, either by the faces of its bastions, or by ravelins,
that the enemy may have no greater advantage in attacking
in one place than they would have in another. It may be
farther observed, that in an extensive fortified city, a citadel
may be formed by uniting two adjoining bastions, by a good
retrenchment, with flanking defences: the expense of making
such is very trifling, compared with that of adding another
fortification to the place.

CIVIC CROWN, in Roman antiquity, a garland of oak-
leaves and acorns, or ground oak, given as a reward to such
as had saved a citizen‘s life in battle.

CIVIL ARCHITECTURE, that which embraces the
erection of edifices destined for civil purposes; the term is
used in contradistinction to military and naval architecture.

 

 

CLAIR-OBSCURE, or CHIARO-OSCURO (from the Italian
citiaro, light, and oscuro, dark) the proper distribution of
light and shade in a picture, both with respect to the eye,
and. the effect of the whole composition. The term is also
used for a design wherein only two colours are used, most
usually black and white.

CLAMP, a small piece of wood, fixed to the ends of a
board, to prevent it from warping, the fibres of the clamp
being transverse to those of the board. The manner of
clamping a board, is either by grooving the edges of the
clamp, and tonguing the ends of the board into it with brads
and glue, or by grooving the end of the board, and tonguing
the edge of the clamp. Sometimes the end of the clamp is
mitred to the side of the board, for the sake of neater work-
manship. In the best clamping, the clamp is fixed to the
board with a mortise and tenon.

The flaps of shutters, small doors, lids, and kitchen-tables,
which consist only of boards glued together, are most
frequently clamped.

CLAMP, in brick-making, a pile of bricks built upon a
rectangular base, for the purpose of burning them.

Clamps are built of unbaked bricks, after the manner of
a kiln, with a vacuity between the breadths of the bricks,
for the fire to play through; but, instead of arching, as in
kilns, the fines are gathered in, by making the layers project
one over another. The place for the fuel is carried up
straight on both sides, till about three feet high; it is then
nearly filled with wood, which is covered with a stratum of
small sea—coal, or breeze, after which the fine is overspanned.
The sea-coal is also strewed between every row of bricks,
and the top of the clamp covered with a thick layer of it.
The wood is then kindled, and the fire is thence communicated
to the coals. \Vhen the fuel is exhausted, the brick-makens
conclude that the bricks are sufficiently burned.

The operation of burning bricks, is attended with con-
siderable difficulty, and requires workmen of experience, to
maintain an equal degree of heat throughout the mass. If the
heat be too low, the bricks will be weak and crumbly, and
if too strong, they will vitrify and run together. The
operation is much better performed in kilns, than in clamps ;
as in the former, the fire can be kept up, and regulated at
discretion; while in clamps, as the whole of the fuel must
be put in at once, the manufacturer is tempted to use too
little, and the outside bricks are consequently under-burnt.

These are called samel-bricks, which are sold at an inferior -

price. See BRICK.

CLAMP NAILS. See NAILS. -

CLAMPING, in joinery, the act of securing a board with
clamps. See CLAMP.

CLASP NAILS. See NAILS.

CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE, such as was practised
by the Greeks and Romans.

CLATHRI, in Roman antiquity, bars of iron, or wood,
used for securing doors and windows.

CLAY, in common language, any earth which possesses
sufficient ductility to admit of being kneaded with water.

Common clays may be divided, with regard to their utility,
into three classes, viz. unctuous, meagre, and calcareous.

The unctuous contains, in general, more alumine than the
meagre, and the Silicious ingredient is in finer grains. When
burnt, it adheres strongly to the tongue, but its texture is
not visibly porous. “'heu charged with little or no oxide
of iron, it burns to a very good white colour, and is very
infusible ; it is therefore employed in the manufacture of
Statfordshire ware. \Vhen it contains oxide of iron, or pyrites,
sufficient to colour it when baked, it becomes more fusible, and
can only be employed in the coarser kinds of pottery.

 

 

 

 

 

 

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16

7 CLO

 

Meagre clay does not take a polish with the nail, when
dry, by rubbing it; feels gritty between the teeth ; contains
sand in visible grains; and, when burnt without additions,
has a coarse granular texture. It is employed in the manu-
facture of bricks and tiles.

Calcareous clay efl'ervesces with acids, is unctuous to the
touch, and always contains iron enough to give it a red
colour when baked. Being much more fusible than any of
the preceding, it is only employed in brick-making; and,
by ajudicious burning, may be made to assume a semi-Vitreous
texture. Bricks thus made are very durable.

CLAYING, the operation of spreading two or three coats
of clay, in order to keep water within a vessel, or to pre-
vent its transmission to some place or apartment where it
would be injurious. This operation is also called paddling.
Claying is necessary in the construction of canals, cisterns,
vaults, 8m.

CLEAM, a word used in some countries, to signify to
stick, or glue.

CLEAR, in building, the distance between any two bodies
when no other intervenes; or between the nearest surfaces
of two bodies; as, binding joists may be placed five feet
clear of each other, or apart.

CLEAR-STORY, the upper story of a church rising clear
above the adjoining parts of the edifice, and containing a
range of windows, thereby affording an increase of light to
the body of the building; some indeed derive the term from
the French, clair, light, from that circumstance ; while others
consider the term to have been applied from this story of the
building being clear of joists, rafters, or flooring: the deri-
vation, however, implied at the commencement of this article,
seems to be the most reasonable. In some cases, this story
is made of great importance, pierced with windows of greater
' size than those below, in the body of the edifice, as at Exeter
and other cathedrals, Henry VII.th’s chapel, Westminster,
and some of the larger churches ; in others the windows are
of very small dimensions, consisting merely of trefoils,
quatrefoils, or small arched foliated apertures. Very small
churches seldom have clear-stories, the roof being carried
over the body and aisles in a single span. There is no clear-
story to the choir of Bristol cathedral.

CLEAVING, the act of severing one part of a piece of
wood from another, in the direction of the fibres, either by
pressure, or by the percussion of a wedge-formed instrument.

CLEE' ‘A, an ancient Greek architect and sculptor, who
built the palmstra, or large court, near Olympus, in which
the horse and chariot races were performed at the celebrated
Olympic games. It was magnificently decorated with por-
ticos and other ornaments; and the author was so vain of
his performance, that he introduced the following inscription
under one of his statues :—“Cleeta, the son of Aristocles,
who invented the palaestra of Olympus, did this.” See
PALESTRA.

CLEOPATRA’S NEEDLES, in Egyptian antiquity,
two obelisks towards the eastern part of the palace of Alex-
andria, constructed of Thebaic stone, and covered with hiero-
glyphics; one has been thrown down, broken, and lies buried
in the sand: the other stands on a pedestal. The dimensions
of the two are pretty nearly the same ; the whole height of
the erect one, including the pedestal and three steps, is about
seventy-nine feet. When the French examined the base of
this obelisk, the accumulation of earth around it was about
sixteen feet deep. These two obelisks formed the entrance
to the temple or palace of Caesar, as it is called, though pro-
bably they were moved from some of the ancient cities of
Egypt by the Ptolemys.

CLIN CHIN G, when a nail is driven to the head through

 

a piece of wood or board, of less thickness than the length
of the nail, the driving of the point of the nail backwards,
flat into the wood, while a hammer is pressed against its
head, is called clinching.

CLINKERS, bricks impregnated with a considerable
quantity of nitre or saltpetre, and placed next to the fire in
the clamp, or kiln, that they may be more thoroughly burnt.

CLOACJE, large arched drains, formed under the streets
of some ancient Roman cities. The most remarkable were
the cloacze of Rome, large portions of which still remain in
excellent repair. These cloacze extended under the whole
city, and were divided into numerous branches: the arches,
which supported the streets and buildings, were so high and
broad, that a waggon loaded with hay might pass under, or
vessels might sail in them. At proper distances, in the
streets, there were openings, for the admission of dirty
water, 8w. These branches ran in the low parts between
the hills, and fell into one large arched drain, constructed
of solid blocks of stone, called the Cloaca Maxima, said to
have been built by Tarquinius Superbus, and repaired
in later times by Cato the Censor, and his colleague in
office. The Cloaca Maxima is fifteen feet wide, and thirty
high, with three arches in contact one within another; in
some parts there were raised paths along the sides of the
cloaca; and in the walls were stone brackets to support
the ends of the waste pipes of the fountains. In the year
1742, a part of the Cloaca Maxima was discovered in the
Forum, at the depth of thirty feet from the surface. See
SEWER.

CLOAK—PIN S AND RAIL, a piece of wood attached to
a wall, furnished with projecting pegs, on which to hang
hats, great-coats, 81c; the pegs are called cloak-pins, and
the board into which they are fixed, and which is fastened
to the wall, is called the rail.

CLOCHARIUM, CLOCHIER (French, clocher,) a building,
more usually a tower, in which the clock and bells were
contained.

CLOGHEAD, a name applied to the curious round towers
of Ireland. See TOWER.

CLOISTER, (Latin, clausum, enclosed, shut in ;) a covered
range of building attached to a monastic or collegiate estab-
lishment, forming a passage of communication between the
various buildings, more especially between the church and
chapter-house. Cloisters were employed as places of medi-
tation and recreation by the inmates of the establishment;
and sometimes of retirement and study, for which purpose
we occasionally find them arranged with cells on one side, as
at Gloucester Cathedral, and also at Durham, where such cells
were termed carrols: they appearto have been used likewise for
places of sepulture. Cloisters are invariably found contiguous
to the church, ranged round three or four sides of a quad-
rangular area, having on the outer side a series of windows
with piers and columns looking into the quadrangle, and in
the inner side, which was in other respects plain, a number
of doorways communicating with the surrounding buildings,
the chapter-house, refectory, schools, and such like. The
windows in our English cloisters were glazed, and the whole
length of the ambulatories arched over with a vaulted ceiling ;
in some cases, a stone seat or bench is carried round the
wall opposite the windows. Attached to the Cloister is
usually a lavatory or conduit, at which the monks washed
previous to entering the refectory; the remains of one such
are to be seen in the centre of the quadrangle at Durham,
as also at Wells; lavatories also exist in the cloisters of Nor-
wich, Gloucester, and Worcester. See LAVATORY.

In England cloisters seem to have been appended to all
cathedrals, and to the majority of collegiate and monastic

 

 

 

 

 

 

we:

 

 

 

 

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16S

CLO

 

establishments, in short, to all the larger religious houses.
Frequent examples are also to be found on the continent,
in Italy, France, and Germany, and in some cases of great
magnitude; they are in the main similar to those in England,
though of different styles, and therefore varying in detail;
one difference consists in the windows being unglazed, on
account, no doubt, of the difference of climate; in some
instances are found specimens of painting in fresco on
the walls.

Of the continental cloisters, Mr. Hope says, “Those of
the Latin church are all of them in the Lombard style;
some, such as those of San Lorenzo and Santa Sabina at
Rome, and of San Stephano at Bologna, are small and rude,
and more like the courts of a mean habitation; others, as
those of San Giovanni Laterano at Rome, and those of San
Zeno at Verona, are spacious, and formed of columns of the
most fantastical shapes; some coupled, twisted, and with
spiral flutes; and glittering—those at Rome with white marble
inlaid with porphyry, with serpentine and with gilt enamel;
and those at Verona with the gold-coloured marble of the
Euganean mountains. The cloisters of the cathedral church
of Zurich, and of the monastery of Subiaco, in the papal
states, are amongst the most elegant of continental examples.
The latter .was erected in 1235, and that of San Zeno, at
Verona, in 1123.”

The following account of the Campo-Santo at Pisa, one
of the most famous cloisters in Europe, is given by Britton:
——-“ Its form is an oblong square, or irregular parallelogram,
measuring 430 and 415 feet in its longest extent, by 136
and 139 feet at its ends. The width of each walk is about
32 feet. It was commenced in 1278 by Giovanni de Pisa,
and a chapel, adjoining its east end, was completed in 1464.
Between the covered walk and the enclosed area, is a series
of sixty-two windows, having semi-circular arches, and
adorned with varied tracery, supported by tall light columns
which divide each space into four lights. Some of these
were formerly glazed, but the others were left open. The
floor is paved with white marble having bands of blue,
and the inner roof is formed of timber. On the walls are
numerous old paintings of great interest, being some of the
first productions on the revival of that art at the beginning
of the fourteenth century. There is also a fine collection of
marble sarcophagi, fragments of sculpture, 8Lc.”

Amongst many other of the more noted cloisters of the
continent, may be mentioned that belonging to the monastery
of Batalha in Portugal. It is extensive and highly enriched,
the length of each ambulatory being 182 feet, and the
width 171; feet; in the centre of the enclosed quadrangle
is a cistern, and in one of its angles a large fountain.

Attached to the collegiate chapel of St. Stephen, VVest-
minster, are the remains of one of the most highly enriched
and beautiful cloisters in England, which was erected by
Dean Chambers in the time of King Henry the Eighth.
It is the only example remaining of a Cloister of two stories;
it has two oratories, or chantry-chapels, projecting into the
quadrangle, and approached respectively from the upper and
lower western avenues. The roof is vaulted, covered with
fan-traccry, and adorned with finely-sculptured bosses and
shields. The dimensions are added to the following table.

The areas at the entrance of some continental churches
partake of the nature of cloisters, but are more particularly
styled atria. See ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE.

The annexed is a table giving the dimensions and some
other information relative to the cloisters attached to our
English cathedrals. The particulars are collected from
Britton’s woxks, and other similar sources.

 

List of Cloisters of the English Cathedrals.

Length.
Feet.
‘ CANTERBURY ......... .. ...... . 132
110
CHESTER .. .. {108 Width Heightto
198 S. of avenue. vaulting.
Cnrcnrsraa ............. i 121 E. Feet Feet
bDURHAM ..................... 145 . . . .
“GLOUCESTER. ............. 147 . . - . {ram}:
dHmmronn .................... . if?
eLINCOLN £253 g’azzdg'} . 13
from 175
r
NORWICH ................... .. to 177 } . . . 143- .
SSALlsnunY ..................... 181:2- . . . 18 . . 20}
162 E. and W
h
WELLS ........................ 158 S. '}. . 13
lWORCESTER .................. 33:? N &S. . 16 . . 17
k0L1) ST. PAUL, LONDON... 91 . . . . 10
S. STEPHEN’S CHAPEL, 89 E. and W. 12 14lower
WESTMINSTER. ......... } { 75 N. and S. d ' ¢ 13 upper
Renanxs.

' On north side of cathedral.

b Date about 1400 ; had octagonal lavatory in centre of area. On south
side of cathedral.

0 Completed 1390; has recesses or carols 1n the south walk, and in the
north a spacious lav atoxy , the roof cov e1 ed with elabmate fail-tracery.

d I11 ruins.

*3 IIas timber vaulting with ribs and bosses ;
dral ; date about 1300.

f Commenced in 1299, completed in 1430;
south-west angle.

E Date about 1250; situate on south side of cathedral.

h Erected between 1407 and 1465 ; on the south side of cathedral. It
has only three avenues, the fourth side being the wall of the nave; the
eastern and western sides are of two stories ; there is a. lavatory in
the area.

1 Date 1380.

k Consisted of two stories ; the chapter-house was enclosed within the
avenues. Destroyed.

on north side of cathe-

has two lavatories at the

CLOISTER-GARTH, the quadrangular area enclosed
within the four avenues of a Cloister; it was laid out as
a grass-plot, and had frequently in its centre a stone con-
duit, or reservoir of water.—The cloister-garth was used as
a place of sepulture.

CLOSE STRING, in dog-leg stairs, a staircase without
an open newel.

CLOSER, in masonry, the last stone laid in the horizontal
length of a wall, of less dimensions than any of the others
in the same row. Closers should never be admitted in good
work, nor indeed in any other, for they deprive it of unifor-
mity, and destroy the bond also: nor would they ever be
found necessary, were due attention paid to the dividing of
the stones in proper lengths. In brickwork the term is
applied to a but used in the same manner. “When the bat
is a quarter-brick, it is called a queen-closer. When a three-
quarter inserted at the angle of a stretching-course, it is
called a king-closer.

CLOSET, a small apartment, frequently made to commu-
nicate with a bed- chamber, and used as a dressing-loom.
Sometimes a closet is made for the teception of stores, and
then it is called a store closet. Ho“ e\ er unfashionable closets
may be in the rooms of huge houses, they are essential in
those of small ones.

CLOSET. See WATER-CLOSET.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CLU

 

CLOUGII, or CLOYSE, a kind of sluice for letting off
water gently, employed in the agricultural operation of
improving soils by flooding the land with muddy water, the
same with paddle, shuttle, sluice, pen-stock, &c., a contrivance
for retaining or letting out the water of a canal, pond, &c.

CLOUGH ARCHES, or PADDLE~HoLns, in the construction
of canals, crooked arches by which the water is conveyed, on
drawing up the cloughs or paddles, from the upper pond into
the chamber of the lock, when it is to be filled.

CLOUT—NAILS. See NAILS.

CLUB-CHAMBERS. As the building we are about to
describe is the first attempt to provide a superior kind of
accommodation for gentlemen who are accustomed to reside
in chambers, by the erection of an edifice especially planned
for, and adapted to the purpose; we think a notice of the
extensive and elegant institution known as the Club-chambers
in Regent Street, not inappropriate in a work devoted to
architecture.

In consequence of the scarcity of chambers for residence
in the vicinity of the Clubs and Houses of Parliament, an
association was formed for the purpose of supplying the
want. An eligible site having been procured in Regent
Street, between Pall Mall and Piccadilly, the association
engaged Mr. Decimus Burton to make designs for a new
building. These designs being approved of, contracts were
made, and the result was the present handsome and com-
modious mansion.

The elevation of this edifice is of the Italian style of
architecture; it occupies a frontage of 76 feet, and consists
of a ground-story, rusticated, and terminated by an enriched
lace-band or string-course, enriched with the Vitruvian
scroll. This story forms a basement to the upper part, con-
taining the principal story, and a second and third story,
surmounted by a bold and enriched cornice, the main charac—
teristic feature of the Italian style. Between the principal
story and the ground-floor, an entre-sol is introduced, the
windows of which are placed between the panelled pilasters
supporting the consoles of the bold projecting balconies in
the windows above. The ground-floor is approached in the
centre by a portico, projecting forward with coupled Dorie
columns on each side, and recessed back to give depth: this
opens into a grand entrance-hall, the height of the ground-
story, and entre—sol. The four upper stories are divided in
the same way as the ground-floor, except that on all the
stories above the entre—sol there is an apartment over the
entrance-hall.

The building contains 77 chambers; 27 are provided with
alcoves or recesses for the bed, and 50 without; some of the
rooms are so planned, that two or three may be formed into
one suite, if required. The basement-story—occupied as
servants’ rooms and domestic offices—is arched over with flat
brick arches, supported by iron girders. The two staircases
are of stone, all the corridors have stone floors, and every
precaution has been taken throughout the building against
the extension of fire.

The ingenuity displayed by the architect in providing for
the warming and ventilation of the building deserves a par-
ticular description—it is thus effected :—On each side of the
principal staircase, on the basement-story, is a furnace, with
an iron pipe or flue 12 inches diameter, fixed in the centre of
a vertical brick-chamber, rising through the several stories
and roof, where it is terminated by a cowl. On each story
these vertical chambers communicate with horizontal ones,
formed between the floor and ceiling of the corridors. Each
room being furnished with a ventilator near the ceiling,
opening into the horizontal chamber; when the fire is lighted
In the furnaces, it heats the iron flue, rarefies the air within

2 x.

169

 

GLU

 

the vertical chambers, and causes it to pass ofl' with consider-
able rapidity through the cowl at the top. The air within
the rooms then flowing through the ventilators and horizontal
chambers into the vertical ones, supplies the partial vacuum
created by the escape of the rarefied air, and thereby keeps up
continuous and healthy circulation.

The warming of the building is effected by the patent hot-
water apparatus of Mr. H. C. Price, erected under the super-
intendenee of Mr. Manby. The apparatus is erected on the
basement-story, on the north side of the principal staircase;
the hot-air chamber is immediately behind, the top being
nearly on a level with the ground-floor; a supply of cold air
flows through a trunk—the mouth of which is furnished with
gauze-wire to filter the air—into the vault, where it passes
upwards between the vertical iron chambers filled with hot-
water, and becomes heated, the warm air then escaping
through apertures in the top of the vault, is distributed
throughout the principal staircase and corridors. The cor-
ridors and water-closets are lighted with gas, the light being
enclosed in glazed lanterns, provided with tubes leading to
the external part of the building. On the basement—story,
a well has been sunk, by which the premises are supplied
with pure springqvater lifted to the top of the building by
means of a small steam-engine, which is also employed for
raising coals, furniture, 850., up the well-hole of the back
staircase. Every alcove or recess for the bed is provided
with hot and cold water, and pipes trapped, and commu-
nicating with the drains for a water-closet, if the tenant should
wish to have one.

We have been thus particular in describing this establish—
ment, because the very perfect arrangements made in it for
the comfort and convenience of its numerous occupants
reflect the highest credit on the architect, whose taste and
ingenuity have been so eminently displayed; and because we
would bespeak for so valuable an association the patronage
and support its liberality so fully deserves.

CLUB-HOUSE. Under this term are designated the
splendid establishments which have sprung up at the west-
end of the metropolis within the last few years. Called into
existence by the requirements of a highly refined state of
society, the clubs of London represent an assemblage of gen-
tlemen composed of all that is eminent in rank, wealth, and
talent; the élz'te of the nobility and gentry of the kingdom.

The clubs of the present day must not be confounded with
those of a past age, they are essentially institutions of modern
creation. Of the clubs of former days, the earliest described
in our popular literature date about the end of the sixteenth,
or the beginning of the seventeenth century. About that time
was established the famous club at the Mermaid Tavern in
Friday Street, amongst whose members were Shakspere,
Beaumont, Fletcher, Raleigh, Selden, Donne, and others.

Another celebrated club, founded by Jonson, held its meet-
ings at the well-known Devil Tavern. For this club Jonson
wrote the “ Leges Convivales,” which are printed among his
works. In the Spectator, Addison describes an association
of a political character, called “ The club,” or rather the Con-
federacy of the Kings. “ This grand alliance,” says he, “was
formed a little after the return of Charles II., and admitted
into it men of all qualities and professions, provided they
agreed in this surname of king, which, as they imagined,
sufficiently declared the owners of it to be altogether untainted
by republican and anti-monarchical principles.”

The great age of clubs, political, literary, and of every
other description, was the early part of the last century.
Amongst the most celebrated of these was the first Beef-
steak club, of which Mrs. Woflington, the popular actress,
was the president, being the only female member; and

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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170

CLU

 

Esteourt, the comedian, p1 omsor, wearing in that character
a small gridiron of gold hung round his neck with a green
silk ribband. Still more celebrated, perhaps, was the famous
Kit-Cat club, said to have been instituted at the time of the
trial of the seven bishops in the reign of James IL, but in its
greatest glory in that of Queen Anne.

In 1735 was established the second Beef-steak club, which
is still in existence, and which has numbered among its mem-
bers the most eminent public characters that have appeared
since its institution. This club originated with Rich, the
pantomimist, and the Earl of Peterborough, and has con-
tinued to the present day to maintain its high celebrity, as
the chosen resort of good-fellowship and conviviality.

The modern clubs are associations of gentlemen of simi-
larity of political feeling, literary or professional pursuits——
as the Reform, the Carlton, Athenaeum, United Service, &c.
These are, in no other respect, clubs, according to the ancient
English understanding of the term, except that every member
must be balloted for, or admitted by the consent of the rest.
They might perhaps be more correctly described as houses
combining the characters of restaurants and reading-rooms,
for the use of a selected number of associated persons, who
agree to make an annual payment for their support, whether
they resort to them little or much; and pay besides for what-
ever refreshment they may require, at a cost free of profit.
Originating within the present century, and concentrating
a large proportion of the men of fortune, station, and poli-
ti'cal note in the metropolis, these establishments have cer-
tainly had a striking effect upon the manners, not only of
the departments of society from which the members are
drawn, but upon society in general. They have, indeed,
given a new direction to the habits of certain classes, and the
' change has been decidedly for the better.

Although it is our province more especially to describe
the buildings in which these institutions are domiciled than
the institutions themselves, a slight account of the origin and
progress of the latter, abbreviated from an interesting sketch
in Chambers’ Edinburgh Journal, may not be uninteresting.

It appears that to the military we are indebted for the
origin of these establishments. The officers of the army,
whether in camp or quarters, have always experienced the
advantage and economy of clubbing for their provisions.
They have found that the pay of each individual, spent
separately, would scarcely procure him ordinary necessaries;
whilst, by adding it to a general fund, to be judiciously dis-
bursed by an experienced caterer, he would obtain for his
subscription not only requisites, but luxuries.

At the peace of 1815, a reduction of the army withdrew
a number of officers from the “messes” to which they had
been accustomed. Thus a great many gentlemen of com-
paratively limited means were thrown into private life, sub-
jected to all the expenses and inconveniences of hotels,
taverns, and lodging-houses. In many instances long and
continued absence from home had severed these brave men
from domestic ties; yet having always lived among a con-
genial brotherhood-society, it was essential to their happiness.
In these circumstances, the mess-system was naturally thought
of, and the late General Lord Lynedoch, with five brother-
officers, met for the purpose of devising a plan by which
a similar system might be made applicable to non-professional
life. So effectual were their deliberations, and so well-
grounded their preliminary measures, that a club \ 'as formed
during the same year, (1815), intended, in the first instance,
for military men only, but naval ofileers, as well as military,
were afterwards brought within the scope of their design,

and an association enrolled, entitled the “United Service
Club.”

 

A building fund was formed; a neat edifice,-—from the
designs of Sir Robert Smirke,——was erected at the corner of
Charles Street, St. James’s, and in the year 1819 the first
modern club was opened for the reception of its members.
Candidates for admission, however, increased so rapidly, that
a larger habitation was rendered necessary. A building, on
a grand scale, from the plans of Mr. Nash, was erected at the
east corner of the new entrance to St. James’s Park from
Pall Mall, and taken possession of in 1828, while the resi-
dence in Charles Street, vacated by the “United Service
Clu ”—now generally called the “ Senior United Service”—-—
was taken by a new association, under the title of the
“Junior United Service Club.”

The establishment of the “United Service Club” was
speedily followed by that of others, and the number of these
institutions, which is daily increasing, now amounts to above
thirty. The principal club-houses are situated in Pall Mall
and its immediate neighbourhood, and a person re—visiting
London, after an absence of several years, would be surprised
to see here clustered together a number of mansions exhibiting
every order of architecture, from the severest Doric to the
most florid Composite. The following description, subject,
of course, to modification in particular instances, will give
a tolerably correct idea of the general arrangement of a
modern club-house.

The visitor on entering one of these palace-like edifices,
finds himself in a lobby, in which are the hall-porter, who is
seated at a desk, and his assistants. The duty of these officials
is to see that none have access to the club but members, to
receive letters, &c. Close to the hall is a reception—room
for strangers wishing to see members, and beyond this a hall,
or vestibule, from which doors open on the various apart-
ments on the ground-floor. Of these there is, first a “ morn-
ing room,” which is used for reading newspapers and writing
letters. And to give some idea of the liberal scale on which
these morning-rooms are supplied, and of the profusion of
periodicals taken in by the large clubs, it may be stated,
that at the Athenaeum, in the year 1844, the sum of
£471. 23. 6d. was expended for English and foreign news-
papers and periodicals. Stationery also is supplied to an
unlimited extent.

The “ coffee-room” is furnished with rows of small tables
projecting from each side, with an avenue up the middle.
These tables are laid for breakfasts and luncheons till four
o’clock in the day, after that hour they are arranged for
dinners. For the accommodation of members who may feel
inclined to form themselves into parties to dine together,
in preference to the detached mode of dining at the small
tables of the coffee-room; a dining-room, handsomely fur-
nished, is provided on the ground-floor, in which they can do
so—these dinners are termed, in club-parlance, “house-
dinners.”

The principal apartment above stairs is the drawing-room,
in which members take their evening coffee or tea. In some
clubs a great display of luxury and expensiveness is made
in this room, and, notwithstanding that it is perhaps less
used than any room in the house, the finest taste of the
decorator and upholsterer is called into requisition to adorn
it. Near to the drawing-room is the library, fitted up with
every convenience for reading, consulting maps, &c. The
books are accumulated by donations, and by a sum set aside
from the general funds for their purchase. These libraries
are generally well supplied with books, and that. of the
Athenasum is said to contain near 30,000 volumes. Five hun-
dred pounds is annually expended by this club for increasing
its library. Near the library is, in some clubs, a card-room, but
gaming is as much as possible discouraged in these institutions.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CLU

171

CLU

 

The next story contains at least one billiard-room, some
club~houses have two; in many clubs also there is a smoking-
room: on the upper story are sleeping chambers for the ser-
vants who reside on the premises. The basement contains
the usual domestic offices; and, as may be supposed, every
detail connected with the important department of the
“ cuisine” is most perfect.

The above sketch will give the reader some idea of the
general arrangements of a club-house ; we shall now proceed
to describe more particularly a few of those splendid edifices
which have been, by some, compared to the Palazzi of
Italian cities.

The “ United Service,” though first in seniority as a club,
deserves a very brief notice on the score of architectural
beauty. It is a plain unpretending building, which may be
called Italian, because it cannot be described as being of any
other style, but it is Italian of an impoverished and enfeebled
character, exhibiting, remarks Mr. Leeds, “ incontestable
evidence of insipidity and poverty.”

The building consists of two stories, the ground-floor being
rusticated, and having windows on each side of the portico.
The upper story contains an elegant suite of rooms, having
seven lofty windows, with pediments, over which, and running
through the Whole building, is an entablature, the whole
being surmounted by a balustrade. The south front is
similar to the one described, but the north, facing Pall Mall,
has a portico the whole height of the structure, and is in
two divisions; that of the ground-floor being composed of
eight fluted Doric columns in pairs, having an entablature
with triglyphs. This is surmounted by a balustrade, over
which are eight Corinthian columns arranged in the same
order as those below, and crowned by an entablature and
pediment. The internal arrangements are exceedingly well
contrived, and furnish every convenience for the accommo-
dation of the members. There are some remarkably fine
portraits of distinguished military and naval officers, and the
apartments are furnished with great luxury and elegance.

The “Athenaeum,” is situated at the opposite angle of
Carlton Place, and is remarkable for the elaborate sculptured
has-relief frieze continued along its three sides. This club
ranks as one of the very first in the metropolis, and the
magnificent mansion belonging to its members, is worthy to
occupy a similar prominent position.

The building is from the designs of Mr. Decimus Burton,
and displays that gentleman’s usual ability and good taste.
The cast elevation has a rusticated basement with a portico,
the ends of which are filled up and perforated with windows;
the angles are finished by a square pilaster and fluted column
of the Doric order; the space between being divided by four
columns of the same order in pairs. The frieze is ornamented
with triglyphs, and the cornice surrounded by a balustrade,
the space over the centre intercolumniations being filled up
and crowned by a pedestal supporting a figure of Minerva.

Over the ground-story, and on a line with the cornice of
the portico, is a balcony running through the three elevations,
and terminating at the angles by pedestals. The principal
story is lighted by seven lofty windows with sashes, by
which there is access tO/the balcony, and which are orna-
mented with cornice and trusses; above this and continuing
through the entire building, is the beautiful frieze we have
already mentioned, the figures, in basso-relievo, being copied,
it is said, from the Elgin frieze deposited in the British
Museum. Over this is a cornice of very bold projection,
the whole being crowned by a balustrade.

Adjoining the Athenzeum, is the “ Travellers’,” of which
it is scarcely possible to speak in terms of sufficient commen-
dation. “Could there,” says a talented writer and able

 

 

critic, “be any question as to the possibility of reconciling
the seemingly antithetical qualities of richness and simplicity,
this building might be allowed to determine it, since the
design is no less remarkable for the attention bestowed upon
all its details, than for the simplicity of its composition.”
We have many others far more ambitious in decoration, yet
not one so beautifully finished up in every part, or exhibiting
so perfectly that integrity offinish which is displayed in this
work of Mr. Barry’s. For here indeed we behold the full
beauty of the Italian style purified from its defects, and
stamped by a serene kind of dignity that renders it truly
captivating.

In the treatment of his design, Mr. Barry has bestowed
equal pains on both fronts, that towards the garden being
as carefully studied as the one facing Pall Mall; and it is
well worthy not only of observation, but of imitation, that
there is more nicety of detail and greater elegance here
bestowed on parts sometimes considered of very secondary
importance, than is often expended upon a whole design.
If, again, we lift our eyes to the upper extremity of the
building, we instantly perceive what attention has been
bestowed on that also; for it is not the cornice alone, but
the cornice and roof together which constitute its decoration ;
the latter being treated as belonging to the elevation itself,
and the former giving richness and majesty to the whole
facade.

The interior of the building is arranged with great ability,
both with regard to convenience and picturesque effect, for
which latter it is not a little indebted to a small but elegant
internal court, of strictly architectural character.

The position of the entrance, which a regard to exact
symmetry would have required to be in the centre, has been
sometimes objected to, but we are of opinion that the architect
exercised a sound judgment in placing it where he has, rather
than sacrifice a portion of the interior accommodation.

The following description of this elegant structure, is
extracted from an excellent work, “ The Public Buildings
of London,” edited by Mr. W. H. Leeds :-——“ The hall, which
has a screen of two columns in antis,—behind which is the
porter’s desk,—includes the window next to the entrance-
door. Although small in itself, it does not by any means
look confined, there being a vista from it along the corridor,
which is lighted by three windows looking into the court,
and to which there is an ascent of four steps through an open
arch. The ceiling of both hall and corridor are arched; that
of the former cofiered, of the other panelled. A door to the
left, immediately after ascending the steps, leads into the
morning-room, (44 feet by 23 feet 9,) which has three win-
dows towards the street, and a fire-place at each end. From
this, a door facing the farthest window, opens into the house
dining-room, which is 27 feet by 28 feet 9 inches, and occupies
all the space to the east of the court. Beyond the principal
staircase, which is seen at the end of the corridor through
an open arch, is the coffee-room, occupying the whole extent
of the garden front. This room is divided by piers and
antae into three compartments, in each of which is a fire-place,
namely, one at each end, and another facing the windows,
in the centre division.

“ The libraries form a single apartment, divided by double
screens of Corinthian columns on a pedestal stylobate in
continuation of the dado of the room, leaving a passage
through the centre intercolumn six feet clear. Owing to
the contraction of the opening, to the depth of the screen,
and the duplication of the columns one behind another, the
perspective appearance acquires a high degree of pleasmg
complexity, and the larger or inner library is not so much
exposed to view, on first entering from the staircase. Above

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CLU l

2 CL'U

 

the entablature is a deep frieze, forming a continued subject
in has-relief. Over the libraries are billiard and smoking-
rooms, which are lighted from above in the slope of the roof
towards the court.”

The drawing-room and card-room are loftier than the
libraries, and have a deep cove with coffers between the
ceiling and the top of the cornice; The design of the drawing-
room ceiling is exceedingly tasteful, combining finished sim-
plicity with richness in a very striking manner, and all the
details exhibit proofs of the most refined taste and the most
careful and elaborate design.

The dimensions of some of the principal apartments are
as follows :—

Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In.
Coffee-room .......... .. 68 by 24 9 and 18 6 high.
Principal Staircase 45 by 16
Corridor ...... . ....... 27 by l 1
Court ..................... ‘27 by 2:) 6 Fr. In.
Drawing-room.... .. . 39 by 23 9 and 24 0 high.
Card-room 28 9 by 23 9
Libraries .............. 48 by 324 0 and 17 6 high.
Reading-room 29 9 by 19 6

“'e cannot close our notice of this elegant building, with-

out again expressing our admiration of so great an ornament
to our metropolitan architecture. The Travellers’ club-house
will bear the most critical and scrutinizing examination ; and
the more closely it is scanned, the more apparent will be its
beauty; nor is it till then that we perceive how carefully
every part is elaborated, and yet so subdued to the general
effect, that the eye never rests on particular points thrust
obtrusively forward, but embraces the perfect ensemble, in
a structure replete with chaste and refined simplicity.

Immediately adjoining the Travellers' is another magnificent
example of architectural genius—the “ Reform Club.” The
instructions issued to the competing architects, by the s irited
members of this association, when seeking a design for their
new dwelling, were,—to produce a club-house which should
surpass all others in size and magnificence; one which should
combine all the attractions of other clubs, baths, billiard-rooms,
smoking—rooms, with the ordinary features, besides the addi-
tional novelty of private chambers or dormitories. The
manner in which Mr. Barry responded to these instructions,
may be seen in the edifice we are about to describe; an
edifice on which public opinion and professional criticism
have united to bestow the highest praise; pronouncing it
unsurpassed in grandeur of design, and perfection of taste,
by any building in the metropolis. The distinguishing
characteristic of the Reform Club, is its grand and imposing
appearance; produced, not only by its greater extent and
loftiuess, but by the circumstance of its being detached from
other buildings on three of its sides. These are made to

.constitute as many facades, two of which may be beheld
together from the same point of view, producing, from their
uniformity in design, a continuous, rich architectural mass;
and thus securing a completeness and fullness of effect which
a mere facade 011 the same scale could never give.

In the Reform, as in the 'I‘ravcllers’, Mr. Barry has avoided
fine too common fault of cutting up a composition into distinct
divisions, finishing, and then commencing again; on the
contrary, the ensemble is made consistent throughout, crowned
by a magnificent cornicione, proportioned not to a part, but
to the whole; while sufficient decoration, in other respects,
is derived from essential features and members, windows,
string-courses, 820. These display themselves with a bold-
ness and eifect hardly attainable where windows are intro-
duced between straggling columns, and other like incon-
gruities olfend the judicious observer. In this building
richness Combined with simplicity is diffused throughout,

.’———— ‘v_ _._u .

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and the eye dwells with unmixed satisfaction and delight
on the harmonious result.

The entrance to the club-house from Pall Mall, is several
steps above the ground, and in the centre of the building.
On this side, the frontage presents only three floors from the
ground, though consisting of six from the basement; the
basement and mezzanine below ground, and the chambers in
the roof being unseen There are four windows on each
side of the entrance; nine windows equidistant on the first
floor, and the same number on the second. The pediments
surmounting the windows in Pall Mall, are supported by
Ionic pilasters ; and at the back, overlooking Carlton Gardens,
by Ionic pilasters rusticated. The height of the ground
and first floor is on the same level as the Travellers”.

An Italian court (34% feet by 29 feet,) is placed in the
centre of the quadrangle. Corridors, on the first and ground
floors, 9 feet wide, lighted from this court, lead to the
apartments on these floors ; but on the second-floor, the cor-
ridors leading to the lodgings are contracted to 5% feet. On
the basement, every sort of culinary oflice seems provided,
and located with singular judgment and convenience. The
number of apartments here exceeds thirty. In the mezzanine
or cntresol, are the butler’s, housekeeper’s, and still-rooms,
dressing and bath rooms, and 16 servants’ rooms. On the
ground-floor is the coffee-room, of noble proportions, having
a view into the gardens; writing—room, newspaper or reading-
reom, house dining-room, steward‘s, waiting, porter’s, and
two audience-rooms—in all nine rooms on this floor.

On the first-floor, above the coffee-room, is the drawing—
room, supported by Corinthian pillars, and so constructed,
that if required, it may be divided into two or three rooms ;
two libraries, both supported by Corinthian pillars ; two
billiard-rooms ; and Several other rooms.

On the second—floor are twenty-six chambers or lodgings,
the dimensions of each varying from 22 feet by 14 feet, to
12 feet by 10 feet.

On the attic floor there are about thirty rooms, intended
for servants. The following are the dimensions of some of
the principal apartments :—

l~‘t. Ft.
Basement ...... Kitchen ............... ‘29 by 2:2
,, Steward’s room ...... 26 by 18%
,, Butler's pantry ..... 16% by 14
., Scullery ............... :20 by 14
., Cook’s room ........ 17 by 1'.’
Ground-l’loor Cotfee-room ............ 117 by ‘28
,, Writing—room ......... 40 by 27
,. Reading—mom ......... 28% by '27
,, House dining-room... ‘29- b) 18
First—Floor . ..Drawing-room ......... 117 by :28 Ft. Ft.
,, Libraries ............... 40 by 27 and 28; by '27
,, Billiard-room ......... 2‘2 by 18 and '23 by 17%
,, Committee-room ...... 33% by 17%

In the whole building, there are upwards of 130 several
apartments, arranged with the greatest ingenuity, and with
the utmost attention to convenience, and showing that, how-
ever great may be our admiration of the beautiful exterior.
the interior is not less deserving of our approval and
commendation.

The “ Carlton” adjoins the Reform, and adds another to the
fine structures we have been describinw. The committee
of this club, after examining a number of designs submitted
in competition by various architects, none of which seem
to have met with approval, agreed to elect an architect by
the votes of the members. The ballot resulted in the election
of Mr. Sydney Smirke and Mr. G. Basevi, who had arranged
to act conjointly; but the death of the latter gentleman
preventing this being carried into effect, Mr. Smirke was
retained by the committee to complete the work.

 

 

 

 

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CLU 17

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The general design of the building is adopted from that
of the library of St. Mark, at Venice. The extent of the
frontage in Pall Mall, is 133 feet, and the height is about
70 feet. The fronts are of Caen stone ; the shafts of all the
pillars and pilasters, of polished Aberdeen granite ; and
the contrast made by the red tint of the latter, has .a novel
and pleasing effect. The decorations of the interior,
furniture, &c., are of the most tasteful and splendld descrip-
non, and the coffee—room, 90 feet by 36 feet, is an exceedingly.
handsome apartment. The whole building presents an
imposing elevation, designed wlth judgment and good taste.
The rooms are of good proportions, and arranged with every
attention to comfort and convenience; and the important
details of domestic and culinary matters, as cellars, kitchens,
larders, and servants’ rooms, have not been neglected.

The splendid building belonging to the “ Oxford and Cam-
bridge University Club,” erected from the des1gns of Sir
Robert and Mr. Sydney Smirke, adjoins the Carlton. .The
front of the University club-house extends 87 feet.in “’ldill,
and the height from the ground line to the top Is 57 feet.
An entablature, marking the separation of the ground story
from the principal floor, and projecting forward in the centre
of the building over four Corinthian columns, d1v1des the
front horizontally into two equal parts. The centre space
on the ground—floor is occupied by the portico, which projects
to the front line of the area; the entrance to the hall being
formed by the centre intercolumniation, which is wider than
the rest; the four columns stand upon pedestals, four feet
high, with base mouldings and cornice. The upper part of
the building is terminated with a delicate Corinthian entab-
lature and balustrade, breaking forward with the centre of
the building, which corresponds in width with the portico:
the front being thus vertically divided into three compart-
ments, the side ones assuming the appearance of wings,
while the effect of a centre, indicated by the projecting
portico on the ground-floor, is maintained throughout the
whole height of the building. The angles of the centre
division, on the principal story, are formed of rusticated
pilastcrs; the principal window occupying the space between
these pilasters. Similar rusticated pilasters also divide each
wing on the principal floor into three equal oblong recessed
spaces, containing windows similar to the window above
described. A balcony, projecting 3 feet, continues throughout
the whole line of front, the parapet being formed of pedestals
with intervening panels of richly designed foliage, cast in
metal in high relief, and the landing supported by elaborately
enriched consoles. The frieze of the entablature over the
ground~story is filled with convex panels, enriched with
laurel leaves, and over each column of the portico are shields
bearing the arms of the Universities. The whole of the
ornamental detail throughout, is designed to correspond in
richness of effect with the Corinthian capitals of the columns,
which have their central volutes entwined. Below the
ground-story are mezzanine and basement stories.

In the panels above the windows of the principal floor,
are has—reliefs illustrating those exalted labours of the mind,
which it is the peculiar province of the Universities to foster.
We have not space to describe these beautiful ornaments more
minutely, but they are well worthy a careful examination, and
reflect credit on the taste of the architects, and on the liberality
of their employers. The arrangements of the interior are
planned with greatjudgment, and afford every accommodation
to the members of the club; but as a great similarity ‘must
necessarily exist in all establishments devoted to similar
purposes, it is unnecessary to describe them.

 

0n the opposite side of Pall Mall. is the new building
erected for the “ Army and Navy Club,” an engraving of which, j
2 Y

with a plan of the ground-floor, is here given. The architects
are Messrs. Parnell and Smith. The following description,
principally taken from that very useful publication, “The
Builder,” gives a good idea of the structure :—

“Although the design is based on the Cornaro palace on
the grand canal at Venice, it differs materially from that
building. The palace has three stories above the basement,
Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, and shows the roof, terminating
on the modillion cornice of the upper order, as at the Reform
club; the frieze being devoid of sculpture, and having oval
openings to light an attic story. In the club-house, the
general arrangement of the ground and first floor elevation
of the palazzo has been adopted, but coupled Corinthian
columns have been substituted for the Ionic of the latter, and
the building terminates with the entablature of the order,
highly enriched with sculpture and a balustrade.

“ The entrance to the building is from George—street, by
a flight of steps leading to a recessed portico. On the left
of the entrance-hall, is a morning-room corresponding to
a coffee-room on the opposite side; there is also a reception-
room. The coffee-room is lighted from each end, and an
elliptical dome in the centre: the dome has an exterior
covering of glass, between which it is proposed to light the
room at. night by a gas device encircling the whole circum-
ference. By this arrangement, the necessity for any gas-
burners will be avoided, and a hot-air chamber provided,
which, by the aid of flues, Will afford a system of ventilation.
Between this room and the strangers’ coffee-room, lighted
and ventilated in the same manner, and communicating
with each, is placed the serving—room, connected with the
kitchen by a lift, and the butler’s serving—room: from this
last is a direct communication to the dispensing cellars, while
the room will be fitted up with ice—bins, hot and cold water,
and presses for the reception of glass: there is also a separate
ntrance from the still-room. At the extremity of the build-

.I is placed the house dining-room, which has a separate
communication with the kitchen.

“ The mezzanine floor is appropriated to the members’ bath
and dressing rooms, and the housekeeper’s department.
The first—floor is approached by a flight of steps, one branch
of which leads to the secretary’s room, and upper floor, the
latter containing billiard, card, and smoking rooms—the other
to the evening-room, library, and writing-room. The evening
or drawing-room is 76 feet by 28 feet; the library, 40 feet
by 32 feet; writing-room, 33 feet by 18 feet. There are,
besides the rooms we have mentioned, a great number of
others of the usual description in similar establishments."

It would be impossible, without occupying more space
than can be allotted to this article, already extended beyond
its due limits, to describe in detail the several handsome
mansions in which other clubs, under various designations,
have located themselves. The “ University” in Suffolk-street
—the “Union,” one of the oldest and most select of London
clubs—the “Conservative," latelyerected in St. James’s-street,
on the site of the well-known Thatched House Tavern, and
a 110st of others, are all deserving the study of the architectural
student. In some, beauties of the highest order command
his attention; in others, defects, he should mark, in order
to avoid ; in all, much may be learned as to arrangement of
apartments, and those details of convenience on which
so much of the comfort and economy of a large establish
ment depends.

In conclusion, we would observe only, that whatever may
be the faults of some of these buildings, the formation of the
present club system has been the means of adorning the
west end of London with a number of splendid houses,
designed by eminent architects, decorated by artists of repu-

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CGEM

174

 

tation and taste; and completed at an expenditure of the
most liberal and extensive character. Nor has this been
confined to London alone, the example has been followed in
the country; and in many of the provincial cities and towns,
clubs have been formed, and club-houses built on a scale of
magnitude and splendour rivalling those in the metropolis.
It is scarcely within our province, to remark on the effect
the rapid extension of clubs may have on the usages of
society in general; but we may be permitted to say that any
system which tends to the adornment of our cities with
magnificent structures decorated in the most expensive man-
ner, and filled with costly furniture, and luxurious productions
in every department of art, cannot but have a refining influ-
ence on the taste of the rising generation, while affording
employment to professional talent, and to hundreds of skilful
artisans.

CLUMP, in ornamental gardening, a detached portion of
ground, raised in the form of a mound, in lawns, or other
parts of pleasure-grounds, for the reception of trees or
shrubs on the top, while its sides are covered with flowers
or small plants. Clumps differ from borders, in being
detached and separate, as well as in being much more
elevated.

CLUSELLA (Latin, clusum, enclosed,) a small castle
within a close or inclosure.

CLUSTERED, in architecture, denotes the coalition of
two or more members, so as to penetrate each other.

CLUSTERED COLUMN, in the pointed style of architecture,
a column composed of a number of slender pillars attached
to each other, but having each a distinct base and capital.
Clustered columns were frequently divided in their height
by moulded bands, which gave them the appearance of being
bound together. They are sometimes attached to the shaft
throughout their length, and sometimes only at the capitals
and bases.

CLUSTERED COLUMN, in the Roman style, is said of two,
or four columns, which seem to intersect or penetrate each
other, either at the angle of a building or apartment, that
they may answer each return; or under an'entablature,
when a single column would be too weak; or at the inter-
section of two transverse architraves: in the latter case,
there may be four columns.

COATING, in a general sense, denotes the covering of a
body in one or several plies 0r thicknesses; thus, walls are
spread over with one, two, or three separate coats of plaster;
the interior apartments of houses are covered with several
coats of paint ; works in wood are covered with paint, pitch,
lead, copper, 8tc.; baser metals are covered with the richer,
as copper with gold or silver, and silver with gold; for
culinary purposes, copper is covered with tin, as is iron also,
to prevent rust.

COB-WALL, a wall built of straw, lime, and earth.

COCHLEARE, or COGLA, a lofty round tower, ascended
by means of a winding staircase; from the Latin, cochlea,
winding stairs.

COOKING, a method of securing beams to wall-plates,
by notching each beam at the end on the under edge, across
its thickness, nearly opposite to the inner edge of the wall~
plate, and cutting two reverse notches out of the top of the
wall-plate, leaving the part whole which is opposite to
the notch in the beam; then laying the beam to its place, it
will slide down, and the corresponding parts will fit into each
other. This method prevents any possibility of the beam
drawing longitudinally out of the wall-plate, even though the
timbers should afterwards shrink.

COCKLE-STAIRS, a winding staircase. Sec STAIRS.

CGEMETERIUM. See CEMETERY.

 

COFFER, a recessed panel, of a square or polygonal figure,
anciently used in level soflits, and in the intradoses of cylin-
drical vaults.

In the remains of Grecian and Roman architecture, the
coffers sometimes recede in one degree, but more frequently
in several degrees, like inverted steps, around the panel, each
internal angle being filled with one or more mouldings. In
Roman works, the surface of the panel at the bottom is mostly
covered with a rosette. Sometimes the bands between the
framing are divided into two equal parts, by a groove or
canal of a rectangular section.

Cotfers are also employed in the sofiits of the cornices of I

the Corinthian and Roman orders, between the modillions.
For the farther use of coffers, and other matters relating to
them, see CEILINGS and CYLINDRICAL VAULTS.

COFFER, in inland navigation, a large wooden vessel, open

at the top, with movable ends, of suflicient capacity to reCeive ,

a barge or vessel from the pond of a canal, in order to be
raised into a higher, or let down into a lower pond. This
coffer is a substitute for a lock.

COFFER—DAM, a hollow dam, constructed of a double
range of piles, with clay rammed between, for the security
and convenience of the workmen while digging out and
building the foundation of an entrance-lock to a dock, bason,
or canal, when it cannot otherwise be laid dry.

In bridge-building, the term is applied to a case of piling
fixed in the bed of a river, without any bottom, for the pur-
pose of building a pier dry. Its sides must, therefore, reach
above the level of the water, and, after it is fixed, the water
must be pumped out by the engines, which, unless the work
is very carefully done, must be kept constantly at work, to
prevent leakage as much as possible. Coffer-dams are made
either double, or single. In the double one, the space between
the inner and outer rows of piles is rammed with clay or
chalk; the piles are driven as closely as practicable to each
other by means of a pile engine, till fixed firmly into the
earth ; sometimes they are grooved and tongued; sometimes
they are grooved in the sides, and fixed at a distance from
each other, with boards let into the grooves.

The first writer on the use of cotter-dams was Alberti,
who, chap. vi., book 2, gives the following directions :
“Make the foundation of your piers in autumn, when the
water is lowest, having first raised an enclosure to keep off
the water, which may be done in this manner: drive a double
row of stakes close to that side of the row which is next to
the intended pier, and fill up the hollow between the two
rows with rushes and mud, ramming them together so hard,
that no water can get through; then, whatever you find
within the enclosure—water, mud, sand, or whatever else is
an hinderance to you—throw them out, and dig till you come
to a solid foundation.” To this we may add, where the river
is rapid and deep, and the bed of solid earth or clay, the
cotfer-dam must be constructed with three, four, five, or eVen
six rows of piles, according to the rapidity and depth of the
stream.
from fixed points, as well as to make the whole water-tight,
by ramming in chalk or clay, as above directed.

\Vhere the river is rapid and deep, and the bed of a loose
consistence, though the sides be never so firm, the water will
ooze through the bottom in too great abundance to be taken
out by the engines, recourse must therefore be had to a
caisson. See CAISSON.

The following is a description of the very large coffer-dam
made at the New Houses of Parliament, for building the
embankment, or river-wall. This dam was 1,236 feet long,
and 10 feet wide, constructed in the following manner :—
a trench was first made by dredging in the bed of the river,

Due care must also be taken to brace the sides well '

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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of the form of a segment of a circle, 27 feet wide, and 8 feet
deep in the centre, to allow the piles to drive more easily;
two parallel rows of guide or main piles were then driven
about 5 feet apart, leaving a width of 9 feet between them
transversely: to these piles were fixed three tiers of waling
of whole timbers, cut down and bolted together, one tier
being fixed at the top on a level with high-water mark;
another level with the bed of the river; and the third mid-
way. The piles and waling were then bolted across with
iron bolts 12 feet long, forming a carcass for the inner or
sheet-piling; the inner main piles being also firmly braced to
resist the pressure at high-water. Horizontal struts of whole
timber, also, at the back of the brace-piles abutted against
other piles driven just within the inner edge of the foundation
of the wall.

The piles were 36 feet long, driven through the gravel, and
2 feet into the clay, the top of which is 28 feet below high-
water mark. \Vithin the waling were two parallel rows of
sheet-piling; the outer or river—side of whole timbers—the
inner or land-side of half-timbers. After all the piles were
driven, the gravel forming the bed of the river between the
piling was dug out down to the clay, and the space filled in
with clay, and puddled. For the purpose of pumping out the
water, a ten-horse power steam-engine was erected, which
was kept at work night and day; and considering the great
extent of the dam, it is remarkably free from leakage. It
occupied fourteen months in its construction.

COFFIN, (Greek KO¢U'OQ, a basket,) the chest or box in
which dead bodies are deposited for burial. In ancient times
coffins were usually constructed of stone, and sometimes highly
ornamented, as is evidenced by the remains of Egyptian and
other sarcophagi which have been brought to light. In
England likewise stone cofiins were anciently used, frequently
formed of a single block hollowed out to receive the body;
the shape was that of a trapezium, having the end where the
head lay slightly wider than the other extremity; they were
Covered with a lid, which was either flat or coped, and often
sculptured with crosses and other emblems. They were
sometimes buried in the ground, though not deeply, sometimes
only up to the lid, which was visible above ground, and some-
times placed entirely above ground.

COGGING, the same as COOKING, which see.

COIN, or QUOIN, (from the French coin, a corner,) the
angle made by two surfaces of a stone or brick building,
whether external or internal; as—the corner of two walls,
the corner of an arch and a wall, the corner made by two
sides of a room, 8w.

COIN, Rustic. See RUSTIC.

COIN, (from the Latin, cuneus, a wedge,) a block out
obliquely at the bottom, but level at the top, to rest
upon an inclined plane, for supporting a column, or
pilaster.

COLARIN. See COLLARINO.

COLLAR, a ring, or cincture.

COLLAR-BEAM, a beam in the construction of a roof,
above the lower ends of the rafters, or base of the roof. The
tie-beam is always in a state of extension, but the collar-beam
may either be in a state ofcompression or extension, according
as the principals are with or without tie-beams. In trussed
root's, collar-beams are framed into queen-posts; and in common
roofs, into the. rafters themselves. Though trusses in general
have no more than one collar-beam, very large roofs may have
two or three collar-beams, besides the tie-beam. Collar-beams
Wlll support or truss up the sides of the rafters, so as to keep
them from sagging, without any other support; but then the
tie-beam would only be supported at its extremities. In

angles between the rafters and the upper edges of the collar-
beams. See TRUSS.

COLLARINO, or COLARIN, that part of a column which
is included between the fillet below the ovolo of the capital,
and the upper side of the astragal at the top of the shaft.
The collarino is to be found in the modern Tuscan and Doric
orders, but not in the three Grecian orders, except in the
Ionic of the temple of Erechtheus, at Athens, and in some
fragments of Ionic columns found in Asia.

The collarino, or colarin, is otherwise denominated th
neck, gorgerin, or hypotrachelion. ‘

COLLEGE, a public building, endowed with revenues for
the education of youth and their instruction in the various
branches of science and literature. An assembly of colleges
constitute a university.

Our colleges consist, for the most part, of one or more
quadrangular areas, surrounded by ranges of buildings, which
comprise a house for the superior, and rooms or lodgings for
the fellows, scholars, &c.; besides which there is always a
chapel and refectory, or dining hall. Amongst our finest
buildings of this class are those of Christ Church and Merton
Colleges, Oxford, which, with many others at the same
university, as also at the sister institution at Cambridge, are
magnificent specimens of the architecture of their respective
dates.

In writing on this subject, we must not pass over in silence
the foundation and erection of St. Augustine’s College, Can-
terbury, abuilding which may vie with many an older struc-
ture of the same kind, as well in its architectural, as its
educational features.

This college comprises only one area, which is of a quad-
rangular form, three of its sides only being occupied with
buildings, the fourth at present consists but of a wall; but
the space is intended to be built upon as occasion demands.
The three sides already occupied are the north, east, and west,
the cortile on the southern side being enclosed by the wall;
of these, the buildings on the two first, the northern and
eastern sides, are elevated on a raised terrace, while those on
the south are on a level with the entrance. The materials
employed for the walling are for the most part flint, with
dressings of rag-stone, and, in other cases, rag with Caen
stone dressings. The style adopted is the Decorated of the
fourteenth century; in the chapel‘are some parts of an earlier
date, but in other respects the architecture of Edward the
Third’s reign predominates.

On entering under the fine old gateway on the southern
side, the object which probably first attracts our attention is
the long range of beautiful windows on our left. The long
pile of buildings on this side of the quadrangle is raised, as
we before mentioned, on a broad paved walk, or terrace, and
consist besides of two stories, the lower presenting, on the
exterior, a series of large, closely-set windows, with interven-
ing buttresses; and the upper a row of nearly double the
number of windows, but of much smaller dimensions, and
with larger intervening spaces. The lower windows are
divided by mullions into five lights, and their arched heads
are filled with tracery of good design ; while the windows of
the upper story are of the most simple description, being but
plain lancets of one light. This length of building is judi-
ciously broken up into three parts by two stair-turrets, which
give access to the apartments above; and by a door at the
side, entrance is obtained to the lower story; one of the tur-
rets is used likewise for a belfry. The doors on the terrace
give entrance to a long covered ambulatory, 151 feet in
length, lighted by eight fine windows, which we have noticed
above, and covered with a flat roof showing the timbers, with

 

 

 

common purlin roofing, the purlins are laid in the acute arches spanning across ut intervals where required. Out of i

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this cloister )pen twenty apartments for the students, of which
above thirty more open into a corridor in the upper story.
The arrangement of these apartments is the same throughout:
they measure 15 feet by 8 feet 6 inches, and are d1v1ded by a
partition into two rooms. The furniture of the rooms con-
sists of an iron bedstead, a fixed and compact washhand-stand,
a fixed table, having on one side drawers for clothes, and on
the other a drawer for writing materials, and above the table
shelves for books fixed against the wall; an elbow-chair and
two others complete the furniture. The rooms are well ven-
tilated, and heated by hot water, one of the few arrangements
which we have to find fault with.

Level with these buildings, but at right angles to them, on
the eastern side of the area, and detached, stands the library,
perhaps the most dignified building of the whole group.
Raised upon a crypt, the proportions of which are old, and
the details copied and of great simplicity, is a vast apartment
78 feet long by 39 feet broad, with massy buttressed walls,
and large traceried and transomed windows, surmounted by
a magnificent open roof of oak, the ridge of which is 63 feet
high from the level of the terrace. A noble flight of .fifteen
steps, approached by an ample arch, and contained Within a
porch roofed at right angles to the main pile, and lighted by
four windows, affords a means of entrance at the southern
extremity. This library is well lighted by thirteen large win-
dows, six on each side, and one at the north end; they are
each of four lights, being divided vertically by a mullion, and
horizontally by a transom, and have trefoiled heads. The
disposition of the windows naturally divides the interior into
six compartments.

The crypt upon which this building is erected, is raised on
the foundation of the great refectory belonging to the ancient
establishment, and is to serve the purpose of a museum. It
is lighted from the exterior by small lancets, and is divided
internally by ten pillars into three aisles of equal width; the
ceiling is groined, and the floor paved with red tiles.

The roof of this building, as also that of the last, is tiled
and crested with ridge-tiles; the materials of the walling,
however, vary, the library being built of uncoursed rag, with
dressings of Caen, while that of the northern range is of
flint.

Descending from the terrace, the most important building
of the western range is the chapel, but it will be well to leave
this for the present, and starting from the southern extremity
of the library, follow out the lucid description afforded to us
in the Ecclesiologist:———

“ Going from this point in a south-west direction, we come
to a range of buildings containing the apartments for the
fellows, each of whom will have two rooms and a gyp-room,
and the~warden’s lodge, a spacious and connnodious family
residence. These are of flint, in good middle—pointed, and in
many respects show great ability. Still we confess we think
them the least admirable parts of the design. Northward of
these, and projecting considerably from their level eastward
into the court, is the chapel to which we shall recur after
speaking of the refectory and kitchen, whichrange northward
of the chapel between it and the ancient gateway at the
north-west corner of the quadrangle. The refectory is a fine
room, with a roof the humbleness of which is redeemed by
its being mainly original—no oriel, (the shell of the walls
being ancient,) but with a dais and tables, and a cleverly-con-
trived range of closets at its south extremity. Northwards
it communicates with a common room, and a beautiful room,
intended, we believe, for a muniment-room, or, for the pre-
sent, a lecture-room, occupying the upper story of the ancient
gateway. Below the refectory is the kitchen, with a fine
chimney projecting eastwards into the quadrangle, while

 

offices and aporter’s lodge extend under the common room
to the entrance-gate. A steep and narrow flight of stairs
between the chapel and refectory, the kitchen-door being at
their feet, reaches a small landing, from the right or north of
which you enter the hall, while immediately opposite, on the
left hand, is the entrance to the chapel.

“ The chapel is entered at the north-west, through a small
ante-chapel lighted by the restored western triplet of the
ancient fabric, and parted from the body of the chapel by a
bold arch, sustaining a double bellcote externally, and filled
with a proper screen. Within the screen extends the solemn
length of the chapel, the small dimensions being quite for—
gotten in the beauty of the proportions: returned stalls, with
miserere seats and back panelling of unexceptional style and
taste, with subsellae to match, mark the choir. Eastwards
the sanctuary, though small, is beautifully treated and suffi-
ciently dignified. The measurements are as follows: length,
60 feet; width, 18 feet; height from floor to wall-plate,
14 feet 6 inches; from floor to ridge, 30 feet 6 inches. The
lighting of the chapel is peculiarly effective: a five-light
middle-pointed east window, and two adjacent couplets north
and south of the sanctuary, concentrate the light on the altar.
The side-walls are unpierced, and the choir is consequently
religiously sombre, the windows of the ante-chapel, however,
sufficiently removing it from gloom. There is no colour on
the walls or roof; in fact, none but the stained glass with
which all the windows are filled. The whole effect is one of
real, unpretending, earnest effectiveness, an austere and
unworldly beauty. The stained glass chosen throughout, with
a depth of meaning, itself a homily, betrays a world of thought
in its distribution.

“ Mr. Butterfield is peculiarly successful, we think, in his
treatment of encaustic tiles. Those used in the chapel
appeared to us most judiciously chosen and arranged. The
footpace of the altar in particular was a beautiful mosaic of
bright colours and intricate design.

“ The ante-chapel is furnished with a few open seats-
intended for the use of the family of the warden and of the
servants of the college. The choir is thus appropriated.
exclusively to the use of the foundation and the students.

“ We rejoice to add, that there are no fixed altar-rails,
though there is movable railing for the use of the communi-
cants. A litany-stool occupies the middle of the choir. The
lessons will be read from letterns fixed one on each side in
the upper ranges of stalls. A rather large hole, furnished
with a shutter, near the wall-plate on the north side, for
ventilation, deserves notice for the boldness and simplicity oi
the idea.

“ we should mention that the chapel is raised on a crypt
vaulted and designed to serve as a sacristy. The bells are
rung from a western bay, open and vaulted, occupying the.
space under the ante-chapel, the ropes passing through tllil
floor by the screen, and so reaching the bells in the bellcote‘
before noticed, which is by the way one of the less successfu
parts of the design.

“ It is with unfeigned pleasure we again congratulatc.
Mr. Butterfield on his success in this most interesting work.
which will, we really think, ensure him enduring and mos-
deserved fame amongst English church-architects.”

COLLEGIATE CHURCH. a church to which is attacheo:
an ecclesiastical establishment of deans, wardens, and fellows
which, before the Reformation, consisted of a number of secula
canons living together under the government of a dean, wan
den, provost, or master.

COLOGNE EARTH, a substance used by painters as

water-colour. approaching to amber in its structure, and c

 

a deep brownish tinge.

 

 

 

COL

177

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COLON ELLI (from the Italian) truss-posts, or the posts of
a truss-frame.

COLONNADE, (from the Italian colonna,) a range of
attached or insulated columns, supporting an entablature.
The interval between the columns, measured by the inferior
diameter of the column, is called the intercolumniatz'on. and
the whole area between every two columns is called an inter-
column. When the intercolumniation is one diameter and a
half, it is called pycnostyle, or columns thick set ; when two
diameters, systyle; when two and a quarter, eustyle; when
three, diastyle,- and when four, arwostyle, or columns thin
set. Columns are sometimes set two and two together, having
half a diameter for the smaller interval, and three and a half
diameters for the larger; this disposition is termed arwosystyle.
A colonnade is also named according to the number of columns
which support the entablature, or fastigium; as, when there
are four columns, it is called tetrastyle ; when six, hexastyle ,-
when eight, octastyle; and when ten, decastyle. The inter-
columniations of the Doric order are regulated by the number
of triglyphs, placing one over every intermediate column;
when there is one triglyph over the interval, it is called mono-
iriglyph ,- when there are two, it is called ditriglypk ; and so
on, according to the progressive order of the Grecian nume-
rals. The intercolumniation of the Grecian Doric is almost
constantly the monotriglyph, for there are only two deviations
from this to be met with at Athens; the one in the Doric
portico, and the other in the portico forming the entrance
to the Acropolis, or citadel ; but these intervals only belong to
the middle intercolumniations, which are both ditriglyphs,
and became necessary on account of their being opposite to
the principal entrances. As the character of the Grecian
Doric is more massive and dignified than that of the Roman,
the monotriglyph succeeds best ; but in the Roman it is not
so convenient, for the passage through the intercolumns
would be too ‘narrow, particularly in small buildings; the
ditriglyph is therefore more generally adopted. The araeo-
style is only applied to rustic structures of the Tuscan order,
where the intercolumns are lintelled over with architraves.
When the solid parts of the masonry of a range of arcades
are decorated with the orders, the intercolumns necessarily
become wide, and the intercolumniation is regulated by the
breadth of the arcades and of the piers.

Buildings with a colonnade projecting at one end are termed
prostgle; with a colonnade at both and opposite ends, amphi-
prnstyle; with the same on all sides of the building, peristyle ,-
and with a double range of columns, polystyle.

It does not appear that coupled, grouped, or clustered
columns ever prevailed in the works of the ancients; though,
on mar y occasions, they would have been much more useful:
we indeed find, in the Temple of Bacchus, at Rome, columns
standing as it were in pairs; but as each pair is only placed
in the thickness of the wall, and not in the front, they may
rather be said to be two rows of columns, one almost imme-
diately behind the other. In the baths of Diocletian, and in
the Temple of Peace, at Rome, we find groined ceilings sus-
tained by single Corinthian columns; but such a support is
both meagre and inadequate. Vignola uses the same inter-
columniation in all his orders. This practice, though con-
demned by some, is founded upon a good principle, for it
preserves a constant ratio between the columns and the inter-
vals. Of all the kinds of intercolumniation, the eustyle was
in the most general request among the ancients; and though,
'h modern architecture, both the eustyle and diastyle are

employed, the former is still preferred in most cases: as to
the pycnostyle interval, it is frequently rejected for want
of room, and the arwostyle for want of giving sufficient sup-
port to the entablature.

2z

 

The modems seldom employ more than one row of columns,
either in external or internal colonnades, for the back range
destroys the perspective regularity of the front range; the
visual rays coming from both ranges produce nothing but
indistinct vision to the spectator. This confusion, in a cer-
tain degree, also attends pilasters behind a row of insulated
columns; but in this the relief is stronger, owing to the
rotundity of the column and the flat surfaces of the pilasters.
When buildings are executed on a small scale, as is frequently
the case in temples, and other designs, used for the ornaments
of gardens, it will be found necessary to make the inter-
columniations, or at least the central one, broader than usual,
in proportion to the diameter of the columns; for when the
columns are placed nearer each other than three feet, the
space becomes too narrow to admit more than one person
conveniently.

COLISEUM, or COLOSSEUM, the amphitheatre at Rome,
built by the emperors Vespasian and Titus. See AMPHI-
THEATRE.

COLOSSEUM. Although it scarcely falls within our pro-
vince to describe places of amusement considered merely
as such, the structure known under the name at the head of
this article. deserves, from its peculiar form, and the extreme
taste displayed in its interior decorations, something more
than a passing notice. The Colosseum, designed by Mr. Deci-
mus Burton, is, in external form, a polygon of sixteen sides,

of which the diameter is 130 feet. In the attic, all the faces of .

the polygon are shown ; but below, three of them are occupied
by the portico, a Doric hexastyle of about 70 feet in width.
This order is here exhibited upon a much larger scale than
had previously been done in any building in the metropolis,
with the advantage of an effect not attainable with fewer
columns, and with the still greater advantage of its character
not being impaired by the introduction of features irrecon-
cileable with any aim at a strictly Grecian style, there being
no other within the portico than a single lofty doorway. “In
its general form,” observes Mr. W. H. Leeds, whose criticisms
are always entitled to attention, “ this edifice must be referred
to a Roman rather than a Grecian prototype, namely, the
Pantheon, which circumstance it probably was that led one
writer, who has attempted to describe the building, into a
ludicrous blunder, for he has not scrupled to assure his
readers, that its portico is copied from that of the Pantheon
at Rome, “ which, in the harmony of its proportions, and the
exquisite beauty of its columns, surpasses every temple on
the earth l” Had he said that it was copied from Canova’s
church at Possagno, he would have been some degrees nearer
the mark, at least as far as resemblance in regard to the order
adopted, and the application of a Grecian style to the plan of
the Roman Pantheon.

Mr. Hosking, in his “ Treatise on Architecture,” objects to
the combination of the square and circle in the plan; observ-
ing, “Irregular and intricate forms in works of architecture,
whether internally or externally, will be found unpleasing.
Few can admire the external effect of the Pantheon, or of
the structure in London called the Colosseum, which has
been subjected to the same arrangement, though certain fea-
tures in both may be good.” Yet, with due deference to the
opinion of such an authority, we should be inclined to demur
to it, even had we not Canova’s own example to oppose to it.
In itself irregularity is a fault; but then the question is,
whether the slight degree of it thus produced can be fairly
termed so; besides which, by pushing the doctrine a little
further, we may contend that a parallelogram is an irregular
square, consequently faulty, and the flank and front'of a
Grecian temple do not exhibit that uniformity which they
might and ought to be made to do. But we need not resort

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

to any argument of that kind, because, were it not for the
irregularity censured by that writer, and caused by the addi-
tion of a portico to the circular part of their plan, both the
buildings he mentions would appear heavy, lumpish masses,
whatever decoration might be bestowed upon them.

The Colosseum was built for the purpose of exhibiting a
panorama of London, on a scale of magnitude hitherto un-
attempted. The projector made his sketches from an observa-
tory placed on scaffolding several feet above the top of
St. Paul’s cross ; these sketches were afterwards transferred
to the canvass, and in their finished state display the whole
of this vast metropolis and its environs, as it would appear on
the clearest day, and aided by the most powerful visiOn. To
use the somewhat magniloquent language of a contemporary,
the spectator “ sees beneath the summer sunshine of a serene
sky, divested of the usual canopy of smoke and vapour, this
great metropolis, with its countless multitude of streets and
squares, its churches, palaces, mansions, hospitals, theatres,
public offices, institutions scientific and literary; its noble
river, with its numerous bridges; and in the distance a rich
and varied expanse of rural and sylvan scenery, extending
from the woodlands of Kent and Essex in the east, to the
forest and castle of Windsor on the western horizon. Recover-
ing from the wonder created by this first View of the picture
as a whole, he finds new cause of astonishment in examining
it in detail; for not only may the prominent structures be
discerned and known, but every private residence in town
or country, which is visible from St. Paul’s itself, be recog-
nized in the representation; and the various objects in the
foreground, as well as in the distance, will bear the test of
the telescope. To increase the effect, improve the conve-
nience for inspection, and, at the same time, to augment the
means ofjudging of the merits of the performance as a work
of art, there is a succession of galleries, the highest of which
is constructed for the purpose of giving a more satisfactory
View of the distant country; an easy ascent from the galleries
leads to an esplanade, on the circle that crowns the exterior
of the Colosseum, from which is beheld a real panorama
formed by the Regent’s Park and its elegant vicinity.”

Since the above description was written, the Colosseum,
as a place of amusement, has suffered many vicissitudes, and
at one time had fallen very low in public estimation; in the
year 1844, however, it fell into the hands of the present pro-
prietor, who has expended very large sums in completely
remodelling the whole establishment.

The alterations considered desirable were made from the
designs and under the direction of Mr. lVilliam Bradwel],
whose taste, skill, and judgment have, in this instance, as in
many others, produced the most admirable results. The
ability he has displayed has been seconded by the proprietor
with the greatest liberality, and the unhesitating appropria-
tion of whatever amount of capital might be required to carry
out the conceptions of the talented artist employed.

There are two entrances, one in the Regent’s Park under
the portico, the other in Albany Street, at the back of the
building. Entering by the former, the visitor proceeds down
a handsome staircase to a vestibule, leading to a large saloon,
called the Glyptotheca, or Museum of Sculpture. The roof
of this apartment presents to the eye a lofty dome, of several
thousand feet of richly cut glass, springing from an entablature
and cornice supported by numerous columns. The frieze is
enriched with the whole of the Panathenaic procession from
the Elgin Marbles, and is continued without interruption
around the entire circumference of the hall, above which are
twenty fresco paintings of allegorical subjects on panels, the
mouldings, cornices, capitals of Columns, and enrichments
being in gold. Beyond the circle of columns is another of

.is really well worthy of admiration.

 

as many pilasters, dividing and supporting arched recesses,
in each of which, as well as between the columns, are placed
works of art from the studios of many eminent sculptors. In
the centre of the apartment is the circular frame—work
enclosing the staircase leading to the panorama; this is hung
with drapery tastefully disposed, from the summit of the
arched dome to the floor, concealing the stairs, and harmoniz-
ing with the prevailing tints of the architectural decorations.
Around this are seats covered with rich Utrecht velvet,
raised on a dais, and divided by groups of Cupid and Psyche
supporting candelabra in the form of palm-trees; the figures
being white, and the draperies, leaves, plumes, &c., gilded.
From this hall, the visitor ascends to the panorama by the
staircase, or is raised in a small room, called the Ascending
Room, which is elevated by means of machinery to the
required height.

A panorama of Paris by moonlight has now succeeded to
the panorama of London before mentioned, and seems to attract
as much as the former picture.

Since the erection of what may be termed the original struc-
ture, a considerable addition has been made to it on the
eastern side towards Albany Street. Here is a second
entrance, leading by large folding doors into a square vesti-
bule, and thence into an arched corridor, lighted during the
day from above- by circles of cut glass; and at night by
numerous bronze tripods. Descending to the basement story
by three flights of steps, the visitor enters a spacious saloon,
supported by columns and pilasters, appropriated to the sale
of refreshments; from this room ornamented glass doors lead
to conservatories, aviaries, and other objects of interest. In
the upper story of this part of the building a handsome little
theatre has been formed, the decorations of which are of the
most gorgeous character. In this theatre is exhibited a
moving picture called the “ Cyclorama,” in which a represen-
tation is given of the great earthquake at Lisbon in the year
1755. As a work of art, the panorama is deserving of high
praise, and aided by the labours of the machinist, and the
inventive ability of Mr. Bradwell, the presiding genius of
the establishment, a scenic illusion has been produced, which
Altogether the Colos-
seum is deserving the attention of the architectural student,
as something beyond a mere place of amusement. In it he
may learn how much may be done in the way of decorative
art, by a tasteful arrangement of those materials which the
sister arts place at his disposal.

COLOSSUS, at Rhodes, a celebrated statue of Apollo,
made of brass, popularly supposed to have been erected over the
entrance of the harbour in such manner that a foot stood on
each pier, and ships passed through its extended legs. This
statue, of which Pliny has left an account, was begun by Chares,
a pupil of Lysippus,
were employed in making it.

 

 

 

and completed by Laches; twelve years ,
Its height was 105 feet; the :

thumb was so large that few men could span it, and its fingers a

were much larger than those of ordinary statues.

It was »

cast hollow, and filled with large stones, to counterbalanceits «

weight, and keep it steady on its supporters. “'ithin was a
winding staircase ascending to the top, where, it is said, was
hung a vast mirror, in which the country of Syria, and ships
entering the ports of Egypt, might be discerned. The notion
that its legs rested one on each side of the harbour does not,
however, seem to be supported by any good authority, and.
modern travellers do not agree as to its site.

After standing upwards of sixty years, the Colossus was
overthrown by an earthquake in the year 224 15.0., by which

also the buildings of the city suffered greatly. So great, at that «

time, was the commercial importance othodes, that the great
princes 0f the day vied with each other in the muniticence 0t

 

 

 

 

COL

179

COL

 

their presents to repair its losses. The inhabitants of Rhodes
sent ambassadors to all the states of Grecian origin, to solicit
their assistance for repairing and re-erecting their statue, and
obtained a sum more than five times equal to the damage.
The principal contributors were the kings of Macedon, Syria,
Egypt, Pontus, and Bithynia. But, instead of appropriating
the money to the purpose for which it was given, the Rhodian
priests pretended that the oracle of Delphi had forbidden it;
and the money was converted to other uses. The Colossus,
therefore, lay neglected on the ground for 894 years, when
the Saracens, becoming masters of the island, sold it to a
Jewrsh merchant, who broke it up, and loaded 900 camels
with the metal: the weight of the brass, therefore, allowing
800 pounds for each load, after the diminution it had sustained
by rust, and probably by theft, amounted to 720,000 pounds
weight.

This enormous figure was not the only colossal statue that
attracted notice in the city of Rhodes, for Pliny reckons near
100 others. From the Rhodian Apollo, it is supposed, that
every statue exceeding in magnitude the size of a man, has
been called a colossal statue.

COLUMBARIA, the holes left in walls for the insertion
of timbers; also the recesses in ancient tombs, in. which the
urns containing the ashes of the deceased were deposited.

COLUMELLE, the same as balusters. See BALUSTRADE.

COLUMN, (Latin, columna, derived from columen, a post,
or supporter) in a general sense, a vertical support of a body,
or portion of a building.

The use of columns is of very early date, as we hear of
their application both in the Temple of Solomon, and in the
Palace of Ulysses; they do not seem to have been employed
in the primeval erections of Babylon, where their place was
supplied by piers, but are to be found in universal application
in the ancient structures of Egypt, India, and Persia. The
column is so important a feature in the construction of
buildings, that its value must have been early known, and
when known, must soon have formed a subject for ornamen-
tation; its origin is to be found doubtless in the simple pier,
and a very good specimen of its progress in improvement of
form and in application of ornament, is to be seen at Amada,
in Nubia, where, amongst other columns or piers in the form
of a simple parallelopiped, with base and capital of a similar
form, but projecting a little beyond the surface of the shaft,
those at the corners of the building are both cylindrical and
fluted, leaving however a square abacus or capital, and square
base, similar to the others. The former is undoubtedly the
primitive shape; the latter, previously of the same form,
whether for convenience or otherwise, has been rounded off
at the corners, and somewhat ornamented. Such improve-
ments, both in form and decoration, gradually progress, until
we arrive at the well-proportioned and tastefully-enriched
columns of the classic orders, or the still more beautiful
pillars of the Gothic styles.

The columns of Egypt exhibit a great variety both in
form and decoration: the capital in the shape of a vase or
inverted bell, is usually decorated with foliage, frequently
with the leaves of the lotus, but is of less elegant form than
similar capitals of Greece and Rome; the shaft is generally
circular, but sometimes square or polygonal, and varies in
diameter at different heights, the thickness, in some cases,
diminishing both towards the capital and base; this last
member, the base, is frequently absent in Egyptian exam-
ples, and when present is of the simplest kind, consisting
of a square slab or plinth. The columns were of stone,
not unt'requently of a single block, and, at other times, of
gigantic masses placed one upon the other. “There is a
peculiarity, however,” says Mr. Hamilton, “in the columns

 

 

of the portico of Ashmounein not found, we believe, elsewhere
in Egypt. Instead of being formed of large masses placed
one above another, they consist of irregular pieces fitted
together with such nicety, that it is difficult to detect the
lines of junction; and this illusion is aided also by the form
of the columns. The bottom is like the lowest leaves of the
lotus, after which we see a number of concentric rings, bind-
ing the column just like the hoops of a cask; and again above
them the column is worked in such a way by vertical cuttings,
to present the appearance of a bundle of rods held together
by hoops; the whole has the appearance of a barrel; the
columns are about 40 feet high, including the capitals. Their
greatest circumference is about 28%; feet, at the height of
5 feet from the ground, for the column diminishes in thick-
ness both towards the base and capital. These columns were
painted yellow, red, and blue. Similar pillars are found in
the temple of Gournon.”

Reeded columns, which bear the appearance of a bundle of
reeds bound together at intervals and set on end, are not
uncommon, and are often surmounted with a bulging capi-
tal, which is of similar formation to the shaft, with a cincture
at its lowest part, and square flat abacus on the top, bearing
the entablature; the swell or bulging would appear to be
caused by the pressure of the entablature. Square columns
are to be found in the excavations at Thebes, and triangular
ones are spoken of by Pococke; at Ypsambool are square
columns or piers with caryatid figures in front of them.

The forms of columns found in India vary considerably.
In the subterraneous temples, which are excavated out of
the solid rock, they are generally of a massive character, and
in proportions stunted; they are rather grand than graceful.
The bases are frequently cubical, and of great height in pro-
portion to the shaft, sometimes equal to it; they are at other
times octangular: the shafts are circular, or multangular,
and sometimes consist of both forms one above the other,
surmounted by low, compressed capitals. Columns of a
balustral form are to be seen at the Temple of Elephanta;
they are about 9 feet high, supported on cubical bases about
6 feet in height; the capitals, of a semicircular profile,
exhibit the appearance of compressed cushions, and with the
shafts, are ribbed or reeded: the whole is surmounted by
an abacus of the form of an inverted truncated pyramid.
Some very curious columns are to be seen in a cave at Ellora,
which consist of elephants bearing castles, and surmounted at
the top by a capital or abacus.

In the pagodas, or constructed temples of the Indians, the
columns are of an entirely different appearance, they are by
no means so stunted, and are often of quite an opposite cha-
racter, slender; such are those in that part of the pagoda of
Chillambaram called the Nerta Chaboei ; they are, in all
cases, profusely enriched with sculpture. The capitals of
the columns are frequently made more effective to the sup-
port of the entablature by extending them out in the shape
of brackets, so as to leave but a small portion of the entabla-
ture unsupported. Sometimes a succession of brackets pro-
ject from the adjacent columns one above another, and meet
in the centre, so as to leave no portion unsupported.

Of Persian columns we have but few examples remaining,
but from these we may conclude that they were of slender
proportions, the height of some of the existing specimens
being as much as 70 feet, while their diameter is but 5% feet.
Some of the shafts are fluted with fillets intervening, and are
raised upon a base 4 or 5 feet in height, finished with sculp-
tured mouldings. lVe have specimens of two kinds of
capitals, the one consisting of small scrolls, somewhat similar
to the volutes of the Ionic capital, placed in rows one above
the other on the sides at the top of the shaft; the others

 

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COL

180

COL

 

 

projecting from two opposite sides of the shaft, after the
manner of brackets or corbels, and sculptured into the shape
of the fore-part of an animal, which in some degree resembles
a horse. These columns must have possessed a. considerable
share of simplicity and elegance.

Of the columns of the Grecian or Roman orders we need
say nothing in this place, not only because their forms are
so well known, but also because they are so fully and minutely
described in other parts of this book, and amply delineated in
its illustrations. Some few remarks as to their form, 8:0. is
appended to this article.

In those styles of architecture which immediately succeeded
the Roman, and were indeed but debased copies of it, the
column followed the general form and character of the
original; some were formed of portions of columns taken
from Roman buildings, and piled together indiscriminately in
the new structures, which destroyed their proportions, while
it preserved their form and details. Out of this chaos arose
the styles afterwards prevalent in Italy and that portion of
the continent, and we may add in Greece; for doubtless
Byzantine architecture, although in a certain sense a distinct
style, borrowed largely, both in its general features and its
details, from the edifices of the deserted capital; indeed a
debased imitation of the Corinthian column was very preva-
lent in the buildings of Constantinople. The copy was more
successful in some instances than others, the foliage being
frequently of very inferior design, and only carved out
slightly in relief above the surface. The more characteristic
capitals of the Byzantine style consisted of mere truncated
pyramids inverted and ornamented with a kind of basket-
work in low relief.

In Lombardic columns the base is frequently but a simple
square block, rounded off at the top, though it sometimes
consists of a carved lion or other monster supporting the
shaft on its back ; such bases are frequent in porches and in
smaller structures, as tombs, 8m. The shafts, especially of
the larger columns, are circular, and of the same diameter
from top to bottom; the proportion between the height and
diameter varies very considerably, according to the purpose
of the column and its material; when the weight to be sup-
ported is great, or the material used but little compacted, the
shaft is low and massive; but. when the weight is inconsider-
able, it becomes tall and slender, and is sometimes divided
in its height by moulded bands. Columns are sometimes
coupled together, standing either side by side, or one in
front of the other, of both which arrangements we have
examples in the cloisters of S. Lorenzo and Santa Sabina, at
Rome, where either arrangement is copied in the alternate
piers; quadrupled columns are to be met with in the church
of Boppart. When columns are attached to walls or piers,
they not unfrequently have smaller shafts either before or
beside them, somewhat similar to the clustered columns of
later date; these smaller shafts, however, are never prolonged
in the shape of ribs of a vault. The shafts of the smaller
columns are not unfrequently polygonal, fluted, or reeded,
and are sometimes formed of small shafts twisted together in
a spiral line. The capitals are, for the most part, barbarous
imitations of the classic orders, more usually Corinthian, and
are sometimes ornamented with spear-heads, and scroll or
fret-work, while some again are formed of animals real and
monstrous, and ornamented with grotesque designs of all
descriptions.

We have now arrived at the period of Gothic art, when
the forms, proportions, and ornamentation of columns became
of infinite variety, subject to no law save that of beauty and
utility; so that to attempt to describe them in this place
would be futile. We have them of all proportions save the

 

stunted, and of all degrees of decoration, some with simple
mouldings, others with foliated capitals; some with single
shafts, others clustered; some circular, others polygonal.
These, as is necessary, will be considered in detail, for which
we refer to the various subdivisions into which the Gothic
style is usually distributed.

COLUMN, in the orders of classic architecture, consists of a
conic or conoidal frustum, called the shaft, tapering upwards
in the manner of a tree, with an assemblage of parts at the
upper extremity, termed the capital, and with sometimes
another assemblage of parts at the lower extremity, called
the base. The capital finishes with a horizontal table, either
square on the plan, or capable of being inscribed in a square,
called the abacus. The base, also, when there is one, most
frequently stands on a table, square on the plan, and hori-
zontal on the upper and lower sides, called the plinth.

Vitruvius directs the columns at the angles to be made
thicker than the intermediate ones; the diameter of columns
to be proportioned to the intercolumns; that the higher they
are, their diminution should be less ; that those on the flanks
and angles have their inner faces toward the walls perpen-
dicular, but those of the pronaos and posticum to be set.
perpendicular on their axes ; that those in theatres and other
works of gaiety, should not have the same proportion as those
in sacred edifices; and that the two middle columns, opposite
the entry, should have a wider interval than any two of the
others.

The Greeks seldom employed attached columns; the only
instances of the kind in Attica, and indeed in all Greece, are
the monument of Lysicrates and the temple of Minerva
Polias, where the columns present something more than half
their diameter. In the temples of Agrigentum and Escula-
pius, in Sicily, the columns are also attached. The remains
of Roman edifices show many instances of attached columns,
as in the temple of Fortune, the triumphal arch of Titus, the
Coliseum, and the theatre of Marcellus, at Rome, where the
columns project only half their diameter; and this rule was
strictly observed by the ancients, who generally tapered the
shafts from the base.

The Grecian Doric is without a base, which is peculiar to
the Ionic and Corinthian orders. Much has been said con-
cerning the proportion of columns; but it. must chiefly
depend upon their situation, whether disposed on the exterior
or interior, attached or insulated, on a level with the eye or
raised above it; circumstances which will affect the propor-
tion, and render all canonical rules uncertain. “'e also judge
of the proportion of columns from the materials whereof they
are constructed, as a column of iron will require a diiferent
proportion from one of stone.

Some columns have the lower third quite cylindrical, and
the upper two-thirds only diminished, but the most beautiful
diminish from the bottom.

In the preface to Stewart’s third volume of Antiquities,
speaking of the temple of Jupiter Olympus, at Athens,
Mr. Reveley, who conducted that volume, observes, that
“ the columns diminish from the bottom by a beautiful curve
line.” In another part of the same preface, he farther
observes, generally, that “the columns rise, with consider-
able diminution, in the most graceful sweeping lines.” It is
much to be regretted, that Mr. Stewart, who has, in general,
been so particular in the measures of Grecian architecture,
should have neglected a thing so important as the dimensions
of the shafts of columns.

The columns of the Pantheon, of the temples of Vesta. of '
Jupiter Stator, of Antoninus and Faustina, of Concord. of the ‘
arch of Titus, of the portico of Septimius, and of the theatre
of Marcellus, at Rome, are all diminished from the bottom.

 

 

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Columns may be diminished by a curve, according to any
of the following methods : _

METHOD I.—F{qure 1. Take the semi-diameter, A B, at
the top of the shaft, and apply it from C to D on the semi-
diameter, C E, at the bottom ; with the radius, 0 E, describe
an are, E F. Draw D F perpendicular to E C, divide the are
E F into any number of equal parts (as four, in this example)
E n, n n, n n, n F ; also divide the representative axis, C B,
into the same number of equal parts, 0 m, m m, m m, m B ;
through the points m, m, 8:0. and also through the points 72,
draw lines m t and v 72, parallel to E C, of which the lines 12 in
cut the representative axis at v ; make all the lines m t equal
to all the lines 12 72, beginning next to the base in succession,
towards AB; then through all the points, t, draw a curve,
which is the contour of the column. The edge of the
diminishing rule, H, shown upon the other side, is just
the reverse, that is to say, it is concave, the contour of the
column being convex.

METHOD II.——F2'gure 2. The points D and F, being found,
as in Figure 1, instead ofdividing the arc, E F, as in Figure 1,
into equal parts, divide the straight line D F into the equal
parts, D x, xx, :1: ac, zr F, and the representative axis 0 B, into
the same number, and complete the other parts of the
operation, as in Figure l. The same letters of refer-
enee being fixed to the like parts, show the process to be
similar.

METHOD III.—Figure 3. B C being the altitude of the
shaft, and B A, at right angles to it, the quantity of diminu-
tion upon one side of it : divide C B into equal parts, at the
points I), E, F ; also divideA B into the same number of equal
parts, at the points (1, e, f; draw the lines D G, E H, F I,
parallel to AB; again from the points d, e,_f; to the point C,
draw lines, d G C, e H C, f1 C ; and through the points A, G,
H, I, C, draw a curve, which will give the contour required.

METHOD IV.——Figure 4. A B and B C, being the same as
in Figure 3 : now, suppose it were required to give less
curvature to the contour of the column; between A and B
take any intermediate point, 9, nearer towards A or B, as the
curvature is intended to be flatter or quicker (in this example
it is in the middle of A B) ; draw the line 9 C, divide Ag into
any number of equal parts, Ad, de, efifg, (as here into
four); divide BCinto the same number of equal parts, B D,
DE, E r, F c ; draw D G, E II, F I, parallel to B A, draw (1 G C,
8 II C,fI C, then through the points A, G, H, I, C, draw A G H I C,
which is the curve required.

METHOD V.—Figure 5. Join A C, and draw A L at right
angles to it, meeting C B produced at L ; draw AD parallel to
C L, and C D perpendicular to it ; divide L C and A D, each into
the same number of equal parts, the former at the points E, F, G,
and the latter at 11, I, K ; also, divide A B into the same num-
ber of equal parts, A e, efifg, g B; join E MH, F N I, G 0 K;
also e M C,fN C, g 0 C, and draw A M N 0 C, which is the
curve required.

METHOD VL—Fz'gure 6. Join AGC, and bisect it by a
perpendicular, F G; on the centre, C, with the radius, CA,
describe the are A D ; divide A D into two equal parts in E ;
draw E F C, and parallel to G A draw F I ; make an angle, C F 1,
upon the edge of a board or rule, put in pins at the points C
"“d 1‘} and with a pencil, upon the angular point F, while the
rule is moved from F to C, keeping the side FI of it upon
the pm at F, and the same side F C, upon the pin at C, the
angular point F will describe the contour of the column
between F and o. In like manner, by removing the
P111 out of c, and putting it in A, the part F A may be
described.

The Same curve might have been found by one continued
motion from A to C, as follows : suppose the line D C to have

‘3 A

 

been produced to a point, K ; the supposed line, C K, to have
been equal to C D ; and an angle, having been made upon the
edge of a thin board, equal to A C K; then the contour, A F 0,
would have been described in the same manner, between the
points A and C, as each of the former parts shown by the
figure. It is obvious, that by this last method, it would be
requisite to have the machine twice the length of that in the
first method ; from which it would become more unmanage-
able in the formation of the curve, and inconvenient in many
situations, for want of space to extend it to the necessary

distance. , '

METHOD VIL—Figure 7. Let A B be the representative
axis of the column ; A D, B C, the semi-diameters of the top
and bottom of the shaft ; produce 0 B to F ; on the point D,
with a radius, 0 B, describe an are, cutting A B at E ; draw
D E F ; in A B, take any number of points, 772, and draw the
lines an; make each line 721 72, equal to B C; then draw
D 72 n . . . C, which will be the curve required.

METHOD VIII.—Figure 8. The points E and F being found
as in Method VII. place a rule with a canal, or groove, on
the axis AB, and put a pin in F; take another rule, DF,
having a groove on the under side, and lay this groove on
the pin at F ; put another pin through the rod at E, into the
groove A B ; then, with a pencil, through D, and moving
the ruler D F, while the pin E slides in the groove A B, and
the groove on the under side of D F on the pin F, the contour
D C, will be described with one movement.

METHOD IX.—Fz'gure 9. A B being the axis of the column;
A D and B C the lower and upper diameters ; draw D E parallel
to A B ; find the point F, as in Methods VII. and VIII., and
draw E C F ; divide A F into any number of equal parts, by
the points 9; also divide D E into the same number of» equal
parts, by the points it; join each corresponding 9 it; make
every 9 i equal to A D, and the curve drawn through all the
points i, will be that required. This mode is practised when
room cannot be found for Figures 7 and 8, with which it is
the same in principle. .

' Observations on the several methods.—By the First Method,
the curvature of the shaft becomes continually less towards
the superior diameter, and if the contour were extended
beyond the shaft, it would meet in a point, of which its
distance from B would be a fourth proportional to the length
of the arcs E F, F G, Figure 1, and the axis C B ; the semi-axal
section of the whole thus produced, is a figure of the same
nature as the figure of the sines.

By the Second Method, the curvature of the shaft is con-
tinually increased towards the, superior diameter, and if the
contour were extended above A B, Figure 2, it would termi-
nate at a distance from C, which would be a fourth propor-
tional to D F, 020, C B ; the contour thus produced, would be
an elongated semi-ellipsis.

By the Third Method, the curvature of the shaft is con-
tinually less towards the superior diameter, and if the contour
were extended, the two sides would meet in a point, whose
distance from the lower end of the shaft would be the second
root of a fourth proportional to the quantity of diminution,
the semi-diameter at the bottom, and the square of the altitude
of the shaft. The shaft and the part thus produced, forms
the half of a parabolic spindle ; and the axal section is two
equal semi-parabolas, joined together by a common ordinate,
which forms the axis of the column.

By the Fourth Method, the curvature is likewise parabolic;
but the axal section is two equal portions of a parabola, less
than semi-parabolas.

By Methods V. and VI., the curvature is everywhere the
same, and is consequently the arc of a circle: this contour
would therefore meet in a point. which would be distant from

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

COL

182

COL

 

the lower end of the shaft, by a quantity equal to the value of

 

B C’ . . .
‘/ C M (—— + A B — o M)in which B C 1s the height of the
A B '

shaft, A B the quantity of diminution, and C M the semi-
diameter at the bottom.

By Methods VII., VIII., and IX., the contour of the shaft
never terminates when continued. The curve is concave to
the axis at the bottom, and after a certain distance, it changes
into a convexity. The curve is called tlze conchoid of
.Nicomedes, who is the reputed inventor; the straight line,
in which the moving point runs, is an assymptote; and the
point over which the moveable rule passes, is called
the pole.

As the curve may either fall upon one side or the other
of the axis, it is distinguished accordingly: when it falls on
the side of the axis opposite to that in which the pole is
situated, it is called tlie first conclioid; and when the
describing point is made to move on the same side of the
axis with the pole, the curve so formed is called the second
conclzoid.

This last method of describing a column by continued
motion, has been much praised in architectural works; but
though the method be simple, the instrument is very cum-
bersome. It may be observed, that as all curves are nearly
the same at the vertex, so small a portion as is required for
a column, will be the same in practice, by any of the fore-
going forms. The most useful method, therefore, of describ-
ing the contour of the shaft, is that of Figure 6; the instru-
ment is much more simple, and takes less room, which, in
many cases, would not admit of that for describing the con-
choid; and even that of forming the curve by one motion, as
shown at the end of Method VI., is much more convenient,
as length or extension in one direction only, is required.
But where space is wanting, Methods III. and IV. are
recommended.

COLUMNS are variously named, according to their mate-
terials, construction, formation, decoration, disposition, and
destination.

1. Columns, according to their materials, are, moulded,
fusible, transparent, scagliola, masonic, or wooden.

When a column is made by cementing gravel and flints of
different colours, it is called a moulded column.

The art of moulding columns was knoan to the ancients,
as would appear by some lately discovered near Algiers, in
the ruins of the ancient city of Caesarea; where the same
inscriptions in antique characters, and even the same defects,
are to be found repeated on every shaft, which is certainly a
proof of their being moulded: the cement employed in the
emplastation of columns, grows perfectly hard, and receives
a polish like marble.

Columns of fusible matter, as metals, glass, &c., are called
fusible columns,- the secret of making them is said to have
been known to the ancients, who are also said to have fused
and cast columns of stone. Columns of this description may
also be called moulded columns.

When the material of which a column is made is transpa-
rent, the column is called a transparent column. The
columns of the theatre of Scaurus, mentioned by Pliny, were
of crystal, and those in the church of St. Mark, at Venice, are
of transparent alabaster.

When columns are constructed with a. kind of plaster, so
as to imitate marble in polish and colour, they are called
scagliola columns.

Columns built of rough stone, or compass bricks, and
cased with stucco, are called masonic columns, or columns of

 

masonry; as are likewise those made in courses of stone,
jointed, and cemented in the best manner, with a rubbed or
smoothed surface. See STONE COLUMN.

When the shaft of a column is constructed of wooden
staves, glued together, and the interior angles strengthened
with blockings, the column is said to be a joinery column.
See the articles BASE, CAPITAL, and WOODEN COLUMN.

2. Columns, according to their construction, are columns
in bands or tambours, columns in trencheons, or banded
columns.

When the shafts of columns are formed of courses of stone
of a less height than the diameter of the column, they are
called columns in bands or tambours. This method is only
practised in large columns.

When shafts of columns are formed in courses of greater
height than the diameter of the column, they are said to con-
sist of trencheons ; this is practised in small columns, when
the fewer the pieces, the more beautiful will the column be ;
but the difficulty of raising them from the quarry is greater,
and the carriage more expensive.

When the shafts of columns consist of plain or ornamented
cinctures, projecting beyond the general line of the shaft, the
column is said to be banded, and is therefore called a banded
column. Columns of this description were first introduced
by De Lorme, in the chapel de Villers-Coherets, and at the
Tuileries, who by this means supposed the joints would be
concealed.

3. Columns, according to their formation, are attic, conical,
conoidal, cylindrical, cylindroidal, or polygonal.

The attic column is an insulated pilaster, having four equal
faces, of the highest proportion. Though this is commonly
inserted among the ‘number of columns, it should not be so
deemed, but rather what we have already denominated it, an
insulated pilaster. To prevent confusion, the use of the term

 

column, in architecture, should be restrained to a body of E

circular horizontal sections.

A conical column has the superior diameter of its shaft less
than the inferior, with its sides straight in every plane
passing through the axis.

A conoidal column also has the superior diameter of the
shaft less than the inferior, but its exterior sides are convex
in any plane passing through the axis. This practice of
making the shaft swell is ancient, being mentioned obscurely
by Vitruvius, and has been generally followed by modern
architects.

Cylindrical colmmns have the extreme diameters of the
shafts of equal circles.

Cylindroidal columns are those whose sections are all
similar and equal ellipses, alike situated. These are other-
wise called elliptic columns. Instances of this form are rarely
to be met with in the remains of antiquity; a few examples,
of modern date, are to be seen at Rome.

Polygonal columns have the horizontal sections of their
shafts similar to polygons, alike situated. The lower parts
of the shafts of the columns of the portico on the Island of
Delos and of the temple of Cora, are of this form; as are
likewise the columns of several Egyptian buildings.

4. Columns, according to the decorations of their shafts,
are barkformed, cabled, carolytic, fluted, or twisted.

A bark-formed column represents the trunk of a tree, with
the bark and knots. This is otherwise denominated a pas-
toral column.

Cabled or rudented columns have the flutings of the shaft
filled with astragals, to about one-third of their height.

Carolytic columns have foliated shafts, decorated with
leaves and branches winding spirally around them, or dis-
posed in form of crowns and festoons. They were used by

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

COL

183

COL

 

the ancients for supporting statues, whence the name. They
are suitable in theatres, triumphal arches, 8:0.

Fluted columns have flutes cut in their sides, in planes
passing through their axes, and are otherwise called chan—
neled or striated columns.

Twisted columns make several circumvolutions in the
height of the shaft, after the manner of a screw, and have
sometimes several threads or screws following one another in
the same circumference; they are otherwise called spiral
columns. Vignola is said to be the first who discovered the
method of drawing this kind of column by rule; but what
has been presented to us by this author, is only an incorrect
method of drawing the contour of the column on paper, by
segments of circles, diminishing in altitude as they become
more elevated in their regular succession; but the true prin-
ciples of forming the shaft ought to be shown from the
principles of the spiral, and described upon the concidal
surface. The barbarous practice of twisting columns has
been much used by modern architects, particularly in the
screens and altar—pieces of churches. The most. celebrated
example is the baldachin of St. Peter’s.

Columns spirally formed may be seen in the temple of
Spoleto, and are not unfrequent in sarcophagi and other
ornamental works.

5. Columns, according to their disposition, are angular,
cantoned, coupled, doubled, engaged, flanked, grouped, inserted,
insulated, median, or niched.

Angular columns are insulated in the corners of a portico,
or upon the corners of a building, (even though attached,)
whether the angle be right, acute, or obtuse.

Cantoned columns are placed one at each corner of a.
square pier, for supporting the angular springings of groins,
or intersecting vaults.

Coupled columns are disposed in pairs, in the same range
or line, so as almost to touch at their bases; as those in the
western portico of St. Paul’s, and the peristyle of the
Louvre.

Doubled columns, in any range of columns, or in peri-
styles, seem to have their shafts penetrating each other to
about one~third of their diameter; as in the peristyle of the
Louvre.

Engaged columns seem to penetrate a wall from between
one-fourth to one-half of their diameter.

Aflanhed column has a semi-pilaster on each side of it,
and is engaged from one-fourth to one-halfits diameter, within
the plane of the faces of the semi-pilasters.

Grouped columns stand in threes or fours on the same
pedestal.

Au inserted column is let into a wall.

An insulated column is free or detached on all sides.

flfcdian columns are those two columns of a portico, which
are placed in the middle of the range, at a wider interval
than any other two in the same range, for giving a freer
access to the principal entrance. The term is derived from
columnre media), the name given by Vitruvius t0 the two
columns in the middle of the colonnade.

A nichcd column is placed in a niche, with the axis of the
column in the plane of the wall.

6. Columns, according to their destination, are agricultural,
astronomical, boundary or limetrophus, chronological, funeral,
gnomonic, historical, indicative, itinerary, lactary, legal,
mmmhiary, menian, miliary, military, phosphorical, rostral,
statuary, symbolic-cl, or zoophoric.

Agricultural columns are raised for explaining the rules
of agriculture.

An astronomical column is a cylindrical or conical obser-
vatory, built hollow, with a winding staircase ascending to

 

an armillary sphere at the top, for observing the motions of
the heavenly bodies. Such is the Doric order, erected at the
Hotel de Soissons, at Paris.

Boundary or limetrophus column showed the limits of a
kingdom, or conquered country. Such was that erected by
Alexander the Great at the extremities of the Indies, men-
tioned by Pliny.

A chronological column bears an inscription of historical
events, arranged in order of time. There were two columns
of this kind at Athens, whereon was inscribed the history of
Greece, digested into Olympiads. .-

A funeral column is placed over a tomb, supporting an
urn, or bearing some inscription relative to the deceased. Its
shaft is frequently covered with symbols of grief and
mortality.

A gnomonic column is a cylinder, on which the hour of
the day is represented by the shadow of a style. There are
two kinds of gnomonic columns : in the one the style is fixed,
and the hour-lines are projected on the cylindric surface; in
the other, the style is moveable, and the hour-lines are drawn
to the several heights of the sun in different seasons of the
year.

An historical or triumphal column is usually adorned with
basso-relievos, winding spirally upwards around the shaft,
and showing the history of some great personage. The most
celebrated ancient triumphal columns are those of Trajan and
Antoninus Pius at Rome, and Pompey’s Pillar, near Alex-
andria, Egypt; of modern ones we have three in London—
the Monument, erected in memory of the Great Fire, that
erected in honour of the Duke of York, and another in
memory of Lord Nelson, in whose honour there is an earlier
one at Edinburgh; there is likewise a celebrated column
termed Buonaparte’s Column, in Paris.

Trajan’s Column is of the Doric order, and constructed of
marble; the face throughout its length is covered with
sculptures arranged in a spiral line, running up the shaft,
representing his martial exploits; its total height, including
a base or pedestal of 19 feet, is 132 feet, and the diameter of
the shaft at its junction with the base 13 feet.

The column of Antoninus is similar to that of Trajan both
in its style and general character, though not equal to it in
execution. Its height is 122 feet, including a pedestal of
26 feet, and the diameter of the shaft 11 feet 6 inches.

Pompey's Pillar at Alexandria is of the Corinthian order,
and is 92 feet in total height. The shaft, which is 66 feet
in height, is of a single block of granite, and polished.

Of the columns in London, the Monument is the most
celebrated. It is of the Doric order, and has a fluted shaft;
its total height is 202 feet, and the diameter of the shaft at
its base 15 feet.

At Constantinople were two triumphal columns, similar to
those of Trajan and Antoninus; that of Constantine is
entirely destroyed, and of the other, erected to Arcadius, by
Theodosius, only the pedestal and the first course of the
shaft remain. Historical columns may also be called memo-
rial, honorary, or triumphal columns.

An indicative column is placed on the sea-coast, for show-
ing the rise and fall of the waters. Of this kind is the
Nilometer, at Grand Cairo, which shows the rise and fall of
the Nile.

Itinerary columns are constructed with several faces, and
placed at the intersection of two or more roads, to point out
the different routes by an inscription placed on each face.

The lactary column was erected in the herb-market at
Rome, on a hollow pedestal, wherein young children, aban-
doned by their parents, out of poverty or inhumanity, were
exposed, to be brought up at the public expense.

,__._.__,,‘_,__—___,.._ ________ .‘ ,_‘_,__¥___‘_

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

COM

 

.184 C 0 M

 

A legal column, among the Lacedaemonians, was raised in
a public place, inscribed with the fundamental laws of the
state.

A manubiary column is built in imitation of a tree, and
adorned with trophies taken from an enemy.

Illem'tm columns support a balcony or meniana. This kind
of column takes its name from one Menias, who having sold
his house to Cato and Flaccus, when consuls, to be converted
into a public edifice, reserved to himself the right of raising
a column on the outside, to bear a balcony, whence he might
see the public shows. We are informed of this circumstance
by Suetonius and Ascanius.

.Mlliary columns were raised equidistantly on the high-
ways from Rome to the several cities of the empire, and
described their distance from the middle of the Roman
Forum, as a centre, where the first miliary column was
raised by order of Augustus. This column was of white
marble, of a cylindrical form, and massive proportions, sup-
porting a globe, the same as is now seen on the balustrade of
the staircase of the Capitol at Rome. This column was called
miliarium aureum, as having been gilt, or at least the ball, by
order of Augustus. It was restored by the Emperors Ves-
pasian and Adrian, as appears from the inscriptions.

A military column, among the Romans, was engraven with
a list of the forces in the Roman army, ranged in order by
legions, and intended to preserve the memory of the number
of soldiers, and of the order observed, in any military expe-
dition. Another kind of military column, used by the
Romans, stood before the temple of Janus, at the foot
whereof the consul declared war, by throwing a javelin
towards the enemy’s country. This column was called
columna bellied.

A phosplzorical column is a hollow column, built on a rock,
or the tip of a mole, or other eminence, to serve as a light-
house, or lantern, to a port.

A rostral column was a triumphal column, adorned with
the beaks and prows of galleys, in memory of a naval victory.
The first rostral column was erected in the Capitol, on
oceasion of the defeat of the Carthaginians by C. Duilius.
Augustus constructed four columns with the prows of the
ships taken from Cleopatra.

A statuary column supports a statue.

Symbolz'cal columns represent some particular country, by
appropriate attributes.

A zoopltoric column is a kind of statuary column, bearing
the figure of some animal.

There are also other columns, denominated hydraulic, or
water-columns, used as fountains.

COLUMNIATED “’INlHNG-STAIRS. See STAIRS.

COMA (from the Greek who, Sleep) in antiquity, a mound
of earth over a grave.

COMITIUM (Latin, an assembly) in Roman antiquity,
a large hall in the forum, in which comitia were ordinarily
held. Prior to the period of the second Panic war, it was
open at the top ; but on account of the assemblies being often
interrupted by bad weather, it was then covered over.

COMMANDERY; a religious house belonging to the
Knights Hospitallers, the same as a preceptory with the
Knights’ Templars. Previous to their dissolution in the time
of Henry VIII., there were no less than fifty such buildings
subject to the priory of St. John of Jerusalem.

COMMISSURE (from the Latin, commissura) the joint
between two stones, or the application of the surface of one
stone to that of the other.

COMMON, (from the Latin, communis) in geometry, a

line, angle, surface, or solid, which belongs equally to two or
more objects.

 

COMMON CENTERING, a centering without trusses, having
a tie-beam at the bottom; or otherwise, that which is employed
in straight vaults.

COMMON Jorsrs, those beams in single naked flooring to
which the joists are fixed; they might be properly called
boarding-joists, and should never exceed one foot clear of
each other.

COMMON PITCH, a term applied to a roof which has the
length of the sides about three-fourths of the span.

COMMON RAFTERS, those timbers in a roof to which the
boarding or lathing for slating is attached. Common roofing
consists entirely of common rafters, which, in the strongest-
framed roofs, bridge over the purlins.

COMMUNICATING-DOORS, or DOORS 0F COMMUNI-
CATION, those which open or throw two apartments into one.

COMPARTED, (from the French, compartir, to divide)
a line, surface, or solid, divided into several parts ; or a hol-
low space partitioned into several smaller spaces.

COMPARTITION, the distribution of the ground-plot of
an edifice into apartments and passages.

COMPARTMENT, (from the French, compartiment) a
division of a picture, design, &c.

COMPARTMENT CEILING, a name given to all ceilings
divided into panels, surrounded with mouldings. There are
many beautiful ancient compositions of this kind applied to
the intradoses of cylindrical and spherical vaulting, and to
the sofiits of the porticos of temples; as may be seen in the
Pantheon and the temple of Peace. The compartment ceil-
ings of the. last century were extremely heavy, which has
occasioned the epithet pondrous to be applied to them, in
order to distinguish them from those in present use. These
weighty compositions took their rise in Italy, under the first
masters, who seem to have been led into that idea, from
observations on the sofiits 0f the porticos of antique temples.
The ancients, with their usual skill, kept up a bold and mas-
sive style, proportioning their coffers to the strength, magni-
tude, and height of the building, and at the same time making
an allowance for their being on the exterior part, adjoining to
other great objects; all which served to diminish and lighten
the effect of the compartments. From this mistake of the
first modern restorers in Italy, all Europe has been misled.
Michael Angelo, Raphael, Pyrro Ligerio, Dominichino,
Georgio Vasari, and Algerdi, with great taste and knowledge,
threw off those prejudices, and boldly aimed at restoring the
antique in due proportion. But at this time, the rage for
painting became so prevalent in Italy, that, instead of fol
lowing these great examples, every ceiling vas covered with
large fresco compositions, which, though extremely fine and
well painted, were much misplaced, and would, from the
attitude in which they were beheld, tire the patience of every
spectator. Great compositions should be placed so as to be
viewed with ease. Grotesque ornaments and figures are
perceived with a glance of the eye, and require little exami-
nation. The heavy compartment ceilings were afterwards
adopted in France; and Le Potre adorned them with all the
trappings of his luxuriant imagination. Inigo Jones intro-
duced them into England, with as much weight, but less
fancy and embellishment. Vanbourgh. Campbell, and Gibbs
followed too implicitly the authority of this great name.
Kent has the merit of being the first who began to introduce
grotesque paintings in ornaments of stucco, and to lighten
the coffers of compartment ceilings. Mr. Stewart, with his
good taste in the antique, has contributed greatly towards
introducing the true style of decoration; but the completion
seems to have been reserved to the present times, in which
not. only these, but every other kind, are executed in the
highest degree of perfection.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

COM

185

COM

 

COMPARTMENT TILES, an arrangement of white and red
tiles, varnished, for the decoration of the covering Of a roof.

COMPASS-HEADED, having a semicircular head.

COMPASS ROOF, that which extends from one wall to the
other the whole width of the building, having a ridge in
its centre; the term is used in contradistinction to lean-t0
roof, and is peculiarly applied to the ancient open timber
roofs. The term is applied by some to roofs with cylindrical
or barrel vaults.

COMPASS SAW. See SAW.

COMPASS WINDOW, a window which has a circular plan ;
a bow or oriel window.

COMPASSES, (from the French, campus) a mathematical
instrument for describing circles and ellipses, or their arcs;
also for measuring and proportionng distances.

Compasses for drawing are of four kinds: those with two
legs, moveable on a joint, by which the extremities can be
extended to any distance, not exceeding the sum of both legs,
are called common compasses. Those with a beam having a
fixed point at one of its ends, and a moveable collar carrying
another point, which may be fixed at any distance from the
fixed point by means of a screw, are called beam compasses.
Those with three legs, so as to be set to any three points, Of
which the distance between any two may not be greater than
the sum of any two legs of the compass, are called triangular
compasses. Those for drawing ellipses, are called elliptic
compasses.

Common compasses are of several kinds, and are furnished
with fixed or moveable points, for carrying a pencil or ink foot.

Common compasses with Sharp points, used for taking
distances, are called dividers. Dividers, which have the lower
point of one of the legs fastened to the upper part by a stiff
spring, and by means of a screw will allow of slow motion in
the legs, so as to extend or shorten the distance of the points to
the smallest degree, are called liair compasses. Those with
moveable ink and pencil feet, for describing circular lines, are
called, in contradistinction, compasses; the ink or pencil foot is
fitted into a socket in one Of the legs of the compass. Besides
the ink and pencil feet, there is sometimes another foot for
dotting circular lines, but it is seldom used, as being apt tO
run two or more dots into one. Compasses for describing
small circles with ink or pencil, and which shut into a bow,
are called bow compasses.

Triangular compasses have two legs, which revolve on a
folding joint, like common compasses, and the third leg is
fixed to the bulb by means of a projection, with a joint, so
as to be moveable in every direction. The three points of
the compasses may be made almost to coincide with any three
assumed points, to any distance within the reach of their
extension.

Compasses with a joint between the extremities, and two
Sharp points at each end, forming a double compass, so that
the two ends may always preserve the same ratio, however
extended, are called proportional compasses. When the joint
is fixed, the compass is said to be simple; but when moveable,
it is called a compound proportional compass.

The simple proportional compasses, in most general use,
have the two legs on one side of the centre always double
those on the other, and are denominated wholes-and—ltalves,
or bisecting compasses.

Compound proportional compasses have each branch cut
with a long slit for a cursor to slide in ; in the middle of the
cursor is a screw, by which the ends may be set in any pro-
portion to each other. One leg is generally graduated on
either side of the slit, one side for the division of right lines
into any number of equal parts from 2 to 10, and the other
for inscribing polygons from 6 to 20 sides in a circle of any

32

 

 

given radius within the greatest extension of the compasses.
The other leg is graduated in a similar manner, one side into
divisions, showing the proportion between the areas Of similar
plane figures, the other into parts showing the proportion
between the contents of similar solid figures. This instru-
ment is employed in the reduction of figures, and is extremely
useful in the projection of dome compartments, and in
perspectlve.

Examples of the use of compound proportional compasses.
—Let it be required to divide a straight line into four equal
parts : push the cursor till the index be just on the figure 4,
and fix it there; then take the length of the given line with
the longer legs, and the distance between the points of the
other legs will be one-fourth of the length of the line.

Again, let it be required to inscribe a heptagon in a
circle: push the cursor till the index or zero be on 7; then,
with the longer legs take the radius of the circle, and the
distance between the two other points will be the side of the
heptagon. See PROJECTION.

To find a regular plane figure Whose area shall equal one-
fourth Of that Of a given similar figure; set the zero on the
cursor to the line marked 4, take the length of one Of the sides
of the given figure with the longer legs, and the distance
between the points of the shorter ones will give the side Of
a similar figure which shall contain an area equal to one-
fourth af the area of the given figure.

By means of the same scale of divisions, may be found the
square root of any given number, thus :—Set the zero Of the
cursor tO the given number; open the longer legs so as to
contain the same number from any scale of equal parts, then
apply the points of the shorter legs to the same scale, and
the distance measured between them will give the square root-
Of the given number.

To find a sphere or cube whose solid contents shall be equal
to one-fourth of those Of a given sphere or cube: Set the zero
to the division marked 4, measure the diameter of the given
Sphere, or the side of the given cube, with the points of the
longer legs, and the points of the Shorter ones will give
the diameter Of a sphere or side of a cube such as required.

The cube root of any number may be found by this scale
in a similar manner to that by which the square root is found
by the Opposite one.

Compasses used in the description of ellipses, are called
elliptic compasses, or ellipsograplis. See ELLIPSOGRAPH and
PENTAGRAI’II.

COMPASSING (from the French, compasser, to encircle)
in naval architecture, the act of bringing any piece Of timber
into the form of an arch.

COMPLEMENT (from the Latin, complementum, perfec-
tion) in a general sense, the full quantity, or completion Of
anything.

COMPLEMENT, in geometry, whatever is wanting of any
angle to make a right angle, or 90 degrees.

COMPLEMENT or A PARALLELOGRAM, two lesser parallelo-
grams, made by drawing two right lines parallel to the Sides
of the greater parallelogram, through a given point in the
diagonal.

COMPLUVIUM (Latin) in ancient Roman buildings, is
supposed by Newton to be the gutter Of a roof; but by
Dr. Adam (Roman Antiquities) to be the aperture at the top
of the cavmdium. See CAVJEDIUM.

COMPOSITE ARCH, the pointed or lancet arch.

COMPOSITE BASE,

COMPOSITE CAPITAL,

COMPOSITE ORDER,

COMPOSITION, the distribution and arrangement of the
component parts of an architectural design.

See ROMAN ORDER.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CON

186

 

CON

 

COMPOSITION, in plastering. See PLASTERING.

COMPOUND ARCH, a term applied by Willis to those
arches made up of a series of receding concentric arches, the
dimensions contracting with each successive arch; or in
other words, to those arches which may be resolved into
a number of concentric archways, successively placed within
and behind each other.

COMPOUND MASONRY. See MASONRY.

COMPOUND PIER, the same as CLUSTERED COLUMN.

COMPOUND PROPORTIONAL COMPASSES. See Commssus.

CONCAMERATE (from the Latin, concamero) to arch

over.

CONCATENATE (from the Latin, catena) to chain or
link together.

CON CAVE (from the Latin, concavus, hollow) an epithet
applied to the interior side of a figure, or to the interior sur-
face of a body.

CONCAVITY OF A CURVE LINE, the side next to a straight
line, extended between the two points of a curve.

CONCAVITY OF A SOLID, the curved surface of a solid, such
that if any two points be taken in that surface, the straight
line between them will be entirely in a void space, or will
coincide with the surface in one direction only. This defini-
tion applies to cylinders, cones, spheres, and all other solids
generated by the rotation of conic sections about an axis.

When the surface of a solid is such, that two straight lines
may be drawn from any point in that surface to two other
points, so that the one line may be entirely in the void, and
the other pass through the substance or solid, the surface
may be distinguished by the epithet concavo-convew ; of which
description are the surfaces of solids formed like a trumpet-
mouth.

CONCENTRIC (from the Latin, concentricus) in geometry,
a term applied to such objects as have a common centre. It
is principally used in speaking of round bodies, or figures
that have a circular or elliptic circumference; and may also
be applied to polygons that have the same centre, and their
sides parallel to each other, about the same diagonals, radi—
ating from the centre.

CON CH A, the concave surface of a semicircular vault, more
especially applied to that of a semi—dome, or hemisphere.

CONCHOID (resembling a shell.) This name was given
by the inventor, Nicomedes, to a curve, by which he proposed
the finding of two mean proportionals, and the duplication of
the cube. It may be described as a curve line which always
approaches to a straight line but never meets it, though the
straight line and the curve be ever so far produced. It is
thus generated : If A ’ and B D be two right lines intersect-
ing each other at right angles; and if from a fixed point, P,
a number of other lines, 1* F D E, P F I) E, 8w. be also drawn,
and if D E be taken equal to A B, the curve drawn through all
the points E, E, E, Sac. will be the first conchoid, or that of
Nicomedes. In like manner, if D F, D F, &c. be taken each
equal to BC, the curve passing through all the points, F, is
called the second conchoid. The straight line, DD, 8:0. by
which the description of these curves is regulated, is called
the asymptote. The inventor, Nicomedes, contrived an instru-
ment for describing his conchoid by a mechanical motion, of
which the description will be found under COLUMN.

CONCLAVE (from the Latin) a room in the Vatican,
wherein the cardinals used to meet to choose a pope. This
room was, in fact, a range of small cells or apartments, stand-
ing in a line along the galleries and hall of the Vatican.
The word was also used by the ancient Romans, to denote,
generally, a room under lock and key.

CONCORD, Temple of, in Roman antiquities, a temple,
built by Camillus at the foot of the Capitol, and seen from

 

other parts of the column.

 

the Forum: the remains consist of a hexastyle portico, with
two columns at the back, of the Ionic order; the entablature
is very nearly entire ; a large portion of the tympanum, and
a small part of the pediment, remain at the spring of the level
cornice. The weight of the tympanum is discharged from
the entablature with arches. The columns are of granite, of
one piece each, being 40 feet high, and 4 feet 2 inches
diameter. The bases are without plinths, except those of the
angular columns. The capitals are of a singular construction,
and differ from all ancient examples of the same order, in
having the four faces alike.

only one course in height; and on the front, and at one return

of the portico, are entirely plain, without any separation by .

mouldings. The cornice has both modillions and dentils.
This is perhaps the only ancient example of the Ionic order,
in which modillions are used: they are in number twenty-two
in the front of the portico. An interval is placed over the
axis of each column, and not a modillion; and the columns
are very high, being above nine diameters and a half. This

temple is supposed to have been pseudo-peripteral. The column '

on the right angle is less than the rest, and the middle inter-
columniation greater than the others, by about one-third part
of a module.

CONCRETE, the name given to a composition, variously

The volutes are insignificantly ;
diminutive, and the mouldings too large, compared with the .
The architrave and frieze make E

 

 

made, but in general use among architects as an artificial ,,

foundation for buildings.

The convenience of obtaining a firm and solid bottom by l
the formation of a compact mass of concrete; and the facility ‘

with which this composition is made and used, have led to its
almost universal adoption in all situations where the requisite
materials can be procured. The proportions, and the species
of material vary, of course, in different localities, and in the
practice of different architects, but the principal ingredients,
good lime, clean sharp river-sand, and pebbles well mixed,
will not fail to make a good concrete.

Semple recommends to take 80 parts of pebbles—each
about 7 or 8 ounces in weight—40 parts of sharp river-sand,
and 10 of good lime; the last to be mixed with water to a
thinnish consistence, and grouted in. The concrete used by

builders in the neighbourhood of London, is made of Thames ‘=

ballast, as taken from the bed of the river; this is found to
consist nearly of 2 parts of pebbles to l of sand, and from
one-seventh to one-eighth part of lime. Mr. Godwin says
the best method of making concrete is to mix the lime, pre-
viously ground, with the ballast in a dry state; sufficient
water being thrown over it to effect a perfect mixture; it
should then be turned over two or three times with shovels,
put into barrows, and wheeled away for instant use. It is
advisable to employ two sets of men to perform this operation,
with three men in each set, one man fetching the water, 810.
while the other two turn over the mixture to the second set,
and they, repeating the process, turn over the concrete to the
barrow-men. After being put into the barrows, it should be
wheeled up planks, so raised as to give it a fall of some yards,
and thrown into the foundation, by which means the particles
are driven closer together, and greater solidity is given to the
whole mass. Soon after being thrown in, the mixture is
observed usually to be in commotion, and much heat is evolved
with a copious emission of vapour.

The concrete should be thrown on in layers, the first being
allowed to set, before a second is thrown down. A barrow-
load spreading over the ground in its fall, will form generally
a stratum of from 7 to 9 inches thick, and a cubical yard of
concrete will take about 30 feet cube of ballast, and 3% feet
cube of ground lime, with a sufficient quantity of water.

 

 

 

 

CON

187

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Of the latter no more should be used than is absolutely
necessary to effect a perfect mixture of the ingredients.
Hot water accelerates the induration.

The expediency of using concrete as a substitute for stone,
brick, and other materials for building, or constructions above
ground, has been much discussed, and a great variety of
Opinion has prevailed on the subject. In the “ Prize Essay
upon the Nature and Properties of Concrete and its Applica-
tion to Construction,” Mr. Godwin has given much valuable
information, but we think the opinions he has there ventured
as to the use of concrete for walls, &c., will hardly be adopted
by architects generally. “ A prudent man,” says Mr. Bar-
tholomew, “ will not heap up walls a second time, altogether
of concrete. He will not exchange masonry of good strong
mortar, and good strong stone or brick, for a heap entirely
of mortar, and that “tres maigre.” A careful examination
will discover that in every instance in which concrete walls
have been used, more or less of instant ruin has occurred,
the lintels over the apertures of the first story giving
way before even those of the second story have been laid;
and when those breaches have been repaired, they have re-
appeared ; and even through the solid walls, rents have
instantly occurred: experience proves that gravel lying in a
bed, and there growing, as it were, without the means of flow
or escape, is sufficient to support the most enormous weight
of fabric; but the same gravel detached, cannot be piled up,
so as to form either solid upright walls, or horizontal
beams.”

Concrete has been also used both as “ rough concrete,” and
in blocks, in extensive works, as river-walls, breakwaters, 8:0.
and has been recommended for such purposes by engineers
of eminence. In the “ Professional Papers of the Corps of
Royal Engineers,” Captain Denison describes some works
of this kind, and, in the experiments he had the opportunity of
witnessing, some very instructive results are obtained as to the
practical application of concrete to the construction of river-
walls at Woolwich and Chatham. In one instance at \Vool-
wich, it has been applied in mass, the wall having been con-
structed in the same manner as the Brighton sea-wall; in
both the other instances at Woolwich and Chatham, the con-
crete was formed into blocks, which were allowed ample time
to set and harden before they were built into the face of the
wall. At Woolwich, the river-wall is for the most part founded
upon piles; its height above the piles is about 24 feet ; the
thickness at bottom 9 feet, at top 5 feet, with a slope or batter
in front of 3 feet in 22. The face of the wall is composed of
the blocks laid in cement, in courses 18 inches in height;
the headers and stretchers in the course being each 2 feet
6 inches long : the former having a bed of 2 feet, while the
latter have only 1 foot; behind the facing, the rough concrete
was thrown in to complete the thickness of the wall and
counter-forts. Both the blocks and the rough concrete were
composed of lime and gravel, in the proportion of l to 7 and
brought to the proper consistence with boiling water; but
the blocks were, or ought to have been, made with Aberthaw
limo, Dorking lime being used for the rest of the work. The
blocks were cast in moulds, and were submitted to pressure
while setting ; a coating of finer stuff being given to the face
for the sake of appearance. The whole of the wall was built
by tide-work, and in the lower part therefore the backing of
rough concrete had hardly time to set before it was covered
With the tide; the water, however, in this instance appeared
to affect the surface of the mass only, the interior at the depth
of a few inches appearing dry, and of a moderate degree of
hardness, when examined after the retiring of the tide.

During the summer months, the action of the water from
day to day was not perceptible; the surface still remained

 

 

 

tolerably hard; occasionally portions of the fine facing separated
from the rest of the block, owing, it was said, sometimes to
want of care in the original construction, sometimes to injuries
caused by boats or vessels striking the wall ; in these cases,
however, a new facing of cement was applied, and before the
winter, the general appearance of the wall was to a certain
extent satisfactory.

During a hard frost, however, evidences of failure began
to show themselves ; and as soon as the thaw alloweda thorough
inspection of the face of the wall to be made, it was found that
hardly a single block had escaped damage ; in many instances,
the whole face had peeled off to the depth of half an inch; at
one spot, where a drain discharged itself into the river from
a height of about six or eight feet, the back action of the
water after its fall, had worn away the lower courses to the
depth of some inches. These were the evidences of the action
of frost and water combined, upon the best constructed wall
at Woolwich. At Chatham, they were of the same character,
but the damage done to the wall was much greater.

The portion of river-wall at Woolwich, which was built with
rough concrete, was severely injured by the common action
of the water before frost, and the same result was observed
in the walls of a school near Blackheath, which were built of
concrete some years ago : at the ground-line, where the drip
of the water had acted, the concrete was soft, and yielded easily
to any force applied, while the walls above were very fairly
hard, and seemed to have stood very well. The results of the
observations made at that time, on the use of concrete in con-
structions of a kind similar to those above mentioned, are
summed up by Captain Denison in the opinion “ that in
climates like ours, in situations exposed to the alternate action
of water and air, concrete cannot be advantageously used as
a building material, the apparent economy, caused by the
cheapness of the material employed, being more than compen-
sated for by the frequency ofrepairs.”

In the report (dated 1846) and evidence ofthe “ Committee
on the Harbour of Refuge to be constructed in Dover Bay,”
a great deal of valuable information is afforded on the use of
concrete. Amongst the various plans submitted to the com-
mittee, Captain Denison, Colonel Jones, and Mr. Vignoles
proposed to construct breakwaters of blocks of concrete.
The first of these gentlemen recommended that the blocks
should be manufactured at Dungeness, and thence floated to
Dover by means of camels. The French adopted a similar
plan in their works at Algiers, where large blocks of béton,
or hydraulic concrete, were floated out to the required spot,
and then allowed to drop into their places from slings. These
blocks were rectangular in form, and measured 324 cubic
feet. At the works at St. Joilette, at Marseilles, also,
immense blocks of concrete, 13 yards cubic measure in size,
have been sunk for the foundation. The form suggested by
Captain Denison was that of an hexagonal prism, and it was
considered each block would weigh from 20 to 30 tons. The
concrete would be made in the following manner :—the
gravel of sea-beach to be mixed with the best hydraulic lime
in the proportion of ten or twelve parts of gravel to one of
lime ; and with the view of causing it to set more speedily
under water, a proportion of puzzolana should be added,
varying in quantity according to its quality; half the quan--
tity of puzzolana to that of lime would make very hard,
sound concrete, which would set rapidly; but if desirable to

 

make it set very quick, the quantity of puzzolana might be .

increased till it equalled that of the lime.

The concrete used .

by Mr. Ranger at Woolwich was nearly the same, except that '

he used no puzzolana. ‘
In the course of Captain Denison’s evidence he refers to

the works at Chatham and Woolwich, to which we haw: ‘

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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188

CON

 

already alluded, and states that he had again examined the
wall at Woolwich, and found the interior as hard as could be
wished. Those parts, however, of the concrete facing, which
were exposed to the mechanical action of the water, were
injured by it; and therefore, though recommending concrete
below low-water mark, he was bound to admit that it was
not adapted to those situations where it must be exposed to
such action.

The specific gravity of concrete, as compared with that of
other materials, is as follows :—-

Concrete weighs about 140 lbs. to the cubic foot
Brick-work ............ 110
Granite.................. 160 to 170

Portland stone 150.

We must refer to the report itself for more detailed infor-
mation on this subject, only adding the conclusion come to
by the committee, that “there is not sufficient experience of
the use of concrete to warrant its adoption for the faces
of works to be constructed in the sea.”

The French engineers have made use of beton in many of
the extensive works on the continent; beton sets very
rapidly under water, and attains, after a time, a very con-
siderable degree of hardness. M. Milet de Montville having
filled a chest containing 27 cubic feet of beton, sunk it in
the sea, where it remained during two months, after which
it was drawn up, to ascertain the consolidation it had
acquired. On inspection it was found to be converted into
so compact a body, that more difficulty was experienced in
separating its parts, than those of a. block of hard stone.
The best manner of compounding the beton, according to
M. de Montville, is as follows :-—“ Take twelve parts of
puzzolana, (terrasse de Hollande, 0r cendre de ’l'ourney,)
of which form a circular wall of five or six feet in diameter,
on which place six parts of sand, well sifted, free from
earthy matter, and evenly spread. Fill the interior of this
circle with nine parts of quick-lime, well calcined, and pul-
verized with an iron beetle; and to cause it to slack more
quickly, (in maritime works) throw on sea-water in small
quantities, stirring it from time to time with an iron spatula.
As soon as it is reduced to a paste, incorporate the puzzolana
and the sand. The whole being well mixed, throw in thir-
teen parts of unhewn stone, and three parts of iron dross,
well pounded. If this latter ingredient cannot be obtained,
sixteen parts of rough stones or pebbles must be added, of a
size not larger than a pullet’s egg. Let this composition be
well amalgamated for the space of an hour, after which it
must be left in heaps to coagulate ; for this purpose the space
of twenty-four hours will be sufficient in summer or in warm
climates, but in winter it often requires the space of three or
four days. Observe to keep it protected from the rain, and
not to use it until it has sufficiently hardened to require
breaking with a pickaxe.”

The method of using the beton is either in blocks, or by
means of a coffer or chest filled with the composition, lowered
to the required depth, and there emptied.

CONCRETION (from the Latin, concresco) the act of
concreting; the process by which soft or fluid bodies become
thick, consistent, solid, or hard; the act of uniting, by
natural process, the small particles of matter into a mass.
The word is used indifferently for induration, condensation,
congelation, or coagulation.

CONCURRIN G, or CONGRUENT FIGURES, or Soups,
such as will cover each other exactly, or will fill the same
space. All plane figures will do this, when their correspond-
ing angles and sides are equal.

CUNDUIT (from the French) a canal, or pipe, for the
conveyance of water, or other fluid matter; an aqueduct.

 

 

The earth is full of natural conduits, for the passage of
waters, which give rise to springs, and of vapours which
generate metals and minerals.

Artificial conduits for water are made of lead, cast iron, stone,
potters’ earth, &c. See PLUMBERY.

Also the reservoir or erection where the waters are con-
ducted and distributed for use. Previous to the formation of
the present water-companies, these Conduits were frequent in
the different parts of London, and were the only means by
which the inhabitants were supplied with water; the first
conduit erected was one near Bow Church, Cheapside, in the
reign of Henry III.; and among the latest was one of large
dimensions, erected in 1655, at Leadenhall, which served
likewise for an ornamental fountain. Conduits of this kind
of an early date were usual in our large ecclesiastical estab-
lishments, and where Cloisters existed, there was frequently
one in the centre of the quadrangle; which custom has been
observed in the quadrangle of S. Augustine’s, Canterbury,
lately erected, where the conduit, of excellent design, forms
an imposing feature.

The first attempt to carry water into the houses of London
was made by Peter Morris, A.D. 1582, who established the
waterworks constructed under two of the arches of old Lon-
don Bridge, but their supply extended only as far as Grace-
church-street ; soon after, in 1594, similar works were erected
near Broken Wharf, which supplied the houses in “'estcheap
and around S. Paul’s, as far as Fleet-street. It was not until
the reign of James, that any enterprise of this kind on a
large scale was undertaken, when the formation of the New
River was commenced by Sir Hugh Middleton in 1608, and
completed in 1613.

CONE (from the Greek, mime) a solid, bounded by two
surfaces, one of which is a circle, called the base, and the other
a convexity, ending in a point, called the vertex ; and of such a
nature, that a straight line applied to any point in the cir-
cumference of the base and to the vertex, will coincide with
the convex surface.

The straight line drawn from the centre of the base to the
vertex of the cone, is called the (Iris.

When the axis of the cone is perpendicular to the base,
the cone is called a right cone, but when otherwise, it is
called an oblique cone.

If a cone be cut by a plane through its vertex, the section
will be a triangle.

If a cone be cut by a plane parallel to its base, the section
will be a circle, or similar to the base.

If a cone be cut by a plane, so as to make the portion cut
of similar to the whole cone, the section will be a circle, or
similar to the base.

If a cone be cut by a plane parallel to a plane passing
through the vertex, meeting the plane of the base produced
without, the section is an ellipsis, except the part cut 011' be
similar to the whole cone, as in the last position.

If a cone be cut by a plane parallel to a plane in contact
with its side, the section will be a parabola.

If a cone be cut by a plane parallel to a section of the
cone passing through the vertex, the section will be an
liypel‘bola.

Every cone is one-third part of a cylinder of the same base
and altitude (Euclid, b. xii., prop. l0.), and cones of equal
altitudes are to each other as their bases (Euclid, b. xii.,
prop. 11) ; therefore any cone whatever is the third part of '
a cylinder of equal base and altitude with the cone.

The curved surface of a cone is equal to the sector of a
circle, the radius of which is equal to the slanting side of the
cone; and the arc-line of the sector is equal to the circumv
ference of the base of the cone.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CON

189

CON

 

To find the solidity of a cone, multiply the area of the base
by the altitude, and one-third of the product will give the
solidity. Or, multiply one-third of the area of the base,
which is the mean area, by the altitude of the cone, and the
product will give the solidity. See CIRCLE.

To find the curved surface of a cone, multiply the slanting
side of the cone by the semi-circumference of the base, and
the product will be the area of the curved surface.

If the diameter of the base be given, the circumference
must be found as directed under the article CIRCLE.

If the perpendicular altitude be given, the slanting side of
the cone will be ascertained by the 47th prop., Book i., Euclid.
But if the cone be given, it will be much easier to take the
slanting side and the circumference of the base, than its alti-
tude and diameter; the operation will also be much shorter
by taking the former dimensions than the latter. See CONIC
SECTION, ELLIPSIS, ENVELOPE, HYPERBOLA, and PARA-
BOLA.

CON FESSIONAL, or CONFESSIONARY, in churches, a
place, usually under the main altar, wherein the bones of
deceased saints, martyrs, and confessors were deposited.

CONFESSIONAL is also used in the Romish church, to
designate a little box, or desk, in the church, in which the
priest receives the confessions of the penitents.

Few confessionals, if any, are to be found in England,
although it is a common practice to set down all niches,
for which no other use can be immediately discovered, under
this title.

CONFIGURATION, (from the French) the exterior
superficies of a body, from which it receives its particular
figure.

CONGE, a concavity at the extremity of a vertical sur-
face, where it bends off in a tangent, and projects forward
until it meet a fillet, or other vertical surface, at an external
angle. Thus the shaft of a column bends forward at the
upper and lower ends, until it meet the fillet. The conge, when
applied to a column, is part of the interior surface of a cylin-
drical ring, and its section is generally a quarter of a circle.

The term is derived from the French, conge, a curve; the
Greek appellation is apophyge ; and the Latin, scapas, from
which the English word scope is derived. See APOPHYGE.

CONGERIES, a collection or heap of several bodies,
united in one mass or aggregate.

CONGRUITY, in geometry, a term applied to lines,
angles, figures, and solids, which exactly cover each other,
or coincide. Figures that are equal and similar have a con-
gruity; as have solids, the figures of whose sides are con-
gruous with the planes of the corresponding side at the
same inclination.

CONIC, relating to a cone. See CONE.

CONIC SECTIONS, the curves formed by the intersection of
a circular cone and a plane, the former being either oblique
or right. The works of Apollonius and Archimedes are the
first in which these sections were treated of; and their history
is nothing but that of the addition of a few remarkable pro-
perties, till the discovery that the path of a projected body
in an unresisting space is a parabola, and that of a planet
round the sun an ellipse. Though the name, therefore, of
conic sections still remains, the interest which attaches to
these curves, and the method of treating them, has no longer
any reference to the accident from which they derive their
name. The Greek geometers, in pure speculation, occupied
themselves with the different methods in which a cone may
be cut, simply because the conical (with the cylindrical and
spherical) came within the restrictive definitions under which
they had placed geometry ;-—but since the discovery to which
We have alluded, we might as well attempt to write the his-

3 C

 

tory of mathematics and physics, as that of conic sections in
their results and consequences.

Some sections of a cone are considered in elementary geo-
metry, for a plane may meet a cone in a point, or in a single
straight line, in two intersecting straight lines, or in a circle.
But the curves, which are peculiarly conic sections, are the
oval made by a plane which cuts the cone entirely on one
side of the vertex, called the ELLIPSE; the indefinitely
extended modification of this when the plane becomes parallel
to any one slant side of the cone, called the PARABOLA; and
the curve, which is partly on one side, and partly on the,
other of the vertex, formed by a plane which cuts both sur-
faces of the cone, called the HYPERBOLA.

Below is appended some convenient methods of forming the
sections upon a plane, without any reference to the cone.

If each end of a string of greater length than the distance
E F, Plate 1, Figure l, to be tied to the points E and F, and
any intermediate point, B, be taken in the string, then the
point B being carried round the line E F, so as to keep
the parts, E B, B F, always stretched till it come to the point
whence it began to move, the point B will trace out a curve,
A B C D, which will be an ellipsis.

If the end of a straight inflexible line, or rod, of a greater
length than the distance E F, Figure 2, be fixed to one
extremity, E, of the line, and one end of a string of greater
length than the difference between E F and the length of the
rod, be fixed to F, and the other end to the other end of
the rod at N; then, if any point, B, be taken in the string,
and the rod moved round the point E, so as to keep the parts
N B, B F always stretched, the point B will trace out a curve,
which will be an hyperbola.

And if the end of the rod be moved from E, and fixed at
F, and one end of the string moved from F, and fixed at E,
the curve described after the same manner, is called an oppo-
site hyperbola.

In the ellipsis and hyperbola, the points E and F are called
the foci; the line, A C, passing through the foci, joining the
opposite parts of the curve, or curves, is called the transverse
axis; and the point, C, in the middle of the transverse axis,
is called the centre.

In the ellipsis, any line drawn through the centre, and
terminated by the opposite parts of the curve, is called
a diameter; if another right line, terminated by the curve,
be drawn parallel to a tangent at one extremity of the other
diameter, such line is called a double ordinate ; and if it pass
through the centre, it becomes a diameter ; then the two dia«
meters, thus situated, are called conjugate diameters.

When the conjugate diameters are at right angles to each
other, they are called the axis of the cart-e.

If there be a diameter, and a double ordinate to that
diameter, the two segments of the diameter are called the
abscissaa.

Concentric ellipses are such as are similar, and have the
same centre with the greater axis of the one upon the greater
axis of the other, and the less upon the less.

Most of the above definitions apply also to the hyperbola.

If the side, A B, Figure 3, of a right angle or square, A B C,
be applied to the straight-edge, A D, of a rule, and a thread,
equal in length to BC, be fastened to the end, 0, of the right
angle, with the other end to the fixed point, F; and if any
point, E, be taken in the line, then if the edge, AB, of the
square be moved along the straight-edge, AD, keeping the
variable point, E, upon the side, B C, of the square, and
the two portions C E and E F stretched, the point E will trace
out a curve, which is a parabola.

The point F is called thefocus.

The line A D is the directrix.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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190

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The line L K passing through the focus perpendicular to the
directrix, is the axis.

The point I, where the axis cuts the curve, is the vertex.

Any line parallel to the axis, terminated at one extremity
by" the curve, and on the concave side of it, is called, a
diameter.

Any line parallel to a tangent at the limited end of a dia-
meter, is called a double ordinate to that diameter.

The limited part of a diameter, contained by the curve
and a double ordinate, is called the abscissa of that double
ordinate.

Figures 4, 5,
being given, to

Let A B be the diameter,

6. An abscissa, the ordinate, and the diameter
describe the ellipsis or hyperbola.

A C the abscissa, and C D the ordi-
nate. Draw AE parallel to CD, and D E parallel to CA. In
D C take any number of points, F, G, H, and divide D E in the
same proportion at]; g, h. Draw B F I, B G K, B 11 L ; likewise
fI A, g K A, h L A, and through the points D, I, K, L, A, draw
a curve. In the same manner may the curve for the opposite
ordinate be drawn.

When the extremities of the diameter are on different
sides of the ordinate, the curve is an ellipsis; but when the
extremities of the diameter are on the same side of the ordi—
nate, the curve is an hyperbola. When the diameter, A B, is
of infinite length, the ordinates, F I, G K, H L, will be parallel,
then the curve is a parabola. Therefore, in Figure 4, the
lines drawn from the points F, G, H, parallel to the transverse
axis, or abscissa, A B, instead of being drawn to the point B,
as in Figures 1, 2, 3, make the only difference.

It is hardly possible to conceive more convenient or easier
modes of description than these; their correctness may be
proved by showing that their common properties are similar
to those demonstrated of conic sections.

Figures 7, 8, 9.—Let A B be the diameter, C D the ordinate,
and AC the abscissa, as before. In CD take any point, G,
and divide D E by g, in the same ratio as D C is by the point,
G; draw g K A, B G K, Figure 7, and B K G, Figure 8; then,
because of the similar triangles, B N K and BC G, B N : B C : :
N K : C G; and also, because of the similar triangles AN K and
AMG, AN : AM orgE : : NK : MGor CD. By construction
we have g E : D E or C A : : C G : CD; and therefore by mul-
tiplication we have BN + NA : BC + CA ::NK2: CD2,
which property is known to be that of the ellipsis and
hyperbola.

Corollary—Since, in the parabola, B N and B C are of infi-
nite length, and may therefore be said to be equal, BN and
BC may therefore be expunged from the first two terms of the
analogy in the above general property; then we shall have
NA : GA : : NK2 : CD’.

Or the truth of the operation may be shown by a particular
demonstration for the parabola thus: See Figure 9.

Because of the similar triangles AN K and A M g, AN:
A M : : N K : Mg or C D; by construction we have A M : A C ::
C G or N K : CD; and consequently, by multiplication, A N :
A C : : N K2 : 0 D2, which is the property of the parabola.

Figures 7, 8, 9.—In a conic section, are given the abscissa,
AC, an ordinate, C D, and a point, K, in the curve .- to deter-
mine the species, and thence to describe the curve.

Draw E g D parallel to A C, and A E parallel to C D ; through
the points Aand K draw A K g, cutting ED at g; make I) G:
G C : : Dg : g E, and through the points K and G draw K G B
or GKB, which, it' not parallel to A C, produce it until it
meet A C or C A in B; then A B will be a diameter. In this
case, the curve is an ellipsis or hyperbola. It is an ellipsis
when the extremities of the diameter are on different sides of
the ordinate, as in Figure 5 ; but when the extremities of the
diameter are on the same side of the ordinate, the curve is an

 

hyperbola. If K G be parallel to A C, the curve is a parabola.
A diameter, A B, and an ordinate, C D, being thus ascertained,
the curve will be described as in Figures 1, 2, 3. Other par-
ticulars relating to these curves will be found under the arti-
cles ELLIPSIS, HYPERBOLA, and PARABOLA.

CONICAL ROOF, a roof whose exterior surface is shaped
like a cone.

CONICS. See CONIC SECTION.

CON ISTRA, the pit of a theatre.

CON J UGAT E DIAMETERS, of an ellipsis or hyperbola,
any two diameters that are parallel to tangents at the extre-
mities of each other.

CONOID, (from the Greek, vaoet’dng, partaking of the
figure of a cone), a figure generated by the revolution of a
conic section round one of its axes. There are three kinds of
conoids, viz., the elliptical, the hyperbolical, and the para-
bolical ; which are sometimes otherwise denominated, ellipsoid,
or spheroid, hyperboloid, and paraboloid.

Now because the solid is generated by the revolution of
the section of a cone upon its axis, the axis will then also be
that of the solid. In this case, since, in the generation of the
solid, every point of the curve will describe a circle, every sec-
tion of the solid parallel to the base will be a circle.

If a conoid be cut by a plane meeting the base, or the plane
of the base produced, the section will be either an ellipsis, or
an hyperbola, or a parabola.

Every section of an ellipsoid oblique to its axis, is an
ellipsis ; and if a paraboloid or hyperboloid be cut by a plane
meeting the plane of the base, produced on the outside of the
figure, the section will also be an ellipsis. In the paraboloid,
if the cutting plane be parallel to the axis, the section will
be an equal parabola. In the hyperboloid, if the solid be cut
by a plane parallel to a section of the cone, made by a plane
passing through the point where the asymptote of the
generating section meets the axis of the solid produced, the
section will be an hyperbola: but if the cutting plane be
parallel to the plane in which is the asymptote, and at right
angles with the generating section, the section will be a
parabola.

Thus the ellipsoid has only two sections, viz., the circle
and the ellipsis : the paraboloid, three sections, viz. the
circle, the ellipsis, and the parabola: the hyperboloid, four
sections, viz., the circle, the ellipsis, the hyperbola, and the
parabola: and the cone itself has five sections, viz., the triangle,
the circle, the ellipsis, the hyperbola, and the parabola. The
triangle is a section peculiar to the cone alone; the hyperbola,
to the cone and hyperboloid ; the parabola, to the cone and
parabolical and hyperbolical conoids ; and the circle and
ellipsis are common not only to the cone, but also to each of
the three conoids.

All parallel sections of conoids are of similar figures ; though
it may seem singular that this should be a general property,
when it is considered that, in a cone, a section through the
apex, or point, is a triangle, and a section parallel thereto is
an hyperbola ; so that if the property existed generally, the
triangular and hyperbolic sections of the cone so posited
ought also to be similar. To reconcile this paradox, let us
consider, that in all hyperbolical parallel sections of a cone,
the asymptotes make equal angles, and the sections which

are nearer to that passing through the apex of the cone, have :
a greater degree of curvature at the vertex of these curves, ,
than those which are more remote, though both figures be :
similar. Farther, if the legs of the hyperbola be infinitely .
extended, they will be infinitely near a straight line, as they 2

will fall in with the asymptotes nearly, and the curved por-
tion will bear no sensible magnitude, compared with the part
which is comparatively straight, as the legs of the hyperbola

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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become straighter and straighter as they are more and more
produced. Thus the curved portion may be con31dered as a
mere point to the whole figure, in a section. through the
vertex, the ideas of the general property seeming to vanish,
or not apply ; but if we allow a parallel section, though ever
so little distant, it can very easily be compared with any
remote parallel section, and their difference Wlll be this, that,
in like portions of the two curves, the Similar figures inscribed
in the section nearer to the apex will be incomparably small
to those of the section more remote, and in a parallel section
passing through the vertex, the similar figures of comparison
will he lost, as being of infinitely small magnitude.

The section through the axis, which is the generating
plane, is, in the spheroid, the greatest of all the parallel sec-
tions; but in the hyperboloid, it is the least} and in the
paraboloid, it is equal to any other parallel section.

If an hyperbola be supposed to revolve With its asymptote
upon its axis, the curve will generate a conoid, and the
asymptote a cone ; and if these two solids be imagined to be
cut by a plane in any position, then the two sections will
be similar and concentric figures, of the same species in
each solid.

To find the solidity of a «maid—To the area of the base,
add four times the area of the middle section, multiply one-
sixth of the sum by the height, and the product will give the
solidity. In the spheroid, one—sixth of four times the middle
section only, multiplied by the height, gives the solidity;
that is, two-thirds bf the ci'rcumscribing cylinder. '

Other particular rules and properties will be found under
ELLII’SOlD, PARABOLOID, and HrPERBOLOID.

CONOI’EUM, in antiquity, a sort of canopy of net-work,
hung about beds, to keep away gnats and flies.

CONSERVATORY (from the Latin, conservo, to keep)
may be defined generally as a place for preserving anything
in a state desired, as from loss, decay, or injury; in this
sense, granaries for keeping corn, ice-houses, &c., may be
called conservatories.

In gardening, the word conservatory is so frequently con-
founded with GREEN-HOUSE, and the terms are applied with
so little precision to buildings used for preserving plants in
an artificial climate, that it is difficult to define What is pro-
perly a conservatory. “The term,” says a writer in the
Penny Cyclopedia, “ which, as its meaning shows, was
originally intended for buildings in which plants were pre-
served during winter, has come to be used, firstly, for glass-
houses in which plants are cultivated by growing them in
the open border, and subsequently for all such glazed build-
ings whatsoever. A conservatory, properly so called, is a
brick building heated by artificial means, having its whole
Soullwrll part closed by large glazed sashes, which may be
opened or shut at pleasure. Its floor is generally of stone,
and a part of it is occupied by a stage on which plants in
pots can be placed. Such a conservatory was intended to
preserve during the winter, orange-trees, myrtles, American
aloes, and similar plants, which during the summer will
flourish in the open air, but which require during the winter
to be protected.”

The modern or popular meaning of the word, is now
almost the opposite of the original one, and a conservatory
is said to diti’er from a green-house principally in this, that
in the latter, the plants and trees stand in pots, placed upon
stages; and in the former are regularly planted in beds of the
finest composts, on being removed from the green-house,
and taken out of the tubs or pots. By introducing stages,
instead of beds, however, one may serve for the other.

The construction of a conservatory is similar to that of
a green-house; but it should be more spacious, elevated, and

 

 

 

 

finished in a superior style. The sides, ends, and roofs
should be of glass, in order to admit light freely, and to
protect the plants. It should likewise be so situated as to be
quite dry, receiving as much of the heat of the sun as possible
during the day, and provided with flues to communicate heat
when found necessary, and valves and other conveniences
for the introduction of fresh air, when required, for the pur-
pose of ventilation. In summerutime, the glass roofs are
sometimes taken off, and the plants exposed to the open air,

but on the approach of the autumnal frosts, they must be "

restored.

There is much diversity of opinion amongst practical men ,

as to the comparative merits of wood and iron in the con-
struction of conservatories. Mr. J. Thompson, a man of

great experience, in his “Practical Treatise,” gives the pre- ;

ference to wood, although acknowledging the advantages of
iron in lightness of appearance. “Any persons,” he observes,

“having a knowledge of the expansion and contraction of
metals, may form some idea of the expansion of a large iron I

roof on a hot day during the months of July and August,

and of the contraction on a severe frosty night; so great have ;
I witnessed the action of the sun’s rays in expanding the iron '

rafters and lights upon a hot day, that it has required two or

three men to draw down the sliding-lights ; and in an equal .

proportion have I seen the contraction during the intensity

of winter, so much so, that large apertures have appeared ;

between the rafters and lights, which admitted the external

air to such an extent, that it required the strength of two ‘
fires, and the fines heated to the greatest excess, before the ‘

house could be raised three degrees of heat, and this in a house
of not very large dimensions.” This gentleman also objects

to the iron-roofed houses, that they require double the quan- 3
tity of fuel that is necessary in houses otherwise constructed. 9
Notwithstanding some admitted disadvantages, the great ‘

convenience of iron, the readiness with which it is manufac-

tured, and the extreme lightness and elegance of its appear-
Some of the i

ance, will always give it a great advantage.
most magnificent conser'atories in this country, have been
constructed of iron, amongst which we may especially notice
that in the Botanic Garden, Regent’s Park.

This building was erected under the direction of Mr.
Decimus Burton, and forms the half of the centre part of the
proposed “ Winter Garden,” in which, when completed, the
subscribers to these beautiful gardens will be able to enjoy
the luxury of the parterre at all seasons of the year.

It is constructed of iron, principally wrought, the pillars
and guttering only being cast. The water from the roof is
conducted by the internal pillars, to large tanks under ground,
from whence it is pumped up for the supply of the house.
The building is heated by warm water conveyed through
pipes arranged beneath the surface, in brick channels, having
large outlets for the hot air, with air-ducts at intervals to
create a current, and give increased action to the hot air in
the drains. The boiler-house is beneath the ground, at some
distance from the building.

The structure is ventilated by sliding-lights in the roof,
acted on by a simple contrivance, which opens and shuts the
whole simultaneously, and is glazed with sheet-glass in long
lengths.

The whole building contains above eleven thousand super
ficial feet. It was erected by Mr. Turner, of the Hammer-
smith Ironworks, Dublin, at a cost of about £6,000.

The conServatories at Sion House, the Duke of Northum-
berland’s, Alton Towers, the Earl of Shrestury's, and the
Duke of Devonshire‘s at Chatsworth, are on the most mag-
nificent scale, and are especially worthy the study of the
young architect who may be called on for designs for a build-

 

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‘CON

192

 

mg of this description. He will also find much valuable
practical information in Mr. J. W. Thompson’s work on the
“ Construction of Stoves, and other IIorticultural Buildings.”

The conveniences which may be attached to conservatories,
consist of retiringsrooms, seed-rooms, aviaries, 8m. If there
be no sheds behind, the walls should not be less than three
bricks thick.

CONSISTORY (from the Latin, consistorz'um) a large
hall, at Rome, in which the college of cardinals meet to plead
judiciary causes.

CONSOLE (from the French) a bracket, or projecting
body, formed like a curve of contrary flexure, scrolled at the
ends, used for supporting a cornice, bust, or vase.

Consoles have been used for supporting an entire order of
columns, as in the barbarous architecture of the palace
of Diocletian, at Spalatro.

Consoles are otherwise denominated ancones, or trusses.

CONSPIRING POWERS, in mechanics, such powers as
act in directions not opposite to each other.

CONSTRUCTION (Latin, construo, to heap up into one)
the erection or disposition of several separate parts in such
a manner, as to form a perfect and compact whole.

A good knowledge of the principles of construction, forms
an essential item in the qualifications of an architect. The
principles of construction arise out of and are entirely depen—
dent upon those of gravitation. “ Gravity,” says an excellent
authority on this subject, “is the source of all the principles,
inventions, and ingenuity, called into action in the structure
of architectu 'al Works. The weight or downward tendency of
their materials, is the cause of buildings holding together,
or falling, or being thrust apart. G ‘avity in its various
dynamic modifications, is the sole acting power which operates
in a building. All the mechanical perfections of scientific
building result from a clear knowledge of the operations of
gravity, and from the ability to direct their course: all the
mechanical defects of buildings, result from an ignorance of
the laws ofgravity, and from inattention or inability to counter-
balance their etfect. A judicious architect enslaves to his pur-
pose the active force of gravity, and compels it to exert all its
force in holding together more firmlyhis structure ; an ignorant
or careless architect or workman, allows that force to exert
itselfin w ‘acking, straining, distorting, breaking, and destroy-
ing his work.”

The methods in which gravity acts upon materials, are by
compression, by tension, and by cross-strain. The first of
these modes of ope 'ation is the simplest and least destructive,
unless exerted to too great an extent, and is that which forms
the basis of the most sound construction ; its tendency is to
bring the particles of matter more closely together ; instances
of its application occur in all simple constructions, such as
upright piers, arches, 8:0. The second method, that of ten-
sion, has :1 directly opposite tendency to the last, and exerts
its influence in disengaging the atoms from each other, it is
of course not naturally favourable to construction, but the
contrary, nevertheless it is made a very etlicient and useful
agent; its influence is never exerted but upon materials which
have a strong counteracting tendency, and it is made avail-
able to produce the first effect of gravity, or compression.
Examples of its operation are to be met with in suspension—
bridges, and in the tie-beams and king or queen-posts of
trusses. The third method by which materials are affected
by gravity, is cross-st ‘ain, which is 2 Combination of the two
last, as it is tension effected by pressure, and its result is to
tear or wrench the particles of matter asunder; it is in prin-
ciple totally inimical to construction, and must be avoided or
countC‘acted. Cross—st ‘ain occurs in unscientifically formed
roofs, where struts rest upon a tic-beam, also when any ver-

tical weight presses upon any horizontal beam, as in the case
of bressummers ; it happens likewise, when heavy untrussed
horizontal beams have too great a bearing, the effect in this
case is termed sagging, and is counteracted by cambering or
trussing the beam. .

Analogous, and arising out of these operations of gravity,
are the three great principles in construction—repose, equipoise,
and tie. The first of these is the simplest, and is the principle
most usually adopted in very ancient buildings; it is used
where the materials are merely piled up perpendicularly, so
as to form piers or columns with cross-beams, architraves, or
lintcls, laid horizontally upon the piers or columns, pressing
downwards merely with the gravity of these materials,
without any thrust or other inclination to destroy the position 3
of any part of the arrangement. “ Buildings constructed on
this principle, need only tenacity of material and unflinching
foundations to be altogether perfect in construction ; but
buildings of this kind, owing nothing to geometrical science,
lead to an enormous consumption of materials ; all the materials
of the horizontal spanning masses, of even a small building,
must be huge, and are thence immensely expensive to procure,
and to raise to their destined places ; if these spanning masses
be either so long or so brittle as to yield by their own weight,
or by that which may be put upon them, the principle of
simple repose becomes destroyed ; the horizontal masses sink,
and the piers or sustaining masses are thrust outwardly.”

The disadvantages attending this mode of construction, led
to theinvention of others, yet at the same time they all aimed
at attaining the same end, namely, simple repose throughout
the materials and different members of a building. The prin-
ciple of equipoise in construction is this, that all tendencies
to disturb or produce motion amongst the parts of a structure,
should be counterbalanced by an equal and opposite tendency,
and the most perfect exhibition of its powers is to be seen in
the arch. This principle of building allovs of the employment
of the smallest materials, and ensures stability with the least
possible quantity of matter; it is therefore far preferable to
the first method or principle. The third principle, of tying,
is of modern invention, and by it the quiescent state of a
structure is maintained, not by resisting the power as in the
last case, by external opposition or abutments, but by con-
fining the power by internal restraint. The principle is
embodied in the structure termed a truss.

The most perfect specimens of constructive science are to
be found in the wonderful erections of the Gothic architects:
“ The mideval Christian builders arrived to such a delicate
and intimate acquaintance with architectural dynamics, that
by the discovery of the way in which all the particles of their
materials were affected by gravity, they were enabled, by
merely subjecting them to the frangibility caused by com-
pression, so to economize them, and reduce their quantity,
that many members of Gothic edifices, after five hundred
years’ devastation by time, are more sound than corresponding
members of our modern builders, which have not subsisted
fifty y Ears, and which contain five times their proportion of
materials. So admirable in general is the skill displayed in
the dynamic disposition of the material of a Gothic cathedral,
so shrewdly are the forces of its gravitation reduced to simple
compression, that the whole is like a wonderful piece of
shoring, sublimely and permanently imitated in stone.”

CONSTRUCTION, the art of describing a diagram or scheme
from given data.

In geometrical constructions, the accuracy of the diag 'am'
depends upon that of the points by which the lines constitut~
ing the figure are found. It is, therefore, of the utmost'
consequence to ascertain the situation of points correctly by

 

 

lines crossing at right angles, or as nearly so as possible

 

 

 

 

 

CON 193 CON

 

 

The choice .of this is not at all times in the power 0f the
geometer, but when it is, he ought to.avail himself of it.
The situation of a point must be ascertained by tne intersec-
tion of two lines, and since a line cannot be Without breadth,
it will be an oblong, and the intersection of two lines Will be
a parallelogram; when the lines cross at right angles, the
parallelogram will form a square; and when athoblique
angles it will be a rhombus. In all these 03368, t e pomt
required is in the intersection of the diagonals of the paral-
lelogram. Now the least of all the parallelograms formed by
the intersection of two lines of equal breadth, is a square;
but the greater the obliquity of the lines of intersection, the
longer will be the rhombus; and as the drawing of the
figure depends upon vision, the more indistinct Will the angles
of the figure so formed become, and consequently the Situa-
tion of the point must be almost guessed at. In some cases,
the obliquity of the intersection is of little consequence; as,
in finding a curve by points, Where the lines, which form
the intersection, fall very nearly in with the curve itself, or
make very acute angles with the tangent, unless it .be
required to find the points in the curve in a given ratio;
but if, in finding a point, through which a line is to pass
from another given point, to meet a line, of which some
parts are either given or found, or to be found, it will be of
the utmost consequence to determine with accuracy the situ-
ation of the intermediate point; for the point ascertained in
the other line will vary from its true place, more or less,
according to the distance of the intermediate point found by
the intersection.

Another source of error, arising from the intersection of
oblique lines, which will also be more or less accurate, as the
obliquity is less or greater, is, when one or both the lines
are not exactly drawn through their extremities; even the
deviation of a line being drawn its own breadth, will make
the intersection fall its own length (which is the diagonal of
the rhombus) to the end of the true intersection. Let it
also be considered, that the longer diagonal of the rhombus
may be of any length whatever, depending upon the obliquity
of angles formed by the two intersecting lines. In the
description of a diagram, when different points are ascertained
in a line, in pointing out the line to the reader, it would be
better to name all the letters in the order as they stand,
instead of pointing out the line by two of the letters, par-
ticularly in a complicated diagram, where many other lines
are Concerned. This is still more necessary when several
lines meet at the same point, as the use of all the letters not
only gives a more immediate clue to identify the line from
others, but also shortens the description, as the same letters
must be used again, in pointing out the other lines which
cross the former line, and will thus supersede the necessity
of the frequent repetition, after a line has been drawn in the
required position to cut a former, of saying, “ cutting such
a line in the point” A or B, or whatever it may be; as the
same letter cannot be in two lines, except at their inter-
section.

In tracing the boundaries of angular figures, it will only
be necessary to name the letters progressively, as they stand
at the extremities of the sides, that is, at the angles; but to
trace out the whole enclosure or perimeter, it would be neces-
sary to name the first letter again, at the end of the series of
letters. It is true, that a triangle, a quadrilateral, 860.
will easily be understood, without naming the first letter
again, by naming the figure at the same time, or the number
of its sides, as in polygons the last side will always be
wanting.

Though these enumerations and repetitions of letters may
appear clumsy, they lead sooner to an understanding of the

3 D

 

construction, shorten the language, and give accuracy to the
description.

CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY shows the method of
reducing wood into forms, and joining the parts, as directed
by the rules of DESCRIPTIVE CARPENTRY, or by the laws of
strength, and thereby forming a complete design.

It is much to be regretted that the first principles of this
department of the art are frequently so little understood by
those who are called upon to put them into practice. The
young carpenter too often follows blindly in the track of
those who have gone before him, without inquiry, and with»,
out even attempting to understand the mechanical construc-
tion of the work he has just put together. We do not mean
that the practical builder must necessarily make himself
master of the higher branches of science, but that it would
obviously be of advantage to him that he should acquire that
general knowledge of the elementary principles of the art,
which would enable him to select the best materials, and
employ them in the best manner.

Every species of construction should be characterized by
stability, and a. careful regard to economy of materials.
These objects can only be obtained by judicious combinations
of the substances used, so that the greatest amount of
strength be secured with the smallest expenditure of mate-
rial. Unless the builder possess a considerable knowledge of
the principles of mechanics, unless he be acquainted with
the effect of pressure, and the resisting powers of different
materials, he cannot comprehend, much less design, such
combinations ; but becomes a mere labourer putting together
the several parts of a work, without knowing their relative
dependence on each other, or the strength, or want of
strength, of the whole. He is, indeed, from the want of such
knowledge as we have described, incapable of judging what
are the best forms of construction, or which of several
modes of uniting timbers it is most advisable to make use of.
It is the province of constructive carpentry to show this, and
the carpenter who is desirous to make himself thoroughly
acquainted with his business, should study to acquire not
only a practical knowledge of its details, but also some insight
into the principles on which it is founded.

Constructive carpentry, it has been observed, is the method
of reducing wood into forms, and the combining of several
parts into a complete, firm whole. In most works, especially
those of magnitude, it will frequently be necessary to join
one or more pieces of timber, in order to obtain beams, &c.
of sufficient size, and in order to economize material. The
processes by which these objects are effected is a subject of
the greatest importance, as on their being properly and sub-
stantially performed depends the stability of the structure in
which they are used. Under this article then we propose to
describe some of the most approved methods of uniting tim-
ber, and to treat of the following operations, viz., the length-
ening of beams, either by scarfing or joining them in pieces;
the strengthening of beams by trussing; the methods ofjoin-
ing two timbers at angles, in any given direction ; and, lastly,
the mode of connecting several timbers, in order to perform
certain functions required by the design.

To lengthen a. piece of timber, is to join or fasten two
separate pieces, so that a portion of the end of the one
piece shall lap upon a portion of the end of the other, the
sides of both making but one continued surface, and forming
a close joint, called a scarf:

It is evident, that in the formation of a continued straight
timber, if the joint consist of a plane, or planes, at right
angles to two opposite sides of the compound piece, but not
at right angles to the plane of the other two opposite sides,
the plane, or several planes, forming the scarf, will make the

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CON

194

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oblique angles, constituted by the surface of each piece on
the same side, supplements to each other; or whatever
oblique angle or angles the one piece makes with a side, the
corresponding angle or angles formed by the joint or joints
with the same continued surface of the other, will, together,
form two right angles, and thus the solid part of the one will
be equal and similar to the void of the other.

There are several methods of lengthening timber, either
by joining whole pieces of the same transverse sections, and
forming their ends, which are to come in contact in one or
several planes, or by forming the connection by means of a
third piece, or by building the piece to be lengthened in
several thicknesses, making the joints abutting upon each
other on the solid of the piece with which they come in con-
tact on the parallel joint. It is evident, that two bodies
united, and intended to act as one in a state of tension, can
never be so strong as either piece taken separately.

Tabling is a mode of indenting the ends of the pieces
which form the scarf, so as to resist a longitudinal strain;
the pieces, therefore, require to be held together, or otherwise
the notches and the tables which fit into them would require
to be dovetailed. In this construction, the tables between
the notches would be a very feeble support, as they are apt
to split away. It must also be observed, that one single
table, or one abutting part of resistance, is stronger, and
much more easy to execute, than two or four; and that the
resisting part should have as little projection as possible,
because such projection diminishes the cohesive force, by a
quantity of the timber equal in section to the abutting parts.
Two pieces of timber may be very firmly fixed, by making
the ends of the tables, instead of abutting, to form a tapering
mortise, so that when the two pieces are brought close at the
connecting surfaces, a wedge driven into the cavity will
bring all the parts of the joint into contact.

Every two pieces of timber require to be held together by
some force compressing them equally on each side, particularly
when the pieces are light; for which purpose iron bolts are
very convenient, they acting as a tie, and having the same
effect as two equal and opposite forces would have in com-
pressing the beam on each side of the scarf; and as iron is of
great strength, the bore made to receive the bolt will not be
so large as to diminish the section, and consequently the
firmness of the timber at the scarf, in any considerable
degree; whereas, when wooden pins are used, they require
a large bore, which weakens the timber, and the two pieces
thus connected are not so firmly compressed, or, indeed,
compressed at all, but are held together almost solely by
friction.

No limited distance can be specified for the length of
the scarf; though it may be observed, generally, that a long
scarf has no effect in diminishing the cohesive strength of a
compound piece of timber. On the (:ontrary, a long scarf
gives an opportunity of increasing the number of bolts,
which are the only ties when no tablings are used, as is the
case where the abutting parts unite only by compression. It
must here be understood, that all such abutting parts diminish
the cohesive force in the proportion of their abutting surface
to that of the whole section at any one of the abutments; so
that, should a scarf consist of a series of steps, formed by
planes parallel and perpendicular to two of the opposite sides,
the transverse sides of these steps to those of the piece
should be all equal; and the greater the number of steps,
the less will the strength be impaired; but if they be
unequal, the timber will be weakest at the greatest section
or compressed abutment, and if few, the section will be large,
and the piece consequently deprived of a proportional degree
of strength. We may also add, if the two pieces be strapped

 

 

longitudinally across their abutting parts, the cohesive force
will be considerably assisted thereby.

There is no part of carpentry which requires greater cor-
rectness in workmanship than scarfing; as all the indents
should bear equally, otherwise the greater part of the strength
will be lost. Hence we see how very unfit some of the

l

complicated forms shown in the old works on carpentry were i

for the purpose. It is certainly the height of absurdity to
render the parts difficult to be fitted, when the whole of the
strength depends on their fitting well. “But many,” says

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Professor Robison, “ seem to aim at making the beam ‘
stronger than if it were of one piece; and this inconsiderate ;

project has given rise to many whimsical modes of tabling
and scarfing.”
Having already shown many varieties of scarfings, under

the general head of CARPENTRY, we shall here only point out

the most approved forms for practical purposes, by way of 1

illustrating the preceding observations.

0 u I '
Figure 1. Two pieces of timber connected by a Single ?

step on each piece.
neither is the scarf so capable of resisting the force of tension
as a single piece of timber would be, were it sawed half
through its thickness from the opposite side, at a distance
equal to the length of the scarf: however, if assisted by

Here more than half the power is lost; 9

l

straps, it may perhaps be capable of resisting a much greater ‘

force, particularly if each opposite surface be bolted on the
sides of the transverse joints through the straps.

Figure 2. An oblique scarf, bolted in three places. Allow-
ing the utmost cohesion of the part of the joint A B, to be the
same as whole timber, and that the transverse parts, A D or
B C, are one-fourth of the breadth, D E, the compound
timber will possess three-fourths of the strength of a solid
piece.

Figure 3. A scarf with parallel joints and a single table
upon each piece.
in an additional degree to that of Figure l, by the projection
of the table; but this gives an opportunity of driving a.
wedge through the joint, between the ends of the tables, and
thereby forcing the abutting parts to a joint. This mode
requires the scarf to be longer than those which have no
tables; and the transverse parts of the scarf must also be
strapped and bolted.

Figure 4. Allows of the same opportunity of wedging as
before: if we could suppose the parts A B and C D to be com-
pressed by bolts as firmly together as if they were but one
piece they would be, by the continuity of the fibres, and if
the projection of the tables be equal to the transverse parts

Here the cohesive strength is diminished, ,

 

of the joints at A and D; the loss of strength, compared with
that of a solid piece, will be no more than what it would be .
at A and D. i

Let it be here observed, once for all, that the strapping ‘_
across the transverse part of the joint is the most effectual ?
mode of preventing the pieces from being drawn from each
other, by the sliding of the longitudinal parts of the scarf,
and thereby giving the bolts an oblique position.

Figure 5. A scarf formed by several steps. In this, if all 1
the transverse parts of the steps be equal, and the longitudinal '
parts as strongly compressed by bolts as the fibres of whole
timber would adhere laterally, the loss of strength would only
be a fourth, compared to that of a solid piece; there being
four transverse parts, that is, the part which the end of a step
is of the whole.

Figure 6. The end of each piece is formed by three steps,
and the abutting parts of the middle step being greater than
that at either extremity, the loss of strength in the compound
timber is the part which the middle abutting surfaces are of
the whole section.

 

 

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Figure 7. A scarf consisting .of ‘six steps, .the abutting
parts being equal, and the longitudinal parts inclined 1n a
small degree to the sides ; so that. when the two parts come
to be bolted together, the pieces Wlll dovetail each other, and
thereby prevent their being drawn; but as all timber is liable
to shrink in proportion to the dupensnons of its'section, no
dependence can be put in dovetaihng, for the. shrinking may
be so great, that the thickest parts of the solids at the abut-
ment of the joint may pass through the narrower cav1t1es,
and render the dovetails useless. We may also observe, in
the case of bolting, that when the longitudinal parts shrink
from each other, the bolts will be drawn obliquely, unless
the transverse parts on the sides be stripped and bolted, both
opposite to the scarf and through the solid at each end of 1t.
The strength of the compound beam may hkew1se .be assrsted
by the iron ; the dovetailing therefore can only give greater
adhesion at first; at the same time, it occasions a small loss
of strength, equal to the difference of the extreme end of the
outer step and the nearer end of the whole section.

Figure 8. The method of forming a compound timber,
when the two pieces are not of sufficient length to allow them
to lap, by means of a third piece, connected with both by a
double scarf, formed of several degrees, or steps; the pieces
abutting upon each other, with the middle of the connecting
piece over their abutment.

When girders are extended beyond a certain length, they
bend under their own weight in the middle, and the degree
of curvature will increase in a much greater degree than their
lengths. An excellent method to prevent this sagging, with-
out the assistance of uprights or posts from the ground or
floor below, is, to make the beam in two equal lengths, and
insert a truss, so that when the two pieces are bolted, the
truss may be included between them, they forming its tie.
To prevent any bad efi‘ects from shrinking, the truss-posts
are generally constructed of iron, screwed and nutted at the
ends; and to give a firmer abutment, the braces are let in
with grooves into the side of each flitch. The abutments at
the ends are also made of iron, and either screwed and nutted
at each of the ends, and bolted through the thickness of both
pieces, with a broad part in the middle, that the braces may
abut upon the whole dimension of their section; or, the
abutttnmts are made in the form of an inverted wedge at
the bottom, and rise cylindrically to the top, where they are
screwed and nutted. These modes may be either constructed
with one king~bolt in the middle, or with a truss-bolt at one-
third of the length from each end. When there are two
bolts, they include a straining place in the middle. The
tvvo braces may either be constructed of'oak, or cast or wrought
iron; the latter material is, however, very seldom employed.
As wood contracts less in length than most metals, oak is
better for the purpose than cast iron, but then the parts of
the core must be so much stronger. As to the bolts, wrought
iron is indispensable. It is obvious, that the higher the girder,
the less will the parts be affected by the stress, and conse-
quently tlwrc will be less risk of their giving way under
heavy weights, or through long bearings.

[Vii/lire S). A beam of two thicknesses bolted together,
the stunting of each length of timber alternating in the
two thicknesses, so as to have the junction of two lengths
in the one thickness opposite the centre of a length in
the other thickness: the scarfing is similar to that of
Figure 3. '

figure 10. A beam of three thicknesses bolted together,
each thickness consisting of a number of short timbers so
dispos‘cd, that the joints in no thickness come opposite the
[Ulllls‘ in either of' the other thicknesses; a bolt occurs between
every tv.'0joiuts.

 

 

Figure 11. A section of a girder with two braces and
a king-bolt.

Figure 12. The section of a. girder with a straining piece,
two braces, and two truss-bolts, of the best principle. No. 1,
represents the girder laid open, in order to show the core.
No. 2, the two parts bolted together. No. 3, the edge of a
washer. No. 4, the face of the same. No. 5, the side of the
cut metal bolts, in the transverse direction of the girder.
N0. 6, the side of the same, in the longitudinal direction.
No. 7, the transverse direction of the truss-bolt, or king-bolt.

Figure 13. The section of a girder, calculated from its
rise to sustain very heavy weights. It' the tie-beam be very
strong, the abutments may be wedged ; but then the wedges
ought to be very long, the tapper very small, that there may
be no inclination to rise. The excess of length may be cut
off afterwards. The bolts represented at No. 5, and No. 6,
Figure 12, are nevertheless to be preferred.

Two timbers may be joined, either by making both planes
of contact parallel with or at right angles to the fibres, or by
making the joint parallel with the fibres of the one piece, and
at right or oblique angles to those of the other, or at oblique
angles to the fibres of both pieces. When two pieces of
timber are joined so that the common seam runs parallel with
the fibres of both, the joint is called a longitudinaljoiut; but
when the plane of the joint is at right angles to the fibres, it
is an abutting, or butt-joint; this position brings the fibres
of both pieces in the same straight line. If thejoint be at
right angles to the fibres of one piece, and parallel with those
of the other, it is called a squarejoz'nt; it' the joint be parallel
with the fibres of one piece and oblique to those of the other,
it is a beveljoiut; and lastly, if the joint be at oblique angles
with the fibres of both pieces, the fibres forming an angle
with each other double to that formed by the fibres of one
piece and the joint, it is a mitrejoint.

These are the general positions of simple joints in respect
to the fibres of one or both pieces; those which may be com-
pounded by the position ot' ditt‘erent planes, are of infinite
variety, but as they seem to have little or no practical appli-
cation, we shall not detain the reader longer on the subject.
In fixing two pieces of timber together with longitudinal
joints, the pieces are generally bolted, and sometimes pinned.

As to butting and mitre joints, they are seldom or never
used in carpentry.

When two pieces of timber are joined together at one or
more angles, the one piece will either meet the other and form
one angle, or by crossing’it form two angles; or the two
timbers will cross each other, and form four angles.

In all the following cases of connecting two timbers, it is
supposed that the sides of the pieces are parallel with the
fibres, or, if the fibres be crooked, as nearly so as possible;
and that each piece has at least one of its surfaces in the
same plane with those of one of' the other; the four sides
being at right angles to each other.

The angle or angles so formed will either be right or obtuse.
Notching is the most common and simple form, in permanent
works, and in some cases the strongest, for joining two tim-
bers atone or more angles, particularly when bolted at the
joint. The form of the joint may be varied according to the
position of the sides of the pieces, the number of angles,
the quantity and direction of the stress on the one or both
pieces, or any combination of these circumstances.

In the notching of timbers upon each other, the notch is
generally supposed to be formed by planes, at right angles
to, and parallel with the side in which the excavation is made;
therefore the part of' the corresponding piece must have its
planes in a similar situation, the solid being contained between
these planes, instead of the emptv space, or notch, as in the

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CON

196

CON

 

other. It may also here be remarked, that the notch is
generally supposed to consist of three planes, unless it be
otherwise specified.

Notching admits of the two pieces being joined at from
one to four angles ; but joining by mortise and tenon admits
only from one to two angles.

In mortise and tenon joining, four sides of the mortise are
always supposed to be at right angles to each other and to
the surface whence it is recessed, and two of these sides to be
parallel with each of the sides, which form a right angle with
the side from which the mortise is made; the fifth plane,
which is the bottom of the mortise, is parallel with the other.
With respect to the tenon, four of its sides are parallel with
the four sides of the piece.

In the application of timbers to buildings, it is here sup-
posed that all pieces cut for use have a rectangular section,
and when laid horizontally have their sides perpendicular to,
and parallel with, the horizon.

If two pieces of timber are to be joined at four angles, cut
a notch in one piece equal to the breadth of the other, so as
to leave the remaining part of the thickness sufficiently strong,
a very small excavation being sufficient; then insert. the other
piece in the notch: or if the work be required to be very
firm, notch each piece reciprocally to each other's breadth,
and fasten them together by pins, spikes, or bolts, as the case
may require: this form is applicable where the pieces are
equally exposed to a strain.

When one piece has to sustain another over it, transversely,
and if only the upper be required to support a weight, cut
a notch from its lower side, equal in breadth to about three-
fourths of that of the lower piece, and as deep as the vertical
distance that it is to be let down ; then the lower piece must
have a notch cut in its vertical side, leaving the middle of
the upper face entire to three-quarters of its breadth, and
the lower parts of the vertical side entire, so that the vertical
depth of each notch may be the same as that of the upper
notch : by this means the strength of the supporting or lower
pieces is diminished in a much less degree than if the notch
were cut out the whole breadth. This method is applicable
to roofing and naked flooring.

The framing of timber by dovetail notching is chiefly
applicable to horizontal framing, where the lower timber is
sufficiently supported ; but where the lower timber is unsup-
ported, it is common to use mortise and tenon, which does
not weaken the timber in any considerable degree; where
the timber is notched from the upper side, the operation
reduces its thickness, and consequently impairs its strength ;
though it may be said, if the solid of one piece fill the exca-
Vation of the other, and both be tightly driven or forced
together (if we can place implicit confidence in the experi-
ments of Du Hamel) and if the pieces be not cut more than
one-third through, there will be rather an accession than
a loss of strength. It may be observed, however, that in
large works, where heavy timbers are employed, it is difficult,
or almost impossible, to fit them with due accuracy; and even
where the joints closely fitted at first, the shrinking would
occasion cavities on the sides, that would render the tenons
of no avail, because the axis of fracture would be nearer to
the breaking, or under side of the supporting piece.

What has been observed with regard to horizontal pieces
of timber, applies to framing in every position, where the
force is to fall on the plane of the sides; and if a number of
pieces thus liable to lateral pressure on either side, are to be
framed into two other stiff pieces, the mortise and tenon will
prove best for the purpose.

When joists are framed into trimmers, the usual method
is to make the mortise 0n the tenon with a plain shoulder, in

 

 

the middle of the sides of its respective timber: this mode
is particularly used in letting down bridging joists upon
binding joists, and small rafters upon purlins.

If it be required to join two pieces of timber, to form two
right angles, so as to be immovable when the transverse is
held or fixed fast, and the standing piece pulled in a direc-
tion of its length; cut a dovetail notch across the breadth of
the transverse piece, and notch out the vertical sides of the
standing piece at the end, so as to form a corresponding
similar and equal solid. In some pieces of work, besides the
dovetail, an additional notch is cut, to receive the shoulder
of the lower piece. If the position of these pieces be hori-
zontal, and the upper of sufficient weight, or pressed down
by any considerable force, when the pieces are put together
in their place, the dovetail will be sufficiently strong without
the assistance of pins, spikes, or bolts. This construction
requires the timbers to be well seasoned, for otherwise the
shrinking will permit the standing piece to be drawn out of
the transverse, and thus defeat the purpose which the con-
struction was intended to answer. The following method of
remedying this defect will be found effectualz— Cut the
transverse piece in two excavations from the upper side, so
that if the breadth be supposed to be divided into five equal
parts, and a notch equal in breadth to three parts he cut next
to the outer vertical side, and the other notch be made equal
to the breadth of one part, and each notch depressed from the
upper face about one-third the thickness of the piece, so as
to leave the second part on the upper surface next to the
inner vertical side, and the two-thirds of the depth of each
vertical side next to the lower side entire: then the corres-
ponding single notch being made on the standing piece to the
solid left on the upper surface of the transverse piece, the two
pieces will reciprocally receive each other.

\Vhen binding joints are framed into girders, as they have
to support the bridging joists and boarding of the floor, there
will be a considerable strain at their extremities; in order
to make the tenons sufficiently strong to resist the weight,
they should be framed with a shorter bearing tenon attached
to the principal tenon and a sloping shoulder above, called
a task ; tenons thus formed are called tusk tenons.

\Vhen two parallel pieces, quite immovable, are to have
another piece framed between them, proceed thusz—Insert
the one end of the tenon of the connecting piece into a shal-
low mortise, and make a long mortise in the opposite side of
the other timber, so that when the cross piece is moved
round the shoulder of the other extremity, as a centre, it
may slide home to its situation: thus if the tenon at the
movable end fit the mortise closely, the bottom of the mor-
tise would be the arc of a circle, of which the shoulder of
the tenon first formed would be the centre : but the bottom
of the long mortise may be straight instead of circular, pro-
vided it be sufficiently recessed to clear the end of the piece.
This mode of framing a transverse piece between two others
is employed in trimming in ceiling joists: the binding joists
are always previously mortised before they are disposed in
a situation to receive them, and the ceiling joists are seldom
or never out to their lengths and fitted in before the building
is covered over.

“Then a transverse piece of timber is to be framed between
two parallel joists, of which the vertical surfaces are not
parallel. turn the upper edge of the transverse piece down-
wards upon the upper horizontal surface of the joists; mark
the interval or distance between them_ upon the surface of
the transverse piece now under; then turn the transverse
piece in the way it is intended to be framed, placing the
edge over the places where it is to be let down; then apply
a straight-edge to the oblique surface of the joist, and slide

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CON

the transverse piece so as to bring the mark upon the upper
side of it in a line with the straight-edge. This being done,
proceed in the same manner with the other end, and the two
lines drawn on the vertical Sides of the Intermediate piece
will mark the shoulders of the tenons. This process is called
by workmen tumbling-in joists, and is particularly useful
when the timber is warped or twisted. . .

Having shown the principles of lengthenlng timber and
strengthening of beams, also the methods of Joining timbers
at angles, we shall now proceed to construction in general:

In groin centering, the boarding which forms the exterior
surface for building upon is supported by transverse ribs of
timber, which are either constructed simply, or with trusses,
according to the magnitude of the work ; and as a grom con-
sists generally of two vaults crossing each other, one of them
is always boarded over, the same as a plain vault, without
havingany respect to the other, which is afterwards ribbed
and boarded, so as to make out the regular surface.

Timbers disposed in walls and at returns or angles, are
joined together where the magnitude of the building, or
exposure to strain, may require. These are of three denomi-
nations, as bond-timber, lintels, and wall-plates.

Flooring is supported by one or more rows of parallel
beams, called naked or carcasejlooring, and is denominated
either single or double, accordingly. The manner of joining
the timbers we have already spoken of.

During the construction of the building, the flooring of
carpentry, if not supported by brick or stone partitions, is
either supported by the partitioning of timber or by shores.
The construction of the flooring, whether single or double,
depends upon the magnitude of the building, the horizontal
dimensions of the apartments, or the weight which the board-
ing may be required to support. When the flooring is
required to be very stiff, it becomes necessary to use truss
girders.

Naked flooring for dancing upon should be made very
strong, and so contrived that the upper part of it may spring,
so as to bend to the impression of the force, while the lower
part, sustaining the ceiling, remains immovable.

Partitions are constructed of a row of timbers, or if the
length of the bearing require very great stiffness, they are
made of framed truss-work, and afterwards filled in with
parallel timbers. The trussing of partitions may be made
to assist in giving support to the floors, where they are
unsupported below. The framing ought to be so managed
as to discharge the office of hanging up the floor, in what-
ever situation the doors are placed. Truss partitions are
also of the utmost use in supporting the superior floor.

The covering of the roof is sustained by one or several
rows of parallel timbers, each row being in a plane parallel
to the covering. The force of the timbers, which would act
laterally upon the walls, is generally restrained by tie-beams
placed upon wall-plates on the top of the walls, and fixed to
the lower ends of the rafters. In roofing, many ingenious
contrivances may be resorted to, their application depending
upon the pitch of the roof, the number of compartments into
which it may be divided, or whether there are to be tiesbeams
or not. If an apartment is required to be coved into the
rOof, a longitudinal truss, supported at the ends, may be
placed in a vertical plane under the ridge, by which the
rafters may be hung ; for it is evident, that if the upper ends
of the rafters were held in their situation, their lower ends
would descend by their gravity, and would describe arcs of
circles in Vertical planes, and in their descent; would approach
nearer together, and, consequently, instead of pushing out
the walls, would have a tendency to draw them towards each
uther. And if beams were placed transversely immediately

3 n

197

 

CON

under the longitudinal truss, and fixed to the opposite rafters.
they would act as straining pieces, and prevent the exterior
sides of the roof from getting hollow. If the whole space
within, under the rafters, were required, that is, to have no
intermediate work of trussing, the sides of the roof may be
prevented from descending by arching them with cast iron,
or trussing them with wood in the inclined planes of their
sides; and to restrain the pressure of the rafters, which
would be discharged at the extremities of the building, a strong
wall-plate, well connected in all its parts, must/be introduced,
which acting as a tie, would prevent the lateral pressure
forcing out the walls.

In this construction, as well as in the former, the rafters
would have a tendency, from their gravity, to become hollow;
in this case straining beams should be introduced at a con-
venient height, which would have a good efl'ect in counter-
acting that tendency. If it be required to occupy very little
space by the wood-work, cast-iron arches, abutting upon each
other, and screwed with their planes upon the upper sides
of the rafters, will answer the purpose best.

The idea of trussing roofs upon these principles was
discovered, many years ago, by Mr. P. Nicholson, in con-
sequence of a dispute concerning a roof which had been
constructed upon a chapel, and which had pushed out the
walls to such an alarming degree as to threaten the demo-
lition of the whole fabric: Mr. Nicholson was chosen as
arbiter, but the principle which the architect adopted was
so incompatible with the nature of the design, that, though
chosen by the architect himself, he was under the disagree-
able necessity of giving judgment in favour of the constructor.
This roof was truncated, or flat, and the ceiling within
cylindrical, extending horizontally the whole clear of the
walls, and in height to the under sides of the camber-beams,
so that there were no ties between opposite ‘afters. The
principle consisted, therefore, of two sloping sides and a
camber-beam, which were only tied together by angle—braces,
and as the ceiling came in contact with the under side of the
rafters and the under sides of the camber—beams, the braces
were also disposed so that the middle of their under sides
came in contact with the ceiling, and thus, to maintain the
roof in its position, depended entirely upon the resistance of
the walls, or upon the inflexibility of the timbers, or both;
all of which were of unusual strength.

The lesson which every architect ought to learn from this,
is, always to construct his roof in such a manner as to make
it entirely dependent on itself.

In the year 1802, two years subsequent to the above dis-
pute,a model of a roof was exhibited before a numerous
meeting of the Philosophical Society at Glasgow, wherein
the timbers consisted simply of rafters abutting at the top
upon a ridge-piece, leaving the whole space under the rafters
clear, and, of course, forming a triangular hollow prism, with
the two upper sides parallel to the inclined planes of the
exterior. The wall-plates were unsupported, except at
the four corners, which were sustained by uprights or posts ;
the pieces let in upon the upper sides of the rafters consisted
of small arcs, almost straight, forming on each inclined plane
a parabolic curve, and extending from post to post. From
the ridge-piece equal and very considerable Weights were
suspended, one from the meeting of every pair of rafters,
without producing any visible effect upon the wall-plates.

The form of a parabolic curve is best adapted to that of
equal weights suspended at equal distances. Instead of arcs,
simple trusses may be used, and the rafters may bridge
over them.

In many cases, where space is required, we cannot help
thinking, that the disposition and fixing of the boarding in

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

)
1
l

CON 198

CON

 

the form of a truss, is vastly superior to placing them with
their joints parallel to the horizon, and would be a very
proper substitute for arching or. trussing the sides in all
roofs of moderate dimensions. It must, however, be observed,
that the meeting of every two boards ought to be as nearly
as possible upon the middle of a rafter, and not over the
hollow. To which we may add, that as all the joists are
abutting in such disposition, the boards forming trussed
work may be made thicker, and let into the rafters, which
will give greater security to the abutments; but for this
purpose they ought to be firmly fixed at their meeting, to
prevent them from starting.

The principle of arching the inclined sides of a roof, and
making the wall-plates act as ties, is exhibited in the archi-
tectural plates of Rees’ Cyclopedia, published in 1805.

Circular roofs may be executed without ties, or without
any precaution of trussing, as in rectangular buildings, but
the wall-plate ought to be one continued mass. There are
two methods of covering circular roofs with boards : one is,
to bend the boards with their joints in horizontal planes;
and the other is, to bend them in planes passing through the
axis. As that species of circular roofs called domes lays
considerable claim to our attention, it will here be proper to
say something on their construction.

If the dome be spherical, and have no lantern to support,
the ribs may be constructed of boards in two or three thick-
nesses, with the longitudinal joints of the boards tending to
the axis of the dome, and intersecting the spherical edges,
and the butting joints intersecting the sides of the ribs, which
tend to the said axis.

Let us now suppose the thickness of a rib to consist of
three boards, and suppose the circular pieces which are
to compose the ribs, to be all prepared of equal lengths and
breadths. Take one of the lengths, suppose for the left-hand
piece at the bottom, and lap the next higher length, which is
the middle piece, two~thirds upon the lower piece; take
another length for the right-hand piece, next higher, and
lap this two—thirds on the middle piece; so that the right—
hand piece will lap one-third upon the left-hand piece;
between the ends of this third, bolt or pin the three pieces
together; the middle board will want a third, the right-hand
board two-thirds, to make it complete at the bottom; these
parts being supplied and fixed, lay another board at the
higher end of the right—hand board, the end of another to
abut upon the higher end of the middle board, and the end
of a third board to abut upon the upper end of the left-hand
board, then there will be three plies of boards, which must
be fastened together between each pair of heading joints,
which are three in number. Proceed in like manner with
every succeeding three boards, as with the last three, until
you arrive at the top, and the deficiency must be supplied
as at the bottom. In this manner, every rib in succession
must be constructed, until they are all finished. Each rib
ought to be fitted to the curvature of the axal section of the
dome, drawn on a floor, and the three thicknesses fixed
together throughout the whole length, before it is removed.
If, in addition to the fixing, the joints be strapped, it will add
considerably to the strength, and will not be much inferior
to that of a solid piece. In large domes of this construction,
it becomes necessary to discontinue the ribs, otherwise an
unnecessary quantity of timber would be employed; and
it must be observed, that the greatest intervals must be so
regulated in their dimensions, as not to be greater than what
Would make the horizontal ribs for the boarding, when fixed,
sufficiently strong.

As all domes are best boarded with their joints in vertical
planes tending to the axis, horizontal pieces must, in this

 

case, be strutted between the ribs, and their outer sides
formed with the spherical surface. A dome constructed in
this manner, might also be made to support a heavy lantern,
provided the strutting-pieces were strapped together. In
the above manner was the timber dome of the Halle du Bled,
at Paris, constructed by Moulineau, supposed to be the first
of the kind.

If the boarding of the dome is required to be bent, with
the joints in horizontal planes, and the dome have no lantern,
a very good method is, to construct it with several vertical
ribs, their planes being disposed at equal angles round the
axis as their common vertex, and constructed according to
the above method; between every pair of such ribs, place
other ribs, the curvature of which will be portions of less
circles of the sphere, unless one stand in each interval, and
its plane bisect the inclination of the vertical planes of the
two adjacent principal ribs: dispose of these ribs in equidis-
tant parallel planes, and fit their upper ends upon the sides
of the principal ribs. This disposition of the ribs will be
a considerable saving of timber, besides what it would have
been, had the planes of all the ribs tended to the axis.

In the construction of plaster groins, two methods are
employed in the disposition and fixing of the ribs. By both
methods, ribs are made to answer the intersections at the
angles: by one method, ribs are formed to the transverse
sections of the vault, and disposed in vertical planes accord-
ingly; but by the other, the ribs are prepared straight, and
fixed parallel to the axis of each vault.

The lathing for plaster is sustained upon walls, by a
number of parallel posts of very small scantlings, called
battening, and ranged according to the figure they are
intended to form.

CON TABULATE, to floor with boards.

CONTACT (from the Latin, contactus, touch) the mutual
touching, or meeting, of two things.

CONTACT, in geometry, is when a line or plane meets a
figure or solid, without cutting it, though the line or plane
be produced. Thus, a line and a circle are in contact when .
the line is a tangent to the circle; and two circles are in:
mutual contact, when they touch each other without cutting:
the like .is to be understood of a plane and a convex body, as .
a cylinder, cone, conoid, 8w.

CONTENT (from the Latin, contentus) that which is
contained, the thing held, included, or comprehended within .
a limit or line. In geometry, the area or quantity of?
matter or space included in certain lines. Linear content,
length simply; superficial content, area or surface; solid.
content, the number of cubic inches, feet, yards, &c., con-
tained in a given space.

CONTEXT URE (from the Latin, contexo, woven) the.
disposition or union of the constituent parts of a body in'
respect of each other.

CON TIGNAT ION (from the Latin contignatio, con and :‘
tignum, a beam), a frame of beams, in ancient Roman car-
pentry, the same as we now understand by naked flooring.

CONTIGUITY (from the Latin, contiguus, to meet) the
relation of surfaces or solids whereby their sides join each .
other.

CONTIGUOUS ANGLES, in geometry. See ANGLES.

CONTINUED, a term applied to whatever is not inter-
rupted, but proceeds in the same course.

CONTINUED ATTIC, an attic not broken into pilasters.

CONTINUED PEDESTAL, a pedestal with its mouldings and .
dado, or die, continued both through the column and inter-
column, without being broken.

CONTINUED PROPORTION, is when there is a series of lines
or quantities, such that the first is to the second as the second ‘

 

‘_

 

 

 

CON

199

COP

 

is to the third, and the second to the third as the third to the

fourth and so on. . .
CoriTINUED SOCLE, the same as a continued plinth. See

PICI‘OINTINUOUS BEARINGS, balks of .timber laid under
the rails of a railway for their support, in place of stone
sleepers, or blocks fixed at certain Intervals. These balks,
or longitudinal sleepers, as they are generally termed, are
secured to cross transoms fixed to piles. .

CONTINUOUS IMPOST, in mediseval architecture, the mould-
ings of an arch carried down to. the ground Without inter-
ruption, or anything to mark the impost-pomt.

CONTOR’I‘ED, wreathed. See WREATHED. .

CONTOUR (from the French; synonymous‘wnh con-
torno, Italian) the outline of a body; to have which correct,
is one of the greatest requisites in drawmg and painting.

CON TRAMURE. See COUNTERMURE.

CONTRAMURE (from the French, centre, against, and mur,
a wall) in fortification, an external wall built about the walls
of a city.

CON'I‘RARY FLEXURE, Point of, or Pom'r OF RETRO-
GRESSION, the point in which two curves meet that have the
convexity of the one and the concavity of the other on the
same side of the line.

CONTRAST (from the French, contraste) to avoid the
repetition of the same thing, by introducing variety; as is
done in antique edifices, where rectangular and cylindrical
niches with spherical heads are alternately introduced; also,
in the dressings of niches, as in the Pantheon, tabernacles
are introduced with circular and triangular pediments alter-
natel 7.

CONTRAVALLATION, (in fortification), a trench
guarded with a parapet, thrown round a besieged place by
the besiegers, to protect themselves, and check sallies of the
garrison.

CONVENIENCE (from the Latin, convenientia) an easy
‘_ or accessible distribution of apartments in respect to the
intention of the design.

CONVENT (from the Latin, conventus, an assembly).
See llIoNAs'rERr.

CoNVENT, a religious edifice, in which lived assemblies of
persons devoted to a religious life, under the authority of a
superior. Convents for males are termed monasteries, those
for females, nuuneries; when under the jurisdiction of an
abbot, or abbess, they are named abbeys, and under that
of a prior, or prioress, priories.

CONVENTUAL CHURCH, a church belonging to a
convent, and consisting of regular clerks, professing some
order of religion, or of a dean and chapter, or other societies
of spiritual men.

CONVERGENT CURVE. See CURVE.

CONVERGENT LINES, such lines as if produced would
meet.

CONVEX LINE, that side of a curve which has no con-
trary ilcxure, and on which a tangent may be drawn.

CUNVEX RECTILINEAR SURFACE, a curved surface, such,
that if any point be taken, a straight line passing through
the point can only be drawn in one direction, and if another
. point be taken out of the straight line so drawn, another
straight line passing through this and the former point, will
‘ pass within the Solid. Bodies having this property are cones,
cylinders, and many others.

CONVEX SURFACE OF A SOLID, a‘EErved surface, in which,
if any two points be taken, the straight line joining them
will pass through the body: all the solids generated by the
i revolutions of conic sections, except the triangle, have this
' property.

 

 

CONVEXITY (from the Latin, concerns) the same as
convex smface.

CON VOLUTION (from the Latin, convolutio) a winding
or turning motion.

COOPER (from the Dutch, kgpe, a barrel) 9. person whose
business it is to make vessels of wooden boards, hooped toge-
ther around a circular or elliptic circumference.

COOPERY, the art of making vessels of boards, by join-
ing them edge to edge, and binding them round the exterior
sides with hoops, so as to form a hollow body of circular or
elliptic sections, and so as to contain a. liquid, with one
or two ends.

The boards of which vessels are made, are called, in the .
rough state, clap-boards ; but when wrought up in the ves-
sels, they are called staves.

The art of coopery is a curious branch of mechanism; it
requires a knowledge of geometry, as well as of the covering
of solids, to be able to construct a vessel or cask of a rotative '
figure, agreeably to a given section through the axis; the
edges of the staves require to be of a particular curvature,
so that, when joined together, they may form the required
contour of the vessel. This, though not a branch of architec-
ture, is founded upon the same common principles.

CO-ORDINATE (from the Latin, con, with, and ordi-
natus, order) a term expressive of two objects holding the
same rank.

CO-ORDINATE PILLARS, such pillars as stand in equal order.

COPED TOMB, one which has its top or covering sloping
down towards both sides.

COPESTONE, head or top-stone.

COPING (from the Dutch, kop, the head) in masonry,
the stones laid on the top of a wall, to strengthen and defend
it from the injuries of the weather.

COPING of equal thickness, is called parallel coping, and
is only used upon inclined surfaces, as on a gable end, or in 3
situations sheltered from the rain; as on the top of a level
wall intended to be covered by the roof. '

COPING thinner on one edge than on the other, for throw-
ing off the water on one side of the wall, is called feat/zer-
edged coping.

COPING thick in the middle and thin at each edge, whether
the back he formed of two planes meeting in an angle over
the middle of the wall, or whether forming the arch of
a circle in its transverse section, is called saddle-backed
coping. This kind of coping throws the water on both sides,
and may be used over the walls of sunk areas, or of a dwarf
wall, which is to have an iron-railing, and in the best-con-
structed fence-walls.

COPING upon the gable end of a house, is called factabling,
in Liverpool.

COPING, in the pointed styles of architecture, is either
inclined upon the faces, or plumb. When inclined upon
the faces, the sides of the vertical section are the sides of an
equilateral triangle, whose base is horizontal. This sort of
coping is sometimes in one inclined plane, terminated with
an astragal at the top, while at the bottom it changes its ‘
direction into a narrow vertical plane, which projects with i
a level soflit before the parapet. Sometimes it is in two i
inclined planes, parallel to each other, the upper terminated
with an astragal at the summit, and projecting before the
lower, and the lower before the vertical face of the wall, in l
the same manner as that which has only one inclined plane. i
This coping is used in plain parapets, or in battlements.
When used in battlements, it is either returned on the 3
vertical sides of the embrasures or notches, or only crowns
the top of the ascendants, and bottom of the notches. l

The coping of battlements with vertical faces, has a small

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

COR

20C

 

COR

 

——

projection beyond the face of the wall, and the coping is
returned on the sides of the notches.

Inclined coping is sometimes made without the astragal at
the top, and the soflit before the vertical face of the parapet
perpendicular to the inclined face of the coping.

COPING OVER, is said of the soffit of a projecture from the
naked of a wall, when the soffit is inclined so as to make an
acute angle with the vertical face of the wall below it; that
is, when the edge of the soth in the surface of the wall, or
next to it, is higher than the outer edge.

CORBEILS (from the Latin, corbis, a basket) a piece of
carved work, representing baskets filled with flowers or fruit,
to finish some ornament.

CORBEL, a term used by some for a niche or hollow in
a wall, to contain a statue, bust, 8w.

CORBEL, a block of stone or other material projecting from
the face of a wall, and used to support a super-incumbent
weight, such as the beams of a roof, ribs of vaulting, columns,
and such like. The term is confined chiefly to such supports
employed in Gothic architecture, in the buildings of which
styles corbels occur very frequently; they perform somewhat
of a similar office to the modillions or consoles used in Classical
buildings, but their more perfect prototype is to be seen in
the projecting figures and heads supporting consoles, in the
remains of the baths of Dioclesian, at Rome.

Corbels are usually carved in grotesque heads, animals,
flowers, 810.; in the Romanesque style they are either simple
square blocks with the face occasionally rounded, or carved
in the shape of grotesque heads; in the Early-pointed, the
corbels are sometimes moulded, and in the richer specimens
carved into knops of foliage; when heads or masks are used,

3 they are not of such grotesque appearance as during the pre-

3 mouldincr

 

ceding period; in the next style they are more frequently
foliaged, and in the Perpendicular carved in the form of
angels sometimes bearing shields and other devices; in the
later styles, the corbel is usually terminated above by a

g, or series of mouldings, forming a kind of capital.
Corbels of large dimensions, such as those supporting a group
of clustered columns, are generally very elaborately orna-
mented in combinations of masses, or groups of foliage
springing from one or more points underneath, and clustered
together under the cap; sometimes groups of figures are
introduced, as in the beautiful specimens to be seen in Exeter
Cathedral. '

Corbels are not unfrequent in castellated architecture, and
when so employed are of a very massive character. They
have usually two of their sides vertical planes, perpendicular
to the surface or face of the wall; and their other surfaces,
which are their edges or fronts, quarters of cylindroids, with
the greater axis of their section perpendicular.

The edge of each corbel generally consists of one, two,
and sometimes three convex rectilinear surfaces: when the
edge of each bracket consists of two or three convex recti-
linear surfaces, these surfaces are generally separated by
fillets, which have vertical sides parallel to the face of the
building, and horizontal sofiits. '

CORBELS are also a horizontal row of stones or timber,
fixed in a wall, or in the side of a vault, for sustaining the
timbers of a floor, or those of a roof. Many of the timber
floors, or contignations, in old buildings, were thus supported;
the timbers of the doi‘nic roof of St. Paul’s are tied to the
conic vault by means of corbels. The ends of the corbels
are generally cut into a convex or ogee form.

Contacts, in the Caryatic order, are those parts upon the
heads of the Caryatides, under the solfit of the architravc
cornice, that represent baskets, or rather cushions, and have
an abacus, as in the Grecian orders.

 

The term is also used for the vase of the Corinthian
capital, it being in form of a basket.

CORBEL-BOLE, a moulding, in Norman architecture, em-
ployed frequently to support a blocking course. It consists
of two rows of billets or cubical blocks of stone disposed at
intervals, and so arranged, that the blocks alternate in the
two rows, a block coming under a space, and vice versa. See
BILLET-MOULDING.

CORBEL-STEPS, sometimes called corbz'e-steps, a term
applied to steps up the sides of a gable; when the parapet
is formed into a kind of battlement, broken into steps or
ledges, which converge from the caves to the apex. Speci-
mens are to be seen in many old houses, especially in Scot-
land, Flanders, Holland, and Germany. They may have been
used perhaps for extinguishing fire, or escaping from it, or
merely for ornament.

CORBEL-TABLE, a series of corbels disposed at regular
intervals projecting from a wall, to support a parapet or other
continuous projection, and frequently seen under the eaves
of a roof. The corbels are occasionally plain, but often carved
in the..shape of grotesque heads, and other devices, as above-
mentioned. Sometimes the corbels are connected by small
arches which intervene between them and the superstructure,
and form its immediate support; these arches vary in shape,
according to the style of architecture of the building in which
they are employed, as do also the corbels ; in the Romanesque
structures they are circular, during the next period inter-
secting, and lastly, pointed and trefoiled. Corbel-tables were
more frequent in the Romanesque styles than in any others,
in which they form a bold and effective feature. They
are found in a peculiar situation in many Lombardic struc-
tures, running up the raking sides of the wall beneath
the gable; a singular instance of this position is to be seen
in the west gable of Adel Church, Yorkshire.

CORBETT, a word used by Harris, in his Lexzcon, for
a corbel. Corbetts, niches for images.

CORBETTIS, a word used by Chaucer, for stones upon
which images stand.

CORBS, a Spanish word for architectural ornaments.

CORD, in geometry. See CHORD.

GORDON, the edge of a stone on the outside of a
building.

CORE, the interior part of anything. Every masonic
wall should have thorough-stones at regular intervals, in order
to strengthen the core, which is generally made of rubble-
stones: or, otherwise, when thorough-stones are only to be
had with difficulty, two bond-stones lapped upon each other,
one from each face of the wall, may be used : or, instead of
each thorough-stone lay two stones level on the upper bed,
and one large stone in the core, lapped upon both, observing
that the tails of the two lower stones be right-angled; by this
means the two sides of the wall will be completely tied
together.

CORICEUM (from xwpmuov) in Grecian antiquity, the
undressing-room belonging to the Gymnasium.

CORINTHIAN ORDER, the third of the orders of
Classical architecture, and the first of the foliaged, under
which title we include the Corinthian and Composite. These
two orders might conveniently be classified together, and
reasonably too, if we Consider their general resemblance,
and also that some examples of the former class differ as much
from that which is considered their most perfect type or
model, as do those which are included under the Composite
or Roman order; if both styles were comprised under one
division, it would form a Very distinct and marked style,
which might be entitled the Roman or Foliaged order.

How this particular class of examples obtained the appella-

_v_.____

 

 

 

COR

201

COR

 

 

 

._-A

non of Corinthian, is not very readily accounted for; one
would naturally suppose this name was assigned on account
of the origin of the style, 'or the prevalence of examples in
Corinth or its neighbourhood, but such 18 by no means the
case. In the first place, the origin has never been attributed
to that locality by any author except Vitruvms, and even
if we give credit to his account, the merltcf the first idea
ought in fairness to be given to the Athenlans ; but at best
the story told by this author rests on a very insecure
foundation, as we shall presently attempt to Show : No other
writer has alluded to any buildings of this order as existing at
Corinth ; and if the style ever did prevail in that city, we have
now not a single example remaining to testify to the fact.
Vitrnvius’s account of the invention of the capital, is as
follows :-—Callimachus, an Athenian sculptor, passing the
tomb of a young lady, observed an acanthus growing

upon the tomb, and seeing that the tops of the leaves were
bent downwards, in the form of volutes, by the resistance of
the tile, he took the hint, and executed some columns with
foliatcd capitals, near Corinth, of a more slender proportion
than those of the Ionic, imitative of the figure and delicacy
of virgins.

This story, though bearing no marks of improbability in
itself, when compared with facts, loses a considerable amount
of its credibility, and stands upon the same level as the other
fanciful tales related by the same author. As regards the
one more immediately before us, it need only be remarked,
that the earliest specimens of this order have but little in
agreement with the idea Which one would suppose to have
preSented itself to the mind of an artist under the circum-
stances related ; the foliage of what seems to be the earliest
specimen extant, does not consist of acanthus leaves at all,
but of what have from their shape been termed water-leaves;
it is in the Roman examples we see the best illustration of
the basket and acanthus; in short, the earlier the example,
the less the resemblance, a fact which throws discredit upon
the whole story, and would lead us to believe that the latter
was invented by Vitruvius, not the order by Callimachus.
Moreover, there is reason to doubt of the antiquity of the
order being so great as Vitruvius would have us believe;
for Callimaehus flourished about the 60th Olympiad, or 540
years before the Christian aara. We are informed by
l’ausanias, lib. viii., that the ancient temple of Minerva,
at Tegtea, in Arcadia, having been destroyed, a second
edifice was erected, under the direction of Scopas, far exceed-
ing in splendour and magnificence every building of the kind
in the I’eloponncsus. In this structure, all the three Grecian
orders were employed; the outside was embellished with
colonnades of the Ionic order; and the hypaethral area of the
interior was surrounded with porticos and galleries above,
formed by the Doric and Corinthian orders. This aera of
building may be placed in the fourth century before Christ,
and is the first in which a distinct account of the Corinthian
order being introduced in any regular building, is to be found.
It was not in general request till the third age of Rome,
under the emperors. The examples which are to be found in
Greece, are but few, and some of them seem ofa date posterior
to the period ofthe Romans getting possession of that country;
such as the temple of Jupiter Olympius at Athens.

Most modern writers are of opinion that the Corinthian
capital was invented by the Egyptians, and with good reason;
yet, although many bell-formed capitals are to be found among
the ruins of Egypt, the taste, the delicacy of the foliage, the
beautiful form and elegance of the leaves, caulicoli, and
volutes, with the symmetrical and easy disposition of the
whole, are superior to anything yet discovered among

3 F

 

round the sides of a basket, covered with a' tile, and placed .

 

the Egyptian ruins ; and even in the present day, this
capital exhibits the utmost elegance, beauty, and richness,
that have ever been attained in architectural composition,
though many attempts have been made to exceed it.

Some writers suppose that the Corinthian arose naturally
out of the Doric order, and cite in favour of their hypothesis,
the absence of bases, the simple capital, and the square
abacus, in the Tower of the Winds, the use of mutules in the
shape of modilions, and such like; but we think those who
maintain its Egyptian origin, have the better evidence on
their side.

The Corinthian order, like the other two, after being
introduced, continued to be the fashionable order» in Greece,
Italy, and Asia; and was the only order well understood,
and happily executed, by the Romans. Among the superb
ruins of Balbec and Palmyra, excepting the lower Ionic
order in the circular temple, and a Doric column at the
former place, it is, we believe, the only order to be found.

Vitruvius says, the shafts of Corinthian columns have the
same symmetry as the Ionic, and that the difference between
the entire columns arises only from that of the heights of
their capitals; the Ionic being one-third, and the Corinthian
the whole diameter of the shaft, which, therefore, makes the
height of the Corinthian two-thirds of a diameter more than
that of the Ionic: hence, as he has allowed the Ionic to be
eight diameters, the Corinthian will be eight and two—thirds.

The average height of the column, inclusive of capital and
base, taking a mean proportional between those of the Pan-
theon and of the temple of Jupiter Stator, is ten diameters,
the shaft containing eight, and the remainder made up in the
capital and base.

The shaft in the ancient examples was almost invariably
fluted, and the flutes occasionally filled to about one-third of
their height with cabling; the number ofthe flutes is generally
twenty-four, the same number as in the Ionic order, and
arranged in the same manner, having a fillet between every
two channels. The only ancient examples in which the
flutes were omitted, were cases in which the shafts were
composed of polished granite or some variegated marble, in
which there was sufficient richness and play of colour,’with-
out further decoration.

The capital is separated from the shaft by an astragal and
cincture, or fillet, and is in ‘the shape of an inverted bell, the
ornamentation of which may be described as follows: Im—
mediately above the astragal, are two rows of acanthus or
olive leaves one above the other, each row consisting of eight
leaves; the upper row is arranged in such a manner as to
have one leaf immediately in the centre of each side of and
beneath the abacus, and one other under each corner of the
abacus, which altogether, one in the centre of each side, and
one at each angle of the capital, will make up the eight leaves.
The leaves of the lower range are disposed so as to alternate
with those of the upper; that is to say, the spaces left between
the lower leaves are occupied by the lower portions or stalks
of the upper leaves, or, in other words, the upper leaves rise
between the divisions of the lower ones. Between every two
of the leaves of the upper or second series, rises a stalk, out of
which springs a bunch of foliage, consisting of two leaves,
one of which branches towards the centre of the abacus, and
the other towards the angle. \Ve have therefore eight of
these stalks, termed caulicolcs, each giving out two branches
or leaves, of which therefore there are sixteen, and if we
consider their direction as above described, we shall find that
we have two of them tending to meet at each angle, one from
each contiguous side of the capital, and two likewise tending
towards the centre of each side above the central leaf of the
second range. Out of each of the leaves at the angles,

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

COR

202

COR

 

proceeds in a diagonal line, a spiral horn or volute, the two
at each angle meeting under the abacus, which they support;
two similar though smaller ones emerging from the central
leaves, meet under the centre of the abacus, and are sur-
mounted by a small flower, called the flower of the capital.

The abacus is square in its general plan, or rather is of such
form as may be inscribed in a square; the sides are concave,
curving out towards the angles, but the points which would
be formed by the intersection of the curves, are most usually
cut of; sometimes the corners are pointed, but rarely. This
shape of the abacus arises out of the form of the capital,
which recedes in the centre of each side, and projects at the
angles ; the abacus does not overhang the capital. The
mouldings consist of a cavetto, fillet, and echinus, the first
and last of which are sometimes enriched.

The proper Corinthian base differs from the Ionic or Attic,
in having two smaller scotiae separated by two astragals;
both bases, however, are used indiscriminately, and perhaps
the Attic is more generally employed—it was preferred both
by Palladio and Scamozzi.

The above may be considered as a description of the stan-
dard form, for the details of the order vary to a very con-
siderable extent in the different examples, to such an extent,
indeed, that there are'scarcely two ancient examples alike.
The ornamentation of the capital differs very greatly in the
Greek and Roman examples ; in the former, the leaves have
angular points, and are almost straight on the sides, while in the
latter they are altogether of a more rounded form, in fact the
Greek leaves were more harsh and stifl“, and have the natural
character of the acanthus, whereas the Roman are more
artificial. In the Temple of the \Vinds, which is a very
early, if not the earliest specimen remaining, the upper row
of leaves, if it may be said to have more than one row, is
merely carved upon the vase, and consists of broad flat
leaves, which have been named from their appearance, water-
leaves ; there are no volutes, and in consequence the abacus
is not curved, but is merely a square block; add to this the.
absence of a base, and you will perceive at once that this speci-
men disagrees almost entirely from the description above given.
In the temple of Vesta at Rome, which is probably copied
from that at Jackly near Mylasa, the lower range of leaves,
instead of following the line of the shaft as usual, project
beyond it. The monument of Lysicrates is a beautiful
though small specimen, and differs materially from any of
the above ; in short, every example, whether Greek or Roman,
has its peculiarity.

The height of the abacus is one-seventh, the lower and
upper tier of leaves each two-sevenths; and the caulicoli
and volutes, which spring from the stalks between every two
leaves in the upper row, the remaining two-sevenths of the
diameter: the breadth of the capital at the bottom is one,
and each diagonal of the abacus two diameters of the column.

Vitruvius makes no mention of obtunding the corners of
the abacus, as is generally practised by the ancients as well
as the moderns: we are therefore led to suppose, that each
pair of the four faces of the abacus were continued till they
met in an acute angle at each corner, as in the temple of
Vesta, at Rome, and in the Stoa, or Portico, at Athens.
The division of the capital is the same as is frequently used
by the moderns; but the entire-height is generally made one-
sixth more than the diameter of the column, while that of
the column is ten diameters.

This order does not appear to have had any appropriate
entablature in the time of Vitruvius 5 for, in book iii. chap. i.
he informs us, that both Doric and Ionic entablatures were
supported by Corinthian columns; whence it appears that
the columns constituted the order, and not the entablature.

 

“ The Corinthian,” says he, “ has no cornice, or other orna-
ments peculiar to itself, but has either triglyphs, mutules in
the cornice, and guttae in the epistylium, as in the Doric
order ; or otherwise, the zophoras is ornamented, and dentils
are disposed in the cornice, as in the Ionic.”

This observation of Vitruvius regarding the use of the
Doric entablature, is no less extraordinary in itself, than that
it is unsupported by any ancient examples ; but his remark,
concerning the Ionic, is verified in many instances; as in the
temple at Jackly near Mylasa, the temple of Vesta near
Tivoli, and that of Antoninus and Faustina at Rome; the
arch of Adrian at Athens, the Incantada at Salonica, and
the portico of Septimius Severus at Rome. However, in
the remains of antiquity, we more generally find Corin-
thian columns supporting an entablature of a peculiar
species. This consists of architrave, frieze, and cornice, the
first of which is divided into three faces, the lowest one
much narrower than the upper two, with mouldings between
each ; the upper surmounted by an astragal, ogee, and fillet,
the middle by a small ogee, and the lower by a bead ; these
mouldings were frequently plain, but sometimes enriched,
more especially the two last-mentioned. The frieze was
sometimes plain, sometimes enriched with sculptured figures,
foliage, or other ornamentation. The most striking peculi-
arities are to be observed in the cornice, which consists of
the denticulated band of the Ionic, supported by an ogee and
astragal enriched, and surmounted by an enriched astragal
and echinus; over these are the mutules of the Doric, but
their proportion is changed, and their figure converted into
a console, which shows upon the ends and sides of each, the
bottom being covered with a foliated leaf. The consoles in
this application, are called modillions, and support the corona
which consists of the same mouldings as the Ionic, with
occasionally a greater amount of enrichment ; the cymatium
is often decorated with lions’ heads, to serve as spouts or
gurgoyles. This entablature does not appear to have been
in use in the time of Vitruvius, since he takes no notice of it;
though very particular in many other points less worthy of
attention. The cornice here specified, is not only to be
found in most of the ancient buildings of Italy, but is observed
in all the celebrated works of Balbec and Palmyra.

Thus the Romans, and other contemporary nations, affected
to give the Corinthian order an appropriate entablature,
though the Ionic was sometimes employed. “'e find also
another form of cornice introduced occasionally, with modil-
lions Consisting of two plain faces, instead of consoles,
without any band below, either plain or denticulated.
Examples of this are only to be found in the frontispiece of
Nero, at Rome, and the Poicile, or Portico, at Athens. In
some instances, an uncut dentil band is substituted in place
of dentils, and in the temple of Antoninus and Faustina,
both dentils and modillions are omitted.

The above disposition inverts the order of the original hut,
as well as the description given by Vitruvius. The only
example where dentils are placed above modillions, is in the
second cornice of the Tower of the Winds, at Athens;
although Vitruvius seems to assert that the contrary practice
of placing the modillions uppermost, was never resorted to
by the Greeks. It is certain that the Romans employed
modillions in the latter position, as is evidenced in the tem-
ples of Jupiter Tonans and Jupiter Stator, as also in the
Forum of Nerva.

If the entablature be enriched, the shaft should be fluted,
unless it be composed of variegated marble ; for a diversity
of colours confuses even a smooth surface ; and if decorated,
the ornament increases the confusion in a much greater
degree.

 

 

 

 

 

 

COR

When the columns are within reach, the lower part of the
fluteS, to about one-thirdof their height,issometimes filledwith
cables, as in the case of the interior order of the Pantheon, With
a view to strengthen the edges. In rich work of some modern
buildings, the cables are composed of reeds, husks, spirally-
twisted ribbands, flowers, and various other ornaments: but
these trifles, which are of French origin, would be much better
withheld, as their cost would be employed to greater advantage
in giving majesty or grandeur to the other parts of the fabric.

As the cornice, which has obtained the name of Corinthian,
consists of so many members, it will be necessary to_increase
the whole height of the entablature more than two diameters,
so as to make the members distinct, and, at the same time,
to preserve a just proportion between the cornice, frieze, and
architrave, making the height of the entablature two-ninths
of that of the column: but where the Ionic cornice, which is
very appropriate, is to be employed, or the dentils and their
cymatium omitted, two diameters, or a fifth of the height of
the column, will be sufficient.

It is by some considered ridiculous to give so many mem-
bers to the cornice, since, say they, it is evident that these
slight columns are incapable of bearing an entablature of
the. same part of their height, as columns of fewer dia-
meters are. Notwithstanding this, however, we cannot but
think that the richer and deeper cornice is more in keeping
with the character of the order, on account of the increased
height and enrichment of the capital. The apparent weight
does not depend so much upon the real bulk, as upon the
arrangement and proportions of the different dimensions, for
were. this the case, we might successfully employ the argu-
ment produced by those who object to the loftier entablature,
to disparage the beauty of the entire order. We might rea-
son thus :——the Corinthian shaft is of the same proportions
as the Ionic, and therefore equally light in appearance, how
contrary to sound taste, is it, therefore, to load it with a
capital of so much greater bulk, how much heavier the
column will appear! Our objectors will readily see that this
reasoning is false, because it is evident to the senses, that the
Corinthian column, although surmounted by a capital of
much greater bulk than the Ionic, has a much lighter and
more elegant appearance ; and what is the cause of this ? It

 

203

COR

is simply that the proportions are regulated in a different
manner ; in the Ionic the breadth is in excess, in the Corin-
thian the height. But there is another reason for the com-
parative lightness of the Corinthian capital ; it is much more
highly enriched than the Ionic, and this enrichment tends to

make it a vast deal lighter in appearance; the difference ‘

between the unshapen block of stone and the finished capital,
will be evident to any one who will picture the two in his
mind’s eye. Now, all these arguments apply with equal truth
in the comparison of the two entablatures; for our own parts,

we think the larger the more elegant and the more imposing, .

and certainly its cornice gives-the more complete finish to the
whole order.

“ The symmetry of the capital,” says Vitruvius, “is as fol-
lows :—the height of the capital, including the abacus, is
equal to the thickness of the Column at its lower end. The
breadth of the abacus is so regulated, that its diagonal, from
angle to angle, may be twice as great as the height of the
capital ; for this gives a proper dimension to each face ; the
fronts of the capital are bowed, or curved inwardly, from
the extreme angles, a ninth part of its breadth. The bottom
of the capital is as thick as the top of the column, without
the apothesis and astragal. The thickness of the abacus is the
seventh part of the height of the capital. The remainder,
when the thickness of the abacus is deducted, is divided into
three equal portions, of which one is given to the lower
leaves ; the second is for the height of the middle leaves; and
to the caulicoles, or stalks, from which the leaves project to
support the abacus, the same height is given. The flowers
on the four sides are in size equal to the thickness of the
abacus.” From a comparison of ancient examples, the
height of the capital varies in height from 60 minutes, or
1 diameter, the measurement of those belonging to the temple
of Tivoli, to 87 minutes, the height of the Lysicrates example;
the capital in the temple of Jupiter Stator measures 66
minutes. In the first case, the diagonal of the abacus is
81 minutes, in the last 97, and in the monument of Lysicrates,
94 minutes.

Thus much for proportions; how greatly they vary in
different examples, will be readily seen in the subjoined table
taken from Knight’s Cyclopaedia :—

 

 

 

 

 

 

Height Diameter Upper Height
of of Diameter of
Column. Base. of Shaft. Entablature.
Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In.
Incantada, at Salonica ............................................ 23 8.6 2 5.9 5 7.75
Temple of the Winds (without base) .............................. 13 6.35 1 7.4
Monument of Lysicrates, at Athens .............................. 11 7.67 1 2 0 11.65 2 8.218
Stoa, or Portico, at Athens .......................................... 28 0. 534 2 11.3
Arch of Trajan, Ancona ................................................ 23 2.7 2 4.25 2 0.25 5 6.3
Arch of Constantine ................................................... 27 4.1 2 11.2 2 9 7 1.2
Portico of Pantheon, at Rome ....................................... 46 5.2 4 10.4 4 3.5 10 11-6
Interior 0t Pantheon, at Rome .................................... 34 10.4 3 8.2 3 2.3 8 2-9
Temple of Antoninus and Faustina ................................. 46 7.7 4 10.3 4 2-8 10 91
Temple of Vesta, at Tivoli ......................................... 23 6 2 5 2 1.8 4 3
Architrave.
Temple of Jupiter Tonans ......................................... 46 6.2 4 8.3 3 11.4 10 0
Temple of Jupiter Stator .......................................... 48 4.9 4 10.2 4 2.5 12 10.3
Temple of Vesta, at Rome .......................................... 34 7.2 3 2.5 2 8.1
Temple at Jackly, near Mylasa, in Asia Minor, the supposed
site of Labranda ......... . ...................................... 27 2.8 2 10.35 2 3.6 5 6.6
Temple of Mars Ultor, at Rome .................................... 57 11 nearly 6 ft. 5 1.6 3 10.5

 

The proportions of this order vary to a very great extent;
the following may be taken as an average :—shaft, 16 modules
20 minutes, base 30 minutes, capital 70 minutes, which gives
10 diameters for the whole column; the diminution of the
shaft, from the base to the neck, is 7 minutes. The entabla-

 

ture is about a fifth part, or quarter the height of the column
if the latter, it would consist, in this case, of 5 modules, or
2% diameters, of which the architrave would occupy 45
minutes, the frieze 45 minutes, and the cornice 60 minutes,
having altogether a projection of 58 minutes.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

COR

204

COR

 

Although the Romans in all probability borrowed the idea
of this order from the Greeks, and cannot therefore rightfully
lay claim to its invention, they are fully entitled to the praise
’due to its perfection; the order, as far as we know it, is
rather Roman than Greek. We cannot be said to know of
more than three examples in Greece, and these are the Tower
of the Winds, the Monument of Lysicrates, and the Tem-
ple of Jupiter at Olympia; there are others, it is true, as the
temple of Jupiter Olympius, at Athens, but this was erected
long after the order had been practised by the Romans. The
principal Italian specimens are the temple of Jupiter Stator,
three columns of which remain in the Campo, Rome, and
have been imitated at the office of the Board of Trade,
London ; the Pantheon, copied in the portico of S. Martin’s
Church ; the temple of Vesta, or the Sibyl, at Tivoli, copied
at the Bank; the temples of Mars Ultor, Jupiter Capi-
tolinus, Vesta, at Rome, Antoninus and Faustina, and of
Jupiter Tonans. Copies of the columns of Choragic monu-
ment are to be seen at S. Philip’s Chapel, S. James’s, and at
the entrance to Exeter Hall ; original fragments may be seen
in the Elgin collection at the British Museum, where there
are also casts from the Pantheon, and the temples of Jupiter
Stator and Mars Ultor. Amongst all the specimens which
have come to our knowledge, thereare not two alike, they all
vary in detail, and some very much so ; some fragments bear
evidence of the introduction of figures of animals, 8w.

The Corinthian order is appropriate for all buildings in
which magnificence, elegance, and gaiety are requisite. Its
splendour also recommends it in the decorations of palaces,
galleries, theatres, banqueting-rooms, and other places con-
secrated to festive mirth, or convivial recreation.

The Romans, in borrowing their architecture from the
Greeks, appear to have indiscriminately employed the Corin-
thian order, which they found possessed of an ornamental
character, adapted to the splendour and magnificence of their
taste, in the same manner that the early Greeks used the
Doric, and the Ionians the order which bears their name.
Thus the Romans erected temples to Jupiter, Neptune, and
I\Iars; and the Greeks to the same deities, of the Doric
order: Thus the temples of Minerva, at Athens and at
Sunium, are Doric, and the temple of Minerva, at I’riene,
is Ionic. The temple of Jupiter Olympus, at Elis, was
Doric; but that erected to the same idol, by Adrian, at
Athens, is Corinthian.

The orders of architecture appear to be altogether national;
thus the numerous temples of Greece, and its Sicilian colo-
nies, are Doric, and bear one general character: the Ionian
cities present the best, the most elegant, and chaste examples
of the Ionic order: while Italy, Balbec, and Palmyra exhibit
the Corinthian order, almost to the exclusion of any other.

Plate I. Figure l.—Nos. l and 2 show the method of pro-
jecting the plan and elevation of the capital: thus, beginning
with the plan, divide the semi-circumference of the top of the
shaft into four equal parts, commencing and terminating with
half a part, which will give the stems of the lower range of
leaves, then complete the contour of the leaves, both in the
elevation and plan, as shown under the article l’nomcriox ;
divide each of the parts into halves on the said semi-circum-
ference, and the points of bisection will mark the stems of
the second or superior range of leaves. But ifthc true forms,
as ascertained by the principles of prrjection, be impressed
on the mind of the delineator, and if great nicety be not
requisite, after dividing as above, and completing the 'outlines
of the leaves on the plan by his eye, he may then draw lines
from the bottom of each stem, and from the tips of each on
the plan, to their respective places on the elevation, and there
Complete the two ranges of leaves entirely by the eye ; here

 

the jutting points, the stems, and breadths of the leaves, are
the only guides in the formation of the outline. This process
being only a preliminary, though necessary step to the rafliing
of the leaves, the general contours, thus found, must be rubbed
out, after inking the subdivisions, in order to make the
foliage appear.

Figure 2, is the yrofile of the modillions; No. 1, being the
plan, showing the soffit inverted; and No. 2, the elevation
of the same.

Figure 3, is a leaf completely raflled to a large scale;
No. l, is the front view ; No. 2, the profile or side view.

Figure 4, shows the finished flower of the capital on a
large scale. ~

Plate II. Some few of the more noted examples of Greece
and Rome.

Plate III. A finished elevation of the Corinthian base,
capital, and entablature. The example here chosen, is from
the three famed columns in the Campo Vaccino, at Rome,
supposed to be the remains of the temple of Jupiter Stator,
and certainly one of the most perfect and elegant remains of
this order, that antiquity can produce.

Plate IV. A general outline of the same, with the propor-
tions of the members figured in minutes.

CORINTIIIAN CECUS, an oecus decorated with the Corinthian
order. See (ECUS.

CORNICE (from the Latin, corona, a crowning) any
moulded projection which crowns or finishes the part to
which it is affixed ; thus we have the cornice of an order, of
a pedestal, of a house, of a pier, of a door, of a window, 8:0.

CORNICE OF AN ORDER, a secondary member of the order
itself, or a primary member of the entablature. The enta-
blature is divided into three principal parts, the upper one
being the cornice. The forms of the particular cornices
belonging to the orders, will be found under the heads Demo,
on10, CORINTHIAN, Tuscax, anmROMAN.

According to Vitruvius, the application of cornices to stone
buildings originated in the juttings of the eaves of the first
wooden structures, the cornice representing the uppermost
beams of the roof, which are described by this author as
assers, templates, and canthers, of which the last is supposed
to apply to the common rafters, the first to the timbers
immediately beneath the tiles, and the templates to the cross
pieces between the two. The mutules represent the ends
of rafters, and dentils the ends of laths for supporting the
tiles, or covering ; but as the lath is more lofty in situation
than the rafters, so ought the dentils to be more lofty than
the mutules: this, however, is not the case in the joint
application of these members in modern cornices.

Our present practice of architecture was borrowed from
the Romans, who, in all their works, inverted the natural
disposition of these members. Vitruvius remarks, “ as the
mutules represent the projectures of the canthers (rafters),
the dentils of the Ionic order are in imitation of the projecture
of the assers (laths‘. For this reason, in Grecian buildings,
dentils are never placed under the mutuies ;.for assers cannot
be under canthers. As, therefore, they should be above the

authors and texnplates, if they are represented below them,
the work is on false principles. The ancients, likewise, did
not approve of placing mutules or dentils in the fastigium,
but in the corona only ; because neither canthers nor asst-rs
are laid towards the front of the fastigium, nor can they there
project, for they are laid inclining towards the eaves. As,
therefore, it could not be done in reality, they judged it not
proper to be done in representation, for the propriety of all
things. which they introduced in works of perfection, they
derived from truth and nature, and approved only those
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We have no example, in the remains of well-authenticated
Grecian antiquity, of cornices, where both_ modillions and
dentils are employed, except in the inner cornice of the Tower
of the Winds, at Athens: in this instance, the assertion of
Vitruvius is completely verified ;. for there the dentils are
placed above the mutules: but in every Roman example,
where both are employed in the same cornice, the very
reverse takes place ; yet, with respect to pediments, we have
an example in the frontispiece of the doors of the said Tower
of the Winds, where dentils are employed in the inclined
cornices of the pediments, contrary to the observatlons' of
Vitruvius, and to the original principles whence, according
to his theory, these members derived their existence.

In the corniees of all Grecian edifices, particularly those
of the Doric order, we always find one very bold member,
with a broad vertical face, called the corona, which is one of
the most distinguished members of the whole cornice: but
in some of the Roman buildings, the corona is reduced to
a mere fillet. See CORONA.

CORNICES are divided into several kinds :

An urchin-ave cornice rests upon the architrave, and the
frieze is omitted. An instance of this may be seen in the
famous Caryatic portico, at Athens. Cornices of this descrip-
tion are adapted to situations where a regular entablature
would be out of proportion to the body which it crowns.

A nmtule cornice is appropriate to the Doric order, the
mutules having inclined soflits.

A (lentil cornice has a denticulated band, and is usually
employed in the Ionic order, though very appropriate also
for the Corinthian.

A modillion cornice is one with modillions, which are a
kind of mutules carved into consoles. It has been chiefly
applied to the Corinthian order.

A block cornice is that where plain rectangular prisms
with level soilits are employed to support the corona, instead
of mutules.

A cuntaliver cornice is constructed of a horizontal row of
timbers, projecting at right angles from the naked part ofa
wall, for sustaining the superior parts of the cornice. Some-
times the cantalivers are placed on the soflits and vertical
sides, and sometimes they are cased with joinery.

A cored cornice is one with a large cove, and generally
lathcd and plastered upon brackets. Cornices of this kind
are hardly used at this time, but are frequently found upon
old houses.

A mutilated cornice has some, or the whole of its mem-
bers interrupted by another object, as the projection of a
tablet, 8w.

CORNUCOPIA, or CORNUCOPUE, the horn of plenty.
Ovid tells us in his “ Fasti,” that one of the goats of Amalthea,
who nursed the infant Jupiter in Crete, broke off its horn
against a tree, when the nymph having wreathed it with
flowus, and filled it with fruit, presented it to the god.
When Jupiter came into power, he called Amalthea to the
skies, and made. the horn the emblem of fertility. In the
“ Metamorphoses,” the poet derives the origin of the Cornu-
copia from a ditferent fable. He speaks of it as the horn of
the riter-god Achelous, broken off by Hercules, and con-
secrated by the Naiads. The real meaning of the fable is
this, that in Libya there is a little territory, shaped something
like a bullock’s horn, exceedingly fertile, given by king
Ammon to his daughter Amalthea, whom the poets feign to
have been Jupiter’s nurse.

In architecture and sculpture, the cornucopia, or horn of
plenty, is represented under the figure of a large horn, out
of which issue fruits, flowers, 8:0. On medals, F. Joubert ob-
serves, the cornucopia is given to all deities, genii, and heroes.

3 G

 

CORONAKfrom the Latin) a member of the cornice, with
a broad vertical face, and a bold projection. The solid, out
of which it is formed, is generally recessed upwardsfrom its
soflit; hence the Italians call it gocciolatios and lagrimatios,
the French, larmier, and the English workmen, drip, from
the circumstance of its discharging the rain-water in drops
from its edge, and by this means sheltering the subordinate
parts below.

The corona is one of the principal members of the cornice,
and that which marks its distinctive character, by the massive
shadow which it produces on the plain surface of the frieze.
This member, from being the principal feature of the cornice,
ought never to be omitted.

Grecian antiquity affords no instances of an order without
a corona ; nor, indeed, are there many examples among the
Romans.

There is nothing in architecture better supported by reason,

and by the general example of antiquity, than the necessary
use of the corona. It is, however, omitted in the temple of
Peace at Rome, the third order of the Coliseum, and the arch
of Lyons, at Verona. It is singular, that in the arch of
Constantine, the cornice finishes with the corona, surmounted
with a fillet only; and in several other examples the corona
has almost dwindled into a mere fillet. The frontispiece of
Nero presents one of the boldest coronas of all the Roman
works, being very nearly 16 minutes in height; the three
columns in the Campo Vaccino is another example of an
elegant and bold corona. In the temples of Minerva and
Theseus, at Athens, it is divided into two faces. The term
corona is sometimes applied by Vitruvius t0 the whole
cornice, the word originally signifying a crown.

CORONA LUCIS, a kind of chandelier anciently employed
in churches, of beautiful and appropriate design, and admitting
of delicate elaboration.

COROSTROTA, according to Pliny, a kind of inlaid
work.

CORPS, (from the French) any part that projects or
advances beyond the naked of the wall, to be used as a ground
for some decoration.

CORPSE-GATE, the same as LICH-GATE, which see.

CORRIDOR, (from the French) a long gallery or passage
around a building, leading to the several apartments;
sometimes open one side, and sometimes enclosed on
both sides.

CORSA, the same as PLATBAND, which see.

CORTILE, a small enclosed court.

COSSUTIUS, a Roman citizen, who was architect to the
temple of Jupiter Olympus, at Athens.

COST, in building, the expense of any design, a knowledge
of which is to be obtained by analyzing the whole, and making
separate calculations of the quantity and expense of each part.
In buildings of a similar description, the expense of the whole

can be roughly ascertained, by taking the number of cubic ,

feet at an average rate ; but when the price of materials or
labour, or of both, is subject to variation, this method will
be liable to mislead.

COTTAGE, a name mostly applied to a small house,
erected for the use and accommodation either of the farm
labourer, or those engaged in some other occupation, but
more generally of those employed in agriculture.

The word cottage is also used in modern parlance to
designate a small elegant residence, more properly a villa,
or, as sometimes called, a cottage orné. Houses of this
description, however, do not belong to our present subject,
which must be understood as treating of the cottage in
the acceptation of the term explained in the preceding
paragraph.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

COT

Cottages were formerly constructed of rude and perishable
materials ; as, earthy substances mixed with straw; and
cottages of this consistence were denominated mud cottages
in some districts, and cab and (lab in others ; but these have
now given way to a more du ‘able kind, which, though per-
haps as expensive in the erection, are much more comfortable,
and cheaper in the end, as they require little or no repairs
for many years.

In the construction of cottages, economy, convenience,
cleanliness, comfort, and decency, must be the chief points
in view, and these ought to be united with as much picturesque
beauty as circumstances will admit;

“The accommodation required,” observes Mr. Dean, in
his very interesting work, “Essays on Agricultural Build-
ings,” “is not such as would be looked for by persons moving
in a higher sphere of life, and who are accustomed, cem-
paratively, to luxuries; the labourer belongs to a totally
distinct class of society. Let the dwellings of the poor be
scientifically constructed, and much illness and misery will
be prevented. In effecting this, the whole community is
interested, as parochial expenses are increased or diminished
according to the healthy state of the labouring population.

“Cottages should be warm and substantial; judgment will
also be displayed when the architectu‘al character of the
building is in harmony with its use. Their exteriors may
be made exceedingly ornate by the application of a correct
taste, which does not necessarily create much expense ; and
although ornament is not a necessary appendage to stability
or comfort, it frequently happens that ornamental buildings
are preferred, and when judiciously disposed, will materially
assist in heightening the landscape. It then becomes a
question with the owner of an estate, whether he will, in the
erection of cottages, incur a small additional outlay for this
purpose.

“ England has justly been designated a cultivated garden,
and perhaps in no particular possesses a greater pre—eminenee
of appearance over other countries, than in the beauty of her
rural scenery; which, it is submitted, may be greatly enhanced
by the substitution of cottages erected in accordance with
architectu'al principles, in lieu of the clumsy-looking and
comfortless buildings existing in many districts.”

We fully agree with Mr. Dean in these observations, and
we trust that noblemen and gentlemen in the management
of their estates, will not only provide for the comfort of the
poor in the erection of warm, well-constructed cottages, but
that they will add some little in the way of ornament also.
How much may the picturesque appearance of the cottage be
increased by entrance-porches, overhanging roofs, and stacks
of chimney—shafts, having ornamental sunnnits. The porch,
independent of its architectu ‘al etfect, affords both warmth
and shelter, as does also the overhanging roof. The lofty
chimney clustered shafts, besides assisting to prevent a smoky
room, have a very pleasing appearance.

In the erection of cottages, it is preferable to build them
in pairs if possible, as the cost is conside ‘ably less than when
singly placed, and they are much warmer. The site also is
a most important conside 'ation, as houses placed on low
marshy soils, are liable to be damp. Independently of the
miasma arising from the surface of the ground in such situa—
tions, there is a continual humidity in the atmosphere, which
communicates itself to all objects surrounded by it. This
vapour is a deadly poison, acting on the human system through
the medium of the lungs, and producing fevers and other
epidemics.

Good damage is the next. important consideration, and
this may generally be obtained at a small cost. The common
earthenware pipes, of an oval or egg-shaped form, about

 

 

206 COT

5 inches by 2-;- inches at bottom, are sufficiently capacious
to carry off the drainage from a cottage; they are not so
costly as brick-drains, and are more efficient.

All drains should be trapped with a syphon trap, so as
to prevent the escape of foul air, and the admission of vermin
to the dwelling. The drains should communicate with a
cesspool sunk in the garden, domed over with brick, having
a stone man-hole or flap to enable the cottager to repair or
cleanse it; or to avail himself of its contents for manuring
his garden. A drain should also lead from the sink in the .
scullery to the cesspool (trapped as before described), and "
this should be so arranged as to carry off the water used .1
for washing the floors, when they are of stone, brick, or?
composition. The cheapest and best form for the cesspool
is that of a parallelogram about 5 feet long, 2 feet 6 inches
wide, and 3 feet 6 inches deep.

Cottages may be divided into several classes, or sizes: one i
of the smallest size for the common labourer; the second size 1'
for the labourer, who, by his frugality and industry, in earn- l
ing more than ordinary wages, deserves a more comfortable 1
dwelling than that of the most common labourer; the third '
size, for the village shopkeeper, shoemaker, tailor, butcher, °
baker, &c.; the fourth size, for the small farmer, maltster, ale—
house, or other trades, requiring room; the fifth size, for the
large opulent farmer. Every cottage should have at least two
apartments, and in many cases three, or even four. If the
apartments be two in number, and in two floors, one roof will
cover both; but then there must be the expense of an addi-
tional floor, and a stair to get up to it, besides a loss of room
in both floors, for the space occupied by the stairs; however,
with respect to a sleeping apartment, a room in an upper
story is more healthy than in a lower. In cottages which are
built singly, the families are less liable to contention than in
those which are joined: but in those which are built toge-
ther, a considerable expense of walling will be saved, as the
fines may be carried up in one common stalk, and in case of
sudden trouble, one family may assist another.

\Vhere a cottage consists of two stories, with a sleeping-
room in the upper one, it would tend much to the comfort of
the cottager, if the upper story were warmed by means of a ;
flue from the fire below ; for this purpose, the vent ought to
be carried up the middle, with its sides as thin as possible.
Another mode, suggested by Mr. Beatson, is to permit the
h tated air, which al\ 'ays ascends from the ceiling of the lower
story, to ascend through an aperture in the floor of the upper'
story; this may be done by means of g‘atings, or turning- -
plates, in the least frequented part of the floor.

\Yith respect to economy, Mr. London, in his treatises on.
country-residences, has suggested a plan, by which he thinks:
much more heat may be thrown out from a given quantity ofa
fuel, than by any other method yet proposed, and even by '
more simple means. The grate which contains the fuel being
placed on a level with the surface of the floor, makes thew
smoke ascend slowly, and thus in its passage allows it time to
give out its heat. ln small cottages, the stair -ase ought to be
so constructed, as to take up as little room as possible.

The chief conveniences of a single square cottage, are an
eating-room of about 12 feet square; over this: sleeping-
apartment, which may be partitioned in such a way, as will I
best accommodate the. decency to be preserved in the famil '; '
an idea of this construction may easily be formed without a.
plan. If the dimensions of the buildings be two or even threes
feet more, it will give much more advantage in point of c0n-~
venience. For cottages built in rows, the accommodations may»
be as follow: a room below, of 16 feet square, with the
entrance-door and one window in front; the tire-place with
an oven opening into it by means of a flue; a door opening~

 

 

 

 

COT

207

COT

 

into a lean-to, at the back, for covering fuel, the tools of the
labourer, and sheltering for a pig, &c.; apantry, fitted up
with shelves, may be made under the stairs, 1n the lower
com.

I‘ To accommodate a large family, with children of different
sexes, the necessary separation may be effected, by placing
one bed over the other, and the entrance to each 0f the beds
on alternate or different sides.

There are two kinds of cottages, English and Scottish, used
in Great Britain, of very distinct characters.

The old English cottages were constructed of clay, turf, and
other similar materials, supported and strengthened by posts
and wooden braces, with a roof of very steep pitch, in order
to lessen its pressure upon the walls, and to discharge the
rain. The caves of the roof were continued downwards, so
that the projection might throw the water from the surface
of the walls, and by this means prevent not only the waste of
materials, but the dampness which the interior would other—
wise be liable to; the rain-water is also thus kept from the
windows and door. The chimneys were generally carried up
singly, in one or both ends of the building, most commonly
on the outside of the wall. The covering of the roof con-
sisted principally of straw, reeds, or slate-stone. Garrets
were sometimes formed in the roof, with a window, either in
the sloping sides, or in one of the gables. In consequence
of the lowness of the side-wall, and to give sufficient light,
the horizontal dimension of the window was much greater
than the height. The long bearing of the lintel, or head of
the window, was supported in the middle by an upright piece
of timber, called a mmmion. The glass—frames were made to
revolve upon hinges with a vertical axis, glazed with small
Squares of glass, inserted in lead, and stiffened by cross pieces
of wood, or frequently iron, called saddle-bars ; the form of
the squares sometimes rectangular, but frequently rhomboidal,
and the load into which they were inserted fixed to an iron
frame. To this construction the cottager frequently added a
small shed, for keeping a cow, and sometimes one or more
hovels to the end of the side, which might be used as a pan-
try, or as a place wherein to deposit his tools, or other arti-
cles of convenience. It is probable that cottages were at first
built of a single story only; but, in course of time, they were
constructed two stories in height, and as the lower story could
not then be protected by the roof, 8. projection of wood or
slate-stone was introduced over the lower apertures, to pre-
vent the rain—water from falling upon the wall. To make
these projections ornamental, they were formed into labels of
hewn-stoln', after the manner of those in Gothic edifices.

The width of the English cottage does not admit of more
than one room: the chimneys are variously ornamented, some-
times schral fines are united in one shaft, which is built in
a. variety of fanciful forms, and sometimes several shafts are
carried up separately, and united under one cope.

The best English cottages, of late, have been generally
constructml of brick, and covered with slate : and the use of
these materials has changed the external features very con-
siderably, though the general disposition of the parts remains
much the same.

The roofs of many English cottages are partly gabled and
partly hipped; and in general the roof is extended at both
ends. so as to oversail the gables: the projection thus afford-
Ing protection to the walls in the same manner as the eaves
over the front and rear walls; by this means the gable-tops,
bemg under cover, are less liable to want repair.

 

 

 

. ‘ . The walls
of English cottages are generally adorned, either by white-
Wab‘llljlg‘ 0r Colouring the walls; or with creepers of vari-
ous kinds.

The Scottish cottages differ considerably in form and fea-

 

 

tures from the English, not only in being generally con-
structed of stone, which is the material most easily procured
in the country, but from their being so wide as to admit of two
apartments; and being commonly one story only in height.
One of these circumstances is sufficient to occasion a great
dissimilarity when compared with the proportion of' the Eng-
lish cottage, in making the roof top-heavy, and the general
appearance of the building squat; and when both are united
this effect will be still more apparent.

In the Scottish cottage, the roof has only a very small pro-
jection over the walls ; the windows and doors are generally
plain; the gables most frequently surmount the roof; the
apertures of doors and windows are therefore not so well pro-
tected from rain as in the English cottage ; but this want of
projection is counterbalanced by the great thickness of the
walls, and by the narrowness of the windows, which are
made to slide in a vertical position, in grooves on the sides of
a surrounding frame.

An inducement to make the windows narrow, was the length
of the stones, which would not have been easily obtained
otherwise. In order to procure the greatest quantity of light,
the sashes were glazed with panes of glass comparatively much
larger than those used in English cottages, and the sides of
the windows were splayed from the glass-frame, so as to form
very obtuse angles with the interior surface of the wall. The
windows of the Scottish cottage are thus not only very dif—
ferent from those of the English, in being without dressings,
and of a different proportion, but also in their manner of
glazing and shutting them. The chimneys are either carried
up in one or both gables, or in a partition-wall, which sepa-
rates the two apartments in the length : when carried up in
the ends, as the walls are always made sufficiently thick to
receive the flues, the walls are not recessed upon the flanks of
the stalk of chimneys, in order to save materials. These, con-
sisting of crude stone cemented with mortar, being of little
value. The chimney—shafts, or the turrets surmounting the
roof, are generally plain, finished on the top with a coping of
hewn-stone.

In many old constructions of Scottish cottages, the chimney
is placed in the front-wall, with a large recess all round the
fire, which gave great advantage, in admitting more than
double the number which the modern construction admits
of, and was therefore useful in times when the master and his
servants sat in common with each other. In the old construc-
tions, the roof was covered with thatch, turf, or heath, as
being the most ready materials; but these, as in England,
have generally given place to the more durable coverings of
slate and tile, for similar reasons.

Few appendages are used in Scottish cottages; and in days
of old, so little attention was paid to cleanliness, that the cot-
tager who was blessed with a cow, admitted the beast to lodge
at night in the same house with himself, without any other
partition than the back of a bed or press, to separate his
apartment from that of the animal. \Ve are, however, happy
to find, that among many other improvements in the north,
comfort and cleanliness are now as much objects of the wishes
of the inhabitants, as in other parts of the United Kingdom ;
but even in the present time, from the impression of ancient
forms, though the cow-house be separated from the cottage,
they are still in one continued formal line, and want that
picturesque beauty which an appendage would give, as in the
English cottage.

The common kind of the present cottages in the north, are,
made very wide, either to receive a framed bedstead and
press, or to form recesses, by means of a partition, for the
reception of the bed and cupboard, on the side of the apart-
ment opposed to the window.

 

, WW . __I___ .r,__ __l

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

COT

208

COT

 

The gables on some old cottages in North Britain, are sur-
mounted with steps, following the sides of the roof, instead of
the plain coping, which formed the thatch-way.

Scottish cottages are frequently decorated by training
honeysuckles or ivy upon the walls, and a row of house-leek
is disposed along the ridge, and not unfrequently upon the
sloping sides, in case of a thatched roof.

The materials to be used in the erection of cottages will
necessarily depend in a great measure on the locality in which
they are to be built. Cottages are built of clay, or turf,
bricks with wood, crude stone, flint, large pebbles, cab, &c.;
those used for the covering are turf, straw, tiles, slate, tarred
paper, tessera, Sac. When fir abounds, as in the north of Scot-
land, this timber may be used both for boarding and scant-
ling; in places yielding stone—that material with flag-stones—
for roofing.

In some parts of Lancashire, houses are built with a frame-
work of wood, filled up with wattled shed—work, and after-
wards covered with a composition of clay and wet straw,
locally termed “ clot and clay ;” this, when plastered and lime-
whited, has a neat appearance. In Devonshire, walls of a
similar character are called “cob-walls ;” in France, pisé.
Houses in the department of the Isere, Rhone, and Din, the
walls of which are formed with this material, have existed
for upwards of a century, and effectually resist the inclemency
of the weather.

Clay may be used with advantage in a similar manner in
this countryif properly prepared, and applied with judgment.
It should be well tempered, and mixed with a portion of fine
gravel, or sand ; this facilitates the drying, and prevents the
composition from cracking. In forming the walls, fix tem-
porarily in the ground two parallel rows of poles, planked on
the inner sides—a space of 20 inches between being left for
the thickness of the wall: ram the prepared clay well into
this space, raising the planks as the work proceeds, care being
taken that the walls are carried up perpendicular. Iron-
hooping should be laid diagonally in the substance of the
wall, as bond. Over all the openings, stout lintel should be
laid; and the door and window-frames fixed as the work pro~
gresses. When the walls have set, remove the planks and
poles, which may serve as timber for joists and rafters. After
the walls are completed and thoroughly dry, the exterior may
be rough-cast, and a coating of plaster laid on the interior.

A good method of keeping such walls dry, is to build in,
at intervals, small perforated drain—pipes. These should be
laid in the substance of the walls, the bottom resting upon a
framed opening defended by a cast-iron air-brick; the top
having asmall orifice under the eaves leading outwards. The
current of air passing through these pipes will carry off all
moisture exuding from the walls. The improvement of the
dwellings of the industrial classes is now occupying, in a con-
siderable degree, "the attention of philanthropists. Several
societies have been formed expressly to carry out so bene—
volent an object, and their attention has been especially
directed to the erection of a better description of cottage for
the agricultural labourer. The young architect, in the outset
of his professional career, may possibly be called upon to
furnish designs for such buildings, and with a View to assist
him, we have subjoined the following specification principally
taken from a work we have before quoted, Mr. Dean’s “ Essay
on Farm Buildings.” Mr. Dean is a practical architect, and is
thoroughly master of the subject on which he has written;
and his “ Essays” may be consulted with advantage by those
who are about to erect agricultural buildings.

The specification is for a pair of labourer’s cottages, semi-
detached, but may be altered as to materials, &c., according
to locality and circumstances.

 

 

The general conditions are as usual, and it is unnecessai y
to occupy space by transcribing them.
“ SPECIFICATION.

“Excavator. Dig out the earth for the foundations to the
several walls, drains, and cesspools, as shown in the draw-
ings, or herein described. The cesspools to privies to be
sunk outside the building. Fill up the trenches to the
depth and width shown in drawings with concrete com-
posed of one part of ground-stone lime to six of gravel,
broken stone, or clean ballast. Fill in and well ram the
ground-work to the trenches and, walls, so as to prevent
the rain soaking down to, or standing against, the walls
and foundations.”

“Bricklayer. The footings to the walls to be formed with
sound, hard, well-burnt stock bricks or burs from the brick-
field, filled in solid, and well flushed with mortar. On the
footings spread a layer of gas-tar and sand, and over this
a course of slate is to be laid, should there be the slightest
chance of dampness arising from the foundation. The
cesspools to be built in 4%; inch brickwork, steened and
domed over, having stone man-holes let in. The drains
from the sinks to be 3inches diameter, of glazed earthenware,
with syphon traps. The cesspools and drains to be com-
pleted previous to the walls being erected. Carry up the
walls and chimneys in old English bond, leaving a space
of about 2 inches in the centre of the thickness of the
walls, and insert air-bricks where required. Carry up
from the ceiling of each room, on corbel-stones, a ventila-
ting fiue 6 by 9 inches. All the flues to be well pargetted
and cored out at the completion of the works. The chim-
ney flues not to be gathered over sharply, and twisted as
much as possible.

“The external walls are to be faced with best red stock-
bricks, white Suffolk bricks being used for plinths, quoins,
and dressings to windows and chimney-shafts ; all of which
are to be carried up in the manner shown in drawings.
No wall to be, at any time during the progress of the works,
more than 4 feet higher than any other wall. No indents
or toothings will be allowed, and no four course of bricks
to exceed 11-}!- inches in height.
“ All the brickwork must be worked in sound regular bond,
with a close joint neatly struck; every course well flushed
in with mortar, and the whole made perfectly level, straight, '
and perpendicular. The chimney openings to have chimm
ney bars to turn up at each end. The quarter partitions
to be brick-nogged with bricks, laid flat, and well bonded.
“ All openings to have arches turned over them, with
proper skew backs, and left neatly pointed. The chimney
and jambs are to be chamfered, to have plinths, and two
projecting bricks, cut, as shown in drawing, to support.
mantel shelf. The fire-places are to be lined with fire-

bricks, and an oven built at back. The bottom, sides, and
top of oven to be of fire tiles, with fines for carrying the
fire under and up the sides of the oven. The smoke-flue
to be provided with dampers, and a door provided with
damper leading to the oven, which is to be fixed in chim-
ney jamb. Fire-grates are to be formed by letting round
iron bars into the brickwork of fire-places.
“The privies to be provided with Boulton and “'att’s
closet-pans, and glazed earthenware pipes leading to cess-
pools. The boilers to be set with rounded bricks, and the
inside work, where exposed to the fire, lined with fire-
brick. The mortar to be composed of one part of good
lime to three of sharp sand, or tine-sifted gravel ; the whole
to be well tempered. Properly bed all lintels, plates,
frames, and sills; point round all frames and sills; stop
all putlock holes, and leave the works in a complete state.

 

 

 

 

COT

209

COU

 

“ Mason and Pam'our. Provide and fix 4 inch tooled York
stone steps to porches and entrance-doors. Provide and
fix 3 inch York stones over cesspools; 4 inch stones for
corbels, to carry brickwork to air-fines; a circular space
about 4 inches diameter, to be cut in these stones, and
a ventilating valve inserted in each. Inch hare-hill hearths,
and back-hearths to all chimney openings, with stone-kirbs
round to act .as fenders. The kitchens to have ash-pits
with ironmovable gratings over. Sink-stones to wash-
houses 2 feet 6 inches by 1 foot 9 inches, out of 7 inch
stone, properly dished (or wood lined with zinc may be
used), each sink to be provided with a bell-trap. Pave
the porches and pantries with 10 inch tiles, well bedded,
the ground being previously well rammed. The rest of the
ground-floors to be made with concrete. Two-inch York-
stone treads, and risers to stairs, properly cramped, and
supported by dwarf brick walls. The floors of privies to
be paved with 1% inch York stone.”

“ Carpenter. The fir timber to be free from sap, large knots,
and shakes. The oak to be English, die-square. The
framing to be executed in the most approved manner, and
to be of the following scantlings :—Wall-plates 4% by 2%;
lintels over all openings, 4 by 4 ; chamber-joists 7 by 1%,
12 inches apart, with bays of herring-bone struts 2 feet
apart, thin iron hooping being nailed to the under side of
the joists, and the space between the joists to be filled up
solid with broken stone or clay and mortar. Trimming-
joists 7 by 3; struts 4 by 2 ; partitions to have heads and
sills 4 by 3; uprights and braces 4 by 2. Door-frames
chamfered on the edges, 4 by 3 ; rafters 4% by 212.; purlins
4 by 3; collars to every sixth pair of rafters, 6 by 2;
ridge, 7 by 1%; 2- yellow deal battens to carry slates.
Provide and fix 2 inch cut and splayed barge-boards, with
pinnacles, &c., as shown on drawings.”

“ Joiner. External doors to be square-framed and battened,
hung with 4 inch butts, with 7 inch drawback locks,
6 inch round bolts, (3 to each door), and Norfolk thumb-
latches; % ledged internal doors, and % ledged privy,
pantry, and coal-closet doors, with bolts and latches. The
doors to have inch jamb-linings and stops.”

“ I’Vindows. Solid deal frames, 4% by 3, with oak-sunk sills;
1% ovolo sashes, suspended by pivots ; those in the pantries
to be filled with perforated zinc.”

“ Fittings. Inch deal seats and risers to privies, on fir
carriages. The seats to have flaps hung with 2—;- inch
butt hinges; 1 shelf to be fixed round each cupboard
closet in bed-rooms, and 3 in those in kitchens: 1% inch
dressertops, and 3 shelves to pantries. Angle staves to
be provided and fixed to all angles; 5} clamped shutters
t0 dwelling-rooms, hung as flaps, with deal framed brackets,
to be turned on pivots, the flaps forming tables. Fir
mantel-shelves, 6 by 2 inches, over each opening.”

“ Plusterer. The walls of the dwelling-rooms and bed-rooms
to be rendered and set. The ceilings and rafters lathed
with iron lumping; the space between the joists and rafters
filled up solid with broken stone, or earth and lime. The
ceilings to be plastered, set, and whited. The chamber-
fioors to be laid with floor plaster, and trowelled to a smooth
surface. The walls of the sculleries, pantries, coal-closets,
and privies, to be twice lime-whited; cement skirting,
6 inches high, to be run round all the kitchens and
bed-rooms.”

“ Slater. Cover the roofs with countess slates, laid hollow
to a proper gauge. The ridges to be of slate, bedded in
cement.”

‘ Ironmonger. Fix No. 8 1%; round iron bars to all the fire-
places, to form stove. Fix iron pans in sculleries. Fix

3 n

 

where directed an iron pump, with double handle; fix

No. 4, stacks of 4 inch descending pipes, with cistern

heads and shoes, the bottom length to be of cast iron.

Provide and fix No. 12 cast iron air bricks, to be fixed

where directed; fix N o. 8 Arnott’s valves where directed.

Fix perforated zinc-plates to doors of rooms not having

chimney openings in them. Provide No. 10 chimney

bars, to turn up at each end.”

“Plumber. Inch lead waste pipes from sinks to drains
curved round so as to form stink—traps, and provided with
bell-traps. Lead fiashings to chimneys, 5 pound to the
foot super. Provide and fix 15 feet of 1% suction pipe
from well to pump.”

“ Glazier and Painter. Glaze the several sashes with 3rd
Newcastle crown glass. Stain the whole of the wood-
work of the exterior with a composition of gas-tar and
Roman ochre, laid on when boiling hot. The interior
to be stained with ‘ Stephen’s stain,’ and afterwards
varnished.”

The above Specification is so carefully drawn, that we
have thought it expedient to extract it entire, as a useful
guide to the young architect. It may, of course, be altered
according to circumstances, and it may not always be
desirable to incur so large an outlay. The estimate for
a pair of cottages similar to those specified, would range
from £200 to £300, according to the amount of ornament
bestowed on them.

COUCH, in general, the lay of any mucilaginous substance
on any material, as wood or plaster, in order to protect the
surface of that material from the weather, and thereby
render it more durable, or less vulnerable to the corroding
influence of the atmosphere.

COUCH, in painting, denotes a lay or impression of colour,
whether in oil or water, with which the painter covers his
canvass, wall, wainscot, or other material to be painted.

Paintings are first covered with a couch of varnish.
A canvass, to be painted, must first have two couches
of size before the colours are laid: two or three couches of
whitelead are laid on wood before the couch of gold is
applied.

COULISSE, French; the pieces of wood which hold the
floodgates in a sluice; also any timbers having grooves in
them.

COUNTER, COMPTER, (from the Latin, computare) the
name of two prisons in London, for the use of the city, to
confine debtors, breakers of the peace, &c.

COUNTER, a term formerly used among engineers, to denote
the superintendent of a canal, or other great work, under the
resident-engineer. His business was to keep an account of
the time of the men employed, not only in different depart—
ments of the work, but in different soils also, as a check on
the charge of the men; and thereby to enable the resident-
engineer, who received his accounts, to ascertain the rate of
any quantity of common measure in similar operations. The
counter seems to have been the same as what we now call
clerk of the works.

COUNTER DRAIN, a ditch or channel parallel to a canal or
embanked water-course, for collecting the soakage-water by
the side of the canal or embankment, to a culvert or arched
drain under the canal, by which it is conveyed away to
lower ground.

COUNTER DRAWING, the copying of a design by means of
a fine linen cloth, oiled paper, &c., laid on the drawing; the
strokes of the drawing appearing through the transparent
cover, being traced and marked with the pencil.

Sometimes drawings are Copied on glass, or with frames
or nets divided_into squares. The pentagraph is not only

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

COU

210

COU

 

useful in making fac-similes, but for reducing or enlarging
drawings in any proportion; but of all instruments employed
in copying rectilinear or regular curved-lined drawings, or
mixed of the two, the proportional compass is the most accu-
rate, the most expeditious and convenient instrument ever yet
invented ; and if the parts of the drawing stand at different
oblique angles, a pair of triangular compasses will be neces-
sary to assist in taking the angles. Although the penta-
graph will of itself enlarge or reduce, or make equal, and
find the quantity of the angle, it requires much room, and
for drawing straight lines and curves, the tracer to be drawn
along a straight-edge. In retrograding or retracing a line
in the same path, towards the contrary extremity to which it
was drawn, the representative line is liable to be doubled.
The pentagraph is therefore a cumbersome and inaccurate
instrument for such purposes, and should only be used in
reducing for rough or sketch-maps, &c., where great accu-
racy may not be absolutely necessary.

COUNTERFORTS, projections of masonry or brickwork from
a wall, built at regular intervals, in order to strengthen the
wall, or to resist a pressure of earth behind it, the counterforts
increasing the breadth of its base, and thereby aiding the
resistance against the power which tends to overturn it.

COUNTER GAUGE, in carpentry, a method used to measure
the joints by transferring, e.g. the breadth of a mortise to the
place of the other timber where the tenon is to be made, in
order to adapt them to each other.

COUNTER LATII, in tiling, a lath placed between every two
gauged ones, so as to divide every interval, as near as can be
judged by the eye, into two equal intervals.

COUNTER LIGHT, a window opposite to anything which
makes it appear to a disadvantage: a single counter light is
sufficient to take away all the beauty of a fine painting.

COUNTER PARTS, of a building, are the similar and equal
parts of the design on each side of the middle of the
edifice ; they are absolutely necessary to the character
of a Grecian or Roman edifice, but in Gothic buildings
a duplicaturc of parts is not requisite.

COUNTRY—HOUSE, as its name implies, one erected in
the country. In the erection of these, under a liberal em-
ployer, the architect has the greatest scope for his fancy,
ingenuity, and skill in contrivance. He is not confined to
Space, as in town-houses, and therefore has it in his power
to extend in any direction consistent with the nature of his
design. For farther information, see VILLA, and HOUSE.

COUPLE-CLOSE, a pair of Spars of a roof.

COUPLED COLUMNS, those which are disposed in
pairs, making a. narrow and wide interval succeed each
other alternately. Of this disposition of columns, ancient
architecture affords no instance ; for, although in the temple
of Bacchus at Rome, the columns are coupled, or stand in
pairs, still the intervals between are all equal. The only use
of coupled columns is in low colonnades, or porticos of edi-
fices which have large piers, where the employment of single
columns would have a meagre appearance. The ancient dis-
position of columns in the same range was always beautiful,
on account of the proportion of the intereolumn being always
narrow. In the application of columns to modern architec-
ture, the intercolumniations must be regulated by the aper-
tures of our domestic edifices, but the ancients were under no
such restrictions. The perspective succession or gradation of
coupled columns, is not so harmonious as when columns stand
single. If a design be well suggested, there will be little occa-
sion for their employment. See COLUMN, COLONNADE.

COUPLES, rafters framed together in pairs, with a tie,
which is generally fixed above the feet of the rafters. This
mode of framing is used in the ordinary houses of Scotland,

 

without either principals or purlins. The rafters called Spars,
are most commonly notched, and the tie which couples them
is also notched with a dovetail. In a building about 25 feet
wide, the spars may be 7 inches at bottom, 6 inches at top,
2% inches thick, and about 2 feet 2 inches apart, for boarding
covered with slate.

COUPLES, Main, or MAIN COUPLES, the same as trusses
for roofs, which support the roof in different bays : this term
is also used in the north.

COURSE, a continued level range of stones or bricks in a
wall, as far as the solid part runs. It sometimes happens,
that a course of masonry is only laid to a certain length, and
the other part or complement divided into two courses, in
the same height as the single course ; but this ought not to
be admissible, and should be specified against, in countries
where the contractors are ready to take every advantage in
order to save the expense of larger stones, or to accommo-
date themselves with those already at hand.

COURSE OF THE FACE OF AN ARCH, the arch-stones, whose
joints radiate to the centre. In stone work, the arch-stones
are called voussoirs or ring-stones, in the face of the arch, and
each radiating part consists of one stone only. In brick-
work, each part, of one thickness of brick, sometimes consists
of several bricks in length : but whether one or several
bricks be contained between two adjacent radiating joints,
the quantity thus disposed is called a course.

COURSE, in slating and tiling, a row of slates or tiles, dis-

posed with their lower ends in the same level, which line .

may either be a straight line or a circle.

I

COURSE OF PLINTHS, the continuity of a plinth in the face ;

of a wall, to mark the separation of the stones. The course
of plinths is otherwise called string course, which is most
frequently executed with stone, but sometimes also with
plaster, to save expense.

COURSE, Barge. See BARGE-COURSE.

COURSE, Blocking. See BLOCKING-COURSE.

COURSE, Bonding, that which is farther inserted into the
wall than either of the adjacent courses, for the purpose of
binding the wall together.
upon each other, one from the face, and the other from the‘
back, make excellent work : these courses should be placed:
so as to leave regular intervals for stretching-courses between
them, on each side of the wall.

COURSE, heading, the same as BONDING-COURSE.
the last article.

COURSE, Springing. See SPRINGING-COURSE.

COURSE, Stretching. See STRETCHING-COURSE.

COURSED MASONRY, that in which the stones run in
courses.

COURSING JOINT, the joint between two courses.

COURT, an hypzethral, or uncovered area, either in front
of a house, or surrounded entirely by the walls. As it is.
impossible on the same floor to light apartments surrounded
with other apartments on all sides, and these again com-
pletely covered with other apartments, it will be impossible
to execute an extensive building, which may have more than
three rooms in length and breadth, and more than one story
in height, without the intermediate rooms being entirely
dark, or receiving their light by secondary windows from the
exterior rooms ; hence the necessity of introducing as many
intermediate courts as the extension of the building, with
regard to the number of rooms, both in length and breadth,
may require, will be obvious. Mr. Barry has made advan-
tageous use of a court of this description in the Travellers
Club-house. See CLUB-HOUSE. It is true, that a building
can be executed without courts, and that it may contain any
number of rooms; but it must have only two rooms it

See'

 

 

 

Two bonding-courses lapping

 

 

 

 

COV

211

CRA

 

breadth, or otherwise the plan cannot be a simple rectan-
gular figure. Courts may be ornamented In the most
elegant manner, and being more confined than the external
parts of the edifice, the ornaments may be of a more delicate
nature ; and if any parts of the burldlng can admit of arcades,
or of two or more orders, one above the other, a court is
certainly the most susceptible of such-decoration. We are
informed by Vitruvius (book vi. chap. 111.) that the anoients
had five kinds of courts, called cavedii, distinguished by the
denominations of TuScan, Corinthian, tetrastyle, disPZuvi-
noted, and testudinated. For the description of each, see
CAVEDIUM.

COUSINET, COUSSINET, a CUSHION, a stone placed upon
the impost of a pier or pedroit, for receiving the first stone of
an arch. If the arch be the segment of a circle, the cousinet
may be an isosceles triangle, with the base upon the impost,
and the two sloping sides radiating to the centre ; or if the
arch be a semicircle, the cousinet will be the first arch-stone
itself, or otherwise the arch must spring above the impost.

COUSINET is also employed to denote that part in the front
of the Ionic capital, contained between the abacus and the
echinus, or quarter—round. It is this which forms the hori-
zontal fillet, or band, in common volutes, or the band and
festoons in the Grecian Ionic, from which the volutes on each
side of the column depend.

COVE, any kind of concave moulding, or the concavity of
a vault.

Covr‘, BRACKETING,is the bracketing of any cove, but more
gem-rally understood to be that of the quadrantal cove, which
is sometimes employed between the flat ceiling and the wall.
See BnAcKETING.

COVED AND FLAT CEILING, one whose section is a
portion or quadrant of a circle, springing from the walls of
the room, and rising to a flat surface in the middle.

Coved and flat ceilings seem to be altogether of modern
invention‘ and admit of some beauty in the decoration. It is
a sort of compromise between the flat or horizontal ceiling,
and the various forms of arched ones practised by the
ancients. It does not require so much height as the latter
mode, and has therefore been of considerable use in the
finishing of modern apartments; but as its form is a com-
pound, it wants both elegance of figure, and grandeur of
design ; nor does it admit of that beauty in decoration, that
entire arched ceilings are susceptible of. The ancient forms
were of three kinds, the cylindric arch, the dome, and the
groin. We find no arches of any description in Grecian
antiquity; but in the Roman edifices all the three varieties
are to be found; and among other ceilings in the ruins of
Balhcc, the quadrantal coved ceiling, with the flat in the
middle, may be distinctly traced, at least in length, if not in
breadth. See CEILING.

COVER, in slating, the part of the slate that is bid or
covered; the other part exposed to view, is termed the
margin of the slate.

COVER WAY, in roofing, the recess or internal angle left
in brickwork or masonry to receive the covering.

Covnmrn WAY, a passage covered over. The term Covered
Way, or Covmt'r “ray, is also used in fortification to denote
the piece of ground level with the field on the edge of the
ditch, three or four fathoms broad, extending quite round
the works towards the country. It has a parapet raised on
a level, together with its banquettes and glacis. It is some-
times called the counterscarp.

loVERING. See ROOFING.

COVIN G, the exterior projecture over the ground-plan
of buildings, made in an arched form with lath and plaster:

it is not now in use. In former times, when the streets were l

 

very narrow, the upper rooms were made in part to jut over
the wall, in order to give room.

COVINGS or A FIREPLACE, the inclined vertical parts on
the sides, for contracting the opening, and throwing out the
heat.

COW-HOUSE, a building where cows or other cattle are
kept, in order to protect them from the severities of the
weather. See CATTLE SHED.

Cow-YARD, the enclosure in which cows are kept, to
shelter them from the weather.

CRAB, an instrument used in masonry for raising large
stones.

CRACKING OF BUILDINGS, those fissures occasioned
by improper management in the foundation, or in carrying
up the work. Cracks, so frequent in modern buildings, will
for the most part be found to arise from unequal settlement,
caused by insuflicient foundations, from inadequate coverings
to apertures, such as what are called French arches, or from
the employment of improper or inferior materials, soft bricks,
unseasoned timber and such like.

CRACKING, in plastering, the fissures occasioned by an
undue tempering or mixing of the materials, or by an un-
seasonable application.

CRADLE, or COFFER, in engineering, a large wooden
trunk, open at top, with movable ends, large enough to
receive a barge or vessel when floating on a canal, for the
purpose of raising or lowering it to a higher or lower pond
of the canal, by cranes or other means, without the use of a
pond lock.

The term is also applied to the segment of a hollow cylinder
formed of ribs and lattice, similar to centering, used by
bricklayers and masons, for turning culverts and arches ; the
inside is smooth, and the exterior rough, for supporting and
retaining the shape of the inverted arch of the lower half of
the culvert in soft ground, particularly in quicksands and
peaty places. A very slight cradle of this kind, will some-
times prevent thc distortion or ultimate fall of a barrel cul-
vert. This precaution should never be omitted in laying
culverts under canals or roads, in soft grounds, as the falling
of the culvert may prove of the greatest inconvenience.

CRADLE-VAULT, a word improperly applied to cylindric
vaults.

CRADLING, the mass of timber-work disposed in
arched or vaulted ceilings, for sustaining the lath and
plaster. For the application of the various species of
cradling, see the words CYLINDRIC-VAULT, COVE-BRACKET-
ING, DOME, GROIN, and NICHE. The compound term, dish-
ing-out, is sometimes used by workmen, instead of cradling.

CRADLING is also used for the rough timber-work for sus-
taining an entablature for a shop-front.

CRAMP, an iron instrument, about 4 feet long, with a
screw at one end, and a movable shoulder or arm at the
other, by which mortise and tenon work is forced together.

CRAMPERN, or CRAMP-IRON, an iron bent at each
extremity, towards the same side of the middle part, used to
fasten stones together in a building.

When stones are required to be bound together with
greater strength than that of mortar, a chain, or bar of iron,
with different projecting nobs, is inserted in a cavity cut in
the upper side of the course of stones across the joints,
instead of single cramps across thejoints of each two stones.
Cramps are generally employed in works which require great
solidity, as in the piers and abutments of bridges, and the
voussoirs of large arches. They are also employed in uniting
the stones of copings and cornices, and generally any external
work upon the upper surface, or between the beds of the
stone. External work liable to the injuries of the weather,

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CRE

212

CRO

 

ought to be cramped. The most secure manner of fixing
cramps is to let them into the stones their whole thickness,
and run them with lead ; but in slight works, it is sufficient
to bed them in plaster, as is the practice in chimney—pieces.
Iron is used in modern buildings, but the Romans, who were
accustomed to employ cramps in the greatest profusion, used
bronze, a material much more durable than iron, as it is not
so liable to rust.

Bronze or copper is preferable to iron, not only on account
of its own durability, but likewise because it is not so liable
to destroy the masonry which it connects: the rust which
accumulates round iron cramps, tends to rupture the masonry
to a much greater extent, than the cramps to keep it
together; besides this, if placed near the surface, iron is sure
to discolour it. In general work, if the masonry be well put
together, there will be but little need of cramps, especially
if the separate masses be of moderate size; nor even if they
be of small dimensions, is there any absolute necessity for
their employment, as we may gather from the works of the
ancients. Mr. Murphy instances the spires of Salisbury
cathedral, and of the church of Batalha, Portugal, which
though not more than seven inches in thickness, are for the
most part connected Without the aid of iron cramps. These
observations apply with greater emphasis to wrought than
to cast iron.

Sir Christopher Wren used a large cramp or chain, below
the Springing of the dome of St. Paul’s, in order to distribute
the pressure equally. This architect, however, seems to
have been fully aware of the caution requisite in the use of
iron in stone buildings, for he observes in his Parentalia,
“It has been observed in removing cramps from masonry
at least four hundred years old, which were so bedded in
mortar that all air was perfectly excluded, that the iron
appeared as fresh as when it came from the forge. In
cramping stones therefore, no iron should lie within nine
inches of air, if possible; for air is the menstruum that
consumes all materials. When for want of large stones
the use~of iron is requisite, care should be taken to exclude
the air from it.”

Copper, bronze, or gun-metal form excellent and incorro-
sive substitutes for iron in cramping masonry; they are
more expensive at the first outlay, but will be found in
reality more economical; the first material may be mixed
with a small portion of tin, which imparts to it greater
durability.

The above objections to iron, do not hold good as regards
brickwork ; the only inconvenience in this case arises from
the stain with which the rust is apt to disfigure the work,
if the iron be placed too near the facing.

CRAMPOONS, pieces of iron hooked at the ends, for
drawing or pulling up timber, stones, &c.

CRANE-HOUSE, a house to shelter a crane : it should
be constructed of brick.

CREALS, a sort of jetties or weir hedges, sometimes
erected on the shores of rivers or the sea, for checking the
force of the tide in particular places, and occasioning a
deposit of filth or mud in place of the constant wear and
3 encroachment of the water upon the land. Smeatou’s
Reports, i. p. 4.

CREASING, Tile. See TILE-CREASING.

CREDENCE, a shelf or small table by the side of a
Christian altar, on which the sacred elements are placed
1‘ previous to consecration. Sometimes the credence is simply
‘ a shelf in the niche above the piscina, but at other times a
separate table. At the church of S. Cross is a beautiful
specimen. rectangular in plan, having its front decorated
with panels, and the stone slab supported above a cornice

 

enriched with flowers, it is fixed in a corner so that only two
sides are exposed; at Fyfield, Berks, is another specimen,
semi-octagonal in plan, supported on a stem of similar plan,
but of smaller dimensions; the sides are panelled all the
way up.

CRENELLE, the embrasure of a battlement, sometimes
applied to the whole battlement, as also to the loopholes and
other small apertures in the wall of a fortress, through which
missiles were discharged.

CRESCENT, an ornament used by the Mahometans in
their mosques.

CRESCENT, a series of buildings, disposed in the arc of
a circle, which is either the half circumference, or the arc
of a segment less than the half.

CRESILLA, a Grecian sculptrix, who chiselled seven
statues of the Amazons, for the temple of Diana at Ephesus,
and was accounted the third in merit among the numerous
competitors who vied in decorating that famed edifice—being
only inferior to Polycletus and Phidias.

CRESSET, an open metal frame or cage, used to contain
a light or beacon-fire.

CREST, the ornamental finishing at the summit of a
structure, consisting of battlements, open tracery, finials and
crockets, or even plain coping.

CREST-TILES, tiles placed along the ridge of a roof, over-
lapping on both sides like a saddle; they are sometimes
plain, and at others ornamented, moulded in the form of
battlements, Tudor-flowers, crockets, leaves, 8w.

CREUX (from the French) a term .A sculpture, implying
a hollow, out of which anything has been scooped; and
hence it has been used to denote that kind of sculpture
and graving, where the lines and figures are cut and formed
within the surface carved or engraved upon.

There is no word in the English language that answers
to this idea, and hence the necessity of adopting the term.
It is opposed to the word relic-v0, where the lines and figures
are prominent, and project without the surface.

CRIB, the rack or manger of a stable, or the stall or
cabin of an ox. It is also used for any small habitation,
as a cottage.

CROCKET (from the French, croc, a hook, or fork) an
ornament used to decorate or finish the raking arrises of
parts of Gothic buildings, such as spires, pinnacles, gables,
canopies, &c.; consisting of projecting leaves, flowers,
or knops of foliage, and terminating usually in a larger
ornament or bunch of flowers or leaves at the summit, called
a finial. Sometimes they are used in vertical lines, as at f
the cathedral, Lincoln, where they run up the mullions of
the tower window. Crockets of the Early English style are :
often simple trefoil leaves, and sometimes bunches of such
leaves, placed at considerable intervals, and curled backwards,
in a similar manner to the head of a bishop’s pastoral staff:
early specimens are to be seen at Salisbury and \Vells
cathedrals, but the simplest example exists at Lincoln, which
exhibits a simple curve, curling round downwards. In the
Decorated period, the leaves were usually continued for some
distance attached to the moulding, and curled upwards
towards the extremity, sometimes the extreme point was
turned up; a similar form prevailed in the Perpendicular
style, but they are sometimes merely flat square leaves united
to the moulding by the stalk and one edge. In some cases
we meet with animals in the place of crockets, as on the
flying buttresses of Henry VII.’s chapel, “'estminster, and
the gables of the hall at Hampton Court; on the tomb of
Archbishop Kempe, Canterbury, we find swans, and on that
of Bishop Biugham, Salisbury, angels are used for the same
purpose.

 

an“..- .flm...” . ..

 

 

 

 

 

CRO

CROISSANTE CRODLhaving a crescent or halfmoon,
fixed to each end thereof.

CROKET. See CROCKET.

CRONACA, SIMONE, a Florentine architect, born in
the year 1454. This artist travelled to Rome, and other
cities of Italy, in order to take accurate admeasurements of
the ancient edifices. When he returned to Florence, he
acquired considerable reputation, and was employed to finish
the Palazzo Str0zzi, which was begun by Benedetto da
Maiano. Among his other works in this city, are the sacristy
of the church of Santo Spirito, and the church of S. Fran-
cesco del Ofl'ervanza, at S. Miniato, in the suburbs of the
city. He died in the year 1509, and was buried in the church
of S. Ambrozio Vasari.

CROOKED LINE, one that cannot have a tangent on
any point to the two adjacent parts of the line on each side
of the point of contact.

CROSETTES, in the decorations of apertures, the trusses
or consoles on the flanks of the architrave, under the cor-
nice; they are otherwise named ears, elbows, ancones, or
prot/zyrides.

CROSIER, a bishop’s staff ; it was originally a plain rod
with a cross-head at its summit, and subsequently with a
curved top similar to a shepherd’s crook. Crosiers were
sometimes of a very costly description, being formed of gold
or silver, engraved, enamelled, and inlaid with jewels and
precious stones. A good specimen is that of William of
Wykeham, preserved at New College, Oxford. The crosier
of an archbishop is surmounted by a cross, and that of a
primate or patriarch by a double cross.

CROSS, a figure consisting of four branches, at right
angles to each other ; or a geometrical figure, consisting of
five rectangles, each side of one angle being common with
one side of each of the other four.

The cross, as the most prevalent symbol of the Christian
religion, was often introduced into their architecture. Their
churches, more especially the larger ones, were frequently
built on a cross plan, and were decorated internally and exter-
nally with this symbol ; crosses of -a highly decorative cha-
racter and beautiful design were often affixed to the apex of
gables, and in the interior were depicted on the walls ;
a large ornamental cross, usually of wood, called the rood, was
set above the screen, which separates nave and chancel, and a
small one of metal, enriched with jewels, &c., on the altar.

There are two kinds of cruciform plans used in ecclesiastical
buildings; one, in which all the five rectangles are equal; or,
in which each of the four wings is equal to the middle part
formed by the intersection, is called a Greek cross. The
other, in which only two opposite wings are equal, and in
which the other two are unequal, and the three rectangles
in the direction of the unequal parts of greater length than
the three parts in the direction of the equal parts, is called
a Latin cross, the middle part in each direction being
common.

Stone crosses were erected in front of the entrance to the
church, and these consisted of a tall shaft raised on one or
more steps, and surmounted by an ornamental cross ; the shaft
was usually of a simple character, but sometimes enriched
with sculpture. Besides these, there were boundary, memo-
rial, sepulchral, preaching, and market crosses.

Boundary-crosses were of a very simple character, being
usually merely upright stones ornamented with some simple
sculpture ; memorial crosses were of a like plain description,
there is a specimen at Blorecheath, Stafi'ordshire. The crosses
erected by king Edward I. at the places where the corpse of
1118 queen Eleanor was rested during its progress from Lin-
colnshire to Westminster for interment, would probably come

3 I

213

 

CRO

under this head, but if so, they are of avery different descrip-
tion to the majority. Out of fifteen of these originally existing,
only three now remain, at Geddington, Northampton, and
Waltham ; of those now destroyed, five are known to have
been erected at the following places, Lincoln, Stamford,
Dunstable, St. Alban’s, and Charing. They were very ela-
borate structures, consisting of several stories of multangular
plans, each story being somewhat smaller than the one below
it, so as to give the erection a pyramidal form, having the
apex surmounted by a cross, and the whole enriched with
sculpture, statuary, 8m; that at Waltham consists of three
stories, and is hexagonal in plan) the lower story is richly
panelled, the second canopied, containing statues of the
queen, the third panelled, similarly to the lowest, and the
whole finished at the top with a decorative cross.

The preaching-cross was a covered pulpit usually erected in
the vicinity of a church, the most noted is that of St. Paul,Lon-
don, which was an erection of wood raised on steps, and covered
with a canopy; it was octagonal in plan, closed in on all sides,
with the exception of the entrance and the aperture, through
which the preacher addressed the people. Specimens of this
class exist at Hereford, Iron Acton, Gloucestershire, and
Holbeach, Lincolnshire.

Market-crosses seem to have been originally of a similar
form to those of Queen Eleanor, but having open arches at
the sides in the lowest story. In the later and more general
form, the plan of the basement was considerably extended,
so as to present a space of considerable size covered with a
vaulted roof, and having a central pillar or pier to support
the superstructure, which at the same time was much reduced
in height; the shape of the original plan was preserved, the
only difference being in its size; thus the market-cross at
Leighton Buzzard, Bedfordshire, is pentagonal, that at Salis-
bury, hexagonal, and that at Malmsbury, which is a beautiful
specimen, hexagonal. Other market-crosses exist at \Vin-
chester, Cheddar, and Chichester, and there were two excel-
lent ones at Coventry and Glastonbury. They served to
shelter the people attending market from heat and rain.

The cross at Chichester is the most beautiful specimen of
the kind. It is supported on eight buttresses and a central
column, from which issue a number of ribs dividing the vaulted
roof: between the buttresses are eight arches moulded,
and surmounted by an ogee canopy, which is crocketed,
the finial supporting a pinnacle; the spandrells of the canopy
are richly panelled, as are also the walls above, the whole
being finished by a panelled parapet. The buttresses termi-
nate in crocketed pinnacles. The structure is covered exter-
nally by an ogee cupola, crocketed ribs springing from each
of the buttresses at the angles, and the whole is surmounted
by a small octangular turret pierced with eight arches, and
otherwise elaborately ornamented.

Crosses of a simple character were originally erected at the
entrance of towns and villages, at the intersection of cross-
roads and sides of highways, to arrest the attention of tra-
vellers, and excite their devotion.

CROSS-HANDED, in hand-railing, is when a veneer is laid

- upon the upper side of the rail, with the grain of the wood

crossing that of the rail, and the extension of the veneer in
the direction of its fibres less than the breadth of the rail.
CROSS GARNETS, hinges, with a long strap, which is fixed
to the closure of the aperture, and with a cross part on the
other side of the knuckle, which is fastened to the joint.
CROSS-GRAINED STUFF, wood with its fibres in contrary
directions to the surface, and which therefore cannot be made
perfectly smooth by the operation of the plane, without either
turning the plane or the stuff. This most frequently arises
from a twisted disposition of the fibres in the act of growing.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CRO

214

CRO

 

CRoss MULTIPLICATION, a term used by artificers for the
peculiar arithmetical process employed in the mensuration of
their work. Cross multiplication and duodecimals are gene-
rally confounded together as being synonymous expressions;
but the order of performing their operations is materially
different. In cross multiplication, the parts are actually mul-
tiplied crosswise, as well as in direct order, and the terms of
each factor are confined to feet and inches; whereas, in
duodecimals, the terms of each of the factors are not confined
to number, and the parts are multiplied in the order of com-
mon multiplication.

The rule in cross multiplication is as follows: Write the
given numbers, as in addition. The sum of the products of
the alternate parts, and the product of each pair of parts in
each denomination, will be the product of the whole. It
must be remembered, that

Feet multiplied by feet give feet.

Feet multiplied by inches give inches.
Feet multiplied by seconds give seconds.
Inches multiplied by inches give seconds.

The method of performing the operation will be seen in
the following examples—VVhat is the area of a board, the
length of which is 25 feet 11 inches, and the breadth 23 feet
7 inches ?

ft. in.

25 11

23 7

0 6 5 : 7 X 11

14 7 : 7 X 25
21 1 : 23 X 11
575 : 23 X 25
611 2 5

Required the product of 58 feet 9 inches, by 36 feet 6 inches.

ft. in.

58 9

36 6

0 4 6 = 6 X 9
29 = 58 X 6
27 : 36 X 9
2088 : 58 X 36
2144 4 6

The following method is another form of cross multipli-
cation, discovered by Mr. P. Nicholson, in which side oper-
ations are unnecessary, and consequently, as a part of the
work, must either be wrought on the margin, as above, or in
the mind: the work, by the method proposed, will be shorter
than the above, or less liable to mistake, if the side operations
be not used. The rule is thus:

Multiply the inches together, and the product is seconds;
divide the product by 12, if so divisible, the quotient is
inches, and the remainder seconds; then, placing the feet
and the inches in their respective order, one after the other,
set the products of the two cross parts in inches, under the
inches of the former quotient; add the three numbers toge-
ther, and divide their sum by 12, the quotient will be feet,
and the remainder inches ; multiply the feet of the multiplier
by the feet of the multiplicand, and place the products under
the feet of the last division, then the sum of these products
Will be the number of feet in the whole contents, and the
remainders of inches and seconds, if any, the parts Which J

 

are required to complete the whole product. We shall take
the two former examples, and the one method will be the best
proof of the truth of the other.

First Example. Second Example.

 

 

 

 

ft. in. ft. in.
25 11 58 9
23 7 36 6
6 5 4 6
175 348
253 324
12)434 12)676
36 2 56 4
75 348
50 174
611 2 5 2144 4 6

By this means, the whole is performed in one operation,
without laying any stress on the memory, and will therefore
be particularly useful to those who have not sufficient prac-
tice to fix the products and quotients of small numbers on
their memory: and it is the shortest method of the two, if
the number of marginal figures be counted into the work
of the former method of operation.

In duodecimals the process is as follows: beginning with
the last term, or the farthest from the left-hand in the multi-
plier, multiply by it each term of the multiplicand from the
right-hand to the left, carrying one for every twelve to each
successive product, but the denominations must not be car-
ried farther than the place of feet; again, multiply all the
terms of the multiplicand, by each successive term towards
the left of the multiplier; then place the products one under
the other, with the first term of every product on the left,
under the second term of the product of the horizontal row
immediately above; then add the similar denominations of
each product : the sum will be the whole product. Observe,
in the first place, to put the highest denomination, viz.,
the feet, under the first term on the left of the multiplicand,
and the terms of the product under each respective term of
the multiplicand will be of the same denomination with
each other.

Example—Suppose, again, it were required to multiply
25 feet 11 inches by 23 feet 7 inches, by duodecimals.

 

 

 

 

 

11x7: 77
2511 65
237 25x7=175
15 15 181
5961
__—. 151:1.91
61125 ‘2
11x23:253
211::9—5-3‘
25x 3:75 1‘
25x2o=5oo
596

Cross multiplication is much better adapted to finding the
superficial contents of a piece of work, where there are only

 

 

 

CRO

215

CRY

 

two terms in each factor, and where the feet of the multi-
plier run to a high number, as well as the feet of the mul-
tiplicand, and more particularly the second mode of cross
multiplication ; as in duodecimals, the calculator must either
have a very good memory to require no marginal work, or
otherwise the quantity of marginal operations will exceed

that of the principal work. Artificers and measurers never

take any account of denominations less than inches, except
in glazier’s work, and hence cross multiplication is almost the
only useful method of finding the contents ; but where more
denominations are concerned, recourse must be had to duode-
cimals or decimals, as when the terms of each factor are more
than two, cross multiplication cannot be applied.

When the terms of the multiplier are under 10, the
operation will be exceedingly easy, as the following example
will show.

Example.—Multiply8 feet, 3 inches, 5 seconds, and 7 thirds,
by 5 feet, 4 inches, 9 seconds, and 6 thirds.

ft. in. ii iii

 

8357
5496
41896
62723
291104
415311
44906306

It will be perceived that there is a great difference between
cross multiplication and duodecimals, and the purposes to
which each may be most advantageously applied; but the
reader who wishes for farther information on this subject,
may have recourse to the articles DECIMALS, DUODECIMALS,
and PRACTICE.

Cnoss SPRINGERS, in groins of the pointed style, are the
ribs that spring from one diagonal pier to the other.

CROSS VAULTING, a vault formed by the intersection of
two or more simple vaults. When each of the simple vaults
rises from the same level to the same height, the cross vault-
ing is denominated a groin; but when one of two simple
vaults, in cross vaulting, is below the other, the intersection
is simply denominated an arch of that particular species
which expresses both the simple arches; thus, if one cylinder
pierce another of greater altitude, the arch so formed is called
a cylindro-cg/lindric arch; and if the portion of a cylinder
pierce a sphere of greater altitude than the cylinder, the arch
is denominated a sphero—cylindrz'c arc/z ; and thus, for any
other species of arch whatever, the part of the qualifying
word which ends in o, denominates the simple vault which
has the greater altitude, and the succeeding part the other of
less altitude.

CROUDE, a subterraneous vault or crypt.

CROW", a bar of iron, used in bricklaying and quarrying.

CRO W N, in architecture, the uppermost member of a cor-
nice, cmnprehending the corona and its superior members.

CKCWN or AN ARCH, the most elevated line or point that
can be taken on its surface.

(311mm, in geometry, a plane ring, the surface being con-
tained between the circumferences of two concentric circles.

The area will be found by multiplying half the sum of the
two circumferences by its breadth; for it is easy to conceive,
that if radiating lines he equidistantly drawn indefinitely near
each other, the whole will be divided into truncated isosceles
triangles, or trapezoids, Whose opposite angles are equal to
two right angles; then the broad and narrow ends being

 

placed alternately in a straight line, and the sides in conti—
guity with each other, the whole will form a rectangle, whose
length is equal to the half sum of the two circumferences,
and the breadth that of the ring ; for all the middle breadths
are in one straight line, equal to the length of the rectangle.
Example—Suppose the greater circumference of a crown
to be 24 feet 8 inches, and the lesser 21 feet 6 inches, and the
breadth 2 feet 9 inches, required the superficial content ?

By cross multiplication. By decimals.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ft. in.
24 8 24.666 = 24.3—
21 6 21.5 = 21%
2)46 2 2)46.166
23 1 23.083
2 9 2.75 = 2%
o 9 115415
207 161581
2 46166
12 ) 209 63.47825 content in ft. 8: dec.
12
17 5 ——
46 5.73900 inches
12
63 5 9

 

8.868 seconds.

CROWN GLASS, the finest sort of window - glass. See
GLASS.

CROWN—POST, in truss-roofing, the truss-post, Which is
placed between a pair of principal rafters, or depending from
the summit of the principals, in order to support braces or
struts for sustaining the intermediate bearing of the princi»
pals, or keeping them from being bent by the weight of the
covering. It is otherwise called king-post and joggle-post. See
Posr and TRUSS-POST.

CROWNIN G, in general, the part that terminates any
piece of architecture. Thus the cornice, a pediment, acroteria,
&c., are called crownings.

CRUCIFIX, a cross with a figure or representation of
S. Saviour crucified, affixed to it.

CRYPT, according to Vitruvius, the under part of a build-
ing, answering nearly to our cellar.

The term is more particularly applied to a vaulted apart-
ment beneath a church, either entirely, or partly under
ground. Crypts owe their origin to the circumstance of the
early Christians being compelled, for the sake of secrecy and
concealment, to perform their sacred services in caves and
subterraneous places, some of which are still pointed out at
Rome. Crypts are not unfrequent, especially under large
churches, they seldom, however, extend the whole length of
the church, being usually confined to the choir or chancel,
and sometimes not extending so far as this; they are usually
low and massive, of an earlier and plainer style than the
superstructure. Many crypts are claimed as belonging to the
Saxon style, as those of Lastingham Church, Yorkshire:
S. Peter’s, Oxford ; Repton Church, Derbyshire; and portions
of those of many of our cathedrals.

Crypts were formerly used for service, and accordingly are
provided with altars and other furniture requisite for the pur—
pose. The most extensive building of this kind is that under
Canterbury Cathedral, which is thus described by Mr. Britten:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CUB

216

CUB

 

“Like those at Winchester, the crypts of Canterbury Cathe-
dral appear to have been built at different times. Their
eastern termination is semicircular; which form has been
also observed in the small lateral chapels. The interior length
of the Canterbury crypts is 286 feet 6 inches. The age of the
oldest part has long been the subject of controversy; but from
Its similarity to the crypt at Oxford, it may be regarded as
contemporaneous with that ; it was most probably the work
of Lanfranc, about A.D. 1080. The larger, or western crypt,
is divided into a nave and four aisles, by two rows of massive
piers, and by a double range of small columns; whilst the
piers and walls of the aisles have semi-columns to support the
vaulting. Branching laterally from each aisle is a vault or
chapel ; that on the south side, the vaulting of which is
adorned with many ribs, bears evident marks of innovation,
and is supposed to have been converted into a chantry chapel
by Edward the Black Prince, whose arms are seen among its
ornaments. Towards the eastern end of this crypt was a
chapel, inclosed with screen-work, and dedicated to the Holy
Virgin. The crypt under the Trinity Chapel, or east end
of the cathedral, is singular in form and character. Its plan
assumes the figure of an horse-shoe; and is divided into a
nave and aisles by a series of eight piers, each formed of two
columns, engaged about one-quarter of their diameter, sup-
porting four semicircular and five pointed arches, their
respective forms being influenced by the width of the inter-
columniations. In its central division, or nave, are two small
insulated shafts, with large capitals and bases to support the
ribbed groining, which is distinguished from that of the
western crypt by cross-springers and bold mouldings. At the
eastern extremity is a small vaulted chamber, forming the ter-
mination of these interesting apartments.”

Amongst the smaller examples, may be noticed that of
Hythe, Kent, and those of Repton, and St. Peter’s in the
East, Oxford, before—mentioned.

CRYPTo-PORTICUS, a subterraneous passage, as the original
word implies. If we may judge (says Winckelman) from the
remains of antique edifices, particularly those of the Villa
Adriani, at Tivoli, we might be led to believe that the an—
cients preferred darkness to light: for, in fact, we find scarcely
any chamber or vault among these ruined edifices, which has
any appearance of windows. It seems probable, that in some,
the light was only admitted through an opening in the middle
of the vault, but as the vaults are generally fallen, this point
cannot be ascertained. The inhabitants of Italy are naturally
attached to the shade and coolness of half-lighted apartments.
The long galleries of the Villa Adriani, which are undoubtedly
crypto-porticos, receive a feeble light at each end, from em—
bracing near the ceiling.

The term crypto—porticus was, however, applied, in course
of time, to apartments similar to our galleries.

We find, in Pliny’s description of his house at Laurentium,
that the crypto-porticus had windows on each side, looking
towards the sea, and upon his garden ; also other windows
over these. When the weather was cold, they were shut on
the side that sheltered them from the wind, but in warm and
serene weather they were all set wide open. .

CUBATURE, or CUBATION, of a solid, the solid contents
according to any common measure, as a solid inch, foot, yard,
&c., which is called the measuring unit. The cubature is the
same in respect to the contents of a solid, as the quadrature
is in respect of a superficies.

There is one general rule that will apply to finding the
cubation of nearly all the regular solids as entire bodies, or
to their frustums or segments, viz. “to four times the area
of the middle section add the area of each end; multiply
one-sixth of this sum (which is the mean area) by the

 

distance between the ends, and the product will give the con-
tent of the solid.”

This rule has been applied to three particular cases, viz.,
in the prismoid, cask measuring, and the frustum of the
hyperboloid ; it has also been demonstrated rather as a
theoretical curiosity, than as a practical rule, at the end
of Dr. Hutton’s Mensuration, applied to solids generated
from conic sections.

This rule, however, applies to solids in general, and com-
prehends the whole of mensuration in its principle ; though
such an extension has never been noticed by any writer
on the subject, yet it cannot fail to be of the utmost use in
assisting the memory ; for when particular rules are forgotten,
this general one may be easily remembered. It will apply
with accuracy to prisms, pyramids, prismoids, cones, conoids,
cuneoids, spheres, spheroids, and to all their segments and
frustums, cut by planes parallel to their axes.

Some may object, however, by saying it is not easy to
come at the dimensions of the middle section ; but in straight
solids these will be very readily ascertained, by taking half
the sum of the two ends ; in complete spheres and spheroids,
the middle dimension is absolutely given. In the hyperboloid
and its frustums, the dimensions of the middle section is
much easier obtained than either the transverse or conjugate
diameters, one of which, or both, it would otherwise be
necessary to have. In the paraboloid and its frustums, the
middle area is half the sum of the areas of the two ends. The
reader who is desirous of seeing the application of this
general rule, may consult the article SOLID.

CUBE (from, xufiog, tessera, die) a solid, bounded by six
squares ; it is otherwise called a hexahedron, from its six sides.
Its simple properties are, that its sides are all equal, and at right
angles with each other : it has also its opposite sides parallel
to each other. The cube may be conceived to be generated
by a square figure along a right line, of equal length to the
side of the square, and perpendicular to the plane. From
its construction, it its evident that all sections of the solid,
parallel to any side, are equal.

The envelope, rete, or net, may be thus constructed : Draw
two lines, AD and AB, at a right angle with each other;
make AB equal to the side of one of the squares, and AD
equal to four times A B, marking the points of division,
E GI; draw BC parallel to AD, and DC parallel to AB,
parallel to which also drawn F, G 11, I K, cutting 13 C at F, H, K :
produce E F and G H on both sides, to L and M on the one side,
and N and 0 on the other,making E L, G M, r N, H 0, each equal
to E F, and join L M and N 0; this will complete the envelope
required.

Hence the superficies of a cube is found by multiplying the
area of one of its sides by 6.

The solidity of a cube is found by multiplying the area of
one of its squares by one of the lineal sides of a square.
Hence if one lineal side be 10, the solidity will be 1,000;
and if 12, it will be 1728 ; wherefore a cubic perch contains
1,000 cubic feet, and a cubic foot of 1728 cubic inches.

Cubes are to one another in the triplicate ratio of their
lineal sides.

CUBIC NUMBER, one which arises by multiplying two
equal numbers, and the product again by another equal
number: thus, 12 X 12:144, and 144 X 12:17:28.

CUBICLE, a bed-chamber. See CHAMBER, and the next
word.

CUBICULUM, among the Romans, a bed-rhamber. This
name was also given to the balcony or logia, in which the
emperors were placed at the public games.

CUBIT, a lineal measure used by the ancients, particularly
by the Hebrews, taken from that part of a man’s arm between .

 

_c-~w~————

 

 

 

 

 

CUR

the elbow and tip of the hand. The English cubit may be
calculated at 18 inches, the Roman at 17.406, and the Hebrew
at 21.888 inches.

CUL-DE-FOUR, or CU—DE-FOUB, a sort of low spherical
vault, ovenlike. This is the definition generally given; but
this term, as also the following, are altogether void of specific
meaning. As they define nothing, we have only retained
them as being found in all large encyclopaedias and builder’s
dictionaries, in order that our architectural nomenclature
should not be thought deficient. What is meant by a low
spherical roof? Is it a segment less than a hemisphere?
Where is the similarity between an oven and a spherical
surface ? Is not the latter definite, but the former indefinite?

CUL-DE-FOUR or A NICHE, denotes the arched roof of a
niche on a circular plan. These two definitions are of French
origin.

There may be many forms of arched roofs or heads, on a
circular plan; however, the probability is, that it is either
spherical or spheroidal, terms perfectly specific, unless it be
in the quantity or portion of the surface employed.

CULMEN, in ancient Roman carpentry, answers to what
we denominate the ridge-piece of a roof. ‘

CULVERT, an arched drain for conveying rills and brooks
of water under canals or roads, from the higher level on one
side, to the lower level on the other side of the canal or road.

They are also employed for discharging the rain-water out of
hollows on the upper side of a canal. When such a drain
or water-passage has a descent, so as to make it lower in the
middle, it is said to be broken-backed.

CUNEUS, one of the mechanical powers. See WEDGE.

CUNEUS, in Roman antiquity, that part of the theatre where
the spectators sat, which was so named on account of its
resemblance to a wedge. This form became necessary on
Iccount of the elliptic figure of the edifice, and of the stair-
cases and doors, which were fixed in radial directions, and
divided the seats into wedge-form compartments.

CUPBOARD, a recess in a wall, fitted up with shelves,
to contain articles when not in use.

CUPOLA, a roof or vault, rising in a circular or
elliptic curve, from a circular, elliptic, or polygonal plan, to
its summit, with its concavity towards the plan, the interior
or exterior surfaces being such, that every horizontal section,
whether the one or the other, are sim lar figures. A cupola
is otherwise termed tholus, or dome. See the latter word for
its history and properties.

CURB, in a general sense, signifies a check or restraint.

CURB FOR BRICK STEPS, a timber nosing generally of oak,
employed not only to prevent the steps from wearing, but also
from being dislocated or put out of their places. When the
steps are made to return, the curb also returns, but when
they profile against a wall, the ends of the curb or nosing-
pieces, house at each end into the wall.

CURB PLATE, a circular continued plate, either scarfed
together, or made in two or more thicknesses. The wall-
plate of a circular or elliptically ribbed dome, is termed a curb
plate, as also the horizontal rib at the top, on which the
vertical ribs terminate; likewise the plate of a skylight or a
circular frame for a well.

CURB PLATE, also the horizontal piece of timber supported

Bk, or Cl ::
lm, or Do::
'01), orEr::
Sr, or run:

F21:

Bi:
cl:
Do.
Er:
Eu:
Therefore, Bi :r v ::

F022

217 .

 

S.Bki, or ABC
s.cml,or mcn
S-Dp0,01‘qu
s.Bsr,or vru:
:s.F'vu,or vo:
S.ABCXS.vFqu.vo: aislzxsiakxsnre.
sumo

CON

by the upper ends of the lower rafters, for receiving the feet
of the upper rafters, in a curb roof.

CURB RAFTERS, the upper rafters on both sides of acurb ‘rooi.

CURB ROOF, a roof formed of four contiguous planes, of
which each two have an external inclination, the ridge being
the line of concourse of the two middle planes, and the highest
of the three lines of concourse. This construction is frequently
denominated a Monsard roof, Mansard being the name of its
inventor. It is very well adapted to a house surmounted by
a parapet, so high as to cover the lower plane of the roof, as
it gives a free or uninterrupted space from the level of its
base to that of the summit of each lower plane, or to the
base of the two upper planes. In curb roofing, there is no
danger of springing the walls by lateral pressure, for the
distance between the base of the lower sides and the base of
the upper sides, being sufficiently high for head-room, ties
can always be fixed in these two situations, which will prevent
all danger. Indeed, if the four sides of the roof be properly
balanced, the space may be made a complete void to the very
ridge, or the upper part may be thrown into a cylindric arch.

A curb roof has great advantages over a common roof, on
account of the lower rafters pitching almost perpendicularly
to their bases, and forming very nearly a continuation of the
walls: whereas, in common roofs, the great inclination of
the sides, and the quantity of head-room required, diminishes
the space for lodging, in the breadth of the building; in most
cases there will be a loss of about 15 or 16 feet at least, and
consequently, in small houses, no lodging-room whatever.

 

Curb roofs are generally lighted from dormer windows in ;

the lower side.

The following contains the theory and practice of curb
roofing, which is perhaps one of the most- interesting parts
in the science of carpentry :

Proposition I. Figure l. The position of several rafters,

A B, B C, C D, D E, &c., being given in a vertical plane, and 1;
movable about the angular points B, C, D, E, &c., while the ?

points A and G remain stationary; it is required to find
the proportion of the forces at the angles, so that the rafters
may be kept in equilibrio.

Through the points B, C, D, &c., draw the vertical lines B 2',
cm, Dp, &c., the direction of the forces; make Bi of any
indefinite length, and complete the parallelogram B It 2' k ,-
make Cl equal B k, and complete the parallelogram 0 lm n.
Proceed in this manner with all the remaining parallelograms,
making the two opposite forces in the direction of each rafter
equal, and the diagonals B 2', C m, D p, &c., will represent the
forces required, as is evident from the construction. Then,
to find the proportion of the weights upon any two angles,
the sine of any angle is the same with the sine of its supple-
ment; therefore, the sine of the angle ABC is the same as
the sine of B k i, and the sine of B C D the same as the sine
of c n m; likewise, the sine of the angle C ml is equal to the
sine of the alternate angle men, and the sine of the angle
D1) 0 is equal to the sine of the anglep D g,- moreover, the
sine of the angle in is equal to the sine of the angle me I,
and the sine of the angle me n is equal to the sine of the
angle p D o, and so on: then, because the sides of the triangle
are the same as the sines of their opposite angles, it will be,
by trigonometry,

:s.Bik, or fair.
:s.mcl,or i Bk.
: s.p Do, or me n.
s.Esr, orqu.
s.vur,or EFG.

S.EFG

 

Therefore, 13 z :

3x

sis/z x 5.in soru x s.vrw.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

COR

218

COR .'

 

That is, the weights on any two angles are as the sines
of these angles directly, and reciprocally as the product of
the sines of the two parts of these angles formed by the
vertical lines.

Corollary 1. Hence the weights on any two angles are as
the Sines of the angles directly, and as the produce of the
co-sines of the angles of elevation reciprocally. For, draw
B H perpendicular to B i, and produce iB and A B to I and K,
then will the angle K BI, equal the angle ll B 2', be the com-
plement of the angle 11 B K, viz., the complement of the angle
of elevation of the rafter A B above the horizon; and because
C B I is the supplement of C Bi, the angles C B I and C B i have
the same sine, and the angle CB1 is the complement of the
angle H B C, viz., the angle of elevation of the rafter B 0.

Corollary 2. Hence also the weights on any two angles
are as the sines of the angles directly, and as the products
of the secants of elevation jointly; for the secants of any two
angles are reciprocally as the co-sines of these angles.

Corollary 3. The force which any rafter makes in its
own direction, is as the secant of its elevation. For, make
AP equal to BIL, draw the lines PN, kH, 72L, 8m, parallel
to the vertical lines B i, Cm, &c., and draw A N, B H, C L, 8m.
parallel to the horizon; then, because the angles N A 1’, H B It,
I. C n, 850., are the angles of elevation, and A N, B H, C L, &c.,
are all equal, if AN, B H, c L, &c. be considered as radii, A P,
Bk, on, 8w. are the secants of elevation, and also represent
the forces on the rafters.

Corollary 4. Hence the horizontal pressures at A and C
are equal; for all the pcrpendiculars drawn from the opposite
angles of each parallelogram to meet the vertical diagonal,
are all equal.

Corollary 5. Hence, if the position of any two rafters,
and the proportion of the weights be given, the position of
the remaining rafters may be determined.

Corollary 6. If the vertical line S D V be drawn, the hori-
zontal line A V G and the lines A s, A R, A Q, A T, &c. be drawn
parallel to the rafters A B, B C, C D, D E, &c. meeting the
vertical line in s, R, Q, T ; then will A S, AR, A Q, A T, repre-
sent the forces, and s R, RQ, QT, the forces upon the angles ;
for A 3, AR, AQ, A T, &c. are the secants of the elevation, and
the triangles A s R, A R Q, A Q T, are all similar to the triangles
hBi, lCm, ODp, Ste.

Corollary 7. In every roof kept in equilibrio by the weight
of the rafters, if U, V, W, 810. be the centres of gravity of the
rafters, and also represent their weights, then the weight
pressing vertically on B, will be

 

 

 

U VC X V . VB X V
AU X +————-, and the weight on C 2
AB BC BC
WD X W AU X U VC X V
, and so on. Hence —— ——
BC
s.ABC s.BCD

 

 

VBXV WDXW
+——-——:

BC on sti X SJBK ' s.lcm x Snncn

Corollary 8. Hence, if the rafters be prismatic figures,
the weights on the angles B, C, D, Sac. will be respectively
as A B+BC. BC+C n, c n+1) E, and so on.

Pr0position II. Figure 2. Given, the vertical angle of a
roof, and the proportion of the rafters on each side ; to describe
the roof to a given width, so that it shall be in equilibrio.

Let the proportion of the rafters from the bottom, upwards,
he as 4, 3, 2 :

Then 4 + 3 = 7 represents the weight on G.
3 + 2 : 5 represents the weight on II.
and 2 + 2 = 4 represents the weight on I.

Now let F BE be half the given angle, produce E B through
0 to D, draw FA M perpendicular to E D cutting ED at A;

 

 

make AE equal to AB, and join EF; let BE represent the
weight on the vertical angle: make E B, B C, C D, to one another
as 4, 5, 7 ; join F D, F C, F E ; from any scale of equal parts
make F G:7 ; draw G 11 parallel to F C, equal to 5 parts, and
III parallel to F B, equal to 4 parts, and the contiguous lines

F G, G H, H I, will be similar to the half roof. The other half i

will be found by drawing the vertical line IN, and ordinates
perpendicular’ thereto, from the points G H, to L and K, and
making the distances on both sides of I N equal. This figure
may be reduced or enlarged to any given width, by making
a similar figure upon a given line.

Proposition III. Figure 3. The angular points at the meet-
ing of every two rafters ofa roof in equilibrio, by equal weights
hung at the angles, in directions equidistant from each other,
are in the curve of a parabola.

Let A B C D E, Sac. be kept in equilibrio, by equal weights 3
suspended at the angular points B, C, D, E, &c., in the equi- '

distant directions BF, 0 G, D H, E I, &c. the points A, B, c, D
E, &c., are in the curve of a parabola.

For, let the lines BF, C G, DH, and EI, meet A N at F, G,
H, I: draw A K parallel to D E, AL parallel to C D, and A M
parallel to B C, cutting F B at K, L, M.
parallel to A N, cutting the middle line I E at Q. P, 0.

Then, because that the weights on the angles are equal,
F K, K L, L M, M B, are as the numbers I, 2, 2, 2, therefore
F K, F L, F M, F B, are as the odd numbers 1, 3, 5, 7 ; but
because of the equidistant lines B F, C G, D H, and parallels

Draw BQ,CP,D0‘

D O, C P, B Q, the triangles A F K, A F L, A F M, are respectively ‘;

equal and similar to the triangles D 0 E, C s D, B R C ; there-

fore F K is equal to 0 E, F L equal to S D equal to 0 P, FM equal '
to RC equal to P Q, and lastly, B F is equal to Q1 ; therefore ,

E 0, 0 P, P Q, Q I, are to one another as the numbers 1, 3, 5, 7,
and E 0, E P, E Q, E 1, are as the square numbers 1, 4, 9, 16,

but the lines OD, P C, Q B, are to one another as l, 2, 3, 4; .
therefore the abscissas E 0, E P, E Q, E I, are as the squares of .y

the ordinates O D, P C, Q B, and the points A, B, C, D, E, are in
the curve of a parabola.

In the same manner it may be shown that this is the case,
whatever he the number ofordinates.

Corollary—Hence a roof of this construction may be
described to any given height and vertical angle, or to a given
width and height with any number of rafters on each side.

Ea‘ample.—To describe a roof with any given number of ,

rafters on each side, of a given width and height, so that all
the weights suspended from the angular points of the rafters
in vertical equidistant lines, may keep the rafters in equi-
librio.

Figure 3.—Let there be four rafters on each side, let IN be
half the width, and I E the height. Draw N T and E T parallel
to I E and I N ; divide N T into four equal parts, Nfife, ed,
(1 T, and draw dg E, 8 It E,fi1-: : likewise divide IN into four
equal parts, I c, c l), l) a, a N, and draw 0 g, I) ll, a 2', parallel to
I E. Join Eg, glz, ll 2', iN, and these lines will be the rafters
of half the roof required. For the demonstration, see the
article CONIC SECTIONS.

Proposition IV. Figure 4.—Suppose it were required to
construct a curb roof to have the bottom rafter to the upper
rafter as 2 to 3, to a given vertical angle at the top, and a
given width A B.

Now the weight on the upper angle is to the weight on

2 H I _ II I + I A

Is to

2 2 3:3is

 

 

_ 3
the lower angle, as that IS, :-

3 + 2
2
weight at II is to the bottom weight at I, as 3 to 5.
Bisect A B by the perpendicular CD, and make the angle

to = 2 %, this is in the proportion of 6 to 5, or the half

 

 

 

 

Rwaw,

RB

j

«T. 11'

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CUR

219

CUR

 

A E C equal to half the vertical angle, or the angle E A C, equal
to its complement. Make ED to E C as 5 to 3 ; join DA and
DB; in AD, take any point, F; draw FG parallel to AE,
making AF to F G as 2 to 3 ; draw A GH, cutting CD at H,
and HI parallel to F G or E A, cutting A D at 1 ; make B K
equal to A I, and join K B, then A I H K B is the contour of the
roof required. This is so evident from its construction, that
it does not require demonstration. .

Proposition V. Figure 5.—-To describe a roof with four
equal rafters, that shall be in equilibrio by the weight of the
rafters, of a given width A E, and height F C.

Join CE, and bisect it in H by a perpendicular, DHG,
meeting A E in G ; on G, as a centre, with the distance GE or
G0, describe the circle C E 0. Draw K H 1 parallel to F E, to
meet the vertical line 0 C in K, and the circle in I. Draw
1 D C, and join DE, then make the side C B A similar to CD E,
and A B, B C, C D, D E, will be the rafters of the roof required.

For, in Figure 6, complete the parallelogram C D Q B, and
join BD, IF, and draw C L perpendicular to C F, and equal to
PG; on L, with the distance GE describe the circle NI F,
meeting the vertical line at N and F ; produce ED to meet it
also in M, and B C to P.

Then because KF is equal to K C, and R C equal R Q, the
triangles C I F and C DQ, are similar ; therefore I F is parallel
to DQ, and because the two segments N I F and C E O are
equal to one another, the angle NIF is equal to the angle
C E 0, equal to twice the angle C E F, or twice the alternate
angle ECL, equal to E CD + DCL; but E CD is equal to
half the external angle MD C, and DC L is half the angle
DCP; equal to CDQ. Therefore the angle NI F is equal
to the angles MD C + CDQ, equal to the angle M D Q, conse-
quently,C F : C N : : C Q : C M, but 0 F and C N are equal, there-
fore CQ and CM are equal ; but C Q is to C M as the weight on
C is to the weight on B or D, therefore the weights on C and
B are equal, and the rafters A B, B C, C D,D E, are in equilibrio.

CURB STONES, (sometimes written Iferb or Kirb,) those
common to the foot and carriage pavements in a street.

CURIA, a court of justice. See BASILICA.

CURLING STUFF, that which is occasioned by the
winding or coiling of the fibres round the boughs of the tree,
where they begin to shoot out of the trunk.

The double-iron plane, now in use, is a most complete
remedy against cross-grained and curling stuff; this plane, if
Well set, will work nearly as smooth against the grain as
with it.

CURRENT, the necessary slope of a piece of ground or
pavement, for discharging the water from the surface.

CURSOR, a point screwed on a beam-compass, and which
may he moved or slid along the beam, for striking greater or
less arcs of circles. It is also that part of a proportional
compass which holds the two legs together, and by which the
points are set in any given ratio. The sliding parts of the
trammel, rood, or ellipsograph, are also called cursors. See
COMPASSES.

CURTAlL STEP, the first step by which a stair is
ascended, finishing at the end in the form of a scroll, follow-
ing the plan of the hand-rail. See the article STAIR.

CURTAIN, (from the French c0urtine,) in fortification,
that part of the rampart which is between the flanks of two
bastions, bordered with a rampart five feet high, behind
which the soldiers stand to fire on the covered way, and into
the moat.

CURTICONE. See FBUSTUM and TRUNCATED CONE.

CURULE, a sort of raised, embellished chair or seat of

‘ ivory, gold, &c., placed in a chariot, wherein the chief officers
. of Rome were wont to be carried into council.

It was also
a mark of distinction for dictators, consuls. praetors, censors,

 

and ediles, who were from this circumstance called curules.
Curule chairs were of various shapes, but the one generally
used was a stool without a back, so made as to be folded up,
and opened again in the manner of a camp stool.

CURVATURE, that degree in a curve, in which the
curve recedes in a perpendicular from a tangent, at a given
distance from the point of contact; and consequently if two
curves, or two parts of the same curve, have each a tangent,
and if any equal distance from each point of contact be taken,
and a perpendicular be drawn from each point of distance to
the curve ; then, in each of these curves, or portions of the
same curve, the intercepted perpendicular being greater or
less, the curvature will also be greater or less.

CURVE, a line, such that only one straight line can be
made to touch, without cutting it, when the straight line is
extended on both sides of the point of contact ; or a curve is
a line in which, if a point be taken, only one straight line
can pass that point without cutting the line in which the
point ,is taken. The straight line so drawn is called a tangent
to the curve.

The circle is the most simple of all curves, depending only
upon the arbitrary extension of its radius, which, if given,
the circle is determined in magnitude. Its circumference is
one uniform curve, or has its curvature everywhere equal,
and equally distant from the centre.

In every curve line whatever, it is evident that a very
small portion may be taken as a circular are at any point ; or
that there is a certain circular are at that point which has
the same curvature as an indefinitely small portion of the
curve, but a greater curvature than an indefinitely small
portion of the curve upon the one side of the point, and
also a less curvature than the nearest indefinitely small
portion on the other side of the point. The radius of a
circle of equal curvature to the curve at any proposed
point, is called the radius of curvature at that point, and
is the measure of the curvature of all curves. The circle of
equal curvature with the curve, is called the equicurve circle,
or the escalating circle. Hence, if the osculating circle and
the curve have a common tangent, no other circle whatever
can be drawn between the two curves ; and when the curve
is continually upon the increase or decrease in its curvature,
the arc of the osculating circle will be on the concave side
of the curve on one side of the point of contact, and on the
convex side on the other side of the said point ; or the curve
will be between the tangent and the circumference of the
osculating circle on the one side of the point of contact, but
the circumference of the osculating circle will be between
the tangent and the curve on the other side of the point of
contact.

The principal curves that are useful in architectnre, are
the conic sections, namely, the circle, the ellipsis, the parabola,
and the hyperbola ; also, the cycloid, the conchoid, the spiral
of Archimedes, and the logarithmic spiral. The definitions
and the most useful properties, will be found under each
word.

CURVE OF DOUBLE CURVATURE, a curve, of which all its
parts are not in the same plane.

Thus, if the surfaces of two cylinders of the same diameter
intersect each other, and their axes also intersect each other,
the common intersection will be a curve, of which its parts
are all in the same plane ; or if the surface of a cylinder and
cylindroid intersect each other, and their axes also intersect
each other; and if the semidiameter of the cylindroid be
perpendicular to a plane passing through the two axes, and
equal to the radius of the cylinder, then the parts of the
curve formed by the two surfaces, are likewise in one plane :
or if the surface of one cylindroid meet that of another

 

 

 

 

 

CUT

220

CYC

 

cylindroid, and their axes intersect each other; and if the
semi-diameters of both cylindroids, perpendicular to a plane
passing through the two axes be equal to each other, the
curve formed by the intersection of the cylindroidic surfaces
will have all its parts in one plane: not any of these
thus defined, are curves of double curvature. But if the
surfaces of two cylinders of unequal diameters meet in a
common line, this line is a line of double curvature : of this
description are cylindro - cylindric groins. Many other
instances of two geometrical solids meeting each other, pro-
ducing lines of double curvature, may be laid before the
reader, but perhaps what has already been adduced will be
sufficient.

CURVED SURFACE OF A SOLID, that in which, if any point
be taken, and if the solid can be cut by a plane through the
point, and thence form a section, such section is terminated
by a curve: Thus a cylinder or a cone may be cut by a
plane, through any given point, so as to make the common
section of the cylinder or cone with the plane, a curve, or a
straight line; but if a sphere, spheroid, or any of the conoids
be cut by a plane through any point, the common section
of the plane, and the surface of any such solid will be a
curve.

CURVILINEAR, (from the Latin curvus, a curve, and
linea, a line,) or CURVILINEAR FIGURE, a superficies bounded
by curve lines, or by a curve and straight line, when the
properties of the curve depend upon the straight line.

The circle and ellipsis are entire curves, or such as have
no straight line in their boundary; but the parabola and
hyperbola are both bounded by a curve and a straight line.

CURVILINEAR ANGLE. See ANGLE.

CURVILINEAR ROOF, that which is erected upon a cur-
vilinear plan, as a circular, or elliptical, or portions of these
curves.

CURVILINEAR SUPERFICIES or A SOLID. See CURVED SUR-
FACE OF A SOLID.

CURVILINEAR TRIANGLE, one whose sides are curves.

CUSHION RAFTER. See PRINCIPAL BRACE.

CUSP, (from the Latin cuspis,) one of the pendants of a
pointed arch, or one of several pendants forming what may
be denominated a polyfoil; two cusps form a trefoil, three a
quatrefoil, four a cinquefoil, 8w. In other words, the term
may be explained as the points generated by the intersection
of the small arcs or segments of circles, forming the foliations
which frequently terminate the internal curves of Gothic
arches, more especially window arches, in the shape of tre-
foils and other polyfoils.

This name was first given by Sir James Hall, of Dunglass,
in an Essay on the Origin of Gothic Architecture. He says,
in a note at the bottom of page 23, that “assemblages of
these cusps are spoken of in the descriptions of Gothic
works, by the means of trefoil, quatrefoil, semitrefoil, &e.;
but no proper word has been used to describe the form,
Wherever it occurs, or however combined.”

CUSTOM-HOUSE, an edifice in some chief city, or port,
for the receipt of the customs and duties of importation and
exportation imposed on merchandise, by the authority of the
sovereign. The custom-house in Dublin is avery elegant
edifice.

CUT, in inland navigation, the same with canal, branch,
or arm.

CUT BRACKETS, such as are modelled on the edge.

CUT Roor, a truncated roof.

CUT STANDARDS, for shelves, are those whose front edge
is cut into mouldings.

CUT STONE, hewn stone, or that which is brought into
shape by the mallet and chisel.

 

 

CUT-WATER, the lower portion of the pier of a bridge,
where the two sides meet at a point, so disposed to meet the
current, and ofl'er as little resistance as possible to the force
exerted by it against the pier.

CUTTING PLANE, a plane supposed to cut or divide a
solid into two parts, in any position.

CUVILLER, FRANCOIS, an architect, born in the
year 1698, at Soissons, in France. He was employed by
the Elector of Munich in many public buildings, and con-
tinued in the service of that court till his death, which hap-
pened in the year 1760, leaving behind him many plans and
designs, which were afterwards engraved by different artists,
and published by his son, Francois Cuviller, who was born
at Munich, and succeeded his father as architect to the
court.

CYCLOGRAPH, (from the Greek, xvxxog, a circle, and
'ypoupuv, to describe) in practical geometry, an instrument for
describing the arc of a circle to any chord and versed sine ;
but chiefly used in flat segments, or those whose curvatures
approach to straight lines. There are several constructions
of cyclographs, of which the following is one. The principle
consists of two rules, AB, and CD, connected by a folding
joint, E, the pin, 1?, of which projects upwards, and is mortised
to receive a bar, h g, which is fastened, but movable round
the centre of the folding joints; upon the connected rules,
A B and C D, at equal distances, from the centre of the
folding joint, are fastened the ends Iand K, of two other
equal bars 0 I, c K, connected by a movable joint, c, so
as to form a rhombus hKcI, movable round each of the
joints, 0, 1,.h, K; then the bar, by, which passes through
the centre, h, of the two first rules, being made also to pass
through a projection of the pin, 0, of the opposite angle of
the rhombus, is made to slide into the mortise as at c. The
use of the bar is to fasten the instrument in any position by
means of a screw inserted from the middle of the top of the
upright pillar at c, which receives the sliding end of
the bar.

The instrument being supposed to be placed upon a level
plane, and the pin, h, of the folding joint being made to
project upwards; another bar, LMN, bent to a right angle
with a longitudinal slit, 0 P, is fitted upon it, so as to have
a motion upon the pin h, in the section of the slit, but may
be fastened at any required point, by means of a screw from
the top. The other end, N, of this bar is mortised in the
direction of the slit, to receive the lower bar, hg, so as to
have a longitudinal motion. The middle line of the upper
bar stands in the same vertical plane with the middle line of
the lower bar, and these two lines are parallel in all positions
of the instrument.

The end of the bar, L M, at the external side of the
folding joint, has a deep socket for holding a pin or pencil,
perpendicular to the plane of the instrument. The advan-
tage of the upper bar being movable, to which the pin or
pencil is attached, is to admit the point of the pin or pencil
to be brought into the intersection of the sides BA, CD, of
the instrument.

To describe the segment of a circle by means of the cyclo-
graph, fasten two pins in the plane, or steel edges made on
purpose, and adjust the angle of the instrument ; place the
outer edges upon the pins, and the angle close upon one of"
them ; move the instrument laterally close to the pins, and a
pen or pencil will describe the curve.

The principle of this instrument is founded upon the.
twenty-first proposition of the third Book of Euclid’s
Elements, in which it is announced and proved that “the
angles in the same segment of a circle, are equal to one:
another.”

 

 

 

CYL

221

CYL

 

This instrument may also be applied to the drawing of
lines to any inaccessible points, by means of the middle bar,
which always bisects the angle, and therefore will be indis-
pensably useful in the practice of perspective.

CYCLOID, (from the Greek Icvlchog, a circle, and a509,
form) a figure described by rolling a circle upon a plane,
along a straight edge ; then the moving point will trace the
curve called a cycloid, or troclioid. The middle portion of
this figure is very appropriate for the arch of a bridge, which
requires to have its roadway raised on the top, as the extrados
of this curve has a gentle convexity.

CYCLOPEAN ARCHITECTURE, that practised by
the early colonists of Greece, more remarkable for its-massive
construction than any other feature, whence also its name.
See PELASGIANARCHITECTURE.

CYCLOSTYLAR, aterm applied to those erections which
consist of a circular range of columns, without a central
building. ’

CYLINDER, (from the Greek Kuhn/55w, to roll) a solid
formed by moving a straight line in the periphery of a circle,
parallel to another straight line, which passes through the
centre, and which makes any given angle with the plane of
the circle, until the line come again into its first position.

The surface described by the moving line from the circle to
any indefinite extension, is called a cylindric surface; the
straight line which passes through the centre of the circle is
called the axis of the cylinder, and the circle the base of the
cylinder.

If the axis be at right angles to the plane of the base, the
cylinder is called a right cylinder ; but if at oblique angles,
then it is called an oblique cylinder.

Euclid confines his definition only to a right cylinder, and
defines it to be a solid formed by revolving a rectangle round
one of its sides.

It is evident from this definition, that all sections passing
through the axis, or parallel to the axis, have their opposite
sides parallel; viz., those which are formed by the cutting
plane and the cylindric surface. From the definition here
given, the following consequences may be drawn, as being
too obvious to require any formal demonstration. If a plane,
parallel to another plane, drawn along the axis of a cylinder,
touch the periphery of the base, the plane so posited will
touch the surface of the cylinder, and will meet it in a line
parallel to the axis; but if such plane cut the plane of the
base of the cylinder within its periphery, it will cut the
cylindric surface in two parallel lines, and the common section
of the plane and the cylinder will be a parallelogram, and,
lastly, the common section of a plane, parallel to the base,
with the cylindrical surface, is a circle with its centre in the
axis. Let us now consider the property of a section which
will meet the plane of the base of the cylinder, but
which will neither pass along the axis, nor be parallel
thereto.

 

3L

 

 

Figure 1.—-Let A M L B be a section of the cylinder through
the axis, cutting the section proposed, and let the cutting
plane meet the plane of the base A F E B N 0 in R 8: through
the centre D of the base, draw the diameter A B, at right angles
to R 5. Let the plane be drawn through AB and the axis D H
of the cylinder, meeting the cutting plane in the line M H G L T,
and the surface of the cylinder, in AM and BL. Through
H and any other point, G, in M L draw Q K and IP parallel to
R 8; through K Q and D H, draw the plane K Q 0 F, and through
I P draw the plane I P N E, parallel to the plane K Q 0 F, cutting
AB at C; and because KQ and IP are parallel to R8, the
planes K Q 0 F and I PN E, are also parallel to R 5; therefore
F 0 and E N, are respectively parallel to KQ and IP; conse-
quently, the figures K Q o F and I P N E, are parallelograms,
and therefore K Q is equal to F 0, and I P equal to E N: because
E N is parallel to R s, it is at right angles to A B, and hence it
is plain that IP is bisected by M L. Now the triangle AM T,
has the side AT cut into several parts by the intermediate
points D, C, B, and M '1‘ cut into other parts at the intermediate
points H, G, L, by lines parallel to the side AM, and therefore
the parts A D, D C, C B, are respectively in the same ratio
with the parts M H, H G, G L; these being premised, we have
therefore

 

AC:AD::MG:MH
CB:AD::GL :MH
ThereforeAC x CB : AD2 ::1\IG x GL :MH’
but AC X CB:Ec2 : Gr2 8; AD2:HK’
consequently Gr? : HK2 :: MG x GL : MH2

therefore the section is an ellipsis.

But this demonstration, which is in principle that com-
monly given, only shows the general property in respect of
the axis, or at most in respect of only two conjugate dia-
meters, of which one must be parallel to the base ; and as we
have never seen a general proof of this valuable property
for any two conjugate diameters drawn from simple princi-
ples, without being under the disagreeable necessity of drudg-
ing through nearly a whole treatise of conic sections, before
we are able to arrive at the conclusion, we therefore subjoin
the following demonstration.

Figure 2.—Let there be any cylinder, right or oblique,
standing upon the base G E A P Q D, and let 0 be the centre of
the base; through 0 draw G Q at pleasure, and A C D at right
angles to G Q. Through GQ and the axis C M draw the plane
G Q S H, cutting the section proposed in the straight line H s,
also through A D and the said axis draw the plane ADN K,
cutting the section in the straight line K N. In one of the dia-
meters, AD, of the base, take any point, B, between A and C,
and draw E P parallel to G Q, and the plane E P R F, parallel to
the plane G Q s H, cutting the section in F R.

From the construction of the cylinder, it is evident that the
lines K N, F R, H s, are each divided into parts, which are as the
parts of the lines A D, E P, G Q. Therefore as E P, G Q, and A D,
are bisected, so will F R at L, H S at M, and K N at M.

 

 

 

From the premises we have ........ ...... ......... AB : Ac :: KL : KM
and by proportional lines ................ ....... BD : AC :: LN : KM
Now, by multiplying the homologous terms.................. AB X BD : AC2 :: KL X LN : KMa
But from the property of the cucle AB X BD:EB2 8: AC2 : GC2
Therefore, by substitution, we have EB2 : Ge2 :: KL X LN : KM2
Now again, by proportional lines E B : GC :: FL : HM
Squaring the terms of the last analogy ‘ EB2 : GC’ : : FL’ : HM‘
but by the fourth analogy, we have EBSZ : GC’ :: KL X LN : KM2
And by comparing the antecedents and consequents of the

last two analogies we obtain. FL' : HM’ :: KL x LN : Kn!"

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CYL

222

CYL

 

which is a general property of every two diameters, formed
by the intersection of planes passing along the axis at right
angles to each other. These diameters, it is evident, will be
parallel to tangents to the curve, at the extremities of each
other. For, suppose two planes touching the cylindric sur-
face, each in a line which passes from the extremities of each
radius at a right angle with each other, these tangent planes
will be respectively parallel to each plane passing along the
axis and through the said radii ; the two tangent planes, and
the two planes passing along the axis, will be at right angles
to each other, or each opposite pair will be parallel; therefore,
if these be cut by a fifth plane, the intersections of the oppo-
site planes With such fifth plane, in any position, will be
parallel lines ; and since the touching planes do not cut the
surface of the cylinder, the lines at the extremities of each
diameter will be parallel to the curve, and are what are
termed conjugate diameters.

A cylinder is a species of prism, because all its parallel
sections are equal, and every section parallel to the base, is
equal to that base; therefore the solidity of a cylinder is
determined by multiplying the area of an end by the parallel
distance between the two ends.

Example I. What is the solidity of a cylinder, whose
height is 10 feet, and the diameter of the base 2 feet
6 inches ?

in.
6 : 355 = . 5 in decimals
2.5 = the diameter
2.5
125
50
6.25
. 7854

 

2500
3125
5000
4375

4.908750
10

49 . 087500

Example II. What is the solidity of a cylinder, the circum-
ference of the base being 7.85 feet, and the height 15 feet?
7. 85 5
7. 85

 

3925
6280
5495

61.6225
.07958

4929800
3081125
5546025
4313575

4. 903918550
15

24519592750'
4903918550

73.558778250

 

The curved surface of every cylinder is equal to a rectangle,
one of whose dimensions is the length of the axis, that is,
equal to the length of the side of the cylinder, and the other
dimension equal to the perimeter or girt. This is a general
principle, whether the cylinder have its ends perpendicular
or oblique to the axis ; and hence the following——

Rule. Multiply the girt of the cylinder by the length of
the axis, and the product will be the cylindric surface.

Example. Suppose a cylinder, girt 5 feet 9 inches, and the
length of its axis, or side parallel to the axis, be 9 feet
7 inches, what is the superficial content of the surface ?

Cross Multiplication.

 

 

ft- in. Decimals.
5 9 9.583
9 7 5.75
5 3 47915
35 67081
81 47915
12) 121 55.10225
———— 12
10 l
45 1.22700
——-—-—— 12
55 . 1 . 3 —-———'
2.724

See the first method in this example under the article
CROSS MULTIPLICATION, and the second method, under
DECIMAL MULTIPLICATION. These two methods would have
agreed exactly, but no decimal corresponding to 7 inches can
be precisely found.

The method by the girt is what every man in practice would
naturally prefer, if the object be before him, since the girt
can be as easily measured as the diameter, and with equal
accuracy, by means of a string; nor would any person, whose
mind is crowded with the affairs of business, take the addi-
tional trouble of finding the circumference from the diameter,
when it may be so expeditiously obtained another way.
However, for the satisfaction of those who wish to be informed
of every mode of operation, we shall add the following, as
some cases may occur, in which the perimeter cannot be
obtained without the diameter; though the contrary might
as likely be the case.

If the cylinder be a right cylinder, find its circumference,
which will then be the same as its ends; then proceed as
before to multiply the circumference by the axis, and the
product is the superficial content. This is so easy as not to
require an example. But where the axis is inclined to the
base, the section of the cylinder will be elliptic, the diameter
of the circular ends will be the greater axis, the lesser one will
depend upon the inclination of the cylinder, and may be
thus found :—

As the radius

is to the sine of inclination,

so is the diameter of the circular ends
to the shorter axis of the ellipsis.

From the two axes being new found, find the perImeter of
the ellipsis, then proceed as in the first rule.

Example. Suppose the length of the axis to be 22 feet,‘
and the inclination of the same to the plane of the base 50i
degrees, and the diameter of each end 3 feet 6 inches; required
the area of the curved surface.

 

 

 

.__——-—
‘I

 

 

 

223

CYL

 

; the cylinder; L the centre of the base.
‘ points D and F draw the straight line P0; perpendicular
, thereto draw each of the lines D G, E H, F I, respectively equal

 

 

9 Y L
By logarithms.
Then as radius 10.000000
is to the sine of 50° 9 .884254
50 is 3.5 544068
10.428322
10.
to the shorter axis .428322 = nat. num 2.68
2 . 68
3 . 5
2) 6 . 18

 

3 . 09 mean diameter

 

3%

 

9.27
.44

 

9 . 71 elliptic primeter.
22

 

1942
1942

 

213 .62 the area required.

The above method of finding the extension of the elliptic
primeter being the most expeditious, is the most useful for
practical purposes, but those who wish to work with greater
accuracy may consult the word Ellipsis.

A cylinder is said, to be given in position, when its base and
magnitude, and the inclination and length of its axis, are
given.

A point is said to be given on the surface of a cyclinder,
when its distance from that point to the base, measured in a

. line parallel to the axis is known, and the point on the
1 circumference of the base given.

Figure 3.— Given a right cylinder and three points on its

‘ surface, to find the section of the cylinder, by a plane passing

through the three points. Let the straight lines, A, B, c, be the
distances of the three points, the circle D E F K, the base of
Through the

to A, B, 0. Draw D EQ and G H Q, intersecting at Q; also draw
G I 0, meeting P o in 0, then Q 0, which is the intersection of
the cutting plane. Through L draw RL s T, cutting Q 0 at T.
In G 0 take any point 772, draw m u perpendicular to G 0, pro-
duce um to M, in 0 P, and draw M U perpendicular to PO,

‘ cutting Q 0 at U. From the point 0, with the distance 0 U,

describe an are, cutting mu at u; perpendicular from R T,
draw R P and L N, cutting Po at Pand N. Draw Pp and N n
perpendicular to PO, cutting 0G produced at p, and n. Parallel

; to u o, draw the lines pr and fnlh ; make 0t equal to 0 'r

and p r equal to P R, and draw r ls t; make ls equal to lr,

; and lg and lh each equal to BL, the semi-diameter of the
1 base, then will I r and

. l f be the semi-axis of the elliptic
section.

Demonstration—It is shown under the article INCLINED
PLANES, that if D, E, F, be any three points, and the lines
A, B, C, the height of three points in the space above the
plane 1) E F, that Q 0 will be the intersection of the plane in

Space with the original plane P 0 Q or its continuation: under
‘ the article STEREOGRAPHY and STEREOTOMY it is shown, that

 

if P 0 Q and P o p be any two plane angles, to be placed at a
right angle with each other, that the plane angle G 0 u, will be
the hypothenusal plane, and consequently when the three planes,
P 0 Q, P 0p, and p 0 u are turned into their position; the straight
line 0 u will coincide with 0 U; therefore if a plane be perpen-
dicular to the intersection of two planes, it will be at right
angles to each of these planes ; and that the section of any
vertical line, whose seat is given, will be found by drawing a
line on the original plane, parallel to the intersection from
the seat, to the intersecting line of the vertical plane; thence
a line perpendicular to this intersection to the common inter-
section of the vertical and cutting planes, and thence a line
from this point parallel to the cointersection; then, by making
this line equal to the line drawn from the seat to the common
intersection of the original and inclined planes, and thus
the point R being the seat of r, and l, the seat of L, and the
plane passing through R LST, being perpendicular to Q 0, the
common intersection of the inclined and original planes, rlst
will be the intersection of a plane passing through the axis
and at right angles to the intersection 0 Q, and therefore per-
pendicular to Ou: consequently r s and f h are at right
angles to, and bisect each other, and are therefore the axes of
the ellipsis.

The segment of a Cylinder is any portion of the cylinder
made by a plane parallel to the axis.

The plane parallel to the axis is called the chord-plane.

The two lines of concourse formed by the cylindric surface
and the chord-plane, are termed the sides of the chord-plane,
and the other two lines of concourse made by the chord-
plane and the two ends of the solid, are termed the bases or
ends of the chord-plane.

A line of position is said to be given, when the said line is
drawn through a given point on each side of the chord-plane,
or to make a given angle at a given point in the base of the
chord-plane, or in the base continued.

The position of the cutting plane is said to be given, when
the line of position through which the cutting plane passes,
and the angle which the cutting plane and chord plane make
with each other, are known.

Figures 4 and 5.-— T 0 find the section of the segment of
a cylinder; given its base and the position of the cutting
plane—Let A B o be the base of the solid, A D and c E
the sides of the chord plane perpendicularly situated in
respect of AC, the chord of the base, and let DE be the line
of position of the cutting plane. Through any point f in D E
draw hfg, at right angles to D E ; make the angle gfh equal
to the inclination which the planes of the chord plane and sec-
tion make with each other; take any point, m, in fg, Figure 4,
orfh, Figure 5, and draw m h parallel tODE, cuttingfh in h,
and m n parallel to C A, cutting D E at n,- makejh equal toj'k,
and goin h n. Parallel to E C draw m g, cutting A C atp and
n r, meeting it at r: makep 9 equal to m h, and join r 9. To
find any point in the curve of the section, take any point, a,
in the arc A B C ; draw a b parallel to q 7', cutting A0 at b ;
draw b c parallel to C E, cutting D E at c, and draw c (1
parallel to n h ; make 0 d equal to b a, and the point d is in
the curve.

In the same manner, as many points may be found as will
be sufficient to draw the curve with accuracy.

This method is an improvement upon that published in
The Carpenter’s Guide, in the year 1792 ; but as that
method has been very generally employed, it will be well to
insert it likewise in the plate, as the connection of the prin-
ciple may be clearly deduced from the one to the other.

Figures 6 and 7.— To find the section of the segment of
a cylinder, by another and older method, supposing everything
given as before—Let A B C, N o. 2, be the inclinations of the

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CYL

224

CYL

 

planes of the chord plane and section. In No.2, draw BD
perpendicular to BA, and make B D equal to the distance
between the parallel lines E F and ZM, No. 1, and draw D C
parallel to B A. Through any point, d in IK, No. I, draw
N v at right angles to IK; make dN equal to D C, No. 2, and
dV, No. 1, equal to BD, No. 2. In No. 1, draw N \ parallel
to F E, meeting I K at O, and join 0V. Draw Ni, and 0 L
parallel tOKF, meeting E F at Q and L; produce N Q, meeting
z M produced at Y, and join L Y. Draw any number of lines
a a, b I), c c, &c. parallel to 0 L, cutting the lines E F and I K,
at the points a, b, c ; from the points a, b, c, in IK, draw the
lines a 1, b 2, c 3, 8:0. parallel to 0 v, and through the points
a, b, c, in EF, draw the lines a 1, b 2, c 3, &c., parallel to
L Y. Make all the lines a 1, 62, c 3, &c., from I K, equal
to their corresponding distances al, I) 2, c 3, 8:0. from E F.
A curve being drawn through the points 1, 2, 3, &c., the
extremities of the ordinates from IK, will give the section
IVKI of the segment of the cylinder. Or take any point
point L in E F, and draw L 0 parallel to F K, the one side of
the rectangle, cutting 1K at 0 ; produce 0 L to M, and draw
2 M parallel to E F, to touch the base in M. In No. 2, draw
B D at a right angle with BA ; make B D equal to L M, and
draw D C parallel to B A. In No. 1, draw GH parallel to I K,
at the distance D C, No. 2 ; draw 0N parallel to E F, cutting
G H at N ; draw N Q parallel to 0 L, cutting E F at Q ; produce
NQ to meet z M produced at Y, and join LY; draw N v at
right angles to I K, cutting IK at d; make dv equal to B C,
and join 0 v; then proceed to find the ordinates as before.

The difference between the old and the first method is, that
in the old method, the breadth of the segment or base of the
solid is limited, in order to find the disecting lines of the
ordinates, and two diagrams are employed in the construction ;
whereas in the first method, one diagram only is used, and
the angle of inclination of the planes of the section and chord
being made as directed, the measure of the first side of the
hypothenusal side of the right—angled triangle formed by it,
is arbitrary; by this the other parts are regulated. The reader
must observe, that it is only the angles which are required ;
the length of the lines is of no other consequence than, if
they be too long, they will be rather cumbrous, and if too
short they will not be a sufficient guide for drawing the
ordinates. This limitation has been the occasion of some not
understanding the principle, by supposing the point V to be
in the curve, which may be either on the one side or the
other, according to this method.

A knowledge of the sections of prisms, which include
segmental cylinders, is an acquisition of the first importance
to the carpenter and joiner, and is the very essence of the
art of constructing hand-railings and groins.

The method by having the position of the cutting plane, is

not so well adapted to practice, as that of having three given

points on the surface of the segmental cylinder.

Under such given data, we have already shown how the
section is to be found for a whole cylinder, by describing the
curve through the extremities of the axis, which are given in
position. We shall now show how the curve is to be obtained
by ordinates in the segmental cylinder from the same data.

In a segment of a cylinder are given three points, one on
each common line of the chord plane, and curved surface,
and one upon the intermediate curved surface itself, to find
the section passing through these three points.

Figures 8 and 9.—In both figures let AB C be the base of
the solid, and A, B, C, the seats of the given points, draw A D
and C E perpendicular to AC : make AD equal to the height
of the point upon its seat A, and CE equal to the height of the
point upon its seat C ; also from C E take C F equal to the
height of the intermediate point, from its seat B. Draw FG

parallel to A C, cutting D E in G ; draw G H parallel
to E C, cutting AC at H ; join H B. Produce C A and
E D to meet in I; in E I, Figure 8, also in E I produced Figure
9, take any point, N, and draw N M perpendicular to N E ;
produce MN to meet I C at K, Figure 8 ; in Figure 9, MN .
will cut C I, produced in K. In both figures draw K L per-
pendicular to K C, and I L parallel to H B ; from I, with the
distance I L, describe an are, cutting N M, at M ; join In.

To find any point in the curve of the section ; take any
point a, in A C, and draw a 6 parallel to L 1, cutting the are
A B C at I), draw a 0 parallel to C E cutting D E in c ; draw 0 d
parallel to I M : make 0 (1 equal to a I), and dis a point in the
curve. In the same manner as many points may be found as
will be sufficient to complete the section.

Another method Figure 10, let A BC be the base of the
segment, as before ; also, let A, B, C, be the seats of the three
points, as before ; and F G H their respective heights. Draw
A D, B P, C E, each perpendicular to A C, respectively equal to
F, G, H ; draw A B 1 and D P I, also A C K and D E K; then draw
the intersection I K. In D K take any point L, and draw L M
perpendicular to D K; produce M L to meet A K at N; draw N 0
perpendicular to AK, cutting IK at 0. From K, with the dis-
tance K 0, describe an are, cutting L M at M, and join K M.

Then, to find any point d, in the curve of the section ; in
A C take any point a; draw a [2 parallel to K 0, meeting the
are A B C at b ; draw a 0 parallel to A D, meeting DE at c ,-
draw 0 d parallel to KM, and make c d equal to a b; and thus
for any other point.

The very same description of words applies to Figure 11,
except that the point L is inD K, produced,instead of between
D and K, and also the point N, in A K produced, instead of
between A and K. The same is also the case with the preced-
ing method.

Figure 12. To form the edge of the envelope of a cylindric
surface, terminated by a line, so that, when the envelope is
folded upon the cylindrie surface, the edge formed may coin-
cide with a plane passing through three given points, one in
each common line of the chord-plane and curved surface, and
the other in the intermediate curved surface itself.

Let A B C be the base of the solid ; draw A D and C E per-
pendicular to A C, making A D equal to the height of the point,
whose seat is A,and C E equal to the height of the point, whose
seat is C; make C F on C E equal to the height of the point,
whose seat is B, and join D E. Draw F G parallel to C A, cut-
ting E D at G; draw G 11 parallel to E C, cutting C A at 11, and
join 11 B. Divide the arc ABC into any number of equal
parts, and extend them upon A C produced to I, marking the-
points of division at a, I), c, &c., to I; the corresponding
points of 1, 2, 3, &c., on the are C A B.

To find any point in the line of the envelope required, sup-«
pose that which corresponds to its seat 1, on the base of the
solid.

Draw 1 It parallel to B II, cutting A C in h ; draw I: ’3
parallel to C E, cutting E D at h ; also draw up parallel to
CE, and make (2}) equal hit, thenp is a point in the line
required ; and thus the whole line Ep q r st u v K is obtained,
and this line is the edge of the envelope E C I K required.

CYLINDER, Scaline. \Vhen the axis of a cylinder stands
at oblique angles with its base, it is called ascaline or oblique
cylinder.

CYLINDRICAL, something peculiar, similar, or relating
to a cylinder.

CYLINDRICAL CEILING, a ceiling which is either a semi-
cylinder, or a segment less than a semi-cylinder.

Cylindrical ceilings are vulgarly called by some workmen.
waggon-Ieeaded ceilings.

W hen an apartment is sufliciently high, a semi-cylindrie

 

 

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CYL 225 CYZ

 

coving ought to be adopted. as it rises from the surface of the
wall, which forms a tangent plane to the curvature at the
springing of the arch; whereas the tangent plane at the
springing of a ceiling, which is less than a semi-cylinder,

always forms an angle with the plane of the wall, and excites '

the idea of lameness or imperfection. This kind is therefore
only employed when the height of the apartment is not suffi-
ciently great to admit of a semi-cylindric ceiling.

A semi-cylindrical ceiling admits of being pierced by
lunettes, which are windows or openings of less height than
the ceiling, and consequently form cylindro-cylindric arches,
by the intersection of the curved surfaces.

N o traces of cylindrical ceilings are to be found among the
ruins of Grecian edifices, but numerous instances are to be
met with among the Romans, in their small temples and the
side-branches of the larger ones. The ceiling of the temple.
of JEsculapius, in the palace of Dioclesian, at Spalatro, in
Dalmatia, is a decided instance. The proper decorations for
cylindrical ceilings are coffers, separated at regular intervals
by bands or arcs doubleux, or, as called by some, sofiits, which
are enriched with guilloches.

CYLINDRICAL COLUMN. See COLUMN.

CYLINDRICAL VAULTING, a vault which is the portion of
a cylinder. Its section is generally a semicircle, though
sometimes, for want of room, it is a smaller segment. In
cylindrical vaulting, the equilibrium of the arch and the
horizontal thrust of the piers must be attended to.

CYLINDRICAL WALLING, is that erected upon a circular
plan, which of course forms a cylinder, or a portion of a
Cylinder, according as the plan is an entire circumference, or
only a segment.

Cylindrical walling is generally estimated at about half as
much more than the price of plain walling; but the price
or ratio ought to depend upon the diameter, and should be
greater as the diameter is less.

CYLINDRICAL WORK, any kind of work, partaking of the
shape of a cylinder, of any material, whether stone, brick,
wood, &c. r ,

CYLINDRICAL WORK, in joinery. See J OINERY.

CYLINDROID, (from xvhwdpog, cylinder, and 51509, form)
asolid of such property, that all sections parallel to either
end, are equal and similar ellipses, and that a straight
line, called the axis, will pass through the centre of the
ellipses.

All the axal sections of a cylindroid, and every section
parallel to an axal section, are parallelograms or rectangles.

All parallel sections of a cylindroid are equi—angular, and
of equal length to the axis.

If an oblique cylinder be cut by a plane perpendicular to
the axis, near to each end, it will be cut into three parts,
of which the middle portion will be a cylindroid.

The cylindroid is frequently employed in vaulting, instead
of a segmental cylinder, less than the half, where the height
would not admit of a semi-cylinder. It is frequently em-
ployed in the composition of groins, and where the transverse
openings vary in their horizontal dimensions, and where it is
required to keep the angles of the groin straight, one of the
simple vaults is necessarily a semi~cylindroid.

The solidity of a cylindroid is found, as in the prism or
cylinder, by multiplying the area of one of the ends by the
distance between the two.

The superficial content of the curved surface is found by
multiplying the girt by the length of the axis, as in the
cylinder.

The method of finding the envelope is the same as that of

3 n

 

a cylinder with an edge, so that when the envelope is lapped
round the solid, its edge may coincide with a plane passing
through three given points.

The method of finding the envelopes of cylinders and cylin-
droids, is one of the most useful parts of Stereography, not
only in forming the coverings of bodies, but in forming the
angles of all parts of work, where the surfaces of two difl'erent
solids meet each other.

CYMA-RECTA. See CYMATIUM.

CYMATIUM, CIMA, CYMA, or SIMA, (from xvpanov,
undula, the diminutive of xvpa, a wave) a moulding, whose sec-
tion is a curve of contrary flexure; it is commonly denominated
by workmen an ogee. This is the strict sense in which the
term ought to be employed, though Vitruvius uses it for any
subordinate moulding which terminates a principal member,
and the particular form is specified by prefixing another word,
as Doric cymatium, Lesbian cymatium. In the same sense also
he uses the word Cysis, which signifies separation. But
notwithstanding this great authority, in the general usage
of the term we shall abide by the definition as above,
signifying an undulated form, as being most generally
understood.

When the concave part of the moulding projects beyond
the convex part, the cymatium is denominated a sima recta ,-
but when the convex part has the greatest projection, the
cymatium is denominated a sima-z'nnersa. The sima-recta is
otherwise called gula-recta, or doucz'ne, and the sima-inversa,
gula-inversa, or talon. Palladio distinguishes the cymatium
of the cornice by the name intavolata. Our architects, in
speaking of the uppermost member of a cornice, call it cima,
cyma, or cymatium ; but we see no reason for the word being
appropriated to this situation, as the propriety of terms con-
sists in their proper application to definite forms.

The cymatia which are particularized by the terms Tuscan,
Doric, and Lesbian, mentioned by Vitruvius, are not defined
by this ancient author, and their meaning is only guessed at
by his commentators and readers.

The Tuscan is supposed to be an ovolo, or quarter-round ;
the Doric, an ovolo, or cavetto ; and the Lesbian, the sima-
inversa, or talon.

Philander makes two Doric cymatia, one of which, he says,
is that said to be Tuscan. The projecture allowed to the
Doric and Lesbian cymatia, is subduple of the height.

CYMBIA, a fillet. See FILLET.

CYPHERING. See CHAMFERING, which is most in use.

CYZICEN E, TRICLINIUM, or HALL, an apartment of
ancient Grecian houses, in the porticos, which look towards
the north.

It is thus explained by Vitruvius, book vi. chap. vi.
“ There are some (802', not made in the Italian manner, these
the Greeks call cyzicenus. They are situated towards the
north, generally have a view of the garden, and have valved
windows in the middle. They are of such length and
breadth, that two triclinia, with their surrounding appen-
dages, may be placed opposite to each other ; they have also
valved windows on the right and left, that the garden may
be seen through the space of the windows: their height is
equal to one and one-half of their breadth.”

The cyzicenus or cyzicena, were of the same use among
the Greeks, that the triclinia and coenacula were among
the Romans. O

CYZICUM MARMOR, a species of marble, so called by
the ancients, from the great use made of it by a statuary
named Cyzicus. It was white, with fine narrow veins of
black, and was also. called proconnessium.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

D A1 226

 

DAI

 

DADO (an Italian word, signifying a die), a term for the
die or plane face of a pedestal; that part of a room com-
prehended between the base and surbase. The dado employed
in the interiors of buildings, is a continuous pedestal, with
a plinth and base moulding, and a cornice or dado moulding
surmounting the die. This continuous pedestal with its mould-
ing is sometimes only made of stucco or plaster ; but in well-
finished rooms is constructed of wood, and is usually about the
height of the back of a chair. Its present purpose, when em-
ployed, is to protect the stucco-work or paper of the walls, but
originally it was used as an architectural decoration to a room.

The dado is made of deal boards, glued edge to edge, the
heading joints ploughed and tongued together, and the back
keyed ; the stuff generally employed for this purpose is whole
deal; the keys are always made to taper in their breadth,
and may be about three inches broad in the middle; they
are let into the back of the dado by a transverse groove,
which is either wider at the bottom than at the surface, or it
is first made of a square section, which is again grooved on
each side next to the bottom. Though the keys should
shrink, those of this last form will always keep their inner
surface close to the bottom of the grooves.

Some workmen prefer the broad end of the key to be
placed downwards ; the lower end should rest firmly, either
upon the ground or floor, and the dado should be left at
liberty to slide downwards upon the keys. Others again,
prefer the wide end of the key to be placed upwards, and
the dado to be fixed by this ; the key, as it shrinks, will fall
down from its own weight.

The dado should be grooved and tongued at the internal
angles, and mitred, or made with'a lap and mitre, at the
external ones.

The dado is also framed with panels, but this mode is
seldom seen in London; it is, however, very frequently
so prepared in the country.

DAGOUNG, or SumoAGON, temple of (signifying temple
of Golden Dagon) an editice situated about two miles and
a half north of Rangoon, the chief port of the Birman empire.
It is a very elegant building, and though not so high by 25
or 30 feet, is much more ornamental than that of Shoemadoe,
at Pegue.

It is surrounded by a terrace, which stands upon a rocky
eminence, considerably higher than the circumjacent country.
The building is ascended by 100 steps, which are now very
much in decay; its elevated situation 'makes it a conspicuous
object for many miles. The top and the whole spire are
richly gilt, so that when the sun shines, they exhibit a most
splendid appearance.

DAIRY, the name usually given to the place where the
milk of cows is kept, and converted into butter or cheese.
The occupation is sometimes called darg/ing; and the land
which is chiefly appropriated to feed cows for this purpose,
is called a dairy-farm.

“A dairy-house,” observes a writer in the Penny Cyclo-
paedia, “should be situated on a dry spot somewhat elevated,
on the side of a gentle decl-ivity, and on a porous soil. It
should be on the west or north-west side of a hill, if possible,
or at least sheltered from the north, east, and south, by high
trees. In some countries. where there are natural caverns
with an opening to the west, and springs of water at hand,

 

 

 

the best and coolest dairies are thus prepared by nature.
Artificial excavations in the sides of freestone rocks are
sometimes formed for the purpose of keeping milk, and more
frequently wine.
the requisite coolness in summer, and equal temperature in
winter, which are essential in a good dairy, may be obtained
by sinking the floor of the dairy some feet under ground,
and forming an arched roofof stone or brick. In cold climates
flues around the dairy are a great advantage in winter ; and
an ice-house in warm summers is equally useful. But these
are only adapted to those dairies which are kept more as a

 

Where no such natural advantages exist, .

luxury than as an object of profit. In mountainous countries, 5

such as Switzerland, where the summers are hot in the valleys,
and the tops of the mountains or high valleys between them
are covered with fine pastures, the whole establishment of
the dairy is removed to a higher and cooler atmosphere,
where the best butter and cheese are made. Coolness is also
produced by the evaporation of water, an abundant supply
of which is essential to every dairy. It is also a great advan-
tage, if a pure stream can be made to pass through the dairy
with a current of air to carry off the efiluvia, and keep the
air continually renewed.”

The dairy, in farm building, should be so situated, with
respect to other offices, as to be convenient, and to prevent
unnecessary labour.

A milk dairy requires at least two good rooms, one for the
reception of the milk, and another for the purpose of serving
it out, and for scalding, cleaning, and airing the difierent
utensils.

The entrance to the dairy should communicate with the
scalding-room, which should have a copper, for heating water
and other purposes, placed in a shed adjoining, in order that
the heat may be kept at as great a distance as possible from
the milk. In the bottom of the copper is fixed acock, for
conveying the hot water through a trough or pipe, across the
scalding-room, in which another cock should be fixed, for
the convenience of washing smaller utensils ; the heated
water passes through the wall into the milk-leads, for the
purpose of scalding the whole range of pans, trays, or coolers,
and may be retained at pleasure. The trough for the passage
of the water through the walls of the dairy, should be of'
sufficient dimensions to admit the discharging a pailful of milk
into it with safety, having a hair-sieve so placed in it, that:
the whole of the milk of the cows may be made to pass:
through it into the necessary trays or coolers, in which it is:
to stand in order to keep it clean. A trough, pipe, or some
other contrivance, should be introduced, for the purpose of
conveying the waste milk, whey, &c. from the dairy-house
to the cisterns containing the wash for the pigs.

The temperature may be regulated either by double walls
and roofs, or by means of hollow walls; and for common
purposes, by having 8 or 10 inches in width from the wall
to the lath and plaster, as is suggested by Mr. London, in his .
' 'reatise on Country Residences.

The size of milk-houses should be regulated by the number
of cows. The usual dimensions in the Gloucester dairy-'
houses, for ~10 cows, are 220 feet by 16, and for 100 cows: '
30 feet by 40. To accomplish the objects of convenience1 »
the situation of the dairy should be near the cow-standings- .;
so that the milk may be readily conveyed to them. See .

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DAI

227

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Dr. Young’s Calendar (f Husbandry, and Mr. Loudon’s
Treatise on Country Residences.

Gentlemen’s dairies are often built expensively, and highly
ornamented; but they seldom unite all the conveniences
essential to a good dairy, generally from a want of practical
knowledge of the subject in those by whom they are designed.
In Switzerland and Holland, the cow-house and dairy often
have a very neat appearance within a short distance from the
principal residence. In the common dairy-farms in Holland,
the farmer and his family frequently live under the same
roof with the cows ; in north Holland and Friesland, a cow-
house is as clean as any dwelling-house, and the family often
assemble and take their meals in it.

The following description of a cow-house and dairy under
one roof, [combines all that is useful, with considerable neat-
ness internally and externally. “It is a building about sixty
feet long by thirty wide, with a veranda running round
three sides of it. The dwelling is not here attached, as it
usually is in common dairies, and the building is not surrounded
by a farm-yard; these are the only circumstances in which
it differs from that of a common peasant. The dairy-room
is sunk below the level of the soil, and is paved with brick.
The sides are covered with Dutch tiles, and the arched roof
with hard cement. The cow-house, like all in Holland, has
a broad passage in the middle, and the cows stand with their
heads towards this passage, which is paved with clinkers or
bricks set on edge. Their tails are towards the wall, along
which runs a broad gutter sunk six or eight inches below
the level of the place on which the cows stand. This gutter
slopes towards a sink covered with an iron grate, which
communicates by a broad arched drain with a vaulted tank
into which all the liquid flows. The gutter is washed clean
twice a day before the cows are milked. The cows stand or
lie on a sloping brick—floor, and have but a small quantity
of litter allowed them, which is removed every day, and
carried to the dung-heap, or to the pig-sties, to be more fully
converted into dung. W’heneverthelitter is removed, the bricks
are swept clean, and in summer they are washed with water.”

In Holland, the cows never leave the house from November
till May. In summer they are driven home to be milked, if
in pastures near to the cow-house, but if the pastures are far
off, they are milked there, and the milk is brought home in
boats. This is thought not so good for the butter, which

i is then churned from the whole quantity of the milk, without
‘ allowing the cream to rise. The finest butter is always made

'make this cream rise, be set as soon as milked.

from the cream as fresh as possible, and the milk should, to
The best
quality of butter is churned from cream skimmed from the
milk after six hours setting; an inferior kind, from a second

v skimming.

The utensils of the dairy, such as pails, churns, vats, &c.
are usually made of white wood, and require to be kept, as
does everything about a dairy, scrupulously clean and neat.
Utensils of brass and tin are sometimes used; in Holland,
the milk is invariably carried in brass vessels. There is some
danger in the use of brass utensils, but a very little attention
will obviate it. Cast-iron pans have been invented, tinned
inside; but there is nothing so safe, or so neat, as well-glazed
white crockery ware of the common oval form.

A dairy for cheese, well constructed, should consist of four
rooms: one for the reception of the milk; another for the
scalding and pressing of the cheese ; a third for the purpose
of salting ; and the fourth for stowing the cheese, which last
may be a loft made over the dairy, though it is sometimes
placed at a distance, which makes it inconvenient.

The butter dairy should consist of three apartments,
namely, a milk-room, a churning-room, and a room for the

 

different utensils, and for cleaning and airing them in. The
churning-room should be fitted up with the necessary
apparatus.

DAIS, or DEIS, the raised platform or wooden flooring
which was laid at the upper end of a large hall or banqueting
room, such as is still seen in college-halls, and in most of the
halls belonging to the city-companies in London, and those
of the inns of court. .

In royal halls, there were more than one deis. At a.
dinner which Charles V. of France gave to the emperor
Charles IV. in 1377, there were five deis. The principal
table in entertainments of state is always placed on the dais.

Also a seat with a high back, and sometimes with a canopy,
for those who sat at the upper table. Sometimes the canopy
itself.

DAM, a boundary or confinement ; as, to dam up, or, to
dam out.

DAM, a bank, or mole, constructed of stone, timber, or any
other materials, for penning up water, in order to divert its
course into another direction, for turning a mill, or other
purpose. See EMBANKMENT.

DAMPER, avalve inserted in a flue to regulate the draught.

DANCETTE, a name applied to a moulding very fre-
quently employed in Norman architecture, and otherwise
termed the chevron or zigzag moulding.

DARK TENT, a portable camera obscura, formed like
a desk, and fitted up with optic glasses, to take prospects of
buildings and fortifications.

DATUM-LINE, the base line of a section from which all
the heights and depths are calculated.

DAY, or BAY, one of the lights or compartments in great
windows of the pointed style of architecture, from mullion
to mullion, clear of any intermediate one.

In the Saxon and early Norman styles, windows of moderate
dimensions were without mullions; but upon the introduction
of the pointed arch, windows becoming long and narrow,
two of these lancets placed together, in order to transmit a suf-
ficient quantity oflight, suggested the idea of a single mullioned
window, which therefore contained two days or bays. From
this junction, windows with two or more mullions, and three
or more days or bays, succeeded, until the number of days or
bays were multiplied to seven, or even nine. The windows
thus comparted, were decorated with an endless variety of
tracery, consisting principally of trefoils, quatrefoils, Cathar-
ine-wheels, &c.

From the time of king Henry VIII., mullioned windows
were superseded again by plain windows. And thus the
rise and fall of the great eastern and western windows in
our cathedrals.

DEAD SHOAR. See SHOARING.

DEAFENING, a term used in Scotland for sound board-
ing ; sometimes also used in wooden partitions for the same
purpose, viz. for preventing the communication of sound.

DEAFENING, in plastering, a term used in Scotland, for
PUGGING, which see.

DEAL (from the Dutch, deel) the wood of the fir-tree, as
cut up for the use of building, which is of two kinds, yellow
and white.

Deals are chiefly imported from Christiana, and other parts
of Norway; from Dantzig, and several parts of Prussia;
from Petersburg, Archangel, and various parts of Russia.
They are sold by the piece or standard.

In London, stuff that is kept on hand, consists generally of
deals ofvarious lengths,most commonly three inches thick, and
seldom exceeding nine inches wide. They are broken or cut
down into various thicknesses, called boards or leaves, so that
a deal will always have one out less than there are leaves.

 

 

 

 

 

 

DEC

228

DEC

 

When the leaves are thinner than half an inch, the deal will
divide into five or more parts, and is therefore termed jive-cut
stufi; and thus the qualifying word is applied according to
the number of pieces. Whole deal‘is one inch and a quarter
thick, and slit deal the half of that.

Deals are formed by sawing the trunk of a tree into
longitudinal pieces, of more or less thickness, according to
the purpose they are intended to serve. They are rendered
much harder by throwing them into salt-water as soon as
they are sawn, keeping them in three or four days, and after-
wards drying them by exposing them to the air: but neither
this nor any other method will preserve them from
shrinking.

The quality and well-seasoning of deals are very essential
to the construction of buildings. They are employed in
naked flooring, partitions, the boarding of floors, doors,
windows, architravcs, cornices, mouldings, dados, plinths,
bases, surbases, wainscoting, linings, columns, pilasters,
chimney-pieces, Sac.

White deal should only be used for inside work, as in bed-
chambers; it is less liable to shrink than yellow, and being
a cheaper article, is to be preferred in panelling. Yellow
deal, on account of its hardness, from being saturated with
turpentine, is more fit to endure violence and exposure to the
weather.

DEBASED, a term applied to that style of English archi-
tecture, so to speak, which succeeded the Late or Perpendicular
Gothic, and in which some peculiarities of the Italian style
began to be introduced. For more detailed information. See
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.

DECAGON (from 35m, ten, and 'yawt'a, an elbow or
corner) a plane figure, with ten sides and angles. If all the
sides and angles be equal, it is called a regular decagon, and
may be inscribed in a circle: the method is thus: first de-
scribe a pentagon, as is shown under that article; bisect each
of the arcs, of which the sides of the pentagon are chords ;
join every point of bisection to the extremity of each
adjacent chord, and the decagon will be completed.

If the side of a regular decagon be 1, its area will

5 .1.
be—(5 + 2(5) )227.6942088.
2

To find the area of a regular decagon: multiply the
square of the side by 7.6942088, and the product will give
the area: or, for practical use, multiply the square of the
side by 7.6942.

Example. What is the area of a decagon, the side of
which is 25 feet ?

25
25
125

50
625
7.6942

 

1250
2500
5625
3750
4375

4808.8750 equal the area required.

This figure may also be measured by the general rule of
finding the superficial content of any polygon whatever.
See Potreox.

 

DECAHEDRON (Greek, 5cm, ten, and eBpa, a base.)
A solid figure contained by ten sides.

DECAMETRE (Greek, 551m, ten, and perpov, measure,)
a French linear measure containing ten metres, and equal to
393.71 English inches.

DECANICUM, a prison in which ecclesiastical ofl‘enders
were confined.

DECASTYLE, or DECASTYLOS (from the Greek, 35m,
ten, and qvAog, a column) a colonnade, or front of a portico,
consisting of ten columns.

DECEMPEDA (from the Greek, Bermrovg; or from the
Latin, decem, ten, and pes, pedis, foot) a ten-foot rod, used
by the ancients : the foot was subdivided into twelve inches,
and each inch into ten digits. This rod was used by archi-
tects to give the proper dimensions and proportions to their
buildings.

Horace (lib. ii. 0d. 15) blaming the magnificence and
delicacy of the buildings of his time, observes, that it was
otherwise in the times of Romulus and Cato; that in the
houses of private persons, there were not then known any
porticos measured out with the decempeda, nor turned to
the north to take the cool air.

The decempeda was also used in land-measuring, in the
same manner as our chain.

DECIMAL (from the Latin, decimus) any number in-
creasing by the order of tens.

DECIMAL ARITHMETIC, the art of computing by fractions
whose denominator is 10, 100, &c. Decimal fractions differ
from vulgar_fractions in this; that the denominator is not
written ; instead of writing 1-46, or 71556, the fraction would
be written decimally, .4 or .15. The decimal point before
it is used to distinguish it from whole numbers.

To reduce any vulgar fraction to a decimal, say,

As the denominator of the vulgar fraction
is to the denominator of the decimal,

so is the numerator of the vulgar fraction
to the numerator of the decimal.

Example. To reduce % to a decimal fraction, whose
denominator is 10.

It will then be as 3 :10 :: 2

10

3) 20

6

so that 6 is the numerator required: but then there is a
remainder of 2, consequently the numerator is more than 6,
but less than 7 3 therefore {'5 is the nearest decimal fraction,
whose numerator consists of a single unit. In order to come
nearer to the truth, we must then suppose the denominator
of the decimal to be divided into more parts, say 100.
Then again 3 100 : : 2
2
3) 200

66

but here is still a remainder of 2, that is, 66 is too small and
67 too great, therefore the decimal fraction 16666, is still too
small; 66 is, however, a greater portion of 100, than 6 is
of 10: we have therefore come nearer to the truth in the
latter operation than in the first. We shall thus find, that
if the number arising by multiplying the denominator of the
decimal fraction by the numerator of the vulgar fraction, be
not divisible by the denominator of the vulgar fraction, an

 

increase of the denominator of the decimal will give a more

 

 

 

 

 

DEC

229

DEC

 

exact portion of the unit, than when fewer figures are used ;
and thus, if worth the trouble, the numerator of a decimal
fraction may be found to any degree of exactness at pleasure,
by augmenting the number of figures in the denominator,
either till the division terminate, or till as many figures be
found as will render the operation sufficiently exact for the
intended purpose.

A decimal fraction may be sufliciently denoted, by throw—
ing away the denominator, and using any character or mark
instead of it, since the denominator is always 1, followed by
one, two, three, or a series of ciphers, which is the only thing
that is variable ; to ascertain this point, the number expressed
by the numerator, is always less than the denominator, and
always consists of as many figures as there are ciphers;
therefore, if a point be placed before the numerator of a
decimal fraction, it will show that the number following it
is a decimal fraction, and by reckoning a cipher for every
figure, and supposing unity placed before them, the number
thus expressed will show how many decimal parts the unit
is divided into, and the figures themselves that portion of
these parts taken. '

Thus '10 is represented by .6

JL ..................... .66
[00

L” ..................... .785
IUOO

3"; ..................... .085
1000

But instead of saying 66 hundredths, 785 thousandths, &c.,
say, as in the second, 6 tenths and 6 hundredths ; as in the
third, 7 tenthS, 8 hundredths, and 5 thousandths ; and as in
the fourth, 8 hundredths and 5 thousandths, as the cipher, 0,
occupies the place of tenths ;

6 6 66
f“ 16+W)_T<i)

7 8 5 785
and '10 + TR) + 1000 ‘1000
1 8 5 __ 085
aso '166 l' 1000 " 1000

The point is not only useful in marking the following
number to be a decimal fraction, but is likewise necessary
in separating the decimal parts from integers, when both
are concerned. .

 

From what has been said, it is observable that decimal
fractions decrease in the same order from unity towards the
right hand, that integers increase towards the right.

Thus, in 348.5683, unity is the place where the numbering
commences both for integers and for decimals; going over
the places of the integers, we have units, tens, hundreds, 348;

. then, numbering the decimals, we have units, tenths, hun-

dredths, thousandths, ten thousandths, which is 5 tenths,

1 6 hundredths, 8 thousandths, and 3 ten thousandths ; in this

notation of the fractions, the unit’s place was not reckoned,
as being already counted into the whole numbers.

Supposing now, that the notation is completelyunderstood,
we will proceed to the reduction of demmal fractions.

To reduce a vulgar fraction to a decimal: set down the
numerator of the fraction, with a point upon the right side

' of it, add as many ciphers in succession, towards the right-
' hand, as may be thought necessary; then, if the denomlnator
‘ consist of one single figure, or of two, not exceeding 12, draw a

horizontal line below the row of figures so set down, and

' a vertical line upon the left side of the left-hand figure: set

down the denominator upon the left of this line, proceed as
in short division, placing a point under the other, then it the
succeeding figures towards the right begin under the first
3 N

 

figure after the point, these figures will be the decimal, but
if not, the number corresponding to the upper row must be
made out, by adding a cipher to the left-hand.
Example I. Required the decimal of in
4) 1.00

 

.25 the decimal required.

Example II. Required the decimal of g.

2) 1.0
. 5 the decimal required.
Example III. Required the decimal of 43.
4) 3.00
.75 the decimal required.

The reader who wishes to employ decimals in his calcula-
tions, should have the decimals .25, .5, .75, of 41, g, 2, fixed
on his memory.

Example IV. Required the decimal of 1 inch in terms of a
foot. Here 1 inch is the twelfth part of a foot, therefore the
vulgar fraction is T1,.

12) 1.00000

.08333
Example V. Required the decimal of 2 inches.
2 inches is 797, or % ; therefore

Now

12) 2.00000 or 6) 1.00000
.16666 .16666

Example VI. What is the decimal of 3 inches ? 3 inches
is equal to 7135 or 1 therefore the decimal will be .25,

 

I:
as above.
Example VII. Required the decimal of 4 inches. 4 inches
is equal to 74; : g, therefore,
12) 4 00000 or 3) 1.00000
.33333 .33333

In this manner, the decimals for every number of inches

under twelve are to be found, as the following table shows:
The decimal of 1 inch = .08333

.16666

.25

.33333

.41666

.5

.58333

.66666

.75

10 .83333

11 .91666

In most practical cases, three figures of decimals will be
found sufficient.

When inches, seconds, thirds, 8w. are to be reduced to a

COMNIUDCJl-AODN)

II II II H H H H II II II

decimal, the best method is to reduce the feet, inches, 8:0. to i

the last denomination, then divide as often by 12 in succession
as there are denominations, and the last quotient will be the
decimal required.

Example I. Required the decimal 0f 9 firsts, or inches,
and 6 seconds.

N 0w here are two denominations, therefore

96
12

 

12 ) l 14 seconds in the whole.

12 ) 9.5
.79166 the decimal required.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

g

l

 

DEC

230

DEC

 

Example II. To find the decimal of 5 seconds and 4 thirds.
Now in this example, there are three places of duodecimals,

therefore
0 5 4
12

 

12 ) 64 number of thirds in the whole.

12 ) 5.33333

 

12 ) .44444
______..
.0370?)

And thus for any other number ofdenominations whatever.

If each foot of our measuring-rules for taking the lineal
dimensions were divided into ten parts, instead of twelve,
and each of these ten parts again into ten others, we should
have no occasion for reduction of decimals, as the rule itself
would give the decimal. In most cases we should not then
have occasion to work with more than two places of decimals;
the tenth part of the tenth part, that is, the hundredth part
of a foot, is very nearly equal to the eighth part of an inch,
or the ninety-sixth part of a foot, being only a small matter
less than the eighth of an inch. Were measuring-rules thus
divided, the work by decimals would be much shorter than
any other denomination whatever. The principal reason of
operations in measuring by decimals being longer than
duodecimals, arises from the necessity of reducing the duode-
cimals to decimals, and this in many cases cannot be done
with the same accuracy, without having four or five denomi—
nations. In practical cases, there are never more than three
places of duodecimals, and if rules were divided decimally,
there would not be more than three places.

A decimal part of a foot being given, to find its equivalent
in duodecimals.

Multiply the decimal by 12, cut ofi“ as many decimals from
the product as there are places of figures in the multiplicand,
from the right-hand to the left, and the figure or figures
remaining on the left, if any, will show the number of inches:
multiply the number of decimals so cut off, if any, again by
12, and cut off as many figures from the left-hand of the new
product as there are decimal places in the multiplicand, and
the remaining figures on the left will show the seconds, if
any. Proceed in this manner as often as there is a remainder,
or as often as may be thought necessary to obtain a sufiicient
degree of accuracy, and the places cut off will be equivalent
to the given decimal, if no remainder, and very nearly so if
there is, but in this case something less.

Example. Reduce .44005 of a foot to a decimal.

.44005
12

 

5.28060
12

 

3.3672
12

 

4.4064
12

 

4.8768
To add decimals ; write down the several parts under
their respective denominators, viz., all the points in a vertical
line, the tenths in a succeeding vertical line, and so on ; add
the several columns, as in common addition, from right to
left ; place a point under the column of points, or cut off as

many decimal parts from the right-hand figure towards the

 

left, as there are columns, and the figure or figures upon
the left-hand side of the point, if any, will be integers,
and those upon the right-hand side of the point will be
decimals.
Example I. Add the following decimals together, viz.,

.7854, .07958, .5236.

.7854

.07958

.5236

1.38858 the sum required.

To subtract decimals ; place the numbers as in addition,
the less under the greater, and perform the operation as in
subtraction of integers.

Example I. Subtract .25 from .75.

.75
.25

 

 

.50 the number required.

If the parts of a foot are given in feet, inches, &c., they ,
must be reduced to the farthest denomination from the place .
of feet.

To multiply in decimals, proceed as in multiplication of ‘
integers, and point as many figures, beginning with the first ‘
figure from the right in the product, as the number of decimals ,
in both factors ; and the remaining figures, if any, upon the
left-hand, will be integers; but if there are not as many '
figures in the product as in both, the deficiency must be
made up by the addition of one or more ciphers.

Example I. 1
Multiply .9087 ;
by .852 {

18 1 74
45435
72696

Product .7742124

In large decimals, the work may be contracted thus :
\Vrite the units’ place of the multiplier under that place
of the decimals in the multiplicand, whose place you would
reserve in the product; write the other figures in the multi- l
plier in a contrary order. l

Begin with the figure of the multiplier nearest the right
hand, and multiply by the next figure towards the right 1
of it, in the multiplicand, if any; and if this product be five,
or above five, in the number of tens in the product, carry 3
one more than there are tens in the last product to the next 3
product; then set down the overplus above the tens for the
first figure, and carry the tens to the next place, and proceed
through the line as in common multiplication. Proceed with
every other line in the same manner, observing, however,
to place the first figure of every line directly under the first I
figure of the last line, and the product so found will be the
answer.

Example I.——VVhat is the product of .9087 multiplied by
.852, in order to retain four places of decimals?

By contraction. By the common method

 

 

 

.9087 .9087
258.0 852
7270 = 908 x 8 + 6 18172
454 = 90 x 5 + 4 45435
18 = 9 x 2 + 0 72096
7742 .7742122

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DEC

231

DEC

 

In this example, the multiplier being placed as directed,
bagin with 8, the first figure of the multiplier, and multiply
it by 7, the next figure to the right of it in the multiplicand,
and the product is 56, which is more than 5 above 5 tens,
therefore carry 6: multiply 8 by the next figure, 8, towards
the left, the product is 64, and 6 carried, makes 70, set down
a cipher for the first figure, and carry 7 to the next; proceed
thus for the whole line, and 7270 will be the product. Pro-
ceed with the remaining figures of the multiplier, in the same
manner, writing down the left-hand figures of every row
under each other.

To divide a decimal or mixed number by a decimal or
mixed number: divide as in whole numbers, and cut off as
many figures from the right-hand of the quotient as the deci-
mal places of the dividend exceed those of the div1sor.

If the number of figures in the quotient be less than the
excess of the decimal figures in the dividend above those of
the divisor, the defect must be supplied by prefixing ciphers
on the left hand. Should there be a remainder, annex
ciphers to it, and thus the quotient may be carried to any
degree of exactness, observing, however, that every cipher
annexed, in carrying out the work, must be accounted a

5 decimal place in the dividend.

 

 

Example I.——Divide 43.95 by 5.
.5 ) 43.95

8.79 the quotient required.

Example II.—-Divide 4.368 by .0078.

.0078 ) 4.3680 ( 560
390
468
468

...0

DECIMAL SCALE, a scale divided into tenths. Scales thus
divided are much used in designs. A ,1; inch scale is that
wherein the 41 inch is divided into ten parts: a % inch scale
is when the % inch is divided into ten equal parts. One
drawing may be made greater or less than another, by using
two different scales made to the proportion of each drawing;
but the best method of reducing or enlarging drawings, is by
means of a pair of proportional compasses, which give both
greater accuracy and expedition, with much less trouble, than
working by scales.

DECIMETRE, a French linear measure equal to the tenth

art of a metre, or 3.9371 English inches.

DECLINATION, of the Doric mutules, is the acute angle
which the planes of the wall and soffit make with each other,
by which the soflit is lower at its projecting extremity, than
in the receding extremity, whence it commences. All the

: ancient examples of the Doric order have declining mutules.

DECLINATOR, an instrument used in dialing, whereby

‘ the declination, inclination, and reclination of planes are

determined.

DECLINING DIALS, are those which either cut the
plane of the prime vertical circle, or the plane of the hori-
zon, obliquely.

The use of declining vertical dials is very frequent, because
the walls of houses whereon dials are commonly drawn, gene-
rally decline from the cardinal points. Incliners and recliners
are very rare, and more particularly decliners.

DECOR, a term used by Vitruvius, signifying propriety,
arising either from disposition of the parts of an edifice, or
from due observance of custom. See DECORUM.

 

 

DECORATED, the title given to the most perfect style of
Gothic architecture, which prevailed during the reigns of the
three first Edwards, from the close of the thirteenth century.
It is otherwise named the middle-pointed, or pure Gothic.

The various styles of Gothic architecture are so implicitly
connected the one with the other, that it has been deemed
advisable, at the risk of extending the article to a greater
length than is customary in works of this nature, to consider
them all under one head. See GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.

DECORATION, anything that adorns or enriches any
part of an edifice. A tasteful combination of ornamental
details employed in the enrichment of a building.

True decoration consists not in the mere addition of orna-
ment, but rather in its appropriate andjudicious application.
Decoration, when artistically applied, pOSSesses not only rich-
ness, but also meaning, not only a body, but a soul; it

delights the eye, and, at the same time, engages and instructs '

the mind. No artists, perhaps, so highly excelled in the
just and tasteful employment of decorative detail, as did
those of what are vulgarly termed the dark ages; in the
glorious monuments of their skill, which have been preserved
to us, we find specimens of the most delicate enrichment, all
of which exhibit the reasonableness of its introduction; and
the majority, a depth and tone of feeling rarely to be met
with in other works.

The application of the Classic orders, however, as a means
of decoration, is frequently resorted to, and not without
success; they may be applied both internally and externally,
and are themselves likewise frequently charged with further
decorations.

Plain surfaces, when very extensive, are often decorated
with paintin s.

DECORATION EXTERNAL, the Building act, (7 and
8 Victoria, cap. 84), requires, that in external decorations,
every coping, cornice, facia, window - dressing, portico,
balcony, balustrade, or other external decoration or projec-

 

tion whatsoever, to any building now or hereafter to be built, ;
or to any addition or enlargement of any such building, shall j

externally be of brick, stone, burnt-clay, or artificial stone,

stucco, lead, or iron ; except the cornice and dressings to shop- ;

windows: and it is further provided with regard to buildings

hereafter to be built or rebuilt, in reference to projections .

therefrom :—

As to copings, parapets, cornices to overhanging roofs,
blocking-courses, cornices, piers, columns, pilasters, entabla-
tures, facias, door and window-dressings, or other architec-
tural decorations, forming part of an external wall, all such
may project beyond the general line of fronts in any street
or alley, but they must be built of the same materials as are
by this act directed to be used for building the external walls
to which such projections belong, or of such other proper
and sufficient materials, as the official referees may approve
and permit.

And as to all balconies, verandas, porches, porticos, shop-‘
fronts, open inclosures of open areas, and steps and water-
pipes, and to all other projections from external walls not
forming part thereof, every such projection (except part of
shop-fronts, and the frames and sashes of the windows and
doors, in reference to the necessary wood-work thereof) may
stand beyond the general line of fronts in any street or alley,
but they must be built of brick, stone, tile, artificial stone,
slate, cement, or metal, or other proper and sufficient fire-
proof materials ; and they must be so built as not to overhang
the ground belonging to any other owner, nor so as to obstruct
the light and air, or be otherwise injurious to the owners or
occupiers of the buildings adjoining thereto on any side
thereof.

 

.__~__ l

 

 

o.—..__.._—o

 

 

 

 

DEC

232

 

DEF

 

Projections from walls of buildings over public wags.

And with regard to all buildings hereafter to be built or
rebuilt, in reference to projections from the walls of such
buildings, including steps, cellar-doors, and area inclosures,
the walls of all such buildings must be set back, so that all
projections therefrom, and also all steps, cellar-doors, and
area inclosures, shall only overhang or occupy the ground of
the owner of such building, without overhanging or encroach-
ing upon any public way.

Projected buildings beyond the general line of buildings,
and from other external walls.

And with regard to buildings already built, or hereafter
to be rebuilt, as to bow windows or other projections of
any kind,

Such projections must neither be built with nor be added
to any building on any face of an external wall thereof, so
as to extend beyond the general line of the fronts of the
houses (which general line. may be determined by the sur-
veyor) except so far as is herein before provided with regard
to porticos projected over public ways ; and with regard to
projections from face-walls and shop-fronts, not so as to over-
hang the ground belonging to any other owner, nor so as to
obstruct the light and air, or be otherwise injurious to the
owners or occupiers of the buildings adjoining thereto on any
side thereof.

Projections from insulated buildings.

Provided always, with regard to any insulated buildings,
that if the projection be at the least 8 feet from any public
way, and if they be at least 20 feet from any other building

' not in the same occupation, then such projections are excepted

from the rules and directions of this act.
Wooden sbopfronts and shutters.

And with regard to shop-fronts and their entablatures,
their shutters, and pilasters and stall-boards made of wood,

If the street or alley in which such front is situate, be of
less width than 30 feet, then no part of such shop-front must
be higher in any part thereof than 15 feet; nor must any
part, except the cornice, project from the face of a wall,
whether there be an area or not, more than 5 inches ; nor
must the cornice project therefrom more than 13 inches.

If the street or alley be of a greater width than 30 feet,
then no part of such shop-front, except the cornice, must

; project from the face of a wall, whether there be an area or
not, more than 10 inches; nor must the cornice project

 

therefrom more than 18 inches.

And the width of such street or alley must be ascertained
by measuring the same, as directed by the act.

And the woodwork of any shop-front must not be fixed
nearer than four and a half inches to the centre line of a
party wall.

And with regard to such wood-work, if it be put up at
such distance of four and a half inches, then a pier or corbel
built of stone or of brick, or other incombustible material,
and of the width of four and a half inches at the least, must
be fixed in the line of the party wall, so as to be as high as
such wood-work, and so as to project one inch at the least
in front of the face thereof.

And the height of every shop-front must be ascertained
by measuring from the level of the public foot pavement in
front of the building.

And every sign or notice-board fixed against or upon any
part of any house or other building standing close to any
public way, must be so fixed that the top shall be within
18 feet at the most above the level of such public way.

DECORATION OF THE SCENERY or A THEATRE, is the

representation of the subject by which the scenes are
charged.

 

The ancients used two kinds of decoration in their theatres, ‘
the one called versatiles, with three sides or faces, which
were turned successively to the spectators ; the other, called
ductiles, showing a new decoration, by drawing or sliding
another before it.

The latter kind is still in use, and the change is almost
made in an instant; whereas the ancients were obliged to
draw a curtain whenever a change of decoration was
required. }

DECORUM, or DECOR, in architecture, is the suitableness
of a building, and the several parts and ornaments thereof, ‘
to the station and occasion. “It consists,” says Vitruvius, '
(book i. chap. 2.), “in the proper appearance of a work,
and its being compounded of approved and authorized parts.
This has regard, either to station, which the Greeks call
thematismos, custom, or nature. To station, when temples
which are erected to Jove the Thundcrer, the heavens, the
sun, or the moon, are built uncovered and exposed to the air,
because the influences and effects of those deities are per-
ceived in the open air; when to Minerva, Mars, Hercules,
Doric temples are built; for, on account of the attributes of
these deities, edifices constructed without delicacy are most
suitable. To Venus, Flora, Proserpine, and the nymphs of the
fountains, the Corinthian kind are erected with propriety;
for by reason of the delicacy of those goddesses, the graceful,
gay manner, with foliage and ornamented volutes, give a due
decorum to the work. To Juno, Diana, Bacchus, and such
other deities, Ionic temples are constructed, as holding a posi-
tion between the two; for being tempered of the severity of
the Doric, and the tenderness of the Corinthian, they become
most suitable. Decor, with regard to custom, is observed
when the internal parts of edifices being magnificent, the
accesses are also made suitable and elegant : for, if the inte-
rior parts he elegant, and the approaches mean and ignoble,
it will not have decor. So, likewise, if dentils be carved in
the cornice of the Doric epistylium, or in the abacus of the
capital, or if triglyphs be represented in the epistylium of
Ionic columns, transferring the characteristics of one kind
of work to another; it offends the eye, because custom has
established a different order of things.

“ Decor, with regard to nature, consists in all temples ‘
being placed in a salutary situation, with fountains of water
in the places where the fane is built ; but especially the tem- ‘
ples of JEsculapius, of Health, and such deities, by whose
healing influences numbers of sick appear to be recovered.
For the diseased bodies being removed from an unhealthy to
a healthy situation, and the salutiferous water of the foun- ‘
tains being administered, they are soon restored. By this
means it will happen, that the natural effects of the place will
increase the received opinion of the power of the divinity. _

“Decor, with regard to nature, is also observed, when 3'
chambers and libraries receive their light from the east;
baths, and winter apartments, from the west ; picture-
galleries, and such apartments as require a steady light, from y
the north; because that region of the heavens is rendered ,
neither lighter nor darker by the. course of the sun, but is i
equal and immutable the whole day.”

DEDICATION, the act of consccrating a temple, altar,
statue, palace, &c., to the honour of some deity.

DEFINITION, (drifnire, to mark out a boundary), is the
process of stating the exact meaning of a word, by means of
other words, or an enumeration of the principal attributes
of a thing, in order to convey or explain its nature; thus,
a circle is defined to be a figure whose. vircumfercncc is every
where equidistant from its centre. \Voltius defines a real
definition to be a distinct notion, explaining the genesis of a
thing; that is, the manner wherein the thing is made, or

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DEM

233

DEN

 

done: such is that of a circle, whereby it is said to be
formed by the motion of a right line round a fixed pornt ;
on which footing, what was before instanced as areal defi-
nition of a circle, amounts to no more than a nominal one.

This notion of a real definition is very strict and just ; and
affords a sufficient distinction between a real and a nominal
one. But though it has the advantages of analogy, distinct-
ness, and convenience, on its side; yet being only itself a
nominal definition, 2'. e., a. definition of the term Teal defi-
nition, we must consider it in the light of an idea fixed arbi-
trarily to that word, and which Wolfius always denotes by
that word in the course of his book.

Of the parts enumerated in a definition, some are common
to other things beside the thing defined ; others are peculiar
thereto: the first are called the genus, or kind; and the
second, t/te dg'flérence. Thus, in the former definition of .a
circle, by a figure whose circumference is everywhere equi-
distant from its centre ; the wordfigure is the kind, as being a
name common to all other figures, as well as to the circle ; the
rest the difference, which specifies or distinguishes this figure
from every other. And hence arises that rule of F. de Colonia,
for the making of a definition. “ Take,” says he, “ something
that is common to the thing defined with other things, and
add to it something that is proper, or peculiar to it; 2'. e., join
the genus and specific difference, and you will have a defi-
nition.” The special rules for a good definition are these :—
1. A definition must be universal or adequate, that is, it must
agree to all the particular species, or individuals, that are
included under the same idea. 2. It must be proper, and pecu-
liar to the thing defined, and agree to that alone. These two
rules being observed, will always render a definition reci-
procal with the thing defined, that is, the definition may be
used in the place of the thing defined ; or they may be
mutually affirmed concerning each other. 3. A definition
should be clear and plain; and, indeed, it is a general rule
concerning the definition both of names and things, that no
word should be used in either of them which has any difficulty
in it, unless it has been before defined. 4. A definition
should be short, so that it must have no tautology in it, nor
any words superfluous. 5. Neither the thing defined, nor
a mere synonymous name, should make any part of the
definition.

DEFLECTION, a term applied to the distance by which
a curve departs from a straight line, or from another curve.
It is used where any “ bending of” takes place; the word
deflection, in fact, means “ bendin off.”

DEINCLINING DIALS, such as both decline and
incline, or recline.

DELUBRUM, in Roman antiquity, a temple with a large
space of consecrated ground round it. Also that portion
of a temple in which the altar or idol was placed. See
TEMPLE.

DEMI-RELIEVO, a term applied to that class of sculp-

ture in which the figures are raised only halfway above the
surface.

DEMONSTRATION, (from the Latin) in mathematics, a
method of reasoning, whereby the truth of an assertion is
shown by two, or a series of propositions, whose truth
is already established.

Thus the 47th proposition of the first book of Euclid
demonstrates a certain property of a right-angled triangle,
on the supposition:-—l, that all the preceding propositions are
true; 2, that the axioms used in geometry, whether expressed
orlmplied, are true also. It makes the consequence as cer-
tain as the premises, by means of the indubitable character
of the connecting process. This strict use of the term
demonstration belongs to the science of logic, which is the j

3 o

 

 

 

art of demonstrating from premises, without reference to the

truth or falsehood of the premises themselves. In effect,

the demonstrations of mathematicians are no other than'
series of enthymemes; everything is concluded by force of
syllogism, only omitting the premises, which either occur

of their own accord, or are recollected by means of quota-

tions. To have the demonstration perfect, the premises of

the syllogisms should be proved by new syllogisms, till at

length you arrive at a syllogism, wherein the premises are

either definitions, or identical propositions.

Indeed, it might be demonstrated, that there cannot be a
genuine demonstration, 2'. e., such a one as shall give full con-
viction, unless the thoughts be directed therein according to
the rules of syllogism. Clavius, it is well known, resolved
the demonstration of the first proposition of Euclid into
syllogism: Herlinus and Dasipodius demonstrated the whole
six first books of Euclid, and Henischus, all arithmetic, in
the syllogistic form.

Yet the generality of persons, and sometimes even mathe»
maticians, imagine, that mathematical demonstrations are con-
ducted in a manner far remote from the laws of syllogism; so
far are they from allowing that those derive all their force
and conviction from these. But men of the greatest ability
have taken our View of the question. hf. Leibnitz, for
instants, oeclares that demonstration to be firm and valid,
which is in the form prescribed by logic; and Dr. Wallis
confesses, that what is proposed to be proved in mathematics
is deduced by means of one or more syllogisms: the great
Huygens, too, observes, that paralogisms frequently happen
in mathematics, through want of observing the syllogistic
form.

Problems consist of three parts : a proposition, resolution,
and demonstration. ,.

In the proposition is indicated the thing to be done.

In the resolution, the several steps are orderly rehearsed,
whereby the thing proposed is performed.

Lastly, in the demonstration, it is shown, that the things
enjoined by the resolution .being done, that which was required
in the proposition is effected. As often, therefore, as a pro-
blem is to be demonstrated, it is converted into a theorem;
the resolution being the hypothesis, and the proposition the
thesis: for the general tenor of all problems to be demon-
strated is this; that the thing prescribed in the resolution
being performed, the thing required is done.

The schoolmen make two kinds of demonstration: the one
re Bron, or propter quad; wherein an effect is proved by the
next cause : as when it is proved, that the moon is eclipsed
because the earth is then between the sun and moon. The
second, re on, or quid; wherein the cause is proved from
a remote effect : as when it is proved that fire is hot, because
it burns ; or that plants do not breathe, because they are not
animals ; or that there is a God, from the works of creation.
The former is called demonstration d prion, and the latter
demonstration d posteriori.

DEMONSTRATION, Geometrical, is that framed of reasonings
drawn from the elements of geometry.

DEMONSTRATION, ‘JlIec/zanical, is that, the reasonings
whereof are drawn from the rules of mechanics.

DENDERAH, the Tentyra of the ancients, a ruined
town of Upper Egypt, celebrated for its temple, which is
one of the most splendid remains of antiquity in all Egypt.
Dr. Richardson, Belzoni, and others, have given descriptions
of this temple, which the first-named traveller considers to
have been erected in the period of the Ptolemies. Its remains
occupy a vast extent of ground, and consist of various build-
ings, besides the temple itself. These are enclosed within
a wall built of sumdried bricks, in some places 35 feet high,

 

 

 

MJH—fi - ._V—_¥__ AA A ,_,,

 

 

DEN

 

and 15 feet thick. The portico in front of the temple is
formed of 24 columns, ranged in four rows, having quadran-
gular capitals, on each side of which is a colossal head, sur-
mounted by another quadrangular member, containing in each
face a temple doorway with two winged globes above, and
other decorations. The shafts of the columns are cylindrical,
and of equal diameter throughout. The whole height, includ-
ing capital, &c., being a little above 48 English feet.

The front is adorned with a beautiful frieze, covered with
figures, over the centre of which the winged globe is predo-
minant. The walls, columns, ceilings, and also the interior
chambers, are in the same manner covered with hieroglyphics
and sculptures, in which the figure of Isis is repeated in
numberless instances. The light in the chambers comes in
through small holes in the wall ; the sanctuary itself is quite
dark. The ceiling of the portico is occupied by a number of
figures, by some travellers supposed to be the signs of the
zodiac, but with greater accuracy shown by Dr. Richardson
and recent travellers and archaeologists, to be merely a col-
lection of mythological emblems, without any reference to
astronomy.

On the ceiling of one of the apartments in the upper
story, under the roof of the temple, there was another
assemblage of mythological emblems, similar to those already
mentioned, but fewer in number, and differently arranged.
This was called a planisphere or zodiac, because in the middle
of it figures resembling those usually adopted to represent
the signs of the zodiac were observed. The opinion of well-
informed travellers, however, with respect to this collection
of figures, as to the former, is that it is onlya represen—
tation of gods and goddesses, and religious processions, and
has no astronomical meaning whatever.

The so-called circular zodiac, which was sculptured on
a kind of sandstone, was cut out of the ceiling by a French-
man, with the permission of the pasha, and conveyed to
France ; when it v. as purchased by the French government,
and deposited in the Museum, at Paris.

DENDROMETER, (from déudpov, a tree, and perpew, I
measure), an instrument for measuring trees.

The same name has also been applied, though improperly,
to instruments contrived for measuring distances and magni—
tudes from a single station.

DENTICLES. See DENTILS.

DENTILS, (from the Latin, dens, a tooth) a row of similar
and equal solids in a cornice, disposed at equal intervals, each
presenting four sides of a rectangular prism, the sides parallel
to the vertical face, and the one parallel to the sotfit, being
attached to the vertical and horizontal planes of an internal
right angle.

The surfaces of the vertical face are therefore all in the
same plane: and those of the soi‘fits are in the same hori-
zontal plane.

The whole series of dentils in the same range, is called
the denticulated band.

The proportions given by Vitruvius are, that “the denti-
culus is to be equal in height to the middle facia of the archi-
trave, and its projection to be the same as its height; the
width of the dentils is one-half of its height, and the interval
between them two-thirds of this quantity.”

The proportions of some of the best examples where
dentils are to be found, are as follow:—

In the Ionic temple ofBacchus, at Teos, the dentils are in
height about one-fourth of that of the cornice, exclusive of
the inferior bead and fillet next to the architrave : the breadth
of the dentils is about two-thirds of their height, and the
breadth of the interval about. two-thirds of that of the dentil:
their prOJection is about one-fourth of the height of that part

 

of the cornice between their soffits and the summit of the
cornice : the angle is vacant.

The dentils in the Ionic order of the temple of Minerva
Polias, at Priene, are something less than one-fourth of the
height of the cornice, or nearly equal to two twenty-fifths of

that of the entablature: their projection is three times the i
half oftheir height; their breadth, two-thirds of their height;
the breadth of the interval, about four-fifths of that of the 5

dentils: the corner is without a dentil, and the soffit over
the vacant angle is enriched with a honeysuckle.

In the Corinthian order of the Choragic monument of:

Lysicrates, at Athens, the dentils of the cornice are in height
nearly two-sevenths of that of the cornice, exclusive of the

terminating ornament; their breadth is two-thirds of their ‘
height; and the interval between them, two-thirds of their .

breadth; the angle of the cornice at the dentil band is
vacant.

In the temple of Jupiter Stator, at Rome, the height of
the dentil is nearly one-fifth of the whole cornice; its breadth,

two-thirds of its height; and the breadth of the interval, 1

about one-half of that of the dentil ; the angle of the dentil-
band is filled with a dentil.

The reader who wishes to see the rules of Vitruvius, i

respecting the placing of dentils, may consult the article
CORNICE.

In the frontispiece of the door-way of the Tower of
the “finds, at Athens, the inclined cornices, as well

as the level_ one, have dentils, contrary to the doctrine '

of Vitruvius.

In the interior cornice of the same tower, both dentils and ‘
modillious are employed ; the dentils occupying the superior :

part of the cornice, agreeably to the Vitruvian theory, but
contrary to every other antique example.

The only ancient example of the Doric order, in which I
dentils are to be found, is in the theatre of Marcellus, :

at Rome.

The examples of the Ionic order which have denticulated ‘

cornices, are, the temples of Bacchus, at Teos; of Minerva
Polias, at Priene; the aqueduct of Adrian, at Athens; the
temple of Fortune, and the theatre of Marcellus, at Rome ;
and the arch of Constantine; the temple of ConCord, at
Rome, has both dentils and modillious in the cornice.

The following edifices of the Ionic order, are without
dentils in the Cornice, viz , the Ionic temple upon the Ilissus,
the temple of Minerva Polias, and that of Erechtheus, at
Athens; and in the Coliseum. at Rome, the dentil-band
is uncut.

Examples of the Corinthian order, which have

denticulated cornices, are, the monument of Lysicrates, the :

arch of Adrian at Athens, and the ruins at Salonica.
dentils and modillious are to be found in the following
Corinthian edifices: the temples of Jupiter Stator, and of

Both '

Peace, the piazza of Nerva. and the baths of Diocletian, .
at Rome ; the lower range of the interior, and the porticos :

of the temple ofJupiter, and the vestibulum to the peristylium,
at Spalatro; all the ruined edifices at Balbec, and at Palmyra,
excepting the interior order of the temple of the Sun, among
the latter.

The following edifices of the Corinthian order have the

dentil-band uncut, viz., the Coliseum, the portico of the Pan- '

theon, the temple ot‘Antoninus and Faustina, and the portico
of Septimius Severus, at Rome.

Examples of the Composite order, which have denticulated
cornices, are, the arch of Septimius Severus, and that of the
Goldsmiths, at Rome, and the upper range of the temple of
Jupiter, at Spalatro; but in the arch of Titus, at Rome,
both modillious and dentils are to be found.

The frontispiece to the door-way ot' the Tower of the

 

 

 

 

 

 

DES

235

DES

 

Winds, at Athens, though it cannot be classed as a regular
order, has dentils in the cornice.

A denticulated cornice is employed in the Caryatic portico
of the temple of Pandrosus, at Athens... . .

Thus it may be observed, that dentils and mpdilllons are
frequently employed in Corinthian and Compomte cornices ;
and sometimes both are omitted, as in the temple of Vesta at
Tiroli, and in the temple of Antoninus and F austina, and the
little altars within the Pantheon, at Rome. . ' .

In very small work, it would be better to omlt modilhons
and dentils: and, indeed, it is the opinion of some, that
though the work be ever so large, it would be better to

employ one of them only; as, were all the members to be

admitted in a Corinthian cornice, and if the individual parts
of the cornice bear the same proportion to the whole height,

._ as in the Doric or Ionic orders, the cornice would either be

too high for the entablature, or the entablature too high for
the column; consequently, the cornice must either be too
great a load for the entablature, or the entablature too great
a load for the column ; which, in either case, is contrary to
the laws of strength: for it would be giving the greater
burden to the slender column, and the lighter burden to the
more massive. See CORNICE.

DEPARTMENT, (from the French) that part of an
edifice destined to some peculiar purpose, as, in a palace, the
department of a kitchen, of the stables, 8w.

DEPOT, (French) in military architecture, an edifice for
the preservation and reservation of stores, provisions, &c.,
also a station for the reception and training of recruits.

A depot should contain a great number of bomb-proof
buildings, the lower tier of which should be reserved as
stored'oonis for provisions requiring to be kept cool, and, if
possible, be below the surface of the area; the ground-floor
should be allotted for artillery and ordnance-stores; the walls
and piers being furnished with strong wooden battens (pro-

‘ jet-ting a little, to obviate the danger of damp) for the support

 

of muskets, carbines, pistols, swords, halberts, bayonets,
pihes, and other descriptions of small-arms. The second
floor should be devoted to the reception of camp-equipage,
and the upper to the lodgment of ready-filled cartridges.
The great magazines for powder should be separate: the
whole of the principal body should be casemated for the
accommodation of troops, and pierced through, perhaps
masked, for the reception of heavy cannon. The out-works
should be of the best materials, and constructed on the most
con‘ipact system of defence.

DESCRIBENT, (from the Latin, describo, to describe) in
geometry, a line or surface which produces a plain figure by
lllOllOll.

DESCRIPTION, of a building, an explanation of all the
materials, specifying their qualities, proportions, how used,
sizes of timbers, &c.

The following articles are most frequently employed in
buildings, in the carpenter’s department :—

Carpentry.

Timber in Pilincr .
foundations {Planking }Sp1kes
Sleepers ,
Bond-timbers in brick walls
Templets
Bonding Under-sleepers
Under-joists
Under-roof

VVall— plates
Lintels

 

Common
naked
flooring

Framed
naked
flooring

Common
roofing

Trussed
roofing

Sound
boarding

Nine—inch
brickwork
Brick-
noggmg

Common
wooden
partitions

Truss
partitions

Sleepers

Trimmers
Trimming-joists
Strutting-pieces

J oists

Girders
Binding-joists
Bridging-joists

Rafters

Ceiling-joists, ties, or tie-beams
Collar-beams

Puncheons

Hips

Valleys

Ridge pieces

Beams for platforms

i Beams for skylights

for slates, %—inch thick
gor platform} 1% inch thick
or gutters

Arris fillet

Bearers for gutters

Wall-plates
Diagonal ties
Dragon-beams
Tie-beams
Pole-plates
Hammer-beams

King-posts
Truss-posts { Queen-posts

Boarding

Braces

j Struts

Auxiliary rafters, or principal braces

Studs

Principal rafters

Hip-rafters

Valley-rafters, or valleys

Collar-beams, or straining-beams

Purlins

Camber-beams

Straining-sill

Common rafters

Boarding, generally g-inch thick

Arris fillet, %-inch by 3 inches

Nails, what kind

Fillets, 1% inch by 1 inch, nailed at 1 foot
distance

Boarding, 13-inch thick, with or without nails

} Wood bricks, 2% inches by 4 inches

Quarterings
N-ogging-pieces
.Lintels

Sills

Quarterings

( Top-pieces

Sills, 01‘ plates

Door-posts

King-posts
Queen-posts
Side-posts

Truss-posts

Braces
Inter-tie, or straining-piece
Common quarterings, 1% inch thick

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

D E S 236 D E S
. Plunging, at what distances Front shutters
23%;? Batiens, 2 inches by g-inch Shutters Closers
Nails of interior doors, framed doors, linings, backs,
for windows, edge-chamfered or grooved Mouldings elbows, SOffits, and ShUtter-‘b to be all Simi—
for mouldings lar.
Grounds for chimneys [ B f Skirtings
for doors ase 0 rooms Base mouldings
for cupboards Surbases
S uare single faced
Angle-staff {Blinded Architraves double faced
Ceiling-joists Blocks to be used or not
Ribbing 5‘. a . . . plain
Bracketing 1% inch thick Finishings l Pilasters sunk
on walls Facings
on ceilinos Belts
Lath behind shutters Skirtings
and back of skirtings Wood moulding upon stone skirting
. Jamb mouldings
Jome'ry. Chimney-pieces
. l Hatch~boards
Pulley-pieces _
Inside facings, or linings Kitchen dresser.
Outside linings Kitchen Belting round kitchen

Sash-frames Back linings

Sashes

Skylights

;, Boarding
for floors

Boarding
for walls

Cupboard

linings

Miscella-

neous
I)oor
hnings
I)oors

Dado

Recess to
windows

IIeads

Sills

Beads

Primed

Glazed, with oil-putty
Pulleys

Weights

Lines of the best quality

MA

Hatch windows

Square skylights

Polygonal skylights

Circular or elliptic conic skylights

AM

grooved and tongued, or
Boards straight-jointed 1:31:13
Battens grooved and tongued, or ‘ 1'“
doweled together p61 '

33%;“ used in shops, water-closets, 8:0.
Bbards When less than the whole height
Nails a coping is used

f Sides

1Back3
Door stops
Shelving

Framed

(Dado Plain, glued together
J ambs
Soffits
Stiles Mouldinos laid in or lanted, or

2: P

5Rails moulded on one or both sides
Munnions,or of framing, or bead and flush,
Mountings or bead and butt.

Panels, flat or raised, or with planted beads
f plain
1 framed } Keys

Backs

Elbows

Soffits

Boxings

-Back-linings

 

 

Wired or latticed windows for larder

Water- Flap, clamps, as also the top seat
closet Riser, framed bead and flush

Troughs, with hooks and bolts

“ ater con- \Vater trunks

ve ances - -
y Cover for ram-water pipes
Risers
Stair Treads
._ Rail, of deal or mahogany

A clause in specification, describing the quality of wood.

Joiner to take the plaster work off the plasterer’s hand, or v

to make it good if damaged by his men.
Time of finishing the joinery.

DESCRIPTIVE CARPENTRY, the art of forming a
diagram on a plane by the rules of geometry, in order to
construct any piece of carpentry of a known property, from
certain given dimensions of the thing to be constructed.

This branch is only the application of stereography to
Carpentry: and, indeed, the only difference between stereo-
graphy and descriptive carpentry, is, that in the former, the
bodies are entire solids, but in the latter, the bodies to be
formed consist of ribs, disposed in parallel lines or planes, or
in lines tending to a point, or in planes tending to an axis;
so that descriptive carpentry shows the methods of forming
the separate pieces, in order to construct the whole body or
solid. Stereography is, therefore, not only employed in the
construction of individual pieces, but also in the whole, when
brought into a mass, or taken as one body. This branch is
a necessary qualification to an architect, not only to enable
him to anticipate the effect, but to judge of the propriety of
the execution of any proposed work.

It is too often the case, that young men professing to be
studying the science of architecture, will not submit to that
which they are pleased to deem the drudgery of the profes-
sion. Instead of acquiring, by constant practice and studious
diligence, the necessary elements of descriptive and construc-

tive knowledge of the various parts of an edifice, they attempt, i
before they are qualified by such knowledge, to design “
edifices, fanciful in conception, as they would be ridiculoug .9
l

The result of this want of careful training, is well described ,

if executed.

 

 

by Mr. Bartholomew, in the following passage :——“ Taken i
l

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DES

from school at an age in which he cannot have imbibed in
any degree sufficient of a polite and hberal education, the
architectural pupil, frequently With no knowledge whatever
of geometry, never acquires any beyond the. mere manual
dexterity of drawing circular and plain lines ; abandoned by
his master while yet scarcely arrived'at manhood, forced
into premature and profitless practice Wltll all the expenses
of a separate establishment, it cannot be wondered at, that
the adolescent architect sometimes has, in after-life, bitter
cause to repent the circumstances and therashness, which
led him to acquire practical design and practlcal construction,
Solely by his youthful failures; for it is then, With deep
repentance, that he perceives the confusron of styles into
which he has fallen, the whole chronology of gothic arches
which he has paraded in the same facade, the mixture of
Roman forms and luxury with the severe and elegant sim-

. plicity of the Greeks ; in many a breaking-up and fracture,

he has the mortification to find that inventions upon which
he has relied for eternal duration, have not survived their
inventor’s ruin; that he has formed his pinnacles with
graduated outlines, as if Rosslyn chapel or some other impure
source were his only pursuit ; he regrets that he has placed
his columns opposite apertures, instead of opposite piers;
he regrets that, from false bearing, want of plumb and equi-
poise,-his work is so fractured, that even a man of more

1 experience than himself cannot restore it ; he perceives too
‘ late, that his patronage of mean and fragile stone, and

pretended substitutes for it, his reliance on bad timber, has
added something to the wreck of his country’s architecture ;
he perceives with deep mortification, that his want of mathe-
matical and mechanical skill, both theoretical and practical,
has led him to perform that which a professor of more
experience would avoid ; broken arches, tie-less roofs, walls
thrust from their right position, partitions falsely trussed,
and groaning beneath loads which, formed otherwise, they
might have borne unflinchingly, and a foundation which
fails in all directions from want of sufficient spread to the
footings, or from the building being carried up piecemeal,
or from other causes—these are a few of the faults and
disasters, which in after times make a precocious practitioner
wish he had studied five or ten years more, before he had
risked himself or his employer’s property.”

This was not the case formerly; men endeavoured in those
days to qualify themselves for the practice of their profession,
by long study, practice, and unceasing diligence.

Architects among the ancients, were highly accomplished
characters, being skilled in all the geometrical and mechanical
knowledge of their time ; and in this country they have had
much claim to eminence as late as the reign of Queen Anne.
Since that time, however, a gradual declension of the art is
equally perceptible in all public edifices, as well as in all
Works of architectural literature.

Though travelling adds to the accomplishment of ajudicious
architect, it is among the least of the necessary qualifications;
a careful observer will lay up greater stores of knowledge at
home, than he who has travelled, with inferior abilities ; and,
indeed, if the architect have no farther views, than that of
travelling, in order to produce what he calls drawings of taste,
he will, in most instances, become ostentatious, anti will
ultimately lose the good opinion of his employers. Travelling
improves the man of science, but inflates the sciolist with
vanity, and renders him ten times more a subject of com-
nnseration than before.

. As those parts of carpentry which are objects of descrip-
tion, are placed under their proper denominations, the reader
is referred to each particular term, for further information
upon this useful subject.

3 P

237

 

DES

DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY, the art of representing
a definite body upon two planes, at right angles with each
other, by lines falling perpendicularly to the planes from all
the points of the concourse of every two contiguous sides ‘1‘
the body, and from all points of its contour ; and, vice versa,
from a given representation to ascertain the parts of the
original object.

Descriptive geometry may therefore be considered
synonymous with orthographical projection, upon which
subject, with theexception of a treatise by Mr. P. Nicholson,
(first published in 1795, and re-published with improve-
ments in the year 1809), nothing had appeared in the
English language, until the publication of this Dictionary.

About the year 1794, the celebrated Monge, who has been
called the inventor of descriptive geometry, published in
France his Géométrie Descriptive, one of the most elegant
and lucid elementary works in existence. Previous to the
appearance of this work, the science of perspective and
many other applications of geometry to the arts, had required
isolated methods of obtaining lines, angles, or areas, described
under laws not readily admitting of the application ofalgebra,
and its consequence, the construction of tables. The des-
criptive geometry of Monge is a systematized form of the
method by which a ground-plan and an elevation are made
to give the form and dimensions of a building. The pro-
jections of a point upon two-planes at right angles to each
other being given, the position of the point itself is given.
From this it is possible, knowing the projections of any solid
figure upon two such planes, to lay down on either of those
planes, a figure similar and equal to any plane section of
the solid.

This necessary and neglected part of education, had been
also much cultivated by Mr. Nicholson, and with such
success, that his works have always been referred to by
succeeding writers as authorities. In addition to the treatise
above mentioned, and also some parts of the carpentry in
Rees’ Cyclopasdia; the numerous valuable articles in this
Dictionary attest the sound practical knowledge of the writer,
and his perfect acquaintance with the subjects on which he
has written. It is due to his memory, to state that he had
at that time no knowledge of any foreign work on Descriptive
Geometry, and that the treatise by Monge did not fall into
his hands until the year 1812. \Vhile strongly recommend-
ing that work, however, to the study of all those who
are desirous of attaining truth in delineation, he con-
sidered his own views, differently conceived, as undoubtedly
they were, from those of Monge, to have equal claims to
originality.

As we are desirous of omitting nothing that may tend to
enlarge the bounds of science, we shall here insert so much
of Monge’s work as we conceive to be conducive to this end,
referring Mr. Nicholson’s own ideas on this branch of geo—
metry, to the article PROJECTION, a name better understood
in this country than that of Descriptive Geometry.

To facilitate the knowledge of this subject, the reader
should be well acquainted with the eleventh book of
The Elements of Euclid, which treats particularly of planes,
and the manner in which solids are constituted.

“ Figure l.—If from all the points of an indefinite right
line, however situated in space, we imagine perpendiculars
to be dropped upon a given plane, LMN 0, all the points of
these perpendiculars will fall upon the plane in another inde-
finite right line, ab, for they will be all comprised in the
plane described by A B, perpendicular to the plane L M N 0,
and can only meet the latter in the line of intersection com-
mon to both planes, which is a right line.

“ The right line a b, which passes through the projections

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DES

238

DES

 

of all the points of the right line AB, upon the plane L M N o,
is called the projection of the right line A B upon this plane.

“ As two points are sufficient for determining the position
of a right line ; it is only necessary, in constructing the pro-
jection of a right. line, to construct the projections of two. of
its points, and the line which they describe will be the
required projection.

“ Hence it follows, that if the proposed right line be per-
pendicular to the plane of projection, its projection will be
reduced to a single point, which will be that in which it falls
upon the plane.

“ Figure 2,—The projections a b, a’ I)’, of the same indefi-
nite right line, A B, being given upon two planes, not parallel,
LM N O, L M PQ, this right line is determined; for, if from
one of the projections, a I), we imagine a plane perpendicular
to L M N 0, the position of this plane being known, it would
necessarily pass through the right line A B. The position of
this right line, which is found at once upon both the known
planes, consequently at their mutual intersection, is therefore
absolutely determined.

“ “That we have just stated is to be understood as inde-
pendent of the planes of projection, and takes place, whatever
may be the angle termed by the two planes. But if the angle
formed by the two planes of projection be very obtuse, that
formed by their perpendiculars will be very acute: very
trifling mistakes in this respect, will, in practice, lead to very
grave errors in determining the position of the right line.
To obviate this cause of inaccuracy, at least in the absence
of better means, it is usual to have the planes of projection
perpendicular to each other: besides which, as most artists,
who use projections, are familiar with the position of a hori-
zontal plane and the direction of a plumb-line, they gene-
rally represent one plane of projection as horizontal, and the
other vertical.

‘ The necessity of representing, in drawings, the two pro-
jections upon the same sheet, and in larger operations upon
the same area, has farther determined artists to represent the
vertical plane as turning and folding down, as upon a hinge,
at its intersection with the horizontal plane, so as that the
two may form but one plane, upon which they construct their
projections.

“The vertical projection is thus, in fact, traced upon a
horizontal plane, and it must ever be kept in mind, that it
must be Corrected and put in its place, by turning it one-
fourth of a revolution round its intersection with the hori-
zontal plane : to do which accurately, care must be taken to
trace this intersection very plainly upon the design.

“ Thus, in Figure 2, the projection a'b’ of the right line
A B, could not be drawn upon a real vertical plane; but if we
conceive the plane to be turned about the right line L In, so as
to bring it in contact at L M I” (3', we shall readily execute the
vertical projection a’b'.

“ Besides the facilities of execution presented by this dis-
position, it possesses the additional advantage of abridging the
labour of projections. Thus, suppose the points a, a’. to be
the horizontal and vertical projections of the point A, the
plane indicated by the right lines A a, A (1', will be perpen-
dicular to the two planes of projection at the same time,
because it passes along the right lines perpemlicular to them:
consequently, it will be perpendicular to their common inter-
section L M; and the right lines a C, a' 0, according to which
they out these two planes, will be themselves perpendicular
to L M.

“ Now, if the vertical plane be turned about L M, as upon
a hinge, the right line a'c, still continues perpendicular to
L M ; and the case is still the same, when the vertical plane,
laid down, assumes the position ca".

 

Thus the two right 1

lines a C, c a", passing both by the point C, and being both
perpendicular to L M, are in prolongation to each other ; the
case is similar with the right lines I) D, D b”, as to every other
point, as B. Hence it follows, that when we have obtained
the horizontal projection of a point, the projection of this
same point upon the vertical plane, supposed to be laid down,
will be in the right line drawn along by the horizontal pro-
jection perpendicularly to the intersection, LM, of the two
planes of projection, and this reciprocally.

“ This result very frequently occurs in practice.

“ We have hitherto considered the right line, A B, Figure 2,
as indefinite; in which case we should only have to do with
its direction ; but we must now consider it as terminated by
the points A B, which will bring us to take its extent into our
calculation. We shall, therefore, examine how this may be
deduced from a knowledge of its two projections.

“\Vhen a right line is parallel to one of the planes on
which it is projected, its length is equal to that ofits projec-
tion on the plane ; for the line and its projection, being both
tcminated at two points perpendicular at the plane of pro-
jection, are parallel to each other, and comprised between
parallels. In this particular case, therefore, the projection
being given, the length of the right line, which is equal to it,
is also given.

“ A right line is always parallel to one of the two planes of
projection, when its projection upon the second is parallel to
the first of its planes.

“ If the right line he at the same time oblique upon two
planes, its length will be greater than that of either of its
projections ; but the true length may be obtained by a very
simple operation.

“ Figure 2.—Let AB be the right line ; a b, a'b’, its given
projections : to find its true length. From one of the
extremities of the right line A, in the vertical plane falling
from it, imagine a horizontal line, A E, stretching out till it
meet in E the vertical line falling from the other extremity
at B; this will give the rectangular triangle, AEB, which
must be constructed in order to obtain the length of the
right line AB, which is its hypothenuse. In this triangle,
independently of the right angle, we know the side AIL,
which is equal to the given projection, a b. And if, in the
vertical plane, we draw from the point a', the horizontal line
a’e, which is the projection ofAE, it will cut the vertical
line b' n at the point e, which will be the projection of the point
1-2. Thus 0 6 will be the vertical projection of B E, and con-
sequently of an equal length with it. Having ascertained,
by these means, the two sides of the triangle, it will be easy
to construct the triangle, whose hypothenuse will give the
length of AB.

“ Figure 2, being drawn in perspective, has no affinity to
constructions done in the manner of projections. \Ve shall
here give the construction of this first question in all its
simplicity.

“ Figure 3.—The right line L M being supposed to be the
intersection of the two planes of projection, and the lines a b.
a” I)", the given projections of a right line ; to find the length
ofthis line. Draw through the point a", the indefinite hori-
zontal H e, which will cut the line bl)", at the point e, and
upon it measure the length of a I), from e to H. Draw the
hypothenuse II b", and its length will be that of the right line
required.

“As both the planes of projection are rectangular, this
operation, which is performed upon one. of the planes, may
be also done upon the other, and will yield a similar result.

“ From what has been said, the reader will perceive, that
whenever we have the two projections of a body, terminated

 

by plane surfaces, by rectilinear angles, and by the apices of "

 

 

 

 

 

r M,._..__..-.-» *._M _, __

DES

239

D'ES .

 

solid angles (projections which are reducible. to the system of
rectilinear angles) it will be easy to. ascertain the length of
any of its dimensions: for thls dimension Will either be
parallel to one of the two planes of pI'OJeCtlon, 01‘ 1t W111 be at
the same moment oblique to them both. In the first case,
the required length of the dimension Will be equal to its pro—
jection ; in the second, it. may be reduced from the two pro-
. jections, by the methodjust described. _

‘ “ We come now to describe the mode by which the pro-
: jections of solids, terminated by planes and rectilinear angles
are constructed; though there Is no general rule. for this
operation : indeed, the construction of these projections Will
be more or less easy, according to the method .m.wlnch the
position of the apices of the angles of the solid IS defined ;
the nature of the operation being governed by that of the
definition. The case is precisely here as in algebra, in which
there. is no general method of reducing a problem to equa-
tions. In every particular instance, the process depends on
the mode in which the relation between the given quan-
tities and those sought for, is expressed : and it is only by a
variety of examples that young students can learn how to lay
hold of these affinities, and to express them in equations. So
likewise, in descriptive geometry, it is only by a multitude of
examples, and by the use of the rule and compasses in our
schools, that we can acquire the habit of forming construc-
tions, or accustom ourselves to make choice of the most
familiar and elegant methods in each particular case. We
may farther observe, that, as in analyses, when a problem is
reduced to equations, there are methods of treating those
equations, and 0f deducting from them the value of each
unknown quantity; so also, in descriptive geometry, when
the projections are made, there are certain general methods
of constructing whatever may result from the terms, and
respective positions of bodies.

“Nor is this comparison between descriptive geometry
and algebra altogether useless ; for these sciences are intimately
connected. There is no construction of descriptive geometry,
but what may be reduced to an analysis ; and when questions
rtquire no more than three unknown quantities, each analysis
may be looked upon as the record of a spectacle in geometry.

“ It is much to he wished, that these two sciences were
studied together : descriptive geometry would carry that evi-
dence which is its peculiar characteristic, into the most com-
plicated analytical Operations ; while on the other hand alge-
braical analyses would give to geometry, that generality
which it stands in need of.

“The principle upon which we ground the theory of pro-
_ jections is convenient for describing the position of a pointin
l space, or that of an indefinite or terminated right line, and,

consequently, for representing the form and position of a
‘ body terminated either with plane faces, rectilinear arrétes,
i or the apices of solid angles ; for when once we are acquainted

with the position of all its arrétes, and of the apices of all its

angles, the body itself is entirely known. But were all bodies
bounded, either by an uniformly curved surface, all whose
points were governed by the same law, as in spheres, or by
an unconnected assemblage of several parts of differently
curred surfaces, as in a body turned on a lathe; this prin-
ciple would not only be inconvenient, impracticable, and
destitute of the advantage of forming an idea of the shape,

} but. would also be insufficient through want of variety.

3 “For instance: it is easy to perceive that this principle
j by itself, would be inconvenient and impracticable, if we
| wished to describe all the points of a curved surface ; because
‘ it would be necessary not only to indicate each of them, as

Well by its horizontal, as its vertical projection, but also to
have the two projections of the same point united together, in

 

 

 

order to avoid a combination of the horizontal projection of
one point with the vertical projection of another; and the most
ready mode of thus uniting these projections, being to join
them by one perpendicular right line to the line of intersec-
tion of the two planes of projection, the draught would
become surcharged with a prodigious number oflines, and
cause a confusion, which would increase in proportion as we
would aim at accuracy and precision.

“ We shall now prove this method to be insuflicient, and
destitute of the requisite copiousness.

“ Amongst the vast variety of differently-curved surfaces,
there are some which extend only through a finite and ciro
cumscribed portion of space, and whose projections are
limited, as to extent, in every direction; as in the case of a.
sphere, the extent of whose projection on a plane is reduced
to that of a circle, having its circumference equal to that of
the sphere ; and we must allow the plane, on which the
projection falls, to be of dimensions sufficient to receive it.
But all cylindric surfaces are as indefinite in a certain direc-
tion, as the right line by which they are generated ; and the
plane itself, the most simple of all surfaces, is indefinite in
two ways. There are likewise a great number of surfaces,
whose protuberant particles (nappes) shooc at once into all
the regions of space. Now, as the planes on which projec-
tions are received, are unavoidably of a limited extent, this
mode of describing the nature of a curved surface, had we no
other than that of the two projections of each of the points
by which it passes, could be only applicable to those of which
the points of the surface correspond to the size of the planes
of projection; all beyond this, could neither be expressed
nor known: consequently, this mode would be insufficient.
Lastly, it would want variety, because we could not deduce
from it anything relative either to tangent planes to the sur-
face, nor to its normals, nor to its two curvatures in each
point, nor to its lines of inflection, nor to its returning arrétes,
nor to its multiplied lines and points, nor, in a word, to any
of the affections necessary to be considered in operating on
a curved surface.

“ It is therefore necessary, that we should have recourse
to some new principle, not only compatible with the former,
but also capable of supplying its place, whenever it becomes
in itself insufficient for our purpose. It is this new principle
that we are now about to lay down.

1
|
l
t
l

i

“ Every curved surface may be considered as generated by g

the movement of a curved line, either inflexible in form
when its position is changed, or variable both in form and
situation. As the universality of this proposition may render

it difficult of comprehension, we shall explain it by some '

familiar examples.

“ Cylindric surfaces may be generated in two principal
ways, viz., either by the movement of a right line, which
keeps constantly parallel to a given line whilst in motion, yet
inclining always towards a given curve; or by the movement
of the curve itself, taken in the foregoing instance as the con-
ductor, which so moves, as that while from one point it
inclines towards a given line, all its other points may describe
parallels to this line. In both these modes of origin, the
generating line, which is a right line in the first case, and a
curve, of whatever description, in the second, invariably
retains its form; only changing its position in space.

“ Conical surfaces have, in like manner, two principal
modes of being generated. First, they may be considered
as generated by an indefinite right line, which being forced to
pass always upon a given point, moves so as to lean constantly
towards a given curve, that directs its movement. The only
point through which it always passes the right line, is the
centre of the surface, improperly called its apex or head. In

 

 

 

 

 

 

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this mode. the generating line still preserves its identity,
never ceasing to be a right line.

“ Conic surfaces may also be generated in another way,
which, for greater plainness, we shall here apply only to those
with circular bases. The surfaces may be considered as
bounded by the circumference of a circle, moving with its
plane always parallel to itself, and its centre upon a right
line passing through the apex; its radius being, in every
movement, proportionate to the distance of the centre from
the apex. Here it is evident, that if in its motion, the plane
of the circle tend towards the apex of the surface, the radius
of the circle will decrease, till, in passing the apex, it will be
an absolute nullity, after which it will again increase indefi-
nitely, in proportion as the plane, having passed the apex, is
withdrawn farther and farther from it. In this second mode
of generating, the circumference of the circle, which is the
generating curve, not only changes its position, but its form
also, at every motion; for, changing its radius, it conse-
quently varies both in curvature and extent.

“ Let us take a third example.

“A circular surface may be generated by the movement
of a plane curve, turning about a right line; drawn in any
direction upon its plane. In this way, we find the generating
curve inflexible in form, but changeable in position. We may
also see it generated by the circumference of a circle, moving
with its centre always on the axis, and its plane being per-
pendicular to this axis, the radius will be uniformly equal to
the distance of the point in which the plane of the circle cuts
the axis, from that in which it cuts a given curve in space.
Here the generating curve changes both in form and position.

“From these three examples, we may perceive that all
curved surfaces may be generated by the movement of cer-
tain curved lines, and that there are none of which the form
and position may not be accurately described from an exact
and complete definition of its generation. This new prin-
ciple forms a complement to the method of projections ; and
in proceeding, we shall have frequent occasion to be con-
vinced of its simplicity and copiousness.

“It is not, therefore, by merely giving the projections of
individual points, through which a curved surface passes,
that we are enabled to determine its form and position ; but
by being able to construct for any point the generating
curve, according to the form and position it would have in
passing such point. And here we may remark, 1. That as
every curved surface may be generated in an infinite number
of different ways, it must depend upon the dexterity and
knowledge of the operator, to make choice, among all the
possible generations, of such as will require the most simple
curve, and least complex considerations. 2. That long expe-
rience has taught us, instead of considering only one genera-
ting principle of a curved surface, as prescribed by the laws
of motion and of the change of form in its generation, it is
frequently more simple to take two generating principles,
and to indicate for each point the construction of the two
generating curves.

“Thus, in descriptive geometry, in order to express the
form and position of a curved surface, it is only necessary,
for any point of such surface, of which the projections may
be taken at pleasure, to give the manner of constructing the
horizontal and vertical projections oftwo differentgenerators,
which pass that point.

“ We shall now proceed to apply these general principles
to the plane, of all surfaces the most simple, and the most
frequently in use.

“Aplanc is generated from the motion of a given right
line, of a known position. which moves so that all its points
maydescribe lines pa and to a second given right line. If

 

 

this second line he itself in the plane in question, it maybe ,
also said that the plane is generated by such second right 1
line moving so that all its points may describe lines parallel l
to the first.

“W'e have therefore an idea of the position of a plane,
from an observation of the two right lines, each of which may 1
be considered as its generator. The position of these two ‘
right lines in the plane which they generate, is altogether
indifferent; it is only necessary, therefore, for projections, to ‘
make choice of such as are of the most simple construction.
Hence, in descriptive geometry, the position of a plane is ,
indicated by giving the two right lines along which it cuts
the planes of projection. It is easy to recollect that these
two right lines must meet the intersection of the two planes
of projection in one and the same point, and that, consequently, '
this must be the point, in which they meet themselves. 1

“ As we shall have frequent occasion to bring planes under
our consideration, we shall, for the sake of brevity, adopt the
term traces to describe those right lines, by which they cut
the planes of projection, and by which their position is
indicated. l

“ Having settled these preliminaries, we now proceed to
the solution of various questions, which will at once serve as
exercises on the method of projections, and facilitate our
farther progress in descriptive geometry.

“First Question—Figure 4. A point, whose projections l
are D, d, and a right line, whose projections are A B and a b, '
being given; to construct the projections of a second right. I
line, drawn-from the point given, parallel to the first. !

“ Solution—The two horizontal projections of the given ‘
right line, and of the line sought, must be parallel to each
other; being the intersections of two vertical planes, parallel
to a common plane. It is also the same with the vertical
projections of similar right lines. Therefore, as the right
line sought for must necessarily pass through the given
point, its projections must also pass through those of the
point respectively. If, then, from the point D, E F be drawn
parallel to A B, and if from the point (1, cf be drawn
parallel to a I), the lines E F and cf will be the projections ‘
required. 1
“ Second Questio72.—Figure 5. A plane, whose two traces
are A B, BC, and a point, whose projections are G, 9, being
given ; to construct the traces of a second plane, drawn from
the given point, parallel to the first.

“ Solution. The traces of the plane sought for, must be
parallel to the respective traces of the given plane, because
these traces, taken in pairs, are the intersections of two planes 5
parallel to a common plane. I

i

\Ve have, therefore, only to '
find, for each of them, one of the points through which they i
respectively pass. To obtain this, from the given point, ’
conceive a horizontal right line in the plane sought for;
this line will be parallel to the trace AB, cutting the vertical
plane in a point, which will be one of those of the trace of
the plane sought for on it ; and we shall have its two pro-
jections, by drawing the indetinite horizontal g F from the
point g, and the right line Glfrom the point G, parallel to
A B. If G I be produced to meet the intersection, L M, ot'the two
planes of projection in the point I, such point will he the hori-
zontal projection of the intersection of the horizontal right line
with the vertical plane. This point ot‘intersection, there-
fore, will be found upon the vertical line 1 F, drawn from the
point I. But as it must also be found upon 9 F, it will be
discovered at the point, F, of intersection of the two latter '
right lines. Lastly, by drawing a line from F parallel to B c, ,
we shall have upon the Vertical plane the trace of the plane :
required; and if this trace be produced till it meet LM :
in the point B, and E D be drawn parallel to A B, we ,

 

 

 

 

 

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shall have the trace of the same plane upon the horizontal
plane. . _

“ If, instead of a horizontal right line in the plane sought
for, a line parallel to the vertical plane were concelved, the
construction following, by parity of reasoning, would be
obtained : . .

“Draw from the point G, parallel to LM, the indefinite
right line GD; from the point g, draw gH parallel to C B,
producing it till it cut LM in the point H, whence draw H 1)
perpendicular to LM: this latter wrll cut G D in D, whence
if a parallel be drawn to A B, one of the traces of the plane
sought for will be obtained; and 1f, havmg produced this
trace to meet L M in E, E F be drawn parallel to B C, we shall
have the trace on the vertical plane.

“ Third Question—Figure 6. A plane whose two traces
are A B and B C, and a point whose two projections are D, d,
being given; to construct, l, the projections of the right
line falling perpendicularly from the point upon the plane;
2, the projection of the point of coincidence of the right line
with the plane.

“ Solution. The perpendiculars D G, d g, falling from the
points I) and d upon the respective traces of the plane, will
be the indefinite projections of the right line required : for
if, along the perpendicular, a vertical plane be conceived,
such plane will out both the horizontal and the given planes,
in two right line's, "0th of them perpendicular to the common
intersection, A B, ol the two planes : now, the first of these
lines, being the projeation of the vertical plane, is also that
of the perpendicular which is included; therefore the pro-
jection of this perpendicular must pass through the point D,
and he perpendicular to A B.

“ The same demonstration will serve for the vertical
projection.

“ As to the point of coincidence of the perpendicular with
the plane, it is evident that it must be found at the intersec-
tion of this plane, with the vertical plane drawn along the
perpendicular ; such intersection being projected indefinitely
upon E F. By obtaining the vertical projection,fe, of this
intersection, we shall find it to contain that of the point
required ; and as this point must be projected upon the right
line (19, it will be found at the intersection, g, of the lines

f1: and (19. It remains, therefore, only to discover the right
lincfc: now, the intersection of the given plane with the
vertical plane, which are perpendicular to each other, will
meet the horizontal plane in the point E, whose vertical
pnjeetion, e, will be found by dropping E e perpendicularly
upon L M; and it will meet the vertical plane of projection
in a point, whose horizontal projection is the intersection of
the line LM with D G, produced, if necessary, and whose
vertical projection must be at once upon the vertical line Ff
and the trace CB; of course, it will be at the point, f; of
their intersection.

“ The vertical projection, g, of the foot of the perpendicular
being found, the construction of its horizontal projection will
be easy; for by dropping the indefinite perpendicular gG
upon 1. M, a right line will be obtained, which will contain
the point required : and as the line D F must also contain it,
it will be found at the point, G, of intersection of these two
right lines.

“Fourth Question—Figure 7. A right line whose two
projections are An, ab, and a point whose two projections
are D, d, being given; to construct the traces of a plane
drawn from the point, perpendicularly to the right line.

“ Solution. lVe have seen from the preceding question,
that the two traces must be perpendicular to the respective
projections of the two right lines: it remains to be discovered
what points each of them ought to pass through. For this

3 Q

 

 

purpose, let an horizontal line from the given point be con-
ceived in the plane required, produced so as to meet the
vertical plane of projection, and we shall find its vertical
projection, by drawing the indefinite horizontal dG through
the point (1, and its horizontal projection by drawing a per-
pendicular to A B, through the point D, produced till it cut
L M in H, which will be the horizontal projection of the point
of coincidence of the horizontal with the vertical plane of
projection. This point of coincidence, which must be found
in the vertical line H G and the horizontal line dG, and con-
sequently at the point, G, of the intersection of these two
lines, will be one of the points of the trace on the vertical
plane ; we shall then find this trace by drawing the line F C,
from the point G, perpendicular to a b; and if from the
point C, where the first trace meets LM, 0 E be drawn per-
pendicular to A B, we shall have the second trace required.

“ The same process would discover the point of coincidence
of the plane with the right line.

“ Were it necessary to drop a perpendicular from the
given point upon the right line, we should construct, as has
just been described, the coincidence of the right line with
the plane drawn by the given point, and which would be
perpendicular to it ; and we should obtain, from each of the
two projections of the required perpendicular, two points
through which it must pass.

“Fiflh Question—Figure 8. Two planes being given in
position, by means of their traces A B and A I) for one, and
C D and C d for the other; to construct the projections of
the right line upon which they intersect each other.

“ Solution. All the points of the trace A B being found in
the first of the two given planes, and all those of the trace
0 D being found in the second, the point, E, of intersection
of these two traces is evidently in the two planes, and is
consequently one of the points of the required right line. In
like manner, the point, F, of intersection of the two traces
upon the vertical plane, is also another point of this right
line. The intersection of the two planes is therefore so
placed as to meet the horizontal plane in E, and the vertical
plane in F.

“ If, therefore, the point F be projected on the horizontal
plane, which may be performed by dropping the perpen-
dicular Ff on L M, and if the linefE be drawn, it will be the
horizontal projection of the intersection of the two planes.
So, if the point E be projected on the vertical plane, by
dropping the perpendicular E e on LM, and if the right line
e F be drawn, it will be the vertical projection of the same
intersection.

“ Sixth Question—Figure 9. Two planes being given, by
means of the traces AB and A b for the first, and C D and C d
for the second; to construct the angles formed by them.

“ Solution. Having constructed, as in the preceding ques-
tion, the horizontal projection, Ef, of the intersection of the
two planes; by conceiving a third plane perpendicular to
them, and consequently perpendicular to their common inter-
section ; this third plane will cut the two given planes in
two right lines, containing between them an angle equal
to the one required.

“ The horizontal trace of this third plane will be perpen-
dicular to the projection, Ef, of the intersection of the two
given planes, forming with the other right lines a triangle,
of which the angle opposed to the horizontal side will he the
one required. It remains, therefore, only to construct
this triangle.

“It is quite indifferent through what point of the inter-
section of the two first planes the third passes ; and we are
at liberty to mark its trace upon the horizontal plane, at
pleasure; provided that it be perpendicular to E f Suppose.

 

 

 

 

. ,...._i_, , ...,__...____

 

 

 

 

 

t x. mm,_._____ ,

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then, the line G H be drawn perpendicular to Ef; terminating,
in G and II, at the traces of the two given planes, and meet-
ing Efin the point I; this line will be the base of the
triangle intended to be constructed. In fact, let us suppose
that the plane of this triangle turns on its base, GH, as on
a hinge, to adapt itself to the horizontal plane; in this
motion, its apex, Which was in the first instance placed on
the intersection of the two planes, continues in the vertical
plane drawn through such intersection, because the vertical
plane is perpendicular to G11; and when the plane of the
triangle is laid down, this apex will be found on one of
the points of the line. Ef. It therefore remains only to
discover the heights of the triangle, or the extent of the
perpendicular dropped from the point I, on the intersection
of the two planes.

“ But this perpendicular is comprised in the vertical plane
drawn from E tof; if, therefore, we conceive this plane to
revolve about the vertical line fF, in order to apply itself
to the vertical plane of projection ; and if we carrny fromf
to e,fI from fto i, the line eE will be the extent of the
portion of the intersectionlcomprised between the two planes
of projection ; and if from the point i, the perpendicular ih
be dropped upon this line, it will give the height of the
required triangle.

“Hence, by carrying ih from 'I to 'K, and completing
the triangle GK II, the angle in K will be equal to the angle
formed by the two planes.

“ Seventh Question—Figure 10. Two right lines inter-
secting each other in space, being given by their horizontal
projections A 15, A C, and by their vertical projections a l), a c,-
to construct the angle formed between them.

“ Before we enter on the solution of this question, we may
remark, that as the two given right lines are supposed to
intersect each other, the point, A, of the coincidence of their
horizontal projections, and the point, a, of the coincidence
of their vertical projections, will be the projections of the
point in which they cross each other, and will, consequently,
be in the same right line, a G A, perpendicular to L M. Were
the two points A and a not in the same perpendicular to L M,
the given right lines would not intersect each other, and of
course would not be in the same plane.

“ Solution. Conceive the two given right lines to be
produced so as to meet the horizontal plane, each in a point,
and then construct these two points of coincidence. To
perform this, produce the Llines a I) and a c, till they cut L M
in the points d and e, which \will be the vertical projections
of these two points of coincidence. From the points dand e,
draw upon the horizontal plane, and perpendicularly to L M,
two indefinite right lines, (1 E and e E, which, as they
must pass through one of these points, will determine
their positions by their intersections, D and E, with the
respective horizontal projections A B and A C, produced
if necessary.

“ This done, draw the right line D E, which, with the two
parts of the given lines comprised between their intersecting
point and the points D and E, will form a triangle, of which
the angle opposite to DEwill be the angle required: we
have, therefore, only to construct this triangle. To do so,
having dropped from the point A, the indefinite perpendicular
A F, upon D E, conceive the plane of the triangle to turn as
upon a hinge on its base D E, till it lie flat on the horizontal
plane; the apex of this triangle, during its movement, will
not depart from the vertical plane described by A F, and
will at length apply itself in some‘degree upon the prolonga-
tion of E A in a point, 11, of which it remains only to find the
distance from the base D E.

“ Now the horizontal projection of this distance is the right

 

line A F, and the vertical height of one of its extremities
above that of the other is equal to a G ; hence, according to
the property of Figure 3, if upon L M, A F be measured from
G toj; and ifthe hypothenuse af, be drawn, such hypothenuse ,
will be the distance required. Finally, if af be carried
from F to H, and if from the point II the two lines H D and
H E be drawn, the triangle will be complete, and DHE will
be the angle sought for. 1

“Eighth Question—The projections of a right line, and .
the traces of a plane, being given; to construct the angle
formed by such line and plane.

“ Solution. Suppose a .line perpendicular to the given ‘
plane to be drawn from a certain point in the given right
line, the angle formed by such perpendicular with the given
right line, would be the complement of the required angle,
the constructionof which will resolve the question.

“ Now, if upon the two projections of the right line, two
points be taken, in the same perpendicular with the intersec-
tion of the two planes of projection ; and if lines be drawn
from these two points, perpendicular to the respective traces
of the given plane, they will describe the horizontal and
vertical projections of the second right line. The question
will therefore be reduced to the construction of the angle
formed by two right lines which out each other, and will be
of the same nature with the former.

“ It is usual, in projecting a chart of a country, to imagine
the remarkable points to be connected by means of right lines
forming triangles, which are to be transferred to the chart
on a smaller scale, but placed in the same relative order as
those they represent. The operations necessary to be made
on the earth consist chiefly of the measurement of angles,
and of these triangles; and in order to the angles being
described correctly on the chart, they ought each to be in a
horizontal plane, parallel to that of the chart. If the plane
of the angle be oblique to the horizon, it must not be repre-
sented, but its horizontal projection must be taken, which
may always be found, if after measuring the angle itself,
those angles which its two sides form with the horizon be
also measured. Hence we derive the following operation,
known under the appellation of the reduction of an angle to
the horizon.

“ lVinth Question—The angle formed by two right lines,
and the angles formed by such lines with the horizontal
planes, being given; to construct the horizontal projection
of the first of these angles.

“ Solution—Figure 11. Let A be the horizontal projection
of the apex of the angle sought for, and A B that of one of
its sides, so that the other side may be represented by A E.
Conceive the vertical plane of projection to pass along A B ;
and having drawn the vertical indefinite line Aa, through
the point A, any point, as (I, may be taken at pleasure, as
the vertical projection of the apex of the angle observed.
If from the point d, the right line dB be drawn, so as to
make with the horizontal line, an angle, at B A, equal to that
made by the first side with the horizon, the point B will be
the coincidence of this side with the horizontal plane. Also,
if from the point (1, the line do be drawn, so as to make
with the horizontal line an angle, do A, equal to that made
by the second side with the horizon; and if from the point A,
as from a centre, with the radius AC, the indetinite arc of
a circle, CE F, be described, the second side can meet the
horizontal plane only in the points of the arc CE F. It
remains, therefore, only to ascertain the distance between
this point and some other, as is.

“Now this latter distance is in the plane of the angle
observed. If, therefore, the right line (I n be drawn, so as
that the angle D d B may be equal to the angle observed, and

 

i

 

 

 

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if d c be carried from d to D, the right line D B will be equal
to such distance. ‘ _

“ Therefore, taking B as a centre, and, at an interval
equal to BD, describing the arc of a circle, the pomt E, where
it will cut the first, will be the point of coincidence of the
second side with the horizontal plane ; consequently, the right
line AF. will be the horizontal projection of such side, and
the angle BA E that of the angle observed. .

“ The nine preceding questions barely convey an idea of
the method of projections ; they are .inadequate .to a display
of all the resources: but in proportion as we rise to more
general considerations, we shall take care to introduce such
operations as will be most conducive to this object.

“ 0f planes tangent to curved surfaces, and of normals.

“ There is no curved surface but what may be generated
in several ways, by the movement of curved lines; there-

 

supposed to spring in the position they would naturally have
in passing each other through such point, and if the tangents
be supposed in this point, to each of the two generators, the
plane described by such two tangents is the tangent plane.
The point of the surface in which the two generators cut each
other, and is at the same time common to the two tangents
and to the tangent plane, is the point of contact between the
surface and the plane.

“ The right line drawn through the point of contact, per-
pendicularly to the tangent plane, is said to be normal to the
surface. It is perpendicular to the ground of the surface,
because the direction of such ground coincides, in every part,
u ith that of the tangent plane, which may be considered as
its prolongation.

“ A knowledge of tangents and of normals to curved sur-
faces, is very useful in a great number of arts; in many, it
is indispensable. We shall here adduce only a single example
of each case, selected in architecture and painting.

“ The several portions which compose vaults of hewn
stone, are called voussoirs, and the faces on which two con-
tiguous voussoirs touch each other, are denominatedjoz'nts,
whether the voussoirs form but a single course, or whether
they be comprised in two successive courses.

“The position of the joints of vaults is subject to several
conditions, which must necessarily be complied with, and
which we shall demonstrate in succession, in the sequel of
this discourse ; but at present we must confine our attention
to the object more inu’nediately before us.

“ One of the conditions required in the position of joints,
is, that they be all perpendicular to each other, and to the
surface of the vault. Any material deviation from this rule,
not only destroys the general symmetry of the structure, but
also diminishes the firmness and durability of the vault. For
instance, if one of thejoints be made oblique to the surface
of the vault, one of the two contiguous voussoirs will form
an obtuse angle, and the other, an acute one; and in the
reaction which these voussoirs would exert against each
other, the two angles would present an unequal resistance,
whence, in consequence of the fragility of the materials, the
acute angle would bilge, and spoil the shape of the vault, as
well as endanger the edifice. The reduction of vaults into

planes tangent and normals to the curved surface of the arch.
‘ “Let us take another example, from an art, which, at
hrst view, seems to require a much less rigid attention
to this rule.

“Painting is generally considered as consisting of two
parts. _ The one is, properly speaking, the art,- its object is
to excite in the spectator a determinate emotion, to create
m him a given idea, or to place him in a situation the most

 

fore, if from any point of a surface, two generating lines be .

voussoirs, therefore, absolutely requires a knowledge of

 

favourable for receiving a certain impression ; it supposes
in the artist a great knowledge of philosophy; exacts, on
his part, a most intimate acquaintance with the nature of
things, the mode in which they affect us, and the move-
ments, even involuntary, by which such affection manifests
itself. This can ‘only be the result of a very refined educa-
tion, such as no one receives, and such as we are far from
giving to young artists: it is governed by no general rule,
but is subject solely to genius.

“The other part of painting may be properly called the
trade .- its object is a correct execution of the conceptions of
the former. Here nothing is arbitrary; all is foreseen, by
the help of sound reasoning, as the necessary result of deter-
minate subjects and given circumstances. When the form
and position of an object are ascertained; when its nature,
and the number and positions of all the bodies by which it
may be illumined, whether by direct light or reflected rays,
are understood; when the position of the eye of the spectator
is determined; and when, in a word, every circumstance
that can influence the vision, is well established and known,
the tint of each of the points of the visible surface is abso-
lutely determined. Whatever relates to the colour of this
tint, or its brightness, depends on the position of the plane
tangent in this point, with respect to the illuminating bodies
and to the eye of the spectator. This may be discovered
by mere reasoning, and when so determined should be applied
with accuracy. Every diminution, or exaggeration, will
change the appearances, alter the forms, and produce an
effect quite different from that intended by the artist.

“I am aware that the rapidity of execution, which is often
necessary, rarely admits of the use of a method which
deprives the genius of all corporeal succours, and leaves it
to the exercise of its faculties alone, as well as that it is much
more easy for the painter to look at objects, to observe their
tints, and to imitate them : but were he accustomed to con-
sider the positions of tangent planes, and the two curvatures
of surfaces in each of their points (curvatures which will
form the subject of subsequent lessons) he would not fail
to derive from this material method, a more advantageous
result: it would enable him to supply effects which the
omission of some circumstances had prevented him from
producing, and to suppress others which had arisen from
extraneous incidents.

“In conclusion, we may remark, that the vague expres-
sions, such as flats, which painters are in the constant
habit of using, are standing evidences of the need in
which they are of more accurate knowledge, and of deeper
reflection.

“Besides its utility in the arts, the knowledge of planes
tangent and normals to curved surfaces, is one of the most
fertile methods employed in descriptive geometry for the
solution of questions, which it would be very difficult to
resolve by any other process, as will appear from the follow-
ing examples.

“The general mode of determining the plane tangent to
a curved surface, consists, as we have already remarked, in
conceiving at the point of contact, the tangents with two
different generating curves, which would pass through this
point, and in constructing the plane that would pass through
these two right lines. In some particular cases, in order to
shorten the construction, the strict letter of this mode is
departed from, but an equivalent is always adopted.

“ As to the construction of the normal, we shall not dwell 3
upon it particularly, as it reduces itself merely to that of a
right line perpendicular to the tangent plane, which is suffi-
ciently understood.

“First Question—From a supposed point on a cylindric

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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surface, of which the horizontal projection is given, to draw
a tangent plane to that surface.

“ Solution—Figure 12. Let AB, ab, represent the hori-
zontal and vertical projections of the given right line, to
which the generator of the cylindric surface must be parallel;
let E P D be the given curve in the horizontal plane, on which
the generator must constantly rest, and which may be con-
sidered as the outline of the cylindric surface; lastly, let C
be the given horizontal projection of the point supposed on
the cylindric surface, from which the tangent plane must
be drawn.

“Next, from the supposed point on the surface, whose
horizontal projection is in C, imagine the generating right
line in the position it would have, if it passed through that
point: this generator, being a straight line, will be its own
tangent, and consequently one of the two right lines by which
the position of the tangent plane will be determined; also,
it will be parallel to the given right line: its two projections,
therefore, will be respectively parallel to A B and a b: then,
if from the point c, an indefinite line be drawn, parallel to
AB, as EF, we shall have the horizontal projection of the
generator. To obtain its vertical projection, we must sup-
pose the generator to be produced upon the cylindric surface,
till it meet the horizontal plane, which it can only do in a
point, that will be at once on the projection E F, and on the
curve E PD, and consequently the intersection of these two
lines: thus the point will be determined by producing EF
till it cut some part of the curve E PD.

“ Two cases here present themselves : either the line E F
will cut the outline of the cylinder in a single point, or it will
cut it in several points. In examining these two cases sepa-
rately, we shall suppose, in the first instance, that to what—
ever length the line EF may be produced, it shall cut the
curve E PD only in the single point D.

“The point D being the trace of the generator, if it be
projected on the vertical plane, by means of the perpendicular
D d, and if from the point d, the line dfbe drawn parallel
to a b, we shall obtain the vertical projection of the generator.
We are thus in possession of the two projections of one of
the right lines, through which the required tangent plane
must pass. The vertical projection of the point of contact
ought to be on the line C c’, drawn from the given point C,
perpendicularly to L M; it should also be on (If; consequently,
it will be in the intersecting point, e, of those two lines.

“ If the line EF cut the trace, E P D, of the cylindric sur-
face in several points, as D and E, we must proceed for each
in the same manner as that just directed for the point D,
considered by itself, and we shall obtain the vertical projec~
tions, df; ef, of as many generating lines, and the vertical
projections, c, c’, of as many points of contact, as there
are points of intersection between the line EF and the
trace E P D.

“In the instance of Figure 12, the trace of the cylindric
surface in the circumference of a circle, which has the pro-
perty of being cut by a right line in two points ; so that the
vertical line elevated from the given point 0, must meet the
surface twice; first, in a point whose vertical projection is 0,
through which the generator passes when it touches upon
the point D; and, secondly, in another point, whose vertical
projection is 0', through which the generator passes when it
rests on the point E of the trace. These two points, although
they have the same horizontal projection, are nevertheless
very distinct, and should each have a particular corres-
pondent tangent plane. Indeed, for each of the two points
of contact, we must find the second right line, by which
the position of the tangent plane is to be determined.
Were we strictly to follow the general method, by consider-

 

 

ing the trace as a second generating line, it would be necessary g
to conceive it as passing successively through each of the i
points of contact, and to construct a tangent for each of such
points ; but in the present case of cylindric surfaces, a much
more simple process may be pursued. For example: the ‘
plane tangent to the point C, c, touches the surface, through-
out its extent, of the generating right line which passes from
this point ; it touches it, then, in D, which is a point of such ‘
generating line, and ought therefore to pass through the ‘
tangent to the trace at the point D. By parity of reasoning, ‘
we shall find that the plane tangent C, c', ought to pass along
the tangent to the trace in E. Therefore, if from the two ‘
points D, E, we draw the trace of the two tangent planes D K, 1
E G, produced till they cut the lineL M in two points K, G, we
shall have, in the horizontal plane, the traces of the two tangent ‘
planes. l

“ It only remains to discover the traces of the same planes ‘
on the vertical plane; and having already for one of these
traces the point K, and for the other, the point G, we have
only to determine a single point for each of them. i

“ With this View, operating for the first of the two tangent
planes, imagine the point to be constructed, to be one in ‘
which a horizOntal line drawn upon the plane through the j
point of contact, would meet the vertical plane; we shall
have the horizontal projection of such line, by drawing from
the point C, a line parallel to the trace D K, which may be
produced till it meet the line L M in the pointI ; and we may
obtain its vertical projection by drawing from the point 0 an ,
an indefinite horizontal line. The point of coincidence of the 3
vertical plane with the horizontal, will be found at once both ‘
upon the vertical line 12' and the horizontal line 02', and will
be at the point, i, of their intersection ; therefore, if through
the points 2' and K a line be drawn, it will give the trace of
the first plane tangent to the vertical plane. By a similar
process for the second tangent plane, we shall find its trace ;
0n the vertical plane, by drawing from the point C a line, C H,
parallel to the horizontal trace E G, which may be produced
till it cut L M in the point H, upon which the vertical line 11 It
may be raised ; from the point 0' draw a horizontal line to
cut the vertical line Hit, in the point II, from which, and
from the point G, by drawing the line G II, we shall obtain
the trace required. 9

“ Second Question—From an imaginary point of a conic
surface, of which the horizontal projection is given, to draw
a tangent plane to such surface. =

“ The solution of this question differs only from the pre- ,
ceding, in having the generating right line, instead of being
always parallel to itself, passing constantly from the apex ;
whose two projections are given. \Ve think it unnecessary
to enlarge in this place, and leave the reader to examine for
himself, with the assistance of Figure 13, should he stand in
need of such aid.

“ Third Question. From an imaginary point of a surface
revolving upon a vertical axis, and given in the horizontal
projection, to draw a plane tangent to such surface.

“ Solution.—Fz'gure 14. Let A be the given horizontal
projection of the axis, a (1’ its vertical projection, BCDE F
the given generating curve, considered in a plane drawn
from the axis, and G the given horizontal projection of the
point of contact.

“ If from the point ofcontact, and from the axis, a vertical
plane be conceived, whose projection would be the indefinite
horizontal line A G, such plane must cut the revolving surface
in a curve, which will become the generator, passing through
the point of contact: if from the point G, a vertical line be
conceived, it will meet the generating curve, and consequently ‘
the surface, in one or several points, which will become so ;

 

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many points of contact, of which G will be the common
horizontal projection. All these imaginary pomts of contact
will be found in the plane of the generator, by carrying A G
upon L M, from a to e, and drawing through the point e a
line parallel toaa’; all the points, E, C, in which this line
cuts the curve BCDEF, will be the intersections of the
generating curve with the vertical line drawn through the
point G, and will indicate the altitudes of as many pomts of
contact above the horizontal plane. To obtain the vertical
projections of these points of contact, draw. through all the
points, E, C, indefinite horizontal lines, which will contain
such projections ; and as they are also contained in .the line
perpendicular to L M, drawn from the pomt G, the.intersec-.
tions, gg', of this line with the horizontal lines, Will be the
projections of the several points of contact.

“Now, if from each point of contact, a section be con«
ccivcd, made by a horizontal plane, such section, which may
be considered as a second generator, will be the circumfer-
ence of a circle, whose centre will be in the axis, and of
which the tangent, which must be perpendicular to the
extremity of the radius, will also be perpendicular to
the vertical plane drawn through AG, in which the radius is
found : therefore the tangent plane, which must pass through
this tangent, will be also perpendicular to the same vertical
plane, and will have, upon the horizontal plane, its trace
perpendicular to AG. We only want, therefore, the trace
of each of the tangent planes, to enable us to discover its
distance from the point A : now, if through the points E, C,
we draw to the first generator the tangents E I, C II, produced
till they meet L M in the points I, H,the lines a I, a H, will be
equal to those distances ; therefore, if these lines be trans-
ferred from A to 2', and from A to h,_and it through the points
i and It, the perpendiculars i Q, h P, be drawn to A G, and
produced till they meet the line L M, we shall have, on the
horizontal plane, the traces of all the tangent planes.

“ To find on the vertical plane, the traces. of the same
planes, we must suppose for each point of contact, and in. the
correspondent tangent plane, a horizontal line produced to
the vertical plane of projection; this line, which is the
tangent to the circle, will determine, on this plane, which
belongs to. the trace. Now, for all the points of contact,
these lines have the same horizontal projection, viz. the line
GK drawn from the point G, perpendicularly to A G, and
terminating in the right line LM. If, therefore, from the
point K, an indefinite perpendicular, Kkk’, be drawn upon
LM, it will contain all the points of coincidence of the
horizontal lines with the vertical plane of projection. But
as these points of coincidence will also be found on the
respective horizontal lines drawn through the points E, C 5‘
the intersections k, Iz', of such horizontal lines with the ver-
tical line Kk’, will be each a point of the trace of one of the
tangent planes. Thus the line Q it will be on the vertical
plane, the trace of one of the tangent planes; the line P/zf
will be that of another; and so of the rest, were there a
greater number.

“We shall confine ourselves for the present, to the three
preceding examples, because they are sufficient for all the
surfaces, whose generation we have defined. In the course
of this work, we slmll have occasion to investigate the gene-
rations of tribes of surfaces, infinitely more numerous : and
as they present themselves, we shall apply the same method to
the determination of their tangent planes, and of their
normals. At present we are about to propound a question,
to the solution of which the consideration of the tangent
plane may be appropriately and usefully applied.

“Fourth Question..—-—Fzyuze 15. Two right lines being

 

given, by their horizontal projections, A B, CD, and by their l
3 R

vertical projections, ab, cd; to construct the projections,
P N, pn, of their shortest distance ; that is to say, of the line
that is at one and the same time perpendicular to both ; and
to find the quantity of this distance.

“ Solution—From the first of the two given right lines,
conceive a plane parallel to the second; which is always
possible, because if from any point whatever of the first, a
line be drawn parallel to the second, and if this third line be
conceived to move. parallel to itself along the first, it will
generate the plane spoken of. Imagine, also, a cylindric
surface, with a circular base, having the second given right
line for its axis, and. the distance required for its radius;
this surface will be touched; by'the plane in a. line parallel to
the axis, and will cut the first. right line in a point. If from
this point, a perpendicular to the plane be drawn, it will be
the line required ; for it. will pass, in fact, through a point
of the first given right line, and will be perpendicular to it,
as it would to a plane passing along this right line ; it will
also intersect the second right line perpendicularly, because
it will be a radius of the cylinder, of? which such second line
is the axis.

“It remains, tlien,_only to construct, successively, all the
parts of this solution. .

“(1.) To construct the tracesof, the plane-drawn through
the first right line parallel, to the second, we must first find

, the point, A, wherein this first line meets the horizontal

plane, and which will be a point of the horizontal trace. To

, effect this, produce the vertical projection b a till it cut the

line L M in the point a, draw a A perpendicular to L M, and
its intersection with the horizontal projection A B will
determine the point A. Through the point in which the first
right line cuts the vertical, plane, whose projections are B b,
conceive a right line parallel to the second given right line,
and construct its projections by drawing, indefinitely, BE
parallel to C D, and b 3 parallel to c d. In like manner, con-
struct the point, E, of coincidence of this parallel with the
horizontal plane, by drawing an perpendicular to LM ; and

. the point E will be a second point of the horizontal trace of

the plane. Then, if the right lineAE be drawn, and pro-

- duced till it cut, in the point F, the line L M, it WIll give the

horizontal trace ; and it is evidentatliat if through the points
E and b, the right line F I) be drawn, we shall have the trace
on the vertical plane.

“(2.) To construct the line of contact of the plane with

'the cylindric surface; from any point of the second right
f line, which is the axis of the cylinder (as from the point C,

for example, in which it meets the horizontal plane) drop a
normal, that is, a perpendicular upon the tangent plane : and
the foot of such normal will be a point of a line of contact.

“To find this foot, according to the method already laid
down in Figure 6, first construct the indefinite projections of
the normal, by drawing through the point C, the line HG
perpendicular to the trace A E, and through the point c,
the line c K, perpendicular to the trace F b; then having
produced HG till it meet A E in the point G, and L M in H, pro-
ject the point G in g, and the point H in [1, on the trace F b;
draw the line gli, whose intersection with c K will determine
the vertical projection, 2', of the foot of the normal; and we
shall have, on G H, the horizontal projection of the same point,
by letting 12' fall perpendicularly on L M. The projections,
2', I, of the foot of the normal being found, draw I N through
the point 1, parallel too D, and in, parallel to cd, and we
shall have the projections of the line of contact of the plane
with the cylindric surface. Lastly, the points N, n, in which
these projections meet those of the first given right line, will
be the projections of the pointof such line, through which the
common perpendicular required will pass.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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“(3.) Having ascertained the projections, N, n, of one of
the points of the required common perpendicular, it will be
sufficient to obtain the projection of the perpendicular itself,
to draw through the points N, n, the right lines NP, np,
perpendicular to the respective traces A E, F b; and the
parts N P and up of these perpendiculars, comprised between
the projections of the two given right lines, will be the pro-
jections of the required shortest distance.

“(4.) In conclusion, if the size of this shortest distance
be desired to be known, it may be constructed by the process
of Figure 3.

“The consideration of a cylindric surface touched by a
plane, was not essential to the solution of the preceding
question. After having supposed a plane parallel to the two
given right lines, we might through each of these lines have
drawn to such plane, a perpendicular plane ; and the inter-
section of these two planes would have been the direction of
the required shortest distance. We content ourselves with
announcing this second method, and advise the reader to seek
its construction by way of exercise.

“In the several questions which we have resolved relative
to planes tangent to curved surfaces, we have always sup-
posed the point, through which the tangent plane should be
drawn, to be taken on the surface, and to be itself the point
of contact: this condition alone sufficed to determine the
position of the plane. But it is different when the point
through which the plane should pass is taken out of the
surface.

“In order to determine the situation of a plane, it must
satisfy three several conditions, each equivalent to that of
passing through a given point. Now, in general, the pro-
perty of being tangent to a given curved surface, when the
point of contact is not indicated, is only equivalent to one of
these conditions : if, therefore, we propose to determine the
position of a plane by conditions of this nature, we shall
generally have occasion for three. For instance: suppose
three curved surfaces to be given, and that a plane be tan-
gent to one of them, in any point whatever; we can conceive
that such plane would move around the surface, without
ceasing to touch it: it would do so in every direction; only
the point of contact would shift its situation on the surface,
in proportion as the tangent plane changed its position; and
the direction of the point of contact would be similar to that
of the motion of the plane. Suppose this movement to be
made in a certain direction till the plane meet the second
surface, and touch it in a given point: then the plane would
be tangent to the two first surfaces at once, and its position
would not yet be fixed. Indeed, the plane may be supposed
to turn about the two surfaces, without ceasing to touch
them both. It will no longer, however, be free to move in
every direction, as before, but will be confined to one only.
In proportion as the plane changes its position, the two
points of contact will move each upon the surface to which
it belongs; so that if a right line be conceived as passing
through those points, their movements will be in the same
direction with respect to such line, when the plane touches
the two surfaces on the same side; and they will be in a
contrary direction, when it touches one surface on one side,
and the other on the contrary side. Lastly, imagine this
motion, which is the only one that can now take place, to be
continued till the plane touch the third surface in a certain
point; then its position will become fixed, and it can no
longer move without ceasing to be tangent to one of the
three surfaces.

“Hence we may perceive, that to determine the position
of a plane by means of indeterminate contacts with given
curved surfaces, we shall generally require three such sur-

 

faces. Thus, were it proposed to draw a tangent line to a
given curved surface, this condition would be equivalent to
only one of the three to which the plane is capable of
answering: we might, again, take two others, at pleasure,
and for example, make the plane pass through two given
points, or, which is the same thing, along a given right line.
Were it essential that the plane should be tangent to two
surfaces at once, two conditions would be fulfilled; there
would remain but one to be disposed of, and the plane could
only be brought to pass through one given point.—Lastly,
when the plane touches three given surfaces at once, there
remains no longer any condition to be disposed of ; its posi-
tion is determined.

“The preceding observations relate to curved surfaces
generally; yet we must except from them, whatever regards
cylindric, conic, and developable surfaces; in which the
contact with the plane is not reduced .to a single point, but
extends along the whole length of an indefinite line, which
loses itself in the generator, in one of its positions. The
property of a plane touching one only of these surfaces,
would be equivalent to two conditions, since it would subject
it to pass along a right line ; and there would only remain
one condition to be disposed of, viz., to make it pass through
a given point. It were in vain, therefore, to propose to
draw a plane, that should be at one time tangent to two
of these surfaces, much less to three of them, unless there
were some peculiar circumstances which should render these
conditions compatible.

“It may not be altogether useless, before we proceed
farther, to illustrate by a few examples, the necessity there
is for d'awing planes tangent to curved surfaces through
points taken from the outside of them. The first of these
examples is selected from the construction of fortifications.

“In treating of the general principles of fortification, it is
taken for granted, first, that, in every direction, the ground
by which the place is surrounded, at least within the reach
of cannon-shot, is flat, and free from every eminence that
might be converted to advantage by a besieging army. This
hypothesis being settled, the draught of the place is next
determined, with its half-moons, covered ways, and advanced
works ; the bearings of the various parts of the fortifications
upon each other are then marked out, so that they may all
contribute, in the most efficacious manner, to their mutual
and reciprocal defence. But, in order to apply these prin-
ciples to cases where the surrounding country presents some
height, of which besiegers might take advantage, and from
which it is requisite that the fortification should be made to
defile, a new consideration presents itself. If there be only
a single eminence, two points should be fixed upon in the
place, through which might be conceived a plane tangent to
the height, from which it is desirable to defile: this tangent
plane is denominated tile def/fling plane; and all the parts of
the fortification must receive the same relief above such plane,
as they would have had above the horizontal plane, had the
country been quite level: by this means, they all acquire,
relatively upon each other, and collectively upon the neigh-
bouring height, a command equal to what they would other-
wise have possessed over the flat country : and the fortifica-
tion will possess the same ad 'antages as in the first casL.
As to the choice of the two points, through which the
defiling plane ought to pass, it must be conformable to
the two following conditions: lst, That the angle formed
by the plane with the horizon, be the least possible, in
order that, the platforms having less slope, the service ol
defence may be attended with fewer impediments; 2dly,
That the relief of the fortification above the natural
ground, be likewise as little as possible, that its construe.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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tion may require less labour, and be attended with
less expense. .

“Should there be two heights in the envxrons of the
place, from which the fortification should defile, the defiling
plane must be tangent to the surfaces of both, at the same
time: and to determine its position, there 18 but one
disposable condition ; and it is to be disposed of, by choosing
in the place, a point, through which the plane may pass, as
nearly conformable as possible to the conditions prescribed
in the first case.

“ The second example we shall take, is from painting.

“ The surfaces of bodies, especially when polished, present
brilliant points, whose lustre may be compared to that of the
luminous body by which they are enlightened. The bright-
ness of these points is greater, and their extent more con-
lined, in proportion as the surfaces are more polished.
When the surfaces are unpolished, the brilliant points have
much less lustre, and occupy a greater portion of the
surface.

“In every surface, the position of the bright point is
determined by the following condition: that the incidental
ray of light, and the reflected ray, directed to the eye of the
spectator, be in the same plane, perpendicular to the plane
tangent in this point, and make equal angles with it; for
the shining point of the surface acts as a mirror, and reflects
upon the eye a portion of the image of the luminous object.
The determination of this point demands the utmost pre-
cision : for be the design never so correct, or the apparent
contours traced with mathematical nicety, the least mistake
committed in fixing the position of the brilliant point would
be productive of the most palpable errors in the appearance
of the shapes. We will give a single, but very striking
case in proof.

“The surface of the ball of the eye is polished, and
covered with a thin moisture, which renders the gloss more
perfect. When we look upon an open eye, we see a bright
point upon its surface, of great lustre, but of very limited
extent, whose position depends upon the situation of the
observer and the direction of the illuminating object. Were
the surface of the eye perfectly spherical, it might turn on
its vertical axis without in the least affecting the position
of the brilliant point: but the surface being lengthened in
the direction of the axis of vision, the position of the point
is changed every time that the eye moves upon its vertical
axis. Long experience having made us familiar with this
change, ourjudgment, as to the direction of the eye, is con—
sidcrably biassed by it. By the difference of position in
the bright points upon the balls of the two eyes of a person,
We chiefly judge whether he squint, or not; whether he
look towards us; and when he does not, to which side his
attention is directed.

“ We do not pretend to infer from this example, that it is
indispensable, in a picture, that the position of the brilliant
point upon the ball of the eye be geometrically defined ; our
intention is merely to demonstrate how trifling errors as to
this position may produce considerable distortion in the
apparent form of the object, though in other respects the
traclng of its apparent outline may remain the same.

“ We now proceed to the determination of planes tangent
to curved surfaces, drawn through points taken on the out-
side of them.

“ The surface of the sphere is one of the most simple that
can fall under our consideration ; it has common generations
With a great number of different surfaces; we may, for
example, class it among revolving surfaces, and say nothing
particular relative to it. But its regularity is productive of
remarkable results, some of which are curious from their

247

 

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novelty, and with them, in the first instance, we are now
about to be occupied, not so much on their own account, as to
acquire, by the observation of the three dimensions, a habit,
of which we shall stand in need, for more general and useful
subjects.

“ First Question—Through a given right line to draw a.
tangent plane to the surface of a given sphere.

“ Solution—First method. Figure 16. Let A, a, be the
two projections of the centre of the sphere ; BC I), the pro-
jection of the great horizontal circle ; E F, ef, the two
indefinite projections of the given right line. Through the
centre of the sphere, imagine a plane perpendicular to the
right line, and construct, by the methods given under Figure
6, the projections G, g, of the point of coincidence of the right
line with the plane.

“From this position, it is evident, that from the given
right line two tangent planes may be drawn to the sphere,
the first on one side, the second on the other, and, conse-
quently, that the sphere will be placed between them : this
indicates two different points of contact, whose projections
we must now construct.

“ If from the centre of the sphere, a perpendicular be con-
ceived to fall upon both the tangent planes, they will each be
bounded, at the point of contact with the surface of the
sphere, by the corresponding'planes ; and will both be in the
plane perpendicular to the given right line: therefore the
two points of contact will be in the section of the sphere by
the perpendicular plane; a section which must be the cir—
cumference of one of the great circles of the sphere, and to
which the two sections made in the tangent planes by the
same plane will be tangent.

“ If in the perpendicular plane, and through the centre of
the sphere, an horizontal line be imagined, whose vertical
projection may be obtained by drawing the horizontal line a h,
and its other projection by letting the perpendicular A H fall
upon EF; and if the perpendicular plane be conceived to
turn upon this horizontal line, like a hinge, till it become
horizontal itself ; it is evident that its section with the sur-
face of the sphere would be lost in the circumference BC D,
that the two points of contact would then be upon this cir-
cumference, and that were the point J constructed, in which,
by this movement, the perpendicular plane would meet the
given right line ; the tangents JC,JD, drawn to the circle
BCD, would determine these two points of contact to the
position in which they then appear. It is easy to construct
the point J, or, which is tantamount, to find its distance from
the point B ; for the horizontal projection of this distance is
G H, and the difference of the vertical heights of its extremi-
ties is gg’ ; therefore by transferring the distance G 11 upon
the horizontal line a 12, from g to It, the hypothenuse It 9 will
be the amount of this distance : and by transferring g It upon
E F, from H to J, and drawing the two tangents J C, J D, the
two points of contact, 0, D, will be determined to the position
they assumed, whilst the perpendicular plane was laid upon
the horizontal one.

“Now, to find their projections in the position which they
ought naturally to have, we must suppose the perpendicular
plane to be restored to its original position, by turning it
back upon the horizontal line, or hinge, A II, and it will carry
with it the point J, the two tangents J C, J1), produced till
they cut A H in the points K K’, and the chord c D, which will
likewise cut A II, in the point N. In this movement, it is
evident, that the points K, K’, N, which are upon the hinge,
will be fixed, and that the two points of contact 0, D, will
describe arcs of circles, which will be in planes perpendicular
to the hinge, and whose horizontal projections will be obtained
by dropping from the points C, D, the indefinite perpendicular-s

 

 

 

 

 

 

u 44 ‘

 

 

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248

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01>, DQ, upon A II. The horizontal projections of the ‘two
points of contact will therefore be found upon the two right
lines CP, D Q. But in the retrograde movement of the per-
pendicular plane, the two tangents J C K’, J K D do not cease
to pass through the respective points of contact; and when
this plane is returned to its primitive position, the point J is
projected anew in G, and the two tangents are projected
according to the right lines G K’, G K. The two latter, there-
fore, must each contain one of the points of contact ; and, in
fine, the intersections of these two right lines with the
respective lines 0 P, DQ, will determine the horizontal pro-
jections, R, s, of the two points of contact, which are found
in the same line with the point N.

“ To obtain the vertical projections of the same points, first,
draw the indefinite perpendiculars K 1‘, s 3, upon L M ; then by
projecting the points K, K’, to k, k’, and drawing the linesg k,
g 13', from the point 9, we shall have the vertical projections
of two similar tangents. These lines, therefore, will contain
the projections of the respective points of contact ; and the
points, 1', s, of their intersection with the vertical lines R 7',
83, will be the projections required.

“The horizontal and vertical projections of the two points
of contact being found, to construct, upon the horizontal plane
the traces of the two tangent planes, lines parallel to the
given right line must be conceived to pass through each of
the points of contact. These lines will be in the respective
tangent planes, and their horizontal and vertical projections
will be obtained by drawing R U, S v, parallel to E F, and r u,
so, parallel to efl On the horizontal plane, construct the
trace, T, of the given right line, and the traces, U, V, of the two
last lines ; and the lines '1‘ U, T v, will be the traces of the two
tangent planes.

“ Instead of supposing fresh lines to pass through
the points of contact, we may find the traces of the two
tangents GR, G s, which will answer the same purpose.
As to the traces of two similar planes with the vertical plane,
they may be obtained by the method already so often
alluded to.

“This solution may be rendered much more elegant by
making the two planes of projection pass through the centre
of the sphere itself. By this mode the two projections of the
sphere would be mingled in the same circle, and the produc-
tions of the right lines would not be so long. We have only
separated the two projections for the sake of perspicuity in
the exposition : for it is easy to give to the construction all
the conciseness of which it is susceptible.

“ Second Method. Figure 17. Let A, a, be the two pro-
jections of the centre of the sphere ; A n, or a 12, its radius ;
B CD, the projection of its great horizontal circle ; and E F,
of; the projections of the given right liuc. Conceive the
plane of the great horizontal circle produced till it cut the
given right line in a certain point, and we shall have the
vertical projection of the plane, by drawing the indefinite
horizontal line bag through the point a ; the point {1, where
this horizontal line cuts ef, will be the vertical projection of
the point of coincidence of the plane with the given right
line ; and we shall have the horizontal projection, G, of this
point by projecting g upon E F.

“ This done, take the same point for an apex, and conceive
a conic surface covering the sphere, all whose generating
lines touch it in their respective points ; now, we shall have
the projections of the two horizontal generators of such conic
surface, by drawing from the point G, the two lines G c, G D,
tangent to the circle B C D, and which will touch it in the two
points 0, D, as may be easily determined. The conic surface
will touch that of the sphere, whose line CD will be the
diameter, whose plane will be perpendicular to the axis of the

 

 

 

cone, and consequently vertical, and whose horizontal pro—
jection will be the line C I).

“If from the given right line two tangent planes to the
conic surface be conceived, each of them will touch it,
according to one of the generating lines, which will be at
the same time on the conic surface and on the plane; and
since such generating line also touches the surface of the
sphere in one of its points on the circumference of the circle
projected in C D, it follows, that this point is at once on the
conic surface, on the plane which touches it, on the surface
of the sphere, and 011 the circumference of the circle pro-
jected in C D, and that it is a point of contact common to all
these objects. Hence we may conclude, lst, That the two
planes tangent to the conic surface, are also tangent to the
surface of the sphere; 2dly, That their points of contact
with the sphere, being in the circumference of the circle
projected in C D, must be themselves projected on some part
of this right line ; 3dly, That the right line passing through
the two points of contact, being comprised in the plane of the
same circle, must also be projected indefinitely upon C D.

“ \Ve next proceed to an operation, for the plane ofa large
circle parallel to that of the vertical projection, similar to
that which we have just finished for the great horizontal
circle. The horizontal projection of such plane will be the
right line B A H, indefinitely parallel to L M; the point wherein
it meets the given right line will be horizontally projected
to the intersection, H, of the two right lines E F, B A n; and
its vertical projection will be obtained by projecting the
point II upo‘n ef, in h. Conceive a new conic surface,
whose apex shall be in this point of coincidence, and which,
like the former, shall cover the sphere; and we shall have
the vertical projections of the two extreme generating lines
of such surface, by drawing from the point It, to the circle
bK I, the tangents h K, It I, which shall touch it in such
points, K I, as we may determine. This second conic surface
will touch that of the sphere, in the circumfh'ence of a new
circle, of which KI will be the diameter, and of which the
plane, perpendicular to that of the vertical projection, will,
consequently, be projected indefinitely upon K I. The cir-
cumference of this circle will likewise pass through the two
points of contact of the sphere with the tangent planes
required; whence the vertical projections of those two points
of contact will be somewhere upon K I; and the right line
by which these two points are united, will also be projected
upon the same line K 1.

“Thus the right line drawn through the two points of
contact, is projected horizontally upon CD, and vertically
upon KI; it meets the plane of the great horizontal circle
in a point, whose vertical projection is at the intersection, 71,
of K1 with ba g, and whose horizontal projection may be
obtained by projecting the point n upon C D.

“ This done, suppose the vertical plane of the circle, pro—
jected in CD, to turn upon its horizontal diameter, as upon
a swivel, so as to become horizontal, and that it draw with
it, in its movement, the two points of Contact, through which
its circumference passes, and the right line by which those
two points are united. Construct this circle, in its new
position, by describing upon C D, as a diameter, the circle
0 1’ DQ; and if the position assumed by the line uniting the
two points of contact be constructed, it will cut the circum-
ference C 1) DQ in two points, which will determine them
upon this circumference considered 111 its horizontal
position.

“ The point, N, of the line of the UH) contacts, being upon
the swivel C D, does not change its position by the move-
ment: this line must, therefore, pass through such point
when it has become horizontal. Besides, the point in which

 

 

 

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249

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it meets the plane of the great circle, parallel to the vertical
projection (a point whose horizontal projection Is in the
coincidence, o, of the two lines CD, BAH, and whose ver-
tical projection, t, is found by projecting the point 0 upon K 1)
describes in its movement upon the swivel C D, a quarter of
a circle perpendicular to CD, whose radius is the vertical
line 0 t; if, then, a line be drawn through the point 0, per-
pendicular to c D, and if upon such perpendicular o t be
transferred, from 0 to T, the point ’1‘ will be one of those of
the line of contact, when it becomes horizontal. Therefore,
if a line be drawn through the points N and T, its two points
of coincidence, P, Q, with the circumference CP D Q, will be
the two points of contact considered in the vertical plane,
when laid down.

“ To obtain the horizontal projections of the same two
points in their natural positions, imagine the circle C DPQ
to be returned to its original station, by turning on the same
swivel CD. In this movement, the two points P, Q, will
describe quarter—circles in the vertical planes perpendicular
to o D, whose horizontal projections will be the perpen-
diculars P Q, R s, dropping upon 0 D. The horizontal pro-
jections of the two points of contact will then be respectively
upon the lines PQ and Rs; and as we have seen that they
must likewise be upon C D, they must, consequently, be upon
the two points of coincidence R and s.

“The vertical projections, r, s, of the same two points
may be obtained, by projecting the points R and 3 upon K I;
or, which amounts to the same, by transferring upon the
vertical lines Br, 83, beginning from the horizontal line
ba 9, r' r, equal to P R, and s' .9, equal to Q s.

“ The horizontal and vertical projections of the two points
of Contact being constructed, the traces of the two tangent
planes may be determined according to the method of the
first solution.

“This second solution may be rendered much more con-
cise, by making the planes of projection pass through the
centre of the sphere ; which would reduce the two projec-
tions to one figure.

“These latter considerations lead us to the discovery of
some remarkable properties of the circle, of the sphere,
of conic sections, and of curved surfaces of the second
degree.

“It has been seen, that the two conic surfaces bounded
by a sphere, would each touch it in the circumference of a
circle, and that their circumferences would both pass through
the two points of contact of the Sphere with the tangent
planes. This property is not peculiar to the two conic sur-
faces that we have considered, but applies to all such as have
their apex in the given right line, and are circumscribed by
the sphere. If, therefore, we suppose a prime conic surface,
which, having its apex upon the given right line, is bounded
by the sphere; and if this Surface be supposed to move so
as that its apex may run along the right line without ceasing
to be contained within, and tangent to the sphere; it will in
any of its positions touch the Sphere in the circumference
ofa circle: all which circumferences will pass through the
same two points in which the sphere comes in contact with
the two tangent planes ; and the planes of these circles will
intersect each other upon one right line, which is that of
the two contacts. If now the plane be conceived as drawn
from the given right line, and from the centre of the sphere,
it will pass through the axes of all the conic surfaces, will
be perpendicular to the planes of all the circles of contact,
consequently to the right line that is their common intersec-
tion, and cut all these planes in right lines that will pass
through one point.

“By reciprocity, a sphere and a right line being given,

3 s

 

 

if a number of planes, taken at pleasure, be conceived as
passing along the right line, which shall cut the sphere, each
in the direction of a circle; and if, for each of such circles,
a right conic surface be conceived, of which it shall be the
base, and which shall be confined within the sphere, the
apices of all such conic surfaces will be another identical
right line.

“By merely considering what happens in drawing the
plane from the given right line, and from the centre of
the sphere, we are led to the two following propositions,
which are immediate corollaries of what has preceded.

- “Figures 18 and 19.—Given in a plane, a circle, whose
centre is A, and any right line whatever, as B C; if, after
having drawn from a point, as D, of the right line, two
tangents to the circle, and the line E F connecting the points
of contact, the point D be supposed to move along the right
line B 0, drawing with it the two tangents, without ceasing
to touch the circle ; the two points will shift their position,
as well as the line E F, by which they are united, but the
latter will always pass through the same point, N, upon
the perpendicular, A G, dropped from the centre of the circle
upon the right line B C.

“ And, reciprocally, if, through a point, as N, taken in the
plane of a circle, a number of lines, as E F, be drawn at
pleasure, each cutting the circumference of the circle in two
points ; and if through these two points two tangents to the
circle, ED, F D, be drawn, to meet in a point, as D, all
the other points of intersection, found in the same manner,
will be upon the same right line, B C, perpendicular to AN.

“ It is not because all the points of the circumference are
equally distant from the centre, that the circle possesses the V
property just described ; but because it is a curve of
the second order, and has all its conic sections of the same
quality.

“ Figure 20.——For example, let A E B F be a conic section
of any kind, and CD any given right line upon its plane:
iuppose the curve to turn upon one of its axes, A B, to gene-
rate a surface of revolution, and imagine the two tangent
planes to this surface drawn from the right line C D; the two
planes will each have their particular point of contact. Now
take for an apex, any point whatever, as H, of the right
line CD, and conceive the conic surface contained Within, and
tangent to the revolving surface, and it will touch the latter
in a curve that must necessarily pass through the same two
points of contact as the tangent planes. This curve will be
plain; its plane, which will be perpendicular to that of the
given conic section, will be projected upon the latter, accord-
ing to the line E F; and this line will pass through the points
of contact of the tangents with the conic section, drawn
from the point II. Now, suppose the apex, n, of the conic
surface to move along the right line C D, without ceasing to
be contained within, and tangent to the revolving surface;
in any of its positions, its curve of contact will possess the
same properties of passing through the two points of contact
with the tangent planes, of being plain, and of having its
plane perpendicular to the conic section. The planes, there-
fore, of all the curves of contact will touch the ends of the
line that unites the two points of contact, which is itself
perpendicular to the plane of the conic section, and hence
the projections of all the planes will be right lines that must
all touch the ends of the projection, N, of the line, by which
the two points of contact are joined.

“ This proposition is only a particular case of another
more general one, that takes place in the three dimensions,
and which we shall be content with announcing in this
place. .

“ Any curved surface whatever, of the second degree, and

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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250

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a conic surface contained within, and touching it, whose
apex is a point chosen at pleasure, being given in space; if
the conic surface move without ceasing to be contained
within, and to touch the curved surface, but so as that its
apex be kept in a right line, the plane of the curve of con-
tact of the two surfaces will always pass upon one right line
(which will be determined by the contacts of the surface of
the second degree with the two tangent planes that pass
along the line of the apices); and if the cenic surface move
so as that its apex be always in the same plane, the plane
of the curve of contact will always pass upon the same
point.

“ Second Question—From a given point, to draw a plane
tangent to the surfaces of two given spheres.

“ Solution—Figure 2l.—Let A, a, be the two projections
of the centre of the first sphere; B, 6, those of the second ;
and C, 0, those of the given point. After having drawn the
indefinite lines A B, a b, which are projections of the line that
would pass through the two centres, and having constructed
the projections G E F, 9 cf, H I K, II Hit, of the great circles
of the two spheres parallel to the planes of projection, con-
ceive a conic surface containing the two Spheres within it,
and touching them both at the same time; the apex of this
surface will be in the line which passes through the two cen-
tres. Then draw to the two circles GEF, HIK, the two
common tangents E H, F K, meeting in the point D, of the
right line A B; this point will be the horizontal projection of
the apex of the cone, whose vertical projection, also, will be
obtained by projecting the point D to d, on the production
of a 1). Lastly, draw the projections C D, c d of the right line
passing through the apex of the cone and the given point.
Now, if from this latter line two tangent planes be conceived
to the conic surface, they will each touch it in one of its
generating lines, and consequently will both be tangent, at
the same time, to the two spheres. The question is therefore
reduced to drawing two planes tangent to the surface of one
of the spheres, from the right line that passes through the
apex of the cone and the given point; which may be done as
in the preceding question, and the two planes will also be
tangent to the second sphere.

“ It must here be remarked, that the same two spheres
may be supposed to be contained within two conic surfaces.
The first conic surface will envelope them both on the out-
side, and will have its apex on the outside of one of the
spheres, with respect to the other, and the tangent planes to
it will touch the two spheres on the same sides. The second
conic surface will also envelope both spheres, but will have
its apex between the two centres. The horizontal projec-
tion, D’, of this apex will be found by drawing to the circles
E F G, H I K, the two interior tangents, which intersect each
other in a point of the line A B ; and its vertical projection
by projecting the points D’ to d’, upon a b. The two tangent
planes, drawn to this conic surface will also each touch the
two spheres; but they will touch the first on one side, and
the second on the other. Thus, four different planes may
answer this question: for two of them, the two spheres are
on the same side of the plane ; and for the two others, they
are on different sides.

“ Third Question—To draw a plane tangent at the same
time to three spheres of given dimensions and positions.

“ Solution—Imagine the plane tangent at the same time
to the three spheres; suppose, also, a conic surface contain-
ing the two first of those spheres, and tOuching them both;
and the tangent plane will touch such conic surface in the
whole length of one of its generating lines, and pass through
the apex of the cone. If a second conic surface be supposed,
containing the first and third spheres, the same tangent plane

 

will also touch it along the length of one of its generating
lines, and will consequently pass through its apex. Lastly,
if a third conic surface be conceived, enclosing and touching
the second and third spheres, the tangent plane will still
touch it along one of its generating lines, and pass through
its apex. Thus the apices of the three conic surfaces will be
in the tangent plane; but they will also be in the plane
which, passing through the centre of the sphere, contains
the three axes : they will therefore be in two different planes
at the same time ; consequently, they will be in a right line.
Hence it follows, that if the horizontal and vertical projec-
tions be constructed, as laid down in the preceding question,
of which two will be sufficient, the projection of a line found
upon the tangent plane may be made to pass through them.
The question is therefore reduced to the drawing from a given
right line, a tangent plane to that of the three spheres sought
for, which may be done by the preceding methods, and this
plane will be tangent to the two others.

“ It must be observed, that, as we may always imagine,
for any two spheres, two conic surfaces which envelope and
touch them both, the first having its apex on the outside of
one of the centres, with respect to the other, and the second
having its apex between the two, it is evident, that in the
preceding question there will be six conic surfaces, of which
three will be on the outside of the three spheres, taken two
by two, and three will have their apices between the spheres.
The apices of these six cones will be distributed, three and
three, upon four right lines, along each of which may be .
drawn two planes tangent at the same time to the three
spheres. Thus eight different planes are sufficient for this
question : two of which touch the three Spheres on the same
side relatively; and the other six are so disposed as to touch
two of the spheres on one side, and the third on the other.
These considerations lead to the following proposition:

“ Figure 22.—Three circles whatever being given in posi-
tion and magnitude on a plane, if, considering them two at a
time, exterior tangents be drawn to them, produced till they
intersect each other, the three points of intersection, D, E, F,
so obtained, will be in a right line.

“ Here, if we imagine the three spheres, of which these
circles are the great circles, and a plane that touches them
all three exteriorly, such plane will also touch the three conic
surfaces contained within the spheres, considered two by two,
and pass through their three apices, D, E, F ; but these three
apices are likewise upon the plane of the three centres ;
therefore they are on two different planes, and consequently
in a right line.

“ If to the same circles, considered two by two, interior
tangents be drawn, intersecting each other, the three new
points of intersection, G, H, I, will be, two by two, in a right.
line with the three first; so that the six points D, E, F, G, H, 1,.
will be the intersections of the four right lines.

“ This question is only a particular case of the following,
which applies to all the three dimensions.

“ The size and position of any four spheres being given in
space, if the six conic surfaces circumscribed exteriorly by
them, considered two by two, be conceived, the apices of the
six cones will be in the same plane, and at the intersections
of the four right lines; and if the other six conic sections,
circumscribed interiorly by them, viz., that have their apices
between the centres of the two spheres, be conceived, the
apices of the six latter cones will be, taken three by three
in the same plane with three of the former.

“Fourth Question—From an arbitrary point, to draw 3
tangent plane to a given cylindric surface.

“ Solution—Figure 23. Let E 1 F K be the trace of tin
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Let A B, a b, be the two given projec—

tions of the right line, to which the generating line should
always be parallel ; and o, 0, those of the given point. . Con-
ceive from this point a parallel to the generating line, it Will
be in the tangent plane required, and the pomts where it cuts
the planes of projection will be upon the traces of the tangent
plane. Then if from the point C, C D be drawn parallel to
A B, and from the point a, c d parallel to a b, we shall have
the two projections of this right line ; then, hav1ng produced
cd till it meet L M in the point d, if the point d be projected
to D, upon CD, the point D will be the coincidence of this
right line with the horizontal plane, and consequently a pomt
of the trace of the tangent plane. Now, the horizontal trace
of the tangent plane ought to be tangent to the curve
E 1 F K, therefore, if from the point D we draw to such curve
all the tangents possible, as D E, DF, 8:0. we shall have the
horizontal traces of all the tangent planes that can possibly
pass through the given point. By drawing from the points
of contact E, F, 8:0. to AB, the indefinite parallels E G, F II,
&c. we shall obtain the horizontal projections of the generat—
ing lines, wherein the different planes touch the cylindric
surface. Lastly, we shall have the vertical projections e g,
fh, 8w. of these generating lines, or lines of contact, by
projecting the points E, F, 8L0. upon the vertical plane, to
c,f, 8m. and by drawing from these latter points indefinite
lines parallel to a b. As to the traces of the tangent plane
upon the vertical plane, they will be found in the working
of Figure 12.

“ Fifth Question—From an arbitrary point, to draw a
plane tangent to a given conic surface.

“The solution of this question differing but little from
that of the preceding one, we shall only refer to the Figure
24, where the curve E G F H, is the given trace of the conic
surface ; A, a, are the given projections of the apex; and
c, c, those of the given point, through which the tangent
plane must pass.

“ Sixth Question—From a given line, to draw a tangent
plane to a given revolving surface.

“ Solution—Figure 25. Suppose the axis of the revolv-
ing surface to be perpendicular to one of the two planes of
projection (which will not weaken the general application of
the Solution, because we always retain the power of disposing
of the position of these planes so as to make them conform to

suppose to be given-

, this rule); let A be the given horizontal projection of the

axis of the surface ; aa’, its vertical projection ; up 2' a’, the
generating curve of the surface ; and B C, b c, the two given
projections of the line along which the tangent plane should
pass. From the point A drop the perpendicular AD upon
B C, and it will be the horizontal projection of the shortest
distance betWeen the axis and the given right line ; and pro-
ject the point D to d, upon I) 0.

“Now, suppose the tangent plane to be drawn, and the
given right line to turn about the axis of revolution, without
shifting its distance from it, or its inclination upon the
horizontal plane, drawing with it the tangent plane, so that
the latter may still touch the surface : in consequence of such
increment, it is evident, that the point of contact of the
surface with the plane will change its position ; but since the
tangent plane uniformly preserves the same inclination, the
point of contact will not change its altitude above the surface,
and it will move in the circumference of a horizontal circle,
Whose centre will be in the axis. The given right line, also,
will generate by its movement a second revolving surface
around the same axis, to which the tangent plane will itself
be tangent in every position.

“ If we suppose a plane through the axis, and through the
point of contact of the tangent plane with the first surface, it

251

 

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a

will cut the generating line in a point wherein the same
tangent plane will come in contact with the second ; for
besides the generating line, along which it passes in this
point, it also passes along the tangent of the horizontal circle
to the same point, since it likewise passes along the tangent
of the horizontal circle to the point of contact with the first
surface, and therefore, from the known property of revolving
surfaces, these two tangents are parallel.

“As we wish to resolve the question by means of the
second re' ilving surface, it becomes necessary to construct
the curve according to which it would be cut by a plane
drawn from the axis : here we will suppose such plane to be
parallel to the vertical plane of projection, and consequently
projected on the horizontal plane in a right line, A F, parallel
to L M.

“Take upon the given right line, any point whatever,
whose projections are E, e, and seek for the point wherein it
would meet the plane of the section it its movement. Here
the point will describe around the axis of revolution, the arc
of a horizontal circle, whose horizontal projection will be
obtained, by describing from the point A, as a centre, and at
the interval A E, the are E F, till it meet the right line AF,
somewhere in a point, as F ; the vertical projection of the same
are may be had by drawing from the point e, the indefinite
horizontal line 8 f The point F, then will be the horizontal
projection of the coincidence of the describing point with the
plane of the section ; therefore, by projecting the point F to
f, upon 6f; the pointfwill be the vertical projection of this
coincidence, and consequently a point of the section. By
repeating the same operation for as many other points as may
be wanted, taken on the given right line, we shall have so
many points, g,f,r, 72, through which the curve required
must pass.

“ Next imagine the given right line, and the tangent plane,
by their simultaneous rotation about the axis, to have arrived
at a position wherein the tangent plane would be perpendi-
cular to the vertical plane of projection. Here the projec-
tion on this plane would be a right line, tangent at the same
time to both the curves a’ 5;) a, g 7‘ 72f; and if all the com-
mon tangents, as g 2', 721), be drawn to these two curves, we
shall obtain the projections of all the tangent planes required
by the question, considered in the position they have
assumed, when in the course of the rotation they have suc-
cessively become perpendicular to the vertical plane. The
points of contact, 2);), of these tangents with the generating
line of the first surface will determine the height of those of
each surface with all the tangent planes : therefore, if from
these points the indefinite horizontal lines it, p8, be drawn,
they will contain the vertical projections of the points of con-
tact of the surface with the planes : and if from the point A,
as a centre, and with the radii respectively equal to it, p s,
the arcs of a circle, 1 K, P Q, be drawn, such arcs will contain
the horizontal projections of the same points. To complete
the discovery, it only remains to determine upon what
meridians of the revolving surface they ought to be found, to
which end the points of contact, 9, n, will be subservient.

“For this purpose, project the points 9,72, upon AG, to
G, N ; from the point A, as a centre, with the intervals suc-
cessively equal to A G and A N, describe the arcs G H, N 0, till
they intersect the right line B C in the points H, 0 ; these arcs
will express the quantity of the rotation, which for each
tangent plane, the right line passing through its contacts with
the two surfaces has been obliged to make, in order to trans-
port itself into the vertical plane parallel to that of projection.
We have, therefore, the horizontal projections of the same
right lines, considered in their natural positions, by drawing
from the point A the lines A H, A o ; and the points, K, Q, where

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DES 252 DES

the latter lines intersect the correspondent arcs I x, P Q, will
be the horizontal projections of the points of contact of the
first surface with the tangent planes drawn along the given
right line.

“ The vertical projections of the same points will be
obtained by projecting the points K, Q, to k, q, on the
respective horizontal lines it, p s.

“ The horizontal and vertical projections of the points of
contact being determined, the traces of all the tangent planes
may be constructed by methods similar to those already
described.

“ This mode may be easily generalized, and applied to any
surfaces generated by curves of determinate forms, and
mutable as to their situation in space.”

0f the Intersections of curved smfaces.

“ When the generations of two curved surfaces are posi-
tively determined and understood; when the course of all
the points of space through which they pass is no longer
arbitrary for either; when for each of these points, one of
its two projections being taken at pleasure, the other may be
always constructed ; if these two surfaces have any points in
space common to them both, the positions of all such common
points is absolutely determined; it depends on the form of
the two curved surfaces and their respective positions ; and
is of such a nature as to be always capable of being deduced
from the definition of the generations of the surfaces. of
which it is a necessary consequence. *

“ The course of all the points common to two determinate
curved Surfaces, forms in general a certain curved line in
space, which, in very particular cases, may be found upon
a certain plane, having but a single curvature; which, in
instances infinitely more peculiar, may become a right line,
without any curve ; and lastly, in cases still more rare, may
resolve itself into a mere point: but which, in the general,
is what is denominated a curve of double curvature, because
it ordinarily partakes of the curvatures of two curved sur-
faces, upon each of which it is found at the same time, and
forms their common intersection.

“There exists between the operations of analyses and the
methods of descriptive geometry, a correspondence, of which
it is here necessary to give an idea.

“In algebra, when a problem is put into equations, and
we have as many equations as unknown quantities, we can
always obtain the same number of equations, in each of
which there enters but one of the unknown quantities;
whence we gain a knowledge of the value of each of them.
The operation by which this is performed, is called elimina-
tion, and consists in expelling, by means of one of the equa-
tions, one of the unknown numbers from all the other
equations; so that by thus successively expelling all the
different unknown numbers, a final equation is obtained,
containing only one, whose value it ought to produce.

“ The object of elimination in algebra bears a close analogy
to those operations in descriptive geometry, by which the
intersections of curved surfaces are determined.

“For example: suppose that in considering a point in
space, and representing, by x, y, z, the distances from this
point to three rectangular planes between them, a relation
be established between these three distances, and that it be
expressed by an equation, wherein the three quantities x,y, z,
and fixed quantities enter. By virtue of this relation, the
position of the point would not be determined; for the quan-
tities x, y, 2, may change their value, and consequently the
point may vary in its position, without destroying the relation
expressed by the equation ; and the curved surface which
passes through all the positions that the point may thus

 

occupy, without abating the relation established between
the three co-ordinates, is that to which the equation
belongs.

“ Thus, suppose a sphere, whose radius is expressed by A,
have its centre in the point of intersection common to the
three rectangular planes; and that in considering a certain
point on the surface of the sphere, perpendiculars be sup-
posed to fall from such point upon the three planes, and to
be represented by the letters as, y, z ; it is evident that the
radius of the sphere, directed to the point under considera-
tion, will be the diagonal of a rectangular parallelopiped,
whose three arétes will be 1‘, y, z; that its square will be
equal, to the sum of the four squares of the four arétes ; and
that we shall thus have the equation x2 + y” + z’ : A’.
Now, should the point change its position on the surface of
the sphere, its distances at, y, 2, as to the three rectangular
planes, would vary also; but its distances as to the centre
would remain unaltered, and the sum of the squares of its
three co-ordinates, which is always equal to the square of the
radius, would still retain its first value : we should therefore
have the relation between the co-ordinates of this point
expressed by the equation :1." + y’ + z2 = A”. This equa-
tion, which answers for all the points of the surface of the
sphere, and for them only, is that of the surface itself. All
curved surfaces have, thus, each its equation; and though
it be not always easy to express it in such simple quantities
as the distances 1‘, y, 2, it is always possible to obtain it in
more complex quantities, such as the inclinations of tangent
planes, or the radii of curvatures : but it is sufficient for our
present purpose to have conveyed our meaning by one
example.

“ If now, having, in w, y, z, the equations of two different
curved surfaces, and supposing that for the points of the.
two surfaces the distances be taken to the same rectangular ;
planes, we eliminate one of the three quantities :r,y, z, the ‘
latter, for example, from the two equations; we establish“
first, by the similarity of these two equations, that which‘
does not belong indiscriminately to all the points of the first '
surface, nor to all those of the second, with which we are,
occupied, but only to those of their intersection, for which
each of the two equations ought to serve, because they are:
upon the two surfaces at the same time. Secondly, the1
equation in w, 3/, which results from the elimination of z,
expresses the existing relation between the two distances
for all the points of intersection, whatever may be the dis-
tance 2, which has disappeared, and about which there is no
longer any question in the equation; it is therefore theE
equation of the projection of the intersection of the two:
surfaces upon the plane perpendicular to z.

“ Hence we discover that in algebra, the design of elimi-
nation among many equations with three unknown qualities,
is to determine, upon the three planes to which all space is
referred, the projections of the intersections of surfaces to
which the equations appertain. l

“The similitude between the operations of analysis and
the methods of descriptive geometry, are not confined to the ‘
instance just given, but. prevails in every situation. Inf
working generating lines of any description in space, what-
ever movements be given to points, curved lines, or surfaces, 5
they may always be governed by analytical operations; and
the new objects which they originate, are expressed by that

1

 

very results of such operations : on the other hand, there is
no operation of analysis in three dimensions, but what is the
expression of a movement operated in space, and ruled by it. .
To obtain the most advantageous acquaintance with the
mathematics, the student should early accustom himself to
perceive the existing analogy between the operations of

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DES _ 2

3 DES

 

analysis and those of geometry : on the one hand, he should
be able to write down all the movements that he can con-
ceive in space, in one analytical method ; and on the other,
to perpetuate upon his memory, the object movmg in space,
of which each of the analytical operations is the expression.

“We now return to our subject, viz., the mode of deter-
mining the projections of the intersections of curved
surfaces.

“ To present the exposition of this method in a clearer
light, we shall not at first disclose it with all the elegance
of which it is susceptible, but proceed towards it by degrees.
And here it may be premised, that the exposition will be
general, and applicable to any two surfaces whatever; and
that though the letters used refer to the Figure 26, which
shows the particular case of two conic surfaces, with circular
bases and vertical axes, the reader should keep in mind, that
the surfaces under consideration may be, each one in par-
ticular, any other than conic surfaces.

“ First general problem—The generating lines of two
curved surfaces being known, and all the given lines which
fix such generators being determined on the plane of projec-
tions; to construct the projections of the curve of double
curvature, according to which the two surfaces intersect
each other.

“ Solution.—Figure 26. Conceive a series of indefinite
planes, conveniently disposed in space ; such planes, for
example, may be all horizontal, as in fact we shall suppose
them in the first instance. Here the vertical projection of
each of them will be an indefinite horizontal right line ; and
as we are not restrained from drawing them at arbitrary
distances, we shall suppose in the vertical projection as many
horizontal lines, ee', e e', ee’, 8w. as we please, and that the
series of these lines is the vertical projection of the series of
planes at first conceived. This done, work successively,
for each of such planes, and relatively to the line e e', which
is its projection, the operation we are about to lay down for
the one among them, that is projected in E E’.

“ ' ‘he plane E 19' will intersect the first surface in a certain
curve, which will be easily constructed, when we are
acquainted with the generation of the surface ; it being the
course of the points in which the plane E E’ is intersected by
the generating line in all its positions. This curve being
plain and horizontal, will haveits horizontal projection equal,
similar to itself, and placed in the same manner ; it is there-
fore possible to construct such projection, and here we shall
suppose it to be the curve F G H I K.

“The same plane, E E’, will likewise cut the second sur-
face in another plain horizontal curve, whose horizontal
projection may also be constructed, as by the curve F 0 G.

“ It may happen, that the two curves, wherein the same
plane, EE’, intersects the two surfaces, may intersect each
other, or they may not : if they do not intersect each other,
however much produced, it proves that, at the height of the
plane E E’, the two surfaces have no common point ,' but if
these curves do intersect each other, they will do so in a
certain number of points common to the two surfaces, which
are consequently so many of the points of intersection
required: and according as the intersecting points of the
two curves are upon the first or second of them, so are they
upon the first or second of the surfaces proposed ; therefore,
if they be upon the two curves at once, they are also upon
the two surfaces.

“ As the horizontal projections of the points wherein the
two curves intersect each other, should be found both on the
projection of the first, and on that of the second ; the points
1“, G . . . . of the coincidence of the two curves F G 11 I K,
and I" 0 G, will be horizontal projections of as many points

3 T

 

of the required intersection of the two curved surfaces
To obtain the vertical projections of the same points, observe
that they are all comprised in the horizontal plane E E’, and
that their projections must fall upon the line E E’. There-
fore, by projecting the points, F, G . . . . upon E E’, to]; g. . . .
we shall have their vertical projections.

“ By pursuing the same operation for all the other hori-
zontal lines, 9 e’, ee’, we shall obtain for each of them, in the
horizontal projection, a series of new points, F, G ..... , 850.,
and in the vertical projection, another new series f; g . . . .
8w. Then if the branch of a curve be passed through all
the points F . . ., another branch through all the points G. . . . .,
and so of the rest, the concourse of all these branches which
may possibly meet one in another, will be the horizontal
projection of the two surfaces; in like manner, if through
all the pointsf. . . . a branch of a curve be passed, through
all the points 9 . . . . another branch, and so of the others,
the concourse of all these branches, which may likewise
possibly meet one in another, will be the vertical projection
of the intersection required.

“ This method is general, even supposing a system of planes
to be chosen which intersect a series of horizontal planes.
But we shall see, presently, that in certain cases, the choice
of the system of intersecting planes is not indifferent, that
it may sometimes be so made as to be productive of systems
more easy and more elegant ; and that it may even be more
advantageous, instead of a system of planes, to adopt a series
of curved surfaces, which vary from each other only in one of
their dimensions.

“ To construct the intersection of two revolving surfaces,
whose axes are vertical, the most advantageous system of
planes, is a series of horizontal planes ; for each of such planes
intersects the two surfaces in the circumferences of circles

whose centres are upon the respective axes, whose radii are ,
equal to the ordinates of the generating curves, taken at the i
height of the intersecting plane, and whose horizontal projec- l

tions are circles of known size and position. Here all the
points of the horizontal projection of the two surfaces are
found by the intersections of the arcs of a circle; and we
are aware, that if all the revolving surfaces had their axes
relatively parallel, but not vertical, it would be necessary to
change the planes of projection, and so to choose them as that
one of them should be perpendicular to the axes.

“ Were it required-to construct the intersection of two

conic surfaces, with whatever bases, whose traces on the

horizontal plane were given or constructed, the system of
horizonal planes would demand operations too tedious for the

example: for each of the horizontal planes would intersect;

the two surfaces in curves, which, though very nearly resem-
bling the traces of the respective surfaces, would not be equal
to them; they must be constructed by points, each by itself;
whereas, if after having drawn a right line through the given
apices of the two cones, the system of planes passing along
such right line he adopted, each of the planes will cut the
two conic surfaces in four right lines; and these right lines,
which will be in the same plane, will cut each other, inde-
pendently of the apices, in four points upon the intersection
of the two surfaces. In this case, each of the points of the
horizontal projection of the intersection will be constructed
by the intersection of two right lines.

“ For two cylindric surfaces, of whatever bases, whose
generating lines are diversely inclined, the system of hori-

 

 

zontal planes would not be the most eligible that might be,
adopted. They would, indeed, each cut the two surfaces in l
curves similar and equal to their respective traces ; but the }
curves that did not correspond vertically to the traces would 1'
have for their projections, curves, that would be distant from l

 

i
l
l

l
i

i

 

 

 

 

DES

254

DES

 

the traces themselves, and which it would be necessary to
construct from points. But were choice to be made of the
system. of planes parallel at the same time to the generating
lines of the two surfaces, each of such planes would cut the
two surfaces in right lines, and these lines would cut each
other in points appertaining to the intersection of the two
surfaces. By this means, the points of the horizontal projec-
tion would be constructed by the intersections of right lines.
Indeed, this is but a necessary consequence of what has been
said relative to the case of two conic surfaces.

“ For two revolving surfaces, having their axes in the
same plane, but not parallel to each other, the system of
spherical surfaces having their common centre in the point
of coincidence of the two axes, would be preferable to that of
planes ; for each of the spherical surfaces would cut the two
revolving surfaces in the circumferences of two circles, hav-
ing their centres upon the respective axes, and their planes
perpendicular to the plane drawn along the two axes: the
intersecting points of these two circumferences, which would
be at the same time on the spherical surface and upon the
two revolving surfaces, would belong to the intersection
required. Thus the points of the projection of the intersec-
tion would be constructed by the coincidence of the circles
with the right lines ; in which case the most advanta-
geous position for the two planes of projection is to have
one perpendicular to one of the axes, and the other
parallel to both.

“ These few observations, with respect to such curved sur-
faces as most frequently meet together, will suffice to show
how the general method should be employed, and how, by a
knowledge of the generation of curved surfaces, that species
of sections may be adopted which will yield the most ready
constructions.

“ When the respective form and positions of two curved
surfaces are defined, not only is the curve of their intersec-
tion in space determined, but also all the affections of these
curves immediately follow. Thus, for example, in each of
their points the direction of their tangent is determined:
it is the same as to their normal plane, viz., of the plane that
cuts the curve in a right angle, and which is, consequently,
perpendicular to the tangent at the point of intersection. As
we shall have frequent occasion to consider planes normal
to curves of double curvature, we shall not here enter into
any detail as to their determination ; for as they are always
perpendicular to tangents, it is enough to have given the
mode of constructing projections of tangents to the intersec-
tions of curved surfaces.

“ Second general Problem—From a point taken at plea-
sure upon the intersection of two curved surfaces, to draw
a tangent to such intersection.

“ Solution. The point chosen upon the intersection of two
curved surfaces, is at the same time upon both such surfaces.
If then, from this point, as considered on the first surface, a
tangent plane be drawn to such surface, it will touch the
intersection in the point in question. So, likewise, if from
the same point, as considered on the second surface, a tangent
plane be drawn to such surface, the plane will touch the inter-
section in the point under consideration. The two planes,
then, will touch the intersection in the same point, which
will also be one of their common points, and consequently one
of those of the right line in which they intersect each other:
therefore, the intersection of the two tangent planes will be
the tangent required.

“ From this problem arises the following observation, which
is of great utility in descriptive geometry.

“ The projection of the tangent of a curve of double cur-
vature is itself tangent to the projection of a curve; and its

 

 

point of contact is the projection of that of the curve of
double curvature.

“ Thus, if from all the points of the curve of double cur-
vature, perpendiculars be supposed to fall upon one of the
planes of projection, as upon the horizontal plane, for exam-
ple, all such perpendiculars will be upon a vertical cylindric
surface, which will be cut by the horizontal plane in the very
projection of the curve. In like manner, if, from all the
points of the tangent to the curve of double curvature, ver-
tical lines be supposed to drop, they will be in a vertical
plane, intersected by the horizontal plane in the projection of
the tangent. Now, the cylindric surface and the vertical plane
evidently touch each other in the whole extent of the ver-
tical line dropped from the point of contact, and which is
common to them both: the intersections, therefore, of the
cylindric surface, and of the plane along the horizontal plane,
touch each other in a point that will be theintersection of the
line of contact of the cylindric surface and the vertical plane.
Consequently, the projections of a curve of double curva-
ture and of one of its tangents will touch each other in a
point that is the projection of the point of contact of the
curve.

“ We shall now proceed to apply what has been said to
some particular cases; and to begin with simple considera—
tions, we shall first suppose one of two surfaces to be a plane,
whose intersection we would .determine.

“ First Question—To construct the intersection of a given
cylindric surface with a plane of a given position.

“ The position of planes of projections being arbitrary, we
will first suppose, what is always possible, that these two
planes have been so chosen as to have one perpendicular to
the generating line of the surface, and the other perpendicular
to the cutting plane ; for in this supposition the construction
is much more easy ; and then to give to students a habit of
making projections, we will suppose the two planes of pro-
jection in any other manner.

“ Solution. First case, in which the generating line of the
surface is supposed to be perpendicular to one of the planes of
projection, as to the horizontal plane, for example, and the
cutting plane perpendicular to the other.

“ Figure 27.——Let A be the horizontal projection of the
right line, to which the generating line of the cylindric sur-
face should always be parallel ; a a" its vertical projection ;
B C D E, the given trace of the cylindric surface, which being
the horizontal projection of the indefinite surface, is conse-
quently that of the curve of intersection ; letfg be the given
vertical projection of the cutting plane, which will also be
that of the intersection required; and F G the horizontal
trace of the same plane. It is evident, that if we draw to
the curve BCDE, and perpendicular to LM, the indefinite
tangents E e”, C c”, the right lines e e”, c 0", will be the
vertical projections of the generating line, in its extreme posi-
tions ; and that the points 6’, c’, in which they intersect the
projection,fg, of the cutting plane, will terminate uponfg,
the vertical projection of the required intersection.

“ N ow, if from a point taken arbitrarily upon the intersec-
tion (a point whose horizontal projection will be a point, H,
taken at pleasure on the curve B CD E, and whose vertical
projection may be had by projecting the point 11 in 1", upon

fg) we would draw to this intersection, it is also evident that
such tangent should be comprised in the cutting plane, and
that its vertical projection would be the right linefg ; also,
that it would be comprised in the vertical tangent plane to
the cylindric surface, and that its horizontal projection, which
will be the same with that of the tangent plane, would be the
right line F II n, tangent in II to the given curve BC DE.
Thus all is determined as to the intersection required.

 

 

 

 

 

 

DES

255

DES

 

“ Now, should it be required to construct this intersection
such as it exists in its plane, and from one of its points, taken
at pleasure, to draw a tangent to it : if the vertical plane of
projection be at too great a distance from the curve B C D E,
we may suppose another vertical plane, parallel to it, passing
through the interior of the curve B c D E, and whose hori-
zontal projection should be the right line E C, parallel to L M.
This vertical plane will intersect the cutting plane in a right
line parallel to its projection f g, and upon which, as upon a
hinge, we will suppose the cutting plane to turn, to become
vertical, and to present in full front the curve required. Then,
from as many points, II, as may be thought convenient, taken
arbitrarily upon B C D E, suppose vertical planes perpendicular
to the vertical plane of projection, whose horizontal and
vertical projections will both appear at the same time, in
drawing through all the points H, the right lines H J K i 2" per-
pendicular to LM. Each of these planes will intersect the
cutting plane in a horizontal line, perpendicular to the hinge,
whose vertical projection will be the point of coincidence, z",
of two right lines fg, it”. In- each plane this horizontal line
will meet the hinge in a point, whose horizontal projection
will be the intersection, J, of the two right lines E .0, H J K ii’ ;
and will also meet the curve required in points, whose hori-
zontal projections will be the intersections H, K, of the right
line H J i i' with the curve B C D E. In a word, this right line
and all its parts will be equal to their horizontal projections.
Now, when the cutting plane turns upon the hinge, to become
vertical, all these right lines, Which were at first horizontal,
remain perpendicular to the hinge, and do not vary in size.
Therefore, if through all the points 2", we draw indefinite per-
pendiculars, h k, to f g, and if upon these perpendiculars J H
be transferred from 2" to h, and J K from i’ to k,we shall have as
many points, It, It, as we wish for, through which the required
curve, e'k c’ It, may be drawn.

“ The curve being constructed in its plane, if it be

required, from one of its points, It, taken arbitrarily, to draw
a tangent to it, we may obtain the vertical projection of such
point, by dropping from the point k, uponfg, the perpendi-
cular In" ; and its horizontal projection, by projecting z" in
II upon the curve B C D E ; we shall have the horizontal pro-
jection of the tangent required, by drawing the right line F N
tangent in II to the curve B CD E ; and it will be sufficient to
bring into the plane of the curve any point whatever of the
tangent ; as that, for example, which is projected on the
point N taken arbitrarily, and whose vertical projection is
uponfg in (1'. Now, in making our deductions upon this
point, as upon every other of the cutting plane, it cannot but
be obvious, that if through the point a’, we draw tofg the
perpendicular a’ n and that if upon this right line we transfer
from a to n the distance N A from the point N to the right
line E C, the point n will be the second of the tangent.
Therefore by drawing the line h n we shall have the tangent
required.
. “Whatever curve be given to BCDE, we see that the
intersection e’ It 0’ ll possesses the property ofhaving for either
of its points the sub-tangent a’ 72 equal to the sub-tangent A N
of the first. This property, which is very well known in the
cnzclc and ellipsis, when those two curves have a common
axns, arises, with respect to them only, from their being
the intersections of one cylindric surface through two dif-
ferent planes.

“Lastly, it may occur, that we shall want to trace upon
the development of the cylindric surface, the effect of the
section made by the cutting plane. For this purpose, after
havang developed the curve BCDE, with all its divisions,
“P0" a right line RQ ; if indefinite perpendiculars be drawn
tln-o-ugh all the divisions of BQ, we shall have, upon the J

 

development of the surface, the traces of the different posi

tions of the generating line, and we shall then only have
to transfer upon these perpendiculars the parts of the corres-
ponding generating lines, comprised between the perpen-
dicular section B C D E, and the section made by the cutting
plane. Now, these parts of generating lines are equal to their
vertical projections, and these projections are all terminated,
on one hand, by the right line L M, and on the other byfg,
If then the point H, for example, fall in 5, upon the line R Q,
by transferring ii’ upon the perpendicular passing through
the point s, from s to T, the point '1‘ will be, upon the
developed surface, that where the generating line, which
passes through the point II, is intersected by the cutting
plane. The curve XTYZ, which passes through all the
determinate points in the same manner, will be the curve
required.

“ It is obvious, that were the tangent produced from the
point H till it meet the horizontal trace, G F, of the cutting
plane, somewhere in a point, F; and that if H F were trans-
ferred upon R Q, from s to U, the right line TU would be tan-
gent to the curve; for when the cylindric surface is developed,
its elements do not alter their inclination with respect to the
horizontal plane.

“ Second Case, wherein the cylindric surface and the cut-
ting plane are supposed to be in any manner whatever with
respect to the two planes of projections.

“ Solution—Figure 28. Let A A’ and a a’ be the two pro-
jections of the right line, to which the generating line should
be parallel; C E D F, the given trace of the cylindric surface;
and H G, h b, the traces of the cutting plane.

“ Conceive a series of planes parallel to the generating
line of the cylindric surface, and also perpendicular to one of
the planes of projection, as the horizontal plane, for example:
each of such planes would be projected upon a right line,
0 K E, parallel to A A’, cutting the surface in right lines that
would be so many positions of the generating line, and would
meet the horizontal plane in the points of intersection, E, F,
of the line OKE with the curve CEDF. By projecting,
therefore, the points E, F, upon LM, in e, j; and drawing
through these latter, to the right line a a’, the parallels
ee’,ff’, the vertical projections of the intersections of the
surface with each of the planes parallel to the generating
line will be obtained.

“ The same planes will likewise intersect the cutting plane
in right lines, parallel to each other, all whose horizontal
traces will be upon the different points, 0, of the line HG,
and whose vertical projections will be also parallel to each
other. To obtain these projections, we must first find the
direction of one of them, of that, for example, which corres-
ponds to the vertical plane drawn from AA’. With this View,
produce A A’ till it meet, on one hand, the trace of the cut-
ting plane in a point N, and on the other, the right line L M,
in a point B, and by projecting the point B in I) on 116, the
two points N and b will be, upon the two planes of projection,
the traces of the intersection of the cutting plane with the
vertical one. By projecting the point N in 72 upon L M, and
drawing the line n6, it will give the vertical projection of
this intersection. By projecting on L M all the points, 0, in
which the trace GII is cut by the projections of the vertical
planes, which will give a series of points a, and drawing
from the latter the parallels 0 He, to n b, the vertical projec-
tions of the intersections of the cutting plane, through the
whole series of the vertical planes, will be obtained. Lastly,
the points of coincidence, 2', k, of each right line o 2']: With the
projections e efff, of the sections made in the cylindric Slll'e
face by the corresponding vertical plane, will be the vertical
projection of the intersection required; and the curve that

 

 

’—

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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256

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would pass through all the points, i, k, thus determined, would
be that projection. By projecting the points 2', k, in J, K, on
the projection, 0K E, on the corresponding vertical plane, we
shall have the horizontal projection of the same points, and
the curve, KJP, that would pass through all the points
so determined, would be the horizontal projection of the
intersection.

“In seeking the tangents of these two projections to the
points J, i, it must be recollected that such tangents are
projections of the tangent to the intersection. Now, the
latter tangent being at the same time in the cutting plane
and in the tangent plane to the cylindric surface, it must
have its horizontal trace in the intersection of the horizontal
traces of the two planes: the trace of the tangent plane is
also the tangent in F to the curve C EDF. Therefore, by
drawing this tangent, and having produced it till it meet the
trace of the cutting plane in a point G, drawing the right
line GJ, we shall have the latter line touching, at the point J,
the horizontal projection of the intersection. And by pro-
jecting the point G upon LM in g, and drawing the right
lineg i, we shall obtain the tangent, in 2', of the vertical
projection of the same curve.

“ Should it be required to construct the curve of the
intersection as it is in the plane, suppose the cutting plane
to turn upon its horizontal trace H G, as upon a hinge, and
applying itself to the horizontal plane. In this movement,
each of the points of the section, that, by way of example,
which is projected in J, will describe an arc of a circle, whose
plane will be vertical, perpendicular to H G, and whose
indefinite projection will be obtained by drawing through
the point J a right line, RJ 5, perpendicular to H G; conse-
quently, when the plane is laid down, the point of the section
will fall somewhere "pon a point of this right line. To
discover the distance ,' such point from the hinge: as the
horizontal projection of this distance is J R, and the difference
of the heights of its extremities is the vertical line i s; ifJ R
be measured upon L M, from s to 7', the hypothenuse r 2' will
be such distance. Then by measuring rz' upon R J, from
R to s, the point 5 will be one of the points of the intersection
considered, with its plane laid down upon the horizontal
plane, and the curve 8 T U l. drawn through all the points 8
constructed alike, will be the intersection itself.

“ To obtain the tangent of this curve to the point 5, it is
sufficient to observe, that in the movement of the cutting
plane, the tangent does not cease to pass through the point G
of the hinge; therefore, by drawing the right line SG, we
shall-have the tangent required.

“ Second Question—To construct the intersection of a
'conic surface, of any given base, by a plane given in
p051tion.

“ Solution—Here we may suppose, what is always
possible, the vertical plane of projection to be placed perpen-
dicular to the cutting plane.

“ Fzyure 29.—Let A, a’, be the projections of the apex of
the cone, or of the centre of the conic surface; BCD E the
trace of such surface on the horizontal plane; fg the vertical
projection of the cutting plane ; and Gfits horizontal trace.
Suppose from the apex of the cone a series of planes, per-
pendicular to the vertical plane of projection; the vertical
projections of such planes will be the right lines a’c, drawn
from the projection of the apex : and their horizontal traces
will be the right lines c C, perpendicular to L II, which will
cut the trace of the conic surface somewhere in the points
0, C’. These planes will cut the surface in right lines,
whose vertical projections will be the lines a' c . . . ., and
whose horizontal projections will be obtained by drawing

from the point A, the lines o A, C’ A . . . . ; the same planes will j

 

 

 

likewise intersect the cutting plane in lines perpendicular to
the vertical plane. The projections of such lines will be the
points, [z . . .,' of coincidence offg, with the lines a' c . . . ;
and their horizontal projections will be obtained by dropping,
from the points It . . . ., upon' L M, the indefinite perpendiculars
It H . . . . This done, the lines ll 11 . . . . will cut the correspond-
ing lines CA, 0’ A . . ., in points, H, H' . . . ., which will be the
horizontal projections of so many of the points of intersection
required ; and the curve, P H QH’, that would pass through
all the points thus constructed, will be the projection of the
intersection.

“ To draw a tangent to this curve, from a point 11, fixed
upon at pleasure, it is only requisite to find upon the hori-
zontal plane the trace of the tangent of the intersection in
a point corresponding to H. This trace must be upon that
of the cutting plane, and consequently on Gf; it must also
be upon that of the plane touching the conic surface in the
right line, whose projection is A H : and if A H be produced
till it meet the curve BCDE somewhere in a point C, the
tangent, C F, of this curve, in the point C, will be the hori-
zontal trace of the tangent plane. The point, F, of coinci~
dence of the two traces f G, CF, will therefore be upon the
tangent in the point, H, of the curve PH Q 11'.

“ Should it be required to construct the intersection con-
sidered in its plane, we may indefinitely suppose either that
the cutting plane turns upon G]; as upon a hinge, in order
to apply itself to the horizontal plane, and so construct the
curve in the position it will thus assume; or that it turns
upon its vertical projection fg, to apply itself to the vertical
plane ; the latter is the hypothesis we shall here adopt.

“ All the horizontal lines in which the series of planes
drawn from the apex has intersected the cutting plane, and
which are perpendicular to f y, do not change their size in
the movement of the cutting plane, nor do they cease to be
perpendicular to fg: if then indefinite perpendiculars be
drawn through all the points 12, tofg; and if upon them the
corresponding horizontal lines KII, KH', be measured and
applied from It, to N and N', the points N, N’, will be those 0f %
the section ; and the curve RNSN', drawn through all the
points thus constructed, will be the intersection considered
in its plane.

“ From all that has been said, it appears evident, that, to
draw to this curve a tangent in a point, N, taken arbitrarily
upon it, the perpendicular Nil. must be dropped from the
point N uponfg; that the right line a’ It must be produced
till it meet L M in the point 0 ,- that this point must be pro-
jected in C, or the curve B C D E ; that the tangent must be
drawn to such curve in C, cutting the trace Gf somewhere
in a point, F; and that Ff must be carried perpendicularly
tofg, fromfin 0. The right line 0 N will be the tangent .
required.

“ As to the mode of constructing the development of the
conic surface, of whatever base, and of tracing thereon
the effect of the intersection with the cutting plane, we shall
proceed to describe it, after having spoken of the intersection
of the conic surface with that of a sphere having its centre
in the apex.

“ To construct the intersection of two conic surfaces with .
circular bases, whose axes are parallel to each other. i

“ Solution.—Figure 26. As it would be superfluous here ;
to repeat what has already been said in treating of the general '
method, of which this figure was a type ; we shall only i
observe, that in the case now before us, as well as in that of
two revolving surfaces, of whatever description, the sections i
made in the two surfaces by the horizontal planes, are circles; '
but we shall enter upon some details relative to tangents. of
which we have not yet had occasion to speak.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DES

“ To discover the tangent to the point D (Figure 26) of
the horizontal projection of the intersection, wehmust recollect
that it is the projection of the tangent of .the intersection of
the two surfaces, in the point corresponding to .D, and that
to determine it, it is only necessary to find the Pomt s, thh
is, upon the horizontal plane, the trace of the tangent of the
intersection. This latter tangent is in the two planes which
touch the conic surfaces in the point 0f intersection ; there-
fore, by finding the horizontal traces Rf, Q q, of these two
tangent planes, they will by their comc1dence, determine the
point 8. But the plane tangent to the first surface touches
it in a line that passes through its .apex, Whose horizontal
projection may be obtained by drawing the indefinite right
line AD. And if AD be produced till it. meet the horizontal
circular trace of the surface, TQUV, in a point, Q, such
point will be a point of the line of contact between the sur-
face and the plane ; consequently, the horizontal trace'of the
plane will be tangent in Q to the circleT Q U v: let this tan-
gent therefore be drawn, as Q g. In like manner, by produ-
cing the radius B D till it meet in R the circular horizontal
trace, RXYZ, of the second surface, and drawing to this
circle the tangent in R, the line R?“ will be the horizontal
trace of the plane tangent to the second surface. And if
from the point, s, of the intersection of the two tangents Q q,
R r, the right line 8 D be drawn, it will give the tangent, in
the point, D, of the horizontal projection of the intersection.

“ With respect to the tangent to the corresponding
point, d, of the vertical projection, it is obvious that it may
be obtained by projecting the point 5 in s, and by drawing
the line 3 d, which will be the tangent required.

“It may happen to be necessary to construct upon the
development of one of the conic surfaces, perhaps, even
upon that of each of them, the effect of their mutual inter-
section ; as, for example, if we were obliged to fabricate the
cones of flexible substances, such as metal plates: in this
case we must operate for such cone in the manner we are
going to prescribe for the first.

“Before we proceed, let it be observed, that when a conic
surface is developed so as to become a plane, the right lines
that are upon it, change neither their form nor size, because
each of them is successively the hinge upon which the
development acts ; so that all the points of the surface
remain always at the same distance from the apex. And
when, as in this case, the conic surface is direct and circular,
all the points of the circular horizontal trace are at equal
distances from the apex ; they must, therefore, be also at an
equal distance from the apex upon the development, and
consequently upon the arc of a circle, whose radius is equal
to the uniform distance of the apex from the circular trace.
And if, after having taken an arbitrary point to represent
the apex on the development, the arc of an indefinite circle,
whose radius is equal to a C, be described, having such point
for its centre, it will also be indefinitely the development of
the horizontal trace of the surface. Then, by measuring the
arc of the circle TQ on the are just described, beginning
from the point T of the trace from which it is designed to
begin the development, the position of the point Q upon the
development will be determined; and the indefinite right
line drawn from this point to the centre of the development,
Will be the position occupied by the right line of the surface
prejnected in AQ, and upon which the point D, d, of the
section referred to will be found. To construct this point,
it only remains to discover its distance from the apex, and
to measure it upon the indefinite right line, beginning from
the centre of the development. In order to this, draw the
11.01'12031tal line die, from the point d in the vertical projec-
tion, till it cut the side a c of the cone, in a point It, and the

3 U

257

 

DES

. line ak will be the distance sought for. By constructing,

in like manner, all the other points of the intersection, suc-
cessively, and passing a curve through them, the intersection
of the two surfaces described upon the development of the
first surface will be found. Proceed in the same manner
for the second surface.

“Fourth Question.—-—To construct the intersection of two
conic surfaces, of whatever bases.

“ Solution—Figure 30. Let A, a, be the projections of
the apex of the first surface ; C G D G’, its given trace upon
the horizontal plane ; B6, the projections of the apex of the
second surface; and E H F H’, its trace on the horizontal
plane. Suppose a right line passing through the two apices,
whose projections are the indefinite lines A B, a b, and whose
trace, 1, may be easily constructed upon the horizontal plane
Along this line conceive a series of planes, eacli cutting the
two conic surfaces in the system of several right lines ; and
such of these right lines as shall be in the same plane will
determine, by their intersections, so many points of the
intersection of the two surfaces. The horizontal traces of
all the planes of this series will necessarily pass from the
point I; and since the position of these planes is besides
arbitrary, their traces may likewise be taken arbitrarily, by
drawing from the point I, a number of lines, I K, at pleasure,
by each of which the following operation may be worked
for either of them.

“ The trace, K I, of each of the planes of the series will
cut the horizontal trace of the first conic surface in points,
GG’, which will also be the horizontal traces of the right
lines, according to which the plane cuts the conic surface :
him A G, A G', will be the indefinite horizontal projections of
these lines, and their vertical projections will be obtained
by projecting G, G’, in g, g’, and drawing the indefinite lines
ag, ag’. So, likewise, the trace, K I, of the same plane of
the series will cut the horizontal trace of the second conic
surface in points, H, 11’, from which if B H, BH’, be drawn
indefinitely, the horizontal projections of the lines will be
obtained, according to which the same plane of the series
will cut the second surface ; and their vertical projections
may be had, by projecting H, 11', in It, IL’, and drawing the
indefinite lines I) ll, 5 /L'.

“This done, for the same plane, whose trace is KI, we
shall have on the horizontal projection a certain number of
lines, A G, A G’, B H, B H’ ; and the points, P, Q, R, s, in which
those belonging to one of the surfaces, meeting those belong-
ing to the other, will be the horizontal projections of so many
points of the intersections of both surfaces. Thus, by work-
ing successively, in the same manner, upon the other lines K I,
we shall find new series of points, P, Q, R, s; and by after-
wards passing through all the points 1’, a first branch of a
curve, through all the points Q, a second, through all the
points R, a third, &c., we shall have the horizontal projection
of the intersection required.

“ In like manner, for the same plane, whose trace is K I,
we shall have upon the vertical projection a certain number
of lines ag, ag’, b it, 611’, whose points of intersection will
be the vertical projections of as many points of the inter-
section.

“ Here let it be remarked, that it is not necessary to con-
struct the two projections independently of each other, and
that having constructed a single point of one of them, it may
be projected in the other upon one of the lines that ought
to contain it : hence we acquire means of verifying the
operation, and of avoiding, in certain cases, the intersections
of lines which cut each other in angles too oblique.

“ To find the tangents to the horizontal projection, that,
for example, which touches it in the point P, we must

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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construct the horizontal trace, 'r, of the tangent of the
intersection in the point corresponding to P. This tangent
is the intersection of the two planes which touch the conic
surfaces in that point; its trace, therefore, will be in the
coincidence of the horizontal traces with such two tangent
planes. And as A G’ P is the projection of the line of contact
of the plane which touches the first surface, the trace of such
first plane will be the tangent to the curve C GD G', in the
point G’ : let then G’ T V be that tangent. So likewise B H’ P
is the horizontal projection of the line of contact of the plane
that touches the second surface ; and as the horizontal trace
of the second tangent plane will be the tangent, in the
point 11’, of the curve E H F H', let H'T U be such tangent.
The two tangents G’ V, 11' U, will intersect each other in
a point, T, from which if the line TP be drawn, we shall
have the tangent in the point P, as required. ‘

“ By proceeding in like manner with the other points Q, R, s,
we shall find, first, that the tangent in Q must pass through
the point of coincidence of the tangents in G’ and H; secondly,
that the tangent in R must pass through the coincidence of
those in H and G; and, thirdly, that the tangent in 5 must
pass through the coincidence of those in G and H'.

Tangents of the vertical projection are attended with no
difficulty, when those of the horizontal projection are once
determined; for by projecting the horizontal traces of the
tangents of the intersection, we have the points through
which they must pass.

“ Fifth Question—To construct the intersection of a conic
surface, of any base, with that of a sphere.

“ We shall here suppose the two surfaces to be concentric,
that is to say, the apex of the cone placed in the centre of
the sphere, because we shall have occasion for such a dis-
position in the following question.

“ Solution—Figure 31. Let A, a, be the projections of the
common centre of the two surfaces ; B C D E, the given hori-
zontal trace of the conic surface; a m, the radius of the
sphere; and the circle lfg’m, the vertical projection of
the sphere. Suppose from the centre common to the two
surfaces, a series of planes, which may likewise be conceived
to be all perpendicular to one of the two planes of projection :
in the Figure 31, we have supposed them to be vertical.
Each of such planes will cut the conic surface in a system
of right lines, and the surface of the sphere in the circum—
ference of one of its great circles; and for each plane, the
coincidence of these lines with the circumference of the circle
will determine the points of the intersection required: draw,
therefore, from the point A as many indefinite right lines,
C A E, as you please, and they will be the horizontal projec-
tions of so many vertical planes in the series, and, at the
same time, those of the lines according to which these planes
cut the two surfaces. Each right line C A E, will intersect
the horizontal t 'ace B C D E of the conic surface in points, C, E,
that will be the horizontal traces of the sections made in this
surface by the corresponding plane ; and if, after having
projected the points C, E, upon L )I, in c, e, the lines a c, a e,
be drawn, they will give the vertical projections of the same
sections.

“ It now remains to discover the points of intersection of
these sections with those of the sphere, upon the same plane.

“For this purpose, having drawn through the point A, the
right line GAF, parallel to I. M, suppose the vertical plane
drawn through C E, to turn about the vertical line raised from
the point A, and projected in a' a, as upon a hinge, till it
become parallel to the vertical plane of projection, and that it
also draw with it the sections it has made in the two surfaces.
In this movement, the points C, E, will describe around the
point A, as a centre, the arcs of circles C G, E F, and will fall

 

in, in G, F ; by projecting the latter points upon L M, in g,_f;
the right lines a g, af; will be the vertical projections of the
sections made in the conic surface, considered in the new
position they have assumed in consequence of the movement
of the plane. The section made in the surface of the sphere,
considered also in its new position, will have the circumfer-
ence l f ’ g’ m as a vertical projection. The points, therefore,
of coincidence, g’,f , of this circumference with the lines ag,
a f, will be the projections of the points of intersection
required, considered also in the new position of the plane.

“ N ow, to obtain the projections of the same points, in their
natural position, the vertical plane must be supposed to be
returned to its original situation. In this movement, all its
points, and consequently those of the intersection contained
in it, will describe the arcs of horizontal circles around the
vertical line raised from the point A as an axis, whose ver-
tical projections will be horizontal lines. Then by drawing
through the points fg’, the horizontal lines f’ k,g’ 2', they
will contain the vertical projections of the points of intersec-
tion : but these projections must also be upon the respective
right lines a 0, ac, and will be found in the points of coinci-
dence, ill, of the latter with the horizontal lines 9’ i,f‘ 11.
Thus the curve kkni, drawn through all the points con-
structed in the same manner for any other line, besides C E,
will be the vertical projection of the intersection required.

“ By projecting the points, i, [2, upon C E, in J, H, we shall
have the horizontal projections of the same points of the
intersection ; and the curve K H N J drawn through all the
points, J, 'H, constructed in the same manner for any
line besides C E, will be the horizontal projection of the
intersection.

“ To find the tangent to the point J of the horizontal pro-
jeetion, the horizontal trace P of the tangent to the corres-
ponding point of the intersection must be constructed. This
trace must be in the coincidence of the traces of the planes
tangent to the two surfaces, in the point of the intersection
corresponding to the point J. Here it is obvious, that by
drawing C P through the point C, tangent to the curve B C E D,
we shall have the trace of the plane tangent to the conic
surface. And for that of the plane tangent to the surface
of the sphere, the operation is similar to what has been
described in the cases of revolving surfaces, viz. by drawing
9’ 0 through the point 9’, tangent to the circle If’ g’ m, pro-
duced to the right line L M, in 0, afterwards measuring a’ 0
upon C E, from A to 0, and drawing the line 0 P, through the
point 0, perpendicular to C E. The two traces C P, 0 P, then
will cross each other in a point, P, through which, if JP be
drawn, it will be the tangent to the point J.

“ Hen'ee we see that the tangent to the point i of the ver-
tical projection of the intersection will be obtained by project-
ing the point P upon L M in p, and afterwards drawing the
right line 5}), which is the tangent required.

“ If the sphere and the conic surface were not concentric,
it would be necessary to conceive a right line passing
through their two centres, and to choose a series of cutting
planes that should pass through such line. Each of these
planes would cut the conic surface in right lines, and that of
the sphere in one of its great circles, as in the preceding
instance ; which would give an equally simple construction :
but then it would be advantageous to place the vertical plane
of projection parallel to the right line drawn through the two
centres, in order that, in the movement given to each cutting
plane to render it parallel to the vertical plane of projection,
the two centres may remain motionless, so as not to change
their projections ; by this means the constructions are
simplified.

“ Sixth Questzon.——To construct the development of a

 

 

 

 

 

 

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259

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tonic surface, of any base, and to represent upon the surface
so developed, a section, whose two projections are given. .

“ Solution.-—Suppose the surface of a sphere, whose radius
is taken at pleasure, whose centre lsplaced 1n. the apex of ‘the
cone, and construct, as in the preceding questlon, the projec-
tions ofthe intersections of the two surfaces. This done, it
will appear evident, that all the points of the spherical intersec-
tion being at the same distance from the apex, they must like-
wise, upon the surface developed, be at an equal distance from
the apex, and consequently upon an arc of a circle described from
the apex as a centre, with aradius equal to that of the sphere.

“Thus, supposing the point R (Figure 33) to be the apex of
the surface developed, if from this point, as a centre, With a
radius equal to a m (Figure 31) the arc, s T U, of an indefinite
circle be described, it is upon this are that all the points of
the spherical intersection will fall, so that the points of such
are will be respectively equal to the corresponding points of
the spherical intersection. It therefore now remains, (after
having taken at pleasure a point by way of origin, as, for
example, the one projected in N, it (Figure 31), and a point s
(Figure 33) to correspond with it on the surface developed)
to develop the different arcs of the spherical intersection,
and to measure them successively upon the arc of the circle
5 ’l‘ U, from S, in certain points T. To do which, the spherical
surface being of double curvature, it must be successively
deprived ofits two curvatures, without. however, altering its
size, in the following manner.

“The spherical intersection being projected on the hori-
zontal plane in N J K H, (Figure 31) it may be considered as
traced upon the surface of a vertical cylinder, whose base
Would be NJKH: this surface may then be developed as
directed in Figure 27, and the spherical intersection may be
described upon it by developing the arc N J (Figure 31) in N' J’
(Figure 32), and carrying the vertical line i’i (Figure 31)
perpendicularly to N’ N’ (Figure 32) from J’ to J’/. The curve
N” J” K” N”, passing through all the points, J”, thus determined,
will be the spherical intersection, freed from its horizontal
curvature, without having changed its length. The tangent
to the point J” of this curve will be obtained by carrying J P
(Figure 31) measuring it upon N'N' (Figure 32) from J’ to
P’, and drawing the right line J" 1".

“Now, we shall develop the curve N" J" K" H” N", in
order to fold it on the arc s T U(Figure 33): for example,
measure the are N" J" from s to T, and the point T will be on
the conic surface developed, the point in which that of the
spherical intersection will apply, whose projections are J, i
(Figure 31.) Therefore by drawing the right line RT we
shall have upon the development of the surface, the gene-
rating line, whose horizontal projection is AC (Figure 31).
Lastly, should any point be found upon this generating line,
that should be brought upon the surface developed, it will be
only requisite to take the distance (Figure 31) of such point
from the apex of the conic surface, and to carry it (Figure 33)
upon RT, from R to V; and the point V will be upon the
surface developed, the one required.

“ Seventh Question—To construct the intersection of two
cylindric surfaces, of any bases.

“ Solution—In making the research in which this question
originates, if we have no other intersections to consider than
that ofthe two cylindric surfaces, (and eSpecially when these
surfaces have circular bases) it will be found expedient so to
choose the planes of projection, as that one among them may
be parallel to the generating lines of the two cylinders : by
which means the intersection will be constructed without the
aid-of any other curves than those given. But when we are
obliged also to keep in view the intersections Of these surfaces
w1th others, there is no longer any advantage to be derived

 

from a change of the planes of projection ; it will even prove
more easy to represent the objects by referring them all to
the same planes. We shall therefore suppose the generating
lines of the two surfaces to be placed indifferently as to the
planes of projection.

“ Under this idea, let '1‘ F U 1!", x GV G’ (Figure 34) be the
given horizontal traces of the two cylindric surfaces ; AB,
a b the given projections of the right line, to which the
generating line of the first is parallel ; C D, cd, those of the
line to which the generating line of the second is parallel.
Suppose a series of planes parallel to the two generating
lines: such planes will intersect the two surfaces in right
lines ; and the coincidences of the sections made in the first
surface with those made in the second, will determine the
points of the intersection required.

“Thus, after having constructed, as in Figure 15, the hori-
zontal trace, A E, of a plane drawn along the first given right
line, parallel to the second, draw as many parallel right lines,
F G’, to this trace as you please, and consider such parallels as
traces of the planes of the series. Each line, F G’, will cut the
trace of the first surface in such points as F, F’, and that of
the second in such as G, G', through which draw to the
respective projections of the generating lines, the parallels
F H, F’ H’ . . . . . . G J, G’ J'; and the intersecting points, P, Q, R, s,
of these lines, will be the horizontal projections of so many
points of the intersection of the two surfaces. By working
in a similar manner on the remainder of the lines F G', we
shall obtain a succession of systems of points P, Q, R, s, and
the curve that will pass through all the points so found, will
be the horizontal projection ofthe intersection.

“ To obtain the vertical projection, project upon L M the
points F, F' ..... G, G’ . . . . . in fif ..... g, g' ..... and draw
through these latter points, to the projections of the respective
generating lines, the parallels f’ h,f’ li' . . . . g i, g' i’ . . . . and
their coincidence will determine the vertical projections,
p, g, r, s, of the points of intersection. And by thus pro-
ceeding with all the other lines F G‘, we shall obtain new
points p, q, r, s, and the curve that would pass through such
points will be the vertical projection of the intersection.

“In order to obtain the tangents of these curves to the
points P, p, construct the horizontal trace, F' Y, of the plane
tangent in this point to the first cylindric surface ; then the
trace, G' Y, of the plane tangent in the same point to the
second surface ; and the right line drawn from the point Pto
the point Y of the coincidence of these traces, will be the
tangent in P. Lastly, project Yupon L M in g, and draw the
right linepg, and it will give the tangent to the point p of
the vertical projection.

“Eighth Question.—To construct the intersection of two
revolving surfaces, whose axes are in the same plane.

“ Solution—Dispose the planes of projection in such a
manner, that one among them shall be perpendicular to the
axis of one of the surfaces, and the other parallel to the two
axes. Then let A, Figure 35, be the horizontal projection of
the axis of the first surface ; a a’ its vertical projection ; and
cde the given generating line of such surface. Let A B,
parallel to L M, be the horizontal projection of the axis of the
second surface; a’b its vertical projection, so as that A, a’
be the projections of the point of coincidence of the two axes;
fg h the given generator of the second surface. Conceive a
series of spherical surfaces, whose common centre would be
in the point of concourse of the two axes ; and for each of
such surfaces construct the projection Us 72 0}) q of the great
circle parallel to the vertical plane of projection ; which pro-
jections, being arcs of circles described from the central point
a’, with radii taken arbitrarily, will cut the two generating
lines in the points lap.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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“We shall now find each spherical surface Cutting the first
surface in the circumference of a circle whose plane is per-
pendicular to the axis a a', and whose vertical projection may
be obtained by drawing the horizontal line k 0, and its hori-
zontal projection, by describing from the central point A, with
a diameter equal to k 0, the circumference of a circle K R o R’.
In like manner,, every spherical surface of the series will cut
the second revolving surface in the circumference of a circle
whose plane will be perpendicular to the vertical plane of
projection, and whose vertical projection may be obtained by
drawing through the pointp a line, 1) n, perpendicular to a’ I).

“ Should the points 7', in which the two rightlines k 0,}; n,
intersect each other, be nearer to the two respective axes
than are the points kp, it is evident that the two circumfer-
ences of circles would intersect each other in two points, of
which rwould be the common vertical projection; and a
curve drawn through all the points r, constructed in a similar
way, would be the vertical projection of the intersection of
the two surfaces. By projecting the point r upon the circum-
ference of the circle K R 0 R’, in R, R’, we shall have the hori-
zontal projection of the two points of the coincidence of the
circumferences of circles found upon the same sphere; and
the curve drawn through all the points R, R’, constructed in
like manner, will be the horizontal projection of the intersec—
tion required.

“ These examples may suffice for conveying an idea of the
method to be adopted in constructing the intersections of sur-
faces, and drawing tangents to them ; more especially if the
student be careful to make his constructions with scrupulous
exactness, if he employ large dimensions, and, as much as
possible, trace the curves in all their extent.

“ In the foregoing pages, we have supposed the curves of
double curvature as being each determined by two curved
surfaces, of which it is the intersection ; and, indeed, such is
the point of view wherein they most commonly present them-
selves in descriptive geometry; and, under this consideration
we have shown that it is always possible to draw tangents to
them. But, although a curved surface may be defined by
means of the form and movement of its generator; it may
nevertheless happen, that a curve may be given, by the law
of motion, from a generating point; in which case, if the
practitioner do not choose to have recourse to analysis, he may
adopt the method of Roberval. This method, invented by
him before Descartes had applied geometry to algebra, is
implicitly comprised in the processes of differential calculi,
and is therefore not noticed in the elements of the mathe—
matics; a summary exposition of it in this place, will be
sufficient ; those who are curious to see numerous applications
of this method may consult the flIemoirs of the Academy of
Sciences (French) anterior to the year 1699, wherein the
works of Roberval have been collected.

“ When, pursuant to the law of its motion, a generating
point is constantly impelled towards one particular point in
space, the line it describes by virtue of such law is a right
line ; but if, in the whole course of its movement, it be at
the same time impelled towards two points, it will in general
describe a curve, though in particular cases it may describe a
right line. The tangent to such curve may be obtained by
drawing through the point of the curve two right lines,
following the two different directions of the motion of the
generating point ; by measuring upon these directions, in an
appropriate manner, parts proportional to the swiftness oftwo
respective motions of the point ; by completing the parallelo-
gram, and drawing the diagonal, which will be the tangent
required: for this diagonal will be in the direction of the
movement of the describing point to the point of the curve
under consideration. ,

 

“ The following is an example.

“ Figure 36.—A thread, A M B, being fastened by its
extremities to two fixed points, A, B ; if, by means of a point,
M, this thread be stretched out, and the point moved, so as
still to keep the thread in a state of tension, it will describe
the curve DC M, being an ellipsis, whose foci are the fixed
points A, B. From the generation of this curve, it is easy to
draw a tangent to it, by Roberval’s method. For instance ;
as the length of the thread is not altered, the radius AM, in
every instant ofits motion, is lengthened in the same propor-
tion that the radius B M is shortened. The swiftness, there-
fore, of the describing point in the direction A M, is equal to
its motion in the direction M Q. Therefore, by measuring on
M B, and on the prolongation of A M, the equal right lines M Q,
M P, and by completing the parallelogram M P R Q, the diagonal,
M R, of this parallelogram will be the direction of the gene-
rating point in M, and consequently the tangent to the same
point of the curve. Hence we may clearly perceive, that in
the ellipsis, the tangent divides the angle BM P, formed by
one ofthe vector radii, and by the prolongation of the other, in
two equal parts ; that,the angles A M s, B M R are equal to each
other ; and that the curve possesses the property of reflecting
upon one ofits foci the rays of light emanating from the other.

“ The method of Roberval in the case of three dimensions.
may be readily understood, and applied to the construction of
tangents to curves of double curvature. Thus, if a gene-
rating point move in space, so as to be constantly impelled
towards three different points, the line it will traverse,
though in some particular cases it may be a right line, will
in general describe a curve of double curvature. The tangent
to such curve may be obtained in any point whatever, by
drawing right lines from the given point, in the three direc-
tions of the movement of the generating point ; by measuring
upon such lines, in an appropriate direction, parts propor-
tional to the swiftness of the three respective motions of this
point; by completing the parallelopiped, and drawing the
diagonal of the parallelopiped, which will be the tangent to
the curve in the point taken.

“ We shall now apply this method to a case analogous to
that of the ellipsis. The Figure 37, to which we refer,
represents the object in perspective, and not in projection.

“ Three fixed points, A, B, C, being given in space, let a.
thread, A M B, be fastened by its two extremities to the
points A, B ; let a second thread, AM C, independent in its
size of that of the other, be attached by its extremities to the
points A, C ; let a generating point, holding both threads, be
moved so as to keep them in a state of tension, and it will
describe a curve of double curvature. In order to draw a
tangent to this curve in the point M, we must observe that
the length of the first thread, A M B, being uniform through-
out its movement, the part A M is lengthened out precisely
in proportion as the part M B is shortened, and that the swift-
ness of the generating point in the direction A M is equal to
that of its movement in the direction M B. So, likewise, the
length of the second thread, A M C, being unaltered, the swift-
ness of the generating point in the direction M C is equal to
that of its motion in the direction A M. Therefore, by
measuring upon the prolongation of AM, and on the right
lines M B, M C, the equal parts M P, M Q, MR, and completing"
the parallelepiped M P U SYQ R T, we shall obtain in the»
diagonal, M S, of this parallelopiped, the tangent required.

“The method of Roberval being founded on the principle
of compound motion, we may readily conceive that in cases
more complex than these, which we have chosen as examples,
we may avail ourselves of the known methods to find the
resultance of forces impelled towards a point, whose size and
directions are ascertained.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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“ Application of the method of constructing the intersections
of curved surfaces to the solution of cartons questzons. .

“ In Figure 26, we have defined the mode of constructing
the projections of the intersection of two curved surfaces,
definite in their form and position ; which we have done m
the abstract, that is, without attending to the nature of the
questions whose solutions would require such operatlons.
The exposition of this method, even in this abstract manner,
will be found sufficient for most of the arts ; for instance, m
masonry and carpentry, the curved surfaces there considered,
and the construction of whose intersections may be required,
generally form the principal object of attention, and present
themselves naturally. But as descriptive geometry will one
day become a principal part of the. national education, its
methods being no less necessary to artists than reading,
writing, and arithmetic; we conceive it must prove useful
to point out, by a few examples, how it may furnish the
analysis for the solution of a great number of questions,
which, at first sight, seem not to admit of being treated in
this manner. We shall begin with such examples as require
only the intersections of planes, and then proceed to those in
which the intersections of curved surfaces are necessary.

“ The first question that forcibly occurs to those who are
learning the elements of ordinary geometry, is the finding of
the centre of a circle whose circumference passes through
three arbitrary points on the plane. The determination of
this centre by the intersection of two right lines, upon each
of which it is necessarily found, surprises the pupil as well
by its generality, as because it yields a mode of execution.
Were all geometry treated in the same manner, which it may
be, it would suit a much greater number of geniuses, would
be cultivated and practised by a far more numerous class of
men, the ordinary instruction of the nation would be more
advanced, and the science itself carried to a greater extent.

“ In the three dimensions, there exists a question analogous
to the one just quoted, with which we shall begin. a

“ First Question—To find the centre and radius of a
sphere, whose surface passes through four points, given
arbitrarily in space.

“ Solution—The four points being given by their hori-
zontal and vertical projections, conceive right lines drawn
from one of them to each of the others ; and trace the hori-
wntal and vertical projections of such lines. Then, in con-
sidering the first of these right lines, it will appear evident,
that as the required centre must be at equal distances from
the two extremities, it will be on the plane perpendicular to
such right line, and drawn through its middle. Therefore
by dividing the projections of the line into equal parts, which
will give the projections of its middle, and'by constructing
the traces of the plane drawn through the point perpendicular
to the line, as has been before described, we shall obtain the
traces of a plane upon which the centre required will be found.
Next, in considering the two other right lines, and working
successively for each of them, a like operation, we shall
obtain the traces of three several planes, upon each of which
the centre sought for will be found. Now, as the centre
must be upon both the first and second of these planes, it can
be nowhere but in the line of their intersection ; therefore,
by constructing the projections of this intersection, we shall
have upon each plane of projection, a line containing that of
the centre. For the same reason, if the projections of the
Intersection of the first and third planes be constructed, we
shall have on each plane of projection another line contain!
mg the projection of the centre. Hence we have upon each
plane of projection two right lines, whose intersection will
determine the projection of the required centre of the
sphere.

3x

“ By using the intersection of the second and third planes,
we shall obtain a third right line, that passes through the
centre, and whose projections also pass through those required,
which furnishes a means of verification.

“ As to the radius, it is evident, that a right line drawn
through the projection of the centre and that of one of the
given points, .will be its projection ; whence we may obtain
both the horizontal and vertical projections of the radius,
and consequently its size.

“When the position of the planes of projection can be
chosen at pleasure, the preceding method may be considerably
simplified. Thus, suppose the plane that we have considered
as horizontal (Figure 38) to pass through three given points,
so as that of the given projections A, B, c, D, of the four
points, the three first may be blended with their respective
points; then, having drawn the three right lines AB, AC,
AD, suppose the vertical plane to be parallel to A D, that is
to say, that the right lines L M and A D are parallel to each
other; the vertical projections of the three first points will
be upon L M, in such points as a, b, c, and that of the fourth
will be given somewhere in a point, d, of the right line D d,
perpendicular to L M. This done, the line drawn from the
point A to B, being horizontal, any plane perpendicular to it
will be vertical, having for its horizontal projection a line
perpendicular to AB. It is the same with respect to the
right line drawn from A to 0. Therefore, by drawing
through the middle of A B, the indefinite perpendicular E e,
we shall have the horizontal projection of a vertical plane,
that passes through the centre of the sphere ; consequently,
the horizontal projection of the centre will be somewhere on
the line E e. So, likewise, by drawing through the middle
of AC, the indefinite perpendicular Ff, we shall have the
projection of a second vertical plane, that passes through
the centre of the sphere, and the horizontal projection of this
centre will be in some point of the right line Ff: therefore,
the point, G, of the intersection of the two lines E e, Ff, will
be the horizontal projection of the centre of the sphere, and
its vertical projection will consequently be upon the indefinite
right line of projection G g g’. .

“ The line drawn from the point A to the fourth point being
parallel to its vertical projection a d, any plane perpendicular
to it, will also be perpendicular to the vertical plane of pro-
jection, and will have its vertical projection in a right line
perpendicular to a d. Hence, by drawing through the
middle of a d, the indefinite perpendicular H h, we shall
obtain the projection of a third plane, that passes through
the centre of the sphere; therefore, the vertical projection
of the centre being at the same time upon g g’ and H h, must
be in the point K, of the intersection of these two lines.

‘~‘ Lastly, by drawing the two right lines A G, a K, we shall
evidently have the two projections of the same radius of the
Sphere ; therefore, by measuring A G upon L M, from g to J,
we shall have, in the right line J K, the size of the radius
required.

"‘ Second Questions—To inscribe a sphere in a given
triangular pyramid; that is to say, to find the position of the
centre of the sphere and the size of its radius. ~

“ Solution—As the surface of the inscribed sphere must
touch the four faces of the pyramid, it is evident that a plane
passing through the centre of the sphere and through each
of six arétes, would divide the angle formed by the two faces
that pass through the same arete, into two equal parts. If,
then, three of the six aretes be chosen, which do not all pass
through the same apex of a solid angle, and if through each
of these arétes a plane be made to pass, dividing in two
equal parts the angle formed by the two corresponding faces.

 

i we shall obtain three planes, upon each of which the centre

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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of the sphere required will be found, whose position will be
determined by their common intersection.

“In order to simplify the construction, we shall suppose
the planes of projection to be so chosen as that the one which
we consider as horizontal may be the same with one of the
faces of the pyramid.

“ Figure 39.—I’late 4. With this view, let A, B, C, D, be
the given horizontal projections of the apices of four solid
angles of the pyramid, and a, b, c, (1’, their vertical projec-
tions; conceive through the apex of the pyramid, planes
perpendicular to the three sides of the base; such planes
will be vertlcal, and their horizontal projections will be the
right lines D E, D I“, D G, falling perpendicularly from the point
D on the sides A C, C B, B A, of the base. Each of these planes
will cut the base of the pyramid and the face that passes
through the arete in two right lines, comprehending between
them an angle equal to that which the face forms with the
base. Then, by measuring on L M the right lines D E, D F, D G,
beginning from the vertical line D dd’, from dto 6,], g, and
drawing from the apex, d’, the right lines (1’ e, d,f, d’g, the
latter will form with L M angles equal to those formed by the
corresponding faces of the pyramid with the base ; and it'each
of these three angles be divided into two equal parts by the
right lines ee’,ff’, gg’, the angles formed by these last lines
with L M, will be equal to those formed by the base with the
faces of a second pyramid, having the same base with the
given pyramid, and whose apex Will be in the centre of the
sphere required.

“ To find the apex ofthis second pyramid, let it be cut by
a horizontal plane, drawn at an arbitrary height, whose
vertical projection may be obtained by drawing any horizontal
line whatever, as p n. This line will cut 0 e’jjf’, 99' in the
points h', i’, h’, from which let the vertical lines h’ h, z" 2', h’ k,
fall upon L M ; and by measuring the three distances h e, if,
kg, on the respective perpemliculars, from E to II, from F to
J, and from G to K, we shall have in II, J, K, the horizontal
projections of points taken in the three faces of the second
pyramid, and which will be found upon the arbitrary hori-
zontal plane. Then, by drawing through the points 11, J, K,
to the respective sides of the base, parallel lines, as
P N, N 0, OP, they will be the projections of the sections of
the three faces of the second pyramid, upon the same hori-
zontal plane ; they will also intersect each other in points, as
N, O, 'P, which will be projections of as many points of the
three aretes of the second pyramid; and by drawing from
these points to the apices of the respective angles of the base,
indefinite right lines, as A P, B 0, C N, such line will be the
projections of the arétes; lastly, the single point Q, wherein
they all three meet, will be the horizontal projection of the
apex of the second pyramid, and consequently of the centre
of the sphere required.

“ To obtain the vertical projection of this centre, draw, first,
the indefinite right line of projection Q (1 9’, on which it will
be found; then project the three points, N, 0, 1', on the hori-
z‘ontal line n, p, in 72, 0,3); draw through the projections,
a, h, c, of the apices of the respective angles of the base, the
right lines (1.17, h 0, c n, and they will be the vertical projec-
tions of the three arétcs ; and the single point, (1’, wherein
the three last liucs out each other, and which will be at the
same time on the right line Q 99', will be the vertical pro-
iection of the centre of the sphere.

‘ Lastly, the vertical line q q’ will be evidently equal to the
radius of the inscribed Sphere, and the points Q, 9, will be the
projections of the point of contact of the surface of the sphere
with the plane of the base.

“ “’0 have shown by what considerations we are enabled
to determine the position of a point, after having ascertained

 

its distances from three points of known position ; we shall
now proceed to the actual construction of this question.

“ Third Question—To construct the projection of a point,
whose distances from three other points given in space is
known.

“ Solution—Ryure 40. Let the planes of projection be
so chosen as that the one considered as horizontal may pass
along the three given points, and let the other be perpendicu-
lar to the right line by which two of the points are joined.
Then let A, B, 0, represent the three given points; and
A’, B’, 0’, their given distances from the point required. Join
two of the points by the right line A B, perpendicularly to
which draw LM, and it will determine the position of the
vertical plane of projection. Take the points A, B, C, as
centres, and describe with radii equal to the respective dis-
tances A’, B’, 0’, three arcs of circles, which may cut each
other by two’s, in the points D, E, F, J, P, Q; through the
intersecting points of these arcs taken by two’s, draw the
lines D E, F J, P Q, and they will be the horizontal projections
of the circumferences of circles wherein the three spheres
intersect each other ; and the single point N, wherein these
three lines meet, will evidently be the horizontal projection of
the point required.

“In order to obtain the vertical projection of the same
point, draw the indefinite line of projection Nn n’; then,
observing that the circle projected in D E is parallel to the
vertical plane, and that its projection on this plane must be
a circle of equal radius, project the line A B upon L M, in the
point r, from which, as a centre, and with an interval equal
to D R, or the half of D E, describe the circle d n e n', and the
circumference will cut the right line N n n' in two points, 71 n,’
which will be indifferently the vertical projection of the point
required.

“ According to the other circumstances of the question, we
may determine whether the two points 72, n’, ought to be both
used; and in case of one only being necessary, which of
them to prefer, and which to reject.

“ The reader may propose to himself the construction of the
projections of a point whose distances from three lines given in
space are known.

“ Fourth Question—An engineer, when surveying a moun-
tainous country, whether for the purpose of studying the
form of the earth, or for making a draught for public works
dependent on such form, is furnished with a topographical
chart, whereon not only the projections of the different points
of the earth are exactly laid down, but also the altitudes of
all these points above a level surface, are indicated by figures
placed on their sides respectively, commonly called quotas:
he meets with a remarkable point, not placed on the chart,
either in consequence of an omission, or because it has become
remarkable since the chart was drawn. The engineer has
no instrument of observation about him, except a graphomcter,
used for measuring angles, furnished with a plumb-line.

“Placed in such circumstances, he is required, without
quitting the station, to construct on the chart the position of
the point in question, and to find the suitable quota, .riz. its;
height above the level surface.

“ flIode of Solution.—Amoug the points correctly described
on the chart, nearest to the one under consideration, let the
engineer select three, of which two at least are not of the
same altitude with that on which he stands; then let him
observe the angles formed by the zenith with the visual rays
directed to these three points, and by this single observation
he may resolve the question.

“For instance: Let A, B, C, represent the. three points
observed, whose horizontal projections are on the chart, and
whose vertical projections he may construct, by means or

 

 

 

   

 

 

 

 

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their quotas. Knowing the angle formed by the zenith .with
the visual ray directed to the point A, he. 15 also acquainted
with the angle formed by the same ray with the vertical line
raised above the point A : for, disregarding the convex1ty of
the earth. which is here admissible, these two angles will be
found to be alternate-internal, and consequently equal. Then
by conceiving a conic surface, of a circular base, with its apex
in the point A, its axis vertical, and forming w1th its axus and
generating line an angle equal to the angle observed, winch
completely determines such surface, it Wlll pass along the
visual ray directed to the point A, and consequently along
the point of the station: thus he Will have a first curved
surface determined, on which he may find the point required.
By proceeding in a similar manner for the points B, C, as for
the first, the point required will farther appear on two other
conic surfaces, with circular bases, having their axes vertical,
their apices in the points B, c, and each forming an angle with
its axis and generating line equal to the angle formed by the
zenith and the corresponding visual ray. The point sought
for, therefore, will be at the same time upon three conic sur-
faces, of determinate forms and positions, and consequently
in their common intersection. It remains then only to con-
struct, according to the data of the question, the horizontal
and vertical projections of the intersections of these three
surfaces, taken by two’s; the intersections of these projec-
tions will give the horizontal and vertical projections of the
point required, and consequently its position on the chart,
with its height above or below the points of observation,
which will determine the quota.

“ This solution will generally produce eight points in
answer to the question; but the observer may readily dis-
tinguish among them that which coincides with the point of
the station. He may at first sight ascertain whether the
point of the station be above or below the plane that passes
along the three points of observation. Suppose this point to
be above the plane of the apices of the cones ; he may then
neglect such branches of the intersections of the conic surfaces
as are below the plane, which will reduce the number of
possible points to four. So, on the contrary, were the point
of the station placed below the plane, the number of points
Would be equally reduced by omitting such branches as were
above it. Then among these four points, if indeed so many
exist, he will easily recognize that whose position, relatively
to the three apices, is the same with that of the point of the
station, relatively to the points of observation.

“ Construction.—Figure 41. Let A, B, C, represent the
horizontal projections of three points of observation taken on
the chart ; a, I), c, the vertical projections of such points, con-
structed by measuring on the vertical lines B b, C 0, beginning
from the horizontal line L M, passing through the point a, the
diiibronce of the quotas of the two other points; and let
A' n'c’, represent the angles Which the visual rays, directed
to the respective points A, B, 0, form with the zenith.

“ Draw the indefinite vertical lines a a’, l) b’, c c', and they
will be the vertical projections of the axes of the three cones ;
through the three points a, b, c, draw the right lines
a], I) m, c n, and they will form with the vertical lines, angles
respectively equal to the given angles A’, B', C’ ; which right
lilies will be each the vertical projection of one of the two
extreme sides ofthe corresponding conic surface.

_ “ This done, draw in the vertical projection horizontal
lines, 9 e’ at pleasure, which may be considered as the projec-
tions of as many horizontal planes, and for each of them work
the operation we are about to describe for the one indicated
y r. n.

“ This line will cut the projections of the axes of the three
cones in points f, g, )1, that are the vertical projections of the

 

centres of the circles, according to which the corresponding
horizontal plane cuts the three conic surfaces; it will also
cut the extreme sides of the cones a l, I) m, c n, in such points,
f', g“, h’, that the distancesffgg’ h/z’, will be the radii of
these circles. From the points A, B, C, taken successively as
centres, and with the radii respectively equal toff, gg’, It h’,
describe circles, whose circumferences will be the horizontal
projections of the sections made in the three conic surfaces by
the same plane E E’ ; these circumferences will intersect each
other, two by two, in points D D’, K, K’, J, J’, that are the pro-
jections of as many points of the three intersections of the
conic surfaces, considered by two’s ; and by projecting these
points upon E E’, in dd’, It, 13' ii’, we shall obtain the vertical
projections of the same points of the three intersections.

“By afterwards working in the same manner upon the
other right lines ee’ we shall obtain from each of them
new points, D, D', K, K’, J, J’, in the horizontal projection, and
likewise, d, d’, k, If, i, z’, in the vertical one ; then pass a curve,
D P D’, through all the points D, D’. . . . and it will be the
horizontal projection of the intersection of the first conic sur-
face with the second : pass another curve K P K’, through'all
the points K, K’ . . . . and it will be the projection of the inter-
section of the second surface with the third ; and by passing a
third curve, J PJ’, through all the points J, J’ . . . ., we shall
have the projection of the intersection of the third surface
with the first. All the points P . wherein these three
curves intersect each other, are the horizontal projections of
as many points answering to the question.

“So, in the vertical projection, by passing a first curve
through all the points d, d’ . . . . a second through all the points
it, if . . . . and a third through all the points i, i. . . . we shall
have in such curves the vertical projections of the intersec-
tions of the three surfaces, taken in pairs ; and all the points,
p . . . wherein such curves intersect each other, will be the
vertical projections of all the points necessary to the solution
of the question.

“ The projections P, p, of an identical point will be in the
same perpendicular to L M.

“ Having discovered among the points P the one indicative
of the point of the station, the observer will be in possession of
the horizontal projection of such station, and, consequently,
of its position on the chart ; then by means of the altitude of
the corresponding point p above the right line L M, he may
obtain the elevation of the point of the station above that
of the point of observation A, and that will give him the
appropriate quota.

“In this solution we have constructed the projections of
the three intersections of the surfaces ; but two would have
been sufficient. Yet- we would always advise the adoption
of this practice, because the projections of the two curves of
double curvature may intersect each other in points not cor-
respondent to those of intersection ; and also, because, in
order to recognize the projections of the points of intersection,
it is necessary to follow the branches of the two curves that
are upon the same face of one of the surfaces ; which requires
a laborious degree of attention, seldom, if ever, necessary in
constructing the three curves: the points wherein they all
three out each other, are true points of intersection.

“ Fifi/z Question—Under circumstances similar to the
preceding, except that the instrument is not furnished with a
plumb-line, so that the angles formed with the zenith cannot
be measured, the engineer is required, without quitting the
station, to determine on the chart the situation of the point
where he is, and to find the quota belonging to it, viz. its
elevation above the level surface to which all the points of
the chart refer.

“Mode of Solutionwflaving made choice of three points

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DES

264

DES

 

of land, whose situations are accurately marked on the chart,
and of such kind as not to be in the same plane with the point
of the station, let the engineer measure the three angles which
the visual rays directed towards those three points form
with each other; and by means of this simple observation he
will be able to resolve the question.

“Thus, by letting A, B, C, represent the three points of
observation, and supposing them to be joined by the right
lines A B, B C, C A, the engineer will be in possession of the
horizontal projections of such lines, traced on the chart ; and
by means of the quotas of the three points, he may obtain
the differences of the altitudes of the extremities of the lines;
he may, therefore, ascertain the size of each of them.

“ This done, if in any plane whatever, drawn through AB,
a rectangular triangle, BAD (Figure 42) be conceived as
constructed, with AB for its base, whose angle in B is the
complement of the angle under which the side A B has been
observed, the angle in D will be equal to the angle of obser-
vation, and the circumference of a circle described through
the points A, B, D, will possess the property that if from any
point whatever, E, of the are A D B, two right lines be drawn
to the points A, B, the angle, in E, which they include, will
be equal to the angle of observation. If, then, the plane of
the circle be conceived to turn upon A B, as on a hinge, the
are A D B will generate a revolving surface, all whose points
will be endowed with the same property, viz. that if from any
point of the surface two right lines be drawn to the points
A, B, they will include an angle equal to the angle of observa-
tion. Now, it is evident that the points of such revolving
surface alone possess this property: therefore the surface
passes through the point of the station.

“ By operating in a similar manner upon the two other
lines B C, .C A, two other revolving surfaces will be obtained,
on each of which the point of the station will be found ; this
point will therefore be at the same time upon three different
revolving surfaces, determined as to their form and position ;
consequently it must be a point of their common intersection.
Thus, in the construction of the horizontal and vertical pro-
jections of the intersections of these three surfaces, taken in
pairs, the points in which the three projections out each other
will be the projections of the point answering the question.
The horizontal projection will be its position on the chart,
and the vertical projection its elevation above or below the
points of observation.

“Were this question to be treated by analysis, it would
generally lead to an equation of the sixty-fourth degree ; for
each of the revolving surfaces has four distinct faces, two of
which are generated by the are A D B, and the other two by
the arc AF B. As each of the faces of the first surface may
be cut by all those .of the second, sixteen branches may be the
result in the curve of intersection ; and as these may be
again out by the four faces of the third surface, they may
produce sixtyefour points of intersection in the three surfaces ;
though they would not all apply to the solution of the ques-
tion. Thus, if from any point, as F, of the are As B, lines
be drawn to the extremities of A B, the angle A F 13,, included
by them, would not be equal to the angle of observation, but
would be its supplement. The faces generated by the are
A F B, and the analogous faces in the other revolving surfaces,
cannot therefore serve towards the solution of the question ;
and all the intersecting points belonging to any of these faces
are foreign to the problem.

“ In descriptive geometry, we may, and indeed should
exclude the are A F B, and those analogous tc it, in the two
Mher surfaces ; each of which will then have but two faces,
and the number oftheir possible points of intersection will be
reduced to eight. Of these, four will be on one side of the

 

 

plane passing through the three revolving axes, and four on
the other. The observer, being always aware of the side on
which he is placed relatively to this plane, will, of course, not
construct the intersections of the opposite side, so that the
number of points will in fact be reduced to four. Now,
among these four points, if they all exist, he will readily
know which is placed with respect to the points A, B, C, in a
manner similar to that of the station relatively to the three
points of the country that he has observed.

“ Construction—Select the position of the two planes of
projection so as that the one taken as horizontal may pass
through the three points observed, and that the other may
be perpendicular to the right line drawn through two of those
points. Let then ABC (Figure 42) represent the triangle
formed by the points observed, considered in its plane, and
A’,B',C’, the three angles given by the observation. Draw
perpendicularly to the sides AB, the right line L M, which
will indicate the position of the vertical plane of projection ;
and construct, according to the directions already given,
the generating arcs A E D B, B G C, C F A, of three revolving
surfaces, whose sides, AB, BC, AC, are the axes. Then,
taking the point A as a centre, describe arcs of circles,
as E 0 F, at pleasure, and they will cut the generators,
whose axes meet in A, in such points as E, F, from which,
drop upon the respective axes, the indefinite perpendiculars
EE', FF’ ; these perpendiculars will intersect each other
somewhere in a point, as H, which will be the horizontal
projection of a point of intersection of the two surfaces,
whose axes are AB, AC; and the curve, AHP, drawn
through all the points H . .. thus found, will be the hori-
zontal projection of this intersection. Next, after pro-
jecting the axis A B in a, take the point a as a centre, and
describe from it, with radii successively equal to the per-
pendiculars E E’, arcs of circles, as e e’ h, on each of which,
by projecting the point H, to its corresponding point in h, we
shall have the vertical projection of a point of the intersection
of the two same revolving surfaces; and the curve, a h p,
drawn through all the points, It. . . . so constructed, will be
the vertical projection of this intersection.

“ The same method may be pursued for the two surfaces
revolving about the axes A B, BC ; 'viz. taking the point of
coincidence, B, of the two axes as a centre, describe arcs of
circles, as DKG, at pleasure; which arcs will cut the two
generators in points, as D, G, from which drop on the respec-
tive axes the indefinite perpendiculars D, D’, G G’ ; these per-
pendiculars will cut each other in a point, as J ; and the curve,
BJP, drawn through all the points J... will he the hori-
zontal projection of the intersection of the first and third.
revolving surfaces. Taking the point a as a centre, with.
radii successively equal to the perpendiculars DD', describe
arcs of circles, as dd’ i, on which project in i the correspond--
ing points J; and the curve, aip, drawn through all the
points 2', will be the vertical projection ofthe same intersection.

“ Here we shall find that all the points, P . , . . in which the
two curves A II P, B J P, out each other, are horizontal pro-
jections of so many points applicable to the question ; and
that all the points, 1) . . . . in which the curves a lap, a ip,
intersect each other, are the vertical projections of the same
points.

“ The projections, thus found, will not give immediately
the position of the point of station on the chart; nor its
height, because the horizontal plane is not that of the chart
but it will be easy to find them on the true planes of pro-
jection.

“ Sixth Question—The general of an army meets that 0
an enemy, but not having a chart of the country, is at a 105:
how to form his plan of attack. But beingr in possession o

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ma SEEEE ENE GE @ME TEE. '

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DES , %

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a balloon, he dismisses an engineer in it, to make the neces-
sary arrangements for constructing a chart,_and to give as
near an idea of the level of the country as posszble. Fearing,
however, that, should the balloon be sufl'ered to change'its
station over the’earth, the enemy might antrcnpate his desxgn
and frustrate it, he permits the engineer to raise himself to
different altitudes in the atmosphere, if necessary, bUt not to
alter his perpendicular station. The engineer is provided
with an instrument for the measurement of angles, which is
also furnished with a plumb—line: it is asked, how can the
engineer fulfil the object of his general ? . .

“ Solution.———The engineer must take two stations in the
same vertical line, whose difference he may ascertain by mea-
suring the cord let out, to raise the balloon from one station
to the other. In one of these, the lowest, for example, let
him measure the angles made by the zenith with the visual
rays directed towards the points whose position he wishes to
determine on the chart; then, among these points, let him
select one, which he will consider as the first, and which we
shall denominate A; let him also measure successively the
angles formed by the visual ray directed to the point A, and
those directed towards all the other points. In the second
station, let him measure the angles formed by the zenith with
the visual rays directed to all the points of the country : and
from these observations, he may construct the chart required.

“ \Vhen we are acquainted with the angles formed by the
zenith with the two visual rays directed from the two stations
towards the same point, we know that such point is at once
upon two determinate and known conic surfaces, with
circular bases, having their axes in the same zenith, the dis-
tance of their apices equal to the difference of the altitudes of
the two stations, and the angles formed by their generators
with the common axis equal to the angles observed. Also,
when we are acquainted with the angle formed by the visual
ray directed from the first station to this point, and by that
directed towards the point A, we know that the point con-
sidered must likewise be on a third conic surface, with a cir-
Cular base, whose inclined axis is the visual ray directed from
the first station towards the point A, having its apex in the
first station, and forming an angle between its axis and
generator equal to the angle observed. The point consi-
dered, therefore, will be found at the same time on conic sur-
faces with circular bases, of known form and position ; con-
sequently it must be the point of their common intersection ;
and by Constructing the horizontal and vertical projections of
the intersection, we shall obtain the position of the point on
the chart, with its elevation above or below others.

“ Without varying from these considerations, the construc-
tion may be rendered more simple, by some of the methods
already prescribed : for with a knowledge of the angles
formed at the first station by the visual ray directed towards
the point A, and by the rays directed towards all the other
points ; and knowing the angles formed by the sides of these
angles with the zenith, it is easy to reduce them to the horizon,
viz. by constructing their horizontal projections. By select-
ing, therefore, on the chart, an arbitrary point, to represent
the projection of the zenith of the balloon, and drawing an
arbitrary right line through it, to represent the projection of
the visual ray directed towards A ; drawing also, through
the same point, right lines, making with such projection of
the ray, angles equal to those reduced to the horizon ; it is
evxdcut that each of these lines must contain the horizontal
projection of its correspondent point of country. It only
remains, then, to find the distance of this point of the country
from the zenith. For this purpose, take, in the vertical pro-
jection, and upon the projection of the zenith of the balloon,
"V0 Pom“: which in parts of the scale are distant from each

3 r

 

other equal to the measured distance of the two stations, and
through these points draw right lines making with the zenith
angles equal to those observed for an identical point of
country ; which lines will cross each other in a point whose
distance from the zenith will be the distance required ; and
by measuring iton the corresponding ray, beginning from the
projection of the balloon, we shall have on the chart, the
position of the point of country. The same two right lines,
in the vertical projection, will, by their intersection, determine
the height of such point ; therefore, by taking on the vertical
projection, the heights of all the points of country above a
common horizontal plane, we shall be able to determine the
quotas suitable for all the points of the chart, and likewise
the level of the country.

“ This construction is so easy, that it does not require a.
figure.

“ The right line drawn from the projection of the zenith
of the balloon to that of the first point, A, observed, having
been in the first instance traced upon the chart arbitrarily,
it follows that the chart is not adjusted to the cardinal points,
and, indeed, in the observations laid down, we find nothing
by which to determine the objects observed towards them.
But if an engineer observe on the earth, the angle made by
the meridian with a visual ray directed from the foot of the
zenith towards one of the points placed on the chart, and if
he describe this angle upon its projection, he will have the
direction of the meridian, and the chart will be adjusted to
the cardinal points.”

The great length to which our extracts from Monge’s
work have extended, will be, we trust, pardoned, in consi-
deration of the value of those extracts ; and of our desire to
do the most ample justice to the learned and ingenious author.
Though many works of a similar kind by eminent writers
have since issued from the press, the Geometric Descriptive
of Monge still holds a most distinguished place; and will con-
tinue to be regarded as one of the best elementary books of
modern times.

DESICCATION, (Latin, desicco, to dry), the act of
making dry; it is the chemical operation of drying bodies,
and is effected in different modes, according to the nature of
the substance. The term, Desiccating Process, has been
applied to a patented invention, (Davison and Symington’s
Patent), for seasoning or drying a great variety of sub-
stances. It is said to have been used with success in season-
ing wood.

DESIGN, (designo, Latin; dessez'n, French), an original
drawing of a building to be executed, comprehending the
invention, composition, and arrangement of the whole. A
design includes plans, elevations, and sections of the building
intended to be carried into execution, besides other drawings
of details, or parts at large. The number of these will, of
course, depend either upon the nature of the building, that is,
on its being more or less complex, or as it is intended to show
it more or less fully. A small simple house will only require
one plan and an elevation. A large edifice, with great variety
of parts, will require plans of each story, elevations of the
different fronts, a longitudinal and transverse section, and, in
general, as many drawings as will be sufficient to explain all
the parts. All the minute parts, as bases, capitals, architraves,
friezes, cornices, and other mouldings, are to be exhibited in
their true geometrical proportion, at full size.

There is, perhaps, a certain prejudice against drawings of
this kind, from an impression too generally entertained, that
they are unintelligible except to the initiated. This feeling
would be easily removed, were unprofessional persons to take
the pains to examine a complete set of welhprepared architec~
tural drawings. A very little explanation renders these draw-

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DES

266

DET.

 

ings perfectly clear to any person of common capacity, how-
ever ignorant he may be of architecture.

To begin with the plum—This may be described as the
map of the building. By its means we distinguish most
clearly the exact shape and extent of the structure as regards
the space on which it stands ; the thickness of the walls, the
internal arrangement of all the rooms and passages ; and the
situation and width of doors, windows, fireplaces, stair-
cases, Sue. The raised and solid parts, such as walls, columns,
piers, &c., are shaded; the voids and apertures, such as doors,
windows, &c., are left white. For every story of a building
there should be a separate plan, although it is not usual, in
books of designs, to give more than those of the ground-floor,
and the principal one above it.

Next to the plan we may describe the Elevation. This may
be defined as a vertical plan; it shows the front, or one
external face of the building, and gives the precise forms
and measurements of every part, drawn to scale. It must be ob-
served, that the particular in which an elevation differs from
other drawings, and from the appearance of the objects them-
selves, is, that no distinction is made between curved hori-
zontal lines and straight ones; so that, whether the part be
a plane or a curved surface, can be understood only from the
shadovving, unless there happens to be something that assists
in denoting curvature of plan. Thus, the mouldings of the
base of a column are all straight lines ; consequently, with—
out shadow to express rotundity, we could not determine
whether they belonged to a flat or a. round surface, unless the
shaft be fluted, in which case the flutes will diminish in width,
according to their distance from the centre.

Elevations have sometimes given to them something of a
pictorial character, by colouring as well as by shadowing,
and not unfrequently by the addition of sky and background.
It would be better, perhaps, were such accompaniment re-
stricted to what may be just sufficient to relieve the building,
instead of being extended over the whole picture, and care-
fully worked up; because such additions to the usual plain
architectural drawing are calculated to give a formal and
stiff appearance to the drawing, offensive to good taste and
simplicity. In modern architectural publications, especially
foreign ones, outline elevations are now generally given; these
are preferable to those which are shadowed, as they exhibit
all the forms more distinctly, and admit of being measured
with much greater exactness.

We next proceed to describe the Section. A section is the
projection or geometrical representation of a building sup-
posed to be cut by a vertical plane, for the purpose of exhi-
biting the interior, and describing the height, breadth, thick-
ness, and manner of construction of the walls, 8L0. By the
section we are made acquainted with a variety of particulars,
in regard to which a plan cannot be made to afford any infor-
mation. It shows us the thickness of the walls and floors, the
heights of the rooms, the forms and profiles of ceilings, whe-
ther fiat, coved, or arched, also the exact forms of domes and
skylights. It shows the heights of the doors, how they are
panelled and decorated, the form of the chimney-pieces, &c.,
and, in some instances, furniture and fittings-up are advan-
tageously introduced, with a view to judge of effect. For
detailed and filled-up sections, it is usual to employ outline
with the walls and floors shaded, the former as more solid,
being made darker than the latter. When, on the other
hand, the elevations of the rooms themselves are shadowed,
the thickness of the intersected walls, &c., are left white, in
order to prevent confusion, and exhibit the profiles better.

Indispensable and interesting, however, as they are, sec-
tions are a far more conventional mode of drawing than ele-
vations, because they represent a building as it never can be

 

seen, except where the front of a. house has been taken down
for the purpose of rebuilding it, while the floors and partition-
walls are left standing; in which case any one may obtain a
good idea of the nature of a section, but of one seen in per—
spective.

Besides general sections showing the whole of a building
from top to bottom, there are frequently partial ones, show-
ing only the rooms on one floor, or even a single room, when
it is desired to show any particular apartment on a larger
scale than could conveniently be done any other way. Some-
times recourse is had to a plan of the room with each of its
sides drawn around it, as if laid flat on the ground, by which
means the whole of the apartment is described. Horizontal
sections also are given, to show more accurately than can be
done on a plan, the soffits of entablatures, the ceiling and its
ornaments, the window recesses, and door-cases, and the capi-
tals of columns and projection.

Besides the usual plans, elevations, and sections, there
should also be detailed drawings, answering, in some respect,
to what are termed working drawings ; these give a more cor-
rect idea of the minutite and finishing of the subject than can
be obtained from the general design only.

In a complete design, however, it is desirable to have per-
spective views both of the exterior and principal parts of the
interior. These enable a person to comprehend the character
and effect of the design as a whole, which, without such draw.
ings, can be judged of only piecemeal. The perspective
drawing of the exterior ought to exhibit the edifice from one
of the most frequented points of View, and ought also to be
so contrived as to make it impressive from every point whence
it can be seen, and particularly from those positions in which
the greatest part of the design is comprehended at one
view.

In very large works, a model will be useful for preventing
many mistakes that might otherwise arise, as all the parts
can be easily seen by inspection; but when drawings only
are used, from the number that are necessary to the perform-
ance of the work, a long examination and consideration are
requisite ; and after all, some of the most essential parts of
the construction may be, and frequently are, overlooked.

For other particulars respecting designs, we refer to the
articles APARTMENT, BREAK, BUILDING, HOUSE.

DESIGNING, the art of delineating or drawing the
appearance of natural objects by lines on a plane.

DESK, a part of a pulpit; as the clerk’s or precentor’s
desk ; also a kind of rostrum where the clergyman reads
the printed service of the English church.

DESTINA, Latin, a pillar or other support of a building,
in which sense the term is used by Vitruvius; but when
employed by ecclesiastical writers, it is usually applied by
them to the aisle of a church, or to a small cell.

DETACHED COLUMN, the same as INSULATED
COLUMN, which see.

DETAIL, (from the French, dt‘tailler) the delineation of
all the parts of an edifice, so as to be sufficiently intelligible
for the execution of the work. The detail is otherwise
denominated the working drawings.

The expression detail is also used in other ways, as, when
a moulding is exhibited in profile by abutting on a plane, it
is said to detail on the plane. Details in the fine arts are
minute and particular parts of a picture, statue, or building,
as distinguished from the general conception, or larger parts
of a composition.

DE'I‘ERIORAT ION, (from the Latin, deterior) the act
whereby a thing is rendered worse. This was the fate of
architecture in passing from the Greeks to the Romans, and
more particularly in the decline of the Roman empire.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DlA

DETERMINATE, a word applied in mathematics to
those problems which have one answer only, or at least
a certain and finite number of answers. -

DETERMINING LINE, in conic sections, the Intersec-
tion of a plane parallel to the cutting plane with the plane
of the base of the cone. In the sections of a cone which
produce the hyperbola, the determining line falls within the
base of the cone; in parabolic sections, it- forms a tangent
to the base. In the elliptic section, it falls without; and
when the section is a circle, the determining line will, in one
case, never meet the plane of the base, as in this instance
the cutting plane is parallel to the plane of the base. -

DIACON ICON, (from Bianca/cw, I serve, I mimster) a
place adjoining to the ancient churches, where the sacred
vestincnts, vessels, relics, and ornaments of the altar, were
preserved. This apartment was otherwise called sacristy.
It was also denominated aa-n- eucov, and in Latin, salutatorium ,-
because it was here that the bishop received and saluted
strangers. Sometimes it was called ,unrarwptoy, or ,uirarwpiov,
mensa, on account of the tables kept there.

DIAGONAL, (from the Greek, Biaytiwwc) in geometry,
:1 line drawn through any figure, from the vertex of one
angle to that of another.

Every rectilinear figure may be divided into as many
triangles, wanting two, as the figure has sides.

Every diagonal divides a parallelogram into two equal
parts.

A most excellent theorem in elementary geometry, first
demonstrated by Mr. Lagny, in the Mémoires de l’Academz'e
Rog/ale des Sciences, an. 1706, is, that the sum of the squares
of the two diagonals of every parallelogram is equal to the
sum of the squares of the four sides ; and it is evident that
the 47th proposition of Euclid may be derived as a mere
corollary from this theorem. The demonstration is as
follows: Let A B C D be an oblique parallelogram, of which
BB is the greater diagonal, and AC the lesser. From the
vertex, A, of the obtuse angle D A B, drop the perpendiculars
A E and B F to C D; then the triangles A D E, B C F, are equal
and similar; for A D is equal to B C, and the angles ADE
and BC F are equal to each other; also, the angles A E D, and
BF C, are equal to each other; consequently, DE is equal
to CF Now, by proposition xii. lib. ii. of Euclid, in the
obtuse-angled triangle B D C, the square of the side B D is
equal to the sum of the squares B C, C D, together with double
the rectangle C F by C D ; and by the 13th proposition of the
same book, in the triangle D A C, the square of A C is equal
to the sum of the squares of A D and C D, abating double the
rectangle of C D by DE equal to C F; for CF is equal to DE :
now, Since

BD°:BC’+CD’+2(OE x CD)
and AC2:AD’+AB’-—2(CF x CD)

 

Therefore RI)2 +Ac9 : BC’ + CD? +AI)2 +AB’

Then, if the parallelogram be right-angled, the diagonals are
equal, and consequently each equal to the squares of the two
sides containing other right angles Opposite that diagonal.

Hence, if one of the diagonals and a side be known, the
ether diagonal will likewise be known.

Another proposition, of a similar nature to the above, was
discovered by Ptolemy, viz., that the rectangles of any two
diagonals of a quadrilateral figure inscribed in a circle, is
equal to the sum of the two rectangles contained by the
opposite sides.

In taking the dimensions of a building, in order to make
a plan, it is by far the most accurate and expeditious method,
to take the diagonals. In carpentry and joinery, no polygonal

267

 

DIA

frame whatever can be rendered stationary or immovable
about the angles, without diagonal pieces, as the strength
consists in dividing the work into triangles. In geometry,
a polygon cannot be constructed by the linear dimensions of
its sides only, without the diagonals, as the area of the figure
may be variable under the same number of sides, ad infinitum,
from a certain position of the sides, in which they will con-
tain the greatest possible area to any less area whatever.

The impulse given to a body, at the same instant, by two
forces, in difi'erent directions, causes that body to move in
the diagonal of a parallelogram, of which, each of the forces
acting separately, would cause the body to describe a side,
in the same time as the body moved conjointly by the
two forces.

DIAGONAL BUTTREss, a buttress placed at the angle of
a building, chiefly used in churches of mediaeval date, and
employed to resist the thrust of the ribs of the last severy of
the vaulting. It answers the same purpose as two distinct
buttresses set square with the two walls at their intersection,
but with less material. Diagonal buttresses do not seem to
have been employed to any extent previous to the fourteenth
century, but are common in buildings of the Decorated style.
Previously, two buttresses at right angles were employed.

DIAGONAL MOULDING, the same as ZIG-ZAG or DANCETTE.

DIAGONAL PAVING. See PAVEMENT.

DIAGONAL RIB, a rib or groin passing diagonally across
a bay of vaulting from one angle to the Opposite.

DIAGONAL SCALE, a compound scale, by which a subdivision
may be made of any part of the smallest unit upon a straight
line, by means of equidistant parallels crossing others of the
same kind. '

DIAGRAM, (from 3La79a¢w, I describe) in geometry, a
scheme for the explanation or demonstration of a figure.

DIAL, (from the Latin, dies, day) an instrument serving
to measure time by the shadow of the sun. Or more par-
ticularly, the surface of a body so graduated that a certain
line parallel to the earth’s axis will show the hour of the
day, when the sun shines upon the surface of such body.

DIAMETER, (from 5m, through, and psi-pew, to measure)
a straight line passing through the centre of a circle, and
terminated at each end by the circumference; the diameter
is therefore a chord passing through the centre of the circle,
and is consequently greater than any other chord in the
same circle.

The diameter of a circle divides the circumference into
two equal parts.

For other particulars, see the article CIRCLE.

DIAMETER OF A COLUMN, the thickness of the lowest part
of the shaft at the bottom. In a colonnade, or range of
columns, the intercolumns should always be proportioned
to the diameter of the column.

DIAMETER OF A CONIC SECTION. See CONIC SECTION.

DIAMETER, Conjugate. See CONIC SECTION.

DIAMETER 0F DIMINUTION, the diameter at the top of the
shaft.

DIAMETER or A SPHERE. See SPHERE.

DIAMETER, Transverse, the longest axis of an ellipsis.

DIAMETERs, Conjugate, of a circle, two diameters at right
angles

DIAMOND, an instrument for cutting glass.

DIAMOND, the small instrument used by glaziers for cutting
glass, and formed by the setting of a fractured piece of
diamond in a wooden handle. There are now in use two
descriptions of pencil diamonds, the old one, and the new or
patent pencil. The defect of the former is the difiiculty
experienced in placing it on the glass in, at once, the proper
angle, so as to make it cut and not scratch. The patent

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DIG

268

DIL

 

pencil overcomes this difficulty, the diamond being fixed by
the peculiar mode of its setting at the correct angle at which
it will cut the glass. The diamond in these pencils is about
the size of an ordinary pin’s head, and is set in a nipple of
brass or copper. They are differently fitted up, according
to the quality of the material which they are to work upon.

DIAMOND FRET, a species of moulding consisting of fillets
intersecting each other, so as to form diamonds or rhombuses.

DIAMOND, Glass. See GLASS. ‘

DIAMOND, Pavement. See PAVEMENT.

DIANA, Temple of. See TEMPLE.

DIAPER, a panel or recessed surface enriched with
carving in low relief, and frequently gilded and coloured;
or a plain surface enriched with polychrome. Also a kind
of linen-cloth wrought with figures in weaving.

DIAPERING, the decoration employed in the relief of
any plain surface, by the interweaving of fret-work, or
covering the field with ornamental patterns. In some cases,
it consists in the application of colour only, but in others of
embossed or carved work, delicately chiselled, and also
enriched with gilding and colour. Diaper-work is usually
composed of small square panels, containing flowers in low
relief, as in the spandrels of the choir arches, and in other
parts of Westminster Abbey. There is a beautiful specimen
of later date on a monument in the choir of Canterbury
cathedral ; the design is composed of a flower of six leaves
in low relief, within a sexagonal compartment, the sides of
which are formed by the sides of six spherical triangles,
and are foliated within, and coloured azure and gules.
Another specimen is to be seen in the Lady Chapel,
Ely, at the back of the canopies of the ornamental
arcade which surrounds the walls; others at Waltham

3 Cross, and in many buildings erected during the reigns of

‘ Henry III. and Edward I.

1 vestments, 8m.

 

Diaperings of a rich and taste—
ful design were also employed in ecclesiastical hangings,
Some very beautiful designs may be seen
in Pugin’s Glossary. .

DIASTYLE, (from Bra, and euxog, a pillar) in classical
architecture, that distance between columns equal to three
diameters of the column ; or the word is applied to the edifice

3 itself, in which columns are applied at this interval.

DIATHYRA, the vestibule in front of the doors of a.
Greek house, answering to the prothyra of the Romans.

DIATONI, quoins or corner-stones bonding two walls
together.

DIDORON, (from the Greek) a kind of brick used by the
Greeks, being one foot long and half a foot broad.

DIE, ofa pedestal. that part contained between the base
and the cornice. See DYE.

DIFFERENTIAL, a term used to denote an infinitely
small quantity. The differential method is applied to the
doctrine of infinitesimals; it consists in descending from
whole quantities to their infinitely small differences, and
comparing them. Hence it is called the differential calculus
or analysis of infinitesimals.

DIGGING is performed by the solid yard of 27 cubic
feet.

In soft ground, where only cutting with the spade is

, necessary, a man will throw up a cubic yard in an hour, or

10 cubic yards in a day. But if hacking be necessary,

.1 an additional man will be required; and very strong gravel

; will require two.

The rates of a cubic yard depending thus
upon each circumstance, they will be in the ratio of the
arithmetical numbers 1, 2, 3. If, therefore, the wages of a
labourer be 2s. 6d. per day, the price of a yard will be 3d. for

‘ cutting only ; 6d. for cutting and hacking; and 9d. when two

hackers are necessary.

In sandy ground, when wheeling is requisite, three men
will be required to remove 30 cubic yards in a day, to the
distance of 20 yards, two filling and one wheeling; but to
remove the same quantity in a day, to any greater distance,
an additional man will be required for every twenty yards.

To find the price of removing any number of cubic yards
to any given distance :

Divide the distance in yards by 20, which gives the number

of 30 cubic yards—Then,
of 30 cubic yards to the cost of the whole.

to the distance of 120 yards, a man’s wages being three
shillings per day?

2,0) 12,0

6 number of wheelers.
2 fillers.

8 men employed.

3 shillings per day.

 

24 price of 30 cubic yards.

2750 X 24
—— : £110.
30

See farther under EXCAVATION.

DIGLYPH, (from the Greek, Ecykvqbog), a tablet with two
engravings or channels.

DIKE, or DYKE, (from the Saxon, die, a bank, or mound),
a work of stone, timber, or earth, supported by fascines,
raised to oppose the entrance or passage of waters of the sea,
a river, lake, or the like. These dykes usually consist of ele-

30 z‘ 2750 : z 24 :

 

and other matters.
DILAPIDATION, (from the Latin), the state of a build-
ing suffered to fall into a ruinouscondition by neglect. The

down or destroying the houses or buildings belonging to an

are few families who have not had occasion to feel how much
of annoyance, inconvenience, and loss, may be hidden under
the word dilapidations.

In the “Builder” of January, 1849, there appeared an

by one well acquainted with it, we consider its insertion here
will be both interesting and useful :—

“ This subject,” says the writer, “is one that has never
received proper consideration from the hands of a large class
who are interested and affected by it—‘ tenants.’ Men who
are daily imposing upon themselves heavy responsibilities, the
extent, or the peculiar obligations, and the ultimate result of
which they are totally unacquainted with.

“ Few persons on taking a lease think of raising objections
to covenants which are, they are informed, of the usual
character; or, if prudent enough to pledge themselves to an
agreement of but three years, they fearlessly, and without
hesitation, afiix their signatures to a clause promising to
‘uphold, maintain, and sustain,’ &c., or that which really
may turn out an impossibility; for some houses, so to speak,

 

As 30 cubic yards is to the whole number, so is the price

 

 

 

of wheelers ; add the two cutters to the quotient, and you will ,
have the whole number employed ; multiply the sum by the ‘
daily wages of a labourer, and the produce will be the price ‘

Example—What will it cost to remove 2,750 cubic yards, 3

 

vations of earth, strengthened with hurdles or stakes, stones, 1

term is usually restricted, in its legal sense, to the pulling ?

ecclesiastical benefice, or suffering them by neglect to fall ‘
into ruin or decay. In the experience of every-day life, there .

excellent letter on this subject, and as it is evidently written a

t have the elements of destruction and disease upon them from 1

 

 

 

 

DIL

their infancy. Bad brickwork, causing by its humidity damp
walls, rots everything; unseasoned timber, that shrinks and
twists in all directions, throwing floors out of their level, and
making settlements from top- to bottom, through which the-
doors and windows have to be constantly eased- and- rehung ;
faulty and imperfect drainage, which becomes constantly
choked ; the roof acting like a sieve; and this list of ills that
modern houses are heir to, is no exaggeration; yet manya
man, and he, too, who may be esteemed: in his own business
a prudent man, is induced, from a want of consideration,
readily to promise to do and perform all needful and neces-
sary repairs, or at least to leave the house in tenantable
repair. It is not a little amusing to observe the tenant’s sur-
prise at the end of his tenancy, on receiving a notice of dila-
pidations. What 2' he exclaims, and leave the house 100 per
cent better than when I took it ? This, and the various sums
of money paid. to jobbing tradesmen, all the accounts of whom
he can enumerate by heart, constitute the anchor of hope to
the poor tenant, when informed, in spite of all the benefits
the house has derived from him during his tenancy, that still
such and such are dilapidations, and as such he is answerable
for their being reinstated. In the present age, remarkable
for the number of scantily-constructed houses, with so nice
and clean, yet deceitful, an exterior, invitingly waiting for
tenants on lease or agreement, it cannot fail to be useful to
consider the nature of the obligation that exists between land-
lord and tenant upon the hire of house-property; for as mis-
takes will happen in the best regulated families, so do the
friendship, and good understanding that may have existed
between; landlord and tenant suddenly cease with. the termi-
nation of the lease. Covenants to repair, when once entered
into, are irrevocable ;, it is, therefore, most important that each
party should clearly understand what constitutes repairs or
dilapidations, and as to all defects, whether they arise from
accident, neglect, or decay, and by which party they are t

be made good. a;

“ A landlord, on making a claim from his tenant for dila-
pidations, must Show that (they are such as were stipulated
for in the lease, as the obligation on the part of the tenant to
make good, varies, in nearly every case, according to the
different covenants of the lease, by which the tenants are
bound by more or less stringent clauses, involving greater
or less responsibilities.

“ Mr. Gibbons, in, an excellent treatise on, this subject,
defines dilapidations as the act or default of a person having
to use a tenement to the injury of another having a right, to
the same tenement, or a tenant’s obligation may be considered
as depending on the old maxim—“ You must not injure an:
Other’s property, but use it as your own.” '

“ It is an imperative act ofjustice to himself for the future
tenant to make a stipulation that, previous to the commence-_
ment of his tenancy, the premises shall be surveyed ; so that,
if then there can be considered anything unsound or defect
tire on the premises, it may be made good before the agree-
ment is concluded, otherwise the tenant will find that he must
make good all, whatever was the state of repair when he
took possession, of the premises.

“ Houses held on lease—In the case of premises being let
on lease, a tenant should not be compelled to supply and make
good defects that may arise from time, and use, because, as
the tenant bargained for use, and gives to the owner an equi-_
valent rent, the landlord has a claim only for a restoration of
the tenement as injured by the tenant, but has no right to
make a claim for the wear to be made good ;_ but then, as the
tenant agrees to keep the house in tenantable repair, he is
bound to. supply all occasional and. accidental defects which
may expose the premises to premature decay. Accidents

3 z

269

 

DIL

happening during his tenancy, if not inevitable, must be
made good by the tenant, for it is fair to presume, that had
he adopted proper precautions, the accident might have been
prevented ; therefore, there exists an obligation not to suffer
d-‘ilapidations, and it is evident that the tenant is equally
bound not to do any act that will cause an: injury to the
tenement.

“ Voluntary waste means an alteration in the tenement, it
being held in: law that a lessee cannot change the nature of
the thing demised ; the act of alteration exceeds the right to
use, and infringes on the condition that the landlord shall
receive back the premises in the same state and condition as
when the lease was granted. It is, therefore, essential that a
tenant contemplating an. alteration or improvement should
receive proper permission and authority from the landlord.”

“Pemissive waste consists of a neglect on the part of a
tenant to supply the repairs required by time and use, and
also a neglect to make good occasional and accidental dilapida-
tions. Houses and outbuildings are the principal subject of
dilapidations, but the law extends to trees, land, changing
the course of industry, &c. but the chief subject is buildings.
These, though subject to decay in the progress of time, are
capable ofhaving the defective or decayed parts made good, and
are therefore subject to both permissive and voluntary waste.

“A tenant hiring premises on lease is bound to perform
tenantable repairs, which may be divided into three heads,—
the ornamental, which includes the trades of painter and
paper-hanger; the substantial, which includes the trades of
bricklayer and carpenter; the third includes all works which
tend. to preserve the fabric from decay—as, stopping out wind
and weather, which includes. the trades of the joiner, plas-
terer, and glazier.

“ Dilapi‘dations caused by accident are very serious upon a
tenant, as not only is the accident considered as a dilapida-
tion, but injuries arising therefrom, of- which the following is
an illustration from Mr. Gibbons :—“rIfabu-ilding be covered
with weather-boarding, and such boarding decay from age, so
long as it forms an entire and, complete covering, it is no
dilapidation ; but if, owing to any neglect, any of the internal
woodwork become injured, thatis a dilapidation. If the main
timbers decay, they are not chargeable as a dilapidation, so
long as they are an efficient support ; but if they give way,
the tenant is bound not only to) replace the timbers, but all
damage done by their fall. Accident, shown to be inevitable,
such as resulting from tempests, does not fall upon the

' tenant, as in the case of a house being prostrated, the tenant

need not rebuild, but if'the roof be blown ofl“, the tenant must
replace it. A tenant, generally speaking, is not answerable
for dilapidations resulting from natural decay, or the result
of time, or fair ordinary wear and tear, but is answerable for-
all extraordinary decay. For instance, as to decay caused by
the premises being exposed to the weather, as if the roof he
suffered to go in bad repair, the tenant must make good the
rafters and other timbers, if they are injured. Lord Chief
Justice Tindal defined a tenant’s obligation to repair thus :—
“ Where an old building is let, and the tenant enters into. a
covenant to repair, it is not meant that the old-building is to
be restored in a renewed form at the expiration of his tenancy,
or that the premises shall be of greater value than it was at
the commencement. What the (natural operation of time
flowing on effects, and all that the elements bring about in
diminishing the value, which, so far as it results from time
and nature, constitute a loss, falls upon. the landlord. But
then the tenant must be careful that the tenement do not
suffer more than time and nature would effect. He is bound
to keep the premises in nearly the same state of repair as
when demised.”

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DIM

270

DIM

 

“An annual tenant’s obligation has been thus laid down
by Lord Kenyon :——‘ A tenant from year to year is bound to
commit no waste, and to make from time to time fair and
tenantable repairs, such as windows and doors that be
injured during the tenancy.’ Lord Tenterden decided that
‘ an annual tenant was bound to keep the premises wind and
water tight.’

“ It seems but justice, that under any mode of letting or
hiring of house property, a tenant should be bound to use
all ordinary precautions to preserve the building from decay ;
therefore there exists an obligation to keep the outside and
the roof sound, perfect, and water tight ; and if the internal
woodwork decay sooner than it otherwise would do for
want of paint, &c., the tenant is bound to restore it. Glass,
if cracked or broken, becomes dilapidation, it being an
outside covering.

“ A tenant with no agreement as to duration ofhis tenancy,
cannot be bound to perform any repairs, the nature of his
tenancy being so weak that he cannot be expected to do any
repairs, as his landlord might immediately determine his
tenancy, and reap the advantage to be derived from the out-
lay : besides, if the house require any repairs being done, the
landlord can enter, and take any necessary steps for its pre-
servation ; but not so with premises let for a definite time,—
then, the landlord having granted the use for a certain period,
has not a right to enter upon the premises until the expiration
of the tenancy. Atenant under this mode of letting, is, how-
ever, bound neither to commit nor permit waste. This kind
of tenancy may be considered rather as a ‘ deposit than as a.
letting on hire,’ and the tenant’s obligation may be defined as
‘to use the house with care.”

The above extract gives a very clear and concise descrip-
tion of the responsibilities undertaken by tenants under
varied forms of tenancy. It is well worthy the attentive
perusal of the young professional man, and indeed the whole
subject of dilapidations is an important one, requiring his care-
ful study. It is one on which he is very frequently called
upon to advise ; and he will scarcely be competent to do so
unless well acquainted with the just claims of the landlord,
and the fair obligations of the tenant. To give in a list of
repairs required to be done, is simple enough in acting for
the landlord, but the surveyor should be well assured from a
practical acqaintance with what really are dilapidations, to
what extent he isjustified in calling on' the tenant to do them.

DIMENSION (from the Latin) a principal distance mea-
sured in a straight line on the surface of a body, in some
particular direction, or through some certain point, by the
help of which the body may be constructed or measured as to
its superficial or solid contents.

The dimensions of rectangular figures and solids are taken
along, or parallel to the straight lines which bound their sur-
faces ; and consequently rectangles have two dimensions, viz.
length and breadth, and rectangular prisms three dimensions,
viz. length, breadth, and thickness. The dimensions of a paral-
lelogram are the length of one side, and the distance from
that side to the opposite side of the same, so that the two
dimensions of a parallelogram are at right angles to each
other. The dimensions of any plane figure are the lengths of
the sides and diagonals. The dimensions of a circle are its
radius, diameter, or circumference, or all. The dimensions
of a regular polygon are the length of one of its sides, and
their number. The dimensions of any prism are the dimen-
sions of one of its ends or bases, and the perpendicular or
distance between the said ends or bases. The dimensions of
a pyramid are the dimensions of its base, and the distance or
perpendicular from the apex to the plane of the base. The

 

dimensions of a sphere are its diameter or circumference. ll

The dimensions of a spheroid are the fixed and revolving
axes. The dimensions of an irregular surface or body are in
a great measure arbitrary. The dimensions of an irregular
surface are thus taken : Fix upon some principal line passing
through the middle of the body in the direction of its greatest
extension, as nearly as can be judged ; then divide the length
of this line into equal parts ; through the points of division,
draw perpendiculars, terminated by the boundary; then the
length of the first line and of the perpendiculars are the
dimensions. The dimensions of a definite body may be
limited as to number, and the body may be accurately ascer-
tained, either with regard to its construction or solidin ; but
an indefinite body can never be ascertained for either, what-
ever may be the number of its dimensions : greater accuracy,
however, will be obtained, the greater the number of dimen—
sions taken. The dimensions of an irregular plane figure or
solid, ought to be taken in equidistant lines or planes.

The subjects to which dimensions are applied belong
to geometry, mensuration, and the construction of solids.
The method of squaring dimensions will be found under
the articles CROSS MULTIPLICATION, DECIMALS, and DUO-
DECIMALS.

In writing the dimensions of a body, consisting of many
difi'erent parts, in order to avoid mistakes, an eye-draught, or
sketch of the body, should be made, and two angles, each
with its apex fixed in the opposite extremities of the exten-

 

 

l
l

sion, with a number placed between them to denote the ‘

length of the line : thus, { ----- 36 ft. ----- } denotes 36
feet between the point of one angle and that of the other:
the opening of each angle is always turned towards the centre
of the line. By this method no mistake can occur, even
though ever so many other dimensions cross one another,
unless they come so close as to confuse. Simple rectangles,
or rectangular prisms, are most. frequently written down
without any eye-draught, and the dimensions entered in the
book with a cross between each, or the word BY ; thus, for a
rectangle, 3 .. 9’ X 4 .. 8', or 3 .. 9' by 4 .. 8' ; that is, 3 feet
9 inches by 4 feet 8 inches ; the mark thus ', signifyng that
the figures below are inches, and consequently that the first
is the place of feet. A solid is thus denoted, 5 . . 3' X 4 . . 8' X
12 .. 6', or 5 .. 3’ by 4 .. 8' by 12 ..6'; that is, the end, or
base, is 5 feet 3 inches by 4 feet 8 inches, and 12 feet
6 inches from end to end ; or the solid is 12 feet 6 inches
long, 5 feet 3 inches broad, and 4 feet 8 inches thick.

In finding the contents of artificers’ works in buildings,
the dimensions are placed one under the other, according to

their denominations, and the surface or solid is known by the-

number of its dimensions ; in order therefore to distinguish
any set of dimensions from the next, whether above or below,
a horizontal line must be drawn between them. See the
article Bmcxwonx.

DIMENSION Boon, a b00k in which the measurement of
the builder’s work is entered, specimens of which are given-
under the head BRICKWoRK.

DIMINISHED BAR, of a sash, one that is thinner on
the inner edge, or the edge next to the apartment, than where
it recedes close to the glass, in order to give it a lighter
appearance.

DIMINISHED COLUMN, one whose upper diameter is less
than the lower ; as is to be seen in all the regular orders 0!
architecture.

Dinmisume RULE, aboard cut with a concave edge. sc
as to ascertain the swell of a column, and try its curvature;
For the method of forming a diminishing rule, see COLUMN.

.DIMINISIIING SCALE, a scale of gradation, used in finding
the different points for drawing the spiral curve of the 1011i:
volute, by describing the arc of a. circle through every thret

 

 

 

 

DIN 27

I

DID

 

succeeding points, the extreme point of the last are being one
of the next, three: each point through .which the curve
passes being so regulated as to be in a llne drawn to the
centre of the volute, and the lines at equal angles With each
other. See SPIRAL and VOLUTE-

DIMINU'l‘ION OF COLUMNS, the continued contrac-
tion of the diameter, from the base to the top of the shaft.

Some modern authors make the diminution to commence
from one-third of the height of the column; but if ancient
methods are to have a preference, we shall find few examples
to authorize this practice. In all the Grecian antiquities of
Athens, or Ionia, the diminution commences invariably from
the bottom of the shaft, immediately above the apophyge:
and, according to the engravings from Stewart’s drawings,
the diminution is continued in a straight line, excepting in the
Temple of Corinth, where the swell is shown. The diminu-
tion is rarely less than one-eighth, or greater than onevsixth,
of the inferior diameter.

In Gothic architecture, neither swell nor diminution is
used ; all the horizontal sections being similar and equal.

In ancient examples, even of the same order, the diminu-
tion is very variable.

()ther particular remarks will be found under COLUMN.

DlNlNG-RCCM, an apartment in a house, appropriated
to the eating of dinners. The dining-room and drawing-room
ought to have some relation to each other in point of size, as
the company move from one to the other. In the smallest
houses, the dining—room ought to be the largest, and nearly
square upon the plan. In houses of a middle size, they are
very frequently of the same magnitude, which may be 18
teet in breadth, 24 feet in length, and 13% feet in height,
or 3-4ths of the breadth. In larger houses, the length may
be extended to 40 feet; and in very considerable edifices
even to 50 feet x in the latter case the length may be double
the breadth.

Dining-rooms are sometimes fitted up with a recess at one
end for receiving the side-board; but if the apartment be
very large, a recess at each end is necessary: these recesses
may be either square, or in the form of a niche. See HOUSE,
and Roost.

DIN ()CRATES, an eminent architect, patronized by
Alexander the Great; whose history is thus related by Vitru-
vius :—-—“ At the time that Alexander was conquering the
world, Dinocrates, the architect, confiding in his knowledge
and genius, and being desirous of obtaining the royal com-
mendation, left Macedon, and repaired to the army. He
carried with him letters from his relations and friends in his
own country, to the nobles of the first rank, that he might
thereby more easily gain access. Being favourably received,
he requested to be immediately presented to Alexander; they
gave him many promises, but made delays, pretending to
wait till a proper opportunity should offer. Dinocrates,
therefore. suspecting that he was derided, sought the remedy
from himself. He was very large of stature, had an agree-
able countenance, and a dignity in his form and deportment.
Trusting to these gifts of nature, he clothed himselfin the
habit of a host, anointed his body with oil, crowned his
head with boughs of poplar, put a lion’s skin over his left
shoulder, and holding one of the claws in his right hand,
approached the tribunal where the king was administering
:ustice. The novelty of the appearance attracting the notice
of the people, occasioned Alexander also to see him, who,
wondering at the sight, commanded way to be given, that
he might approach. Alexander then demanded who he was.
Dinocrates replied, ‘ I am a MacedOnian architect, who come
to thee with ideas and designs, worthy of the greatness of
thy fame; I have formed a design to cut Mount Athos into

 

the statue of a man, in whose left hand shall be a large city,
and in his right a bason, which shall receive all the rivers
of the mountain, and again discharge them to the sea.’
Alexander, delighted with the idea, immediately inquired,
if the country adjacent would produce sufficient food for the
sustenance of the inhabitants. When he understood that
provision must be conveyed thither by sea, he replied:
‘ Dinocrates, I discern the excellence of thy design, and am
pleased with it; but I consider, that whoever should establish
a colony in such a place, would hereafter be justly blamed;
for, as a new—born infant cannot be nourished, or gradually
reared to the different stages of life, without the milk of the
nurse; so neither can a city he peopled, nor can it thrive,
without fertile land and plenty of provision: however, as I
approve the design, though I disapprove the place, I will
have thee attend me, that elsewhere I may employ thee.’
From that time, Dinocrates remained with the king, and-
attended him into Egypt. There Alexander, observing a
spot which had a haven formed secure by nature, an excellent
place for an emporium, the adjacent country through all
Egypt being fruitful, and having the accommodation of the
river Nile, ordered him to build the city now called, from
his name, Alexandria. Thus, by the means of a graceful
countenance and dignity of person, Dinocrates became
eminent.”

Dinocrates was also employed to superintend the rebuild-
ing of the temple of Diana, at Ephesus, when burnt by
Erostatus, which he did with more magnificence than before.
The last design which history ascribes to him, was that of
erecting a temple to Arsinoe, queen of Ptolemy Philadelphus,
at Alexandria, with a dome above it, which was to enclose
a magnet, in order to keep suspended in the air an iron statue
of that queen. Ptolemy approved the design, and gave orders
for its execution; but both the king and the architect died
before the project could be accomplished.

DIOPHANTINE PROBLEMS, in mathematics, certain
questions relating to square and cube numbers, and right-
angled triangles, &c., the nature of which was determined
by Diophantus.

DIOPHANTUS, a celebrated mathematician of Alexan-
dria, reputed to have been the inventor of algebra. The
exact date of his birth is unknown ; some authors asserting
that he lived before Christ, and others after, in the reigns of
Nero and the Antonines. His reputation was very high
among the ancients, since they ranked him with Pythagoras
and Euclid in mathematical learning.

Diophantus left behind him thirteen books of arithmetical
questions, of which, however, only six are extant.

DIORAMA, a mode of painting and scenic exhibition
invented a few years ago by two French artists, Daguerre
and Bouton. The peculiar and almost magical effect of the
diorama arises, in a great degree, from the contrivance em-
ployed in exhibiting the painting, which is viewed through
a large opening or proscenium. Within this proscenium the
picture is placed at such distance, that the light is thrown
upon it, at a proper angle from the roof, which is glazed with
ground glass, and cannot be seen by the spectators. While
the light is thus concentrated on the picture, the spectators
are left in comparative darkness, by which the effect is
materially increased; and the illusion is rendered still more
complete, by the skilful manner in which the transitions of
light are managed. The light may be diminished or increased
at pleasure, and that either gradually or suddenly, so as to
represent the change from ordinary daylight to sunshine, from
sunshine to cloudy weather, or to the obscurity of twilight,
and also the difference of atmospheric tone attending them»-
By means of different folds or shutters attached to the glazed

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

‘U’

 

DIO

272

DIS

 

ceiling, transitions are produced in regard to light and atmos-
pheric effects of the most pleasing character. The diorama
is indeed a most perfect scenic representation of nature; by
varied and ingenious contrivances, it is capable of displaying
the greatest difference in its pictures. It is peculiarly adapted
for moonlight subjects, and for exhibiting such “accidents”
in landscapes as sudden gleams of sunshine and their dis-
appearance. For showing architecture, particularly interiors,
it is unrivalled, as powerful relief may be obtained without
that exaggeration in the shadows which is almost inevitable
in every other mode of painting. Although as yet only
employed for purposes of public exhibition, the diorama might
undoubtedly be made use of for the embellishment of such
parts of a building as corridors and the like, where light can
only be obtained from one extremity.

The Diorama in the Regent’s Park, was erected for the
exhibition of pictures with the effects we have been describing;
and as one of the most interesting and remarkable of the
‘sights of London,” deserves a passing notice.

The pictures exhibited are each about 72 feet long, and
42 feet wide, and are capable of being shifted and exchanged
for others when required. They are placed at distances from
the spectator proportioned to the angle at which he would
view the objects in nature ; and by the united talents of the
artist and the machinist, the illusion is rendered so perfect,
and so true to nature, that the beholder is almost led to doubt
that they are really the effect of art. Thus in architectural
subjects, as the interior of a cathedral, the whole is at one
moment subdued by gloom, as by the overshadowing of some
passing cloud. The “long—drawn aisle” and deep recesses
are obscured, all seems about to be buried in darkness, when,
in an instant, as though the interruption had passed away,
and the bright light of day was permitted to shine through
the windows in its full lustre, the Gothic architecture is
illumined in the most beautiful manner, the shadows projected
with force and truth, and the secondary lights produced
beneath the groinings of the roof in all the delicate gradations
of natural reflections. Landscape scenes undergo similar
changes, and admirable effects are produced in the transitions
from shade and darkness, to the brightness of light and
sunshine.

The elevation of the building was designed by Mr. Nash ;
it is of the Ionic order, the basement embellished with
columns and pilasters, &c., the centre of which is the
approach to the theatre. The building consists of a vesti-
bule and two lateral houses, facing a circular part of the
edifice, which may be regarded as the audience-room of
the theatre, and is occupied by boxes and an open area for
spectators. The sides of this circular part are painted and
adorned with festooned draperies, and the top is covered with
a transparent painting, divided into many compartments, and
charged with medallion likenesses of several eminent artists,
Over this semi-transparent ceiling, or inner roof, rises a coni-
cal roof, nearly half of which is glazed. The circular part
consists of a wall, two-thirds of a circle, with two small
doorways, and two large openings to the compartments of
the scenic theatre. Immediately within this wall, but
detached from it, is another wall, rising from the floor to the
inner ceiling, and which, with the floor, revolves on a pivot,
beneath. A large square opening, like the proscenium of a
theatre, allows the audience to view the pictures.

The Diorama was opened to the public in October, 1823,
and has ever since continued to be visited as one of the most
popular exhibitions in the metropolis.

DIPTERON, or DIPTEROS, (from the Greek), or DIP-
TERE, (from the French), in ancient architecture, a temple
surrounded with a double row of columns, forming a sort of

 

porticos, called wings, or aisles. Vitruvius informs us, that
dipteral temples were octostyle; but this he must mean only
in general; for they may be also decastyle. Indeed, they
could not have been less than octostyle, as no room would
have been left for the cell. The same author also observes,
that Hermoginus made a very great improvement in the con-
struction of dipteral temples, by taking away the interior
range of columns, which occasioned confusion in the perspec-
tive appearance.

DIRECT RADIAL, a right line from the eye, perpendi-
cular to the picture.

DIRECT ING LINE, the line in which an original plane
would cut the directing plane.

DIRECTING PLANE, a plane passing through the point of
sight, or the eye, parallel to the picture.

DIRECTING POINT, that in which any original line pro-
duced cuts the directing plane.

DIRECTOR or AN ORIGINAL LINE, the straight line
passing through the directing point and the eye of the
spectator.

DIRECTOR or THE EYE, the intersection of the plane with
the directing plane, perpendicular to the original plane and
that of the picture, and hence also perpendicular to the direct-
ing and vanishing planes; since each of the two latter is
parallel to each of the two former. The director of the eye
is also sometimes called the eye director.

DIRECTRIX, or DIRIGENT, in geometry, a term express-
ing the line of motion along which a describent line, or sur-
face, is carried in the genesis of any plane or solid.

Thus, if the line A B move parallel to itself, and along the
line A C, so that the point A always keeps upon the line A C,
it will form a parallelogram, A B C D, of which the side A B is
the describent, and A C the dirigent. So, also, if the surface
A B C D be supposed to be carried along the line C E in a posi-
tion always parallel to itself, in its first situation, the solid
A D E 11 will be formed, when the surface A D is the descri-
bent, and the line C E is the dirigent.

DIRETTA, the same as GOLA, or SmA-RECTA, which see.

DISCHARGE, (from the French), a term applied to a.
brick wall, or post, when trimmed up to a piece of timber
overcharged in its bearing ; in which case the wall or post is
a discharge to that bearing.

DISCHARGING Ancnns, rough brick or stone arches, built
over the wooden lintels of apertures. These are scheme
arches, being the segments of very large circles. Dis-
charging arches are employed in the inside of external walls,
or in partition walls. The length of the chord of a dis-
charging arch should exceed that of the wooden lintels
beneath, so that when the wood begins to decay, the lintels
may be taken out, and the arch will be sufficient to sustain
the superincumbent part of the wall, as well as that the arch
may be sustained by the walls, and not have any dependence
upon the lintels. To make the arches resist with greater
force, the lintels should not have more wall-hold than what
may be found sufficient to sustain the superincumbent part
while building: indeed, if walls be well built, upon firm
ground, wooden lintels may be dispensed with.

DISCHARGING STRUTS, the same as auxiliary rafter, or
principal braces : the term is used by Batty Langley.

DISH-OUT, to form coves of any kind by means of ribs,
or to form wooden vaults for plastering upon.

DISlllNG-OUT, any kind of coved work formed by wooden
ribs, for plastering upon. The term is of the same import
as cradling.

DISPLUVINATED CAVEEDIUM. See CAV.£DIL'M.

DISPOSITION, (from dispouo, to place), in architecture,

 

j the just placing of the several parts of a building, according;

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DIS

273

DOD

 

to their use ; as, disposition of apartments, disposition of
columns, as eustyle, diastyle, pichnostyle, &c.

DISTANCE OF THE EYE, in perspective :—-If a straight
line be drawn from the eye, perpendicular to the plane of the
picture, the intercepted part of such line is termed the dis-
tance of the eye.

DISTANCE, Point of: See POINT OF DISTANCE.

DISTANCE OF A VANISHING LINE, the length of a perpen-
dicular, falling from the eye perpendicular to the vanishing
line.

DISTANCE, Inaccessible. See TRIGONOMETRY.

DIS'I‘EMPER, (from the French, détremper, to temper, or
dilute), in painting, the working up of colours with something
besides mere water or oil. If colours be prepared with water,
the painting is called liming ; and if with oil, it is called paint-
ing in oil, or simply painting.

If the colours be mixed with size, whites of eggs, or any
such proper glutinous or unctuous substance, and not with
oil, they then say it is done in distemper ; as those of
the admirable cartoons, formerly at Hampton Court, and
as all ancient pictures are said to have been before the
year 1410.

In distemper, the white colour or base generally used is the
finest whiting, which is prepared in large quantities by vari-
ous manufacturers. The colours most commonly mixed with
it for producing the various tints are as follows :—Straw
colour may be made with white and masticot, or Dutch pink ;
fine grays, with white and refiner’s verditer; an inferior gray
may be compounded with blue black or bone black, and damp
blue or indigo; pea-greens, with French green, Olympian
green ; and fawn colour, with burnt sienna or burnt umber
and white, and so of any intermediate tint. All the colours
used in distemper, should either be ground very fine, or
washed over so as to ensure the most minute division of their
particles. In general, the size made of common glue is used
with a proper quantity of water to render the colour liquid,
but where the work will afford it, parchment-size will be
found greatly superior.

It will not require less than two coats of any of the fore-
going colours, in order to cover the plaster, and bear out with
an uniform appearance. When old plastering has become
discoloured by stains, and it be desired to have it painted in
distemper, it is advisable to give the old plaster, when pro-
perly cleaned Off and prepared, one coat at least of white-lead
ground in oil, and used with spirits of turpentine, which will
generally cover all old stains, and, when quite dry, will take
the water-colours very kindly.

The best methods of compounding the colours with the
vehicles, is to mix the size in water, then to levigate the
colours in part of it, and afterwards to put each kind into
a proper pot, adding as much more of the melted size as will
bring it to a due consistence, and mixing the whole well toge-
ther in a pot with a brush or wooden spatula. Warm water
may he afterwards added, if necessary, for grinding the
colours, or for working. The pots must be covered with
bladders, and tied. This method of painting is chiefly con-
fined to scenes and grosser works, where the effect depends
more upon the perspective and opposition of the colours, than
upon their brightness.

DISTRIBUTION, the dividing and disposing of the
several parts of a building according to some plan, or to
the rules of architecture. The proper distribution or arrange-
Inent of the various apartments in a large building is of great
Importance, and may be either good or bad, as they may be
best suited to answer their use. That arrangement only can
deserve the former appellation, in which every apartment
seems placed in its very best position, with regard to archi-

4 A

 

tectural symmetry, elegance of appearance, and domestic
convenience. -

DISTYLE, (Greek, Bum-arvhog), a portico of two columns.
It applies rather to a portico with two columns in antis, than
to the mere two-columned porch.

DITRIGLYPH, an interval admitting two triglyphs over
the intercolumn ; that is, if in two adjoining columns a tri-
glyph be placed with its middle over each, the ditriglyph will
contain three metopes, or spaces, two half triglyphs, and two
whole triglyphs.

DIVAN, among the Orientals, a council-chamber, or the
saloon or hall in which a council is held : it is applied gene-
rally to denote a state apartment, or room in which company
is received.

DIVERGING LINES, such as are continually increasing
in their distance from each other.

DIVIDERS. See MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENTS.

DIVISION, I—Iarmonical. See HARMONICAL DIVISION.

DIVISION OF AN ORDER. See ORDER.

DOCK, an artificial receptacle for shipping, generally
formed by excavation, and enclosed by gates, which open for
the ingress and egress of vessels; the sides are usually con-
structed of masonry.

DOCK, a place artificially formed on the side of a harbour
or bank of a river, for the reception of ships. Docks arepf
two kinds, wet-docks and dry-docks. A wet-dock is an exca-
vation or basin Of considerable extent, which vessels can
enter to discharge or take in their cargoes, and in which
they are always afloat; of this kind are the immense docks
of London, Liverpool, and other places of great commerce.
A dry-dock is used for inspecting and repairing ships, and is
so contrived, that the water can be admitted or excluded at
pleasure, so that a vessel can be floated in when the tide
is up, and the water may run out with the fall of the tide;
or, the gates of the dock being closed to prevent the egress
of the water, it is pumped out by steam-power. Dockyards
belonging to the government usually consist of dry-docks for
repairing ships, and Of slips on which new vessels are built ;
besides which they comprise storehouses, in which various
kinds Of naval stores are kept, and workshops in which dif-
ferent processes subsidiary to ship-building, are carried on.

DODECAGON, (EwEaKa, twelve, and 'ywl/La, angle), a
regular polygon or figure, with twelve equal sides and
angles.

If the radius of a circle OADF, be so divided into two
parts, that the rectangle under the whole and the one part
shall be equal to the square of the other part ; then this last
part will be equal to the side 0 D of a regular decagon
AB C D E F, &c., inscribed in the circle ; and that line whose
square is equal to the two squares of the whole, and Of the
same part, will be equal to the side, AC, of a regular pen‘
tagon inscribed in the same circle. For, draw the radii
0A, 0 c, O D, OF; also draw AD, cutting O C in G, and let
A H be perpendicular to O G. The triangle 0 D G, having the
angle COD (= 12. DOF : OAD) : ODA, is isosceles: the
triangle AOG, having AGO (: GDO + DOG = 2 D00)
2 A 0 C, is likewise isosceles ; as is also the triangle CD G;
because,OGDbeing : AGO, and CDG (ODA) = FAD, the
triangles A O G and C D G are equiangular; consequently,
C D, A 0 ; C G, G 0, being corresponding sides, we have
CG x Ao(cG x 00) 2 CD x GO : G09,because
G 0 : GD : D C, the side of the decagon, 8m. Moreover,
because AG : A0, IIG will be II o; and G 0 being the
difference of the segments H O and II C, we have A c“ —- Ao'
: C 0 X G C : 0 G’; and consequently AC’ (3'. e. the square
of the side of the pentagon) : A02 + 0 G’.

Let co = a, G0 : x, then will co = a—z; and by

Jr

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DOD

274

DOG

 

this proposition, a —— x X a : x’ and x” + a x : a”; and re-2
solving this quadratic equation, we shall have x” + a_a_c_+ 3‘; a
=a°+fia°=5~a’; whencex + %a: Jga”, andx: N/gai—ga.
Let the radius a be : 1, and G 0, or the Side of a regular
decagon inscribed in the circle, is = J .} — 12-. Hence it
appears that the sine of 18° (or half the side of a decagon
inscribed in the circle) is : .12. \/ J} —— ,1; : lg V 1.25 — i :
1 .11803398
2

 

, 8w. ——fi= .55901699, &c.——.25 : .30901699, 8:0.

It the side of a dodecagon be 1, its area will be equal to

three times the tangent of 75° : 3 X 2 + J3 211.1961524
nearly; and, the areas of plane figures being as the squares
of their sides, 11.1961524 multiplied by the square of the
side of any dodecagon, will give its area. Hutton’s Mensu-
ration, p. 114.

To inscribe a dodecagon in a given circle—Carry the
radius six times round the circumference, which will divide
it into six equal parts, or form a hexagon, (see HEXAGON);
then bisect each of those parts, which will divide the whole
into 12 parts, for the dodecagon.

DODECAHEDRON, (from dwdma, twelve, and édpa, seat),
one of the regular bodies comprehended under twelve equal
sides, each of which is a pentagon ; or, a dodecahedron may
be conceived to consist of twelve quinquangular pyramids,
whose vertices, or tops, meet in the centre of a Sphere con-
ceived to circumscribe the solid; consequently they have their
bases and altitudes equal.

To find the solidity of the dodecahedron—Find that of one
of the pyramids, and multiply it by the number of bases,
viz, 12 ; the product is the solidity of the whole body. Or
its solidity is found by multiplying the base into one-third
of its distance from the centre, twelve times; and to find this
distance, take the distance of two parallel faces; the half is
the height.

The diameter of the sphere being given, the side of the
dodecahedron is found by this theorem; the square of the dia—
meter of the sphere is equal to the rectangle under the aggre-
gate of the sides of a dodecahedron and hexahedron inscribed
in the same, and triple the side of the dodecahedron. Thus,
if the diameter of the sphere be 1, the side of the dodecahe-
dron inscribed will be ( \/:g~—- d13~) —:- 2; consequently, that
is to this as 2 to (J% — ~/%) and the square of that, to the
square of this, as 6 : 3 -— ¢5. Therefore the diameter of
the sphere is incommensurable to the side of an inscribed
dodecahedron, both in itself and its power.

If the side, or linear edge, of a dodecahedron be 3, its sur-
face will be

15 s’ ./1 + % $5 = 20.6457788 s”: and its solidity

5 s ,l 47 + 21 ./3
= 7.66311896 8’.

 

40

If the radius of the sphere that eircumseribes a dodecahe-
dron be r, then is

 

,/'1?— «'3—
its side or linear edge = ~—————-- 7‘,
3
its superficies = 10 r’ d2 —— ‘5 ¢5, and
20 R ,/3 + f5
its solidity 3 — 30

 

The sides of a dodecahedron inscribed in a sphere is equal
to the greater part of the side of a cube inscribed in the
same sphere, and cut according to extreme and mean propor-
tion. If a line be so cut, and the lesser segment be taken for
the side of a dodecahedron, the greater segment will be the
side of a cube inscribed in the same sphere. The side of the
cube is equal to the right line which subtends the angle of
a pentagon, of the dodecahedron inscribed in the same
sphere.

DODECASTYLE, an edifice having twelve columns in
front.

DOG-LEGGED STAIRS, such as are solid between the
upper flights; or those which have no well-hole; and the
rail and balusters of both the progressive and retrogressive
flight, fall in the same vertical plane. The steps are fixed to
strings, newels, and carriages ; and the ends of the steps of
the inferior kind terminate only on the side of the string,
without any housing.

No. 1. The plan.—-a the seat of the newel; g the seat of
the upper newel.

The dotted lines represent the faces of the risers, and the
continued lines the nosings of the steps.

No.2. The elevation.—A B the lower newel, the part BC
being turned ; G 11 the upper newel ; D E, F G, the lower
and upper string-boards, framed into the newel; KL :1
joist framed into the trimmer I; kl, no, qr, (30., the
faces of the risers; mn, pg, st, the heads, or cover-
boards; m, p, 3, ($40., nosings of the steps; M 0, F Q, the
upper and lower ramps.

To describe the ramps—Suppose the upper one to be
drawn ; produce the horizontal part, 11 M, of the rail to P:
draw MN perpendicular to P11, and produce the straight
part, B 0, to N : make N 0 equal to NM : draw 0 P at right
angles to EN: from P, as a centre, describe the arc MO:
and describe another concentric circle to meet the under side
of the rail, and the sloping part B O; and the ramp will be
completed.

1: s, the story-rod ; this is a necessary article in fixing the
steps ; for if a common measuring rule be used for this pur-
pose, the workman will be very liable to err either in excess
or defect, and thus render the stairs extremely faulty ; which
cannot be the case if the story~rod be applied to every riser,
and if the successive risers be regulated thereby. “'hen steps
are put up without the use of the story-rod, the smallest
error is liable to multiply.

In the construction of dog-legged staircases, the first thing
is to take the dimensions of the stair and the height of the
story, and lay down a plan and section upon a floor to the
full size, representing all the newels and steps ; then
the situation of the carriages, pitching-pieces, long bearers,
and cross bearers, will be ascertained, as also of the string-
boards.

The quantity of room allowed for the stairs, and the
situation of the apertures and passages, will determine whe-

ther there are to be quarter-paces, half-paces, one-quarter '

winders, or two-quarter winders. In order to give all the

variety possible, we shall suppose the flight to consist of 3

two-quarter winders.

The strings, rails, and newels, being framed together, they
must be fixed with temporary supports; the string-board
will show the situation of the pitching-pieces, which must be
put up next in order, wedging one end firmly into the wall,
and fixing the other to the string-board; this being done,
pitch up the rough strings, and thus finish the carriage part
of the flyers. In dog-legged staircases, the steps and risers
are seldom glued up, except in cases of returned nosings;
suppose them, therefore, to be of separate pieces ; proceed to

 

 

 

 

 

' PZATE I.

D©G=LEGGED S ”FAIR S a

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Ely/aved by 3.40wa .

LL‘MPANY UTMI “TED

PULLLE SING

PRINTING AND

THE LONDON

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DOG 275

put up the steps : place the first riser in itssituation, having
fitted it down close to the floor; the top being broughtto a
level at its proper height, and the face in Its.r1ght posrtion,
fix it with flat—headed nails, driving them obliquely through
the bottom part of the riser into the floor, and then nailing
the end to the string-board ; proceed then to cover the riser
with the first tread, observing to notch out the farther
bottom angle opposite the rough strings, so as to make 1t.fit
closely down to a level on the top Slde, whlle the under Side
beds firmly upon the rough strings at the back edge, and to
the riser towards the front edge : nail down the tread to the
rough strings, driving the nails from the seat, or place. on
which the next riser stands, through that edge of the riser
into the rough strings, and then nailing the end to the string-
board; begin with the second riser, havmg brought it to a
breadth, and fitted it. close to the top of the tread, so that
the back edge of the tread below it may entirely lap over the
back of the riser, while the front side is in its regular ver-
tical position : nail the head of the riser, from the under side,
taking care that the nails do not go through its face, and
thereby spoil the beauty of the work.

Proceed in this manner, with tread and riser alternately,
until the last parallel riser. The face of this riser must stand
the whole projection of the nosing back from the face of the
newel. Then fix the top of the first bearer, for the first
winding tread, on a level with the top of the last parallel
riser, so that the farther edge of this bearer may stand about
an inch forward from the back of the next succeeding riser,
for the purpose of nailing the treads to the risers upwards,
as was done in the treads and risers of the flyers ; and hav-
ing fitted the end of this bearer against the back of the riser,
and nailed or screwed them fast together, fix a cross-bearer,
by letting it half its thickness into the adjacent sides of the
top of the riser, and into the top of the long bearer, so as
not. to cut through the horizontal breadth of the long bearer,
nor through the thickness of the riser, as this would weaken
the one, and spoil the look of the other. Then fix the riser
to the newel, driving a nail obliquely from the top edge of
the former into the latter : then proceed to put down the first
winding tread, fitting it close to the newel, in the bird’s-
mouth form. Proceed in this manner with all the succeed-
ing risers and treads, always fixing in the bearers, previously
to laying each successive tread, until the steps round the
winding part are entirely completed. Then proceed with
the upper retrogressive range of flyers as with those below.
Fit the brackets into the backs of the risers and treads, so
that their edges may join each other on the sides of the rough
strings, to which they are fixed by nails, and thus the work
is completed. Some workmen do not mind the close fitting of
the riser; but it certainly makes the firmest work.

In the best kind of dog-legged stairs, the nosings are
returned; sometimes the risers are mitred to the brackets,
and sometimes mitred with quaker-strings : in the latter case,
a hollow is mitred round the internal angle of the under side
of the tread, and the face of the riser. Sometimes the string
is framed into the newel, and notched to receive the ends of
the steps ; the other end having a corresponding notch-
board, and the whole flight is put up like a step-ladder.
In order to get the lower part for the turning, set the thick-
ness of the capping on the return string-board, and where
that falls on the newel below, is the place of the lower limit
for the turning.

Tofind the section of the cap of the newel for the turner.—
Draw a circle to its intended diameter: draw a straight line
from the centre to any point without the circumference, and
set half the breadth of the rail on each side of that line;
through the point, draw a line parallel to the middle straight

 

DOG

line, and the extreme lines will contain the breadth of the
rail: draw any radius of the circle, and set half the breadth
of the rail from the centre towards the circumference 3
through the point where this breadth falls, draw a concen-
tric circle ; from the point where this circle cuts the middle
line of the rail, draw two lines to the points where the
breadth of the rail intersects the outer circle, and these
lines will show the mitre. See HAND-RAILING and Sun:-
CASING.

DOGS, otherwise termed andirons or endirons, creepers, 8w.
iron standards used in the olden times to support the logs of
wood when consumed for fuel. The distinction between the
andirons and creepers consists in the former being of a larger
size than the latter ; the use of the andirons was to support
the logs, and of the creepersto keep the brands of the
hearth. ENDIRONS.

DOG-TOOTH, an ornament very prevalent in edifices of the
Early English style, in which it forms a very marked feature.
It consists of a pyramidal flower of four leaves, so disposed
as to have the space between the two adjacent leaves in the
centre of the sides of the pyramid; a series of such orna-
ments is very frequently seen inserted in a hollow moulding.

DOME, a term applied to a covering of the whole or part
of a building. The Germans call it Dam, and the Italians
Duomo, and apply the word to the principal church of a city,
although the building may not have any spherical or poly-
gonal dome. From this and other circumstances we may
infer the term to be derived from the Latin Domus, house.

A dome is an arched or vaulted roof, springing from a
polygonal, circular, or elliptic plan ; presenting a convex sur-
face on the outside, or a concavity within, so as that every
horizonal section may be of a similar figure, and have a.
common vertical axis. According to the plan from which
they spring, domes are either circular, elliptical, or polygonal;
of these, the circular may be spherical, spheroidal, ellipsoidal,
hyperboloidal, paraboloidal, 8:0. The word dome is applied
to the external part of the spherical or polygonal roof, and
cupola t0 the internal part. Cupola is derived from the
Italian cupo, deep, whence also our word cup. But cupola
and dome are often used synonymously, although perhaps
incorrectly. Such as rise higher than the radius of the
base, are denominated surmounted domes ; those that are of
a less height than the radius, are called diminished or surhased;
and such as have circular bases, are termed cupolas.

The remains of ancient domes are generally spherical in
their form, or built of stone or tufo. Ruins of numerous ones
still exist in the neighbourhood of Rome and Naples. They
were frequently used among the Romans, after the accession
of Augustus, in whose reign, the use of the arch, and conse-
quently of domes, first became common. The arch, indeed,
is of Grecian origin, though in all the ancient edifices of that
country, we do not meet with a single instance of a built
dome: that which covers the monument of Lysicrates, being
only a single stone, can only be looked upon as a lintel: and
the invention of this species of vault seems justly attributed
to the Romans, or Etrurians.

Of the ruins of domes in and near Rome, the principal are
the Pantheon, and the temples of Bacchus, Vesta, Romulus,
Hercules, Cybele, Neptune, and Venus, and also some of the
chambers of the Thermae. The most magnificent dome of
antiquity is that of the Pantheon, at Rome, built in the reign
of Augustus, and supposed to be a chamber of the great
baths of Agrippa. It; is still entire, and consists of a hemi-
spherical concavity, enriched with coffers, and terminating
upwards in an aperture, called the eye. The exterior rises
from several degrees, in a sloping direction, nearly tangent
to the several internal quoins, and presenting to the spectator

 

 

 

 

5'1"!

 

 

 

 

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the truncated segment of a sphere, considerably less than a
hemisphere. The diameter of the dome internally is 142
feet 8% inches ; the circular opening at the top in the centre
28 feet 6 inches in diameter ; the height from the top of the
attic 70 feet 8 inches. The interior of the dome is orna-
mented with five rows of square compartments, and as these
converge towards the top, each row is considerably larger than
that immediately above it. Each of the large squares con-
tains four smaller ones sunk one within the other. It is sup-
posed that these were decorated with plates of silver. The
base of the dome externally consists of a large plinth with six
smaller plinths or steps above it; and in the curve of the
dome a flight of steps is formed which leads to the opening
at the top of the dome. From the drawings of Serlio, it
appears that similar flights of steps were formed at intervals
all round the dome, but these are now covered with lead.
The dome is constructed of bricks and rubble. The thick-
ness at the base is about 17 feet ; at the top of the highest
step, 5 feet 1%,» inches ; and at the top of the dome, 4 feet 7
inches. The circular wall which supports the dome is 20
feet thick, but is divided by several large openings, and has
discharging arches of brick. The dome of the Pantheon is
incombustible, and is perhaps the cheapest as well as the
most durable and unconsumable roof which could have been
erected over so large a building.

The dome of the temple of Bacchus is also internally
hemispherical, though without coffers. Externally it is now

.covered with a common roof, which may have been the

original form : such a roof is also to be seen over the dome
of the temple of Jupiter, in the palace of Diocletian, at
Spolatro.

The dome of one of the chambers ofthe Thermaa of Catania
was 111 feet in diameter. In the Thermae of Titus there

1 are two domes, each 84 feet in diameter; and in the baths

1 of Constantine there was one of 76 feet.

There were three
domes in the baths of Diocletian, of which two still remain ;
one is 73 feet 6 inches in diameter, and the other 62 feet
3 inches. Judging from those that remain, it would seem
that in the Thermae they were lighted from the top, in the
same manner as in the dome of the Pantheon. In the neigh-
bourhood of Puzzuoli there is a circular edifice which has a

I dome built of pumice-stone and volcanic tufa : its diameter is

 

about 96 feet. The temple of Minerva Medica, at Rome,
was on the plan, a polygonal dome of ten sides, without any
opening at the top. Domes were sometimes constructed on
corbels by the ancients. In one of the octagonal rooms of
the enclosure round the baths of Caracalla the corbels which

. supported the dome still remain, and at Catania there is a

spherical dome covering a square vestibule.

The dome of Santa Sophia, at Constantinople, built in the
reign of Justinian, ranks next to the Pantheon in point of
antiquity, and is the most remarkable and the earliest con-
structed after those of the Romans. Anthemius of Tralles,
and Isidorus of Miletus, were the architects. Anthemius had
promised to raise a dome over this edifice, of such magnitude
as to eclipse the magnificence of the Roman Pantheon. With
this View, he erected four pillars at the angles ofa square, at
about the distance of 115 feet from each other, and nearly of
the same altitude. The church was to be of the form of a
cross, and vaulted with stone; he therefore threw arches
over the pillars, and filled up the angular spaces between the
archivaults, till he had gradually shaped them into a complete
circle, at the level of the extradoses of the arches. On the
ring thus formed, the dome was raised, being the first ever
built on pendentives The pressure of the eastern and
western arches was resisted by four walls almost solid, form-
ing transepts, and running longitudinally, two from the north,

 

 

and two from the south sides of the pillars, to the distance
of about 90 feet. The cast and west arches were abutted
upon by half—domes, resting on cylindrical walls, which, it was
supposed, would have been sufficient to resist the pressure of
the arches on the north and south ; but in this the architect
was mistaken ; for the superstructure gave way towards the
east, and, at the end of a few months, fell, taking with it the
half-dome on that side. After the death of Anthemius, the
superintendence of the building devolved on Isidorus, who
strengthened the eastern pillars, by filling up certain voids
left by his predecessor; but when the dome was turned
upon them, the east end proved still too weak for the support
of SO great a load, and again gave way, before the work was
completed. In order to counteract this thrust on the east,
Isidorus now built strong pillared buttresses against the
eastern wall of a square cloister that ran round the building ;
from which he threw flying buttresses over the void, and
then raised the dome a third time, but with very little success;
for though every precaution was taken to lessen its weight,
by using pumice-stone and other light materials, and by
reducing its thickness, the arches were so much fractured, that
he was under the necessity of filling up the large arcades on
the north and south sides, with arches of less dimensions, in
three stories.

We have mentioned these circumstances, to show that the
architects of the age to which this building is referred, were
not so well acquainted with the principles of dome-vaulting,
as those of more modern date : for the latter would probably
have hooped or chained such a dome immediately over the
arches and pendentives, so as to confine its pressure to a per-
pendicular thrust, or nearly so. Such was the case, in the
far more ponderous dome of St. Peter's, at Rome, erected by
Michael Angelo ; and such, more recently, was the practice
of our countryman, Sir Christopher Wren, in the cupola of
St. Paul's, at London. The present dome, however, of Santa
Sophia, was reconstructed by the nephew of Isidorus. It rests
on the square formed at the intersection of the arms of the
Greek cross ; the diameter being about 111 feet, and the
dome ~10 feet high, and is supported by corbellings placed in
the angles of the square. These corbels are surmounted by
a kind of Cornice on which rests a circular gallery. The
lower part of the dome has a row of windows adorned with
columns on the exterior, and the top is surmounted by a
lantern on which is a cross. The dome of Anthemius and
Isidorus, was not so high ; and was partly destroyed by an
earthquake a few years after its construction. In rebuilding
it, the nephew of Isidorus used a very light white brick, made
at Rhodes, and much lighter than the common brick.

The dome of St. Mark, at Venice, erected about the year
973, and that of the cathedral at Pisa, built early in the
eleventh century, are both upon the same plan with the pre-
cedine. The church of Saint Mark, built in the tenth
century, has five domes ; the central dome being much larger
than the others. Each dome is enclosed within four pieces of
semi-cylindrical vaulting, together formng a square ; in the
angles of this square are four corbels, which gather in the.
circular base of each dome. In 1523, Sansovinus, the archi-
tect, repaired the great dome, and placed a circle of iron.
round it to prevent its falling. A similar precaution was:
taken with one of the smaller domes by Andrew Tirali, in.
1735, with the same successful result.

The dome of San Vitale at Ravenna, is of very curious con-
struction. The plan of the lower part is that of a regular.
octagon, supported by eight piers at the angles of the dome.
Between these angles are seven tall niches divided into twc
stories. The lower part of these niches is open, and adorneé
with columns. The remaining side of the dome is an arch o:

 

 

 

 

 

 

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the same diameter and elevation as the niches ; this arch form-
ing an entrance. Above these the wall sustains a hemi-
spherical dome, the plan being a Circle within an octagon.
Corbels are not employed at Santa bophia, but the arches
support the gathering over, which forms the Circular base. of
the dome. In the base are eight Windows, each Window being
divided in the centre by a column supporting two small arches.
The dome itself is built with a double row of pipes, hollow at
one end and pointed at the other, so that the pomt of one 13
received in the hollow of the- preceding one, continuing thus
in a spiral line until they finish at the top. .Both the exterior
and the interior of the dome are covered With mortar.

In 1298, the cathedral of Santa Maria. del F01re, was begun
at Pisa, by the celebrated Arnolfo Lusu; but he died two
years after, and no architect could be found, who would. under-
take to execute the dome upon the vast plan that its pro-
jector had designed : it consequently remained unfinished for
one hundred and twenty years ; when, in a professional con-
vocation, Philip Brunelleschi was permitted to attempt its
completion. (See BRUNELLESCHI.) Notwithstanding the
opposition he met with, and the vapouring sarcasms With
which he was treated by his contemporaries, who held his
scheme to be impracticable, he carried on the building, and
completed the cupola, in a manner worthy of his great repu-
tation. This dome, which is octangular, and of great elevation,
is formed of two vaults, with a vacancy between them ; and
is supported merely by the springing wall, without the aid of
buttresses, though its dimensions exceed those of all the
ancient Roman domes, with the sole exception of that of
St. Peter’s.

The church of St. Peter’s, at Rome, is the largest temple
ever built : it was begun by Bramante, in 1513, and carried
on'successively by Raphael, San Gallo, and Michael Angelo,
the latter of whom designed the dome as it now appears.
The following description, extracted from the “ Encylopédie
Méthodique,” and the “ Penny Cyclopaadia,” will enable the
reader to form some idea of this superb work.

“ The dome, which is double, is circular on the plan. The
internal dome is constructed on double consoles, instead of
corbellings. The double consoles are crowned with a small
cornice, forming an impost for eight arches, from the upper
part of which springs the dome ; on the top is a lantern-
light, which is not apparent externally. Up to this time
domes had been constructed on walls and corbellings, but in
St. Peter's at Rome a new plan was adopted. The dome of
St. Peter's stands upon four piers, 61 feet 11 inches high,
and 30 feet 10 inches thick, measured in a straight line with
the arches. From the arches spring the corbellings, which are
finished by an entablature. Upon this entablature is a
plinth. The plinth is externally an octagon, and internally a
circle. The external diameter of the octagon is 192 feet 9
inches, and the internal circle 134 feet 8%; inches ; the
thinnest part of the wall, between the octagon and the circle,
is 29 feet 3 inches. On the plinth is a circular stylobate,
28 feet 6% inches thick. This thickness is divided into three
parts by a circular passage 5 feet 10 inches wide; the two
Walls on each side of this passage are, respectively, the internal
wall 14 feet 7% inches thick, and the external 8 feet. In the
internal wall are other smaller passages, 2 feet 10 inches wide,
forming flights of steps communicating with the four spiral
staircases formed in the thickness of the wall of the drum
of the dome. Above the circular stylobate, which is 12 feet
4% inches high, is placed the drum of the dome, which is 10
feet 1:} inch thick, measured to the inside line of the pilasters,
which decorate the interior of the dome. The pilasters them-
selves are 1.78 feet thick in addition. The construction is
formed of rubble and fragments of brick. The interior is

4 n

 

formed with bricks stuccoed. Externally the work is faced
with thin slabs of travertine stone. The drum is pierced with
16 windows, 9 feet 3% inches wide, and 17 feet high. The
walls are strengthened on the outside, between the windows,
with 16 buttresses, constructed with solid masonry. These
buttresses are 13 feet 3 inches wide, and 51 feet 6 inches in
height from the base to the top of the entablature. Each
buttress is decorated and strengthened with half—pilasters,
and terminates with two coupled columns engaged, the
diameter of which is 4 feet; the order is Corinthian. When
the base of the dome had been built to the height of the
entablature of the drum, Michael Angelo died; but some

time before his death he had caused a model to be made, with .

ample details, to which he added drawings and instructions.
After his death Pirro Ligorio and Vignola were appointed the
architects. Giacomo della Porta, the pupil of Vignola, fol-
lowed his master as architect to the cathedral : but although
the designs of Michael Angelo were strictly followed, the
dome itself was constructed under the pontificate of Sixtus V.
Sixtus gave Giacomo della Porta as a colleague, Domenico
Fontana, by whom the dome was constructed.

“ On the constructions of Michael Angelo a circular attic
was first formed, 19 feet 2% inches high, and 9 feet 7 inches
thick. This attic is strengthened externally by 16 projections,
2 feet 11 inches deep, and 6 feet 4% inches wide, placed over
the buttresses of the dome; on the attic rises the double
dome, the internal diameter of which at the base, is 138 feet
5 inches. The curve externally is an arc of a circle whose
radius is 84 feet 1 .62 inches. To the height of 27 feet 8 inches
from the attic the dome is solid. At the base the thickness is
9 feet 7 inches ; and as the external dome is raised higher
than the internal dome, the thickness is increased as the curve
ascends, so that where the dome is divided the thickness is
11 feet 4 inches. The circular space which divides the two
domes is 3 feet 24-L inches wide ; the internal dome is 6 feet
4 inches thick ; and the height from the attic to the opening
of the lantern is 83 feet 10 inches. The diameter of the
lantern is 24 feet 10 inches. The external dome is 2 feet
101; inches thick, where it separates itself from the internal
dome; and it is strengthened externally by 16 projecting
bands of the same thickness. The dome is pierced with three
rows of small windows, as the curves of the dome are not
concentric, the space between them'becomes wider as it rises ;
so that at the opening of the lantern the space is 10 feet
wide. These domes are joined together by 16 walls or spurs,
diminishing in thickness as they ascend to the lantern; at
the base they are 8 feet thick, and at the summit 3 feet.
The base of the lantern is arched, and pierced with small
windows. Above the two domes is a circular platform, sur-
rounded with an iron gallery. In the centre rises the lantern
on a stylobate broken into 16 parts, forming projecting
pedestals, above which are buttresses similar to the buttresses
of the drum, decorated externally with coupled Ionic
columns, 17% inches in diameter. The space between the
buttresses is filled with arched openings, which give light to
the lantern. The external diameter of the lantern is 39 feet ;
the internal diameter 25 feet 6% inches ; and the height from
the platform to the top of the cross is 89 feet 7%,- inches.
The whole height, from the external plinth of the dome to
the cross, is 263 feet. The total height internally, to the top
of the dome of the lantern, is 387 feet.

Sixtus V. covered the external dome with lead, and the
bands with bronze gilt. During the construction of the dome
it is believed that only two circles of iron were placed round
the masonry, one of which was placed on the outside of the
internal dome, at about 36 feet from its springing, and one
foot above the division of the domes. The bands of iron of

 

 

,\_ fi_._

 

 

 

 

 

DOM

278

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which this circle is composed are 3 inches wide by 1% inch
thick. A similar circle is placed about the middle of the
solid part of the dome at about 17 feet 6 inches above the
springing of the internal dome. Near the top of the internal
dome there are several holes, at the bottom of which upright
iron bars appear. These bars are said to be the connecting
rods which keep together other circles of iron placed at
different heights within the masonry, which are finally ter-
minated by a circle round the eye of the dome.

“The domes were constructed with such haste, that suffi-
cient time was not allowed to the work to form solid beds as
it was carried up, in consequence of which a great number
of vertical settlements took place, and the circle of iron
round the internal dome was fractured. To obviate the danger
arising from these settlements, six circles of iron were placed
round the external dome at different heights, and the broken
circle of the internal dome was repaired. The first circle
was placed above the cornice of the external stylobate, or
continuous plinth, on which the buttresses stand ; the second
circle was placed above the cornice of the buttresses; the
third, above the attic, at the springing of the external dome ;
the fourth half-way up the external dome; and the fifth
under the base of the lantern. A sixth was shortly after
placed at one foot below where the dome divides itself. The
iron bands are flat, from 16 to 17 feet long, 31; inches wide,
and 2,3,, inches thick. At one end of the pieces of iron 3.
hole is made ; the other end is turned pp, and passed through
the eye of the next band. The whole of these bands are
fixed with iron wedges, driven into the rubble with mallets.
Sheets of lead are placed under the iron circles.” (Coupole
Encyclopédie flIét/todique ; ‘ Architecture.’ 3

St. Paul’s cathedral, London, the workmanship of the
great Sir Christopher Wren, was begun in 1685, and finished
in 1710. “ The dome is placed over the intersection of the
four naves. The ground plan is a regular octagon, each face
of which is 44 feet 8% inches wide : four of these sides are
formed by the four great arches of the naves ; the other four
sides are formed by false arches of the same size ; in each of
these arches there is a great niche, the base of which is pierced
with two arches. By this means eight supports are obtained
instead of four, and the corbellings do not project too much,
as in other similar constructions. The corbellings gather in a
circle, the diameter of which is 104 feet 4 inches, the octagon
base being 107 feet. The corbellings are surmounted by a
complete entablature, 8 feet 3 inches high, decorated with
consoles. The drum is set back 3 feet 2!; inches from the
face of the frieze, and this intermediate space is occupied by
two steps and a seat. The cornice is 98 feet 9?; inches from
the pavement. The height of the drum from the top of the
seat is 62 feet 64;- inches to the springing of the internal
dome. The wall forming the drum is inclined internally
4 feet 11% inches, or about the 12th part of its height. This
was designed by the architect to increase the resistance of
the walls to the united pressure of the large internal vault,
and the conical dome which carries the lantern.

“The interior of the drum is decorated with a continuous
stylobate, on which is an order of Corinthian pilasters. The
32 spaces between the pilasters are filled with 24 windows
and eight large niches. Externally the drum is decorated
with an order of 32 Corinthian Columns engaged, which are
united to the wall of the drum by eight solid constructions in
masonry. In each space between the constructions there are
three intercolumniatious, the columns being joined at their
bases by walls pierced with arches. The external colonnade
is surmounted by an entablature; behind this is a terrace,
formed by the recessiug back. The attic is 22 feet 4} inches
high from the. top of the balustrade to the under side of the

 

 

cornice of the attic. Above the internal order of the drum
rises the interior dome, the diameter of which at the spring-
ing is 102 feet 2% inches by 51 feet in height. The top of
the dome has a circular opening 14 feet 10';i inches in
diameter.

“ Above the attic are two steps, from which the external
dome springs. The external dome is constructed of wood,
covered with lead, and decorated with projecting ribs forming
panels, curved at the ends. This dome terminates with a
finishing which joins the base of the lantern: the circular
gallery formed on the finishing is 274 feet 9 inches above the
pavement of the nave. The lantern is supported on a conical
tower, terminated by a spherical dome. This tower, which ;
is joined to the internal dome at its base, disengages itself ,
from it at the height of 8 feet 6 inches above the springing
of the same. The perpendicular height of this tower is 86
feet 9 inches, and the walls are inclined 24 degrees from the
perpendicular, the diameter of the base is 100 feet 1 inch
measured externally, and 34 feet 1 inch at the springing of
the spherical dome which finishes it. The wall of this tower
is built of brick, and is 1 foot 7 inches thick, with circular
rings of masonry, fastened with iron bands. The spherical
dome at the top of the tower has an opening 8 feet in
diameter at the summit. Between the attic and the wall of
the tower are 32 walls or buttresses, which also serve to
bear the ribs of the wooden external dome.”—Penny
Cyclopwdia.

About the same time that lVren built the dome of St.
Paul’s, Hardouin Mansard, a French architect, constructed
the dome of the Invalides at Paris. The plan of this dome
is a square, in which is inscribed a Greek cross ; in the angles
of the square there are four chapels. The dome is raised in
the centre of the Greek cross ; the base supporting it is an
octagonal figure, with four large and four small sides. The
dome, which is double, rises from a springing which is
common to both. The lower or internal dome constructed
with masonry is spherical. The outer dome is of a spheroidal
form, constructed of stone at the base, and of brick above.
It is framed of wood, and covered with lead, like St. Paul’s,
London, but the construction is much heavier. The total.
height to the top of the cross which surmounts the lantern is
330 feet.

The modern Pantheon at Paris, formerly the church of
St. Genevieve, was built by J. G. Soufiiot, who distinguished.
himself by his architectural works, in the reign of Louis XV.
The dome, which is lofty, is sustained by four pillars, arched.
over the cross parts. The angular Spaces are filled up with
pendentives, terminating in a circular ring, on which a cylin-~
drical wall is built, supporting the cupola. In the latter par-
ticular it is similar to St. Paul‘s.

Of wooden domes, that of the Halle du Bled, at Paris, is
an excellent example ; it being more than 200 feet in.
diameter, and only a foot in thickness.

A new material has been lately employed in the construc-
tion of the dome of the church of St. Isaac. at St. Peters-
burg, erected under the direction of the Chevalier de Mont-
ferrand. An account of the construction is given by Mr.
Godwin as follows:—“ The walls of the dome are carried
up in solid construction of brick, with tiers of stone-bond,
and are above 8 feet thick. On the level of the top of the
cornice of the circular colonnade which girds the drum, there
is a series of twenty-four cast-iron ribs, the feet of which
rest on a cast—iron plate 7 feet wide, which runs quite roam
the circumference. At their head all the ribs are attached tc
a horizontal plate or curb, 6 feet 3 inches wide, which follow
the periphery of the dome. At this height the rib is divide«
into 2, the one part about 12 feet 6 inches deep, follow-in

 

 

 

 

 

DOM

the sweep of the inner dome for a height of 20 feet, is at its
summit bolted to a cast-iron perforated cylinder, 21 feet in
diameter, and 7 feet high; this forms the centre aperture
at the summit of the inner dome. The other part follows the
line of an intermediate cone, with a. catenary outline, and
similar to the one in St. Paul’s; it is also 21 feet long, and
2 feet 6 inches deep, and perforated to render it lighter. At
this height the heads of the ribs are again secured to another
horizontal plate or curb, which forms a complete circle, and
is 3 feet wide; and this curb and the ribs are tied to the
cylindrical opening of the inner dome, already mentioned, by
radiating beams 2 feet 3 inches deep. The conical ribs have
then another length of 21 feet, and their heads are again con-
nected by another horizontal plate, from which spring the

 

 

circular ribs, about 16 feet long, forming a dome to the inter-
mediate cone, and their heads are also bolted to a cylinder,
8 feet 6 inches in diameter, and 18 inches high. But the
upper portions of the ribs diverge at top, so as to form a base
for the octagonal cupolino, which consists of a series of cast-
iron story-posts, ribs, and bracketings, inclusive of the dome
of the cupolino, with its ball and cross at the apex, which last
are of brass-gilt. The filling in between the ribs consists of
pots, the surfaces of which are subsequently rendered with
plaster, and painted with sacred subjects. The external face
of this outer dome is covered with bronze gilt in three thick-
nesses of leaves of ducat gold. The Whale entablature and
flat, and the balustrade over the peristyle of the drum of the
cupola, likewise consist of cast and wrought iron framing,
faced with plates of copper, to form the profiles and mould-
ings. The 24 pedestals of this balustrade carry winged
angels of bronze, above 9 feet high, each of a single casting.

“ The quantity of metal employed in the work is as
follows :—

Ducat gold.............,............. 247lbs.
Copper................,. 52 tons

Brass 3212 “
Wrought-iron 524% “
Cast-iron ..,............1068 -“

1966;» tons 2471118.

“ The roofing is wholly of iron, covered with copper. The
raising of the monolithic shafts of the 24 columns of the
exterior peristyle of the dome—each of which weighed nearly
66 tons—'40 the height of 150 feet, was an operation requiring
considerable skill, The first column was raised on the
17th November, 1837, and in two months the 24 columns
were completely fixed.

“ The skeleton of the entablature of the peristyle of the
dome is of cast and wrought iron, resting on the columns,
and affixed to them b wrought-iron ins, which are let a con-
siderable depth into the shafts, and t 1e frame-work is also let
into the cylindrical wall of the dome, securely affixed to three
templates. The cornice, with its modillions and mouldings,
rests on cast-iron corbels; the caissons and rosettes of the
inner soflit also rest on cast-iron girders.

“ The careful skill with which the architect has fulfilled
his part, and the feeling for decorative art with which he has
embellished the church of St. Isaac, render it .one of the most
striking edifices of the nineteenth century.”

All the ancient Roman domes are on the convex side a
much less portion of a sphere than a hemisphere ; but those,
from the completion of the church of Santa Sophia, to the
finishing of St. Paul’s cupola, are of the surmounted kind,
approaching in a greater or less degree to the proportion of
towers, .or spires, which were so much admired and adopted
In the middle ages. The sides of the section of St. Paul’s

 

 

279

 

DOM

dome are struck with centres in the base line, which, if con
tinued, would meet in an angle in the axis of the dome
Since the revival of Grecian architecture, the contour of the
old Roman dome has also been revived, especially in cases
Where other parts of the building are decorated with any of
the orders. Exterior domes can never be correctly applied
to buildings in the pointed style of architecture.

The following are the admeasurements of some of the prin-
cipal domes in Europe, taken from Mr. Ware’s “Tracts on
Vaults and Bridges :”—

Domes of Antiquity.
Feet Height
in diameter from the

taken externally. ground line.

 

Dome of the Pantheon ........................ 142 143
“ Minerva Medica, at Rome... 78 97
“ Baths of Caracalla ............ 112 116
“ Baths of Diocletian ............ 74 83
Temple of Mercury ........................ 63
“ Diana .............................. 98 78
“ Apollo ........... . .................. 120
“ Proserpine and Venus ......... 87 77
Domes of comparatively [Modern Times.
Santa Sophia, at Constantinople ............ 115 201
Mosque of Achmet, ,, ..... ....... 92 120
San. Vitale, at Ravenna ........... . ......... 55 91
San. Marco, at Venice ....... .. ............... 44

From the time of Brunellesc/zi to the present period.

Santa Maria del Fiore, at Florence ......... 139 310
The Chapel of the Medici ................. 91 199
Baptistry at Florence ........................... 86 110
Cathedral of St. Peter, at Rome ............ 139 330
Chapel of the Madonna della Salute, at
Venice ......................................... 70 133
Chapel of the Superga, at Turin ......... ,.. 64 128
“ Invalides, at Paris ......... 80 173
“ Val de Grace, Paris ........ . 55 133
“ Sorbonne, Paris ........... . 40 110
Pantheon, or St. Genevieve, Paris ..... 67 190
Cathedral of St. Paul’s, London 112 215

In the reigns of queen Elizabeth, and her successor king
James 1., square turrets, surmounted with domes resembling
a bell in their outline, were much used.

Domes are sometimes made convex below, and concave
above ; the former being a much greater portion of the side
than the latter: these may be denominated Moresque, Turkish,
or Hindoo.

Mr. Bunce invented a dome that requires no centering;
in this construction, all the abutting joints are continued in
uninterrupted vertical planes; but the horizontal joints of
every two stones break on the middle of the stones on either
side ; so that every alternate stone of a course projects
upwards, and leaves a recess for the insertion of the stones
of the next course. Upon this principle, the intervals, as the
building approaches nearer the top, becomes more wedge-
formed, and, the interior circumference being less than the
exterior, the stones can be inserted only on the outside: con—
sequently, if made so exact as just to fit into their places, they
cannot fall inwardly, This mode of joining stones may be
convenient, as requiring no centering ; but unless the courses
be nicely equilibrated, it is more liable to burst, than when
a dome is constructed in the ordinary manner, since every row
of stones, from the base to the top, forms an arch indepeir
dent of the rest.

 

 

 

 

 

 

DOM

280

DOM

 

The equilibrium and pressure of domes is very different
from that of common arching, though there are some proper-
ties common to both. Thus, in cylindrical and cylindroidal
vaulting, of uniform thickness, if the tangent to the arch at
the bottom be perpendicular to the horizon, the vault cannot
stand; neither can it be built with a concave contour in
whole, or in part; and to bring an arch to an equilibrium,
whether its section be circular or elliptical, the intrados being
given, both extremities of the arch must be loaded, ad infi-
nitum, between the extrados of the curve which runs upwards,
and the vertical assymptote rising from each foot. So, in thin
domes, of equal thickness, if the curved surface rise perpen-
dicularly from the base, it will burst at the bottom, whatever
be the contour.

Yet, though dome-vaulting, in this particular, agrees with
common arching, they differ materially in several other points.
For, in order to equilibrate the figure of the former, after the
convexity has been carried to its full extent of equilibrium
around, and equidistant from the summit on the exterior side,
the curvature may be changed into a concavity: here the
interior circumference of the courses is less than the exterior,
and therefore, whatever the pressure towards the axis, the
course cannot fall inwardly, without squeezing the stones into
a less compass. Hence a vault may be executed with a con-
vex surface inwardly, and a concave surface outwardly, and
be sufficiently firm.

The strongest form of a circular vault, required to bear a
weight on its top, is that of a truncated cone, similar to the
exterior dome of St. Paul’s, London, of which it is impossible
to conceive any force acting on the summit, that would be
capable of disturbing its equilibrium : for the pressure being
communicated in the sloping right line of the sides of the
cone, perpendicular to the joints, the conic sides have no
tendency to bend to one side more than to another ; the
gravity of the materials towards the axis, being counteracted
by the abutting vertical joints.

In dome-vaulting, the case is very different : for here the
contour being convex, there is a certain load, which, if laid
on the top, must burst it outwardly, which weight becomes
greater in proportion as the contour approximates towards
the chords of the arches of the two sides, or to a conic vaulting
on the same base, carried up to the same altitude, and ending
in the same circular course. For example, suppose a hori-
zontal line, tangent at the vertex, proceed from the key-stone
downwards, course by course ; it will be evident, that every
successive coursing-joint may be made to slant as much, and
consequently, that the pressure of the arch-stones of any
course towards the axis will be so great, as to be more than
adequate to the resistance of the weight of all the super-
incumbent parts. Hence it may be clearly deduced, that there
is a certain degree of curvature to be given to the contour,
which will just prevent the stones in any succeeding course
from being forced outwardly.

The circular vault, thus balanced, is indeed an equilibrated
dome ; but, instead of the strongest, it is the weakest of all
between its own contour and that of a cone upon the same
base, rising to the same height, in a key-stone, or in an equal
circular Course. The equilibrated dome has therefore the
boldest contour ; but is the limit ofan infinitude of inscribed
circular vaults, all of them stronger than itself.

In other respects, circular vaulting differs from straight
vaulting in being built with courses in circular rings; and in
having the stones in each course of equal length, which press-
ing equally towards the axis, cannot slide inwardly. Circular
vaults may therefore be open at the top ; and the equilibrated
dome, which, as we have just observed, is the weakest of all,

may be made to bear a lantern of equal weight with the part J

 

that would otherwise have completed the whole. Domes of
flatter contours will bear more, in proportion as they
approach nearer to that of a cone : and circular vaults, that
are either straight or concave on the sides, if chained at
the bottom, may be loaded to any degree, without giving
way, until the materials of which they are built be crushed
to powder.

The foregoing description of the equilibrium and pressure
of domes may be comprehended without any acquaintance
with either algebra or fluxions, and will be of use to the
ordinary workmen, for the satisfaction of more scientific
readers, we subjoin Dr. Robison’s theory.

Problem—To determine the thickness of dome-vaulting
when the curve is given, or the curve when the thickness is
given.

Plate 1. Figure l.——“ Let Bb Abe the curve which pro-
duces the dome by revolving round the vertical axis A D. We
shall here suppose the curve to be drawn through the middle
of the arch-stones, and that the coursing or horizontal joints
are everywhere perpendicular to the curve. \Ve shall sup-
pose (as is always the case) that the thickness K L, H I, &c.
of the arch-stones is very small in comparison to the dimen-
sions of the arch. If we consider any portion H A h of the
dome, it is plain that it presses on the curve of which H L is
an arch-stone, in a direction I) C, perpendicular to the joint
11 I, or in the direction of the next superior element [3 b of the
curve. As we proceed downwards, course after course, we
see plainly. that this direction must change, because the
weight of each course is superadded to that of the portion
above itto complete the pressure of the course below. Through
B draw the vertical line B C G meeting [3 I), produced in C.
We may take b c to express the pressure of all that is above
it, propagated in this direction to the joint K L. “'e may also
suppose the weight of the course H L united in b, and acting
on the vertical. Let it be represented by b F. If we form
the parallelogram bFGC, the diagonal I) G will represent
the direction and intensity of the whole pressure on the

joint K L.

“ We have seen, that if I) G, the thrust compounded of the
thrust b C exerted by all the courses above 11 I L K, and if the
force I) F, or the weight, of that course be everywhere coin-
cident with b B, the element of the curve, we shall have an
equilibrated dome ; if it fall within it, wehave a dome which
will bear a greater load, and if it fall without it, the dome
will break at the joint. \Ve must endeavour to get analytical
expressions of these conditions. Therefore draw the ordinates
b B b", B D n”, C d e”. Let the tangents at b and 6” meet the
axis in M, and make MO, M P, each equal to b C, and complete
the parellelogram M 0 N P, and draw 0 Q perpendicular to the
axis, and produce 1) F, cutting the ordinates in E and 8. It is
plain that M N is to MO as the weight of the arch H Ah to the
thrust b C, which it exerts on the joint K L (this thrust being
propagated through the course of II I L 1{,) and that M Q, or its
equal 66', or 5d, may represent the weight of the halfA B.
“Let AD be called 1“, and D B be called 3/. Then I) e : 17:,
and e C : j/ (because 6 C is in the direction of the element
t3 1)). It is plain if we make y constant, B C is the second
fluxion of 1', or B C :: a, and b e and b E may be. considered as
equal, and taken indiscriminately for 5r. \Ve have also
I) C 2 ~/ a? + {/2 ; let d be the depth or thickness of H I of the

arelustones. Then (I x/ a“ + [/2 ; will represent the trapezium:
11 L g and since the circumference of every course increases.
in the proportion of the radius y,dy ~/ i‘ + 3) Will represent:
the whole course. If s be taken to represent the sum or
aggregate of the quantities annexed to it, the formula Wlll be-
analogous to the fluent of a fluxion, and s (13/ ~/ 2* +3;2 will

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DOM

281

DOM

 

represent the whole mass. and also the weight of the vaulting
down to the joint H 1. Therefore we have this proportion :
sdy¢¢2+y2; dy ¢b9+g2=be: 12F: be: ea:
d .1/ in ~/ iv“ + y“
sdyvf+¢

“ If the curvature of the dome be precisely such as puts it
in equilibrium, but without any mutual pressure 1n the
vertical joints, this value of c G must be equal to C B, or to
2.3, the point G coinciding with B. This condltlon Wlll be

dy¢r+yfii
§@VFI?_”
a. tottering equilibrium, independent of the friction of the
joints and cohesion of the cement. An eqilibrium,accom-

panied by some firm stability produced by the mutual pressure
of the vertical joints, may be expressed by the formula

d 7277 d a??? a t
J—i/~:_"—_;;7’T’ or by l—‘Tl; : _+ _t, Where t
sngm'I-fy a: sdy¢x+g a:

is some variable positive quantity which increases when :3
increases. This last equation will also express the equili-
brated dome, if t be a constant quantity, because in this case
tn

—is : 0

t

3d: co :x: ce. ThereforeCG =

expressed by the equation = x or more con-

veniently by But this form gives only

dytvdt+y’

shall be greater than :2, and C G must be greater than C B.
Hence we learn that figures of too great curvatures, whose
sides descend too rapidly, are improper. Also since stability

“ Since a firm stability requires that

dys¢33+92
It:

requires that we have greater than

8 d 3/ ~/ at” + 9’, we learn that the upper part of the dome
must not be made very heavy. This, by diminishing the
proportion of I) F to b C, diminishes the angle Cb G, and may
set the point G above B, which will infallibly spring the dome
in that place. We see here also, that the algebraic analysis
expresses that peculiarity of dome-vaulting, that the weight
of the upper part may even be suppressed.

013/ «M? +2)2 " t'
“ The fluent of the equation W = g+7is most

easily found. It is L s dy J at“ + y” : L .i: + t', where L is
the hyperbolic logarithm of the quantity annexed to it. If we
consider y as constant and correct the fluent, so as to make it
nothing at the vertex, it may be expressed thus :

Lsdny+g’,’-—La=1.d:—— L3) + Lt.

fifi
gdy¢x+y=,,
a

This gives
8 d 3/ s’ 552 + .72
a

2':
us et, and therefore
1/
Ir
=t-.
3/
This last equation will easily give us the depth of the
vaulting, or thickness, d, of the arch, when the curve is

dy¢x’+g/’ _t’:i:+t.'£

given. a _

For its fluxion is

 

andd
_at'.i:+at'ai

_yivf+r

 

which is all expressed in known quantities:

40

l

 

for we may put in place of If any power or function ofx or of
y, and thus convert the expression into another, which will
still be applicable to all sorts of curves.

to t!
“ Instead of the second member 3 + ywe might employ

p—., where p 18 some number greater than unity. This W11]
.2:

evidently give a dome having stability ; because the original

dyi‘ \/ a? + .722 11 h
——.————=“.— wi be greatert an in.
sderV+f

a it" -‘ 31:
W“ -.—.—-—,- Each of these forms has its advantages
yw¢r+y
when applied to particular cases.
a at;

formula This will

give d =
Each of them also gives

 

d = ————, when the curvature is such as in precise

yy¢fi+¢
equilibrium : and lastly, if d be constant, that is, if the vault-
ing be of uniform thickness, we obtain the form of the curve,
because then the relation ofzi‘ to at and to [y is given.

“ The chief use of this analysis is to discover what curves
are improper for domes, or what portions ofgiven curves may
be employed with safety.

“ The chief difliculty in the case of this analysis arises from
the necessity of expressing the weightof the incumbent part,

or .s'dyN/w‘2 + 3%. This requires the measurement of the
conoidal surface, which in most cases can be had only by
approximation, by means of infinite series. We cannot
expect that the generality of practical builders are familiar
with this branch of mathematics, and therefore will not
engage in it here; but content ourselves with giving such
instances as can be understood by such as have that
moderate mathematical knowledge, which every man should
possess, who takes the name of engineer.

“The surface of any circular portion of a sphere is
very easily had, being equal to the circle inscribed with a
radius equal to the arch. This radius is evidently equal to
vfl+w

“In order to discover what portion of a hemisphere may
be employed (for it is evident we cannot employ the whole)
when the thickness of the vaulting is uniform, we may recur
dyavsa+¢

 

to the equation or formula = s dy ~/ 37—2 + y:

Let a be the radius of the hemisphere. We have

0y? at”

—-———-——%

at = Vi? and ii: = a9 _3fl‘2' Substituting these values

—_

in the formula, we obtain the equation 3/2 \/ (12—?
a‘ 3/31

¢w—f
member 2 as—a’ ~/ (Lg—'92, and y = a J —§ + ¢§.

Therefore, if the radius of the hemisphere be one-half, the
breadth of the dome must not exceed J — 3% + J §, or 0.786,
and the height will be 618. The arch from the vertex is
about 51° 49', much more of the hemisphere cannot stand
even, though aided by the cement, and by the friction of the
coursing joints. This last circumstance, by giving connection
to the upper parts, causes the whole to press more vertically
on the course below, and this diminishes the outward thrust;
but at the same time diminishes the mutual abutment of the
vertical joints, which is a great cause of firmness in the
vaulting. A Gothic dome, of which the upper part is a
portion of a sphere not exceeding 45° from the vertex, and

 

S

 

We easily obtain the fluent of the second

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DUM

282

DOM,

 

the lower part is concave outwards, will be very strong, and
not ungraceful.

“Persuaded that what has been said on this subject con-
vinces the reader that a vaulting, perfectly equilibrated
throughout, is by no means the best form, provided that the
base is secure from separating, we think it unnecessary to
give the investigation of that form, which has considerable
intricacy, and shall merely give its dimensions. The thick-
ness is supposed uniform. The numbers in the first column
of the table express the portion of the axis counted from the
vertex, and those of the second are the length of the ordinates.

 

 

 

 

A D D B A D D B A D D B
0-4 100 610.4 1080 2090 1560
3-4 200 744 1 140 3442 1600

1 1 -4 300 904 1200 3072 1640

26-6 400 1100 1260 4432 1670

52.4 500 1336 1320 4052 1700

91 4 600 1522 1360 5336 1720

146-8 700 1738 1400 5756 1740
223 -4 800 1984 1440 6214 1760
326 .6 900 2270 1480 6714 1780
465 .4 1000 2602 1520 7260 1800

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

“The curve formed according to these dimensions will not
Appear very graceful, because there is an abrupt change in
its curvature at a small distance from the vertex. If, how-
ever, the middle be occupied by a lantern of equal, or of
smaller weight than the part whose place it supplies, the
whole will be elegant and free from defect.

Figure 3 represents four difi’erent contours of domes, upon
a square plan, No. 5; No. 1, shows a semicircle contour;
No. 2, a pointed contour; No. 3, a Turkish, or Mahomedan
contour; No. 4, a bell—formed contour, as used in the reigns
of Elizabeth and James I.

Figure 4, represents five different contours, upon an octa-
gonal plan, No. 6; No. 1, the contour of a dome, the vertical
section of which being a semi-ellipsis, with the lesser axis
placed horizontal; N0. 2, the contour of a semicircular sec-
tion; No. 3, the contour of a dome, the vertical section of
which is a semi-ellipsis, placed upon the greater axis; No. 4,
the contour of a dome, the vertical section parallel to either
side being the segment of a circle ; N0. 5, a pointed contour,
formed similar to the dome of the cathedral church of S“
Maria del Foire, at Florence, which was both octangular upon
the plan, and pointed in its vertical section.

Figure 5 represents five contours upon a circular plan,
No. 6; No. l, is formed by having its vertical section the
segment of a circle, which was the general practice of the
Romans, in the exterior form of their domes, as in the Pan-
theon at Rome; No.2, a dome with a semicircular axal
section, a form very frequently used in modern times; No. 3,
an ellipsoidal dome, whose axis is the greater semi-axis of
the ellipsis; No. 4, represents a dome with a parabolical
contour, the vertical section being that of a curve, and the
axis of the parabolical section being the same as that of the
dome. This contour is more pointed than any part of an
ellipsis ; No. 5, represents a dome with an hyperbolical con-
tour, the vertical section being an hyperbola; this is still
more pointed than the parabolical dome.

Figure 6, shows four variations of contours : No. 1, pointed
like the dome of St. Paul’s cathedral church, London, which
is composed of two arcs of a circle ; N0. 2, a dome with a
small concavity upwards, springing perpendicularly from its
base ; No. 3, another contour of a dome, with a small con-
cavity at the top, but spreading outwards as it rises from the
bottom, with a convexity in its vertical section; No. 4, a
dome of the same nature as the last, but dissimilar in its
(aim, the convex part being much quicker. Such forms as

 

the last three may be denominated Moresque, Turkish, or
Hindoo, as they are practised by the Moors, Turks, and
Hindoos. This form was introduced into England in the
reign of Henry VII., and in constant use in the time of
Henry VIII. Its use was in the crowning of turrets, as in
the octagonal buttresses of Henry the Seventh’s chapel, and
the towers of King’s College chapel, Cambridge: the turrets
at the entrance of Christ’s College, Oxford, executed by Sir
Christopher Wren, are surmounted with domes of this form.
The bell-formed dome, Figure 3, No. 4, succeeded Figure 6,
No. 2; examples of it may be seen at Audley-End, in Essex,
built in the reign of James I., and in the Tower of London.

It is a property of all domes to have their horizontal sec-
tions similar to each other, and to the base of the dome.

What may be properly denominated a Roman dome, is one
whose axal section is a semicircle, or the segment of a circle
less than a semicircle. Among the ancients, domes were
only used in covering whole buildings of a circular plan;
but among moderns they are used in covering any apartment,
or distinct portion of a building, which too frequently has a
very insignificant appearance, and, for want of magnitude,
destroys the general contour of the whole, producing a kind
of mixed outline at the finish of the edifice; where in
most points of view it is completely lost.

In modern architecture, the dome, when used, is gene-
rally raised upon a tower, or turret, and by this means the
figure is shown more completely than if it were immediately
raised from the walls; but care should be taken, that if the
place overwhich it is to be erected be too small, it should not
be adopted; and if admitted in an edifice, it should bear a
good proportion to the whole mass: when a dome is properly
managed, nothing adds more grace or dignity to the termina-
tion of an edifice than the domic contour.

Plate III. Figure l.—Given the plan of a square dome,
and one of the axal ribs, at right angles to one of the sides;
to find the curve of the angle rib, and the covering.

The axis of a square dome is the vertical line in which the
diagonal planes would intersect each other.

Let A B C D be a plan of the dome; A c and B D the inter-
sections of the diagonal planes; E F the base of the rib; E K
the height of the given rib; and the curve line K I H G F, the
section of the upper surface, which comes in contact with
the boardinor. Produce E F to k ; divide the curve line K F
into any number of equal parts, the more the truer will be.
the operation ; let the parts he F G, G 11, H I, 1 K, which
extend upon the straight line F It ; the first from F to g, the
second from g to h, the third from h to i, and the fourth from
i to h,- from the points G, H, I, in the curve of the given rib,
draw G G' N, H n’o, I 1’ P, parallel to A D, cutting the base of
the rib E F at the points (3', H’, 1’, and the half diagonal D E
at the points N, 0, P; also, through the points g, h, i, draw n g 12,
oh 0, p i p, parallel to A D. Take the intercepted parts G N,
H o, 1 P, between E F and E D, apply them successively to the
lines parallel to AD, on each side of Fk, from g to n, and
from g to n, from h to o, and from h to o, from i to p, and
from i to p, and through the points A, n, 0,1), It, on each side
of F k, draw a curve; then the space, AhD, comprehended
between the two curve lines and the side A D of the plan, is
the form of the whole covering for each side of the dome.

Tofind the hip~line of the angle rib whose base is E D.

From the points, N, 0, P, E, draw N Q, 0 R, P s, and E '1‘.
perpendicular to ED: make NQ, 0R, PS, ET, successivel)
equal to G’ G, 11’ 11, 1’ I, E K : and through the points D, Q, m
s, '1‘, draw a curve, which will be the hip-line.

Figure 2.—A dome likewise upon a square plane, but thc;
given axal rib at right angles to the side, is the segment of a.
circle less than a semi-circle.

 

 

 

 

 

,k 5-- __._______———-————-

 

 

PLATE 1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1. . p
I Fig i \ I") {"7}; 4. . V! 1. $34.3. UV. 1.
. .171. ' ..,, . ., . . ‘

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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(x

 

 

 

 

:LLL .'_.‘\ ‘ ,_3

 

        
 

  

llll

    
  
  
 
 

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£13; .th. "

   

 

 

 

 

 

4 ' DOM

283

DOM

 

Figure 3.—Plan of a polygonal dome, showing the cover-
ing extended, and the angle-rib. The method of finding the
covering and angle-rib for Figures 2 and 3, is the same as in
Figure l, and may be described in the same words.

Instead of laying out the covering and angle-rib, as in
Figure 3, of the octagonal dome, they may be laid down
as in Figure 4, without laying down the whole plan ; and if
only the covering be wanted, it may be found without any
part of the plan, as in Figure 5. Thus, let AD represent
the middle of the boarding for one of the sides, and let A B,
at right angles thereto, be half the breadth of the side A E,
Figure 3; let AB, Figure 5, represent half the base of the
rib ; on A B describe a quadrant or similar figure to the given
rib, I L K, Figure5: make A D equal to the circumference, LK
of the given rib. The rule for this purpose will be found
under those for measuring segments of circles; see the article
SEGMENT; or if the are be that of a quadrant, the quadrantal
arc may be found, as in the article CIRCLE, and then taking a
fourth part of the whole circle, or the half of a semi-circle. We
shall here give examples both for a complete quadrant, and for
a rib which is the half of a segment less than a semi-circle :

Figure 3.—Suppose the base, I L, to be 20 feet, then
3% X 20

: 31 feet 5 inches.
2

Again, suppose the base to be 12 feet, as before, but the
height to be only 5 feet, then the whole chord will be 24 feet,
and the versed sine 5 feet.

RULE.-—Multiply the sum of six times the square of the
half chord, and five times the square of the versed sine, by
the chord; and divide the product by the sum of six times
the square of the half chord and the square of the versed sine;
and the quotient is the length of the are, nearly.

Here the half chord is 12 feet : therefore,

(6 x12’+5 x 52) x 24

 

: 26.69, the answer.
6 x 12’ + 52
0r thus, at full length :
then 6 x 122 + 52 = 864 + 25 = 889.
5

 

12

12 5

144 : 122 25 : 5a
6 5

 

864 : 6 x 12‘3
125

125:5X52

 

989:6 X 122+5 x 52
24 whole chord, or base of two ribs.

 

3956
1978

889 ) 23736 ( 26.63

1778 13.315 feet for the length of the

curved hip.
5956
5334

6220
533-1

8860
8001

859
Norm—The above rule is the invention of the author.

 

 

Figure 5.—Then making AD equal to the length of the
arc, divide the curve B G into any number of equal parts, and
draw the lines e h,fi, g h, parallel to B A, cutting A C at h, i, h ;
divide the straight line A D into as many equal parts as the
curve BC is divided into, at the points I, m, n, and draw
lo, mp, and n g, parallel also to A B; making lo, mp, 72 g,
respectively equal to h e, if; and kg, and through the points
B, o, p, g, D, draw a curve; then the space comprehended
between this curve and the straight lines A D and A B, will be
half the covering of one of the sides.

Figure 6.——Given K L M N, the plan of an oblong dome, and
the rib A B ; to find the hip and the rib parallel to the longi-
tudinal side, also the covering upon the longitudinal and
transverse sides.

Divide the curve AB into any number of equal parts, at
the points of division 1, 2, 3, and draw lines 11:, 2 i, 3 h,
parallel to N K, the longitudinal side cutting the seat of the
hip KG: from the points of intersection in KG draw lines
parallel to K L, the breadth of the dome, to the points m, n, o ;
draw G E parallel to NK, and produce it to F ; also produce
AC to D; take the parts of the given rib AB, and extend
them on C D, from C to 1, from 1 to 2, from 2 to 3, and from
3 to D: make 1 m, 2 n, 3 0, on each side of C D, respectively
equal to the parallel distances from A K, comprehended be-
tween the lines A G, and K G ; from the points at, e,j; cut by
the lines parallel to K L, make d a, e b, andfc, respectively
equal to the several heights of the given rib A B, and trace
a curve through the points E, a, b, c A: upon the straight
line E F, extend the parts E a, a b, b c, c A, of the are E A,
from E to a, from a to b, from b to c, and from c to F ; through
the points a, b, c, in E F, draw h h, ii, h h, parallel to K L;
make the parts a h, b i, c h, respectively equal to the parallels
of E K, comprehended between E G and KG; then KF L, is
the form of the boarding for each end, and LDM, that of
the sides.

The angle - rib is found the same as in the square
dome.

Figure 7, No. 1.— Tofind the covering of an oblong polg-
gonal dome.

Given the plan A B c D E r G H I, and the axal section
through its breadth, a semi-circle. Take any straight line,
M Q, No. 2; in No. 1, draw lines from the middle point I,
perpendicular to the sides G H, H A, A B, of the polygon,
and let these perpendiculars be I K, IH, and I L: on the
straight line M Q, No. 2, make M 0 equal to 1K, M P equal to
I H, and M Q equal to I L, No. 1. In No. 2, draw M N perpen-
dicular to M 0 ; from the centre M, with the radius M 0,
describe the quadrant 0 N: divide the are 0 N into any num-
ber of equal parts, say four, to z, 23/, g x, xN, at the points
2, g, a: ,- from the points x, g, 2, No. 2, draw lines (cu, go, zw,
cutting M 0 at u, v, w ; transfer the distances Mu, uv, 12w, w 0,
to the straight line I K, No. 1. Through the points of divi-
sion, draw lines parallel to H G, to cut the diagonals G I, and
H I; from the points of section in H I, draw lines parallel to
H A, to cut the next diagonal A I: from the points of section
in A I, draw lines parallel to A B, cutting B I : take the parts
0 z, zg, gm, :L‘N, No. 2, and extend them to K R, No. 1, and
draw lines through the points of section, parallel to HG;
make the two parts of the lines so drawn on each side of KR,
respectively equal to the lines drawn parallel to HG, termi-
nated by K I, and H I. W'ith the greater semi-axis M P, and
lesser semi-axis MN, describe the quadrant of an ellipsis N P M:
through the points 2, g, x, draw lines parallel to MP, to cut
the elliptic curve : extend the elliptic curve so cut, upon the
straight line HS, and through the points of section, draw lines
parallel to H A; transfer each of the lines contained between
II I and A I, respectively, to each of the parallels on the other

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DOM

. 284

DOM

 

side of H A; or draw lines through the several points of sec-
tion in the diagonal A 1, parallel to 1 s, to cut the lines perpen-
dicular to H s, and the points of intersection will form the
direction of the line for the edge of the covering H S A. In
like manner, by describing the quadrant of the ellipsis M Q N,
and by drawing lines through the points z, y, w, to cut the
curve N Q, by proceeding as before, we shall obtain the cover-
ing A B T. The three coverings G R H, II s A, A T B, cover more
than one-quarter of the whole, by the half coverings G R K,
and L 'r B, of the side and end. The covering of each side so
found answers to the opposite side, by turning the back for
the front. Each covering, except that upon the side, and
that upon the end, will cover four different sides : the
covering upon the sides and ends only answer in two oppo-
site places.

The angle-ribs of this dome are found as usual. If the cir-
cumference of each quadrant or rib perpendicular to the side,
were ascertained by calculation, then the boarding could easily
be laid out Without the use of a plan, upon the same prin-
ciple as in Figure 5, as is obvious from what has already
been said.

To construct the ribs of a spherical dome, with eight axal
ribs, and one purlin in the middle.

Plate II. Figure 1, No. 1.—Let ABCDE FGII, be the
semi—plan, which is supposed to be divided into four equal
parts, and let A H be the diameter, terminating the semi-plan;
divide the semi-circumference into four equal parts, from the
extremity A, to the other extremity H, of the diameter A II ;
and the points of division will mark the middle of the back,
or convex sides of the ribs. This being the case, let B C c b,
D E e d, F Ggf, be the plans of the intermediate ribs, B C, D E,
and FG, having the points of division in the middle ; the lines
B l), C c, D d, Ee, Ff, Gg, being the places of the vertical
sides, and parallel to the lines drawn from the middle of
B C, D E, F G, to the centre. Draw VX, N0. 2, parallel to A II,
No. 1 : from the side A a, B C c l), D E e d, &c., draw lines cut-
ting v X. perpendicular to A II ; then taking V X for the under
side of the kirb or wall-plate, draw its proper thickness. In
the elevation, No. 2, of the dome, the front ribs are quadrants,
forming a semi-circle with the upper side of the wall-plate,
which is of course the diameter ; the curves of the sides of
each of the other ribs are the quadrants of an ellipsis of the
same height with the front rib, and their projected places,
from the plan upon the kirb V x, gives the lesser-semi-axis.
To form the purlins, place the section of one of them in its
situation, and, circumscribing its angles, draw the square
m n op : draw m q, and n 7', parallel to V X, and the lines from
the several angles of the purlins, also parallel to v x ; then,
where they cut the opposite rib Y )1 form the section of the
purlin, and then the circumscribing square q r s t. First form
a ring, whose greater diameter is m g, or n r, and whose inner,
or less diameter, isp t, or 0., and whose thickness is m 72, orpo ,-
the ring being thus formed, gauge lines from each of the sides,
as is shown by the section ; then cut off the angles made by
the horizontal and perpendicular surfaces, between each two
lines, on each two adjoining sides, and the purlin will be
formed. The ribs of this dome are not complete quadrants, as
they abut upon the upper kirb W Y at the top.

The method of covering this dome is, to suppose the sur-
face polygonal ; the principle is the same as is shown in
Plate Ill.

Figure 2.—The ribs of an elliptic dome are formed in the
same manner as in Figure l, and the covering as in the pre—
ceding Plate ; the covering of one quarter being found,
answers for the whole, as has been observed. It may be
noticed, once for all, as a general rule. to cover any dome,
divide a quadrant of the plan into as many equal parts as

 

there are to be boards in each quarter, then draw lines from
the points of section, to the centre of the plan, and draw
chords by joining each two adjacent points, so that there will
be as many triangles formed as there are boards: from the
centre of the plan, draw a perpendicular to each of the chords,
meeting each chord; make the length of each perpendicular
the base of a rib, and take the common height of the dome
as the height of each rib, and place it at the extremity, at
right angles to each base; and describe the quadrant of a
circle or ellipsis, according as the base and height may be
equal, or unequal. To find the covering for any side, divide
the curve of the upper side of the rib, so found, into any
number of equal parts, and draw lines perpendicular to the
base to intersect therewith, and the whole will be completed,
as shown in Plate III.

No. 6, shows the covering over I ON; No. 7, over IN M;
No. 4, the middle rib; No. 5, the rib between the side and
end ribs.

T 0 find the solidity of a square dome, the aural section:
through the middle of the sides being semi-circles.

Let the radius of the circle be represented by r ; suppose
then, in the vertical section, that we draw any line parallel
to the base, for the section of the generating plane, which is
equal to the side of the generating square. Suppose the axis
to be drawn upon the section, and the part of the axis from
the summit to the generating line, to be denoted by x and y,
to denote the half generating line; we shall then have, by
the property of the circle, 3/ : (2 r x — 1’2) 12—, and conse-
quently 2 g : 2 (2 7' x — a?) % the whole length of the side
of the generating square.

Therefore, 4 3/" = 4 (2 r m—w’
and 43/2 a}: : 4 at (2 r ai- —— w”) the fluxion of the solid. The

fluent of 4 g2 at = 4 r a“ -— 4 x3 for the solidity of the seg-

 

ment of the dome. Now, therefore, if the solidity of the whole
dome be required, it is only supposing :1: to become equal to r;

4 w" 3 4 7‘3 8 r’
we then find 473%" ———3— __ 41' —T _ —3—. Sup-
pose d : the diameter, equal to 2 r, and a = r, the altitude,
8 3 2 t2
then will -—§T— : —-(.32, that is, the solidity of the dome is

l
l

l
[

 

equal to two-thirds of the circumscribing rectangular prism. ,

If in the above dome, all the horizontal sections had been

circles instead of squares, the dome would have been sphe- -

rical ; let us suppose that p = .7854, the area of a circle, the

diameter of which is unity, then in the case of the segment '

4 as“ . .
of the sphere, we have 1) (4 rx’ — T) for the solidity-

of the dome when less than a hemisphere; or, putting
2 r : d, and a equal to the altitude of the segment, then

 

4 s3 4 a“
(4 r 93’ — ———) = p (2 da2 -— ) and the hen ispheric
3 3
2 d‘-’ a

solidity is p ——-. The same form of expression may be
3

shown for all polygonal domes whatever: it is only using a.
proper multiplier t'orp, when the radius of its circumscriblug.

circle is unity.

Suppose it were required to find the solidity of a trun-

 

 

 

 

JD ®ME § . PLATE ZZZ.

G

git/w} r17)
gum/z rib

 

Hp , m,
[29.5. /

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

F
I '15} . (i
h c ' 72,
I
I, . i,
L b L, given n
k a \
‘ i !
. ‘ - I I
K EA '
' "L
I 6 .

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

i
\ C 1: 2' a D
I HUI I‘I/ \\\ I i
’ L \\‘\/ ¢ !
_, \ g i o
J\-B \
\ n, 17y.7‘4"';/.
|
IN M In L 11, v ”'0 P Q F E

THE LONDON ERMITL‘YG AND PUBLISHING CORIPANZ LLMI‘EEI?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DOM

'285

DOM

 

cated hemispheric dome, let .1: = the altitude of the dome, as
before, then, by the nature of the circle, we have

y” = r2—- at“ equal to one quarter of the generating square.
4y“ : 4 r2 — 4 w” for the generating square.

4 3/2 z" = 4 r’ a} —-— 4 and: the fluxion of the solid.

3

The fluent of 4y’d' :4r”w— 4x : now let d:the

 

diameter equal 2 r, and a equal the altitude of the dome, then

4x3 4a3

4 r2 a: — —3— = d2 a equal to the solidity of the

 

' 3
square truncated dome, and p (d2 a —-i;—) equal the

solidity of the circular dome. Let us suppose the same
expression to be applied to a hemispheric dome, then

 

 

 

 

tlienp<d’a— 4:3) :p(d’r—— 437.3)
:p(d"’r— dg):p3%=p2€:q,thesamefor-

mula as above.

Practical application of the preceding rules.

Tofind the solidity of a dome less than a hemisphere, upon
a square plan, when its axal sections, parallel to the sides, are
circles.

From twice the diameter of the vertical section multiplied
into the square of the altitude, subtract the third part of four
times the cube of the altitude, and the remainder is the soli-
ditv of the square segmental dome.

Example—Suppose the altitude of the dome to be 4 feet,
and the diameter of the vertical section 20 feet, the solidity
of the dome is required. -

20 4

2 p 4

40 twice the diameter of the vertical I 16 square of the

 

 

16 section. : [altitude
._ 4
640 4
85% __
—- 16
554% solidity required of the square 4
dome. —
64
4
3 ) 256
85;];
Suppose now a circular dome of the same dimensions: Then
.7854
554%
31416
39270
39270

435.1 116

2618

2618

435.6352 feet, the solidity required.
4 D

 

To find the solidity of a truncated square dome, the arm
section being that part of a semi-circle left by cutting of a
segment parallel to the diameter.

From the square of the side of the base, multiplied into the
altitude of the dome, subtract the third part of four times
the cube of the altitude, and the remainder is the solidity
required.

Example—Suppose the side of the base 20 feet, and the
altitude 6 feet, what is the solidity? .

20 6
20 6
400 36
6 6
2400 216
288 4
2112 solidity of the dome required. 3)864
288

But if the horizontal sections had been circles instead of
squares, we should then have the solidity of the circular-
dome as follows:

2112
.7854

 

8448
10560
16896
14784

1658.7648 the solidity of the dome
when the horizontal sections are circular.

It may here be remarked, that the segment and truncated
domes make together a complete square dome, each side of
the base being 20 feet, and the altitude 10 feet.

Now the solidity of the segment dome is 554% feet.

 

and that of the truncated dome 2112
Therefore the whole square dome whose
vertical section is a semi-circle, is . . 2666%

Now, the rule for measuring a square dome with semi-cir-
cular vertical sections parallel to the sides of the base, is to take
two-thirds of the area of the base, multiplied into the height :

2O
20

400 area of the base.
10

3)4000

1333s
1333s

 

2666% the solidity, as before.

But as it may be objected by many, that, when a square or
circular dome, whose vertical section is the segment of a cir-
cle, is required to find its solidity, it is difficult to find the 1
diameter of the vertical section, and that it would be more 1
eligible to find the solidity from the side or diameter of its
base, and the altitude of the section: in order to save The
trouble of finding the diameter, we shall here show the
investigation of another rule, independent 0f any foreign or
adventitious dimension.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DOM

286

DOM

 

Let 3 equal the side of the square base,

8
then 2

and if d be the diameter of the section, and a its altitude,
then, by the property of the circle,
2

%:a(d-—a) :da—a’

is equal to half the side of the base ;

2
therefore, (1 a = 82 + a2

consequently, d = 5:
4a

+a
8?

and2d: _+2a
2a

2
Therefore, by substituting ';—+ 2a for 2 d in the formula

3 '2 3
2d a’——Eg—, we obtain (—1-;— + g; for the solidity of the
segmental dome, independent of the diameter of the section.

This rule may be expressed thus :

To half the area of the square base, multiplied into the
altitude, add two-thirds of the cube of the altitude, and the
sum will be the solidity of the dome.

Let us take the same example as at first, and we shall find
the side of the square of the base to be 16 feet : therefore,

16 4

16 4

96 16

16 4

256 square of the base. 64 cube of the altitude.

4 altitude. 2

2) 1024 3) 128
512 42%
42%- —

554% cubic feet, as before, in the segmental dome.

The solidity of any dome whatever may be found by the
following general rule :

To the areas of the two ends, add four times the area in
the middle; then, one-sixth of the sum multiplied by the
altitude, gives the solid contents. This rule applies to all
domes whose vertical section is contained between any two
opposite arcs of the same circle, and two parallel lines, and
will even apply to those domes which are the segment of a
sphere. In the second example, the side of the square of

f the base being 20, and of the top 16, the middle area will be

 

1 found to be 364.

20 16 364
20 16 4
400 area of base. 96 1456
ML 256
256 area of top. _40_O-

2112 solidity.

Because multiplying and dividing by 6, gives the same
number.

To find the solidity of a hollow square truncated dome, the :

shell being of equal thickness, supposing each edge of the base
equal to the diameter of the circle of which the section is
a part.

We found before, supposing d = the side of the square

 

base, and a equal the altitude, that the solidity of the solid

4 a
dome was expressed by cl2 a — 13-, then to find the solidity

of the shell, it is only finding the solidity of two solid
domes, of the same altitude, but of different dimensions at
the base, and deducting the greater from the less.

Now let D be the side of the base to the external surface,
and d the side of the base corresponding to the internal sur-
face ; then the solidity of the solid comprehended within the
external surface, and the two parallel planes forming the

4a3

ends, is D2 a — .3— :

the solid which would fill
the cavity, is

In like manner, the solidity of } 4a’
d2 a __ .

then, by subtracting the latter

of these expressions from } Dza — d2 a = a (D2 -- d?)

the former, we obtain
for the solidity of the shell.

This rule may be thus expressed in words :

Multiply the difference of the areas of the bases by the
altitude of the dome, and the product will give the solidity
0f the shell.

Example—Suppose the side of the base, between the
external convex surface, to be 20 feet, and the side of the
base of the internal cavity, or bason, to be 18 feet, the
solidity of the shell is required.

18 20
18 20
—— —— [surface
144 400 area of the base contained between the convex
18 324 area of the base contained between the concave
—— —— surface.
324 76 difference of the areas of the bases.

6

 

456 solidity of the shell, as required.
To find the convex surface of a dome.
Let the diameter B G = d

BA:.’£
andCAzg
BC:z

we have, by similar triangles,
AOCandCED, CA:CO ::CE :CD
. _ d} .
_ 2y .
but since the fluxion of the surface whose sections are circu-
lar is denoted by 2 pgé, wherep is equal to 3.1416 ;
therefore, we have 2}) ye : p d a:
and the fluent of 2pgz :: 1) da': therefore, the
superficies of the segment of a hemispheric dome is equal to
the convex surface of a cylinder of the same altitude, and of
a diameter equal to the diameter of a great circle of the
sphere ; now, when the segment becomes a hemisphere, then
2

d
thatis,g: -2— ::

d
pdng2—, but since 1) :4 x .7854, we shall have

(1’ .
L = 2 X .7854d9; that is, the convex area of the hem-

spheric dome is double the area of its base; and since the

l area of any segmental dome is the same as that of a cylinder

of the same altitude, and of a diameter equal to that of its
great circle ; it follows also, that the convex surface of any
truncated dome is equal to the surface of a cylinder of the ,
same altitude, and of a diameter equal to the great circle of
the sphere.

 

 

 

 

 

 

DOG

287

DOG

 

To find the convea: surface of the segment of a dome, inde-
pendent of the diameter of the great circle.
Let D = the diameter of the great circle,
a = the altitude of the dome,
d = the diameter of the base of the dome ;
(12
then, by the property of the circle, D a — a2 : 4.,

therefore D : a + —:
4a
But pDa is equal to the convex surface ; therefore

p D a :pa2 + 3:: = the area of the convex surface

: p (a2 + :22). Therefore,

Toflnd the area of the segment of a dome.- .

Multiply the sum of the square of the altitude and the
fourth part of the square of the diameter of the base, by
3.1416, and the product will be the superficies of the dome.

Example—What is the superficies of the segment of a
dome, the diameter of the base being 17.25 feet, and the
height 4.5 feet.

 

 

17.25 4.5
17.25 4.5
8625 225
3450 180
12075
1725 20.25
4 ) 297.5625

 

— [base’s diameter.
74.3906 the fourth part of the square of the
20.25 square of the altitude.

94.6406 the sum.
3.1416
5678436
946406
3785624
946406
2839218

 

 

 

297.32290896 feet, the surface required.

To show that the superficies of any portion of a sphere
contained between any two parallel planes, is equal to the
product of the circumference of a great circle into the dis-
tance of the parallel planes ; that is, equal to the surface of
a cylinder, the base of which is equal to the great circle of
the sphere, and the altitude equal to the distance of the
parallel planes :

Let A equal the altitude of the segment of the sphere,
including both the altitude of the segment wanting, and the
distance of the parallel planes ; also, let a equal the altitude
of the segment wanting; and let c be the circumference of
the great circle.

Then, whether the segment include the part contained be-
tween the parallel planes, or be the segment cut ofl“, the area
of the curved surface will still be expressed by the product
under the circumference of the great circle and the height

 

of the segment; therefore, cA is equal to the superficies of
the segment, including that of the solid contained between

. the two parallel planes: also, ca is the superficies of the

g

 

segment cut off ; but the difference between the areas of the
curved surfaces of these two segments is equal to the curved
surface of the solid contained between the two parallel planes
therefore, 0 A — c a = c (A —— a) is the surface of the sphere
contained between the parallel planes.

It would, however, be very desirable to have another sub-
stitute in terms of the upper and lower diameter of the solid,
in place of the diameter of a great circle: for this purpose
we shall here give the following rules :

Given any two parallel chords in a circle, and their distance,
to find the distance of the greater chord from the centre.

T o the square of the distance between the chords add the
square of half the lesser chord. The difference between this
sum and the square of half the greater chord, divided by
twice the distance of the chords, gives the distance from the
greater chord to the centre.

Example—Suppose the greater chord, C D, is 48 feet, and
the lesser, AB, 30 feet, and their distance, E G, 13 feet ; what
is the distance, E F, from the centre to the greater chord, C D?

13 30 : 15 48 : 24

13 2 l5 ‘2‘“ 24

39 75 96
13 15 48
__. _- [chord. — [chord
169 225 square of the less 576 square of greater

169 square of distance. 394

394

26 ) 182 ( 7 dist. required.
182

Given the chord of a circle, and its distance from the centre,
to find the radius of the circle.

To the square of the half chord, add the square of the
distance from the centre, and the square root of the sum will
be the radius required.

Example—Given the chord CD, 48 feet, and its distance
EF from the centre, 7 feet, the radius of the circle is
required.

‘33. = 24
2 24
96
48
576
49
625 (25 the radius required.
4
45 )225
225

Suppose, then, that we would wish to obtain the area of
the curved surface of a dome, contained between two parallel
planes, the greater of which is 30 feet diameter, and the
lesser 20 feet diameter, and the distance between them being
5 feet.

7X7:49

10X10=100 l5X15=225
5 X 5 = 25 125
125 1,0) 10,0 the difference.

10. feet,
the distance of the greater chord from the centre.

 

 

 

 

 

 

DOM

288

DOO

 

(15)2 = 225
(10)" = 100
325 ( 18.02 the radius of the circle.
1
28 ) 225
224
3602). . 10000
7204
.2796

Say then, that the diameter is 36 feet‘, omitting the very
small fractional part .02.

Then 36 X 3.1416 : 113.976 the circumference of a
great circle.

Therefore 113.976 X 5 : 569.880 feet, the superficial
content of the dome.

Figure 2.-—-In order to show the truth of the above rule,
for finding the above diameter of a circle, from the two chords,
and the distance between them being given ;

Let y : F I, the height of the lesser segment ;

h : F B, the distance between the chords ;

a: : B D, the distance from the nearest chord AG, to
the centre 1;

C = A B, half the greater chord A G ;

c : E F, half the lesser chord ;

Then, by the property of the circle, we have
'_—— 2

F1 X FK:EE‘~':c
and RIXBK:RA9--C2
But Flzy
and FK:y+2x+2h
also BI:y+ h
and RR:3/+ h+2x.

Thereforey X (y + 2 x + 2 It) 2 a2 first equation ;
(y + h) x (y + h + 2x) : Czthesecondequation;
y? + 2 a: y + 2 h 3/ : 02, the first actually multiplied ;
y’ + by + 2xy + by + [1.2 + 2km: C’,thesecond
multiplied.
Then by putting n in the place of a: + h in each of these
equations,
the first becomes 9” + 2 n y

:c1
andthesecond y2+ 2ny+ 2hx=02—}z=

 

y” + 2 n y + n2 : c2 + n2 by completing
the square of the first. Therefore
first value ofy :. (c2 + n”—% —— n

 

y“ + 2 n y : C2 ———Ie9 —— 2kwsecond trans-
posed; .
thereforey’+ 2723/ + n2 = C2—k2—2kx + n2
y + n = (Ce—hg— 2km + Mg; the
second
value of y = (C’ — It” — 2 h :c + 722}; — n.
Then by making the first and second value of 3/ equal to
each other, and by taking away the negative quantity—n,
which is common to both sides, and squaring the equation,

we obtain

 

c’+n’=C’-—Ia’—2hx+n’
or c9=C’—-h2—2Icm
or2hx: C’—c’— It?
02—02 —h"‘c=—(h2 + c”)
and consequently a: = = ‘
2h 2!;

which expression agrees with the rule.

 

J

The second rule for finding the radius of the circle, is only
to find the hypothenuse of a right-angled triangle: the two
sides containing the right angle being given, the square of the
hypothenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the two
sides by the 47th Proposition of Euclid.

DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE, that department of the
art which relates especially to the design and erection of edi-
fices adapted to private purposes as distinguished from those
erected for public uses, more particularly of such as are em-
ployed as private dwellings. Although holding an inferior
position in the scale when compared with other branches of
the art, domestic architecture is of sufficient importance at
the present day to merit the greatest attention of the profes—
sional man. Amongst the ancients this department held a
very low position, all the energies of the architect being em-
ployed on the public buildings and temples. Such a term
would scarcely have been understood amongst the Greeks and
Egyptians, and but little amongst the earlier Romans, their
private dwellings scarcely deserving the name of buildings.
As luxury increased at Rome, the houses of private indivi-
duals increased in size and magnificence, as well as in accom-
modation, and the country—residences of the higher classes
seem to have been buildings of some importance; Pliny’s
villa contained thirty-seven apartments on the ground—floor.
Specimens of Roman houses exist at Herculaneum and
Pompeii, as well as some few elsewhere. There is a villa at
Bignor in Sussex, which contains 74 rooms, and covers an
area 630 feet in length, by 335 feet in breadth.

Of English Domestic architecture, we need say little in
this place ; the term can scarcely be applied to any habitable
buildings erected previous to the reign of Henry VII., and
the buildings of this date will be dilated upon when treating
of the style known, after the name of the reigning family, as
the Tudor style. Up to the period in which this style pre-
vailed, all the larger residences in England were fortified
more or less. For an account of the earlier of these edifices
we refer to CASTLES. See also HOUSE, TUDOR or ELIZA<
BETHAN ARCHITECTURE, VILLA, ROMAN ARCHITECTURE, &c

DOMICIL, or DOMICILE, (domicilium, a mansion), in
general, the place of residence of an individual or family
in a more restricted sense, where a person resides only for
a time.

DONJON, or DONGEON, the principal tower of a castle
usually raised on a natural or artificial mound, in the inner-
most court or ballium. Its lower part was used as a prison,
and it was frequently called the donjon-keep. Hence the
modern term dungeon.

DOOKS, pieces of wood, about nine inches in length, in-
serted in stone or brick walls; the term is used in Scotland,
and is of the same import with the London term, plugs, or
wood bricks.

DOOR, (from the Saxon dor), the gate of a house, or the
passage into an edifice, apartment, &c.

The construction of doors naturally divides itself into two
branches, viz., the formation and proportion of the aperture,
or opening, which, in outer walls, belong to the mason or

 

bricklayer; and framing of the gate or leaf, by which the ;
entrance is to be secured, together with its appurtenances, p

which appertains to the joiner’s department. _
The proportion of the aperture must always be according

to the size and intention of the building, and should be .
attended to above every other consideration ; 111 general. the -
dimensions may be in the ratio of one to two, tor large doors, .

and from three to seven in those of less size.

Entrances are of two kinds; doors and gates. The former
are used only for the passage of persons on foot; the latter
admit horsemen and carriages. Doors are used for churches:

’1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DOO

289

D00

 

public edifices, dwelling-houses, and apartments : gates
serve as inlets to cities, fortresses, parks, gardens, &c.
Apertures of gates, being always wide, are usually arched ;
while the figure of doors is generally a parallelogram.

According to Vitruvius, the hypothyron, or aperture for
doors should be as follows :—“ The height from the pave-
ment to the ceiling of the temple being divided into three
parts and a half, two of the whole parts were allowed for
the height of the door. These two parts were subdivided
into twelve smaller parts, of which five and a half were
allowed as the width of the door at the base; and the upper
part was contracted according to the following rules: if not
more than 16 feet high, the contraction was one-third of the
width of the jamb on the face; if the height was more than
16 and not more than 25 feet, a fourth part of the width of
the jamb only was employed; and from beyond 25 feet, and
not exceeding 30 feet, one-eighth only.”— Vitmvius, book iv.

Public buildings, palaces, and noblemen’s mansions, where
a great concourse of company may be expected, should have
doors of much greater dimensions than those of buildings of
inferior rank; from six to twelve feet may be taken for the
width of the outer entrance, and from four to six feet for
those in the interior: in private houses, the latter, if they
have but one leaf, should never be more than three feet and
a half in breadth, nor less than that of the windows. In all
cases their height should be proportioned to that of the story
in which they are placed, except where they are used for
laying two apartments into one; in which case they will be
of a height less than double the width.

Vitruvius, as we have before observed, has prescribed
rules for Attic, Ionic, and Doric doors, all of which have
their apertures wider at the bottom than at the top: examples
of this shape may be seen in the ruins of the temple of
Minerva Polias at Athens, the temple of Vesta at Tivoli,
and in other Greek and Roman remains. These doors
possess the advantage of shutting themselves, to which they
probably owe their invention; and they may be conveniently
adopted in modern houses, as they rise‘ in opening, and will
clear a carpet, though when shut, they go close down upon
the floor.

The principal entrance to a building of any magnitude
should be in the centre, as productive of the greater symmetry
of appearance, and as communicating more readily with the
various apartments of the interior. In the principal rooms,
the door should be two feet, at least, from the return of the
wall, to admit of furniture being placed close up in the
corner.

The lintels of exterior doors should always range with
those of the windows. Apertures placed in blank arcades,
are usually placed at the same height as the springing of the
arch : when they have dressings, the head of the architrave,
or cornice, is generally on the level of the impost.

The decorations of a door-way commonly consist either of
an architrave surrounding it, with or without a cornice, or
with a complete entablature: consoles are sometimes intro-
duced, flanking the architrave jambs, and supporting the
ends of the cornice. When the architrave jambs are flanked
with pilasters, whether of the orders, or of some emblematical
form, the projections of their bases and capitals are always
less than that of the surrounding architrave, and the archi-
trave over the capitals is similar to that over the door itself.
Doors are sometimes decorated with one of the five orders,
and in very considerable buildings, the entrance is adorned
with a portico, so as to resemble an ancient Grecian
temple.

In embellishing the piers of gates, or outer doors, it should

 

be remembered, as a general rule, that as the pier is itself 1
4 r:

 

only an inferior building, it should never be richer than the
front of the house. As for instance, where the front of
the latter is ornamented with Doric columns, the Ionic should
not be found in the piers; and it would be better to omit
columns altogether, than use the Tuscan order for piers in
any case. If the Ionic or Corinthian orders be used in the
front of the house, the Doric or Ionic may be with propriety
introduced in the piers. Niches are almost always introduced
into piers, for which reason the columns do better on pedes-
tals, because the continued moulding from their cap forms
an agreeable ornament under the niche.

The wooden closures by which the apertures are opened
or closed, come within the province of the joiner ; these are
properly the doors, and are either framed, battened, or
ledged, as described in the following articles. In ordinary,
and even in good houses, frequently, the doors are of deal;
in noblemen’s mansions, they are often of mahogany, solid
or veneered, and sometimes of wainscot, especially when the
building is in the antique style. Apartments reserved for
the reception of money, plate, jewels, &c. are usually secured
with iron doors ; and in the descriptions of ancient temples,
we read of doors of ivory, brass, silver, and gold.

DOOR, Baize, the inner door of an apartment, covered
with baize for securing the room from the influx of the
cold air.

DOORS, Batten, though formerly much in use, are now
confined to buildings in the pointed style of architecture.
They consist of boards glued together, to the size of the
aperture, with styles, rails, and munnions, made of battens,
nailed upon them, so as to give the appearance of a framed
door. This may be done, either on one or both sides; and
the door is accordingly denominated single or double battened.
The vertical joints should be hid by the munnions of the
framing; and the latter, instead of being glued, should be
bolted through to a framing behind, which will make them
very strong. The large gates and doors of ancient British
edifices are thus constructed. The practice of imitating the
framing of Grecian and Roman doors, is not, however, to be
recommended in modern times, especially if no bolts be used:
for the stuff, however well seasoned, will be subject to the
influence of the atmosphere, and shrink or swell, as the air
is dry or damp. It is scarcely necessary to remark, that this
evil will be enhanced in proportion as the wood is less
seasoned.

DOORS, Framed, which are either single, folding, double,
or double margin, are employed in all descriptions of build«
ings, and consist of styles, rails, panels, and, in most cases,
of munnions also. The framing includes all the parts but
the panels, and is held together with mortises and tenons.
The styles are the vertical parts of the framing at the sides.
The rails are the horizontal pieces, tenoned into the styles.
Munnions are parts of the framing, tenoned into the rails.
The panels fill up the holes left in putting the framing
together, and are let into grooves cut in the internal edges
of the styles, rails, and munnions. Doors are generally
framed in rectangular compartments; though other forms,
as circles, ellipses, lozenges, 8w. may be adopted, according
to the fancy of the proprietor, or the taste of the builder.
Framed doors are either square or moulded ; the former are
used only in common houses. Mouldings are of various
forms, some confined within the framing, and others project-
ing beyond it. The mouldings and form of the panels of the
door, generally regulate those of the window-shutters.

Folding doors, or doors of communication, are made in two
breadths, and have a pair of styles to each leaf.

TheBuilding Act (7 and 8Vict. cap. 84) requiresthat open-
ings through party walls be secured by wroughtdron doors.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DOR

290

DOR

 

“ Such openings must not be made wider than six feet,
nor higher than eight feet, unless in each case, and upon
special evidence of necessity for convenience or otherwise,
the official referees shall previously authorize larger
openings.

" And the floor, and the jambs, and the head of every such
Opening, must be composed of brick or stone, or iron work
throughout the whole thickness of the wall.

“And every such opening must have a strong wrought-
iron door on each side of the party wall, fitted and hung to
such opening without wood-work of any kind; and such
doors must not be less than one-fourth of an inch thick in
the panels thereof. ,

“ And each of such doors must be distant from the other
not less than the full thickness of the party wall."

Double doors are contrived to close against each other, in
Opposite directions, the one opening outwards, the other
going inwards, in order to keep the apartment warm: the
inner door being generally covered with baize.

Double margin doors, are single doors, with a broad piece
running vertically down the middle, called the surf—style,
imitating the two internal styles of folding doors when shut.

Whatever kind of door be adopted, it should, for the sake
of uniformity, be used in all the apartments of the same
story.

Farther particulars may be seen under ARCHITRAVE, and
JOINERY.

The term door is sometimes applied to the gates of locks
or sluices-

DOORVVAY, the entrance or aperture in which the door
is hunrr. Doorways are usually rectangular in shape, but
sometimes arched. In the early styles previous to the intro—
duction of the arch, all apertures consisted by necessity of
an horizontal lintel supported by two vertical jambs, although
not unfrequently the jambs inclined converging upwards.
Doorways were enriched in a variety of ways, often by a
platband running round the jambs and lintel, and sometimes
by an entablature above the lintel. An elaborate work upon
the subject has been published by Professor Donaldson.

Soon after the introduction of the arch, that form was
applied to doorways, the form of the arch, whether semi-
circular, pointed, or otherwise, being determined by the date
and style of the building. Of the first form, the Romanesque
style affords us some very beautiful specimens, witness that
of the Temple Church, London, which is a very fine example,
and consists of a compound arch, that is to say, a series of
concentric and receding arches, each arch with its pier being
profusely adorned with pillars and enriched mouldings of all
kinds. These doorways seem to have been admired in
all ages, for frequently, when all the rest of a church has been
pulled down to make room for one of a more elaborate or
more fashionable style of architecture, the old Romanesque
doorway has been preserved, and worked up in the new
structure. For exquisite examples of doorways in the
pointed styles, we have only to refer to the magnificent
western entrances of the Continental cathedrals, and the
smaller and less elaborate, though not less beautiful, examples
in our own country.

DOORWAY-PLANE, a term sometimes applied to the
space between the doorway properly so called, and the larger
door archway within which it is placed. This space is
frequently ornamented with sculpture, 8w.

DORIC ORDER, the most ancient Grecian order of archi-
tecture, was first used in building the temple of Juno at
Argos, at the period when Dorus, father of the Dorians,
reigned in the Peloponnesus ; though, according to Vitruvius,

 

its symmetry and proportions were not fixed till Ion, the J

nephew of Dorus, and chief of the Ionians, led an Athenian
colony into that part of Asia Minor which was afterwards
distinguished by his name, and there built a temple, after
the fashion of those in the Dorian states, the columns of
which were six diameters in height, taking the proportion
from the ratio that a man’s foot bears to the height of his
body.

The Doric is distinguished, in general appearance, from the
succeeding orders, by its bold and massy proportions, as well
as by its comparative want of ornamentation ; all its parts are
bold and prominent, its details few and imposing.

Its origin is stated by Vitruvius to have been derived
from the primitive buildings of the Greeks, which were
made of timber ; but others derive the style from the stone
structures of Egypt, and others from those of Persia and the
East. It would be the more natural method to discuss this
subject ere proceeding farther, but as the discussion could
not be readily understood without some previous acquaintance
with the details and general character of the order, it may
be as well to turn our attention to these matters first of all.

This order then consists, like the others, of column and
entablature, but differs from them in this, that the first men-
tioned division comprises only two members, the shaft and
capital ; the base, which is indispensable in the other orders,
being omitted in this, at least in the earlier and pure:
examples, as practised by the Greeks. The reason of this
omission has been accounted for in various ways by different
writers : Vitruvius will have it, that the base was first intro-
duced in the Ionic order to represent the sandal or covering
of a woman’s foot, and that in the Doric, which resembled in
some way or other a strong muscular and barefooted man,
this member was not appropriate. Some are of opinion that
the omission was occasioned by the close proximity of the
columns in this order, which would not admit of any excres-
cence at the base. It is true the intercolumniation is very
contracted, and the addition of any base, especially of asquare
one with its angular corners, would render the passage
between the columns extremely narrow and inconvenient;
indeed, even without a base, the space was inconveniently
small, and was felt to be so, as we gather from the fact that
the intercolumniation of the portico opposite the entrance-
door was increased in width, evidently to afford readier access
to the interior; notwithstanding, we can scarcely bring
ourselves to conclude that this was the reason of the absence
of a base. “'e rather incline to believe that a base had as
yet never been thought of, the idea had not yet suggested
itself; in Egyptian temples, from which we believe the
Doric order to have emanated, the columns were usually
devoid of bases, and it is but reasonable to presume, that in
their earlier essays, the Greeks aimed at nothing more
than a copy, and did not think either of addition or
improvement.

The Doric shaft then rises immediately from the platform
on which the building stands, but this platform was usually
raised on a series of three or more steps or gradations, the
risers of which are proportioned not to the capacity of
the human step, but to the magnitude of the building.
The shaft, when compared with those of the other orders, is
of stunted and massy proportions, its height being only
5 or 6 times greater than its lower diameter; the upper
diameter, however, is of much smaller dimensions, the
column converging rapidly towards the capital, a circumstam-e
which gives an appearance of great stability. Towards the
top of the column, a narrow channel is carved out round
the shaft, so as to form an annulus in recession, and this
marks the division between the shaft and capital, although
a portion above this is in form nothing more than a continuation

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DOR

291

DOR

 

of the shaft. The shaft was almost universally fluted, very
few exceptions to the contrary existing ; the number of the
flutes is either 16 or 20, and their profile is that of a seg-
ment of a circle less than a semi-circle, being much broader
and flatter or shallower than those of the succeeding orders.
These flutes meet each other in a sharp arris, without the
intervention of fillets, which are universal in the later orders;
a slight fillet, however, is to be found in examples at Eleusis,
Sermium, Rhamnus and Thoricus, but so narrow as to be
insignificant. Much -pains have been taken by various
authors to account for the introduction and use of those
flutes, but in our opinion without success; one supposes
that they are imitations of the crevices in the stems of the
trees out of which the timber-huts, the primitive models of
the stone structures, were constructed; another, that the idea
was occasioned by the rain-streaks running down the shafts
of the columns; and a third, that flutings were hollowed out
for the purpose of resting spears in the crevices. Such
hypotheses are doubtless very ingenious, although not to all
minds equally convincing ; for our own part, we do not see
the absolute necessity there is to account for the reason and
origin of every small member or ornamental detail. We
require no further reason for the use of flutes, beyond the
effect produced by them as a means of decoration, and as
such we think their origin very easily accounted for. In the
majority of Egyptian examples, from which—to prejudge
the question—we suppose those of Greece to have been
derived, the columns were reeded, or ornamented with pro-
jecting staves instead of recessed flutes; nor are the two
methods of decoration so dissimilar and unconnected, for we
have only to remove the staves to produce the flutes: and
besides these methods we find another, in which the columns
are what is called canted, that is to say, have their horizontal
sections rectilineal polygons, the faces of the polygon or sides
of the column being flat, instead of convex or concave.
Thus we have three kinds of polygonal columns, the first of
which seems to possess the primitive form, and the others
to be merely enriched variations of the same. At Amada
in Nubia, there is a very curious illustration of the progress
made in the improvement and enrichment of columns, where
in the same building we find one column a mere pier or
simple parellelopiped, and another and adjoining one both
rounded off at the corners and fluted; this last bears a.
remarkable resemblance to the Grecian Doric, on which
account we shall have to refer to the subject again ere the
close of this article. Specimens of Doric canted columns
; are to be found in the portico of Philip, king of Macedon,
and in the temple of Cora ; the flutes, however, are the most
' prevalent, as they are the most beautiful means of enrich-
ment; the pleasing effect produced by them is attributable
mainly to the diversity of light and shade so created, but
this is not their only advantage ; they likewise give a variety
and lightness of appearance to the column, which would
otherwise appear heavy, and at the same time, by the diminu-
tion of the breadth of the channels as viewed by the eye, add
to the apparent circularity of the column. We have no
specimens of reeded columns in this order. The flutes
diminish in width as they reach the top of the shaft, to
correspond with the diminution of the shaft; they are carried
above the necking of the capital, and usually terminate
immediately below the annulets, butting upon a plane surface
perpendicular to the axis of the columns, or parallel to the
horizon, as in the Propylaea at Athens. In other cases, as
' 1n the temples of Theseus and of Minerva at Athens, as well
as in the Portico of Philip, in the island of Delos, the upper
. ends of the flutes terminate upon the super..cies of a cone,

immediately under the annulets, in a. tangent to the bottom ,

 

 

of the curve of the echinus of the capital. The same
kind of termination takes place in the temple of Apollo, at
Cora, in Italy; but in this example, the conic termination
of the flutes is not immediately under the abacus, but at a
small distance down the shaft, leaving a small portion quite
a plain cylinder, and thus forming the hypotrachelium or
neck of the capital. Palladio and other Italian authbrs have
terminated the flutes of the shafts of their designs of Doric
columns in the segments of spheres tanged by the surfaces
of the fluting. In some few instances the shaft is fluted only
at the upper and lower extremities, the other part being left
plain, although probably with the intention of being orna-
mented in a similar manner at some future time. Examples
of this are to be found at Eleusis and Thoricus in Attica,
at Egesta and Selinus in Sicily, at the temple of Apollo at
Delos and at. Rhamnus, which last forms a peculiar instance,
the columns of the pronaos being fluted the whole length of
the shaft in front; with eleven channels, having at the back
nine plane surfaces. We have above stated the number of
channels to be 16 or 20, but the latter is by far the more
usual; examples of which practice are, the Parthenon,
Theseum and Propylaea at Athens, with others at Corinth,
Delos, Eleusis, Rhamnus, Thoricus, Bassae, Agrigentum, and
in the temple of Ceres, at Paastum. There are but few
examples with only 16 channels, of which number are those
at Sunium, and the upper range of the interior columns in
the temple of Neptune at Paestum, in which last mentioned
building there are specimens of columns with as many as
24 flutes. The channels were not always circular, but
sometimes semi-ellipses, and at others eccentric curves.
Doric antae were never fluted. _

The first object which attracts notice in passing the eye up
the column, and which breaks the outline of the fluting, is
what is termed the hypotrachelium, or under-necking of the
capital. This consists of one or more channels cut in reces-
sion round the upper part of the shaft ; in some instances, as
at the temple of Minerva at Sunium, in the Agora at Athens,
and in most of the examples at Agrigentum ; this division is
so fine as almost to~ escape notice, and in others is very pro-
minent, the channels varying both in size and number. In
the Parthenon, and in the Propylzea at Eleusis, and at
Rhamnus, there is a single rectangular groove; at the Pr0<
pylaea at Athens, a groove chamfered on the upper edge,
and at the Theseum, a groove chamfered on both edges, so
as to form an acute angle at the meeting of the chamfers.
At Corinth there are three channels similar to those in the
Propylaea at Athens, having a fillet between each two, as
also at the temple of Apollo at Bassae, but in this example
the channels are of a curvilinear section. At Piestum there
are three fine channels, which, at their junction with the
arrises of the flutes, are cut into the shape of diamonds, the
projecting edge of the arris being chamfered off. The hypo-
trachelium of three channels is considered a mark of antiquity,
for although they are not of necessity found in all ancient
examples, yet they are never inserted in those of later date.
Some writers consider those channels as the commencement
of the capital, while others are inclined to think them but a
continuation of the shaft. In the other orders the correspond-
ing member is certainly the division between the two parts,
all above being given to the capital, and all below to the
shaft ; the difficulty in this case arising from the fact of the
continuation of the flutes above this point, the space between
the hypotrachelium and annulets being precisely similar to
the lower portion of the shaft, yet at the same time it is difli-
cult to assign any other reason for the introduction of the
grooves, except they serve to mark the division between
the two members of the column. Without the intervention

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DOR

292

DOR

 

of such a mark as this the capital would have appeared stunted
and heavy, but, as it is the shadow produced by the sinking,
marks to the eye a distinct division, and, in appearance at
'least, increases, at the same time, the length and comparative
lightness of the capital.

Above the hypotrachelium, the shaft, with its fluting, is
continued for a short distance, and meets the annulets of the
capital in a curve or apolhesis ; this portion forming, accord-
ing to our notion, the necking of the capital. The annulets
come next, and form the lower portion of what may be termed
the capital-proper, about which there exists no difference of
opinion. The following particulars of the number and form of an-
nulets, in difl‘erent examples, are furnished by a contributor to
“ The Builder,” to whose valuable writings, on this subject, we
shall have occasion to advert more than once in this article :—

“ The annulets, in Grecian Doric columns, vary as well in
their profile as in their number. Some examples may be
interesting, to show the exhaustless genius of the Greeks,
even in details the most minute, and that although the general
principles of art in the Doric order are the same, yet that
they could produce great variety in their details. In the
Parthenon, that best and purest of all examples, we find,
under the echinus of the capitals in the porticos, five rings,
placed on a slope, continued, as it were, from the lower link
of the echinus, and in the columns of the pronaos of the same
edifice, there are but three rings. In the temple of Theseus,
the profile of the annulets is somewhat similar to that of the
Parthenon ; the rings are four in number, and the under side
of the lower arris of each ring is slightly undercut. In the
example from the portico at Athens, presumed to belong to
the Agora, or market-place, we see how widely the artist
departed from the graceful and flowing outline of earlier pat-
terns; this, of the age of Augustus, is one of the latest known
examples of Grecian-Doric, yet in many points it cannot be
safely recommended for modern imitation. In the temple of
Apollo Epicurius, at Bassze, a building of the pure age
of Greek art, the annulets are four in number, resembling in
their contour those in the Parthenon, excepting that the
second and third rings recede a little from a line drawn from
the first to the fourth. At Rhamnus, where are two temples,
at Sunium, and in the Dodecastyle portico of Ceres at Eleusis,
the rings are three in number, profiled like the best examples
at Athens; at Egesta and Selinus, they are three in number;
at the temple of Jupiter Olympius, at Agrigentum, of
Apollo in the isle of Delos, and in the portico of Philip
at the same place, at Corinth (where the annulets have a
great projection, and are very deeply undercut), in the
Hypaethral temple at Passtum, in the temple of Diana, in
the Propylaea at Eleusis, in the Propylasa at Athens (an
excellent example) and at Thoricus, the rings are four in
number. At the latter place the annulets are remarkable,
and probably singular in their way. In the capital from the
Pseudodipteral temple at Passtum, in which many pecu-
liarities are observable ; the immense size and projection of
the abacus seem to crush the echinus, which has beneath it
two rings, under which the flutings curl in the form of leaves.
At Selinus, Mr. Woods noticed some remarkable features in
the capitals :--‘ The shape of these capitals is very peculiar;
I have seen nothing like them in Greece, except a fragment
on a very small scale which I noticed at Corfu. The common
Grecian-Doric capitals in the best examples form a sort _of
ogee, and we find this curve at the third temple, but in the
great temple, and in two of the three smaller ones, a deep
hollow interrupts the flow of the lines.’ These capitals were
each cut out of a block of stone thirteen feet square.”

The next member of the capital is the echinus, which is
similar to an ovolo, or quarter-round moulding, and which,

 

spreading out from above the annulets, serves to support the
overhanging abacus. In the best examples it is usually very
flat in profile, being little more than a frustum of an inverted
cone, having its base rounded off at its edge, and quirked, as
it were, where it meets the abacus. Its use seems to have
originated from an imitation of the cushion-capitals of the
Egyptians, the lower portion only being reserved in Grecian
buildings. The diameter of the top of the echinus is equal
to, or somewhat greater than, the lower diameter of the
column. We refer again to the writer above alluded to.

“ In those buildings which belong to the best age of
Grecian art—the days of Pericles, and his chief architects,
Callicrates and Ictinus—as seen at Athens, Bassae, Sunium,
Thoricus, Eleusis, Rhamnus, and elsewhere, we shall find
that the echinus has its lower part either very slightly curved,
or else perfectly straight ; whilst, in buildings of later date,
and of equivocal taste, we find that the moulding nearly re-
sembles an elongated or ovate quarter-round, as in the Agora
at Athens, and in a building at Cadachio. Professor Donald-
son has drawn notice to the general principle which “directed
the Greeks in the composition of their Doric capitals. From
the necking to the abacus, the outline is that ofa cyma-reversa,
having a projection that varied according to the era, or style
of art peculiar to the country; the existing Attic examples
being but slightly projecting, while the immense abacus of
the orders now remaining at Corinth, Paestum, and in Sicily,
gives a bolder profile to the capital.” Some idea may be
formed of the vast proportions of the temple of Jupiter, at
Agrigentum, when we find that the echinus of each column is
formed of two stones, each weighing 21% tons, held together
by plugs or dowels by the centre stone of the abacus, which
is in three pieces. In the capitals of the antae of Greek
examples the echinus is generally undercut, so as to form
that remarkable moulding called the hawk's-beak, or bird’s-
beak moulding. The proportionate depth of the abacus
and echinus to each other, is not always the same; but,
as a general rule, it may be held, that the former member
should have the greatest depth. In the Parthenon, the rela-
tion, in this respect, is as 11 to 9 ; at Sunium and at Bassze,
as 7 to 6 ; at Thoricus, as 6 to 5 ; at Eleusis, as 12 to 9. In
the best examples with which we are acquainted—as, for
instance, in the Parthenon and Theseum—the echinus has
nearly the same projection as the abacus (it is actually the
same in the temple of Apollo Epicurius, at Bassaa) ; and we
shall find, that the sharper is its outline—that is, the more it
is remote from the quarter-round—the more it is held in
estimation ; and that, as it approaches the ovolo in form, so
it may be traced to belong to a declining period, or one nearer
to the time of the Roman use of the Doric order. If we
grant for a moment, that timber construction afforded the first
hints for architectural composition, and that the origin of the
abacus may be traced to the intervention of a cube of wood
between the column and its entablature ; where will the
advocates of this system find the prototype of the echinus?
To the Greeks we must look for the adoption of this beauti-
ful moulding, which connects, in such a happy manner, the -
square abacus with the circular shaft; and truly may it be
said to be their own invention, even if we are compelled to
admit, that some slight hint for it is to be found among the
heavy capitals of Egypt. Professor Hosking has well ob-
served: “Greek architecture is distinguished for nothing 1
more than for the grace and beauty of its mouldings; and it :
may be remarked of them generally, that they are eccentric,
and not regular curves. They must be drawn, for they can-
not be described, or struck; so that, though they may be
called circular, or elliptical, it is seldom that they are. really
so ; not but that they may be; but if they are, it is consider

 

 

 

 

 

 

r

DOR

293

DUR

 

ably the result of chance, not of design. Hence, all attempts
to give rules for striking mouldings are worse than useless, for
they are injurious; the hand alone, directed by good taste,
can adapt them to their purpose, and give them the spirit and
feeling which render them effective and pleasing.”

The abacus at the top of the capital is of the simplest
description, being merely a square slab of stone, of consider-
able thickness, harmonizing well with the massy appearance
of the entire column. It projects considerably beyond the
upper part of the shaft, and sometimes even beyond the
lower diameter, and always advances in front of the general
surface of the epistylium. Where the abacus overhangs be-
yond the foot of the column, it is considered as an indication
of the antiquity of the building; examples of which occur
at Corinth, Paestum, Egesta, and elsewhere. This completes
the description of the column.

It may be well to mention in passing, that Doric antas
differ from columns, in maintaining the same width from top
to bottom, which equals the average diameter of the column.
They have a simple moulding and groove at their base ; the
capital likewise is very simple, and the abacus and other
mouldings are much narrower than in the capital of the
column. Antas are never fluted.

The Doric entablature consists as usual of three members,
architrave, frieze, and cornice, the first or lowermost of
which, otherwise termed the epistylium, is simply a plain
fascia surmounted by a broad fillet termed the toenia, which
forms the separation between it and the frieze, and to which
another fillet, with small cylindrical guttas depending from
it, is attached in separate portions beneath each triglyph of
the frieze. The epistylium recedes from the face of the
abacus, projecting beyond the upper diameter of the shaft,
but falling short of the extremity of the lower diameter,
so as only partially to overhang the column. A line dropped
vertically from the face of the architrave would cut the abacus,
pass without the upper portion of the shaft, but fall within
it ere it reached the base. The average height of this mem-
ber, inclusive of the teenia, is equal to the upper diameter of
the column.

Above the architrave is the frieze, which forms the most
characteristic feature in the whole entablature, although of
no greater dimensions than the epistylium. The height of
the two members is nearly equal, with but slight varia-
tions in any examples, the frieze being seldom, if ever, the
deeper, more frequently the shallower of the two. The peculiar
ornamentation of this portion of the entablature gives it its
specific character; being divided into a series of projecting
and recessed panels. The distinguishing feature is the tri-
glyph, which is a slightly projecting tablet, somewhat wider
than the semi-diameter of the base of the column, and chan-
nelled vertically with three grooves, or ykugbeg, whence the
name triglyph. These channels are so disposed, that there
shall be a space in the centre of the projecting slab, with a
channel on each side of it, and beyond these again, on either
' side, another equal space, with a half-groove outside, on the
edge of the slab, which indeed is nothing more than a cham-
fered edge. The two channels, and the two halves on the
extremities together make up the three grooves, or glyphs.

Beneath each triglyph, and attached to a fillet, are a series of
gutter, or drops, immediately under the taenia of the architrave.
This decoration we have alluded to in describing the episty-
lium, but although it is attached to that member, it belongs,
strictly speaking, to the triglyph, of which it is a conti-
nuation; its position, however, in this place, serves a very
useful purpose, for it both gives a variety to the otherwise
monotonous surface of the architrave, and, at the same time,
' presents to the eye a sort of connection between this portion
4 r

 

 

of the entablature and the frieze above it. The guttae are
six in number, of avconical form, and are said to represent
drops of rain that have trickled down the channels of the
trigylph, and settled beneath the teenia ; others again suppose
them to represent the heads of nails, or screws, used in the
wooden structure. The channels of the triglyph are of a tri-
angular section, and are not continued the entire height of
the block, although at the bottom they butt against the teenia.
Each triglyph is surmounted by a capital, or slightly-project-
ing band, which, in the Greek examples is of very slight
projection, and is not returned at the sides, except in the case
of triglyphs at the angles of the building. The position of
these ornaments is such, that there shall be one over the centre
of each column, and one midway between every pair. of
columns; but there is an exception to this disposition at the
angles of buildings, where the triglyph is not placed over the
centre of the column, but is brought up quite to the edge or
outer angle ofthe frieze, so that a line dropped perpendicularly
from the outer edge of the corner triglyph, would touch the
base of the column. This disposition gives occasion for an
alteration of the intercolumniation between the two end
columns, these being brought closer together by the space of
half a triglyph; an advantage is obtained by this means, inas-
much as an appearance of greater strength is given to the
extremities of the colonnade.

The spaces between the triglyphs are called metopes, and
are usually filled up with sculptures in bas-relief, from which
circumstance the frieze was called by the Greeks zoophorus,
because it contained representations of living figures, men or
animals. These metopes are usually of a square form, their
breadth being equal to the height of the frieze. but there is
a slight variation in different examples. In the Doric portico
at Athens, the breadth of the metope is 3’,, 3” and 3',, 3" .6,
while the height is 3',, O” .7, including the band or capital
over it; or without the band, 2’” 9” .05 ; in the temple of
Minerva at Athens, the height of the metope, without the
band, is 3',, 11” .15, and its breadth 4’” 3” . 35: in the Pro-
pylasa, the breadth is 3’,, 8" .25, and the height 3',, 9" .85,
including the band and the bend over it; and in the Theseum,
the breadth is 2’,, 6” .475, and the height 2’,, 5”, without the
band. Each metope is surmounted with a band, or capital,
similar to that of the triglyph, though not of equal width
or projection.

The entablature belonging to the monument of Thrasyllus
is an exception to the general rule, the frieze being without
the characteristic addition of triglyphs, their place being
filled up with wreaths; the guttas, however, are retained, but
instead of being disposed at intervals, they are continued un-
interruptedly beneath the fillet.

The Doric cornice consists of few but bold parts, the most
characteristic of which are the mutules. These are a series
of shallow plates attached to the soflit of the corona,
sloping forward, so that the bottom of the mutule in front
is considerably lower than at the back, and having their
soflits studded with cylindrical or conical guttas ; these guttas
were eighteen in number, and placed in three rows of six
each. A mutule was placed over each triglyph, and an inter-
mediate one over each mutule; their width being equal to
that of the triglyphs. Under the mutules was generally a
plain band, but sometimes an ogee is found in this place. The
corona is a boldly-projecting flat moulding, of somewhat
greater depth than the abacus of the capital, and is generally
finished off above with a small ovolo and fillet supporting the
cymatium, which consists of two similar mouldings, but of
more imposing dimensions. In raking cornices the mutules
are omitted, but a, new moulding, termed the epitithedas, is
added as a finish, which is either an ovolo or cymatium

 

 

 

 

 

 

DOR

When used, the epitithedas was continued a little way at the
angles, and terminated against a carved block. The pedi-
ment in this order is of a low pitch, and always about the
same height, whatever the span may be ; upon an average the
height equals that of the entablature, more or less, but is
scarcely ever so great as to make the tympanum higher than
the entablature.

Having completed this general description of the order, it
may be as well to say a few words about the proportions
observed in the different parts.

The height of the column varies from four times the lower
diameter, as in the earliest existing example at Corinth,
to 6% times, as at the portico of Philip, but in the purest
examples the height is about 5% times the lower diameter,
the upper diameter being ,1, less than the lower. The entab-
Jature varies from If} to 2 diameters in height, of which%
go to the epistylium, 7‘? to the frieze, and the remainder to the
cornice.

To afford more detailed information, we give the following
proportions from the temple at Sunium, and the accompany-
ing table, as prepared by Mr. Brown.

“ The proportions of the temple at Sunium are thus
ordered: make the column 6 diameters high, and the entab-

294

 

DOR

ture 736 of the column, or divide the whole height into 13
parts, of which give 10, to the column, and 3 to the entabla-
ture. The upper diameter of the column is 7% of the lower.
The capital ~$ a diameter, which, being divided into 5 parts,
2 are to be given to the abacus, 2 to the ovolo and annulets,
and l to the necking. The length of the abacus 1% diameter.
The entablaturé is to be divided into 8 parts, giving 3 to
the architrave, 3 to the frieze, and 2 to the cornice. In
dividing the cornice, take J} for the cymatium, fillet, and
moulding, $2, for the corona alone, and leave ;— for that part
of the facia which appears below a horizontal line drawn
from the lower front edge of the corona. The whole projec-
tion of the cornice is 1 diameter, reckoning from the centre
of the column. The capital of the triglyph to be .3 of the
whole height of the frieze. The capital or fillet of the archi-
trave to be % of the height of the architrave. The architrave
to overhang the upper part of the shaft by % the difference
between that and the lower diameter. In distributing the
triglyphs, take 1;]; diameter, or 75 minutes for the width of
the triglyph and metope, and of this give 3% to the former,
and 4,} to the latter, or nearly 28 and 47 minutes. Thus a
monotriglyph intercolumniation will be 75 + 75 — 60 = 90
minutes, or 1% diameter.”

b

A Table of the Proportions of some of the Grecian Doric Orders, according to the [llodule of Sixty Parts,
V formed at the bottom of the Shaft of the Column.

 

 

 

 

’ I
Lower Upper Height of Archi- Intercolum-

Diameter, Diameter. Column. trave. Frieze. Cornice. niation. Pedestal.

Minutes. Minutes. Diam. Min. Min. Min. Min Diam. Min. Rise
Propylaaa, or Entrance into the Citadel of Athens 60 — —~ — —- - — —
Portico of the Agora, at Athens ....................... 60 47 , 6 2} 40 42 21 1 2:;- 1 7
Temple of Minerva, or Parthenon, at Athens ...... 60 47 5 33% 43 ‘ 43 3'2 1 17% 1 91 4
Temple at Corinth ....................................... 60 44% 4 4 483- -— —— 1 l4 —
Temple of Theseus at Athens ........................... (it) 46‘ 5 42% 50 49.1 —— 1 37% ] 81 2
Temple of Minerva at Sunium ........................ 60 45" 5 54 48% 48: — l 28 —
Temple of Jupiter Nemens, near Argos ............... 60 40 6 31 383 43; -— —
Temple of Jupiter Panhellenius at Argive ............ 60 44% 5 24 51— 51% — 1 4l
Portico of Philip, King of Macedon, at Delos ...... 60 495 6 39% 38% 4334?- 255; 0 42?; —
Temple of Apollo at Delos (plain shaft) ............ (it) 4:2; 6 3,,3 49% 42; —_ —— —-
Temple of Minerva at Syracuse ..................... 60 4G 4 ‘24; 44% 40 -— 1 5% ——
Temple of Juno Lucina at Agrigentum ............... 60 453i 4 42 55 45 — 1 l5 ——
Temple of Concord at Agrigentum ................. (50 46 4 48:1- 46}? 46L 25 1 10%)} —-
Temple of Selinus ....................................... (30 46 4 213 46:1,~ 442 — 1 2§ ——
Temple of Jupiter Selinus .............................. (i0 355 4 34% 52 44"; 26 — -—
Pseudo-dipteral Temple at l’iestum .................. 60 40% 4 ‘27 50 — — 59:} 67% —
Hexastyle Temple at Paestum ....................... GO . 43 4 47% 45§ 44% 24% 1 13 ——
Hypzethral Temple of Neptune at Pmstuln ......... 60 41% 4 8 4'2; 40; 21% 1 4i ._
Inner Peristyle of Temple of Neptune ............... (30 4: l 13:17 3:) -— — l 22', —-
Upper Columns to ditto ................................ (it) 441 3 50 68 ——- —- 2 49 ——
Temple of Egesta (plain shaft) ... ........ . ............ 60 44 — 49} 52% 402 1 11 _

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

In comparing the above with the table on the next page,
in which the dates are given, ’it will be readily observable
with what regularity the proportionate height of the columns
increased from the earliest example at Corinth to the latest,
the Agora at Athens : the last, however, forming somewhat
of an exception to the rule, the height being less in this
case than in the two previous examples, viz; those of the-
temple of Jupiter Nemazus, and of the Portico of Philip of
Macedon. The diminution of the‘ shaft will be seen
to average about 15 minutes, the upper diameter ranging

 

from 49% in the Portico of Philip, a late example, to 35% in
the temple at Selinus, one of the earlier buildings; thus
affording additional proof of the comparative lightness
of the later structures. We have to call attention likewise
to the general equality in height between the architrave
and frieze, noticing at the same time one or two exceptions,
in which there is a considerable variation, especially in that
at Agrigentum ; the height of the architrave of the upper
colounade in the temple of Neptune is remarkable, as is alst
that of the frieze and cornice at Egesta.‘

 

 

 

 

 

 

DOR

295

DOR

 

The following useful, though somewhat different table, is the compilation of the writer to whom we have previously

alluded.

its colonies, concluding with the scale which the Roman and Italian schools assigned to the Doric.

This table exhibits at one view the proportions of the columns in some of the principal buildings in Greece and

 

 

Height Number of Number of Number of
Date of Erection. Name of Building. Name of of Diameter. Diameters Columns Columns
Architect. Column. high. in Portico. on the side.
ft. in. ft. in.
About 800 13.0. Temple at Corinth ........................... 23 8 3 10 4325 6 ._
600 or 700 B.C. Great H ypasthral Temple at Paestum' ......... 28 10 7 0 1511 6 14
500 B.C. Temple at Selinus ................................. 32 6 7 6 4g 6 l2
Octostyle at Selinus ..................... 48 7 10 7 43‘ 8 16
Temple of Minerva at Syracuse ........... { Progagl‘yrifipfihias 28 8 6 6 413.3 _ .—
About 450 B. 0. Temple of Hercules at Agrigentum ........ 33 0 7 0 4.3. 6 14
Temple of Concord at ditto .................... 22 2 4 8 44.3. 6 __
500 no. Temple of Jupiter Panhellenius at Egina Libon. 17 1 3 2 579.9. 6 __
About 461 13.0. Temple of Theseus ................................. 18 7 3 3 .533 6 - 13
448 B,c_ Parthenon ..................................... ..... Ictinus. 34 0 6 2 5%.; 8 17
About 430 B.C. Temple of Apollo at Bassae ..................... Ictinus. 19 6 3 7 51.5% 6 15
Temple of Minerva at Sunium .................. Ictinus. 19 7 3 4 5% 6 _
Supposed

. Temple of Ceres at Eleusis ..................... Corabus. -— 6 6 5g 12 _.

Age of Females. { _ . . .
Temple of Diana Propylaea at Elensxs ......... 14 10 2 7 5g- 2 1n antls. --
Temple at Rhamnus ........................... l Al°:?%rifiséi:£upfl 13 4 2 4 5% 6 12
Temple of Apollo, Delos ........................ 18 8 2 11 63: _. _
About 338 B.c. Portico of Philip of Macedon, Delos ......... 18 8 2 10 639- _. _.
Temple of Jupiter Nemaaus ................ 33 8 5 2 6%?- 6 ——
100 13.0. Agora, at Athens .................................... 26 2 4 4 691? 4 _
Time of Augustus' Theatre of Marcellus, at Rome ....... .. ......... 21 0 3 0 7 __ .—
About 80 A.D. Coliseum ............................................. 27 3 2 10 993—1. — —
About 300 A. D. Baths of Diocletian .............................. —— —- 8 __ —

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The intercolumniation of this order differs from that of all
the others, inasmuch as the intercolumns are determined not
by the diameters of the column, but by the arrangement of
the triglyphs; and the different methods, instead of being
distinguished as pycnostyle, eustyle, arazostyle, dc, are com-
prehended under the terms monotriglyph, ditriglyph, (30.,
according to the number of triglyphs over each intercolumn ;
the former term designating the arrangement in which there
is but one triglyph between the columns, the latter that in
which there are two within the same limits. This method
of disposing the columns naturally arises from the employ-
ment of the triglyph, for this ornament forms so conspicuous
an object in the elevation, that it was necessary to make its
position conform with the other principal members of the
order, of which the column is the most important, so that
the colonnade and entablature might present to the eye a
similar arrangement. Had the triglyphs been placed in the
frieze without reference to the position of the columns, the
eye, after passing up the length of the column, would have
been confused upon reaching the frieze, and probably would
have stopped short at that member, there being nothing to

: carry it upward to the cornice. Did we adopt the Vitruvian

theory, the position of the triglyph would readily be accounted

' for in another way, for it stands to reason, that the feet

of the rafters would be placed immediately over their
support.

 

It being necessary then that the triglyph should stand over
the centre of each column, and the proportion of the metope
or space between the triglyph being determined, we only
require the height of the frieze, and the intercolumniation is
fixed. The width of the metope being about equal to the
height of the frieze, and the triglyphs somewhat less, it is
evident, that to place a column under every triglyph, would
be impracticable, without increasing the height of the frieze
quite beyond proportion; there would be scarcely room for
the feet of the columns, much less for any space between.
It became necessary therefore to place another triglyph in
the centre of each intercolumn, with two metopes instead of
one: this arrangement answered very well, and is the most
frequent in Doric temples, and indeed is seldom departed
from in any buildings. By inserting another triglyph, you
are compelled to add another metope, and this makes the
intercolumn half as wide again, which is almost too wide to
suit the requirements of taste, as well as the proportions and
construction of Doric buildings. There are very few instances
of this arrangement, and these only in the centre intercolumn
opposite the entrances, where greater space was required;
this is especially noticeable in the Propylaea, where a large
space was required for the admission of chariots. It may be
supposed, that the monotriglyphic method would cause the
columns to appear too closely set, and this certainly would be
the case in some instances, where the columns are less than

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DOR

296

DOR

 

a diameter and half apart, were it not that the shafts converge
so rapidly towards the upper diameter as to leave a space
under the soflit of the architrave. even in such instances equal
to more than twice the upper diameter.

The peculiar position of the extreme triglyph has already
been noticed in speaking of that member, as also the effect
produced by it in lessening the extreme intercolumn by the
space of half a triglyph; but there still remains to notice
another peculiarity, which was first published by Mr.
Donaldson ;—we allude to the inward inclination of the
outer columns.

“ The axis of the columns of the Parthenon,” says he,
“both on the flanks and on the fronts, as well as those of the
temple at Egina, and of Concord at Agrigentum, have a con-
siderable inclination inwards (a circumstance I am not aware
to have been before noticed) though not to such a degree as
required by Vitruvius, and not confined, as he directs, to the
columns of the peristyles only.” Vitruvius thus directed :—
“ The bases being thus completed, we are to raise the
columns on them. Those of the pronaos and posticum are
to be kept with axes perpendicular: the angular ones
excepted, which, as well as those on the flanks right and left,
are to be so placed, that their interior faces towards the cella be
perpendicular. The exterior faces will diminish upwards, as
above mentioned. Thus the diminution will give a pleasing
effect to the temple.”

Mr. Bartholomew alludes to the same circumstance thus :—

“ The ancients, knowing how much more secure were
their fabrics when made to settle together and consolidate by
their own gravity, set the lateral columns of their temples
with their axes falling towards the cells, so that the inner
faces of the shafts of the columns should be perpendicular,
and the outer faces of them receding the whole quantity of
columnar diminution, in order to atf'ord to the building a more
solid, pyramidal, and graceful appearance; and by this shrewd
device they rendered the avenues between the side-walls
and the colonnades of their temples no wider next the sofiits
of the architraves, than down upon the pavement; and it
is not improbable, that the preservation of this symmetry led
to the omission of the inner columns of the ancient Pseudo-
dipteral temples ; whereas the moderns, in general, not
attending to this dynamic and optical nicety in architecture,
so set their columns, that when we walk down a modern
colonnade, we cannot divest ourselves of the idea that the
axes of all the columns are falling outwards: and, indeed,
accurate admeasurement would often find this to be no illu-
sion, since the work, not erected so as to fall together, will,
in general, with the slightest inevitable settlement, expand
at its upper part.” It is worthy of remark, that, in many
instances, the angular columns are made somewhat thicker
than the others, so as to give them an appearance of much
greater strength.

Having arrived thus far, we cannot do better than give
descriptions of some of the more noted edifices belonging to
this order, amongst which are the Parthenon, Theseum,
the ancient temple at Corinth, the Propylaea at Athens, and
the Poseidonium at Paestum. The following accounts are
selected from Mr. Godwin’s lectures on “ Architectural
Antiquities.”

“The Parthenon, or the temple dedicated to the virgin-
goddess Minerva (the Greek word wapde’yog, signifying a
virgin), was designed by Ictinus and Callicrates, about the
year 438 n.0, whilst Phidias wrought the marble figures into
life by his magic touch. This temple, erected upon the site
of the old Hecatompedon destroyed by the Persians, is
justly looked upon as the finest example of the Grecian
Doric, and has excited for 22 centuries the admiration and

 

delight of all who have seen it. With the words of the
noble author before quoted, all will probably agree. ‘In
the majestic simplicity of its general design, the grandeur
of its proportions and the exquisite taste and skill displayed
in the execution of its ornamental parts ; it is undoubtedly
the most perfect, as well as deservedly the most celebrated,
production of Grecian art.’ (Lord Aberdeen’s Inquiry,
p. 142.)

“When Sir George Wheeler and Dr. Spon visited this
edifice, A.D. 1676, the temple was entire. In the year
1687 Athens was besieged by the Venetians, when a shell
falling on the structure, the Parthenon was reduced to the
state in which it was seen by Stuart and Revett. This
celebrated temple had at each end a portico of 8 columns in
front, and on the sides were 30 more, making 46 to the
colonnade which surrounded the cell of the building. The
breadth of the front of the building is 101 feet, the length
227 feet on the upper step, and the height 65 feet. The
columns are 6 feet 1 inch in diameter, those at the angles
are 2 inches more, and the distance from column to column
is 7 feet 11 inches. The sculptures of the Parthenon
extended to a. range of 1,100 feet, consisting of upwards of
600 figures. Behind the great porticos, there are two
of smaller dimensions, which are called the pronaos and
posticus; these inner porticos have in each 6 columns.
The portion of the building inclosed by the columns was
divided by a cross wall into two parts, whereof the larger,
called the cella or naos (ship,) answered to our nave; the
smaller part, in which was the public treasury, was called
the opisthodomus. In this part, according to \Vheeler, were
six columns, but no vestige remains of them. The cell,
where was placed the famous statue of Minerva. by Phidias,
was open to the sky in the centre (whence such a temple
was called hypaethral from the Greek {11rd, under, and citing,
ether, air), having a colonnade round it, supporting a gallery
above, in which was a second row of columns. These have
all likewise disappeared, but the circles were traced by
Stuart on the pavement whereon the lower range of columns
had stood. The sculptures in the pediment of the eastern
front represented the introduction of Minerva among the
assembled gods, giving us an admirable idea. of the mythology
of the ancients, each of the deities being distinguished by his
or her peculiar symbols. The metopes or spaces between
the triglyphs, recorded the battles between the Centaurs and
the Lapithaa, a fruitful subject of illustration among poets as
well as sculptors, and a favourite theme with the Greeks,
from their famous heroes Hercules and Theseus bearing a
prominent part in the contest ; fifteen of these metopes are
in the British Museum. The western pediment contained
a representation of the contest between Minerva and
Neptune {in the opinions of Colonel Leake and Mr. Cockerell,
this contest was in the eastern pediment); but the most
celebrated sculpture is that which represents the Panathenaic
procession: this composition is 3 feet 4 inches high, and
was continued in the frieze quite round on the outside wall
of the cell of the temple. The figures in these groups,
which occupy a length of 520 feet, are generally allowed to
be of finer execution than those in the metopes.

“ ‘ With respect to the beauty of the basso-relievos,’ says
the great F laxman, ‘ they are as perfect nature as it is
possible to put into the compass of the marble in which they
are executed, and that of the most elegant kind.’ Another
sculptor, Rossi, calls them ‘jewels.’

“ The Panathenaic procession, which, with fifteen of the
metopes, formerly likewise belonging to the Parthenon, now
adorns the British Museum, under the name of the Elgin
Marbles, consists, as before observed, of many hundred

,._——'-

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DOB

29

in,

DOE.

 

figures. Among them are several equestrian figures, which
are designed in the most admirable manner, and are remark-
able for the varied attitudes of the horses, and for the ease
and grace of the riders. Other figures in the procession are
charioteers in their cars, one of whom is supposed to be the
victor in a chariot-race, as a man is about to crown him.
Then follow men carrying trays ; then the sacrificers and the
oxen, each Athenian colony sending an ox to this great festival.
Females are also present; some carrying dishes or pateras,
others bearing pitchers of water. Two of the young females
had situations of great importance, their office being to carry
the sacred baskets. Several gods and goddesses are likewise
introduced : they are seated, to denote their dignity. These
figures are all in high relief, so that they are visible at some
distance; and although it is impossible now to decide how
much was the actual work of Phidias himself, it is highly
probable that they, as well as the other sculptured decorations
of the temple, were all designed by the great master. (It is
known, he practised the art of painting previously to that of
sculpture.) It has been ascertained, that they are as carefully
finished behind as before, and in places which could not be
visible when once they had reached their destination ; hence,
it is justly inferred, that all these sculptures had to undergo
the ordeal of a searching criticism of the public eye, before
they left the artist’s studio.

“In addition to the embellishments already described,which
adorned the temple, Phidias made the celebrated statue of
Minerva, which stood in the cell, or open part of the build-
ing. This figure, formed of ivory and gold, was thirty-seven
feet high. Pausanias says that it stood erect; the goddess
was represented with her garments reaching to her feet, hel-
m'eted, and with a Medusa’s head on her breast ; in one hand
she held a spear, and on the other stood a Victory, of about
four cubits high. Monsieur Quartreinere de Quincy, who
bestowed great pains in investigating the subject of ancient
sculpture, has calculated, that the value of the gold employed
on this famous statue was equal to £130,000 sterling.

“ A fac-simile of the Parthenon, as far the architecture is
concerned, has been erected at Edinburgh, on the Calton-
hill, in a situation resembling the Athenian Acropolis. Mr.
Bankes proposed it as the model for the Fitzwilliam Museum,
at Cambridge. The proportions of its Doric order are imi-
tated in the portico of Covent Garden Theatre.

“ The Temple of Theseus, which is generally reckoned to
belong to the age of Pericles, and earlier in date than the
Parthenon, is one of the noblest monuments of Athenian
magnificence, and, in the time of Stuart, was one of the
most perfect. ‘ The sanctuary of Theseus was raised by the
Athenians after the Medes were at Marathon, when Cimon,
the son of Miltiades, expelled the people of Scyros, a retri-
bution for the death of Theseus, and carried his bones to
Athens.’ (Pausanias.)

“ Plutarch places this event at a date which is generally
considered equivalent to the year 467 B.C. The Parthenon
is, by some writers, believed to have been commenced about
448 B.C. (the year in which Cimon died), and to have occu-
pied sixteen years in erection. In the opinion of Lord Aber-
deen, ‘ The temple of Theseus may be considered as nearly
coeval with the buildings of the Acropolis, or perhaps of an
origin somewhat earlier.’ (Inquiry, p. 143.) The Theseum
is built of Pentelic marble, and is raised upon two steps,
being peculiar in this respect. The portico at each end eon-
sists of six columns in front; at each side are eleven columns,
not counting the angle-columns of the portico; so that the
building is surrounded by thirty-four columns. Behind the
porticos are others, consisting of only two columns between
antes; there are three deep recesses, which lead to the cell.

4 G

 

There is here no division in the internal part, where it is
presumed that the remains of Theseus were buried. This
temple is 104 feet long, 45 feet wide, both dimensions being

.taken on the upper step, and 25 feet 2 inches high; the

diameter of the columns is 3 feet 3 inches. The sculptures
in the metopes were representations of the exploits of The-
seus, and of the labours of Hercules, who appears to have
been honoured in this temple, as well as Theseus, his kins-
man and friend. The frieze of the wall behind the eastern
portico was adorned with a representation of a battle and
victory, in which six of the divinities are present; three of
whom are Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Among the com-
batants is one of superior stature and dignity, hurling at his
assailants a stone of prodigious size; he is supposed to be
Theseus, in the act of overthrowing the Persians at Mara-
thon. The battle between the Centaurs and Lapithaa was
sculptured on the wall behind the western portico. The
sculptures (of which are casts in the British Museum) are,
according to Pausanias, supposed to be the Work of the
famous Michon.

“It has been discovered of late years, that the Parthenon,
and nearly all the buildings at Athens, had colours applied
to their different enrichments; but it does not appear that
the advocates of Greek polychromy have clearly made out
that this practice belongs to the pure age of Pericles and
Phidias. It is much more likely to have been introduced
long after their time.

“ The temple of Corinth is probably the most ancient speci-
ment of the Doric order in existence. It is built of a rough
porous stone, and is supposed to have had porticos of six
columns, five of which remain in the western front, and six
are seen on one flank; its arrangement, perhaps, was similar
to that of the temple of Theseus; the columns are 5 feet 10
inches in diameter, and their shafts, 2] feet in height, are
composed each of a single stone. There is no sculpture upon
the temple, as all above the architrave has long since disap-
peared. Since Stuart’s time, five of the columns which
appear in the flank, in his work, have been blown into frag-
ments by gunpowder, to assist in building the house of a
governor of Corinth. Lord Aberdeen observes, ‘It has
been said, that this temple was dedicated to Venus; but, in
fact, no information is to be obtained respecting its origin.
Whatever may have been its destination, no one can doubt,
from the appearance of the ruins alone, that they formed part
of a structure of the most remote antiquity.’

“ One of the noblest efforts of the genius of Ictinus is to
be seen in the temple of Apollo Epicurius, in Arcadia. It
offers many architectural peculiarities, and exhibits a greater
variety of details than are usually met with in the Grecian
temples.

“ Pausanias, speaking of this building, which is at Bassas,
near Phigalia, states, that ‘the temple of Apollo Epicurius
(the deliverer), which, together with the roof, is of stone,
surpasses all the temples which are in Peloponnesus (with
the exception of that in Tegea) in the beauty of the stone,
and harmony of the proportions.’

“ The entrance to the temple was facing the north, contrary
to the usual practice. The temple was 47 feet broad, 125
feet long, and ascended by three steps. There were six
columns in each front, and fifteen on each flank, all 3 feet 7
inches in diameter, and 19 feet 6 inches high. In the interior
of the cell were attached columns, of the Ionic order, of a very
ancient character, (together with a single insulated column of
the Corinthian order,) over which, on the four sides of the
cell, ranged the sculptured frieze. The columns and walls
are constructed of the hard and beautiful limestone of the
country, but the sculpture and roof are of marble. It would

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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not appear, from Mr. Donaldson’s description, that any deco-
rations existed in the pediments, or metopes. ‘ The arrange-
ment of the engaged columns of the cella is very peculiar.
A similar disposition has never hitherto been found, though,
perhaps, in the temple of Apollo Didymaeus, at Branchidae,
near Miletus, the projecting pilasters conveyed the same
effect, less distinctly expressed. The spaces between the
Ionic columns seem to afford admirable situations for statues,
as they would be secured by the columns on each side, and
by the sotfits above, from the occasional inclemencies of even
that mild atmosphere.’

“ The Propylaea, a Doric structure, forms the only entrance
to the Acropolis of Athens. Pausanias says, ‘ There is only
one entrance to the Acropolis, it being in every remaining part
of its circuit a precipice, fortified with strong walls. The
entrance was fronted by a magnificent building, called the
Propylaea, covered with roofs of white marble, which sur-
passed, for beauty, all that he had before seen.’ This was
begun during the ministration of Pericles, 3.0. 437, and was
finished in five years (Mnesicles being the architect), at an
expense equivalent to £464,000. The front of the Propylaea
consisted of six columns, and at the back of the building was
a similar portico ; between the two was the wall, in which
were five gates. The centre reached from the platform to
the height of the entablature; it was 13 feet wide, and was
used on solemn occasions for the chariots. The road-way
was between two rows of Ionic columns; a gate of 9 feet
wide, and of less height than the centre, occupied each
side, and beyond them were two smaller doorways, which
were used for ordinary passage. On the right of the Pro-
pylaea was a building called the Temple of Victory-without-
wings. On the left, was an edifice adorned with paintings,
the work of Polygnotus; the subjects chiefly from Homer;
and it is supposed, that herein stood a group of the Graces,
draped, the performance of the celebrated Socrates, who pur-
sued his father's profession of asculptor, until he devoted the
energies of his wonderful mind to the study of philosophy.

“ Similar in plan to the building at Athens, is the Propylaea
at Eleusis, and, in design, little inferior to its Athenian pro-
totype. It was erected, together with the Temple of Ceres,
to which it served as a vestibule, and the connected Temple
of Diana-Propylaea, by Pericles, for the solemnization of the
Mysteries of Ceres, the most sacred among the religious rites
of Greece.

“ The Propylaea bears a striking resemblance to that at
Athens, having at each end a portico of six columns, five
gates, and two rows of Ionic columns within. To make the
central opening large enough to admit chariots, the usual ar-
rangement is departed from, by the addition of a triglyph in
the frieze over the space between the central columns. The
pavement, the steps, and every part of the superstructure,
were of fine Pentelic marble; the roof, also, was covered
with marble slabs, worked into the shape of tiles : the joints
of these tiles were covered with others, which follow the slope
of the roof, to prevent the admission of water. This inge-
nious contrivance was the invention of Byzes, of Naxos;
and it was so highly appreciated by the Greeks, that they
honoured the inventor with a statue. The termination of
the joint-tiles was formed by an upright tile, on which was
painted the lotus. Byzes lived 580 years before the Chris-
tian era.

“ After passing through the Propylaaa at Eleusis, the vota-
ries had to enter another building, forming a second vestibule
to the grand mystic temple. The order in this building was
the Ionic. Beyond this vestibule was the Temple of Ceres,
which was protected by the sacred inclosure, or wall. In
front was a portico of twelve columns, which have the pecu-

 

 

 

 

liarity of not being fluted from top to bottom, as Doric
columns usually are, but their shafts plain throughout their
whole height, with the exception of a part at their top and at
the bottom of each, about 7 inches high, which is fluted.
Within the temple, according to a passage in Plutarch, it is
imagined there were two ranges of columns, with others over
them. The architect of this building was Xenocles.

“ In front of the Eleusinian Propylaea was the temple of
Diana Propylaea, presenting an arrangement in its porticos
differing from any examples we have hitherto noticed; instead
of columns at its angles, antae, which are often improperly
called pilasters, terminate its fronts : the distinction between
the Greek antae and Roman pilasters is very great. The
former were never diminished (or so slightly as not to appear
so to the eye), and were not fluted, their capitals consisted
of straight lines; Whereas the Roman pilasters were
diminished like their columns, frequently fluted, and their
capitals generally resembled those of the accompanying
columns. The temple of which we are speaking, was small,
with a front measuring only 20 feet 10 inches on its upper
step; its length 39 feet 9 inches, and its height to the top
of the cornice 20 feet 6 inches; the building was of Pentelic
marble, but with roof-tiles of baked clay.

“ At Olympia, in the Peloponnesus, once existed a magni-
ficent hexastyle temple of Jupiter, of which the dimensions
are presumed to have been 230 feet by 95 feet. Mr. Dodwell
measured a column, of which the diameter was 7 feet 3 inches.
Within this building was enshrined the master-piece of
Phidias, his statue of Jupiter, of gold and ivory, 50 cubits
high.

“ At Rhamnus in Attica, on the sea-coast, is a fine Doric
temple of Nemesis, which stands in a noble situation, elevated
300 feet above the sea. Pausanias says that it was built by
Alcamenes, the pupil of Phidias. This temple, and a smaller
one adjoining it, dedicated to Themis, were inclosed by a.
wall of white marble, remains of which are yet to be traced.
The temple of Nemesis had at each end porticos of 6 columns,
and flanks containing 12 each; the external columns, like
those to the temple of Ceres, were only fluted at top and
bottom. It is ascertained that the mouldings of the cornices
were painted red, a practice adopted by the Greeks in other
temples. The details in this building are very fine. Close
to it is the small building which bears the name of Themis,
but which is supposed to be the original temple of Nemesis,
injured by the Persians ; and the Greeks, not caring to repair
a structure desecrated by their enemies, chose rather to erect
another. The smaller building is in fact of an earlier style,
being one of the class called in antis, a mode of building
well known to be of great antiquity. It is very similar to
the small temple of Diana at Eleusis.

“ At Sunium, which is a promontory forminga southernmost
point of Attica, are the remains of two Doric buildings; one
is a Propylsea, the porticos of which have two columns placed
between antae. The other building is a temple dedicated to
Minerva-Sunias. The portico consisted of 6 columns, and
10 have been ascertained on the flanks; but the building is
so much in ruins, that the exact number cannot be clearly
made out. The structures are of marble, highly finished,
and belong to the best ages of Grecian architecture. ‘ The
striking remains of the temple of Minerva on the promontory
of Sunium are, in all probability, to be attributed to the
same authors.’

“ At T horicus, about eight miles to the north of Cape
Sunium, are the remains of a singular Doric building, which
was found half-buried in the sand, which being cleared, a
portico was discovered, having 14 columns on each front,
and 7 in each return; and as no remains of walls were

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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discovered within the area, it is conjectured that the building
was not a temple, but an open portico, perhaps an agora;
these columns are only fluted at their upper and lower
extremities.

“Leaving Attica, we shall now pass into Sicily, where we
find the remains of one of the most astonishing specimens
of Doric architecture, surpassing in magnitude all that we
have hitherto noticed. This is the celebrated temple of
Jupiter Olympius at- Agrigentum, now called Girgenti, and
which Virgil styled, from a neighbouring river, Agragas.
It was the wealthiest and most powerful city of Sicily, and,
according to Diogenes Laertius, contained within its territory
800,000 persons. ‘ The temples of Agrigentum, numerous
and costly as they are, appear to have arisen during little
more than a single century. The prosperity and independ-
ence of the city commenced with Theron, about 450 years
before Christ; after the battle of Himera, (fought on the
same day as that of Salamis), his thoughts were entirely
turned to its decorations, and the Carthaginian prisoners
were made to assist by their labour in the erection of trophies
to perpetuate the glory of their conquerors. The Agrigen-
tines continued in this employment until a second and more
successful invasion of the Carthaginians found them occupied
in completing the temple of Jupiter Olympius, the greatest in
the island, and one of the most stupendous monuments of
ancient times.’

“The temple of Jupiter was, in its proportions, truly
colossal, and it ranked among ancient Greek temples as
second only to that of Diana at Ephesus, (which was 425
feet long, and 220 feet in breadth); it was 369 feet in length,
its breadth 182 feet, and its height 120 feet, in which dimen-
sions Mr. Cockerell is of opinion that it exceeded the build-
ing at Ephesus. Unlike other Doric structures, in this
temple the columns are not detached from the walls, thus
they present only the appearance of half-columns; these,
however, are 13 feet in diameter, so that if the columns
had been disengaged, their circumference would have been
more than 40 feet, a dimension exceeding the largest columns
(The Roman -Doric column,

' erected by Sir C. Wren, called the Monument, is only

15 feet in diameter, though of a proportion much loftier).
The echinus of the capitals is formed of two large stones,
each weighing 21% tons; the triglyphs are in single stones,
each weighing 12—4L tons ; few of the stones employed in the
entablature weigh less than 8 tons; and a man could stand
in one of the flutings of the columns. As compared with
a modern building, we may observe, that the width of the
cell is two feet more than the nave of St. Paul’s, and the
height exceeds it by 18 feet. The front portico, in which
were 7 columns, had the battle between the Gods and the
Titans represented in the pediment; and in that of the other

; portico was sculptured a representation of the siege of

Troy, in which each hero was distinguished by the pecu-

. liarity of his dress and arms. (Diodorus). In the interior
. was a double row of pilasters ranging like the pillars of a
; cathedral; the attic story above the pilasters was supported

by the figures of the rebellious and defeated giants, most

2 appropriately placed there to contribute to the glory of
. Olympian Jove, whose power they dared to oppose. The
‘ proportions of the Titans are as vast as the other parts

of the structure: being 25 feet in height ; with heads alone
3 feet 10 inches, and chests 3 feet across.

. “ The other temples of Agrigentum were very numerous ;
in the year 1790, by Sir Richard Colt Hoare, 11 could be
traced in different stages of dilapidation. The next in size
to that of Jupiter was one dedicated to Hercules, which was

154 feet long, and 55 feet broad, having 6 Doric fluted]

 

columns in each front, and 14 on each flank; the columns
were 7 feet in diameter at bottom, and only 4 feet 10 inches
below the capitals, showing a very great diminution.

“At Selinus, or Selinuntium, (so called from the great
quantity of parsley, aekwov), on the southern coast of Sicily,
were six magnificent Doric temples, probably the largest
ever erected in this style, and which appear to have been
overthrown by an earthquake. One of these is believed
to have been 331 feet long, and 161 feet broad, with
columns 60 feet high; a stone, which is supposed to have
formed part of an architrave, is 40 feet long, 7 feet deep,
and 3 feet thick, and some of the columns were found to be
12 feet in diameter, and others 10 feet 10 inches, and
48 feet high. Near these ruins were the remains of a
hexastyle-peripteral temple, computed to have been 186
feet long, and 76 feet broad on its upper step, and to have
had 36 columns in all, 6 feet 8 inches in diameter. Another
temple, not far from these, was 232 feet by 83 feet on its
upper step, with fluted columns, 6 in each front, and 16
on the flanks. The other three temples are supposed to have
been unfinished when they were thrown down. One of
these had porticos of 7 columns in front, with 17 on each
flank; another had 6 columns in the porticos, and 16 on
each flank. In the quarry near Campo Bello, whence it
is presumed the materials were derived, are yet some shafts
of columns, 10 feet in diameter, and one of 12 feet, still
joined to their natural bed of stone. Mr. Woods measured
one block of an architrave, 26 feet 2 inches long, 4 feet
9 inches wide, and 6 feet 10 inches high. The city was,
409 13.0., nearly destroyed by the Carthaginians.

“ At Segeste, the ancient JEgesta, is a. famous Grecian-
Doric temple, almost entire, standing in a splendid situation
on the brow of a precipice. There are 6 columns in each
front, and 14 at each side, making 36 in all; these are
about 30 feet high; the length of the building is 190 feet,
its width 78 feet; the stones composing the architrave are
of great size, and one extends over two columns : the date of
its erection, as well as, the nature of its dedication, are
unknown. The columns, which are fluted, are 6 feet 7
inches in diameter at the base, and 4 feet 11 inches below
the capital.

“In a notice of Grecian-Doric architecture, we must not
omit to speak of some ancient temples in Italy, namely,
at Paestum, the ancient Posidonium, so denominated from
its tutelary god, Neptune, who, by the Greeks, was called
Hoastdwy. From its unhealthiness, the place had, in very
early times, fallen into decay, and Augustus visited the
temples as venerable antiquities in his day; but they were
completely forgotten, until in 1755 discovered by an artist
of Naples. Among the ruins, which are very extensive,
are three buildings of imposing character; two of them are
temples. The temple of Neptune, raised on 3 steps, was
194 feet long, and 78 feet broad, having 6 fluted columns
in each front, and 14, (including the angular ones), at each
side. The entablature and capitals were equal to half the
height of the columns, of which the shafts only were 27 feet,
the lower diameters 6 feet 10 inches, the upper diameter
4 feet 8 inches, and with 24 flutings ; the intercolumns are
7 feet 7 inches wide. The cell is 90 feet by 43 feet, having
14 columns in 2 rows, with shafts 16 feet 11 inches high,
4 feet 9 inches in diameter, and with 20 flutings. These
columns support a deep architrave, on which rises another
set of columns, about 11 feet high. The largest stone in
this building is 13 feet 8 inches by 4 feet 8 inches by 2 feet
3 inches. Professor Wilkins, in this temple, detects a close
resemblance to the temple of Solomon, (Prolusiones ). The
temple of Ceres is in a lighter style than the former building.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

300

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It is 108 feet long, and 48 feet broad, with the same number
of columns, as in the temple of Neptune; the diameter of
the columns is at bottom 4 feet 3 inches; at top, 3 feet 3
inches; and their shafts have 20 flutings. The third build-
ing is called a Basilica, because there is no appearance of a
cell, or altar. It is 170 feet long, and 80 broad; and it is
raised on three steps, having nine columns in each front (the
only example of such arrangement), and eighteen on each
side, with the dower diameter 4 feet 6 inches, and 20 flutings.‘
Both fronts have a vestibule, and the interior was divided by
columns. The date of these structures is unknown. One of
the most ancient Doric temples in Greece is in the island of
Egina; this was a hexastyle temple, dedicated to Jupiter
Panhellenius. “It is said by Pausanias to have been built
by Eacus, considerably before the Trojan war, a story wholly
incredible, but which serves to prove that it had outlived all
tradition of its real origin. It is still nearly entire.” There
were twelve columns on each flank, making thirty-six in all,
of a porous stone, covered with a thin stucco, and the archi-
trave and cornice were painted in colours. Fifteen statues,
formerly belonging to this temple, are now at Munich: they
are supposed to represent the Greeks and Trojans contend-
ing for the body of Patroclus: they have been restored
by Thorwaldsen. Illustrations of the Temple of Jupiter
have been published by Mr. C. R. Cockerell, and have
proved a valuable addition to our knowledge of Doric archi-
tecture.

Modern examples of this order are to be seen in Covent
Garden Theatre; the Corn Market, Mark Lane, where the
details of the monument of Thrasyllus are copied; in the
new galleries and entrance of the British Museum, where
polychrome is introduced; and at the entrance-gateway to
the Terminus of the North Western Railway.

The origin of the Doric order has ever been a disputed
point amongst writers upon the subject, some following one
theory, and some another. Vitruvius, whose opinion is
valuable, as coming from the oldest writer upon architectural
matters, will have it, that the earliest stone temples of Greece
were but imitations of the wooden structures previously em-
ployed, and that the members of the Doric order, both struc-
tural and ornamental, owe their origin to similar parts in the
less permanent building. This primitive mode of building is
supposed to have been similar, in some respects, to the log
houses erected by colonists of the present day, consisting of
trunks of trees fixed vertically in the ground, at short dis-
tances from each other, and forming the support to the seve-
ral members of the roof. From the various portions of this
timber construction, are supposed to have been derived those
of the later stone edifice. The following opinion as to some of
the corresponding parts of the two kinds of structures, is
given by Vitruvius:

“ In the upper part of all edifices, timbers, called by vari-
ous names, are disposed, which, as in names so in uses, differ.
The trabes are those laid over the columns, parastatae and
antae, in the contiguations and floors. If the span of the
roof is great, under the culmen, in the top of the fastigium,
are disposed columens (from whence columns derive their
name), transtrae, and capreols; but if the span is small,
columens and canthers, projecting to the extremities of the
eaves. Above the canthers are the templats, and over them,
but under the tiles, are the assers, projecting so far as to shel-
ter the walls. Thus each, according to its use, has its proper
place and order. This disposition of the work, the artificers,
when they erected sacred edifices, imitated in sculptures of
stone and marble; and this invention the ancient workmen
thought proper to pursue. Thus, whenever they constructed
any building, they laid the joists from the interior walls to the

 

 

extreme parts, then built up the interjoist, and, to give the
work a pleasing appearance, adorned the top with a cornice
and fastigium ; then, as much of the joists as projected beyond
the wall they sawed off, which, appearing unhandsome, they
made tablets, like triglyphs now in use, fixed them against the
sawed ends of the joists, and painted them in wax, that the
sectures of the joists might not offend the sight. Thus, the
triglyphs, interjoists, and opaa, in Doric work, had their
origin from the disposition of the timbers of the roof.

“ Afterward, in other works, some made the canthers, that
were perpendicularly over the triglyphs, to project outward,
and carved their projecture; hence, as the triglyphs arose
from the disposition of the joists, so the mutules under the
corona were derived from the projecture of the canthers:
wherefore, in stone or marble structures, the mutules are
represented declining, in imitation of the canthers ; and,
also, on account of the droppings from the eaves, it is proper
they should have such declination.

“From this imitation, therefore, arose the use of triglyphs
and mutules in Doric work; for it cannot be, as some erro-
neously assert, that the triglyphs represent windows ; because
triglyphs are disposed in the angles, and over the quarters of
the columns, in which places windows are not permitted;
for, if windows were there left, the union of the angles of
buildings would be dissolved; also, if the triglyphs are sup-
posed to be situated in the place of the windows, by the
same reason, the dentils in Ionic work may be thought to
occupy the places of windows; for the intervals between the
dentils, as 'well as between the triglyphs, are called metopw;
the Greeks calling the bed of the joists and assers, opas (as
we call it cava, columbaria); so, because the interjoist is
between two opze, it is by them called met-ope. As the tri-
glyphs and mutules in the Doric order are founded upon those
principles, so the dentils, in the Ionic, derive their proper
origin from the workmanship ; and as the mutules represent
the projectures of the canthers, the dentils in the Ionic order
are in imitation of the projecture of the assers.”

This theory is a very plausible one, so far as it goes ; and
were we unable to account for such matters in a different
way, it might be passed over as correct, but for one objection,
and that alone at once throws discredit upon the whole account.
The difficulty may be put in this way: if the prototype of
the stone Structure were constructed of timber, how comes
it, that the proportions of the former are of so heavy and
massive a character? and 110w is it, that the columns are so
thickly set? Timber construction would have led to very
different results; slenderness and lightness are the charac-
teristics of buildings of such material, and so, necessarily, of
its antitype. The reverse, however, is the case; and not
only so, but we find, that the older the edifice, (and therefore
the more similar to its prototype,) the heavier, also, its
proportions; whereas, if Vitruvius’s theory be correct, the
contrary should be observable. But, besides this, we can
account for all the details alluded to by Vitruvius in a very
different, and, to our mind, far more satisfactory manner, as
we shall attempt to explain presently.

As regards the date of the introduction of this style of
building into Greece, nothing can be stated with certainty;
neither can it be satisfactorily ascertained in what locality it
first appeared: Great differences of opinion exist on both
subjects. Vitruvius, as usual, decides the matter without
any apparent difficulty. He says :

 

“ The most ancient and first invented of the three kinds -

of columns is the Doric; for, when Dorus, the son of

Hellenus, and the nymph Opticos, reigned over all Achaia .

and Peloponnesus, the temple of Juno, in the ancient
city of Argos, was erected, and this order happened to be

___._—-——

 

 

 

 

DOR

301

DOR

 

used in the ‘fane. The same order was also used in the
other cities of Achaia before the laws of its symmetry were
established.

“ Afterward, when the Athenians, according to the re-
sponses of Apollo and Delphos, and the common consent of
all Greece, transplanted, at one time, thirteen colonies into
Asia, apportioning to every colony a leader, they gave the
chief command to Ion, the son of Xuthus and Creusa, whom
also the Delphian Apollo acknowledged for his son. These
colonies he conducted to Asia, seized on the territory of
Caria, and there founded many large cities, as Ephesus,
Miletus, Mynuta, (which last was formerly overflowed with
water, and its rites and privileges, by Ion, transferred to
the Milesians ), Priene, Samos, Teos, Colophon, Chios,
Erythrae, Phocis, Clazomenae, Lebedus, and Melite. This
latter, on account of the arrogance of the citizens, was
destroyed in the war declared against it, by the unanimous
determination of the other cities, and, in its place, by the
favour of king Attalus and Arsinoe, the city of Smyrna was
received amongst the Ionians. When those cities extirpated
the Carians and Leleges, they, from their leader, Ion, called
that territory Ionia.

“ There they began to erect fanes, and constitute temples
to the immortal gods. First, they erected the temple of
Apollo Panionias, in the manner they had seen it in Achaia;
which manner they called Doric, because they had seen it
first used in the Dorian cities. In this temple they were desi-
rous of using columns, but were ignorant of their symmetry,
and of the proportions necessary to enable them to sustain
the weight, and give them a handsome appearance: they
measured the human foot, and finding the foot of a man to
be the fifth part of his height, they gave that proportion
to their columns, making the thickness of the shaft at the
base equal to the sixth part of the height, including the
capital. Thus the Doric column, having the proportion,
firmness, and beauty of the human body, first began to be
used in buildings.”

The former part of this statement may or may not be
correct, but if its credit stands upon an equal footing with
that of the latter part, we shall not be justified in placing
much confidence in it; for ere we can give credence to his
opinion respecting the proportions of the order, we must
suppose the men of that age to have been of a very different
description to those of the present day.

If Vitruvius be correct in his supposition regarding the
introduction of the order, we must suppose several temples
to have been erected in this style before Homer’s time, but, if
so, it would appear strange that one, generally so minute in
his descriptions of persons and places, should not have given
us some description of them. It is true, that he alludes to
three or four temples,-—-t0 those of Minerva at Athens and
Troy, and of Apollo and Neptune at Delphi and JEgaaa,
respectively,—still he has not given any description of them,
and leaves us entirely to conjecture: according to the account
of Pausanias, the temple at Delphi was nothing better than
a hut covered with laurel and branches. But if we discard
the account given by Vitruvius, we shall not be much nearer
the goal, having no data to work upon. If we allow the
name of the order to give us some clue as to its origin, we
are still in the same predicament, for many provinces bore
the name of Doris ; and at best, as Lord Aberdeen remarks,
:1 name is often the least satisfactory mode of accounting for
the birth of the thing which bears it. Many are of opinion
that the order was first employed in the cities of Ccrinth,
Sicyon, and Argos, shortly after the return of the Heraclidze,
but others suppose it to have originated amongst the colonists
(‘9' Asia Minor. and there certainly does appear some reason

4 H

 

for supposing that the temples here were far in advance of
those in Greece-proper.

In whatever part of Greece the Doric order was first
employed, there seems very good reason to believe that it
had its origin in Egypt, or rather perhaps that the temples
of that country suggested the idea; nor is there any prima
facie grounds for rejecting this supposition, for we know, in
the first place, that Greece was, at least, to some extent, colo-
nized from Egypt; Cecrops was from that country, and
Cadmus from one not far distant ; and besides this, we know
that in after times the Greeks were in the habit of trading
with Egypt, and were held in so great esteem by Amasis,
that he gave them the city of Naucratis, and afforded them
every encouragement and convenience. Another internal
evidence of the connection of the two people is afforded in
the identity of their mythology.

But let us consider the architectural features observable in
the buildings of the two countries. In general appearance
they agree; they are both of massive proportions, and both
consist of similar parts, columns, entablature, and such like.
Nor are they less similar in detail ; in Egyptian temples we
have an entablature consisting of three members, architrave,
frieze, and cornice, the first of which, like the Doric, is com-
paratively plain, and the last simple, but bold. The simi-
larity of the frieze in both styles is remarkable, extending
even to triglyphs and mutules, and in both styles are those
features equally essential. The similarity of the columns may
not be at first so apparent, although we can point out many
Egyptian columns without bases, with square plain abaci,
and may suggest the probability of the Grecian echinus
being copied from the lower portion of the bulging or cushion-
capitals of Egypt: the annulets 'round the necking of the
capital are likewise of very frequent occurrence in that coun-
try. As regards the rest of the column, it is true, speaking
generally, that Egyptian specimens are not fluted, neither do
they diminish, like the Greek, from the lower to the upper
diameter; instead of concave flutes, however, we have
convex rods, or probably reeds; and if the latter, we have
only to divide them vertically down the centre, and we
have the Doric flutes. But even if this last idea be too

 

fanciful, the difference between a cabled and fluted column 3

is not so great, the ornamentation is decidedly of a similar cha-

racter; and even if this be disallowed, there are specimens of _
fluted columns in Egypt, and specimens which altogether §
bear a very marked resemblance to the Grecian-Doric. These j

columns were first noticed by Mr. Barry, who considers them
of greater antiquity than any Grecian specimens. The first
is a portico of two fluted columns in antis, about 5%; diame-
ters in height, and surmounted by a plain abacus; the flutes
are 20 in number, and of shallow contour; the columns are
without bases. The next example is from Kalaptchic on the
Nile, the abacus of which is square, and 11 inches thick;
the shaft, which has a trifling diminution, is 7 feet 8 inches
high, and 3 feet 2 inches diameter. The circumference is
in 24 divisions, whereof 4, which are at right angles with
each other, are flat faces, covered with hieroglyphics, and the
other intervening ones are sunk into flat elliptical flutes a.
quarter of an inch deep. Another specimen is to be seen at
Amada in Nubia, consisting of two columns, one of which
is a simple parallelopiped, and the other, at the corner of the
building, is both cylindrical and fluted, leaving, however, a
square abacus similar to that of the parallelopiped, which, in
this case, is the only capital; the base is also of a square
plan. Of these two columns, the former is evidently the
earlier design, the latter, previously of the same shape, whe-
ther for convenience or otherwise, has been rounded off at
the corners and somewhat ornamented.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DOR

302

D'OR

 

Were it allowable to select portions from these examples
and place them together at discretion, there would be no great
difficulty in forming a very perfect specimen of Grecian-
Doric, but even without such a metamorphosis, we suggest,
there can be no difficulty in perceiving a great and indubi-
table similarity between the structures of Egypt and the
earlier ones of Greece, the likeness being more striking in
some examples than in others, yet not being entirely
absent in any. We may conclude, therefore, we presume,
that there is a very strong probability of the Doric order
having been derived from the architecture of Egypt.

This order, as practised by the Romans and Italians, differs
in some essential particulars from that above described, and
in process of time its original character seems to have been
all but entirely lost, the identity being evidenced only by the
remains of some few details. The few points in which
the resemblance between the Greek and Roman orders is
preserved, are—the employment of triglyphs and metopes
in the frieze, and of mutules in the corona, the fluting with
arrises instead of fillets, when indeed flutes were introduced,
and the general form of the capital consisting of echinus and
abacus. The distinctions are much more numerous, amongst
which may be mentioned the elongation of the shaft and
the not unfrequent absence of flutes ; the addition of a base,
variations in the form of the capital and of the several mem-
bers of the entablature, the amplification of mouldings and
such like; so that were two examples, one of each kind,
placed before a person unacquainted with the subject, he
would have greater difliculty in tracing their resemblance,
than in pointing out their incongruities.

The height of the column is increased from six to eight
diameters, and in some cases, as recommended by Vitruvius
for porticos, to eight and a half. It is either fluted or left
plain, and sometimes is partially fluted, the channels extend-
ing about two-thirds of the shaft, the remaining portion
below, from the base upwards, being left blank.

The addition of the base follows very naturally the elonga-
tion of the shaft, for were it still to be omitted, the lower
portion of the column would look too small, and would give
to the edifice an appearance of weakness ; the columns would
seem unsteady ; whereas in the Greek examples, the massive
proportions and the rapid spreading of the shaft from the
capital downwards, gives the effect of strength and stability.
The base generally used is that termed the attic, and consists
of a plinth, a torus, a hollow moulding or scotia with a fillet
above and below it, upon the uppermost of which is another
torus and fillet, out of which the shaft rises with an apophyge;
a simpler base, however, is sometimes made use of, comprising
only a torus and two shallow fillets above it, and occasionally
merely a plinth and simple fillet.

In the capital, the sunk annulets of the Greek examples
are converted into projecting fillets in the Roman ; the shaft
is separated from the cap by an astragal which gives much
greater distinctness to the necking, which again is sometimes
relieved with rosets and buds, or other ornament. Above
the neck are three flat annular fillets, and these above the
ovolo surmounted by the abacus. The ovolo, however, is
not of so much importance as in the Greek order, nor of the
same severe contour; the abacus likewise is much shallower,
and has the addition of mouldings on its top. The height of
the capital is equal to é a diameter, or 1 module, but this
is not always the case, for in the Theatre of Marcellus at
Rome, it is 33 minutes, and in the Coliseum as much as 38.

The architrave is often similar in appearance to the Greek,
but is of less height, being equal to only two-thirds of the
frieze, or half a diameter; in a few instances, the architrave
is composed of two fascias. The new frieze is also very

 

similar to the old one, with 'some slight exceptions, the
mutules being frequently filled with ox-skulls and patteras,
and sometimes left plain ; the capitals of the triglyphs are of
greater projection than before, and are returned at the ends.
The triglyphs besides are'in Roman examples, invariably
placed over the centre cf the columns, so that the ends of the
frieze are finished with half-metopes, and not with triglyphs
as in the Grecian order. In the Coliseum, the triglyphs are
entirely omitted.

The cornice difl‘ers considerably from the Grecian, having
its soffit flat and the mutules square, with a similar interval
between them. In Grecian examples, the guttm generally
appear in front below the mutules ; but in the Roman, they
do not so, and are sometimes even omitted; sometimes the
mutules entirely disappear, as in the Theatre of Marcellus,
where dentils with an ogee bed-mould are substituted in
their place, and the Basilica at Vicenza, designed by Palladio,
has merely a bold ogee and ovolo in their place. The inter-
vals between the mutules are frequently enriched with panels
and sculpture. The mutules and band are surmounted by
a small ogee moulding, and under them is an ogee or ovolo
forming a bed-moulding. The mutules support the cornice-
proper, consisting of the corona, an ogee and fillet, and a
cavetto finished at the top with a fillet.

With Vitruvius’s account of the order, we conclude this
article ; it runs as follows :—

“ Some architects," says he, “ have maintained that tem-
ples should not be built of the Doric order, because it occasions
an imperfection and an inconvenience in the symmetry ; for
this reason it was rejected by Tarchesius, Pytheus, and also
by Hermogenes: the latter, after he had prepared marble
materials for a Doric temple, altered them, and from the
same materials, raised an Ionic temple to Bacchus. How-
ever, it was not because the appearance was unhandsome, or
the manner or form ignoble; but because it impeded the
distribution, and the arrangement of the triglyphs and
lacunars was unsuitable to the design ; for it is necessary
that the triglyphs should be disposed over the middle quarters
of the columns ; the metopes which are between the triglyphs,
he made as long as high ; and the triglyphs over the angle
columns he placed at the extremities, and not over the
middle quarters. So that the metopes which adjoin the angular
triglyphs, are not square, but more oblong by half the breadth
of a triglyph. Those who would make all the metopes equal,
contract the extremeintercolumn half the breadth of a triglyph;
but this, whether it is done by lengthening the metope, or by
contracting the intercolumn, is a defect. On this account,
the ancients avoided the use of the Doric order in sacred
edifices. Following, however, our method, we shall give the
explanation of this order, as we have received it from
the masters; so that those who attend to these precepts will
here find described the rules by which they may erect a tem~
ple in the Doric manner, without fault or imperfection.

“ The front of the Doric temple, where the columns are
erected, is, if tetrastyle, divided into 28 parts; if hexastyle,
into 44. Of these parts one will be a module, called in
Greek, embates, by which the distribution of the whole work
is regulated. The thickness of the column is two modules ;
the height, including the capitals, 14. The thickness of the
capital one module, the breadth two and the sixth part of a
module. The thickness of the capital is divided into three
parts, of which one is for the abacus with its cymatium,
another for the echinus with its annulets ; and the third for
the hypotrachelion. The columns are diminished in the same
manner as described for Ionic columns in the third book.

“ The height of the epistylium with the tenia and gutta:
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The length of the guttae, under the tenia, coincides with the
perpendicular of the triglyphs. Their height, with the regula,
is the sixth part of a module. The breadth of the bottom of
the epistylium answers to the hypotrachelion at the top
of the columns.

“ Upon the epistylium, the triglyphs, having the metopes
between them, are placed; being one module and a half
high, and one module broad in front ; they are so distributed,
that those which happen over the angle, as well as over the
intermediate columns, may be perpendicular to the middle
quarters thereof; two are left in the intercolumns; and in
the middle intercolumn of the pronaos and of the posticus,
three; for, by this enlargement of the middle interval, the
approach to the image of the god is rendered more commo~
dious and free from impediment.

“ The breadth of the triglyph is divided into six parts ; of
which, five are placed in the middle, two and a half being
on either side. The middle one makes the regula, or femur,
which the Greeks call meros. On either side this, are the
channels, sunk as if imprinted with the elbow of a square.
To the right and left of these, another femur is formed, and,
at the extremities, semi-channels are slanted.

“ The triglyphs being thus disposed, the metopes, which are
between the triglyphs, are as high as long. At the extreme
angles, semi-metopes are impressed, half a module broad.
Thus, the metopes, intercolumns, and lacunars, being regu-
larly distributed, all defects will be avoided. The capital of
the triglyph is made the sixth part of a module.

“ Over the capital of the triglyphs, is placed the corona,
projecting the half and the sixth part of a module, having a
Doric cymatium below, and another above. The thickness
of the corona, with the cymatiums, is half a module. In the
under part of the corona, perpendicular to the triglyphs, and
to the middle of the metopes, the directions of the vise, and
the distribution Of the guttae, are to be so contrived, that
there may be six guttze in length, and three in breadth.
The remaining spaces (the metopes being broader than the
triglyphs) are left plain, or have the sculptures of thunder-
bolts. Near the edge of the same corona a line is enchased,
which is called scotia. The tympan, sima, corona, and the
rest, are executed in the same manner as has been described
for the Ionic order.

“ The foregoing is the method for composing diastyle
works ; but if the structure is to be made sistyle and mono-
triglyph, the front of the temple, if tetrastyle, is divided into
twenty-three parts; if hexastyle, into thirty-five. Of these,
j one part will be a module, by which the work is to be regu-
lated, as before written. Then, over every epistylium, two
‘ metops and triglyphs are disposed. In the angles, this
species is larger than the former by as much as the space
of the bisected hemitriglyph. So that there happens in the
middle epistylium, under the fastigium, the space of three
triglyphs and three metopes, for the enlargement of the
middle intercolumn renders the entrance of the temple more
spacious, and gives an appearance of dignity towards the
statue of the god.

“Upon the capital of the triglyphs the corona is tO be
placed, having, as before said, a Doric cymatium at bottom,
and another at top. The thickness of the corona, with its
cymatiums, is half a module. The under part of the corona,
perpendicular to the triglyphs and to the middle of the
metopes, is to be divided, for the direction of the via, and
the distribution of the guttae; all the rest are the same as
has been mentioned in the diastyle species.

“ The columns are to be wrought in twenty strim, which,
if made flat, form twenty angles ; but if they are hollowed,

 

' they are to be thus performed: A square is described whose J

sides are equal to the interval of a strias; in the centre of
the square, the central point of the compasses is placed, and a
circular line drawn, touching the angles of the square ; and
that portion of the curve which is between the lines of the
circle and the square, forms the hollow of the striae. Thus,
the Doric column will have its proper kind of striature.
With regard to the swelling which it has in the middle, it is
the same as has been described for Ionic columns.”

To exemplify this order, and illustrate the true Grecian
Doric, we have chosen that beautiful specimen from the
magnificent portico of the Parthenon, at Athens, exhibited
in Plate 1.: the proportions are numbered in minutes, in the
usual way. The outline exhibits the profile of the flank,
and the finished order shows the profile on the front of the
portico, adjoining that represented by the outline.

Plate II.—Outline Of the modern Doric.

Plate III.—A finished plate of the same, from Sir Wm.
Chambers, who took his example from Vignola.

Plate IV.—Roman Doric, from the theatre of Marcellus,
at Rome ; showing both the outline and finished plate.

DORMAN, a cross beam.

DORMAN-TREE, a joist, or sleeper.

DORMANT, or DORMER, a window made upon the slop-
ing plane, or side of a roof, with a glass frame perpendicular
to the horizon.

Dormer windows occur frequently in domestic edifices of
the Gothic style, in which they form a very picturesque fea-
ture. Their frequency is especially remarkable in the old
halls, &c., of France and Flanders.

DORMANT-TREE, see SUMMER.

DORMITORY, a sleeping room.

DORON, the Grecian palm, whence their bricks were
called tetradoron, and pentadoron.

DOS D’ANE (French), an obtuse ridge, formed by the
intersection of two inclined planes. The term is synonymous
with our word, coped. ‘ .

DOSEL, or DOSER, a rich hanging of tapestry or other
stuff, or screen of ornamental woodwork, employed to deco-
rate the back of an altar, throne, 8:0.

DOUBLE VAULT, two vaults of brick or stone, carried
up separately, and including between them a hollow or cavity,
such as that of St. Peter’s, at Rome.

DOUBLE BUILDING, one in which the walls are car-
ried up double ; sometimes cellars are carried up with double
walls, and double vaults, so as to include a cavity of air, in
order to keep the wine cool.

DOUBLE COLUMN. See COLUMN.

DOUBLE CURVATURE, the curvature of a curve, of
which no part can be brought into a plane, such as the
cylindro-cylindric curve, &c.

DOUBLE DOORS, those where two doors are made in
the same aperture, in order to keep the apartment warm. See
DOOR.

DOUBLE FLOOR, one constructed of binding and bridg-
ing-joists. See FLOOR.

DOUBLE-HUN G SASHES, are those Where the window
consists of two ashes, each of which is moveable by means
of weights.

DOUBLE MARGIN DOOR, that which represents two
doors in the same breadth, but is, in fact, only one door. See
DOOR.

DOUBLE TORUS. See MOULDING.

DOUBLE WINDING STAIRS. See STAIRS.

DOUBLING, the same as eaves-boards ; the term is
used in Scotland.

DOUCIN E, or DOUCHIN E, (from the French), the

sima-recta.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DRA

DOVE-COT, a small building or box in which domestic
pigeons breed.

DOVE-TAIL, in joinery, a piece of wood formed like the
tail of a dove.

DOVE-TAILING, the method of fastening one piece of
wood to another, by projecting pins, cut in the form of dove-
tails in one piece, and let into hollows of the same form in
the other. Dove-tailing is either exposed or concealed ; con-
cealed dove-tailing is of two kinds, lapped and mitred.

DOVE-TAIL MASONRY. See MASONRY.

DOVE-TAIL MOULDING. A moulding used in Nor-
man buildings, so called from the shape of the running orna-
ment employed in its decoration, which consists of a fillet,
tracing in its progress the form of a dove-tail, the alternate
dove - tails being inverted, and having one side common
to both.

DOVE—TAIL NOTCH, a common dove-tail notch is that
Where the bottom is in the form of a trapezoid.

An undercut dove-tail notch is that where the bottom
is a parallelogram of greater breadth than the width of the
parallelogram cut out of the surface ; the excess in breadth
being alike on both sides.

DOVE-TAIL SAW, a saw used for dove-tailing. Its
plate is about 9 inches long, and has about 15 teeth in every
inch ; a rigid iron or brass back is added, to give stiffness to
the plate. ,

DOWEL, the pin or tenon used in joining together two
pieces of any substance. This pin or dowel is of wood or
iron, and is thus used. Holes corresponding to each other
are made in the boards to be joined; one-half of the pin is
inserted into the hole in the one piece, and the other piece is
then thrust home on it.

DOWELLING, or DOWELING, the fastening together two
boards by the method above described.

DRAG, a term applied to anything bearing down, or rub-
bing upon another: thus, a door is said to drag, when its
hinges are so loosened, that the lower edge rubs upon the
floor: and the term is also applied in masonry to a thin plate
of steel indented on the edge, used for finishing the dressing of
soft stone which has no grit.

DRAGON-PIECE, a beam bisecting the wall-plate, for
receiving the heel or foot of the hip-rafters. It is most com-
monly a very short piece of timber, fixed at right angles into
another piece, called the angle-tie, or diagonal-tie, which is
again supported by each adjoining wall-plate being cocked
down thereon.

DRAGON-BEAMS, according to Neve, are said to be
“ two strong braces or struts, that stand under a bressummer,
meeting in an angle under the shoulder of a king-piece.”
—Neve’s Builder’s Dictionary. The writers of the present
work have never heard the term applied to story-posts and
bressummers, nor have they been able to learn any such
application of it; the word beam is improper for any piece of
timber, that stands slanting as a brace or strut. Neve’s
Builder’s Dictionary was an original work ; and it is proba-
ble that the author, who subscribes himself “Philomath,”
(a lover of learning) instead of architect, carpenter, joiner,
mason, &c., might have been misinformed by the workmen,
among whom he made his inquiries. The Builder’s Dic-
tionary, in two volumes, was copied from Neve, as was the
Dictionary of the first volume of the Builder’s .Mugazine;
and we may farther add, most of the Cyclopaadias and Ency-
clopaedias have applied the term in the same way as Neve,
and have used the same words in describing it. But with
regard to the application of the term dragon-piece, as it is
defined above, we can refer the reader to the oldest books
that are published 5 see page 230, in the Rulesforframing

304

 

DRA

 

roofs, at the end of Godfrey Richards’ Palladio, where that
author says, “ 3. Dragon-beams for the hip to stand on,” and
immediately following, he says, “ 4. Beam or summer, where-
in the dragon—beams are framed ;” referring at the same time
to Figure C, or Plate C; see also our review of carpentry,
at the end of Godfrey Richards’ Palladio. The sense in
which Godfrey Richards uses the term, is the same as that
now in use. It is true, that; Moxon explains dragon-beam
in the same way as Neve, but he refers to no figure. The
second edition of Godfrey Richards’ Palladio is dated 1676,
and the first edition must be much more early. The first
edition of Neve’s Builder’s Dictionary is dated 1703; we
have also the corroboration of Batty Langley, see Plate II.
of the Addenda, consisting of fourteen plates of roofs, at the
end of his designs, where he says, “ a e, b e, c e, d e, dragon-
pieces to receive the feet of the hip-rafters ;” so that Godfrey
Richards and Batty Langley apply the same meaning to the
term. We have been thus particular, because a proper ex-
planation of the word, as it is used, has not been given, and
to show that it is an injury to a work, to describe a term
which has no existence, or, if it has, must be confined to
some remote corner.

DRAIN, a subterraneous passage for water. If a build-
ing is obliged to be erected in a damp soil, it will be proper
to drain the ground before the foundation is laid. In large
buildings, there must be one principal drain, and several
smaller ones, depending on the extent of the ground ; and
observe, that those with circular bottoms are better than
those which have straight ones, as the water will run much
deeper in the former, than in the latter, and will consequently
clear away the sediment much easier. The large drain
ought to be of sufficient height to admit a person to clean it
with ease. Circular, barrel, or cylindric drains, are much
stronger than common drains, in which the sides are formed
by vertical walls. See DRAINAGE and SEWERAGE.

DRAINAGE. As we shall have occasion to treat this
important subject at some length, and as, in so doing, it is
desirable to consider the question both in its more compre-
hensive and general sense, as well as in its details, we shall
refer the reader to the article SEWERAGF. Under that head,
we shall enter fully into the various methods of house drain-
age, as suggested by the improved knowledge of modern
times, and describe the extensive works which have been
constructed for this purpose in the metropolis. See CLOACA.
SEWER, SEWAGE.

DRAUGHT, in architecture, the representation of a
building on paper, explanatory of the various parts of the
exterior and interior, by means of plans, elevations, and sec-
tions, drawn to a scale, by which all the parts are represented
in the same proportion as the parts of the edifice intended to
be executed. All the horizontal parts are explained by plans;
the faces of the vertical parts are represented by elevations
and sections ; particularly, when the plane of delineation is
parallel to the faces to be represented. The vertical dimen-
sions of buildings upon circular and polygonal plans are
understood from the elevations and sections. In complex
buildings, besides the general plans, elevations, and sections,
a set of drawings should be made to show the detail of the
small parts.

In addition to the drawings which are used in conducting
the work, a perspective representation of the exterior should
be furnished by the architect, in order to show the general
appearance and effect of the intended edifice to the employer,
and perhaps, in some instances, two or more perspective
representations will be necessary, in order to bring more
parts into view, which should be drawn to such points as
those in which the building will be most generally seen.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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305

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When several stories of a building differ in their construc-
tion, each story requires a separate plan. The sections are
generally parallel to the sides of the edifice, taken through
the most complex or principal part. Most buildings require
at least two sections, some many more. When the sides of
a. building are dissimilar, as many elevations will be neces-
sary as the edifice has sides.

The number, the form, and disposition of rooms are shown
by the plans. The architect who gives the design of a build-
ing, ought to be well acquainted with the constructive parts
of carpentry, masonry, and bricklaying, before he commits
his ideas to paper, or otherwise he may be liable to public
censure. See DESIGN.

DRAUGHT, in mechanics, the force or power necessary to
move any machine, as a horse-mill, waggon, cart, plough, &c.

DRAUGHT, in carpentry and joinery ; when a tenon is in-
tended to be pinned to the cheeks or sides of a mortise, and
when the hole through the tenon is put nearer to the
shoulder than the holes through the checks of the mortise
from the abutment, which receives the shoulder of the tenon,
or which comes in contact with the shoulder of the tenon,
the pin is said to draw, or have a draught.

DRAUGHT, in masonry, a part of the surface of the stone
hewn to the breadth of the chisel on the margin of the stone,
either according to a curve or straight line, as the surface of
the stone is to be reduced to a plane or curved surface.
When the draughts are formed round different sides of the
stone, the intermediate part is wrought to the surface, by
applying a straight-edge or templet. In large stones, par-
ticularly when the substance is required to be much reduced,
sometimes several intermediate parallel draughts, dividing
the stone equidistantly in its length, are made, and thus the
intermediate parts may be hewn down nearly by the eye,
without the application of the straight-edge or templet.

DRAUGHT COMPASSES, those provided with several
moveable points, to draw fine lines in architecture. See the
words COMPASS and MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENTS.

DRAW—BORE, when a mortise and tenon is intended to
be pinned, by piercing the hole through the tenon, nearer to
the shoulder than the holes through the cheeks from the
abutment, in which the shoulder is to come in contact, the
mortise and tenon is said to be draw-bored : see the follow-
ing word.

DRAW-BORE PINS, pieces of steel, made in the form
of the frustum of a cone, but rather taper, and inserted in
handles, with the greatest diameter next to the handle, for
driving through the draw-bores of a mortise and tenon, in
order to bring the shoulder of the rail close home to the
abutment on the edge of the style ; when this is effected, the
draw-bore pins, if more than one be used, are to be taken
out one at a time, and the holes immediately filled up with
wooden pegs.

DRAVV-BRIDGE, in general, a bridge constructed of
several boards nailed or bolted to a frame. This being fas-
tened at one end, by means of strong hinges, to a beam laid
horizontally, and parallel to the frame, and being acted upon
at its other extremity by levers, or by chains, worked either
by wheels or by hand; the platform thus constructed may
be raised to a perpendicular direction. Drawbridges are
usually placed over narrow ditches, in fortresses, at the ends
of great bridges, and especially over the excavations close to
the gates, so that they may be raised or let down at pleasure.

When drawbridges are made close on the outside of the
gates, the masonry ought to be sunk so as to admit of the
whole depth of the frame to lie within it ; else the oblique
fire from the besiegers’ batteries would act on the edge of the
frame, and soon render it unserviceable. In canal navigation,

4 1

 

and in wet docks, swing bridges, that turn horizontally upon
one end as an axis, have almost wholly superseded draw-
bridges. See IRON BRIDGE.

DRAWING, in its strict meaning, may be defined as the
art of representing objects, on any convenient surface, by
lines describing their form and contour. This is independent
of colour, and even of shadow; because, notwithstanding
form may be expressed by outline alone, shadow, while
giving surface and substance, must be dependent upon form,
and, in many cases, requires to be accurately defined accord-
ing to the rules of perspective.

Before proceeding to describe the process of ordinary
architectural drawing, we shall venture to insert some caustic,
though just observations of Mr. Bartholomew, on this neces-
sary study.

“There is no small boasting, in the present day, of archi-
tectural drawing. An architect cannot draw too well; but
when he obtains much practice, he will find, that, besides
designing the form and the details of his works, he has little
time for drawing ; in general, he has as little time for making
the clean and fair copies of his drawings as the sculptor has
for the stone-cutting department of his art; while, if he
cannot design, and is unacquainted with the other many
branches of knowledge which he should possess, he should
cease to call himself an architect.

“ In making drawing his sole study, (but with the inter-
ruptions which business will naturally bring,) the pupil
becomes only a bad artist, and no architect at all. ' The
pernicious folly of imagining, that he who can make an
architectural drawing must of necessity be able to make an
architectural building, has wrought largely towards the ruin
of real architecture, and has tended more than anything else
to fill our metropolis, and other places, with white-washed
and even stone ruins, which the weak have mistaken for
architecture, and has led to that general disregard to struc-
tural propriety, which is the besetting sin of modern works.

“ Now, the time spent in learning to draw badly; a work
without truth, without philosophy, without art, without
structural excellence, without geometrical ground-work,
without adaptation to its purpose, without real beauty, either
abstract or obvious ; this time, so misemployed, might have
been successfully employed by him (were architectural edu-
cation such as it should be) in, by the age of twenty-five or
thirty years at the utmost, learning thoroughly all the known
arts of trussing, of roofing, of vaulting, of doming, of
forming arches, pyramids, and all other parts of architecture
in structural perfection. This safe ground-work, with the
necessary growth of mind, expansion of power, freedom of
ability, would lead the professing architect to soar aloft, over
all the chained spirits who fancy a few water-colours alone
can raise them above San Micheli and Palladio—above Wren
and Chambers. They know they cannot surpass Raffaello
and Buonarotti in drawing; yet they do not consider that
they might with ease surpass them both in architectural de-
sign and construction : thus they choose that competition in
which they cannot succeed, and neglect the one in which
they might gain an easy victory. They might be the first
of architects, but they choose rather to be the last of artists :
instead of gazing with an astonished ignorance upon ancient
buildings, they might as much surpass them as the science
of the moderns surpasses that of the ancients.”—‘Bartholo-
mew’s Specifications for Practical Architecture.’ However
severe these strictures may appear, there is great truth in
them, and they deserve the serious attention of the student.

Drawing is the basis of architecture, engraving, and
painting ; and may be divided into outlines and shadowinfr.
The outline, or contour, represents the boundaries of an

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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306

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object, as they appear to terminate against the back ground ;
the outline, as its name implies, takes in all the parts of the
body. The interior parts are marked by lines, if such be
distinct on the body, and the different inclinations of the
surface is defined by depth of colour, in proportion to the
inclination.

In fanciful objects, whatever the figure may be, the general
form should be first sketched out slightly, that what is found
to be amiss may be more easily removed, and corrections more
easily made. Estimate as nearly as you can the principal
points of the original, and fix dots at proportional distances,
disposed at equal apparent angles on your paper; then draw
your lines carefully to them, beginning at the upper part,
and working either from the right to the left, or in the con-
trary direction, according to their tendency downwards.
Put in the divisions first, and when these are nearly right,
mark in the smaller parts ; then, having got your work alto-
gether, examine it scrupulously, rubbing it gently with a
piece of bread, in order to render the lines more obscure:
revise and correct the whole as often as it may be found
necessary. Compare all the parts of the copy with the
original, in every direction, first horizontally and then verti-
cally, from a given point, which may be supposed to be the
centre of the picture.

Beginners should make their drawings of the same size as
the original, in order to exercise the eye in measuring with
exactness : after some practice, however, it will be better to
vary the size from the original, in order to acquire the habit
of estimating distances, that, when combined, will form
parts, similar to the whole, as also to the whole mass or
general contour.

After the outlines are finished, the learner may proceed to
the shadows; the first lesson should be simple, only indi-
cating the principal projections. The simplest method of
forming these is, by repeated lines nearly parallel to the out-
line, and as he advances with more shades, these lines should
be crossed by other equidistant lines. This manner of
sketching constitutes that peculiar manner of drawing called
hatching, a mode very well calculated to give freedom of
hand in any style of drawing. The chief things to be at-
tended to are, that the lines conform as much as possible to
the original, hearing all their inflections in the same ratio ;
the intersections should not be too violent, nor the lines so
strong as to have the appearance of net-work.

In architectural drawing, the shadows are made out by
washing or tinting the paper with Indian ink, sepia, or
bister, laid on with a camel-hair pencil : this may be done in
two different ways ; the one is by laying down the shades as
nearly in their places as possible, with tints sufficiently dark,
and softening off the edges with a clean pencil and water, and
when dry, the process may be repeated again,, as often as may
be found necessary ; the other is by working with very light
tints at first, in blotches placed near each other, then blending
these by a faint wash over the whole, and when nearly dry,
strengthening them by filling up the interstices with other
blotches ; thus, by repeated blotches, the surface will acquire
the degree of tint required in the various parts. This mode
is called stzppling, and in the hand of an artist is perhaps the
best, at least for finished drawings. In the shadows of any—
thing projecting from a surface, we shall, for the sake of
example, suppose a pole projecting from the surface of a wall,
at a considerable distance from it ; the outline of the shadow
next to the foot of the pole will be very dark and definite,
but in proceeding towards the extremity, the edge becomes
more penumbral, and at last, in a very extended shadow, is
hardly definite. All shadows are darker nearer to the body,
than those which are more remote; attached columns and

 

pilasters will throw a stronger shadow than insulated columns
upon the wall behind, and the projections of the shadows of
insulated columns will be darker, and more defined upon
their edges, than those which are placed at a greater distance
from the wall, and, again, the middle part of the shadows
will be darker than the edges.

The shadow of a plane figure falling upon a plane parallel
to it, will form a figure similar and equal to that which
throws it, as the shadow of all lines on a plane, parallel to
these lines, will also be parallel to the same lines which pro-
ject them. Besides what has been already hinted above,
there is another method, which is excellent for mouldings,
particularly when small, viz. to use very little ink in the
pencil; let us, for example, suppose we were to shade a
moulding : take the camel-hair pencil with so little ink that
it cannot run, or that it will dry the instant it is put on
the paper, and run it the whole length of the moulding, upon
that part which requires to be the darkest; then repeat the
process in the same manner, by making the tint broader, or
to spread farther over ; repeat in this manner, by making the
last tint spread over each edge of the preceding, keeping the
edges of every tint as straight and parallel as possible, until
the moulding has acquired its full variety of tints, so as to
represent all the various inclinations of the original surface.
If any part appear too light, it is only necessary to go over
that part again, touching only the part that is too light. Or,
the learner may begin the reverse way, by making the broad
tints first, and proceed to make narrower and narrower tints
each time. ,

In shadowing a cylinder of considerable width, begin at
the line of demarcation of light and shade, where a plane
from the luminary would touch the curved surface in a
straight line of contact, and having gone the whole length of
this line with a tint, soften the edges with water. Proceed
in the same manner the second time with a broader tint,
covering the edges of the former, and washing off the edges
as before, thus continually spreading each repeated tint,
until you come to the line of light, viz., where a plane
extended from the luminary to the axis of the cylinder,
included in the plane, would cut the surface of the cylinder.
Then from the opposite edge of the representation of the
cylinder, lay a light tint close to the line, as narrow as it can
be put on, and soften the edge of it next to the line of light;
lay a broader tint next time, and soften the edge in like man-
ner, next to the line of light ; proceed in this manner, until
you come again in contact with the line of light ; observing,
that the depth of colour in receding from the line of light in
the parts which represent equal distances, should be the same,
or of an equal degree. In washing towards the line of light,
the washes must be lighter and lighter, as too much colour
will destroy the delicacy necessary to be preserved in the
light part. If, after all, any part should appear to be too
light, the defect may be made up by tinting that part only,
with very little ink in the pencil. For other information.
concerning the manner of preparing the tints, we shall refer
to the article SHADOWING.

DRA‘VING-KNIFE, an edged tool, made sharp at the
end. for cutting a deep incision into the wood, along a straight-
edge, the edge of a square or templet, in order to enter the
saw without ragging the wood. A chisel or firmer is some-
times used instead of the drawing knife. In joinery, the
drawing-knife is useful in rebating across the grain, cutting
the shoulders of tenons, grooving across the fibres.

DRAWING-ROOM, a principal apartment of a great
mansion, or nobleman’s house, to which it is usual for
company to withdraw after dinner, and in which formal visits
are received. See DINING-ROOM. In small houses, the draw-

 

 

 

 

 

 

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307

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ing-room may communicate with the dining-room, but in
large houses, it will be no detriment, and might even be pre-
ferred by many, if the library, or an ante-room should inter-
vene. The term is frequently written withdrawing-room.
See ROOM.

DRAWING-SLATE, a soft stone of fine grain, used as
a marking or drawing material. It is sometimes called black
chalk.

DRAWINGS, Working, See WORKING DRAWINGS.

DRAWN THROUGH OR ALONG THE AXIS, or THROUGH or:
ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE, is when a plane meets a straight
line, so that all parts or points in the line are also in the
plane.

DREDGING. The operation of removing mud, silt, and
other depositions from the bottom of harbours, canals, rivers,
docks, &c., by means of a DREDGING MACHINE.

DRESS, in masonry, to prepare stones for building.

DRESSED, the preparation that a stone requires before it
is ready to be used in building, 8m. Stones are dressed
sometimes by the hammer only, thence termed hammer-
dressed ; sometimes by the mallet and chisel, the face after-
wards being rubbed smooth. In Scotland the term is only
understood Of hammer-dressing.

DRESSER, a kind of bench or table, with drawers, set
in the kitchen, used for culinary purposes: it is generally
reckoned as a fixture of the building, or a part thereof.

DRESSING—ROOM, a room adjoining a sleeping—room,
used for dressing in, as its name implies. A dressing-room
ought to have two doors, one to communicate with the
sleeping-room, and another to communicate with the passage,
for the valet, or servant.

DRESSINGS, all kinds of mouldings projecting beyond
the naked of walls or ceilings, are called by the general
name of dressing. In joinery, the architraves of apertures,
or other appendages, as also the projecting moulding used
as a finish, is called a dressing, and frequently facing.

DRIFT, the horizontal push or force, which an arch exerts
from the gravitation of the stones, which are kept from
descending by the inclination of the beds of the arch, and
the resistance of the pier. The terms shoot and thrust, are
also employed to express the same idea.

DRIP, the edge of a roof ; the eaves ; the corona of the
cornice. See LARMIER, CORONA.

DRIPPING EAVES, when the slope of a roof is con-
tinued downwards, so as to project over the roof of a build-
ing, the part thus projecting over is called dripping eaves,
in contradistinction to those roofs that have blocking courses,
which run above the slope of the roof, and which have
gutters behind for carrying off the water. Dripping eaves
are prohibited, in the city of London, by the Building act.

DRIPS, steps made in flat roofs, to walk upon. This
way of building is much used in Italy, where the roof is not
quite flat, but a little raised in the middle, Otherwise the

‘ steps would have no rise.

DRIPSTONE, the projecting moulding or cornice over
windows, doorways, &c., is called a dripstone. Its use is to
throw off the rain, and in some of the Old buildings in this
country, it has been made Of an ornamental character. The
dripstone is of various forms, and when a head is not used
as a termination or support, a simple moulding is adopted.
It is also called label, weather-moulding, and water-table.

The term dripstone, however, is more particularly applied
to the boss at the termination Of the moulding from which
the rain drips, after being conducted down the moulding;
the latter is distinguished by the appellation of weather-

moulding.

DRIVER, Pile. See PILE DRIVER.

 

DROPS, in architecture, small pendent cylinders, or the
frustums of cones attached to a vertical surface, the axis of
the cylinders or cones having also a vertical position, and
their upper ends attached to a horizontal surface.

Drops are used in the cornice of the Doric order under
the mutules, and in the architrave under the triglyphs.
Each mutule has three rows from front to rear, with six
drops in each row, disposed at equal distances, in lines
parallel to the front. The drops upon the architrave are
also six under each triglyph, disposed also equidistantly.
Drops in the form of frustums of cones, are only peculiar to
Roman architecture, and to some of the temples of Paastum;
there are some Grecian-Dorics, however, wherein the drops
in their vertical section have the upper part nearly parallel,
and terminate below with a concavity, the part above being
a tangent to the curve. In the Roman-Doric, the surface of

(the metopes is the same with that of the architrave, and the

vertical surface of the triglyph projects at the same distance
as the drops, which are hung from the tenia. In the Grecian
Doric, the faces of the triglyphs are generally disposed in
the same vertical surface with the face of the epistylium,
and consequently, the regula and drops pending therefrom
project. The Doric portico at Athens, the portico of Philip
king of Macedon, and the temple of Apollo in the island of
Delos, are instances wherein the surface of the epistyle is
within the surface Of the triglyph ; but it is to be Observed,
in the two latter examples, that there is a drop in each angle
common to every return face. All examples Of the Doric
order, except the portico Of the Agora, or Doric portico, at
Athens, have the sides of each extreme drop under the
regula in the same vertical line as each edge of the triglyph
above, and the whole six drops are contained within the
perpendiculars, by producing the edges of the triglyphs.

In all the drops Of the Doric architraves to be met with,
the horizontal sections are circles, increasing towards the
bottom of the drops, or of a cylindrical form, except in the
instance Of the temple of Apollo at Cora, in Italy, where
the soflits 0f the drops in the architraves are inclined. It is
singular, that in this example, the drops pending from the
corona are continued equidistantly without interruption in
three rows, two behind the front row; and that those pend-
ing from the corona are perfectly cylindrical, with level
soflits, while those pending from the regula are conical, and
have inclined soffits, which form an obtuse angle with the
face Of the epistyle. In the choragic monument of Thrasyllus,
the tenia of the epistylium has a continued row of drops, but
this example cannot be accounted a Doric order, having no
other peculiarity to the Doric composition.

The drops pending from the sotfits of the mutules, have
their soffits in a plane parallel to the soflits Of the mutules,
and consequently, inclining; while those of the epistyle have
their sofiits in a horizontal plane.

The height of the drops in the cornice of the Doric portico
at Athens, is little more than one quarter of their diameter,
while those of the epistyle have their height more than half
their diameter.

In the peripteral temple at Paestum, the corona has no
pending mutules, nor any drops. In the theatre of Marcellus
at Rome, there are no mutules, the interstices between the
drops are formed by excavating upwards into the soffit of
the corona, and are covered on the front with a moulding,
which has its soffit in the same inclined plane with the
soffits of the drops, so that the drops show no geometrical
elevation. In the enneastyle, or nine-column temple at
Paestum, the cornice is destroyed, and the architrave
seems to have been originally without either mutules
or drops.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DRY 3

08

DRY

 

The term guttce is also applicable to. what we have ‘

called drops.

DROVED AS H LAR, a term used in Scotland for chiseled,
or random-tooled ashlar. It is the most inferior kind of hewn
work used in building. It is true, that what is there called
broached work, is sometimes done without being droved, but
in good broached work, the face of the stone should be
previously droved, and then broached. See the article
MASONRY.

DROVED AND BROACHED, a term used in Scotland,
in a. more specific manner than that of broached work; see
the preceding word.

DROVED AND STRIPED, work that is first droved
and then striped : the stripes are shallow grooves done with
a half or three-quarter inch chisel, about an eighth of an inch
deep, leaving the droved interstices prominent. These kinds
of hewn work are not used in England, or at least very
seldom ; the work is either regularly tooled, or rubbed
smooth.

DRUIDICAL TEMPLE, stone pillars, arranged in the
circumference of a circle, surmounted with an architrave
or entablature, such as Stonehenge. See CELTIC ARCHI-
TECTURE.

DRUM, a cylinder, generally formed of cast-iron, but
sometimes of wood, and used on the inclined planes of rail-
ways, for receiving the rope which is wound round the sur-
face of its periphery, by which movement the waggons are
conveyed along the line. Drums are used when the plane is
worked by a single rope.

DRUM, of the Corinthian and Composite capitals, the solid
part, in the form of a vase, to which foliage, stalks, and
caulicoli are attached. The drum is otherwise called vase.

DRUM. See DOME.

DRY-RO’I‘, a highly destructive vegetable disease, afi'ect-
ing the timber in the foundations, and other parts of build-
ings, in particular soils and situations. It affects the wood,
or ligneous parts, in such a manner, as to leave it connected
by nothing but the small hard fibrous portions, which give it
a curious tremulous appearance, but all of .which, when
touched by the hand in the more advanced stages of the dis-
ease, readily moulder into a brownish snuff-like dust. It is
attended with a peculiar earthy smell, similar to that which
issues from wood fresh dug up after having lain some time
in the ground in contact with decaying animal matter, and is
materially different from that natural sort of decay which takes
place in wood from the presence of wetness.

0n the causes of this decay numerous volumes have been
written, and equally numerous have been the nostrums for its
prevention or “ cure.” There can be little doubt that, in very
many cases, dry-rot has been engendered by the extreme
wetness of the timber, caused by its long immersion in the
water, in docks, canals, &c. In our hastily-constructed build-
ings, the timber, after having been thus swelled by soaking
too much beyond its former and its ultimate bulk, is frequently
framed together while in this wet state, and it cannot be sur-
prising that the dry-rot soon appears as a natural consequence
of such unwise proceedings.

It has been said, that moist and warm situations, where the
circulation of the air is impeded, is the generating cause of
this disease; that the effluvia from timber so diseased, will
carry their effects to the circumjacent timber ; and that any
sort of wood, dry as well as damp, so exposed, will be soon
destroyed. Timber once infected cannot be restored, and the
only remedy lies in cutting away the diseased parts, to pre-
vent the extension of the evil to the remainder; and to effect
even the latter, a free circulation of air must be admitted,
and the parts be washed over with a strong solution of iron,

 

copper, or zinc. Patents have been granted for various appli-
cations of the latter, as preventives of the dry-rot, the dis-
tinguishing features of the processes therein employed consist-
ing in first preparing the timber by a good steaming, or drying
out of the sap, and afterwards injecting, soaking, or boiling
the timber in a solution of copperas, or other metallic salt.
The following observations on this important subject were
some time since addressed to the editor of the “Engineers
and Mechanics’ Encyclopaedia,” by Mr. John Gregory, who
is an experienced and observant shipwright; and as they
appear to mark out clearly the true cause of, and to suggest
a very simple remedy for, the evil, it is right to give them a
place in this work. Mr. Gregory says, “ Instead of squaring
a piece of timber according to the usual method, by leaving
the heart of the tree in the centre, my plan is to saw it right
down the middle, through the heart, into two equal parts,
immediately after the tree is felled ; and my reasons for this
I will now endeavour to explain, to the best of my ability.
It is, I believe, a well-known fact, that a tree does not,
literally speaking, die on receiving the final stroke of the axe,
but that it continues for a long period afterwards to vegetate,
though less vigorously. At length, however, the sap ceases
to circulate, the pores become closed, and the juices of the
tree thus shut up undergo decomposition, and lay the foun-
dation of dry-rot. It is well known, that a man, who dies
in a full habit of body, soon decays; the same effect takes
place in a tree full of sap, unless we adopt the same method
with respect to it as the Egyptians practised with the human
body, viz., that of depriving it of all moisture, which process
would give to our timber a durability almost everlasting.
My mind has been long impressed with this idea, which has
been confirmed by my having recently noticed, that several s
of the timbers, in a very ancient public building, which had ;
been sawn originally in the manner I have proposed, were
perfectly sound, although they had withstood the dilapidating
hand of time for seven hundred years; while other timbers in
the same building, which had not been so cut, but apparently
squared out with the heart in the centre, were perfectly rot-
ten. That the dry-rot is certainly caused by the juices being
enclosed in the heart of the timber, I have had frequent
opportunities of observing during my long practical expe-
rience in the repairing of ships. In the frame of a ship in
which such large quantities of timber are employed, I have
uniformly noticed: First, that the decay commences in the
run fore and aft, which is owing to the timbers being fitted
so close together at the heels or lower ends. The evil being
thus enclosed in the hearts of the timbers, and the air having
no access to the exterior of them to carry off the moisture by
evaporation, internal decay is the necessary consequence.
I have sometimes witnessed these parts of the frame of a ship
in such a rotten state, as to have been justly compared by the
workmen to a heap of manure. Secondly, those timbers in
the midships that have been bored off with the outside
planks, are not so affected, which I attribute to the circunv
stance of the holes admitting a current of air through them,
the destructive juices being thereby carried off. Thirdly, it
frequently happens, that the floor-timbers of an old ship are
found, on breaking up, to be nearly as sound as they were
when first put in. Their preservation seems to be owing to
the effect of the salt water, which constantly laves over them,
causing them to become, in a manner, pickled; or it may be,
that the salt entering into the composition of the wood, the
destructive effects of its naturaljuices are thereby prevented.
Fourthly, the planks in the bottom, nearest to the timbers,
take the infection first; and where the tree-nails are not close, ‘
the disease rapidly extends endways of the grain. Fifthly,
those parts of the deck-planks that lie upon the beams are

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DUN

309

DUN

 

those which are first infected with the rot, the cause of which
is evident, as those parts that are between the beams are
generally quite sound. Sixthly, in the beams of ships the
decay usually commences in the internal parts, which is
decidedly owing, in my opinion, to the erroneous method of
preparing the timber, as before-mentioned ; but when timber,
so prepared, is used, I would recommend, as the best preven-
tive of the rot, that a few holes be bored through the beam
fore and aft, and, what would still add to the benefit, to bore
another hole lengthways of the grain, to meet those which
are bored crossways. But the best preventive, I am con-
fident, would be the adoption of my mode of preparing the
timber, viz., to saw it lengthways right through the heart,
by which not only greater durability would be obtained, but
great economy in the consumption of the timber.”

Though, as we have before observed, volumes have been
written on the subject of dry-rot, the causes of it are still,
perhaps, as little understood as ever; and, as was stated by
Mr. Bramley, of Leeds, in a paper read to the Society for the
Encouragement of Arts, &c., “ to bring the matter to the test
by experiments, would require the observations of a long
period, and in selected situations.” “ Wood used for the
general purposes of man,” he observes, “is cut down at
different periods ; and although it may be felled at the proper
season, or when most free from sap or moisture, it is not
always to be effected. Nay, even admitting it to have been
cut down in the most favourable situation, it still abounds
with such an extra proportion of moisture, as to require a
regular exposure to the air prior to its being applied to use,
if we wish to guard against that shrinking which always
takes place where this precaution has not been taken. And
although the fir-kind contains less of this watery portion, yet
it assuredly possesses a considerable share; and it is in this
species, he apprehends, that the evil, called the dry-rot, most
generally occurs ; as, from the facility of working the same,
it is most generally applied to buildings. But, supposing it
to be fir, or any other species, wood felled when abounding
with any extra proportion of sap, and applied to use without
the proper seasoning or exposure to a free current of air,
until such extra moisture has had time to exhale, is most
liable to the disease in question ; and the cure, or principal
prevention against it, would be the precaution of felling all
wood only at the proper season, or when the sap is not in
circulation. The next mode of prevention would be to use
such wood only as has been for‘a considerable period exposed
to the influence of a free current of air, or, where conveni-
ence will admit, to that of air heated to a moderate degree;
such air extracting, with greater facility, the enclosed mois-
ture, and in a more certain ratio than the irregularity of our
atmosphere will allow under other circumstances.”

This is not the place for examining into the comparative
merits of the different processes which have been introduced
for seasoning timber. The most noted of these are Kyan’s,
Burnett’s, Payne’s, and Bethell’s, all of which have been
described by their advocates as perfect preventives of dry-rot ;
it is sufficient to say, that they have all been found successful,
and have also all failed. The best preventive of dry-rot, in
our opinion, is to have the timber thoroughly dry before it is
converted, and to let plenty of air get to it when the building
is completed.

DUBBING, in bricklaying, is replacing and making
good any decayed brickwork, when the wall is to be
repointed.

DUN, or BURGH, the name of an ancient species of
buildings, of a circular form, common in the Orkney and
Shetland Islands, the Hebrides, and northern parts of Scot—
land. The latter term points out the founders, who at the

4 K.

 

same time bestowed on them their natal name of borg, “a
defence or castle,” a Suco-Gothic word ; and the Highlanders
universally apply to these places the Celtic name dun, signify-
ing a hill defended by a tower, which plainly points out
their use. They are confined to the countries once subject
to the crown of Norway. With few exceptions, they are
built within sight of the sea, and one or more within sight of
the other ; so that on a signal by fire, by flag, or by trumpet,
they could give notice of approaching danger, and yield a.
mutual succour. In the Shetland and Orkney islands, they
are most frequently called wart or ward hills, which shows
that they were garrisoned. They had their wardmadher, or
watchman, a sort of sentinel, who stood on the top, and
challenged all who came in sight. The gackman was an
officer of the same kind, who not only was on the watch
against surprise, but was to give notice if he saw any ships
in distress. He was allowed a large horn of generous liquor,
which he had always by him, to keep up his spirits. Along
the Orkney and Shetland shores, they almost form a chain ;
and by that means not only kept the natives in subjection,
but were situated commodiously for covering the landing of
their countrymen, who were perpetually roving on piratical
expeditions. These towers were even made use of as state
prisons ; for we learn from Torfaeus, that after Sueno had
surprised Paul, count of Caithness, he carried him into
Sutherland, and confined him there in a Norwegian tower.
Out of our own kingdom, no buildings similar to these
are to be found, except in Scandinavia. On the mountain
Swalberg in Norway is one; the Stir-biskop, at Upsal in
Sweden, is another; and Umseborg, in the same kingdom,
is a third. ‘

In these buildings, there is no appearance of an arch ; the
wall, which consists of the best fiat stones the workman could
find, is well laid, is in thickness about 14 feet, and in some
instances not more than 12 feet high ; the structure of a dun
is upon a circular plan, about 20 or 30 feet in diameter.
The door of entrance is very low, and was shut up occasion-
ally with a broad fiat stone. In some instances, where the
stones were not flat or well bedded, the wall is found propped
up with heaps of stones, like buttresses, on the outside ; so
as to give the whole more the appearance of a mount, than
of a building, as is particularly the case with one at Loth-
beg, ni the parish of Lothis. The most entire dun is that at
Glenby, not far from Inverness, and described by Mr. Pen-
nant, in his voyage to the Hebrides; from whose very
curious and original account, the following particulars are
extracted :—

“It is placed about two miles from the mouth of the
valley. The more entire side is about thirty feet six
inches ‘in height, and was, some years ago, about ten feet
higher. The whole structure appears to have been, on the
outside, of a conical form ; but on the inside, the surround-
ing wall is quite perpendicular; so that it must have been
much thicker at the bottom than at the top. It enclosed a
small circular area of thirty-three feet and a half in diameter ;
and was constructed merely of flat stones neatly placed one
upon another, without any cement or mortar. At ten feet
from the ground it was found to be seven feet four inches
thick : and within this thickness were two surrounding
galleries ; one quite in the lower part of the tower, about six
feet two inches high, and two feet five inches wide at the
bottom; but made narrower at the top; and flagged and
covered with great flat stones. And the other gallery was
placed directly over this, having these flag-stones for its
floor, and being only five feet six inches high, and only
twenty inches wide at the bottom; but covered at top, in
like manner, with other great flat stones.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DUO

310

 

“This upper gallery, in which a man could barely make
his way, went quite round the tower, without any division or
partition; but the lower gallery, underneath this, is parted
oflf into separate spaces, by great flag-stones placed upright ;
which several spaces, or little cells, were in general acces-
sible only by means of holes in the floor or gallery above;
so that nothing can be more obvious, than that these cells-
were intended for the keeping and preserving of stores;
whilst the upper gallery cannot but remind us somewhat
of the little gallery within the wall of the round tower at
Brunless.

“Besides these galleries, there were, on the inside of the
circular wall, open to the circular enclosed apartment, four
perpendicular rows of small cavities, or, as they have been
described by others, four stages or nests of small square open
holes, dividing the interior circular wall into four parts, and
turning up from the lower part of the tower to the top; each
little hole, or nest, in the row, divided from that beneath
only by a sort of shelf, or flag-stone, and forming a little
cupboard.

“ The appearance of this sort of little cupboards, as well
as that of the sections of galleries, is similar to those in this
tower, as they are seen in the wall of another dun, in the
same neighbourhood. And these square cavities seem obvi-
ously to have been intended to hold the drinking horns, and
other utensils for banqueting in these rude dens.”

DUODECIMALS, a term applied to an arithmetical me-
thod of ascertaining the number of square feet and square
inches in a rectangular space, whose sides are given in feet
and inches.

In this series of denominations (beginning with feet) every
unit in the preceding denomination makes twelve in that
which succeeds it: that is, every foot contains 12 inches, or
firsts ; every first, 12 seconds ; and so on. There will be as
many denominations in the product as in both factors taken
together.

Feet are either marked with or without anf; inches are
called firsts by the mark thus (’) being placed above ; seconds
by the mark thus (”) being placed above; thirds thus (”’),
and so on. In multiplying any two single denominations
together, the value of the product will be known by adding

II
the indices of the two factors. Thus, suppose 7 to be mul-

II V
tiplied by ll, then the product is 77, or 77 fifths, because
adding the index ” of the seven to the index "’ of the eleven,
produces v or fifths.

To multiply duodecimals together.-—-Write the multiplier
under the multiplicand, so that the place of feet may stand
under the last place of the multiplicand; begin with the
right—hand denomination of the multiplier, and multiply it
it by every denomination of the multiplicand, throwing the
twelves out of every product, and carrying as many units to
the next ; place the remainders, if any, under the multiplier,
so that like parts in the product may be under like parts of
the multiplicand; proceed with every successive figure of
the multiplier, towards the left, in the same manner, always
placing the first figure of the product under the multiplier ;
then the sum of the products will be the total.

Example 1.
Multiply 6 -- 9’ by 3 -- 6’
ft- I 1/
6--9
3 -- 6
3..4--6::(iu5 x 6
20 .. 3 = 6 '- 9 X 3
Answer 23 -- 7 -- 6

 

DU )
Example2.
Multiply 6" 5’ -- 4” by 3.. 6’
ft' I II
6..5..4
3--6
n' I ll
3.-2--8--0:6..5--4 X 6
19--4--0 :6--5--4X3

Answer 22 .. 6 .. 8 -- O

In the first example, there is only one place of duodecimals
in each factor ; there are, therefore, two places in the product.
In the second example, there are two places of duodeci-

mals in the multiplicand, and one in the multiplier, which-

make together three ; there are, therefore, three denomina-
tions in the product.
Example 3.
ft , u ,,, iv v vi
What is the product of 4--3--2--8--9~5--3 by

, ,, ,,, iv v vi vii
I.

 

3..0..5.. 0..6..2
ft , ,, M iv v vi
4..3.. 2..8..9..5..3
0.. 3..()..5..0..0.. 6..2
8..6..5..5..6..10..6
2..1.. 7..4..4..8..7.. 6
1..9..4..1..7..11..2..3
1..().. 9..8..2..4..3 . 9

 

1o-0--ll--5--6--8--2-- 0.. ..1..2..2.. 4--6

In this example, because there are no feet in the multiplier,
the place is supplied by the cipher. The multiplicand has
six places of duodecimals, and the multiplier seven; there
are, therefore, thirteen places of duodecimals in the product.
The first place of figures is feet, and the succeeding are the
duodecimal places; the product is one foot, no inches, eleven
seconds, five thirds, 8w. But, independently of the consi-
deration of there being as many places of duodecimals in the
product as in the multiplier and multiplicand, the method of
placing the denominations of the factors gives the correct
places of the product, since like parts of the product stand
under like parts of the multiplicand ; it also shows the affinity,
not only between duodecimals, but between decimals and
every series of denominations, of which the same number in
any place makes one of the next towards the left hand. The
consideration is also useful, in discovering readily what kind
of product arises by multiplying any two single denomina-
tions together.

When the number of feet runs very high in each factor, it
will be much better to reduce all the denominations in both into
the lowest, then multiply the factors, so reduced, and divide
by 12 as often as there are duodecimal places in the product.
Example 4.

n

p...

”l by 3 «6 as in Example 1.
12
42

ft
ntuaaaytsu

~

6
12
77
12
928
42
1856
3712
l2)38976
l2)3248
12)27

 

 

 

C

.. 8
.. 6 .. 8 the same as before.

\I

l

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

II II! n I II w W
5..3 3..6..4..6
12 12

63 42
12 Proofs by duodecimals.

fl 4 II In W
508 3..6..4.. 6.. 5
12 o nous .. 3

 

 

6102 0 -- 10 .. 7 ..
.. . 7 ..10 ..

(Di—I
y—n

 

 

73229 1"6" 6" 5"9-08u3
63

 

219687
439374

12) 4613427
12 ) 384452 ..

OD

‘ 12 ) 32037 .. 8
; 12)‘2669--9
12 ) 222 .. 5

12)18..6

 

12)1..6

 

0.. 1 ..6.-6..5..9..8..3
the product, the same as by duodecimals.

In this example, because there are seven places of duode-
cimals in the two factors, viz., four in the multiplicand, and
three in the multiplier, the product 4613427 is divided seven
times successively by 12.

There is another method of duodecimals, almost equally
convenient. The rule is as follows: First.——Under the
multiplicand, place the corresponding denominations of the
multiplier.

Then multiply each denomination, from right to left, of the
multiplicand, by each term of the multiplier successively
from the left to the right, placing the first denomination of
each row, or product, one place nearer to the right, and carry-

; ing one from every twelve in the product of any denomi-
; nation, to that which succeeds it towards the left, up to the
1 place of feet; then the sum of all the like products will be
I the total.

Example 6.

a I u n I II
Multiply 10 -- 4 -- 5 by 7 -- 8 .. 6
n

10 .. 4.. 5flMultiplicand.
7-- 8" 6Multiplier.
72 -- 6--ll
6--10 11-4

5.. 2, 2~6
79--11-. 0--6--6

 

D U 0 311 D U 0
Example 5. Example 7.
ft I II In iv 1! I II III
Multiply3u6u4o-6-‘5 byO-'O"5--3 m “ I m

..2;..7by7«8~3--10

find

It
Multiply 23 ~-

 

ft I II III
23.04.. I.
7--8-- 5--10
163--7--10-- 1
15..7.. 0.. 4--8
9.. 8--10--8--11
10‘ 9'. 5.090. 5.010
180--2 4..10..2..4 «10

Proof by the first method.

ft I II
23 ..4 .. 6 ..
. 5 u 10

 

.. 10

H
unseen «xx:

"11

ooooto oo
01

15..
163 ~-

L.
#8 OOW‘D

 

to «1qu

180 -- -- 10 .- 2 .- 4 -- 10

There is the same number of figures in each operation, but
in the last the products are inverted. The first method,
which is here used to prove the second, is similar to the com-
mon method of multiplication of integers, the first place of
figures of every product being placed under the second deno‘
mination towards the left.

When feet and inches only are concerned, the reader
is referred to the articles CROSS MULTIPLICATION, and
PRACTICE.

DWAN GS, a term used in Scotland, for the short pieces
of timber employed in strutting a floor.

DWARF WALLS, low walls of less height than the
story of a building. Sometimes the joists of a ground-floor
rest upon dwarf walls ; and the enclosures of courts are fre~
quently formed by them with a railing of iron on their top :
indeed, any low wall used as a fence, may be termed a dwarf
wall.

DWELLING-HOUSE. See BUILDING and HOUSE.

DYE, the plain part of a pedestal, contained between the
base and cornice, in the form of a square prism, approaching
frequently to a cube or dye, whence the name originates.

The dye of a pedestal is generally placed in the same ver-
tical plane with the vertical sides of the plinths of columns;
there is, however, an instance in the dye of the pedestals of
the columns of the Stoa, or Portico, at Athens, where the
dye recedes within the vertical sides of the plinths of the
bases. The practice of using pedestals under columns, is
bad at the best; but in this instance their employment is still
more ridiculous, being contrary to the rules of true taste and
philosophy.

DYE, is also used for a cube of stone, placed under the feet
of a statue and beneath its pedestal, to raise, and show it to
more advantage.

DYE. See DADO.

DYNAMOMETER, (measurer of power), a term which
has been applied to an instrument for measuring force or
power. The Dynamometer has been used by engineers for
ascertaining the tractive power required in drawing carriages

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ECB

upon roads or vessels, upon canals, and also for measuring
the relative force of men and other animals. These effects
are usually manifested by the compression or distension of
a strong spring, or by a steel-yard upon the principle of a
bent lever balance; but in both these constructions the instru-
ment is subject to great vibration, owing to the inequalities

312

E00

in the resistance and in the moving force, which render the
indications very uncertain. A very ingenious application of
the Dynamometer was made by Sir John Macneill, to the
Road Indicator, in experiments on the comparative condition
of different descriptions of roads.

DYPTERON. See DIPTERON.

E.

ECB

EARS. See CROSETTES and ANCONES.

EAGLE, in architecture, a figure of that bird, anciently
used as an attribute of Jupiter, in the capitals and friezes of
the columns of temples consecrated to that deity.

Also a lettern, or reading-desk, used in churches, from
whence the lessons are read. It is so called from its form,
which is that of an eagle with outspread wings, on which
the book is laid, sometimes represented as trampling under
foot a serpent. The material is generally brass, and the
image is supported on a stem of similar material, pierced and
otherwise enriched. See LETTERN.

EARTH-TABLE, the course of masonry or other work
level with the ground.

EARTHEN FLOORS. See FLOORS.

EATING-ROOM. See DINING-ROOM.

EAVES, (from the Saxon) the margin or edge of the
roof of a house, which overhangs the walls, in order to throw
Off the water from the face of the masonry or brickwork.

EAVES LATH, or EAVES BOARD, an arris fillet, or thick
feather-edged board, placed at the eaves of a roof, for raising
the bottom of the first course of slates above the sloping
plane of the side of the roof, so as that the next course may
be properly bedded: that is, when the lower ends rest firmly
upon those which form the eaves-course. It is sometimes
also called eaves catch.

EBONY, a species of hard, heavy, and durable wood,
which admits of a fine polish or gloss. The most usual
colour is black, red, or green; but the best is a jet black,
free from veins and rind, very heavy, astringent, and of an
acrid pungent taste. Ebony is wrought into toys, and is
much used for mosaic and inlaid work.

ECATEA, statues erected to the goddess Hecate, for
whom the Athenians had a great veneration, believing her
to be the overseer and protectress of their families.

ECBATANA, the capital of ancient Media, and the resi-
dence of the Median and Persian kings. It was situated in
a plain, about twelve stadia from mount Orontes. Diodorus
says, it was 250 stadia in circuit. The walls were seven in
number, built upon a circular plan, rising gradually above
each other, by the height of each wall conforming in a great
measure to the situation of the ground. In the book of
Judith, we read that they were 60 cubits in height, and
50 in breadth; that the towers over the gates were 100
cubits in height, and the breadth of the foundation 60 cubits,
and that the walls were built of hewn and polished stones,
each stone being 6 cubits in length and 3 in breadth. The
royal palace and treasury were within the inmost of the
seven walls. Diodorus says, the timber Of the palace was
cedar or cypress; and various parts of it were cased with
gold or silver. There are no monuments remaining of this
superb palace, where the monarchs of Asia generally passed
their summer; and it is rather to be lamented that adisagree-
ment should exist among modern travellers, about the site on
which this stately metropolis stood.

 

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The site of Ecbatana has been a matter of dispute; but
the dispute has arisen solely because those who have discussed
the question, either did not know the evidence on which the
question must be decided, or did not understand it. The
route of commerce between the low country in the ancient
Seleucia, and the modern Bagdad and the high table-land
of Iran, is determined by the physical character of the country,
and has continued the same from the earliest recorded history
of those countries, to the present day. The places marked
in the “ Itinerary” of Isidore, as lying between Seleucia and
Ecbatana, are the places indicated by modern travellers as
lying on the route between Bagdad and Hamadan.

ECCENTRICITY, the distance between the foci of an
ellipsis; it is otherwise called ellz'pticity.

ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE. Under this
title it is our intention to inquire into the nature of the places
of worship employed by the early Christians, to consider the
origin and progress of buildings devoted to this purpose, with
a cursory glance at their history, and to describe generally
their form, distribution, and structural arrangement.

Information on such subjects is to be sought for amongst
the patristic writings, the early ecclesiastical historians, more
especially Eusebius, and the early Christian writers generally
Collateral evidence corroborative of the testimony afforded
from such sources, is to be found amongst cotemporary heathen
authors in their occasional and incidental reference to such
subjects. Evidence on this matter from all sources has been
carefully collated, and much valuable information gained by
the patient and learned research of Bingham, who has included
it in his most elaborate work, the Origines Ecclesiasticce;
to which we shall have occasion frequently to refer in the
following pages.

Of the forms of churches for the first three centuries,
during the times of persecution, we know but little; and it
is probable that during the very earliest period, when the
Christian church was in a normal state, so to speak, whilst
she numbered but few advocates, and they poor and of little
influence, when “ not many wise, not many noble were called ;"
it is probable, we repeat, that Christians had no fixed form
or arrangement Of parts in their places of public worship,
but that a dwelling-house of some member, or even a portion of
such house, was set apart for the purpose. It is nearly cer-
tain that no structures were built for the especial purpose,
during the first division of this period; for not only would
they have attracted attention and suspicion, but would have
been destroyed together with the worshippers: the earliest
Christians were compelled to secrecy and Obscurity, at least they
did not bring themselves offensively 0r ostentatiously forwards
into notice, although not shrinking from an open avowal of
their faith when called upon for it ; for be it remembered, they
were to be “ wise as serpents, and harmless as doves.”

In the Sacred \Vritings, more especially in the “ Acts of
the Apostles," and in the epistles to the various churches. we
not unfrequently meet with the word church, or zxa‘hnma,

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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which must in some cases undoubtedly apply to the edifice
or room in which it was customary for the Christians to
assemble; we know besides that it was a practice with the
early Christians of the apostolic times to assemble together
in some appointed place for the purpose of worship and devo-
tion. It is evident from the accounts of the evangelists, that
the eleven continued together after their Master’s crucifixion,
whether engaged in prayer and fasting, we cannot say; but
they were certainly in one place when the women came and
told them of the resurrection. In the evening of the same day,
likewise, it is mentioned that they were assembled together
in one place, and with closed doors, for fear of the Jews ; and
eight days afterwards, they were again together with closed
doors. These would seem somewhat to invalidate the supposition
of their being collected together for prayer, or at least public
prayer, for it is mentioned that after the return of the apostles
from Bethany, “ they were continually in the Temple praising
and blessing God.” Again on the day of Pentecost, they
were all together in one house, and, as it is noticed, with one
accord, which expression would seem to express the existence
of some object, reason, or purpose of their being together,
and what more likely than for common prayer? yet they still
attended the public services of the Temple, for it is related
that after this, “ Peter and John went up together into the
Temple at the hour of prayer, being the ninth hour.” After
the incident which occurs at this time in the Temple, and
when Peter and John were released from custody, they
returned to their companions, who were assembled together
—probably in the same place as before—and after relating
the circumstances, it is told us that they prayed and “ spake
the word of God with boldness.” Some time subsequent to
these events, it is related of Paul and Barnabas, while
at Antioch, that for a whole year they assembled themselves
with the church, and taught much people. This was in all
probability in a stated place set apart for the purpose. Still
stronger is the probability with regard to the house of Mary,
where Peter fled after his escape from prison, and where
many Christians were gathered together praying; one might
suppose that a room in her house had been given by Mary
for the purpose of public worship. Lydia probably made a
similar gift. But, not to multiply instances, we would par—
ticularly allude to a circumstance which occurred while Paul
was staying at Troas; for it is related that “ upon the first
day of the week, when the disciples came together to break
bread,”—-in other words, to celebrate the eucharist,-—“ Paul
preached unto them, ready to depart on the morrow, and
continued his speech until midnight. And there were many
lights in the upper chamber, where they were gathered
together. Now there sat in a window, a certain young man
named Eutychus, being fallen into a deep sleep; and as Paul was
long preaching, he sunk down with sleep, and fell down from
the third loft, and was taken up dead ;” upon which Paul
goes down to him, and restores him to life. This is probably
the most minute description of the place, time, and mode of
worship recorded in the Sacred Writings. It will not
escape remark that the room in this instance is said to have
been an upper room, and there is reason to believe that it
was a practice amongst Christians, to use the upper room, or
Hyperfion, for this purpose ; it will be remembered that it was
an upper room in which the Saviour celebrated the passover
and instituted the eucharist, and it may possibly have been
for some reason of this kind, rather than from the situation
and nature of the place, that the upper room was adopted.

It has been maintained that the early Christians had no
places set apart for public worship; but as Bingham combats
this argument, it may be as well to let him speak for himself.
His remarks are for the most part a summary of the

4 L

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inquiries of the learned Mede, who has treated this particular
subject at considerable length :—

“A very singular paradox has been advanced by some
learned men,” says Bingham, “ that for the three first
centuries after Christ, (i. e.) before Constantine ascended
the throne of the Roman empire, AD. 306, when he estab-
lished Christianity, and soon after abolished paganism, the _
Christians, owing to the cruel persecutions to which they
were exposed by the pagans in these centuries, first under
the tyrant Nero, A.D. 64; and next under the Roman emperor
Domitian, A. D. 94, had no such places of worship as
churches. This statement is grounded upon some mistaken
passages of Origen, Minutius Felix, and Arnobius, who say
that the Christians had no temples, which they take as a
denial of their having any churches; which opinion, though
advanced with some show of learning by Vedelius, Suicerus,
and others, is altogether without foundation, contradicted by
the authors which they allege, and by themselves in the
arguments they produce. Dr. Mede has given us an elaborate
disquisition on the subject, in confutation of this opinion,
wherein he has collected the authorities of the ancients, which,
for the three first ages, prove the existence of Christian
churches.

“ We shall briefly, for the sake of those who have not that
learned author, give the substance of his proofs, and add some
others of our own observation. In the first place, he shows
that the ancient authors, St. Austin, St. Basil, St. Jerom,
and St. Chrysostom, and those under the name of Sedulius,
(Ecumenius, Theophylact, in their comments on that passage
of St. Paul, (1 Cor. xi. 22,) ‘ Have ye not houses to eat and
drink in? or, despise ye the church of God?’ all took the
word church there, not for the assembly, but for an assembly-
room, or place expressly set apart for sacred devotional pur-
poses. Now the apostles, at stated seasons, were in the habit
of meeting together for prayer, and supplication for the pros-
perity of Christianity, upon mount Zion, at Jerusalem, the
Hyperoon, or upper room, so often mentioned in the Acts 01
the Apostles, (Acts i. 13,) and where they were gathered
together when the Holy Ghost came upon them, (Acts ii.)
and where our Blessed Lord also celebrated his Last Supper,
and where he appeared to his disciples on two successive
sabbaths after his resurrection, to their great amazement, and at
a time when the doors were close shut and barred, for fear
of the Jews, (John xx. 19.) Here the seven deacons were
elected and ordained, (Acts vi. 3,) and here the first council
of the churches was held at Jerusalem, (Acts xv.) This
place becoming holy and sacred by these meetings, was
afterwards inclosed within a goodly edifice, called the church
of mount Zion ; and in the time of Cyril, bishop of Jerusalem,
it was called the high church of the apostles.

“ This was the oikoc, or same house of assembly at Jeru-
salem, that is mentioned, (Acts ii. 46,) where the apostles
met for the breaking of bread, when they had all things in
common. Some think the word MIT 12in is not to be trans-
lated from house to house, as in our version, but in the house
or room where the Christian assembly was used to meet toge-
ther. The next argument is drawn from what Eusebius
observes of the Sagan-aura; in Egypt, whether Essenes, or
Christians, they had their aepvsza, or places appropriated for
divine worship, from the days of St. Mark, and that such
places are to be understood in all such passages of St. Paul,
as “ Salute ye the churches” in such and such an house;
that is, the congregation which meet in the houses of such
pious Christians, who had generally some part of their dwell-
ing, or upper rooms, or housetop, (see Acts x. 9,) remote
from noise, set apart for the church to assemble in, or, like
that of Lydia’s, (Acts xvi. 15.) At Macedonia was such an

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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appropriated room, (see Acts xx.,) where St. Paul, on the
first day of the week, preached to an immense multitude, and
continued his discourse till midnight, when a young man,
named Eutychus, sitting in the window where the lattice was
open, being overcome by sleep, fell from the upper story, and
was taken up dead, but whom St. Paul again restored to life.
That there were devotional places, or oratories, set apart
expressly for Christian worship in the first century, I think
We have suificient evidence; whether we call these places
churches or not. The following century is, however, more clear,
where they are called sometimes by the name of Coenaculum ;
at others, by that which we have before mentioned, as Hype-
roon. Thus we find Lucian, a pagan, or whoever was the
author of the dialogue called Philopatris, about the time of
Trajan, one of the pagan emperors, bringing in one Cretias,
telling how the Christians carried him into a Hyper-don, the
place of their assembly, with a design of making him a pro-
selyte to their religion. He argues further, from the tradi-
tion of the church, derived from the ancient author of the
Recognitians, under the name of Clemens Romanus, which
says, that Theophilus, to whom St. Luke is supposed to have
inscribed his Gospel at Antioch, where the name of Christians
was first given to the followers of Christ, did convert his
house into a church; and the like is reported of the house
of Pudens, a Roman senator and martyr, in the Acta Puden-
tis, that it was turned into a church after his martyrdom. He
concludes this first century with the testimony of Clemens
Romanus, in his genuine epistle to the Corinthians, who
says, that God has ordained well-appropriate places, where
at appointed times and seasons he would be solemnly
served, so that all things might be done religiously and
orderly.

“ In the second century, while the persecutions were still
rife against the Christians, more cruel acts were passed under
Trajan, A.D. 107, and Marcus Aurelius, A.D. 166, against
them, by which it became necessary for them to act with
firmness, and in compact. Thus Ignatius, in his epistle to
the Magnesians, exhorts them to meet together in one place,
which he calls r6 may Bea, the temple of God, and, in his
epistle to the Philadelphians, he informs us, that at this time
there was one altar in every church, and one apostolic bishop,
or head, appointed with his presbytery and deacons. The
present Greek copies, indeed, read it a little different from
Dr. Mede, leaving out the word church, but the mentioning
one altar is sufficient to intimate they had then a stated place
for their ecclesiastical or Christian assembly. Tertullian,
who lived in the following century, has clearly intimated
that the Christians, at this time, had churches, when, com-
plaining against those who followed the trade of idol-making,
(for the Gentiles excused themselves, that they did not wor-
ship them,)—he says, ‘the zeal of faith cannot declaim all
the day long upon this point, bewailing that any Christians
should come into the house of God from the shop of the
enemy, and lift up their hands to God the Father, which
were the mothers or makers of idols.’ In another place he
calls the church Domus Columbce, the house of the dove,
meaning either Christ, or his dove-like religion. And again,
he expressly distinguishes between the baptistry and the
church, which in those days were places separate from each
other. In this age, Pius, bishop of Rome, wrote two short
epistles to Justus, bishop of Vienne in Gaul; in the first of
which is mentioned one Euprepia, a pious matron, who is
said to have consigned the title of her house over to the
church, in which was to be celebrated Divine offices of wor-
ship. And in the other epistle is named one Pastor, a pres-
byter, who is commended for erecting a titulus, that is, a
small Christian church ; Clemens Alexandrinus, towards the

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end of this century, also uses the name Ecclesia, for the place
of the assembly, as well as the congregation; for, speaking of
the church, he says, ‘ I call not now the place alone by this
name, but the congregation of the elect people, the church ;’
and so, in his famous homily, Quis dives Salvetur, he brings
in the Asian bishop, to whom St. John committed the young
man to be trained up in the Christian discipline, complaining
that the youth was become a villain and a robber, and,
instead of following the church, had now betaken himself to
the mountains, with a company like himself. By this it is
plain, that, in his time, the word Ecclesia was taken for
a church, or sacred place, as well as for the Christian assem-
bly themselves, and that such a building as a church must
have been known and understood. We have also the Scrip-
ture accounts of the seven Apocalyptic churches, in Asia
Minor, to whom St. John the Divine, wrote from the isle of
Patmos, where he was banished by the emperor Domi-
tian, A. D. 96. These churches were Ephesus, Smyrna, Per-
gamos, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea, (Reve-
lation ii. and iii.); some of whose ruins, as travellers inform
us, now remain.

“ In the third century, the testimonies are both more numer-
ous and certain respecting the churches of the Apostolic
Christians, though a succession of Roman emperors had passed
edicts against them of a more severe and cruel nature, with
the exception of that of Nero’s. The persecuting emperors
of this century were Septimius Severus, A.D. 203 ; Maximi-
nus Thrax, A.D. 236 ; Decius, A. D. 250 ; Gallus, A.D. 253 ;
Valerianus, AJD 258 ; and lastly, Diocletian, A.D. 302.

“ We have a testimony, in this age, of theexistence of Chris-
tian churches, from a heathen author. Lampridius, in the
life of Alexander Severus, reports, ‘that there happening a
dispute between the Christians and victuallers about a cer-
tain noted public place, each party challenging it as their
own, the emperor’s rescript determined it thus, in favour of
the Christians: that it was better that God should be wor-
shipped there after any manner, than that it should be given
up to the victuallers.’ About the middle of this period,
lived the famous Gregory of Neoczesarea, surnamed Than-
maturgus, who himself built several churches in Neocazsarea,
and the adjacent parts of Pontus, as Gregory Nyssen reports
in his life. St. Cyprian, about the same time, speaks of the
place where the church assembled, under the name of Domini-
cum, the Lord's house ; and, in another, opposes the church
and the capitol—the altar of the Lord’s house, and the altars
of images and idol-gods, to one another ; for, speaking against
some that had lapsed, and, without due contrition, were for
intruding themselves into the church again—‘ If this were
once permitted,’ says he, ‘what then remains but that the
church should give way to the capitol, and the priests with-
draw and take away the altar of the Lord with them, and let
the images and idol-gods, with their altars, succeed, and take
possession of the sanctuary, where the venerable bench of
our clergy sit?’ About this time, also, Dionysius, bishop
of Alexandria, speaks of the churches as appropriate to the
service of God.

“ It appears further, from the rescript of Gallienus the
emperor, recorded by Eusebius, where he restores the Chris-
tians their churches, under the name rovrot Bpnaqftalnm, wor-
shipping places; and from what has been noted before, out
of the letter of Aurelian, which chides the senate for demur-
ring about opening Sibylline books, as if they had been
consulting, not in the capitol, but in a Christian church. As
also that other rescript of his, in Eusebius, that the request
of the council of Antioch ordered Paulus Samosatensis to
be turned out of the house of the church. But the testi-
mony of Eusebius goes further beyond all others ; for.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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speaking of the peaceable times which the Christians enjoyed
from the persecutions of Valerian to that of Diocletian, he
observes, ‘ that the number of Christians so grew and mul-
tiplied in that fifty years, that their ancient churches were
not large enough to receive them, and therefore they erected,
from the foundations, more ample and spacious ones in every
cit .’

Z The only objection against all this, made with any show of
probability, is drawn from some of the ancient apologists—
Origen, Minutius Felix, Arnobius, and Lactantius, who
seem to say, ‘ that the Christians, in their time, had no
temples or altars, nor ought to have any ;’ but, as Dr. Mede
shows at large, this is only spoken against such temples, as
the heathens pleaded for, in the notion of encloistering the
Deity by an idol, otherwise the very authors from whom the
objection is drawn, must largely contradict themselves ; for
Arnobius owns they had their conventicula, houses of assem-
bly, which he complains were barbarously destroyed in the
last persecutions. And Lactantius says the same, giving
them also the name of the temples of God, which Diocletian
ordered to be demolished, at Bithynia. And Origen himself
speaks of adorning the Christian churches and altars, in one
of his Homilies upon Joshua. Lactantius, in another of his
Institutions, speaks of one of the Christian conventicula in
a town of Phrygia, which the heathen had burnt, with the
whole assembly in it. And in his book de filortibus Perse-
cutorum, he gives a more particular account of the destruc-
tion of churches throughout the heathen world; for he not
only mentions the demolishing the stately churches of Nico»-
media, in the kingdom of Bithynia, but intimates, that the
same fate attended the churches over all the world ; however
it was, both Eusebius and Lactantius agreed in this one point,
that there were churches before the last persecution.

“ As a further proof of the existence of Christian churches
in the middle of this century, we have a remarkable story told
by Eusebius concerning the martyr Marinus, A.D. 259, in the
time of Gallienus Marinus, who, being a candidate for aRoman
office at Caesarea, was informed against as a Christian, by an
antagonist, who pleaded that he ought not to have the office,
upon that score. The judge, upon examination, finding it to be
so, gives him three hours to consider whether he would quit his
religion or his life. During this space, Theotecnus, bishop of
Caesarea, meets with him, and, taking him by the hand, carries
him to the church, and sets him by the holy table, then offers
him a Bible and a sword, and bids him take his choice. He
readily, without demur, lays his hand upon the Bible, where-
upon the bishop thus bespake him: ‘And here,’ says he,
‘adhere to God, and in his strength enjoy what thou hast
chosen, and go in peace :’ with this he immediately returned
from the church to the judge, makes his confession, receives
his sentence, and dies a martyr.

“ Optatus takes notice of forty churches in Rome before the
last persecution, which, being taken from the Christians, were
afterwards restored to them by order of Maxentius, as St.
Austin has more than once informed us. \Ve have also read
of some Christian churches in Africa, that were demolished
in this persecution; as at Zama and Furni, noticed in the
Gesta Purgationis of Cecilian and Felix. Others were taken
away; and, in the mean time, till they were restored again,
both councils and church-assemblies were held in private
houses, as Optatus observes of the council of Cita. And
St. Austin after him says, ‘ It was not to be wondered at,
that a few bishops should hold a council in a private house,
in the heat of persecution, when the martyrs made no scru-
ple, in the like case, to be baptized in prison, and Christians
meet in prison to celebrate the sacrament with the martyrs,
as well as in secluded places.’ But not to multiply instances

 

of this nature, the very tenor of the imperial edicts, which
raised the last persecution, is undeniable evidence, that the
Christians, in all parts of the world, had their public churches,
to which they resorted so long as they had opportunities to
frequent them; for Eusebius says, ‘the edicts of the em-
perors of Rome were sent. to all the Roman provinces, even
to Britain, commanding the churches of the Christians to be
levelled with the ground, and the Bibles to be given up and
burnt.’ This was the last persecution, when Diocletian
boasted that he had annihilated Christianity, and proclaimed
the extirpation by exulting inscriptions -— Nomine Chris-
tianorum deleto quz' templa evertebant ; and, Superstitione
Christi ubique deleta. But the flame was not extinguished ;
it was again to break forth, for the mouth of the Lord had
spoken it. Diocletian had now become hateful; soon after
which he abdicated the throne, and Constantine the Great
assumed the imperial sway of the Roman empire.”

To these remarks we would add some further ones of
Mede, and likewise give, at length, some passages referring
to this subject, drawn from the writings of the early fathers
who were living during the period we are speaking of.

Basil, speaking of the passage before alluded to, of Have
ye not houses to eat and to drink in ? &c., says, that we ought
not to dishonour sacred places or things by the mixture of
things of common use ; and in answer to the question as to
whether the Eucharist may be celebrated in a common house.
says, that as the word doth not allow that any common vessel
or utensil shall be brought into places that are sacred, so like-
wise doth it forbid that the holy mysteries should be cele-
brated in a common house ; for neither would the Old Testa-
ment permit any such thing to be done, nor our Lord, who
said, “ There is here one greater than the temple ;” nor the
apostle, saying, “ Have ye not houses to eat and to drink
in,” 8:0. Whence we may learn, that we ought not to take
our common supper in the church, nor should we dishonour
the Lord’s supper by eating it in a private house. But if
one be necessitated to communicate in private, let him choose
out the most clean and decent room for such a purpose, and
withal see that he do it in the fittest and most seasonable
time. St. Chrysostom says, on the same subject, “Behold
a further change, that not the poor only, but also the church
itself, is injured. For, as hereby thou makest the Lord’s
supper a private supper, so thou dealest no better with the
place, in that thou usest the church as a private and ordinary
house.” So again, Theodoret, “ If ye come together to feast
it, do this in your own houses, for to do thus in the church
is a manifest contempt, a plain dishonour done to the church.
For how can it but seem a thing wholly indecorous and
absurd for you to fare deliciously in the temple of God,
where the Lord himself is present, who hath prepared for us
a common table, when at the same time those Christians that
are poor, are hungry, and out of countenance by reason of
their poverty?” The author of the commentaries upon the
epistles, alluding to the same text, says, “Ye despise the
church of God, making it a place for common feasts and
banquetings," and in the same track follow T heophylact and
(Ecumenius.

With regard to the nature of the earliest churches, and
more especially to the Hyperoon, Mede says, “ For the first it
is not to be imagined they were such goodly and stately struc-
tures as the church had after the empire became Christian,
and we now, by God's blessing, enjoy; but such as the state
and condition of the times would permit; at the first some
capable and convenient room within the walls or dwelling of
some pious disciple, dedicated by the religious bounty of the
owner to the use of the church, and that usually an Audi-yew,
or Yn'epwov, an upper room, such as the Latins call Cwnaculum.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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being, according to their manner of building, as the most
large and capacious of any other, so likewise the most retired
and freest from disturbance, and next to heaven, as having
no other room above it. For such uppermost places we find
they were wont then to make choice of, even for private
devotions, as may be gathered from what we read of St.
Peter, (Acts X. 9,) that he went up to the housetop to pray;
for so Btbpa Signifies ea: usu Hellenistarum, and is accordingly
here rendered by the vulgar Latin, in superiora.

“ Such an Hyperoon as we speak of, was that remembered
by the name of Camaoulum Sion, where, after our Saviour
was ascended, the apostles and disciples assembled together
daily in prayer and supplication, and where, being thus
assembled, the Holy Ghost came down upon them in cloven
tongues of fire at the feast of Pentecost. Concerning which
there hath been a tradition in the church, that this was the
same room wherein our blessed Saviour, the night before his
passion, celebrated the Passover with his disciples, and insti-
tuted the mystical Supper of his Body and Blood for the
sacred rite of the gospel: the same place where, on the day
of his resurrection, he came and stood in the midst of his
disciples. the doors being shut, and, having showed them
his hands and his feet, said ‘Peace be unto you,’ &c: the
place where, eight days, or the Sunday after, he appeared in
the same manner again unto them, being together, to satisfy
the incredulity of Thomas, who the first time was not with
the rest: the place where James the brother of our Lord
was created by the apostles, bishop of Jerusalem : the place
where the seven deacons were elected and ordained; the
place where the apostles and elders of the church at Jerusalem
held that council, and pattern of all councils, for decision of
that question—whether the Gentiles which believed were to
be circumcised or not: and for certain, the place of this
Cwnaculum was afterwards enclosed with a goodly church,
known by the name of the church of Sion, upon the top of
which it stood; insomuch that St. Jerome, in his Epitaphio
Paula, made bold to apply that of the Psalm to it, ‘ Her founda-
tions are upon the holy hills; the Lord loveth the gates of Sion
more than all the dwellings of Jacob.’ How soon this erec-
tion was made, I know not; but I believe it was much more
ancient than those other churches erected in other places of
that. city by Constantine and his mother, because neither
Eusebius, Socrates, Theodoret, nor Sozomen, make any
mention of the foundation thereof, as they do of the rest.
It is called by S. Cyril, who was bishop of the place, the
upper church of the apostles ; and says he, ‘ The Holy Ghost
descended upon the apostles in the likeness of fiery tongues,
here in Jerusalem, in the upper church ofthe apostles.’

“If this tradition be true, it should seem by it that this
C'amaculum, from the time our blessed Saviour first hallowed
it by the celebration of his mystical Supper, was thenceforth
devoted to be a place of prayer and holy assemblies. This
is the more easy to be believed, if the house were the posses-
sion of some. disciple at least, if not of kindred also to our
Saviour according to the flesh, which both reason persuades,
and tradition likewise confirmeth it to have been.

“And if this were so, why may not I think that this
Caznaculum Sion, or upper room of Sion, was that olxoc
whereof we read, concerning the first Christian society at
Jerusalem, that ‘they continued daily in the Temple, and,
breaking bread (Kar ohcov) in the house, ate their meat with
gladncss and singleness of heart ?’ the meaning being, that
when they had performed their devotions daily in the temple
at the accustomed times of prayer there, they used to resort
immediately to the Cwnaculum, and there having celebrated
the mystical banquet of the Holy Eucharist, afterwards took
their ordinary and necessary repast with gladness and single-

 

ness of heart. For so Kar oiKOV may be rendered; for
Ev ohm, and not domatz'm or per domos, house by house, as
we translate it, and so both the Syriac and Arabic render
it, and the New Testament elsewhere uses it.”

It would seem from this last passage, that Mede sees no
difficulty in reconciling the attendance of the apostles on the
public service of the Jewish Temple, with the supposition
that they likewise celebrated a common worship in their own
chapels or consecrated places; and if we look into the matter,
this double service will not appear extraordinary, for as yet

they adhered to their Master’s practice of worshipping at the

Temple, while at the same time there were many peculiar
and distinctive services in their new religion, which they
could not perform in the Temple. For instance, the celebra-
tion of the Holy Eucharist was an essential no less than a
peculiar rite, which they would not have been allowed, even
supposing them willing, to have celebrated in the Temple;
they were necessitated therefore to fulfil this command in
their own places of worship. This seems to have formed a
continuation and completion of the Temple service.

“ Such as these, I suppose,” continues Mede, “were the
places at first set apart for holy meetings, much like to our
private chapels now in great men’s houses, though not for so
general an use.

“ In process of time, as the multitude of believers increased,
some wealthy and devout Christian gave his whole house or
mansion, either while he lived, if he could spare it, or
bequeathed it at his death, unto the saints, to be set apart
and accommodated for sacred assemblies and religious uses.

“At length, as the multitude of believers still more in-
creased, and the Church grew more able, they built them
structures of purpose, partly in the cemeteries of martyrs.
partly in other public places; even as the Jews—whose
religion was no more the empire's than theirs—had, neverthe-
less, their synagogues in all cities and places where they
lived among the Gentiles.”

The following quotations from writers of the period will
give some insight into the general use and nature of distinct
places of worship in their days. In the second century,
Ignatius speaking to the Magnesians, says, in the passage
alluded to above. “ All of you meet together for prayer in
one place, let there be one common prayer, one mind, one
hope in love, in the immaculate faith in Jesus Christ, than
which nothing is better. All of you as one man run together
to the temple of God, as to one altar, to one Jesus Christ, the
High Priest of the unbegotten God.”

In the third centuryHippolytus, describing the state of the
world at the coming of anticbrist, says, “ the temples of God
shall be as common and ordinary houses ; churches shall be
utterly demolished everywhere ; the Scriptures shall be
despised :” thus showing the esteem in which churches were
then held.

Gregory of Neocaesarea, surnamed Tbaumatnrgus, who
lived in the middle of the third century, describing the five
degrees or admission of penitents according to the discipline
of his time, says, lst. [Veeping (the first degree of penance)
was without the porch of the oratory, where the mournful
sinners stood, and begged of all the faithful as they went in
to pray for them. 2d. Hearing (the second degree) was
within the Porch, in the place called I’Varther, the place
where these penitent sinners (being now under the jerula or
censure of the church) might stand near to the cateehumens,
and hear the Scripture read and expounded, but were to go
out before them. 3rd. Prostration or lying along on the
Church-pavement. TheSe prostrate ones were admitted some-
what fnrther into the church, and went out with the cute-
chumens. 4th. Standing or staying with the People or

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Congregation. These Consistentes did not go out with the
Catechumens, but after they and the other penitents had left,
remained, and joined in prayer with the faithful. 5th. Par-
ticipation of the Sacraments.” This is a somewhat remarkable
passage, to which we shall have occasion again to refer.

In the rescript of Galienus the churches of the Christians
are mentioned as Tower Opnaxsvaqwt or Places of Worship.
Gregory Nyssen, speaking of the success of Gregory of
Neocassarea, relates, “ How that, becoming all things to all
men, he had in a short time gained a great number of converts
through the assistance of the Divine Spirit, and that hereupon
he had a strong desire to set upon the building of atemple or
place for sacred assemblies ; wherein he was the more
encouraged by the general forwardness he observed among
the converts to contribute both their moneys and their best
assistance to so good a work. . This is that temple which is
to be seen even at this day.” Eusebius, speaking of the long
peace which the Church enjoyed before the persecution of
Diocletian, says, “ How shall any one be able to express those
infinite multitudes of Christians assembling in every city,
those famous meetings of theirs in their oratories or
churches? and therefore they, not being content with those
smaller churches which before they had, (those their ancient
edifices not being large enough to receive so great a number,)
took care to erect from the very foundations fairer and more
spacious ones in every city.”

Soon after this dreadful persecution Constantine succeeded
to the government, and having been fully convinced of the
truth of the Christian faith, with hearty and unremitting zeal
set about its establishment, nor to any thing did he give more
constant attention than to the erection and adornment of
churches. Before, however, entering upon a description and
examination of these edifices, it may be as well to say a few
words respecting a subject which has not been agreed upon
amongst the learned ; it is this, whether the early Christians
made use of heathen temples for the performance of their pub-
lic services. Bingham enters into the subject at some length,
from whom we quote the following :—

“ At first, when the reformation from heathenism was in its
infancy, no idol-temples were made use of as churches, but were
either permitted to the heathen for some time, or else shut up
or demolished. Till the twenty-fifth year of Constantine,
A.D. 333, the temples were in a great measure tolerated, but in
that year he published his laws commanding temples, altars,
and images to be destroyed, which laws are sometimes re-
ferred to in the Theodosian code. And pursuant to these laws,
a great many temples were defaced in all parts of the world,
and their revenues confiscated, as appears not only from the
Christian writers, St. Jerome and Eusebius, and others, but
also from the complaints of the heathen writers, Eunapius,
Libanius, and Julian. In some of the following reigns also
the same method was taken to shut up or to deface the tem-
ples, as is evident from the account which Ruffin gives of the
general destruction of them in Egypt by the order of Valen-
tinian. But in the next reign, in the time of Theodosius,
another method was taken with some of them. For as
Gothofred observes, out of the Chronicon Alexandrinum :—
‘ Theodosius turned the famous temple of Heliopolis, called
Balanium, into a Christian church, (anomaeav‘ro emchnatav
xpwnavwv.) And about the same time Socrates tells us,
‘ That when Valens had banished the two Macarii, the heads
of the Egyptian monks, into a pagan island, they converted
all the inhabitants, and turned their temple into the form of
a church.’ The like was done by the famous temple of the
Dea Celestis at Carthage, by Aurelius, the bishop, in the time
of Honorius, A.D. 399, which the author of the book, de
predictionibus, under the name of Prosper, tells, with this

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remarkable circumstance, ‘ that it had been dedicated
before by one Aurelius, a heathen high-priest, with this
inscription, Aurelius pontg'few dedicam't, which our author
says was left in the frontispiece, to be read by all the people,
because, by God's providence, it was fulfilled again in Aure-
lius the bishop, for whom it served as well as the former
Aurelius, when he had once dedicated it to the use and ser-
vice of the Christian religion, and set his chair in the place
of the goddess.’ Not long after this, Honorius published
two laws in the Western empire, forbidding the destruction
of any more temples in cities, because theymight serve for
ornament, or public use, being once purged of all unlawful
furniture—idols and altars, which he ordered to be destroyed
wherever they were found.

“ These laws, as Gothofred rightly observes, seem to have
been published at the instance of the African fathers, who, as
appears from one of the canons of the African code, peti-
tioned the emperor, that such temples as were in the country
only, and private places not serving for any ornament, might
be destroyed. Arcadius published such another law for the
Eastern empire, which relates only to the destruction of tem-
ples in country-places, and not in cities, where now there was
no such danger of superstition, since they might be converted
to a better use. And upon this ground the author, under the
name of Prosper, commends Honorius for his piety and devo-
tion, because he gave all the temples, with their adjacent
places, to the church, only requiring the idols to be destroyed.
’Tis true, indeed, after this we find a law of Theodosius
Junior commanding all temples to be destroyed; but, as
Gothofred seems rightly to interpret it, “ the word destroy-
ing, in that law, is to be understood only of despoiling them
of their superstition, because it follows in the same law,
that they were to be expiated by placing the sign of the
cross upon them, which was a token of their being turned
into churches. And his observation may be confirmed fur-
ther from what Evagrius reports of Theodosius—that he
turned the Tyc'naeum, or temple of Fortune at Antioch,
into a church called by the name of Ignatius. The like was
done by a great temple at Tanis in Egypt, as Valesius has
observed out of the Itinerary of Antonius the martyr.

“ Cluver also, in his description of Italy, takes notice of
a place in the Jerusalem Itinerary, called Sacraria, betwixt
Fulginum and Spoletum, near the head of the river Clitumnus,
which he thinks was no other than the temple of Jupiter
Clitumnus, though another learned antiquary makes it some-
what doubtful as to the present church now standing there.
However, we have seen instances enough of this practice,
and Bede tells us, that ‘Gregory the Great gave Austin
the monk instructions of the same nature about the temples
here among the Saxons in Britain,-—-—that if they were well
built they should not be destroyed, but only be converted
from the worship of devils to the service of the true God.’
And so he observes it was done at Rome, where, not long
after, Boniface the Fourth turned the heathen temple, called
the Pantheon, into the church of All Saints, in the time of
the emperor Phocas. Sometimes the temples were pulled
down, and the materials were given to the church, out of
which new edifices were erected for the service of religion,
as Sozomen and Ruflin particularly observe of the temples of
Bacchus and Serapis at Alexandria. I have already shown
out of Antonius, that the Roman halls or basilicas were like-
wise turned into churches. The like is reported of some
Jewish synagogues by the author of the Chronicon Alexan-
drinum, who takes notice particularly of a synagogue of the
Samaritans, in a place called Gargarida, which Zeno the
emperor converted into a large Christian church.

“ And though it is not agreed by learned men whether the

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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temples said to be built by Hadrian were intended for the
worship of himself, or the worship of Christ; for Casaubon
and Pagi think he designed them for himself, whilst Huetius
defends Lampridius, his relation, who says, “He designed
them for the honour of Christ ;” yet it is certain, that after
they had been used to other purposes, they were at last, some
of them, turned into Christian churches: for Epiphanius
says, ‘There was a great temple at Tiberias, called the
Hadrianum, which the Jews made use of for a bath; but
Josephus Comes, the converted Jew, in the time of Constan-
tine, turned it into a church.’ And the like was done by
another of them by Athanasius at Alexandria, having before
been the hall or place of Licinius, as the same Epiphanius
informs us. So that now, partly by the munificence of the
emperors, and partly by their orders for converting heathen
temples into churches, and partly by the great zeal and libe-
rality of private Christians in times of peace, churches
became another thing from what they were in former ages, that
is. more noble and stately edifices, more rich and beautiful.”

Thus far Bingham, who seems to conclude from the above
quotations of the early writers, that to convert heathen tem-
ples into Christian churches was not an uncommon prac-
tice : a writer, however, in the Quarterly Review, in a cri-
tique on the publications of Knight and Bunsen, on Eccle-
siastical Antiquities, arrives at a very different conclusion;
and as he has evidently given more than ordinary attention
to the subject, it may not be amiss to refer to his remarks, in
this place :—

“ The antipathy,” says he, “ borne by the early Christians
to the fine arts, debased by the pollutions of heathen idolatry,
can neither be denied nor concealed; and the same causes
which prevented the cultivation of the arts, ensured the
degradation and subversion oftheir proudest and most splendid
monuments. Excluding for the present the consideration of
other agencies, the first paragraph in the rise of Christian
architecture, must narrate the fall of the structures devoted
to the superstition, which it was the end of the gospel to
obliterate and destroy.

“The heathen temples were doomed to inevitable ruin.
Laws had been promulgated by Theodosius for their preser-
vation; conducive to the decoration of the city, they might
be perhaps rendered useful for the purposes of civil society.
Some may have been thus respited, though not rescued, until
the decayed remains crumbled to the ground; they were
never respected or honoured by public opinion, and could
rarely be adapted to the objects pointed out by the imperial
law, without such alterations as in most cases amounted to
destruction. Others were accidentally preserved in desolate
or secluded situations, in the forest or the marsh, or the
mountain-glen, or on the shore, whence the inhabitants have
been extirpated, or chased away. Such are the columns of
Passtum: the heavens are yet as bright as when the garlands
hung down from the ruined architrave ; the sea as azure as
when the waves were ploughed by the painted prows; the
crushed herbs beneath your feet, still send up their rich
perfume. To the senses, the works of art are still as noble,
the works of nature as sweet and gay; but the whole scene
mourns under the curse inflicted upon scofling, lascivious,
corrupted Hellas. Language, people, race—their very name
has disappeared. The wasting pestilence still hovers, and
V will ever hover, marking the vengeance which has fallen on
the deserted shore.

“ Few temples were ever adapted for the purposes of
Christian worship; fewest of all in the capital of the Chris-
tian world. ‘ Of the Christian hierarchy,’ says Gibbon, ‘the
bishops of Rome were commonly the 1110st prudent and the
least fanatic; nor can any positive charge be opposed to

 

the meritorious act of saving and converting the majestic
structure of the Pantheon.’ In casting the account of the
merits and demerits of the Christian hierarchy, such a pon-
tiff as Gregory the Great would have been ill inclined to
accept the encomium. In the gergo of Gibbon, ‘ fanaticism’
is piety, and ‘ prudence’ unbelief. The ‘meritorious act,’
thankful as we may be for the 'result, was a single item, by
no means influencing the general balance of praise or dis-
praise ; it was the solitary performance of Boniface IV. ; it
was an act from which no consequences resulted. With the
exception of the Pantheon, we fail to detect any real example
in Rome, of a temple which can be said to owe its preserva-
tion, in the proper sense of the term, to the Christian clergy.
They had no thought of the kind—they took no pleasure in
such antiquities. They sought no credit for such care.
Antiquaries, with eager zeal, have collected about ten examples
in which this preservation is asserted. Even in the cases
which are least dubious, no further merit can be claimed for
the hierarchy than the accidental preservation of a portico,
a cella, or a wall, an encumbrance which it was troublesome
to remove—a fragment which saved some expense, built up,
concealed, marred, or deformed by the new erection to which
it was unwillingly conjoined.

“ It could not be otherwise. In the early Christians, any
participation in our modern worship of heathen art, would
have been false and unnatural. All the opinions, all the
habits, all the feelings, all the conscience, of the early Chris-
tians strove against the preservation of the memorials of
heathenism. Neither beauty nor convenience, if they had
possessed the latter requisite, would, save in some few special
cases, like that of the Pantheon, plead for the preservation
of the relics of classical antiquity. They considered the
idols as accursed. No object which had in anywise been
connected with the worship of idols, or could be supposed to
have been employed in their service, was to be used without
exorcism. Thus, in the ritual of the church of Durham,
there is a form of prayer for hallowing the vase found in the
Roman encampment, which could not be employed for any
Christian use until subjected to such purification. Nor was
this belief confined to the rude Northumbrian peasant, or to
a barbarous age. Let us place ourselves before the portal
of St. Peter’s, fresh from the workmen’s hands. Four
months have been employed in removing the huge obelisk of
Sesostris from the ruins of Nero’s Circus to the front of the
great Basilica. Eight hundred workmen, toiling at creaking
winch and groaning capstan, heave up the mass ; whilst the
breathless crowd watch the slow rising of the gigantic beam.
It stops ; when the one cry, ‘ aqua allefuni,’ which subjects
the individual who suggests the happy expedient, to the pain
of death, enables the maestro to complete his task; amidst
the thunder of the cannon, the ‘guglia' stands firm and erect
upon its basement. But is the work complete? No: the
trophy of the victory of Christianity over heathenism cannot
yet be received as such, until all connection with its former
slavery to the fiend has been destroyed. In solemn proces-
sion, the supreme pontiff exorcises the magnificent work, so
long dedicated to the foul superstition of Misraim, and devotes
it to the honour of the Cross, performing the rites which
were deemed to expel the evil spirit. Those who may not
share in the belief which dictated these ceremonies, must,
nevertheless, respect the sentiments contained in the simple
majestic language, commemorating the consecration of the
spoils of heathenism to the service of the Cross. ‘Ecce
Crux Domini—Christus vincit—Christus regnat—Christus
imperat—Christus ab omni malo plebem suam defendat—
Vicit Leo de tribu Juda.’

“Thus did Pope Sixtus record his triutnph. Yet there

 

 

 

 

 

 

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f

was a greater triumph felt by the zeal which taught the early
Christians to glory in casting down the altars and the high
places devoted to sin ; deeming—we will not presume to
judge whether rightly or wrongly—that such a testimony
to the truth was imperatively enjoined upon them. By their
deeds they contemned the temporizing policy of the emperors.
They sought the actual and visible victory of literally erect-
ing the temple of the Lord upon the ruins of the habitation
of the demon. The statues were broken, to be buried in the
foundations; hence few sculptures have ever been found at
Rome, which did not, like the Venus of the Medici, show
by their defacement and fractures, the aversion of which
they had been the objects. Amongst the great congregation
of the faithful, the distaste, the horrors excited by paganism
—its structures, monuments, glories, charms—were uncon-
querable and paramount. Idols might have been removed,
and the building consecrated by the rites, which, according
to the primitive belief, would drive away the demon ; yet no
lustration could entirely heal the leprosy of the walls. The
language of the Virgin Martyr was echoed in every
heart :—
‘ Your gods, your temples, brothel-houses rather ;

Or wicked actions of the worst of men,

Pursued and practised. Your religious rites!

Oh ! call them rather juggling mysteries,

The baits and nets of hell .......

Your Venus whom you worship, was a harlot——

Flora, the foundress of the public stews,

And has for that her sacrifice.

Your Jupiter, a loose adulterer,

Incestuous with his sister. Read but those

That have canonized them. You will find them worse

Than in chaste language I can speak them to you.’

“Whatever had been touched by paganism, seemed, and

' can we say unjustly? to be reeking with impurity.”

On this subject we incline towards the opinions of the
reviewer, notwithstanding the evidence adduced by Bingham;
at the same time we do not mean to deny the occasional
application of pagan temples to Christian uses under peculiar
circumstances, as in the case of Austin and the Saxons at
a later date, yet we do think the instances of such application
were comparatively few, and formed the exception rather
than the rule. For not only were the feelings of the early
Christians enlisted against everything connected with the
worship of the heathen deities,—or devils, as St. Paul calls
them,—but the form also of pagan temples was totally un-
suitable for churches. Temples were little more than cells
for the reception of the idol and priests, the people stood
outside. The services of the Christian church required a
very different arrangement ; here you required accommodation
for worshippers within the walls, as the very name “KN/ma,
assembly, implies; there is here a communion or organized
congregation. Christians came together not merely to behold
as it were a spectacle, but to pray together, and to hear the
Gospel read to them. “The Christian temple,” says Pro-
fessor Willis, “was a heathen temple turned inside out ;”
in the heathen temples the colonnade was outside, in the
Christian church it was necessary to transpose it to the inside,
to obtain greater internal space, as we see was the case in
their later structures. Taking all this into consideration,

, we think there is some reason to decide that the examples of

'1

g.--»

the adaptation of temples to the purpose of Christian worship,
formed but exceptions. The very term temple was never
used by the earlier writers, when speaking of the church;
the terms were distinctive of the religion to which they
belonged, the former when used, implying always heathen
temples. The term employed in contra-distinction to this
is cerma, which, from being the name of the assembly, soon

came to be applied to the place in which they met; this
word is very common. Another appellation is Icvptalmv,
Dominicum, or Domus Dei, which is met with in Eusebius
and two or three councils; Domus Columbus used by
Tertullian, is a similar term. Other terms found in Eusebius.
Socrates, Sozomen, and others, are wpoaevxrnpta and oixm
evrnptot ; but one very frequent in the writers of the fourth
and fifth centuries, though scarcely seen before, is Basilicaa.
The word temple was seldom or never used in this sense
during the first three centuries.

The earliest descriptions of early churches, now extant, are
to be found in the writings of Eusebius, who gives somewhat
lengthened accounts of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem,
and of the church of Paulinus at Tyre, which we proceed to
notice. The descriptions are not very lucid; they show us
how richly churches were adorned, and throw some little
light upon their structure and arrangement, although the
account is in many places confused; still it gives us some
idea of the buildings, and, by comparison of this with other
accounts, and with the remains of what are supposed to be
earlier churches, we are enabled to decide pretty nearly their
original form and distribution. He commences with a des-
cription of the Holy Sepulchre.

The Empress Helena, after a long search, succeeds in
discovering the place of the Holy Sepulchre; which had
been covered over by the pagans, and polluted by their rites,
the place having been dedicated by them to Venus, a statue
of which goddess was erected over the Sepulchre. Constan-
tine having destroyed all the remains of heathenism, and
having had the place purified from such abominations,
proceeds to consider the erection of a suitable church upon
the spot, and sends directions to Macarius, bishop of Jerusa-
lem, upon the subject, a portion of which, as given by Eusebius,
we transfer to these pages.

“ Moreover, I would persuade you to that which is clear and
evident, namely, that we ought to take especial care that this
place, which we have purified and cleansed from superstitious
idols, and which God and good men, from primitive times,
accounted sacred and holy, and which was afterwards so
esteemed for the attestation and confirmation it gave to our
belief in Christ’s passion, should be honoured by erecting a
church thereat. It is meet therefore that your wisdom should
so dispose of this work, and prudently provide all things neces-
sary thereto, that the beauty of the temple may excel all other
churches, and the several parts of it may exceed the chief
churches in other cities. Know therefore that we commit
the care of erecting, building, and curiously adorning the
walls thereof, to our friend Dracilianus and the president of
your province. For out of our gracious bounty we have
commanded them that they should have recourse to your
wisdom to know what artificers and workmen shall be
necessary to the building thereof, and accordingly shall
straightway provide them, and send them thither. And
when you have cast and contrived what marble pillars, or
other marble works, will be necessary, either to adorn it, or
make it more durable, look that you certify us by your
letters, that when we understand what shall be necessary,
we may provide accordingly. For this, which is the most
special place of all the world, ought to be adorned with all
kinds of work of cost and curiosity.

“I would have you certify me whether the roof of the
sanctuary should he arched, or built in some other form ; but
if it be built archwise, it may be conveniently gilded. It
remains therefore that your holiness should speedily signify
unto those whom we have appointed to be overseers of the
work, both what artificers and labourers will be necessary,

 

, and what charge it will require; and also to certify us not

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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only concerning the pillars and other marble work, but also
concerning the wood-work of the roof, if you think fit that
it should be built in that form.”

Then follows a glowing description of the building when
completed, from which we extract the following :—

“ First of all, then, he adorned the sacred cave itself, as
the chief part of the whole work, and the hallowed monu-
ment of which the angel radiant with light had once declared
to all that regeneration which was first manifested in the
Saviour's person. This monument, therefore, first of all, as
the chief part of the whole, the emperor’s zealous magnifi-
cence beautified with rare columns, and properly enriched
with the most splendid decorations of every kind. The next
object of his attention was a space of ground of great extent,
and open to the pure air of heaven. This he adorned with
a pavement of finely-polished stone, and enclosed it on three
sides with porticos of great length. For at the side opposite
the sepulchre, which was the eastern side, the church itself
was erected, a noble work rising to a vast height, and of
great extent both in length and breadth. The interior of this
structure was floored with marble slabs of various colours,
whilst the external surface of the walls, which shone with
polished stones exactly fitted together, exhibited a degree of
splendour in no respect inferior to that of marble. With
regard to the roof, it was covered on the outside with lead,
as a protection against the rains of winter. But the inner
part of the roof, which was finished with sculptured fretwork,
extended in a series of connected compartments, like a vast
sea, over the whole church; and being overlaid throughout
with the purest gold, caused the entire building to glitter as
it were with rays of light.

“ Besides this, were two porticos on each side, with upper
and lower ranges of pillars corresponding in length with the
church itself, and these also had their roofs ornamented with
gold. Of these porticos, those which were exterior to the
church were supported by columns of immense size, while
those within these rested on piers of stone beautifully adorned
on the surface. Three gates placed exactly east were intended
to receive those who entered the church.

“ Opposite these gates, the crowning part of all was the
hemisphere, which rose to the very summit of the church.
This was encircled by twelve columns, (according to the
number of the apostles of our Saviour,) having their capi-
tals embellished with silver bowls of great size, which
the emperor himself presented as a splendid offering to
his God.

“ In the next place he enclosed the atrium, which occupied
the space leading to the entrances in front of the church.
This comprehended first the court, then the porticos on each
side, and lastly the gates of the court. After these, in the
midst of the open market-place, the entrance-gates of the
whole work, which were of exquisite workmanship, afforded
to passers-by, on the outside, a view of the interior, which
could not fail to inSpire astonishment. .

“ This temple, then, the emperor erected as a conspicuous
monument of the Saviour’s resurrection, and embellished
it throughout on an imperial scale of magnificence. He
further enriched it with numberless offerings of inexpres-
sible beauty, consisting of gold, silver, and precious stones
in various forms ; the skilful and elaborate arrangement
of which, in regard to their magnitude, number, and
variety, we have not leisure at present to describe par-
ticularly.” ‘

The following is our author’s description of the church of
Paulinus at Tyre, in his letter to that bishop :—

“ Thus then, embracing a much wider space, he strength-
ened the outer enclosure with a wall to compass the edifice,

that it might be a most secure bulwark to the whole work.
Then raising a large and lofty vestibule, he extended it
towards the rays of the rising sun; and, on entering the
gates, he has not permitted you to enter immediately, with
impure and unwashed feet, within the sanctuary, but leaving
an extensive space between the temple and the vestibule, he
has decorated and enclosed it with four surrounding por-
ticos, presenting a quadrangular space, with pillars rising
on every side. Between these he carried round the frame-
latticed railing, rising to a proportionate and suitable height;
leaving, however, the middle space open, so that the heavens
can be seen, and present the splendid sky irradiated by the
beams of the sun. Here, too, he has placed the symbols of
the sacred purification, by providing fountains built opposite
the temple, which, by the abundant effusion of its waters,
affords the means of cleansing, to those that proceed to the
inner parts of the sanctuary. And this is the first place that
receives those that enter, and which, at the same time, pre-
sents to those that need the first introduction, both a splen-
did and convenient station.

“ After passing this, he has made open entrances to the
temple, with many other inner vestibules, by placing again
three gates on one side towards the rising sun. Of these be
constructed the middle one, far exceeding those on each side
in height and breadth, embellishing it, at the same time, with
exceedingly splendid brazen plates bound with iron, and deco-
rated with sculpture, superadding them, as guards and
attendants to a queen. In the same way, after disposing
the number of the vestibules, also with the porticos on each
side of the whole temple, he constructed above these different
openings to the building, for the purpose of admitting more
light, and these lights or windows he also decorated with
various kinds of ornamental sculpture.

“ But the royal temple itself he has furnished with more
splendid and rich materials, applying a generous liberality
in his expenses. And here it appears to me to be super
fluous to describe the dimensions, the length and breadth of
the edifice, the splendid elegance, the grandeur that surpasses
description, and the dazzling aspect of the works; for when
he had thus completed the temple, he adorned it with lofty
thrones in honour of those who preside, and also with seats
decently arranged in order throughout the whole, and at last
he placed the holy altar in the middle. And that this again
might be inaccessible to the multitude, he enclosed it with
frame-lattice work, accurately wrought with ingenious sculp-
ture, presenting a beautiful appearance to the beholders.
And not even the pavement was neglected by him, for this
too he splendidly adorned with marble, and then proceeded
to the rest, and to the parts outside the temple. He provided
spacious exhedrae and oéci on each side, united and attached
to the church, and communicating with the entrance to the
middle of the temple.”

0f the above structures, the former is still in existence;
not indeed the identical building, but, as there seems reason
to believe, a building similar in general form and arrange-
ment. The text of Eusebius is diflicult and obscure, and
conveys but an indefinite idea of the edifice. Strange to say,
we have a plan and description, which may be relied upon as
genuine, in our own isles.

At Iona flourished abbot Adamnan, so distinguished by
his participation in the great paschal controversy, A.I). 705 ;
and he supplies the architectural antiquary with the know-
ledge so much desired. We owe the information to a sm-
gular contingency. After a long pilgrimage and continued
residence in the Holy Land, at Gaulish bishop, named
Arculphus, driven to the Hebrides, became the guest of

 

A the Culdee monastery. Here he related his perils, describing

 

 

 

 

 

 

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the holy places he had visited ; and the “ Sebellus dc Locis
Sanctis” contains his narrative.

Rarely has any work been transmitted with more pecu-
liarity and authenticity. Adamnan wrote upon his tablets,
from the actual dictation of the stranger: the notes so taken
became the book we now possess. The Holy Sepulchre, as
might be anticipated, was the main object of Adamnan’s
curiosity; and in addition to the verbal description, Arcul-
phus drew a plan of the buildings upon the tablets with his
own hand. This plan Adamnan copied in his manuscript;
he speaks of his drawing with extreme humility, calling it a
vile figuration ; but, as will be seen by comparing it with the
plan of San Stefano Rotondo, it affords valuable information.
The church was wholly of stone, of “ wonderful rotundity,”
supported by twelve columns ; having, as it would seem, three
aisles ; it was entered by four doors ; and the sepulchre itself
was illuminated by twelve lamps, burning day and night in
honour of the twelve apostles. Since Adamnan speaks of
three walls, we must suppose that the interior circle marks
the columns, and the lines were probably staircases, leading
to an upper church or gallery. W'hen Aculphus saw the
Holy Sepulchre, it had been somewhat damaged by the
Persians, and it was subsequently ruined by the Arabs;
yet, as the existing church still retains the original shape,
we do not doubt but that it was rebuilt upon the original
foundations.

Other churches were built by Constantine, at Jerusalem,
Antioch, Nicomedia, Mambre, Heliopolis, Rome, and Con-
stantinople, but few remain to the present day, few, at least,
that have not been materially altered. Perhaps the most
perfect specimen remaining is the church of S. Constantia ;
the burial-place of the daughter of Constantine; it is circular
in plan, and divided by concentric rows of pillars, from which
spring arches to support the roof. The model from which it
was constructed was evidently identical with that of the Holy
Sepulchre, even were it not that structure itself. It is the
opinion of some, that the form of circular churches was
derived from that of heathen temples of the same kind, such
as those of Vesta, or Minerva Medica; this, however, does
not seem to be the case, for although they are both circular
in plan, they are of entirely different construction and
arrangement. The temple has its columns on the exte—
rior, supporting an entablature, while the church has its
detached columns arranged in concentric circles within, con-
nected by arches springing from the capitals, forming one or
more aisles; the arrangement, it will be acknowledged, is
totally dissimilar, and the mere outline cannot have much
weight in the consideration.

But some have gone still further, and claimed the very struc-
tures themselves for heathen temples: the building mentioned
above is supposed by such to be an ancient temple of Bac-
chus; but as Mr. Knight, in his beautiful work on this sub—
ject, says, “ This opinion is principally founded on the
mosaics with which the ceiling of the aisles is adorned, and
which represent vine-leaves and grapes. But the vine is a
Christian emblem, and is so frequently introduced in the
decoration of Christian places of worship, that little weight
can be attached to this circumstance. The architecture of
this building is in conformity with the style of the time
of Constantine, and not in conformity with that of a much
earlier date.” The fact is, the circular is the most natural
form for sepulchral chapels, where the chief object is a tomb,
placed in the centre. Other similar chapels are still in
existence, of which, probably, the most remarkable, is that
of S. Stephen. Baptisteries were likewise frequently of the
same form, as is that of S. John Lateran, but more fre-
quently octagonal, and sometimes octagonal within and

4 N

 

circular without. All such buildings seem to have been
simply baptisteries or sepulchral chapels; the form is totally
unfitted for the requirements of the Christian liturgy,
nor do they seem to have been employed for such pur-
pose, with the exception, perhaps, of the church of the
Holy Sepulchre, and this was not purely circular, but had
parts of different plan attached to it, something like to the
Temple Church, London. The form is very suitable for a
baptistery. See ROUND CHURCHES.

The more usual plan of Christian churches is that of a.
parallelogram, which form is said to have been derived from
the heathen courts of justice; but ere entering upon the
consideration of this matter, it will be well to give some
description of the parts and arrangement of the early Chris-
tian churches, as collected from the descriptions of Eusebius
above given, and from the writings of other authors who
allude to the subject.

From such authorities, it would seem that churches of this
period consisted not merely of a building for public service,
but also of exiledrce or out-buildings, employed for the secular
as well as religious concerns of the church; such as
schools, libraries, houses of residence for the clergy, &c.;
the who“. being surrounded and enclosed by an outer wall.
This arrangement is very similar to that of our existing
cathedrals. That all within this outer wall was considered
as belonging to the church, and consecrated ground, is evident
from the fact of its being acknowledged as a sanctuary in
after times. The position of the church within this enclosure,
was generally east and west, having the altar toward the
east ; but this custom was not always observed, as we meet
with many exceptions. That such a custom did prevail in
spite of such exceptions, we have the authority of several
writers. Socrates, noticing an example of the contrary
practice, says, that the church at Antioch stood in a different
position to other churches, for that the altar did not look
towards the cast, but to the west ; and a similar observation
is made by Paulinus Nolanus, respecting one of his own
churches, and he gives the reason for his departure from the
usual custom, namely, that the structure was made to look
towards another, in memory of the Saint in whose name the
latter was dedicated. The Apostolical Constitutions direct
that churches should be built toward the east, but Walafridas
Strabo says, “The ancients were not nicely curious which
way their churches stood, but yet the most usual custom was
for Christians to pray toward the east, and therefore the
greater proportion of churches were built with respect to
that custom.”

Allowing this custom to have prevailed then, we shall
have our first or outer entrance in the west wall of the
enclosure, and this is called by Eusebius the «govt-okay yeya
and 7rporr) 5100571. Through this vestibule, admittance was
obtained into a large quadrangle or open area, surrounded
by Cloisters, which is called by Eusebius, atflpiov and MM,
and by the Latins, atrium ; the cloisters being distinguished
in the former case by the name of OTOal, and consisting of
a covered way, the roof supported by pillars or an open arcade.
The object of this court seems to have been to receive the peni-
tents of the first order, or mourners, who were not permitted
to enter the main body of the church ; in after times it was
used for a place of burial, but then only for persons of
distinction; kings thinking it a great honour to be buried
within the gates. This place was sometimes named impluvium.
In the centre of the open area was a fountain or large basin
of water, in which it was customary for the Christians to
wash their hands and face, and perhaps their feet, ere they
entered the church, such practice being a. symbol of the i
purity of heart which should attend them there. Tertullian L ‘

i

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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speaks of the absurdity of going to prayer with washed
hands and a polluted soul. A simllar custom still prevails
in the Romish church, borrowed doubtless from primitive
practice, although diti'ering in the intention and object for
which it is observed. The fountain is called, indifl'erently,
(PmM, ¢pgap, nympkreum, cantharus, and leontarium, the
latter term supposed to have been applied from the spouts
being sometimes in the form of lions’ heads. Socrates,
Speaking of the skirmish between the Catholics and the
Macedonian heretics, says, “ Such a slaughter was made, that
the court (avkn) was filled with blood, insomuch that the
fountain (ppm-p) was overflowed therewith, and ran through
the adjoining Cloisters (a'Toat) even into the street.” Exam-
ples of the atrium in its primitive shape are yet preserved
in the churches of San Clemente, San Lorenzo, San Paolo,
San Georgio in Velabro, Sta Maria in Trastevere; remodelled
in San Giovanni Laterano, and Sta Maria Maggiore, and
rebuilt in modern shape in St. Peter’s. At San Ambrogio,
Milan, the atrium is fully as large as the nave.

Entrance was obtained from the atrium into the pronaos
or nartlzex, through three gates, of which the central one
was frequently the largest and most important. The narthex
formed the first division in the body of the church, and was
used as the station for the catechumens, and such of the
penitents as came under the title arouoptvoc, or hearers, so
called from the circumstance of their being allowed to listen
to the lessons and sermon, to which privilege also Jews,
heathens, heretics, and schismatics were admitted, in this
part of the church. I-Iere also, somewhat in advance, stood
the substrati or third class of penitents, so called from the
custom of prostrating themselves before the bishop, after
sermon was ended, to receive his benediction. There were
frequently more nartheces than one in a church, that of
Sta Sophia is said to have had no less than four.

We have now arrived at the vaog, or nave, the principal
division of the church, in which the body of the faithful,
those who were under no censure, and in full communion
with the church, were congregated. This part was separated
from the narthex by rails of wood, and was entered by gates
which are distinguished by writers as WUAat what or fiao‘tAtKat,
the beautiful or royal gates, so named perhaps from the
circumstance of kings laying aside their crowns at this place,
ere they proceeded further into the church. Leo Grammaticus
notices it as a flagrant want of reverence in the emperor
Michael, that “ when he came to the royal gates, he did not
lay aside his crown, as kings were used to do.”

It was a practice with the early Christians to separate the
sexes in public service, one portion of the church being allotted
to the males, and another to the females. The author of the
Apostolical Constitutions speaks of this separation as usual
in his time, for he says, “Let the doorkeepers stand at the
gate of the men, and the deaconesscs at the gate of
the women ;” and S. Cyril says, “Let men be with men, and
women with women, in the church.” Socrates also remarks
of Helena, that “she always submitted to the laws of the
church in this respect, praying with the women in the
women’s place.” In some cases, the women were placed on
the north side of the church, bu. probably this was not an
universal practice; in the Greek church the galleries were
reserved for the women. Besides this, there was a further
subdivision, distinct positions being allotted to virgins,
widows, and matrons. In the Apostolical Constitutions, the
virgins, widows, and aged women were placed in the highest
rank, and the matrons behind them. In this manner were
the connnunicants disposed in the nave, but besides them the
fourth or last order of penitents were admitted into this part.
of the church; they were called Consistentes, and were

 

 

 

 

 

allowed to remain during the celebration of the Eucharist,
although not to participate.

At the farther end of the nave, was the choir, which was
divided from it by alow wall or wooden partition ; here were
located the singers, and here also the gospel and epistles
were read from the ambo or pulpit. This was an elevated
desk, ascended by several steps, which S. Cyprian calls
pulpitum and tribunal ecclesiaa, and which was elsewhere
called {3mm yuwarwv. Bona cites Prudentius to prove that
the bishops and priests made their sermons from this pulpit,
but this seems to be a mistake, for the bishops anciently
addressed the congregation from the steps of the altar, as is
evident from Valesius. S. Chrysostom, it appears, did preach
from the ambo, but only in order that he might be the more
audible to the people; such was not the usual custom. A
very perfect example of the form and arrangement of the
choir still remains in the church of San Clemente.

We now arrive at the last division, which answered to the
holy of holies of the Jewish temple, being appropriated to
the priests and the celebration of the most sacred offices of
the church. Eusebius calls this place a‘ytaa'pa; and it is
elsewhere named aytor, or the sanctuary. Jhe Latins call
it sacrarium. The term S'vtnaa’u’nptov, which is more par-
ticularly applied to the altar, is sometimes used to denote
the whole sanctuary, as is evident from the decrees of the
council of Laodicea, which forbid lay persons entering the
Sumac-raptor. A more common appellation is that of finial,
which is so employed from the circumstance of this part of
the church being elevated above the nave by a series of
steps. A further separation was effected by means of rails,
or lattice-work, named cancelli; whence our term chancel.
In his description of the church of Paulinus, Eusebius states

the office of these cancelli to be the rendering the sanctuary -

inaccessible to the multitude; and the council of Trullo
directs, “that no layman whatsoever be permitted to enter
the place of the altar, excepting only the emperor, when he
makes his oblation to the Creator, according to ancient cus-
tom.” A similar order of the council of Laodicea has been
given above. From this practice, the sanctuary obtained the
epithet advra, ant/3am, inapproac/zable. This part of the
church was usually of a semicircular plan, around the cir-
cumference of which, in close proximity to the wall, were
ranged the seats for the bishop and clergy. The throne of
the bishop was in the centre, immediately behind the altar,
and raised to a greater elevation than those of the presbyters,
which were ranged on either side of him. Gregory Nazi-
anzen speaks of himself, as bishop sitting upon a high
throne, with the presbyters, on lower benches, on either side.
The altar was situate in the centre of the chancel, in front
of the bishop’s thrqne, so as to allow of a passage all round
it ; it was named iliditferently (Ira. allure, Svomarnptov and
flames; the latter, however, qualified by the addition of
(U'allLlaKTOV. The most ancient altars were of wood, as we
learn from several passages in the Fathers: amongst others,
S. Austin, speaking of an outrage by the Donatists against
a Catholic bishop, says, “ They beat him cruelly with clubs,
and suchlike weapons, and at last with the broken pieces of
the wood of the altar.” Optatus, again, speaking of the
Donatists, says, “They brake the altars in such pieces as
would afford them plenty of wood to make new ; but where
there was a scarcity of wood, they contented themselves with
scraping them, by way of pretended cxpiatiou.” When stone
altars began to be employed, is very uncertain ; all that can
be determined upon this point is, that the material was in
use for such purpose in the time of Gregory Nyssen, but
how long before, we cannot tell. Gregory, speaking of the
sacred character of the church and its furniture, says, ‘- This

  
 

 

 

 

 

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altar whereat we stand is by nature only common stone,
nothing different from other stones, whereof our walls are
made and our pavements formed ; but after it is consecrated
and dedicated to the service of God, it becomes a holy table,
an immaculate altar, which may not promiscuously be touched
by all, but only by the priests in the time of divine ser-
vice.” In the next century, a decree was passed at the
council of Epone, that no altars should be consecrated,
but such as were of stone. The Pontificals speak of silver
altars dedicated by Constantine. The early wooden altars
were similar in sllzipe to tables, but when stone was em-
ployed for this purpose, they assumed a somewhat different
appearance, consisting either of slabs supported by a cen-
tral pier, or of a structure built up similar to a sarcophagus,
or tomb.

The altar was covered by a canopy, supported by pillars,
frequently twelve in number, in allusion to the number of
the apostles, and having their capitals adorned with silver
bowls. The canopy, which was spherical, was surmounted
with a cross, and the space between the pillars hung with
veils, which served to conceal the altar. These are, perhaps,
the veils alluded to by Chrysostom, where, speaking of the
consecration of the elements, he says, “When you see the
veils withdrawn, then think you see heaven opened, and the
angels descending from above.” Curtains, however, were
used in other parts of the church, before the doors, and at
the entrance to the sanctuary, which were sometimes richly
adorned with gold, as was that given by Chosroes to the
church at Antioch. Epiphanius relates his tearng to pieces
a veil suspended before the doors of the church, because it
had a picture on it ; and Athanasius, speaking of the enormi-
ties of the Arians, says, “ They took the bishop's throne, and
the seats of the presbyters, and the table which was of wood,
and the veils of the church, and whatever else they could,
and carried them out and burned them.” Sometimes a silver
dove was suspended over the altar. The canopy was termed
ciborium, or Twpyog. In later times, crosses were set upon
the altar, but the time of their introduction is not known:
Sozomen and Evagrius are amongst the first who allude to
the practice. The altar was covered with a linen cloth, as
is evidenced by Optatus, who, in allusion to the extravagant
pretensions of the Donatists, in purifying everything that
had been touched by the Catholics, says, “that if anything
was polluted, it must be the covering, and not the tables ;”
and adds, that they pretended to wash these palls. Some—
times such coverings were of richer stuff, for Palladius has
reference to some Roman ladies, who bequeathed their silks
to make coverings for the altar. The sacred vessels were of
various materials. we learn from Irenaeus, Epiplianius, and
Jerome, that chalices were made of glass in their time ; but
there can be no doubt that silver and gold were frequently
employed for this purpose; for it is related of Laurentius,
who was martyred in the time of Valerian, that he would
not deliver up the plate in which they were used to celebrate
the sacred mysteries; and in an inventory delivered up at
the same period, by Paul, bishop of Cirta, we find mention
made of two gold cups, six silver cups, and various other
vessels of the same materials.

In many churches, besides the altar, was a side-table, in a
recess, on one side of the bema, where the offerings of bread
and wine were received, and which is called by various
names, fiaparpaa’EZu, prot/cesz's, paratorz'um, ablationarz'um,
and carbon. In the recess on the opposite side of the bema,
was the Scenophg/Iacium, which was a sort of vestry in
which the priests robed, and where the deacons brought the
vestments and vessels from the Diaconicum, previous to
service. It was likewise called the Diaconicum Bematis, to

 

distinguish it from the larger building of the same name and
uses outside the church. '

Under the general term exiledrce, are comprehended all
the buildings that were contained within the outermost en-
closure, but without the walls of the church, properly so
called: these were many in number, consisting of schools,
residences for the priests, 850.; but we shall here only take
notice of the more important.

The Baptistery, during the first five centuries, formed a
separate building outside the church, as we gather from
Eusebius, Paulinus of Nola, and Gregory of Tours. It was
a large and eapacious edifice, containing several apartments,
some perhaps for the cateehumens, and was not unfrequently
octagonal in plan. It was necessary that these buildings
should be somewhat extensive, for the sacrament of baptism
was but seldom celebrated, the two seasons set apart for the
purpose being Easter and Pentecost; so that a large number
of persons were congregated together at the same time; and
there is reason to suppose that there was but one baptistery
to each city, however numerous the churches may have been.
In the centre of this building was the font, which was large
enough for immersion.

The Secretarium, or Diaconicum, was a building in which
all the property belonging to the church, such as vestments,
vessels, offerings, 860., were deposited when not in use, and
whence they were carried into the church when required.
It was called diaconicum from the fact of the deacons having
charge of all matters contained therein.

Another outbuilding was the Library, as we learn from
Eusebius, who tells us that he was greatly indebted to that
founded by Alexander, bishop of Jerusalem, in procuring
materials for the compilation of his history; and Julius
Africanus is said to have founded another at Caesarea. The
largest library was probably that belonging to the church of
Sta Sophia, Constantinople, which is said to have contained
one hundred thousand books, and was burned down by the
firing of the city in a popular tumult. That Schools were
attached to the church, we may know from what Socrates
says of Julian, “that, in his youth, he frequented the church,
where, in those days, the schools were kept.”

Amongst the exhedrze are likewise reckoned the mito-
ton'um, gazoplrg/lacium, and pastophoria, but of these we
know little or nothing.

As regards the decoration of the interior of the church,
we may gather, that the walls were sometimes coated with
marble, and most frequently adorned with inscriptions of
passages of Scripture, or other religious writings appro-
priately disposed. Thus S. Ambrose speaks of the text,
“There is a difference between a wife and a virgin,” &c.,
being written on the walls near the virgins’ seats; Paulinus
mentions several passages applied to the same purpose, as do
also Sidonius and Apollinaris. The roofs were enriched with
mosaic, or what is called lacunary or panel-work, and in this
case gilding and colour were employed; in the church of
Sta Sophia, is an instance of the former practice, and in that
of Constantine at Jerusalem, an example of the latter, where
the roof was panelled, and covered with gold. S. Jerome
likewise speaks of lacunary golden roofs, walls adorned with
marble, pillars with capitals of shining gold, gates inlaid with
ivory and silver, and altars set with precious stones and gold.
Such was the arrangement and decoration of an early Chris-
tian church.

We have already considered the question relative to the
conversion of heathen temples to the purposes of Christian
worship ; but there is yet another building in use amongst the
pagans, which lays claim to the same honour, and with some

greater show of probability, it is the basilica. The Roman i

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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basilica was the hall of public justice, the court in which,
during the early history of that nation, the kings eat to hear
and decide the causes of their subjects; it was, in fact, at
that period a royal palace situate in the Forum, whence the
name. The word, however, is Greek, and was first applied
to the portico in the Athenian Ceramicus, immediately
beneath the Pnyx ; the custom, as well as the building, was
borrowed by the Romans. Such edifices varied in form in

‘ different instances, but not to any very great extent, the

same disposition seems to have been universally observed, and
was as follows :—

The plan was an oblong, terminated at one, or sometimes
both ends, with a semi-circle; the semi-circle was occasionally
omitted, and sometimes there were two or three of different
dimensions. Internally the breadth was divided into three——
rarely into five—by two or four rows of columns running
down the length of the church; at the extreme end was the
semi-circular apse, in the midst of which was the seat of the
proctor, whence he administered justice; this was the tri-
bunal. On either side of the praator, but lower down, were
the benches for his assessors, the centumviri, and other
officers, and all these were separated from the other part of
the building by an enclosure of lattice-work, to which was
given the name of cancelli. Outside of this screen was
a place allotted to the notaries and advocates, the remainder
of the building being occupied by the people.

We have here a three-aisled structure, the divisions being
formed by two central rows of columns and two outer walls,
the columns frequently supporting a gallery in the outer divi-
sions. The central portion was generally lighted from win-
dows or openings in a wall raised above the columns, thus
forming a sort of clere-story. This roof was invariably of
wood, and did not always cover the whole building. For a
further description, see BASILICA.

Some writers suppose that several such buildings were
delivered by Constantine into the hands of the Christians,
and were employed by them as churches, or places of public
worship. Some go so far as to assert, that they were the pro-
totype of the succeeding churches, not only in form, but in
the division and disposition of the parts. The writer we have
had occasion to quote in a previous part of this article, speaks
thus :—

“Had the basilica, such as we have described it, been
planned for the express reception of a Christian congregation,
it scarcely could have received a more convenient or appro-
priate form—none more happily combining magnificence with
utility—none more consonant to the ideas which then pre-
vailed. The general shape of the church, as prescribed by
the Apostolical Constitutions, was to be an oblong like unto a
ship, that is, to the vessel of the ark. Does not the outline
of the ground-plot of the basilica entirely meet the sugges-
tion? and the terms nave, reef, or vaisseau, applied to the
main portion of the edifice, show how enduringly the idea
prevailed in subsequent ages. The apse, in which the praetor
administered justice, surrounded by the centumviri and other
judges, offered a dignified tribunal for the bishop and his
'clcrgy ; the dark chambers below suggested the subterraneous
chapel, in which might be deposited the remains of saint or
martyr. The enclosures, the cancelli for the notaries and
advocates, might receive the singers of the choir. The
lengthened aisles would furnish space for the congregation
of the faithful: the galleries seclude the women; and the
porch, fronting some of the basilicas, or the uncovered por-
tion, which, if separated from the rest by a wall, would con-
stitute a. court, was prepared for those who had been sepa-
rated from the rest of the congregation by their sins, or were
not yet allowed to participate in the sacraments.

324

 

Hence we l

ECC‘

find, from one of those incidental notices which often are
more instructive than the set narrative of history, that the
basilica had been given up, bodily, for the purpose of Chris.
tian worship. A poet, but also a rhetor, addressing an
emperor, tells him that these structures, heretofore wont to
be filled up with men of business, were now thronged with
votaries praying for his safety; ‘ Basilica olim negotiis
plena, mmc votis pro but salute susceptis.’ This occupation
of the Roman basilicae was, nevertheless, only transitory.
They did not become the abiding-places of the faith. Why was
this privilege denied them? In situation they were most con-
venient, placed in the centre of business and population;
their plan and form so convenient as to invite the purposes
of worship. Unpolluted by the idol or sacrifice, they were
free from the recollections rendering the heathen temple
odious. lVith the smallest proportionate expense or labour,
the basilica) of the Forum might have been rendered the
most stately and dignified of sanctuaries. Yet they fell!
Only one example can be found of a secular basilica actually
converted into a Christian church—and that example, memo-
rable as it is, does not exist in Rome. As if for the purpose
of constantly demonstrating to mankind the visible triumph of
the spiritual kingdom, every stage in the early development
of the empire of Christianity seemed destined to efface the
honours of heathen sovereignty. The Christian basilica,
though entirely modelled upon the heathen basilica, and con-
structed with the spoils of the basilica, was therefore fated to
be its ruin and destruction.

“ A single'cause suflices—a cause of which we now can
scarcely appreciate the potency. Veneration for the graves
of the martyrs, as an almost irresistible motive, attracted the
Christian basilica away equally from the precinct of the secu-
lar basilica, as from the site of the heathen temple. By
determining the locality assigned to the Christian edifice, this
feeling necessarily determined the neglect, ruin, and destruc-
tion of the proud monuments of senators and Caesars. The
demolition of earlier structures, for the purpose of furnishing
materials, had already been long practised. Thus the interior
of the Coliseum displays the friezes and fragments, mixed
up in confusion, amidst the masonry of the beautiful yet
appalling circuit of its walls. These, perhaps, may have
resulted from the removal of other buildings previously
existing on the site; but under Constantine similar demo—
litions proceeded, as it should seem, equally from the desire
of sparing expense, and the increasing inability to execute
works of art. The splendid Forum of Trajan, which had
excited Constantine’s admiration, fell at his command, and
furnished by its spoils the decorations of the arch of the first
Christian emperor. Abandoned for more hallowed ground,
the civil basilicas were destroyed, and the columns which
supported them transported to the new sites, where they
arose in lengthened perspective and barbaric splendour.
By their very aspect, such of the Christian churches as
retain their original features, show the haste and unskilt'ul-
ness with which they are reared; one capital cut through and
deprived of the lower range of the acanthus, to fit it into the
required space; another projecting over the shaft; :1. third
shrinking within ; a fourth, the leaves blocked, and prepared
for the t011011~—neve1‘ to be given—of the chisel that was to
have imparted Corinthian elegance ; the columns them-
selves of unequal circumference or unequal hcight, deprived
of their due proportions, or rudely stiltcd to attain the neces-
sary elevation. The richest materials are mixed with others
of inferior quality; pavonazzo and verd antique, the products
of the quarries of Sycne or of Paros, and the homely Traves-
tine, are intermingled without choice or discrimination.”

This writer is of opinion that the heathen basilicas were

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ECC

325

E00

 

not actually converted into Christian temples ; there are many,
however, who hold the contrary, amongst whom is Mr. Hope,
who cites, as examples of such adaptation, the Sessorian basi-
lica, and that in the palace of the Lateran, which he says
were given to the church by Constantine. The strongest
argument on this side, is, we think, the triumphant decla-
ration of Ausonius, that the ancient halls of justice were
filled with Christian worshippers; the above-mentioned
reviewer alludes to this passage in the following words:—

“\Ve have already seen that no one of the Christian
basilica: at Rome, resulted from any adaptation of the civil
structures of heathenism to religious purposes. The columns
fell, to rise in new localities. Rome furnishes no example
of a basilica preserved by its application to Christian worship.
No confirmation is given in the ancient capital to the orator’s
assertions, exulting, in the presence of Gratian, at the crowds
which filled the ancient halls of justice, then, as he boasts,
resounding with hymn and praise ; yet we can point out one
city in which his assertions are not a rhetorical phrase, but
a truth. Do we seek for the verification of the words of the
poet-rhetor, “ Basilica, olim negolus plena, nunc votis pro tua
salute susceptis ?” Here we find that which at Rome we
search for in vain. Here alone can we behold the one
example of a basilica consecrated as a Christian church, in
which you enter, and see the Corinthian capitals just display-
ing their graceful foliage, mutilated and yet distinct—through
the rude wall which encircles them—whilst the shaft of
another, displaced and broken, lies in gigantic bulk before
the portal of the edifice. This indeed is the very city in
which the poet-rhetor was speaking——for he is Ausonius—
and the city is Treves. The ancient capital of the Roman
empire beyond the Alps, furnished the model for the struc-
tures, which, far more than those of Rome herself, assisted
in the development of Christian architecture.”

“Te cannot think this a satisfactory method of getting over
the difficulty; Ausouius seems to speak of such facts as well
and universally known; he is describing the general effect
of Christianity, and glorying in its success; his are sweeping
assertions, not applicable to merely individual instances, but
to general custom. Besides, if the Christians at Treves
converted basilicas into churches, why should they not do
the same elsewhere ? and especially in the metropolis, where
,there was a larger proportion of such buildings, and greater
need of churches.

W'hile saying this, we do not mean to deny that there
was a strong repugnance amongst the early Christians to
everything that had been connected with paganism, and
that the application of the basilica was rather a matter of
necessity than of choice. \Vhen Constantine legalized
Christianity, the Christians numbered somewhat considerably,
and no doubt increased rapidly upon that event; many who
previously favoured that religion, but were fearful of the
consequences of an avowal, now openly professing it.
Churches were needed more than ever, and they had not
skill wherewith to erect them ; what could be done? where
were churches to be found, while new ones were building?
were there any existing buildings that could be adapted to
such a purpose? The pagan temples were not fitted for
such uses, even had there been no repugnance to their
origin; but the basilicas would answer the purpose well, as
far as their construction was concerned, nor were there equal
objections to them on the score of their previous employment.
What more likely than that they should be used at least for
a time, until new structures could be erected ?

The counter-argument arising from the absence of any
examples of such adaptation of the civil basilica, may be
accounted for without much difficulty: they were destroyed,

4 o

 

 

l

to afford materials for new structures on other sites. The
principal cause of their destruction or removal, is to be
sought in the veneration of the Christians for the graves
of the martyrs. On this subject, Mr. Knight says——

“From the custom which had’originated in the catacombs
—from the habit which the primitive Christians had acquired
of visitingthe graves of the martyrs ; it became a matter of
necessity to associate the church with the tomb, and to pro-
vide a place of worship below ground, as well as above.
This, in several instances, was accomplished at Rome by
placing the church immediately above a part of the cata-
combs, as at San Lorenzo and Santa Agnese ; or, as at St.
Peter’s, by placing the altar immediately above the spot to
which the mortal remains of the apostles had been removed.

“ The practice of associating the churches with the graves
of martyrs, was the cause of their being frequently placed
in situations which had little reference to public convenience;
namely, without the walls of the cities to which they be-
longed; for, as executions usually took place without the
walls, and as the martyrs were often buried, or supposed to
have been buried, where they were put to death, the wish
of that age could not be accomplished without frequently
placing the churches in remote and insulated situations.
Thus it was that Constantine placed the church of St. Peter
adjacent to the circus of Nero, though the city of Rome was,
at that time, at some distance from the Vatican Hill. Theo-
dosius, for similar reasons, placed the church of St. Paul at
an equal distance from the city on the opposite side. At
that time, a liability, which afterwards exposed insulated
churches and their frequenters to much peril, did not exist.
At that time, the interior of the empire was still inviolate,
and those who built the churches never imagined that the
day might come, when their descendants could not go out of .
the walls without being liable to attacks, and when the
churches themselves would be exposed to insult and injury.
Little did Constantine imagine, that men of a newer religion
than his own would ever reach and deface the cathedral
which he had planted within sight of the metropolis of the
world.”

The existence of such a feeling amongst the early Chris-
tians, coupled with the circumstance of the tombs of martyrs
being usually without the walls, and the prevalent custom of
employing the materials of old buildings for the construction
of new, will account, as we think, satisfactorily for the want
of more tangible evidence of the conversion of the heathen
basilica to Christian uses.

While we contend thus far, we do not wish to ally our-
selves with those who maintain, that the arrangement of
churches was derived from that of the civil basilica: there
is no doubt a similarity of distribution and a certain analogy
between the purposes which each division in either building
served; still, there are strong grounds for believing that
such disposition in the churches arose from the natural
requirements of the religion, rather than from any extra-
neous influence. The description of the several orders of
penitents, and of their positions in the church, as above
given, is sufficient proof of such being the case, for that was
written during times ofpersecution, before Constantine had
ascended the throne ; the division into parts, therefore,
was determined long ere any basilicas were given up for
Christian worship. It is not improbable, however, that the
form of later churches was derived from that of the basilica;
for it must needs be, that either some existing form was
copied, or an entirely new idea originated. That the latter
was the case is very improbable, from the nature of things,
almost all novelties having emanated, in some degree or other,
from things previously existing: but, besides this, such an

I
l
l
v

 

 

I

_,..

 

, ,.... -._ __,_ ._ _.,_____—

 

 

 

 

 

 

ECH

326

ECH

 

occurrence was more especially improbable at the period
alluded to, when art was falling to decay, and its influence
was not strong enough even to retain previous acquirements,
much less to originate new. The main features in the
churches erected immediately after the establishment of
Christianity, with the exception of Constantine’s circular
buildings, were those of the civil basilica : there were some
few alterations and additions, it is true, to adapt the form to
the requirements of the church ; but these were at first not
very considerable, although extended farther in after times.
Of these were the atrium and out-buildings; and, in later
times, transepts. With regard to the latter, it has been
argued by some, that they are to be found in the civil struc-
tures; at least, in the internal arrangement; but this we
think almost too nice a similarity. There was, indeed, a
cross-passage at the end of the nave, so to speak, but we can
scarcely set it down as the prototype of the transept. The
cross-form originated in Christian symbolism; nor does it
appear even in churches of the earliest date. The Apostolical
Constitutions allude to churches as being in the form of a
ship, and such seems to have been the actual shape of the
first buildings. The cross-plan was a gradual development.
At first, we find the cross a prominent feature in the inter-
nal decoration, as at St. Clement’s, where the paving of the
nave is arranged in that form; and afterwards forming an
essential office in the construction, as in the Byzantine
churches, and the later basilicas. We are of opinion, then,
that, at the onset, civil basilicas were employed for Christian
worship, though rather as a matter of necessity than choice;
that the division and disposition of parts observable in the
early churches was not derived from the basilica; but that
their form and construction was so derived; and that hence
was developed the form of churches in after ages.

As regards the styles of architecture employed, the earliest

. constructions can scarcely be said to belong to any style;

they were composed of the ruins of heathen structures, pro-
miscuously heaped together ; columns from one building,
entablature from another; or even one column from one
building, and the next from a second ; and not unfrequently
the shaft or base of one column with the capital of another:
columns of different heights and proportions were huddled
into the same row, and the difference of level made up either
by stilting or cutting short. The Byzantine churches, with
their square plans and spherical roofs, are the first buildings
which can be said to possess any style, and these were chiefly
confined to Asia Minor, having little influence in Italy until
the sixth century. (See, BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE.)
Shortly after this, the Lombards established themselves in
Italy ; and although they brought with them no architecture
of their own, they gave a somewhat novel character to the
buildings erected by them, the difference being principally in
detail. This style prevailed in the north of Italy up to the
end of the twelfth century, at the commencement of which
some marked alterations were introduced. (See, Lommnme
ARCHITECTURE.) To this succeeded that most perfect form
of Ecclesiastical Architecture, pre-eminently termed the
Christian style, which has prevailed, with some interruptions,
ever since ; we need scarcely add, we allude to the Gothic,
or pointed, which for its solemn grandeur, as well as for
its perfect construction, is, of all, the most appropriate for
a Christian temple.

We have now arrived at the conclusion of this inte-
resting subject, and for any further information must refer
to such articles as CHURCH, CATHEDRAL, GOTHIC, and
SAXON ARCHITECTURE, &c.

ECHIN US (from cxwog, a word denoting the prickly
cover of a chesnut) a convex moulding in the form of a conic

 

section, generally carved into ornaments representing trun-
cated spheroids, or eggs, with the upper ends cut off, the
upper part of the axis projecting, and the lower part receding.
Each truncated spheroid is surrounded with a border, of an
elliptic figure, in close contact, showing something more than
a semi-ellipsis, the shorter axis being horizontal.

The projecting edge of the border is in the surface of the
moulding, previously wrought, as is also the curvature of
the upper part of the spheroid. Every two adjacent borders
contain a space equal to the thickness of the border at the
top, and gradually receding towards the bottom. In each
recess, or space, is an anchor, or tongue; the front edge of
which comes in contact with the surface of the original
moulding, and is in a vertical line cutting the surface of the
moulding at right angles.

In Grecian architecture, the front of each border, and also
the front of each tongue, or anchor, is wrought to an angle,
the section of which inclines equally to the surface. The
bottom of the spaces on each side of the tongue, on the
under side, is nearly in the same surface as the recess on
the sides of the eggs.

In Roman architecture, the general contour is the segment
or quarter of a circle, and the fronts of the surrounding bor-
ders are not brought to an angle, but remain as part of the
moulding, either plain or with a hollow sunk between the
edges, leaving a fillet next to each edge.

Its situation in an order, is in the entablature or capital,
but never in the base.

In the original Doric order, the ovolo, which crowns the
cornice, and that of the capital, are never carved. In the
Ionic and Corinthian entablatures, it may either be carved or
not, but in the antiques it is generally carved. The ovolo
in the capitals of these orders, is, however, always carved
into the ornaments we are describing. The French call this
moulding, quart de mud; the English, quarternround, or
boulting; the Italians, ovolo; the Latins, ovum, from its
being usually carved with the figures of eggs; and the
French, for the same reason, sometimes call it ceuf.

ECHO, (from the Greek, nxog, sound, of the verb, nxew,
I sozmd,) the reverberation of sound, occasioned by the
particular construction of a vault or wall, the section of
which is most commonly of an elliptical or parabolical figure.
The method of making artificial echoes, is taught by the
Jesuit Blancani, in his Echomctria, at the end of his book
0n the Sphere.

\Vc are informed by Vitruvius, that in various parts of
Greece and Italy, there were brazen vessels, ingeniously
arranged under the seats of the theatres, to render the sound
of the actors’ voices more clear, and make a kind of echo;
by which means the prodigious multitude of persons pre-
sent at their spectacles were enabled to hear with ease and
pleasure.

The distribution of sound in public edifices, so that the
echoes may be most advantageously brought to strengthen
the original sound, is a subject practically deserving much
attention. In Sir J. Herschel's Treatise on sound, the
reader will find some sensible observations on the errors of
architects in this respect. The inattention of the latter to
the effect of the reverberation of sound, was curiously
exemplified in the cathedral of Girgenti, where the con-
fessional was placed in a focus conjugate to another and
uncnclosed part of the church; by which unlucky error the.
echo was instrumental in informing a husband of the inti-
delity of his spouse. In many of our public buildings,
though prol'csscdly erected for purposes where the proper
distribution of sound is of paramount importance, it is no
uncommon occurrence, that one part of the audience pos-

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Eon

32

7 ECH

 

sesses a monopoly, while the remainder witness the ceremony
or performance in dumb show.

Sounds are reflected by certain configurations of bodies,
like the reflection of light from polished surfaces; so that if
a person situated before one of these bodies utter a word, he
will in a short time after hear the echo, or repetition of the
sound. The vibratory motion of the air, which constitutes
sound, is reflected by hard bodies, and, in certain cases, even
by fluids. Thus the sides of a hill, houses, rocks, banks of
earth, the large trunks of trees, the surface of water, espe-
cially at the bottom of a well, and sometimes even the clouds,
have been found capable of reflecting sounds. The confi-
guration of the surface of these bodies, is much more con-
cerned in the production of the echo than their substance.
A smooth surface reflects sounds much better than a rough
one. A convex surface is a very bad reflector of sound ; a flat
one reflects very well ; but a small degree of concavity, par-
ticularly when the sounding body is in or near the focus of
concavity, renders the surface a much better reflector, and the
echo is heard considerably louder.

Thus, in an elliptical apartment, if the sounding body be
placed in one focus, the sound will be heard much louder by
a person situated in the other focus of the ellipsis, than in
any other part of the room. In this case, the effect is so
powerful, that even when the middle part of the room
is wanting, the sound expressed in one focus will be heard
by a person situated in the other, but hardly at all by those
who stand in the intermediate space.

W’Vithout attempting to explain the manner in which the
vibrating air impinges upon, and is sent back by, the reflect-
ing body, which would lead us too far into the science of
acoustics, we shall briefly notice the following ascertained
facts.

If a person standing before a high wall, a bank, a rock,
&c., at a certain distance, and uttering a word with a pretty
strong voice, or producing by a hammer, stone, &c., any
short, sharp sound, hear a repetition of that word or sound,
he will find that the time elapsed between his uttering the
word, or striking with the hammer, and hearing of the echo,
is equal to the time that a sound is known to employ in going
through an extension of twice the distance between him and
the reflecting wall, rock, 81c, ; for the vibratory motion of the
air must proceed from the sounding person to the wall, &c.,
and back again from the latter to the former. Now, sound
is known to travel at the rate of about 1,125 feet in a
second of time; therefore, if the person who expresses the
word, or any sound whatever, stand at the distance of 1,125
feet from the echoing wall, &e., two seconds of time must
elapse between his uttering the sound and his hearing the
echo. If the distance be equal to 41,500 feet, then eight
seconds of time must elapse between the uttering of the
sound, and the arrival of the echo; and so on. But the same
original sound and the echo may be heard by persons at
different distances, both from the original sounding-place, and
from the reflecting body. The effect, however, will not be
exactly uniform, for those who are nearer to the reflecting
body, will hear the echo sooner than persons more remote.
A situation may be easily found, from which they will hear
both the original sound and the echo at the same instant, and
as both sounds coalesce, they will only appear as one loud
sound, without the echo.

But though several persons, in different situations, may
hear the echo of the same sound, yet the echo will be heard
better in one particular direction than in any other: now if
two straight lines be drawn from the middle of a reflecting
surface, one to the place from which the original sound pro-
ceeds, and the other to the above-mentioned best direction,

 

 

 

those two lines will be found to make equal angles with the
surface. Hence it appears, that in the reflection of sound,
the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
Therefore, if a person wishes to hear the echo of his own
voice in the best possible manner, he must stand in a direc-
tion perpendicular to the reflecting surface. And this shows,
that though sound proceeds from an original sounding body,
or from a reflecting surface, in every direction ; yet a greater
quantity of it proceeds in some particular direction than in
any other, which is probably owing to the original impulse
being given to the air more forcibly in one direction than
in another, or from want of perfect freedom in the aerial
fluid.

Several phenomena may be easily explained upon the
above-mentioned property of sound : for instance, several
reflecting surfaces are frequently so situated with respect to
distance and direction, that a sound proceeding from a certain
point is reflected by one surface first, then by a second, soon
after by a third, and so on, but by all in one direction ; in
which case a multiplied tautological echo is produced; that is
to say, the same word is heard repeated several times succes-
sively in the same tone and accent; the expression of one
Ho ! will appear like a peal of laughter; a musical instru-
ment, properly played, will produce an agreeable repeti-
tion of as many instruments of the same sort, imitating
each other.

According to the various distances of the speaker, a reflect-
ing object will return the echo of several, or of a few sylla-
bles, for all the syllables must be uttered before the echo of
the first syllable reaches the ear; otherwise it will make
a confusion. The farther the reflecting object is, the greater
number of syllables will the echo repeat ; but the sound will
be enfeebled nearly in the same proportion, till at last the
syllables cannot be heard distinctly. When the reflecting
object is too near, the repetition of thesound arrives at the
ear whilst the perception of the original sound still continues,
in which case, an indistinct sounding noise is heard. This
effect may especially be observed in empty rooms, passages,
&c., because, in such places, several reflections from the wall
to the bearer, as also from one wall to the other, and then to
the bearer, clash with each other, and increase the indis-
tinctness.

From what has been said, it will be easily conceived, that
with respect to echoes, a vast variety of effects may be pro-
duced, by varying the form, the distance, and the number of
reflecting surfaces; and hence we hear of various surprising
echoes being met with at different places.

In Woodstock Park, near Oxford, there is a famous echo,
which repeats seventeen syllables in the daytime, and twenty
at night, when the air is somewhat more dense. On the north
side of Shipley Church, in Sussex, there is another remark-
able echo, which, in favourable circumstances, repeats twenty-
one syllables. At Rosneath, near Glasgow, in Scotland, is
an echo, that repeats three times, completely and distinctly,
a tune played with a trumpet.

VVhispering-plaees, are those where a whisper, or other
small noise, is conveyed from one part to another, at a great
distance. They depend upon this principle, that the voice,
being applied to one end of an arch, easily passes by a repe-
tition of reflections to the other.

Hence sound is conveyed from one side of a whispering-
gallery to the opposite one, without being perceived by those
who stand in the middle. The form of a whispering-gallery
is that of a sphere, or the segment of a sphere. The principle
of whispering being that of continued reflection. If a person
whisper softly against a wall, the rays which proceed from his
mouth issue in all directions against the wall ; we shall only

 

 

 

 

 

 

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328

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take the rays which emanate from the whisperer’s mouth
(which we shall suppose to be a point) in a horizontal plane,
then it is evident, that they will proceed to the right and to
the left, and each particle of sound, as we-may call it, for
want of a more specific name, will cut of equal segments of
the circle which forms the section of the wall ; or, in other
words, will pass along equal chords; and there will be an
infinite number of such reflections ; each particle describing
chords different from those described by another, and an inde-
finite number of these will divide the semi-circumference
into parts all equal to each other, in the same system of
chords; therefore, all the describing particles of sound passing
along the equal chords, will meet upon the other extremity of
the diameter opposite the whisperer, and thus form a loud
whispering noise. It is evident, that polished surfaces are the
most favourable for this purpose. Accordingly, all the
contrivance requisite in whispering-places is, that near the
person who whispers, there may be a smooth arched wall,
either cylindric or cylindroidic ; though a body with circular
sections will do, but not so well.

The most considerable whispering place in England, is
the whispering gallery in the dome of St. Paul’s Cathedral,
London, where the ticking of a watch may be heard from
side to side, and a very easy whisper be sent all round the
dome. The famous whispering gallery in Gloucester Cathe-
dral, is no other than a gallery above the east end of the
choir, leading from one side thereof to the other. It consists
of five angles, and six sides, the middlemost of which is a
naked window; yet two whisperers hear each other at the
distance of twenty-five yards.

ECHOMETRY, the art of constructing vaults to produce
echoes.

ECPHORA, or ECPHORAN (from 5x, out, and gtapw, I bear,)
the projecture, or distance between the extremity of a mem-
ber, or moulding, and the naked of the column, or other part
it projects from.

Some authors, however, account the ecphora, or projecture,
from the axis of the column, and define it to be a right line
intercepted between the axis and the outermost surface of a
member, or moulding. The word is used by Vitruvius, in
Chapter III. book iii., in the explanation of columns and
their ornaments. See PROJECTURE.

ECTYPE (from the Greek) : apxerva-ou, denotes the
original, or model; svrmrou, the copy or image, moulded or
struck in cream; and anrvaov, the image in relievo, or em-
bossed.

EDDYSTONE LIGHTHOUSE, a celebrated building
erected upon a cluster of very dangerous rocks, situated in
the English Channel, in latitude 50° 3' N., and longitude
40° 21" W. These rocks are about fourteen miles from
Plymouth Sound, and, lying nearly in the track of vessels
going up or down channel, have been the cause of many
shipwrecks. To guard against these disasters, it was deemed
necessary to erect a light-house ; but to effect this in a com-
plete and permanent manner, so as to resist storms and afford
light, was a task of extreme difficulty.

The Eddystone rocks are so peculiarly exposed to the
swell of the ocean from the south and west, that the heavy
seas break upon them with uncontrolled fury. Sometimes,
after a storm, when the sea is apparently quite smooth, and
its surface unruflied by the slightest breeze, the ground-swell,
or under-current, meets the slope of the rocks, and the sea
beats tremendously upon them, and even rises above the
light-house, overtopping it for the moment, as with a canopy
of frothy wave. Notwithstanding this awful swell,.Mr.
l-Ienry Winstanley undertook, in the year 1696, to build a
light-house on the principal rock, for the rest are under

 

 

 

 

water ; and in 1700 he completed it. So confident was this
ingenious mechanic of the stability of his edifice, that he
declared his wish to be in it during the most tremendous
storm that could arise. This wish he unfortunately obtained,
for he perished in it, during the dreadful storm which de-
stroyed it, November 27, 1703. Another light-house, of a
different construction, was erected of wood, on this rock,
by Mr. John Rudyerd, in 1709 ; which being consumed by
fire in 1755, a third, of stone, was begun by the justly cele-
brated Mr. John Smeaton, April 2, 1757, and finished
August 24, 1759, which has hitherto withstood the attacks
of the most violent storms. The following account of this
building, taken from Mr. Smeaton’s ‘Narrative,’ must be
read with interest, as a noble instance of the triumph of
skill, science, and perseverance over obstacles of the most
formidable character :—

Mr. Smeaton begins his account with a general description
of the Eddystone rocks, the course of the tides, their situa-
tion, component matter, and the proper season for visiting
them. He then takes an ample View of Mr. IVinstanley’s
edifice, to whom he ascribes great praise for having under-
taken and achieved what had been generally deemed imprac—
ticable; and after deploring that gentleman’s disaster, goes
on to describe the second lighthouse, built by Mr. Rudyerd,
as a most complete edifice of the kind, being of timber, in
the course of which he details the best methods of fixing iron
chains, and securing timber-work to rocks, which we shall
give in his own words.

“ As nothing would stand upon the sloping surface of the
rock without artificial means to stay it, Mr. Rudyerdjudi-
ciously concluded, that if the rock were reduced to level bear-
ings, the heavy bodies to be placed upon it, would then have
no tendency to slide; and this would be the case, even
though but imperfectly executed; for the sliding tendency
being taken away from those parts that were reduced to a
level, the whole would be much more securely retained by
the iron bolts or branches, than if, for the retention of the
whole, they had depended entirely upon the iron-work; as
manifestly appears to have been the case with the building
of Mr. \Vinstanley. According to Mr. Rudyerd’s print, the
inclined surface of the rock was intended to have been
reduced to a set of regular steps, which would have been
attended with the same good effect, as if the whole could
have been reduced to one level; but in reality, from the
hardness of the rock, the shortness and uncertainty of the
intervals in which this part. of the work must have been
performed ; and the great tendency of the lamina: whereof
the rock is composed to rise in spawls, according to the
inclined surface, when worked upon by tools, urged with
suiiicient force to make an impression; this part of the work,
that is, the stepping of the rock, had been but imperfectly
performed, though in a degree that sufficed.

“The holes made to receive the iron branches, appear to
have been drilled into the rock byjumpers, making holes
of about 2% inches diameter; the extremities of the two
holes forming the breadth for the branch, at the surface of
the rock, were about 7% inches; and these holes were
directed so that at their bottoms they should be separated
somewhat better than an inch more, that is, so as to be
full 8% inches. In the intermediate space, a third hole was
bored between the two former ; and then if the three holes
were broken into one, by square-faced pummels, this would
make the holes sufliciently smooth and regular. By this
means he obtained holes of a dove-tail shape, being 2% inches
wide, 7% bread at top, 8—;— at bottom, and 15 and 10' inches
deep; and as these could not be made all alike, every branch
was forged to fit its respective hole. The main pieces of

 

 

 

 

”raw a:

' “Witwa-

 

 

 

 

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each branch were about 4%.,» inches broad at the surface of the
rock, and 632» at the bottom ; and this being first put down
into the hole, the space left for a key would be 3 inches at
top, and 2 inches at bottom, which would admit it to be
driven in so as to render the whole firm, and the main branch
fixed like a dove-tail or lewis.

“ The holes being each finished, and fitted with their
respective branches, and cleared of water, a considerable
quantity of melted tallow was poured into each hole: the
branch and key being then heated to about a blue heat, and
put down into the tallow, and the key firmly driven, all the
space unfilled by the iron, would become full of tallow, and
the overplus made to run over: when this was done, all
remaining hot, a quantity of coarse pewter, being made red-
hot in a ladle, and run into the chinks, as being the heaviest
body, would drive out the superfluous melted tallow : and so
effectually had this operation succeeded, that in those
branches which were cut out in 1756, and had remained
fast, the whole cavity had continued so thoroughly full, that
not only the pewter, but even, in general, the tallow, remained
apparently fresh: and when the pewter was melted from the
irons, the scale appeared upon the iron, as if it had come
from the smith’s forge, without the least rust upon it.

“ All the iron branches, which are shown, as I found
them, in Plate I, having been fixed in the manner above-
mentioned, they next proceeded to lay a course of squared
oak balks, lengthwise upon the lowest step, and of a size to
reach up to the level of the step above. Then a set of short
balks were laid crosswise of the former, and upon the next
step compoundedly, so as to make good up to the surface of
the third step. The third stratum was therefore again laid
lengthwise, and the fourth crosswise, &c., till a basement of
solid wood was raised, two complete courses higher than the
highest part of the rock; the whole being fitted together,
and to the rock, as close as possible, and the balks, in all
their intersections with each other, trenailed together. They
were also fitted to the iron branches where they happened
to fall in ; for the branches do not seem to have been placed
with any complete regularity or order, but rather where the
strength and firmness of the rock pointed out the properest
places for fixing them; they were, however, to appearance
disposed so as to form a double circle, one about a foot within
the circumference of the basement, and the other about three
feet within the former ; besides which, there were two large
branches fixed near the centre, for taking hold of the two
sides of a large upright piece of timber, which was called the
mast; by whicx two branches it was strongly fixed down;
and being set perpendicular, it served as a centre for guiding
all the rest of the succeeding work.

“ The branches were perforated, in their respective upper
parts, some with three, and some with four holes; so that,
in every pair (collectively called a branch) there would be at
a medium seven holes ; and as there were at least thirty-six
original branches, there would be 252 holes, which were
about seven-eighths of an inch in diameter ; and, conse-
quently, were capable of receiving as many large-bearded
spikes, or jag-bolts, which being driven through the branches
into the solid timber, would undoubtedly hold the whole mass
firmly down; and the great multiplicity of trenails in the
intersections, would confine all the strata closely and com-
pactly together.

“ I cannot omit here to remark, that though the instrument
we now call the lewis, is of an old date, yet, so far as appears,
this particular application of that idea, which Mr. Rudyerd
employed in fixing his iron branches firmly to the rock, was
made use of for the first time in this work: for though
Mr. Winstanley mentions his having made twelve holes, and

4 P

 

fixed twelve great irons in the rock, in his first year’s work,
yet he gives no intimation of any particular mode of fixing
them, but the common way with lead; and the stump of one
of the great irons of Mr. Winstanley’s, that was cut out in
the course of the work of the summer of 1756, was fixed in
that manner; but we remarked, that the low end of this bar
or stanchion, was a little club-ended, and that the hole was
somewhat under-cut ; so that, when the lead was poured in,
the whole together would make a sort of dovetail engraft-
ment: however, when these irons, by great agitations, became
loose, and the lead yielded in a certain degree, they would
be liable to be drawn out; as the orifice by which they
entered must have been large enough to receive the iron club.
Mr. Rudyerd’s method, therefore, of keying and securing,
must be considered as a material accession to the practical
part of engineery ; as it furnishes a secure method of fixing
ring-bolts and eye-bolts, stanchions, &c., not only into rocks
of any known hardness; but into piers, moles, &c., that have
already been constructed, for the safe mooring of ships; or
fixing additional works, whether of stone or wood.

“ In this way, by building stratum super stratum, of solid
squared oak timber, which was of the best quality, Mr. Rud-
yerd was enabled to make a solid basement of what height
he thought proper: but in addition to the above methods, he
judiciously laid hold of the great principle of engineery, that
weight is the most naturally and effectually resisted by weight.
He considered, that all his joints being pervious to water,
and that though a great part of the ground-joint of the whole
mass was in contact with the rock, yet many parts of it
could not be accurately so; and therefore, that whatever
parts of the ground-joint were not in perfect contact, so as
to exclude the water therefrom, though the separation was
only by the thickness of a piece of post-paper, yet if capable
of receiving water in a fluid state, the action of a wave upon
it edgewise, would, upon the principles of hydrostatics,
produce an equal effect towards lifting it upwards, as if it
acted immediately upon so much area of the bottom as was
not in close contact.

“ The more effectually therefore to counteract every
tendency of the seas to move the building in any direction,
he determined to interpose strata of Cornish moor-stone
between those of wood; and accordingly having raised his
foundation solid, two courses above the top of the rock, he
then put on five courses, of one foot thick each, of the moor-
stone. These courses were as well jointed as the workmen
of the country could do it, to introduce as much weight as
possible into the space to contain them : they were, however,
laid without any cement; but it appears that iron cramps
were used, to retain the stones of each course together, and
also upright ones to confine down the outside stones.

“When five feet of moor-stone were laid on, which,
according to the dimensions, would weigh 120 tons; he then
interposed a couple of courses of solid timber, as before ; the
use of which was plainly for the more effectual and ready
fastening of the outside Uprights to the solid, by means of
jag-bolts, or screw-bolts; and that these bolts might the
more effectually hold in the wood, in every part of the circle
(which could not be the case with timbers lying parallel to
each other, because in two points of the circle, opposite
to each other, the timbers would present their ends towards
the bolt) he encompassed those two courses with circular,
or what are technically called compass timbers, properly
scarfed together, and breaking joint one course upon the
other. We must not, however, suppose, that these courses
were composed wholly of circular timbers to the centre, but
that the circles of compass timbers on the outside were
filled up with parallel pieces within ; and that the compass

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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timbers were, in the most favourable points, jag-bolted to
the interior parallel pieces.

“ The two uppermost courses, after clearing the rock, and
before the five moor-stone courses came on, were furnished
with compass timbers, as well as some others below.

“The two courses of wood above the moor-stene courses
terminated the entire solid of the basement ; for a well-hole
was begun to be left upon these courses for stairs in the
centre, of 6 feet 9 inches in the square ; and hereupon was
fixed the entry door, or rather, one course lower, making
a step up, just within the door ; in consequence of this, the
entire solid terminated about 9 feet above the higher side of
the base, and 19 feet above the lower side thereof.

“In Mr. Winstanley’s house, the entry was from the rock
into an internal staircase, formed in the casing upon the
south-east side; he therefore needed only a few external
steps. But Mr. Rudyerd’s entry door, being full eight feet
above the highest part of the rock, would consequently need
a ladder. This he made of iron, of great strength; and
being open, whenever the seas broke upon this side of the
house, they readily found their passage through, without
making any violent agitation upon it.

“ The two compass courses terminating the entire solid,
having been established, as already mentioned, he again
proceeded with five moor—stone courses ; nearly the same as
the former ; allowing for the necessary difference resulting
from there now being a central well-hole for the stairs, and
a passage from the entry door, as described, to the well-hole:
this passage was 2 feet 11 inches wide, and, as it appears,
took up the whole height of the five courses. The weight
of these five courses, according to the dimensions, amounted
to 86 tons.

“He then again proceeded with two compass courses,
covering the door-head and passage, so as now to leave no
other vacuity than the well-hole; and upon these he laid
four moor-stone courses, the weight of which amounted to
sixty-seven tons. He then proceeded with two compass
courses, and after that, with beds of timber, cross and cross,
and compass courses interposing ; and, last of all, with one
compass course, upon which he laid a floor over all, of oak
plank three inches thick, which made the floor of the
store-room.

“ The height of this floor above the bottom of the well,
was near 18 feet ; above the foot of the mast, 33 feet; above
the rock on the higher side, 27 feet ; and above the foot of
the building on the lower side, 37 feet. In all this height,
no cavity of any kind was intended for any purpose of
depositing stores, Sac. From the rock to the bottom of the
well, all was solid, as we have shown ; but as the building
increased in height, and consequently was more out of the
heavy stroke of the sea, a less degree of strength and solidity
would be equivalent to the former, and therefore admit of
the convenience of a staircase within the building, with a
passage into it : which last, being made upon the east side,
would be withdrawn from the heavy shock of the seas from
the south-west quarter, and the rock being there highest,
the ascent by the iron stair upon the outside, would be the
least ; the whole therefore, to the height of the store-room
floor, as above-mentioned, having been made with all possible
solidity, was denominated the solid.

“ The height of Mr. Rudyerd’s store-room floor was fixed
as high as the floor of Mr. “’instanley’s state-room, which
was over his store-room; and as many were doubtless still
living who had seen and examined Mr. Winstanley’s light-
house, during the four years that it stood in a finished
state ; and as in that time there would be an opportunity of
knowing, from experience, to what height the unbroken

 

fl

water of the waves mounted in bad weather, we ma ve
well suppose that Mr. Rudyerd regulated the height of his
solid from that information.

“ We have already seen, that the two compass courses of
wood, which capped the first bed of moor-stone, and termi-
nated the entire solid, were forcibly screwed down by ten large
iron bars, or bolts, to the beds of timber below the moor-stone,
and these by the trenails and branches to the rock. We must
suppose this precaution to have been taken to prevent any de-
rangement from the heavy strokes of the sea in storms and
hard gales, which were liable to happen in the very finest part
of the season, before there was any proper opportunity of con-

necting the upper part of the work with the lower, by means of ‘

the upright timbers that were to form the outside case ; be-
cause, till the work was brought to that height, there could be
no proper means of beginning to fix them ; and as we do not
find any traces or mention of binding the upper courses with
the lower, after the staircase was set forward, we must sup-
pose that the outside casing had been then begun from the
rock, and carried on progressively, so as to become a bond of
the upright kind ; for, all such timbers as were high enough
having been screwed fast to the compass courses, would be
thereby secured to the lower courses ; otherwise, from what
I have myself experienced of the situation, I should have
expected, that whenever the two courses of compass timber
were put upon the second bed of moor-stone, if a hard gale
should have come on at south—west, it would not only have
lifted up and carried away the timber beds, but possibly
would have deranged the moor-stone courses, notwithstand-
ing the upright cramps to the outside stones.

“ The solid being in this manner completed, the upper '

   
 

 

part of the building, comprehending four rooms, one above '

another, was chiefly formed by the outside upright timbers ;

having one kirb or circle of compass timber at each floor, to ‘

which the upright timbers were screwed and connected, and
upon which the floor timbers were rested. The uprights
were also jag—bolted and trenailed to one another, and, in
this manner, the work was carried on to the height of 34 feet
above the store-room floor, and there terminated by a plank-
ing of three inches thick, which composed the roof of the
main column, as well as served for the floor of the lantern,
and of the balcony round it.

“Thus the main column of this building consisted of
one simple figure, being an elegant frustum of a cone, un-

broken by any projecting ornament, or anything whereon ;

the violence of the storms could lay hold ; being, exclusive
of its sloping foundation, 22 feet 8 inches upon its largest
circular base, 61 feet high above that circular base, and
14 feet 3 inches in diameter at the top ; so that the circular
base was somewhat greater than one-third of the total height,
and the diameter at top was somewhat less than two-thirds
of the base at the greatest circle.

“ The junction of the upright timbers upon each other
was by means of scarfs, as they are technically called in
ship-building and carpentry ; that is, the joining of timbers
end to end by over-lapping. The timbers were of different
lengths, from 10 to 20 feet, and so suited, that no two join-
ings or sczu‘fs of the uprights might fall together. The

number of uprights composing the circle was the same from ;
top to bottom; and their number being seventy-one, the ’

breadth at the bottom would be 1 foot nearly ; their thickness
there was 9 inches; and, as they diminished in breadth
towards the top, they also diminished in thickness. The
whole of the outside seams were well caulked with oakum,
in the same manner as in ships ; and the whole payed over
with pitch; consequently, upon a near View, the seams run-
ning straight from top to bottom, in some measure resembled

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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the flutings of columns ; which, in so simple a figure, could
not fail to catch the attention of the beholder, and prove an
agreeable engagement of the eye.

“ The whole of the building was, indeed, a piece of ship-
wrightry: for it is plain, from the preceding account, that
the interposed beds of moor-stone had nothing to do with
the frame of the building, it being entire and complete ex-
clusive thereof : the beds of moor-stone could therefore only
be considered in the nature of ballast, and amounted, from
what has been before stated, in the whole, to the weight of
above two hundred and seventy tons.

“ All the windows, shutters, and doors, were composed of
double plank, cross and cross, and clinked together; which
falling into a rebate when shut, their outside formed a part
of the general surface, like the port-holes in a ship’s side;
without making any unevenness or projection in the surface.
There were, however, two projecting parts terminating this
frustum; one at the top, at the other at the joining with
the rock; the utility of which seems to render them indis-
pensable. They had each a projection of about 9 inches.
The top projection, which is in the nature of a cornice, con-
sisted of a simple bevel, and the use of it was very great;
for in times of storms and hard gales of wind, when, accord—
ing to the accounts of Mr. VVinstanley’s building, the broken
sea rises to a far greater height than the whole structure, it
would be likely to break the windows of the lantern, unless
there was something to throw it off, as their use does not
admit of any defence by shutters. Therefore Mr. Rudyerd
applied this simple cornice, judging it sufficient to have the
effect of throwing oil? the sea in times of storms; and yet
not so much projection as that the sea, at the height of 71 feet
above the foot of the building, could have power enough to
derange it.

“ The bottom projection, which has been called the leam‘,
and which fills up the angle formed between the uprights
and the sloping surface of the rock, so as to guard the foot
of the uprights from that violence of actionwhich the waves
naturally exert when driven into a corner, was certainly a
very useful application; but I am inclined to think it was
not there upon the first completion.

“ Upon the flat room of the main column, as a platform,
Mr. Rudyerd fixed his lantern, which was an octagon 0f
10 feet 6 inches diameter externally. The mean height of
the window—frames of the lantern above the balcony floor,
was nearly 9 feet ; so that the elevation of the centre of the
light above the highest side of the base was 70 feet; that
is, lower than the centre of Mr. \Vinstanley’s second lantern
by 7 feet; but higher than that of his first by 24 feet. The
width of Mr. Rudyerd’s lantern was, however, nearly the
same as that of Mr. VVinstanley’s second; but, instead of
the towering ornaments of iron work, and a vane that rose
above the top of the cupola no less than 21 feet, Mr. Rud-
yerd judiciously contented himself with finishing his building
with a round ball, of 2 feet 3 inches diameter, which termi-r
nated at 3 feet above the top of his cupola. The whole
height of Mr. Rudyerd’s lantern, including the ball, was
no more than 21 feet above his balcony floor ; whereas
that of Mr. Winstanley’s, including the iron ornaments, was
above 40.

“ The whole height, then, of Mr. Rudyerd’s light-house,

, from the lowest side to the top of the ball, was 92 feet, upon

l

l

a base of 23 feet 4 inches, taken at a medium between the
highest and lowest part of the rock that it covered.

“1 have endeavoured to describe this building with all
possible minuteness, because it affords a great and very useful
lesson to future engineers. We are sure that a building such
as Mr. Winstanley’s was not capable of resisting the utmost

 

 

 

fury of the sea, because, in four years after its completion, it
was totally demolished thereby: but Mr. Rudyerd’s building
having sustained the repeated attacks of that element, in all
its fury, for upwards of forty-six years after its completion;
and then being destroyed, not by water, but by fire; we
must conclude, it was of a construction capable of withstanding
the greatest violence of the sea in that situation. And by
withstanding it there, this light-house proves the practica-
bility of a similar erection in any like exposure in the known
world.

“I have seen a paper in the hands of one of the present
proprietors, upon which were put down the quantities of
materials said to have been expended in the construction of
this building: viz., 500 tons of stone, 1,200 tons of timber,
80 tons of iron, and 35 tons of lead; and of trenails, screws,
and rack-bolts, 2,500 each.”

Mr. Smeaton then proceeds to detail the means by which
the erection of the new lighthouse fell into his hands, his
several interviews with the proprietors, and various other pre-
liminary occurrences, among which the following remarks on
the difference in structure of stone and wood, and on the bond
of the stones to the rock and to each other, are particularly
worthy of notice.

“In reflecting upon the late structure, it appeared most
evidently, that had it not been for the moor-stone courses,
inlaid into the frame of the building, and acting therein like
the ballast of a ship, it had long ago been overset, notwith-
standing all the branches and iron-work contrived to retain
it: and that, in reality, the violent agitation, rocking, or
vibration, which the late building was described to be subject
to, must have been owing to the narrowness of the base on
which it rested ; and which, the quantity of vibration it had
been constantly subject to, had rendered, in regard to its
seat, in some degree rounding, like the rockers of a cradle.
It seemed therefore a primary point of improvement, to pro-
cure, if possible, an enlargement of the base, which, from
the models before me, appeared to be practicable. It also
seemed equally desirable, not to increase the size of the pre-
sent building in its waist ; by which I mean that part of the
building between the top of the rock and the top of the solid.
If therefore I still kept strictly to the conical form, a neces-
sary consequence would be, that the diameter of every part
being proportionably increased by an enlargement of the
base, the action of the sea upon the building would be greater
in the same proportion ; but as the strength increases in pro-
portion to the increased weight of the materials, the total
absolute strength to resist that action of the sea, would be
greater by a proportional enlargement of every part, but
would require a greater quantity of materials: on the other
hand, if we could enlarge the base, and at the same time
rather diminish than increase the size of the waist and upper
works; as great a strength and stiffness would arise from
a larger base, accompanied with a less resistance to the acting
power, though consisting of a less quantity of materials, as
if a similar conical figure had been preserved.

“ On this occasion, the natural figure of the waist or hole
of a large spreading oak, presented itself to my imagination.
Let us for a moment consider this tree: suppose at 12 or 15
feet above its base, it branches out in every direction, and
forms a large bushy top, as we often observe. This top, when
full of leaves, is subject to a very great impulse from the avi-
tation of violent winds ; yet, partly by its elasticity, and partly
by the natural strength arising from its figure, it resists them
all, even for ages, till the gradual decay of the material dimi-
nishes the coherence of the parts, and they suffer piecemeal
by the violence ; but it is very rare that we hear of such a
tree being torn up by the roots. Let us now consider its par-

 

 

 

 

 

 

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ticular figure.—Connected with its roots, which lie hid below
ground, it rises from the surface thereof with a large swell-
ing base, which at the height of one diameter is generally
reduced by an elegant curve, concave to the eye, to a dia-
meter less by at least one-third, and sometimes to half of its
original base. From thence its taper diminishing more slowly,
its sides, by degrees, come into a perpendicular, and for some
height form a cylinder. After that, a preparation of more cir-
cumference becomes necessary, for the strong insertion and
establishment of the principal boughs, which produces a
swelling of its diameter. Now, we can hardly doubt but that
every section of the tree is nearly of an equal strength in
proportion to what it has to resist: and were we to lop off
its principal boughs, and expose it in that state to a rapid cur-
rent of water, we should find it as much capable of resisting
the action of the heavier fluid, when divested of the greatest
part of its clothing, as it was that of the lighter, when all its
spreading ornaments were exposed to the fury of the wind :
and hence we may derive an idea of what the proper shape
of a column of the greatest stability ought to be, to resist the
action of external violence, when the quantity of matter is
given whereof it is to be composed.

“ In Plate V. Figure 1, is a sketch, representing the idea
which I formed of this subject. It is farther observable, in
the insertions of the boughs of trees into the bole, or of the
branches into the boughs, (which is generally at an oblique
angle) that those insertions are made by a swelling curve, of
the same nature as that wherewith the tree rises out of the
ground ; and that the greatest rake or sweep of this curve is
that which fills up the obtuse angle; while the acute angle
is filled up with a much quicker curve, or sweep of a less
radius : and Figure 2, of the same Plate, represents my con-
ception of this matter. In this view of the subject, I imme-
diately rough-turned a piece of wood, with a small degree of
tapering above ; and leaving matter enough below, I fitted it
to the oblique surface of a block of wood, somewhat resem-
bling the sloping surface of the Eddystone rock; and soon
found, that by reconciling curves, I could adopt every part of
the base upon the rock to the regularly turned tapering body,
and so as to make a figure not ungraceful; and at the same
time carrying the idea of great firmness and solidity.

“ The next thing was to consider how the blocks of stone
could be bonded to the rock, and to one another, in so firm
a manner, as that, not only the whole together, but every indi-
vidual piece, when connected with what preceded, should be
proof against the greatest violence of the sea.

“ Cramping, as generally performed, amounts to no more
than a bond upon the upper surface of a course of stone,
without having any direct power to hold a stone down, in
case of its being lifted upward by an action greater than its
own weight ; as might be expected frequently to happen at
the Eddystone, whenever the mortar of the ground-bed it was
set upon was washed out of the joint, when attacked by the
sea before it had time to harden; and though upright cramps,
to confine the stones down to the course below, might in some
degree answer this end, yet, as this must be done to each
individual stone, the quantity of iron, and the great trouble
and loss of time that would necessarily attend this method,
would in reality render it impracticable ; for it appeared, that
Mr. lVinstanley had found the fixing twelve great irons, and
Mr. Rudyerd thirty-five, attended with such a consumption of
time (which arose, in a great measure, from the difficulty,
of getting and keeping the holes dry, so as to admit of the
pouring in of melted lead) that any method which required
still much more, in putting the work together upon the rock,
would inevitably, and to a very great degree, procrastinate
the completion of the building. It therefore seemed of the

 

utmost consequence to avoid this, even by any quantity of
time and moderate expense, that might be necessary for its
performance on shore; provided it prevented hinderance of
business upon the rock: because of time upon the rock, there
was likely to be a great scarcity, but on the shore a very
sufiieient plenty. This made me turn my thoughts to what
could be done in the way of dovetailing. In speaking, how.
ever, of this as a term of art, I must observe, that it had been
principally applied to works of carpentry: its application in
the masonry way had been but very slight and sparing ; for
in regard to the small pieces of stone that had been let in
with a double dovetail, across the joint of larger pieces, and
generally to save iron, it was a kind of work even more
objectionable than cramping; for though it would not require
melted lead, yet being only a superficial bond, and consisting
of far more brittle materials than iron, it Was not likely to
answer our end at all. Somewhat more to my purpose, I had
occasionally observed, in many places in the streets of Lon-
don, that, in fixing the kirbs of the walking-paths, the long
pieces, or stretchers, were retained between two headers, or
bond pieces; whose heads being cut dovetail-wise, adapted
themselves to, and confined in, the stretchers ; which expe-
dient, though chiefly intended to save iron and lead, never-
theless appeared to me capable of more firmness than any
superficial fastening could be ; as the tye was as good at the
bottom as at the top, which Was the very thing I wanted ; and
therefore if the tail of the header was made to have an ade-
quate bond with the interior parts, the work would in itself
be perfect. TVhat I mean will be rendered obvious by the
inspection of Figure 3, in Plate V. Something of this kind
I also remembered to have seen in Belidor’s description of
the stone floor of the great sluice at Cherburg, where the
tails of the upright headers are cut into dovetails, for their
insertion into the mass of rough masonry below. From these
beginnings I was readily led to think, that if the blocks them-
selves were, both inside and out, all formed into large dove-
tails, they might be managed so as mutually to lock one an-
other together; being primarily engrafted into the rock: and
in the round and entire courses, above the top of the rock,
they might all proceed from, and be locked to, one large
centre stone. After some trials in the rough, I produced a
complete design, of which Figure 5, Plate V, is the exact
copy; the dotted lines representing the course next above or
below, which in the original was drawn from the same centre,
on the other side of the paper ; so that looking on each side
separately, each course was seen distinctly; or, looking
through the paper, the relation of the two courses, showing
how they mutually broke joint upon one another, was clearly
pointed out : and this method of representation was pursued
throughout ; but not being practicable in copper-plate work,
I am under the necessity of introducing the method by dotted
lines, though attended with some degree of confusion of the
main design.

“It is obvious, that in this method of dovetailing, while
the slope of the rock was making good : by cutting the. steps

‘ (formed by Mr. Rudyerd) also into dovetails, it might be

said, that the foundation-stones of every course were engrat'ted
into, or rather rooted in, the rock; which would not only
keep all the stones in one course together, but prevent the
courses themselves (as one stone) from moving or sliding
upon each other. But after losing hold of the rock, by getting
above it; then, though every stone in the same course would
be bonded in the strongest manner with every other, and
might be considered as consisting of a single stone, which
would weigh a considerable number of tons, and would be
farther retained to the floor below by the cement, so that,
when completed, the sea would have no action upon it but

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

-QA‘. H,

 

EDD

edgeways; yet, as a force, if sufficiently great, might move
it, notwithstanding its weight, and the small hold of the sea
upon it, and break the cement before time had given it that
hardness which it might be expected to acquire afterwards ;
I had formed more expedients than one for fixmg .the courses
to one another, so as absolutely to prevent their shifting;
but 1 shall not trouble my reader with a recital of those
cxpedients at present, as they will more properly .come in
along with the reasons of my choice, in the detail of the
actual proceedings.”

Mr. Smeaton made his first voyage to the Eddystone on
the 2nd of April, 1756, but was prevented from landing by
the weather; but on the 5th of the same month he was more
successful, and staid upon the rock about two hours and a
half, during which time he observed, “such traces of the
situations of the irons fixed by Mr. Winstanley, as that it
Would not be difficult to make out his plan, and the position
of the edifice ; from whence it appeared very probable that
Mr. \Vinstanley’s building was overset all together; and
that it had torn up a portion of the rock itself with it, as far
as the irons had been fastened in it.” He also “perceived
that Mr. Rudyerd’s iron branches, as then called, were much
smaller and shorter than he had described them to be at the
bottom of his print; that many of them were loose, and some
broken and bent : and that, in regard to the steps, described
to be cut upon the rock, there were only five of them, of
l which the traces were remaining : so that there was but one

flat or tread of a step above the centre of the house; and the
. upper part of the surface of the rock above that, was a sloping
l plain, as it had been at, first. Three steps, of the five now
1 remaining, seemed to have been but faintly cut, and the
l uppermost but one was so imperfect, that he supposed a large
3 spawl or splinter had come from it; and this appeared the
l more probable, as the uppermost step was so shaken, that
l, another large spawl might have been easily raised from it,
i by a slight action of a wedge. Above the uppermost step
l
I

l

l

l

 

the rock seemed to be of a softer nature, was cracked in
many places, and probably had received some damage from
the. fire. None of the steps appeared to have been cut with
much rr-gularity, either as torlevel or square ; but to have all
the marks of hurry upon them. In the centre of the house
a slight footing was cut for the mast, suitable to a square of

18’ inches, with large iron branches, answerable to two of its

3 Shit-s, and a small hole bored in the centre, of about 141— inch
l diannater, being 6 inches deep. By consulting Plate I., many
j of the above matters will be made apparent to the eye.
l “ I then,” says Mr. Smeaton, “proceeded to try the degree
in which the rock was workable, and found that from a flat
surface, indifferently taken, I could, with a pick, sink a hollow
at the rate of five cubic inches per minute ; and could cut or
drill a hole with a jumper of 1% inch diameter, at the rate
of one inch deep in five minutes. I also tried a method of
forcing two holes into one, by a square flat—faced bruiser, or
pummel ; so that, if there should be occasion, I might be able
to make a continued groove; or let in an iron branch, in the
manner of Mr. Rudyerd, and I had the satisfaction to find
that the whole succeeded to my wishes.”

In the choice of materials, Mr. Smeaton was determined
in favour of moor—stone or granite, for the outside work, and
Portland stone for the inside. The latter was not eligible
for the outer surface, on account ofits liability to be destroyed
I by a marine insect; and the moor-stone was too hard and
l expensive in the working to admit of its being used through-
; out. the building.
| By the 15th of May, Mr. Smeaton had made ten voyages
l
|

 

 

’ of observation to the Eddystone, and then returned to Lon-
, don, where having settled with the proprietors, he received
4

333

 

EDD

his commission to proceed on the work. He then went back
to Plymouth, and, on the 3d of August, landed with the first
company of workmen on the rock, where he began to fix the
centre and lines of the work. After describing the difficulties
under which he laboured from the uncertainty of the weather,
and the necessity in which the workmen were placed, of
returning to shore every tide, till a vessel fit for their recep-
tion could be properly moored off the rock, Mr. S. observes
upon his preference of the use of picks and wedges for
operating upon the rock, that “it might seem, at first sight,
that a greater dispatch would have been by the use of gun-
powder, in blasting the rock, in the same manner as is usual
in mines, and in procuring limestone from the marble rocks
in the neighbourhood of Plymouth: but though this is a very
ready method of working hard and close rocks, in proportion
to the dispatch that could be made by picks and wedges; yet,
as a rock always yields to gunpowder in the weakest part,
and it is not always easy to know which part is weakest ; it
might often have happened, if that method had been pursued,
that, instead of forming a dovetail recess, such as was required,
the very points of confinement would have been lost. Besides,
the great and sudden concussion of gunpowder might possibly
loosen some parts that it was more suitable to the general
scheme should remain fast. For these reasons, I had pre-
viously determined to make no use of gunpowder for this
urpose.

“ On the 7th of September,” says Mr. Smeaton, “I sent
to Portland the draughts for the six foundation courses, that
were to be employed in bringing the rock to a level; which,
with the draughts for eight that I had before dispatched,
completed the order for the whole quantity of Portland stone
to be used in the solid up to the entry door ; being all that
we could expect to set in place the next season. The rock
was not indeed yet ready for completing the exact moulds
for those stones that were to fit into the dovetails made in it;
but, by ordering the stones large enough, and being scappelled
something near their proper form, it would prevent loss of
time in waiting to get the true figure from the rock, as well
as unnecessary waste.

“Nothing happened to prevent the companies from work-
ing every tide from the 27th of August till the 14th of
September, in which time they had worked one hundred and
seventy-seven hours upon the rock. In this interval, having
procured a carpenter to be applied to that purpose, I began
to make the moulds for the exact cutting of the stones to
their intended shapes. This was done by laying down, in
chalk-lines upon the floor of a chamber, the proposed size
and figure of each stone, being a portion of the plan at large
of the intended course; and the carpenter having prepared
a quantity of battens, or slips of deal board, about three
inches broad, and one inch thick, shot straight upon the edges
by a plane; those battens being cut to lengths, and their
edges adapted to the lines upon the floor, and properly fitted
together, became the exact representatives of the pieces of
stone whose figure was to be marked from them, when their
beds were wrought to the intended parallel distance.

“ It is obvious that there was no necessity for making
moulds for a Whole course after the work became regular;
as was the seventh course, after the six foundation courses
brought the rock to a level; it was sufficient to make one
mould to each circle of stones, beginning with the centre
stone; but as the six foundation courses were adapted to

the particular irregularities of the rock, and consequently i

could not be strictly regular, it was necessary that a separato
mould should be made for every separate stone composing
that part of the work.

“During this interval, I visited the rock, and on arriving

 

 

 

 

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h

l

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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there the 8th of September, was informed by Mr. Jessop,
that the preceding evening, there being a very strong tide,
and no wind, a West-Indiaman, homeward bound, and a
man-of-war’s tender, were in great danger of driving upon
the north—east rock; but that he timely perceiving their
danger, though they themselves were not aware of it, ordered
out the seamen and hands, who towed them off.

“On this visit, I staid two days ; for as the working com-
pany had begun to take down the upper part of the rock, it
was necessary to concert, and put in practice, the proper
means of doing that, without damage to what was destined
to remain. I have already mentioned my resolution of not
using gunpowder ; yet it was necessary, for the sake of dis-
patch, to employ some means more expeditious than the slow
way of crumbling off the matter by the blunt points of
picks. It has been already noticed, that the laminae com-
posing the rock were parallel to the inclined surface : and it
was very probable that the chasm into which Mr. Winstan-
ley’s chain had been so fast jambed, that it never could be
disengaged, extended farther into the rock than the visible
disunion of the parts : this made me resolve to try a method
sometimes used in this country, for the division of hard
stones, called the key and feather, in order to cross-cut this
upper stratum of the rock. The construction and operation
of the key and feather is as follows :—A right line is marked
upon the surface of the rock or stone to be cut, in the direc-
tion in which it is intended to be divided. Holes are then
drilled by a jumper, at the distance of six or eight inches,
and about one inch and a quarter in diameter, to the depth
of about eight or nine inches; the distances, however, of
the holes, and their diameters, as well as their depth, are to
to be greater or less, according to the strength of the stone,
in the estimation of the artist directing the work. The
above dimensions were what we used on this occasion.
The key is a long tapering wedge, of somewhat less breadth
than the diameter of the holes, and so as to go easily into
them ; the length being three or four inches more than the
depth of the holes. The feathers are pieces of iron, also of
a wedge-like shape; the side to be applied to the key being
flat, but the other side a segment of a circle, answerable to
that of the holes; so that the two flat sides of two feathers
being applied to the two flat sides of the key, and the thick
end of the feathers to the thin end of the key, they all toge-
ther compose a cylindric, or rather oval kind of body; which
in this position of parts is too big to go into the holes by at
least one-eighth of an inch; that is, in the direction of a
diameter passing through the three parts; but, in the other
direction, is no broader than to go with ease into the holes.
A key and a pair of feathers is made use of in each hole ;
and the feathers being first dropped in, with the thick ends
downward, the keys are then entered between them; the
flat sides of all the keys and the feathers being set parallel to
that line in which the holes are disposed : the keys are then
driven by a sledge-hammer, proceeding from one to another,
and being forced gradually, as in splitting of moor-stone, the
strongest stones are unable to resist theirjoint effort; and the
stone is split according to the direction of the original line,
as effectually, and much more regularly and certainly, than
could be done with gunpowder, and without any concussion
of the parts. Had our rock been entirely solid, this way of
working might not have been applicable, on account of the
crack’s going too deep; but here, when it arrived at the joint
where the chain was lodged, the split part became entirely
disengaged from the rest ; and in this way we were enabled
to bring off the quantity of several cubic feet at a time: and
thus the chain was released, after a confinement of above
fifty years. The impossibility of disengaging it before now

334

 

EDD

appeared very evident; for the pressure had been so great by
the rock’s closing upon it, as before suggested, that the links
in their intersections were pressed into each other, as com-
pletely as if they had been made of lead; though the bolt-
iron composing the chain had been at least five-eighths of an
inch in diameter.

“ On Thursday, the 16th, I again went off to the rock,
and found the work in the following situation. The lowest
new step (the most difficult to work upon, because the lowest)
with its dovetails quite completed. The second step rough-
bedded, and all its dovetails scappelled out. The third step
(being the lowest in Mr. Rudyerd’s work) smooth-bedded, and
all the dovetails roughed out. The fourth in the like state.
The fifth rough-bedded, and dovetails scappelled out: and the
sixth smooth-bedded, and all the dovetails roughed out.
Lastly, the top of the rock, the greatest part of the bulk
whereof had been previously taken down by the key-and-fca-
ther method, as low as it could be done with propriety, was
now to be reduced to a level with the upper surface of the
sixth step ; the top of that step being necessarily to form a
part of the bed for the seventh, or first regular course ; so
that what now remained, was to bring the top of the rock
to a regular floor by picks: and from what now appeared,
(as all the upper parts, that had been damaged by the tire,
were cut off,) the new building was likely to rest upon a
basis even more solid than the former had done.

“ On Thursday, the 30th, I traced the outlines upon the
upper part, of the rock for the border of the seventh course,
all within which was to be sunk to the level of the top of the
sixth, and all without to be left standing, as a border for
defence of the ground—joint of the work with the rock ; and
measuring the height of the top step above the bed of the
first, I found it to be eight feet four inches; which would
now be the difference of level between the west or lowest
side of the new building, and the east or highest.”

The setting in of the equinoetial winds prevented much
farther progress in the work for this season; but on the
7th of November, the weather being somewhat moderate,
Mr. Smeaton went off in the Eddystone boat, with battens,
and the carpenter, to mould off the dovetails from the rock,
when he found “ four or five of the dovetails in the upper
step wanting some amendment, that would employ as many
men at each, for about four or five hours. The greatest part
of the top of the rock was now brought to a regular floor,
but some part of the north-east side wanted bringing down
to a level.” And here the operations for the year ended;
for, on the 15th of the month, the workmen left the ruck,
having been able to make only thirty-eight hours and a half
since the 2nd of October.

Mr. Smeaton occupies the interval between this period and
the next working season with describing the regulations of
his masou’s yard, the size of the stones, &c., among which
the following remarks may be useful to the reader.

“From the beginning I always laid it down asa thinlamcntal
maxim, that 011 account of the precariousness of weather to
suit our purposes, (and without its being tavourable, I think
it has already sufficiently appeared, that nothing is to be done-
upon the Eddystone,) if we could save one hour's work upon
the rock, by that of a week in our work-yard, this would
always prove a valuable purchase ; and that theretore every-
thing ought to be done by way of preparation. \Vlllt‘ll could
tend to the putting our work together with expedition and
certainty, in the ultimate fixing of it in its proper place; and
for this purpose, it was necessary to make use of as large
and heavy pieces of stone as, in such a situation as the Eddy-
stone, were likely to be capable of being managed without
running too great a risk.

 

 

 

 

 

 

EDD

335

EDD

 

“ The common run of modern buildings, even of the
largest size, are composed of pieces in general not exceeding

, five or six hundred-weight, except where columns, archi-

traves, cornices, and other parts are to be formed, that indis-
pensably require large single pieces; because stones of this
size and bulk are capable of being handled \v1thout theme
of tackles, or purchases, unless where they are to be ralsed
perpendicularly: yet it appeared to me, that this choice of
general magnitude resulted only from the workmen s not
having commonly attained all that expertness m the manage-
ment of the mechanic powers that they might have; in con-
sequence of which, they avoid, wherever they can, the neces-
sity of employing them. This arises not from the real nature
of the thing, when properly understood; for a stone of a ton
weight is, when hoisted by a proper tackle, and power of
labourers, as soon and as easily set in its place, as one of a
quarter of that weight; and, in reality, needs much less hew-
ing than is necessary for the preparation of four stones to
till up the same space; nor need this reasoning stop at stones
of a ton weight, but it might proceed even to as large sizes
as are said to be found in the ruins of Balbec, if there were
not incom’euieuces of other kinds to set on the opposite side
of the question, as well as the want of quarries in this king-
dom to produce stones of that magnitude.

“ The size of the stones that could be used in the Eddy-
stone lighthouse seemed limited by the practicability of land-
ing them upon the rock: for as nothing but small vessels, that
were easily manageable, could possibly deliver their cargoes
alongside of the rock, with any reasonable prospect of safety;
so no small vessels could deliver very large stones, because the
Sudden rising and falling of the vessels in the gut amounted
frequently to the difference of three or four feet, even in
moderate weather, when it was very practicable for a vessel
to lie there; so that in case, after a stone was raised from
the. floor of the. vessel, her gunnel should take a swing, so as
to hitch under the stone, one of such a magnitude as we are
now supposing, on the vessel’s rising, must infallibly sink
her ; and hence it appeared, that much of the safety in deli-
vering the cargoes would depend upon having the single
pieces not to exceed such weight as could be expeditiously
hoisted, and got out of the way of the vessel, by a moderate
number of hands, and by such sort of tackles as could be
removed from the rock to the store-vessel each tide: and on
a full view of the whole matter, it appeared to me very prac-
ticable to land such pieces of stone upon the rock, as in
:general did not much exceed a ton-weight; though occa-
sionally particular pieces might amount to two tons.

" The general size of our building stones being thus
determined upon at a ton-weight, those would have been far
too heavy to be expeditiously transferred and managed, even
in the Work—yard, unless our machinery rendered that easy,
which would otherwise be difficult, without too great an
expense of labour: and as the moving and transferring the
pieces of stone in the work-yard would be greatly increased
in quantity, by the very mode of attaining a certainty in
putting the work together upon the rock ; this consideration
made it still the more necessary to be able to load upon a
carriage, and move the different pieces from one part of the
yard to the other, with as much facility (comparatively speak-
ing) as if they had been so many bricks : for, that we might
arrive at perfect certainty in putting the work ultimately
together in its place upon the rock, it did not appear to be
enough, that the stones should all be hewn as exactly as pos-

 

sible to moulds that fitted each other; but it was farther
necessary, that the stones in every course should be tried
together in their real situation in respect to each other, and l
so exactly marked, that every stone, after the course was I

 

taken asunder, could bereplaced in the identical position in
which it lay upon the platform, within the fortieth part of an
inch. Nor was this alone sufficient ; for every course must
not only be tried singly together upon the platform, and
marked, but it must have the course next above it put upon
it, and marked in the same manner, that every two conti-
guous courses might fit each other on the outside, and prevent
an irregularity in the outline : and this indeed, in effect,
amounted to the platforming of every course twice : so that,
in this way of working, every stone must be no less than six
times upon the carriage z—lst. When brought into the yard
from the ship, to carry it to the place of deposition, till
wanted to be worked.—2ndly. When taken up and carried
to the shed to be worked.—3rdly. After being wrought, to
be returned to its place of deposition.—4thly. When taken
up to be carried to the platform.—5thly. When finished on
the platform, to be returned to its place of deposition.—6thly.
\Vhen taken up to be carried to the jetty, to be loaded on
board a vessel to go to sea.

“It might, at first sight, appear superfluous to try the
courses together upon each other, as the under and upper
sides of all the courses were planes: and, in case the work
could have been put together upon the rock in the same way
that common masonry generally is done, it would have been
so: that is, if we could have begun our courses by setting
the outside pieces first, then it would have been very practi-
cable to have regulated the inside pieces thereto ; but as our
hope of expedition depended upon certainty in every part of
our progress, this required us to be in a condition to resist
a storm at every step: the outside stones therefore, uncon-
nected with the inner ones, would have scarce any fastening
besides their own weight, and would be subject to the most
immediate and greatest shock of the sea; and, after com-
pleting the outward circle, the inner space would be liable to
become a receptacle for water : the necessity therefore of fix-
ing the centre stone first, as least exposed to the stroke of the
sea, and of having sure means of attaching all the rest to it,
and to one another, rendered it indispensable that the whole
of the two courses should be tried together; that if any
defect appeared at the outside, by an accumulation of
errors from the centre, it might be rectified upon the plat-
form.

“The moor-stone, though very hard with respect to its
component parts, yet being of a friable nature, is extremely
diflicult to work to an arris (or sharp corner,) or even to be
preserved, when so wrought by great labour and patience.
that is, with sharp tools, and small blows ; it therefore soon
appeared to me, that we should make very rough and coarse
work of it, if the finishing of the pieces were left to the
workmen of the country where produced ; for, though care-
fully wrought there in their place, yet in loading and unload-
ing from their carriages, and again putting on board, and
unloading from the vessels, the arrises would be very subject
to damage. Therefore, to have as much done in the country
as possible, and to save weight in carriage (leaving the finish-
ing part to be done at home) rough moulds were sent for each
size and species of stone, which were to be worked by them
to a given parallel thickness, and with length and breadth
enough, when so bedded, (as it is called) to be cut round all
the sides to the true figure of the finishing mould : but they
were to reduce them as near the size as they could safely do
it by the hammer ; and, that they might not leave on unne-

cessary waste, they were to be paid no more for either stone.

or carriage, than what the mould measured upon the thick-
ness given ; and if they were wanting of substance suflicient
to make the figure complete, it should be at our option to
reject them when they came home.”

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

_.-~.._.—~ h, W7”. .__

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336

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Our author next proceeds to detail his experiments on
cements ; but as they COnstitute no part of the building pro-
cess, the reader is referred to the articles CEMENT and MOR—
TAR, where the subject is duly considered.

On the 5th of June, 1757, the operations on the rock were
recommenced, and by the 10th all the preliminary matters
were settled; so that “on Saturday, the 11th of June, the
first course of stone was put on board the Eddystone boat,
(see Plate III. Figure 1,) with all the necessary stores, tools,
and utensils. We landed at eight on Sunday morning, the
12th of June, and before noon had got the first stone into its
place, being that upon which the date of the year 1757 is
inscribed, in deep characters ; and the tide coming upon us,
we secured it with chains to the old stancheons, and then
quitted the rock till the evening tide, when it was fitted,
bedded in mortar, trenailed down, and completely fixed ; and
all the outward joints coated over with plaster-of—paris, to
prevent the immediate wash of the sea upon the mortar.
This stone, according to its dimensions, weighed two tons and
a quarter. The weather serving at intervals, it was in the
evening of Monday, the 13th, that the first course, consisting
of four stones, was finished; and which, as they all presented
some part of their faces to the sea, were all of moor-stone.

“ The next day, Tuesday the 14th, the second course (see
Plate III. Figure 2,) arrived; and some of it was imme-
diately landed, proceeded with, and in part set the same tide:
the loose pieces being chained together by strong chains,
made on purpose for this use, and those ultimately to the stan-
eheons, or to lewises in the holes of the work Course I. that
had already been fixed. The sea was uncommonly smooth
when we got upon the rock, this evening’s tide, but while we
were proceeding with our work, within the space of an hour
and a half, the wind sprung up at north-east, and blew so
fresh, that the Weston, lying to deliver the remainder of her
cargo, had some difficulty in getting out of the gut; and, had
it not been for the transport buoy, to which she had a fasten—
ing by a rope, it would probably have proved impracticable
to have got her out again. And we soon saw it was necessary
to get everything in the best posture time and circumstances
would admit, in order to quit the rock with safety to our-
selves, and security to What we must necessarily leave
behind us.

“ The pieces that were fixed and trenailed down, were
supposed to be proof against whatever might happen; but
the loose pieces, and those that were simply lowered down
into their dovetail recesses, were considered as needing some
additional security, to prevent their being carried away by
the violence of the sea. Of the thirteen pieces of which
Course II. consisted, five only were landed: No. 1 was
completely set; No. 2 and 3 were lowered into their places,
and secured by chains ; and No. 4 and 5, which lay at the
top of the rock, were chained together, and also to the slide-
ladder, which was very strongly lashed down to the eye-bolts,
purposely fixed on the rock for that intent.

“ In the evening (of June 15,) we made a short tide upon
the rock, and had the satisfaction to find that no material
damage had happened to anything; we therefore proceeded
with our work, and completely fixed No. 2 of Course II.
On the morning of Friday the 17th we again landed for a
short time; and, notwithstanding we did not meet with any-
thing amiss on our return to the rock on Wednesday even-
ing, after the hard gale of wind, yet this morning we found
a part of the rock in the border of our work, that secured
a corner of No. 3, was gone: we therefore, to secure that
stone to its neighbour, applied an iron cramp, of which we
had some in readiness in case of accident. We were prevented
landing in the evening, by a fresh wind and rain at. north-

 

west, but landed again on Saturday morning’s tide, the 18th. i’
However, we had not been long there before a great swell :
arose from the south-west; and, though there had been no
Wind apparently to occasion it, yet it came upon us so fast,
that we were obliged to quit the rock before we could get
our work into so satisfactory aposture of defence as I wished.
It was, however, as follows: No.1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, were
completely fixed as intended ; No. 6 and 7, were fitted, and
lowered upon their mortar-beds ; No. 8, was simply got into
its place, with a weight of lead of five hundred weight upon
it; which, in all such trials as had hitherto been made
thereof, had lain quietly. Not having time to get the stone,
No. 9, into its place, we chained it upon the top of the rock
to the slide-ladder, as we had done before on Tuesday. In
this condition we left the rock, having staid till we were all
wet from head to foot.

“ The storm continued till Tuesday morning : about noon
of that day,” says Mr. Smeaton, “the wind and sea having
become still more moderate, I judged it practicable to row
ahead against it, so as to get to the westward of the rock,
and reconnoitre our damages: accordingly, taking four ours
in the light yawl, it being then near low water, I observed,
when the sea fell away from the rocks, (every sea then
breaking bodily over it,) that No. 9, and the slide-ladder to
which it was chained, were both gone ; that the two pieces
of moor-stone, No. 5 and 6, which had only been let down
upon their mortar-beds, Without farther fastening, were also
gene; that No. 3 had broke its cramp, and was gone; and
that the five hundred weight of lead, that had been laid upon
the most projecting part of the piece, No. 8, had, by the force
of the sea acting edgwise upon it, been driven to the east-
ward, till it was stopped by the rise of the third step, against
which it seemed abutted; so that having thereby quitted the
piece, N0. 8, upon which it was laid, that was gone also:
we therefore, as it appeared, had lost five pieces of stone ;
the loss of which was, in the first instance, alleviated by
finding that the first course appeared so thoroughly united .
with the rock, that its surface began to look black, with dark—
coloured moss fixing upon it, and giving it the same hue as
the rock itself: also, that our shears and windlass were all
standing, without ihe least derangement.

“I did not wait for the subsiding of the winds and seas,
so as to enable us to land, and look out whether or no we
could recover any of the lost pieces; I immediately made for
Plymouth in the light yawl, and landed at Mill Bay, at five
o’clock on Tuesday evening, the 2lst ; and, having collected
the moulds 0f the stones we had lost, and chosen proper spare
blocks, I set a couple of men to work upon each piece of
stone, day and night, till finished. This disaster, though it
furnished a few reflections, yet they were not of the unpleasant
kind; for, as every part of the stonework that was completed
according to its original intention, appeared to have remained
fixed, it demonstrated the practicability of the method chosen;
and at the same time shewed the preference of wedging to
cramping, as the cramp had failed: and also the utility of
trenails, as a security till the mortar was become hard.

“ At four o’clock on Monday morning the 27th, the
weather serving, I went out with Richardson and company,
in the Eddystone boat ; we got to the buss at ten, and found
the Weston at the transport buoy, but could not land till the
afternoon’s tide, being a complete week since we had been
last upon the rock. We first replaced the ladder, and after-
wards proceeded, without more than usual interruptions, till
the 30th in the evening, when we closed and completed the
Course No. II., and began upon Course III. The execution
of these two courses had taken us up from the 12th to the :
30th inclusive, and though they consisted of no more than L

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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seventeen pleces of stone in the whole, yet I found myself no
ways disheartened; for, in establishing these two courses,
I considered the most difficult and arduous part of the work
to be already accomplished, as these two courses brought us
up to the same level where my predecessor Mr. Rudyerd
{d be un.

1”“ Frigday, July the 1st, we were able to land. I observed,
that during the last tide, the swell had washed some of the
pointing out of the exterior jomts, and also some of the grouting
out of the upright joints ; but as a heavy sea. seemed likely
to come on with the tide of flood, Ijudged it to be. to no
purpose to repair the cement while a yiolent swell continued;
I therefore employed the company in cutting off the iron
stancheons belonging to the former bulldlng, as they now
began to be in our way, and as the hold we get of them
ceased to he of use, in proportion as we got more fastening
from the lewis holes of our own work.

“ The weather having become more favourable, on Sunday
morning, the 3d of July, I went on board, accompanied by
Mr. Jessop and his party, to whom, as they had never had
the opportunity of setting a stone, it behoved me to attend.
\Vc, however, not only met with a repulse this day, but could
not make any farther attempt to go out till Tuesday, the
5th ; and then the wind, though gentle, being contrary, had
not the company on board the buss come with their two
yawls and towed us thither, in all probability the day would
have been spent in fruitless attempts. Our difficulty was
considerably increased by the coming on of so thick a fog,
that, all our efforts united, we had much ado to regain the
bass. Richardson told me they had had such bad weather,
that the slide-ladder had again broke its lashings and driven
away ; that they had, however, got all the irons cut off close to
the rock ; but that the last tide, though there was only a breeze
at south-west, the swell was so great, and came on so suddenly,
as to put them in great danger of being washed off from the
top of the rock, before they could quit it.

“ At two o’clock this day we landed, and Jessop’s company
set. six pieces of stone, and effectually repaired the cement ;
and next day a proportionable dispatch was made, though the
weather was not very mild.

"()ll Monday, the llth, I again went out; Course III.
consisting of twenty-five pieces, was closed on the following
day. and Course IV. begun.

"‘ Thursday, the 14th ofJuly, the company pursued the work
of Course IV.; and now, both companies being fully instructed
in the method of Setting the basement courses, I returned to
Plymouth ; from whence I proposed to visit each company as
often as should seem expedient, but always once in each
etnnpany’s turn, if wind and weather should permit.

-‘ (.‘ontrary winds, ground-swells, and heavy seas for several
days, interrupted the regularity of our proceedings ; however,
taking such opportunities as we could, the Course IV., con-
Sieting ot‘ twenty-three pieces of stone, was closed in the
nnn'ning’s tide of the 31st of July, (see Plate III.) ; and in
the evening‘s tide five pieces of Course V. were set. Our
work went on regularly for some days together; and, visit-
ing the work upon the 5th of August, I found the Course V.
containing twenty-six pieces, closed in, (see Plate 111.); but
that by some inadverteney in proceeding with the interior
part, the masons had been obliged to set two of the outside
pieces so as to be farther out than they should have been
by an inch each. However, as I found the work was sound
and firm, I thought it better to cut off the superfluous stone
from the outside, than to disturb the work by the violence
that must have been used in unsetting the pieces ; I there-
fore determined to let them stand as they were, till the
cement was become so hard as to support the edges of

4 B

 

 

the stone while the faces were working afresh ; and which,
from the mortar of our first and second course, we found was
likely to be the case before the close of the season. One of
the dovetails had also given way in driving a trenail, owing
to a flaw in the stone; for the remedying whereof we applied
a cramp.

“The 8th of August, at noon, the weather being exceeding
fine, with a low neap tide, I took the opportunity of drawing
a meridian line upon the platform of Course VI. the sea
never going over the work during the whole tide, which was
the first time it had not washed over all, since we began to
build: we therefore took this favourable opportunity of care-
fully making good all our pointings and groutings, wherever
the water had washed during the bad weather that had
succeeded the last departure of the Eddystone boat; and
which was the case with it, in places where it had not had
time to set before a rough tide came on ; but I observed, with
much satisfaction, that whatever, not only of the original work,
but of the repaired pointing, had once stood a rough tide
without giving way, the same place never after failed. I also
observed, that as in mending the pointings we had in some
places made trial of Dutch tarras as well as puzzolana, inter-
changeably, the puzzolana, for hard service, was evidently
superior to the tarras: and some particular joints had proved
so diflieult, that I was obliged to try other expedients; the
best of which was to chop oakum very small, and beat it up
along with the mortar. This was our last resource, and it
never failed us.

“ Upon the llth, I again went out in the vessel that con-
tained the remaining pieces of Course VL: those I saw fixed;
and that course, consisting of thirty-two pieces, closed in the
same evening. (See Plate III.) This completing our six base-
ment courses, brought our work upon the same level to
which we had, the preceding season, reduced the top of the
rock; and upon this, as a common base, the rest of the struc-
ture was to be raised by regular entire courses. The time
this part of the work (consisting of one hundred and twenty-
three pieces of stone) had taken up, was from the 12th of
June to the 11th of August inclusive, being a space of sixty-
one days. lVe now considered our greatest difficulties to be
successfully; surmounted, as every succeeding course had
given us more and more time, as well as more and more
room; and this will appear from our proceedings; for it has
already been noticed, that the two first courses, consisting of
nineteen pieces of stone only, had cost us seventeen days.

“ Having now got the work to this desirable situation, I
apprehend it will be agreeable to my reader to be more par-
ticularly acquainted with the method in which the stones
were set and fixed. I have intimated, that when each
separate piece, of which a course was to consist, was separately
wrought, they were all to be brought to their exact places with
respect to each other, upon the platform in the work-yard, and
so marked, that, after being numbered and taken to pieces,
they could again be restored to the same relative position.
This was done upon the complete circular courses by drawing
lines from the centre to the circumference, passing through
the middle of each set of stones; and likewise concentric cir-
cles through the middle of each tier or circle of stones, so as
to indicate to the eye their relative position to each other:
but to render the marks not easily delible, where those lines
crossed the joints, a nick was cut and sunk into the surface
of the twp adjacent stones; for doing which, a piece of thin
plate-iron .was employed, with sand, upon the principle that
stones are sawn ; so that not only the. sight, but feeling, could
be employed in bringing them together again exactly; for
the same or a similar plate being applied to the nick, the
least irregularity of its position would be discoverable. In a

 

 

 

 

 

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similar manner the stones of the base courses were marked
by lines drawn parallel to the length of the steps, and others

prependicular t6 the same, the crossings being sawn in, as

before described. There was, however, a nicety in this part
of the work, that required particular attention, and that was
in forming a provision for setting the four radical stones,
that occupy the four radical dovetails into which each step
was formed, as may be observed in the several figures of
Plate III. Those stones were formed, from the work of the
rock’s being actually moulded off, and from the manner,
already described, of bringing those moulds to agree after
they were brought home from the rock, those stones were
laid upon the platform thereby, and then marked with lines
upon their own substance, in the manner just mentioned: and
as the distances of each of those stones were then ascertained
by gauge-rods of white fir-wood, while upon the platform; it
must be expected, as each step was reduced to a level plain,
as the platform was, that when laid upon the rock in their
due positions and distances, by the gauge-rods, they would
nearly fit the dovetails that had been cut in the rock to
receive them ; and where there was the least want of fitness,
as might possibly happen with bodies of so rigid a nature,
either the stone or the rock was out, till each stone would
come into its exact relative position, and then all the rest
would follow one another by their marks, in the same manner
as they had done upon the platform.

“It is necessary to be noticed, that the waist of each piece
of stone had two grooves cut, from the top to the bottom of
the course, of an inch in depth, and three inches in width:
applicable to those grooves were prepared a number of oak
wedges, somewhat less than three inches in breadth, than one
inch thick at the head, nearly three-eighths thick at the point,
and six inches long. The disposition of these grooves is
shown in the courses of Plate III. where the little black
parallelogram figures, placed along the lines describing the
joints of the courses, represent the tops of the grooves, and
their place on the right hand or left of the joint line show in
which stone the groove is cut. It is also to be noted, that
where the flank side of a stone was not more in length than
a foot, or fourteen inches, one groove was generally deemed
sufficient; but those of eighteen inches or upwards had,
generally, in themselves or the adjoining stone, a couple of
grooves.

“ ’l‘he mortar was prepared for use by being beat in a very
strong wooden bucket, made for the purpose; each mortar-
beater had his own bucket, which he placed upon any level part
of the work, and with a kind of rammer, or wooden pestle,
. first beat the lime alone, about a quarter of a peck at a time,
to which, when formed into a complete, but rather thin paste,
with sea-water, he then gradually added the other ingredient,
keeping it constantly in a degree of toughness by continuance
of beating. When a stone had been fitted and ready for
setting. he whose mortar had been longest in beating came
first, and the rest in order: the mason took the mortar out of
the bucket; and, if any was spared, he still kept on beating;
if the whole was exhausted, he began upon a fresh batch.
The stones were first tried, and heaved into and out of their
recesses, by a light movable triangle, which being furnished
with a light double tackle, the greatest number ofall the pieces
could be purchased by the simple application of the hand;
and this made our stones to be readily manageable by such
machinery as could commodiously be moved and carried back-
ward and forward in the yawls every tide. To the first stone,
and some few others, we took the great tackle, that we
might hoist and lower them with certainty and ease; but
there were not in the whole above a dozen stones that
required it.

 

“ The stone to be set being hung in the tackle, and its bed
of mortar spread, was then lowered into its place, and beat
down with a heavy wooden maul, and levelled with a spirit
level: and the stone being brought accurately to its marks, it
was then Considered as set in its place. The business now
was to retain it exactly in that position, notwithstanding the
utmost violence of the sea might come upon it before the
mortar was hard enough to resist it. The carpenter now
dropped into each groove two of the wedges already described,
one upon its head, and the other with its point downward, so
that the two wedges in each groove would then lie heads and
points. With a bar of iron of about two inches and a half
broad, three-quarters of an inch thick, and two feet and a
half long, the ends being square, he could easily (as with a
rammer) drive down one wedge upon the other, very gently
at first, so that the opposite pairs of wedges being equally
tightened, they would equally resist each other, and the stone

would therefore keep its place; and in this manner those =

wedges might be driven even more tight than there was
occasion for; as the wood being dry, it would by swelling
become tighter; and it was possible that by too much driving,
and the swelling of the wedges, the stones might be broken;
and farther, that a moderate fastening might be effectual, a
couple of wedges were also, in like manner, pitched at the
top of each groove, the dormant wedge, or that with the point

upward, being held in the hand, while the drift wedge, or \

that with its point downward, was driven with a hammer; the
whole of what remained above the upper surface of the stone
was then cut off with a saw or chisel; and generally a couple
of thin wedges were driven very moderately at the but-end of
the stone; whose tendency being to force it out of its dove-
tail, they would, by moderate driving, only tend to preserve
the whole mass steady together; in opposition to the violent
agitation that might arise from the sea.

“ After a stone was thus fixed, we never, in fact, had an
instance of its having been stirred by any action of the sea
whatever; but, considering the unmeasured violence thereof,
the farther security by trenails will not seem altogether
unnecessary, when we reflect, that after a stone was thus
fixed in its place by wedges, a great sea coming upon it,
(often in less than half an hour) was capable of washing out
all the mortar from the bed underneath it, notwithstanding
every defence we could give it by plaster or otherwise; and
that when the bed of mortar was destroyed, the sea acting
edgewise upon the joint, would exert the same power to lift it
up, that the same sea would exert t0 overset it, in case its
broad base was turned upright to oppose it; and as the
wedges only fixed and secured the several pieces of which
each course consisted, to each other, and had no tendency to
keep the whole course from lifting together, in case the whole
should lose its mortar bed; it seemed therefore highly neces-
sary to have some means of preventing the lifting the whole
of a course together, till the solidity and continuity of the
mortar should totally take away that tendency. Adverting
now to what was said, that a couple of holes, to receive oak
trenails of one inch and three quarters in diameter, \vere
bored in the work-yard through the external or projecting end
of every piece of stone: we must now suppose these stones
set in their places, and fixed by wedges; then one of the tin-
ners, with a jumper, began to continue the hole into the
stone of the course below, and bored it to about eight or nine
inches deep: but this hole was bored of a less size, by one-
eighth of an inch in diameter, than the hole through the
stone above; in consequence, the trenails, having been pre
viously dressed with a plane till they would drive somewhat
freely through the upper hole, would drive stifily into the
under one, and generally would become so fast as to drive no

i

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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farther before their leading end got down to the bottom ;.and
if so, they were sufficiently fast: but as they sometimes
happened to drive more freely than at others, the followmg
method was used to render them fast, for a certainty, when
they got to the bottom. The leading end of every trenail
was split with a saw, for about a couple of inches, and into-this
split was introduced a wedge, about one-eighth. of an inch
less in breadth than the diameter of the trenail; it was a full
quarter of an inch in thickness at the head, and sharpened to
an edge: when therefore the head of the wedge touched the
bottom of the hole, the trenail being forcibly driven thereupon,
would enter upon it, till the whole substance was Jambed so
fur-t. that the trenail would drive no farther; and as the wood
would afterwards swell in the hole, and fill the little irre-
gularities of boring by thejumper, it became so fast, that, as
it seems, they could sooner be pulled in two than the trenails
be drawn out again. The trenail (originally made somewhat
too long) being then cut off even with the top pf the stone,
its upper end was wedged cross and cross. Ihere belng
generally two trenails to each plece of stone, no asmgnable
power, less than what would by main stress pull these tre-
nails in two, could lift one of these stones from their beds
when so fixed, exclusive of their natural weight, as all agita-
tion was prevented by the lateral wedges. The stone being
thus fixed, a proper quantity of the beat mortar was liquefied,
and the joints having been carefully pointed up to the upper
surface, the grout so prepared was run in with iron ladies,
and was brought to such a consistency as to occupy every
Void space; and though aconsiderable part of this was water,
yet that being absorbed by the dry stones, and the more con-
sistent parts settled to the bottom, the vacuity belng at the
top, this was repeatedly refilled till all remained solid: the
top was then pointed, and, when necessary, defended by a
coat of plaster.

“ The several courses, represented in Plate III. are shown
as they Would appear, when completed with the whole of
their wedges and trenails : and besides these, there being also
generally two lewis holes upon the upper surface of each
stone, those Served as temporary fixtures for the work of the
succeeding cour:e.

" It was the same evening’s tide, of the 11th of August,
that the basement was completed and the centre stone of
Course Vll. was landed. Of the preceding courses, each was
lwgtltl by the stones that engrafted in the dovetail recesses
cut in the rock; these stones, therefore, being immovable
by any assignable force acting horizontally, rendered those
so liken ise that depended upon them ; but having now
brought the whole upon a level, we could not have this
advantage any longer; it therefore became necessary to
attain a similar advantage by artificial means. For this
purpose, the upper surface of Course VL, (Plate III.
figure (5,) had a hole of one foot square cut through the
stone that occupied the centre ; and also eight depressions, of
one foot square, sunk into that course six inches deep, which
were. disposed at regular distances round the centre: these
cavities were for the reception of eight cubes of marble, in
masonry called joggles. As a preparation for setting the
(‘UIlll‘ti stone of Course VII., a parallelopiped (which, for
shortness sake, I will call the plug) of strong hard marble
from the rocks near Plymouth, of one foot square and twenty-
two inches in length, was set with mortar in the central
cavity, and therein firmly fixed with thin wedges. Course
VI. being thirteen inches in height, this marble plug, which
reached through, would rise nine inches above it ; upon this,
the centre stone (see Plate IV. Course VII.) having a hole
through its centre of a foot square, was introduced upon the
prominence of the plug, and, being bedded in mortar, was in

339

 

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like manner wedged (with wedges on each side of the plug
and every remaining cavity filled with grout. By this means,
no force of the sea, acting horizontally upon the centre stone,
less than what was capable of cutting the marble plug in two,
was able to move it from its place : and to prevent the stone
more effectually from being lifted, in case its bed of mortar
happened to be destroyed, it was fixed down in the manner
above described, by four trenails ; which being placed near
to the corners of the large square of that stone, they not
only effectually prevented the stone from lifting, but aided the
centre plug in preventing the stone from moving angularly,
or twisting, which it might otherwise have done, notwith-
standing its weight, which was two tons nearly.

“ After setting the first centre stone of Course VII. we
immediately proceeded to set the four stones that surround
it, and which were united thereto by four dovetails, project-
ing from the four sides of the centre stone. These stones
being fixed in their dovetails by a pair of wedges on each
side, at bottom and top, as has already been mentioned, and
held down by a couple of trenails to each surrounding stone,
and still farther steadied by joint wedges at the head of the
dovetails, and also in the mitre, or diagonal joints, between
each surrounding piece ; the whole formed a circular kind of
stone of ten feet diameter, and above seven tons weight : and
which being held down by a centre plug and twelve trenails,
became in effect one single stone ; whose circumference was
sufficient to admit of eight dovetail recesses to be formed
therein, so as to be capable of retaining in their places a
circle of eight pieces of stone, of about twelve hundred
weight each, in the same manner, and upon the same
principle, that the radical pieces of stone were engrafted into
the dovetail recesses of the rock; and which being in like
manner wedged and trenailed, we proceeded with circular
tiers of stone, in the manner shown in Plate IV. Figure 1.
It is, however, to be remarked, that the mode ofapplying the
wedges and trenails bei‘ng sufficiently explained in the seve-
ral figures of Plate III. and also in Plate IV. Figure l, to
avoid a repetition of small work, the several succeeding figures
simply show the general shapes and disposition of the diffe-
rent pieces composing a course, and other incidental larger
matters, wholly omitting the particular application of the
wedges and trenails ; yet it is to be observed, that they were
everywhere equally applied, till we got to the top of the
solid.

“ My much esteemed master and friend, Mr. Weston, who
came from London to be witness of our proceedings, arrived
at Plymouth during this interval. I went off with him early
on Wednesday morning, the 17th, attended by Mr. Jessop and
his company, and landed upon the rock at ten : Richardson
and company were then about to begin to set the fifth tier,
or circle of stones, which was to contain the eight cubes
before described. These cubes were so disposed upon the
surface of Course VI. that the cavities cut on the under side
of Course VII. to take the upper half of each cube, should
constantly fall in the broad part of the stones of the fifth
circle; which will appear plain by considering the dotted
lines relative to Course VII. upon the surface of Course VI.
(see Plate III. Figure 6.) There could consequently be no
application of wedges in the upper course, to the fastening of
the circle of stones, (No. 5.) upon their respective cubes:
when therefore the stone respectively came upon them, we
put as much mortar upon the top of the cube as would in
part make good the joint between it and its cavity, but not
enough quite to fill it; because, if too full, there was no
ready way for the superfluous mortar to escape ; but a hole,
of the size of those for the trenails, being previously bored
through each of these pieces, answerable to the middle of

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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each cube ; when the stone was set, wedged and trenailed,
then it was very practicable, by dressing a trenail so as to
become a ram-rod, to drive as much mortar down the hole
as would completely fill every vacancy between the stone and
its cube ; insom'uch that we soon perceived, that if this was
attempted before the stone was completely trenailed down, it
would very easily raise the stone from its bed, as might
indeed be expected from the principles of hydrostatics : but,
being done after such completion, it brought the whole to the
most solid bearing that could be wished; and, when the
cement was hardened, answered the end quite as effectually
as if they had been wedged.

“ It may here be very properly said, that since those cubes
could be of little use in keeping the work firmly together,
before the mortar was hardened ; and after that had taken
place, they could be of no use; because the number of one
hundred and eight trenails, of which one of these courses
consisted when complete, being supposed sufficient to keep it
from lifting and moving out of its place; as the mortar
hardened, and every additional course was an addition of its
own weight upon the former, if those cubes could have been
dispensed with in the first instance, they might have been
so ever after. This reasoning I can very well admit to be
true; yet, when we have to do with, and to endeavour to
control, those powers of nature that are subject to no calcu-
lation, I trust it will be deemed prudent not to omit, in such
a case, anything that can without difficulty be applied, and
that would be likely to add to the security. It may farther
be remarked, that as this building was intended to be a mass
of stone, held together by the natural and artificial union of
its parts, it would have been out of character, that, when
completed, it should be beholden to certain parts of wood for
its consolidation.

“ I have mentioned, that I originally conceived more than
one way of preventing the courses from shifting place upon
one another. My first conceptions were to form a rise (or a
depression) of three inches, bounded by a circle somewhat
about the diameter of that in which the joggles are placed ;
which step, or depression, would have formed a socket,
whereby the courses would have been mutually engrafted,
not much different from what nature has pointed out in the
basaltine columns of the Giant’s causeway; but, considering
how much unnecessary trouble and intricacy would be hereby
introduced, by one part of the bed of the same stone being
liable to be three inches higher than the other, I judged that
the end would be very sufficiently answered by the much
more plain, easy, and simple method of joggles; especially
as, for this purpose, the firmest and toughest kind of stone
might be chosen, and the number multiplied at pleasure.
One plug in the middle, of a foot square, and eight joggles
of a foot cube each, of the hardest marble, disposed in the
manner described, seemed to me, along with the additional
strength and security arising from the trenails, as also from
the infinite number of little indentures upon the surface of
the courses, as well as the lewis holes, each being filled with
an exuberance of mortar, which, when hard, would in efiect
become a steady pin ; from the cohesion of the mortar as a
solid, promising to be no less than that of the stone, together
with the incumbent weight of every part of the building
above; everyjoint, thus separately considered, seemed, in
point of firmness, so satisfactory to my mind, that if the
whole of this proved too little, it was out of my power to
conceive what would be enough.

“In the morning and evening's tide of the 17th, we set
the whole of the fifth tier, and consequently the whole of the
eight cubes were then inlaid. The morning of the 18th we
again landed, and in this morning and evening’s tide, though

 

 

rough, we had got set five pieces of Circle VI. and had
landed the remaining three ; as also one of the largest pieces
of moor-stone for the east side (see Plate IV. Figure 1.) This
evening's tide we worked with links, and it began to blow so
fresh that we had much ado to keep them in, being obliged
to make a fire of them upon the surface of the work. We
were under the necessity, at last, to quit the rock with some
precipitation, and were very glad to get into our yawls;
things being left in the following posture: Two of the pieces,
Tier 6, were simply dropped into their places, on the north-
west side, while the third piece, being about a ton, and the
piece of moor-stone near upon two tons, were chained toge-
ther, and to the work of Course VII. that was already set ;
these two loose pieces being upon the top of that course,
near the east side; the triangles were lashed down upon the
floor of the work, as we had practised several times before.
The sea became so rough in the night, that the “'eston, at
the transport buoy, was obliged to slip and make for a
harbour. The bad weather continued to increase till the
28th, when there was a violent storm at south—west.

“ The 29th, I perceived with my telescope, from the Hon,
the buss to ride safe, but could not see the shears, or indeed
anything else upon the rock distinctly, except the breakers.
The day following being more clear, and the sea somewhat
subsided, I immediately went on board the Eddystone boat
to reconnoitre. The wind being north—west, I passed the
rock several times under sail, but there was no possibility
of landing. I observed, that not only all the work which
had been completely set was entire, but that the two stones
mentioned to have been simply lowered into their places, also
remained therein, and that the five hundred weight still
rested upon the stone whereon it was left. The west face of
the building had got so complete a coat of sea-weed, that it
was only distinguishable from the rock by its form ; but the
shears and triangles were entirely gone; the two pieces of
stone, that had been chained together and to the work, were
also gone; the windlass frame broken and much damaged,
and the roll gone ; the fender piles and the transport buoy,
however, remained in their places.

“ It was the 3rd of September before the company could
make a landng to do anything upon the rock ; so that, since
the 18th ult., there had been an interval of fifteen days, in
which we had been totally interrupted by bad weather, in
the very prime part of the season. However, everything
having been expedited on shore, to get refitted for work, this
day I went out therewith, and began to set up our new
shears, windlass, &e., and with the shears got up the piece
of Portland, of Circle 6, which was set, as also the others
that had been left loose in their dovetails; but the tide of

flood coming on, had deepened the water too much before we ,

could try to get up the other.
“ September the 5th, the seventh circle was finished and the
eighth begun; and this day the wind being variable, from

 

north-east to north-west, and very moderate, was very re- '

markable, as being the first time of the people having worked :
till they were obliged to quit the rock for refreshment : and j

noweverything being reinstated, it was some time before we :

met with anything but the ordinary interruptions.
“The fineness of the season continued to favour the expe-

diting of our works, insomuch that Course VIII, which was
begun upon the 8th, was executed in five days, being entirely ,

completed on the 13th, at the same hour. Everything went
regularly on till the 20th ; so that, in return for our con-
tinued interruption from the stormy weather for fifteen days,
our works had an uninterrupted progression for eighteen
days, when Course 1X. was advanced to the fifth circle.”

A series of land-swells from the south-west prevented

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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further proceedings till the 30th September, when Course
1X. was completed, “and the masons proceeded to rectify
the face of the work, where it was in any degree wanting
thereof, that there might be no need hereafter to disturb any
part of the coat of weed, which was likely to fix upon it
during the winter.” This ended the operations for the
year 1757. .

On the 12th of May, 1758, Mr. Smeaton examlned the
work, and found it perfectly entire, except a small spawl,
which had been washed from the rock itself ; the whole did
not seem to have suffered a diminution of so much as a. grain
of sand since the time he left it on the lst of October of the
preceding year : on the contrary, the cement, and even the
grouted part, appeared to be as perfectly hard as the Port-
land stone itself; the whole having become one solid mass.
entirely covered with the same coat of sea-weed as the rock,
the t0p of the work excepted. This was washed so clean
and white, that the lines upon it appeared more distinct than
when they were in the work-yard ; the cube-holes and lewis-
holes, however, from their being constantly filled with water,
were grown over with green weed, like the outside. The
fender piles were indeed all gone, but this was a trifling
disaster, as they could soon be renewed.

The tenth course was set on the 5th of July, the eleventh
on the 18th, the twelfth on the 24th, the thirteenth on the 5th
of August, and on the 8th of that month the fourteenth,
which (ompleted the fundamental solid.

From the top of this course begins that part of the build-
ing, also called the solid, which includes the passage from
the entry door to the well-hole of the stairs, as described
Plate 1V. Figures 2, 3, 4, from which a more adequate idea
can be obtained than any words could convey.

Mr. Smeaton then proceeds to describe his method of
regulating the superstructure : As “for the sake of the
well-hole, we must necessarily lose our centre stone, the four
stones, which in the former courses were united to it by
dovetails, were, as now prepared, to be united to each other
by hook«scarf—joint3, so as to compose, in effect, one stone :
and as, in consequence, we had also lost our centre cubes, it
became expedient, that the work might have a uniform
texture and strength, that those four stones, making a com-
plete circle for the staircase, should be provided with cubes,
to prevent their being shifted by any shock applied hori-
zontally, (see Figure 4,) as well as with trenails to hinder
them from lifting. By this means the principle of consoli-
dation would be effectually preserved : but as the top of the
linirtccnth, or entry-door course, was twelve feet above the
top of the rock, that is, twenty-feet four inches above the
bust- of the first course, the stroke of the sea must here
become less violent, and therefore a less degree of resistance
Would be equally sufficient And as the large cubes would
too much cut the work, which was here of considerably less
area; and as several cubes would be requisite for the well-
holc stones, 1 had determined, above the entry-door course,
to increase the number of cubes from eight to sixteen, and
to diminish their size from twelve to six inches ; but still to
be of Solid gray marble, and two of them to be introduced
into each of the four well-hole stones.

“Upon the 9th of August, I marked out the entry and
staircase; and having unloaded the Eddystone boat, which
was loaded with the first pieces of Course XV., we imme-
diatcly proceeded with it ; and from this time were blessed
with such an uninterrupted continuance of fine weather, that
upon the 20th of August, Course XVIII. was completed,
which reunites the building into a complete circle, by cover-
ing the passage to the staircase: the external face of the

stone of that course, which makes the cover or head of the 1

4s

 

entry-door, having the figures 1758, denoting the year in
which this part of the work was accomplished, cut in deep
characters upon it.

“ On the 24th of August, the fine weather, and in conse-
quence the works, were interrupted, Course XX. being then
in hand; and it was not till the 24th of September, that,
with every possible exertion, Course XXIV. was finished,
which completed the solid, and composed the floor of the
store-room.

“ The 25th and 26th of September, Course XXV., being
the first course of the superstructure, was successfully com-
pleted in its place; but, as the mode of construction now
became entirely different from the former, it is necessary to
give an account thereof, as also of the reasons for the change.
The building was carried up solid, as high as there was any
reason to suppose it exposed to the heavy stroke of the sea ;
that is, to thirty-five feet four inches above its base, and
twenty-seven feet above the top of the rock, or common
spring—tide high-water mark. At this height, as it was
reduced to sixteen feet eight inches in diameter, it became
necessary to make the best use of this space, and make all
the room and convenience therein that was possible, con-
sistent with the still necessary strength. The rooms being
made of twelve feet four inches diameter, this would leave
twenty-six inches for the thickness of the walls. These
being made with single blocks in the thickness, so that
sixteen pieces might compose the circle, would, from its
figure, compose a stout wall; yet moor-stone, as has been
observed, being a tender kind of stone, in respect to the
union of its component parts, any method of dovetailing the
blocks together, at this thickness, appeared to me imprac-
ticable to any good purpose. What seemed to be the most
effectual method of bonding the work together, was that of
cramping with iron, which would confine each single piece
to its neighbouring piece in the same circle: and if to this
be added, that every piece should, at each end of it, lay
hold of an inlaid piece, or joggle, in the same nature as the
cubes, then not only all the pieces in the same course would
be united to each other by the cramps, but steadied from
moving upon the under course by the joggles, and of conse-
quence would be fastened at thirty-two points ; for, in each
course there being sixteen joggle-stones, as each end of
each principal piece, at its base, took hold of half a joggle,
there would be thirty-two points of confinement in the circle
above; that is, the joggles being made to occupy the middle
of the upper bed of each block, in that situation they would
cross the joints of the course above. These joggles, as well
as the rest, were of sawn marble, and made eight inches
long, four inches broad, and three inches thick : each end of
each block, therefore, would occupy four inches in length,
four in breadth, and one inch and a half in the height of
each joggle; and this I judged quite sufficient to keep
every course in its place, at the height that this kind of work
was begun, and so as to constitute a piece of solid masonry.
There was, however, another matter, that it seemed quite
material also to attend to ; and that was, to render the habit-
able rooms, contained within those shells of walls, perfectly
dry and comfortable in all weathers; and this seemed to
merit very particular attention ; for the seas that are said to
rise up against, and in a manner to bury the house, in time
of storms, would make effectual trial of every joint.

“ The level joints being pressed together by the incumbent
weight of the building, would keep firm and sound that
cohesion of parts produced by the mortar; so that once
being made water-tight, there was no doubt that they would
so remain: but with respect to the upright joints, the least

i degree of shrinking, either of the stone or of the mortar

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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between, tended to open the joint, so that it might always
remain leaky, in a greater or a less degree ; for we know of
no degree of separation of parts, however minute, short
of absolute contact, which will stop or prevent the percola-
tion of water. For this purpose I conceived, that if flat
stones were introduced into each upright joint, so as to be
lodged partly in one stone, and partly in its neighbour,
(much upon the same idea that Dutch laths were formerly
introduced into the joints of chamber floors, to hinder the
passage of wet,) thewater might be prevented from making
its way through the upright joints of the walls.

“The manner in which it was executed was as follows:
(see Plate IV. Figure 6.) At each end of each stone,
answerable to the middle between the inside of the wall and
the outside, was sunk a groove, two inches and a half wide
and three deep, running from the top to the bottom: when,
therefore, two contiguous pieces of stone were put together
in their places, the two grooves being applied to each other,
they would form a rhomb of six inches in length, and two
inches and a half in breadth, which in this state would be
an unoccupied cavity from the top to the bottom of each
course; the rest of the joint, where the surfaces of the two
stones applied to each other, was made good with mortar in
the ordinary way, and brought together by the gentle blows
of a beetle. For the groove mentioned, a solid rhomb was
prepared, of about two inches thick by five inches broad,
and in length a little less than the depth of the cavity, which
generally was eighteen or twenty inches ; and for the sake
of the firmness of those slender pieces of stones, I made
choice of the flat paving-stones from Purbeck, which is a
laminated marble of great strength and solidity. The joint-
stones (which was the name we gave those rhombs) thus
prepared, would readily go down the cavities; but, to fix
them solid, a quantity of well-tempered mortar was prepared,
made more soft than ordinary, by the addition of a little
water ; a competent quantity being put down to the bottom
of the hole, the joint-stone was put down upon it, and, by
the simple pressure of the hand, was forced down to the
bottom, causing the semifluid mortar to rise up to the top,
and completely fill the cavity: and, when forced down in
the way described, having in this state a small quantity of
superfluous moisture about it, a few very gentle blows, or
raps, were given upon the top of it by the handle of a
mason’s trowel, which, producing a small degree of agitation,
while the dry stones were absorbing the moisture, contributed
(like the beating of mortar) to bring all the parts into their
most friendly state of contact, and, in consequence, to their
firmest state of union ; and this happened in the course of a
few minutes, so that no farther agitation could be of any
servrce.

“As the cramps, that were to bind the contiguous pieces
together, must cross the joints upon their upper surface, they
were of course to be applied after the joint-stones were
settled in their places. Precaution was therefore necessary
not to apply too much exertion in forcing down the joint-
stoncs: for, however gentle the operation may appear,
according as it has been described. yet it was found advisable
not to put in the joint-stones till an additional piece had
been got down upon its joggles, and plain-jointed at each
side of the two pieces, whose joint-stone was to be put in ;
for, by this means, there were the united efforts of all the
joggles, and adhesion of the beds of two stones on each side
of that where the effort was applied. Without any atten-
tion to this, the lateral force arising from merely pressing
down a joint-stone, was capable of breaking the adhesion of
the joint where it was applied.

“The cramping was applied the last thing. The top or

flat bars of the cramps were about thirteen inches long, two
inches broad, and five-eighths of an inch thick, and were
turned down at each end about three inches in length;
forming a cylinder of one and one-eighth of an inch in
diameter. J umper-holes were previously bored when upon
the platform, and the cramps fitted to their places ; the sur-
face of the stone under each cramp being sunk three-fourths
of an inch, so that the two stones together would completely
receive, or rather bury, the cramps: the joint-stones, as said
above, being made so much shorter than the height of the
course, as not to interrupt the bedding of the cramp. The
places for the cramps being properly fitted and cleared, (as
we now were not liable to be driven off the work in a
moment, as had formerly been the case,) we took the oppor-
tunity, whenever time allowed it, of fixing the cramps of
a whole course together. There was no danger of the
cramps not fitting; as, besides that all the cramps were
forged to fit a gauge-bar having a couple of holes at the
assigned distance, they were also fitted and marked to their
particular places at Mill Bay, while upon the platform.
Every cramp being now ultimately tried to its place, it was
then put into a kettle of lead, made red hot ; and the cramp
continued there till it was also reddish. About a spoonful
of oil was poured into the two cramp-holes, and the cramp
being put into its place, the ebullition of the oil, caused by
the heat of the iron, quickly gave a complete oily surface,
not only to the whole cramp, but to the whole unoccupied
cavity in the stone; then the hot lead being poured upon it,
the unctuous matter caused the metal to run into and occupy
the most minute cavity unfilled, and completely to cover each
cramp; and they became by this means defended from the
salts of the sea, even had they remained uncovered, upon
Mr. Rudyerd’s principle. Mr. Rudyerd had used coarse
pewter. The lead we used was slag lead, which is harder
and stiffer than fine lead: and, as we used no cramps, as an
essential part of the building, till above the store-room floor,
I judged pewter, merely for the sake of stiffness, there to be
t unnecessary. By cramping, in general, awhole course toge-
ther, the contraction of the iron in cooling would greatly add
to the tightness wherewith every stone was bound to its
fellow. Thus, according to this mode of fixing, (besides the
union of the parts by the mortar itself,) to resist all violence
and derangement whilst it was doing, and before the indura-
tion of the mortar, every course was retained in its place by
sixteen joggles, and each single stone by two half-joggles
at its lower bed ; they were farther steadied to each other by
the joint-stones, and lastly by the cramps, which completely
prevented a separation; and this method proved so etfee-
tual, that we were not only free from all derangement of
the stones, when in their places, but I did not find a leaky
joint, except one, in the whole building. By a due consider-
ation of Plate IV., with the particular references to it, the
whole of this process will become perfectly intelligible.

“ On Saturday, the 30th of September, Course XXVI”.
was completely set ; and, being the first course upon which
was rested the vaulted floor, which made the ceiling of the
store-room and floor of the upper store-room ; and, as here
again occurred a difference in the mode of fixture, in this, as
in all like cases, I attended the performance of the Work :
and that was the leading-in of the first circular chain, that
was lodged in a groove cut round the middle of the upper
surface of this course, which this day was satisfactorily per-
formed ; and the next day, Sunday, October the l-st, Course
XXIX. was set, and its circular chain leaded-in also ; which
operation, with the reason thereof, it will be proper here to
describe: The ordinary way of fixing the several courses
l by joggles and joint-stones, and also the bonding them

 

 

 

 

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together by cramps, has already been described ; but those
courses, upon which the floors rested and depended, seemed
to demand every possible security. It Will be seen, in the
general section, Plate II. that each floor. desrgnedly rested
upon two courses : it will also appear, by Inspection, that the
circumference of the floors was not made to rest upon the
sloping abutments of an arch, in lines tending toward the
centre of the sphere, of which the under Side of the .floor
was a portion, but it rested upon a triple ledge gorng c1rcu-
larly round the two supporting courses. In consequence of
this, had each floor been composed of a single stone, this
lying upon the horizontal bearings furnished by these ledges,
would, while it remained entire, have no lateral pressure or
tendency to thrust out the sides of the encompassing walls :
and that in etfect, the several pieces, of which the floors were
really composed, might have the same property as whole
stones, the centre-stone was made large enough to admit of
an opening, from floor to floor, or man-hole, to be made
through it ; and being furnished with dovetails on its four
sides like those of the entire solid, it became the means by
which all the stones in each floor were connected together ;
. and consequently, the whole would lie upon the ledges like a
single stone, without any tendency to spread the walls. But
if, by the accident of a heavy body falling, or otherwise, any
of those stones should be broken, though this might not
, destroy its use as a floor, or its properties as an arch ; yet
‘ the parts would then exert their lateral pressure against the
walls: and therefore, as a security against this, it became
necessary that the circle of the enclosing walls should be
bound together, and the building, as it were, hoopedf

“ This would be in a great measure brought about by the
cramps tying the neighbouring stones together, as already
described, for the ordinary courses; but yet this was no
absolute security, because the outside stones might break and
Separate, between cramp and cramp : and I suppose, it was
for reasons of this kind, that Sir Christopher Wren, in the
construction of the cupola of St. Paul’s, did not choose to
depend upon cramping the stones together, of the course
that served as a common base to the inside dome, and the
Cone for supporting the lantern ; but chose to surround the
whole with continued chains of iron. Upon this principle,
an endless chain was provided for each of the two floor
courses ; see Plate IV. Figure 7. The bars composing the
links being one inch and a quarter square, that the most iron

1 ‘, might be included in a given space, the corners only were a
: little canted off; and the double parts being brought'near

together, the whole was comprehended in a groove, of some-
what less than four inches wide, and as much in depth;
into which the chains being introduced and brought to a
stretch, the rest of the cavity was filled with lead, of which
each took about eleven hundred weight, in the following
method. The chains were oiled all over before they came
‘ from the shore; and the circumference of the groove was
‘ divided into four parts by stops, or dams of clay, to prevent
the lead from flowing farther than one quarter at a time. A
couple of iron kettles were provided, capable of melting com-
modiously, when full. six hundred weight of lead each ; and
that quantity was brought in each to a full red; that is,
somewhat hotter than we used for the cramps, as the iron of
the chain, as well as the stone, were cold. The whole
quantity of lead being brought to a heat that we judged
proper, and the quarter-groove being supplied with oil sufii-
c1ent to besmear the whole surface, two persons, with each a
ladle, as briskly as they could, poured the melted metal into
the same quarter of the groove ; and, as soon as it was full,
and the lead began to set, one of the clay dams was removed,
and the melted hot metal was poured upon the end of the

 

former mass, till it was perceived to re-melt and unite with
the fresh metal. This done, the dam at the other end of the
first-run mass was taken down, to prevent its cooling more
than was necessary, and the third quarter was treated like
the former ; the end of the mass rendered solid by cooling,
being re-melted by the fresh hot metal: lastly, both the
remaining dams being taken down, and the metal at each end
having a considerable heat, it was found practicable to dis-
solve both the ends of the former masses: first applying
both ladies to that which had had the greater time to cool, and
afterwards to the less : by this means the whole was brought
to a solid consistence, and the chain entirely buried in the
lead. It is, however, to be remarked, that to preserve proper
impressions in the lead, for the joggles of the course above,
those impressions were made by confining down bricks in
proper places, which, when removed, the proper marble
joggles were set with mortar in their places.

“Monday, October 2, we proceeded to set up the centre,
composed of sixteen ribs, (see Plate VIII. Figure 3,) for
putting the floor together upon ; but the weather continued
broken till Saturday, the 7th, on which day the Eddystone
boat came out, having on board the roof, or platform, for
covering the building, and protecting it from the entrance of
the downfall spray; together with the doors, iron-work, and
timber for fitting up the same for habitation. This afternoon
we landed, and went on with the setting of the outward
circle of floor-stones, made the holes in the wall for fixing the
hinges of the entry and store-room doors. In particular, I
caused the middle stone to be laid upon the centre, by way of
weight, to keep it steady. Three of the four stones that
were to connect with the centre-stone were laid upon the top
of the wall, on the north-east side : and the fourth I caused
to be hoisted and suspended upon the triangle, in the posture
that is shown Plate VI. at stage second. So that the triangle,
which was all of it completely within the area of the top of
the building, would be kept down by the weight of this stone,
which was between seven and eight hundred weight. The
other three that lay upon the wall, I caused to be carefully
drawn within the circumference thereof, so that there might
not be the least projecting part for the water to strike against
in flying upwards ; which I judged quite necessary, though
the walls were then upwards of forty-three feet above the
foundation-stone, and near thirty-five feet above the top of
the rock.”

The weather now set in so bad, that no farther operations
of consequence took place that season. On the 10th of
October, Mr. Smeaton was mortified with a copy of a reso-
lution of the Trinity—Board, declining his proposal of exhibit-I
ing a light that winter upon the foundation of the building.

“ During my stay in London, in the early part of the year
1759, I received regular accounts of the proceedings at Mill
Bay, which were carried on with all the dispatch I could
wish; but the weather having continued unfavourable to
visiting the works at the Eddystone during the winter, I got
no report thereon till I received Mr. Jessop’s letter, dated the
27th of March, wherein he informed me that on the 21st of
that month, being the first opportunity he could catch after
the violent storm which had happened on the 9th preceding,
they found not only the solid, but the hollow work perfectly
sound and firm ; all the mortar having become quite hard ;
and, in short, every part of thework in the situation in which
it was left by the workmen in October: the only derange-
ment was, that the sea had carried away the south fender
pile from the rock ; and also, from the top of the wall, one of
the three stones that I had taken care to draw within the
verge of the circumference of the wall, as mentioned. They
had found the fourteen pieces of stone set in the circum-

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

EDD

344

EDD

 

fcrence of the floor, stuck quite firm to the wall, though two
of the pieces requisite to complete the circle were left unset ;
and that, finding the centre itself quite tight and firm under-
neath them, they had lowered down the stone suspended on
the triangle upon it, and removed from the wall the other
two remaining stones to lie upon the centre ; and lastly, that
they took down the triangle, and stowed it away in the well-
hole for the stairs : but, on farther search, nothing of the
buoy that was left upon the mooring chains was to be seen.

“ Thursday, the 5th of July, I landed on the rock with the
men ; they proceeded to set up the shears and Windlass,
while I inspected the work ; and found everything perfectly
sound and firm, without the least perceivable alteration since
we left it ; except that the cement used the first year, now
in appearance approached the hardness of the moor-stone;
and that used the last year, of the full hardness of Portland.
We now proceeded to set the floor. The two remaining
pieces of the outmost circle, which were left uncompleted
last year, were soon set ; and we proceeded to haul up the
stones for the next circle (No. 4.) from the store-room.”

The work now proceeded so rapidly, that the second and
third stories were completed in thirteen days. On the 8th of
August, Course XLV. or the Cove Course, was completed
with its two chains ; and the next day, the elliptical centre
for the balcony floor was set ; and by the 16th, the interior
area of the balcony floor was completed, the centre was
struck, and the outer circle of stones, which finished the cap
of the main column, being parts of the corona, or cornice,
was begun upon. See Plate II. and Plate IV. Figure 9.

“ Friday, August the 17th, the last pieces of the corona
were set, and therewith the main column was completed. I
now examined the perpendicularity of the whole building, by
letting fall a plumb-line from the centre of the man-hole in
the balcony floor to the centre of the bottom of the well-hole,
being forty-nine feet and a half ; and found it to fall a small
matter to the eastward of the centre of the well-hole ; as
near as I could determine it, not more than one-eighth of an
inch. I then measured the perpendicular heights of the
several parts of the building, and found them as follow :

Ft. In.

“ The six foundation courses to the top of the

rock ..... ....... 8 4%
“ The eight courses to the entry door.. ............. 12 0%
“ Theten courses of the well-hole to the store-room

floor ..................... ....... ......... 15 2%
“ The height of the four rooms to the balcony floor 34 4%,—
“ Height of the main column, containing forty-} 70 0

31x courses .....

“We proceeded this day to set up and lead-in the balcony
rails, and completed them; and having brought out a tem-
porary cover for the man-hole of the balcony floor, I this day
applied it to use, as follows: a short tub, of about a foot
high, was made without a bottom, and the smaller end of it
being sized as near as possible to the man-holes of the floors,
it was driven into that of the balcony ; and, by the time it was
driven about four inches, the compliancy of the wood to the
stone rendered it quite tight; then the rest of its height,
forming a border, and standing about eight inches above the
floor, would prevent water from dripping into the rooms
through the upper man-hole, or hatchway ; and having also
provided another tub, about nine inches deep, having a strong
bottom in it, and so much more in diameter than the other,
that it would, when inverted, cover it ; this being applied as
a cover, would in the greatest stress of weather defend the
building from the entry of water at the top.”

On the 18th of the same month, the first course of the
lantern was begun ; on the 24th, the last stone, being that
which makes the door-head of the lantern, was set ; and on
Sunday evening, the 26th, the whole of the masonry was
completed.

Stress of weather prevented the landing of the frame-
work till Saturday, the 15th of September; on which day,
“ between three and four in the morning, the Weston was got
into the gut, and delivered of her cargo, consisting of the
pillars, sashes, and frame-work of the lantern. I gave my
principal attention to the establishing the frame of the lantern
upon a bed of lead, and the screwing of it carefully together :
seeing that every joint was filled, and screw covered with
white-lead and oil, ground up thick for paint; and every
crevice so full that the bringing the screws home made the
white-lead matter to ooze from every juncture; thereby to
exclude all wet and moisture, and so as to prevent the iron-
w0rk from rusting.

“Sunday, September the 16th, was remarkably fine ; so
that by the evening the whole frame of the lantern was

. screwed together, and its groundsill was rested upon a bed of
lead ; which was done in the following manner : The whole
frame being screwed together, was raised from its bearing
upon the stone about three-eighths of an inch, by a competent
number of iron wedges ; and adjusted by them to an exact
perpendicular. Both the stone and the iron were taken care
to be oiled before they were applied to each other ; and one
of the eight sides, having its wedges withdrawn, was run
with hot lead; and making a place for it to overflow, as
much could be used as would competently heat both the iron
and stone, to bring them to a close bearing with the lead ;
then on the lea/1’s cooling, as the frame became supported on
one side by the lead, the wedges of a second side were with-
drawn, and treated in the same manner, and so successively
till the whole rested upon a solid basement of lead. It was
not supposed that the succeeding mass could be sufiiciently
heated to re-melt the ends of the parts already leaded, as in
the case of the chains ; but being heated so as to bring them
to a close contact, this I judged suflicient, as the lead so
applied had no other intent but to bear weight, and give the
frame of the lantern one solid uniform bearing.

“Monday, the 17th. This morning was also exceedingly
fine ; and the Weston being in sight, which was appointed to
bring out the cupola, we began to set up our shears and
tackle for hoisting it.
of the most difficult and hazardous operations of the whole

if possible, to avoid such blows as might bruise it. It was
also required to be hoisted a considerable height above the
balcony floor; which, though the largest base we had for
the shears to stand upon, was yet but fourteen feet within
the rails ; and therefore narrow, in proportion to their
height. The manner in which this was managed, will, in a
great measure, appear by the representation thereof, in Plate
VI. (see the uppermost stage) ; but is more minutely explained
in the technical detail of that Plate. As the legs of the
shears that had been used upon the rock would have been in
the way of the cupola, they were now removed, as being done
with there, and were used asa part of this machinery. About

less than half an hour her troublesome cargo was placed upon
the top of the lantern, without the least damage.

“Tuesday, September the 18th, in the morning, the wind
Was at south-east, with intervals of thick fog ; however,

 

This perhaps may be accounted one '
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which it was to be hoisted, clear of the building ; and so as, i

noon the whole of our tackle was in readiness; and in the ‘
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345

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between those I had the satisfaction, with my telescope, to
perceive the Eddystone boat, on board of which I expected
the ball to be. The wind and tide were both unfavourable
to the vessel’s getting soon near us ; therefore, being desirous
to get the ball screwed on, before the shears and tackle were
taken down, one of the yawls was dispatched to bring it
away. This being done, and the ball fixed, the shears and
tackle were taken down. By this time the joiners had set
up and completed the three cabin bedsteads, (for their plan
and position between the windows, see Plate IV. Figure 8.)

“On Friday, the let, all the copper sash-frames were got
completely fixed in, and ready for receiving the glass.

“ On Sunday Morning, the 23d, the yawl landed two
glaziers and a coppersmith, with‘their utensils and materials;
the former began to glaze the lantern, and the latter to fit
and put up the funnels. This day, with my assistant, the
mason, I began to fix twenty-four iron cramps; that is,
three to each rib of the roof, and which were obliged to be
fixed after the roof was together ; and being fixed inside, and
surrounding the ribs, served to key home the plates of the
cupola to the ribs. For this purpose small wood wedges
were used, as being more supple, elastic, and compliant, than
wedges of metal, and therefore more suitable to this par-
ticular purpose. This day also the Eddystone boat brought
out and landed a plumber, with his utensils and materials.
The most considerable work for the plumber was the covering
the whole balcony floor with thick plates of lead ; and which
extended from the top of the plinth, or first course of the
basement of the lantern, quite down to the drip of the
corona. They were fitted on separately, in sixteen pieces,
and soldered together, in place, with strong ribbed joints;
and, to prevent the sea from laying hold of them at the drip,
and beating them up, they were turned under about one inch
and a half; and being near half an inch thick, I judged them
sufficiently stubborn to prevent being unripped.

“ Thursday the 27th, the lead-work upon the balcony and
corona being now entirely finished, and the cupola completely
keyed home to the ribs; the straps and bolts were applied
at each angle of the lantern, for screwing it down to the
floor of the balcony.

“Friday, September the 30th, the joiners finished their
work, which consisted of the following articles. Three
cabin beds, to hold one man each, with three drawers and
two lockers in each, to hold his separate property, which
were fixed in the upper room, or chamber. (See plan
thereof, Plate IV., Figure 8.) In the kitchen, besides the
fire-place and sink, were two settles with lockers, a dresser-
with drawers, two cupboards, and one platter case. (Figure 7,
of the same Plate, shows how these were disposed.) In the
lantern a seat was fixed, to encompass it all round, the door-
way excepted, serving equally to sit upon, or stand to snufif
the candles; and to enable a person to look through the
lowest tier of glass panes at distant objects, without having
occasion to go on the outside of the lantern into the balcony.
Besides the above, the joiners had fixed the ten window-
frames, with their sashes; all which were bedded in putty,
and falling into rebates cut for them in the original formation
of the stone, they could be at any time removed, and replaced
at pleasure, as they were fastened in only with wooden pins,
driven into holes bored in the stone.”

On Michaelmas-day, the glazing of the lantern was com-
pleted ; on the 1st of October, the copper funnel was finished,
and tried by lighting a fire in the stove.

“The tackle was also fixed for raising and lowering the
chandeliers ; and those being hung, there was now nothing
to hinder our making trial by lighting the candles, while it
was daylight, to see that everything, regarding the light,

4 'r

 

operated in a proper manner. Accordingly, this afternoon,
we put up twenty-four candles into their proper places, and
continued them burning for three hours ; during which time
we had a very effectual trial; for it had blown a hard gale
of wind at south-east all day, which still continued; and,
keeping a fire at the same time in the kitchen, they both
operated together without the least interference; not any
degree of smoke appearing in the lantern, or any of the
rooms: and, by opening the vent-holes at the bottom of
the lantern, it could be kept as cool as we pleased; whereas,
in the late lighthouse, this used to be complained of, as being
so hot, especially in summer, as to give much trouble by the
running of the candles.

“Wednesday, October the 3d, we began to fix the con-
ductor for lightning. As the copper funnel reached through
the ball, and from thence came down to the kitchen floor,
above forty feet, (see Plate II.) I considered this as con-
taining so much metal, that, if struck with lightning, it would
thus far be a sufficient conveyance ; then joining the kitchen
grate to the leaden sink, by a metal conveyance, the sink
pipe of lead would convey it to the outside. From the
sink pipe downwards, which being on the north-east side,
was consequently the least subject to the stroke of the sea,
we continued the electrical communication by means of a
strap of lead, about one inch and a half broad and three-
eighths thick, fixed on the outside by being nailed to oaken
plugs, driven into twojumper-holes in the solid of each course;
the prominent angles of the strap being chamfered off, it was
bedded and brought to a smooth surface with putty. At the
foot of the leaden strap, an eye-bolt of iron was driven into
the rock ; and to this was fixed an iron chain, long enough
to reach at all times into the water ; its lower end being left
loose to play therein, and give way to the stroke of the
waves: by this means an electrical communication was made
from the top of the ball to the sea.”

Everything being now completed, notice was sent to the
Trinity House, and, on Tuesday evening, the 16th of
October, 1759, the lights were first exhibited, amidst the
fury of a violent storm.

This excellent building exhibited no other light than what
was produced by twenty-four candles, which was not always
sufficient, till 1809, when Mr. Robinson, surveyor of light—
houses to the corporation ofthe Trinity House, superseded these
candles by the same number of Argand lamps, each accurately
fixed in the focus of a large parabolic reflector of richly plated
copper, arranged on circular frames; and consequently giving
light in every direction. The improved brightness of the
light, by this exchange, exceeded the most sanguine expec-
tation of all in the neighbourhood of Plymouth.

TECHNICAL REFERECCES TO THE PLATES.

“Plate I.——A plan and perspective eleuation of the
Eddgstone Roch, as seen from the west; showing also the
theodolz'te.

“The representation is as I found the rock; Figurel
being the plan, and Figure 2 the upright view. The same
letters refer to the same parts in both; the cross lines upon
the plan answer to the cardinal points, east, west, north, and
south, according to the true meridian.

“L is the landing-place, and C the summit of the rock;
the general declivity being towards the south-west; the grain
of the laminated moor-stone that composes it being nearly
parallel thereto. It has, however, considerable irregularities;
for upon the line A B the rock makes a sudden drop of four
and a half or five feet; and, by overhanging to the westward,
when there is a ground-swell at south-west, the sudden check
causes the sea to fly in an astonishing manner, even in
moderate weather.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

,__,_A __ ._.___.__.____.__._.___ __ _.

EDD

346

EDD

 

“The surface of the rock is shown, as supposed to have
been for ages past; except where it is visibly altered by
man’s hand, chiefly within the circular area of the late build-
inrr. The flat treads of the steps out by Rudyerd are
marked D; the upright faces of the steps F; and E denotes
the spawled parts, parallel to the grain of the rock.

“ a b c defg it show the remains of the cavities of eight
of the twelve great irons fixed by Winstanley ; of which the
stump of one only, viz., that at e, remained for my inspection;
it was run in with lead, and had continued fast, till in
planting a dovetail there it was cutout, and found club-
ended. Which of the other holes, that are left unmarked,
made up the remaining four, I could not make out ; as
doubtless several of them appertained to the additional work
that he fixed in the fourth year.

“Figure 3. A pair of Rudyerd’s iron branches, to a scale
three times larger than that of the plan ; wherein A B is the
main branch, or dovetail part; CD the key, driven hard in,
but without touching the bottom; their depth in the rock is
denoted by supposing the line E F its surface. The holes in
the branches served to fasten the timbers, by large bearded
spike—bolts. Of those branches I traced thirty-six original
pairs, of different sizes; and two more modern: their places
are shown in the upright, Figure 2, by inspection ; and like-
wise in the plan, Figure l, at l, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, Ste.
forming a double circle; also two pair of them at K, to fix
the mast, on two sides, to the centre. The irons that remained
in the rock, are distinguished in the plan by being hatched
with slant lines, the empty holes or cavities by being black.
Those that remained whole, whether fast or loose, are dis-
tinguished in Figure 2, by their shapes.

“ X. The place of the cave on the east side.

“R. A strong ring-bolt, put into the rock on the recom-
mencement of the building in, 1757, for fastening the western
guy-chain of the shears.

“ Figure 2, rs to w. The three-legged stool, steadied
with cross-braces. Upon the middle of the upper round
plank r s was screwed down the theodolite T, to whose index
was screwed the long horizontal rule T s, divided into feet,
inches, and parts, upon one edge, tending to the centre.
Upon any marked point of the rock to be ascertained, sup-
pose ;r, the red at 3/ was set upright by a spirit-level, and was
preserved in an upright position by two small slips of deal,
applied as shores or struts, in two different directions. The
divided edge of the rule being brought against the upright
rod, was shoved up by a short staff, held in the hand tight
against the rod, till a spirit-level laid upon the top of the rule
showed it to be level. In this position the index would show
the degree and minute of the circle ; the upright rod would
mark the distance from the Centre upon the rule; and the
rule would mark upon the rod, how much the intersection
was above its bottom at .r.

“ Plate II. No. l.—-—South elevation qfthe stone lighthouse
completed upon the Eddgstone in 1759.

“ A. The landing-place.

“ B. The cave in the east side of the rock.

“ C. The steps out to mount the rock to the entry-door.

“ D. An iron rod, serving as a rail to hold by, in passing
to the foot of the ladder, occasionally put out from the entry-
door at E.

“ No. 2.—-Secti0n of the Eddgstone lighthouse upon the
east and west line, as relative to No. l, supposing it the low-
; water qfa spring—tide.

drOp, marked with the same letters as No. l, and the line
B 0 shows the general direction of the grain and slope of the
rock to the south-westward.

 

“ In the section of the rock, A B shows the upright face or

 

“ The dotted line a b shows the level of the base of the
first stone The black line cd is the base of the stone in
the first course that is intersected by the east and west line;
and e f 1 is the level of the top of the first course, and bed of
the second ; 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, mark relatively the tops of the
six courses that bring the artificial part of the foundation
upon a level with the reduced top of the natural rock ; e 6 f;
being the first entire course, marked VII. as being the seventh
above the ground—joint.

“f The foot of the temporary ladder; and there is shown 1
the manner in which the ground-joint of the stone-work was a‘
sunk into the rock, all round, at least three inches. i

“ h. The first marble plug, or central joggle, that went
through the sixth course, and reached half-way through the -i
seventh; and so in succession to the top of Course XIV. .

“ i h. The place of the marble cubic joggles inlaid between .
each two courses, which were in an octagon disposition round 1
the centre. 2

“ l. Smaller cubes between the fifth and sixth course. '

“ Course XIV. terminates the entire solid ; as upon it is
pitched the entry and well-hole for the stairs. The temporary
ladder,fg, to the entry—door D, is only put out when wanted;
and then is lashed by eye—bolts to the stone ; at other times, '
having a joint in the middle, it folds, and is laid along in the
entry.

“ Above the top of the entire solid, the centre stone being
omitted to give space for the well, the cubic joggles were of
double the number, and half the size. Course XXIV. ter- .
minated that part of the building called the solid: and here
the habitable of the building began, whereof E is the lower '
store-room.

“ F. The store-room door.

“ G. The upper store-room.

“ H. The kitchen.

“ I. The fire-place, from which the smoke ascends through

 

the floors and lantern, through a copper funnel, and through i

the ball.
“ K. The bed-room.
“ L. The stone-basement of the lantern. l

“ M. The lantern door into the balcony. 3

“ N. The cupola. .

“ The ascent from room to room is by the perforations 3
through the middle or key-stone of every floor; and the '
detached figures show the means, by inclined step-ladders,
removable at pleasure.

“ Plate III.-—Plans of the rock after being cut, and pre-
pared to receive the stoue~building. Showing the six jbun-
dation courses. .

“ Figure 1. Plan of the rock, as prepared for the stone— '
work, somewhat extended, to show how it applies to Plate I.
The line AB shows also here the place where the surface
drops, as specified, Plate II. No. 2. y

“ In this figure, Course I. appears in its place, as fixed
with its trenails and wedges. The part darker shaded, and

marked D D, was not reduced to a dovetail on account of .

fissures, but. was sunk two inches lower than the rest of
Course II. The stones laid therein would therefore be
encompassed by a border, and held fast in every direction. ;
The letters E. IV. N. S. in all the figures, denote the cardinal
points 3 the same letters, in every figure, denoting the same .
parts. 3
“ The part of the rock marked C, rises above the rest by '
an ascent, or step, of fifteen to eighteen inches, according to
the line D F G E ; which, lying somewhat without the general

contour of the building, and affording a firm abutment, the"

advantage was taken ; and the work of the first and second

l, course carried against it, as shown at G. {

 

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“ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. The level platforms, or steps, for
the difi‘erent courses, whose upper sides are even With these
numbers in Plate II. No. 2. being upon the level of Bud-
yerd’s lowest step.

" X. A piece of stone engrat‘ted into the rock, serving as
a bridge to cross a chasm, opened by cutting down the top of
the rock to that level, into the cave. Of this stone is formed
a part of the border that encircles the work.

Figure 2 shows how the buttress, G, was terminated in the
second course. It also shows the places of the trenails and
wedges; which in all these figures are shown in the same
manner. The dotted lines everywhere refer to the course
that is to come on ; and shows how it will break joint upon
the course supposed laid.

“Figure 3 shows how the space HIK, in Figure 2, is
filled up in Figure 3, being confined in by the rise of the
step L at H I, and the cramps a b ; the ground proving here
irregularly shattered by cutting the steps for the former
lighthouse.

“ Figure 4 shows the structure of Course IV., where, in
this, as all the others, the stones lighter-coloured denote the
Portland, the darker the moor-stone.

“ Figure 5. The position of three joggle-holes, Y, between
this course and the next above.

“ Figure 6 shows Course VI. complete, which brings the
whole work to a level with the reduced rock: it shows the
joggle-holes for the eight cubes ; and the central plug-joggle,
fixed in place at 0, ready for the reception of the centre
stone of Course VII.

“Plate IV.—Plans (f all the difl’erent courses from the
top of the rock to the top of the balcony-floor inclusive.

“ Figure l. The proper plan of Course VII. relative to the
section, Plate II. No. 2. As being the first entire course,
the trenails and wedges are shown ; but afterwards omitted
in the draughts, to prevent crowding the figures. The black
lines and dotted lines show the joints of the alternate courses.
The centre-stones, and the four stones surrounding, were
alternatelycf the same size to the top of Course XIV.

“ a. The centre plug, first set.

“ b b. The square part of the centre stone ; from each of
whose four sides a dovetail projects, and thereon are fixed
the four stones 0 c, by joint—wedges and trenails, as per
figure ; which five stones united make one stone, sufficiently
large to receive eight smaller dovetail stones (1 d; and whose
projecting parts form dovetails to receive another circle, or
order of stones, fixed like the former. The cubic joggles are
shown at e e.

“ Figure 2. The plan of Course XIV. ending the funda-
mental solid, and on which the entry and well-hole are
begun. It also shows the diminution from Course VII.
Upon this figure is shown the distribution of the smaller
cubic joggles, which take place upon the entire solid. The
entry here appears to have a small inclination with the
E. and IV. line, which was not noticed in the section, Plate II.
No. 2, to avoid ambiguities.

“ Figure 3. The plan of Course XV. being the first of
the entry-door and well-courses.

“ Figure 4. The plan of Course XVIII. showing the work
of the entry closed in, and the solid re-united. Also the
manner of hook-jointing the four stones round the centre to
each other; which, in the courses below the entry-door, were
united by dovetails to the centre-stone. Joint-wedges were
applied in the hook, as per figure. Thus the arrangement, in
circles from the centre, was again complete. In the entry-
courses, as every piece had at least one cubic joggle and two
trenails, the work was secure against all ordinary attacks of
the sea: the weakness being on the east side; but when

347

 

EDD

\

capped and bonded together by this 18th Course, the whole
was again considered as one entire stone, out of which the
cavity had been cut.

“ Figure 5 shows Course XXIII. ready for putting on
the cap-course of the solid.

“ Figure 6. The cap-course, making the store-room floor,
in its finished state ; the first course of the habitable part of
the building, viz. Course XXV. being upon it; and show-
ing the store-room door, with its joggles, joint-stones, and
cramps.

“The detached figure, relative to it, shows a part of the
top of the wall of Course XXV. to a triple scale; wherein

.h hii denote one of the pieces of stone, whereof sixteen

complete the circle : fshows one of the joggles used in this
part of the building; being slices of marble, the size of a
common brick, let half its thickness into the middle of the
stone; so that the next course above, breaking joint upon
the middle of this, according to the dotted line gg, half the
joggle’s length will take one of the upper stones, whose joint
comes upon it, and the other half'joggle the other : by which
means every stone is fixed to its place, as it were, by two
steady pins, one at each extreme. The black lines, hi,
showing the joint at each end of this stone ; the small lozenge
figures, it and I, show the shape of grooves, cut from the top
to the bottom of each end of each stone, and which, when
two are joined together, form that figure: It denotes the
lozenge empty, or unfilled, and‘ l the lozenge filled with :1. joint
stone.

“m 72. The shape of one of the cramps, in upright; and
0}) as seen upon the flat. The holes in the stones at q r are
bored, to receive the round shanks of the cramp, and the
rectangular cavities gr are sunk, to bury the flat of the
cramp o 19.

“Figure 7. The plan of the kitchen floor, and the upper
bed of Course XXIX. that encircles it; showing one of the
endless chains; of which, as appears in the section, Plate II.
No. 2, there are two to each floor. The detached figure
shows an enlargement of the chain, and groove that con-
tains it.

“In the principal figure, the dotted lines at .9 show the
place of the fire-grate.

“tt. The sink.

“vv. The dresser.

“ww The settle.

“at. A place for a claw table, leaving a vacancy to the
window between each.

“Figure 8. The plan of the bedchamber, taken upon the
top of Course XLIII. which gives the horizontal sections of
the windows.

“ g g g. The places of the three cabin beds for the light-
keepers.

“ z, The hole in the floor for the copper funnel from the
kitchen.

“ a. The place of the clock.

“In the detached figure, 66 shows how the cramps are
disposed in the reduced jambs of the windows.

“0. The plan of the rebate, to receive the shutters, or
ports of the windows, whereof the uprights are seen in

Plate II.

 

“ d. The sill of the clear opening; against the solid of .
which the window frame e f and sashes are lodged; the whole ,
of which go in together, and are held in by wooden pins, two ‘

above and two below, as shown at gg: the holes being bored
in the solid stone. If those pins are cut off, the whole can
be drawn out and renewed, without injury to the stone-work,
The joint of the wood frame with the stone-work is secured
against wet by white-lead and oil.

WH—v—w .

 

 

 

 

 

 

EDD

“Figure 9. The plan of the cap of the main column, being
in Plate II. N o. 2, the 46th Course, and composes the balcony
floor.

“hh. The man-hole in the centre, correspondent to the
other floors. -

“i. The funnel hole accordant with z in the last figure.

“The dotted lines It]: trace out the octagon base of the
lantern.

“ The place of the under rail of the balcony is shown by
the dotted lines mmm; and n nn denote sections of the
studs upon which those rails are supported, correspondent to
the uprights of Plate II.

“Plate V.—- Original ideas, hints, and sketches, from
whence the general form of the present building was taken.

“Figure 1. The bole of a spreading oak ; its side-branches
being lopped of, rising out of the ground with a sweep ; its
taper diminishing till the sides become perpendicular; and on
the insertion of the great boughs, again swells and overhangs.

“Figure 2. The manner in which the smaller boughs and
branches are obliquely inserted into the greater, with the
reconciling curves that form the union.

“ Figure 3. A specimen of paving to be found in the
walking paths of London streets; being a mode of dovetailing
in stone.

“ Figure 4. A sample of stone dovetailing in the upright,
taken from Belidor’s Arohit. Hgdraul.

“ Figure 5. A copy of the first complete design made out
for the solid courses of the Eddystone. The only material
alteration afterwards was to diminish the size and weight of
the outward circle of stones.

“Plate VI.——-A view of the rock on the east side; and of
the work advanced to Course XV. theflrst of the entry-courses,-
showing the manner of landing and hoisting the stones, (5‘0. in
every after-stage of the building.

“Figure 1. The boat \Veston in the gut, delivering her
cargo.

“P Q. The two fender piles, to prevent her rubbing
against the rock.

“x. The cave, here seen in front.

“ D. The gulley, through which a momentary cascade
makes its way; and which was proposed to be stopped.

“E F G. The shears; from the head of which are suspen~
ded the main tackle-blocks A B, whose tackle - fall, after
going to the snatch-block E, passes to the Windlass, or jack-
roll, whose frame being of iron, is fastened to the rock as per
figure. _

“ The enlarged detached figure a shows the frame and roll
frontwise, as seen from the snatch-block.

“ b. The side-view thereof, the roll being seen endwise.

“ c. The-manner of coupling the back-stay to the upright
stancheons; and d shows, by a figure still more enlarged, the
upper end of the stancheons for receiving the gudgeons of
the roll.

While the stone is hoisting, the man represented at I is
heaving-in the tackle-fall of the runner and tackle H K: for,
till the stones are cleared of the boat, the shears lay out con-
siderably, and the out-hawler guy-rope, L M, is slack. This
crosses the gut, and is fixed by a ring-bolt to one of the rocks
of the south reef. By such time, therefore, as the stone is
hoisted by the main tackle to the height of the entry-door,
the shears are got into the perpendicular ; and then by
easmg the out-hawler guy-tackle, L N, the stone comes into
the entry-door.

“The runner and tackle HK is hooked to the guy-chain,
0, which crosses the work, and passes down to the ring on
the west side of the rock ; marked R in Plate I.

“ Inthe detached Figure 2, the anchor-like piece of iron,

348

 

EDD

by which the main tackle-blocks are hung, is shown to an
enlarged scale at e f g h. This anchor being suspended upon
a round bolt at e, that passes through the tops of the two
shear legs, swings freely between them, and always putting
itself in a perpendicular position, and producing fair bearings
upon them,without any unnatural strain or twist, enables them
to support the greatest weight possible.

“In like manner the two arms of the anchor, gh, having
the two guy-tackles hooked to them, the action of those
tackles is upon the suspending bolt, and the feet of the shears
turning freely upon eye-bolts fixed in the rock, they are at
liberty to conform themselves to the position wanted; so that
the stress upon the legs is always endwise.

“ After the building was raised to the height shown
Figure 1, the work was hoisted through the well-hole, till it
arrived at the top of the solid, by means of the triangle and
twelve-fold blocks wherewith the work was set; and are
shown as standing upon the wall at the first vaulted'floor by
the letters ih lm, being the fourth stage: but after that was
completed (the man-hole being too small, and the height too
great, without losing time) a jack-roll was established, as
shown at the third stage in the lower store-room at Q: and a
pair of movable shears, the figure whereof is shown at the
fifth stage, as upon the wall, at the kitchen-floor; which,
instead of guy-ropes, had a back leg, longer than the rest,
whose bottom or foot cut with a notch, stepped upon the
internal angle of the opposite wall; and was long enough to
suffer them to lean over sufficiently for the stone at P to clear
the wall. The shears themselves were prevented from falling
over by a luff-tackle, shown upon the back leg, whose lower
block hooked upon a lewis, in that stone the back leg stepped
upon; by which it was brought tight and steady. \Vhen the
stone was to he landed, this tackle being a little slacked, till
the notch could be disengaged, and then set upon, the back
leg would, by going over the wall, suffer the shears to come
to the perpendicular, or beyond it.

“ The stones, now become in general less weighty, a com-
mon tackle was employed at the shear-head, which would go
down to the entry-door, and there met the stones hoisted by
the great shears: the tackle-fall of the movable shears, being
taken to the jack-roll Q, the stones were got to the top of the
building, in the same time they were raised from the boat to
the entry-door.

“ The detached figure R is the plan of the movable shears;
where the check, or safety rope, n, is shown at the foot of the
back leg.

“ In this manner all the heavy materials were got up; the
movable shears rising with the work, till the cupola was to
be set upon the lantern.

“ The sixth stage shows the apparatus used for this purpose.
The great shears being now done with, were taken down and
put through the windows of the uppermost room, and there,
being well steadied, served as booms. The detached figure
5 being the plan of this stage, shows their particular dispo-
sition; wherein op show the places or feet of the legs of
the shears used for this particular purpose; also marked
with the same letters in the relative upright. In this, the
rope qr shows a side-stay to the leg or; and st is the
stay of the legp t, each fastened to gs, the extremes of the
booms.

“ From each end of the cross-tree at the head of the
shear-poles proceeded the ropes w .r, ga‘, which, joining in
one guy-rope at :r, proceeds over a pulley in the end of the
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349

EDD

 

passed from thence through the window of the room below,
and is there fixed.

“ It is now plain, that by the tackle 1, 2, the shears can be
let go over as far as necessary, and brought back into the
perpendicular; but to counteract this main guy, and keep all
steady, the rope 5, 6, 7, with a small tackle upon it, performs
the office of an out-hawler guy, fixing to the same ring in
the rocks, as that of the main shears had before done. This
apparatus enabled the cupola to be hoisted and set on whole
without a bruise.

“Plate VII.—-Plan and description qf the work-yard at
[Hill-Bag, with its furniture and utensils.

“Figure l. The general plan of Mill-Bay, wherein the
dotted line a b 0 shows the line of low-water spring tides.

“ de. The channel dug from low water to convey vessels
to the head of the jettyfg.

“ I). ik l. The area of the work-yard.

“ Since the removal of this work, has been built L the
long-room.

“ A C. The marine barracks.

“ D D. New streets of Stonehouse.

“ Figure 2. Plan of the work-yard and jetty.
line terminating the head of the channel. Now any vessel
lying against the two large piles BC, on which a pair of
shears being erected, can be unloaded of her cargo of stone,
and delivered upon a wheel-carriage; that passing along the
jetty to the turn-rail E, the carriage is there turned round till
it becomes fair with the rail-road E F ; and passing along it, en-
ters the work—yard, whose boundary is marked by G G G G.

“At '1‘ is another turn-rail, which enables the carriage to
go on with its burden; either in the straight line, or to turn
there and go along the rail-road in the middle of the yard,
and arriving at any destined point, suppose H, it is there met
by a roll-carriage; for which, planks being temporarily laid,
as at I, the burden (being transferred on small rollers) will
be easily moved thereon to the extremity of the yard side-
ways; and thus stones can be deposited, as at KK (shown
edgewise upward) upon any point of the area. of the yard,
and returned by the same means.

“ The area bounded by the line G G, and the dotted line L L,
is the Portland workshed.

“M denotes one of the bankers; to which, from the wheel-
carriage (supposed on the rail-road opposite) strong joists
being laid, as shown by the dotted lines, the pieces of stone
are brought on small rolls; the bankers having notches sunk
therein, to receive the ends of the joists.

“ In like manner, the area N 0 was the shed for the moor-
stone workers.

“ The square area P Q denotes the extent of a roof, sup-
ported by four posts, covering the platform; whereof ab
represents the platings of rough stone walls; cd one of its
principal floor timbers, 6 by 12; these being covered with
three-inch planks, and brought to a true level, made a stout
floor, upon which the courses were brought together.

“ R. The cabin for the foreman of the yard.

“ s. A small store-room for tools and iron-work.

“ G W. The store-shed for Watchet lime and puzzolana.

“ v x. The shed for bucking or beating the larger parts of
the puzzolana. upon W Y, the bank with three cast-iron beds
upon it.

“Figure 3. Supposed a detached figure, being the ground-
plan of the turn-rail at T (Figure 2) to an enlarged scale,
wherein A B is a dormant circle of wood well supported; of
which 0 marks the centre-pin fixed in the transverse beam
D D: E E being connecting studs.

“F F. Portions of the rails, whereon the wheels move, which
are kept in place by the fillets f j; nailed on each side.

4U

A son, the

 

“GG. The sleepers for supporting the rails at about a
yard’s distance middle and middle; as is also shown near E,
in Figure 2.

“ Figure 4. The plan of the movable turn-rail, and Figure
5 the relative upright ; showing also the section of the dor-
mant circle. The three last figures having a mutual refer-
ence, the same parts are marked with the same letters: and
furthermore, in Figure 4 and 5.

“ H I. The rail part of the turn-rail, correspondent to
those parts marked F F, Figure 3, in width and height. The
rail parts, H I, are strongly framed upon the cross-beam KK,
and connected by the pieces L L. The whole being poised,
with its burden, upon the pin C, but without absolutely
touching the dormant circle AB while turning ; for bearing
only upon the flat shoulder of the pin, it turns easily; but,
when it is bringing on, or wheeling off, the equilibrium upon
the pin being destroyed, the ends, H, I, are then supported
upon the dormant circle, and the Wheels will move steady.

“Figure 7 shows the plan, and Figure 8 the upright view
of the wheel-carriage, to the same scale as that of Figures
3, 4, and 5. Also Figure 9, and Figure 10, give the upright
views of the roll-carriage in two directions, to the same
scale; which show distinctly the manner of supporting the
axis of the rolls on iron frames; and how the iron frames
are kept upright by four pair of cross bars.

“Figure 11. The upright of the capstan-roll, axis, and
middle part of the bar to the same scale. At 1, 2, is shown
the capstan in full, to the scale of the yard ; and 3, 4, and 5,
mark the direction of the rope, which, from a snatch-block
at 5, ascends to the upper block of the main tackle, sus-
pended from the top of the shears, as per Figure 6, wherein
the in-hauler guy-tackle is marked 7, being a runner and
tackle ; and the out-hauler, marked 8, are simple blocks.
The guy-rope,,7, 6, was attached to a ring-bolt, passing
through a large rough stone, rammed into the ground; its
place being shown at 6, (Figure 2,) the out-hauler guy 8, 9,
being secured in the same manner.

“ ’ ‘he marble rocks, marked 10, go round the point of
the bay.

“ Figure 12. The elevation of the upper part of the
jetty-headin front, with the shears upon it, to an enlarged
scale ; more particularly to show the smaller parts.

“A, B. The front pair of piles, to which the cross-beam
CD is bolted, and, in like manner, to each pair of piles.

“E, E. The ends of the longitudinal half balks.

“ F F. The cross joists.

“ G, G. The ends of the flat rails that the wheels of the
carriage run upon.

“ H H. A single cross timber, serving as a. stop to the car-
riage at the end.

“ I. The snatch-block.

“NB. The scantlings are marked, because this jetty or
scaffold, erected as slight as possible for a temporary purpose,
sustained the whole tonnage of the Eddystone matter, in and
out, without derangement.

“ The detached Figure 13, gives a part of the top of one
of the shear legs, showing how they were plated on each
side, to support the bolt of the anchor from bending, and
thereby from splitting the poles.

“ Figure 14. The enlarged figure of the runner and tackle
(marked 7, in Figure 6.)

“K. The runner-block of one large single pulley.

“LM. The tackle-blocks, of three pulleys each, making a
purchase of twelve, equivalent to the great blocks.

“ Figure 15. An upright diagonal view of the main-tackle
blocks; having six pulleys each upon two pins; the larger
tier being ten, and the lesser eight inches diameter. This

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

EDD

350

EDD

 

. figure distinctly shows the method of salvagee strapping;

being double, that the pins being readily knocked out, they
could be frequently greased without trouble.

“ NB. The shears, blocks, and tackles, used at Mill Bay,
were nearly the same as at the rock ; and one pair of main
tackle blocks at each place, with the same pulleys, went
though the whole service ; but the pins were renewed each
season, and sometimes oftener, being of wood, on account of
the salt-water; but were frequently greased. The main
tackle-fall at each place was no larger a rope than of three
inches circumference ; being a white rope, remarkably soft
laid, hauser-fashion; and which is of material consequence.

“ Plate VIII.—Descripti0ns qf supplemental matters,
having reference to the Eddgstone building.

“ Figure 1. An upright front view of the great tackle, or
purchase-blocks of twenty sheaves, or pulleys.

“Figure 2. A side view of the same blocks, referring to
Figure 1. The advantage of this construction is, that the
tackle-fall, or running-rope, may be reeved through the
twenty sheaves, without a cross or interference; so that
the standing part, or beginning, may be in the middle of the
upper block: and the ending, hauling part, or fall, upon
the middle pulley of the same block. The weight therefore
being suspended by twenty ropes instead of six, as in common
triple-blocks, the tackle-fall, as relative to a given weight,
may he lesser, or of fewer yarns in the same proportion ;
which renders the whole much more flexible and pliant, and
which, together with the advantage derived from the mode
of reeving, occasions their rising and falling nearly upon a
parallel. Beginning in the middle, the greater sheaves are

: reeved as far as can be on them; from thence going to the
1 first of the smaller sheaves, and reeving the whole of them
1 throughout, you then go to the first of the greater sheaves,

 

 

before left unreeved, ending upon the middle sheave of the
upper block; and thus arises a diminution of the friction
from the more equal distribution thereof.

“ Figure 3. An upright. section of the store-room, to
an enlarged scale; in it is shown the centre whereon
the upper store-room floor was turned; and in like manner
the rest.

“Figure 4. The plan relative thereto, the letters being
common to both.

“a b, c d. Two of the sixteen ribs, formed to the circle
of the vaults of the floors. These ribs are connected at their
ends by two wooden rings, cf; gh i k; the former supported
by four posts, three of which are shown in their places, and
the latter by eight; of which only one is shown on the right
hand, and one on the left, to avoid confusion. The rings are
each made to take asunder, that after striking the centre
they might be got out of the room.

“At ll, m 711, two of the ribs are supposed taken out,
to show their bearings upon the rings; they were open
centres, that it might be seen underneath when the joints
were fair. ‘

“Figure 7, of Plate IV., shows how the sixteen radii of
stones would apply to the sixteen ribs. In this plan,
Figure 4, A shows the well-hole, and BB the cross timbers
for supporting the four middle posts, whose places are marked
out by dotted little squares.

“ Figure 5. An elevation, and Figure 6, the relative plan
of a dial stone, taken professedly from the general figure of
the Eddystone lighthouse ; being the design of the late
James, Duke of Queensberry, and by him erected at Ames-
bury, \Vilts, with a dial upon it, by Mr. Ramsden. The
drawing, of which this is a copy, was given me by the Duke;
and is placed here as an instance, that the Eddystone column
may be applied to some uses of architecture.

 

“ Figure 7. One of the silver medals given to the seamen
as a token of the service.

“Figure 8. The tool wherewith the stones were got up
from the bottom of the gut.

“ A. One of the stones, with two trenail holes.

“Suppose this stone lying flat in the bottom of the gut,
the side A uppermost. The tool has a pole or staff, I) b, about
twelve feet long. sufficient to reach the bottom. This single
prong, c, is forged to a very gentle taper, such as to be thrust
eight or nine inches into a trenail hole, (all of them being
bored to a gauge) it can be driven by the pole, till fast;
observing that the arm e corresponds to the centre of gravity
of the stone. The water is generally so clear as to see to
the bottom ; and, in case of any ruffle by the wind, can be
in a great measure freed from agitation, by looking through
a speaking trumpet, whose mouth is put down eight or ten
inches into the water. The rope d e f being then set upon
by the main tackle, instead of its drawing out, the length of
the arm g causes the prong to jamb the faster in the hole;
and the staff being quitted by the hand, with a cord to hinder
its flying off too far, the whole assumes the position of the
figure; and, when brought above water, is lowered into
a yawl.

“Figure 9. A section of one of the mortar buckets, and
in it the beater.

“Figure 10. One of the internal faces of the lantern’s
glass frames, and therein the cross bars of iron, as they were
actually fixed. Besides the flat at each end of each bar,
distinguished by a darker shade, and through which the
screws passed; each end was also cranked about an inch, so
as to set the transverse part of the bars clear of the copper
sash-frame; and they were cleared of each other at their

intersection, by one of them being made straight, the other '

curved in that part. All the panes being taller than the
candles, the chandelier rings are so hung, that when the
candles are at rest, dispensing their light, that of one chan-
delier passes through the range of panes A, and that of the
other through the range B; and when the candles are snuffed,
one of the rings of lights being seen through the range C,
the other mounts to D, and vice versa.

“Figure 11. The chain of triangles, from the Eddystone
to the flag-staff of the garrison of Plymouth, for ascertaining
their distance trigonometrically.

“Figure 12. An enlargement of the work within the
headlands of the Sound.

“The whole country about Plymouth Sound being very
uneven, I could not readily obtain a base better, than by

very carefully measuring the two lines B G, B W, taking the .
intercepted angle W B G; whence the right line W G was i

obtained, making a base of 1871 feet, and which I cannot
suppose to err more than half a foot. Again, the nearest
place from whence the two beacons, W, G, could be commo-
diously seen for the purpose, was the point 5; and all the
three angles of the triangle W s G, being likewise carefully
taken, I conclude the angle W s G = 10° 23’, taken true to
a minute; that is, to Fig—gd part of the whole angle. The

line s W could therefore be determined within fifid part; =

which being considered as a new base of larger extent, may
be esteemed true within shoth part of the whole. From
this, and the angles taken as marked upon the scheme, the
lines W P, W M, and W E, were successively determined; and
finally F E, the distance of the flag-staff from the Eddystone,
came out very near, but somewhat less, than fourteen miles.
But the interior harbour of Plymouth, called Sutton Pool,
being about three furlongs farther from the Eddvstone than
the flag-staff, the whole distance may be esteemed fourteen
miles and a quarter from Plymouth harbour.”

 

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EGY

351

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Thus was completed the Eddystone Lighthouse, which
must ever be considered a masterpiece of its kind. The
merit of utility is not its only characteristic : but in beauty,
as well as in strength and originality, it deserves the highest
admiration. And when we remember the extraordinary
difficulties by which a work like this must have been
surrounded, we must own, that had its constructor left no
other memento of his genius, the Eddystone alone would be
sufficient to immortalize the name of Smeaton.

EDGE, the intersection of the two planes or surfaces of a
solid, which is consequently either straight or curved, accord-
ing to the direction of the surfaces. See ARRIS.

EDGE, is also that side of a rectangular prismatic body,
which contains the length and thickness, but in this sense of
the term, the body to which it applies is generally understood
to be very thin; thus we say, “the edge of a door,” the
“ edge of a board,” meaning the narrow side.

EDGE or A Tool, the meeting of the surfaces, when
ground to a very acute angle.

EDGE-TOOLS, all those which chip or shave in the operation
of working.

EDGING, in carpentry, the reducing of the edges of ribs
or rafters, whether externally or internally, so as to range in
a plane, or in any curved surface required ; backing is a par-
ticular case of edging, and only applies to the outer edges of
ribs or rafters, but edging, or ranging, is a general term, and
applies indifl'erently, either to the backing or internal surface.
See the terms BACKING and RANGING.

EDIFICE, (from the Latin, cedg'ficium,) a building con-
structed either for use or ornament. The word is not usually
applied to a mean or inferior building, but to temples,
churches, or elegant mansions, and to other great structures.
See BUILDING, HOUSE, TEMPLE, 8m.

EDILE, (Latin, cedilis, from cedes, a building,) an officer
in ancient Rome, whose business was to superintend build-
ings of all kinds, more especially those of a public character,
as temples, aqueducts, bridges, &c.

EFFIGY, a representation or likeness of anything, the
term being particularly applied to sculptured representations
of human figures. Such effigies were very common on tombs
erected from the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries, and
were of various materials, stone, marble, alabaster, and even
of the precious metals.

EGGS, ornaments in the form of oblong spheroids, having
their greater axis inclined, projecting at the top and receding
at the bottom, but each axis in a plane perpendicular to the
surface of the ovolo. In straight mouldings, all the axes will
be in the same plane; but in annular mouldings, or those
generated round an axis, all the axes of the spheroids will be
in the surface of a cone, whose vertex will be downwards,
and will terminate in the apex. The eggs are most generally
truncated, or have their upper part cut off by a plane parallel
to the horizon. See ECHINUS.

EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. The character of the
Egyptians, as developed in early history, would naturally
lead us to suppose, that an inquiry into their style and man-
ner of building would form a subject for interesting study,
not only to the antiquary, but also to all such as take any
interest in general history; and such doubtless is the case. The
history of the place attaches an unusual interest to everything
connected with it. Of the early history of Egypt, like that
of the other primteval nations, we know but little for certain,
all narrative dating back beyond acertain period, having an
air of mystery about it, which it is not easy to penetrate,
and this fact is more especially true, as regards the origin of
nations. If we believe the records of the Egyptian priests,
as handed down to us by Herodotus, Manetho, Eratosthenes,

 

and others, we shall have to carry back the date of its origin
far beyond the period generally assigned as the commence-
ment of history. Manetho gives us a series of dynasties
upon dynasties, which, if successive, reach beyond the bounds
of time; to obviate which difficulty, it has been suggested, that
they were not all successive, but several contemporaneous,
reigning over different parts of the country; but, indeed, the
whole matter would seem to be fabulous, for in the same
place is related the gigantic stature of several kings, their
wonderful exploits, and other circumstances characteristic of
mystical and confused tradition. The first king alluded to by
historians is Menes or Men, who is supposed to have lived
above 2,000 years B. 0., about the time of the foundation of
Assyria by Nimrod, and of the reign of the Chinese emperor
Yao, with whom the historical period of China begins. It is
doubtful which of these nations came first into existence; we
are inclined to give the preference to the Assyrians, but which-
ever takes the lead, there was probably but little difference
between them in point of time. It is certain that Egypt stood
out pre-eminent in civilization, and that, too, at a very early
period; its success in the cultivation of the arts, and in the pur-
suit of science, was greater than that of any contemporaneous
people, as is evident from their remains to be seen at the pre-
sent day. At the close of Manetho’s sixteenth dynasty, the
irruption of the Hyksos, or shepherds, is supposed to have
taken place ; his seventeenth dynasty consisting of shepherd-
kings, from which period it is alleged that the erection of the
existing edifices must commence, all the previously existing
buildings having been destroyed by the shepherds. As
a proof of this, is adduced the circumstance, that at Carnac,
and other of the oldest monuments of Thebes, sculptures
and painted stones, of good workmanship, are to be found,
used as mere materials in the body of the walls.

Besides the ancient authors already mentioned, we have
Strabo and Diodorus Siculus, who have given Some account
of Egypt and its buildings, and to these we shall have to
refer occasionally as we proceed.

In turning to modern writers on this subject, we shall find
but few who enter fully into the subject previous to the com-
mencement of the present century, little or nothing having
been known of Egyptian buildings, unless it were of the
Pyramids, until the French expedition, at the close of the
last century; no satisfactory delineations of the temples, or
their details, had been taken, but only such sketches as were
calculated to convey some general idea of their characteristic
massiveness. To Denon, and the contributors to the great
French work on this subject, we are principally indebted for
our present information. Pococke and Norden have treated
somewhat largely on their researches in this country, but.
their remarks are too general and too loose to be of much
service. Denon had advantages unattainable by any of his
predecessors; independent of his own high qualifications, his
efforts were seconded by the able assistance of men of talent,
sent out for the purpose, themselves well fitted for the task.
Besides these, we may mention Belzoni and Champollion; and,
amongst our own countrymen, Savary and Wilkinson.

According to Manetho's account, the temples to which the
remains described by Denon belong, were erected by the first
dynasties of the Pharaohs, or about 2,200 before Christ:
these first structures, however, were destroyed by the inva-
ding shepherds, as before noticed. These usurpers were, in
turn, driven out by the Pharaohs, who were restored to their
throne about 2,000 years 13.0., and thereupon set about
rebuilding .the temples, the remains of which are seen at
this day.

The character of Egyptian architecture is that of massy
grandeur and severe simplicity, as exhibited in the simple,

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

EGY

3

2 EGY

 

well-defined outline, and in the colossal dimensions of their
temples, and the immense blocks of material employed in
their construction. The great object of the builders seems
to have been, that the strength and durability portrayed in
the prodigious magnitude of their structures should serve to
typify their own greatness. They did not consider, when
they were erecting their temples, that they were building
them for an age, but for eternity; nor, comparatively speaking,
were they deceived in the estimate of their works ; for now,
after the lapse of three or four thousands of years, we have
some portions which are likely to last as many more centuries,
unless wantonly destroyed by the hand of man. Had, indeed,
the buildings only to contend with the ravages of time, we
should have many a structure perfect, where it is now a
heap of ruins: had it not been for the reckless destruction of
these wonderful monuments by Cambyses, it is questionable
whether they would not all have been entire at the present
day, and certainly in a better state of preservation than
many modern buildings which have not numbered as many
ten years as the former have centuries. Even now, the
carving, and, in some instances, paintings, to be seen in the
ruins, are as fresh and bright as if only just executed.

The immense size of the stones employed, and the mecha-
nical art necessary for transporting them from the quarry,
and afterwards raising them to the required elevation in the
temples, when building, cause these sacred structures to
appear like works of superhuman labour. In every degree,
they exhibited a solemn majesty of style, and imposing
grandeur; while austere simplicity, combined with order,
uniformity, and regularity, pervade the whole design.

This, with the solidity and massiveness of the parts, and the
prodigious dimensions of the stones, imparted an air of the most
impressive and awful sublimity on the mind of the beholder.

Belzoni, who visited Egypt, observes, in his enthusiastic
‘manner, when entering this magnificent temple—“I was
lost in a mass of colossal objects, every one of which was
more than sufficient of itself to attract my attention; I
seemed alone in the midst of all that is most sacred in the
world; a forest of enormous columns, adorned all round
With beautiful figures, and various ornaments, from top to
bottom; the graceful shape of the lotus, which forms the

bell-shaped capitals, and which is so Well-proportioned to
the columns; the friezes, also adorned in every part with
symbolical figures in low relief, representing battles, pro-
cessions, triumphs, priests, and sacrifices; all relating to
the ancient history of the country. The walls of the sanc-
tuary, usually formed of red porphyry granite; the high
portal, seen at a distance from the openings of this vast
labyrinth of sacred edifices on each side of me, had such an
effect upon my soul as to separate me in imagination from
the rest of mortals, exalt me on high above all, and cause me
to forget entirely the trifies and follies of life l” “It further
appears,” he says, on entering the city of Thebes, “like
entering a city of giants, who, after a long conflict, were all
destroyed, leaving ruins of their various temples as the only
proof of their former existence.” Champollion exclaims of
Carnac, “These porticos must be the work of men one
hundred feet in height ;” and Denon adds, “Such struc-
tures appear like dreams, or the works of giants 1”

Of the impression made upon the mind of Denon by these
stupendous structures, we have sufficient evidence in his
work on the subject; the few following passages have been
selected from a multitude of a similar kind.

Of the portico of Hermopolis, he says, “ This was the first
monument which gave me an idea of the ancient Egyptian
architecture, the first stones that I had seen which had
preserved their original distinction without being altered or

 

deformed, and had remained there for four thousand years;
here I fancied I saw engraven on every stone the words
Posterity—Eternity. It gave an idea of the immense range
and high perfection to which the arts had arrived in this
country. If a peasant should be drawn out from his mud<
cottage, and placed before such an edifice as this, would he
not believe that there must exist a wide difference between
himself and the beings who were able to construct it, and,
without any idea of architecture, would he not say, ‘ This is
the work of a god; a. man could not dare to do it, or
inhabit it.’ ”

This is his first impression, nor is his admiration less
apparent at the close of his researches ; novelty may excite
wonder and interest, but merit alone can maintain them.
At a later period, the description of Tentyra calls forth the
following remarks :— _

“Nothing is more simple and \‘better put together than
the few lines which compose this architecture. The Egyp-
tians, borrowing nothing from the style of other nations,
have here added no foreign ornament, no superfluity of
materials; order and simplicity are the principles which
they have followed, and they have carried them to sublimity.
At this point they have stopped, and have attached so much
importance to preserving the unity of design, that though
they have loaded the walls of these edifices with has-reliefs,
inscriptions, historical and scientific representations, none of
these rich additions intersects a single line of the general
plan, all of which are religiously preserved unbroken; the
sumptuous decorations which appear to the eye when close
to the building, all vanish at a short distance, and leave full
to view the grand elements of architectural composition
which are dictated by sound reason. It never rains in this
climate, all that is wanted therefore is a covering of plat-
bands to give shade, but beyond this neither roof nor pen-
diment are added; the plain-slope is the principle of solidity;
they have therefore adopted this form for every main sup-
porter, doubtless with the idea that stability is the first
impression that architecture should give, and is an essential
constituent of this art. With these people the idea of the
immortality of the Deity is presented by the eternity of his
temple ; these ornaments, which are always rational, always
consistent, always significant, demonstrate a steadiness of
principle, a taste founded upon truth and a deep train
of reasoning; and if we even had not a full conviction of
the eminent height to which they had attained in the abstract
sciences, their architecture alone, in the state in which we
now find it, would give the observer of the present day a
high opinion of the antiquity of this nation, of its cultivation,
and the impressive gravity of its character.”

Of Carnac he at last exclaims—“One is fatigued to
describe, and to read, and to think, of such a conception;
after having seen it, one can hardly credit the reality of the
existence of so many structures collected in one spot, of their
size, of the determined resolution (constance obstim‘e) which
exacted their erection, and of the incalculable expense of
such magnificence.”

Of the aesthetic character of Egyptian architecture, our
author observes :—“ These monuments, (Tentyra,) which
imprinted on the mind the respect due to a sanctuary of
the divinity, were the open volumes in which science was
unfolded, morality dictated, and the useful arts promulgated;
everything spoke, every object was animated with the same
mind. The opening of the doors, the angles, the most private
recess, still presented a lesson, a precept of admirable har-
mony; and the lightest ornament on the gravest feature of
the architecture, revealed under living images the abstrac:
truths of astronomy.”

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

EGY

353

EGY

 

“Painting added a further charm to sculpture and archi-
tecture, and produced at the same time an agreeable richness,
which did not injure either the general simplicity or the
gravity of the whole. To all appearance, painting in Egypt
was then only an auxiliary ornament, and not a particular
art; the sculpture was emblematical, and, if I may so call it,
architectural.

“Architecture was therefore the great art, or that which
was dictated by utility, and we may from this circumstance
alone infer the priority, or at least the superior excellence, of
the Egyptian over the Indian art, since the former, borrowing
nothing from“ theulat'ter, has become the basis of all that is
the subject of admiration in modern art, and what we have
considered as exclusively belonging to architecture, the three
Greek orders, the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. We should
therefore be cautious of entertaining the false idea which is
so prevalent, that the Egyptian architecture is the infancy of
this art, since it is, in fact, the complete type.

Such is the universal and oft-repeated admiration of
modern travellers: had such expressions been used by an
ancient author, and the buildings now demolished, we should
have been apt to treat the matter as purely-fabulous, but now
they are undoubted realities, and stand as evidence of the
truth of history. Such structures could doubtless have been
erected solely under a despotic government, and probably, for
the most part, by captives or slaves, and not by free Egyptians,
as we read of the Israelites in the time of Moses being tasked
in this manner : the manual labour employed on such struc-
tures must have been enormous. It is a matter of the
greatest wonder how such immense masses of material were
transported from the quarries, and fixed so accurately in their
respective places ; even in the present day, with all the
advantages of machinery and steam-power which we possess,
the erection of such structures, as those of Egypt would be
considered no light undertaking. Notwithstanding the vast
magnitude of these erections, they were remarkable not only
for their size, but no less for their enrichment ; ornamentation
of various kinds-was lavishly distributed over the whole
surface. It is true, the buildings appear to greatest advan-
tage when exhibited as a whole, yet each minute portion will
bear, nay, require, minute examination ; a close inspection
reveals the most elaborate enrichment, while a distant view
exhibits the noble outline and the grander features of archi-
tectural composition.

No two styles would at first sight appear more dissimilar,
more antagonistic, than the Egyptian and Gothic, the one
ponderous and massive, the other light and elegant ; the one
flat, of low proportions, and presenting a great extent of
unbroken horizontal lines, the other slender, lofty, and aspir-
ing. What contrarieties do they present! and yet we shall
find that they have many characteristics in common, not
indeed in their architectural features, but in the aesthetic
principles followed out in their construction and decoration.
The temples of the Egyptians were but the embodiment of
their religion; their massive proportions typified the greatness,
as the continuity of the outline and repetition ofparts illustrated
the eternity and immutability, of their deity. Their objects
of worship inspired feelings of profound awe, so likewise
did their temples. Nor were their decorations merely the
result of caprice, but of studied design; every detail was sub-
servient to some great end, and suggested by some urgent
reason; they all have a symbolical meaning, illustrative of
the Divine attributes, and consist, in short, of a series of
religious dogmas and precepts, embodied as it were in forms.
They were, as is said of the pictorial and carved enrichment
of Gothic edifices, the books of the unlearned, each object
speaking more intelligibly and more impressively to the eye

fl...— .

 

and mind of the beholder, than would whole volumes of
written precepts.

“ The materialism of Egyptian worship,” says a writer on
this subject, “rendered all these details essential ; it fixed the
imagination on physical nature, and obliged the ecclesiastics to
seek those forms best calculated to express the dogmas of
their religion. And in contemplating their architecture, it is
impossible not to be struck with the manifest influence
religion has had in its creation.” In allusion to another
similarity as regards the'circumstances connected with the
erection of Egyptian and Gothic edifices, he says, “ The
priests, who were the great depositories of all knowledge, were
the exclusive designers of their religious edifices ; they alone
directed the taste of the architect and the sculptor ; and they
employed architectural grandeur, with all its accessories, to
influence the minds of those people whose actions they
wished to govern ; nor can I imagine anything better suited
to inspire religious awe, and a profound reverence for the
divinity, as well as his earthly agents amongst an idolatrous
people, than this style of architecture.” In passing, we may
remark upon another affinity between the two styles, which
approaches more nearly to an architectural characteristic, and
that is, the practice of copying nature, all the decorative
details of Egyptian, as of Gothic architecture, being the most
beautiful imitations of the natural productions of their
cgmtrgL—cgthevlotus, palm, reed, papyrus, &c.

Having thus given a description of the general character
of this style of architecture, it will be as well to proceed at
once to the consideration of the buildings more in detail, as
regards plan, distribution, and arrangement of parts, method
of construction, and such like ; in doing which we shall take
as an illustration the temple at Edfou, or Apollinopolis Magna,
one of the largest in Egypt.

The size ofthis temple is much more comprehensive, and its
arrangement much more complicated than that of Grecian struc-
tures, for whereas the latter consisted ofasingle cell surrounded
by a wall with external columns, the former was composed of
several courts, one within and beyond the other, and having
columns for the most part within the walls. The entrance to
the whole building was through a door placed between, and
somewhat in advance of,two enormous pyramidal towers, termed
propylaea, which rose considerably above the general mass of
the building, and were covered on the sides with sculptured
figures of colossal size. The plan of each pyramid in this case
measures 104 feet in length and 37 feet in width at the base,
the dimensions diminishing gradually to the summit, where
they are 84 feet by 20 feet, the height being about 150 feet.
Each mole is finished by a projecting cornice,and is surrounded
on all sides by a bold torus moulding. They may be con-
sidered as solid structures, for although they contain chambers
with their approaches, still these bear so small a proportion
to the entire mass, that. they amount to no more than small
voids or cavities. The colossal entrance between the
pyramids is crowned with a cornice, and finished at the angles
with a torus-moulding similar to the propylaea, and was
probably furnished with folding doors, as the notches for
hinges are still visible. This door-way gave admission into
a peristyle court having twelve columns on either side,and
four on either side of the entrance at a little distance from
the propylwa. The pillars at the sides are placed at some
distance from a wall, which commences at the moles and sur-
rounds the entire temple, and the space between this wall and
the columns is roofed over, so as to form a covered-way or
piazza, which leads on either side to the doors of the stair-
cases in the propylaaa, and is continued in a similar manner in
front of them, on the entrance-side of the area. The colon-
nade throughout is picnostyle, which seems to have been the

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

EGY

354

EGY

 

usual disposition, the intercolumn being seldom greater than
a diameter and a half, except in the centre of a portico,
where a doorway intervened, which practice is identical with
that of the Greeks, as evinced in the Doric order. The
height of the colonnade from the base of the columns to the
top of the projecting cornice, with which they were sur-
mounted, is about 38 feet. This court is not level, but has a
considerable ascent towards the farthest side, which is effected
by a series of low and very wide steps, extending the whole
width of the quadrangle, and commencing at its entrance.
The width of each step is that of a column and inter-
column, and the total rise is 56 feet. This alteration of level
seems to have been introduced for the purpose of giving
elevation to the grand portico which forms the farther side of
the court, and consists of eighteen columms, in three rows of
six each, placed one behind the other, and flanked on either
side by a wall so as to resemble a Greek hexastyle in
antis, with the exception that here there are three parallel
rows one behind the other, while in Grecian temples
there are never more than two. The portico, however, bears a
greater resemblance to the propylaea of the Greeks, than to
their temples, both being open in front, and enclosed on their
other sides, having several rows of columns one behind the
other. The columns in this portico, or pronaos, are loftier
than those in the court below, and are surmounted like them
with a projecting cornice. The spaces between the front
row of columns are filled up to about half their height with
a screen or dado, which gives the upper part of the inter-
column the appearance of a window. The middle intercolumn
is treated in a somewhat different manner, the wall or screen
being carried up somewhat higher, and advanced a little in
front of the general line; the sides likewise being flanked
With short columns, andf the entrance to the pronaos being
cut through the screen.‘ In the wall at the further end of
this first hall, is an entrance into a second of smaller dimen-
sions, a space being taken off each side for passages. This
hall is hypostyle, covered with a flat roof composed of thick
slabs of stone, resting on large stone beams, which are
supported again by twelve columns disposed in three rows
of four each, closely set, so as to leave only narrow passages
between them. From this hall we come into a chamber,
having its greatest length in the width of the building, as
also has the portico, and having entrances to the passages
at the side of this chamber, and the hypostyle hall, from
which access is obtained by means of steps to the top of the
sekos. Beyond this is another similar chamber of smaller
dimensions, having a cell on either side, supposed to have
been for the priests. Entrance is obtained from this chamber
into the sanctuary, which is a small covered chamber,
having its greatest length parallel with that of the main
building; its size is about 33 feet by 17, and in it was
placed the image of the deity. Round the two sides and
further end of the sanctuary, is a passage, to which access
is obtained from the second chamber, and round this again
a larger area of similar shape, into which the smaller one led,
and which gave access to the top of the sanctuary. In most
instances, in front of the whole building, and a short distance
in advance of the propylaea, were erected two obelisks of
great height, and covered with hieroglyphics, and in front
of them a long avenue, or dramas, as it is called, formed by
two rows of sphinxes, placed at short intervals from each
other, the space between the two rows forming a way or road
to the temple. Strabo, the historian, who saw this temple
we have been describing, alludes to this avenue—“ Before
the pillars or propylma,” says he, “ is a paved road or avenue
about 100 feet in breadth, or sometimes less, and in length
from the entrance from 300 to 400 feet, or even more. This

 

is called the dromos; through the whole length of which,
and on each side of it, sphinxes are regularly placed at the
distance of 30 feet from each other, which forms a double
row on each side. Between the sphinxes you advance
towards the temple, until you come to a large propylaeum or
triumphal entrance, through which you pass; and as you
advance, you come to another propylaaum, which you pass
through; then to a third; and still keep passing on until you
come to the entrance into the temple.”

The above description, although of a particular example,
'will answer with but little alteration for any other temple,
all such buildings being built on a similar plan, with but slight
variations in particular instances. They all consist of a
sekos, or sanctuary, of small dimensions, situatednear one
extremity of the building, surrounded on all sides with
chambers, passages, and courts, and approached through a
Series of covered halls and colonnaded atria, the whole of the
buildings being inclosed within an outer wall, and having
a grand entrance flanked by two pyramidal moles. No
matter to what date a building may belong, or what position
it may occupy, the general form is the same, the only differ-
ence being in the size, and in the number of adjoining courts
and buildings. In some cases, we have two or more pro-
pylaea, and courts preceding the temple, and sometimes
avenues of columns crossing the courts in a line from the
entrance. The temple at Luxor has as many as three courts,
the first with a double peristyle, the second with a double
range of columns extending throughout its length, and the
third flanked by colonnades, each consisting of a double row
of columns. "1‘0 give some idea of the magnitude of this
work, we may add, that in the second court, the columns
were 56 feet high, and 11% feet in diameter.

We now pass on to consider the elevation of such buildings
more in detail. The contour of the elevation was pyramidal
throughout; not only did the obelisks and propylaea present
this appearance, but even the walls, spreading out at the
base, and converging towards the apex, and as these formed
the external face of the building, they gave the whole a
pyramidal appearance, which doubtless adds considerably
to the expression of strength, which is a marked characteristic
of the style. The columns are the only parts of the building
in which this form is not observable, their profile being for
the most part vertical. This is just the reverse of Grecian
architecture ; for there the walls are vertical, and the columns
sloping or conical, the general effect, however, is the same——
pyramidal; for whereas in the Grecian buildings, the sloping

'columns are placed on the exterior, in those of Egypt the

walls are external, surrounding the upright columns, so that
the profile of the building, taken as a whole, is the same,
although the arrangement is reversed.

\An Egyptian order—if we may so apply the term—con-
sists, like the Greek, of column and entablature, which parts
we proceed to consider separately. j Existing remains offer
us examples of columns in great variety, differing in shape,
proportions, and decoration, a few specimens only of which
we can pretend to notice. The diversity observable in them
is so great, that it would be futile to attempt a detailed
classification ; for examples which present similarities of form
or decoration, differ in proportions, while those agreeing in
the latter vary in many other particulars. {As in other styles,
the column consists of three members, ‘ base, shaft, and
capital; the first, however, can scarcely be termed a distinct
member, being in some cases scarcely recognizable, and in
none forming a very prominent feature. It is usually a plain
circular slab of stone or plinth, sometimes projecting from
and at others flush with the face of the shaft, or of the same
projection as the widest or bulging portion of the shaft, and

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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projecting forwards somewhat at their junction, where the
. shaft curves inwards.

The shafts present many variations, both in contour and
decoration; their most usual form is that of a cylinder, or
more nearly approaching the cylindrical than any other figure,
there being frequently a. slight difference between the upper
and lower diameters. Sometimes the shaft contracted
suddenly immediately above the base, the contour of this
portion being curvilinear, and forming a tangent with the
upper surface of the base, resembling in shape the calyx of
a flower, the similarity to which is made the more remarkable
by the leaves carved upon its surface. This last form can
scarcely be recommended for its beauty; for in spite of the
assertions of its admirers, it certainly does present an appear-
ance of weakness. It is said that in such cases the judgment
comes to the assistance of the senses, and corrects the eye,
and that what is well known to be strong, cannot fairly be
said to appear weak, and this is doubtless true to a certain
extent; nevertheless, speaking abstractedly and artistically,
this form is decidedly objectionable. In some instances,
the columns slope downwards in a slight degree, similar to
those of Greece. The cylindrical shafts are usually reeded,
giving the surface the appearance of a number of staves or
reeds placed round a common centre, or of a bundle of reeds,
whence this kind of column has obtained the name of the
bundle pillar. This resemblance is borne out by the fact, that
such shafts are usually cinctured at intervals by bands con-
sisting of three or more rings, which gives one the idea of a
bundle of reeds bound round with reeds or rushes to preserve
them in their position. These bands are ‘sometimes of
greater width, and have a plain surface, or one of the inter-
vals between two bands is left blank, which again is often
filled up with hieroglyphics or other ornament. Specimens
of reeded shafts of the different descriptions mentioned, are
to be found at Beni-hassan, Hermontis, and Latopolis, and
indeed in almost every locality; they are more prevalent
than any other form. At other times, the reeds entirely
disappear, the plain shaft being divided vertically into a
number of compartments as before, by means of annulets or
bands of reeds, and these compartments filled in with hiero-
glyphics; many elaborate examples of this kind are to be
seen at Dendera.

Although cylindrical shafts are by far the most general,
yet we occasionally meet with examples of a polygonal form,
and sometimes with plain rectangular piers ; a remarkable
instance of the former exists at a temple at Eilethyas, on the
right bank of the Nile, a few miles south of Esneh, where,
in the interior of a large vestibule, the whole of the roof, as
Mr. Barry informs us, is supported on polygonal columns of
sixteen sides. Examples of the rectangular piers are described
by the same writer as existing at Beni-hassan. l)

Instances of the employment of Caryatid figures in the
place of columns are not unfrequent, they are placed in front

of square piers, and do not bear the whole weight of the ,

superincumbent mass, which is mainly supported by the piers.
Examples of this kind are to be found at Ramesseion, Thebes,
and Ibsambal, on the banks of the Nile, between Egypt and
Ethiopia. The pronaos of the last-named temple, according
to Belzoni, is 57 feet long and 52 wide, supported by two rows
of square pillars, each having a figure of Sesostris attached to
it, about 30 feet high, finely executed, and in good preservation.
The pillars 'are five and a half feet square, and the sides are
covered with hieroglyphics.

{Of capitals, Egyptian architecture affords a vast variety,
widely differing in form and character. One prevailing form
is the bulging or bulbous capital, which projects from the
shaft in a flat Curve, but, instead of continuing to expand as

 

it proceeds upwards, it recedes back, gradually diminishing in
thickness, until at its junction with the abacus its diameter
equals that of the shaft ; the contour is similar to that which
would be produced by a slightly yielding body pressed down
by a superincumbent weight. Sometimes this capital exhibits
a plain surface, only relieved by hieroglyphics arranged in
horizontal rings, as at Kournon ; at others, it is divided into
eight or more compartments, or shafts, running vertically
from top to bottom, and covered with hieroglyphics, or‘reeded,
in which latter case another subdivision of shafts frequently
takes place about half way up the capital, or the shafts are
interrupted by one or more horizontal bands, either plain or
covered with hieroglyphics, as at Latopolis. The simplest
capital of this kind is where the reeds of the shaft are car-
ried up without any interruption, with the exception of a
band at the top of the shaft, underneath the bulge of the
capital.

Another form of capital, which was frequently adopted,
is the bell-shaped, resembling, in contour, an inverted bell,
and covered with leaves, flowers, &c., or they may be said to
resemble the bell and petals of a flower, the upper rim turn—
ing over, and bending downwards. This rim was sometimes
perfectly circular, but at others divided into a number of
convex curves, forming so many distinct petals. The lotus,
papyrus, and palm seem to have been the favourite plants for
introduction into this kind of capital, and so beautifully were
they carved, as frequently to exhibit the most delicate and
minute parts, such as the petals, pistyles, reeds, &c. Exam-
ples are to be found in almost every building ; among others
we may mention those of Hermontis, Latopolis, and Apolli-
nopolis Magna, where there are some exquisite specimens;
indeed, all the capitals of this form are exceedingly delicate
and beautiful, of elegant form, and chaste enrichment. An
example of somewhat similar character is given, selected from
the temple of Esneh, but in this case the contour is different,
being convex instead of concave; the treatment, however, is
similar, and the design good. Another capital is frequently
introduced in the greater temples, which may be termed a.
double capital, the lowermost of which consists of four
Isis’ faces, disposed so as to form a square larger than the
shaft, the folds of the head-dress on each side hanging down,
and projecting beyond it at the corners. Above each face is
a projecting abacus, with a concave face, and standing upon
these, a square temple, which forms the second capital.
Instances are likewise to be found of triple capitals, which
consist of the last-mentioned double form placed above one
of the bell-shaped kind. Another instance of a double
capital is given, taken from the temple of Typhon, which
consists of a rectangular block placed upon a bell-shaped
capital, against each of the four sides of which sits an image
of the god. Heads of animals are sometimes carved in the
place of capitals, amongst which are those of the bull, which
form is worthy of notice as approximating to the capitals
found at Persepolis. Rarely we find columns without capitals,
or with a simple rectangular block, which is little better than
an abacus. The Egyptian abacus varies from the Grecian
in being nothing more than a plain square plinth, of consi-
derably smaller dimensions than the capital, and therefore
receding from, not projecting over, as in classical architecture;
indeed it scarcely forms a member of the capital at all, for, on
account of its great depth behind the capital, it is scarcely
visible, unless it be of extraordinary height; its purpose
seems to be, to form a marked division between the column
and entablature, and obviate that heaviness of appearance
which would otherwise be occasioned. The bulging capitals
form an exception to this rule, for in them the abacus projects,
and overhangs the capital, the object of which is apparent

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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from the peculiar shape of the capital; in this case it is
usually ornamented with hieroglyphics or otherwise.

We have here referred to some few of the specimens of
capitals which remain, and but a few, for there is a great
variety, several of which may frequently be found in the
same building; and even in the same hall, or other part of a
building, may be seen capitals of different design though of
the same general appearance, which circumstance is similar
to that observable in Gothic buildings. The proportions vary
in like manner ; they seem to have had no settled rule as to
design or proportion, which were purely matters of individual
taste. The arrangement was generally picnostyle, especially
in the covered halls, where they had to support large masses
of stone, which were used for roofing.

The design for the entablature, on the contrary, seems to
have been unalterable, for with the exception of some little
diversity in the ornamentation, they are universally of the
same form and character, and this is the case, however much
buildings may differ as regards their columns. It comprises
two parts only, the epistylium and the cornice, the former of
which was flush with the walls underneath at each end of
the colonnade, answering to the Greek antae, with which
likewise they are enclosed within a bold torus-moulding, and
present a similar appearance to the architrave of a door,
being returned at the sides. The torus-moulding is a
marked feature in Egyptian buildings, running up every
angle of the building, and then returning on both sides under—
neath the cornice. The architrave is frequently plain, some-
times covered with hieroglyphics, but most frequently has a
winged globe over the entrance in the centre, which is sup-
posed to have been symbolical of the deity.

The cornice is a very prominent feature in this style, and
is introduced as a crowning or finish in every situation, with
or without the architrave : it is seen at the entrance of the
temple, over the doorway and propylaea; within, over the
colonnade and portico; and on the exterior, crowning the
whole length of wall. It consists of but little more than a
deep cove, but produces a great and beneficial effect by the
bold shadow which it casts. The surface is divided into
panels by an ornament similar to the Doric triglyph, ora
band of three or more reeds placed side by side, with gene-
rally a narrow interval between each two ; when, however,
the band is composed of a greater number of reeds, they are
placed close together. The metopes or panels are filled up
with some kind of ornamentation. This formed the termina-
tion of the building, for the roof being flat, there was no such
thing as the pediment, the finishing line was horizontal.

Let' us return for a few moments to the column, the sim-
plest form of which appears in an example at Beni-hassam, as
figured by Mr. Barry, and in reference to which he says:

“The prototype would appear to have consisted of four
large reeds of the Nile, placed upon an angular block, and
tied together by cords near the top, forming thereby the
capital. Small sticks are introduced between the reeds at the
place of ligature, to render the figure ofa more circular form,
and afford the means of more firmly tying the whole
together. The top is crowned by a square abacus, and the
reeds being thereby confined, the effect of any incumbent
weight upon them would be to produce the form.”

A column similar to the above, but in a more forward state
of development, is to be seen at the British Museum; it
consists of double the number of reeds, placed together in the
same manner, with similar base and abacus. But besides the
ditference as to number, there is in this example another
variation in the method of joining shaft and base, the reeds
in this case being turned under so as to meet the base in a
curve, a form frequently adapted in more elaborate specimens.

 

 

The next change seems to have been the introduction of
horizontal bands, which became requisite, as the reeds
increased in number, to hold them firmly together; in some
cases we find several bands, of one, two, or more reeds. The

'next step was to leave one or more of the spaces between the

bands plain, and the next to cover it with hieroglyphics, till
at last we find all the divisions of this description, as at Ten-
tyris- The progress of the capital would seem to have been of a
like nature; at first we find them composed of the same
materials as the shaft, with only a band to mark the sepa-
ration, and a flat square abacus at the top. The capital is,
however, of a somewhat different contour, bulging out towards
the lower end or ligature. In the second example we have
adduced, the same form is preserved, but the capital and
abacus, as well as the shaft, are covered with hieroglyphics.
The next alteration would be similar to what took place in
the case of the shaft ; the capitals were divided horizontally
into bands, as at Latopolis, and these again ornamented With
hieroglyphics as at Kournou.

The bell-and-vase-shaped capitals are of an entirely differ-
ent description, and cannot be said to have been a develop-
ment of the above ; they must have arisen from an entirely
new adaptation of natural forms ; while the above consists of
mere reeds, the new form was an imitation of foliage and
flowers belonging to that climate—the palm, the lotus,
and the papyrus. The outline as well as the decoration of
this kind of capital, deserves the highest praise for its taste,
combining as it does the admirable properties of severity and
grace, and will bear comparison with the best examples of
classic design, not excepting the Corinthian, to which it bears
a very remarkable resemblance, so much so as to give us
reason to believe that the Romans were indebted to Egypt
for the origin of their most admired order. Some specimens
bear a slight resemblance to the Ionic; we may allude to that
at Latopolis, but this is not so obvious, although we certainly
have the‘upper part of the Ionic capital with its volutes
repeated as a minor decoration.

The square capitals, again, with a representation of the
head of Isis or other deity on its four sides, form a third
class, which seems to have had its origin in symbolism, or
at any rate in the mysteries of religion; it supposition which
is in some measure confirmed by the usual accompani-
ment of a temple.

There are some columns to be seen in Egypt of a very
different description to any we have noticed, and to which
Mr. Barry has called attention in a note appended to
Mr. Gwilt’s edition of Chambers; they bear a. marked
resemblance to the Grecian Doric, and are considered of
earlier date than any existing specimen of that order. One
illustration represents a portico oftwo fluted columns in antis,
the flutes of which are shallow, and twenty in number, and the
capital consists of an abacus only; the height of the column is
about 5% diameters. Another striking example is found at Ka-
laptchie, on the borders of the Nile, in which, says Mr. Barry,
“ The abacus is square, and 11 inches thick; the shaft, which

has a trifling diminution, is 7 feet 8 inches high, and 3 feet

2 inches diameter. The circumference is in 2-1 divisions,
whereof 4, which are at right angles to each other, are flat
faces covered with hieroglyphics, and the other intervening
ones are sunk into flat elliptical flutes finch deep.”

Another example is to be seen at Amada in Nubia, but
here we have two different kinds adjoining each other, which
throw some light upon the origin and purport of such
columns. In this case the columns are but square piers
with a slight projection at top and bottom, for abacus and
base, not very difi‘erent from those already described, as

, placed behind the Caryatid figures at Ipsambal; the pier at

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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the angle, however, presents a somewhat different appearance,
for while the abacus and base remain as before, the shaft is
both circular and fluted, the rounding of the angles seeming
to have been effected as a matter of convenience, and the
fluting as of ornament. We have already alluded to the not
unfrequent occurrence of polygonal shafts, and we cannot
help thinking that these, as well as the fluted examples just
now described, find a common origin in the square pier, of
which they are all improvements. We are inclined to coin-
cide with Mr. Barry in the following remarks:—“ The
general resemblance of the fluted columns to those of the
Grecian Doric order, is manifest, and, in addition to many
other remarkable indications in the Egyptian temple, clearly
points to Egypt as the source of both Greek and Roman
architecture.” See DORIC ORDER, COLUMN.

Having now laid before the reader a general description of
the elementary parts and details of Egyptian architecture,
as well as of the usual form and distribution of their temples,
it is our intention to give some more particular account of
the more noted erections, and, in following out this scheme,
we cannot do better than give the accounts of the various
authorities in their own words.

The principal remains are to be found in Upper Egypt,
in the cities lying on both sides of the Nile, but the spot in
which they are most numerous and imposing is in the neigh-
bourhood of Thebes. The following is a list of the larger
temples :—

Temple of Jupiter, at Karnac; of Jupiter Ammon; of
Apollo, at Apollinopolis Magna ; of Osiris, at Tentyra ;
of Venus ; of Thebais, at Knubis. Temples at Luxor,
Dendera, Edfou, Esneh, or Latopolis, Hermopolis, Ombos,
Syene, Queron, Ipsambul ; Caryatic temple, at Rhamesseion,
and various temples in the islands of Philae and Elephantina.
In addition to which, we have the tombs and pyramids, the
labyrinth, and various monuments, obelisks, and other isolated
works.

We have already stated, that the grandest monuments are
to be found at Thebes, and, of such, those of Karnac and
Luxor take the pre—eminence ; they form two separate erec-
tions, but are connected together by a long avenue of
sphinxes, as hereafter mentioned. We select these two as
subjects for the first description, the authorities being Denon
and Wilkinson.

For a general description of the temple at Karnac, we
shall refer to the French traveller, M. Denon, who, writing
at the latter end of the last century, (l798-9,) says :—

“ It is the sumptuousness alone of the Egyptians which is
to be seen at Karnac, where not only quarries, but moun-
tains, are piled together, and hewn out into massive propor-
tions, the traits of which are as feebly executed, as the parts
are clumsily connected; and these masses are loaded with
uncouth has—reliefs and tasteless hieroglyphics, by which the
art of sculpture is disgraced. The only objects there which
are sublime, both with regard to their dimensions and the
skill which their workmanship displays, are the obelisks, and
a few of the ornameiits of the outer gates, the style of which
is admirably chaste. If in the other parts of this edifice the
Egyptians appear to us to be giants, in these latter produc-
tions they are geniuses. I am accordingly persuaded that
these sublime embellishments were posteriorly added to the
colossal monuments of Karnac. It must, however, be granted,
that the plan of the temple is noble and grand. . . . To the
known descriptions of this great edifice of Karnac should
be added, that it was but a temple, and could be nothing
else. All that exists at present, in a somewhat entire state,
relates to a very small sanctuary, and had been disposed in
this way to inspire a due degree of veneration, and to become

4 r

 

a kind of tabernacle. On beholding the vast extent of these
ruins the imagination is wearied with the idea of describing
them. Of the 100 columns of the portico alone of this
temple, the smallest are 7% feet in diameter, and the largest
12. The space occupied by its circumvallation contains lakes
and mountains. In short, to be enabled to form a competent
idea of so much magnificence, it is necessary that the reader
should fancy what is before him to be a dream, as he who
views the objects themselves rubs his eyes to know whether
he is awake. With respect to the present state of this edi-
fice, it is, however, necessary, at the same time, to observe,
that a great part of the effect is lost by its very degraded
state. The sphinxes have been wantonly mutilated, with
a few exceptions, which barbarism, wearied with destroying,
has spared, and, on examining which, it is easy to distiné
guish, that some of them had a woman’s head, others that of
a lion, a ram, a bull, 8:0.”

For the following more particular description of this temple,
we are indebted to Sir I. G. Wilkinson. ~ :

“ The principal entrance of the grand temple lies on the
north-west side, or that facing the river. From a raised plat-
form commences the avenue of Criosphinxes, leading to the
front propyla, before which stood two granite statues of a
Pharaoh. One of these towers retains a great part of its
original height, but has lost its summit and cornice. In the
upper part, their solid walls have been perforated through
their whole breadth, for the purpose of fastening the timbers
that secured the flag-staffs usually placed in front of these
propyla ; but no sculptures have ever been added to either
face, nor was the surface yet levelled to receive them. Passing
through the pylon of these towers, you arrived at a large
open court, 275 feet by 329, with a covered corridor on
either side, and a double line of columns down the centre.
Other propyla terminate this area with a small vestibule
before the pylon, and form the front of the grand hall, 170
feet by 329, supported by a central avenue of 12 massive
columns, 66 feet high (without the pedestal and abacus), and
12 in diameter ; besides 122 of smaller, or rather less
gigantic, dimensions, 41 feet 9 inches in height, and 27 feet
6 inches in circumference, distributed in seven lines on either
side of the former. Other propyla close the inner extremity
of this hall, beyond which are two obelisks, one still standing
on its original site, the other having been thrown down and
broken by human violence. A small propylon succeeds to
this court, of which it forms the inner side ; the next con-
tains two obelisks of larger dimensions, being 92 feet high
and 8 square, surrounded by a peristyle, if I may be allowed
the expression, of Osiride figures. Passing between two
dilapidated propyla, you enter another smaller area, orna-
mented in a similar manner, and succeeded by a vestibule, in
front of the granite gateway of the pyramidal towers, which
form the facade of the court of the sanctuary. This last is also
of red granite, divided into two apartments, and surrounded
by numerous chambers of small dimensions, varying from 29
feet by 16, to 16 feet by 8. A few polygonal columns, of the
early date of Osirtesen I., the contemporary of Joseph,
appear behind these in the midst of fallen architraves of the
same era, and two pedestals of red granite crossing the line
of direction in the centre of the open space to the south-
east, are the only objects worthy of notice, until you reach
the column or edifice of the third Thothmes. The exterior
wall of this building is entirely destroyed, except on the
north-east side, to it succeeds a circuit of thirty-two pillars,
and within this square are twenty columns, disposed in two ‘-
lines, parallel to the outer walls, and to the back and front
row of pillars. Independent of the irregular position of the
latter with regard to the columns of the centre, an unusual

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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eaprice has changed the established order of the architectural
details, and capitals and cornices are reversed, without adding
to the beauty or increasing the strength of the building. A
series of smaller halls and chambers terminates the extremity
of the temple, one of which is remarkable as containing the
names of the early predecessors of Thothmes III., their
founder. In the western lateral adytum are the vestiges of
a colossal hawk seated on a raised pedestal ; the sculptures
within and without containing the name of Alexander, by
whose order this was repaired and sculptured.

“ The total dimensions of this part of the temple behind the
inner propyla of the grand hall, are 600 feet, by about half that
in breadth, making the total length, from the front propyla to
the extremity of the wall of circuit, inclusive, 1,180 feet. The
additions made at different periods, by which the distant
portions of this extensive mass of buildings were united, will
be more readily understood from an examination of the survey
itself than from any description, however detailed, I could otfer
to the reader; and from this it will appear that Diodorus
is fullyjustified in the following statement: that ‘the circuit
of the most ancient of the four temples at Thebes measured
thirteen stadia,’ or about one mile and two-thirds English ;
the thickness of the walls, ‘of 25 feet,’ owing to the great
variety in their dimensions, is too vague to be noticed ; but
the altitude of the building, to which he allows only 45 cubits,
falls far short of the real height of the grand hall, which, from
the pavement to the summit of the roof, inclusive, is not less
than 80 feet.”

The next description of Luxor is from the same writer :—

“ Luqsor, which occupies part of the site of ancient
Diospolis, still holds the rank of a market-town, the residence
of a Kashef, and head-quarters of a troop of Turkish cavalry.
Its name signifies the Palaces, and some might perhaps
feel inclined to trace in that of El Qasryn, or El quorayn,
(the dual of the word Qasr,) by which it is sometimes desig-
nated, the existence ofthe two distinct parts of this building,
erected by Amunoph III. and Remeses II. The former
monarch, who, at the time of its foundation, appears to have
reigned conjointly with his brother, built the original sanc-
tuary and circumjacent chambers, with the addition of the
large colonnade and the pylon before it, to which Remeses II.
afterwards added the‘ great court, the pyramidal towers, or
propyla, and the obelisks and statues.

“ These, though last in the order of antiquity, necessarily
form the present commencement of the temple, which, like
many others belonging to different epochs, is not ‘ two sepa-
rate edifices,’ but one and the same building. A dromos,
connecting it with Karnak, extended in front of the two
beautiful obelisks of red granite, whose four sides are covered
with a profusion of hieroglyphics, no less admirable for the
style of their execution, than for the depth to which they are
engraved, which in many instances exceeds two inches.

“Two sitting statues of the same Remeses are placed behind
these, one on either side of the pylon ; but, like the obelisks,
are much buried in the earth and sand accumulated around
them. Near the north-west extremity of the propyla, another
similar colossus rears its head amidst the houses of the village,
which also conceal a great portion of the interesting battle-
scenes on the front of these towers. At the doorway itself
is the name of Sabaco, and on the abacus of the columns
beyond, that of Ptolemy Philopater, both added at a later
epoch.

“ The area, whose dimensions are about 190 feet by 170, is
surrounded by a peristyle, consisting ot'two rows of columns,
now almost concealed by the hovels and mosk of the village.
The line of direction no longer continues the same behind
this court, the Remessean front having been turned to the

 

eastward, in order to facilitate its connexion with the great !
temple of Karnak, rather than to avoid the vicinity of the ‘
river, as might at first be supposed.

“ Passing through the pylon of Amunoph you arrive at the
great colonnade, where the names of this Pharaoh and his
brother are sculptured. The latter, however, has been
efi'aced, probably by order of the surviving monarch, as is
generally the case wherever it is met with, and those of the
immediate successor of Amunoph III. and of Osirei are intro-
duced in its stead.

“ The length of the colonnade to the next court is about 170
feet, but its original breadth is still uncertain, nor can it be }
ascertained without considerable excavation. To this suc-
ceeds an area of 155 feet by 167 surrounded by a peristyle of 1
12 columns in length and the same in breadth, terminating
in a covered portico of 32 columns, 57 feet by 111.

“ Behind this is a space occupying the whole breadth of the
building, divided into chambers of different dimensions, ‘
the centre one leading to a hall supported by 4 columns, '
immediately before the entrance to the isolated sanctuary. .

“ On the east of this hall is a chamber containing some curi- ‘
ous sculpture, representing the accouchement of queen Maut-
m-shoi, the mother of Amunoph and his brother; the two
children nursed by the deity of the Nile, and presented to ‘
Amun, the presiding divinity of Thebes ; and several other
subjects relating to their education and subsequent history.

“ The sanctuary, which had been destroyed by the Persians,
was rebuilt by Alexander (the son of Alexander, Ptolemy ‘
being governor of Egypt,) and bears his name in the following
dedicatory formula : ‘

“ ‘ This additional work made he, the king of men, lord of
the regions, Alexander, for his father Amunre, president
of Tape (Thebes ;) he erected to him the sanctuary, a grand ,
mansion, with repairs of sand-stone, hewn, good, and hard ‘
stone, instead of his majesty, the king of men, Amu— ‘
noph.’ Behind the sanctuary are two other sets of apart-
ments, the larger ones supported by columns, and ornamented .
with rich sculpture, much of which appears to have been ‘
gilded.

“ Behind the temple is a stone quay, of the late era of the
Ptolemies or Caesars, since blocks bearing the sculpture of;
the former have been used in its construction. Opposite the .
corner of the temple, it takes a more easterly direction, and
points out the original course of the river, which continued
across the plain now lying between it and the ruins of Kar- .
nak, and which may be traced by the descent of the surface of i
that ground it gradually deserted. The southern extremity
of this quay is of brick, and indicates in like manner the
former direction of the stream, which now, having formed a
recess behind it, threatens to sweep away the whole of its
solid masonry, and to undermine the foundations of the
temple itself.

“ The road to Karnak lies through fields of halfeh indicating
the site of ancient ruins, and here and there, on approaching
that magnificent building, the direction of the avenue, and
the fragments of its sphinxes, are traced in the bed of a small
canal, or watercourse, which the ‘Nile, during the inunda-
tion, appropriates to its rising stream. To this succeeds
another dromos of Criosphinxes, and a majestic pylon of
Ptolemy Euergetes, with his queen and sister Berenice, who
in one instance present an offering to their predecessors and
parents, Philadelphus and Arsiuoe. In one of the compart-
ments within the doorway, the king is represented in a Greek
costume, of which there are some other instances in
Ptolemaic ruins. Another avenue of sphinxes extends to the
propyla of the isolated temple behind this gateway, which
was founded by Remeses 1V., and continued by Remeses VIII.,

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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and a late Pharaoh, who added the hypzethral area and the
propyla. His name, and the exact era at which he flourished,
are not precisely ascertained; but if, as is very probable, we
are authorized to read Bocchoris, this part will date in the
time of the twenty-fourth dynasty, or about 810 13.0. Other
names appear in different parts of the building, among which
are those of Amyrteus and Alexander on the inner and outer
gateways of the area.” .

Having made this digression in favour of Karnac and
Luxor, we will now continue our descriptions, taking our
examples in geographical order, commencing at the northern
extremity of Upper Egypt, and travelling southwards. The
first remains of which we have any notice are those of
Hermopolis Magna, but they are little better than mounds
of ruins, the portico described by Denon having been
demolished. This portico was of great merit, and consisted
of twelve columns in two rows of six each, surmounted with
cornice and entablature. The next place we arrive at is
Dendera, the ancient Tentyris, which contains ruins of
several temples. The following account is given by
Wilkinson.

“ The name of Tentyris, or Tentyra, (in Coptic Tentoré, or
Nikentore,) seems to have originated in that of the goddess
Athor or Aphrodite, who was particularly worshipped there ;
and that the principal temple was dedicated to that goddess, we
learn from the hieroglyphics, as well as from a Greek inscription
of the time of Tiberius, in whose reign its magnificent portico
was added to the original building. Egyptian sculpture had
long been on the decline before the erection of this temple ;
and the Egyptian antiquary looks with little satisfaction on
the graceless style of the figures, and the crowded profu-
sion of ill-adjusted hieroglyphics, that cover the walls of
Ptolemaic and Roman monuments ; but architecture still
retained the grandeur of an earlier period : and though the
capitals of the columns were frequently overcharged with
ornament, the general effect of the porticos erected under the
Ptolemies and Caesars, is grand and imposing, and frequently
not destitute of elegance and taste. The same remarks apply

to the temple of Dendera; and from its superior state of'

preservation, it deserves a distinguished rank among the most
interesting monuments of Egypt. For though its columns,

considered singly, may be said to have a heavy, and perhaps ‘
a grotesque, appearance, the portico is doubtless a noble

specimen of architecture ; nor is the succeeding hall devoid
of beauty and symmetry of proportion. On the ceiling of the
pronaos, or portico, is the Zodiac, which has led to much
learned controversy, and which has at length, through the
assistance of the Greek inscription, and the hieroglyphical
names of the Cwsars that cover its exterior and interior walls,
being confined to the more modest and probable antiquity of
eighteen hundred years.

“ The details of the cornice offer a very satisfactory
specimen of the use of triglyphic ornament, which is common
in many of the oldest Pharaohnic temples, though arranged in
a somewhat different manner, and without so remarkable a
metope as in the present instance.

“ On the frieze, or rather architrave, is a procession to
Athor, and among the figures that compose it are two playing
the harp, and another with the tambourine. The inscription
is on the projecting summit of the c/‘rnice, and commences
with the name of the emperor Tiberius. Those of Aulus
Avillius Flaccus, the military governor or prefect, and
Aulus Fulmius Crispus, commander of the forces, though
purposely erased, are still traced when the sun strikes
obliquely on the surface of the stone; but the date of the
emperor’s reign is unfortunately lost.

“ The small ,planisphere which was in one of the lateral

359

 

EGY

chambers on the right-hand side of the temple, and behind
the pronaos, has been removed to France, and from its
position it probably dated a few years before the Zodiac.
Numerous are the names of Caesars in this temple. In
the portico may be distinguished those of Tiberius, Caligula,
Claudius, and Nero, and on the former front of the temple,
now the back of the pronaos, are those of Augustus and
Caligula. This was in fact the original extent of the build-
ing, and it was previous to the addition of the portico that it
was seen by Strabo.

“ The oldest names are of Ptolemy Caesarion, or Neo-
caesar, and Cleopatra, who are represented on the back
wall of the exterior ; and it is probable that the whole naos
was the work of the Ptolemies, though the sculptures remained
unfinished till the reign of Tiberius, who, having erected the
portico, added many of the hieroglyphics on the exterior
walls.

“ The portico is supported by twenty-four columns, and
is open at the front, above the screens that unite its six
columns ; and in each of the side-walls is a small doorway.

“ To this succeeds a hall of six columns, with three rooms on
either side ; then a central chamber, communicating on one
side with two small rooms, and on the other with a staircase.
This is followed by another similar chamber (with two rooms
on the west, and one on the east side) immediately before the
isolated sanctuary, which has a passage leading round it, and
communicating with three rooms on either side. The total
length of this temple is 93 paces (or about 220 feet,) by 41,
or, across the portico, 50.

“In front of the temple was the dromos, extending for the

‘distance of 110 paces to an isolated pylon, bearing the names

of Domitian and Trajan. The attributes of Athor through-
out this building very much resemble those of Isis ; and she
is in like manner represented nursing the young child Harpo-
crates, who is said, in the hieroglyphics, to be the ‘son of
Athor.’

“ ‘ Behind the temple of Venus,’ says Strabo, ‘is the
chapel of Isis :’ and this observation agrees remarkably well
with the size and position of the small temple of that
goddess ; as it consists merely of one central and two lateral
adyta, and a transverse chamber or corridor in front, and
stands immediately behind the south-west angle of that of
Athor. To it belonged the pylon that lies 170 paces to the
eastward, and which, as we learn from a Greek inscription on
either face of its cornice, was dedicated to Isis, in the thirty-
first year of Caesar (Augustus) ; Publius Octavius being
military governor or prefect, and Marcus Claudius Posthumus,
commander of the forces. In the hieroglyphics, besides the
name of Augustus, are those of Claudius and Nero.

“ Ninety paces to the north of the great temple of Athor
is another building, consisting of two outer passage-chambers,
with two small rooms on either side of the outermost one,
and a central and two lateral adyta, the whole surrounded,
except the front, by a peristyle of twenty-two columns. The
capitals, ornamented or disfigured by the representations of a
Typhonian monster, haveled to the supposition that this temple
was dedicated to the evil genius; but as the whole of its
sculptures refer to the birth of Harpocrates, it is evident
that it appertains to the great temple of Athor, who is here
styled his mother ; and it may be said rather to be dedicated
to Harpocrates than to Typhon, who is only introduced in
a subordinate character, as relating to the young deity. The
names are of Trajan, Adrian, and Antoninus Pius.

“ Around these buildings extends a spacious enclosure ot
crude brick, about 240 paces square, having two entrances,
one at the pylon of Isis, the other at that before the great
temple.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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“ About 230 paces in front of the pylon of Athor is an
isolated hypaethral building consisting of fourteen columns,
united by intercolumnar screens, with a doorway at either
end; and a short distance to the south is the appearance of an
ancient reservoir. A little to the north-east of it are other
remains of masonry ; but the rest of the extensive mounds
of Tentyris present merely the ruins of crude brick houses,
many of which are of Arab date.

“ Eve hundred paces east of the pylon of Isis is another
crude brick enclosure, with an entrance of stone similar to
the other pylons, bearing the name of Antoninus Pius. Over
the face of the gateway is a singular. representation of the
sun, with its sacred emblem the hawk, supported by Isis and
Nephthys. This enclosure is about 155 paces by 265, and at
the south-east corner is a well of stagnant water.

“ The town stood between this and the enclosure of the
temples, and extended on either side, as well as within the
circuit of the latter; but on the north-west side appear to
be the vestiges of tombs.

“ Between the town and the edge of the sandy plain to the
south, is a low channel, which may once have been a canal;
and it: is not improbable that it was to this that the Tentyrites
owed their insular situation mentioned by Pliny.”

We next arrive at Kous, the site of the ancient Apollino-
polis Parva, but the only distinguishable remains of the
temple there consist of a large gate; proceeding therefore
southward, we arrive at Thebes, the temples of which we
have already described. On the opposite side of the river,
however, we have several buildings worthy of note, of which
the first is that of Qorneh, or Kurnu, of which Wilkinson
speaks thus ;—

“ To commence with the ruins nearest the river :—the first
object worthy of notice is the small temple and palace at old
Qorneh, dedicated to Amun, the Theban Jupiter, by
Osirei, and completed by his son Remeses IL, the supposed
Sesostris of the Greeks. Its plan, though it evinces the

usual symmetrophobia of Egyptian monuments, presents a
marked deviation from the ordinary distribution of the parts
which compose it. The entrance leads through a pyloné,
or pylon, bearing, in addition to the name of the founder,
that of Remeses III., beyond which is a dromos of 128 feet,
whose mutilated sphinxes are scarcely traceable amidst the
mounds and ruins of Arab hovels. A second pylon termi-
nates this, and commences a second dromos of nearly similar
length, extending to the colonnade or corridor in front of the
temple, whose columns of one of the oldest Egyptian orders
are crowned by an abacus, which appears to unite the stalks
of waterplants that compose the shaft and capital.

“ Of the intercolumniations of these ten columns. three
only agree in breadth, and a similar discrepancy is observed
in the doorways which form the three entrances to the
building. The temple itself presents a central hall about
fifty-seven feet in length, supported by six columns, having
on either side three small chambers, one of which leads to
a lateral hall, and the opposite one to a passage and open
court on the east side. Upon the upper end of the hall open
five other chambers, the centre one of which leads to a large
room supported by four square pillars, beyond which was the
sanctuary itself; but the dilapidated state of the north end
of this temple affords but little to enable us to form an accu-
rate restoration of the innermost chambers. The lateral hall
on the West, which belonged to the palace of the king, is
supported by two columns, and leads to three other rooms,
behind which are the vestiges of other apartments; and on
the east side, besides a large hypaethral court, were several
similar chambers extending also to the northern extremity of
its precincts.”

 

. for the Soul.

The next building that attracts our notice is the Memno-
nium, and tomb of Osmandyas, of which ancient authors have
given us such wonderful accounts; we give that of Diodorus
Siculus :—

“ Ten stadia from the tombs of the kings of Thebes,” says
this historian, “ one admires that of Osimondué. The entrance
to it is formed by a vestibule built with various-coloured
stones. It is 200 feet long and 68 in elevation. On coming
thence one enters under a square peristyle, each side of which
is 400 feet long. Animals formed of blocks of granite 24
feet high, serve as columns to it, and support the ceiling,
which is composed of squares of marble of 27 feet every
way. Stars of gold, upon an azure ground, shine there the
Whole length of it. Beyond this peristyle opens another

entry, followed by a vestibule built like the former, but ‘

more loaded with all sorts of sculpture. Before it are three
statues formed of single stones, and hewn by Memnon
Syenite. The principal one, which represents the king, is
seated. It is the largest in Egypt ; one of his feet, accurately
measured, exceeds seven cubits. The two others, borne on
his knees, one on the right, the other on the left, are those of
his mother and his daughter. The whole work is less remark-
able for its enormous size, than for the beauty of the execu-
tion and the choice of the granite, which in so extensive
a surface has neither spot or blemish. The colossus has this
inscription :——-‘I am Osimondué, the King of Kings ; 97‘ any
one wishes to know how great I am, and where I repose, let
him destroy some of these works.’ Besides this, we see another
statue of his mother, cut out of a single block of granite,
and 30 feet high. Three queens are sculptured on the
head, to show that she was daughter, wife, and mother,
of a king.

“ At the end of this portico, one enters into a peristyle
more beautiful than the former. On a stone is engraved

the history of the war of Osimondué against the revolted .

inhabitants of Bactria. The facade of the front wall shows
this prince attacking ramparts, at the foot of which runs
a river. He combats advanced troops, having by his side a
terrible lion, which defends him with ardour. The wall on
the right presents captives in chains, their hands and private
parts cut off, in order to stigmatize their cowardice. On
the wall to the left, different symbolical figures, very well
sculptured, recall the triumphs and the sacrifices of Osimondué
on his return from this war. In the middle of the peristyle,
at the place where it is exposed, an altar was prepared, com-
posed of a single stone of marvellous size, and of exquisite
workmanship. In short, against the bottom wall, two
colossuses, each of them of one block of marble, and 40 feet
high, are seated on their pedestals. One comes out of this
admirable peristyle by three gates; one of them between
two statues, the two others are on the sides; they lead to an
edifice 200 feet long, the roof of which is supported by 8
columns. It resembles a magnificent theatre; several figures
in wood represent a senate employed ' distributing justice.
On one of the walls one observes 36) senators, and in the
midst of them the president of justice, having at his feet a
collection of books, and the figure of Truth with her eyes
shut, suspended at his neck. One passed thence into a square
surrounded by palaces of different forms, where were seen
carved on the table all sorts of dishes which could flatter
the taste. In one of them, Osimondué, clad in a magnificent
dress, was offering to the gods the gold and silver he drew
yearly from the mines of Egypt. Below was written the
value of this revenue, which amounted to 32 millions of
silver minas. Another palace contained the sacred library.
at the entrance of which, one read these words: Remedies
A third contained all the divinities of Egypt,

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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with the king', who offered to each of them the suitable
presents; calling Osiris, and the princes his predecessors, to
witness that he had exercised piety towards the gods and
justice towards men. By the side of the library, in one of
the most beautiful buildings of the place, were to be seen
twenty tables surrounded by their beds, on which reposed the
statues of Jupiter, Juno, and Osimondué. His body is
thought to be deposited in this place. Several adjoining
buildings preserved the representations of all the sacred
animals of Egypt. From these apartments one mounted to
the king’s tomb, on the top of which was placed a crown
of gold, a cubit wide, and 365 round. Each cubit answered
to one day of the year, and the rising and setting of the stars
for that day was engraven on each of them, with such
astrological observations as the superstition of the Egyptians
attached to them. It is said that Cambyses carried off this
circle when he ravaged Egypt. Such, according to historians,
was the tomb of Osimondué, which surpassed all others, both
by its extent, and by the labour of the able artists employed
on it.”

Upon this passage Savary remarks, “ I dare not take upon
me to warrant all these facts, advanced by Diodorus Siculus
on the authority of preceding writers; for in his time the
principal part of these buildings no longer existed. I admit
even that all these wonderful descriptions would pass for
pure chimeras in any other country; but in this fruitful
land, which seems to have been first honoured with the
creative genius of the arts, they acquire a degree of proba-
bility. Let us examine what remains to us of these monu-
ments, and our eyes will compel us to believe in prodigy.
Their ruins are in heaps, near to ZlIedinet Abou, in the space
of half a league's circumference. The temple, the peristyles,
the vestibules, present to the eye nothing but piles of ruins,
amongst which rise up some pyramidal gates, whose solidity
has preserved them from destruction; but the numerous
colossuses described by Diodorus, are still subsisting, though
mutilated. That which is nearest to these ruins, composed
of yellow marble, is buried two-thirds of- its height in the
earth. There is another in the same line, of black and white
marble, the back of which is covered with hieroglyphics for
30 feet in length. In the space between them, trunks of
columns and broken statues cover the ground, and mark the
continuation of the vestibules. Farther on we distinguish
two other colossal statues, totally disfigured. A hundred
toises from them, the traveller is struck with astonishment
at the sight of two colossuses, which, like rocks, are seated
by the side of each other. Their pedestals are nearly equal,
and formed of blocks of granite 30 feet long, and 18 feet
wide. The smallest of these colossuses is also of a single
block of marble; the other, which is the largest in Egypt, is
formed of five courses of granite,‘ and broken in the middle ;
it appears to have been the statue of Osimondué, for one sees
two figures out in relievo, the length of his legs, and which
are about one-thiifiof his height. These are the mother
and the daughter o [is prince. The other colossus, which is
of one stone, and which corresponds with the dimensions of
Diodorus Siculus, represented also the mother of the king.
To give you an idea of the gigantic stature of the great
colossus, it is enough to tell you, that his foot alone is near
11 feet long, which answers exactly to the seven cubits of
Diodorus. This statue, the half of which remains upon its
base, and is what Strabo calls the statue of Memnon, uttered
a sound at the rising of the sun. It possessed formerly
great renown. Several writers have spoken of it with
enthusiasm, regarding it as one of the seven wonders of the
world. A multitude of Greek and Latin inscriptions, that
are still legible, on the base and the legs of the colossus,

4 z

 

testify that princes, generals, governors, and men of every
condition, have heard this miraculous sound.”

The following account of a portion of the above, which is
given somewhat more in detail, is from Wilkinson.

“Following the edge of the cultivated land, and about
180 yards to the west of this building, are two mutilated
statues of Remeses IL, of black granite, with a few sub-
structions to the north of them; and 770 yards farther to
the west, lies, in the cultivated soil, at sandstone block of
Remeses 111., presenting in high relief the figure of that
king, between Osiris and Pthah ; 1,400 feet beyond this, in
the same direction, is a crude brick enclosure, with large
towers, which once contained within it a sandstone temple,
dating probably from the reign of the third Thothmes, whose
name is stamped on the bricks, and who appears to have
been the contemporary of Moses.

“Other fragments and remains of crude brick walls
proclaim the existence of other ruins in its vicinity; and
about 1,000 feet farther to the south-west, is the palace
and temple of Remeses II., erroneously called the Memno-
nium; a building which, for symmetry of architecture and
elegance of sculpture, can vie with any other monument of
Egyptian art. No traces are visible of the dromos, that
probably existed before the pyramidal towers which form
the facade of the first hypasthral area, a court whose breadth
of 180 feet, exceeding the length by nearly 13 yards, is
reduced to a more just proportion, by the introduction of a
double avenue of columns on either side, extending from the
towers to the north wall. In this area, on the right ofa
flight of steps leading to the next court, was the stupendous
Syenite statue of the king seated on a throne, in the usual
attitude of these Egyptian figures, the hands resting on his
knees, indicative of that tranquillity which he had returned
to enjoy in Egypt, after the fatigues of victory. But the
fury of an invader has levelled this monument of Egyptian
grandeur, whose colossal fragments lie scattered around the
pedestal, and its shivered throne evinces the force used for
its demolition.

“If it is a matter of surprise how the Egyptians could
transport and erect a mass of such dimensions, the means
employed for its ruin are scarcely less wonderful; nor should
we hesitate to account for the shattered appearance of the
lower part by attributing it to the explosive force of powder,
had that composition been known at the period of its
destruction. The throne and legs are completely destroyed,
and reduced to comparatively small fragments, while the
upper part, broken at the waist, is merely thrown back upon
the ground, and lies in that position which was the conse-
quence of its fall ; nor are there any marks of the wedge, or
other instrument, which should have been employed for
reducing those fragments to the state in which they now
appear. The fissures seen across the head, and in the
pedestal, are the work of a later period, when some of these
blocks were cut for millstones by the Arabs, but its previous
overthrow will probably be coeval with the Persian invasion.
To say that this is the largest statue in Egypt, will convey
no idea of the gigantic size or enormous weight of a mass,
which, from an approximate caICulation, exceeded, when
entire, nearly three times the solid content of the great
obelisk of Karnak, and weighed about 887 tons, 5 hundred-
weight, and a half.

“No building in Thebes corresponds with the description
given of the tomb of Osymandyas by Heeataaus. Diodorus,
who quotes his work, gives the dimensions of the first or
outer court, two plethra, or 181 feet 8 inches English,
agreeing very nearly with the breadth, but not the length
of that now before us; but the succeeding court, of four

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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pletlira, neither agrees with this, nor can agree with that
of any other Egyptian edifice; since the plan of an Egyptian
building invariably requires a diminution, by no increase of
dimensions, from the entrance to the inner chambers; and
while the body of the temple, behind the portico, retained
one uniform breadth, the areas in front, and frequently the
port'ico itself, exceeded the inner portion of it by their pro-
jecting sides. The peristyle and ‘columns in the form of
living beings,’ roofed colonnade, sitting statues, and triple
entrance to a chamber supported by columns, agree well with
the approach to the great hall of this temple. The largest
statue in Egypt can scarcely be looked for but in the build-
ing before us, yet «the sculptures to which he alludes, remind
us rather of those of Medeenet Haboo ; nor is it impossible
that either Hecataeus or Diodorus have united or confounded
the details of these two edifices.

“ The second area is about 140 feet by 170, having on the
south and north sides a row of Osiride pillars, connected with
each other by two lateral corridors of circular columns.
Three flights of steps lead to the northern corridor behind
the Osiride pillars, the centre one having on each side a black
granite statue of Remeses IL, the base of whose throne is
cut to fit the talus of the ascent. Behind these columns,
and on either side of the central door, is a limestone pedestal,
which, to judge from the space left in the sculptures, must
have once supported the sitting figure of a lion, or perhaps
a statue of the king. Three entrances thence open into the
grand hall, each strengthened and beautified by a sculptured
doorway of black granite, and between the two first columns
of the central avenue, two pedestals supported (one on either
side) two other statues of the king. Twelve massive
columns form a double line along the centre of this hall, and
eighteen of smaller dimensions, to the right and left, com-
plete the total of the forty-eight which supported its solid
roof, studded with stars on an azure ground. To the hall,
which measures 100 feet by 133, succeeded three central
and six lateral chambers, indicating, by a small flight of
steps, the gradual ascent of the rock on which this edifice
is constructed. Of nine, two only of the central apartments
now remain, each supported by four columns, and each
measured about 30 feet by 55; but the vestiges of their
walls, and appearance of the rock, which has been levelled
to form an area around the exterior of the building, point
out their original extent. The sculptures, much more interest-
ing than the architectural details, have suffered still more
from the hand of the destroyer; and of the many Curi-
ous battle-scenes which adorned its walls, four only now
remain.”

Still southward is the village of Medeenet Haboo, which
contains the ruins of two temples, of which we have not
space to give a particular account. The smaller one consists
of an open area 125 feet by 80, the north side being formed
of a row of eight columns, through which access is obtained to
a transverse area, having two pyramidal towers at its extre-
mity, and between them an entrance into an hypzethral court
with similar towers. These lead into a court 60 feet long,
with a colonnade on either side, and at its extremity an
entrance into the sanctuary, which is surrounded by colon-
nades and chambers. The larger edifice is approached
through a dromos 265 feet in length, at the end of which are
two propylaea leading into a large hypzethral court. At the
further side of this court an entrance through pylons is given
into a very fine peristyle court 123 feet by 133 feet, at the
extremity of which is the portico. The large court contains
specimens of Caryatid columns.

We now arrive at a different class of buildings—the tombs
or catacombs, which consist of subterranean apartments

 

and passages excavated out of the rock, and extending over
a vast tract of land in the neighbourhood of Thebes, near
Kurnu. The two following descriptions are from the writer
previously quoted ; the first relates to one of the tombs of the
kings, which was first opened by Belzoni :—

“ The tomb, which of all others stands pre-eminently con-

spicuous, as well for the beauty of its sculpture as the state f
of its preservation, is undoubtedly that discovered and opened ‘

by Belzoni. But the plan is far from being well regulated, and

the deviation from one line of direction greatly injures its F

general effect; nor does the rapid descent by a staircase of
twenty-four feet in perpendicular depth, on a horizontal

length of twenty-nine, convey so appropriate an idea of the ‘

entrance to the abode of death, as the gradual talus of other
of these sepulchres. To this staircase succeeds a passage of
eighteen feet and a half'by nine, including the imposts ; and,
passing another door, a second staircase descends in horizontal
length tWenty-five feet; beyond which two doorways, and
a passage of twenty-nine feet, bring you to an oblong cham-
ber twelve feet by fourteen, where a pit, filled up by Bel-
zoni, once appeared to form the utmost limit of the tomb.
Part of its inner wall was composed of blocks of hewn

stone, closely cemented together, and covered with a smooth 5
coat of stucco, like the other walls of this excavated cata- '

comb, on which was painted a cmtinuation of those subjects
that still adorn its remaining sides.

“ Independent of the main object of this well, so admirably :

calculated to mislead, or at least check, the search of the curi-
ous and the spoiler, another advantage was thereby gained,
in the preservation of the interior part of the tomb, which -
was effectually guaranteed from the destructive inroad of the

rain-water, whose torrent its depth completely intercepted;
a fact which a storm, some years ago, by the havoc caused
in the inner chambers, sadly demonstrated.

“ The hollow sound of the wall above-mentioned, and

a small aperture, betrayed the secret of its hidden chambers, l

and a palm-tree, supplying the place of the more classic ram,
forced, on the well - known principle of that engine, the
intermediate barrier, whose breach displayed the splendour
of the succeeding hall, at once astonishing and delighting its
discoverer, whose labours were so gratefully repaid.

“ Its four pillars, supporting a roof twenty-six feet square,

are decorated, like the whole of the walls, with highly- :
finished and well-preserved sculptures, which, from their vivid '

colours, appear but the work of yesterday; and near the
centre of the inner wall, a few steps lead to a second hall of
similar dimensions, supported by two pillars, but left in an
unfinished state, the sculptors not having yet commenced the
outline of the figures the draughtsmen had but just com-
pleted. It is here that the first deviations from the general
line of direction occur, which are still more remarkable in
the staircase that descends at its southern corner.

“ To this last succeed two passages, and a chamber seven-
teen feet by fourteen, communicating by a door, nearlgin the
centre of its inner wall, with the grand hall, which is twenty-
seven feet square, and supported by six pillars. On either
side is a small chamber opposite the angle of the first pillars,
and _the upper end terminates in a vaulted saloon, nineteen
feet by thirty, in whose centre stood an alabaster sarcophagus,
the kenotaph of the deceased monarch, upon the immediate
summit of an inclined plane, which, with a staircase on either
side, descends into the heart of the argillaceous rock for
a distance of a hundred and fifty feet. This, like the entrance
of the tomb and the first hall, was closed and concealed by
a wall of masonry, which, Coming even with the base of the
sarcophagus, completely masked the staircase it covered and
levelled with the floor.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

EGY

363

“ A small chamber and two niches are perforated in the ;

north-west wall; at the upper end a step leads to an unfi-
nished chamber, 17 feet by 43, supported by a row of four

pillars ; and on .tliesouth-west are‘other niches and a room .

about 25 feet square, ornamented with two pillars and a
broad bench (hewn, like the rest of the tomb,in the rock)
around three of its sides, four feet high, with four shallow
recesses on each face, and surmounted by an elegant Egyptian
cornice. It is difficult to account for the purport of it,
unless its level summit served as a repository for the
mummies of the inferior persons of the king’s household;
but it is more probable that these were also deposited in pits.

“ The total horizontal length of this catacomb is 320 feet,
without the inclined descent below the sarcophagus, and its
perpendicular depth 90, or, including that part, about a 180
feet, to the spot where it is closed by the fallen rock.”

The second description is of tombs of more recent date,
executed during the twenty-sixth dynasty in the seventh
century before our era ; they are of great extent, and unusual
uniformity.

“ The smallest, which are thosebehind the palace of Remeses,
commence with an outer court decorated by a. peristyle of
pillars, and to this succeeds an arched entrance to the tomb
itself, which consists of a long hall, supported by a double
row of four pillars, and another of smaller dimensions beyond
it, with four pillars in the centre. The largest of them, and
indeed of all the sepulchres of Thebes, are those in the
Assaseef, one of which far exceeds in extent any one of the
tombs of the kings. Its outer court, or area, is 103 feet by
76, with a flight of steps descending to its centre from the
entrance, which lies between two massive crude brick walls,
once supporting an arched gateway. The inner door, cut like
the rest of the tomb in the limestone rock, leads to a second
court, 53 feet by 67, with a peristyle of pillars on either
side, behind which are two closed corridors; that on the
west containing a pit and one small square room, the opposite
one having a similar chamber, which leads to a narrow
passage, once closed in two places by masonry, and evidently
used for a sepulchral purpose.

“ Continuing through thelsecond area you arrive at a porch,
whose arched summit, hollowed out of the rock, has the light
form of a small segment of a circle, and from the surface
of the inner wall are relieved the cornice and mouldings of
an elegant doorway.

“ This opens on the first hall, 53 feet by 37, once supported
by a double line of four pillars, dividing the nave (if I
may so call it) from the aisles, with half-pillars as usual
attached to the end-walls. Another ornamented doorway
leads to the second hall, 32 feet square, with two pillars in
each row, disposed as in the former. Passing through
another door, you arrive at a small chamber, 21 feet by 12,
at whose end-wall is a niche, formed of a series of jambs,
receding successively to its centre. Here terminates the
first line of direction. A square room lies on the left (enter-
ing), and on the right another succession of passages, or
narrow apartments, leads to two flights of steps, immediately
before which is another door on the right. Beyond these is
another passage, and a room containing a pit 45 feet deep,
which opens at about one-third of its depth on a lateral
chamber.

“ A third line of direction, at right angles with the former,
turns to the right, and terminates in a room, at whose upper
end is a squared pedestal.

“ Returning through this range of passages, and re-ascending
the two staircases, the door above alluded to presents itself
on the left hand. You shortly arrive at a pit (opening on
another set of rooms, beneath the level of the upper ground-

 

EGY

plan), and after passing it, a large square, surrounded by
long passages, arrests the attention of the curious visitor.
At each angle is the figure of one of the eight following
goddesses :—Neith, Sate, Isis, Nephthys, Netpe, Justice,
Selk, and Athor, who, standing with outspread arms, preside
over and protect the sacred inclosure, to which they front, and
are attached.

“A gentleman, an author, whose reading is far more
respectable than his judgment, has not failed to discover
something extraordinary in the position of these figures,
referring, as hesupposes, to the crucifix, adopted by the
Christians.

“ Eleven niches,in six of which are small figures of different
deities, occur at intervals on the side-walls, and the summit
is crowned by a frieze of hieroglyphics. Three chambers lie
behind this square, and the passage which goes round it,
descends on that side, and rejoins, by an ascending talus on
the next, the level of the front. A short distance further
terminates this part of the tomb, but the above-mentioned pit
communicates with a subterranean passage opening on a
vaulted chamber, from whose upper extremity another pit
leads, downwards, to a second, and ultimately through the

ceiling of the last, upwards, to a third apartment, comingr

immediately below the centre of the square above noticed.
This has one central niche, and seven on either side, the
whole loaded with hieroglyphical sculptures, which cover the
walls in every part of this extensive tomb.

“ But to give an idea of its length, and consequently
of the profusion of its ornamental details, I shall briefly state
the total extent of each series of the passages both in the upper
and under part of the excavation. From the entrance of the
outer area to the first deviation from the original right line,
is 320 feet. The total of the next range of passages to the
chamber of the great pit, is 177 feet.
right angles to this last, is 60 feet; that passing over the
second pit, is 125 ; and adding to these three of the sides of
the isolated square, the total is 862 feet, independent of the
lateral chambers.

“ The area of the actual excavation is 22,217 square feet, and
with the chambers of the pits 23,809, though, from the
nature of its plan, the ground it occupies is nearly one acre
and a quarter, an immoderate space for the sepulchre of one
individual, even allowing that the members of his family
shared a portion of its extent.”

At Hermontis, a short distance south of Thebes, are the ruins
ofa small temple, consisting of a colonnaded court with portico
and sanctuary, and some distance beyond this, more extensive
remains at Esneh, or Latopolis, but the only portion uncovered
is a portico of considerable pretensions. Passing by several
monuments more or less remarkable, we arrive at Edfou, or
Apollinopolis Magna, the temple of which has already been
described; and beyond this at Ombos, where are ruins of
two temples, one of which is remarkable for having a double
entrance, and two sanctuaries side by side. In our way to
the islands of Philoe and Elephantina, we would stop for a
moment at Syene to notice the quarries of granite from which
a great portion of the stone for building was supplied, previous
to the working of the quarries near Phil'oe. The islands of
Phil'oe and Elephantiua are rich in remains, but more
especially the former, which we accordingly select for illus-
tration. Denon says:—

“As soon as I could set foot in the island (Phillie) I began
first by going over all the inner part, to take a general survey
of the various monuments, and to form a kind oftopographical
chart, containing the island, the course of the river, and the
adjacent characteristic scenery. I found a convincing proof
that this group of monuments had been constructed at different

The third passage, at g

 

 

 

fl .n.r'V|)>-v-- r .

 

 

 

 

 

 

EGY ‘

364

ELE

 

periods by several nations, and had belonged to different
forms of religious worship; and the union of these various
edifices, each of them in itself regular, and crowded together
in this narrow spot, formed an irregular group of most
picturesque and magnificent objects. I could here d18-
tinguish eight sanctuaries or separate temples, of different
dimensions, built at various times, and the limits of each

had been respected in the construction of the succeeding

ones, which had impaired the regularity of the whole.
A part of the additions to the original buildings had
been made with a view of connecting the old to the new,
avoiding with great dexterity false angles and general
irregularities. This kind of confusion of the architectural
lines which appear like errors in the plan, produce in the
elevation a picturesque effect, which geometrical rectitude
cannot give; it multiplies objects, forms elegant groups, and
offers to the eye more richness than cold symmetry can ever
command. I was here able to convince myself of the truth
of a remark which I had before made at Thebes and Tentyra,
which is, that the mode of building with the ancient Egyptians,
was first to erect large masses, on which they afterwards
bestowed the labour of ages in the particulars of the decora-
tion, beginning their work with shaping the architectural
lines, proceeding next to the sculpture of the hieroglyphics,
and concluding with the stucco and the painting. All these
distinct periods of work are very obvious here, where nothing
is finished but what belongs to the highest antiquity; where,
as a part of the subordinate buildings which served to connect
the various monuments, had been left in many particulars
without finish, without sculpture, and even incomplete in the
building. The great and magnificent oblong monument
exhibits these different periods of workmanship; it would
be difficult to assign any use to this edifice, if the presence
of certain monuments representing offerings, had not pointed
it out to be a temple. It has, however, the form neither of
a portico, nor of a temple; the columns which compose its
outer circumference, and which are engaged in the wall only
half their height, support nothing but an entablature, and a
cornice without roof or platform; it only opened by two
opposite doors, without lintels, which made a straight passage
through, in a longitudinal direction. As it was doubtless
built in the later period of the Egyptian power, it shows
the perfection of art in the highest purity; the capitals are
admirable in beauty and execution ; the volutes and the
foliage are gracefully waved, like the finest Greek architec—
ture, and are symmetrically diversified like those of Apolli-
nopolis, that is to say, differing from the contiguous capitals,
and similar to the corresponding ones, and all are exactly
kept within the same parallel.”

This group of buildings is 800 feet long and 420 feet
broad, and it is almost entirely covered with the most stately
monuments of different ages. The front is a rampart wall,
to serve as a protection against the rising waters of the Nile.
The entrance to the temple was approached by a magnificent
double range of columns around a court 250 feet long, behind
which were rooms for the priests. The pyramidal moles are
each 47 feet long, 27 feet thick, and 75 feet high; two
rows of gigantic hieroglyphics adorn them, representing five
of their grand divinities ; there are likewise other figures of
priests, &c.; on each side of the door (which is 26 feet high)
is an obelisk 18 feet high, and a sphinx 7 feet long. Behind
is a court 80 feet long, and 45 feet wide, also flanked by
galleries of columns. 011 the right, behind the columns, is
a suite of cells 10 feet deep, and on the left a private dwell-
ing, composed of a portico at each end, and of three rooms
of various dimensions, communicating one with another, and
opening to the porticos ; this is the only building that Deuon

 

ever saw of the kind. Two other moles serve as the portal
to the most beautiful and regular part of the edifice ; this is
a species of portico, decorated by 10 columns and 8 pilasters

, 4 feet in diameter, as magnificent as they are elegant; the

columns and walls are covered with sculptures, the ceilings
are either painted in astronomical tables, or with white stars
on an azure ground. Beyond this again was the secret part
of the temple, 60 feet by 30, divided into four rooms, one
leading to the others; in these remote chambers it is sup-
posed that the sacred birds and reptiles were kept.

“Besides this vast enclosure, in which these numerous
temples were connected and grouped together by dwellings for
the priests, there were two temples standing apart; the
larger of the two I have already spoken of, the smaller is one
of the most beautiful that can be conceived, in perfect preser-
vation, and so small, that it almost gives one the desire of
carrying it away. I found within it some remains of a domestic
scene, which seemed to be that of Joseph and Mary, and
suggested to me the subject of the flight into Egypt in astyle
of the utmost truth and interest.”

We have now described several of the principal monu-
ments belonging to this style of architecture, from which may
be formed a very fair idea of the Egyptian method of arrang-
ing and adorning their temples. We have not touched upon
the pyramids, although the-subject can scarcely be said to be
completed without some description of them ; we have, how-
ever, already extended this article to a somewhat inconvenient
length, and would rather defer their consideration to a later
period, than treat them here in a summary and insufficient
manner.
the sphinxes, and such like. “'e refer the reader, therefore,
to the articles under the heads PYRAMID and SPHINX.

The subject we have been treating of is one of very con-
siderable interest, and, although not of direct practical
utility to the architect, is yet well worthy his careful
consideration.

EGYPTIAN-HALL, or BANQUETING-ROOMS. See (Eons.

EGYPTIAN PYRAMIDS. See Prrumns.

EIDOGRAPH, an instrument for copying designs,
invented by Professor ll'allace of Edinburgh. The eidograph
is an improvement on the pentagraph in common use, is
much more correct, and can be used for purposes to which
the latter cannot be applied.

EIDOLON, a likeness, image, or representation.

ELBOlVS OF A ll'lXDOW, the two flanks of panelled
work, one under each shutter, generally tongued or rebated
into the back, so that the two elbows and the back form
a lining round the three sides of the recess.

ELEOTHESION, the anointing-room, belonging to the
palestrae. called by the Romans unctuarium. See PALI-zsrlua.

ELEVATION, an. orthographical projection, made on
a plane perpendicular to the horizon. In architecture, as
buildings are constructed with vertical faces or fronts, the
plane of delineation is generally chosen parallel to a side, in
order that the measure in every direction may be readily
obtained. \Vhat is generally called a section, partakes as
much of a geometrical projection or elevation, as a section.
By the elevations and plans, all the measures of an original
object may be ascertained, whether the lines or arrises
represented be horizontal, vertical, or inclined. In ortho-
graphical projections, all straight lines perpendicular to the
plane of delineation are projected into points, and all straight
lines parallel to the plane of delineation, are projected into
straight lines of equal lengths, and are alike situated with
regard to the plane of delineation, as the straight arris in the
original object is with regard to the naked face of the wall.
Therefore, whatever lines are perpendicular to the elevation,

 

 

The same reasoning applies to the description of 1

 

 

 

 

 

 

ELL

1 4
-—

l.hey will be represented by points, and whatever arrises _are
parallel to the elevation, they will be represented by lines
parallel to the original. See DESIGN.

ELIZABETHAN ARCHITECTURE.
ARCHITECTURE.

ELLIPSIS, or ELLIPSE, in geometry, a conic section
formed by cutting a cone entirely through the curved
surface, neither parallel to the base, nor making a. subcon-
trary section; so that the ellipsis, like the circle, is a curve
that returns into itself, and completely encloses a space.
See the definitions under the word CONE.

One of the principal and most useful properties of the
ellipsis is, that the rectangle under the two segments of a
diameter is as the square of the ordinate. In the circle, the
same ratio obtains, but the rectangle under the two segments
of the diameter becomes equal to the square of the ordinate :

Problem l.-—The two axes of an ellipsis being given to
describe the curve.

Method l.—Figure 1. Let A C be the greater axis, B G the
‘esser, cutting each other in the centre H ; and if with the
adius A H, or H C, from the point B, an are E F be described,
it will cut A C, at E and F, the foci ; fix two pins at E and F;
take a thread equal in length to A C, and fix one end of it to,
E, and the other to F ; then keeping a pencil at the point D,
move such point forward in the same direction, so that the
parts D E and E F may continue to be stretched during the
motion, until the describent D come to the point whence it
began to move.

flIethod II.—Figare 2. Find the foci E and F, as before ;

between E and F, take any point, 1 ; with the radii A 1, l C,
and the centres E and F, describe arcs cutting each other at
G, as also at H ; then G and H are points in the curve; in the
same manner, with the same radii, from the centres F and E,
find the intersections I and K. In like manner, if any other
point, 2, be taken between E and F ; four other points,
L, M, N, 0, will be obtained, and thus as many more as will
be requisite for drawing the curve by hand.

For by the construction of the ellipsis, E D + DF (Figure
l) isequaltOEC + CF, = EF+2FC; also ED+DF :

See TUDOR

 

365

ELL

FA+AE =EF+2AE; therefore EF+ 2FC:EF+
2 A E : consequently AE is equal to F C ; hence E D + D F =
EF + 2A E = E F + 2FC : that is, the sum ofthe two lines
drawn from the foci, to any point in the curve, is equal to the
transverse axis.

[Method III.—Figure 3. To describe an ellipsis with the
ellipsograph, or trammel, as it is called by workmen, the axes
A B and C D being given in position, bisecting each other in the
centre E.—In any piece of material, contained" between any
two parallel planes, out two grooves, at right angles to each
other, in one of the planes; then provide a rod with three
pins, or points, so that at least two may be moveable, and in a
straight line with the third : let H F G be the rod, with the
points F and G moveable ; making H G equal to the greater
semi-axis ; then placing the grooves over the axes, and
putting the points F and G in the two grooves, move the
point H round, keeping the point F upon the greater axis A B,
and the point G upon the lesser axis C D, until the describent
H come to the point where the motion commenced ; and the
figure so described, will be an ellipsis. The trammel, used
by artificers, consists of two rulers, with a groove in each, so
fixed that both grooves may be in the same plane, and at
right angles to each other, and that the opposite sides of the
cross may be in a plane parallel to those of the grooves. The
rod above, is a bar with two moveable cursors, the fixed end
is made to hold a pencil, and each of the other two an iron
point, made to fill the groove, but capable of sliding freely.

ZlIethod IV.—Figure 4. Given one of the axis, A B, and an
ordinate, C D, to describe the ellipsis.-——Bisect A B at I for the
centre ; through I draw E F, parallel to C D ; with the distance
IA, or I B, from the point D, describe an are, cutting IF at G :
draw the straight line D G H, cutting I A at H ; then if H D c.
be conceived to be an inflexible line or red, the points H, G, D.
remaining at the same distance in respect to each other ; and
if the point H be moved in the axis AB, and the point G in
the axis EF, while the describent D, is carried round the
centre, I, until A come to the point whence it began to
move; a curve D B E A F, will be described, which will be at.
ellipsis.

Demonstration—Figure 5.

LF,OI‘BK :FG,orDB :LC,orAB :CD;
Therefore, BK2 : DB“ :. AB“ :CD‘~‘;
BK’ : BK’—-DB’ :: AB2 :AB‘l—CD’.
ButBK’ —- DB2 : BK + DD x BK— BD:DH x DK,
and CD’:CL*—DL’=AB’—LD2.
Consequently, BK2 : DH x DK : : AB2 :DLwhichisamost principal property of the ellipsis

but the demonstration which accompanies the following
method, is quite general, for every two diameters.

flIethod V.—Figure 6. A diameter, K H, and an ordinate,
DL, qf' an ellipsis being given, to describe the curve by a con-
tinued motion.—Bisect K H at I, and through I, draw A I A,

parallel to D L; draw D E C, and K B, at right angles to A A .
from L, with the distance K B, describe an are, cutting IA
at F ; draw I F C; through the points C and I, draw M N; then

 

if the point C be moved in MN, and the point F in A A, the ‘

point L will describe the curve of an ellipsis.

 

Demonstration.
For the triangles LF G, and LCD are similar.. LF : F G : : L C : CD;
ButbecauseFL : BK, FG _—.. DE, and LC : AI, KB : DE : : AI : CD;
Again, by similar triangles, I K B, and I D E . . K B : D E : : K I : D I;
Therefore, by equality of ratios . . . K I : D I . : A I : C D;
By duplication . . . . . . . KI2 : D12 : : A12 : CD2;
By division . . K1”:K1“—-DI" - A1a : Ala—CD7.

ButK1’—DI2 .: (KI + D1)x(K1—DI): DH X DK;
andCD’:LC’—LD’:A1’—LD. ’
Therefore by substituting D H x D K, for K 1’ — D 1’, and A 1’ — L Di, for C- D2 ;
In the last analogy we have . . . . . KI“ : D H X DK :: A12 '. Ln”,
a well-known property of the ellipsis.

5A

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ELL

366

ELL

 

The method for describing an ellipsis, having two conju-
gate diameters given, may be found in the Marquis de
l’Hospital’s Treatise of COnic Sections, translated by Stone.
But the author of the Architectural Dictionary has chosen
to give the description and demonstration from a diameter
and double ordinate, instead of two conjugate diameters, as
being more readily applied in perspective. It is strange, that
this useful method has been neglected by all English writers
that have fallen in our way. This property was dis-
covered by the author, and demonstrated by him, many years
before he met with the above work, in endeavouring to find
out methods for describing the perspective representation by
continued motion.

Method VI.——Figure 7. No. 1. Let AB be the greater
axis, bisected in C, by the lesser semi-axis C D ,. take two
rulers, C E and E F, of equal length, equal to the sum of the
semi-axes C D and C B, moveable upon each other at E, and
the end C of the rule C E, moveable upon the centre of the
ellipsis. Make the part F G of the, ruler, F E, equal to the
semi-axis C D; now suppose C E and E F to coincide with each
other, and with the axis CD; then move the point F from C,
in the direction 0 B, until the describent G arrive at B : the
point G will then have traced the quadrant D B of the ellipsis.
The other quadrants will be described in the same manner,
by reversing and inverting the rulers.

Figure 8.—An0ther variation of this: Let A B be the
greater, and CD the lesser semi-axis, as before; take the
straight line H 1, equal to the greater semi-axis, AC or C B ;
from 1H cut off I K, equal to the lesser semi-axis, C D, and
divide HK into two equal parts at I; then place the joint
rule C E F in the following manner, viz., make C E and E F
each equal to H L, or L K; the part C E being moveable round
the centre, 0, of the ellipsis, and the two rules CE and E G
being moveable round'E ; now let C E and E G coincide with
CD, and the point F to coincide with C, and consequently G
with D ; then move the point F towards A, keeping it in the
semi-axis CA; and when CE and EF come in the same
straight line, the point G will have described the quadrant
of an ellipsis; the lesser axis (see Figures 7 and 8) is equal
2 x FG, and the greater = 2 X CE + 2 X EG.

Demonstration—Figure 7, No. 2. Draw GI parallel to
C F, cutting C E at I, and draw E L perpendicular to C F, meet—
ing C B at L; produce 0 E to H, and make C H = c B; join
H G, and produce it to K.

Now, by the general demonstration, accompanying the
article CYLINDER, we have CB2 : CD2 : : AK X KB : KG2;
but by the property of the circle K H2 = A K x K B; there-
fore CB2 : CD2 :: K112 : KG”; consequently CB : CD ::
K H : K G, a property of the ellipsis.

But C E is the half sum of the two axes, and C I, or FG,
equal to the lesser axis; then IE, or E G, is equal to the
difference between the half sum of the two semi-axes, and
the lesser semi-axis; therefore I E : half the difference
between the two semi-axes, and I H = the whole difference ;
consequently I E = E H.

Then because IG is parallel to C F, we have E C : E r ::
E 1 : EG ; but E C : E F ; therefore E 1 = E G ; and because
E I = E H, E G is also equal to EH : then since the angle E P G
is a right angle, the angles P E G and E G P, are together equal
to a right angle ; but the angles E G 11 and G E P are alternate;
therefore E GII : G E P ; add to each of these equal angles,
the angle EGP, then will EGII + EGP = GEP + EGP
equal to a right angle ; consequently 1G is parallel to C K,
and the triangles C K 11 and 1 G11 are similar.

Therefore on : 01:: RH :KG; but on = CH, and on
= 01; CB: CD ::KH :KG, the above property of the
ellipsis.

 

Method VIL—Figure 9. Find the foci E and F, as in
Methods I. and II. let the ends E and F of two rules F I and
EK be moveable, the one round E, and the other round F, and
let each be equal in length to AB, the greater axis, inter-
secting each other at E ; let the ends I and K be connected
by a bar, 1K, equal in length to E F, so as to be moveable

round the points I and K ; then if the point I or K, be carried i
round G, the whole instrument will be in motion, and the 3

point A will describe the curve of an ellipsis.

Demonstration—Join E I ; then, because the triangles I K E ‘

and IFE have the two sides, IK and KE, equal to the two
sides E F and F1, and the base I A common to both, the angles
IK E and I F E are equal ; therefore the sides I H and H E are
equal ; therefore I F : A B = E H + H F, which is a property
of the ellipsis.

Method VlII.—Another method will be found under the
article CONE, by the equal divisions and intersections of
straight lines.

Method IX.—Figure 10.

T 0 find any number of points

in the curve.—- On the transverse axis, AB, describe a semi- .
circle: take as many points in the circumference of the ‘

semi-circle, as may be necessary for constructing the elliptic

curve ; draw straight lines perpendicularly to the axis cutting

it, and let one of these lines, CD, pass through the centre; 1

let E F be any other perpendicular, cutting the axis in F, and

let G G be the lesser semi-axis ; find the point H, so that F H ‘

may be a fourth proportional to C D, C G, F E, and the point H

will be in the curve of the ellipsis required: in the same i
manner, a point may be found in each of the other perpen- :

diculars. The finding of points in the curve by this method
being entirely in proportion, the whole may be very readily
obtained, by making IK : CD, IL, equal to the lesser

semi-axis of the ellipsis ; join KL; on IK make I l, em, In, 3
equal to the perpendiculars ; draw lo, mp, n 9, parallel ‘

to KL, cutting IL, at o,p, 9; then 10, 1p, 19, are the

ordinates of the ellipsis, to be applied respectively upon the

perpendiculars, from the greater axis.
be described by means of the proportional compass, or the
sector.

JiIcthod X.—Figure 11. Let A B be the greater axis, C D
the lesser semi-axis. On the diameter A B, describe the
semi-circle A E B, and with the radius 0 D describe the semi-
circle F D G; take any .number of points, h, 2', 8m. in the
circumference A E B, and draw h C, iC, 8:0. cutting the semi-
circle F D G, at h and l ; from the points [2, i, &c. draw lines
h m, in, 8:0. perpendicularly to AB ; also from the points h, l,
860. draw lines h m, In, 850. parallel to A B; then the points
772, n, &c. are in the elliptic curve. \Vhen the points for half
the curve are found, the corresponding points for the other
half will be readily obtained, by producing the perpendiculars
to the other side of C B, and making the ordinates on the one
side equal to those on the other.

Illethod XI.——Fig.ure 12. Any two conjugate diameters,
A B and C D, being given, to describe an ellipsis through points
found in any diameter, taken at pleasure—Through D draw
PQ parallel to A B ; from D draw D F, perpendicular to P Q ;
make D F equal to E A, or E B, upon F ; with the distance F D,
describe the circle 52 Dh ; through the centre, E, draw the
lines P E N, t E M, s E L. indefinitely cutting the tangent PQ,
at P, t, S, Ste. ; join PF, tr‘, 8 F,&c.cutting the circle 72 Die, at
the points n, m, l, &c.; also join EF, if necessary, and draw
n N, m M, lL, &c.parallel to it, cutting the diameters N N,M M,
L L, 8m. at N, M, L, 8:0. and these points will be in the curve
of the ellipsis required: if the diameters are produced to the
opposite sides, at N, M, L, &c. and the distances E N, E 11, E L,
Sac. are made respectively equal to their opposite corres-
ponding distances E N, E M, E L, &c. ; then the points N, M, L,

 

This may very easily '

 

 

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on the under side of the diameter A B, will also be in
the curve ‘

This method may be very easily applied in perspective: by
having the representation of a diameter of an original circle
perpendicular, and that of another parallel to the picture, we
have a diameter and double ordinate: the diameter of the
ellipsis, or representation, is the diameter of the circle per-
pendicular to the intersecting line of its plane ; thus it is only
finding the conjugate diameter, and drawing as above.

Figure l3.——— The axes A B and C D of an ellipsis being
given, to describe its representation by means of circular arcs.—

Draw BP parallel and equal to E C ; bisect it at l ; draw 1 C,
and PD, cutting each other at K ; bisect KC, by a perpen-
dicular meeting CD at 0; on 0, with the radius 0 C, describe
the quadrant C G Q; through A and Q draw Q G, cutting the
quadrant at G; draw G 0, cutting A B at M ; make E L equal
to E M, and EN equal to E o; from 0, through M and L, draw
0G and 0 K; from 0, complete the arc G K; from N, with the
same radius, equal to the distance N D, describe the opposite
arc HI; from M with the radius MG, describe the arc G H, at
the extremity of the longer axis; and lastly, from L, with
the same radius, equal to L B, describe the opposite arc K I ;
then A G C K BI D H A is the representation required, made to
pass through eight points in the curve.

Figure 14.—T0 find the representation of an ellipsis, by
means of circular arcs, passing through twelve points in the
curve ( a more accurate method than the former ) the axes
A B and C D being given.-—Draw A 3 parallel to E C ; divide it
into three equal parts; draw 20 and lo; divide AE also
into three equal parts, and through the points 1, 2, dra'wr D Q
and‘D P, cutting the former in Q and P. Bisect CP by a per-
pendicular, meeting C D, produced at S ; and join P s, cutting
AE at 2:; make EW equal to Ex, and EU equal to Es;
draw P x s, o W s, xxu, and L W U. Bisect P Q by a perpen-
dicular, meeting P s at F, and draw z F parallel to A B. With
the radius FQ, describe the arc QZ, cutting F z at z ; join
ZA, and produce it to meet the are at QZ, aty: join yF,
cutting AB at V ; make XI equal to XF, also W H, and WG,
equal to x F; make E T equal E v, and draw Iv R, H 'r M, and
G TN; then, with the centre 5, and distance s C, describe the
arc P0; with the centre U and distance UD, equal to the
former, describe the opposite arc KL; with the centres I, F,
G, H, describe the arcs K R, PQ, N o, and L M ; and, lastly,

. with the centres v and 'r, describe the arcs QR and M N, at

the extremity of the longer axis; and ACBD is the repre-
sentation passing through the twelve points A, Q, P, C, 0, N,
B, M, L, D, K, B, as required.

This method differs so little from a true ellipsis, that it
may be used in preference to any instrument for describing
the curves of very large arches of bridges, and in finding the
joints of the stones, as was the practice of the celebrated
French engineer Perronet. '

Another method of describing an ellipsis, by means of an
instrument, constructed upon the principle of the oval turning
lathe—As we have never seen any investigation of this
method, upon simple principles, the Author offers the
following to the public, which has only been given in his
.Mechanical Exercises.

Definition—If there be any plane figure, and two inflex-
ible straight lines at right angles to each other ; and if the
plane be fixed to an axis at right angles thereto; and if
the two inflexible lines he made to coincide with the plane,
and be so moveable on its surface, that one of them, which
we shall call the primary line, may always pass through two
fixed points in the plane, and through the point where the
plane is intersected by the axis; and if the other transverse
line be made to pass or slide along a given point, which is not

 

attached to the plane, but would remain stationary, even
though the plane were in motion ; and if a secondary plane
be fixed to the inflexible lines parallel to the primary plane;
then if the axis be carried round while the point in the
transverse line is at rest, the primary plane will ’also be
carried round, and every point in it will describe the circum-
ference of a circle: the secondary plane will likewise be
carried round, and perform its revolutions in the same time
as the primary plane and the axis, but being immoveably
fixed to the rectangular lines, they will cause it to have both
a progressive and retrogressive motion, in the direction of
the primary line, in each revolution ; and, lastly, if another
point at rest be held to the surface of the secondary plane
while in motion, it will either describe an ellipsis, a circle, or
a straight line. Hence the describing point will always be
at the same distance from the centre, or point where the axis
intersects the primary plane.

The eccentricity of the ellipsis, or the difference of the
axis, will be double the distance between the stationary point
in the transverse line and the axis.

Instead of the stationary point, a circle may be placed with
its centre in this point, and its plane perpendicular to the
axis, and instead of the inflexible line moving backward and
forward upon two fixed points in the plane, the diametrically
opposite parts of the circumference may always touch a pair
of parallel lines on the revolving plane.

Illustrations.——Figure 15. Let AB and E F, No. 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6, 7, 8, be the two inflexible lines, intersecting each
other in I, at right angles, and let C D be the two fixed points.
Let A B be denominated the primary line, and E F the secon-
dary line, and let the lines A B and E F at right angles, taken
as a whole, be called a transverse ; also, let C represent a pri-
mary point, and let the describing point be taken at G, in the
line drawn through CD produced; now, in all positions of
the chuck, the primary line AB is always upon the point C,
and E F upon D. Having premised this in general, suppose,
before the machine begins to start, that E F, No. l, the
secondary line, coincides with E G, and the point G with 0,
0 being in the plane of the figure to be described; then
because A B always passes through C, the points I and C will
be coincident, A B being then at right angles to E F. Let us
now suppose the motion to commence, and let it perform an
eighth part of a revolution, as at No. 2, the describing point
G, still remaining in the same position with respect to C
and D, viz,, in the right line C DG; then the point 0 will be
at a distance from the point G, and a part, G o, of the curve
will be described by the fixed point G, and the point I will be
above the line C D G; now let the motion proceed, and
describe another eighth, as at No. 3, then, the point 0 being
always in the line E F produced, E F will be at right angles
to the fixed line C D G, and A B coincident with C D G, and the
point which was last at G, will now be at I. In like manner,
when another eighth has been performed, as at No. 4, the
point 0 has performed three-eighths of a revolution, the point
1 is in a line drawn from the point C, perpendicular to the
fixed line CD G, and the point 2, which was at G, in No. 3,
is situated between 1 and G. ‘ In this manner, by continuing
the motion, the whole curve will be generated. No. 5 shows
the curve, when half a revolution has been described; No. 6,
five-eighths ; No. 7, six-eighths, or three-quarters ; and No. 8,
seven-eighths.

Here it may be proper to observe, that the angles per-
formed by the revolution of the machine, are very different
from the corresponding angles, formed by lines drawn from
the centre of the ellipsis to the describing point, and to the
extremity of the curve at its commencement.

From what has been said, it is easy to conceive, that the

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ELL

368

ELL

 

operation of elliptic turning is nothing more than that of
the ellipsographtor~ common trammel, with this difference,
that in the operation of turning, the ellipsis is described by
moving the plane, and keeping the point steady, but in form-
ing the curve by the ellipsograph, the plane of description is
kept steady, while the point is in motion. The transverse
A B E F is the same as the grooves in the trammel-cross, and
the line C D G the trammel—rod ; here the cross and plane of
description move round together, but fixed to each other, and
the trammel-rod C D G is held still or immoveably confined ;
in the trammel, the board and cross are fixed together, and
held while the trammel-rod CDG moves with the points C
and D in the grooves.

To set this machine, therefore, it is only to make C D equal
to the difference of the axes.

Figure 16,—No. 1, 2, 3, and 4, show the relation between
the foregoing diagrams and the chuck. Let K L M N be the
face of a board representing the plane, which is fixed to the
axis of the machine ; and let 0 P Q R be another board, made
to slide in the board KLMN: each two points, 0 and K,
L-and P, M and Q, N and R, coinciding at this moment, K L M N
will therefore represent a wide groove in the board ; as this
groove may be of any width, we may conceive the breadth
to be very small, or nothing; it may therefore be represented
by a groove, or by the line A B parallel to K N and L M, and
in the middle of the distance between them. Instead of sup-
posing the point D always moving backward and forward on
the line E F, we may suppose a circle, or the end of a large
cylindric pin, moving in a very wide groove, T U VW, across
the slides OPQR. Now, all the differences between these
diagrams and those in the former Plate, are only wide
grooves in place of lines passing longitudinally through the
middle: for the line A B is always conceived to move reci-
procally from one side to the other of the board KLMN;
and it is the same thing whether one straight line slide lon-
gitudinally upon another fixed line, or whether a bar of any
breadth move in a groove of the same breadth, or whether
a straight line in reciprocal motion always pass through two
fixed points.

No. 1, shows the chuck, as in the first diagram of the last
Plate: No. 2 as No. 2, No. 3 as No. 3, and No. 4 as No. 4,
of the said Plate. Any farther explanation is conceived to
be unnecessary.

Problem 2.—An ellipsis, AB D C, being given, to find the
transverse and conjugate axes.

Draw any two parallel lines, AB and CD, cutting the
ellipsis at the points A, B, c, D; bisect A B at e, and c D atf;
draw G ef h, cutting the curve at G and H ; bisect G H at I,
which gives the centre; from I, with any radius that will
cut the curve, describe a circle, h In 772, and join 12 l and m n ,-
bisect h l, or m n, at 0 or p, and draw Q o I p R, meeting the
curve in Q and R : then Q R is the greater axis ; draw s T at
right angles therewith, meeting the curve in s and T, and
s T will be the lesser axis.

Problem 3.—Ang diameter, A B, being given, and an ordi-
nate C D, to find the conjugate diameter of the ellipsis.

Draw 0 I perpendicular to A B ; bisect AB in F, and draw
FH parallel to CD; on F, with the distance FA, or F8,
describe the semi-circle A I B, cutting C I at I ; make A E equal
to CI, and draw E G parallel and equal to CD; through G
and A, draw AH, cutting F H at H, then F H is the semi-con-
jugate diameter.

This problem is useful in perspective, in the representation
of the circle : fen-having the representation of a diameter of
the circle perpendicular to the intersecting line, and the
representation of a diameter of the circle parallel to it,
the former representative diameter of the circle will be a

 

diameter of the ellipsis, and the latter will be a double ordi-
nate of the same; find the conjugate diameter by this pro-
blem ; then, having thetwo conjugate diameters, the curve
may be described as in Method XI ; or the axis may be
found as in the next problem, and thence this curve
described.

Problem 4.-—Ang two conjugate diameters, A B and C D,
being given, to find the axis.

Through D draw E F parallel to A B, and DI perpendicular
to E F ; make D I equal to M A, or M B; with the radius I D
describe from I the arc 9D I, and join I M, which bisect by
a perpendicular, meeting the tangent E F at N; with the
distance N I describe from N a semi-circle, E I F ; join E M and
FM, which produce to H and K; and join IgE and IlF;
parallel to I M, draw IL and g G, cutting H E and K F at G and
I. ; make M H equal to M G, and M K equal to M L ; then will
G H and KL be the two axes required.

In like manner, if G H had been a diameter, its conjugate
would have been thus found: produce HG to E, and join
EI; draw EV at right angles to El; then draw gG, and
complete the rest as before.

This problem may be readily applied in perspective ; for,
by the last problem, two conjugate diameters will be found,
and having the two diameters, the axes may be found by
this, and the curve be described geometrically by an elliptic
compass, or by traversing the curve with an ivory, paste-
board, or strong paper slip.

Problem 5.——An ellipsis and its foci F and G being given,
to draw a tangent‘through a given point, H, in the curve.

Join F H and G H, and produce the latter to I; bisect the
angle I H by the straight line L H, and L H is a tangent to the
curve.

This problem is very useful in masonry, for finding the
joints of elliptic arches. Thus, find a tangent in the curve,
at the lower end of the joint, and from the point of contact,
draw a line perpendicular to the tangent ; and the line thus
drawn will be the joint.

Problem 6.-— Two conjugate diameters, A B and C D, and
the centre, H, being given, to draw two tangents to the ellipsis,
from a given point, E, 'without the curve.

First, let the point E be in D C, produced ; make H I equal
to II C, and join IE ; through C draw C K, parallel to I E, cut-
ting H A in K ; make H L equal to H K, and through I. draw F G
parallel to A B ; find the extreme points F and G, by Problem 3,
and draw E F and E G, which are the tangents required.

But if the point E be in neither of the diameters, AB or CD,
when produced, draw a line from the given point E, through
the centre, so as to be terminated by the curve ; and the por-
tion thus intersected will be a diameter; then find a conjugate
to this diameter, as in Problem 4.

This problem will be very useful in the perspective repre--
sentation of a cone, for drawing the contour of the sides with
the utmost exactness ; the diameters being found by the pre-
ceding problem.

Problem 7.— To describe an ellipsis similar to a given one,
A B C D, through a given point, P, having the same centre, and
the axes in the same lines.

If the two axes, A D and B C, are not given, find them as

' in Problem 4 ; and the point E, where they intersect, is the

centre; through the given point P, draw FE, to meet the
curve in F ; join A F and F B; parallel to F A draw P G cut—
ting A E at G ; and parallel to F B draw P H, cutting E B at H ;
then will E G be the greater semi-axis, and E H the lesser
semi-axis.

Problem 8.— Through the angular .points, A B c D, of a
given rectangle, to circumscribe an ellipsis, which shall have
its axes in the same ratio as the sides qf the rectangle.

 

 

 

 

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Draw the diagonals Ac and B D, cutting each other at s,
the centre ; through s draw E F and G B, respectively parallel
to A B and AD ; upon s, with the radius 8 1, equal to the half
of AD or B 0, describe the quadrant I KL, cutting E F at L;
bisect the are I KL at K, and through K draw M N parallel to
EF, cutting the diagonal BD at N; join IN, and through B
draw B G parallel to it, cutting G H at G, and make s H equal
to s G ; join N o, and through B draw B 1“ parallel to it,
cutting E r at F; make SE equal to SF, and E F and G H are
the two axes; then the curve may be described by any of the
methods shown in Problem 1.

Problem 9.—A trapezium, A B C D, being given, to inscribe
an ellipsis therein.

Produce the sides B A and C D to Q; also the sides A D and
B C to R; draw the diagonals A C and B D, meeting each other
at F ; through F draw R I H, cutting the sides of the trapezium
at I and H; also, through F draw Q E G, cutting the other two
sides of the trapezium in E and G; bisect I H at N, and E G at
M; draw QNP and RMP; join IP, to which produce K;
make PK equal to P1; draw GL parallel to C D, cutting I K at
L ; then IK is a diameter bisected by P, the centre, and L G is
an ordinate.

This problem might have been constructed, as in the
Principles (see Vol. I. Problems XVIII. XIX. and xx.) by
having one of the points of contact given; but it is here
much simplified, and reduced into one problem, by which it
is much better adapted to perspective.

Problem 10.— To find the area of any segment of an
ellipsis—Let t = the greater axis,

0 = the lesser,
g : DH, the ordinate,
and a: : AD, the abscissa.

Then by the property of the curve, we have g = — g X a‘:
A
(a x -— w’)2 but ; x :5 (a x — x’) is a fourth proportional

.1. .1.
tot, c, and:i:(a:r—a")2 fortzc :: :h(ax—x’)2: 07x a:

.1.

(a x — x”)2; and since he (a:c—-a:’)2 is known to be the
fluxion of the semi-segment of the circumscribing semi-circle
A E B, (see the article SEGMENT ;) therefore, as the transverse
axis, or the diameter of the circumscribing circle, is to the
conjugate, or diameter of the inscribed circle, so is the area
of the semi-segment of the circle to the area of the elliptic
segment AHD: but the ordinate FD of the circle is to the
ordinate HD of the ellipsis, as the diameter of the circum-
scribing circle is to the diameter of the inscribing circle:
therefore, circular and elliptic segments upon the same base,
and between the same parallels, are to one another as their
bases, when the greater axis of the ellipsis is equal to the
diameter of the circumscribing circle.

It is therefore evident, that, whether we know the specific
measure of the greater axis of the ellipsis, or the diameter of
the circumscribing circle, or not, we still can obtain the area
of the elliptic segment, by a circular segment ; provided it be
known, that the greater axis of the ellipsis is equal to the
diameter of the circle. In architecture, this circumstance is
frequently known: suppose, for example, that in a groin,
one side is the segment of a circle, and the other the segment
of an ellipsis ; it follows, from the construction of the groin,
that both the vertical diameter of the circular side, and the
vertical axis of the elliptic side, are equal ; and therefore, if
the width of each side of the groin, which is the chord of its
arc, be given, and the height of the arch, we have nothing
more to do than to find the area of the circular section or
side. and the area of the elliptic side will be found by

515

 

the rule of proportion.
rule :

First.— To measure the circular segment—To two-thirds
of the area of the base, mutiplied by the height, add the
cube of the height, divided by twice the base of the segment,
and the sum is very nearly the area of the circular segment :
then To find the area of the elliptic segment, say, As the
chord of the circle is to the chord of the ellipsis, so is the
area of the circular segment to the area of the elliptic
segment.

Example—What is the area of' the elliptic end of a groin,
which rises 5 feet, and extends at its base 15 feet, supposing
the base of the circular end to be 18 feet?

2 x 15 = 30, twice the length of the segment.

For practical use, take the following.

18 5
15 , 5
90 25
18 5
3) 270 3,0)12,5
90 4.166, 8m.
90

———.

180 two-thirds of the product of the base and height.
4.166 cube of the height, divided by twice the base.

184.166 area of the circular segment.

Then 18 :15 :: 184.166
15

920830
1 84166

18)2762490(153.471 the area of the elliptic segment. i
l

. 30
18
12

To have wrought this example according to the series,
would have been too operose for practical purposes.

The above method for finding the area of the segment of
a circle, was discovered, or invented, by the author, in the
year 1794, and published in his Principles, in 1795.

It is evident, that whatever takes place in the segment,
must also occur through the whole curve: therefore, in an
ellipsis having its greater axis equal to the diameter of a
circle, it will be, As the diameter of the circle is to the lesser
axis of the ellipsis, so is the area of the circle to the area of
the ellipsis.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

E L L 370 E L L
Example—What is the area of an ellipsis, the greater axis 24
of which is 24, and the lesser 18 ? 18
24 192
24 24
36: 432
48 . 7854
576 1728
.7854 2 160
_ 34 56
2304 302 4
2880 ___ ' .
4608 339.2928 area of the ellipsis.

4032
452 . 3904 the area of the circumscribing circle.

Therefore 24 : 18 : : 452.3904

18

36191232
4523904

24 ) 8143.0272 ( 339.2928 the elliptic area. .
72

94
72
223
216
70
48

 

222

216
67
48
192
192

—_

But the proportion of 18 to 24, is as 4 to 3 : therefore the
above might have been considerably abridged ; we were, how-
ever, desirous of working the operation at full length, as
would unavoidably happen in case of incommensurable
numbers, in order to compare it with the following ope-
rations.

Now let us try whether we cannot find a more practical
rule for the area of an entire ellipsis, than that above.

Let pda be the area of a circle circumscribing an

ellipsis, where
p = .7854, and d = the diameter of the circle or
greater axis of the ellipsis,
the conjugate, or shorter axis ;
p d 2 c
d

andc =

then we have d : c : : pd“ :

 

= 10 do the area of the

entire ellipsis: we have therefore the following neat rule.
Multiply the two axes together, and the product by .7854,
and this second product will be the area.
Suppose now, for the sake of comparison, that we take the
former example, viz., the greater axis 24, and the lesser 18.

 

 

In the same manner, may the half, or the quarter, be 3
found, viz., by multiplying the two dimensions together, and l

the product by .7854.
Example—In a semi-ellipsis upon the greater axis. Let

the greater axis be 24, as above, and the lesser semi-axis 9, ‘

the area is required.

 

24 .7854
9 216
216 4 7124
7 854

157 08

169.6464 = the area of the

semi-ellipsis, which is half of the entire area before.

shown.

Example in a quadrant—Let the greater semi-axis be
12, and the lesser semi-axis 9, the area is required.

 

12 .7854

9 108

108 6 2832
78 540

84 .8232 the area of the quadrant

l

 

of the ellipsis, being one quarter of the area of the entire
ellipsis, in the foregoing example. The area of an ellipsis is f
a mean proportional between the area of the circumscribing

and inscribing circle.

 

For p t“ is the area of the circumscribing circle ;
is the area of the inscribing circle :
p2 ‘2 c!
Nowpt’ :ptc ::ptc: Pt: :pc‘; and therefore

the proposition is manifest.

To find the periphery of an ellzpszls‘.

Let a = the greater semi-axis A c ;
c : the lesser semi-axis ;
x =

the distance C D from the centre, the abscissa ;
y = D H, the ordinate ;
z = E F, the arc :

then will AD : a —x and DG : a + 2, therefore AD .

x DG=a+x x a—x:a’——x“‘.
Then by the property of the ellipsis,
Alcaorca2 : CG2 : : AD x DB : DH”; that is
2 a a? _ we : ll,
2

a : c
2 C 2 2
consequentlyy : —,(a —-:I:)
a

and therefore y = S (a’ —— w’fi

l
and pc’ ‘

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ELL.

371

ELL

 

 

 

 

 

 

and y: ‘17: x ———:-fi~)§ Therefore 2 =

.L x(a’— “2;”: xafi)‘;
:Ir’ ' 9 2 = ; but b
( + y ) (a2 _ $2)12‘ y

2
substituting, d for a a: c in this last expression
' 2
we obtain 1.8:: 2 _ _d): )L 2 for the value of 2.- But
.1 . ( _4_w* ‘1
M: _“:___,1,—_e“ _ aw.
(.2 — was ‘ (a’ — :05 " <a" —— x09 x

 

<1- ”1%
a? .
2

d
Then by throwing the factor (I —- 33

a2

 

)2 into an infinite

 

 

. . a .58 d .1"
series, we obtain 2 -_: (aQ—a‘lfé X (l _ an __
d? x‘ 3 d3 x6
‘ ———-~ B t t1
2. 4 a‘ 2.41; define.) u 18 fluent of(a :1‘)%

is equal to the corresponding arc, E F, of the circumscribing

circle. Therefore, taking A equal to the circular are, we

obtz in the fluent ofz- A B~——- d2 D 3 d3
1 — —— ——- -— ‘—
2012—02 . 4 a“ 2 . 4 . 6 a“

2 _ 2__ L 2 __ 2_ 2
where B : W? C: Mitt—‘73).
2 ’ 4 i
_5 a 0—2." 2— 2 i
D _ ”—G—EE—EL— 8‘0,
then ((12—2302: 0, consequently the values B, C, D, become
only as follows, viz.,

but when :11: becomes : a,

 

B “ —2—
_3aiB_3a’ xa’ A_3a‘A
C — 4 — 4 2 x — 2.4
5(1’C__5a2 x3a__’_ Xa—a-XAz 3.5a"A
D _ 6 “ 6 4 x2 2. 4. 6
These values being substituted in the above series, give
d 3 d2
the quadrant z = A X (1—— 2—3 -—m
3. 3 . 5 da . _ d _
M) 8m. Now by puttmg B _ W, C _
3d? 3. 3. 5d3 ,
= . t :
2‘27?” 2.2.4..46.6&cwe°b‘““z ‘X
(Z 1. 3. d_ C.3 5. d I).5 7. d
(1— 22 —.. 42 6° — 8’ 8m. There-
fore, to find the circumference of an ellipsis, we have the
following
RULE. Multiply the circumference of the circumscribing
d 1. 3. d
circle by the sum of the infinite series 1 — —2—; —B T
3. 5. d 5. 7.d &
-— C’éT’ —" DT, C.

Example. —Required the periphery of an ellipsis, the
transverse axis of which is 50, and the conjugate 40, then

16
willd: 1—— 56>=1"("5)=1_25=1“'64"36

 

Therefore 2 ) . 36 = d

2).18
— d
.0 ~

<0

:7 :A

H
N“

.0

6010

.27

. 36 = d
162

81

 

4 ) .0972

 

4 ) .0243

 

.006075 = 14-— : n

3

 

. 018225
5

 

.091125
. 36 = d

 

546750
273375

6 ) . 03280500

 

6 ) .00546750

. 00091125 : B

5 6.

 

. 00455625
7

. 03189375
. 36 = .47

19136250
9568125

8 ) .0114817500
8 ) . 00143521875

. 00017940234375 = c
7

. 00125581640625
9

 

. 01130234765625
. 36 = d

6781408593750
3390704296875

 

. 0040688451562500

 

5.7d

8.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ELL

372

ELL

 

10 ) . 0040688451562500
10 ) . 0004068845156250

.—.—

" — 7 . 9 d
. 0000406884515623 = D -—10. 10 = E

. 000366 1 9606-10625
1 l

. 0040281567046875
. 36

0241689402281250
120844701140625

l2 ) .001450136413687500
l2 ) .000120844701140625

 

1d

.1
.00001007039176171875 : 1171—2- : F

 

. 00011077430937890625
l3

33232292813671875
11077430937890625

00144006602192578125
. 36

00864039613155468 750
432019806577734375 '

4 ) . 0005184237678932812500
7 ) . 0001296059419733203125
7). 0000185151345676171875

 

 

 

 

 

 

11.13d

. 0000026450192239453125 : Fm =

G

 

Therefore, these terms collected, are as follow:

.09

.006075 ‘
.00091125

.00017940234375

.0000406884515625
.00001007039176171875
.0000026450192239453125

Therefore . 0972190562062981640625 : the sum of
the negative terms, which therefore being taken from 1.
. 0972190562062981640625

.9027809437937018359375 for the sum

questions?»

11 II II II II II II

 

 

leaves
of the series.

Therefore . 90278 0943
50

45.1390 47150
3.1416

270 8342 8290
4513904 715
18055 6188 60
4 5139 04715
135 41714145

141 .8088 3052 64400 =
the ellipsis required.

 

the periphery of

1

 

But as this rule would be much too laborious for practice,
we must content ourselves with some easy method of
approximation: It will be very serviceable, however, in
comparing the results obtained by such approximations,
in order to ascertain the degree of dependence that may be
put on them. Let us therefore try the following Rule, for
the periphery of the whole, the half, or the quadrant of
the curve.

RULE.—Multiply the square root of the half sum of the
squares of the two axes by 3 .1416, and the product will be
the circumference, nearly.

Example—Let the greater axis be 50, and the lesser 40,
as before : the entire periphery is required

50
50
2500
1600
2)4um
20 .50 ( 45 .27692, the root.
16

40
40

——.1

1 600

—_

 

85).450
425

 

902).25oo
1804

 

9047 ).69600
63329

90546 ).627100
543276

905529 ) .8382400
8149761

9055382 ) .23263900
18110764

.5153136

 

45 .2 7692
3 .1416

2716 6152
452 7 692
18110 7 68
4 5276 9 2
135.8307 6

142.2419 7 1872

The above, though agreeing only in the two first places of
figures, is sufficiently near for most practical purposes in mea-
suring; the difference in four places of figures is only four
more than the truth.

The investigation of this rule is as follows :
Let t = the greater axis,
and c = the lesser,

t’ c’ l
;- 2 expresses the rule;

 

then 1) <

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

therefore 12 t (i— + £9125 = p t (-5- + 1__"2;il)ii = p t

d é» d _1_2 _ d3 _ 5 d‘
(l *5) =Pt(l_§“‘_ 3.4 2‘.8 25.16
&c. = the periphery; but the true periphery : p t
(1 _ .21? _ £24}: — 3%: &c. Now this series agrees

with the former in the first and second terms, and differs in
d2 . -. .
the third'only 6—4; the rule is therefore an approxrmation.

The rule now delivered is still too long for practical uses ;
let us therefore try the following: ’

RULE.——Multiply the half sum of the two axes by 3.1416,
and the product will be the periphery, nearly.

Example.———T he same still as the preceding, viz., 50
and 40.

50 3.1416
40 45
2 )90 15 7080
__ 125 664
45

141.3720 the periphery.
This rule is exceedingly easy, and sufficiently near for all

. practical purposes, where the eccentricity of the ellipsis is

not very great. It gives the periphery nearly as much below
the truth as the preceding rule is above ; and, consequently,
where great accuracy is required, if the result be found by
both methods, the half sum will be exceedingly near. To
show this by an example :
The result by the first rule
The result by the last rule

142.241971
141.3720

2 ) 283.613971

The half sum of both 141.806985 which is very
near the truth, as it agrees in five places of figures with the
result by the series.

ELLIPSOGRAPH, an instrument usually constructed of
brass, for describing a semi-ellipsis at one movement of the
index. See ELLIPSIS, Problem 1, Jlfethod 3.

ELLIPSOID, a solid, generated by revolving a semi-
ellipsis round either of its axes. This solid is understood by
some to be the same as spheroid. See SPHEROID.

ELLIPTIC ARCH, a portion of the curve of an ellipsis,
employed as an arch. This curve has some advantages over
circular arcs, in bridge-building, as it leaves a greater space
at the haunches for the passage of vessels, and, conse-
quently, saves a considerable quantity of materials in the
construction.

ELLIPTIC Con'mssss. See ELLIPSOGRAPH.

ELLIPTIC Comm, the same as ELLIPSOID.

ELLIPTIC WINDING STAIRS, a winding stair, having an
ellipsis for its plan. See Sums and WINDING STAIR.

EMBANKMENT, a large body, mound, or bank of earth,
constructed or thrown up in different ways, according to cir-

5c

 

E M B 373 E M B
t’ + c’ g 1 6’ § cumstances. Embankments are of various kinds, according,
‘ bl“ P < 2 > = Pt (5+ fin) to the purposes for which they are designed, as RAILWAY
2 EMBANKMENTS, which carry a line of' railway over valleys
and since d = 1 __ fl and low ground at the elevation required for the level of the
t‘ rails: CANAL EMBANKMENTS, for confining the water of a
02 1 _ '1 canal or reservoir, or upon which a canal or aqueduct is
we have é-‘E‘ = —-2—— formed; and EMBANKMENTS constructed with the view of

guarding, protecting, and defending lands on the borders
of the sea, rivers, and lakes, from being inundated and
injured by them, and for reclaiming lands from the sea.

We shall treat first of the latter description of embank-
ments. These are of different kinds and forms, according
to the nature of the situations and the materials of which
they are constituted. In embanking against the sea and
large rivers, where the slopes next them are naturally gentle
and easy, they are mostly of the earthy description, being
well put together, and covered on the surface with turf cut
from the tough sward of the land in the neighbourhood; but
in cases where the banks, borders, and shores, are steep and
bold, they are usually of a more hard and solid nature : as of
stone, brick, gravel, sand, shells, and other similar substances.
laid closely in some sort of tenacious material, such as clay
or mortar, and other matters of the same quality. Timber is
also frequently employed in their construction in a variety
of forms.

In works of this sort, very much depends upon the form
in which they are constructed, and the nature and manage-
ment of the materials made use of. In respect to the first, it
may be remarked, that banks of these kinds are commonly
constructed with too narrow bases for the heights which are

given them; from which circumstance, the sides which,

are opposed to the effects of the water become too steep and
upright ; consequently, in cases of high tides or floods, they
are utterly incapable of resisting their weight, which has
equally a lateral and downright pressure. Besides this, there
is another disadvantage attending this method of forming
them, which is, that the floods, as well as the tides, in ebbing
and flowing, have a more continued action on one part than
would be the case, if the slopes were more gentle and gradual :
consequently, they have a much greater tendency to break
down and destroy the superficial parts of the banks. With
some variations in the forms, most of the embankments in
this country are, however, made in this way. They may
succeed in some particular instances; but in general it is
found, that breaches are frequently taking place in them, from
the effects of the sea or floods, which are not capable of being
filled up or repaired, without considerable difliculty and
trouble; and which, if suffered to continue even for a short
space of time, endanger the whole embankment.

The common form of embankment is shown at Figure 1,
and the improved form pointed out at Figure 2.

The angles or slopes of these sorts of works are made very
different in various cases ; but that shown in the above figure,
seems in general well calculated for the purpose of resisting
the impression of heavy tides, or the waters of floods. - The
greater breadth they have in proportion to their height, the
more effectual they must be in resisting the power of
the waters which come upon them. In regulating the
heights of embankments, it is necessary to ascertain the
greatest depth of water at the highest tides or floods ;
making the summits of them about two feet higher than the
points to which they rise at such times. By some, a less

 

height than this above the highest mark of the tides or floods V

has, however, been considered sufficient; but it is always
proper to be on the safe side, as the consequences of an over-
flow are very serious.

In forming embankments with stones, or other similar

i

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

EMB

374

EMB

 

materials, which, as has been seen, is essential in bold steep
banks or shores, it is necessary that they be laid in proper
materials, and be closely jointed next the sea, or the rivers,
, so as to be’fully capable of resisting the entrance of water.
Great care is requisite in doing this, or the bank will not stand,
for the water, insinuating itself between the openings,will sink
down among the stones, softening and loosening the clayey or
earthy matters underneath, by which, portions of them will
be forced out and washed away. Hollows being formed in
that way below, the stones naturally sink down; and the
waters rushing into the cavities with considerable impetuosity,
quickly displaces others, and the whole embankment is soon
destroyed. This very frequently takes place with the heads
thrown across rivers, and such paved 0r causewayed banks as
are formed with the view of protecting and preserving bold
and open shores. Such shores are especially liable to be
undermined and carried away by the washing operation of
the waters which come against them. In order to render the
embankments perfectly secure in such cases, they should be
laid with good mortar, and be pointed with a strong cement.
A good coat of gravel, in some cases of this kind, is even
found far superior to paving with stones.

It sometimes happens that rivers near their mouths form
shallow estuaries, and occupy much ground which might be
usefully employed. In this case an entirely new outlet may
sometimes be made, through which the river may at once
discharge itself into the sea; and the whole course will
probably be soon filled up by the deposition of soil and mud
brought in by the tides; for it is the current which clears
the channel, and when this is taken away the channel soon
fills up. In the course of a short time the old mouth of the
river will be so filled up as scarcely to admit the tide; and
an embankment across it may lay a large fertile tract of land
quite dry.

In constructing embankments of the quay, or other similar
kinds, a mortar formed from powdered unburnt lime—stone
and coarse sharp sand is employed; the whole being pointed
with puzzolana earth, by which they become as solid as rock,
and fully resist the effects of water. The lime of particular
sorts of lime-stone is found more proper for forming this sort
of mortar-cement than that of others: thus, that found at
Dorking, in Surrey, is supposed to constitute the most
durable substance of this kind of any in the kingdom ; and
has been employed in many works near London. And an
excellent sort of lime-stone, for the same purpose, has like-
wise been discovered near VVorsley, in Lancashire, which is
there termed Sutton lime.

An excellent cement for this use, which hardens under
water, may be composed by having four parts of blue clay,
six of the black oxide of manganese, and nine of carbonate
of lime, submitted to a white heat, and then well incorporated
with sixty parts of sand, and as much water as may be neces-
sary, to form it into a mortar. See CONCRETE.

It is invariably found, in examining the shores of the sea,
and the banks of rivers, that such as have easy and gently
declining slopes from their beds to their borders or banks,
and those which are formed in a steep upright manner, of
rocky materials, such as are shown at Figures 3 and 4, are
the least exposed to injury from the effects of the waters: the
two former being the most secure when spread over or
coated with good coverings of sand or gravel, or uniformly
turfed over quite down to the water-side with the sward of a
tough old pasture. The strength and firmness of their banks
are in proportion to the extent of the slope ; and their dura-
bility depends on that of their being made uniform on their
surfaces, both in respect to hardness and smoothness : as, in
the former case, from the great length of slope, the flows and

 

decreases of the waters act more momentarily on their dif-
ferent parts, and their greater weight renders their banks
more firm ; while, in the latter case, by the equality of their
surfaces, the power of the water is rendered the same on one
part as another, and no obstacles are left for the producing of
eddies, or other means of forming holes or breaks in them.

In the latter, or those of the bold, upright, rocky kind of
banks, their strength chiefly depends on the resistance of the
large quantity of materials by which they are backed, and not
on the manner in which they are disposed, as in the former
case ; and their durability, on that of the uniform compactness
of texture in the parts opposed to the effects of the waters: as,
where these have fissures in them, or are softer in some parts
than others, the waters are liable to enter and break down
the banks in time, according to the particular nature of the
cases.

It is, therefore, of importance that the modes and forms of
embankment, which are thus naturally presented, should be
improved upon by art. It is evident, that if a Cut were
formed behind the embankment, as in Figure 5, at the
letter a}, the shores or banks, though, in this case, as it were,
detached from the land, would be found equally strong, and
capable of resisting the pressure of the waters, as in their
original state. Hence, if a mound or bank were formed, and
placed out at the distance of one, two, or three miles from the
shore or other embankment, within the bed of the sea or other
waters, as at y in the same Figure, it would be equally
capable of resisting them as in the former instance, and not
more liable to be broken down by their pressure than in its
former station; and would also defend them as completely
from the intermediate space of land, as it did before from the
narrow trench.
of land may, in different parts of the kingdom, be obtained
by judicious embankments.

Though the shores of bold steep coasts may not afford
examples equally capable of being followed with advantage
as the above, they nevertheless suggest useful hints for the
purpose of defence, in cases of bold, abrupt, broken shores,
constituted of earth, or of that material and rocky substances
intermixed. It readily presents itself to the mind, that the
raising a good perpendicular stone wall against such banks,
renders them nearly as strong and lasting as those formed by
nature of steep solid rocky bodies. This sort of walled bank
is exhibited at Figure 6; but though this method may be
practised, in cases of the above kind, with great advantage,
it is not by any means applicable in general to rivers; as,
with them, the waters, during the periods of floods, stand in
need of room to spread, which is the great use of giving their
banks a sloping form ; while, in this way, it would have the
effect of doing more injury than was the case before. The
increased rapidity of the current caused by its being so con-
fined, doing greater damage to the banks. Instances may,
however, happen in which it may be had recourse to with pro-

priety, in defending a part of the bank of a river, without :

giving it a sloping direction, or for protecting one part of a
bank at the risk of that which 1s opposite to it; but well-
constructed piers, in such cases, are preferable, and attended
with less expense to maintain. But instead of these, art may

suggest one that may answer in some respects more perfectly; l

as, in place of bringing together such a mass of earthy or
other substances, as may be proper for constructing such
banks as are shown at Figures 1 and 7, it may be more advan
tageous to have one formed, such as is shown at Figure 8,
the side of which, next the water, forms, with the base, an
angle of about 45 degrees. This will be capable of bearing
all the weight or pressure of water that can possibly be

brought upon it, equally well with that of Figure 1, except

 

 

Consequently, on this principle, vast tracts 5

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

EMB

375

EMB

 

that the operation of the tides would break the superficial
part of the side next the sea, unless prevented by coating it
with some durable substance, such as paving stones, bricks,
or other similar materials.

Banks of various kinds, between this and the first natural
kind, may be invented, differing only in the degree of incli-
nation which they have towards the sea; that which slopes
in the highest degree, as Figure 1, having the surface covered
over with sand or gravel ; and that which has the least slope,
as Figure 8, may be covered with pavement; the different
intermediate slopes being protected by materials which have
a quality between the two, such as coarse gravel, chalk-stones,
brick, and sand. The embankment, shown in Figure 9, is
wholly constructed of a sandy loam deposited upon a soil of the
same quality ; but as it would not, for some time after being
formed, belsufliciently impervious to water, a column of clay
is carried upright in the middle, from the clayey substratum
of the soil underneath, as is shown at as x, in the section.
This is called Paddling.

In cases where the shores are of a very sandy nature,
embankments may be made wholly of a sort of Wicker-work.
Thus three or four rows of paling are put down, of different
heights, and the vacant spaces between them well filled, by
forcing in furze, brush-wood, or even straw, as represented at
Figure 10. These substances, by detaining the mud and
sand, as the tide passes through them, or during high floods,
soon forms a sort of embankment, such as that shown in the
above representation. It should afterwards be covered with
some plant, which is capable of binding and giving it solidity,
such as the elgmus arenarius. An embankment, so con-
structed, would continue, during extraordinary tides, to retain
still larger quantities of the sandy materials, until, ultimately
raised above the range of the highest floods, a safe bank
would be formed. By banks formed in this way, large quan-
tities of land might be gained in a very few years, in different
parts of the rivers Severn, Humber, Frith, 8w.

In all cases of embankment, however they may be formed,
tunnels and sluices of a proper kind, with valves towards the
sea or rivers, must be occasionally placed, according to cir-
cumstances, so as to permit the water that may be collected
within to pass away, and that of the sea or rivers, to flow
up, with different intentions in the view of improving the
land.

The utility of projecting points .is very considerable, in
different cases, on the sea-coasts and rivers, in defending the
bays and inlets of the former, as well as guarding the banks
of the latter, by diverting their streams or currents to the
opposite sides. Hence arises the formation of piers, which
become highly beneficial in defending embankments, as well
as the borders of rivers and brooks. In the first of these
cases, they may generally be constituted and coated over with
the same sort of material as that of which the embankment
is formed; while, in the latter, they should be formed of
some sort of stony matter, being constructed in such a way
as to decrease in every direction as they advance outwards,
as represented in Figure 11. In each of these cases, they
are, however, capable of being constituted of brush-wood,
secured by means of stakes, often with more perfect success.
And it frequently happens, that a simple rude wicker-work
fence, of not more than three Or four yards in length, may be
fully sufficient for the purpose. Embankments formed of
stone, unless constructed in the manner represented at the
above figure, are apt to cause eddies below them ; while those
formed of brush-wood cannot have this effect.

It it obvious, that considerable attention must be required
in deciding the most proper situations for constructing this
sort of projection in, and the distances to which they should

 

extend into the rivers ; as a too extended projection may be

_highly dangerous to the opposite bank, and of course do

harm, instead of being beneficial; while not carrying them
out sufficiently far may prevent the effect which is wanted.
In cases where piers are to be formed of stone, as in rivers
where the bottoms are of a rocky nature, the plan represented
at Figure ll, is a good one, as it will scarcely cause any
eddy, and be nearly similar to that of the wicker-work, in the
etfect which it produces. Difl‘erent works of these several
kinds have been constructed in the northern parts of the
island with much success.

Proper Materials for Embankments.——It will be obvious,
that different sorts of materials may be made use of in
different situations and kinds of works of this nature, with
more advantage than others, both in so far as duration and
expense are concerned.

Those steep upright embankments, which are constructed
with the view of protecting bold shores, or coasts, and the
banks of particular rivers, may probably be best formed of
good brick, rubble, or ashlar work, in the manner of a wall,
as seen at Figure 6, in the Plate, the materials being laid in
the strongest mortar that can be made. But where this is not
the case, they may be built in the common way, and pointed
with puzzolana earth, or what is termed the Roman cement,
prepared by Messrs. Parker and Co., London. Concrete has
been used most successfully and extensively for the purpose
of embankments, as we have shown under that article.

The different kinds of sloped embankments may be formed
either with common earthy materials, clay, mud, or a mixture
of these several different substances ; and any other matters
which are capable of uniting into a solid, firm, compact mass,
may be had recourse to for the same purpose. Where the
sides next the sea or other waters form angles of from 20
to 30, or even 35 degrees with their bases, they may be
coated with sand, the shells from the sea, or coarse gravel
from the borders of the shores. And stones, broken down
to uniform sizes of a few pounds in weight, may be employed
in a similar manner. Where none of these substances can
be procured in sufficient abundance, a method practised in
Holland, of covering them with such perishable materials
as mats, reeds, straw, bark, and others of the same nature,
may be had recourse to; but these are obviously disadvan-
tageous, as requiring very frequent renewal. They might
likewise be protected by a low fence of brushwood, fixed in
an erect manner all along at the bottom of the bank, of an
equal height, as tending to break off the violence of the
waves. Another method might also be employed, which is
that of covering the whole front of the bank with brushwood,
either made into bundles, or in the manner of wicker-work,
or fixed down in a neat manner by means of long poles and
strong hooked stakes. And farther, they may be laid in the
form of a causeway, with stones in moss, or covered with
wicker-work applied upon the mossy material when spread
out over the bank. Many other modes also may be adopted
under particular circumstances.

In all cases where the sides and slopes towards the sea
constitute angles of from 35 to 45 degrees with their bases,
as in Figure 8, recourse may be had to stones of the flag kind,
as coverings, which should be jointed with cement mortars
formed in some of the ways we have mentioned above. And
where these sorts of stones cannot be provided, if clay can
be found, proper kinds of bricks may be made, and used in
the same way as the stones. Where the slopes or inclined
planes are from 40 to 45 degrees, it is frequently more cheap
and economical to have them covered with stones of about
six or eight pounds in weight, applied to the thickness of a
foot and a half, or nearly two feet 5 or these may be used on

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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376

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a’ bed of common moss of three inches, or of peat-moss of the
flow kind, of six inches in thickness, spread upon the banks,
only to the thickness of six or eight inches. Stones of these
kinds may likewise be formed into a sort of causeway, or be
laid in strong clay, and their surfaces jointed with lime or
a strong cement mortar, which has the property of quickly
hardening, and of enduring the Operation of the air and tides,
which alternately act upon it.

There may likewise be cases in which it may be the most
advantageous practice to have the sides next the sea or rivers
protected by coverings of wood only, in which case, larch
may be the most proper, or such others as are durable,
having their surfaces covered over with pitch and some sort
of sharp sand. And old sail-cloth, or oil-cloth pitched and
coated over with sand in the same manner, or even thin
plates of metals, have been suggested as useful in particular
instances.

In a paper read before the Institution of Civil Engineers
in May, 1841, the Hon. Mr. Stewart gave a-very interesting
account of the application of peat to the purpose of building
“sea walls.” The author described some embankments
constructed with it on the estates of his brother the Earl of
Galway, to reclaim various portions of land, to the amount
of many hundred acres, and stated that it had been found to
answer extremely well, for several reasons, the most prominent
of which were, that the blocks of peat, when well rammed
down, grew together, thus forming a complete “ puddle”
wall; and that from its spongy nature it was not liable to
crack in dry weather like clay, when any portion of it was
in water, as moisture was in that case drawn up to all
parts of it. '

It is evident that great quantities of land might in many
situations be obtained from the sea and large rivers, by the
forming of proper embankments. Some notion of this may
indeed be formed by a careful examination of such lands as
lie along their shores and banks, by ascertaining the distances
to which the waters ebb out at common tides, as it is found
by experience, that at least one-half of the extent of land,
thus uncovered in any particular situation, may be gained;
hence, throughout the whole kingdom, it could hardly be
estimated at a less quantity than from two to three millions
of acres, but it is probably much more than even the last
quantity, if it were capable of being ascertained with any
degree of accuracy or correctness.

Importance of embankments.—When the extent and the
value of the lands which are capable of being gained by these
means are fully considered, there can be no doubt of their
being of the greatest consequence to the interests of the
country. It has been well remarked by a late Writer on this
subject, that there are numerous places in the kingdom where
vast improvements may be effected by the judicious applica-
tion of these means. Vast tracts of land of the best kind
may not only be gained from the sea, but likewise from the
large rivers and lakes, besides the beneficial consequences
which must necessarily arise from the prevention of such
rivers from overflowing their banks, and injuring the level
grounds in their vicinity by such inundations. In some
cases, it is supposed, that by raising a bank of only three or
four feet in height, at a very small expense, some thousands
of acres might be prevented from being overflown, the crops
from being carried, away, and much other mischief from
being produced. In other instances, the forming of very
trifling banks might be the means of obtaining much extent
of country, which in its present state is of but very little
value ; yet so indifferent are people in general about improve-
ments of this description, that though immense tracts are
year after year overflown, and the most dreadful devastations

 

committed, they have recourse to no means of prevention ;
nay, even though the sea itself, says the writer, as if’to rouse
them from their inaction, presents to their view twice every
twenty-four hours, large tracts that might by proper means be
made of very great value, yet these repeated invitations
are disregarded, and no attempts are made to possess
what might, in many cases, be so easily and so advan-
tageously acquired. It is certainly extraordinary and
unaccountable that the acquiring of distant possessions
should be eagerly sought after, and considered of so
great importance to us as a nation, when the addition
of land in our own country by the reclamation of it
from the waters, must be in every point of view, so much
more valuable.

The acquisition of additional territory at home should,
therefore, be more attended to, and have more expense
bestowed upon it than has hitherto been the case. In par—
ticular situations, indeed,a few active and enterprising persons
have taken advantage of the opportunities which have been
presented ; as in the counties of York, Lincoln, Cambridge,
and others, many hundred thousands of acres have been
gained by embankments. In Norfolk, too, a considerable
extent of land has been gained in this way. In the neigh-
bourhood of Chester, the River Dee Company have likewise
gained several thousands of acres from the sea, which have
since been divided into different beautiful farms, the whole
of which pay in rent more than 2,000 pounds per annum.
And in Holland the whole country has, in a great degree,
been obtained by these means.

It is stated by Mr. Beatson, in the second volume of
Communications to the Board (f Agriculture, that large
sums have been expended in some places by individuals with
a view of guardng against inundations, but, owing to the
embankments they have made being injudiciously placed,
and as badly constructed, the desired effect has not always
been produced, particularly in the northern parts of Cheshire,
on the banks of the river Mersey, where works of this kind
have been thrown up at a great expense, which, from the
manner of their being placed, may, in some cases, by con-
fining the course of the river, do more harm than good. By
the appearance of that part of the country, so far as he could
judge from the cursory view he had of it, it seemed to him
that the inundations from that river might have been effec-
tually prevented at a much easier rate, if a proper method
had been taken at first; but from a certain ill-judged and
mistaken tenaciousness of property, the embankments are
constructed so close upon the sides of the river, that, in many
places, it is confined to a space not more than 20 yards over.
Owing to this, and to an aqueduct. across the river, with only
one arch instead of two, which it ought at least to have had,
the water sometimes, in great floods, rises, he was informed,
to the height of about 20 feet above its ordinary level, and
overflows the embankments, although now, by frequent addi-
tions, they are about that height.

 

Instead of 20 yards, had 11

these embankments been 80 or a 100 yards distant from each .

other, and the river widened in the narrowest places, one-

third or one-fourth of their present height would have been .

quite sufficient.

and less liable to damage by the floods ; a great deal of money :
also would have been saved, not only in the first construction, .

but in keeping the banks afterwards in repair. The space

of ground between the embankments and the river thus left, ‘

would have produced the richest pasture, or meadow—hay,
by its frequent manurings with the fertilizing particles left
upon it, when flooded by the swelling of the river ; and in
those places, if any, that are unfit for pasture or hay, willows
or other aquatics might have been planted to great advantage;

 

 

 

 

They would have been much easier made, 1'

 

 

 

 

EMB

377

EMB

 

and thus it might have been of more value perhaps than at
present, while the interior grounds would have been more
effectually secured from the ravages of sudden floods. Not-
withstanding the. general indolence shown in most parts of
the country, respecting the acquisition of land by embanking,
and the seeming aversion that most people have to engage
in such undertakings, there have been, however, some
ingenious and enterprising projectors, whose ideas upon that
subject have soared far beyond the bounds allotted to common
understandings. From the speculations of such people, the
most important advantages are sometimes produced; and
surely the man who is possessed of a speculative turn of
mind, and who considers no obstacles insurmountable, is a
much more useful member of society than he who is perpe-
tually starting difficulties against every new project, and is
for having all things remaining in statu quo, that is, for
leaving the world as he found it.

The idea of reclaiming land from the sea, for example,
would have appeared to a torpid genius of this kind, as a
matter too, visionary for sober-minded men. A thousand
difficulties would have started up at‘ such a proposal; and
obstacles, which, to a more expanded mind, would seem per-
fectly practicable to overcome, would have presented to him
impediments insuperable.

What would such anti-projectors think of proposals to
exclude the sea. entirely from extensive bays, many miles
across, and exposed to the full sweep of the winds and the
waves ? Such was the proposition to carry a railway
embankment across Morecambe Bay, and the estuary formed
at the mouth of the Duddon, the embankments on Lough
Foyle in Ireland, and other similar works.

That there are many large tracts of land in different parts
of the kingdom, both on the sea-coasts and on the sides of
lakes and rivers, easily attainable, there cannot be the smallest
doubt. It is, therefore, an object worthy of the attention of
those who are so fortunate as to possess property of this
nature, to have it ascertained by persons of experience in
such matters, how far the acquisition of additional portions of
land may be adequate to the expense which it may be neces-
sary to incur in procuring it. But embankments are important
in other views than those of gaining ground by them. When
rivers are concerned, one material advantage is the deepening
of their courses, by which vessels of greater burthen than
they admitted formerly, may be permitted to navigate them.

And farther, as embankments become more frequent on the
borders of rivers and sea-shores, the intervening distances
may become a sort of bays, in which accumulations of shells,
mud, sand, gravel, and other matters, may take place by the
influx of the tides ; and these, however diflicult they may be
at first to embank, will in time be as easy to perform the
work on, as the natural bays and creeks are at this period.
In this way many rivers, which in their present state are
eight or ten miles in width at their junction or influx with
the sea, may in the course of years he reduced to less than
half these distances. Consequently, such embankments would
be equally beneficial to the proprietors of land, and the mer-
chant or manufacturer, as many rivers would become more
easily navigable, and those obstacles which interrupt their
mouths be wholly removed.

In embanking against the encroachments of the sea, it is
necessary to ascertain, with great accuracy, the maximum
height to which the water rises ; the methods of doing this
have been already shown. But as new works of this sort,
especially where the banks are large, are liable to subside too
much, it may be a proper precaution to take the levels fre-
quently for some time after they are completed, in order to
guard against any mischief which might arise in this way.

5 D

 

Where the banks are low, this is not, however, so necessary,
as in higher ones, as the settling is always more or less
according to their height ; in low banks it will of course be
very little. In the making of such embankments, it is scarcely
possible to lay down any general rule in regard to their size or
dimensions, as these must be directed by situation and circum—
stances, under the management of an expert engineer. In
cases where the embankment to be formed is to exclude the
sea from a piece of low marshy ground, over which it only
flows at spring-tides, the work is easy, and capable of being
accomplished at no great expense. But where it is intended
to reclaim a portion of land which is covered every tide, in
some bay or creek, or on the sides or windings of some large
river in which the tide ebbs and flows, the business will be in
some degree more difficult, according to the depth and rapi-
dity of the current of the water. And where it is proposed
to exclude the sea from some exposed situation at the mouth
of a river, or in a bay, or inlet, which is uncovered every
tide, the operation will be the most difficult and expensive of
all, according as it is exposed to prevalent winds, and the
depth of the water to be resisted. Each of these situations,
therefore, requires a different method of management.

The business of embanking against the sea, when at any
considerable distance within high-water mark, is not only the
most tedious, but at the same time the most difficult; as, when
the materials are not very good and the work not well per-
formed, the force of the water at every flowing of the tide
will quickly undo all that has been effected, especially if the
soil be of a sandy nature, as is often the casein such situations.
If it be a strong clay, as is sometimes the casein marshy
places, there will be the less risk of its being washed away.
In sandy situations it has been advised by some to lay bun-
dles of straw or reeds well fastened down, or any other impe-
diment, to hinder the soil from being carried away by the
ebbing tide. Where a sufficient supply of good strong turf
cannot be had, other expedients may be tried : but where such
turf can be provided, as is the case in most marshy situations,
and where the embankment required is not to exceed the
height of four or five feet, it is best to finish the slope with
good turf as expeditiously as possible, as the work proceeds ;
that is, supposing the length of 30, 40, or 50 feet or yards of
it can be completed in a tide, it is better to finish that length
to its intended height, than to trace out or begin a greater
extent than can be finished before the tide returns, by which
a great deal of the soil might be carried away, and much ot
the work demolished, which is not so likely to be the case
when the slope is finished. Turf which contains the roots
of bent or rushes is very good for this use.

In commencing a work of this kind, however, the first
thing to be done is to strike out the intended line of it, setting
out the breadth at the base, also the width of the excavation
or trench to be made in the inside, from which most of the
materials that compose the bank are to be taken : this trench
serving also as a drain to keep the grounds within dry. There
should also be trunks or sluices at different parts of it, to shut
of themselves against any external water, and to open when
the tide ebbs, to let out any water from within. The width
of it should be proportioned to the quantity of materials
required from it, for the raising of the embankment, as eight,
ten, or fifteen feet wide, and three or four feet deep, leaving
a berme, or space, between the edge of the trench and the
inner bottom of the embankment. If the soil be strong, one
foot or eighteen inches will be sufficient for this purpose; but
if loose or sandy, three or four feet at least will be required.
The more easy and gradual the external slope is made, the
less sudden the resistance against the sea will be, as has been
seen above, and of course the embankment be less liable to

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

EMB

378

EMB

 

injury; this slope should therefore be formed according to the
exposure of it to the winds and tides : a contrary opinion has,
however, been held by some engineers, and the formation of
upright walls properly faced has by them been considered
better adapted to resist the action of the water. Figure 12,
is supposed to be a section of an embankment in which the
base or horizontal line 9 It should at least be three times the
perpendicular height h 2'; but lm, the inside slope, need not
be more than three-fourths of the perpendicular height, that
is, nine inches for every foot of rise. The inside slope should
be faced with turf likewise, laid with the green side down-
wards, as in common sod walls. Some expert sodders can
finish this sort of work extremely neat by setting the sod on
edge, according to the slope intended to be given, and with
proper mallets and beetles ramming the earth hard behind,
which consolidates the work as it advances, and tends to
render it durable. As soon as the first or lower course is
finished, the upper edge of the Sods is pared with a sharp
knife quite even, by laying a rule to them, and then they go
on with the second course, which they finish in the same
manner, and thus proceed until the whole height is completed,
which, when properly finished, has a smooth and beautiful
appearance, not ajoint between the turfs being seen. Where
turf is used in covering the outside slope, it should all be laid
with the grass uppermost, as already noticed, and be well
beaten down with a flat sod—beetle for the purpose, and in
order the better to secure them, it may be proper to drive
small stakes, about eighteen inches in length, through every
sod. In cutting sods for this use, they should be taken up in
a careful manner, and be all traced by a line of the same
breadth ; their edges being cut as even as possible, that they
may make the closer joints, which will tend very much to
their security, until they are grown properly together. In
laying the different courses of such sods, care should also be
taken that the joints of the one be covered by the other, in
the manner that good brickwork is made.

Where it is proposed to reclaim a piece of land, upon
which the sea ebbs and flows every tide, to a greater depth
than in the foregoing case, as in a creek, or on the side of a
large river, a different mode of proceeding must be pursued,
according to the soil, and the nature of the materials to be
employed. Where plenty of stones can be readily procured,
a bank may be formed of them, with a mixture of clay, either
by means of land-carriage, or, which in some instances is
better, by conveying them in flat-bottomed boats, or punts,
and throwing them over-board until the bank is formed.
Where stones cannot be easily had, clay, or other materials
proper for the business, may be thrown in, in sufficient
quantity, in the same manner, with perhaps nearly equal
success. It is supposed that most of the embankments in
Holland were formed in this way, the clay dug from the
canals being made use of for the purpose. In either case it
is requisite to fix up strong poles before the work is begun,
as guides for laying down the materials. Proper sluices
must likewise be laid in suitable directions for taking off the
back-water when the tide ebbs, under the inspection of
the engineer. Much, in all cases of this sort, depends on a
skilful engineer, who is capable of suggesting and contriving
various means of facilitating the buisness, and of obviating
the difficulties that may arise in its execution. A person of
real genius is often capable, by his different contrivances,
of rendering the accomplishment of a great undertaking com-
paratively easy, which to others would be almost impracticable,
or carried on at such a heavy expense as to counterbalance
the advantages to be drawn from it. In cases of the kind
just noticed, he might suggest the erection of stages or plat-
forms, in such a manner as to carry on the work at all times

 

of the tide, which would be an immense saving, as the
delays caused by the tides in this sort of business are both
tedious and expensive. Waggons might likewise be contrived
in such a way as to carry on such platforms large quantities
of materials at once, which could be easily emptied and
filled ; and at the same time be drawn by machinery, in such
a manner as to save much labour and expense, both in car-
riage and tidework.

There is another species of sea embankment, which is,
perhaps, the most important of any; as there are few
estuaries, or mouths of rivers, in which large tracts of land
may not be gained by it. The shoals or flats formed at the
entrance of such rivers, are mostly composed of the richest
and most fertilizing particles, brought down from the towns
and circumjacent country through which they pass. Such
shoals and flats may, therefore, under proper management, be
in most cases readily converted into the most fertile plains.
In these situations the first object is that of collecting the
whole river into one stream, and preventing its overspreading
a wider extent than is merely sufficient for its discharge; or
it may be better, perhaps, to alter its course altogether, and
cause it to be discharged at some other outlet. It has been
found by experience, that where the ‘course of a river is

changed in such a manner as to make it discharge itself into ,
the sea at a different place to that where it did before, the '

former place will, in a feW years, by the continued accumula-
tion of sand and mud brought in every tide, be so choaked up,

 

and raised above its former level, as to form of itself, in the ’
course of time, abank, that, with a very little assistance, will '

exclude the sea; for as the current of the river before carried
away all that sediment which the motion of the waves

naturally stirred up, from its being now removed, it is ‘
obvious that all or most of the muddiness will not only be car- i
ried farther up the old channel of the river, but a great part §

of it be deposited there as the tide recedes. It has been

found that in spring‘tides and particular winds, this sediment ‘
is deposited in larger quantities than at other times, and on ;

making a perpendicular cut in the ground under reclamation,
the different layers are found to be so distinct, that those
made at spring-tides can be easily distinguished from the
rest.

This curious fact is well deserving of the attention of ‘

all those who have lands situated at the mouths of rivers, as
there may in many such situations be considerable tracts 3

gained at a very light expense.

But though this fact may .

exist in some places, as has been proved by experience, :
nevertheless it is supposed that the effect cannot be the same §

in all situations.
muddy shores, the motion of the waves will no doubt stir up

\Vhere there is a great extent of flat or f

the mud and sand, and carry great quantities of them along ‘
with the current. on the flowing of the tide; and when the tide j
ebbs, though some of the lighter particles will be carried ‘
away again, yet it is reasonable to suppose the heavier ones 1

will be left behind.
just near the entrance of the river, there will be less of this
mud; but on such shores there can, indeed, be little or no
occasion for embanking, unless perhaps in some creeks,
narrow at the entrance and spreading out wide above. If
the sea were excluded from such creeks, a great deal of land
might probably be gained.

If the shores are bold and rocky except i

In the marshland district of the county of Norfolk, lying ‘

between the rivers W'yn and Case, immense tracts of the '

most rich land, such as is composed of the muddy depositions
left by the tides and floods, which is there called silting, have
been obtained by means of embanking. This kind of work
has sometimes been undertaken by the tenants on a low piece
of marsh, in consideration of having the land free for twenty-
one years But in these cases the banks have often been very

 

 

 

 

 

 

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imperfectly made, not having cost more than forty shillings
a rod. And those which were constructed by the landlords
were indeed frequently but little better, being mostly
deficient in not having slope enough given them towards the
water. Coant Bentinck, and his son, who succeeded him in the
estates, undertook the drainage of the marsh lands upon a
scale never practised in that part of the island before, and by
their successful operations have increased the old estates
by more than 1,000 acres.

The base of the embankment, in this case, is about 50 feet,
the slope to the sea 36 feet, forming an angle, of about
25 or 30 degrees. The crown is 4 feet in width, and the
slope to the fields 17 feet, in an angle of about 50 degrees ;
the slope towards the sea being very nearly turfed over.
The first expense incurred in forming this bank was £4 per
rod, but a very high tide coming before it was finished, not
only made several breaches, but occasioned an additional
height and slope to be given to several different parts, in
order to bring it to the dimensions mentioned above, all of
which made the gross expense to amount to about £5 the rod.
The whole cost was something more than £5,000. The
expense of the houses, farm buildings, and other things, was
about as much more, for five new farms, which was a greater
expense than was necessary, as the land would have let as
well in two or three as five farms. Supposing, therefore, the
expense at £10,000 and the new rental at £1,000 a year, it
is just 10 per cent. for the capital laid out. The expense
here, however, seems to have run too high, when the neces-
sary repairs of the bank are taken into the account. The
representation, given at Figure 22, in the Plate, fully
explains the nature of the embankment formed in this
case.

In another new embankment, in which 273 acres of marsh
land, and 18 of bank, were gained, the men were paid 4s. 6d.
a floor of 400 cubical feet, finding wheeling planks, barrows,
trussels, &c. When it is thus formed, the front slope is
sodded, for which they are paid in addition 4s. a floor of 400
square feet, earning from 5s. 6d. to 73. a day, and there is
some little farther expense necessary for beating it down in
a firm manner. The whole of the expense of the bank,
sluice, and everything else, was about £3,300. The land
was immediately offered to be rented at four pounds an acre
for four years, or three pounds an acre for six years; which,
in the former case, would amount to £4,368 in that length
of time, or 1,000 guineas more than the whole of the capital
laid out on the undertaking.

On this coast the operation of silting up, or raising the
surface of the marsh-land by the repeated depositions of
muddy matters from the sea, is performed in a more rapid
manner than in many others ; and the little hollows and creeks
are found from experience to silt up much faster where the
tide-waters are speedily taken off by proper cuts and channels
formed for the purpose, than where the contrary is the case.

One of the most extensive reclamations of land in England,
is the large tract of country known by the name of the
Great Bedford Level. This great expanse of rich and
fertile country is bounded by the high lands of the counties
of Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge, Huntingdon, Northampton,
Lincoln, and the Isle of Ely, and contains upwards of
300,000 acres of fen-land, beyond which are about a dozen
very large marshes also similarly reclaimed. The drainage
of the whole level is effected by innumerable dikes and drains
of all sizes communicating with, or gathered together into
three great channels, forming the main outfalls into the sea.
One of these outfalls is at Boston, in Lincolnshire; one at
Wisbeach, in Cambridgeshire; and the other at Lynn Regis,
in Norfolk.

 

In Holland, however, is exhibited the most prominent
illustration of the successful redemption of land from the
sea; and probably in no part of the world has it been carried
to so great an extent. Indeed, the whole country has been
rescued, as it were, from the waves of the ocean, and has
been secured and held only by the constant care and super-
intendence of the persevering conquerors.

There is little doubt that the inhabitants of Holland were
obliged, in the first instance, for their own preservation, to
erect barriers against the encroachments of the sea. On the
invasion of their country by the Danes and Normans, the
latter soon discovered the superiority of these lands to those
adjacent to'them, and at once applied all their energies to
the proper reclaiming of So fertile a property. Thus, by the
steady perseverance of ages, has Holland become pre-eminent
for the extent of her drainage works, though the manner in
which their embankments are constructed is very far from
equal to similar works executed in this country. It is said
by those who have made it their business to examine the
mode of making these banks, that in those made of stone,
the materials are not economically distributed, but are heaped
so confusedly on each other, as not only to weaken the bank,
but occasion great waste. They have, however, a very
ingenious method of facing their banks where there is a
scarcity of stone, with straw, formed into ropes, about an
inch or two in thickness, laid in regular courses. These
courses fit closely together from top to bottom, and are fas-
tened down to the bank with wooden fallts.

In Ireland the attempt to bring into cultivation the
immense tracts of bogs or flats partially covered with water,
a few years ago attracted the public attention; and a board
of commissioners was appointed to inquire into the nature
and extent of the bogs in Ireland, and the practicability of
reclaiming them.

These commissioners have published reports containing
much interesting and instructive matter, exhibiting the
present state of the wastes in certain districts, and evincing
clearly the practicability of converting them, at a compara-
tively small expense, into rich arable and pasture land.

On the north and west coasts of Ireland there are a great
number of deep bays or inlets of the sea, presenting great
facilities for embanking. Amongst these, the estuaries
called Lough Swilly and Lough Foyle, in the counties of
Donegal and Derry, seemed to offer to some enterprising specu-
lators a tract of land peculiarly adapted for embanking.

Sir John Macneill having been consulted on the scheme
for the drainage of these loughs, employed Mr. J. W. Bazal-
zette to make the necessary surveys for the purpose, and the
latter has furnished to the Institution of Civil Engineers a
valuable paper on the subject, from which the following
observations have been extracted.

Lough Foyle is described by Mr.Bazalzette, as not entirely ,
insulated from the Irish Channel, but as having a narrow
mouth communicating with it. Above this month the waters
spread over a wide tract of land, and then again contract into
a narrow channel. The effect of the tide rushing through
so small a passage has been to scour the narrows, and throw
up the deposits on the sides of the Lough. By the accumu-
lations of years these deposits have at last become immense
banks of rich alluvial soil extending for some miles and
covered only at high water. To reclaim this land it was
proposed to construct an embankment or sea-wall, a little
below low-water mark, for fourteen miles in length, by which
about 25,000 acres of land would be enclosed.

Lough Swilly is less extensive than Lough Foyle, but pre-
sents greater difficulty in the construction of the works, from
the scarcity of the necessary materials. It is wider at its

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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mouth (which opens into the Western Ocean,) than in any
other part, and in its whole extent is extremely exposed to
the winds. It was proposed to construct here three embank-
ments, the first 1,100 yards, the second 1,133 yards, and the
third 633 yards in length. The position of these banks
being fixed by careful measurements and soundings, the pro-
posed method of formation was as follows :

Each bank was to be 4 feet in perpendicular height above
the highest spring-tides, which here rise to 18 feet ; and to
have a slope on the sea-face of 3 to 1, except in the most
exposed part, where the slope was to be 4 to l. The materials
available for the work were stone, clay, earth and gravel,
taken from the adjoining lands, and the banks were to be
faced with rough stones on both sides, laid as close as possible
with the edge outwards, in_courses not exceeding 4 feet in
height. In the centre of each bank was to be built a
culvert of masonry, with proper sluices and flood-gates.
These culverts were to rest on a foundation made by
driving piles into the soil, which from its alluvial character
could not be depended upon in itself. The sluices being self-
acting, the drainage would be effected in the following manner.
At high water, it being supposed that the whole of the slob
(as it is termed in Ireland,) is covered on the receding of the
tidal water, the sluices would shut of themselves, retaining
the water within the banks. When the flood-tide came on,
the pressure on the sluice-gates from within, would prevent
their opening to admit it, and the retained water would soon
evaporate, leaving the rich slob dry, and to be in a. short time
fit for agricultural purposes.

The extent of the slob thus enclosed by these three walls
would be about 2,000 acres, and the value of it may be
estimated by the fact that a large quantity of land has already
been reclaimed near this part of the Lough. This land now
lets at £5 per acre, and is considered the richest soil in the
neighbourhood. Indeed, in every case, where a proper
selection of land has been made, and the works performed
judiciously, similar success has been the result.

It has been remarked by Mr. Beatson, whose observations
on this subject we have before noticed, that in the lakes or
mires of the north, and the Laughs of Scotland and Ireland,
the business of embanking is both simple and easy. In these
situations the waters generally subside during the summer
months. rising considerably in winter, and whenever the
season is very wet. In particular cases, the extent of surface
which is overflown in the winter season, so far exceeds that
which it covers during the summer, that it would be an object,
and sometimes a considerable acquisition, to confine the water
within its summer boundaries, or to cut off some of its parts.
To accomplish this, the princrpal outlet must be carefully
examined, and be considerably widened and enlarged ; which
will prevent the water from rising so high as was formerly
the case. Where the levels will not admit of much depth
being had, or where the ground is of a rocky nature, and
would of course be difficult and expensive to deepen, the
breadth should be increased as much as possible, and all
obstacles cleared away, that the water may run freely in a
shallow stream. Where it is required to ascertain with
exactness, or to fix with certainty, the future limits of the
water, a section of the greatest quantity running out during
a flood should be taken. Suppose this section, for example,
be 10 feet in width and 4 feet in depth, by making it 40 feet
in width, the same quantity of water will not rise above 1
foot : consequently, by this means alone, 3 feet in height will
be gained all round the lake, which, in case of embanking it,
would be a great object. During the summer season, when
the water is lowest, is the most proper time for carrying on
these, as well as other embankments. When, however, any

 

materials are to be brought from a distance, they may be laid
down, or prepared at other seasons, with the exception of
turf, which should always be used as soon as possible after it
is cut. The manner of constructing embankments of this
kind may be sufficiently understood, from what has already
been said in the other description of embankments : observ-
ing, however, as a general rule, that when the materials on the
spot will answer the purpose, they should invariably be made
use of, although at the expense of digging a trench larger
and deeper than would otherwise be necessary. It should
constantly be attended to, in executing all sorts of embank-
ments, that the greatest care be taken to make them perfectly
firm and solid, by continually beating them, and examining
them carefully, during the whole of the time they are in a
state of being formed.

The following account of embankments on the Continent,
is taken from the “ Dictionary of Terms of Art,” part of the
very useful rudimentary treatises published by Mr. VVeale.

“ On the banks of the Po, two sorts of dikes are used to
prevent the river from overflowing during the winter, or the
flood season. They are called ‘ in froldi,’ when immediately
upon the banks of the river, and ‘in golene,’ when at any
considerable distance, as it is sometimes found advisable to
allow the river to spread over a large surface of the adjacent
valley, either for the purpose of admitting it to deposit the
mud in suspension, or to allow it to lose its torrental character.
The maintenance of the works of these dikes is confided to
the government engineers, who are under the control of a
syndicate of the, proprietors of the property most liable to be
affected by inundations. When the river passes from one
state to another, as from Piedmont to Modena, a mixed com-
mission is charged with the joint superintendence.

“ The Haarlem lake, besides the very remarkable steam-
engines described by Mr. Dempsey, merits observation for
the extensive works executed for the defence of the land,
and for the canals reserved for the navigation. The enclosure
dike is 50,000 metres long, or rather more than 31 miles.
It has two outfall dikes, which serve for the navigation,
9,000 metres, about 5% miles ; one half of which is 40"
(131 feet 2 inch) wide at the bottom or floor line ; the other
43'“ 20 (141 feet 10 inches.)

“ The ordinary tides are at the flux, 2 feet 4 inches above
the scale or datum line at Amsterdam ; at the reflux, 2 feet
8 inches below the same datum : the difference between high
and low water is then, on the average, about 5 feet. With
violent winds from the N.W., however, the tides rise some-
times 6 feet 6 inches above the average. The tides of
the Y, near the lake, are + 16° (or 6% inches) and—23°
(or 9 inches), giving a. total variation of 1 foot 3—2l inches.

“The estimated cost of reclaiming the 18,000 hectares,
was 8,000,000 of fiorins, or £667,000 English, nearly about
£13 per acre. Previously to undertaking this colossal work,
the Zind Plas, of 4,000 hectares superficial, (nearly 11,500
acres) had been reclaimed at a cost of 3,000,000 of florins,
or £250,000; not far from £22 per acre. The heights of
the enclosure dike are + or —— the datum line at Amsterdam,
or the mean level of the sea in that port.”

Embankment of the flooded part of the Amsterdam and
Haarlem railway—The bottom part consists of treble ranges
of fascines, tied down by longitudinal poles 1 metre apart
from centre to centre, and 0.25t diameter ; two double stakes
at each end of the poles, and two ties in the intermediate
distances. The interstices of the fascines and the space
between the rows, are filled in with sand. The upper part,
forming the encasement for the ballast, is made of three rows
of treble fascines, well staked and wattled together.

“ A core of sand or clay, faced with step fascines, is made

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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up to low-water mark. Upon this a bed of rushes, fastened
down by stakes and wattles, is laid; and the upper por-
tion of the bank is faced with fascines of a regular slope
of l to l.”

Embankments against rivers may be divided into two
kinds; namely, such as are for preventing their encroaching
on the adjacent lands, and for protecting those lands and the
neighbouring level country from being overflown, when
the water rises above its ordinary level. It may be remarked,
that where the course of a river is a straight line, or nearly
so, it hardly ever makes any encroachment upon its banks,
unless, perhaps, in very large rivers, when they rise above
their common level, either owing to an increase in the waters,
or to their being, in some degree, affected by the tides. In
either case, the waves occasioned by a strong wind, where
the river is wide, will moulder away the banks on that side
upon which it blows, unless prevented in proper time. This
may be done either by securing the bank properly with
stones, or by driving a row of long piles pretty close together
at a little distance from the shore, the piles being of such a
length, and so driven, that their tops may be always above
the highest rise of the water. It is surprising the effect that
piles driven in this manner have in resisting the power of the
waves in such situations.

Some years ago, when Mr. Beatson was on duty as an
engineer at a fort near Portsmouth, built on a point of land
much exposed to the sea, the waves made such havoc, that
the walls on that side were constantly giving way, although
built in the most substantial manner; and having bulwarks
of large heavy stone besides, to protect the foundation:
however, all would not do; those bulwarks were soon
knocked to pieces, and several times the wall itself. At
length it was proposed to drive a number of piles at about
40 or 50 yards from the fort. These piles were 12 or
15 inches in diameter, and driven about one diameter from
each other nearly in a straight line, parallel to the wall where
the waves did so much damage. They were driven into the
ground with a pile-engine till perfectly firm, perhaps 8 or
9 feet deep, and about 2 feet of the top of them left above
the level of high-water mark. After this was done, the wall
received no farther injury, the space between the piles and
the fort being always perfectly smooth, however tempestuous
the waves might be without. The same simple method
might, it is supposed, sometimes protect the banks of
large rivers, if exposed to the waves, when other methods
might fail.

But it is suggested, that the most common cause of rivers
encroaching on their banks, is the resistance occasioned by a
sudden bend. In flat countries, apt sometimes to be over-
flown, where there are any such bends or windings in the
rivers, it would be of great advantage to straighten the
course as much as possible ; for, as every impediment or
obstruction will naturally cause the water to rise higher than
it otherwise would do, and as such bends have that effect,
consequently, in the time of a flood the waters will overflow
a greater extent of country, and to a greater depth, than if
the river had a free and uninterrupted course straight forward.
If the windings of the river cannot be altered, and encroach-
ments are making on. some part of the banks, it. must first be
considered, whether the force of the water can be driven to
another place where no injury can be done. If, for example,
a river is encroaching on its banks at m, Figure 13, a jetty
of stone, at little way up the river, in the direction yz, would
throw off the current towards w, and might totally prevent
any farther encroachment. On the river N ith, in Dumfries-
shire, it is stated, that a good deal has been done in this way
by Mr. Millar, of Dalswinton, a gentleman of the most enter-

5E

 

prising genius and most liberal mind, who has paid more
attention, and laid out more money, in making important and
useful experiments, than almost any other private individual.
The course of the river, where Mr. Millar has been carrying
on his operations, is said to be nearly as shown at Figure 14

by r s t u ,- at t, it was encroaching most rapidly, and seemed
inclined to take a new course 'towards v, which would have
destroyed some very fine land, and done a great deal of mis-
chief in that part of the country. To prevent this, Mr. Millar
made a large cut, about 400 yards in length, from w to r, and
threw in a great quantity of stones quite across the river at s,
to direct its course in a straight line from r to w. This had,
in a great measure, the desired effect, by totally preventing its
progress at t, but now it began to encroach on its banks at u.
He at first endeavoured to prevent this by driving in, at a.
considerable expénse, a number of piles at a little distance
from the bank, and wattled them with willow branches, &c.,
thinking thereby to protect the bank. The piles were driven
in with heavy mallets, apparently firm into the ground ; they
continued so for some months, till a heavy fall of rain came
on, which swelled the river, undermined the piles, and car-
ried them all away. But, indeed, it is in vain to think of piles
doing any good in such a situation, unless firmly driven in by
a pile-engine ; for it is not possible to drive them in properly
with mallets ; this must have been the cause of their giving
way so soon. The piles not succeeding, Mr. Millar was
resolved to try another plan; several of his adjacent fields
being covered with an immense quantity of stones, he ordered
them to be gathered and thrown into the river, so as to form
a jetty at x, a little way above the injured bank. Being
obliged to go from home about that time, and to leave the
execution of the work to some country-people, they carried
out this jetty too much at right angles to the stream. It had
not, therefore, the desired effect, but rather made the matter
worse than before; for, if a jetty is carried out at right
angles, as at a, in Figure 4, the current will be forced from
a to the opposite side of the river at b, and from thence it
will rebound towards c, more violently that it did before.
But if a jetty be placed obliquely, as at d, it will force the
current gradually towards e, in which position one jetty may
do more good than several placed improperly at right angles.
Mr. Millar was, therefore, under the necessity of making
other jetties in this way, and at length had the satisfaction to
find that they answered the purpose intended. Those he made
laterally formed a sort of convex slope, the convexity being
parallel to the current. Strong planks were also firmly set on
edge among the stones, their ends pointing towards the river,
so that if ever any current came so rapidly as to move any of
the stones, it must move them all in a. body the whole length
of the plank. Perhaps this precaution was unnecessary ; for
although stones are thrown into a river loose in this manner,
the slush, sand, &c., that come down the river will soon fill
up all the cavities, and render it as firm and solid as a regular-
built wall. Mr. Beatson has been the more particular in this
description, he says, in order to show the errors that Mr.
Millar at first fell into, and the great expense they occasioned,
Whereas, had he been on the spot himself, and got the work
executed as he intended, it would have saved a great deal of
unnecessary labour as well as money.

It is stated by the same writer, that the next sort of em-
bankments against rivers, are those to prevent them overflow-
ing their banks, and inundating large tracts of country. This
may be considered as the simplest and easiest of all sorts of
embanking, ifjudiciously executed. It is, therefore, the more
inexcusable to see, in some places, extensive tracts of the
richest meadows completely overflown by every flood, for want
of them.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Two ordinary-sized rivers rise no more, even in the greatest
flood, than five or six feet above their common level, unless
when they meet with some considerable interruption or con-
finement in their course. But if interrupted or confined,'they
will rise twenty feet or more, as is the case with some parts
of the river Mersey, already mentioned. If, for example,
a given quantity of water is six feet deep, when running
over a space twenty feet wide, it is clear, if that space were
only made ten feet wide, the water would rise to twelve feet,
and if it were made forty feet wide, the same quantity of
water would only rise to the height of three feet. It is, there-
fore, of great consequence, in preventing inundations, to give
the river as much width as possible, by widening every
narrow place. All kinds of obstructions should also be
removed, whether occasioned by windings, shoals, stones,
trees, bushes, or anything else. In some cases this may even
preclude the necessity of embanking ; but where embanking
is necessary, let the banks by all means be at a sufficient dis-
tance from each other, to contain with ease, between them,
the largest contents of the river in great floods. The distance
and height of the banks may easily be ascertained by mea-
suring a section of the river when at its highest, or
when the flood - mark is visible. By not attending to
this, a great deal of money has been thrown away on the
embankments on the river Mersey, and after all they do
not effectually answer the intended purpose; a great part
of the country being still overflown every time the river rises
to any considerable height.

Where a sufficient distance is allowed between the embank-
ments, their height need not exceed from four to six feet.
If irremoveable obstacles are in the way, which cause the
river to rise higher, the banks must be higher in proportion.
In either case, however, the slope of these kinds of banks on
each side may be equal to its perpendicular height, and the
breadth on the top about one-third of that height, which, sup-
posing the bank six feet high, the base would be fourteen feet,
and the breadth of the top two feet, as shown at Figure 16,
in the Plate.

The materials for making these banks should be taken as
much as possible from the sides of the river, which will have
the double effect of widening the river and forming the em-
bankments ; and there should be a trench on the inside (from
which materials may also be got) with some sluices, as for-
merly directed, to drain off any water from within; also
sluices to let in water from the river, if required, which
would very much fertilize the meadows, if properly laid out
for that purpose.

Such farms as are situated on the borders of rivers are fre-
quently, it was observed by a late writer, liable to much
injury and inconvenience from them : 1st. From part of the
soil being carried away in times of flood. 2nd. From their
overflowing their banks. 3rd. From their flowing back in
times of flood into the channels of the rivulets and streams
that conduct the water from the more elevated and distant
grounds to the rivers, whereby these rivulets and streams are
made also to overflow their banks.

In respect to the first, the danger of the soil being carried
away in time of floods, it is increased or decreased according
to circumstances, as the form of the banks, the nature of the
soil, the rapidity of the river, and the quantity of water that
lodges on the margins of the banks, or falls over them into
the river. \Vhere the banks of a river are perpendicular,
especially if the soil be of a rich mouldering nature, the
danger of part of them being carried away by floods is much
greater than where they slope gently from the surface of
the field to the bed of the river, as has been already fully
seen.

 

Where that is not the case naturally, they ought to be
moulded into that form by art ; as when a river, in place of
being confined in its progress, has a power of efllux and reflux,
the damage to be apprehended is inconsiderable, compared
with what is likely to happen when, being restrained within
too narrow limits, it is constantly struggling for an extension
of space. Where the soil is rich free mould, and the under
stratum, opposite to the greatest force of the water, sand or
gravel, this struggle never fails to be attended with bad con-
sequences. If the soil and subsoil be one entire mass of clay
or strong loam, and the current of the river does not press
more upon one part than another, a most substantial improve-
ment may be effected by sloping the bank, so that the decli-
vity may be one foot in three or four from the surface of the
field to the bed of the river. This some may object to, as
sacrificing a certain portion of valuable land; but it should
rather, it is thought, he considered as a premium paid for the
insurance of the remainder, than as a total loss. If gravel,
mixed with small stones, can be conveniently procured,
spreading these materials on the sloping bank to the depth
of eight or ten inches, and till beyond the flowings of the
river, will prove a good security against farther damage ; and
if the bank be planted thick with any sort of willow, espe-
cially the Dutch willow, it will in a short time become an
impenetrable fence, while the annual cuttings of wood will
soon be equal to the heritable value of the land thus appa—
rently sacrificed. “’here no gravel can be procured, the new
sloped bank should be immediately covered with well swarded
turf, pressed down as hard as possible, either with the back
of a spade, or with wooden mallets.

 

If this be done in the 3

beginning of summer, and willows planted the following ‘

autumn, the improvement will be both effectual and perma-
nent. In case the river run with extraordinary violence
against any one particular part of the bank, it may be neces-
sary to make a fence or bulwark of stone in the front of that
place ; the best way of doing which, is, in place of building
a wall, to drop the stones in a careless manner, but so as they
may lie close together on the sloped bank, as already sug-
gested.

This is a much more secure mode of fencing, if the bank
be made with sufficient declivity, than any stone wall tha.‘
ever was built for the purpose, and while it is the most
secure, it is also the least expensive; but care should be
taken to lay the stones all the way from the bed of the river,
till considerably beyond where the river flows in common.
\Vhere the soil is of a strong adhesive nature, and the under
stratum is sand or a pebbly gravel, it becomes in a much
greater degree necessary to slope the banks. The water,
when rushing violently along, has a powerful efl'ect in under-
mining the bank; so that the soil, having nothing to support
it, naturally gives way, and frequently in such quantities as
to occasion very serious loss both to proprietors and tenants.
In all such cases, the slope should be made much more
gradual than where the soil and subsoil are of the same
quality, and such as will nourish aquatic plants. The banks,
having been sloped according as circumstances require, a
thick coat of gravel, mixed with small stones, where such
can be procured, should be laid on, so as to form a kind of
natural beach, over which the river, when in flood, may have
power to extend itself at pleasure. Should it be difficult or
impossible to procure such materials as are proper for form-
ing this best of all defences, strong thick sods should be
placed on the surface, in the manner before directed : these,
if laid on in spring, or early in summer, will have time to
unite, and to become one compact body before the autumnal
floods (which are those whence the greatest danger is to be
expected,)begin to flow. If the subsoil be of a nature unfavour-

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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able to the growth of willows, such sods as are full of the
roots of rushes should be made choice of in preference to all
others; as, where these plants thrive and spread over the
surface, it becomes in a great degree impenetrable by water,
even in great floods, and when the river runs with consider-
able violenCe and rapidity.

The directions above given will, it is Supposed, be found
more or less practicable and useful according as the river on
ordinary occasions runs with greater or less rapidity. In
level, or nearly level districts, all that is necessary is to secure
full scope for the rivers to overflow their usual bounds with-
out interruption; when that is secured by either of the
methods before mentioned, floods, unless very violent, seldom
do any material damage to the banks of rivers in such situa-
tions. It becomes in many cases extremely difficult to fence
rapid running rivers in such a manner as to prevent part of
the banks from being carried away by inundation. Sloping
the banks would be attended with no good consequences.
Even strong bulwarks made of stone are often swept away
by the overpowering flood. A method has, however, been
suggested, of fencing the sides ofa rapid running river, which
has been practised with success, after several other attempts
had failed: it is by means of a sort of large baskets, pro-
vincially termed creels, formed of hazel, willow, &c., into
a kind of open network, which being placed along the bottom
of the banks, are filled with stones. This is a very simple,
and by no means an expensive expedient; and as these
baskets may be made to contain two or three tons of stone,
it can only be on few occasions, and in very particular
situations, that a basket, containing such a weight, can be
displaced or carried away. Such a mode of fencing as this,
it is imagined, would prove effectual in many parts of Scot-
land and Wales, where the rivers run with uncommon
rapidity. Owing to inattention, or rather to not being aware
of the consequences, much damage is often done to the banks
of rivers in level districts, especially if the banks be perpen-
dicular, and of a considerable height, by allowing the land-
floods to fall over them into the river. As the water from
the furrows approaches the bank, it is frequently stopped in
the furrow of the head ridge, which becomes for a time a
kind of reservoir ; the consequence of which is, that a con-
siderable proportion of water sinks and filters through the
earth, which being thus softened and swelled, is more easily
undermined and carried off by the river. Sometimes little
cuts or openings are made for the furrows across the head
ridge, for the purpose of conducting the rain-water into the
river; here, again, the consequences are equally bad. Who-
ever will examine the bank of a river where this mode of
management is adopted, and it is very common, will observe,
that at every one of these cuts or openings a little creek is
formed, in consequence of the bank having been more softened,
and by that means having become a more easy prey to the
river when in flood. To prevent these evils, it is necessary,
besides sloping the banks, to devote a part of the lands
adjoining, to the breadth of 20 or 30 yards, for instance, either
to pasturage or the growth of trees, and to form a drain at
a proper distance from, and parallel to the bank, for the
purpose of collecting and carrying of the water from the
furrows. Were this done, and were the water from this
drain conducted into the river by conduits formed a little
above its ordinary level, much land, which is annually lost
by neglecting this simple precaution, would be saved, and
preserved in a proper state.

In the second case, it is evident that injuries, although of
another nature, are often sustained by farmers, from rivers
overflowing their banks. Sometimes the farmer is prevented
from sowing his field; at other times the crops of grain and

 

grass are greatly injured, by being covered for a considerable
time with water ; and at others again, the whole produce of
the year, the hay and corn crops, are swept away. To
prevent evils so complicated, and so serious in their nature,
is certainly the business of every man, who, from the situa-
tion of his farm, has reason to apprehend, that, Without using
proper precautions, he may be subjected to such visitations.
These damages can only happen in level tracts, where the
banks of the rivers are low, and where the course is not of
sufficient breadth to contain the water in time of flood.
Some people, although very improperly, raise mounds of
earth close to the top of the bank, and of a height exceeding
that to which the river can be expected at any time to rise.
These mounds, from being placed so near the river, are unable
to resist the pressure of the water, and by giving way,
frequently admit a current into the fields, which proves much
more injurious in its course than if no mound whatever had
been erected. Were a mound of earth formed on the side of
the drain, proposed to be made for carrying off the land-
water, and were that mound well sloped on the side towards
the river, it would be the most secure and effectual guard
against rivers doing injury to the adjoining lands, of any that
could be adopted. By these mounds being placed at a distance
from the river, the force of the stream would be much lessened,
and the natural boundaries of the rivers greatly enlarged;
as, in proportion as the mounds are removed from the centre
of the current of the river, in like proportion will they become
more secure, as being less liable to violent pressure. The
prOpriety of erecting these mounds at a proper distance must,
therefore, be sufficiently evident ; as, when mounds are erected
near the top of the bank, which can only be owing to ill-
judged parsimony, they form as it were a part of the bank,
and are liable to be undermined and swept away. Whereas,
when they are placed at the distance of 20, 30, or 40 yards,
they serve rather as a boundary to confine the overflowing
waters which glide along the bottom, than as a barrier to
prevent the encroachments of an impetuous river during the
time of floods.

In regard to the third case, it is observed, that farmers
who possess lands in low situations often sustain damage
from rivers, in time of flood, by their flowing back into the
channels of the rivulets and streams that conduct the water
from the more distant and elevated grounds to the rivers,
whereby these rivulets and streams are made also to overflow
their banks.

The only precaution that can be adopted, in such a case,
or at least the one which appears to have the greatest proba-
bility of answering the purpose, is to erect mounds at a dis-
tance from the banks, and of a size proportioned to the
quantity of water, which, from the cause now mentioned,
may be supposed at any time to stagnate in these channels.
This may be done at a very trifling expense either in money
or land. If the proprietors do not choose to ornament the
country and improve their own estates, by planting trees on
the borders of the rivulets and streams, the farmers may so
construct these mounds, as that they may become fences
to their arable fields, while that portion of the farm, necessarily
and properly cut off for the protection of the remainder, may
be devoted to pasturage.

Several different embankments of a successful kind have
been effected in the northern parts of the kingdom. An
important work of this nature was some years since executed
on the estate of Lord Galloway, situated on the mouth of the
river Cree. near Cree-town, by his lordship’s tenant, Mr.
Thomas Hannay, who states, in the third volume of the
“Farmer’s Magazine,” that at the time he entered on the
farm, upwards of 100 Scottish statute acres were regularly

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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flooded by the highest spring-tides, excepting about three
months in summer, when the tides were lower. They were
seldom, however, covered above the depth of one or two feet,
and never above four or five. Eighty acres of the above
consisted of a rich sea marsh, or rugs, as they call them there,
almost a true level, excepting where hollows were formed
by the egress and regress of the tides, and the passage of
fresh water from the higher grounds ; and about 4 or 5 acres,
which were about 16 inches lower, being a younger marsh,
and nothing but what they call ink-grass growing upon it;
other grasses, such as clover, rib-grass, &c., grew on the
rest of the marsh, forming a very beautiful close cover in
the summer. The other 20 acres were at an average about
18 inches higher ; consequently the sea did not cover them
so often. It had formerly been ploughed, but not for about
20 years past. Last time it was in corn, it was flooded
immediately after being sown, which rendered the crop
almost entirely useless, and deterred former tenants from
ploughing it again. Mr. Hannay began to bank this field
in the autumn of the year 1798, by making a dike along the
side opposite to the river, in a direct line facing the east.
This dike was made, at an average, about 3% feet high, and
6 feet broad at bottom, and 20 inches at top, built after the
same manner with that mentioned below. He enclosed,
along with the said fields, he says, 4 acres of the marsh
adjoining, by making a dike 5 feet high, and 5 feet in bottom,
almost wholly of solid feals or sods, with a very little stuff,
properly beat, in the heart of it, which makes an excellent
fence, and promises to be a very durable one. This dike,
together with two small drains, one on each side of it, about
two feet deep, cost 3d. per yard. The division-dikes of the
Whole marsh, which now, divided into four parts, are all built
after the same manner, only that there is no loose stuffin
the heart of some of them, but all of solid feal, jointed like
bricks, as may be seen at Figure 17, which represents an end
view, or section of it. This dike, meant as a permanent
fence, answered as a temporary bank, and enabled him to
plough that field in spring, 1799, although the bank round
the whole marsh was not finished till the winter following.
He sowed oats on this field, and, considering the badness of
the season, had a very good crop; particularly so on that
part which had not been ploughed formerly. On farther
consideration, he altered the plan of the bank round the
marsh, (which extends in a circular direction facing the north)
by making it, at an average. about four feet and a half high,
and allowing about two feet in the base for one in height, as
at Figure 18, where a be represent an end View, or section
of it, every small span representing the section of a feal or
sod ; a b shows the inside of the bank, with the green side
of the feal down ; b c the base; a c the side next the water,
with the'green side of the feal out, (which adds greatly both
to the strength and beauty of the bank ;) and d the heart of
the dike, made up with stufl“ properly compressed with a
rammer. The stufi’ was taken from a ditch, in the inside of
the bank, leaving a casement of a foot, which ought to have
been three at least; and, where the ground is of a sandy
nature, more ; as the fresh water, running in the inside, 'as
likely to undermine the bank, had he not prevented it, by
cutting a new drain, and filling the old one with the stuff
cast from it. The only creek worth noticing, through which
the bank passed, was about 40 feet wide, and 9 feet deep,
in the bottom of which a wooden pipe, with a stopper, was
laid through the bank.

There are now about 50 acres of the same kind of marsh-
land adjoining his; and also about 100 acres on the other
side of the river, banked in, all nearly in the same manner
as represented in the figure. The bank on a farm on the

 

side of the river opposite to his, was made almost a complete
wreck, by an extraordinary tide, owing to its lying quite
exposed to the south-west winds, which always send up the
highest tides ; but on his side, though suffering some injury
from the same high tide, he was not affected by those winds,
as they blew right over the bank. In his opinion, the bank
on the other side of the river, in order to be durable, would
require to be 30 feet broad, and 8 feet high, covered with
feals, with the green side out; and that no stufl' should be
lifted within 6 or 7 feet of it, the ground being of a sandy
nature. It might be made after the form shown at Figure 19.
The whole of this turned out most excellent land, and con-
tinues to produce to this day some of the finest crops in that
part of the country.

Another improvement of the same nature was accomplished
on what in Scotland is termed carse land, on the farm of
Netherton of Grange, belonging to James Peterkin, Esq.,
by Mr. John Hoyes, his tenant. The work was undertaken
under an agreement with the proprietor, to allow one year’s
rent, of £195 sterling, with the farther allowance of amelio-
rating the farm—houses to the extent of £150 more. The
method adopted for carrying on the operations was this :—
After looking over the carse, and marking out the line or dike,
the length of which is 1,400 yards, mostly in a right line,
except an angle at the distance of 300 yards from the west
end, and a segment of a circle at about 250 from the south-
east end, it was resolved to make the embankment 6 feet high
in the highest part of the ground, and to allow 2 feet of
breadth in the bottom of every foot in height, as seen by the
draught of the mould at Figure 20. After taking the level
of the carse, it was found, that where the ground was low,
and a good deal of it broken by runs of the sea and outlets
for the water, the dike would require to be 8 and 10 feet
high, to have it on a level at the top; so that the average
would be 9 feet high. The embankment was built in the
following manner: It was begun on the highest ground, near
the west end, and two moulds set up at the distance of 70 or
80 yards; the height, 6 feet, by 12 broad in the base; the
slope on the outside 6 feet, on the inside 4 feet, and the breadth
at the top 2 feet; the sides made. up with feal from the broken
ground on the outside of the dike, which were laid with the
grass-side down, two feal deep on each side of the (like;
the outside feal of the first course with the ends out and in,
and the other running along; the next course, the outside
feal running along, and the outside out and in, and so on
alternately, each course'consisting of a head and runner ; the
body of the dike being made up of the carse ground from
which the feal had been cut, and packed down by men with
heaters. When this was brought to the height of 4 or 5 feet,
another piece was begun, leaving an intermediate space, where
there were any water-runs, for the .egress of the tide: this
was found necessary, to draw off the water from the low parts
of the carse, which would have been filled up in spring-tides;
and, by coming in at the end and over the high ground, would
have been prevented from getting out by the dike, if it had
not been done in that way; so that the embankment was all
in detached pieces, till it was brought near the height. These
intermediate spaces were then filled up, between the fall of
one and rise of next spring-tide, after laying down wooden
pipes with stoppers in the dike, to carry off the sink-water.
In carrying on the work, they had in some places to cross
over lakes and runs made by the tides, which required vast
quantities of materials, the dike being in some places upwards
of 10 feet high, and 22 broad in the base: the greatest
part of the dike being 16 to 18 feet broad. There was one lake
of 150 feet in length, and 50 feet in breadth, filled up with
earth, clay, and sand, to the height of 5 feet; on which the

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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385

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’dike was then built. This forms a mound, on the outside
of the dike, of 15 or 16 feet broad ; and through this there
are pipes laid, to carry off the sink-water. A stream of 'water
was also turned by the west end of the farm, by cutting a
canal, which conveyed the water through the embankment
there, by means of an outlet built of stone, with a sluice on
the inside, raised to the level of the running water, and a
folding door on the outside, to be shut by the spring-tides.
At this place, a road, that formerly led to Findhorn at low
water through the carse, is carried~over the top of the dike,
by making a mound of earth at each side, with a gradual
approach and descent.

In Figure 20, a, is the breadth of the dike at the top, when
finished ; b, the breadth of dike at the bottom, being twelve
feet, when it is six feet high ; c, the breadth when eight feet
high; (1, the breadth when ten feet high ; f, the slope on the
sea-side of the dike, which is always equal to half of the breadth
of the bottom: the inside slope, and breadth of the dike at
the top, is equal to the other half; and e is the plumb-rule in
a frame, made to apply to the mould or dike : the intention
of it was, to find if the dike was kept on the proper slope,
where a line could not be applied from one mould to another,
as in a round or turn, or when the moulds were obliged to be
taken down; but this one only answered for the sea-side,
another being used for the inside, to fit its slope.” Figure 21,
is a scale of the mould, one-eighth of an inch to a foot.

A curious, useful, and highly ingenious method of embank-
ing, and preventing the waters of the tides from soaking
through the porous banks, made in the fen—lands, and low
marshy grounds, was described by Mr. John Smith, in the
fourth volume of “ Communications to the Board of Agricul-
ture,” who begins by “concisely observing, that the great
land of the fens is divided into three large levels ; and that
each of these levels is subdivided into numerous districts by
banks: but as these banks are made of fen-moor, and other
light materials, whenever the rivers are swelled with water,
or any other district is deluged either by rain, a breach of
banks, or any other cause, the waters speedily pass through
these light, moory, porous banks, and drown all the circum-
jacent districts. The fens have thus sometimes sustained
£20,000 or £30,000 damages by a breach of the banks, though
these accidents seldom happen in the same district twice in
twenty years. The water, however, soaks through all fen-
banks every year, in every district; and when the water-
mills have lifted the waters up out of the fens into the rivers
in a windy day, a great part of the water soaks back through
the porous banks, in the night, upon the same land again.”
And he adds, that “ this water that soaks through the bank
drowns the wheat in the winter, washes the manure into the
dikes, destroys the best natural and artificial grasses, and pre-
vents the fens from being sown till too late in the season.
This stagnant water lying on the surface, causes also fen-
agues, &c. Thus, says he, the waters that have soaked
through the porous fen-banks have done the fertile fens more
real injury than all the other floods that have ever come upon
them.”

Having been much concerned in fen-banking from his
youth, he had some time since devised the plan which he now
finds to answer so well ; but found it difficult to prevail with
any gentleman, who had a proper extent of this sort of land,
to give it a fair trial. However, during the last autumn, he
prevailed with a person in the parish where he lives to try it,
which showed it to be equal to his highest expectations.

The improved method of embanking proposed by this
gentleman, consists chiefly in this : that “ a gutter is cut
eighteen inches Wide, through the old bank down to the clay
(the fen substratum being generally clay ;) the gutter is made

5 F

 

near the centre, but a little on the land-side of the centre of
the old bank. This gutter is afterwards filled up in a very
solid manner with tempered clay; and to make the clay resist
the water, a man in boots always treads the clay as the gutter
is filled up. As the fen-moor lies on clay, the whole expense
of this cheap, improved, and durable mode of waterproof
banking costs in the fens only Sixpence per yard. This plan
was tried on a convenient farm, and a hundred acres of wheat
were sewn on the land. The wheat and grass lands on this »
farm were all dry, whilst the fens around were covered with
water. This practice is, after all, nothing more than making
a puddle-bank, well known to all engineers, or those engaged
in forming canals. '

The term embankment in canal-making is applied to any
large mound of earth, either for confining the water of the
canal or reservoir, or for carrying the former across a valley
or low piece of ground. The method of constructing such
embankments is nearly the same as in those for railways,
except that in the former the sides have puddle-trenches
formed near the canal, to prevent leakage.

The embankments on some of the great lines of railway in
this country are of immense magnitude, on the London and
Birmingham railway, for instance, the total of embankments
amounted to about 11 millions of cubic yards. The follow-
ing extracts from specifications for works of this kind will
show the usual mode of construction.

“ The whole of the embankments in this contract shall have
slopes of two to one (that is to say) where the base of the
slope is two feet, its height shall be one foot only, and they
shall be thirty-three feet wide at the level of the red line
in the section, neither more or less.

“ Each of the embankments shall be uniformly carried
forward as nearly as the finished heights and width as the due
allowance for shrinking of materials will admit of, and this
allowance shall not exceed or fall short of the quantity deemed
necessary by the engineer. In all cases, this must be care-
fully and strictly attended to, in order to avoid the necessity
of making any subsequent addition, either to heights, or the
width of the embankment, to bring them to their proper
level and dimensions.

“The surface of the embankment shall be kept in such form,
or be intersected by such drains, as will always prevent the
formation of pools of water upon them, and insure the
embankment being kept as dry as possible.

“ Whenever the material, teemed over the end of the
embankment, shall not form the proper slope, it shall be care-
fully trimmed to its required form ; and this operation must
proceed at the same time with the end of the embankment,
so as to obviate the necessity of any future addition of
material to the sides of the embankment.

“As the embankments advance, and become consolidated,
the slopes shall be carefully trimmed into planes having the
proper slope, and be neatly covered with a uniform substance
of turf, of not less than eight inches in thickness, and laid
with the green sward outwards ; the turf must be taken from
the ground to be occupied by the base of the embankment,
and cut square, so as to be laid on the slopes in the form of
flags ; and where the land is arable, the slopes of the
embankment shall be covered with soil. It must be uni-
formly laid on, of the thickness of six inches, and sown with
rye-grass and clover-seed, as soon as the proper season will
admit of its being done, not less than one pound and a half
of clover seed, and one pound and a half of rye grass seed, to
be sown to each acre.

“When the material, brought to the embankment, consists
of large lumps, they shall be broken into pieces of not more
than six inches in diameter.”

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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386

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Expense of forming embankments.—-T his must obviously
be very different in different situations and Circumstances,
according to materials and the price of labour, but though in
general pretty considerable, it is seldom so high as. is com-
monly supposed. It is probable, that in cheap districts, and
where the materials are plentiful, the expense of forming an
earth-bank, covered with sand or gravel, such as that shown
at Figure 1, could not be less than from fourpence or sixpence,
to tenpence or a shilling, the cubic yard. And such as have
more steep and bold slopes, as from thirty-five to forty degrees,
and are formed with pavement on the surfaces, cannot cost
less than from ninepence to one shilling the cubic yard. One
made on the plan of that shown at Figure 6, could not be
constructed for less than from twelve or fifteen to thirty
pounds for every thirty-two yards. And one constructed of
brushwood, in the same method, for soft ground, which will
not admit of a wall, would not be lower than from sixpence
or eightpence, to six or seven shillings for each foot forward
in a lineal manner. In many situations, the expenses would,
however, in all sorts of embankments, stand a great deal
higher than these.

In some districts, embankments are formed by the rod and
the floor, the former being from four to five pounds, and the
latter about four shillings and sixpence, the workmen finding
all sorts of necessary things for the business.

EMBATTLED BUILDING, a building with embrasures
in the parapet, resembling a castle or fortified place.

EMBATTLED LINE, a straight line bent into right angles,
so that if there be two sets of parts, the parts of each set
may be in the same straight line, and parallel to the parts of
the other.

EMBATTLED ARONADE, is partly the same as the EMBATTLED
LINE, the difference consisting of a semi-circle raised in the
middle of each part which forms the continuation of one of the
straight lines, the semi-circle presenting its convexity towards
the parts which form the other straight line.

EMBATTLED BATTLED LINE, a staight line bent into right
angles, so that if there be three sets of parts, one set may be
parallel to those of the other two.

EMBLEMATA, a kind of inlaid or mosaic work, used by
the Romans in flooring, panelling, &c.

EMBOSSING, the act of forming work in relievo, whe-
ther it be cast, moulded, or cut with a chisel.

EMBOSSING, in architecture, that kind of sculpture in
which the figure stands in relief beyond the plane, or other
surface from which it seems to rise. The several kinds of
sculpture formed by embossing are, low relief; mean relief;
and high relief.

EMBRASURE, an enlargement or splay of the aperture of
a door or window, generally withinside the wall, for the admis-
sion of a greater quantity oflight ; when the wall is very thick,
an enlargement is also made on the outside of the wall.

EMBRASURE, is also applied to the apertures of an embattled
parapet. It is another term for the crenelles, or intervals
between the merlons.

EMBROIDERY, the enrichment of woven fabrics by the
introduction of devices in needlework. Embroidery was a
kind of work very usually employed in ecclesiastical hangings,
vestments, and the like, and, in such cases, is of the most
gorgeous and elaborate description.

EMPLECTON, a kind of walling, used by the Greeks,
and the Roman villagers, consisting of rubble masonry, with
facings of wrought stones laid in regular courses. See
WALLS.

ENAMELLING, a method employed to enrich metal-work
by the introduction of colour, much used in the works of the
middle ages. Specimens of enamel of an early date are to

 

be seen on the envelopes of Egyptian mummies, also in Greek
and Roman work, 8m.

EN CARPUS, sculptures of fruit or flowers, such as those
employed in the decoration of friezes.

ENCAUSTIC, a term applied to paintings, in which the
colours are fixed by means of heat. Encaustic tiles, are those
in which coloured devices are introduced, the colours being
burnt in during the process of manufacture.

ENCHASING, that mode of decorating metal-work in
which the devices are represented in low relief.

ENDECAGON. See HENDECAGON.

END-IRONS, otherwise and—irons, standards, usually of
metal, and of various forms, used in fireplaces previous to the
employment of coal for fuel, to support the logs of wood.

ENDS OF A STONE, the two parallel sides, which form the
vertical joints. -

ENGAGED COLUMN. See COLUMN.

ENGINE, Pile. See PILE ENGINE.

ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE, a term applied by some
to the styles of Gothic architecture as developed in England.
See GOTHIC and DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE.

ENGLISH-EON D, in bricklaying, a disposition of bricks,
wherein a course of headers succeeds a course of stretchers
alternately. In the north, bricklayers frequently run three
or five courses of stretchers to one of headers.

ENGLISH OAK, oak timber of the native produce of
England. It is much used in the country for rustic buildings,
and is particularly useful in the truss-posts of roofs, as being
less liable to compression, and possessing a greater degree of
tension, than fir.

ENNEAGON, a figure of nine sides and angles.

ENSEMBLE, (a French word, signifying together, or one
with another, formed of the Latin in and simul,) the work
or composition of a building, considered as a whole, and not
in parts.

ENTABLATURE, (French, from the Latin tabulalum,
a stage, or story,) that part of an order which is supported
by the column or columns, and forms the covering or shelter
to the edifice. It consists of three principal divisions, viz.,
the architrave, which rests upon the capitals of the columns;
the frieze immediately above it; and the cornice at the sum-
mit. These divisions, according to Vitruvius, represent the
principal timbers used in the roof of the timber-building,
which he supposes to have been the origin and type of erec-
tions in stone. This subject has been already referred to
under the title DORIC ARCHITECTURE. The entablature
either finishes the whole edifice, or so much as has the order
applied to it ; and in strictness ought to terminate either in
a level cornice, or in a pediment formed of two equally
inclined cornices. This rule, however, was not always
adhered to by the Romans: for in many of their buildings,
we find the ordonnance crowned with an attic or blocking
course. The edifices of Balbec and Palmyra were often
finished in this manner ; as were even some of the Grecian
structures, after Greece had become a Roman province.

The general height of the entablature is equal to two dia-
meters of the column ; though some authors make the Doric
entablature one-third of the height of the column; and the
entablature of the Ionic one-fourth, and that of the Corinthian
or Composite, each one—fifth of the respective columns.
Vignola makes the entablature one-quarter of the height of
the column, in each of the Orders ; but the former proportion
of twice the breadth of the base agrees much better with the
ancient Grecian examples than the other two. It must be
recollected, that in ancient examples of the same Order, the
height of the entablature is in some instances more, in others
less, than two diameters. In the temple of Minerva, at Athens.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ENV

387 ‘

ENV

 

which is one of the most .chaste of the Grecian Dorics, the
entablature is almost precisely two diameters of the column.
In the Corinthian or Composite, where the column is ten
diameters in height, the proportion found in some ancient
examples of later date, one-fifth of the said height, is exactly
two diameters of the foot of the shaft.

To find the proportions of the difl‘erent parts of the entab-
lature, divide the total height into ten parts, of which give
three to the architrave, three to the frieze, and the remaining
four to the cornice. This will stand as a general rule, but in
the Doric order the proportions are somewhat different, the
architrave containing two-eighths, and the frieze and cornice
three-eighths each.

The entablature is also called trabeation ; and by Vitruvius
and Vignola, ornament. _

ENTABLATURE, or ENTABLEMENT, is sometimes used for
the last row of stones on the top of the wall of a building,
Whereon the covering rests. As this is frequently made to pro-
ject beyond the naked of the wall, to carry off the rain,
some authors call it, in Latin, stillicidium, or drip ; but such
an entablature does not stand out far enough, but permits the
water to fall on the foot of the wall.

ENTAIL, a term used in the middle ages to designate all
kinds of sculpture and carved decoration, but more especially
applied to the more elaborate enrichment.

ENTASIS, the swell observable in the shafts of Grecian
columns, and more particularly in those of the Doric order.
Amongst the modern Italian architects, the practice has been
carried to an absurd excess. Several methods of describing
the curve will be found under the article COLUMN.

ENTER, (from the French entrer, to go in,) in carpentry
and joinery, to insert the end of a tenon in the mouth or
beginning of a mortise, previous to its being driven home to
the shoulder.

ENTRESOLE, (French,) an intermediate story; a low
floor introduced between two principal ones. See MEZZA-
NINE.

ENTRY, (from the French entree, a passage,) a door,
gate, passage, &c., for admission into the interior of an enclo-
sure, house, or apartment.

ENVELOPE, (French,) the covering of a portion of the
surface of a solid, by means of a thin pliable substance,
which comes in contact in all points or parts with such
surface.

To develope the surface of a solid, is to find the envelopes
that will cover its different parts.

A few examples of the developement of surfaces will be
here given, and for further information we refer the reader
to the article SOFFIT.

Problem I.— T o develope that portion of the curved surface
of a cylindroid, which is contained between two parallel
planes, and another plane passing through the axis at right
angles with the parallel planes.

Plate I. Figure 1.——Let M N L C be the plane passing
through the axis, terminated at M C and N L by the parallel
planes, and by the surface to be developed, at M N and C L ;
the four lines MC, C L, L N, N M, forming a parallelogram,
MC, LN. Draw CA C, at a right angle with C L, and pro-
duce NM toA; then AC is one of the axes of the elliptic
section, at‘right angles to the axis of the cylindroid. On A C
describe the semi-ellipsis ABC, having its other semi-axis
equal to that of the cylindroid ; divide the curve ABC into
any number of equal parts, say eight, and extend them from
A to Cs, which coincides with the termination of the eighth
part, marking the respective points as l, 2, &c., at e, g, 8w.
Through the points of division, 1, 2, 3, &c., in the arc, draw
the straight lines 1 E F 1, 2G H K, parallel to AM: also, from

 

the points e, g, &c., draw lines, .9 f i, gh h, &c., parallel to
AM. Transfer the distances, E F, GH, &c., to cf; gh, 8m. ;
through the points M,f; h, &c., to CB, draw a curve; and
C, M N I will be the envelope required.

Problem II.— To deuelope the surface of a cylinder con--
tained between two other concentric cylindric surfaces and a
plane, in such a manner that the axes of the two cylindric
surfaces may cut the axis of the first cylinder at right angles,
and that the plane may pass along the axis of, the first
cylinder, and cut the axes of the two cylinders at right
angles.

Figure 2.—Let A C L N be the plane terminated by the arcs
ACand NL, which are the intersections of the concentric
cylindric surfaces, and by the parallel straight lines A N and
C L, which are formed by the curved surface of the cylinder
intersecting the plane. ‘

Proceed in every respect as in Figure 1, and the envelope
will be obtained; the referring letters being alike in both
Figures.

Problem III.—T0 develope that portion of the surface
of a cone contained between two parallel planes and a third
plane, so that the axes of the cone may be cut at right angles
by the parallel planes, and that the third plane may pass
along the axis of the cone.

Figure 3.-——Let- A E F C be the plane passing along the axis,
terminated at AC and E F by the parallel planes, and at AE
and C F by the curved surface of the cone. A B C is a section
of the cone, perpendicular to the axis. Produce AE and C F
'to meet in D; and with the radii DE and DA describe the
arcs E G and A C ; extend the semi-circumference of A B C on
the are A C, from A to C, and draw C G D ; and A C G E will
be the envelope required.

Problem IV.— To develope that portion of the surface of
a cone contained between two concentric cylindric surfaces
and a plane“ passing along the axis, so that the plane may
cut the common axis of the cylindric surfaces at right
angles.

Figure 4.—Let A I K C be the portion of the plane passing
along the axis, and the arcs A C and I K the intersections of
the cylindric surfaces; the straight lines A I and CK, the
intersections of the conic surface. ABC is a section upon
the chord AC. From D, with the radius DA, describe the
are A M ; divide the semi-circumference A B C into any
number of equal parts, and extend them upon the are A M,
from A to M, at the points 1, 2, 3, 8m. to M : draw 1 D, 2 D,
3 D, &c. to M D included ; also, through the points 1, 2, 3,
in the arc AB C, draw lines perpendicular to A C, cUtting it
in as many points : from these points, draw lines to D, cut-
ting both the concave and convex curves ; from the points so
cut, draw lines parallel to AC, cutting AD ; then from the
points of intersection, made by the parallels drawn from one
of the curves, describe the several arcs drawn from the
point D, to cut the respective straight lines. Proceed in
the same manner with the other curve, and through the
points so obtained, draw the two curves; and AMLI will
form the envelope required. But to show more particularly
how the successive points in the curve of the envelope are
found, we shall only describe a single point, and the remain-
ing points will be obtained in the same manner; thus, to
find the point B in the envelope, draw 2E perpendicular
to AC, cutting it at E ; draw E D, cutting the curve A C at F;
draw F G parallel to A 0, cutting A D at G ; from the centre D,
describe the arc GH, cutting 2D at H, which is a point in
the curve, as before stated ; but by drawing the several
systems of perpendicular lines, of lines going to a centre,
and parallel hues, at once, much time will be saved in the
operation.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ENV

388

EPI

 

Problem V.—To develope the surface of a cuneoid con-
tained between two parallel planes, and a plane passing
along the axis of the cuneoid, so that the parallel planes
mag be perpendicular to the plane passing along the axis,
the section of one of the parallel planes being given.

Figure 5.—Let A B C D be the plane passing along the axis,
terminated by the straight lines AD and B C, which are the
intersections of the parallel planes, and by the straight lines
A B and p D, which‘ are the intersections of the cuneoidal
surface. Let the section B E C, standing upon B c, be a semi-
circle, and, consequently, the section AFD formed by the
other parallel plane, will be a semi-ellipsis of the same
altitude. .

Produce A B and D C to meet in G, divide the arc B E, which
is the half of the semi-circumference, into any number of
equal parts, say four, from the points of division, draw the
perpendiculars 1 H, 2 I, 3 K, E L, cutting B c at H, I, K, L :
draw G P perpendicular to AG ; on G P make G m, G n, G 0,
and GP respectively equal to H 1, I 2, K 3, and L E; from
the points m, n, 0, P, as centres, with the respective distances
GH, G I, G K, and G L, describe the arcs h r, it, h v, and lx;
extend the arc B l, or 1, 2, which is the eighth part of the
semi-circumference, from B to h, from h to i, from i to h, and
from k to I; then drawing the curve B h ih l, will give the
half of the envelope, which will coincide with the arc HE,
when the semi-circle EEC is turned perpendicular to the
plane, A B C D, upon its base B C : and since lP is the middle
line, the other half, or counter part, will easily be found.
To develope the elliptic edge, join mh, n i, o h, and Pl, and
produce them to u, s, t,f.- transfer HU, I s, KT, to h u, is,
h t, If, and through the points A, u, s, t,_f, draw a curve
A u s tf, which will be the envelope of the arc AF, the half
of the semi-ellipsis AF D; then the counter part being found,
will complete the envelope ABC d of the curved surface,
standing over A B C d.

Problem 'VI.— T o develope that portion of the surface of
a cuneoid terminated on two sides by a plane passing through
the axis, and by two concentric cglindric surfaces, whose axis
is perpendicular to the plane given ,- given that portion of
the plane terminated by the curved surface of the cuneoid,
and by the intersections of the two cglindric surfaces ,- also,
the semicircular section of the cuneoid.

Figure 6.——-Let AE and BG be the intersections of the
cuneoidal surface, and the arcs A E B and E F G the intersec-
tions of the concentric cylindric surfaces.

Let D C be the intersection of the section, which is a semi-
circle, then find the envelope for the semi-circumference, as
in the last problem for parallel planes; then the lengths of
the intermediate lines contained between the base of the
circular section, and the intersections ofthe cylindric surfaces,
being transferred upon the corresponding lines from the
semicircular envelope, will form the covering of the cuneoidal
surface, as defined.

The reader will observe, that the two last constructions in
Problems V. and VL, are only approximations near to truth;
it is, we believe, impossible to find the true envelope by
means of straight lines, or perhaps even to extend the true
cuneoidal surface on a plane at any event, any more than that
of a sphere, which can only be represented by means of pro-
jections. The only surfaces which can be extended on a
plane, are those to which a straight edge will everywhere
apply through a certain point, or in parallel directions to a
given line ; of this description are the surfaces of planes,
cones, and cylinders : a straight line will apply to all parts of
the surface of a cone through the vertex, and to all parts
of a plane through any given point, and to all parts of the
surface of a cylinder parallel to the axis.

 

The envelopes of all solids, to which a tangent plane to its
surface parallel to the given plane will apply, have the same
curvature or straight line at the edge, where the plane be-
comes a tangent, as the corresponding part of the edge of the
given plane.

In describing the envelopes of solids, the whole or a portion
of the section passing through the axis, is always supposed
to be given, as also a section of the solid, making a given
angle with the said plane, and the intersection in a given
posmon.

If only a portion of the section passing along the axis be
given, it is always supposed to be terminated by the same
surfaces, which also terminate the surface to be covered.

The following is a more general method of finding the
envelope of a solid by means of points.

In this description it will only be necessary to have the
seats of three points given on the base, and the heights of
the points on the cylindric surface from their seats. Let A B C
(Plate II. Figures 1, 2, 3) be the part of the base of the
cylinder, and A, B, C the seats of the three points ; join A C ;
draw C E and A D perpendicular to A C ; make AD equal to
the height of the point above A, C E equal to the height of the
point above C, and C F equal to the height of the point above
the seat B; join E D; draw F G parallel to C A, and G H parallel
to CE, cutting AC at H; and join H B; produce A C to I;
divide the curve A B C into any number of equal parts; and
extend those parts upon C I; through the points of division
in the curve, A B C, draw lines parallel to B H, intersecting B C;
from the points of intersection in A C draw lines parallel
to G H, to meet D E; from the points ofintersection draw lines
parallel to A C; and from the divisions in C I draw lines
parallel to C E, so as to intersect the other parallels last
drawn; through the points thus found, draw the curve C I K E C,
and it will be the envelope required.

Figure 1, is the case where the rectangular plane makes
a right angle with the elliptic section :

Figure 2, that where the angle made by the rectangular
plane and the elliptic section is acute:

Figure 3, where the angle formed by these two planes
is obtuse.

In Figures 2 and 3, D M E is the orthographical projection
of the curve; with which the curve, B K, of the envelope
would coincide. This is found by drawing parallels to GH
through the points of division in the curve A B C, to meet the
parallels of A C, as shown by the dotted lines.

EPHESU S, an ancient city of Ionia, formerly the metro-
polis of Asia Minor, now in ruins. The celebrated temple of
Diana, in this city, was deemed one of the seven wonders
of the world. In the time of Pococke, the remains of this
renowned metropolis consisted of the temple of Diana ;
a circus ; a gymnasium ; a large theatre, and two of smaller
dimensions; an odeum, or music theatre ; a building, called
the Athenceum; another, called the ngwleum, of which
there are yet considerable remains; with some vestiges of
an aqueduct, and other fragments. A great part of the
ancient walls are still entire, but in some parts the founda—
tions only remain, from which it appears they were ten feet
thick. Most of these vestiges are represented in Pococke’s
Travels in the East. The situation of this city was very
favourable to the procuring of materials, being in the vicinity
of Mount Lepre, which consisted of rocks of stone and marble,
whose elevated situation atforded the means of an easy
transit of the stones or blocks for building, to the site of
the intended fabric.

EPICYCLOID, in geometry, a curve generated by the
revolution of a point in the circumference of a circle, while
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circle in the same plane, so that in each circle, the distance
between the point of contact at the commencement of the
motion, and the point of'contact at any instant while in
motion, is equal one to the other. Hence if the circum-
ferences are equal, all parts of the circumference of the
moving circle will have been in contact with all the parts of
the circumference of the quiescent circle.

If the generating circle proceed along the convexity of
the periphery, it is called an upper, or exterior epzcycloz'd ;
if along the concavity, a lower, or interzor epzcyclozd.

The part of the quiescent circle which the generating
circle moves along, is called the base.

The length of any part of the curve, which any given
point in the revolving circle has described from the time of
its first being in contact with the quiescent circle, i3, to double
the versed sine of half the arc, as the sum of the diameters
of the circles, to the semi-diameter of the quiescent circle ;
provided the circumference of the moving circle be carried
along the convex side of the quiescent circle; but if upon
the concave side, as the difference of the diameters to the
said semi-diameter.

Dr. Halley gives us a general proposition for the measuring
of all cycloids and epicycloids : thus, the area of a cycloid or
epicycloid, either primary, contracted, or prolate, is to the
area of the generating circle, and also to the areas of the parts
generated in these curves, to the areas of the analogous
segments of the circle, as the sum of double the velocity of
the centre, and the velocity of the circular motion, to the
velocity of the circular motion. The demonstration hereof,-
see Phil. Trans. No. 218.

The areas of epicycloids may be determined by the follow-
ing proportion: As the radius of the circle of the base is to
three times that of the radius, together with twice that of the
generating circle, so is the circular segment to the epicycloidal
sector, or the whole generating circle to the whole area of the
epicycloid.

As to the tangents, it is known from the time of Descartes,
that a line drawn from any point to that of the base, which
touches the circle, whilst this point is described, is perpen-
dicular to the curve, and consequently to the tangent.

Maupertius, discussing this subject, conceived a polygon
to revolve upon another, the sides of which are respectively
equal; one of the angles described a. curve, the periphery of
which is formed of arcs of circles, and the area is composed
of circular sectors, and right-lined triangles. He determined
the proportion of the area, and of the periphery of this figure
to those of the generating polygon. He also supposed those
polygons to become circles, the figure described to become
an epicycloid, and the above-mentioned proportion, modified
agreeably to this supposition, gave him the area and periphery
of the epicycloid, .Mem. ([6 l’Acad. 1727.

It does not appear that any writer published an account of
epicycloids, before the celebrated Sir Isaac Newton, who, in
the first book of his Principz'a, proposed a general, and a very
simple method of rectifying these curves. After him,
Bernouilli, during his residence at Paris, showed how, by
means of the intregal and differential calculus, to determine
their area and rectification. The invention of epicycloids is,
however, ascribed to M. Reaumur, the celebrated Danish
philosopher, during his residence at Paris, about the year
1674. These curves appeared to him to be such as best
suited the teeth of wheels, constructed so as to diminish their
mutual friction, and to render the action of the power more
uniform; hence he was led to consider them, and to this
purpose they have been applied. However, M. de la Hire
makes no mention of Reaumur, and seems to claim the merit
ofthis geometrical and mechanical invention. But M. Leihnitz,

5 G

 

who resided at Paris in 1674, and the two following years,
says, that the invention of epicycloids, and their application
to mechanics, was the work of this Danish mathematician, and
that he was esteemed the author of it.

EPISTYLE, (from art, upon, :uhog, column) in ancient
architecture, a term used by the Greeks for what we call
arc/zitrave, viz., a massive stone, or a piece of wood, laid
immediately over the capitals of columns, from one to the
other.

The epistyle is the first or lowest principal division of the
entablature.

EPISTYLAR ARCUATION, a term applied to that
method of building in which arches are thrown from column
to column, instead of horizontal architraves.

EPITITHEDAS, (Greek am 71917,“) a word used by the
Greeks, to express the Simm, or cymatium, or crowning
moulding of the entablature. By some the term is restricted
to the upper member of a raking cornice.

EQUAL ANGLES, are those whose containing lines are
measured by equal portions of equal arcs, described from the
meeting of the two containing lines.

EQUAL ARCS. See ARCS.

EQUAL CIRCLES, are those whose diameters are equal.

EQUAL CURVATURES, are such as have the same, or equal
radii of curvature. See CURVATURE and CURVE.

EQUAL FIGURES, are those whose areas are equal, whether
the figures be similar or not.

EQUAL SOLIDS, are those which comprehend, or contain
as much as the other, or whose solidities or capacities are
equaL '

EQUIANGULAR FIGURES, such as have equal angles.

EQUIDISTANT STRAIGHT LINES, are a series of
parallels with equal intervals.

EQUIDISTANT SOLIDS, are those whose intervals are termi-
nated by parallel planes, at equal distances on the corres-
ponding sides, comparing that of any two adjoining solids,
with that of any other two adjoining solids.

EQUILATERAL (from cequus, equal, and latus, a side)
having equal sides.

EQUILATERAL FIGURE, that which has all its sides equal.

EQUILATERAL HYPERBOLA, that in which the asymptotes
are at right angles to each other.

EQUILIBRIUM, in mechanics, the equality of forces in
opposite directions, so that they mutually balance each other ;
eqmpmse.

ERGASTULUM, among the ancients, a house of correc-
tion, or workhouse, where slaves, by the private authority of
their masters, were confined and kept at hard labour for some
offence. It was likewise called sophrom'sterium.

ESCAPE, a concave quadrantal moulding used to join
two parallel members of different projections, as the shaft of
a column with the fillet at its foot and junction with the
capital.

ESCUTC HEON, a shield charged with armorial bearings.
Decorations of this kind were much used in the later periods of
Gothic architecture, carved on bosses, dripstones, spandrels,
8m. The term is also applied to the metal plate on doors
surrounding the key-hole, and to that from which the handle
is suspended. Beautiful specimens, of excellent design and
workmanship, are to be found in old mediaeval buildings.

ESCURIAL, the palace or residence of the kings of Spain.
The word originally signified a little village in Spain, situated
in the kingdom of New Castile, twenty-two miles to the
N. W. of Madrid. IIere king Philip built a stately monas-
tery, of the order of St. Jerome, held by the Spaniards as one
of the wonders of the world. It was begun in 1557, and
finished in about 22 years, at the expense of 6,000,000 of

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

E TR

390

ETR

 

piastres. The plan of the work resembles a gridiron, in
memory of St. Quintin, who suffered martyrdom with that
instrument.

The king and queen had their apartments there, the other
parts were possessed by the monks.

The length of this superb palace is an oblong 740 by 580
Spanish feet, besides 460, for what may be termed the handle
of the gridiron. The height of the roof is 60 feet, and every
angle has a square tower 200 feet in height. The west front
has 200 windows, and that of the east 366.

The Escurial has a very fine church, crowned with a dome,
which is 330 feet, supported by four rows of pillars, and
paved with black marble ; containing 40 chapels, and 48
altars. To this church, Philip IV. annexed a beautiful
mausoleum, called the Pantheon, or Rotunda, built on the
plan of the temple of that name, at Rome. It is 36 feet in
diameter, and incrusted with marble ; in which the kings and
queens of Spain, who leave any posterity, are interred ; the
rest being laid in another vault of the same church, together
with the infants and other princes.

ESTIMATE, a calculation of the expenses of a building,
or other parts thereof, by measuring the drawings with a
compass from a scale, and calculating the amount upon
materials and workmanship. See BRICKWORK, CARPENTERS’
WORK, JOINERS' WORK, 8w.

ESTIMATION, the act of estimating a building, See
ESTIMATE. A quick mode of estimating, or rather guessing
at the expense of a building, is, to throw the whole into cubic
feet, as if all the parts within the walls and roof were really
solid, and calculating the whole at a certain rate per cubic
foot; but this is so different in different places, and even in
different times in the same place, that no certain ratio can be
established : but where things are finished in the same way,
in the same place, and at the same time, it frequently comes
nearer to the truth than many real estimates, which are
accepted far below value, in order to obtain the work.
Though estimates sometimes come very near each other, yet
the difference at other times is so preposterous, as to be one-
fourth, or one-third of the whole amount, either owing to
articles being overlooked, or to a difference of rates, or both.

ESTRADE (a French term, signifying a public road or
highway) in building, a little elevation of the floor of a room,
frequently encompassed with an alcove or rail, for receiving
a bed; or sometimes, as in Turkey, it is only covered with
fine carpets, for the accommodation of visitors of distinction.

ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE. The method of build-
ing practised by the ancient inhabitants of Etruria; from
which it is supposed many of the peculiarities of Roman
architecture took their rise, and the Tuscan order was bor-
rowed. The origin and history of this people is involved in
obscurity, as is also, to a great extent, their architecture.
They seem to have been a mixed race, composed of Siculi or
Umbri, of Pelasgi, and of a third race, of Lydian extraction,
and to have attained to considerable eminence in the scale of
nations, both in power and civilization. Although they
had brought the arts to a great degree of perfection, we had,
until recently, but little evidence of the fact ; and, as regards
their architecture, examples are still so scanty, as to atford
us no precise notion of its character. We have no remains
of temples, or other buildings of the kind ; all such informa-
tion is to be derived solely from their hypogaei or sepulchres,
and the representation of buildings, to be found on the vari—
ous utensils discovered therein. The remains above ground
consist almost solely of ruins of walls surrounding the
different cities, which remind us of the Cycloptean erections
at Tiryus and Mycenar, consisting, as they do, of lofty heaps
of stones of enormous size, fitted together in a compact form,

 

but without either cramps or cement. Ruins of this nature
exist at Cortona, Volterra, F iesol, &c., in the first of which
are some stones more than twenty-two Roman feet in length,
and about five or six feet in height. The walls of Volterra
are of a similar description. In the earliest examples, the
stones are of an irregular polygonal shape, and in building
were so laid as to have all their sides in close contact with
the surrounding stones ; remains of this kind of work are to
be found at Cora near Velletri. Generally speaking, the
stones were of rectangular form, and of various sizes, disposed
in horizontal courses. There is at Volterra a gateway, called
the Gate of Hercules, which has a fine arch composed of
nineteen large stones. This leads us to remark, that the
origin of the arch is very generally ascribed to Etruria, from
whence it is said to have found its way into Rome. Be this
as it may, the Etrurians were certainly aware of its princi-
ples, specimens of true arches and vaulting having been
found in the remains, some of which are probably of early
date. In a tomb at Ceroetri is a wall carried up somewhat
after the shape of a Gothic arch, gradually converging towards
the top, but not meeting at the apex, a square channel being
left between the two sides of the arch, which is covered over
with a block of nenfro. This, however, is not a true arch,
but is similar to those to be found in Egypt and Greece, the
building to which it belongs is on all hands allowed to be of
very great antiquity.

From the descriptions of Etruscan temples given us byVitru-
vius, we learn that they were of an oblong form, the length
being occupied by three chapels, of which the central one was
the principal. The facades were similar to those of Greece,
adorned with columns, pediments, &c., and the latter with

sculptures in terra cotta. From the same author we likewise ,

learn, that their private houses were buildings of some import-
ance, having external porticos and vestibules like those of Rome;
indeed, it is supposed that the atrium was borrowed from them
by the Romans. Amongst other structures for which the Etru-
rians were eminent, are their tunnels, canals, and sewers, for
the purposes of drainage and irrigation ; roads, fortifications,
and other works of an equally useful character. Remains of
a cloaca have been discovered at Tarquinii, in which the
arch is employed, and which is altogether similar to that
at Rome; and at Volaterra are the ruins of a subterranean
reservoir, 24 Roman feet high, 56 long, and 39 broad.

We have now only to notice the sepulchral buildings; which
form by far the principal portion of the remains, and are
found in great numbers, fresh ones being constantly opened
at the present day. They seem to have been equally as
numerous as the cities, and it would appear to have been an
universal rule, that each city should have a place of burial for
its dead in its immediate vicinity. To such an extent is this
the case, that a modern writer lays it down as an axiom, that
wherever there stood an ancient town, there you will find
a cemetery; and wherever you find a cemetery, there will
have stood likewise an ancient city. These sepulchres are,
however, not all alike, their forms and situation varying
according to the geographical, geological, and other charac-
teristics of the site ; in some cases they are cut out of cliffs
below the city wall; at others out of more yielding soil, and,
in cases where requisite, lined with masonry on the inside.
Besides these excavated sepulchres, we have some of a more
primitive and less imposing character, being nothing better
than graves sunk a few feet below the surface, and covered
with unhewn masses of stone. They are very similar to the
Druidical cromlechs; which fact would intimate some con-
nection between the Celts and Etruscans. Again, we find
tumuli, another form of sepulchral monument, which is com-
mon to all parts of the world.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Amongst the cemeteries which have been explored, that
at Vulci is one of the more important, and this, like many
others, was discovered by mere chance, and was found to
contain a vast number of antiques of various kinds. Those
of Norchia and Castel d’Asso, the facades of which are covered
with sculpture, were discovered in 1810; those at Bomarzo
and Orte from 1830 to 1837. Of still later date are the dis-
coveries of Savona by Mr. Ainslie, and of several others by
Mr. Dennis, who'has published a very interesting work upon
the subject. There seems to be no scarcity of such monu-
ments, for new discoveries are being brought to light every
year, and would lead_ us to suppose that vast tracts of country
were completely undermined by them. The cemeteries vary
in size, some of them being of very great extent, and laid
out like a city in streets and squares. Each has its peculiar
kind of tomb, the most simple of which consist of mere coni-
cal pits about eight or nine feet in depth, and six in diameter.
Next to these come the tombs, with a simple doorway open-
ing in the side of the cliff, and leading into a small vestibule
about five feet square, with a shaft carried up from the roof
to the ground above, the opening of which is frequently
covered over with a large stone. The vestibule gives access
to the tomb, which is an apartment from twelve to twenty
feet square, cut out of the rock, and supported in the centre
by a low massive quadrangular pillar, or in larger tombs by
four or more similar piers, as is shown in Inghirami’s plates.
Sometimes the tomb is divided into two parts by a thick wall
cut out of the rock, which forms a means of support in place
of the pillars. In the side-walls of the tombs, and sometimes
in the piers and partition walls, are two or more tiers of long
horizontal niches in which the bodies were placed. Tombs
of this kind exist near Corneto, Ferenti, and Cervetri.

Cemeteries of more imposing character are to be seen at
Castel d’Asso, and the places to which we have above
referred; of the former we give the following description
from a popular work of the day. “At Castel d’Asso the
tombs rise upon each side of a narrow glen, facing each
other like the houses in a street. Each tomb being detached,
and the cliffs in which they are hollowed being hewn to
a smooth surface, and formed into square architectural
facades, with bold cornices and mouldings in high relief, they
bear a strong resemblance to dwelling-houses, their facades
extending the whole height of the cliffs, . which in some
places rise as high as thirty feet. In the centre of each
facade is a rod-moulding, describing the outline of a door, in
many cases having panels recessed one within the other.
This, however, is but the false semblance of an entrance, the
real one being in the lower part of the clifl“, which having
been left to project when the facade was smoothed down,
has been hollowed into a kind of small vaulted antechamber,
open in front. The form of these monuments, as well as of
the false door in the facade, tapers upwards, and the front
recedes slightly from the perpendicular. Along the top of
the facade runs a massive horizontal cornice, but receding
from the plane of the facade. On many of the tombs there
are inscriptions, some of which are still legible, graven deep
in the smooth surface of the rock above the simulated doorway.
On the inner wall of the little entrance-chamber, and immedi-
ately below the one in the facade, is a second false door, moulded
like the former, but with a niche in the centre; and directly
below this again is the real door leading into the sepulchral
chambers, which, neither in grandeur of dimensions, nor ele-
gance of details, answer to the external appearance of the
tombs. They are quadrilateral, of various sizes, and rudely
hollowed in the rock, having a flat or slightly-vaulted ceiling
and ledges of rock against the wall for the support of sarco-
phagi. In some cases the sarcophagi have been sunk in the

 

rock in two rows, side by side, with a narrow passage
between them, and seem to have been originally covered
over with tiles. In the interstices, which separate the monu-
mental facades, there are in many cases flights of steps out
in the rock, and leading to the plain above."

Tombs of a more decorative character exist at Norchia,
adorned with pediments filled with sculpture, and Doric
friezes, and has-reliefs on the inner walls of the portico.
The interiors, however, are of similar character to those at
Castel d’Asso. At Bieda, are tiers of tombs hewn in terraces
one above the other, and connected by flights of steps cut in
the rock. Here also another peculiarity is presented, the
tombs standing out fibm the rock completely isolated, and of
similar form to dwelling-houses, having roofs sloping down
on either side with overhanging eaves at the gable. The
internal arrangement likewise bears a very great resemblance
to that of dwelling-houses.

The tombs near Cervetri, opened in 1836, were originally
covered with a large conical mound, and contain two apart-
ments, an inner and outer one, separated by a partition, the
latter being somewhat the largest, and the length of the two
together measuring about 60 feet. On each side of the first
chamber is a small cell cut out of the rock, the chamber
itself being lined with masonry, and roofed over with a kind
of Gothic vault, which springs at about three feet from the
ground. Of this vault we have spoken above.

A curious range of sepulchres has been discovered at
Chiusi, which, from the winding passages which lead from
one tomb to another, presents the idea of a labyrinth, and
caused it at one time to be considered a portion of the tomb
of Porsenna, a description of which is given by Varro.

The following account is taken from the publication before
referred to :—“ The tombs to which we allude, are excavated
in the conical crest of a broad hill, surrounded by a fosse
about three feet wide, and lined on the inner side with large
blocks of travertine, which thus form a wall measuring
about 855 feet, this being the circumference of the base of
the enclosed tumulus. The chief sepulchres open from the
encircling wall; the largest, a circular chamber facing the
south, and supported in the centre by a huge pillar hewn in
the rock, is connected with the fosse by a passage of about
50 feet in length. Towards the south-east is a group of
smaller chambers ; close upon the fosse, and facing the south-
west, is another, connected with the former by a passage
about 45 feet long ; while other smaller ones again, are
situated all around, facing all the points of the compass.

“Above this tier is another, containing likewise several
groups of chambers of different size and shape; and below
the level of the fosse is a third tier, the chambers of which
are, however, in a very ruinous state. Opening from the
circular chamber facing the south, is a narrow passage,
which winds by many a circuitous route towards the western
group of chambers, and then turning again to the south,
branches out into many side—passages. These passages were
at first thought to form a regularly planned labyrinth, but
their lowness being such as barely to allow a man to creep
through on all-fours, the irregularity of their level, and the
circumstance of the passage opening into the western group
of chambers, breaking through one of the stone benches
with which the walls of the chamber are lined, and on which
the dead reclined, have subsequently led to the abandonment
of this opinion, and of the idea of this being the site of the
far-famed tomb of Porsenna.”

\Ve must not omit to mention that colour was used in these
tombs as a means of decoration. At Tarquinii, they are all
painted, but there is one, the Grotta Querciola, which in the
design and execution of the pictures, surpasses all the others.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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The walls are entirely covered with paintings illustrative of
the social manners of the Etrurians, the colours of which,
though now somewhat dim, must have been originally
splendid. In the Grotta del Triclinio, hard by, the colours
have retained their brilliancy, and the effect. is described as
perfectly dazzling by those who have beheld them in a
bright light.

The Etrurians do not seem to have been a people of any
great native taste, and are not to be compared with the
Greeks in this respect ; they preferred utility to beauty, and
convenience to decoration. Some assert that all that is really
beautiful in their monuments, emanates solely from Greece;
but this we cannot suppose; they wefe destitute indeed of
the creative imagination of the Greeks, and probably borrowed
very largely from them, but at the same time we cannot

. suppose them to have been entirely devoid of originality.

For further information on this subject, we would refer

‘ to Michali and Inghirami, as also to the recent work of
1‘ Mr. Dennis on the Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria. See
; ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.

EUANTHI COLOURS, in painting, a term used by the
Greeks, to express what the Romans called the floridi colores,
or such as had remarkable brightness : the duller and coarser
colours, the Romans called austen' colores, and the Greeks
batltycz'. Of the first sort were Cinnabar, lapis arminus,

lchrysocolla, minium, indigo, purpurissa, according to the
; Romans; but the Greeks, as we find by Dioscorides, made
1 Cinnabar one of the austere colours.

EVOLVENT (from the Latin evolo, to unfold) in geo-

. metry, the curve resulting from the evolution of a curve,
‘ in contradistinction to the evolute, which is the curve sup-

posed to be opened or evolved.
EVOLUTE, or EVOLUTA, in the higher geometry, 3. curve

3 first proposed by Huygens, and much studied by the later
1 mathematicians: suppose a string, or flexible line, he un-
. wound, so that the part unwound may be kept straight and

 

in the plane of the curve, the extremity will describe a new

I curve, of which the first turn is the evolute.

The radius of the evolute, is the part of the thread con-
tained between any point where it is tangent to the evolute,
and the corresponding point, where it terminates in the
new curve.

Every curve may therefore be considered as the evolution
of another.

EURYTHMY, (from the Greek aiipveluog, harmony,) a
certain majesty or elegance in the composition of the different
parts of a building.

The word is Greek, and signifies literally a consonance or
fine agreement ; or, as we call it, harmony, of all the parts:
it is compounded of ev, well, and pvdpog, rytltmus, cadence, or
agreement of numbers, sounds, or the like.

EUSTYLE, (from the Greek, 51:, bene, well, and whey,
column) a disposition of columns in which the intervals are
exactly two diameters and a quarter. This intercolumnia-
tion was most approved of by the ancients, as being a medium
between the pycnostyle and areostyle.

Vitruvius, lib. iii. chap. 2. observes, that the eustyle is
the most approved of all the kinds of intercolumniation, and
that it surpasses all the rest in conveniency, beauty, and
strength.

EXAGON, See HEXAGON.

EXCAVATING MACHINES, for digging and removing
earth in extensive excavations, have occupied the attention
of many ingenious men, and various machines for the purpose
have been proposed and tried with different degrees of success.
The great difficulty seems to consist in adapting any peculiar
arrangement of mechanism which shall be capable of digging

 

 

into the various sorts of earth. Were it only to operate
upon a uniform mass, the task would be of comparatively
easy accomplishment.

Amongst others who have devoted much time and capital
in the attempt to overcome these difficulties, Mr. G. V. Palmer
applied himself to the construction of machines of this kind.
In 1830 he took out a patent “for a machine to cut and
excavate earth.” This invention is designed, by the applica-
tion of steam-power, to loosen, dig up, and remove into a cart,
earth from a canal or other cavity, and to move itself forwards
as the excavation proceeds. In principle, its leading arrange-
ment resembles the dredging-machines employed in clearing
the beds of rivers and harbours ; but it has several appurte-
nances, such as picks, for loosening the earth ; cutters, for
separating it; and scrapers, for filling it into the scoops or
elevators ; the latter convey it into the cart by which it is
carried away. The machine is mounted upon four wheels,
and gradually moves forward upon a temporary railway, as
the excavation proceeds. The moving power is applied to
the axis of a fly-wheel, and to the same axis is fixed a drum
or pulley, around which passes an endless pitched chain,
giving motion to another drum or pulley, which revolves in
bearings fixed to the upper ends of two long checks or
supports. Around this second drum passes another endless

‘r

 

chain, by which a third drum or pulley, of a quadrangular

figure, is set in motion, and which turns on an axis in the
lower ends of the long cheeks; to this last-mentioned
chain are fastemi a series of earth-scoops, which are
successively brought into operation in taking up the earth.

So far, the machine resembles the common ballast-engine; '

of
and projecting the earth are effected.

we have now to describe how the several actions

picking, digging,

A third endless chain is actuated by the drum on the main ‘i
axis, and gives motion to a spur-w‘cel; this spur-wheel ,

drives another toothed wheel attached to the fore~wheels of
the carriage, and thus the carriage gradually advances. By
an ingenious system of levers, connected to a crank on the

main axis, a row of pick-axes, a row of cutters, and a row 3

of scraping-shovels, are alternately brought into action.
“Then the pickers have descended and loosened a portion of
earth, the cutters follow, and separate it from the mass, and
this separated portion is immediately afterwards drawn for-
wards by the scrapiug-shovels into the scoops, which, by the
action of the machine, are brought into the required position
on one of the sides of the revolving quadrangular drum;
the filled scoops thence proceeding to the top of the machine
by the revolution of the attached endless chain, discharge
their contents into a cart or waggon to be conveyed away.
The same gentleman patented another engine for this purpose
in 1832. This consisted of an excavating cart and plough
united, to be worked by horses or other power. The cart-
wheels are made considerably wider than those in common
use, and the interior portion of the ring of each wheel is
made into a series of earth-boxes; these earth-boxes are
made to open inwards, and also towards the centres of the
wheels. Underneath the cart, immediately adjoining each
wheel, is placed a plough, for raising and turning the earth
into the boxes, as the cart is moved forwards ; the wheels at
the same time turning round, bring up the earth, and deliver
it into the body of the cart. When a sufficient load has been
thus deposited in the cart, the ploughs are raised from the
ground by means of a lever, and then the cart can be drawn
in every respect as a common cart, to the place intended for
the deposition of the excavated earth, where it is to be
unloaded by withdrawng a pair of bolts, which allow the
bottom of the cart to fold downwards sufficiently to permit
the earth to escape. There are many circumstances where

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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the application of excavating machines of this kind might be
employed to advantage, but though the use of them in the
extensive excavations of railway works has been many times
attempted, they have not been found to answer so well in
practice as to bring them into general employment.

EXCAVATION, (from the Latin em, out, and cavus,
hollow) the act of hollowing or digging a cavity, particularly
in the ground.

The excavation for the foundation of a building, by the
Italians called cavatz‘one, is settled by Palladio at a sixth part
of the height of the building, unless there be cellars under
ground, in which case he would have it somewhat more.

But this proportion is vague, and contrary to experience
and reason. Good firm gravel, clay, or rock, forms as good
a foundation at a foot or 18 inches from the surface, as at any
greater depth; while swampy or boggy land is not good at
any depth. See DIGGING and FOUNDATION.

EXCHANGE, a building where merchants resort to transact

. business. The principal commercial cities of Europe and Ame-

rica have edifices appropriated for this purpose, and the Bour-
ses of Paris, Amsterdam, Antwerp, and other continental
cities, and the Exchanges of London, Liverpool, New York,&c.
are distinguished for their beauty and convenience. In London
there are three buildings of this kind; the Corn Exchange—

, the Coal Exchange—and the Exchange of London, par excel-
J [67206, the Royal Exchange.

The two first are appropriated
to the particular branches of commerce indicated by their
names, and are more especially resorted to by persons therein
engaged ; the Royal Exchange is the general place of assem-
bling, at a certain hour of the day, of the merchants and
traders of London. Here meet together men from all parts
of the world, and here are settled transactions of commerce of

j a magnitude inconceivable by those unacquainted with the sub-

f ject.

‘ phraseology, “to go on ’Change.”

 

There are few merchants in the city but make it a rule
to attend the Exchange daily, or, as it is termed in commercial
We propose to give a
brief description of each of these places of mercantile ren-
dezvous.

The CORN EXCHANGE is situated in Mark Lane, and
consists, in fact, of two buildings adjoining each other,
and known respectively as the Old and New Corn Exchange.
Business, however, is carried on in both, and together they
are considered as the “ Corn Exchange."

The new building, as we have before observed, immediately
adjoins the older one, which still continues to be made use of,
and which may therefore with propriety be briefly described
here, if only for the purpose of affording some kind of com-
parison between the two. “ The lower part of the structure
is an open colonnade, whose pillars are of the modern Doric
kind, but the entablature has a plain frieze, and its architrave
is singularly narrow for the order, or indeed for any order
whatever. There are eight columns, with an iron palisading
between them ; displaying, however, a very peculiar arrange-
ment, four of them being placed in pairs, but in such manner,
that, beginning to reckon from the south end, we find them
placed thus : first, a pair of columns at that angle, then three
single columns, then another pair, and at the north angle
another single column, forming altogether five inter-columns,
corresponding with which are as many windows in each of
.he two stories forming the upper part of the building over
the colonnade ; which are quite plain, with the exception
of the centre one on the first floor, which, in addition to
other dressings, has a pediment.”

There is no wall behind these columns, and the space
within is open to the street , forming a court rathér than a hall,
the centre space of which is not covered by aroof. With this
difl‘erence, it resembles the similar part of the plan in the
5 H

 

new building, having, as that has, threeintercolumns at each
end, and five on each side; and it further resembles it in the
great depth of the ambulatory around it. The building,
though making little pretension to architectural character,
except what it derives from its columns and their arrange-
ment, has, in its general effect, a degree of picturesqueness
both unusual and pleasing, especially as there is a second
range of columns between those in front and the area of the
Exchange itself.

The New Corn Exchange was erected in 1828, from the
designs of Mr. G. Smith, the architect of St. Paul’s School,
and exhibits a very tasteful and appropriate application of the
Grecian Doric.

In point of design, this facade merits investigation, because,
whatever else may be alleged against it, no one can object to
it, that it is either a direct copy, or an assemblage of copies,
that is, of parts entirely borrowed from other buildings,
without other novelty than what they derive from their
combination with each other.

The colonnade forming the centre, (which being an
hexastyle in antis, gives the same number of intercolumns
as an octostyle,) does not constitute a loggia, or even a mere
corridor ; for, as may be seen by the plan, the space between
the columns and the wall is occupied, except where the
entrances occur, by a sunk area screened by the stylobate.
This area being barely equal to one diameter, the colonnade
is much shallower than usual, and therefore likely to be
censured, on that account, by those who consider a certain
depth of space behind the columns to be an indispensable
requisite for their proper effect, and invariably demanded in
all situations and under all circumstances.

In the present instance, the very moderate distance at
which the wall is placed behind the columns, occasions
greater breadth of surface, as the light falls upon that as
well as on the columns themselves ; which would not be the
case were the wall so far back that the columns would relieve
themselves entirely against the shadow of the parts beyond
them. At the same time, the columns receive a greater
portion of reflected light, and thus contrast more distinctly
with the shadows which they cast on the wall itself, and
which produce an agreeable variety and equipoise of light
and shade, according to the sun’s elevation, when it shines
on this (the west) side of the building. But that to which,
more than anything else, this facade is indebted for its
classical air and architectural beauty, is the entire absence
of windows within the colonnade. Not only do such aper-
tures—unless introduced very sparingly indeed—destroy
repose, by frittering what requires to be preserved nearly an
unbroken surface, but they show themselves in a situation
where their serviceableness is greatly lessened. Besides
which, the colonnade or portico itself seems misplaced,
being overlooked by the rooms behind it.

To return to the immediate object of our description;
we may observe, that the wall is not entirely plain, it having
slightly projecting antaa or pilasters corresponding with the
columns, and the faces of those in the centre serve partly as
a ground upon which the jambs of the large door are raised
This door is a feature not only important for its size, but
tasteful in design—bold and simple, yet at the same time
carefully finished.

In the frieze, wreaths composed of ears of corn are sub
stituted for triglyphs; and even had they not elegance of
form as well as novelty to recommend them, they would still
have a propriety and significance which we rarely meet with
in those similarly-shaped decorations of laurel transferred to
modern buildings, from the entablature of the monument of
Thrasyllus.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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The cornice here given to the order is rendered less cold
and scanty than usual by the addition of a cymatium above
the corona, ornamented with lions’ heads, that slightly break
its upper line. Much of the peculiar character arises from
the unusually lofty blocking-course, surmounted in the centre
by a. podium bearing the following inscriptionz—‘Corn
Exchange, erected 1828, according to act of parliament,
7th George IV. Chap. 33.’ This podium is, in turn, sur—
mounted by a piece of sculpture representing the royal arms,
grouped with implements symbolical of agriculture. Thus
the upper part of the front acquires considerable variety of
outline, and somewhat of a pyramidal form, together with dis-
tinctly marked individuality of character. Instead of being
at all at variance with the style adopted, the part we are
now considering is not only consistent with, but seems to
give additional expression to all the rest; at the same time
that it takes away from it that air of direct imitation which
it‘is so difficult to avoid without endangering, if not destroy-
ing, the classical physiognomy intended to be preserved.

\Vhether, in his treatment of the wings, the architect has
successfully overcome this last-mentioned difficulty, is what
we have now to inquire. As far as regards the order itself,
that is kept up with sufficient strictness, and the mode in
which the antae are applied, deserves commendation. Had
these been merely coupled, after the usual fashion, the effect
would have been rather formal and monotonous; besides
which, it might not improperly have been objected, that such
duplication was at variance with the arrangement of the
columns. But by compounding, instead of pairing them,
and placing the broader anta at the outer angle, while the
other is made to project slightly upon it, both a due expres-
sion of strength and solidity is kept up, a certain degree of
play and variety is obtained, although there appears to be
nothing at all new in the idea itself, except that here the
two united faces are of unequal breadth—an irregularity
converted into a merit by its obvious propriety.

“The windows, which entirely- occupy the space between
the antae,rmay be considered as assuming the character of

small loggias, whose intercolumns are filled in with sashes.
3 In style, therefore, they harmonize with the general design
‘ far better, perhaps, than anything else that could have been
‘ devised for the same purpose; the chief objection to be made

in regard to them is, that somewhat less plainness—not to
call it severity of style—would not have been amiss, and
would have prevented the small antas of the windows from
appearing a repetition of the larger ones on a diminished
scale.

“ The upper story of the wings, to which we now come,
display more invention and decided novelty than any other
part of the building ; and although exhibiting somewhat of
unusual forms and combinations, the style here preserves its
characteristic energy, boldness, and breadth. Although, too,
the parts themselves are simple, they acquire much picturesque
complexity from the lofty position in which the windows are
placed, being thrown further back, owing to which the
pedestals detach themselves with considerable projection.
In addition to the variety thus produced, we have that arising
from the attic itself, if it may so be termed, being both loftier
than the pedestals, and narrower than the compartment of
the front below ; from both which circumstances result great
contrast and diversity of outline.

“ The interior calls for very little description or remark,
the walls being perfectly plain, and there being no other
decoration of any kind than the columns, which are of very
slender proportions, and have deep capitals, composed of ears
cfwheat. Above the centre space within the columns, is
a lantern with vertical lights; and those on each side have

 

seven skylight compartments in their ceilings. The north
wing contains a tavern and coffee-room, and the opening in
the south wall of the other Wing communicates with the old
Corn Exchange.”—Public Buildings'qf London.

The COAL EXCHANGE is a new building erected in Thames-
street, near the Custom House, and completed so lately as
the month of November, 1849.

The importance of the vast trade in that precious mineral
to which Great Britain owes so much of her prosperity, may
well demand that the merchants and others trading in coal,
should have their own Exchange. The enormous extent of
this trade can hardly be conceived, or its value in a pecuniary
sense estimated

“ In respect to its natural supply of coal,” says McCulloch,
“Britain, among the nations, is most singularly favoured;
much of the surface of the country conceals under it con-
tinuous and thick beds of that valuable mineral, vastly more
precious to us than would have been mines of the precious
metals, like those of Peru and Mexico; for coal, since applied
to the steam-engine, is really hoarded power, applicable to
almost every purpose which human labour directed by
ingenuity can accomplish. It is the possession of her coal-
mines which has rendered Britain, in relation to the whole
world, what a city is to the rural district which surrounds
it—the producer and dispenser of the rich products of art
and industry. Calling her coal-mines the coal~cellars of the
great city, there is in them a supply which, at the present
rate of expenditure, will last for 2,000 years at least; and
therefore a provision which, as coming improvements in the
arts of life will naturally effect economy of fuel, or substitu-
tion of other means to effect similar purposes, may be regarded
as inexhaustible.”

The former Coal Exchange being quite unfit for the pur-

poses required, and the inconvenience felt by the merchants '
frequenting it much complained of, an enlarged site was i

purchased by the corporation of London, for the erection of
a new Exchange. This site afforded a frontage next Lower
Thames-street of 113 feet, and a similar frontage next
St. Mary-at-Hill. The building is erected from the designs
of Mr. Bunning, the architect to the corporation, and is so
arranged as to give an increased width to the two thorough-
fares above-named. It presents two distinct elevations,
connected by a tower, placed within the re-entering angle
formed by the two fronts.

The facades of the building are of very simple, yet bold
and effective design ; and, with the exception of the cornice,
but few projections are introduced. The fronts in Thames-
street and St. Mary-at-Hill, are respectively about 112 feet
in width, by 61 feet in height. The unequal form of the
plot of ground on which the Exchange stands, is skilfully
masked at the corner by breaking the mass of building, and
introducing the circular tower before mentioned. This tower
is 109 feet high to the top of the gilded ball, and 22 feet in
diameter at the lowest part, and is divided into three stories.
The lowest story, containing the entrance-vestibule, is of the
Roman-Doric style of architecture; and presents a striking
peculiarity in the arrangement, to which we must advert.
The wall of the tower not only contains the vestibule by which
entrance to the hall or rotunda is attained, but serves also
as a centre to flights of steps, which lead, on either hand, to
a landing on the first story of the building. From this
landing, a spiral staircase is carried up in the tower to the
other stories. The first story is of the Ionic order, carrying
an entablature, and is lighted by windows. The top story,
15 feet in diameter, is ornamented by pilasters, with windows
between; the roof rising to a cone, and being crowned with
a gilded ball. The front of the whole is faced with Portland

 

 

tat '

 

 

 

 

 

 

EXC

stone. Entering the rotunda, the attention of the visitor is
immediately arrested by its beautiful effect, and extremely
novel arrangement. It forms a circle of some 60 feet in
diameter, and is crowned with a dome, or, in fact, double
dome, as a lesser cupola rises from the eye of the great dome
to the height of 74 feet from the floor. The dome rests on
eight light piers, the space between each pier being divided
by stancheons into three compartments. There are three
galleries, and from these galleries, entrance is obtained to
the numerous ofliices in the building. The galleries are
peculiarly constructed, and entirely composed of iron, embel-
lished with symbols of the coal trade. Iron, indeed, has
been most extensively made use of: the stanchions, brackets,
ribs, and eye of the dome, are all of iron, and above 300 tons
have been used in the building in the several parts. Each
rib, of which there are 32, is 42 feet 6 inches long, is cast
in one length, and weighs on the average two tons. The
arrangement of paterze in the stancheons, brackets, and
soffits of galleries, is original and good. The ornament
chiefly used is a cable, twisted about in various patterns, and
the balustrade to the galleries is of loops of cable, broken at
intervals by the introduction of the City arms. This rope-
ornament has perhaps been used in too great profusion, for
it is displayed on the stanchions, gallery-railings, soflits, and
every place where it could possibly be introduced. The
frame—work to the offices is of wood, and panelled with rough
plate—glass. By this means, they receive light from the
great dome of the hall. The dome itself is glazed with large
pieces of ground plate-glass of great thickness, the glass of
the small upper dome having an amber tint. The chief
public offices surrounding the Rotunda are those appropriated
to the officers of the corporation, whose business it is to
collect the coal dues; the factors’ board-room, the weighers’
society, and the merchants’ and factors’, among whom Sir
James Duke, lord-mayor of London at the time of the
opening of the Coal Exchange, holds a very prominent
pos1tion.

The floor of the Rotunda is composed of inlaid woods,
disposed in form of a mariner’s compass, within a border of
Greek fret, and in its appearance is beautiful in the extreme.
In its construction are employed upwards of 4,000 pieces of
wood of various kinds, comprising black ebony, black oak,
common and red English oak, wainscot, white holly,
mahogany, American elm, red and white walnut, and
mulberry. The whole of these materials have been prepared
by Messrs. Davison and Symington’s patent process of
seasoning woods, to which we have alluded under the word
DESICCATION.

The same desiccating process has been applied to the wood.-
work throughout the building. The black oak introduced
is part of an old tree which was discovered imbedded in the
river Tyne, where it had unquestionably lain between four
and five centuries. The mulberry wood, of which the blade
of the dagger in the shield of the City-arms is composed, is
made of a piece of a tree planted by Peter the Great, when
he worked as a shipwright in Deptford dockyard.

The coloured decorations of the Exchange are peculiarly
characteristic, and the entrance vestibule, in particular, is ex-
tremely rich and picturesque in its embellishments. Terminal
figures, vases with fruit, arabesque foliage, &c.; all of the
richest and most glowing colours, fill up the vault of the ceil-
ing, through an aperture in which is seen that of the lan-
tern, adorned with a figure of Plenty scattering riches, and
surrounded by figurini. Over the entrance-doorway, within
a sunk panel, are painted the City-arms, Within the Rotunda,
the polychromatic decorations immediately arrest the eye.
The range of panels at the base of the dome, and the piers

 

 

V 395 ‘

 

EXC

which carry the dome, are all fully and harmoniously deco‘
rated. Commencing with the piers in the lowest story :—
It will be seen, that the Raffaelesque decorations are very
rich in character. In each pier a scroll supports and encircles
four compartments; the lowest are semi-circular panels,
within which are painted symbolic figures of the principal
coal-bearing rivers in England : the Thames, the Mersey, the
Severn, the Trent, the Humber, the Aire, the Tyne, &c.
Small oblong panels, with marine subjects, are a little above
the symbolic figures just described; and above these again,
within borders of flowers of every kind, are figures symbo-
lical of Wisdom, Fortitude, Vigilance, Temperance, Perse-
verance, VVatchfulness, Justice, and Faith. These figures
are the most prominent objects in the decorations of the piers
in the lower story, and in circles above them are painted
groups of shells ; whilst at the top, in semi-circles correspond-
ing with those at the base of the piers, snakes, lizards, and
other reptiles, are introduced. In the first story, the leading
feature in the arabesques is a series of Views of coal-mines,
including the air-shaft at Wallsend, Percy Pit Main Colliery,
Wallsend Colliery, Regent’s Pit Colliery, 8w. Groups of
fruit and flowers are in small circles just above the views,
and in oblong panels beneath the latter the series of nautical
“ bits” is continued. At the base, in each pilaster, are repre-
sentations of different specimens of Sigillaria—a fossil found
in coal formations. In the second story, the largest panels
contain figures of miners engaged in difi‘erent parts of their
labours, but these figures we think are not so well executed
as other portions of the decorations. Nautical subjects, clus-
ters of fruit and flowers, are introduced among the arabesques.
The third story contains, within oval panels, miners at
work, picking the coal, &c.: flowers and small landscapes
add to the richness and variety of the decorations on this
floor ; and both in this and the lower, calamites, (fossils from
the coal formations,) are depicted amongst the arabesques.
The twenty-four panels at the springing of the dome, of
which we have before spoken, have oval compartments
painted in them, surrounded by a gracefully flowing border
of extremely rich and varied design, being light ornaments
on a dark ground. The spaces within the oval borders are
coloured of a turquoise blue tint, on Which is painted a series
of representations of different fossil plants met with in the
coal formations. This portion of the decoration is extremely
striking and appropriate; and, we need scarcely say, the
representations of the plants are strictly correct. These
were painted in encaustic by Mr. Sang, from the drawings
of Mr. Melhado, (a pupil of the architect,) taken from spe-
cimens in the British Museum. A staircase leads to the
hypocaust, which was discovered in excavating for the foun-
dation, a remnant of the time when the Romans ruled here.
A visit to this will amply repay the lovers of antiquity, and
its minute agreement with the details of such constructions
given by Vitruvius, should be noticed.

The artificers’ work generally were performed by Mr.
Trego; the iron-work by Messrs. Dewer; and the wood-
work was seasoned by Messrs. Davison and Symington's
patent desiccating process. The floor of the merchants’ area
was laid down by the first-named of these gentlemen, Mn.
Davison.

The cost of this Exchange was about £40,000.

THE ROYAL EXCHANGE, in general, has been fortunate in
finding historians, still the current descriptions are, for the
most part, imperfect and incorrect, and utterly without the
sanction of official authority.

Like everything in the City, the existence of the Royal
Exchange is owing to individual enterprise. This is the
spirit and essence of commercial prosperity. The merchant.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

EXC

is generally the architect of his own fortune; his pursuits
necessarily bring him into Contact with his fellow-men ; and
thus, while the principle of association obtains with him, and
expresses itself in the guild and the corporation, in his own
person he maintains a special individuality. To him who
would indulge personalities, and portray characteristics, a
visit to the City would afford many examples—some strange
and odd enough, but all striking and strongly marked. In
other pursuits of life there is more or less of a professional
costume, which sinks the man in the oflicial ; but the mer-
chant pleases himself, or acts upon early associations, in his
dress and conduct. His success mostly depends, indeed, upon
the personal. Gresham, the founder of the Royal Exchange,
is an illustrious example of the truth of these remarks,
and another instance of the great Works that may be accom-
plished by the zeal, activity, and perseverance of an indi-
vidual.

To Sir Richard Gresham, however, father of the Sir
Thomas Gresham, whose name has become a “household
word” to the citizens of London, the merchants of this great
metropolis are indebted for the first serious attempt to found
an Exchange. Before his time, the merchants met together
in the open air in Lombard-street, exposed to the many
inconveniences of such a place of assembling. .In the reign
of Queen Elizabeth, Sir Thomas Gresham, who determined
to carry into effect what his father had been unable to do,
proposed to the Corporation, in 1564, “That, if the City
would give him a piece of ground in a commodious spot, he
would erect an Exchange at his own expense, with large and
covered walks, wherein the merchants and traders might
daily assemble, and transact business at all seasons, without
interruption from the weather, or impediments of any kind.”
This offer was accepted, and the new building, when com-
pleted, was visited by the Queen, who “caused the same to
be proclaimed by sound of trumpet, the Royall Exchange,
and so to be called from thenceforth, and not otherwise.”
Sir Thomas Gresham, who died in November, 1579,
bequeathed the whole of this edifice, and its various appur-
tenances, after the death of his wife, “jointly for ever
to the Corporation of London and the Company of Mercers,”
upon trust for various purposes.

The fabric erected by Gresham was almost entirely
destroyed by the great fire of London in 1666. Measures
for the erection of a new building were, however, promptly
taken, and in October 1667‘, King Charles II. laid the base
of the column on the west side of the north entrance of the
second Exchange; and, on the 31st of the same month,
the first stone of the eastern column was laid by his brother,
the Duke of York.

The popular notion has always been that Sir Christopher
Wren was the architect of this Exchange; this is not the fact,
the architect was Edward Jerman, one of the surveyors to
the City in 1666. As this is a matter on which much dif-
ference of opinion has existed, we think the insertion of the
following evidence from a letter in “ ' ‘he Builder,” will defini-
tively settle the question. The writer states, that the
extracts we have given below, were taken from the records
of the City, and of the Mercers’ Company, and from them are
obtained the following facts, which leave no doubt whatever
that Jerman, and not Wren, was the architect of the late
Royal Exchange.

“That on the 19th . . 1666, the commissioners appointed
to the work, summoned to their assistance, Mr. Mills and
Mr. Jerman, the City surveyors. Again at a joint com-
mittee, held on the 25th April, 1667, the following minute is
recorded :_——

“The committee, concluding it very necessary at this

 

396

 

EXC

meeting, to make choyce of a surveyor for directing and
overseeing the building of the Royall Exchange, and assisting
them in carrying on that designe to the best advantage, as to
substantiallnesse, ornament, and frugality ; and forasmuch as
Mr. Mills, the City surveyor, hath declared that hee cannot
perform that worke alone, and the committee being very
sensible of the greate burthen of businesse lying upon him
for the City all this time; and considering that Mr. Jerman is
the most able knowne artist (besides him) that the City now
hath: therefore the committee unanimously made choice of
Mr. Jerman, to assist the committee in the agreeing for,
ordering, and directing, of that worke ; and, having declared
the same unto him, hee, after much reluctancy and unwilling-
ness (objecting, it might bee thought an intrenchment upon
Mr. Mills his right,) at length accepted, being assured first by
the Lord Mayor and the committee, that itt was no intrench-
ment, that this-wholle committee, at all times, would acquit
him from any scandall in that behalfe; then the committee
ordered the clerke to acquaint Mr. Jerman with all the pro-
ceedinges of this committee about the said building.”

After this appointment Mr. Mills's name does not occur
again, and the works evidently proceeded with great rapidity,
for they were finished within three years and a half from the
period of J erman’s appointment.

On the 9th December occurs the following entry. “ The
committee considering that Mr. Jerman, who was chosen sur-
veyor for rebuilding the Exchange in April last, hath not yet
received any gratification for drawing drafts and directing the
building; they therefore ordered that £50 shall be payed
him upon account until further consideration of his merits.”

These extracts, I think you will agree with me, prove that
Edward German (or Ierman as sometimes spelt) was the sole
architect. In these records Sir Christopher Wren is spoken
of, under date of the 7th Jan., 1670, as “ Dr. \Vren, Surveyor-
general of His Majesty’s workes.”

The building erected by Jerman, was publicly opened for
business on the 28th of September 1669, the expense of its
construction having amounted to £80,000, which was defrayed
in equal moieties by the City and the Mercers’ Company.

This structure also was doomed to fall by the same element
which had proved fatal to its predecessor, for on the night of
the 10th of January, 1838, it was discovered to be on fire, and
in the course of the night, though not entirely destroyed, was
so much damaged, that for all purposes of usefulness the
destruction may be said to have been complete.

The architecture of the building thus destroyed has been
variously estimated ; by some decried, by others praised; but
probably it merited the extravagant praises of the one party
as little as it deserved the severe criticism of the other.

The four orders of the quadrangle were richly decorated,
with the basements, arches of the walks, the cornices over
them, the niches, statues, pillars, circular windows, entabla-
ture, pediments, and balustrade, all in correct proportion and
arrangement. Its principal front was towards Cornhill ; and
on each side there were Corinthian demi-columns, supporting
a compass pediment ; within each of which were niches con-
taining statues of Charles I. and II. in Roman habits, by Bush-
nell. W'ithin the quadrangle there were twenty-four niches
in the intercolumns, with statues of English kings and queens,

 

 

most of the kings before Charles II. being sculptured by ‘

Cibber. The centre of the area had for some time a statue
of Charles II. by Grinlin Gibbons, which was subsequently
displaced for one by Spileer, habited in the Roman style. In
an obscure position under the piazza, the statue of Gresham,
too, had its niche; and nigh to it, that of one, whose modesty
would have been better content had his merit received no
such acknowledgment—Sir John Bernard ; to whom, in his

 

 

 

 

 

 

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397

EXC

 

lifetime, the memorial was erected as a mark of civic respect,
but who could never bring himself to visit the walks
afterwards. , .

The destruction of this building having deprived the mer-
chants of London, for the second time, of their great place of
resort, they were obliged temporarily to assemble in the space
attached to the Excise Office, in Old Broad Street. This
was, of course, attended with much inconvenience to those
accustomed to attend ’Change, and it became therefore a
matter of pressing importance to remove that inconvenience
by the erection of a new building, fitted in every respect for
its purpose, and worthy the merchant-princes of the first
metropolis in the world.

In preparing to re-erect the Royal Exchange, many
interests had to be considered—those of the Underwriters of
Lloyd’s, the Royal Exchange Assurance Company, and the
shopkeepers who had occupied the ground-floor. An act of
parliament was also necessary ; this was applied for, and
obtained. By this act, which received the royal assent on
the 10th of August, 1838, the Joint Gresham Committee were
empowered to purchase and remove all the buildings to the
eastward, extending nearly to Finch Lane, and to raise a sum
of £150,000 upon the credit of the London Bridge Trust.

After considerable delay, the Gresham Committee issued
their advertisements for designs for the new building, but in
doing so, unfortunately did not avoid the errors into which so
many similarly-constituted public bodies have fallen, under
similar circumstances. There is little doubt but that the
Committee intended a fair and honest competition, but with
not singular bad management, they so contrived matters, as

' to bring down on themselves a storm of indignation from all

sides, and to disgust not only the competitors, but the public
in general.

The system pursued of late years in the management of archi-
tectural competitions, has been attended with manifold evils, and
fraught with gross and palpableinjustice to the profession. Has-
tily and inconsiderately commenced, under the control of per-
sons unfitted to sit in judgment on the various designs referred
to their decision, they have in too many instances been
attended by results, as injurious to the best interests of art,
as unfair and unjust to its professors.

In making these remarks, it is not intended to attack the
principles upon which competitions are based; properly con-
ducted, their tendency is unquestionably, not only to call out
the talent and genius of the experienced artist, but to rouse
a spirit of emulation in the young professor, as an assistance
in encouraging rising merit, which without such a, stimulus
might possibly remain undeveloped, or, without such a means
of exercise, unknown and unappreciated.

There may be many advantages attending architectural
competitions, but there is so total a want of security, under the
operation of the present defective system, so general an
impression existing, whether justly or not, that fairness and
impartiality in the decisions cannot always be relied upon,
that the great body of the profession hold themselves aloof
from entering an arena where fair play is, to say'the least,
doubtful. The competition for the Royal Exchange, it is to

be lamented, afforded another proof, if proof were wanting, of '

the truth of these observations.

It is not our purpose to enter on a discussion of the merits
of a controversy which filled many pages of the periodicals
more especially devoted to recording matters connected with
architecture and building, but we think we cannot pass to a
description of the New Exchange, without slightly noticing
the manner in which the design for it was selected, or its
architect appointed.

The folloning are extracts from the—

5 I

 

“ Resolutions of the Gresham Committee, as to Instructions
to the Architects.

“ 1. That architects be invited to offer designs for the re-
building of the Royal Exchange, in general competition, and
that premiums be offered for three designs adjudged by the
Committee to be the best.

“ 3. That the new building be of the Grecian, Roman, or
Italian style of architecture, having each front of stone of a
hard and durable quality.

“6. That a specification be required to accompany each
design, giving a general description of the building, and such
other information as cannot be clearly shown on the drawings,
stating also what stone, or other material, are proposed for
use in the different parts of the building, and specifying par-
ticularly the estimated expense of carrying the designs into
execution in the most substantial and complete manner in
every respect for occupation, the expense not to exceed
£150,000.

“10. That for the design for which the Committee shall
award the first premium, the sum of £300 shall be given;
that for the second design the sum of 200; and for the
third the sum of £100. The successful competitor, to whom
the first premium is awarded, shall not be considered as
having necessarily a claim to be entrusted with the execu-
tion of the work; but if not so employed, and his designs
are carried into execution, a further sum of £500 shall be
paid to him—the Committee retaining possession of all the
drawings for which the premiums have been given.

“ 11. That if reasonable doubts should arise in the minds
of the Committee as to the practicability of carrying into
execution the successful design for the amount of the esti-
mated expense of the building, the Committee shall be at
liberty to call upon the party to give sufficient and satisfac-
tory proof of the accuracy of the calculations, and to with-
hold the premium, and reject the designs, unless such proof
be furnished.”

After issuing these “Instructions,” the Committee appointed
three architects—Sir Robert Smirke, Mr. Gwilt, and Mr.
Hardwick, to examine and advise on the designs which
might be sent in. Above fifty competitors appearedyand
the above gentlemen, after due examination, made a. report to
the Committee, from which we extract the following passages.

“ 1n the first class, those that we think may be executed for
£150,000, we beg to report as follows :—

First......... ............... No 36
Second ......... .............. . ..... ,, 43
Third ..... . ................... ,, 37
Fourth ......... . ...... . ....... . ....... . ,, 33

Fifth.... ............. .. ........ .. ....... ,,
“ In the second class, or that in which we consider the cost
would vastly exceed the sum of £150,000, equal impracti-
cabilities of execution with those of the first class are to be
found ; and, notwithstanding the very great talent they exhi-
bit, there are circumstances of inconvenience and unsuitable-
ness which would bring them, as we conceive, into the pre-
dicament of being unadvisable for adoption. We wish it,
therefore, to be understood, that we report on them respec-
tively as the works of very clever artists, who have produced
pieces of composition in which, besides the circumstances
above-mentioned, stability arising from solid bearings for
upper apartments, and other essential matters, have been
sacrificed to grand architectural features.
“ The designs in the second class, in our estimation of their
order or merit, are as follows :— .

FirstNo 50
Second ..... . ,, 46
Third . ,, 27

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

EXC 398

“ We again venture to state to the Committee the difiicul-
ties which have attended the making of the report herewith
submitted, and which, but for the unanimous decision at
which we have arrived, we confess, might have left doubts
in our minds, if our view had not been confined by the Com-
mittee to the expenditure of a given sum.”

On receiving this report, the Joint Committee met at Mer-
cers’ Hall on Friday, the 18th October, to consider the
report, and again inspect the designs, and came to the follow-
ing resolutions :—

“ Resolved,—That the premiums be awarded to the archi-
tects who have produced the plans numbered as under—

N0. 36 the first premium £300
,, 43 the second “ . .............. £200
,, 37 the third “ ............ £100
being those reported by the architects as the three best

designs.

“ And it was resolved, that Sir R. Smirke, and I. Gwilt,
and P. Hardwick, Esqrs., having stated in their report upon
the respective merits of the plans selected by them, that they
cannot recommend any one to be carried into execution, this
Committee doth request them to take the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd
plans, as selected by them, into consideration, and prepare a
plan and specification for a new Royal Exchange, such as in
their judgment should be carried into execution, having
reference, at the same time, to the printed instructions issued
by this Committee to the architects.”

The following were the architects to whom the premiums
were adjudged.

No. 36, £300, to Mr. William Grellier, district surveyor,
20, Wormwood-street.

No. 43, £200, to M. Alexis De Chateauneuff, of Ham—
burgh; and Mr. Arthur Mee, of Carlton Chambers.

N0. 37, £100, to Mr. Sydney Smirke, of Carlton
Chambers.

The architects of the remaining designs of the first class.

No. 33, Messrs. Wyatt and Brandon.
,, 57, Mr. Pennethorne.

The architects of the second-glass designs, which were con-
sidered too expensive.

No. 50, Mr. T. L. Donaldson.
,, 46, Mr. Richardson.
,, 27, Mr. David Mocatta.

The next step taken by the Committee was to appoint
Mr. George Smith, the City-surveyor, and Mr. Tite, to
inquire into the eligibility of some one of the designs
selected by the umpires for the premiums. Mr. Tite, how—
ever, refused to act, and the onus devolved on Mr. Smith
alone. This gentleman submitted a report to the Com-
mittee, in which he advised the rejection of the whole
of the designs; and the Committee, acting on this advice,
without ceremony threw the supposed successful candi-
dates overboard, and boldly selected six other architects,
whom they requested to send in designs for the contemplated
building. The gentlemen so honoured by the Committee
were Sir R. Smirke, Mr. Barry, Mr. Gwilt, Mr. llardwick,
Mr. Cockerell, and Mr. Tite, the whole of whom, excepting
the two last, declined accepting the invitation, being doubtless
influenced to such course by the bad faith observed to all
parties by the Committee. What also added to the public
dissatisfaction was, that rivalry or competition between Mr.
Cockerell and Mr. Tite was considered out of the question,
from their previous connection. Thus the whole matter
eventually Settled down in Mr. Tite being selected finally to
prepare the design for the new Royal Exchange.

That design we shall now proceed to describe, as given by
Mr. Tite himself, in his explanation to the Committee :—

 

M—mm.w_..~». .__‘

 

income to be derived from the building.

 

E X C
Extent and Site. -

The total length of the building is 293 feet 6 inches, from
the columns of the portico on the west, to the pilasters at the
east end ; the width of the portico is 89 feet 6 inches ; the
extreme width at the east end, at the broadest part, is
175 feet, and the width through the centre, from north to
south, is 144 feet.

The building is placed in the centre between the south
front of the Bank, and a mean line of the irregularities pre-
sented by the houses on the south side of Cornhill ; the
east and west fronts are at right angles to the centre line, and,
of course, the angle formed by the intersection of the north
and south fronts, with the east and west fronts, is the same ;
by this means, the building, though not rectangular, is regu-
lar in the plan. '

Arrangement.

Gresham College occupies the north-west angle of the
building on the principal story, and is entered from the
north.

The Royal Exchange Assurance occupies the south-west
angle, and the space over the west end of the colonnade, on
the one-pair floor, and is entered from the south side of the
loggia, undenthe portico.

The London Assurance occupies the greater part of the
south front on the principal story, and is entered from the
south.

Lloyd’s fills up the remainder of the east and north fronts
of the principal story, and is entered in three places, viz.,
from the east and the north - east corner, and from the
north.

There is a small additional staircase and entrance to the
principal lecture-room of the Gresham College (which I pro-
pose to use for the exit from the lectures only) and this opens
into the loggia under the portico.

The commercial room proposed to be attached to Lloyd’s,
and which, in a letter from Mr. Barnes, of the 26th February,
I am requested so to manage as that it might be appropriated
for oflices, if not eventually required for the above purp05e,
has been accordingly placed by me on the principal story on
the north side. If not required by Lloyd’s, I should propose
to convert this room into a double range of otlices, one
lighted from the street, and the other lighted from the area
of the Exchange, each office having a room over in a third
floor ; the access to these rooms would be by a distinct stair-
case and entrance on the north, for which a distinct shop
must be taken. The mean width of this commercial room
is 39 feet, and its length 96 feet ; allowing, therefore, for an
8 feet passage in the middle, it would provide for 12 sets
of offices, each 16 feet by 15 feet.

The shops and ofiices are very material features of any
design for this building, for, under the 62nd section of the
act for providing a site for the Royal Exchange, the Gresham
Committee are bound to compensate any party holding a lease
in any part of the old Royal Exchange, unless the owner or
lessee is reinstated. As regards the offices, this would pro-
bably only be the value of the difference between the
reserved rent and the actual rent, and not a matter of much
importance; but unless the valuable trades and occupations
round the Exchange are reinstated, the question would
become a. very important one, because it would involve the
good-wills of the parties. The mere question of reinstate-
ment, however, is not the only one ; for it is clear, the

‘ revenue to be obtained from the shops, after the expiration of

the present leases, must form a very important item in any
In order to meet
these requirements, and still, I hope, in no way to injure the
design, I have placed the shops or offices on a level with the

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

EX‘C

399

EXC

 

street, round the north, south, and east sides ; and, inasmuch
as I found that in the old Royal Exchange there were shops
in three of the entrances, and as I could very conveniently
arrangc a few in the east entrance of my design, I have
placed six there. Let the claims, however, arise as they may,
with this plan now under discussion, there could be no diffi-
culty in meeting them all, for the area of all the shops and
offices of all descriptions, in the ground-floor of the Old
Exchange, amounted to 8,106 feet only, whereas, in this
plan, the shops and offices provided, exclusive of the part
appropriated to Lloyd’s, to the Gresham College, the London
Assurance, and the Royal Exchange Assurance, exceeds this
quantity by 1,087 feet, the total being 9,217 feet. The
increased value of all this, and the exact nature of the
accommodation, will, however, be further explained under
other heads of this descriptive particular.
Accommodation.

Gresham College—In considering this department of the
building, I was placed in considerable difficulty, not only
from the total absence of instructions, but because I found,
as well amongst the committee as in society, very considerable
differences of opinion on the subject.

After much reflection, I have, however, arranged what
I hope will be considered a complete establishment for most
purposes, and it is as follows :—On the north side of the
Exchange, about 45 feet from the west end, is an entrance
with a small ball and staircase. In this hall a porter would
be placed, who would prevent the admission of improper
persons.

The entrance-doorway is large, and over it is placed a
shield containing the arms of Sir Thomas Gresham. This
entrance and hall are also quite distinct, and, like all the
other parts or distinct portions of the design, it is separated
by party-walls. On the first landing of the staircase is a
porter’s room, which would also serve for umbrellas, coats,
or cloaks. ‘

On the one-pair, or principal floor, is a lecture-room or
theatre, of a horse-shoe form, the dimensions being 46 feet
6 inches, by 36 feet. To this is added a library or lesser
lecture-room, 25 feet by 24 feet; a lecturer’s or librarian’s
room, 19 feet by 15 feet 6 inches; apparatus-rooms, 16 feet
3 inches by 11 feet; with a water-closet and washing-room ;
and two rooms over the librarian’s, and apparatus-rooms for
some resident servant.

The theatre would seat 250 persons on the floor, and 200
more might be conveniently seated in the gallery. It is
probable, however, that for many lectures or continuous
courses, this might be too much, but for some it might be too
little. I have, therefbre, placed the library at the back of
the theatre, by which, in the latter case, the accommodation
might be increased, or in the former it might be sufficient
in itself for such purposes. The result, therefore, is this,
that for an auditory of 40 or 50 persons, the library would
be sufficient; beyond that number, and up to 450 persons,
the theatre would be the proper place: if a larger number
wereexpecteil, the partition dividing the library from the
theatre might be removed, (as is shown in the plan) by sliding
it into the wall, when, by removing the lecture-table a little
further back, 50 persons more might be accommodated.
Beyond this extent of 500 persons, it is probably undesirable
to carry it further.

If, however, I have erred altogether, and have provided
too much, it is easy to diminish it; or if it is determined to
abandon this site for this purpose, the space so complete and
isolated would readily let by itself, or might be combined
with the unappropriated offices in the north-west angle
immediately under the theatre. It remains to be added, that

 

I have also provided ample vault-room in the basement of
this establishment, and a second staircase connected with
the theatre, and only intended to be used on a crowded
occasion, for the dismissal of so large an audience as 400 or
500 persons, and for a private approach or retreat for the
lecturer.

Royal Exchange Assurance.—This establishment in the
old building occupied apartments in the mezzanine, and on
the one-pair floor. The net area being 5,235 feet, exclusive
of passages, staircases, water-closets, kitchen, and rooms in
the roof. I have had many meetings with the governor
on the subject, and at length I received, so late as the 4th
instant, a list of the rooms, of which I have attached a copy
to this description.

The total area in this is 6,284 feet, but omitting the store-
rooms and kitchen for the sake of comparison, the not quantity
is 5,894 feet. My plan gives this so nearly, and the dimen-
sions of the rooms also correspond so generally with the
requirements, that I need not occupy the time of the Com-
mittee with any further description ; but, in addition, I have
added what appears to me obviously necessary, viz., strong
rooms and cellars in the basement.

As the heights of the floors of this part of the building
differ in some respects from the general section, I beg to add
them here, and they are as follows, viz. : The ground-floor
is 2 feet 6 inches above the level of the floor of the Exchange;
and 6 feet above the street; under this is a lower ground
story, the height being 10 feet with vaults under.

The ground-floor will be 13 feet high, the mezzanine
10 feet, the one-pair floor is 18 feet, except where there are
rooms over, when this will be 13 feet.

London Assurance—I attach a copy of the instructions
received from this company to my letter of the 6th March,
addressed to Mr. Barnes. The total quantity of space
required is 5,553 feet, exclusive of waiting-rooms, water-
closets, &c. ; as some of the rooms seemed extravagant in
size, I have arranged them somewhat less, and the company
express themselves satisfied with my dimensions, the total
being 4,834 feet. '

Lloyd’s.—\Vith regard to this very important establish-
ment, I beg a reference to my letter to Mr. Barnes, of the
6th instant, to which I attached a copy of the new instruc-
tions forwarded by their architect. The total quantity of
space occupied in the old Exchange by this company, exclu-
sive of staircases, was 7,914 feet. The space now required
is 13,781 feet, exclusive of passages, staircases, water-closets,
urinals, &c.; but this includes the commercial room, which
is 4,050 feet. The dimensions of the several apartments in
my plan are very nearly consistent with their requirements,
and the total result the same.

The arrangement of the rooms is best understood by a
reference to the plan of the one-pair floor, and I believe it
to be quite in accordance with the wishes of the Committee.

Shops—I propose that each shop shall have a cellar below,
and, with very few exceptions, a mezzanine over. The
average height of the shops will be 14 feet, the basement-
floor 12 feet, and the mezzanine 10 feet. Each shop will be
secured by party-walls, and roofed with iron beams and
arches under the one-pair floor. The water-closets will be
in the basements, there will be a separate flue in each shop,
and room for the fire-places; and I propose that each shop
and room shall be warmed by an open, or Arnott’s stove, of
the same pattern.

The staircase will be circular, and of cast iron. Staircases
of this kind, though not much known here, have been exten-
sively used in Paris, and are admirably adapted for such
purposes. I have paid every attention to the mode of light

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

EX C 400

EXC

 

ing the deeper shops, and I'hope I have succeeded in obvia-
ting all reasonable apprehension on that subject. The shops
without mezzanines, are one in the south front, one in the north
front, and four in the eastern entrance to the Exchange. In
the area, in the latter case, they are left out, to allow of light
being obtained over the shops to the back parts of the other
premises.

Exchange—The Exchange is entered from four arched
openings in the centre of each side ; the form is a parallelo-
gram, and the inner area exactly a double square. This
form has many advantages, both in point of convenience and
elegance over the old form, and is also better adapted to the
shape of the ground.

As to the level of the floor of the Exchange, I have heard
many opinions; but it appears to me to be of the greatest
importance, that it should be as nearly level with the street
as possible. From the natural fall of the ground, however,
which is quite gradual, but amounts to 3 feet 6 inches in the
length of the building from east to west, it is impossible to
avoid a few steps at the north, south, and west entrances.
This is an advantage at the west end, as it gives heightand
character to the facade or portico; the exact effect and extent
of this fall of the ground is shown in my north and south
elevations. In the shops the steps are avoided, because
they can follow the natural inclination of the ground.

Basement—Much of the basement (or vaults,) is occupied
by the establishments over the respective divisions, and
I have added some to the lesser shops, but there is still
a large space which may be let off, as the basement of the
old building was. I have lighted the basement by area
gratings in the pavement of the Exchange, exactly as
formerly.

The public vaults are approached by two staircases, which
are placed in the eastern entrance. The central area is
proposed to be left without a basement ; it would be difficult

to keep it dry, and I do not know any use to which it could

be applied which would pay for the cost.
Style of Arc/titecture.

This is naturally one of the most important considerations
in the design, and one in which I have most to regret the
limited time I have had to consider this most extensive and
difficult composition. It appears to me, that a building for
essentially commercial purposes should present the character
of grandeur, simplicity, and usefulness. In this way, the
universally acknowledged good effect of the Bourse at Paris
has been obtained. In that building the lines are simple and
unbroken, and the large arched windows surrounding the
walls behind the columns have all the character of shops or
offices. The west front of the Exchange of London, as in
that of Paris, must be the principal feature, the other sides
being bounded by buildings.

Another difficulty arises from the shape of the ground;
because any tower placed to agree with the lines of the south
front must disagree with the lines of the east and west fronts,
which are in different planes ; and such an object, when seen
from a distance, or from the area of the Exchange, would
produce an effect that would be discordant and unarchitec-
tural, because it would bring into distinct notice a fact
which it should be the business of the architect to conceal.
For a long time I contended with this difficulty, because
I was anxious to place the tower or towers in the south front,
but it was impossible to get over the irregularity ; it would,
indeed, have been easy to have concealed this defect in the
drawings, or have kept it out; of notice, but the result, when
built, would only have ended, in myjudgment, in disappoint-
ment and failure. For these reasons, and with these views,
I have composed my design as it is now exhibited. I have

 

 

placed a portico at the west end, and the tower at the east.
The south and north fronts exhibit unbroken lines of entab-
lature, with a repetition of arches of the same character for
the shops, offices, and entrances. We are deficient in Eng-
land, of specimens of architecture of this unbroken kind:
were I to adduce instances, I should quote the National Gal-
lery, as affording an illustration of the bad effect of broken
and detached masses, and the Reform Club, of the excellent
effect of continuous and unbroken ones.

The portico would be very superior in dimensions to any
in this country, and not very inferior to any in the world.
The width, from outside to outside of the 8 columns, is 90
feet, and the height, from the ground to the apex of the
pediment, is 74 feet 6 inches. The portico of St. Martin’s
Church is 64 feet wide and 58 feet high ; that at the Post-
Office 76 feet wide and 67 feet high ; and from these dimen-
sions a fair comparison may be made of the relative size of
the two porticos.

The height of the order used in this edifice is 50 feet, and
the height of the tower, to the top of the vane, is 170 feet.
From the point of View prescribed by the instructions, the
tower is not seen. Had I been at liberty to have removed
the station further to the westward, as to Mansion-House—
street, or the Poultry, the tower would have been seen over
the portico, and the effect of the composition thereby greatly
improved. The sections and view show the exact character
of the interior of the Exchange, the lower story is a colon-
nade of the Doric order, the columns are 34 inches in dia~
meter ; the upper order is Ionic.

Specgfication of the nature of the work—The exami-
nation of the foundations, which I ventured to suggest, has
proved that the nature of the sub-soil is of the best kind for
supporting a large building. At an average of fifteen feet
from the surface, a very compact gravel is found. For the
sake of perfect uniformity, I should excavate sufficiently
for a few feet below this ; and by a uniform bed of concrete,
of the thickness of six feet over the whole surface, a most
certain and safe foundation would be made. The gravel
is full of water, and therefore the drainage must be carefully
considered.

Your conditions require a general Specification, but, with-
out going into full technicalities, I am at a loss to furnish
a specification of any value. I intend everything to be exe-
cuted in the best manner. All external work to be faced
with Portland stone ; all the horizontal divisions that require
it, for the purposes of security from fire, to be constructed
with iron beams and brick arches ; and the ceiling and floor
over the colonnade constructed in the same manner. The
timber used to be all Baltic timber, English oak, or African
teak. Everything to be sufficiently and completely finished
in all respects.

Sculpture—J have not introduced much sculpture into this
design, because the estimate would not allow of it; and I
have, therefore, aimed at a style which did not require it to
any extent. The sculpture introduced as essential to the
architecture, embraces the five panels in the attic of the south
front, and the two figures at the west end. The panels in
the south front are intended to represent Britannia, supported
by the principal cities of the empire, receiving the represen-

~atatives and productions of the four quarters of the world; the

two seated figures in the west front, are emblematical of
Peace and Abundance. There are several shields of arms,
which though not falling exactly under the head of sculpture,
I think it desirable to mention, and they are as follows :—the
escutcheons on the key-stones of the three great arches of the
west front, are the arms of Queen Elizabeth, Charles the II.,
and Queen Victoria. These arms are repeated in the panels

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

EXC

401

EXC

 

of the attic at the east end. In the north and south fronts,

on the keystones of the centre arches, the arms are those of

the City, the Mercer’s Company, and Sir Thomas Gresham.
Estimate.

I estimate the cost of this edifice, as thus described, inclu-
ding the sculpture, at the sum of £143,800.

Income.

I have estimated with great care the income to be derived
from the various shops, offices, and public establishments, pro-
posed in the several floors of the building, by comparing
dimensions and other circumstances, with the previous
lettings, and by the actual value derived from my own expe—
rience ; and I am of opinion that the total net annual value,
if let on lease, would amount to the sum of £8,718 per
annum. In addition to this, if the space allotted to Lloyd’s
commercial room on the north side, and that to the London
Assurance on the south side, were arranged as offices, each
set having two rooms, one over the other, as suggested in an
early part of this statement, though the estimate would be
increased £3,000, I have no doubt this annual income might
be raised to the extent of £800 per annum, making a total
income of £9,500 per annum.

In the drawings themselves,I have carefully laboured to
follow out the instructions under which I undertook this com-
petition. The views are strictly confined to the points of
view prescribed: in the colouring of the views themselves,
and in the drawings of the adjoining buildings, 1 have
laboured to be accurate, and to give as nearly as I could,
the actual effect of this edifice, if it were constructed. I can-
not but feel that a more elaborate style of architecture would
have been productive of more picturesque effects, and it
would have been easy to have produced them; but I have
ventured to come to the conclusion, that nothing but plain
grandeur and elegant simplicity is consistent, either with the
means at the disposal of the Committee, the purposes and uses
of this building, or its situation in the very heart of the
City of London.

\Ve have given at length Mr. Tite’s own description of the
building, as affording the most perfect and complete expla-
nation of every particular connected with it, and also as
showing the many requirements he had to meet, and the
various interests he had to provide for. It is due to him to
say, that he has certainly succeeded in satisfying all parties, in
the convenience of his arrangements for individual benefit,
while he has added to the public buildings of London an
edifice in every respect worthy the first community in the
world. On one part of the design much discussion took
place at the time, viz., whether the area of the new Exchange
should or should not be an open court, as in the old building.
In the instructions issued to the competing architects by the
Gresham Committee, this was insisted on, and, as we are
informed, in compliance with the general opinion of the
merchants and bankers of London. lVith submission, how-
ever, we are strongly inclined to believe that the merchants
and the Gresham Committee might have left this matter,
with benefit, to the discretion of the architects offering
designs, with whom it would have remained to demonstrate
the advantage or defects of either mode of construction,
whether open or covered.

It is worthy of remark that the Bourse at Paris, and at
St. Petersburg, the Exchanges of Dublin and Glasgow, and
almost all modern structures erected for a similar purpose,
are, we believe, roofed in ; one advantage of which is, that
the whole of the area is available, let the weather be as
unfavourable as it may, consequently, the same superficial
extent can accommodate a far greater number of persons than
where it is only partially sheltered, and where a considerable

5K

 

portion must frequently be altogether useless, as far as actual
serviceableness is concerned. The present arrangement
therefore is to be approved of only Where What is thus
sacrificed, with regard to mere convenience and utility, is
amply atoned for by what is gained as to architectural
character and effect.

We do not deny that a cortile, whether surrounded by
columns or by arches, and whether partially or entirely so, is
favourable to scenic effect and display, and, farther, admits
of very great variety as to plan and design. This is suffi-
ciently testified by examples in Italian buildings, Where
cortiles frequently constitute the most striking and beautiful
parts, generally picturesque and piquant, though not always
unexceptionable in design. But then it does not exactly
follow, that because a cortile is beautiful as such, it is eligible
for a purpose requiring more than a sheltered corridor around
the open part ; for, although that kind of shelter is sufficient
for a place of passage to and fro, it certainly does not seem
to be sufficient for one intended for the assemblage of a con-
course of persons, not on particular occasions, when, in case
of the weather proving unfavourable, the company may be
protected from it by awnings provided for the emergency,
but daily, throughout all seasons of the year. When a.
place of the kind already exists, it may conveniently and
properly enough be applied just as it is to the purpose of an
Exchange; its inconvenience may, then, be put up with as
unavoidable. But there is no qualifying circumstance, to
reconcile us to a defect studiously adopted, voluntarily
and with premeditation, to the exclusion not only of positive
convenience, but likewise of originality of design. Either
our climate is most unjustly reproaehed, not only by
foreigners, but by ourselves, or it ought at once to have
banished all idea of rebuilding the Royal Exchange upon the
plan of the former one, as regards that very principal part of
it where the merchants will daily assemble, and to which all
the rest is to be considered as merely supplementary.

Be it any improvement or not, all our lately built markets
are floored with flagstone pavements, and covered in from the
weather, shaded from the burning sun in summer, as well as
sheltered from rain and snow in winter ; nor do we believe
that either the occupiers of them, or their customers, at all
regret the change which has taken place. Nevertheless,
with instances of that kind before their eyes, not in the
Metropolis alone, but at Liverpool, Newcastle, and other
places, the merchants of London have decided that they are
to meet for business as heretofore, within an area only
partially and imperfectly protected from the weather. Even
beneath the colonnades, they must be more or less exposed to
wind and rain, and be inconvenienced by the throng of
persons; whereas, by converting the central space into the
part more particularly appropriated to the transaction of
business, the sides, which might still be separated from it by
colonnades, would be left free for persons passing in or out,
without interruption to those engaged in business.

There may possibly be contrary reasons for not adopt-
ing a mode of building securing the advantages here pointed
out by us; but they have not been brought forward by
others, nor can we divine what they can be. Hardly can it
be objected, that any plan of.the kind would destroy all
peculiarity of character, by converting the Exchange itself
into merely a spacious hall, lighted from above, which, how-
ever it might be decorated, would, in its general effect,
resemble any other public apartment of the same dimensions;
because, although it would no longer be a cortile—an open
space enclosed by facades of external architecture—it might be
kept altogether different from anything we are accustomed to,

, in interior architecture, and appropiately rendered suz‘ generis

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

EXC

402

EXC

 

It will appear a very singular pendent to the above obser-
vations, that we should have to insert the following petition
to the Gresham Committee, from the very parties to oblige
Whom, this “ uncovered” area was insisted on.

“‘ The undersigned Merchants of the City of London are of
opinion, that, in the construction of the new Royal Exchange,
sufficient attention has not been paid to the comfort of those
who attend the same, and beg most respectfully to submit to
the Gresham Committee the following alterations, which are
necessary before they can assemble there without danger to
their health and personal comfort. The alterations sug-
gested are :—“ 1. That the area be covered in. 2. That
some remedy be provided to remove the cold damp from
the pavement. 3. That a remedy be also provided to protect
them from the currents of air.”

The above petition has been signed by Messrs. Barings,
Rothschilds, Heath, Morris Prevost, Doxat and Co., Lemme
and Co., and some hundreds of the first firms in the city.
After much discussion in Committee, the clerk was directed
to communicate to the memorialists :—

“ That in the month of September, in the year 1838, before
the Gresham Committee took any steps whatever as to the
erection of a new building, they applied by circular to most
of the leading merchants and brokers, requesting their opi-
nion as to whether the new Exchange should be a covered
hall, or partially open, as in the original Exchange of
Mr. T. Gresham, and in the one recently destroyed; that
besides, the Committee took every opportunity, by personal
inquiry, of ascertaining the wishes of their fellow-citizens on
the subject; that the result of the circular, and of these
inquiries, was, that a large majority wished the Exchange to
be partially open, as heretofore, alleging the great noise
in the Bourse at Paris, and the necessity for ventilation of
the most free kind, as their reasons for the decision; that
in consequence of this determination, they directed a part of
the merchants’ area to be left uncovered as before, but that,
for greater shelter, they further directed that the covered
space should be increased from one-half, (the proportion of
the space covered in the late building,) to two-thirds; and
that the architect of the present edifice had strictly followed
out these instructions ; and, for these reasons, the Committee
could not comply with the wishes of the merchants; that,
with regard to currents of air, the Committee had directed
such inner doors to be put up, at the north and south
entrances, as might check the draughts, at the same time pro-
viding that such doors should not interfere with the extensive
uses of the area of the Exchange, as a thoroughfare to all
the neighbouring streets, the Bank, the Stock Exchange,
and other important public and private buildings of the
neighbourhood.”

\Ve have given the above, as apropos to the question of a
roofed or unroofed area, thOugh this is hardly the proper
place for a petition delivered some months after the Exchange
had been opened for business. Such a petition, however,
proves clearly the justice of the observations we, in common
with the great body of the profession, have urged to the cen-
tral space of the building having been left uncovered.

To return from this apparent digression—After much con-
sideration as to whether the material employed should be
magnesian limestone, similar to that used for the Houses of
Parliament, it was determined that the whole of the exterior
of the building, with the exception of the socle or stylobate
(which was to be of granite) should be Portland stone
of the best quality. This point having been decided, the
Gresham Committee at length found themselves in a position
to enter on the contracts for the new structure. About
fourteen of the principal builders were applied to, and sent

 

in tenders ; and those of Messrs. Webb for the first contract,
(the excavation and concrete foundation) ; and of Mr. J. J ack»
son for the second (the super-structure),—were accepted. The
first was for £8,000—the last for £115,000.

In excavating the merchants’ area, (originally intended to
have been left solid,) for the purpose of extending the base-
ment beneath that part of the plan : a number of antiquities
were discovered, beneath what was the west wall of the former
building; in particular, the remains of some Roman structure
were found, which proved, on examination, to have been
built on a very large pit or pond, irregular in shape, but
about 50 feet in length from north to south, 34 in breadth,
and 13 in depth. This pit was filled with hardened mud, in
which were immense quantities of bones of sheep, of bones
and horns of Stags, also numerous fragments of the red
Roman pottery, usually called Samian ware, pieces of glass,
and glass vessels, broken lamps, &c., and several copper
coins, two of the emperor Vespasian, the remainder of Domi-
tian—all of which antiquities were, by the terms of the con-
tract, reserved for the Gresham Committee. On Monday
the 17th January, 1842, the first stone was laid by His
Royal Highness Prince Albert, with much state and cere-
mony, a full description of which appeared in the newspapers
of the day; and the works then proceeded with such rapidity,
that in three years from that date the new Royal Exchange
was completed—a very brief space of time for such a work,
especially considering that it consists entirely of stone.

On Monday the 28th of October, 18-14, the Exchange
was opened by Queen Victoria in person. The “pomp and
circumstance” of such a ceremonial are not for a work like the
present, they have been duly chronicled by those publications
which record so faithfully and so minutely events like these :
but the following observations, which appeared in one of the
newspapers at the time, seem so pertinent to the subject, that
we think their insertion here not inappropriate. “ The pre-
sent ceremonial,” says the writer, “ will, in many things,
resemble that which was presided over by the ‘ Virgin
Queen ;’ for state and its Observances partake of the tradi-
tional, and are transmitted down with comparatively slight
changes. But in all else how different! “'hat an empire!
and what a metropolis! How vast the increase in all that
constitutes the strength of nations, in the England of Vic-
toria, since it was the England of Elizabeth! The empire
is one of many tongues and nations; the population of its
chief city is counted, not by thousands, but by hundreds of
thousands; and as for the commerce of the realm and city
of Gresham’s royal mistress, it was, as compared with that of
the England and London of to-day, but as the rivulet to the
ocean ; its development has been as vast as that which could
bring ‘Dodona’s forest from an acorn cup.’ Between the
day on which a Queen of England passed through the Tem-
ple-Gate to open the first Royal Exchange and the hour
which will see another Queen of the same fair land pass
along the same road on the same august errand—great has
been the destiny of England among the nations of the world!
At this point the mind naturally goes forward to the future,
and asks itself the question, what will be the state of this
‘crowning city’ of the traffickers of the earth, when three
centuries shall have passed over the now white walls, the
fair chambers, and sculptured portico, of the new Exchange?
\Vhat will be the condition of the empire, when the gene-
ration that gazes on the pagcantry of to-day, shall—with
many succeeding ones—be mingled with the dust? They
are solemn questions; and, happily for us, can find no answm‘
from human intelligence. The misery of Adam, when the
angel, in Milton's immortal epic, revealed to him the doom ot'
the future race of man, is but a type of what would be. felt

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

EXC

403

EXP

 

by all, if the coming time were not, with infinite wisdom and
mercy, hidden from our ken. The past we know ; the pre-
sent we can govern ; for the future we can only hope, making
our actions such as to render a cheerful hope justifiable.
Let the spirit of commerce, then, when it takes up its new
abode, work with the energy and activity that have always
marked it. Above all, let it preserve that integrity and
commercial honour which have been so long the pride of
the English merchant, and then will it have done the best to
secure a still further development of the wealth, extent,
power, and numbers of that realm over which Elizabeth
watched, and which Victoria now rules; queens who, differ—
ing in much, yet resemble each other in the extent to which
they have commanded the loyalty and affection of the people;
and in this also—that the commercial activity of their
respective ages received the countenance of both. In its
reference to our history, the opening of the NEW ROYAL
EXCHANGE by QUEEN VICTORIA, is one of the most interest-
ing events of modern times.”

We must not conclude our description of this magnificent
building, without reference to the sculpture with which the
new Royal Exchange has been adorned. That by Mr.
Richard Westmacott, in the tympanum of the pediment at
the west front, deserves the earliest and highest mention, both
from its position and its merit. Allegorical in subject, it
nevertheless avoids the objections to which such compositions
are generally liable. It consists of seventeen figures, carved
in compact limestone, and, with two exceptions, modelled as
entire and detached figures. The centre figure, which is ten
feet high, represents Commerce ; with her mural crown, her
cornucopia, bee-hive, and other accessories. Her left hand
holds the charter of the Exchange, her right rests on part of
a ship ; two dolphins and a shell forming her pedestal. The
groups on either side consist, on the right, of three British
merchants in their civic robes—as lord-mayor, alderman, and
common-councilman ; two Asiatics, a Hindoo, and a Moham-
medan, in appropriate costume; a Greek bearing a jar; an
Armenian scholar, and a Turkish merchant; and, on the
left, of two British merchants examining some woven fabric
shown to them by a. Persian; a Chinese; a sailor of the
Levant; a negro; a British sailor cording a bale of cot-
ton, &c.; a super-cargo, or factory agent. The opposite
angles are filled with anchors, jars, packages, and, other nau-
tical and commercial emblems. The arches of the upper
story are decorated with the arms of various nations, accord-
ing to the order determined at the congress of Vienna the
arms of England occupying the centre of the eastern side.
The sheltered walk for the merchants also has the ceiling and
sides panelled, painted, and emblazoned with the arms of
countries and monarchs; namely, Edward the Confessor,
Edward 111., Elizabeth, and Charles II. In the south-east
angle there is a statue of Queen Elizabeth, and in the south-
west a statue of Charles II.

It only remains now to speak of the statues of Queen
Victoria inside the building, and of the Duke of Wellington
without. The latter is a bronze equestrian figure, by
Chantrcy, and was composed of the metal of the guns taken
in battle, contributed by the government, and valued at
£1,500. The cost of the statue itself was £900. It was com-
pleted on the anniversary of “Taterloo, the 18th June, 18I4,
when the inauguration took place, at which the King of
Saxony, who was in England at the time, attended. The
marble statue of the Queen, by Lough, in the centre of the
merchants’ area, was not placed on its pedestal until the
27th of October, 1845. An interesting fact is recorded by
historians respecting the statue of Gresham. During
the raging of the great fire of 1666 : “ \Vhen the fire

 

 

was entered,” writes the old chronicler, “how quickly did
it run ro‘und the galleries, filling them with flames; then
descending the stairs, compasseth the walks, giving forth
flaming volleys, and filling the court with sheets of fire.
By-and-by the kings fell all down on their faces, and the
greater part of the stone building after them, the founder’s
statue alone remaining.”

It is a remarkable fact, that this statue was again saved
in the fire of 1838.

The gates of the Exchange are exceedingly handsome.
They are made of wrought-iron, the decorations being cast-
iron. In the centre of the gates, on either side, are the arms
of the City of London, and of the Mercers’ Company, with
the cipher of Sir Thomas Gresham, (T. G.,) very ingeniously
introduced. In the ornamental heads of the gates, the rose,
thistle, and shamrock appear entwined.

After the publication of the first portion of this article,
the following paragraphs appeared in The Times; and we
think we cannot better conclude our account of the Exchanges
of London, than by recording so high and so well-deserved a
compliment, to the designer of the Coal Exchange:—-“ A piece
of plate, weighing 222 ounces of silver, was presented to the
City architect, for services which are sufficiently indicated
by the inscription: ‘Presented to I. B. Banning, Esq., by
the coal-factors and merchants of the City of London, as
a testimonial of their admiration of his genius and judgment
in the erection of the Coal Exchange, and of his urbanity
throughout the progress of the structure ; which is not more
approved of by those for whose use and convenience it was
designed, than by the public at large, for its taste and ele-
gance as a work of art. Anno Domino M.D.CCCL.’ The plate
was presented by Mr. Harris, as the organ of the coal-
factors, with an appropriate speech. In addition to this
pleasing compliment to Mr. Running, the coal—factors and
merchants have signed a declaration, for presentation to the
Corporation of the City, of their satisfaction of all the accom-
modations provided for them by means of the New Coal
Exchange, which they attribute to a union of talent on the
part of the architect, which has enabled him to produce an
edifice which, whilst it embodies all the requirements of the
coal—factors and merchants as men of business, is, at the same
time, in design, taste, and judgment, the admiration of the
numerous strangers who daily visit it, as one of the chief
objects of interest and of art in the City of London.”

EXEDRJE, (from the Greek eEeEpat, a parlour) among
the ancients, places wherein the philosophers, sophists, and
rhetors, held their conferences and disputes. They are
supposed to have been recesses in the walls, or little chapels,
answering to what we call chapters in the Cloisters of monks,
or collegiate churches.

Also applied to an apse or recess in a building, or to a
projecting porch, in short, to any addition to a building. In
the early Christian church, the term is applied to all the
buildings within the consecrated enclosure which were
detached from the church. Such were the baptisteries,
vestries, diaconica, schools, libraries, and such like.

EXENTRIC, or ECCENTRIC, (from the Latin eccentficus)
in geometry, a term applied to two circles or spheres, in
which, though in some measure the one is contained within
the other, yet the two have not the same centre, and conse-
quently their surfaces are not parallel. The word is opposed to
concentric, where they are parallel, and have the same centre.

EXOSTRA, in the ancient theatre, a place where such
parts of the play were recited as were supposed to be acted
)rivately in the house.

EXPANSION, (from the Latin, expando) that degree of
increment, which a body is susceptible of extending in one

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

EXP

404

 

or more of its dimensions by heat. Bodies of every kind,
as far as we are acquainted with them, are expanded in bulk
by heat, and are contracted by cold; and to this law there
are but few exceptions, which will be noticed in due time.
The expansions, or the increments of bulk, are not exactly
proportional to the increments of heat in the same body; nor
are diflferent bodies expanded alike by the like elevation of
temperature. Thus, if a quantity of water be increased one
inch in bulk by the communication of ten degrees of heat,
the communication of twice or thrice as much more heat will
not cause it to expand two or three inches more. Also, if
a rod of gold, and another similar rod of glass, be heated
to the same degree, their increments of bulk, arising thereby,
will not be equal, the gold expanding more than the glass.

Of the three principal states of natural bodies, viz., solids,
liquids, and elastic fluids, the solids are expanded least; the
liquids are expanded more than the solids; but the elastic
fluids are expanded a vast deal more than the liquids. The
knowledge of the precise quantities of these expansions of
bodies is of great use in philosophy, in mechanics, and in
other scientific subjects; hence no pains have been spared
by philosophers to investigate and ascertain them; various
instruments have been contrived for that purpose ; innumer-
able experiments have been instituted; and a great many
useful results have been obtained. Of these results we shall
now endeavour to give a regular and distinct account.

The instruments which have been contrived for the pur-
pose of measuring the expansions of solids arising from an
elevation of temperature, are called pgrometers. The
objects which must be had in View in the construction of
pyrometers, are to form a steady frame, wherein solids of a
certain length may be applied either successively, or several
of them at the same time ; some contrivance by which those
metallic bodies may be heated to any required degree ; and
a mechanism capable of measuring the increase of bulk which
is caused by the heat; and this may be accomplished by
means of multiplying wheels, by levers, by screws, by a
microscopical micrometer, or otherwise.

Some of the first determinations of the expansion of bodies,
that may be considered as being sufficiently accurate, were
made by Mr. Ellicot, with a pyrometer of his contrivance.
Mr. Ellicot determined the proportional expansions of seven

metallic bodies by the same elevation of temperature. They
are as follow :—
Gold. Silver. Brass. Copper. Iron. Steel. Lead.
73. 103. 95. 89. 60. 56. 149.

Mr. Smeaton contrived a much better pyrometer, and
with it he determined the expansions of several solids.
M. De Luc also contrived a pyrometer of a peculiar con-
struction ; but Mr. Ramsden’s pyrometer is superior to any
other contrivance of the kind.

The following table shows, in parts of an inch, how much
one foot’s lengthof difl‘erent substances is expanded by 180°
of heat, Fahrenheit’s scale, between the freezing and the
boiling points of water. To the first seven substances
(which were examined in Mr. Ramsden’s most accurate
pyrometer) there are added the expansions for a single
degree of heat. The others were determined by Mr. Smeaton
with his pyrometer.

Fahrenheit’s Scale.
W

By 1° By 180°

Standard brass scale, supposed to
be Hamburg brass ..... 0.0001237 0.0222646
Englishplatebrass in form ofarod 0.0001262 0.0227136

English plate brass in form of

a trough 0.0001263 0.0227386

 

E X P
Fahrenheit’s Scale.
By 10 By 180°
Steel rod .................. ...... 0.0000763 0.0137368
Cast-iron prism ..................... 0.0000740 0.0133126
Glass tube ........................... 0.0000517 0.0093138
Solid glass rod ..................... 0.0000539 0.0096941
White glass barometer tube ..... . .................. 0.0100
Martial regulus of antimony ............... 0.0130
Blistered steel ....................................... 0.0138
Hard steel ................ . .................... 0.0147
Iron ..... ........... ............ 0.0151
Bismuth ............ ....... . ....................... .. 0.0167
Copper hammered ..... . ..................... . ........ 0.0204
Copper eight parts, with tin one part ......... 0.0218
Cast brass .................... ........... 0.0223
Brass sixteen parts, with tin one part ........ 0.0229
Brass wire .................... . ........................ 0.0232
Speculum metal ....................................... 0.0232
Spelter solder, viz., of brass two parts, and of
zmc one ........... . ................................. 0.0247
Fine pewter ............. .. .............................. 0.0271
Grain tin .......... . ......................... . ........... 0.0298
Soft solder, viz., lead two parts, tin one ......... 0.0301
Zinc eight parts, with tin one, a little 11am-
mered .................. . ......... .. ....... 0.0323
Lead ............ . ............................. . ........ 0.0344
Zinc or spelter ...... . ................................ 0.0353
Zinc hammered half an inch per foot ............ 0.0373

Iron, instead of being condensed into a smaller bulk,
expands 111 its transition from a fluid into a solid state ; so 3
that a quantity of iron occupies more room in the solid form

than it does in a fused state.

Dr. \Vollaston, in order to form some estimate of the com-
parative rate of expansion of platina and palladium, says,
“ I riveted together two thin plates of platina and palladium,
and observing that the compound plate, when heated, became
concave on the side of the platina; I ascertained that the
expansion of palladium is in some degree the greater of the
two. By a similar mode of comparison I found that palla-
dium expands considerably less than steel by heat.” P/u'l.
Trans. for 1805.

It must be remarked, with respect to the expansion of
glass, that sometimes glass tubes are extended more than
solid glass rods ; their dilatation, however, is not constant ;
for tubes of different diameters, or of diti‘erent sorts of glass,

l
l

are expanded diflerently by the application of like degrees

of heat.

“'ood is not much expanded longitudinally, that is, in the
direction of its fibres, by heat; and this is particularly the
case with deal and other straight-grained wood. Probably,

upon the whole, the longitudinal expansion of wood is less ‘

than that of glass. It has been observed, tespecially by
Dr. Rittenhouse, Trans. oft/re American Phil. Society) that

very dry and seasoned wood, if not exposed to a verv high .

or to a very low temperature, will expand in length pretty
regularly; otherwise its expansion by heat, and its contrac-

tion by cold, are very irregular: for they seem to depend -

partly upon the heat, and partly upon the moisture, which
the wood acquires in certain circumstances, and is deprived
of in others. It is hardly necessary to mention, that the
solids of the preceding table contract their dimensions by
cooling, as much as they are expanded by heating; thus, for
instance, if 21 yards length of any particular metallic body.
by being heated 100 degress above the actual temperature of
the atmosphere, be lengthened one-fiftieth part of an inch ;
afterwards, when cooled down to the temperature of the

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

EXP

405

EXP

 

atmosphere, it will be found to have lost exactly that fiftieth
part of an inch which it had acquired by heating.

From the experiments hitherto made on the expansions of
solids by heat, no correspondence has been observed between
the expansions and the quantities of caloric they are capable
of absorbing. The fusibility of metals seems to coincide
with the dilatations ; platina, the least fusible of the metals,
dilatcs the least; lead dilates most; and the most fusible
glass is also the most dilatable. We may therefore conclude
with M. Berthollet, that bodies are so much the more expan-
sible, the less caloric they require, to change their consti-
tution from solid to liquid, and from liquid to gases or
vapours. *

There is a substance which expands when heated, but
does not contract when cooled ; and of this singular property,
Mr. Wedgwood availed himself for the construction of his
ingenious thermometer for measuring the highest degrees of
heat ; viz., those degrees which exceed the scale of the mer-
curial thermometer. The substance alluded to is the argil-
laceous earth or clay, and it appears that the above-men-
tioned property belongs, more or less, to argillaceous bodies
of every kind. This property may at first sight appear to be
an unaccountable exception from the general law : the diffi-
culty, however, will vanish, if it be considered that bodies
of the argillaceous genus contain a considerable quantity of
water, and that the contraction of these bodies, when exposed
to the action of a strong fire, is in a great measure due to the
escape of the water, and hence they do not contract by sub-
sequent cooling.

EXPERIENCE, knowledge derived from trials, long use,
practice, or a series of observations. Experience consists in
the ideas suggested by what we have seen, read, or done: we
reflect on these things, and the judgment forms for itself a
rule or standard, which standard is experience.

Authors make three kinds of experience : the first is the
simple uses of the external senses, whereby we perceive the
phenomena of natural things, without any direct attention
thereto, or making any application thereof.

The second is, when we premeditatedly and designedly make
trials of various things, or observe those done by others,
attending closely to all effects and circumstances.

The third is that preceded by an apprehension of an event,
and determines whether the apprehension were true or false;
the two latter kinds, especially the third, are of great service
in philosophy.

EXPERIMENT, (from the Latin experimentum,) a trial,
an act, or operation designed to discover some unknown truth,
principle, or effect, or to establish it when discovered. In
philosophy, it means the result of certain applications, dis-
positions, or combinations, of natural bodies, made with some
particular view. The history of physical science from the
commencement of the present century, strikingly demonstrates
how powerful an instrument experiment is in the discovery
of facts. Experiments are said to be mechanical, or chemi-
cal, or electrical, or magnetical, &c., according to the subject
to which they more immediately belong. The object of
making experiments is to ascertain either certain causes or
certain phenomena; and for the proper attainment of these
objects, care must be had to institute experiments that
admit of no equivocal result, and so as to answer the purpose
in the quickest and most direct way. The main object, how-
ever, of the inquiry can seldom be determined by a single
decisive experiment ; hence, in most cases, it becomes neces-
sary to divide the question into parts, and to ascertain each
part separately by one or more appropriate experiments.
When the experiment is so prescribed, as to decide the ques-
tion without any possible doubt or equivocation, it has in that

5 L

 

case frequently been called experimentum crucis ,- a crucial
experiment, meaning a capital or decisive experiment; such
as supersedes the necessity of instituting more experiments
for the same purpose. The origin of the expression experi-
mentum crucis has by some been derived from its being
a kind of torture, whereby the nature of the question is, as
it were, extorted by force. It has been also attributed, by
others, though with less apparent probability, to the guide
or instruction which it affords, like that of a direction-post,
which is shaped somewhat like a cross.

It is not practicable to give any instructions for the right
performance of experiments in general; for not only every
subject, but every particular question belonging to any sub-
ject, must be determined by a particular mode of inves-
tigation. The experimenter can only be instructed by prac-
tice. The nature of the subject, a strict attention to every
apparent circumstance, an accurate statement of particulars,
and an unprejudiced mode of reasoning, will easily suggest a
proper train of experiments which the subject in question
may admit of. It deserves to be remarked, that though in
the investigation of any subject, the philosopher proposes
a certain order of investigation, (and it is always proper to
propose to one-self some such plan or train of experiments ;)
yet it is but seldom that the proposed plan can, or deserves
to be, strictly executed ; for the result of the first or second
experiment frequently points out a new tract, or a more pro~
mising road; in consequence of which, new and different
trials must be instituted; it is in the ready adoption of
such plans as may be best suited to the last indications, that
the genius of the philosopher is rendered conspicuous.

Such mode may suffice for the determination of any doubt-
ful point ; but when a discovery has been made, and is to be
explained to other persons, then it is of use to show the
same result by different experiments; for it is not only a
satisfaction to have several concurring proofs of the same
proposition ; but it is also rendered intelligible to a greater
number of readers or hearers ; it being seldom the case, that
the same experiment conveys an equal degree of conviction
and satisfaction to the mind of everybody.

EXPERIMENTAL PHILOSOPHY. Philosophy, from
the Greek philosophic, (¢L>\00’0¢Ld,) literally signifies “love
of wisdom or knowledge,” and a philosopher, (¢Ll\060l])og,) is
a lover of wisdom. Pythagoras is said to have been the first
person who called himself philosopher, from which appellation
the word philosophy was derived, meaning the love of general
knowledge. The terms philosophy, philosophical, philosopher,
are often used in our language apparently with no great pre-
cision, though it is not difficult to deduce from the use of
these terms the general meaning or notion which is attached
to them. We speak of the philosophy of the human mind,
as being, of all philosophies, that to which the name philosophy
is particularly appropriated ; and so also, by using qualifying
terms, we speak of natural philosophy, experimental phi-
losophy, &c.

If this knowledge or philosophy relate to the manners, the
duties, or the conduct of human beings, considered in a
rational and social light, it is called moral philosophy ; if to
the phenomena of natural bodies—natural philosophy. Expe-
rimental philosophy, as will be shown hereafter, may be
defined as the philosophy of proof, in contra-distinction to
the philosophy of opinion, to the manners, the duties, and
the conduct of human beings, considered in a rational and
social light, or to the phenomena of natural bodies, so it
has been called either moral philosophy or natural
plu'losop/zy.

The philos0phers of the primitive ages, among the Greeks,
Romans, &c., in explanation of the phenomena of nature.

 

 

 

 

 

 

_ - EXP . 406

< such as the motions of the celestial bodies, the rain, snow,

frost, thunder and lightning, the rainbow, the combustion of
fuel, the production of animals and vegetables, and so forth,
generally offered the inadequate suggestions of their imagi-
nations, which, though mostly unintelligible, and frequently
in the greatest degree absurd, were nevertheless received
with deference by their scholars, and were propagated with
fidelity and diligence from one generation to another. Their
acquiescence rested merely on the authority of the teacher.
That these explanations were generally inadequate and
absurd, is easily evinced by observing, that different contem-
porary philosophers entertained and taught opinions diametri-
cally opposite to each other, though they related to the very
same question; and that subsequent philosophers have, by
actual observations, and unerring demonstrations, shown their
fallacy. It may amuse an inquisitive mind to observe, that
whilst the exertions of the early mathematicians, whose pro-
ductions have obtained the admiration of subsequent gene-
rations, were strictly rational and correct, the investigations
of their contemporary philosophers were conducted in a man-
ner altogether slovenly and superficial. This method of phi-
losophizing prevailed for a very long period, and several
centuries elapsed,_ during which the knowledge of nature
made no progress deserving of notice, excepting a few rare
and accidental discoveries.

The 15th century, which was productive of the greatest
events and the most consequential discoveries that history
can record, seems to have given a new turn to the subject of
natural philosophy. The old tenets began to be doubted,
and the energies of the human mind began to manifest their
unfettered powers. In the next century, the incoherent
dogmas of the preceding ages were freely combated; the
authority of names and sects was disregarded, and, in lieu of
opinions, the explanation of natural phenomena was referred
to the evidence of actual experiments. Then was introduced
the appellation of experimental philosophy, by which is
meant, the knowledge of natural powers and natural effects
acquired by means of experiments or trials. The least
reflection readily showed the superiority of this new method
of philosophizing; but, independent of any other considera-
tion, its establishment is principally due to the success with
which it was attended, and which exceeded even the most
sanguine expectations of its first promoters. No sooner was
it adopted, than discoveries of importance were made, old-
established errors were detected, and the subject of philosophy
assumed an entirely new aspect.

It is undoubtedly true, that in this mode of investigation
the experiments must be preceded by hypothesis, or supposi-
tion; for a man cannot begin to make experiments without
the previous formation of a certain plan; but then the plan,
the supposition, or the hypothesis, goes no farther than to
propose something, the confirmation or refutation of which
is referred to the result of experiments, assisted by mathe-
matical calculation. In the 13th century, the necessary
preliminaries for the improvementof natural knowledge began
to be made; viz., collections of what then prevailed under
the denomination of scientific knowledge, natu ‘al knowledge,
secrets of nature, and the like; and the farrago of truths,
errors, inconsistencies, doubts, and perplexities, which these
Works contain, is strange indeed. Among the few who
effectually began to work in the experimental mode of inves-
tigation, during that century, Friar Bacon held the most
distinguished place. His desire of information was great;
his views extensive; his mind clear and capaeious; and he
is said to have spent about £2,000 (a sum very considerable
at that time) in the performance of his numerous philosophical
experiments. Bautista Porta also distinguished himself for

 

 

EXP‘

similar pursuits in Italy. This inquisitive person lived at
Naples, and about the year 1560 formed a society of scientific
persons, who met in his own house. The great Galileo, who
was born in Italy, in the year 1564, became famous as a
philosopher and a mathematician, towards the latter end of
that century and the beginning of the next. His genius,
superior to the prejudices of the times, investigated and
established several leading propositions in natural philosophy;
and his success, ,his example, and his precepts disseminated
a universal ardour for the true mode of investigating the
powers and the effects of natural bodies. His successor,
Torricelli, was not unworthy of a most distinguished rank
amongst the philosophers of the age; and the Torricellian
tube, or the barometer, is a magnificent monument of his
experimental inquiries.

In England, as we have already mentioned, Friar Bacon
was the first promoter of true knowledge ; but a great part
of the work of philosophical reformation was accomplished
by another inquiring genius of the same name. Francis
Bacon, lord-chancellor of England, gave a fresh and vigorous
impulse to the progress of experimental inquiry. He recorded
a vast number of facts, proposed and executed a great many
experiments, and nothing that related to nature seemed to
be below his notice.

These early reformers of philosophy, besides other obvious
difficulties, were obliged to struggle against, and the success
of their labours was much impeded by, the erroneous notions
which then prevailed, and which had been long rooted in the
minds even of the most able persons then living. Galileo
was oppressed by the ignorance and prejudices of the clergy.
Crichton, who flourished about the latter end of the 16th
century, wrote an able book expressly against the vain
philosophy of Aristotle, which had long been read in the
schools. The two Bacons, and other able writers, frequently
allude to, and strenuously endeavour to remove, the absurd
and fanciful notions of their contemporaries. In short, the
demolition of the old defective fabric, proved nearly as
laborious as the erection of the new structure.

The reform which had been begun by the above-mentioned,
and other worthy persons, was soon after completed by the
extraordinary genius of Newton. This truly great man, like
a luminary of the first magnitude, illustrated whatever came
within the limits of his notice, and his notice was employed
in the greatest and most admired works of the creation. His
method was to institute experiments, to examine the pheno-
mena with accuracy, and to ground upon them the strictest
mathematical reasoning. The conviction which such a
rational method conveyed, and the numerous discoveries
with which it was attended, completely exploded the old

tenets, and established the only true method of investigating

nature.
The progress of experimental philosophy might have been

interrupted by the death of a single individual ; for it does ‘
but seldom occur that genius, health, opulence, and other ;

opportunities, concur in the qualification of an experimental

philosopher; but the danger was in great measure averted .

by the institution of philosophical societies. These societies,
by bringing together learned men, and concentrating, as it

were, their efforts against the ignorance and prejudice of the

age; by uniting the efforts of several ingenious labourers,
by furnishing in great measure the means of investigation,
by encouraging improvements, and by recording and propaga-
ting the results, at length succeeded in establishing the pro-
gress of knowledge in a regula ‘ and permanent channel.
The first society of the kind which we find recorded, is
that which we have already mentioned at the house of
Baptista Porta, in Naples, towards the latter end of the

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

EXP

407

EXP

 

16th century. It was called “ Academia Secretorum Naturae.”
Next to this, and before the end of the same century, the
academy, called the Lyncei, was founded at Rome, and was
rendered famous throughout the world, principally by the
renown of one of its members, the great Galileo. The
Academy del Cimento, and several other associations of
scientific persons, were established in the succeeding, viz.,
the 17th century. Amongst those associations the first rank
must be assigned to the Royal Society of London. This
most learned and distinguished society had its origin soon
after the middle of the 17th century. A few men of learn~
ing began to meet at stated times in VVadham college, Oxford;
and among those persons were the following conspicuous
characters : viz., Dr. Ward, Mr. Robert Boyle, Dr. Wilkins,
Sir William Petty, Mr. Matthew Wren, Dr. Wallis, Dr.
Goddard, Dr. Willis, Dr. Bathurst, Dr. Christopher Wren,
and Mr. Rooke. From Oxford this association transferred
its meetings in the year 1658, to Gresham college, in London.
There they increased their number; and soon after the restora-
tion of Charles II, the society received a royal charter,
which established it in the form that has been continued
ever since.

The objects of the universe, or the natural bodies which
affect our senses, become known and useful to us by their
properties, some of which affect one of our senses, whilst
others affect some other sense. Thus we perceive luminous
bodies through our eyes, sound through our ears, heat or
cold by the touch or feel, &c. Some of these properties are
called general, like gravity and extension, because they
belong to all bodies; and others, like transparency and
fluidity, are called particular, because they belong to certain
bodies only. The better we become acquainted with the
properties of natural bodies, the more extended the sphere
of our powers and of our advantages becomes; and it
is for the discovery of these properties, either in simple
or in compound bodies, that experimental inquiries are
instituted.

In the acquirement of knowledge, the human being has no
other assistance besides that of his senses, and of his reason-
ing faculty. By the first he observes and acquires ideas of
self-evident propositions, or properties of natural bodies; such
as the human mind cannot dissent from without manifest
violence to its perceptions; by the second he is led from one
of these evident simple propositions, to another strictly
depending upon the first, then to a third strictly depending
upon the second, and so on, to the acquisition of some idea
more complex, and less apparent at the first annunciation.
The constant observations of philosophers, with Sir Isaac
Newton at their head, and the dictates of plain reasoning,
have furnished certain axioms and certain rules of philoso-
phizing, the propriety of which is too evident to be
objected to.

The axioms of philosophy, or the axioms which have been
deduced from common and constant experience, are so evident,
and so generally known, that it will be suflicient to mention
a few of them only.

1. Nothing has no property; hence

2. No substance, or nothing, can be produced from
nothing. '

3. Matter cannot be annihilated, or reduced to nothing.

.The propriety of the last axiom may perhaps not be
readily admitted by certain persons ; observing that a great
many things appear to be utterly destroyed by the action of
fire ; also that water may be caused to disappear by means
of evaporation; and so forth. But it must be observed, that
in these cases the substances are not annihilated; they are
only dispersed, or removed from one place to another, and by

 

being divided into particles very minute, they elude our
senses, and escape our immediate notice. Thus, when a
piece of wood is placed upon the fire, the greatest part of it
disappears, and a few ashes only remain, the weight and bulk
of which do not amount to the hundredth-part of the weight
and bulk of the original piece of wood. In this case the
piece of wood is divided into its constituent principles, which
the action of the fire drives different ways. The fluid part,
for instance, becomes steam, the light coaly part either
adheres to the chimney, or is dispersed through the air, &c.,
so that if, after the combustion, the scattered materials were
collected, (which may in great measure be accomplished,)
the sum of their weights would equal the weight of the
original piece of wood. .

4:. Every effect has, or is produced by, an adequate cause,
and is proportionate to it.

It may, in general, be observed, with respect to these
axioms, that we only mean to assert what has been constantly
shown, and confirmed by experience, and is not contradicted,
either by reasoning, or by any known experiment. But we
do not mean to assert that they are as evident as the axioms
of geometry; nor do we in the least presume to prescribe
limits to the agency of the Almighty Creator of every
thing, whose power and whose ends are too far removed
from the reach of our finite understandings. .

Having thus stated the principal axioms of philosophy, it
is in the next place necessary to mention the rules of phi-
losophizing, which have been formed, after mature consi-
deration, for the purpose of preventing errors as much as
possible, and of leading the student of nature, along the
shortest and safest path, to the attainment of true and useful
knowledge. These rules may be reduced to four, Viz.

l. \Ve are to admit no more causes of natural things,
than such as are both true, and sufficient to explain. the
appearances.

2. Therefore, to the same natural effects we must, as far as
possible, assign the same causes.

3. Such qualities of bodies as are not capable of increase,
or of decrease, and which are found to belong to all bodies
within the reach of our experience, are to be esteemed the
universal qualities of all bodies whatsoever.

4. In experimental philosophy we are to look upon propo-
sitions collected by general induction from phenomena, as
accurately, or very nearly true, notwithstanding any contrary
hypothesis that may be imagined, till such time as other phe-
nomena occur, by which they may either be corrected, or
may be shown to be liable to exceptions.

W'ith respect to the degree of evidence which ought to be
expected in natural philosophy, it is proper to remark, that
physical matters are not, in general, capable of such absolute
certainty as the branches of mathematics. The propositions
of the latter science are clearly deduced from a set of axioms
so very simple and evident, as to convey perfect conviction to
the mind ; nor can any of them be denied without a manifest
absurdity. But in natural philosophy we can only say, that
because certain particular effects have been constantly pro-
duced under certain circumstances, therefore they Will most
probably continue to be produced as long as the same circum-
stances exist; and likewise that they do, in all probability,
depend upon those circumstances. And this is what we
mean bylaws of nature, viz., certain effects which are, or
have been uniformly, produced by certain causes, as far as our
observations reach.

\Ve may, indeed, assume various physical principles, and
by reasoning upon them, we may strictly demonstrate the
deduction of certain consequences. But as the demonstration
goes no farther than to prove, that such consequences must

I l

 

 

 

 

 

 

EXP

408

EXP

 

necessarily follow the principles which have been assumed ;
the consequences themselves can have no greater degree of
certainty than the principles are possessed of; so that they
are true, or false, or probable, according as the principles
upon which they depend are true, or false, or probable.

The foundations of experimental philosophy, as we have
already observed, are the properties of natural bodies, Viz.,
of all those bodies, either solid or fluid, which in any way
afi'ect any of our senses ; and since our senses are affected by
the properties of these bodies, viz, by their extension, colour,
hardness, transparency, 810., we cannot know any more of
these bodies than what is manifested to us by such properties
only as we are able to perceive. Were we furnished with
other senses, doubtless we might discover other properties
which would make us more intimately acquainted with the
nature of such bodies.

Human art has not been able to discover more senses
than those which everybody knows; but it has, in great
measure, improved some of those which we possess, and this
alone is sufficient. to point out the limited nature of our per-
ceptions. Thus, for instance, the discovery of the micro-
scope and the telescope have shown us wonders, of which
our forefathers were utterly ignorant ; and the number and
variety of these wonders have increased, in proportion as the
above-mentioned instruments have been improved. The
improvements of these instruments have been suggested by
the discoveries that have been made respecting the refrangi-
bility of light, and the properties of transparent bodies, and
these have been made in consequence of the innumerable
experiments that have been instituted by various intelligent
persons. Thus it appears, that by means of trials and obser-
vations, new facts are ascertained, which, besides their being
immediately useful to the human species, furnish, at the same
time, the means of making farther discoveries ; and the trea-
sures of the natural world are far, indeed, from a state of
exhaustion. Hence the improvements and the discoveries
of experimental philosophy proceed in a kind of increasing
geometrical progression; unless they be impeded by some
extraordinary occurrence.

In contemplating the intimate nature of natural bodies,
when our mind goes beyond the bounds of our senses, (and
our senses, even with the assistance of instruments and rea-
soning, are only capable of perceiving a few properties of
those bodies 3) we wander in the boundless field of probability
and conjecture. Two principal hypotheses have been enter-
tained with respect to the primitive component particles of
bodies. One is, that the particles of each peculiar species
of bodies are difl‘erent from the particles of another species of
bodies. Thus the primitive particles of gold are supposed
to be different from the particles of calcareous earth, ditferent
from the particles of water, 8L0. The other hypothesis is,
that there is one kind of primitive, or original particles of
matter, and that from the different ar‘angement of those
ultimate particles, the various bodies arise. Experience shows,
that certain bodies, which at first sight appear to be abso-
lutely different from each other, are, upon farther exami-
nation, exactly of the satne nature. On the other hand,
a vast number of bodies are so distinct from each other, that
no art has been able to form one of them from the particles
of the other ; thus gold cannot be converted into a diamond,
iron cannot be converted into lead, &c. The former of these
observations seems to favour the second hypothesis ; the latter
seems to favour the first hypothesis; but it is not in our
power to determine the real state of the matter. ,

With respect to the number of bodies, which, by our not
being able to change one of them into the other, are called
elementary, or primitive and distinct; it may be remarked,

 

that new bodies are frequently discovered in proportion as
new instruments, and the improvements of science in general,
furnish us with the means of discriminating them from
others. We are thus naturally led to conclude, that in all
probability there exists a vast number of other bodies, of
which we at present have not the least suspicion. Some
of these may perhaps be discovered hereafter, others may
remain utterly unknown to the human species for ever.

The properties of natural bodies, which are the objects of
research to the experimental philosopher, are either general,
or particular. The general properties, which belong to all
kinds of bodies, are, as far as we know, not more than six ;
Viz., extension, divisibility, impenetrability, mobility, vis
inertiae, or passiveness, and gravitation. We have said that
these are the general properties as far as we know, because
matter in general may possess other properties with which
we are yet unacquainted. And the same observation may be
made with respect to the universality of these properties:
for they are said to be general, because no body was ever

found which wanted any one of them. But mankind are not :

acquainted with all the bodies of the universe, and many
which are known to exist, cannot be subjected to expe-
riments.

The peculiar properties, Viz., those which belong to cer-
tain bodies only, and not to others, are density, rarity, hard-
ness, softness, fluidity, rigidity, flexibility, elasticity, opacity,
transparency, the properties of light, the properties of heat,
the properties of electricity, the properties of magnetism,
and three other. kinds of attraction, (independent of gravi-
tation, of electricity, and of magnetism,) Viz., the attraction
of aggregation, which the homogeneous parts of matter have

towards each other, or by which they adhere together ; and .

such is the power by which two small drops of mercury, when
placed contiguous to each other, rush, as it Were, into each
other, and form a single drop ; the attraction of cohesion, or
that power by which the heterogeneous particles of bodies
adhere to each other without any change of their natural
properties, such as the adhesion of water to glass, of oil to
iron, &c.; and the attraction of composition, or of affinity,
which is the tendency that the parts of heterogeneous
bodies have towards each other, by which they combine,
and form a body, differing more or less from any of its
components.

It is to be remarked, that of all these properties we know
their existence only, and some of the laws under which they
act; but we are otherwise utterly ignorant of their nature
and dependence.

The investigation of some of the above-mentioned pro-
perties, whether general or particular, has been carried much
farther than the investigation of other properties. The results
of these investigations have likewise been various, both in
point of extent and of application. Some of them are so
very extensive and so useful, as to form the foundations
of very important branches of science, or of art, under peculiar
appellations. Thus, upon the mobility and the vis inertia:
of bodies, the doctrine of motion, or dynamics, is grounded,
which comprehends mechanics, hydrostatics, or the mechanical
properties of fluids, pneumatics, &c. Transparency and the
properties of light form the important foundation of optics.
The attraction of affinity is the foundation of chemistry, as
well as of various arts; and so forth.

The phenomena of the universe, are the appearances which
take place in consequence of the above-mentioned properties
of natural bodies, together (respecting some of them at least)
with some original impulse. The phenomena which take
place amongst- the luminous celestial bodies, properly so
called smelt as the stars, the planets, &c., are examined by

 

 

 

 

 

'1 ZLJ

 

 

 

 

EXP

409

.EXT
4%;

 

a particular science, called astronomy ; the meteors, or the
phenomena which take place within the limits of the terres-
trial atmosphere, such as shooting stars, northern lights,
halos, rain, fogs, hail, winds, &c., form the subject of
meteorology.

EXPLOSION, in natural philosophy, a sudden and violent
expansion of an a'érial or other elastic fluid, by which it
instantly throws off any obstacle that may be in the way.
It differs from expansion, properly so called, in this, that the
latter is a gradual and continued power, whereas the former
is always sudden, and of only momentary duration.

EXPLOSION, in military engineering. It is a matter of
great moment, so to load, and indeed to construct a mine,
that it may explode with the greatest precision, and with the
maximum effect. Numerous theories have been given upon
this subject, but it would be out of place to notice the whole
of what appertains thereto in a work like this.

In commencing operations, it is necessary in the first
instance to ascertain, so nearly as may be practicable, what
depth, and what weight of soil is to be removed by an
explosion. This being done, the mine is formed, by con-
structing a gallery leading to the chamber in which the powder
is to be placed. This must be deposited in a very strong chest,
let into a recess, and firmly secured in every part. Now, it
being the nature of rarefied air to escape by that part which
may be the weakest, it is evident, that if a mine is made
under a rampart, so as to be within six feet of the surface,
while all the sides are thicker by far than that measurement,
the explosion will be directed towards that part which is
thinnest, and which, from that circumstance, is called “the
line of least resistance.”

But, in order to direct the explosion to that part, it will
be necessary to consider whether the soil be everywhere
alike; for if the superincumbent portion should be part of
a large stratified rock, while the sides are of a loose, inad-
hesive substance, the latter, though measuring more in dia-
meter, will give the line of least resistance, which, in such
case, would follow the intenacity, and create a false explosion.
For it must be recollected that explosions may be lateral as
well as vertical.

It was formerly supposed, that the diameter of the entonnoir,
or explosion, was equal to double the line of least resistance;
but we find that six times that line may be exploded, by
allowing a load of 3001bs. of gunpowder, duly concen-
trated, and fired in the middle of the mass, for every foot of
the line of least resistance. We are not to infer from this,
that 3001bs. will be requisite to lift one foot of soil; far
from it ; for as a cubic foot of excavation will contain only
751bs. of powder, the above quantity (300lbs.) would
require a space of exactly four cubic feet; the proportion
would therefore be preposterous. But when we calculate
upon large masses of soil, such as those prodigious cones
thrown out from entonnoirs of great extent, we then find,
that, to produce the completest explosion, an immense quan-
tity of powder must be supplied.

It is self-evident, that the power of the powder, according
to the above scale, is only computed to that extent which
may be necessary towards the ordinary purposes of military
devastation ; for if we were to contribute, ad infinitum, 300lbs.
of gunpowder for every foot in the line of least resistance,
we should be accumulating power only in arithmetical
proportion, while the resistance would be increasing in a
geometrical ratio : of course the power must be in a regular
state of comparative diminution, in proportion as the line of
least resistance is increased; and this must, after a while,
occasion the powder to be inert; or, if there should be any

 

explosion, it could only follow the track of the train. Its l
5 M

 

ignition, to be sure, might be felt partially, like that of a
slight earthquake, but no superficial effects would be
observable.

It has been already stated, that the powder must be lodged
in bulk; and that it should be ignited at the centre. This
may, perhaps, appear superfluous; but all military men
know, that much powder is blown out of the muzzles of
pieces without ever being ignited; and we have a most
remarkable fact in modern times, one indeed, which shows,
that, unless in bulk, powder is not always sure to be fired
in toto. The incident alluded to is as follows :— ‘

In the month of March, in the year 1809, a barge was
proceeding along the new cut, from Paddington, laden with
casks of spirits and barrels of gunpowder. One of the crew,
it is supposed, allured by the former, bored a hole for the
purpose of drawing offa little wherewith to tipple. Unhappily
the action of the gimblet set fire to the contents of that barrel,
which the dishonest navigator had mistaken for one of spirits.
The barrel exploded, and drove eleven other barrels, filled
with gunpowder also, to the distance of near a hundred and
fifty yards. It is curious, that although the whole of the '
powder-barrels were together, indeed in contact, only that
in question exploded. ~

Vauban gives us the following scale for exploding soils of
various descriptions. He calculates, or perhaps found from
experience, that for a cubic fathom (six feet) of soil,
measuring in all 216 solid feet, the following proportions of
gunpowder were needful.

lb.
1. Light earth, mixed with sand ll
2. Common earth l2
3. Strong sand . ..... l5
4. Clay, or fat earth 16
5. Old, and good masonry 18
6. Rock 20

In following this calculation, we are to consider the
entonnoir to be in diameter equal to only double the line of
least resistance; and not according to a maximum explosion.

A new substance, gun-cotton. which is cotton wool steeped
in nitric or nitro-sulphuric acid, and dried, by which it
becomes explosive, has been lately introduced as a substitute
for gunpowder in blasting. It is not yet sufficiently under-
stood to have come into extensive use.

EXPONENT, in algebra, is a number placed over any
power or involved quantity, to show to what height the root
is raised ; thus 2 is the exponent of at? and 4 is the exponent
of x‘ or :0 cc x .r.

EXPONENTIAL CURVES, those curves which partake
both of the nature of algebraic and transcendental ones.
They are algebraical in their nature, because they consist
of a finite number of terms, though these terms themselves
are indeterminate, and they are in some measure transcen-
dental, because they cannot be algebraically constructed.

EXPOSURE, the act of exposing or laying open to View;
as we say a building, a garden, or a wall, had a northern or
a southern eaposure, and we speak of its exposure or exposi-
tion to a free current of air, or to the access of light.

EXTEND, to stretch in any direction, to continue in
length as a line, to spread in breadth.

EXTENSION, in philosophy, one of the general and
essential properties of matter ; the extension of a body being
the quantity of space which the body occupies, the extremities
of which limit or circumscribe the matter of that body. It is
otherwise called the magnitude, or size, or bulk of a body.

A quantity of matter may be very small, or so as to elude
the perception of our senses, such as a particle of air, a particle

 

 

 

 

 

 

EXT
0'

410

EXT

 

of water, Sac. ; yet some extension it must have, and it is by
the comparison of this extension, that one body is said to be
larger than, equal to, or smaller than, another body. The
measurement of a body consists in the comparison of the
extension of that body with some determinate extension,
which is assumed as a standard, such as an inch, a foot,
a yard, a mile ; hence it is said, that a body is a foot long,
or three inches long, &c.

The extension of a body is measured three different ways;
or a body is said to have length, breadth, and thickness.
Thus an ordinary sheet of writing paper is about 16 inches
long, about 14 inches broad, and nearly one hundredth part
of an inch thick. Either of these dimensions might be called
the length, or the breadth, or the thickness ; but, by general
custom, the greatest extension is called the length, the next
is called the breadth, and the shortest is called the thickness.
The outside of a body, its boundary, or that which lies con-
tiguous to other bodies that are next to it, is called the
smface of that body, and this surface has two dimensions
only, viz., length and breadth; but it has no thickness, for
if it had, it would not be the outside of the body; yet a
surface by itself cannot exist. In mathematics, however,
surfaces are mentioned, and are reasoned upon, abstractedly
from matter. But in these cases the surfaces exist in the
imagination only, and even then our ideas have a reference
to body, for our senses cannot perceive a surface without
a body. '

As a surface is the outside or boundary of a body, so a line
is the boundary of a finite surface. Suppose, for instance, that
a surface is divided into two parts, the common boundary of
the two parts is called a line,- this has one extension only,
viz., it has length.

The beginning or the end of a line, or the intersection of
two lines which cross each other, is called a. point, and this
has no dimensions; or, according to the mathematical defi-
nition, a point is that which has no parts or magnitude, its
use frequently is to mark a situation only as a point upon a
surface by the intersection of two lines, &c. Thus, if you
divide a line into two parts, the division or boundary between
the two parts is a point.

Our senses are only capable of perceiving bodies which
have three dimensions; or rather the surfaces of bodies,
which surfaces have two dimensions, but a surface cannot
be represented nor perceived without a body, and of course
neither a line nor a point can be perceived without a body.
In the study of geometry, and in a variety of other branches,
surfaces, lines, and points are represented upon paper, or
upon something else; but in those cases, the paper, or that
something else, is the body whose surface we perceive, and
the surface of a particular figure is circumscribed, not by
real lines, but by a narrow slip cf surface, which is sufficient
to direct our reasoning with respect to the geometrical pro-
perties of lines and surfaces. Thus also, when points are
represented by themselves, the marks are not real points, but
very small portions of the surface of a body.

There is a case in which extension is often said to be per-
ceived without the existence of a body, and this is the exten-
sion between two bodies. But, upon consideration, it will
easily be comprehended, that we may perceive the two
bodies, and that they are sepa'ate from each other; but
we cannot perceive anything positive between them. So
that in this case the word extension is used in a figurative
manner, as if some other body existed between the two
bodies.

. The particular extension, whether under the name of
inch, foot, yard, metre, league, &c., with which other exten-
sions are compared, or by which they are measured, is estab-

 

lished only by the common consent or agreement of persons
of a certain nation, or profession, and used as standard mea-
sure by them only. Hence, the measures of different nations,
though sometimes they have the same name, differ consider-
ably from each other. Great endeavours have been made by
divers ingenious persons, at different times, for the purpose
of determining an unalterable universal standard of measures ;
those endeavours, and the results with which they have been
attended, will be found described under the article STANDARD
of Measures.

Extension is usually described as consisting in the situation
of parts beyond parts; but to this definition some authors
object, maintaining, that we can conceive absolute extension
without any relation to parts.

If a man consider the distance between two bodies
abstractedly, and without any regard to bodies which may
fill that interval, it is called space; and when he considers
the distance between the extremes of a solid body, it is called
extension.

Extension is frequently confounded with quantity and
magnitude; and, for what we can perceive, without much
harm, the thing signified by them all appearing to be the
same ; unless we admit a distinction made by some authors,
that the extension of a body is something more absolute, and
its quantity and magnitude more respective, or implying a
nearer relation to much and little. The infinite divisibility
of extension has been a famous question in all ages. It is not
easy to reconcile the doctrine of mathematicians on this
head with the tenets of some philosophers. Those who hold
that all extension and magnitude are compounded of certain
minima sensibilia ; and that a line, for instance, cannot
increase or decrease, but by certain invisible increments or
decrements only, must, consistently with themselves, affirm,
that all lines are commensurable to each other. But this is
contrary to the tenth book of Euclid, who demonstrates that
the diagonal of a square is incommensurable to its side. And
further, if all lines were composed of certain indivisible
elements, it is plain one of those elements must be the com-
mon measure of the diagonal and the side.

Bishop Berkeley observes, that the infinite divisibility of
finite extension, though it is not expressly laid down, either
as an axiom or theorem in the elements of geometry, is yet
throughout the same everywhere supposed, and thought to
have so inseparable and essential a connection with the prin-
ciples and demonstrations in geometry, that mathematicians
never admit it into doubt, or make the least question of it.
And as this notion is the source from whence do spring
all those amusing geometrical paradoxes, which have such
a direct repugnancy to the plain common sense of mankind ;
so it is the principal occasion of all that nice and extreme
subtilty which renders the study of mathematics so difficult
and tedious. Hence, says he, if we can make it appear, that
no finite extension contains innumerable parts, or is infinitely
divisible, it follows, that we shall at once clear the science of
geometry from a great number of difficulties and contradic-
tions which have ever been esteemed a reproach to human
reason, and withal, make the attainment thereof a business of
much less time and pains than it hitherto hath been.

Every particular finite extension, which may possibly be
the object of our thought, is an idea existing only in the
mind, and consequently each part thereof must be perceived.
If therefore, says this author, I 'annot perceive innumerable
parts in any finite extension that I consider, it is certain
they are not contained in it ; but it is evident, that I cannot
distinguish innumerable parts in any particular line, surface,
or solid, which I either perceive by sense, or figure to myself
in my mind ; wherefore, I conclude they are not contained

 

 

 

 

 

 

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in it. Nothing can be plainer to me than that the extensions
I have in view are no other than my own ideas ; and it is no
less plain, that I cannot resolve any one of my ideas into an
infinite number of other ideas; that is, that they are not
infinitely divisible. If by an infinite extension be meant
something distinct from a finite idea, I declare I do not know
what that is, and so cannot affirm or deny anything of it.
But if the terms extension, parts, and the like, are taken in
any sense conceivable ; that is, for ideas ; then to say a finite
quantity or extension consists of parts infinite in number, is
so manifest a contradiction, that every one at first sight
acknowledges it to be so.

On the other hand, it is observed by an eminent mathema-
tician, that geometricians are under no necessity of supposing
that a finite quantity of extension consists of parts infinite
in number, or that there are any more parts in a given mag-
nitude than they can conceive or express : it is sufficient that
.it may be conceived to be divided into a number of parts
equal to any given or proposed number; and this is all that
is supposed in strict geometry concerning the divisibility of
magnitude. It is true, that the number of parts into which
a given magnitude may be conceived to be divided, is not to
be fixed or limited, because no given number is so great, but
a greater than it may be conceived and assigned : but there
is not therefore any necessity for supposing that number
infinite; and if some may have drawn very abstruse conse-

' quences from such suppositions, they are not to be imputed
to geometry. Geometricians are under no necessity of sup-
posing a given magnitude to be divided into an infinite num-
ber of parts, or to be made up of infinitesimals ; nevertheless,
they cannot so well avoid supposing it to be divided into
a greater number of parts than may be distinguished in it by
sense in any particular determinate circumstance. But they
find no difficulty in conceiving this ; and such a supposition
does not appear to be repugnant to the common sense of man-
kind, but, on the contrary, to be most agreeable to it, and to
be illust'ated by common observation. It would seem very
unaccountable not to allow them to conceive a given line, of
an inch in length for example, viewed at the distance of 10
feet, to be divided into more parts than are discerned in it at
that distance ; since by bringing it nearer, a greater number
of parts is actually perceived in it. Nor is it easy to limit
the number of parts that may be perceived in it when it is
brought near to the eye, and is seen through a little hole in
a thin plate ; or, when by any other contrivance it is rendered
distinct at small distances from the eye. If we conceive a
given line, that is the object of sight, to be divided into more
parts than we perceive in it, it would seem that no good rea-
son can be assigned why we may not conceive tangible mag-
nitude to be divided into more parts than are perceived in it
by the touch ; or a line of any kind to be divided into any
given number ,of parts, whether so many parts be actually
distinguished by sense or not. In applying the reasonings

FAB

FABER, a workman, the Romans gave this name to
artisans or mechanics who worked in hard materials.

FABRIC, (from the Latin,fabrica, Frenchfabrique, origi-
nally the workshop of a mechanic, a smith’s 8/201) 0r_fbr(r/e) the
Structure or construction of any thing, particularly a building.

In Italy, the word is applied to any considerable building ;
in France, it rather signifies the manner ofbuildinon

 

 

and demonstrations of geometricians on this subject, it ought
to be remembered, that a surface is not considered by them
as a body of the least sensible magnitude, but as the termi-
nation or boundary of a body; a line is not considered as
a surface of the least sensible breadth, but as the termination
or limit of a surface ; nor is a point considered as the least
sensible line, or a moment as the least perceptible time ; but
a point as a termination of a line, and a moment as a termi-
nation of a limit of time. In this sense they conceive clearly
what a surface, line, point, and a moment of time, is ; and the
postulata of Euclid being allowed and applied in this sense,
the proofs by which it is shown, that a given magnitude may
be conceived to be divided into any given number of parts,
appear satisfactory; and if we avoid supposing the parts of
a given magnitude to be infinitely small, or to be infinite in
number, this seems to be all that the most scrupulous can
require.

Dr. Reid, in his “ Inquiry into the Human Mind, on the
Principles of Common Sense,” considers that it is absurd to
deduce from sensation the first origin of our notions of exter-
nal existence, of space, motion, and extension, and all the
primary qualities of bodies; they have, he says, no resem-
blance to any sensation, or to any operation of our minds,
and therefore they cannot be ideas either of sensation or
reflection ; nor can he conceive how extension, or any image
of extension, can be in an unextended and indivisible subject
like the human mind.

EXTERNAL, or EXTERIOR, (from the Latin externus,
outward,) a term of relation, applied to whatever is on the
surface or outside of a body, and opposed to internal or
interior.

EXTERNAL or EXTERIOR ANGLES. See ANGLES.

EXTRADOS, (from the Latin, extrd, outer, and dorsus,
the back,) the external surface of a vault. The surface
on the upper side of the voussoirs of an arch. See ARCH,
BRIDGE.

EXTREME, (from the Latin extremus, utmost,) whatever
finishes or terminates on one side of a thing. The extremes
of a line are points.

EYE, (from the Saxon,) a circular window in a pediment,
attic, the reins of a vault, or the like.

EYE, Bullock’s, (in French, aeil de baeufi) a little skylight
in the covering or roof, intended to illuminate a granary, &c.
It is also applied to the little lanterns in a dome, as at St.
Peter's at Rome, which has forty-eight, in three rows.

EYE or A DOME, the aperture at the summit, as that of the
Pantheon at Rome, or of St. Paul's, London.

EYE OF A VOLUTE, the circle at the centre, from the cir-
cumference of which the spiral line commences. See SPIRAL
and VOLUTE.

EYE, in perspective, the point where the organ of vision is
fixed, in order to view the object.

. EYE-BEOW, the same as FILLET, which see.

F.

F A C
FAQADE, or FACE, (from the Latin facz'es, the front) the

face or front view of an edifice ; that portion of the surface
of a building which presents itself to the eye. Facade was
used originally to denote the principal front of a building;
and the term Facciata, used by the Italians, is, for the most
part, applied to such fronts as have a principal entrance. The
word is now generally made use of when speaking of archiv

 

 

 

 

(I?

 

 

 

 

 

 

FAH

412

FAR

 

tectural buildings, as the facade
of St. Peter’s, 8w.

FACE, or FACIA (from the Latin) a vertical member in
the combination of mouldings, having a very small projection,
but considerable breadth ; such as the bands of an architrave.
See FASCIA.

FACE MOULD, in the preparation of the hand-rail of a
stair, a mould for drawing the proper figure on both sides of
the plank; so that when cut by a saw held at a certain
inclination, the two surfaces of the rail-piece will be every
where perpendicular to the plan, when laid in their intended
position.

FACE or A STONE, the surface intended for the front of the
work. The face is easily known when the stone is scalped,
as being opposite to the back, which is rough as it comes
from the quarry. The surface of the splitting grain ought
always to be perpendicular to the face.

FACET, or FACETTE, a flat projection between the
flutings of columns.

FACIA. See FASCIA.

FACING, in engineering, a small thickness of common
earth, soil, or stuff of a canal, laid in front of the side lining
or puddle on the sloping sides. It is of use to hold up the
puddle while working and chopping, in the act of puddling,
and afterwards to guard the puddle from being penetrated by
the hitehers and poles used by the barge—men.

FACING, a thin covering of a better material, to improve
the appearance, or add to the strength of anything. Thus
the thin covering of polished stone, or the stratum of plaster,
or cement on a brick or rough stone wall is called a facing.

FACING, FACADE, or REVETEMENT, in fortification, the por-
tion of masonry, or rather building, given to ramparts, with
a view to prevent the'soil of which they are composed from
crumbling or giving way. When the wall is of masonry, it
should be 5 feet thick at the t0p, with tresses, called counter-
forts, at about 15 feet apart, to strengthen the facing. In
order to prevent escalade, the facing is generally made full
27 feet high, from the bottom of the ditch to the cordon.
When the facing is carried up as high as the soles of the
embrasures, it is called a whole revetement; but when con-
fined to the ditch only, it is called a half revetemcnt. These
must depend upon the nature of the soil, the facility of
obtaining materials, the time that can be allowed, the impor-
tance of the post, &0. When difficulties occur, as also in
temporary works, the facings are made with turf, in which
case they are said to be gazoned. For field-works, and par-
ticularly in the conducting of sieges, fascines or faggots, made
of various materials, are very generally employed, and answer
the intention.

FACINGs, in joinery, all those fixed parts of wood-work
which cover the rough work of the interior of walls, and
present themselves to the eye in the completion.

FACTABLING. See COPING.

FAIR CURVE, in ship-building, a winding line, used in
delineating ships, whose shape is varied according to the part
of the ship which it is intended to describe.

FAIIRENIIEIT, the presumed inventor of the thermo-
meter which bears his name. It is quite unknown on what
ground he made choice of the fixed points on his scale, or
of the number of graduations between them, but it is sup-
posed that one of the lixed points was that of boiling-water,
and that the other, the zero of the scale, was that at which the
top of the column stood, when the instrument was exposed to
an intense cold in Iceland, in 1709. The extent of the scale
betWeen this last point, and that of boiling-water, is divided
into 212 parts, and the point of freezing water, is at the
thirty-second division from the zero point.

of the Louvre, or the facade

FALD-STOOL, a portable folding seat of wood or metal,
often of elaborate workmanship, and covered with rich hang-
ings of silk or other material. The term is applied to the
Litany stool, or low desk, used in churches, from which the
Litany is said. Its position is in the middle of the choir,
near the steps of the altar.

FALL. See MEASURE, and WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

FALLING MO ULDS, the two moulds which are applied
to the vertical sides of the rail-piece, one to the convex, the
other to the concave side, in order to form the back and under
surface of the rail, and finish the squaring.

FALLING-SLUICES, in engineering, gates contrived to
fall down of themselves, and enlarge the water-way, on the
increase of a flood, in a mill-dam, or the pond of a river navi-
gat10n.

FALSE ROOF, of a house, that part between the upper
room and the covering.

FANE. See VAN i.

rather more than a semi-circle, the circumference of which is
cut out in circular notches.

FAN-TRACERY VAULTING, a mode of vaulting
very much in use in late Perpendicular buildings. In this
vaulting, all the ribs and principal lines diverge equally in
every direction from a point at the springing of the vault,
every rib preserving the same curvature ; the spaces between
the ribs are piled up with panelling and rich tracery. The
name is applied from the similarity of this kind of roof to an
open fan. Beautiful specimens exist at King's College Chapel,
Cambridge; St. George's, \Vindsor; and Henry VII.’S Chapel

tries, tombs, &c.
FANUM, among the Romans, a temple consecrated to
some deity. The deified mortals, among the heathens, had

erected one to his daughter Tullia.

Thracian Bosphorus and the Syrnzean promontory.

FARM.
subject of the management of a farm; but as the construc-
tion of the buildings belonging to one is frequently entrusted
to architects and surveyors, especially in a country practice,
it is desirable to offer a few observations respecting farm-
buildings.
“The magnitude of the buildings must depend wholly on

The number of courts and their dimensions must be propor-
tioned t0 the herds of cattle and quantity of oxen employed.
The kitchen should be situated in the warmest part of the
court, and the stable for the oxen contiguous to it; the stalls
should be made to face the hearth and the east, because when
oxen are constantly exposed to light and heat, they become
smooth-coated. N0 husbandman, however ignorant, will
sutfer cattle to face any other quarter of the heaVens than
the east. The width of the stables ought not to be less than
10, nor more than 15 feet, their length proportioned to the
number of yokes, each of which should occupy an extent of
17 feet.
order that the operation of cleansing the utensils may be
performed upon the spot. The courts for sheep, &c., should
be so spacious, as to allow not less than 4%, nor more than
(5 feet, to each animal.

“The granaries should be above ground, and made to
front either the north or the north-east, in order that the
grain may not be liable to ferment; but, on the contrary, by
exposure to a cold atmosphere, may be preserved a long

 

t time: all other prospects encourage the propagation of worms

FAN-SHAPED WINDOW, a window consisting of‘

 

Westminster ; also in many smaller erections, such as chau- j

likewise their fana : even the great philosopher, Cicero,
FANUM Jovrs, a temple ot'Jupiter, in Asia Minor, near the I

It is not within our province to enter on the

The directions of Vitrnvius are as follow:—

the quantity of land attached to them, and upon its produce. ‘

The scalding-rooms should adjoin the kitchen, in

 

 

 

 

 

FEE

and insects destructive to grain. The stables should be
built in the warmest part of the villa, most distant from the
hearth ; because when horses are stalled near fire they become
rough-coated. It is likewise expedient to have stalls for
oxen at a distance from the kitchen, in the open air; these
should be placed so as to front the east, because if they are
led there to be fed in winter, when the sky is unclouded, they
will improve in appearance. The barns, the hay-yards, the
corn-chambers, and the mills, ought to be without the walls,
so that the farm may be less liable to accidents by fire.”
An excellent work on farm—buildings has been written by
Mr. G. A. Dean, of Stratford.

FASCIA, FACIO, or FACE (from the Latin, facia) a
vertical member, of considerable height, but with a small
projection, used in architraves and pedestals. In the Grecian
Doric, the architrave under the band consists only of a single
face ; as does also the Ionic on the temple of the Illysus, in
Attica. The Ionic on the temple of Erechtheus, at Athens,
has three fasciae ; as have several celebrated examples of the
latter order. Vitruvius allows only a single face to the Tus-
can and Doric orders : that is, he makes it all plain, without
any divisions or cantoning into parts or fasciae.

In brick buildings, the jutting out of the bricks beyond the
windows in the several stories, except the highest, are called
fascias or fascia. These are sometimes plain, and sometimes
moulded; but the moulding is only a sima reversa, or an
ogee, with two plain courses of brick over it, then an astragal,
and lastly, a boultine.

FASCINE, (from fascis, a bundle, ) in fortification, a
number of small sticks of wood, bound at both ends and in
the middle, used in raising batteries, in filling ditches, in
strengthening ramparts, and making parapets. Smeaton and
other engineers have used wattled wood or hedge-work for
groins, &c., to retain the pebbles or beach, and break the
waves on the shore.

FASTIGIUM, (Latin, a top or ridge) the upper or crown-
ing member of a buildina. The term is also applied to PEDI-
MENT ; which see.

FATHOM (from the Saxon) a long measure of six feet,
taken from the extent of both arms, when stretched in a right
line. It is used in measuring the depth of water, quarries,
wells, and pits. It is also always used in nautical matters,
as in heaving the lead, 8w.

FAUX, a narrow passage used as a means of communica-
tion between the atrium and peristylium, the two principal
divisions of a Roman house.

FAVISSA (Latin) a hole, pit, or vault under ground, to
keep something of great value.

FEATHER-EDGED BOARDS, those of a trapezoidal
section ; that is, thicker on one edge than on the other : they
are used in the facing of wooden walls, and sometimes for
the covering of an inclined roof, by lapping the thick edge of
the upper board upon the thin edge of the lower one : boards
of this description are also employed in fence walls, but are
then most frequently placed vertically.

FEATHER-EDGED COPING. See COPING.

FEATHERING, an ornament in use in Early English, and
the later periods of Gothic architecture, consisting of an
arrangement of small arcs in juxtaposition, and forming, at
their intersection, projecting points or cusps. Sometimes
we find a second and even a third series of these ornaments,
one within the other. See FOLIATION.

FEEDER, in engineering, a cut or channel, sometimes
called a carriage or catch-drain, by which a stream or supply
of water is brought into a canal: sometimes the stream of
water itself thus supplied, is called afeedcr.

FEEDING-HOUSE, or SHED, a building in a farm, for
5 N

 

 

413

'in the direction of the annular plates, is called the quarter-

 

FIG

the purpose of fattening neat cattle. It should have a dry
warm situation, capable of free ventilation, and be well sup—
plied with proper conveniences for the reception of food and
water.

FELLING, of timber, the cutting of trees close by the
root, for the purpose of building : the proper season for this
purpose, is about the end of April.

FELT-GRAIN : when a piece of timber is cloven or split
towards the centre of the tree, or transversely to the annular
rings or plates, that position of splitting is called the felt-
grain; and the transverse position, or rather that which is

gram.

FELTING, the splitting of timber by the felt-grain.

FEMUR, the plane space intervening between the chan-
nels in the triglyphs of the Doric order.

FENCE, (from the Latin def'endo, to defend) any sort of
construction for the purpose of enclosing land; as a bank
of earth, a ditch, hedge, wall, railing, paling, 8w.

FENCE, the guard of a plane, which obliges it to work to
a certain horizontal breadth from the arris: all moulding
planes, except hollows, rounds, and snipes’ bills, have fixed
fences, as well as fixed stops ; but in fillisters and plows the
fences are moveable.

FENESTELLA, a niche on the south side of the altar in
churches, in which the piscina and sometimes credence table
also is placed. These niches are of various forms and degrees
of ornamentation ; some of them are very richly finished. In
some instances a double niche is found, one for the piscina and
the other for the credence table. See PISCINA, CREDENCE
TABLE, CHANCEL, &c.

FENESTRATION, the arrangement of windows in a
building. The term is also used in contradistinction to
columnialion, when speaking of the design and composition
of a building generally; the former term being used in
reference to an edifice in which windows form the principal
feature, the latter to that in which the columnar arrangement
is adopted. Buildings in which both windows and columns
are employed, are termed columnarfenestmted.

FERE'I‘ORY, (Latin few, to carry,) a bier, coffin, shrine,
or tomb. The term is more properly applied to portable
shrines.

FESTOON, a representation in sculpture of bands of
flowers, drapery, foliage, &c., looped up or suspended at
regular intervals. This decoration was used by the ancients
in‘friezes, Sac.

FETCHING THE PUMP, the act of pouring water
into the upper part of a pump, to expel the air contained
between the lower box, or piston, and the bottom of the
pump.

FIGURE (from the Latin figure, likeness) in a general
sense, the terminating extremes, or surface of a body.

No body cari exist without figure, otherwise it would be
infinite, and consequently all space would be solid matter.

FIGURE, in geometry, any plane surface comprehended
within a certain line or lines.

Figures are either rectilinear, curvilinear, or mixed, accord-
ing as the perimeter consists of right lines, or curved lines,
or both.

The superficial parts of a figure are called its sides, or
faces, and the lowest side its base; if the figure be a tri-
angle, the angle opposite the base is called the vertex, and
the height of the figure is the distance of the vertex from
the base.

FIGURE, in architecture and sculpture, representations of
things made of solid matter, as statues, &c., thus we say,
figures of brass, of marble, of stucco, of plaster, 850.

A
'

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

FIR i 414

FIR

 

Figures, in architecture, are said to be detached when
they stand singly, in opposition to those composmons called
groups.

FIGURE, in conics, the rectangle under the latus rectum
and transversum, in the hyperbola and ellipsis.

FIGURE, in fortification, the interior polygon, which is
either regular or irregular. It is called a regular figure, when
the sides and angles are all equal.

FIGURES are either CIRCUMSCRIBED or INSCRIBED, EQUAL,
EQUILATERAL, SIMILAR, REGULAR, or IRREGULAR. See these
words.

FIGURE OF THE DIAMETER, a name given to the rectangle
under a diameter and its perimeter, in the ellipsis and
hyperbola.

FILLET, (from the French, filet, a band) a small member,
consisting of two planes at right angles, used to separate two
larger mouldings, to strengthen their edges, or to form a cap
or crowning to a moulding, or sometimes to terminate a mem-
ber, or series of members.

The fillet is one of the smallest members used in corniees,
architraves, bases, pedestals, 8:0.

It is called by the French, reglet, hande, and bandelette ,-
by the Italians, lista or listella.

FILLET, in carpentry or joinery, any small timber scant-
ling, equal to, or less than, battens : they are used for sup-
porting the ends of boards, by nailing them to joists or
quarters, &c., as in sound-boarding, and in supporting the
ends of shelves.

FILLET GUTTER. See GUTTERING.

FILLING -IN PIECES, in carpentry, short timbers,
less than the full-length, fitted against the hips of roofs,
groins, braces of partitions, 860., which interrupt the whole
length.

FINE-SET, when the iron of a plane has a very small
projection below the sole, so as to take a very thin broad
shaving, it is said to befine-set.

FINE STUFF, in plastering. See PLASTERING.

FINIAL, (from the Latin,_fini0, to finish,) in the pointed
style of architecture, a termination to a building, or principal
part, in the form of a flower or knop of foliage; used in
high-pointed pediments, canopies, pinnacles, 860. It is usually
in the form of a lily, trefoil, acorn, pomegranate, endive, &c.,
or consists of four or more of the leaves which compose the
crockets tied up in one bunch.

FINISHING, a term frequently applied to the termination
of a building, as also to the interior, in the plaster-work, in
giving the last coat ; and very frequently to the joiner's work,
as in the architraves, bases, surbases, 8w.

FINISHING, in plastering. See PLASTERING.

FIR, (from the Welsh,fyrr,) a species of timber much
used in building. The native fir of this country is called
Scottish fir, which is chiefly employed in out-houses, oflices,
&c. It is much inferior to the Baltic timber, which is used
wherever durability is required. See TIMBER.

FIR, Wrought, that which is planed upon the sides and
edges.

FIR, Wrought and framed, such as is both planed and
framed.

FIR, W'rought, framed, and rebatcd, is what its name
imports.

FIR, Wrought, framed, rehated, and headed, is what its
name imports.

FIR-BOARDS, the same as deal-boards. See DEAL.

FIR-FRAMED, is generally understood of rough timber
framed, without undergoing the operation of the plane.

FIR-IN-BOND, a name given to all timber built in a wall,
as bond-timbers, lintels, wall-plates, and templets.

 

 

FIR-POLES, small trunks of fir-trees from ten to sixteen feet
in length, used in rustic buildings and out-houses.

FIR-No-LAEOUR, rough timber employed in walling, with-
out framing or planing. '

FIRE-BRICKS, are made from a natural compound of
silica and alumina, which, when free from lime and other
fluxes, is infusible under the greatest heat to which it can be
subjected. Fire—bricks are brought to London from Stour-
bridge and from Wales ; they are also made near Windsor.
See BRICK, and WINDSOR BRICKS.

FIRE-ENGINE, a term formerly applied to the steam-engine,
but now confined to those machines which extinguish fires
by throwing water from a jet upon the burning materials.

FIRE-ESCAPE, a machine for escaping from windows when
houses are on fire.

FIRE-PLACE, that space in an apartment where the fuel
is consumed in communication with a flue through which the
proceeds of combustion are carried away. In modern houses
the fire—place is usually taken out of the space within the
apartment, and flanked by projecting walls, upon which is
carried up a flue also projecting within the apartment, but
in ancient houses the fire—place and flue were often taken out
of the thickness of the wall, or projected outwards on the exte-
rior of the building.

The most ancient fire-places in England, now existing,
are those at Rochester and Conisborough Castles, which
date of the twelfth century. The former is deeply re-
cessed, with a semi-circular back, while the back of the
former is flat, and not recessed at the level of the floor, but
slopes backward as it rises ; the hearth consequently projects
into the room, but is covered by a hood which projects from
the wall to collect the smoke. WVe have not many specimens
of Early English work, but in the later styles they are more
frequent. In Early English and Decorated buildings fire-places
are not often very deeply recessed, and sometimes not at all,
but they are frequently covered with projecting hoods. In
the Perpendicular style they are generally entirely recessed,
and in that case are without the hood; some specimens of
this period are of a very ornamental description.

FIRE-PROOF HOUSES, such as are built without the use of
any combustible matter : for this purpose, vaulted or cast-iron
floors and roofs should be employed in every apartment.
Vaulting is well adapted to the lower story of a building, but
if used in the upper Stories, the walling must be carried up
very thick, in order to resist the thrust of the arches ; and
this extra substance not only darkens the apartments, but
occasions an enormous expense. The builder is therefore
obliged to have recourse to other modes of construction for
common purposes. The most convenient substitute is cast-
iron joists, vaulted between with brick, or covered with cast-
iron boards flanged and keyed together.

Mr. Bartholomew strongly recommends that roofs Should
be so constructed as to lessen as much as possible the possi-
bility of fire. “ It should be,” he observes, “the architect‘s
study, in all roofs, to have as little as possible that will either
burn or rot; if the roof-trusses were made of cast-iron, as
Mr. Gwilt has made those to his restoration of the choir of
St. Saviour’s Church, Southwark; and if slight horizontal
rafters, reaching from truss to truss, supported tiles of the
ornamental description above referred to, (tiles made of burnt
earth, moulded in the form of leaves, &c.,) all combustible
materials might be banished from our invaluable cathedrals.”
—-VVe quite agree with Mr. Bartholomew in principle, but,
in such cases, would beg to recommend a 'aulted stone roof
in preference to one of iron.

The late Sir John Soane constructed nearly all the apart-
ments of the Bank of England fire-proof, and without any

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

rIx

415

FLA

 

 

carpentry whatever; in his arches and domes, making use
largely of hollow pots or cones of coarse earthenware ;~these,
while strong enough not to crush, by their lightness relieve
the walls in a great measure, both from the lateral thrust,
and the perpendicular pressure, caused by the use of heavier
materials.

A method of rendering the floors of houses fire-proof, has
been adopted with success in many parts of France. After
the joists are laid they are boarded over with rough boards,
and these covered with a coating of plaster of about eight
inches in thickness, above which are laid tiles of an orna-
mental description, or sometimes a floor Of parquetry. In
some instances, the boards on which the plaster is laid, are
' omitted altogether, and the plaster inserted between the
joists. The staircases likewise are made of brick-nogging,
and covered with tiles.

It is a cause of wonder and regret, that these or similar
means for rendering buildings fire-proof, are not adopted in
London, where so great a loss is annually sustained by
neglect on this head: the immediate outlay would not be very
much greater than at present, and in the end the practice
would assuredly prove the more economical. Our timber
partitions, roofs, and staircases would seem to be made for
the purpose of burning; and when once a portion of a building
takes fire, there is little chance of saving the remainder;
whereas if the chambers, or at least the floors, were isolated
by fire-proof partitions, a fire could readily be confined to
that part of the building where it commenced.

But perhaps of all parts of a house, that which requires the
greatest care in this respect is the staircase; it is no easy
matter to calculate how great a loss of human life has been
occasioned by recklessness on this point. The staircase
forms a shaft to carry up the flames, and is one of the first
things to be destroyed, thus cutting Off the means of escape
from persons above the ground-floor: if nothing else be
attended to, surely our staircases should be rendered
fire-proof.

Iron has of late years been much used for the purpose of
rendering buildings more safe from the effects of fire, but
we are inclined to think the success of this application
doubtful. This material is generally used as a substitute for
summers, girders, or bond-timber, in which instances wood
is almost as secure as iron; for in the former cases, the
timbers are of too great scantling thoroughly to ignite, and
in the latter they are well protected, and will be seldom found
more than charred on the exposed surfaces. Besides this,
iron has its disadvantages, for it is liable to expand and con-
tract under the influence of heat and cold, and is known by
this means to destroy the brickwork.

FIRE-STONE, is used in joinery, for rubbing away the
ridges made by the cutting-edge of the plane.

' FIRMER,
FORMER,
FURMER,
FISH-POND, a reservoir of water, for breeding, feeding,

and preserving fish.

FISTUCA, (Latin) in antiquity, an instrument of wood,
used in driving piles. It had two handles, and being raised
by pullies fixed to the head of large beams, was let fall
directly on the piles; sometimes it was wrought by hand only.

FIXED AXIS, in geometry, the axis about which a plane
revolves in the formation of a solid.

FIXED POINTS, in carpentry, the points at the angles of
a piece Of' framing, or where any two pieces Of timber meet
each other in a truss. If a third piece join the meeting of
the two, it may be pushed or drawn in the direction of its
length, without giving any cross strain.

See TOOLS.

 

Fixed points are of the utmost use in shortening the
bearings of the exterior timbers of the frame; neither is
there any other method by which this can be so effectually
done. When two sides of a frame are similar, any points in
the length of the pieces may be supported by as many beams,
extending between the opposite points: though this will keep
the frame in equilibm'o, it will not prevent it from being
shaken by heavy winds, or lateral pressure.

FLAGS, thin stones used in paving, from one and a half
to three inches thick, and of various lengths and breadths,
according to the nature of the quarry.

FLAKE \VHITE, in painting, lead corroded by the
pressing of' grapes, or a ceruse prepared by the acid of grapes.
It is brought to England from Italy, and far surpasses, in the
purity of its whiteness, and the certainty of its standing, all
the ceruses of white—lead made with us in common. It is
used in oil and varnish painting, for all purposes where a
very clean white is required. Flake white should be pro-
cured in lumps, as brought over, and levigated by those that
use it; as that which the colourmen sell ready prepared, is
levigated and mixed up with starch, and often with white-
lead, or even worse sophistications.

FLAMBOYANT, a name applied to a style of Gothic
architecture prevalent in France in the 15th century, from
the circumstance of the principal lines of the tracery con-
verging together in the shape of flames. This undulating
distribution of lines is the characteristic of the style, ifit may
be so termed. The tracery is frequently of a very elaborate
character, and the ornamentation intricate and redundant,
while at the same time the mouldings are meagre. These
consist usually of large hollows separated with small and
insignificant members of different contour, which gives the
whole an appearance of poverty, ill contrasting with the rich-
ness of the tracery. The centre moulding in the mullions
Of windows, and similar positions, projects often to an unusual
extent, so as to give it the appearance of weakness. Pillars,
piers, jambs, and such like, are often devoid of capitals, the
mouldings of arches which abut against them, dying into
them without any finishing ornament. The more ornamented
parts, such as foliage, &c., are very rich, and delicately
carved, but are frittered away by the minuteness of their
parts, thus losing all boldness and even distinetness of
outline.

FLANK, (from the French,_flcmc,) that part of a return
body which adjoins the front ; as flank-walls. In town-
houses, the flank-walls become party walls.

FLANK W'ALLS, in engineering, the same as the wing
or return walls of a lock or bridge.

FLAPS, folds or leaves attached to the shutters of a win-
dow, which are not sufficiently wide of themselves to cover
the sash-frames, or to exclude the light.

FLASHES, in engineering, a kind of sluices erected upon
navigable rivers, to raise the water upon any shoals therein,
while the vessels or craft are passing.

FLASHINGS, in plumbery, pieces of lead inserted in a
wall for covering other pieces laid down for gutters, &c.

FLAT CROWN. See CORONA. .

FLATTING, in house-painting, a mode of painting in oil,
without any gloss on the painted surface when finished. The
paint is prepared with a mixture of oil of turpentine, which

secures the colour; and when used in the finishing, leaves
the paint quite dead, without gloss. This is of great

importance to those who are desirous to have their rooms
continue white. Flatting is only used for inside work,
and rarely for any but principal rooms. Nut oil is some-
times used for the purpose, but not often, on account of its
high price.

 

 

 

w

 

 

 

 

 

FLO

416

FLO

 

As useful a flatting as any, is such as is ground in poppy
oil. It is pleasant in working, and leaves a beautiful white
for some years ; but it is rather expensive.

FLEMISH BOND, that method of laying bricks in which
headers and stretchers appear alternately in the length of
each course. The appearance of this work is generally
preferred to. that of English bond, for the external facings
of walls, but the method of laying is much more complicated,
and requires the insertion of a number of small pieces in
carrying up the work, to fill up the interstices between
the bricks. See BRICKLAYING.

FLEMISII BRICKS, in bricklaying, strong bricks, of a
yellowish colour, used in paving; their dimensions are about
6% inches long, 2% broad, and 1% thick; 72 set upon their
widest sides, or 100 on edge, will pave a yard square, allow-
ing a quarter of an inch for the joints. ‘

FLEXURE, or FLEXION, (from the Latin) the opposition
of curvature at a given point, where a straight line becomes
a tangent, having the curve on both sides of it, one portion
of the curve being concave, and that on the other side of the
point of contact, convex.

FLIGHT, in staircasing, a series of steps, whose treads are
parallel, and terminate against a straight wall.

FLIGHT, Leading,

FLIGHT, Returning,

FLIGHT, is also used in London for a whole stair, between
two adjoining floors.

FLOAT, in plastering. See PLASTERING.

FLOAT-BOARDS, the boards fixed to undershot water-
wheels, to receive the impulse of the stream.

FLOAT-STONE, among bricklayers. See BRICKLAYERS.

FLOATED LATH AND PLASTER, set fair for paper. See
PLAsTERING.

FLOATEI), RENDERED, and SET, in plastering. See PLAS-
TERING.

FLOATING, in plastering. See PLASTERING

FLOATING BRIDGE. See BRIDGE.

FLOATING RULES, in plastering. See PLASTERING.

FLOATING SCREEDs, in plastering. See PLASTERING.

FLOOD—GATE, a gate or sluice, that may be opened or
shut at pleasure, to give passage to, or retain the water of
a river liable to be swollen by floods. Flood-gates are
necessary in many situations ; as, upon rivers where ,the
water is retained for the service of mills, canals, navigations,
docks, &c.

FLOOR, (from the Saxon) the lowest horizontal side of
an apartment, for walking, or for performing different opera-
tions upon.

Floors were formerly covered with rushes, carpets being
seldom used for such purposes, even at the close of Elizabeth’s
reign. In much earlier times, however, tapestry-cloths
were occasionally used to rest the feet upon. Most of
the old dramatists have frequent allusions in their works
to the practice of strewing rushes in the principal apart-
ments. -

Floors are of various kinds, according to the materials of
which they are cOnstructed. Those made of brick and stone,
are called pavements ,- those of earth are called eart/eenfloors;
those of plaster, lime floors; and those of timber are called
timber floors.

FLOOR, in carpentry, includes not only the boarding for
walking upon, but all the timber-work for its support.
Bearded floors should never be laid till the building is pro—
perly covered in, nor indeed till the windows are glazed, and
the plaster dry. Previous to the laying of such floors, the
boards ought to be rough-planed, and set out to season, a
twelvemonth at least, before they are used ; that the natural

} See STAIRCASING.

 

sap may be thoroughly expelled, and the shrinking prevented.
which so frequently takes place when unseasoned timber is
used. The best timber for flooring is yellow deal, well-
seasoned. The quality of this material is such, that when
laid, it will be easily kept of a good colour; whereas white
timber is liable to become black in a very short time.

Narrow boards are called battens; these should never
exceed seven inches in width, nor be less than an inch in
thickness.

Floors are nailed either at both edges, or at one edge; the
longitudinal joints, or those in the direction of the fibres, are
either square, ploughed and tongued, or rebated and lapped
upon each other. Ploughed and tongued, and rebated joints
may be used where the apartment is required to be air-tight,
and where the stuffis thought not sufficiently seasoned. The
heading-joints are either square or ploughed and tongued.
In square longitudinal jointed floors, it is necessary to nail
the boards on both edges: but where the boards are dowelled,
ploughed and tongued, or rebated, one edge only may be
nailed, as the grooving and tonguing, or lapping, is sufficient
to keep the other edge down.

Battens used in flooring are of three kinds, and are deno-
minated best, second best, and common. The best battens
are those that are free from knots, shakes, sap, and cross-
grained fibres; the second best are those free from shakes
and sap, but in which small knots are suffered to pass. The
common kind are such as remain after taking away the best
and second best.

The best floors are dowelled and nailed only at the outer
edge, through which the nails are made to pass obliquely into
the joists, without piercing the upper surface of the boards,
so that when laid no nails appear: the heading joints of such
floors are most commonly grooved and tongued. Some work-
men dowel the battens over the joists, but it makes firmer
work to fix the dowels over the inter-joists. The gauge
should be run from the under surface of the boards, which
should be straightened on purpose.

In the most common kind of flooring, the boards are folded
together in the following manner: supposing one board
already laid, and fastened, a. fourth, fifth, sixth, or other
board, is also laid and fastened, so as to admit of two, three,
four, five, or more boards, between the two, but which can
only be inserted by force, as the capacity of the opening
must be something less than the aggregrate breadths of the
boards, in order that the joints may be close when they are
all brought down to their places; for this purpose a board
may be thrown across the several boards to be laid, which
may be forced down by two or more men jumping upon it :
this done, all the intermediate boards are to be nailed down,
and the operation is to be repeated till the whole is complete.
This manner of flooring is called a folded floor.

III folded floors, less than four boards are seldom laid
together. No attention is paid to the heading joints, and
sometimes three or four joints meet in one continued line,
equal in length to the aggregate of the breadths ot‘ the
boards.

In dowelled floors, the distances to which the dowels are
set, are from six to eight inches, generally one over each
joist, and one over each inter-joist; and, as has been already
observed, the heading-joints of this kind of floor are generally
ploughed and tongued; and no heading-joint of two boards
ought to be so disposed as to meet the heading-joint of any
other two boards, and thereby form a straight line equal to
the breadth of the two boards.

In common floors, the boards are always gauged from the
upper side, then rebated from the lower side to the gauge
lines, and the intermediate part adzed down, in order If

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

FLO

417

FLU

 

bring them to a uniform thickness. In doing this, great
care should be taken not to make them too thin, which is
frequently the case, and then they must be raised with chips,
which present a very unstable resistance to a pressure upon
'the floor.

Flooring is measured by throwing the contents into square
feet, and dividing them by 100, which is called a square of
flooring; the number of hundreds contained in the superficial
contents in feet are squares, and the remainder feet.

The method of measuring floors, is by squares of ten feet
on each side; the dimensions being multiplied together, cut
off two figures from the right of the product, and those
towards the left give the number Of squares, and the two on
the right are feet.

EXAMPLE—Suppose the length of a floor 28 feet, and the
breadth 24.

28

24
112
56
6,72

The product gives six squares, seventy-two feet.

When a naked floor is squared, and the contents found,
nothing is deducted for the chimney, because the extra thick-
ness of the trimmers will make up for that deficiency.

FLOOR, in carpentry, the timbers which support the board-
ing, called also naked flooring. See CARCASE FLOORING, and
NAKED FLOORING.

FLOOR also denotes any portion of a building upon the
same level: as basement-floor, ground floor, one-pair floor,
two-pair floor, &C., but when there is no sunk story, the
ground floor becomes the basement; the expressions one-pair
floor, two-pair floor, &C., imply the floor above the first flight
of stairs above ground, the floor above the second flight of
stairs above ground, &c.

The principal floor of every building is that which con-
tains the principal rooms. III the country they are generally
on the ground floor; but in town, on the one-pair-of—stairs
floor.

FLOOR JOISTS, or FLOORING JOISTs, such joists as support
the boarding in a single floor; but where the floor consists
of binding and bridging-joists, the bridgings are never called
floor-joists.

FLOORS or EARTH, or EARTHEN FLOORS, are commonly
made of loam, and sometimes, especially to malt on, of lime,
brook-sand, and gun-(lust, or anvil-dust from the forge ; the
whole being well wrought and blended together with blood.
The siftings of limestone have also been found exceedingly
useful when formed into floors.

Earthen floors for plain country habitations may be made
as follows : take two-thirds lime and one Of coal-ashes, well
sifted, with a small quantity of loam Clay: mix the whole
together, and temper it well with water, making it up into
a heap: let it lie a week or ten days, and then temper it
again. After this, heap it up for three or four days, and
repeat the tempering very high, till it becomes smooth,
yielding, tough, and gluey. The ground being levelled, lay
the floor with this material about two and a half or three
inches thick, smoothing it with a trowel: the hotter the
season, the better; and when it is thoroughly dried, it will
make a good floor for houses, especially malt-houses. But
should it be required to make the floor look better, take lime
made of rag-stones, well tempered with whites of eggs, and
cover the floor about half an inch thick with it, before the
under flooring is quite dry. If this be well done, and

5 O

thoroughly dried, it will appear, when rubbed with a little
oil, as transparent as metal or glass. In elegant houses,
floors of this nature are made of stucco, or plaster-of-paris,
beaten and sifted, and mixed with other ingredients. Well-
wrought coarse plaster makes excellent safe upper floors for
cottages, out-houses, &c., when spread upon good strong
laths or reeds. '

Very dry and comfortable floors may be formed by cover-
ing the area of the rooms with a level stratum Of concrete,
consisting of dry screened gravel or pounded stone, mixed
with a small quantity of ground stone lime, or Portland
cement, and laid about six inches in thickness ; over this, and
before it sets, should be sifted a few ashes, or some fine
gravel; which if worked in and well finished, gives a hard
and even surface. This description of floor is similar to those
used in Devonshire, which are proverbial for comfort and
durability. The ordinary red paving tiles, 12 inches square,
make very good, dry, and comfortable floors, and they are
easily kept clean. Claridge’s asphalte of Seyssel, has also
been used for the floors of basement stories, and answers very
well, especially in damp situations. For stables, railway-
stations, and places of a similar description, perhaps there is
nothing better than wood. The wood-pavement Of the
Metropolitan Wood Pavement Company, has been used with
great success for such purposes—in the dock-yards by govern—
ment; and by the railway companies, for their stations, 8w.

FLOORING-CRAMP, a machine invented by Mr. Andrew
Smith, for laying down floors. This machine is used with
great facility, and enables a person accustomed to it, to get
through his work with rapidity and ease; making very tight
and close joints in his floors, with much less trouble than by
the ordinary method.

FLOORING-MACHINE, a machine for preparing complete
flooring boards with great dispatch, and in the most perfect
manner; the several Operations of sawing, planing, grooving,
and tongueing, being all carried on at the same time, by a
series Of saws, planes, and revolving Chisels.

FLOOR-TIMBERS, the timbers on which a floor is
laid.

FLORID STYLE, in pointed architecture, that beautiful.
style which was practised in England during the reigns of
Henry VII. and Henry VIII. Its general external character
consists of large arched windows, with very obtuse angles at
the summit, and with numerous ramifications, consisting
of light cuspidated mullions, filled with a variety Of polyfoils.
The buttresses, instead of having always rectangular hori-
zontal sections, frequently have those of polygons, as in
Henry VII/5 chapel, and are crowned with cupolas. The
walls are loaded with niches, pinnacles, and crockets, termi-
nating in open mullion-wurk, forming a parapet, or kind of
balustrade, finished with finials or spiracles. The walls are
decorated interiorly with panelling, moulded string-courses,
niches, canopies, and other kinds of tracery, vaulted over
with fan-groins. See GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.

FLUE, a passage for smoke in a Chimney, leading from
the fireplace to the top of the shaft, or into another passage.
See CHIMNEY.

The same term is also applied to passages in walls made
for the purpose of conducting heat from one part of a build-
ing to another.

Flues in hot-houses and vineries, frequently make numer-
ous turns on the floor, and then ascend to the wall with
several horizontal turnings.

In the construction of a stack of chimneys, particular care
should be taken that the drawings show distinctly the turn-
ings of the fines; this will prevent mistakes, and save the

 

l apartments from being incommoded with smoke.

\

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

F~ L U

418

FON

 

FLUSH, a term among workmen, signifying a continuity
of surface in two bodies joined together. Thus in joinery,
the style, rails, and munnions are generally made flush; that
is, the wood of one piece on one side of the joint does not
recede from that on the other.

FLUSH, in masonry or bricklaying, signifies the aptitude
of two brittle bodies to splinter at the joints, when the
stones or bricks come in contact when joined together
in a wall.

FLUSH AND BEAD. See BEAD AND FLUSH.

FLUTES, or FLUTINGS, prismatic cavities depressed
within the surface of a piece of architecture at regular
distances, generally of a circular or elliptic section, meeting
each other in an arris; or meeting the surface in an arris,
and leaving a portion of the surface between every two
cavities of an equal breadth; or diminishing in a regular
progression; according as the surface is plane or curved, or
applied to a prismatic or’tapering body.

When a portion of the surface is left between every two
flutes, that portion is called a fillet. When the flutes are
parallel, or diminish according to any law, the fillets are also
parallel, or diminish in the same degree.

The proportion of each fillet to a flute is from a third to
a fifth of the breadth of the flute. That species of fluting,
in which the flutes meet each other without the intervention
of fillets, is- generally applied to the Doric order; and that
with fillets, to the shafts of the Ionic and Corinthian orders.
The flutes most frequently terminate in a spherical or
spheroidal form, particularly in those which have fillets.
In the Ionic order of the temple of Minerva Polias at Athens,
the upper ends of the fillets of the shafts of the columns
terminate with astragals, projecting from the surface of the
fillet: the astragals may begin at a small distance from
the top of the shaft, ascend upwards, and bind round the top
of the flute. In the Corinthian order of the monument Of
Lysicrates, at Athens, the upper ends of the fillets break into
leaves in a most beautiful manner. In the Doric examples
of the temple of Theseus, and of the temple of Minerva at
Athens, and of the portico of Philip king of Macedon, in the
island of Delos, the upper ends of the flutes terminate upon
the superficics of a cone, immediately under the annulets, in
a tangent to the bottom of the curve of the echinus of the
capital. The same kind of termination takes place in
the temple of Apollo at Cora, in Italy ; but in this example,
the conic termination of the flutes is not under the abacus,
but at a small distance down the shaft, leaving a small part
quite a plain cylinder, and thus forming the hypotrochelean
or neck of the capital. In other ancient examples of the
Doric order, the flutes terminate upon a plane surface
perpendicular to the axis of the columns, or parallel to the
horizon, as in the Propylea at Athens. Palladio, and other
Italian authors, have terminated the flutes of the shafts of
their designs of Doric columns in the segments of spheres
tanged by the surfaces of the tinting.

In the temple of Bacchus, at Teos, in Ionia, the lower
extremities of the; flutes descend into the scape of the
column.

The Greeks never applied fluting to any member of the
Doric order, except the shaft, and this was their general
practtce.

Fluting was used by the Romans almost in every plane,
and in every cylindrical surface. See a very fine specimen
in the corona of the cornice of the temple of Jupiter Stator,
at Rome.

The number of flutes in the Doric order is twenty, and in
the Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite, twenty-four. Flutes

 

are sometimes filled with cables or staves, except in the l

Doric order. The cables do not reach higher than one-third
of the entire column. See COLUMN, CABLE.

FLUXIONS, in mathematics, the analysis of infinitely
small variable quantities, or a. method of finding an infinitely
small quantity, which being taken an infinite number of
times, becomes equal to a quantity given. gThe doctrine
of fluxions, first invented by Newton, is of great use in the
investigation of curves, and in the discovery of the quadra-
tures of curvilinear spaces and their rectifications.

FLYERS, a series of steps, whose treads are all parallel.

FLYING BRIDGE. See BRIDGE.

FLYING BU’I‘TRESSES, in pointed architecture, arches
rising from the exterior walls up to those of the nave of an
aisled fabric, on each side of the edifice, for counteracting the
lateral pressure Of a groined or vaulted roof.

The contrivance of flying buttresses is due to the architects
of the middle ages, and shows their skill in the application of
mechanics to the science of architecture. See BUTTRESS.

FOCUS, (Latin) in geometry, and in the conic sections,
a point on the concave side of a curve, to which the rays are
reflected from all points of such curve.

FOCUS, an altar, a hearth or fire-place: the Latin motto,
pro aris etfocis, is said to bederived from this word.

FOCUS, of an ellipsis, hyperbola, or parabola, is particularly
defined under the heads of ELLIPIIC CURVE, HrrsnnOLIo
CURVE, and PARABOLIC CURVE.

F ODDER, FUDDER, or FOTHER, (Saxon) a certain quan-
tity, proportioned by weight.

The weight of the fodder varies, in different counties,
from 19% cwt. to 2+ cwt. Among the plumbers in London,
the fodder is 19% cwt., but at the Custom House 20 cwt.
of 1121b.

FOILS, the small arcs in the tracery of Gothic windows,
panels, &c., which are said to be trefoiled, quatret'oiled,
cinquefoiled, multifoiled, &c., according to the number of
arcs which they contained. An arch with foils in its tracery
is called a failed arc/z. See CUSP and FOLIATION.

FOILs, FOLIATIONS, the spaces between the cusps employed
in the ornamentation of Gothic buildings.

FOLDED FLOOR. See FLOOR.

FOLDING DOORS, such as are made in two parts, hung
on opposite jambs, and having their vertical edge rebated, so
that when shut, the rebates may lap on each other. To
conceal the meeting as much as possible, a bead is most
frequently run at the joint on each side of the doors.

FOLDING JOINT, a joint made like a rule-joint, or the
joint of a hinge.

FOLDS, or F LAPS, of shutters, those parts that are hinged

to the shutters, and concealed behind when the shutters are i

in the boxings, so as to cover the breadth of the window
when the shutters and flaps are folded out in the breadth of
the aperture. Folds are necessary when the walls are so thin
as not to admit of shutters of sufficient breadth, when put
together, to cover the opening.

FOLIAGE, in architecture, an artificial arrangement of
leaves, fruit, &c. See Onxxnsxrs.

FOLIATION. See Fons.

FONT, (from the Latin,fons) the vessel used in churches
to hold the water consecrated for the purposes of baptism.

In the early church, the baptistery formed a separate
building, numbered amongst the exhedrae or outbuildings ‘
which were detached from the church, but enclosed within ‘
the consecrated area. \l‘ithin the baptistery was the font
or reservoir. These separate buildings continued to prevail
till the sixth century, when all occasion for adult baptism ,
ceased, and fonts within the church became general. Many l
baptisteries, however, still exist in various parts of the ;

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

FON

419

 

F00

 

Continent, although there seem to be no specimens in Eng-
land, unless indeed we consider as such the building surround-
ing the font at Luton church. This structure is octagonal,
about twenty-eight feet high, having open arches at the sides,
and a stone roof, the font being placed in the centre, thus
forming a small oratory capable of holding seven or eight
persons. A similar canopy occurs at Trunch, Norfolk, but
it is of wood, and hexagonal.

The material in use for fonts, is for the most part of stone
lined with lead, but we have some notice of fonts of metal ;
that at Canterbury is reported to have been of silver, and
that taken from Holyrood Chapel, and brought to St. Alban’s,
was of brass. There is also a. font at Chobham, Surrey,
which consists of a leaden basin enclosed within a screen of
oak panelling, the date of which is about A.D. 1600. The
situation of the font is within the church, near the door,
either in the aisle next the porch, against one of the piers
between the aisle and nave, or in the nave near the
west end.

The most rude fonts are in shape little better than large
stones, without any definite external form, but having a space
hollowed out at the top in the shape of a bason ; such is that
in the church of Little Maplestead. Norman fonts are either
of a cylindrical or cubical form; but which shape is the
earlier, it is not easy to decide. In some instances the
cylindrical fonts taper towards the base; and at St. Martin’s,
Canterbury, the reverse proportion is adopted. Next to
these forms came the square stone hollowed out in the
centre, supported on a massive cylindrical stem, or on a
central stem, and four smaller shafts, one at each corner,
specimens of which form exist at Lincoln cathedral, and
Iffley church, Oxfordshire. In all these instances, the sides
of the font are ornamented with rude sculpture in low relief,
frequently of groups, and sometimes of single figures con-
tained in shallow niches, as at Stanton Fitzwarren, lVilts.
Symbolical representations are frequently introduced, as are
also scenes from the Sacred Writings, especially of such
events as relate to the subject of baptism. On the font at
Castle Frome, Herefordshire, is a representation of the
Baptism of Christ, which is a very favourite subject,
the same occurring at Bridekirk, in Cumberland, and lVest
Haddon, in Northamptonshire. Another usual subject is
the Fall of Man, as at East Meon, Hants. .

Early English fonts are in form very similar to those of
the preceding style, but they are readily distinguished
by their ornamentation, which consists of work peculiar to
this style; the details also are of better execution. The
octagonal was a new form introduced into this style. Decorated
and Perpendicular fonts are for the most part octagonal, and
most frequently supported on a central stein ; many of them
are of most beautiful form and workmanship. Those of the
.ater period are usually covered with panelling, and have
the sides filled up with armorial bearings. Hexagonal fonts
are sometimes, though not commonly, found; we have
instances at Carlisle cathedral, Farringdon, Berkshire; and
Bredon, Worcestershire. Five and seven-sided fonts are
extremely rare; of the former we have an example at
Hollington, Sussex. At Patrington and Saddington, Leices-
tershire, we find fonts of twelve sides; and at Stainburn,
Yorkshire, one of fifteen sides; but these are purely excep-
tions : the octagonal form is the most common, as it is also
the most appropriate. The font is usually raised on one or
more steps, the sides or risers of which are often in the
later styles decorated with panelling, quatrefoils, 8w. Fonts
were furnished with covers, which Edmund, archbishop of
Canterbury, A.D., 1236, ordered to be locked down. They ‘
were probably in the earlier periods merely flat lids of wood,

 

but in later times they were carried up in the form of a spire .
to a great height, ornamented with pinnacles and buttresses,
with erockets, finials, and other ornaments; and not unfre-
quently the whole of the sides were pierced with the most
elaborate panelling.

FONTANA, DOMINIC, a distinguished architect, born
in 1543, at a village on the lake of Como. Having acquired
the elements of geometry, he went to Rome, where his elder
brother John was a student in architecture. Here he applied
himself most diligently to the study of the works of antiquity,
and at length was employed by Cardinal Montalto, afterwards
Pope Sextus V. Montalto had already begun to display the
magnificence of his character, by undertaking the construction
of the grand chapel of the Manger, in the church of St.
Maria Maggiore. The pope, Gregory XIII., jealous of the
munificence of his cardinal, took from him the means of his
designs, and thus put a stop to the works. Fontana, with
a spirit worthy of a great man, went on with the building
at his own expense, which so gratified the cardinal, that
when he was raised to the pontifical chair, he appointed
Fontana to be his architect. The chapel and palace were
finished in a splendid style ; but this was a small part of the
designs projected by Sextus. Besides completing the dome
of St. Peter’s, he resolved to contribute to its grandeur, by
conveying to the front of its piazza the obelisk, of a single
piece of Egyptian granite, which had formerly decorated the
Circus of Nero.

This design had been contemplated by some of the prede-
cessors of Sextus, but none had actually attempted it. Sextus
summoned architects and engineers from all parts, to consult
upon the best means of efi‘ecting his purpose ; Fontana’s plan
obtained the preference, and he was able to execute what he
had advanced in theory. This was regarded as the most
splendid exploit of the age ; and rewards and honours of the
most magnificent kind were bestowed on Fontana and his
heirs. He was afterwards employed in raising other obelisks,
and in the embellishment of the principal streets of Rome.
He built the Vatican library, and had begun to make
considerable additions to that place; but they were inter-
rupted by the death of Sextus. One of Fontana’s great
works was the conductng of water to Rome, the distance of
fifteen miles, in an aqueduct supported on arcades. The
successor of Sextus, Clement VIll., was prejudiced against
the papal architect, and dismissed him; but his reputation
caused him to be engaged by the viceroy of Naples as archi-
tect to the king. He accordingly removed to Naples,
in 1592, where he executed many works of consequence.
His last efforts were directed to a new harbour at Naples,
but this he did not live to complete. He died at Naples

.in 1607, in his sixty-fourth year.

FOOT, (Saxon) a measure, either lineal, superficial, or
solid. The lineal or long foot is supposed to be the length
of the foot of a man, and consists of twelve equal parts called
inc/res; an inch being equal to three barleycorns.

Thus the English standard foot (31 Edw. I.) is : 12 lineal
English inches, : 3G barley-corms, : 16 digits, :4 palms,
:3 hands, : 5—1; nails, :1{.; spans, : 1.5151 Gunter’s
links, :.938306 feet of France, : .3047 metres of France.

Geometricians divide the foot into 10 digits, and the digit
into 10 lines, 8:0.

The French divide their foot, as we do, into 12 inches;
and the inch into 12 lines. See MEASURES.

The foot square is the same measure, both in length and
breadth, containing 144 square or superficial inches,
: 2.295681 square links ; and the glazier’s foot in Scotland
is = 64 square Scottish inches.

The cubic, or solid foot, is the same measure in all the

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

FOO

420

 

three dimensions, containing 1728 cubic inches English
= 6.128 ale gallons = 3.478309 cubic links : .0283 cubic
metres or steres of France.

The foot is of ditTe1cnt lengths in difl'elent countries.
The Paris royal foot exceeds the English by nine lines and
a halt'; the ancient Roman foot of the Capitol consisted of
few palms, equal to eleven inches and seven- -tenths English ;
the Rhinland, 01 Leyden foot, by which the northeln nations
go, is to the Roman foot as 950 to 1,000. ’1he po1tions of
the piincipal feet of seve1a1 nations, compared with the
English and French, ale 11e1e subjoined.

The English foot being divided into one thousand pa1ts,
or into twelve lines, the other feet will be as follow:

Th. Pts. Ft. Inch. Li.

London........................ Foot 1000 .. 0 12 0
Paris foot, the royal, by Greaves 1068 1 0 9.7
Paris foot, by Dr. Bernard 1066 1 0 9.5
Paris foot, by Graham, from the

measure of half the toise of the

Chatelet, the toise containing

six Pans feet. ........... 1065.416 1 0 9.8
By Monnie1, from the same data 1065.351 1 0 9
F1om both these it may be fixed at 1065.4 . . 1 0 9.4
Amsterdam ........ . ......... Foot 942 . 0 11 3
Antwerp ..... ........ . 946 .. 0 11 3.57
Dort ................ .. ......... 1184 . 1 2 2
Rhinland, or Leyden ........ . ...... 1033 . 1 0 4
Lorrain ............. . .......... 958 .. 0 11 5
:Meehlin .............................. 919 .. O 11 O
Nliddleburg ........................ 991 .. 0 ll 10
Strasburg ....... . ................ 920 .. 0 ll 0
B1emen .................... . ........ . 964 .. O 11 6
Cologne ......... . ................. .. 954 .. 0 11 5
F1111111101t 011 the Maine ............ 948 0 ll 4
Spanish ........ . .................. 1001 l 0 0
Toledo .. ..... . ........... . .......... 899 0 10 7
Roman . ............................. 967 .. 0 11 6
Bononia ............................. . 1204 l 2 5
1V1antua ....... . .......... 1569 .. 1 O 9
Venice . ............................. 1162 .. 1 1 11
Dantzic ............................. . 944 .. 0 11 3
Copenhagen ....................... . 965 0 11 6
Prague .................. 1026 1 0 3
Riga ........................... 1831 1 9 ll
Turin ............... 1062 1 0 8
The Greek .................... . 1007 1 0 1
Old Roman ........ . .................. 970 . 0 11 7.6
Roman foot, from the monument of

Cossutius in Rome, by Greaves 967 0 11 7.2
From the monument of Statilius,

by the same. . 972 0 11 7.9
Of Villalpandus, deduced f1 om the

congius ot Vespasian............ 986 O 11 9.9

Mr. Rapier, who industriously collected a variety of

authorities relating to the measure of the old Roman t'oot,

determined the mean to be nearly 968 thousandth parts of

the London foot. And by an examination of the ancient

; Roman buildings in Desgodetz’s Edg'flces Antiques de Rome,

3 Paris,

1682, he concluded that the Roman foot, before the
reign of Titus, exceeded 970 parts in 1000 of the London
foot ; and in the reigns of Severus and Diocletian fell short
of 965.

The Paiis foot being supposed to contain 1440 parts, the
rest will be as iollow— .—

 

F O R
Paris Foot 1440
Rhinland.............................. 1391
Roman................ ............ 1320
London ............ 1350
Swedish ...... ............. .. 1320
Danish................... ............ .. 1403
Venetian .................. 1540§
Constantinopolitan ................ .. 3120
Bononian . . ............................ 1682§
Strasburg ......... .. ....... . ..... 12825
Nuremburg ...... . ..... . .............. 1346;
Dantzic ................. 172%
Halle .................. .. ......... . 1320

In Scotland, this measure of length, though consisting of
twelve inches, exceeds the English foot, so that 185 of the
former is equal to 186 of the latte1. -‘Acc01dingly the Scot-
tish foot: 12 Scottish inches :12 —1- English inches,
accmding to some, and 12— English inches, oacco1ding to
others. The glaziei’s in Scotland: 8 Scottish
inches.

For a farther account of the foot, ancient and modern, and
its proportions in different countries. See MEASURE.

FOOT-BANK, or F COT-STEP, in fortification. See BAN-
QUEI‘TE.

FOOT -BASE, the moulding above the plinth of an
apartment.

FOOT- BRIDGE, a narrow bridge for foot-passengers. See
BRIDGE.

FOOT OF THE EYE DIRECTOR, in pe1spective, that point
in the di1eeting line which is made by a vertical plane pass-
ing through the eye and the centre of the picture.

FOOT OF A VERTICAL LINE, in perspective, that point in
the intersecting line, which is made by a vertical plane
passing through the eye1 and the centre of the picture.

FOOT IRONS, in engineeling, pieces of iron plate, used by
navvigatms, o1 canal- diggers, to tie upon that part of the sole
ot~ their shoes with which they st1ike the top of their spade
or grafting tool, in digging ha1d soil.

FOOT-PACE, in l1and-1ailing, a flat space in some stairs,
always situated between the starting, or first step, and the
landing. See STAIRCASING.

FOOT-PACE, the dais or raised floor at the upper end of an
ancient hall.

FOOT-STALL, the base or plinth of a pillar.

FOOTING-BEAM, a term used in Cumberland, “'est-
morcland, Somersetshire, and perhaps in other counties, for
the tie-beam of a roof.

FOOTINGS, in bricklaying and masonry, projecting courses
of stone, without the naked of each face of a superincumbent
wall, used as a base to the wall, in order to prevent it from
sinking and rocking by heavy winds.

FOOTING DORMANT, the tie-beam of a roof; the term is
used in \Vestmoreland.

FORCE, (from the Latin, fortis, strong) in philosophy,
the cause of motion in a body, when it begins to move, or
when it changes its direction from the course in which it
was previously moving. “’l1ile a body remains in the same
state, whether of rest or of uniform and rectilinear motion,
the cause of its so remaining is in the nature of the body,
which principle has reCeived the name of inertia.

Mechanical force is of two kinds : that of a body at res
by which it presses on “hatev e1 suppoits it, and that ot a
body in motion, by which it is impelled towaids 11 certain
point. '1he tor‘mei is called by the names or pressure, tension,
jbrce, ‘vis mortua, &c., the latte1 is known by the appellation
01 moving force, or vis viva. To the 11151: 01 these are

1895
foot

 

 

1m

 

 

FOR

421

FOR.

 

referred centrifugal and centripetal forces because, though
they also reside in the vis viva, they are homogeneous to
weights, pressures, or tensions of any kind. For want of a
true knowledge of the nature of force, we are accustomed
to consider its measure by velocity, upon the supposition that,
under precisely similar circumstances, the velocity is equal
to the force; an hypothesis highly probable, though not
easily demonstrable. Velocity itself is a compound idea,
derived from a certain relation between time employed and
space described. Thus, if two bodies be supposed to move
uniformly upon two different lines, the distances which they
describe upon their respective lines in any given time, may
be measured and represented by some standard measure,
from which we acquire an idea of their relative velocity or
force; and considering velocity as an abstract number, it is
said’to be equal to the space divided by the time ; and thus
we are led to consider velocity, or the space described in a
given time, as the measure of force.

Force may also be expressed by other functions of velocity ;
for it may be proportional to the square or cube of the
velocity ; and La Place has very ingeniously proved that the
difference between the proportionality of force to velocity, if
any really exists, must be extremely small ; whence he
argues it is highly improbable that any does exist. If there
were any material variation in this law, the relative motions
of bodies on the surface of the earth would be sensibly
affected by the motion of the earth; in other words, the
effect of a given force would vary considerably, according as
its direction coincided with, or was opposed to, that of the
earth’s motion. The effects of the same apparent forces
would likewise vary in different seasons of the year; the
velocity of the earth being less by about one-thirtieth in
summer than it is in winter. But as no such variation is
discernible, we mayjustly conclude the proportion between
force and velocity to be as 1 to 1 ; that is, there’is no diffe-
rence. To illustrate this, suppose two bodies moving upon
one straight line with equal velocities ; by impelling one of
them with a force which increases its original force, its
relative velocity to the other body remains the same as if
both had been primitively in a quiescent state. The space
described by the body, in consequence of its original force,
and of that which has been added to it, becomes equal
to the sum of what each of them would have caused it to
have been, described in the same time ; therefore the force is
proportional to the velocity.

This law, and that of inertia above alluded to, may be
considered as derived from observation and experiment : they
are simple and natural, and are sufficient to serve as a basis
for the whole science of mechanics.

Early in the last century, a warm controversy arose relative
to the measure of force, which was carried on with consider-
able acrimony, though it now appears that the question was
rather about words than facts. Sir Isaac Newton had defined
the measure of force to be “the mass of a body multiplied
into its velocity ;” which definition was not only convenient
for the philosophical investigation in which he was engaged ;
but was really mathematically just. But in another point of
view, in which the effects of force may be said, without any
impropriety, to depend on the mass multiplied into the square
of the velocity, this product has been called the vis viva, and
was considered by Bernouilli and Leibnitz as the true and
universal measure of force, in opposition to Sir Isaac’s defi-
nition; though it now appears that they were led into an
error by not duly considering all the circumstances of the
question at issue. The measure adopted by them, the vis
viva, however, merits attention, as in all cases of practical
machinery it is frequently the most accurate, and always the

5P

 

most useful ; at the same time it implies no contradiction to
the Newtonian definition. But the force thus measured ought
to be distinguished by some appropriate name, 6. g. the vz's
nzecharn'ca; the Newtonian measure being applied to the vi!
matrix, as suggested by Mr.VVollaston in the Bakerian Lecture
for 1805.

FORCE, Direction of; the straight line which it tends to
make a body describe.

FORCES, Composition of. If two forces be conceived to act
on a material point, it is evident that if they both act in the
same direction, they will mutually increase each other’s
effect ; but if they act in opposite directions, the point will
move only in consequence of their difference, and it would
remain at rest if the forces were equal. If the directions of
the two forces make an angle with each other, the resulting
force will take a mean direction ; and it can be demonstrated
geometrically, that if, reckoning from the point ofintersection
0f the two directions of the forces, we take on these directions
straight lines to represent them, and then form a parallelogram
with such lines, its diagonal will represent their resulting
force, both as to its direction and magnitude. The resulting
force thus determined, which likewise represents the velocity
of the moving point, may therefore be substituted as a force
equivalent to the two component forces; and reciprocally,
for any force whatever, we may substitute any two forces,
which according to this rule would compose it. Hence we
see that any force whatever may be decomposed into any two
forces, parallel to two axes situated in the same plane, and
perpendicular to each other. To effect this, it is only neces-
sary to draw from the first extremity of the line representing
the force, to other lines parallel to the axis, and to form with
such lines a rectangle, whose diagonal will be the force
required to be decomposed. The two sides of this rectangle,
or parallelogram, will represent the forces into which the
given force may be decomposed, parallel to such axis. If the
force be inclined to a plane in position, a line in its direction
may be taken to represent it, having one of its extremities
on the surface of the plane, and the perpendicular falling
from the other extremity will be the primitive force decom-
posed in the direction perpendicular to the plane. The
straight line, which in the plane joins the other extremity of
the line representing the force with the perpendicular (or the
orthographic projection of the line of the plane) will repre-
sent the primitive force decomposed, parallel to the plane.
This second partial force may itself be decomposed into two
others, parallel to two axes in the same plane, perpendicu-
lar to each other. Thus we see that every force may be
decomposed into three others, parallel to three axes perpen-
dicular to each other; which axes are termed rectangular
co-ordz'nates.

Hence we have a very simple mode of obtaining the
resulting force of any number of forces supposed to act on a
material point. This method was first adopted by Maclaurin,
followed by La Grange, in the ZWc/zanique Analytique, and
also by La Place in the Méclzanique Céleste. By decompOSing
each of these forces into three others, parallel to the given
axes in position, and perpendicular to each other, we have all
the forces parallel to the same axis reduced to one single
force, which latter will be equal to the sum of the forces
acting in the same direction, minus the sum of those acting in
a contrary direction: so that the point will be acted on by
three forces perpendicular to each other. From the point of
intersection, or origin of the co-ordinates, take three right
lines to represent them in each of their directions, and on
such lines form a rectangular parallelopipedon, and the
diagonal of this solid will represent the quantity and direction
of the resulting force of all the forces acting on the point.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

FOR

422

FOR

 

The principle of the composition of forces is of the most
extensive utility in mechanics, and is in itself sufficient for
determining the law of equilibrium in every case. Thus, if
we successively compose all the forces, taking them by two’s,
and then take the result as a new force, we obtain one that
is equivalent to all the rest, and which, in case of equilibrium,
must equal 0, when the system under consideration has no
fixed point; but if the conditions of the problem insist on
an immoveable point, the resulting force must necessarily
pass through it.

Though it is admitted by all writers on this subject, that
the most abstruse propositions may be deduced from a few
simple principles, yet few are found who entirely agree in
their choice of such principles. The most advantageous, and
indeed the most natural method, seems to be that wherein the
relation between various forces in a state of equilibrium is
first investigated, and then the consideration extended to a
body in motion. If a body remain in equilibrium, at the
same time that it is solicited by several forces, each force is
supposed to produce only a tendency to motion, which is
measured by the motion it would produce were it not checked
by the power of the others : therefore, after expressing the
effect of any one of the forces by unity, the relative force of
the others may likewise be expressed by words or numbers.

La Place merely assumes the two foregoing principles, and
speaks of them as experimental facts ; while Dr. Young does
not scruple to declare them capable of demonstration. (See his
Lectures.) But this difference of opinion is of little import-
ance, since the principles themselves are universally
admitted. ‘

La Grange has founded the whole doctrine of the equi-
librium of forces on the well-known principle of the lever,
the composition of motion,and the principle of virtual velocity;
each of which we shall here notice.

The principle qftlie lever may be derived from the com-
position of forces, or even from much less complicated con-
siderations.

Archimedes, the earliest author on record, who attempted
to demonstrate the property of the lever, assumes the equi-
librium of equal weights at equal distances from the fulcrum,
as a mechanical axiom; and he reduces to this simple and
primitive case that of unequal weights, by supposing them,
when commensurable, to be divided into equal parts, placed
at equal distances on different points of the lever, which may
thus be loaded with a number of small equal weights, at
equal distances from the fulcrum. _

The principle of the straight and horizontal lever being
admitted, the law of equilibrium in other machines may be
deduced from it. Though it is not without difficulty that the
inclined plane is referred to this principle ; the laws relative
to which have been but lately known.

Stevinus, mathematician to Prince Maurice of Nassau,
first den’ionstrated the principle of the inclined plane by a
very indirect, though curious mode of reasoning. He con-
siders the case of a solid triangle resting on its horizonal
base, whose sides then become two inclined planes: over
these he supposes a chain to be thrown, consisting of small
equal weights threaded together; the upper part of such
chain resting on the two inclined planes, and the lower ends
hanging at liberty below the foot of the base. His reason-
ing is, that if the chain be not in equilibrio, it will begin to
slide along the plane, and would continue so to do, the same
cause still existing, for ever; thus producing a perpetual
motion. But as this implies a contradiction, we must con-
clude the chain to be in equilibrio; in which case, as the
efforts of all the weights applied to one side would be an
exact counterpoise to those applied to the other, and the

 

number of weights would be in the same ratio as the lengths
of the planes ; he Concludes that the weights will be in
equilibrio on the inclined planes when they are to each other
as the lengths of the planes; but that when the plane is
vertical, the power is equal to the weight; and that therefore,
in every inclined plane, the power is to the weight as the
height of the plane to its length.

Virtual velocity is that which a body in equilibrium is
disposed to receive whenever the equilibrium is disturbed;
in other words, it is what a body actually receives in the
first moment of its motion.

The principle of virtual velocity, in its most general form,
is as follows : suppose a system in equilibrium composed of a.
number of points, drawn in any direction, by whatever forces,
to be so put in motion, as that every point shall describe an
infinitely small space, indicative of its virtual velocity; the
sum of the forces being each multiplied by the space
described by the point to which it is applied, in the direction
of the force, will equal 0; the small spaces described in the
direction of the forces being estimated as positive, and those
in a contrary direction as negative. Galileo, in his Treatise
on Mechanical Science, and in his Dialogues, proposes this
principle as a general property in the equilibrium of
machines ; he appears to have been the first writer on
mechanics, who was acquainted with it. His disciple
Torricelli was the author of another principle, which seems
to be but a necessary consequence of Galileo’s. He supposes
two weights to be so connected, that however placed, their
centre of gravityshall neither rise nor fall ; in every situation,
therefore, they will be in equilibrio. He [contents himself
with applying this principle to inclined planes ; but it
equally applies to all machines.

Des Cartes deduced the equilibrium of different forces
from a similar principle ; but he presented it under another,
and less general point of view, than Galileo had done; for
he argues that to lift a given weight to a certain height, pre-
cisely the same force is requisite that would be sufficient to
raise a heavier to a height proportionally less, or a lighter to
a height proportionally greater ; therefore two unequal weights
will be in equilibrio, when the perpendicular spaces described
by them are reciprocally proportional to them. In the appli-
cation of this principle, however, only the spaces described
in the first instant of motion are to be considered ; otherwise
the accurate law of equilibrium will not be attained.

Another principle, recurred to by some authors in the
solution of problems relative to the equilibrium of forces,
arises out of the foregoing, 'viz. “Then a system of heavy

bodies is in equilibrio, the centre of gravity is the lowest ,

possible.
when the differential of its descent is O, as can be demon-

For the centre of gravity of a body is the lowest, ‘;

strated from the principle de mawimas et mini/nus; that is, ;

when the centre of gravity neither ascends nor descends by
an infinitely small change in the position of the system.

J. Bernouilli first perceived the great utility of generalizing
this principle ofvirtual velocity, and applied it to the solution

of problems ; in which he was followed by Varignon, who .

has devoted the whole of the ninth section of his Abum'lle

fllec/ianique to demonstrate its truth and exemplify its utility ‘

in various cases in statics.

In the fllémoires de l’Acade’mie for 17-10, Maupertuis pro-
posed another principle, originating in the same source. under
the title of “The Law of Repose ;” which was afterwards
extended by Euler, and explained in the Memoirs of the
Berlin Academy for 1751: and the principle assumed by
Mons. Courtivron, in the .Mémoires de l’Academie for 1748-9.
is of the same nature : viz, that of all the situations which
a system of bodies can successively take, that wherein the

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

' FOR

423

FOR

 

system must be placed to remain in equilibrio, is that in
which the vis viva is either a maximumor a minimum, because
the vis viva is the sum of the respective masses composing
the system, each multiplied into the square of its velocity.

Of all these methods, that of virtual velocity appears to be
most generally useful ; indeed all the others are derived from
it, and are serviceable in proportion as they approach nearer
to it. La Grange has given practical examples of the ana-
lytical processes for determining general formulae or equations
for the equilibrium of any system ; and La Place has demon-
strated the principle on which the calculus is founded.

In the foregoing observations, force is supposed to be the
product of the mass of a material point, by the velocity it
would receive if entirely free. By confining these conside-
rations to the case of a single material point, the conditions
of equilibrium will be found to be analogous to those above
spoken of, but much simplified.

The most elementary equation to express the state of equi-
librium ofa material point, acted on by any number of
forces, is, that every force, multiplied by the element of its
direction, equals 0: thus, suppose the point to change its
position in an infinitely small degree in any direction ; then,
in the case of equilibrium, if every force be multiplied by the
elementary space approached to, or receded from by the point,
the force being estimated in its direction, the product will
be 0.

Here the point is supposed to be free ; but if constrained
to move on a curved surface, it will experience a reaction
equal and contrary to the pressure which it exerts on such
surface, but perpendicular to it, or in the direction of the
radius of the curve. This reaction may be considered as a
new force, which, multiplied by the elements of its direction,
must be added to the former equation. But if the variation
of position, instead of being taken arbitrarily, be taken upon
the curve, so as not to alter the conditions of the problem,
the preceding equation will still hold good, because the
elementary variation of the radius is equal to 0, as is evident
from inspection. Again,” if the magnitude of any force, or its
intensity, multiplied by the distance of its direction from any
fixed point, be denominated its moment, relatively to such
point, it will be found that the sum of the moments of the
producing forces is always equal to that of the resulting
force ; and in case of equilibrium, the sum of the moments of
all the forces equals 0.

Ifthe forces acting on a point, or on a system of points,
he not so proportioned as to maintain the system in equi-
librium, a motion must necessarily take place, the laws of
which may be deduced from an extension of the principles
laid down for investigating the state of equilibrium ; a method
pursued by La Grange, and after him by La Place. The
former combines the principle of virtual velocities with that
of D'Alembert, which is very simple, and, though long unob-
served, may be considered as an axiom. It is as follows :

If several bodies have a tendency to motion, in directions,
and with velocities, which they are constrained to change in
consequence of their reciprocal reaction ; the motion so
induced may be considered as composed of two others, one
of which the bodies actually assume, and the other such, that
had the bodies been only acted upon by it, they would have
remained in equilibrium. This theorem is not of itself
sufficient to solve a problem, because it is always necessary
to derive some condition relative to the equilibrium from
other considerations; and the difficulty of determining the
forces and the laws of their equilibrium, sometimes renders
this application more difficult, and the process more tedious,
than if the solution were performed upon some principle more
complex and more indirect. To obviate this objection, there-

 

fore, La Grange attempted to combine the principle of
D’Alembert with that of virtual velocity ; in which he was
so successful, that he was enabled to deduce the general
equations relating to the forces acting on a system of bodies.
His description of this method is as follows :

To form an accurate conception of the mode in which these
principles are applied, it is necessary to recur to the general
principle of virtual velocity, viz. When a system of material
points, solicited by any force, is in equilibrium, if the system
receive ever so small an alteration in its position, every point
will naturally and consequently describe a small space ; each
of which spaces being multiplied by the sum of each force,
according to the direction of such force, must equal 0.

Now supposing the system to be in motion, the motion
that each point makes in an instant may be considered as
composed of two, one of them being that which the point
acquires in the following instant; consequently, the other
must be destroyed by the reciprocal action of the points or
bodies upon each other, as well as of the moving forces by
which they are solicited. There will therefore be an
equilibrium between these forces and the pressures or resis-
tances resulting from the motions lost by the bodies from
one instant to another. Therefore, to extend to the motion
of a system of bodies, the formulas of its equilibrium, it is
only necessary to add the terms due to the lastnmentioned
forces.

The decrement of the velocities, which every particle has
in the direction of three fixed rectangular co-ordinates,
represents the motions lost in those directions; and their
increment represents such as are lost in the opposite direc-
tions. Therefore, the resulting pressures or forces of these
motions destroyed will be generally expressed by the mass
multiplied into the element of the velocity, divided by the
element of the time; and their directions will be directly
opposite to those of the velocities.

By these means the terms required may be analytically
expressed, and a general formula obtained for the motion of
a system of bodies, which will comprehend the solution of all
the problems in dynamics; and a simple extension of it will
give the necessary equations for each problem.

A great advantage derived from this formula is, that it
gives directly a number of general equations, wherein are
included the principles or theorems, known under the appella-
tions of conservation of the vis viva; conservation of the
motion of the centre of gravity ; conservation of equal areas ;
and the principle oft/ac [east action.

Of these, the first, the conservation of Me vis viva, was
discovered by Huygens, though under a form somewhat
different from that which we now give to it. As employed
by him, it consisted in the equality between the ascent and
desce t of the centre of gravity of several weighty bodies,
which descend together, and then ascend separately by the
force they had respectively acquired. But by the known
properties of the centre of gravity, the space it describes in
any direction is expressed by the sum of the products of the
mass of each body by the space such body has described in
the same direction, divided by the sum of the masses.
Galileo, on the other hand, has shown in his problems, that
the vertical space described by a weighty body in its descent.
is proportional to the square of the velocity acquired, and by
which it will reascend to its former elevation. The principle
of Huygens is therefore reduced to this ; that in the motion
of a system ofbodies, the sum of the masses by the squares of
the velocities is constantly the same, whether the bodies
descend conjointly, or whether they freely descend separately
through the same vertical channel.

This principle had been considered only as a simple

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1“ O R
theorem of mechanics, till J. Bernouilli adopted the distinc-
tion, established by Leibnitz, between such pressures as act
without producing actual motion, and the living forces, as
they were termed, which produced motion; as likewise the
measure of these forces by the products of the masses by
the squares of the velocities.~ Bernouilli saw nothing in this
principle but a consequence of the theory of the vis viva, and
a general law of nature, in consequence of which, the sum of
the vis viva of several bodies preserves itself the same, as
long as they continue to act upon each other by simple pres-
sures, and is always equal to the simple vis viva, resulting
from the action of the forces by which the body is really
moved. To this principle he gave the name of conservatio
viviam vivarum, and successfully employed it in the solution
of several problems that had not before been effected.

From this same principle, his son, D. Bernouilli, deduced
the law of the motion of fluids in vases, which he explains
in the Berlin Jilemoirs for 1748 : a subject before but little
understood.

The advantage of this principle consists in its affording
immediately an equation between the velocities of the bodies
and the variable quantities which determine their position in
space; so that when by the nature of the problem these
variable quantities are reduced to one, the equation is of
itself sufficient for its solution, as in the instance of the
problem relating to the centre of oscillation. In general,
the conservation of the vis viva gives a first integral of the
several differential equations of each problem, which is often
of great utility.

The second principle above alluded to, conservation cf the
motion oftlie centre ofgravity, is given by Sir Isaac Newton
in his Principia, as an elementary proposition; where he
demonstrates, that the state of repose or of motion of the
centre of gravity of several bodies, is not altered by the recip-
rocal action of these bodies, in any manner whatever: so that
the centre of gravity of bodies acting upon each other, either
by means of cords or of levers, or by the laws of attraction,
remains always in repose, or move uniformly in a direct line,
unless disturbed by some exterior action or obstacle. This
theorem has been extended by D’Alembert, who has demon-
strated, that if every body in the system be solicited by a
constant accelerating force, either acting in parallel lines, or
directed towards a fixed point, but varying with the distance,
the centre of gravity will describe a similar curve to what it
would have done, had the bodies been free. And, it might
be added, the motion of this centre will be the same as if all
the forces of the bodies were applied to it, each in its proper
direction. This principle serves to determine the motion
of the centre of gravity, independently of the respective
motions of the bodies; and thus it will ever afford three
finite equations between the co-ordinates of the bodies and
the times; and these equations will be the integrals of the
differential equations of the problem.

The third principle, the conservation of equal areas, is
more modern than the two former, and appears to have been
separately discovered by Euler, D. Bernouilli, and D’Arcy,
about the same period, though under different forms.

Euler and Bernouilli describe the principle thus: In the
motion of several bodies round a fixed centre, the sum of the
products of the mass of each body by the velocity of rotation
round the centre, and by its distance from the same centre,
is always independent of any mutual action exerted by the
bodies upon each other, and preserves itself the same as long
as there is no exterior action or obstacle. Such is the prin-
ciple described by l). Bernouilli in the first volume of the
Alemoirs of the Berlin Academy, 1746 ; and by D’Alembert,
m the same year, in his Opuscula. The Chevalier D’Arcy,

424

 

FOR~

also in the same year, sent his Memoir to the Academy of
Paris, though it 'as not printed till 1752, wherein he says.
“ The sum of the products of the mass of each body by the
area traced by its radius vector about a fixed point, is always
proportional to the times.”

This principle, however, is only a generalization of Sir
Isaac’s theorem of equality of areas described by centripetal
forces: and to perceive its analogy, or rather its identity with
that of Euler and Bernouilli, it is only requisite to recollect,
that the velocity of rotation is expressed by the element of
the circular are divided by that of the time; and that the
first of these elements multiplied by the distance from the
centre, gives the element of the area described about it. It
appears then that' this latter principle is only the differential
expression of that of the Chevalier, who afterwards gave the
same principle in another form, which renders it more
similar to the preceding, viz. The sum of the products of
the masses by the velocities, and by the perpendiculars drawn
from the centre to the direction of the forces, is always a

.constant quantity. Under this point of view, M. D’Arcy set

up a kind of metaphysical principle, which he denominates
the conservation of action, in opposition to, or rather as a
substitute for, the principle of the least action.

But leaving these vague and arbitrary denominations,
which neither constitute the essence of the laws ofnature,
nor are able to raise the simple results of the known laws of
mechanics to the rank of final causes, let us return to the
principle in question, which takes place in every system of
bodies acting on_each other in any manner whatever, whether
by means of cords, inflexible lines, attractions, &c., and also
drawn by forces directed to a centre, whether the system be
entirely free, or constrained to move about it. The sum of
the products of the masses by the areas described about this
centre, and projected on any plane, is always proportional to
the time: so that by referring these areas to three rectangular
planes, we obtain three differential equations of the first order,
between the time and the co-ordinates of the curves described
by the bodies; and in these equations, the nature of the
principle properly exists.

. The fourth principle, that of the least action, was so
denominated by Maupertuis, and has since been rendered
celebrated by the writings of several illustrious authors.
Analytically it is as follows : In the motion of bodies acting
upon each other, the sum of the products of the masses by
the velocities, and by the spaces deScribed, is a minimum.
Maupertuis has published two Memoirs on this principle;
one in the Transactions oft/2e Academy of Sciences, for 1744;
the other, in those of the Academy of Berlin, 17-16; wherein
he deduces from it, the laws of reflection and refraction of
light, and those of the shock of bodies. It appears, however,
that these applications are not only too partial for establish-
ing the truth of a general principle, but they are in them-
selves too vague and arbitrary; so that the consr'quches
attempted to be deduced become uncertain: this principle,
therefore, deserves not to be classed with the three foregoing.
There is, however, one point of view, in which it may be
considered as more general and exact, and which alone merits
the attention of geometricians. Euler first suggested the
idea at the close of his Treatise on Isoperimetrical Problems,
published at Lausanne, in 1744, wherein he shows that in
trajectories described by central forces, the integral of the
velocity multiplied by the element of the curve is constantly
either a maximum or a minimum; but he knew of this
property only as pertaining to insulated bodies. La Grange
extended it to the motion of a system of bodies acting on each
other, and demonstrated a new general principle, viz. That
the sum of the products of the masses by the integrals of the

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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425

FOR

 

velocities multiplied by the elements of the spaces described,
is always a maximum or a minimum. ‘

From a combination of this latter principle with that of
the conservation of the vis viva, many difficult problems
in dynamics may be solved; as exemplified by La Grange
in the Memoirs of the Academy of Turin, vol. ii.

La Place, in the Méc/zam'que Céleste, treats the doctrine
of dynamics much in the same manner as La Grange, but
he carries his investigations much farther. He agrees with
that writer in adopting the principle of D’Alembert, and in
resolving every motion into two; that which the particle
had in the preceding instant, and that which would have
maintained it in equilibrio: but he differs from him in not
admitting the principle of virtual velocity to be assumed as
a fundamental axiom; which he demonstrates by a regular
train of inductions.

After having established nearly the same formulae, or
differential equations, and deduced all the general principles
in the manner just described, he introduces others in the
nature of corollaries, many of which merit peculiar considera-
tion. From the principal of the conservation of areas, it
follows, that in the motion of a system of bodies solicited only
by their mutual attraction and by forces directed to the origin
of the co-ordinates, there exists a plane passing through
such origin, which possesses the following remarkable
properties :

1. That the sum of the areas traced on the plane by the
projections of the radii vectores of the bodies, and multiplied
by their respective masses, will be the greatest possible.

2. That such sum is also equal 0 upon all the planes
perpendicular to it.

As the principle of the vie viva, and that of areas, subsist
relatively to the centre of gravity, even though the latter be
supposed to have a rectilinear uniform motion, it follows, that
a plane may be determined as passing through this moveable
origin, on which the sum of the areas, described by the pro-
jections of the radii vectores, and multiplied respectively by
their masses, may be the greatest possible. This plane being
parallel to the one passing through the fixed origin, satisfies
the same conditions ; and another plane passing through the
centre of gravity, and determined according to the foregoing
conditions, will remain parallel to itself during the motion
of the system; a circumstance of considerable utility and
importance. To this we may add, that any plane parallel
to the last-mentioned, and passing through any of the
bodies, par-takes of analogous properties.

La Place next examines how far these results would be
changed, if other relations subsisted between the force and
the velocity. Force, he observes, may be expressed in a
great variety of ways relatively to the velocity, besides that
of the simple law of proportionality, without implying any
mathematical contradiction. Suppose the force to be some
other function of the velocity, (analytically expressed by
F : (pm) in this case the principle of the vis vita will
be found to obtain in all the possible mathematical relations
between the force and the velocity; the 1:12? viva of a body
being the product of its mass by double the integral of its
velocity, multiplied by the differential of the function of the
velocity indicative of the force. I

The uniform rectilinear motion of the centre of gravity is
preserved by the law of nature alone; by which also the
conservation of areas subsists. But a principle analogous to
that of the least action will be found to belong to every
possible relation between force and velocity.

The principle of the least action is not so obvious as the
others that have been mentioned, being more remote from
the elementary theorems, from which they are all derived;

5 Q

 

nevertheless, if it be directly and mathematically deducible
from the same simple principles, it must immediately be
divested of all pretensions to the dignity of a final cause
to which it can have no greater claim than any othei
remarkable numerical property ; for the reverse would imply
a mathematical contradiction. The fact, which is curious,
may be thus analytically stated: Suppose a material point
to move under the impulse of several forces from one
point to another; the curve which it describes possesses the
remarkable property of having the integral or continued
product of the velocity (determined by previous considera-
tions) when multiplied into the element of the curve, less
than any other curve passing through the same points.

Maupertuis, who discovered this principle, carried it no
farther than to single bodies ; Euler established its generality;
and La Grange extended it to a system of bodies acting on
each other, as already noticed. The principle of the least
action being therefore admitted as an established theorem,
it may be resorted to for the solution of problems, and for
determining the trajectories of bodies moving in space; but
in point of practical utility, the necessary calculations are so
much more complex and diflicult than the more usual methods
of investigation, that the latter are greatly to be preferred to it.

Upon these leading principles of the doctrine of forces, as
laid down by the most eminent writers on the subject, it is
to be remarked, that they are for the most part mere develop-
ments of theorems easily deducible from the Newtonian laws
of motion ; and that many of them were even established by
Newton himself. This generalization of mechanical prin-
ciples possesses, however, the advantage of enabling us to
take a more enlarged and comprehensive View of the subject,
than we could do by the consideration of a single problem.

Forces, which become the subj ect of mathematical compu-
tation, may be appropriately divided into the three following
classes :

1. Such as act instantaneously, or for a short interval of
time, and impart uniform motion to a particle subjected
to their action; provided it be not solicited by any force,
and is free to move in any direction.

2. Such as, acting with a continued uniform intensity,
oblige a material particle, at liberty to obey their impulse,
to describe its path with a uniformly accelerated motion.

3. Those, whose intensities, perpetually varying, though
according to some known law, produce a complicated action,
whose circumstances can only be investigated by means of
the integral calculus, or some analogous methods.

Forces whose mode of action is too arbitrary and uncertain
to be included in either of these classes, may be considered
as foreign to the present investigation.

The reader who wishes to have more scientific informa-
tion on this subject, may refer to Gregory’s Mechanics;
Dr. Jackson’s ’l‘heoretieal Mechanics; and may also con-
sult Marat’s Mechanics, \Vood’s Mechanics, or Whewell’s
Mechanics. Professor Leslie also, (in his Elements of Natural
Philosophy), has given an excellent popular illustration, by
supposing the threads to act on light spiral springs adapted
to measure the forces, and commonly called spring steel-yards;
but he acknowledges pulleys and weights have some advan-
tages. By reversing the action of the springs, they might
be applied, with much advantage, to show the relations of
compressing forces, by lecturers on mechanical science.

FORCE, Illec/zalzical. Desaguliers, in his Experimental
Philosophy, has many curious and useful observations con
cerning the comparative forces of men and horses, and the
best mode of applying them. And Dr. Young, in his Lec-
tures, has given a table of a similar nature, compiled chiefly
from the writings of Desaguliers and Coulomb, another writer

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

FOR

426

FOR_

 

who has also displayed considerable ingenuity in pursuing
the subject. The following extract cannot fail of being use-
ful to all concerned in practical mechanics.

In his introduction to his Table, Dr. Young observes, that
to compare the different estimates of moving power, it will be
convenient to take an unit as the mean effect of the labour of
an active man, and without impediment. This will be found,
on a moderate estimation, suflicient to raise 101b. to the
height of 10 'feet in a second, for 10 hours in a day ; or to
raise 1001b., which is the weight of twelve wine gallons of
water, 1 foot in a second, or 36,000 feet in a day ; or
3,600,0001b. or 432,000 gallons, 1 foot in a day. This we
may call a force of 1 continued 36,000."

“Immediate Force of Men without Deduction for Friction

 

 

 

 

 

 

“ And the force in a state of rest becomes 244, or about 7 01b.;
with a velocity of two miles, 361b. ; with three, 24lb. ; and
with four, 15lb. ‘

“ It is obvious, that in the extreme cases this formula is
inaccurate, but for moderate velocities, it is probably a toler-
able approximation.

“Coulomb makes the maximum of effect when a man,
weighing 70 kilogrammes, carries a weight of 531b up stairs;
but this appears to be too great a load; he considers 145
kilogrammes as the greatest weight that can be raised. He
observes, that in Martinique, where the thermometer is sel-
dom below 68°, the labour of Europeans is reduced to
one half.

“ Harriot asserts that his pump, with a horizontal motion,
enables a man to do one-third more work than the common

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

F we Conti- Days’ pump, with a vertical motion.
0 ' nuation- W011i. “ Porters carry from 2001b. to 3001b. at the rate of three

A man, weighing 1331b. (French) ascended miles an-hour; chairmen walk-four miles‘au hour with a
62 feet (French) by steps in 34.), but was load of 1001b. each; and it 18 said that in Turkey, there are
completely exhausted. Amonlons ......... 2.8 34” porters, who, by stooping forward, carry from 700 to 9001b.

A sawyer made 200 strokes of 18 inches placed very low on their backs.

Saigl‘filefi‘g‘ff‘,’ “Effo’ulavfilétfiafiécgosé ' “The most advantageous weight for a man of common
on above3 minutes. Amontons. ............ 6. 145” strength to carry horizontally, 15 1121b.; or, If he returns

A man can raise 601b. (French) 1 foot unladen, 1351b. \Vith wheel-barrows, men will do half as
(French) in 1”, for 8 hrs. a day. Bernoui/li. 69. 8h .552 much more work as with hods. Coulomb.

A man of ordinary strength can turn a winch
with a force Of 3011). and with a Velocity “ Pe7f0rmance Qf'flfen by filacfiines.
of 312- feet in 1”, for 10 hours a day. ._...-

Desa u/iers. ....................... . ............ 1.05 10h 1.05 .

Two megn working at a Windlass, with han- Force. COHFI- . Rays’
dles at right angles, can raise 7011). more nuation .1 ork.
easily than one can raise 3011). lfhsagu'liers. 1.22 1.22 A man ratsed by a rope and pulley, 25“,.

A man can exert a force of 401b. ot a whole (French) 220 feet (French) in 14...)”.
day, “nth the assistance Of a fly, when Amoutons. ......... . .......... 436 145
the mono? ls pretty 31.11101" as about 4 or A man can raise, by a good common pump,

5 feet in 1 ' Desugu Lefs‘ Leg-“IV- 13qu a hogshead of water 10 feet high in 1’, for
from the annotatlon, It] appeglsldoubt u awhole day. Desagu/iers ..................... .875 .875
whether the force be 40 b. 01 ..‘0'b.f:..' ..... If 2. .2 By the mercurial pump, or another good

For a short tune a man may exert ‘1 0.1m 9, pump a man may raise a howshead 18 or 1.61 1’
801b. thh a fly. “ when the motion is 00 feet in 1, for 1 or a minut;

)‘ '-k.” Desa uliers .................. 3. 1" ~ ‘ ’ - ~ 3
petty qutc . , 3‘] . In a pile engine, 55§lb (French) were raised

A man gomg up stairs, ascends 14 metres in 1 foot. (French) in 1",1b1'5 hours a day, by
1 ' Coulomb . """"" ;":,'Z": """ .' 1'182 1 a rope drawn horizontally. Coulomb ...... .64 5h ,82

A “.1311 gomg up mm” fm altlay,fia1ses'.205 Robison says, that a feeble old man raised
kilogrammes to the helg it o a kilo- 7cuhic feet of water 11% feet in 1,, 1.01.8
metre. Coulomb. ........1.‘.) ...... .. ............ .412 or 10 hours a day, by walking backwards

With a spade a man does 36 as much as in and forwards on a lever. Enc. Br......... .837 91‘ .753
ascending stairs. Coulomb. ............... .391 A young man, weighing 1351b. and carrying

With a winch a man does 5 as much as in 3011). raised 93‘ cubic feet 11% feet high,
ascending stairs. C'oul. ..................... ,258 for 10 hours a day, withoeut fatigue.

A man carrying wood up stairs, raises, togc- Robison. .......................................... 1.106 10h 1.106
ther with his own weight, 109 kilo- Wyunc‘s machine enables a man to raise a
grammes to one kilometre. Coutomb. 219, hogshead 20 feet in 1 minute. Young. 1.75 1'

A man weighing 15011). (French) can ascend
by stairs 3 feet (French) in 1” for 15” or “ Force of Horses.

20”. Coulomb. .............. ........... .. .. 5.22 20” Two horses attached to a plough on moderate

For half an hour, 1001b. (French) may be ground, exerted each a force of 150
raised 1 foot (French) in 1”. Coulomb- 1.152 30’ (French) Antoutons. “'e may suppose

According to Mr. Buchanan's comparison, that they went a little more than two miles
the force exerted in turning a winch being an hour for 8 hours ........................... 5.4 8’ 4.32
made equal to the unit, the force in pump- A horse draws with the greatest advantage
illg Will be . ------ .. .61 when the line of direction is level with his

In ringing 1.36 breast; and he can draw with a force of

In rowing ................. . ...... ......... 1.43 2001b. 2% miles an hour, for 8 hours in

Allowing the accuracy of Euler’s force, con- the day ............................ . ............... . 7.33 8" 5.87
firmed by Scltulze, supposing a man’s ac- With a force of 240, only 6 hours. On a
tion to be a maximum when he walks 2.}, carriage, indeed, where friction alone is to
miles an hour, we have 7% for his greatest be overcome, a middling horse will draw
velocity, .04 (7% -— v)2 for the force ex- 100011). Desaguliers..... ...................... 8,8 611 5.28
crtcd with any other velocity, and .0100 The mean draught of four horses was 36 my-

(75—2))2 for the action in each case: riogrammes each, or 79411). Regniel‘.
thus, when the velocity is one mile an hour, This nmst have been momentary. Sup-
the action is .676 posing the velocity 2 feet in 1", the action

When two miles.................................... .964 would have been ........................... 15,88 1"

Three . .972 By means of pumps, 3. horse can raise 250

Four .734 hogsheads ot'watcr 10 feet high, in an

And when Five ... ,5 ‘ i hour. Smeatou‘s Reports. .................. 3.64 I“ _

_.__l

 

 

 

r.

 

 

FOR

427

FOR

 

“ A hmse can in general draw no more up a steep hill than
three men can carry, that is, from 4501b. to 7501b.; but a
strong horse can draw 20001b. up a steep hill, that is but
short. The worst way of applying the force of a horse, is
to make him carry or draw up-hill; for, if the hill be steep,
three men will do more than a horse, each man climbing up
faster with a burden of 1001b. weight, than a horse that is
loaded with 3001b., a difference arising from the position of
the parts of the human body being better adapted to climbing
than those of a horse.

“ 0n the other hand, the best way of applying the force of
a horse, is in an horizontal direction, wherein a man can exert
least force: thus a man, weighing 1401b, and drawing a
boat along by meansof a. rope coming over his shoulders,
cannot draw above 27lb., or exert above one-seventh part of
the force of a horse employed to the same purpose.

“The very best and most effectual posture in a man, is
that of rowing ; wherein he not only acts with more muscles
at once for overcoming the resistance, than in any other
position ; but as he pulls backwards, the weight of his body
assists by way of lever.—Desaguliers.

“ The diameter of a walk for a horse-mill, ought to be at
least 25 or 30 feet.—Desaguliers.

“ Some horses have carried 6501b. or 7001b. seven or eight
miles without resting, as their ordinary work ; and a horse
at Stout-bridge carried llcwt. of iron, or l2321b. for eight
miles—Desaguliers, Exp. Plu'los. vol. i.

 

 

 

F Cont- Days’

“ ”fork of Mules. orce. nuation. Work.
Cazanel says, that a mule works in the West
Indies two hours, out of about 18, with a
force of about 1501b. walking 3 feet in a

second ............................................. 4.4 2“ 40' 1.2

 

FORCE, Inam'male. “According to M. Coulomb, a wind-
mill with four sails, measuring 66 feet (French) from one
extremity to that of the opposite sail, and 6 feet wide, or a
little more, is capable of raising 10001b. (French) 218 feet
in 1’ and of working on an average 8 hours in a day. This
is equivalent to the work of 34 men, as it has been above
estimated, 25 square feet of canvass performing about the
daily work of a man.

“Robison says, that 1 cwt. of coals burned in a steam-
engine will raise at least 20,000 cubic feet of water 24 feet
high ; this is equivalent to the daily labour of 8.32 men. A
steam-engine in London, with a 24-inch cylinder, does the
work of 72 horses, and consumes a chaldron of coals in a
day; each bushel being equivalent to two horses, and each
square inch of the cylinder performing nearly the work of a
man.

“ If we calculate the quantity of motion produced by gun-
powder, we shall find that this agent, though extremely con-
venient, is far more expensive than human labour ; but the
advantage of gunpowder consists in the great rarity of the
acting substance. A spring or a bow can only act with a
moderate velocity, on account of its own weight. The air
of the atmosphere, however compressed, could not flow into
a vacuum with a velocity so great as 1,500 feet in a second.
Hydrogen gas might move more rapidly, but the elastic sub-
stance produced by gunpowder is capable of propelling a
very heavy cannon-ball with much greater velocity.

“It is said, that nine tons of water falling 10 feet, will
grind and dress a bushel of wheat; consequently a man might
do the same in 33' 36"."

FORE-FRON T, the principal or front entrance of a
building.

 

FORE-GROUND, that part of the'field of a picture which
is nearest the observer.

FOR E-PLANE, in carpentry and joinery, the first plane
used after the saw or axe. See TOOLS.

FOREsSHORTEN, in perspective, the diminution which
the representation of the side or part of a body has in one of
its dimensions, compared with the other, occasioned by the
obliquity of the corresponding side or part of the original
body to the plane of projection.

FOREYN, an ancient term signifying a cesspool or
drain.

FORGE, a smith’s furnace. ,

FORM (from the Latin, forma) the external appearance,
or the disposition of the surfaces of a body ; in which sense
it is synonymous with FIGURE, which see.

FORM, in joinery, the long seats or benches in the choirs of
churches, for the priests, canons, prebendaries, &c. to sit’on.

Du Cange supposes the name derived from the backs of
the seats being anciently enriched with figures of painting
and sculpture, called in Latin fm'mce et typi.

FORMERETS, (from the French) the arches which are
next the wall in Gothic groins ; these are only half the thick-
ness of those that divide the vault into compartments.

FORM-PIECES, the lower ends of the mullions of win-
dows which are worked upon the sills. The same as STOOL-
PIECES.

FORT, (Latinfortz's strong) a fortifiedbuilding ; a building
strengthened by artificial means. The term is usually applied
to small detached buildings.

FORTALICE, a small castle.

FORN IX, (Latin) an arch or vault.
VAULT.

FORUM, (Latin) in Roman antiquity, the market-place
for'transacting the business of the public revenue, bankers,
merchants, Sue. The following description of it is given by
Vitruvius:

“ The Greeks made their forums square, with large double
porticos, the columns close together, and adorned with stone
or marble epistyliums, making ambulatories in the upper
stories : but the cities of Italy follow not the same method ;
because, by ancient custom, the shows of gladiators are
usually given in the forum. For this reason the inter-
columns around the area are made wider; and in the sur-
rounding porticos the shops of the bankers are disposed, with
galleries in the upper floors, properly adapted for the use and
management of the public revenue.

“The magnitude of the forum should be suitable to the
number of the people, that it may not be too small for use,
nor, on account of the scarcity of people, appear too large.
The proportion is so determined, that the length being
divided into three parts, two are given to the breadth; for
thus it will be of an oblong form, and convenient for the use
of the shows.

“The upper columns are made a fourth part less than the
lower; because, as the inferior sustains the greater weight,
it should be stronger than the superior : also because it
is proper toimitate nature; for in straight-growing trees,
such as the fir, cypress, and pine, there are none thicker at
the top than at the root; and as they grow in height, they
gradually diminish to the uppermost point. Following there.
fore the example of nature, it is proper that the superior
should be made less than the inferior, both in height and
thickness.

“ The basilica should be joined to the forum on the warmest
side, that the negociants may confer together, without being
incommoded by the weather. The breadth is not made less
than the third, nor more than the half of the length, unless the

See ARCH, and

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

FOR

428

FOR

 

the nature of the place opposes the proportion, and obliges the
symmetry to be different. But if the basilica have too much
length, chalcidicze are made at the ends, as they are in the
basilica of Julia Aquiliana. The columns of the basilica are
made as high as the porticus is broad. The portions is the
third part of the space in the middle. The upper columns are
less than the lower, as above written. The pluteum, which is
between the upper columns, should also be made a fourth part
less than the same columns, that those who walk in the
floor above may not be seen by the negociators below. The
epistylium, zophorus, and coronze, are proportioned to the
columns in the manner explained in the third book.

“ Nor will basilicas of the kind of that at the colony of
Julia of Fanum, which I designed and conducted, have less
dignity and beauty ; the proportions and symmetry of which
are as follow: The middle testudo between the columns is
120 feet long, and 60 feet broad. The portions around the
testudo, between the walls and columns, is 20 feet broad.
The height of the continued columns, including their capitals,
is 50 feet, and the thickness 5, having behind them parastatae
20 feet high, 2% feet broad, and 1% foot thick, which sustain
the beams that bear the floors of the porticos. Above these
are other parastatae 18 feet high, 2 feet broad, and 1 foot
thick, which also receives beams sustaining the canthers of
the porticos, which are laid below the roof of the testudo:
the remaining space that is left between the beams which lie
over the parastatae, and those w lich lie over the columns,
is left open in the intercolumns, in order to give light. The
columns in the breadth of the testudo, including those of the
angles to the right and left, are four ; and in the length, on
that side which is next the forum, including the same angle-
columns, eight. On the other side, there are but six columns,
including those of the angles, because the middle two on this
side are omitted, that they may not obstruct the view of the
pronaos of the temple of Augustus, which is situated in the
middle of the side-wall of the basilica, looking toward
the centre of the forum and temple of Jupiter. The tri~
bunal in this building is formed in the figure of a hemi-
cycle: the extent of this hemicycle in front is 46 feet, and
the recess of the curvature inward 15 feet, so that those who
attend the magistrate obstruct not the negociants in the
basilica.

“ Upon the columns, the compacted beams, made from
three timbers of two feet, are placed around ; and those from
the third columns which are in the interior part, are returned
to the antae that project from the pronaos, and on the right
and left touch the hemicycle.

“ Upon the beams, perpendicularly to the capitals, the pilze
are placed, three feet high and four feet broad, on every side.
Over these, other beams, well wrought from two timbers, of
two feet, are placed around; upon which, the transtrte and
capreols, being placed coincident with the zophorus, antze, and
\ 'alls of the pronaos, sustain one culmen the whole length of
the basilica, and another transversely from the middle over
the pronaos of the temple: so that it causes a double dis-
position of the fastigium, and gives a handsome appearance
to the roof on the outside, and to the lofty testudo within.
Also, the omission of the ornaments of the epistylium, and
of the upper columns and plutei, diminishes the labour of the
work, and saves great part of the expense. The columns
likewise being carried in one continued height up to the
beams of the testudo, increases the magnificence and dignity
of the Work.”

FORUM is also used for any place in which the governor of
a province convened the people, to give judgment according
to the course of the law.

Forum also meant a public standing-place in the city of

 

Rome, where causes were judicially tried, and orations deli-
vered to the people.

The Roman forte were of two kinds—Fora Civilia and
Venalia; the former were for law and political affairs, the
latter for the purposes of trade. Of the Fora Civilia, there
were at first only three, viz., Romanum, Julianum, and
Augustum; but their number was afterwards increased to
six, by the addition of the transitorium, called also palla-
dium, the Trajanum, and Salusti.

The first and most. eminent of these was the forum
Romanum, called also forum vetus. In the time of Romu-
lus, this forum was only a large open space, without buildings
or other ornament. It was first enclosed by Hostilius, adorned
with porticos by Tarquin the Elder, and at length, by the
additions of succeeding kings, consuls, and magistrates, it
became one of the most elegant and noble places in the world.
It was called forum Romanum, or simplyforum, by way of
eminence, on account of its antiquity, in comparison with the
other fora, and from its more general use in public affairs.
It was also called forum Latinum, forum magnum, and old
forum. The comitium, used sometimes for holding the
comitia, was a part of this forum, in which stood the rostrum,
a sort of pulpit, adorned with the beaks of ships taken
in a sea-fight from the inhabitants of Antium. In this the
causes were pleaded, orations were made, and panegyrics were
delivered on the merits of the dead.

A very beautiful restored view of the Forum Romanum
was made by Mr. C. R. Cockerell, and a reduced view was
engraved and published, with his permission, in the second
volume of the “ Pompeii,” published by the Society for the
Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, to which we refer our rea-
ders for an accurate notion of the splendour of the accumu-
lated architecture of the Forum and the Capitol, and its
v1c1nlty.

The Julian forum, called also Caesar's forum, was built by
Julius Caesar with the spoils taken in the Gallic war. Its
area alone, according to Suetonius, cost 100,000 sesterces; and
Dio affirms, that it much exceeded the Roman forum.

Augustus’s forum, built by Octavius Caesar, was reckoned
by Pliny among the wonders of the city. The most remark-
able curiosity it presented was the statues in the two porticos
on each side of the main building. In one were all the Latin
kings, beginning with Eneas. In the other, all the kings
of Rome, beginning with Romulus; most of the eminent
persons in the commonwealth, and Augustus himself among
the rest, with an inscription upon the pedestal of every
statue, descriptive of the chief actions and exploits of the
person it represented. This forum was restored by the em-
peror Adrian.

Nerva’s forum was begun by Domitian. but finished and
named by the emperor Nerva. In this forum Alexander
Severus set up the statues of such of the emperors as had
been deified, in imitation of what Augustus had done in his
forum. This forum was called transitorium, because it lay
very convenient as a passage to the others, and palladium,
from a statue of Minerva which was set up in it.~ Scareely
anything remains of this forum except a decayed arch, which
the Italians, by a strange corruption, call A'oa/a‘s aria, instead
of iVei'va’s arc/t.

Trajan’s forum was built by the emperor Trajan with the
produce of the spoils taken in his wars. The porticos, which
were exceedingly beautiful and magnificent, Were covered
with brass, and supported by pillars of more than ordinary
size, and of exquisite workmanship.

The forum of Pompeii, which was constructed in the
Greek style, cannot, however, be altogether considered, if we
are guided by the authority of Vitruvius, a truly Greek

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

' FOS

429

FOU

 

Agora, which this author states was to be made square in
form. It has, however, many Greek features. The Pom-
peian forum is of an oblong shape, surrounded on three sides
with rows of columns, forming, with the advanced columns of
the various buildings, a colonnade or ambulatory; above this
there was a second, if we may judge from the remains of
stairs‘ at several places at the back of the colonnade. The
fourth side of the forum is enclosed with two arches placed
on eaCh side of a large hypmthral temple, called the temple
of Jupiter. On the west side are the prisons and the granary,
before these, and the temple of Venus, and the Basilica, is an
enclosed court. On the narrow side, opposite the temple of
Jupiter, are three buildings, generally considered to be the
Curiae and IErarium. On the east side is an enclosure, (the
use of which has not been determined,) the Chalcidicum,
the temple of Mercury, the Senaculum, and a building‘sup-
posed to be a large eating-house, generally known by the
name of the Pantheon, in front of which are the Tabernae
Argentarim. The enclosed area of the forum was paved with
large square pieces of marble, and the sides of the area were
adorned with statues. Opposite the Curiae, and a short way
from them, is a small triumphal arch. The forum was closed
at night with iron-barred gates, and it does not appear that
chariots were admitted into it, as the pavement of the streets
terminates at the back of the colonnade. The columns of the
ambulatory are of the Greek Doric order, and were being
restored in the same style, though with better materials, at
the time the city was destroy ed. The columns were arzeostyle,
and the architraves were most probably of wood, as we may
infer from their being destroyed, while the frieze and cornice
of stone remain.

The forum of Constantinople was erected by Constantine
when he established the city on the commanding eminence of
the second hill, where he pitched his tent during the siege
and conquest of Byzantium. The edifice was of an elliptic
form ; the two opposite entrances formed triumphal arches ;
the porticos on every side were filled with statues, and the
centre of the edifice was occupied by a lofty column, of which
only a mutilated fragment is now left, and is degraded by the
appellation of the burnt pillar. This column was erected on
a pedestal of white marble, 20 feet high. It was composed
of 10 pieces of porphyry, each of which measured about 10
feet in height, and about 33 in circumference. On the summit
of the pillar, above 120 feet from the ground, stood a colossal
statue of Apollo, of bronze, which had been transported hither
from Athens, or from a town of Phrygia, and was supposed
to be the work of Phidias. The artist had represented the

‘ god of day, or, as it was afterwards interpreted, the emperor

 

Constantine himself, with a sceptre in his right hand, the
globe'of the world in his left, and a crown of rays glittering
on his head. This statue was thrown down in the reign of
Alexis Comnenus.

FOSSE, a trench or ditch excavated round a fortified place,
to secure it from attack.

FOSSES D’AISANCES, a term used to designate the
cesspools of Paris. These cesspools are constructed of
materials sufficiently impermeable to filtration, so that the
matter contained in them shall not penetrate through
the walls, to the injury of the adjoining property. So
strictly is this condition observed, that any infiltration to a
neighbour’s premises, according to the French law, gives
a title to damages, and the architect and builder are held
responsible for ten years,'not only to the proprietor, but also

‘ to the neighbours, should any nuisance arise from imperfect

execution of the work.
The Fosses d’Az’smzces are usually made about 10 feet long
by about 5 feet 7 inches wide. and 5 feet in height to the
5 n

 

springing of the semi-circular head. The material employed
in their construction, has of late years been meulz'ére or mill-
stone, bedded in mortar made of lime and cement; the inside
being well pointed, and rendered throughout with the same.
These cesspools are cleansed out when necessary, under the
inspection and by the authority of the board of health oi‘
the city; the carts employed, as well as all the materiel
of the nightmen, being under the same surveillance. The
work is done between ten o’clock at night, and six o’clock in
the morning. The contents of the cesspools are generally
sufficiently fluid to allow of their extraction by pumps ; but
when this is not the case, they are conveyed from below in
small iron vessels; and great care is taken to prevent, as
much as possible, the escape of the noxious efiluvia during
the operations. ‘Vhen the soil is pumped into carts, a small
furnace is placed over the bung-hole of the cart, to burn the
gas as it rises; and directly the/ cart is filled, the bung is
plastered over. The lids of the vessels used to remove
the more solid matter, are also plastered over in a similar
manner, before they are brought out of the cesspools. For
a fuller description of the Fosses d’Aisances, see SEWER,
SEWERAGE.

FOUNDATION, (from the French) the trench or trenches
excavated in the ground, in order to rest an edifice firmly
upon its base. The word also means the superstructure of
a stone or brick wall under the lowest floor of a building,
contained within the trenches.

Foundations, according to Palladio, ought to be twice as
thick as the walls to be raised upon them, so that both the
quality of the earth and the greatness of the building are to
be regarded, making the foundation larger in a soft and loose
ground, or where there is a great weight to be supported.
The plane of the trench must be as level as possible, so that
the weight may press equally, and not incline more on one
side than the other. For this reason the ancients were
accustomed to pave the plane with Tivertine; but the
moderns most commonly lay planks or beams to build on.
The foundations ought to diminish in width as they rise;
but in such a manner that the middle of the wall above may
fall plumb with the middle of the lowest part; this must also
be observed in the diminution of walls above ground, because
by that means the building becomes much stronger than by
making the diminution any other way.

The various methods of treating the building of a founda-
tion, according to the heterogeneous texture or uniformity
of the ground, as may happen in the excavation, will be
found under BRICKLAYING. Under the same h :ad also will
be found ample directions for making a foundation of CON-
CRETE, as now so generally used by builders. But should
the foundation prove unsound, or of that character that
dependence cannot be placed upon it, recourse must be had
to piling, in the following manner. Good sound piles must
be prepared, of such dimensions, that their thickness may be
about a twelfth part of their length; the distances at which
these piles should be disposed, and the momentum requisite
to drive them, will depend on the nature of the building to
be erected, and the weight they will have to bear; the weight
of the ram ought not to be more than sutficient for driving
the piles, as the heavier the ram, the greater the number of
men required to work it, and consequently the greater the
expense. \Vhen the piling is completed, so as to be sufficient
for supporting the intended structure, some builders lay a
level row of cross bearers, called sleepers, ram the interstices
with stone or brick up to the level of their faces, and then
plank them over. This planking, however, may be dispensed
with, if the piling be sufiiciently attended to, and the expense
of the foundation will thus be materially lessened. Timber

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

FOX

430

FRE

 

should not be used with its thickness standing vertical, as it
is liable to shrink, which will make the building crack or
split at the junctions with the return parts. ,

Where the ground is not very soft, and where the wall
is to be supported upon narrow piers, a piece of timber,
or balk, is sometimes slit in halves, and those are either
laid immediately at the bottom, or at the height of two or
three courses from the bottom of the wall; which will
frequently prevent settlements when the wall is to be so
supported.

Forced earth, or made ground, remains unfit for the founda-
tion of a wall, for a considerable time.

The breadth Of a substructure should be proportioned to
the weight of the superstructure, and to the softness of the
ground on which it rests; if the texture of the ground is
supposed to be constant, and the materials Of the same specific
gravity, the breadth of the foundation will be as the area of
the vertical section passing through the line on which the
breadth is measured; thus, for example, Suppose a wall
40 feet high, 2 feet thick, to have a sufficient foundation
of 3 feet in breadth, what should be the breadth of the
foundation of a wall 60 feet high, 2% feet thick ? By propor—
tion, it will be 40 X 2 :3 : :60 X 2% : the answer 25% feet.
This calculation will give the breadth of the foundation Of
- the required wall, equal to the breadth of the insisting wall
itself; when the height of the required wall is equal to the
ratio, which is the first term (40 X 2 : 80) divided by

the second term (3) :—§ : 26%. Thus a wall of 26% feet

would have the breadth of its foundation equal to its thick-
ness above the foundation, and less than 26% feet would have
a thinner foundation than even the superstructure. But
though the calculation in this case gives the foundation less
in breadth than the thickness of its superstructure, it must
be considered that it only calculates the true breadth of the
surface that should be Opposed to the ground, in order to
prevent the wall from penetrating by its weight: though the
rule gives all the width that is necessary, on account of
the weight of the insisting wall, yet the breadth of the foot-
ing should always be greater than that of the superstructure;
as it will stand more firmly on its base when affected by
lateral pressure, and be less liable to rock by the blowing of
heavy winds. The least breadth that is commonly given
to the bottom course of stone walls is one foot thicker than
the superstructure. In damp situations, the superstructure
should always be separated from the substructure by layers
of lead, tarred paper, 850. Slate also may be used with
advantage for such purposes.

FOUNTAIN, (from the French fontaz'nc,) literally signi—
fies a spring or issuing of water from the earth, but the word
is also applied to a machine or artificial contrivance by which
water is made to spout or dart up, called by the French ajct
(l’eau. There are various kinds of artificial fountains, but
they are all formed by some description of pressure on the
water, that is, the water of the fountain is made to spout up,
by the Weight of a head of water ; by the pressure arising
from the spring and elasticity of condensed air, or by
machinery.

FOX-TAIL IVEDGING, a method of fastenincr a tenon
in a mortise, by splitting the end of the tenon and inserting
a projecting wedge, then entering the tenon into the
mortise, and driving it home; the bottom of the mortise
will then resist the wedge, and force it farther into the
tenon, which will expand in width, so as not only to fill the

avity at the bottom, but be firmly compressed by the sides of
the mortise.

 

FRACTION, in arithmetic and algebra, is a part or parts
of something considered as a unit or integer. Fractions are
distinguished into vulgar fractions and decimal fractions.
Vulgar fractions consist of two parts or quantities written one
over the other, thus %, j}, &c. ; the quantity above the line is
called the numerator, and that below the line the denomi-
nator. See Decimal. '

FRAME, in carpentry, a combination of timber-work,
composed of one or more triangular compartments, or of a
mixture of triangles and quadrilaterals, the timbers being
either joined to each other by joggles, or by being halved or
let into each other.

Three pieces of timber are the least number that can con-
stitute a frame, for the same reason that less than three
straight lines cannot constitute a space. See the articles
FLOORING, NAKED - FLOORING, PARTITION, Tnuss, and
Tnuss-PARTITION.

FRAME, in joinery, an assemblage of various pieces of
wood-work, forming certain compartments, according tO the
design, surrounding panels Of wood, which are inserted in
grooves made in every edge of each compartment of the frame,
and thus filling up the interstices. This mode is a substitute
for a board, which could not be procured in one breadth ;iand
even if such a board could be Obtained, framing would be
preferable, as being much lighter, stronger, and less liable
to warp. The stiffness Of a frame in carpentry depend?
chiefly upon the triangles in its composition ; but a frame in
joinery depends upon the inflexibility Of the joints, taking
every two pieces separately, by which each joint is formed.

FRAMING, of a house, all the timber-work, uh, the
carcase—flooring, partitioning, rooting, ceiling, beams, ash-
lering, 8&0.

FRANKING, in sash-making, cutting a small excavation
on the side Of a bar for the reception of the transverse bar,
so that no more of the wood be cut away than what is suffi-
cient to show a mitre when the bars are joined to each other;
by this means, the strength is impaired only in the smallest
possible degree.

FRATERY, OR FRATER-HOUSE, the dining-11211] of
monastic buildings, otherwise termed REFECTORY.

FREEMASON, in ancient times was the term applied to
a person supposed to be skilled in the art of building, more
particularly in ecclesiastical construction. A freemason
travelled from place to place, and by his learning in the
science, and his taste in the construction of edifices, executed
works celebrated for beauty and grandeur. In the present
day the word is identified with the society of Freemasons,
whose various ramifications are said to extend throughout the
known world.

FREEDSTOOL, Fule'rOOL, on FRITIISTOOL, a seat
placed at the east of some churches, near the altar, for those
who sought the privilege of sanctuary. They were usually
of stone, specimens of them in this material are still existing
at Beverley and IIexham.

FRE C-STONE. See STONE.

FREE-STUFF, that which works easily in the Operation
of planing. without tearing.

FREEZE, a part of the entablature of an order; more I

correctly spelt Fnluzn, which see.

FRENCH CASEMENTS, windows turning upon two
vertical edges attached to the jambs, which when shut lap
together upon the other two parallel edges, and are fastened
by means of long bolts extending their whole height.

French easements are made in the form of the old English
windows, the two meeting styles, which lap together, tbrming
a munnion about four inches in breadth. The lower part only
is moveable, the upper is fixed, and has a corresponding

 

 

 

.. .33“

 

 

FRE

431'

FRE

 

munnion, the lower rail of the fixed part and upper rail of the
moveable part forming a transom.

FRESCO PAINTING, a peculiar mode of painting, per-
formed by employing colours mixed and ground with water

, upon a stucco, or plaster, sufficiently fresh and wet to imbibe
and embody the colours with itself. The term fresco, as
applied to painting, is said to have been adopted because the
practice of it is used in the open air ; andare alfresco signi-
fying “to take the air,” or “ walk abroad in the air :” but it
seems more probable that another meaning of the word fresco
has given rise to this particular adoption of it, viz., new, or
fresh, relative to the state of the plaster on which it is
wrought. Vitruvius (lib. vii. cap. 4.) calls it udo tectorio.
It is very ancient, having been practised in the earliest ages
of Greece and Rome.

The theory of the art of painting extends its principles to
all modes of execution, because theoretic rules are drawn
from nature, which is the object of all imitation, and are
independent of the means employed in producing the intended
effect. We propose, therefore, in this place, only to treat of
the mode of execution, and of the materials employed in fresco
painting; such observations as the recent revival of the art
has rendered necessary, being deferred till after our descrip-
tion of the practice.

Previously to the commencement of a painting in fresco, it
is necessary that a careful examination should be made of the
fitness of the place to receive it. The artist must assure him-
self, therefore, in the first place, of the perfect construction
of the walls, or ceilings, on which he intends to employ his
genius, and entrust his reputation: above all, he must be
careful to make it secure from damp.

Satisfied with the construction of the wall, it is then
necessary the artist should see to the proper management of
the first layer of plaster with which it is covered. The
materials employed for building in different countries will
vary according to the nature of those most easy to be obtained:
and therefore it will, of course, be necessary to adopt means
for rendering those not perfectly proper in themselves to
receive fresco painting, more so by artificial means. Brick is
certainly the one best calculated to hold the plaster perfectly;
both on account of its absorbing quality, and from the small-
ness of the size of the bricks causing a number of insterstices
between them ; which irregularity in the surface greatly
assists in retaining the plaster in adherence. A wall built of
rough stones full of holes may also be relied upon as a good

 

foundation for fresco ; but if, instead of that, it be constructed
of smooth or polished stones, it will then be necessary to
render it uneven by making holes in it, fastening nails, and
small wedges of wood, to hold the plaster together, and pre-
vent its falling of. These precautions are of the utmost con-
sequence to prevent its bending or cracking, which the least
alteration that happens to the materials, or even a change of
weather, producing alternately wet or dry, may occasion.

The first layer of plaster may be composed of well-washed
chalk made into a cement with pounded brick, or -river
sand ; the last is better, being rather the coarsest, and pro-
ducing thereby a roughness of surface which will better retain
the second coat.

Tarras, composed of pounded sea—sand and chalk or lime,
would perhaps be better still. The ancients had certainly a
better compost for this purpose than that at present known ;
if we may judge from that which still covers many of their
buildings; particularly the aqueduct they constructed near
Naples, and the walls of the ruins of Ilcrculaneum.

Before the second layer is given, the first must be perfectly
dry, on account of a disagreeable and noxious vapour which
issues from the lime in drying ; but when it is so, and you

 

proceed to give it the second coating, upon which the paint-
ing is done, it must be wetted with water, that the two may
more completely incorporate. This layer, which requires to
be more carefully prepared than the first, is made by mixing
river-sand of an even and fine grain with chalk, which has
been burnt several months before, and exposed to the air, as
by that means the artist may be more sure of its general
decomposition and freedom from stony parts.

It requires considerable skill in the person who prepares
this ground, to lay it perfectly even, and he must be very
careful in judging of the quantity proper to be laid on at
once. This ought not to be more than the painter can cover
and completely finish in a day; and it requires great skill and
activity in spreading, to clean it from lumps and polish it
evenly, so as to receive the painting with the promptitude
requisite to leave the artist as much time as possible. The
painter, however, should himself superintend this part of the
process, for he alone can judge properly as to the rapidity
with which he can work, or the advantages he may make of
accidental occurrences.

The operation of laying on the ground is performed with
a trowel, and in doing this, care must be taken to clean it
properly, that the surface may be even, particularly in those
parts most exposed to view. The mason’s labour is finished
by his polishing the surface to receive the painting ; this is
done by applying a piece of paper on the face of the wall, and
passing the trowel over it. It is very necessary that this
should be well done, for small inequalities in the surface
might, in certain views, produce great irregularities in the
drawing of the work.

\Vhen the second ground is thus prepared, cleaned, and
polished, in the quantity, and on the part of the wall which
the artist requires, he begins to trace his design upon it, and
proceeds to the colouring of it ; completely covering the
quantity prepared, and finishing so much of the picture in
the course of the day, in such a manner that he may not have
occasion to re-touch it when the ground is dry. This is the
characteristic peculiarity of painting in fresco, which, by this
mode of operation, is incorporated with the mortar, and dry-
ing along with it, becomes extremely durable, and brightens
in its tones and colour as it dries.

From the necessity there is in the progress of this style of
art, that it should be executed with rapidity, and from the
impossibility of retouching it without injuring the purity of
the Work ; the artist, unless he be endowed with very extra-
ordinary powers of imagination and execution indeed, is
obliged to prepare a finished sketch of the subject, wrought
to its proper hue and tone of colour, and so well digested,
that there may be no necessity for making any essential
alterations in the design. This, which is a very useful mode
of proceeding in all historic works of painting, is absolutely
indispensable in fresco, to those who are not determined to
give the rein to their ideas, and leave as perfect whatever
may first present itSelf. There is no beginning in this, by
drawing the whole of the parts at one time, and correcting
them at leisure, as is the custom in oil painting, where the
artist may proceed to work without a sketch. Here all that
is begun in the morning must be completed by the evening ;
and that almost without cessation of labour, while the plaster
is wet ; and not only completed in form, but also (a difficult,
nay, almost impossible task, without a well-prepared sketcln)
must be performed, viz., the part done in this short time must
have so perfect an accordance with what follows, or has pre-
ceded ot' the work, that when the whole is finished, it may
appear as if it had been executed at once, or in the usual
mode, with suflicient time given to harmonize the various
forms and tones of colour. Instead of proceeding by slow

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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432

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degrees to illuminate the objects, and increase the vividness of

the colours, in a manner somewhat similar to the progress’

of nature in the rising day, till at last it shines with all its
intended effect, which is the course of painting in oil; the
artist working in fresco must at once rush into broad day-
light; at once give all the force in light and shade and colour,
which the nature of his subject requires. This, be it observed
also, must be without the assistance (at least in the commence-
ment) of contrast to regulate his eye ; and therefore may be
considered almost impossible, as we have before said, unless
he be assisted by a well-digested and finished sketch.

The sketch being completed, the next process is to prepare
a cartoon or drawing of the design on paper pasted together
to the size of the intended fresco. This cartoon sh'ould be
perfected in the outline to save time, and the artist has then
nothing to do but to trace the line of the figures or other
objects which the design may be composed of, on to the
plaster, by either pricking with a pin through the paper, or by
passing a hard point over the lines of the cartoon. By this
means he saves himself the trouble of drawing the figures,
and also the time which would be required for doing it, and
proceeds at once to the painting ; to facilitate the execution,
and ensure the success of which, several precautions are
requisite.

The colours being ground fine in water, and a sufficient
quantity of the tints most likely to be employed prepared,
they should be arranged in pots or basons, and several pal-
lettes with raised edges should be ready at hand to work
from, and assist in compounding the varieties of hues neces-
sary for producing brilliancy and harmony. A few pieces of
tile or brick, or of any absorbent stone, should also be pro-
vided, to prove the tints upon, because all colours ground in
water become much lighter when dry, than they appear when
wet. To be certain therefore of their hue, before he begins to
use them on the picture, and to avoid the trouble and neces-
sity of much changing or labouring them, (as the painters
term the blending of colours,) the artist should apply some of
each tint with his brush to the dry brick, &c., which, ab-
sorbing the water, the colours immediately appear very nearly
of the same hue they will be of when the fresco is dry. Hence
he may proceed with great security in his work, and is sure
to have it much more fresh and vigorous in effect, than it
would be if much labour had been employed to obtain the
tone on the wall.

It will be requisite also to have at hand a vase or bason
of water, or a wet sponge, and to take care not to begin to
paint till the layer of mortar is hard enough to resist the
impression of the finger : otherwise the colours would spread
upon it, and prevent all possibility of neatness or clearness
in the execution, which should be effected with great rapidity
and lightness of hand.

With respect to the colours employed in fresco, they are
fewer in number than those which may be used in oil paint-
ing, oiraccount of the combined action of the lime and the
air upon the component parts of many of the latter. Those
most generally in use are the following, viz. :—

Lime- FV/titc.—'l‘his, when made of well~washed burnt
chalk or lime, is the best and most simple white that can be
used ; it mixes freely with all the other colours, and works
in itself with a full body. The preparation of it requires
that the chalk should‘be slacked a twelvemonth before it is
used, or at least, six months. It should then be dissolved in
common water, and poured carefully off, (after letting it fall
some short time,) into a vessel to settle.

Another white is made by mixing one-third of white
marble powder with two-thirds of chalk ; but it must be used
with caution, as it is apt to change. If the proportion of

 

marble dust be too strong for the chalk, it will become black.
The artist will therefore do well to confine himself to chalk
white, provided it has been well prepared, and kept a long
time. As this, however,- has frequently been used, we deemed
it proper to be mentioned, that artists may, if they choose,
make experiments upon its nature, and endeavour, if they
find any peculiarly valuable quality in it, to ensure its con-
tinuance in clear-ness and perfection.

Egg—shell IV/az'te.—'l‘here is also a third white, made of
egg-shells, which, though it has not the full texture of the
chalk, is yet very clear and good for use in fresco. It is
made by boiling egg-shells in water witlf a little quick—lime.
They are then put into a pot, and washed with pure water.
Then pounded fine, washed again till no tint is given to the
water, and then ground by the muller and stone to the degree
fit for use; it is afterwards formed into little cakes, which
are dried in the sun. Care must be taken not to let the
powder of the shells remain too long in the same water, as it
will exhale a fetid vapour almost insupportable, which cannot
be dissipated but by roasting it in a close vessel, well luted.

Red—produced by burnt vitriol, in colour approaching to
Indian red, and ground in spirits of wine, acts well with the
lime, resists the action of the air, and mixes cleanly with the
other colours. This forms an excellent preparation to receive
the bright red of Cinnabar or vermilion, when the whole vall
is covered.

Colours of earthy textures, such as the ochres, whether
burnt or not burnt, umber, both raw and burnt, Spanish red,
Verd de Verona, Venice black, and blue black, made by
bruising vine—stalks, or shells of peach-nuts, are all excellent
for the purposes of fresco painting.

Blues—The best is the ultramarine, as it never suffers
any change. Smalt or enamel blue is good as to preScrving

\

its tone, and, if used early in the work, will adhere; but if 1

 

the ground should become too dry before it is used, it is apt ‘

not to incorporate strongly with it, but to come off on the
least friction.

White lead, lake, verdigris, masticot, Naples yellow, the
orpiments, and bone black, are all unfit for this purpose,
being liable to change.

Painting in fresco, when carefully executed, is of all others
the most durable, and therefore the most proper to be
employed in adorning public buildings. The use of it for
this purpose appears to be very ancient. Norden speaks of
paintings in Egyptian palaces 80 feet high, which \Vinkehnan
quoting, concludes they were in fresco, from the description
given of the prepared grounds, and of the manner in whirh
the colours appear to have been used. And all the paintings
found at Ilerculaneum, at Portici, and at Rome, of ancient
date, are of the same materials. No other kind of paintingr
would so etfectually have resisted the action of the air for so

 

great a length of time, and more particularly the excessive i

aridity which those of IIerculaneum must have endured,

being shut up entirely from the light, and amidst glowing ‘

embers from Vesuvius, emitting of course, especially at first,
an intense heat around them. That, however, in one point
of View, was favourable to the preservation of those that
escaped its immediate action; for damp is the most poWerl'ul
destroyer of them, against which no caution taken can make
them too secure. In this case of Hereulaneum, damp must
have been etl‘ectually excluded, first by the heat of the ashes,
and afterwards, as the stratum of those :shes was so thick,
water from above could not penetrate so low as to the pictures,
particularly after the upper part was covered with the close
cake formed by the decomposed parts, on and near the
surface.

In ordinary situations, the choice of materials is the most

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

FRE

433

FRE

 

important part, to secure the durability of the work, and par-
ticularly the greatest care is necessary in the preparation of
the ground, and of the wall, to cause it to adhere.

Fresco painting has been chiefly employed in palaces, tem-
ples, and other public edifices. For large and important
places no other kind of painting is so good. As the artist is
obliged, from its nature, to proceed with rapidity in its pro-
duction, it has necessarily more spirit and vigour in the
execution, than paintings in oil, which may be repeated, and
re-touched, as often as the artist fancies he can improve, or
heighten their effect. In fresco there is not time to meddle,
and disturb the freshness of the colour, or the fulness and
freedom of the touch. But there can be no minute detail of
forms, or extensive variety in the gradation of tints; the
beauties of neatness, and delicacy of finishing, make no part
of the excellencies of this branch of the art; it will not bear
the close examination which well-finished pictures in oil do;
there is something dry and rough in its appearance, unpleasing,
to the common observer, on too close an inspection. It lacks
the full rich sweetness of hue and texture which oil paintings
possess; and though it has more freshness, and retains it,
yet from the confined number of colours which can be
employed in it, it is not equal to oil in the perfection of the
imitation of nature.

thoever seeks to be pleased with fresco painting, must
learn justly to estimate the best, and not the most agreeable
qualities of the art. Character, contour, expression, are
within its powers; and are the points which the great artists
who practise it, knowing its limits, will endeavour most to
exhibit in their productions. Harmony of colouring, chiaro-
oscuro, and the minute graces of execution, have never yet
been rendered in it, or but very partially, in comparison with
works in oil.

In the early part of the restoration of painting. a species
of fresco was the only mode of practising the art, in use.
A ground of chalk was prepared on tablets of wood, and the
colours laid on it, ground and mixed _in water only, or with
some gluten soluble in it. The surface of the picture was
afterwards covered with a varnish, to secure it from rubbing,
and to give the tints more force and lustre.

“ Fresco,” observes a writer in The Builder, “ was much
used in England some four or five centuries since, in both
ecclesiastical and civil structures of importance; the subjects
being chiefly scriptural, with occasional deviations in favour
of some legendary achievement, or as a pictorial record of
some well - contested battle-field. With these bold and
beautiful, but unresisting memorials of things sacred,
and deeds that redounded to national glory, the fanatical
spirit of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries warred to
extermination ; neither the enrichments of the temple bestowed
by the consistent piety of our ancestors, nor the grateful
reminiscences of heroic services of the state, were permitted
to escape the devilries enacted by the factitious saints of the
Puritan calendar: the frescoes perished ; but better taste
and better feelings have supervened, bidding fair to re-estab-
lish both the art itself, and the influential purposes to which
it was anciently devoted.”

The report of Mr. Barry on the proposed decorations of
the interior of the new Houses of Parliament, is really a
splendid programme of the association of sculpture and paint-
ing, upon an occasion too so fertile in appliances and means,
that the principles of taste will, it is presumed, be developed
in a manner to serve as examples for much of future time.
\Vith reference to painting, Mr. Barry says—“ I would that
the walls of the several halls, galleries, and corridors of
approach, as well as the various public apartments through-
out the building, should be decorated with paintings, having

5 s

 

reference to events in the history of the country; and that
these paintings should be placed in compartments formed by
such a suitable arrangement of the architectural designs of
the interior, as will best promote their effective union with
the arts of sculpture and architecture. With this view,
I should consider it to be of the utmost importance, that the
paintings should be wholly free from gloss on the surface,
that they may be perfectly seen and fully understood from
all points of view.” “By paintings with surfaces free from
gloss or glaze, we understand those wherein the colours
employed are mixed in other mediums than oils or varnishes;
and though fresco is not named, yet the magnitude of the
surfaces to be covered, and the exception to those which are
glazed, leads us to suppose that it is intended to revive this
branch of art. Now, though the buildings to be thus adorned
are progressing with considerable rapidity, much time must
elapse before the interior is prepared to receive the embellish-
ments contemplated ; meanwhile, many will have their long-
ings to share in these distinguished labours, and, generally,
the revival will open a new field for talent, in which. there
will shortly be no want of encouragement for those who may
have successfully cultivated it; so oblivious, however, has
the art become, that we have repeatedly heard the question
put as to its nature and mode of execution, and we think an
explanation will be useful to many of our readers. Fresco
is the art of painting in relieve with water-colours on fresh
plaster; the amalgamation thus formed of the decorative
material with the body to which it is applied, is endued with un-
changeableness and permanence of a very extraordinary kind.”

The appointment of “A Commission on the Fine Arts,”
especially directed “to inquire into the mode in which, by
means of the interior decorations of the Palace at VVest-
minster, the fine arts of this country can be most effectually
improved,” has no doubt led to the revival of the art of
fresco-painting. The various reports of the commission
contain a great deal of valuable information on the subject,
and the employment of several artists to furnish specimens,
has brought forward some beautiful examples of fresco-
painting, and elicited talent that might, but for these circum-
stances, have been lost to the world. In addition to the
encouragement thus afforded, the stimulus of a public com-
petition, and the distribution of rewards to the successful
candidates, Her Majesty and Prince Albert had given the
advantage of their countenance to the art, by ordering
the decoration of a summer—house in the gardens of Buck-
ingham Palace with fresco paintings.

The idea of this experiment, for so it must be called, was
surely a happy one ; and not the less seasonable, that every
one who had considered the subject (at least every one who
understood it), felt that it was a method which presented
peculiar difficulties to some of the ablest and most distin-
guished of our painters, whose habitual style of treatment of
their subject and effect, had been precisely the reverse
of what is required in fresco.

The application of fresco-painting, it may be observed, to
the decoration of architecture, demands the adaptation-of parts
to a whole ; a preconcerted mode of treatment, in which the
painting shall seem to be in unison with the original design
of the edifice ; the harmonious combination of many minds,
working under the direction of one mind, to one purpose;
and with regard to the mechanical part of the process, it
requires much thought and study in the preparation of the
materials, and great care and precision, as well as great
rapidity, in the execution.

The summer~house in question is very small, and is situated
on an artificial mount in the gardens, overlooking the orna-
mental waters.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

FRE

,434

FRI

 

The entrance to the pavilion opens into the principal
apartment, an octagon 15 feet 9 inches from side to side,
and 14 feet 11 inches in height to the centre of the vaulted
ceiling. It is here, in eight lunettes at the foot of the vault,
that the frescos from “ Comus ” appear, of which for the
most-part types have been exhibited in the rooms of the Royal
Academy, by the respective artists. Over the entrance-door,
is Stanfield’s, illustrative of the following passage :—

“ Yet some there be that by due steps aspire
To lay their just hands on that golden key,

That Opes the palace of Eternity.
To such my errand is.” COMUS, v. 12—17.

It is admirably transparent, and exhibits more power over
the material than the majority of the works. Passing round
with the sun, Mr. Uwin’s follows, having for motto,

“ This is the place as well as I may guess,
Whence even now the tumult of loud mirth
Was rife.”

Then comes Leslie : Ross follows. Eastlake’s is over the
mantelpiece ; Maclise, Edwin Landseer, and Dyce, complete
the eight. A copy of Mr. Maclise’s work was in the
Academy exhibition of 1845, and will be remembered by all.
The lines illustrated are,

“ If virtue feeble were,
Heaven itself would stoop to her.”

Maclise shows the lady spell-bound in the marble chair,
and displays much of his usual power. Mr. Landseer has
found in the following lines an opportunity to exhibit
his great skill in depicting the brute form :—

“ Their human countenance
Th’ express resemblance of the gods, is changed
Into some brutish form of wolf or bear, -
01‘ ounce or tiger, hog or bearded goat.”
COMUS, v. 68—71.

Comus, surrounded by his crew, is terrified by the approach
of the brothers, who appear behind in the act of rushing
upon them. A bacchante, with a beautiful female form, and
the head of a hound, has thrown herself in afl‘right upon the
arm of Comus. Other monsters, half brute, half human, in
various attitudes of mad revelry—grovelling, bestial insen—
sibility—confusion and terror—are seen around him; the
pathetic, the poetical, the horrible, the grotesque, all wildly,
strangely mingled. In the spandrils are two heads—a
grinning ape, and a bear drinking.

Mr. Dyce winds up the illustrations with the presentation
of the lady and her two brothers to their parents, who come
forth to receive them, and he has produced what must be
considered the best fresco, although perhaps wanting exactly
the right sentiment.

The operations of the Fine Arts Commission seem to have
been highly satisfactory. to the public in general, and, in
respect to fresco—painting in particular, must be viewed as
eminently successful. The exhibitions in \Vestminster Hall
presented numerous paintings in this so long-disused art, of
a highly artistic character; and the number of the prizes
awarded, testify the great merit of the productions. The
result of the preliminary competition was shown in the
selection of several eminent artists to execute fresco-paintings
in the new Palace of \Vestminster, and in the completion by
those gentlemen of some of the finest pictures in this peculiar
style, that have been seen since the days of thegreat painters
of fortner times.

It would extend this article beyond the limit assigned to
it, to give a full description of these admirable works; we
must therefore confine ourselves to a list of the artists
selected, and the subjects allotted to each for illustration.

 

The commissioners having decided that six compartments
in the new House of Lords should be decorated with fresco-
paintings, proceeded to allot the several works in the follow
ing manner :—

To Mr. Horsley, the subject of Religion.

To Mr. Thomas, the subject of Justice.

To Mr. Maclise, the subject of Chivalry.

To Mr. Dyce, the subject of the Baptism of Ethelbert.

To Mr. Redgrave, the subject of Prince Henry, afterwards
Henry V., acknowledging the authority of Chief Justice
Gascoigne.

And to Mr. Cope, the subject of Edward the Black Prince
receiving the Order of the Garter from Edward III.

In the Upper \Vaiting Hall, or, as it is to be called, the
“ Hall of Poets,” the eight available panels which it affords,
are appropriated to frescoes illustrative of Chaucer, Spenser,
Milton, Shakspere, Dryden, Pope, Byron, and Scott. Such
of these paintings as are finished at the time we write, are
noble works, full of power and beauty, and fullyjustifying
the commissioners in the selection they have made of the
artists employed.

The principal works that have been produced in former
times in fresco, are the series of biblical and evangelical
historic pictures which adorn the walls and ceiling of the
chapel of Sixtus V. at Rome, by M. A. Buonarotti; the
chambers of the Vatican. known by the name of the
Stanze of Raphael; which consist principally of religious
histories, interspersed with some legendary tales, relative
to the popes; and the cupola of the duomo of Parma, or
church of St. Giovanni in that city, by A. Correggio. It
represents the Ascension of the Virgin,°amidst a choir of
angels, and with a number of figures of saints below regard-
ing it. One beautiful and grand w01‘k,-by Daniel Ricciarelli,
commonly called Da Votterra, at the altar of the church of
Trinita da Monte, the subject of which is taking Christ
down from the cross, is said to have been destroyed by the
French, in their endeavours to remove it to France. Dorigny
has engraved a large print of the design; and the picture
has been thought so well worthy of attention, that an
infinite multitude of copies have been made of it.

FRET, (from the Latin, fretum,) a species of guillochi,
made of straight grooves or channelures at right angles to
each other; the section of each channel being that of a
rectangle. A fret is generally one connected groove with
some of its parts in the same straight line. The labyrinth
fret is that which consists of many turnings or windings, but
in all cases the parts are parallel and perpendicular to each
other. The prominent parts or interstices are generally of
the same breadth throughout. In several Grecian examples,
intervals are left in regular positions throughout the length
of the fret.

FRET is also elaborate carved-work, the same as ENTAIL.

FRIARY, the building inhabited by a fraternity of friars.

FRIEZE, or FRIZE, (called by the Greeks coop/torus) the
middle principal member of the entablature which separates
the cornice from the architrave.

The frieze was supposed to be originally formed by the
transverse beams, which were necessary to prevent the walls
or sides from spreading outwards by the pressure of the
rafters of the roof.

The Doric is the only order that has an enriched frieze
peculiar to the order itself. The ornaments with which the
friezes of the Ionic, Corinthian, and Roman orders are fre-
quently decorated, are only accidental, and when introduced
are accommodated to the circumstances or use of the build-
ing. WVhen the frieze is charged with ornament, it ought to
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of the Ionic to be one-fourth part less than the epistylium,
when it is plain; and one-fourth part greater when orna-
mented; and this seems reasonable, in order to set off the
decorations to greater advantage.

Ancient examples show no authority for a general propor-
tion in all the orders. In the Grecian Doric, the frieze is
very high, being equal to the altitude of the architrave, and
each of these greater than the cornice; the Corinthian, on
account of the numerous members of the cornice, has its
frieze less than one-third of the height of the entablature.

Vitruvius makes the line of separation between the frieze
and the cornice immediately under the dentils, and not at
the bottom of the cymatium, as by Palladio, Perault, and
others; for the frieze must have a terminating member as
well as the architrave. '

FRIEZES are either convex or pulvz'naled: examples of the
latter are to be met with as follow : at Reine, in the Com-
posite order of the temple of Bacchus ; the Corinthian order
of the basilica of Antoninus ; and in the Composite order of
the Goldsmiths’ arch: in all which the curves are circular,
and not very prominent. At Spalatro, in the Corinthian
order of the portico of the vestibulum of the Periostilium ;
in the same order, exterior and interior, of the temple of
Jupiter, and of the entrance of the temple of Esculapius:
where the curves are all circular, and very prominent. In
“food’s Ruins of Balbec (as represented in plate 31) of the
Corinthian order, where the curve is elliptical. In the
Corinthian order of Wood's Ruins of Palmyra, (plates 23
and 46), the curve is elliptical ; and in plates 33 and ~10, it
is circular. In the Ionian Antiquities; (vol. ii., plates 27
and 45) the curves are of a contrary flexure, with the con—
cave part above; and in plate 50, the curve is circular.

Swelled friezes are to be found among the examples of
antiquity, particularly during the decline of the Roman
empire; but these precedents ought not to influence their
use, as they are unnatural, and defeat the purpose they were
intended to answer, namely, to form a relief to the eye
between the cornice and the architrave.

FRIEZE, Panel, the upper panel of a six-panelled door.

FRIEZE, Rail, the top rail but one of a six-panelled door.

FRIEZES, Flourished, such as are enriched with reeds 0r
imaginary foliages, as in the Corinthian frieze of the frontis-
piece of Nero.

FRIEZES, Ifz’storz'cal, those which are adorned with bas-
relievos, representing histories, or sacrifices, as those of the
Parthenon and the temple of Theseus at Athens, and
the arch of Titus at Rome.

FRIEZES, flfariue, such as represent sea-horses, tritons,
and other attributes of the sea; or shells, baths, grottos, 8w.

FRIEZES, Rustic, those whose courses are rusticated, as the
Tuscan frieze of Palladio.

FRIEZES, Symbolical, such as are adorned with the attri-
butes of religion, as the Corinthian of the temple behind the
Capitol at Rome, \vhereon are represented the instruments
and apparatus of sacrifice.

FRIEZE or THE CAPITAL, the same as HYPOTRACHELION,
which see.

FRIGERATORY, (from the Latin, fl'igz'dus, to cool) a

lace in a house intended to keep things cool in summer.

FRIGIDARIUM, (Latin) an apartment in which to keep
things cool.

It also means the cold bathing-room in the baths of the
ancients, as well as the vessel in which the cold water was
received. The word has been likewise applied to the reser-
voir of cold water in the hypocaustum or stove-room, which
was termed ahenumfrz'gidarium. .

FRIZE. See FruEZE.

 

FRONT, (from the Latin, frons, the face,) any side or face
of a building. The principal front should be that which
commands the best prospect, or may be seen to the greatest
advantage; and is generally the entrance-front.

FRONTAGE, the front part of an edifice.

FRONTAL, the hanging suspended over the front of the
altar. It was made of the richest material, silk, velvet, and
cloth of gold, and worked in the most costly manner in
embroidery. Otherwise termed Antependium.

FRONTON, (French) a pediment, or other ornament
over doors, niches, &c.

FROSTED, a species of rustic work, imitative of ice
formed by irregular drops of water.

FROVVEY TIMBER, such as works freely to the plane
without tearing, and consequently has the grain nearly in
the same direction.

FRUSTUM, Latin) the part of a geometrical parallelogram
next to the base, after cutting away the upper part, which
contains the apex. Thus we have frustums of pyramids,
cones, conoids, hemispheres, 820.

To measure tlzefrustum of a square pyramid.

To the rectangle of the sides of the two bases, add one-
third of the square of their difference ; their product being
multiplied by the height, will give the solidity.

EXAMPLE—In the frustum of a square pyramid, one side
of the base A B or B C is 3 feet 6 inches, each side of the top
2 feet 3 inches, and the perpendicular height H I, 8 feet
9 inches, the solidity is required.

By Duodecimals.
3 -- 6
Deduct 2 3 the less side of the top.

 

rence.

1 .. 3difl‘e
.. 3

1
9

3 ) 1 -- -- 9 square of difference.

3

03030903

MC)

.. 3
0 --10 -- 6

one-third of the square of
the difference.

(17
..p
coco CDC)

..9
..7

0')

Q

NJ
«:04

.. 7 the solidity required.

 

By Decimals.

3 .. 6 :1 3.5
2 .. 3 = 2.25
8 -- 9 = 8.75

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1?}:11 ' 4

6 FUS

 

3.5

2.25

1.25 difference of the two bases.
1.25

 

625
250
125

 

3 ) 1.5625 sq. of the difference of the two bases.

 

.5208

 

2.25
3.5
1125
675
7.875
Add .5208 being J3 of the squ. of the difference.
8.3958
8.75

 

 

419790
587706
671664

73.463250 the solidity required.

To measure thefrustum of a cone.

To the rectangle of the two diameters, add one-third of
the square of their difference: multiply the sum by .7854,
and the product by the length.

EXAMPLE—\Vlmt is the solidity of the frustum of a cone,
the diameter of the greater end being 3 feet, that of the
lesser end being 2 feet, and the altitude 9 feet ?

3
2

_—

1 difference of the diameters.
1

1 sq. of the difference of the diameters.
3
2
6
Add 13:
Sum 61-

 

.7854
6%

 

47124
2618

 

4.9742
9 the length.

 

44.7678 the solidity of the frustum.

FULCRUM, in mechanics, that by which a lever is
sustained.

FUMARIUM, an upper room used by the Romans for
collecting the smoke from the lower ones. The Fumarium
was chiefly used, however, for smoking or ripening wines.

FUNNEL, that part of a chimney which is contained
between the fire-place and the summit of the shaft. AS'ee
CHIMNEY.

FURCAT ED, having a forked appearance.

FURLONG, a measure of length, the eighth part of a
mile, forty poles.

FURNITURE, the fastenings of doors and windows with
brass knobs, 8w.

FURRING, when the edges of any number of timbers in
a range are out of the surface they were intended to form,
either from their gravity, or in consequence of an original
deficiency of" the timbers in their depth ; the fixing of thin
scantlings or laths‘ upon the edges, so as to form that surface,
is called furring. Thus the timbers of a floor, though level
at first, are often obliged to be furred: in the reparation
of old roots, the rafters have mostly to undergo this opera-
tion: and the ceiling joists, both of new and old floors,
frequently require it.

FURRIN GS, the pieces of timber employed in bringing
any piece of work in carpentry to a regular surface, when
the work is deficient through the sagging of the timbers, or
other causes.

FUR-UP. See FURRING.

FUST, (from the French) the shaft of a column, or trunk
of a pilaster.

FUST, a term used in Devonshire, and perhaps in some
other counties, for the ridge of a house.

FUSTIC, sometimes called YELLOW WOOD. This wood,
the fllorus tinctoria, is a native of the “est Indies, and
affords much colouring-matter, which is very permanent.
The yellow given by fustic without any mordant, is dull
and brownish, but stands well. The mordants employed
with weld, act upon fustic in a similar manner, and by
their means the colours are rendered more bright and fixed.
The wood of this tree is also used in mosaic cabinet-Work
and turnery.

FUSUROLE, or FUSAROLE, (from the Latin) a semi-A
circular member cut into beads, generally placed under the
echinus of the Ionic and Roman capitals.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GAG

437 GAL

 

GABION, a hollow cylinder of wicker-work, resembling
a basket, but having no bottom. It is formed by planting
slender stakes vertically in the ground, at intervals from each
other, on the circumference of a circle, and interweaving with
them osiers or other flexible twigs.

Such gabions are used during a siege, in executing trenches
by the process of sapping : for this purpose, they are placed
on end, with their sides inclining a little outwards, on that
side of the line of approach which is nearest to the fortress ;
and, being filled with earth obtained by the excavation of the
trench, they form a protection against the fire of the enemy.
After the gabions are filled, the required thickness is given
to the parapet of the trench by throwing the earth below
the line.

GABLE, (from the British, gavel) the upper portion of
the end of a building wall, which closes the end of the roof,
in shape similar to a triangle, and answering, in some
respects, to the term PEDIMENT, applied to classic architec-
ture. The gable forms a prominent feature in medizeval build-
ings, and its shape conforms to that of the roof; which is
various at different periods. In Norman buildings, the angle
of the roof is as nearly as possible a right angle, while in
Early English edifices the gable is frequently an equilateral
triangle. In the Decorated the roof is somewhat depressed,
which depression increases in the Perpendicular and later
buildings. The finish to Norman gables was probably a flat
coping, to Early English a moulded coping, sometimes further
ornamented with crockets and finials ; but these were more
frequently introduced in the later styles, in which also the
gables were sometimes finished with a pierced parapet or
battlement. In Domestic architecture, gables with overhang-
ing roofs were ornamented with BARGE-BOARDS.

The term is also applied to the entire wall at the gable-end
of a building.

GABLE-ROOFED, having a roof abutting against a gable wall.

GABLE-WINDOW, a window in the gable end of a building.

GABLET, a small gable ; an ornament in shape like
a gable, frequently introduced over tabernacles, niches, but-
tresses, &c.

GAGE, (French) in carpentry and joinery, an instrument
for drawing one or more lines on any side of a piece of stuff,
parallel to one of the arrises of that side.

There are four kinds of gages : the common gage, the mor-
tise-and~tenon gage, the internal gage, and the flooring gage.
The common gage and the flooring gage are both applied to
the drawing of a line parallel to an arris.

The common gage consists of two pieces of wood, one of
which passes through a mortise in the other, and has an iron
or steel tooth fixed near one of its extremities; so that the
point may be placed at any distance from the mortised piece:
then the piece which passes through the mortise is fixed by
a wedge also through that piece: the piece through which
the mortise passes is called the head, and the piece passing
through the mortise, in which the iron tooth is fixed, is called
the stafi:

When a line is drawn from the arris upon one side, at
a given distance, the head is a fence that always keeps the
staff at right angles to the arris, and equidistant, in moving

it to and fro.
5 1'

G.

The mortise-and-tenon gage is a. common gage with a lon-
gitudinal slider, moveable in a dovetail groove: the slider
has also a tooth fixed as near to the end next the tooth in the
end of the staff as possible ; so that the teeth may be brought
almost to any distance from one another.

The internal gage is constructed similar to the staff of the
mortise-and-tenon gage : it has a longitudinal slider, the
whole length of the staff, without a head, or any other tooth
than that of the slider.

The flooring gage consists of a head and staff fixed toge-
ther, at a very obtuse angle: on the head are a number of
equidistant furrows at right angles to the staff: the section
of each furrow is an internal right angle, one side of which
is in a straight line with the tooth, and the other becomes
a fence in the act of gaging.

This gage is made to aswer battens or deals of various
widths: Each width is numbered, according to the furrow
that is applied as a fence ; so that a flooring board, which is
not sufficiently long, may be extended, by a piece of the same
breadth, to the length required.

GAIN, the bevelled shoulder of a binding-joist for the
purpose of giving additional resistance to the tenon below.
See TUSK.

GALILEE, a porch, usually built at or near the west end
of the great abbey - churches, where the monks collected
themselves, and drew up in returning from some of their pro-
cessions ; where dead bodies were deposited previous to their
interment ; and where, in certain monasteries, females alone
were allowed to see the monks to whom they were related,
or to attend divine service.

Galilees exist in England in the cathedrals of Durham,
Ely, and Lincoln. In the former instance, it is a large chapel
at the west end of the nave, measuring 80 feet by 50, and
divided into five aisles by semi-circular arcades on clustered
columns; it likewise contained three altars. The galilee at
Ely is in the same position, but of much smaller dimensions,
while that at Lincoln is on the west side of the south
transept.

Many improbable conjectures have been formed concerning
the derivation of the name. The real occasion of it seems to
be this : when any female applied at the abbey-gate for leave
to see her relative, who was a monk, she was directed to the
western porch of the church, and told, in the terms which so
frequently occur in the service of the pascal time, alluding
to Matt. xxviii. 10, and Mark xvi. 7, that she should see him
in Galilee. This explanation is confirmed by a passage of
Gervasius the monk of Canterbury. De Combust. et Repar.
Dorob. Eco. Tug/5d. X. Script.

GALLERY, an apartment of a house, not always destined
to answer the same purpose : the term is applied, in a general
way, to any passage or apartment, the length of which greatly
exceeds its breadth. A common passage to several rooms in
one range, in any upper story of a house, is called a gallery;
a long room for the reception of pictures is called a gallery ;
the platform raised upon pillars, or projected from the wall
of a church, open in the front to the central space, for the
accommodation of a greater number of people than the body
of the church would admit, is called a gallery. The whisper-
ing-gallery of St. Paul’s, as also that of the chapel of Green-

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GOA

438

GAR

 

wich Hospital, are projected, and supported by cantalivers
from the wall. The whole, or a portion of the uppermost
story of a theatre, is likewise called a gallery. The appella-
tion is also frequently given to portieos formed with long
ranges of columns on one side.

Savot, in his Architecture, derives the gallery from Gaul,
as supposing the ancient Gauls to have been the first who
used them: Nicod, from the French, aller, to go; q. d. allerz'e:
others bring it from galére, galley, because it. bears some
resemblance thereto in respect of health. .

The length of galleries is (according to Palladio) from
eight to ten times their breadth.

GANG-LADDER, in canal-making, a frame answering
the same purpose as a horsing block.

GANG-IVAY, a temporary stair, made with planks set-
edge to edge of each other, having transverse pieces of wood
nailed over for steps; used particularly by masons, brick-
layers, and carpenters, for ascending, or descending the vari-
ous stories of a building, before the stairs are put up.

GAOL, (from the French, géole, formed of the Latin,
geola, gaola, or gag/Ola, a cage) a prison, or place of legal
confinement ; the word is now generally written JAIL.

Every county has two goals ; one for debtors, which may
be any house where the sheriff pleases; the other for the
peace and matters of the crown, which is the county goal.

By 22 and 23 Car. II. c. 20, the gaoler shall keep debtors
and felons separate, on pain of forfeiting his office, and treble
damages to the party aggrieved ; and by 31 Geo. III. e. 46,
transports are to be kept separate from other prisoners. As
the gaol is intended, in most cases, for custody, and not for
punishment, it is enacted by 14 Geo. III. e. 59, that thejus-
tices, in their several quarter-sessions, shall order the walls
and ceilings of the several cells and wards, both of the debtors
and felons, and of any other rooms used by the prisoners in
their respective gaols, where felons are usually confined, to
be scraped and whitewashed once in the year, at least, and
to be regularly washed and kept clean, and constantly sup-
plied with fresh air by hand-ventilators or otherwise; and
shall order two rooms in each gaol, one for the men and an-
other for the women, to be set apart for sick prisoners ; and
order a warm and cold bath, or commodious bathing—tub, to
be provided in each gaol, and direct the prisoners to be washed
in such warm or cold baths, or bathing-tubs, &c., and they
shall appoint an experienced surgeon and apothecary, at a
stated salary, to attend the gaol, and to report, at each quar-
ter-seSSions, the state of the health of the prisoners; order
clothes for the prisoners when they see occasion, prevent their
being kept under ground, when it can be done conveniently,
and from time to time make orders for restoring or preserving
the health of the prisoners; the expenses to be paid out of
the county rates, or out of the public stock of any city, fran-
chise, or place to which the gaols belong. The gaoler is
subject to fine for neglect or disobedience of the orders of
justices, by complaint to the judges of assize, or to thejus-
tices in their quarter-sessions. .By 31 Geo. III. e. 46, visit-
ing-justices are appointed for inspecting gaols at least three
times in each quarter of a year, in order to prevent abuses,
&c , and they are to report to the quarter-sessions. The jus-
tices in sessions may also appoint clergymen to ofliciate in
gaols, and allow them a salary to be paid out of the county
rates.

If a gaol be out of repair, insufficient, &c., the justices
of the peace in their quarter-sessions may agree with work-
men for rebuilding or repairing it; and by warrant under
their hands and seals, order the sum agreed upon to be levied
Upon the several hundreds and divisions in the county, by

a proportionate rate ; and the justices in sessions may borrow, l

 

on mortgage of the said rates, any sum not less than £50
nor more than £100, and discharge the whole by yearly pay-
ments. 11 and 12 Will. III. cap. 19. 24 Geo. III. e. 54.
See PRISON.

GARD, Pom du. See AQUEDUCT, BRIDGE.

GARDEN, Hanging, a sort of ancient garden, which is
said to have been formed in a raised manner, on arches, by
Nebuehadnezzar king of Babylon, with the view of gratify-
ing his wife Amyctis, who was the daughter of Astyages,
king of Media. These gardens are supposed by Quintus
Curtius to have been equal in height to the city, which is 50
feet. They contained on every side a square of 400 feet, and
were carried up in several terraces, surmounting each other,
to which there were ascents by different flights of stairs or
steps, that had 10 feet in width. The arches that sustained
the whole of this pile were raised above each other, being

strengthened by a wall on every side of above seven yards in

thickness. The floors of the several terraces were laid first
with large flat stones, of considerable lengths and breadths,
over which was placed a stratum of reed mixed very fully
with bitumen, then two rows of bricks closely cemented toge-
ther with mortar, and the whole afterwards covered with
thick sheet-lead, upon which the mould of the garden was
deposited, to such a depth as to admit large trees to take root
and establish themselves in it. Trees, plants, and flowers of
various kinds, were introduced into these gardens. The
upper terrace was likewise provided with an aqueduct or
engine, by which the water was drawn up from the river, and
dispersed over the whole of the gardens when necessary.

Some have condemned these gardens as unnatural, while
others have considered them as deserving of a portion of
praise; but whatever merit may have been allowed them,
they could certainly never have had anything of the natural
or rural character about them.

GARDEN-SEEDS, erections for containing garden imple-
ments, flower-pots, hot-bed frames, and glass sashes ; also for
working in, during bad weather. They are best placed on
the back-wall of the tool-house, by which means they may be
made to hold the furnaces, fuel, and other articles.

 

GARGOYLE, GARGLE, GARGYLE, AND GURGOYLE, a

stone projecting from the wall of Gothic buildings, and

serving for a spout to convey the water from the roof, and :

throw it off the wall. These stones are more frequently
carved into grotesque figures or animals, through the mouth
of which the water passes; sometimes, however, the Wiltt'l' is
carried through a leaden pipe above or below the figure.
Their usual position is in the cornice of buildings, but they
are found also in other positions, such as buttresses, «Sic.
GARLANDS, (from the French, gm'rlande; from the
Latin, garlanda, or Italian, glzirlanda,) ornaments of tiowm‘s,

fruits, and leaves, anciently used at the gates of temples.

where feasts or solemn rejoicings were held. Garlands of
festoons were also put on the heads of victims, in the ancient
heathen sacrifices.

GARNETS, Cross, a species of hinge, used in the most
common works, formed in the shape of the letter '1‘, turned
thus, 91 , the vertical part being fastened to the style orjamb
of the door-case, and the horizontal part to the door or
shutter.

GARRET, (from the French, garite, the tower of a cita-
del) the uppermost story of a house, when taken either par-
tially or wholly from the space within the roof.

GARRETING, the insertion of small pieces of stone
between the joints of rough masonry, as in rubble and that
walls. _
GARRISON, a fort, castle, or fortified town furnished
with troops to defend it.

 

 

 

 

 

GAT

GATE, a. large door for shutting the entrance’ of parks,
fields, towns, castles, palaces, or any other considerable
buildings.

The width of gates is from eight to twelve feet : the
height depends upon the purpose to which they are applied.
See DOOR.

GATE, in Rural Economy, a frame of wood constructed
with a number of bars, and fixed in such a manner as to
swing upon hinges, for the purpose of affording convenient
passage into and out of inelosed grounds, or other places.

In the constructing of gates, of whatever kind or form
they may be, the materials should constantly be well prepared
by proper seasoning before they are put together ; as, where
this is not the case, they soon become much injured by their
constant exposure to the effects of the sun and wind. They
also require that the different parts be put together with con-
siderable accuracy and correctness. In respect to durability,
there can be no doubt but that oak is by much the best sort
of wood to be employed ; but some of the more light kinds of
wood, such as those of the deal, villow, and alder sorts,
answer the purpose extremely well, and are very durable,
as, on account of their lightness, they do not destroy them-
selves so much in shutting. It is found by experience that
the lighter gates can be made in their foreparts, so that they
be sufficiently strong for the intended purpose, the better
they answer. For this reason, in some cases, as where horses
are chiefly to be confined, the top bars, by being left of more
strength, may admit of the others having less substance; but
if this be not done, they are apt to be broken by the horses
rubbing their necks upon them, unless where they are made
of great height.

The width of gates for general purposes is mostly from
eight and a half to nine feet, and the height from five to six
feet ; the bars being five or six in number, and each four or
five inches in breadth. Hence they are frequently denomi-
nated five or six-barred gates. In cases where fowls or other
small animals are to be guarded against, it is better to run
a smaller bar between the two lowermost ones, as by this
means their passage is prevented.

GATE, in Engineering, is applied to the close-boarded doors
of locks or sluices on canals or rivers, for penning up the
water: in a lock these are distinguished by upper-gates and
lower-gates, according as they are placed at the head or tail
of the lock.

GATE-HOUSE, a building erected over a gate, or that
through which entrance was obtained into the main building.
Gate~houses were very usual in the erections of the middle
ages, and were employed in all large buildings, ecclesiastical,
military, and civil, also as entrances to fortified cities ; thus
in London we still preserve the names of several gate-ways
in the old wall, as New-gate, Bishops-gate, Lyd-gate, &c., at
each of which places was formerly a gate-house, through
which entrance was obtained within the city. These build-
ings were often of an imposing character; and in military
works consisted, for the most part, of a large arch-way with
groined ceiling, and a portcullis at each end, flanked by two
massive projecting towers, pierced with loop-holes, through
which to annoy the enemy, and surmounted by a battle-
mented parapet. Those attached to civil and ecclesiastical
buildings were generally of a more ornamental description,
sometimes consisting of only a square tower with a turret at
one or more angles, having a large arch—way in the centre
with groined ceiling and room above, the window of which—-
frequently an oriel—formed a picturesque addition to the
elevation. The forms of these gate-houses were, however,
various, and admitted of different degrees of ornamentation.
In some cases, there was a small arch-way by the side of the

439

 

GEO

principal one for foot-paSSengers, and in others a similar one
on either side ; they were called posterns. Remains still
exist in most of the old towns, amongst the most remarkable
of which are those of Battle Abbey, Sussex, Bristol, Bury
St. Edmund’s, St. John’s Gate, Clerkenwell, and St. Augus-
tine’s College, Canterbury.

GATE-WAY, the passage through which entrance is obtained
into a town, building, &e.

GATHERING OF THE WVINGS, in a chimney, the
sloping part above the fire-place, where the funnel contracts
or tapers till it reaches the tube or flue.-

GAVEL, the same as GABLE, which see.

GAUGE. See GAGE.

GAUGE, a term applied to signify the width between the
rails on a railway.

GEMMEL, GYMMER, or CHYMOL, an ancient term for a
hinge.

GENERATING LINE, or PLANE, in geometry, is a line,
or plane, moving according to a given law, either round one
of its extremities, as a fixed point or axis, or parallel to
itself, in order to generate a plane figure or solid, which is
formed by the space it has gone over.

GENESIS, (from the Greek, ya’vsmg, origin, or beginning)
in geometry, the formation of a line, plane, or solid, by the
motion of a line, plane, or surface; thus, a sphere is con-
ceived to be generated by the motion of a semicircle revolv-
ing on its diameter, which is called tlie axis qfcircumvolution.
A triangle may be conceived to be generated by the motion of
a line parallel to its base, in such a manner that the describing
line must be a fourth proportional to the base, the altitude,
and the distance of the line from the vertex of the triangle.

In the genesis of figures, the moving point, line, or surface,
is called the describent, and the line round which, or accord—
ing to which, the revolution is made, the dirigent.

GENTESE, in Early English architecture, cusps or fea-
therings in the arch of a doorway.

GEOD’ESY, that branch of applied mathematics which
determines the figures and areas of large portions of the
earth’s surface, the general figure_of the earth, and the vari-
ations of the intensity of gravity in different regions by
means of direct observation and measurement.

GEOLOGY, the science which treats of the internal
structure of the earth as far as we have been able to pene-
trate below its surface, of the arrangement of the materials
of which it is composed, and of the changes which have taken
place in them.

GEOMETRICAL, something that has a relation to geo-
metry: thus we say, geometrical method, geometrical genius,
geometrical strictness, geometrical construction, geometrical
demonstration, 8:0.

GEOMETRICAL Locus, or PLACE. See Locus.

GEOME'rRiCAL PACE, a measure of five feet.

GEOMETRICAL PLAN. See PLAN.

GEOMETRICAL PLANE, in perspective, the same as ground
plane, or original plane.

GEonErchL SOLUTION or A PROBLEM,a solution accord-
ing to the strict principles of geometry, by lines that are
truly geometrical.

In this sense, we say, a geometrical solution, in contradis-
tinction to a mechanical or an instrumental solution, where
the problem is only solved by rule ‘ and compasses.

Geometrical problems are distinguished into three kinds,
viz., plane, solid, and linear.

Plane problems are such as may be solved by a right line
and a circle.

Solid problems are derived from the consideration of a
solid that is a cone.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GEO

440

GEO

 

Linear problems are derived from lines more compounded.

GEOMETRICAL STAIR, such as is only supported by the
wall at the one end of the steps, with a Continued string at
the other.

GEOMETRY, (from the Greek, yewluerpta, formed of yea
or 7/77, earth, and flETpfw, to measure) the doctrine, or science
of extension, or things extended, viz. of lines, surfaces,
or solids. Geometry has also been defined in general terms
as the science of space.

According to Herodotus, Strabo, and Diodorus, the
Egyptians were the first inventors of geometry, and it is
asserted by these ancient writers, that to the annual inunda-
tions of the Nile, we are to attribute the first steps in this
science. That river, in its overflowings, bearing away all
the bounds and landmarks of men’s estates, and covering the
whole face of the country, the people were obliged to distin-
guish their lands by the consideration of their figure and
quantity; and thus, by experience and habit, they formed
to themselves a method, or art, which was the origin of
geometry. A farther contemplation of the draughts of figures
of fields thus laid down, and plotted in proportion, might,
naturally enough, lead them to the discovery of some of their
excellent and wonderful properties; and as these speculations
continually improved, so the art gradually improved also,
until it attained the perfection of thcpresent day. Josephus,
however, seems to attribute the invention to the Hebrews;
and others, among the ancients, make Mercury the inventor.

From Egypt, geometry passed into Greece, being carried
thither, as some say, by Thales, where it was much culti—
vated and improved by himself, Pythagoras, Anaxagoras of
Clazomene, Hippocrates of Chios, and Plato. The latter
testified his conviction of the necessity and importance
of geometry, in order to the successful study of philosophy,
by the following inscription on the door of his academy:
“ Let no one ignorant of geometry enter here.” Plato, con-
ceiving that geometry was too mean and restricted an appella-
tion for this science, substituted for it the more extensive
name of mensuration; and others have denominated it
pantometrg. Other more general and comprehensive appella-
tions are perhaps more suitable to its extent, especially in
the present advanced state of the science; and accordingly,
some have defined it as the science of inquiring, inventing,
and demonstrating all the afections of magnitude. Proclus
calls it the knowledge of magnitudes and figures, with their
limitations; as also of their ratios, affections, positions, and
motions of every kind. About fifty years after Plato, lived
Euclid, who collected together all those theorems which had
been invented by his predecessors in Egypt and Greece, and
digested them into fifteen books, intitled the Elements of
Geometry; and those propositions which were not satisfac-
torily proved, he more accurately demonstrated. The next
to Euclid, of those ancient writers whose works are extant,
is Apollonius Pergmus, who flourished in the time of Ptolemy
Euergetes, about two hundred and thirty years before Christ,
and about one hundred years after Euclid. The third ancient
geometer, whose writings remain, is Archimedes of Syracuse,
who was famous about the same time with Apollonius. “re
can only mention Eudoxus of Cuidus, Architas of Tarentum,
Philolaus, Eratosthenes, Aristarchus of Samos, Dinostratus,
the inventor of the quadratrix, Menechmus, his brother, and
the disciple of Plato, the two Aristeuses, Conon, 'I‘hrasideus,
Nicoteles, Leon, Theudius, Hermotimus, and Nicomedes, the
inventor of the conchoid; besides whom there are many
other ancient geometers, to whom this science is indebted.

The Greeks continued their attention to geometry, even
after they were subdued by the Romans. \Vhereas the
Romans themselves were so little acquainted with this science,

 

even in the most flourishing time of their republic, that they
gave the name of mathematicians, as Tacitus informs us, to
those who pursued the chimeras of divination and judicial
astrology. Nor were they more disposed to cultivate geometry,
as we may reasonably imagine, during the decline, and after
the fall of the Roman empire. The case was different with
the Greeks ; among whom we find many excellent geometers,
since the commencement of the Christian era, and after the
translation of the Roman empire. Ptolemy lived under
Marcus Aurelius; and we have, extant, the works of Pappus
of Alexandria, who lived in the time of Theodosius; the
commentary of Eutocius, the Ascalonite, who lived about
the year of Christ 540, on Archimedes’ mensuration of a
circle; and the commentary on Euclid, by Proclus, who
lived under the empire of Anastasius.

The consequent inundation of ignorance and barbarism
was unfavourable to geometry, as well as to the other sciences;
and those few who applied themselves to this science, or
indeed to any branch of learning incomprehensible by the
vulgar, were calumniated as magicians. In those times of
European darkness, the Arabians were distinguished as the
guardians and promoters of science; and from the ninth to
the fourteenth century they produced many astronomers,
geometers, geographers, 820., from whom the mathematical
sciences were again received into Spain, Italy, and other
parts of Europe, somewhat before the beginning of the
fifteenth century. Some of the earliest writers after this
period, are Leonardus Pisenus, Lucas Paciolus or de Bingo,
and others who'flourished between 1-100 and 1500. After

 

this period appeared many editions of Euclid, or commentaries ‘

upon his Elements; e. g., Orontius Fineus, in 1530, published
a commentary on the six first books; as did James Peletarius
in 1557; and about the same time, Nicolas Tartaglia pub-
lished a commentary on the whole fifteen books.

We might .

also mention other editions or commentaries; such as those ,

of Commandine, Clavius, Billingsly, Scheubelius, Harlinus,
Dasypodius, Ramus, Herigon, Stevinus, Saville, Barrow,
Tucquet, Dechales, Furnier, Scarborough, Keill, Cann, Stone,
and many others.

At the revival of letters, there were few Europeans capable
of translating and commenting on the works of the ancient
geometers ; and geometry made consequently but little pro-
gress till the time of Des Cartes, who published his Geometry
in 1637. However, not to mention all those who extended
geometry beyond its elementary parts, such as 'l‘heodosius,
in his Spheries; Serenus, in his Sections of the Cone and
Cylinder; Kepler, in his AbraStereometria, 810.; in 1635,
Bonaventure Cavalerius, an Italian, of the order of Jesuits,
published his GeometryofIndirisibles ; Torrieelli, his Opera
Geometrica ; Viviani, his Divinationes Geometriue, Ifa‘errr
tatio illathematiea, De Locis Solidis, De JIaa-imis rt
filinimis, &c.; Vieta, Iffl'ectio Geometrica, &c.; Gregory
St. Vincent, in 1647, published his treatise, intitlcd Quadra-
tura Circuli et IIgperbolw, a work abounding with L‘Xt't‘llt‘llt
theorems and paralogisms ; and Pascal, about the same time,
published his Treatise of the Cgcloid. Geometry, as far as
it. was capable of deriving aid and improvement from the
arithmetic of infinites, was indebted to the labours of Fermi”,
Barrow, “’allis, Mercator, Brounker, J. Gregory, Huygens,
and others; to whom we may add Newton and Leibnuz.
But Sir Isaac Newton contributed to the progress ot pure
geometry by his two treatises, De Quadratura (liu-rurum,
and Enumeratio Linearum Tertii Ordinis: and still further
by his incomparable and immortal work, intitled, I’hilosoplua
Alatitralis Principia JIathematica, which will always be
considered as the most extensive and successful application
of geometry to physics.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

441‘

GEO

 

The modern geometers are innumerable; and the names
of Cotes, Maclaurin, R. Simpson, T. Stewart, T. Simpson, 8w.
not to mention living writers, will always be held in esteem
and veneration by those who are devoted to the study of
geometry and mathematics.

The province of geometry is almost infinite: few of our
ideas but what may be represented to the imagination by
lines, upon which they become of geometrical consideration :
it being geometry alone that makes comparisons, and finds
the relations of lines.

Architecture, mechanics, astronomy, music, and in a word,
all the sciences which consider things susceptible of more
and less, 2'. 9. all the precise and accurate sciences, may be
referred to geometry; for all speculative truths consisting
only in the relations of things, and in the relations between
those relations, they may be all referred to lines. Conse-
quences may be drawn from them; and these consequences,
again, being rendered sensible by lines, become permanent
objects, which may be constantly exposed to a rigorous
attention and examination: thus affording to us infinite
opportunities both of inquiring into their certainty, and
pursuing them farther.

Geometrical lines and figures are not only proper to
represent to the imagination the relations between magni-
tudes, or between things susceptible of more and less; as
spaces times, weights, motions, &c., but they may even
represent things which the mind can no otherwise conceive,
for example, the relations of incommensurable magnitudes.

It must be observed, that this use of geometry among the

ancients was not strictly scientifical, as among us; but rather
symbolical: they did not argue, or deduce things and pro-
perties unknown, from lines, but represented or delineated
by them things that were known. In effect, they were not
used as means or instruments of discovering, but as images
or characters, to preserve, or communicate, the discoveries
already made.
‘ V The ancient geometry was confined to very narrow bounds,
‘ compared with the modern. It only extended to right lines
and curves of the first order, or conic sections ; whereas in
modern geometry new lines, of infinitely more and higher
orders, are introduced.

Geometry is commonly divided into four parts, or branches;
ALTIMETRY, STEREOMETRY, PLANIMETRY, and LONGIMETRY.
See those words.

It is again distinguished into theoretical or speculative, and
practical. The first contemplates the properties of continuity;
and demonstrates the truth of general propositions, called
theorems. The second applies those speculations and theorems
to particular uses in the solution of problems. Speculative
geometry, again, may be distinguished into elementary and
sublime. The former is that employed in the consideration
of right lines and plane surfaces, and solids generated from
them. The higher or sublime geometry is that employed in
the consideration of curve lines, conic sections, and bodies
formed of them.

The science of geometry is founded on certain axioms, or
self-evident truths; it is introduced by definitions of the
various objects which it contemplates, and the properties of
which it investigates and demonstrates, such as points, lines,
angles, figures, surfaces, and solids z—lines again are con-
sidered as straight or curved; and in their relation to one
another, either as inclined or parallel, or as perpendicular :—
angles, as right, oblique, acute, obtuse, external, vertical, &c.:
, —figures, with regard to their various boundaries,as triangles,
' which are in respect of their sides equilateral, isosceles, and
,- scalene, and in reference to their angles, right-angled, obtuse-
: angled, and acute-angled ; as quadrilaterals, which comprehend
5 U

 

 

the parallelogram, including the rectangle and square, the
rhombus and rhomboid, and the trapezium and trapezoid; as
multilaterals or polygons, comprehending the pentagon,
hexagon, heptagon, 8L0. ; and as circles ;——also as solids,
including a prism, parallelopipedon, cube, pyramid, cylinder,
cone, sphere, and the frustum of either of the latter.

For practical geometry, the fullest and most complete
treatises are those of Mallet, written in French, but without
the demonstrations ; and of Schwenter and Cantzlerus, both
in high Dutch. In this class are likewise to be ranked
Clavius’s, Tacquet’s, and Ozanam’s Practical Geometries;
De la Hire’s Ecole des Arpenteurs; Reinholdus’s Geodesia ;
Hartman Beyers’s Stereometria ; Voigtel’s Geometria Sub-
terranea; all in high Dutch: Hulsius, Galileus, Goldmannus,
Schefi’elt, and Ozanam, on the Sector, 8:0. the An excellent
treatise on practical geometry, particularly with reference to
the study of architecture and perspective, was published
some years ago by Mr. Peter Nicholson, and still holds its
ground in public estimation, notwithstanding the numerous
works on the subject which have appeared from time to time.
The following short essay on Practical Geometry, containing
the formation of plain figures arising from straight lines and
Circles, will also be found exceedingly useful in the study of
architectural construction. Curves of variable curvature,
as those arising from the sections of a cone by a plane, will
be found under their respective heads; as, CCNIC SECTIONS,
ELLIPSIS, 8w.

GEOMETRY, Analytical, or Descriptive, the method of
finding the situation of a point in a plane. See DESCRIPTIVE
GEOMETRY.

GEOMETRY, Practical, the method of reducing or applying
the rules of the science to practice, examples of which will
be found in the following problems.

PROBLEM I.—In a right line, A B, from any given point, C,
to erect a perpendicular.

Figure l.—-\Vhen the given point is near the middle of the
line. On each side of the point C, on the line AB, take any
two equal distances, as C d, C e ; from d and e, with any radius
greater than C d, or C e, describe arcs of equal radii, cutting
each other in F ; through the points F and C, draw the right
line F C, and it will be the perpendicular required.

Figure 2.—VVhen the given point is at or near the end of
the line. Take any other point, as d, in AB; from d, with
the distance d 0, describe an are, 0 cf; take the portion C e,
of the are, at pleasure, and make the portion ef equal to C e ;
draw the chord Cgf; from C, with the radius C 8, describe I
the arc g e H; make e H equal to e g; and through the 1
points 0 and H draw the right line C H, which is the perpen-
dicular required.

Figure 3.—Another method. Take any other point, at, as
before: from C, with the distance C cl, describe an arc, def;
from d, with the same radius, describe an are at e; from e,
with the same radius, describe an are at G ; draw deer, and
through the points G and C draw G C, which is the perpen-
dicular required.

PROBLEM IL—From a given point, e, to drop a perpen-
dicular upon a given right line, A 13.

Figure 4.-——In A B, take any two points,fand g; and from
either point, f, with the radius fC, describe an are, C E;
from g, with the distance g C, describe arcs at C and E, of
equal radii; and draw the right line C E, which is the per-
pendicular required.

Figure 5.-——An0ther method. From the point 0, describe
an arc, fg, cutting A B atf and g ,- from the pointsfand g,
with any equal radii greater than the half offg. describe two
arcs, cutting each other in D ; draw CD, and CD is perpen-
dicular to A B, and drawn from the point C, as required.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GEO

442

GEO

 

PROBLEM III.— To draw a right line paralleltto a given
right line, A B, at a given distance, C D.

Figure 6.—Take any points, as e and], in the right line
AB; then, with the distance CD, from the points e andf,
describe arcs, G and H, of equal radii; draw the right line
G H to touch the arcs at G and H ; and G H will be parallel
to A B, at the distance C D, as required.

PROBLEM IV.-— Through a given point, C, to draw a right
line parallel to a given right line, A B.

Figure 7.——In A B, take any two points, as d and e, and
draw C d; make the angle BeF equal to the angle BdC;
make e F equal to dC ; and draw the right line C F, which
passes through the point C, and is parallel to A B, as
required.

Figure 8.-—Another method. Take any point, as e, in A B,
and from e, with the distance 6 0, describe an arc, Cd, cut-
ting AB in d; from C, with the same distance, Cc, describe
an arc, e F ; make e F equal to do ; draw the right line C F,
and it will pass through C, parallel to A B, as required.

PROBLEM V.—-— To bisect a right line, A B, by a perpen-
dicular.

Figure 9.——Take any distance greater than the half of A B;
from the points A and B, describe arcs of equal radii, cutting
each other at C and D; draw 0 D, and it will be perpendicular
to A B, and bisect A B at the point E, as required.

PROBLEM VL—At a given point, E, in a right line, E F,
to make an angle equal to a given angle, A B C.

Figures 10 and 11.——From B, with any radius, describe an
arc, as gh, cutting B C at g, and B A at h ; from E, with the
same radius, describe another arc, ih, meeting E F at i,- make
ih equal to gh; draw the right line Eh D; and the angle
D E F is equal to the angle A B C, as required.

PROBLEM VIL—To bisect a given angle, A B C.

Figure 12.——From AB, cut off any part, as B d; take the
part B e from B 0, equal to B d; from the points d and c, with
any distance greater than the half of de, describe arcs of
equal radii, cutting each other at F; draw FB, and it will
bisect the angle A B C, as required.

PROBLEM VIII.— To bisect a given arc, A B C, of a circle.

Figure l3.—Draw the chord A C ; bisect AC by a perpen-
dicular, BD; and the point B will divide the are A BC into
two equal arcs, A B, B C.

PROBLEM IX.—A circle, A B C A, and a tangent, D E, to
the circumference, being given, to find the point of contact.

Figure l4.—Let the centre, F, be given ; draw F A perpen-
dicular to D E ; and the point, A, where it cuts the tangent,
is the point required.

Figure 15.—If the centre be not given, draw the chord F G,
parallel to the tangent D E; bisect F G by a perpendicular,
H A, meeting the tangent at A ; then A is the point of con—
tact required.

PROBLEM X.—An are, A B C, and a point B, in the circum-
ference, being given; to draw a tangent through the point, B.

Figure 16.—From the point B, cut off two equal arcs, B D
and BE; draw the chord D E; through B, draw F G, parallel
to D E; and F G is the tangent sought.

PROBLEM XL—Given a circle, A BC, and a straight line,
D E, equal to, or less than the diameter; from a given point, A,
in the circle, to inscribe a chord equal to D E.

Figure l7.—From the point A. with a radius equal to DE,
describe an arc, cutting the circumference at B; draw AB,
which is the chord required.

PROBLEM XII.——In a given circle, A B C D, to inscribe an
equilateral triangle .- or to divide the circle into three equal
parts.

Figure 18.—-With the radius of the circle cut off the arcs
A D, D B; join A B; from A, with the radius A B, describe

 

an arc, cutting the circumference at C; join A C, C B; and
A B C is the equilateral triangle required.

PROBLEM XIII.——In a given circle, A B C DA, to inscribe
a square; or to divide the circumference into four equal
parts.

Figure 19.—-Through the centre, E, and any point, A, in
the circumference, draw the diameter A C; and the diameter
B E D, perpendicular to A E C ; draw the chords A B, B C, C D,DA;
and A B C D A will be the square required.

PROBLEM XIV.—In a given circle, A B c D E A, to inscribe
a pentagon; or to divide the circumference into five equal
parts.

Figure 20.—Draw the diameters Aif and gih at right.

angles to each other ; bisect the radius gi at h ; from h, with l

the distance h A, describe an are A 5, cutting gh at l,- and
from A, with the distance Al, describe an are cutting the circle
at B ; draw the chord A B ; make the successive chords, A B,
BC, CD, DE, each equal toAB; join EA, and ABCDEA
will be the pentagon required.

PROBLEM XV.-—-—In a given circle, A B C D E F A, to inscribe
a hexagon ; or to divide the circle into six equal parts.

Figure 2l.—From any point, as A, draw the successive
chords A B, B C, C D, D E, E F, each equal to the radius, and
join the last, FA; then AB CD RF A will be the hexagon
required ; or the circle will be divided into six equal parts.

COROLLARY.—Hence, by the first of the three last pro-
blems, the circle may be divided into eight equal parts ; by
the second, it may be divided into ten equal parts ; and by the
third, it may be divided into twelve equal parts, only by
bisecting the arcs: and if each are be again bisected, each
circle will be divided into four times the number of equal parts,
as at first. The above are the only truly geometrical methods
of dividing circles into equal parts, no general method having
been discovered.

PROBLEM XVI.— Upona given straight line, A B, to describe
an equilateral triangle.

Figure 22.—From the points A and B, with the distance
A B, describe arcs, cutting each other in C; draw C A and C B;
and A B C is the equilateral triangle required.

PROBLEM XVII.— Upon a given straight line, AB, required
to describe a square, or tetragon.

Figure 23.—~Bisect A B by a perpendicular, e i,- make ei
equal to the half of A B ; from i, with the distance iA or in,
describe a circle ; draw the chords B C, C D, equal to A B ; join
D A ; and A B C D is the square or tetragon required.

PROBLEM XVIII.— Upon a given straight line, A B, to
describe a regular pentagon.

Figure 24.—Draw Bf perpendicular and equal to the half

 

of A B; produce Af to g, making fg equal to fB ; from the
points A and B, with the radius Bg, describe arcs, cutting
each other at i; from i, with the radius iA, or i B, describe
a circle; inscribe the successive chords BC, c D, D E, each
equal to A B; join E A ; and A B C D E A is the pentagon
required. l
PROBLEM XIX.— Upon a given straight line, A B, to describe
a regular hexagon. j
Figure 25.-——From the points A and B, with the distance ;
A B, describe arcs, cutting each other at i,- t'rom i, with the ;
distance C A, or C B, describe a circle, A B C D E F A; make the ‘
successive chords B C, C D, DE, E F, each equal to A B, and
join F A ; and A B C D E F is the hexagon required. .
PROBLEM XX.— Upon a given straight line, A B, to (ll'Sl‘rth
an octagon, a decagon, or a dodecagon. .
Figures 26, 27, and 28.—Find the centre, i, of a t‘ll‘l‘lt',
by such of the three last Problems as will contain a polygon
of half the number of sides required ; draw ih upwards,
perpendicular to A B, equal to iA or iB ; and the point I: Will

 

 

 

 

 

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be the centre of a circle that will contain the polygon
required.

EXAMPLE I. Figure 26.-—-For an octagon, find the centre, i,
as in Problem XIII.

EXAMPLE II. Figure 27.—For a decagon, find the centre, i,
as in Problem XIV.

EXAMPLE III. Figure 28.—For a dodecagon, find the
centre, i, as in Problem XV.

Complete the remaining parts as above directed ; and thus
a circle may be found to contain any duplical multiple of these
sides.

PROBLEM XXI.—— Through three given points, A. B, C, to
describe the circumference of a circle, provided the three
points be not in the same straight line.

Figure 29.—Join A B and B C, and bisect them by perpen-
diculars meeting each other at D ; from D, with the distance
AD, of either point, describe a circle, and its circumference
will pass through the other two points B and C.

PROBLEM XXII.—To describe a circle of a given radius
through two given points ; A and B, provided the radius be
greater than half the distance between the two given points.

Figure 30.——From A, with the given radius, describe an
are from B ; with the same radius, describe another are, cut-
ting the former at C; from C, with the distance C A, or C B,
describe the circle A B D ; and it will be the circle required.

PROBLEM XXIII.— T 0 describe a circle to pass through
two given points, A and B, and touch a straight line, C D;
provided the two points and the straight line be not in the
same straight line.

Figure 3l.—Produce A B and D C, to meet in E ; bisect the
angle A E D by the straight line E F ; bisect A G by the per-
pendicular GF; from the point of concourse, F, with the
radius F G, describe a circle, G H I K, which is the circle
required.‘

PROBLEM XXIV.— To describe a circle to pass through
a given point, A, and touch two straight lines, B C and D E,
provided that the point be situated between the two lines.

Figure 32.——Let the two lines, B C and D E, if not parallel,
meet in F ; join A F ; bisect the angle B F D, by the straight
line F K ; in F K, take any point, as G, and draw G H, perpen-
dicular to BC; from G, with the distance GH, describe an
arc, H 1, cutting A F at I ; join I G, and draw A K parallel to
I G, and KL parallel to G H; cutting B F at L ; from K, with
the radius KL, describe a circle LAM, which will be the

.. circle required.

PROBLEM XXV.-——To describe a circle that shall touch

. three straight lines, A B, C D, E F, provided all the three lines
‘ be not parallel.

Figure 33.—Produce the lines, so that one of them, as
C D, may meet the other two, A B and E F ; and let the meet-
ing ofA B with C D, be at G, and of C D with E F at II ; bisect
the angles B G H and G H F by the straight lines G I and H I ;
from I, drop a perpendicular, 10, to any one of the three
lines, CD; from 1, with the distance 10, describe a circle,
and it will touch the three straight lines AB, CD, E F, as

required.
PROBLEM XXVI.-— To describe a circle that mag touch a

. straight line, A B, at a given point, c, and pass through an-

i

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other given point, D.

Figure 34,—Draw Cf perpendicular to A B; join C D, ,

 

which bisect by a perpendicular, Ef; from f; with the

distancef C, describe a circle, which Will be the circle

required.
PROBLEM XXVII.— To describe a circle that shall touch

a straight line, A B, at a given point, E, and another straight

’ line, BD, provided that the two straight lines be not in the

same straight line.

 

Figure 35.—Make Bf equal to BE; draw EG perpen-
dicular to A B, and fG perpendicular to BD; from G, with
the radius E G, or fG, describe the are, H Ef I, and it will
touch A B at E and B D, as required.

PROBLEM XXVIII.— To describe an are that shall touch
a given circumference, A B C, and a straight line, DE, in
a. given point, F.

METHOD I.—Figure 36. Draw F I perpendicular to D E ;
from F1, produced if necessary, cut off FG, equal to the
radius of the circle A B C ; join K G, which bisect by a per-
pendicular cutting F I at I ; from I, with the radius I F,
describe an are, or circumference, AFH, which is the are
required.

METHOD II.—-Figure 37. Draw F I perpendicular to D E,
and A G parallel to F I ; draw A F B and B I G; from I, with
the distance I F, or I B, describe an arc, F B H, which is the
are required.

PLOBLEM XXIX.—- With a given radius, G H, to describe
an are or circumference that may touch a given are or cir-
cumference, C A B, and pass through a given point D.

Figure 38.—-—From G H cut of G 1, equal to the radius of
the given circle ; from F, with the distance I H, describe an
arc; from D, with the distance GH, describe another arc,"
cutting the former atE ; from E, with the distance E A or E D,
describe an arc, G A D, and the problem is solved.

PROBLEM XXX.—In a given sector, A B C D, to inscribe
a circle.

Figure 39.—-Bisect the angle BAD by A GC; draw E C F
tangent to the circle ; produce A B to E, and A D to F ; bisect
the angle E AF by A G, and the angles AE F by E G; from G,
with the radius GC, describe a circumference, 0 HI, which is
the solution required.

PROBLEM XXXI.—In a given circle to inscribe any num-
ber of equal parts. ~

Divide the given circumference into as many equal parts
as the number of inscribed circles : from the points of divi-
sion, draw radii, and the circle will be divided into equal
sectors ; in any one of these sectors inscribe a circle by the
last Problem ; bisect the angle contained by each two radii ;
from the centre of the given circle, with the distance of the
centre of the circle inscribed in the sector, describe a circum-
ference, cutting the lines which bisect the sectorial angles ;
and the points so out are the centres.

EXAMPLES.

Figure 40.-—-The given circle contains six equal inscribed
circles.

Figure ALL—The given circle contains eight equal inscribed
circles.

Figure 42.—-—The given circle contains twelve equal in-
scribed circles.

PROBLEM XXXII.—Ang three straight lines, A, B, C, being
given, to find a fourth proportional.

Figure 43.——Make any angle, as DE F; on the straight
line E D, make E G equal to A, and E D equal to B ; on the
straight line E F, make E H equal to C; join GH; draw D F
parallel to G H; and E F is the fourth proportional sought ; or
EG:ED::EH:EF; thatis,A:B ::C:EF.

NB. When the lines B and C happen to be equal, the
result or fourth term is called a third proportional,- therefore,
suppose B equal to C, then A : B : : B : E F. So that finding
a third proportional is the same as finding a fourth, and may
be considered as only a particular case of it ; and in this con-

‘ struction E D and E H would be equal.

PROBLEM XXXIII.—— T o divide a straight line, A G, in the
same proportion as another line, A D, is divided by the points
B and C, &c.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GEO

444

 

Figure 44.—Join D G ; draw B E and C F parallel to D G,
cutting A G at E and F; then will A G be divided by E and F,
as A D is by B and c ; or AE, E F, F G are to one another and
to the whole AG, as A B, B C, C D are to one another and to
the whole A D. In the same manner may any given line be
divided into equal parts.

PROBLEM XXXIV.—-—Between two straight lines, A and B,
to find a mean proportional.

Figure 45.—Draw the straight line C D E ; make C D equal
to A, and D E equal to B ; bisect C E in f; from f, with the
distancefC orf E, describe the semi-circle C G E; draw D G
perpendicular to C E ; and D G is the mean proportional
required. Then CD : DG : : DG : DF; that is, A : DG ::
D G : B.

PROBLEM XXXV.—— To divide a straight line, A B c D, har-
monicallg in the given ratio of I to K.

Figure 46.—Draw any straight line, as e A gf; make A e
and Af each equal to I, and Ag equal to K; joinfh D; draw
g h parallel to AD, and h 0 parallel to ef; join h Be; then
AD:DC::AB:BC.

PROBLEM XXXVI .—-—Ang three straight lines, A, B, C, being
given, to describe a triangle, provided the sum of any two be
greater than the third.

Figure 47.—Draw the straight line D E equal to A ; from
D, with the distance B, describe an arc ; and from E, with the
distance C, describe another arc, cutting the former at F;
draw D F and E F ; and D E F is the triangle required.

PROBLEM XXXVII.—Given the base, A B, of a triangle,
the angle, B A C, and the ratio, E to F, of the other two sides,
to describe the triangle, provided that E be to F in a greater
ratio than the radius to the sine qf the given angle B A C.

Figure 48,—Make Ah equal to E; from h, with the dis-
tance F, describe an arc, cutting A B at i; draw ill, and B C
parallel to ih ; and A BC will be the triangle required.

PROBLEM XXXVIII.— To make a rectilinearfigure equal
and similar to a given rectilinearfigure.

RULE.—Divide the given rectilinear figure into triangles,
by lines drawn from some one of its angles; take any one
of its sides, and make a straight line in any situation equal
thereto; upon the straight line thus posited, constitute a tri-
angle, equal to the triangle on the corresponding line of the
given figure; upon the side of the triangle which is to form
a diagonal of the figure required, constitute another triangle,
equal to the corresponding one of the given figure ; proceed
to form triangles on each succeeding diagonal in the same
manner, till all the triangles are constructed; and the figure
thus composed will be equal and similar to the given figure.

PROBLEM XXXIX.—To make a quadrilateral equal and
similar to a given one, A B C D.

Figure 49.————Divide the given quadrilateral into two tri-
angles, by the diagonal AC; make EF, equal to AB; and
describe the triangle E F G, having its sides respectively equal
to the triangle A B C; upon E G, as a base, describe another
triangle, E G H, equal to A C D; and the quadrilateral E F G H
is equal and similar to the given one, A BC D, as required.

PROBLEM XL.— To make a rectilinearfigure similar to a
given one, M N O P Q, (So, upon a given straight line, A B; the
ea‘tremitg, A, being given, but unlimited towards B.

Figures 50 and 51.——Froni the extremities, M, of the side
of the given figure, corresponding to the given point, A, draw
diagonals to every angular point ; cut off a part, A 71, equal to
the corresponding side, M N, of the given figure; upon An
construct a figure, An op q, &c., equal and similar to the
given figure, MN 0P Q, &c., by the preceding problem; from
A B cut of? A D equal to the side of the rectilinear figure to
be described; draw D E parallel to no, cutting the diagonal
A E at E ; draw E F parallel to op, cutting the diagonal A F

 

at F; proceed in this manner to draw each successive side
parallel to the corresponding side of the figure constructed;
from the extremity of the last diagonal, cut the next dia-
gonal, and from the last diagonal, in the same manner, to the
other side, adjoining the given point A; and the figure
ADEFG., thus constructed, will be similar to the figure
M N o P Q, &c. as required.

PROBLEM XLI.—Given two adjoining sides, AB, BC, 0]
a parallelogram in position and magnitude, to describe the
parallelogram.

Figure 52.—From C, with the opposite side A B, describe
an arc ; from A, with the opposite side B C, describe anothei
are, cutting the former at D; join A D and DC, and ABCD
is the parallelogram required.

N.B. If the angle CBA be given in quantity, but not in
position, make it equal to the given angle by Problem VI.

PROBLEM XLII.— Given two sides, A and B, of a rectangle,
to describe the rectangle.

Figure 53.—Draw a straight line, CD, equal to A ; draw
CF perpendicular to CD; and make CF equal to B; then
proceed as in the last Problem, and the parallelogram C DE F
will be the rectangle required. .

PROBLEM XLIII. Given the diagonal, A B, of a rectangle,

and one of the sides, not exceeding the diagonal, to describe '

the rectangle.

Figure 54.—On the diagonal A B, describe the circum-
ference A C BD A; make the chords A C and BD equal to the
given side ; join A D and BC; and A D B C A is the rectangle
required.

Figure 55.—If the rectangle be a. square, bisect the
diameter A B by another, C D; and draw the four equal chords,
which will form the square required.

PROBLEM XLIV.——— To make a triangle equal and similar
to a given trapezium, A B C D.

Figure 56.—Draw the diagonal BD, and draw C E parallel
to B D, meeting the side A B produced at E ; join D E, and A D E
will be the triangle required.

PROBLEM XLV.—— To make a triangle equal to any given
fight-linedfigure, A B C D E.

Figure 57.—Produce A B on both sides of its extremities
towards F and G; draw the diagonals A D and B D; through
E draw E F, parallel to A D; and through C draw C G parallel
to B D; join D F and D G, then D F G is the triangle required.

PROBLEM XLVI.— To reduce a triangle, A B C, to a
rectangle.

Figure 58.—Bisect the altitude C G in D; through D draw
E F parallel to A B, and from B draw B F perpendicular to A B;
draw A E and B F perpendicular to A B; then A B F E will be
the triangle required.

PROBLEM XLVII.— To make a rectangle, having a side
equal to a given straight line, A B, equal to a given
rectangle, C D E F.

Figure 59.——-Produce the sides C F, D E, F E, and c D of the
rectangle; make E G equal to A B; through G draw I. H
parallel to F E, cutting C F produced at L; draw LE, the
diagonal, which produce to cut C D at K; draw K 11 parallel
to E G, and E I n G will be the rectangle required.

PROBLEM XLVIII.—To make a parallelogram with a
given angle equal to a given parallelogram, A B C D.

Figure (SQ—Blake the angle B A E equal to the given angle.
and let AE cut C D, produced it necessary at E; draw 15 F
parallel to A E, cutting D C at F; then will the parallelogram
A B F E be equal to the given parallelogram, A B C D.

PROBLEM XLIX.— To make a square equal to a given
rectangle, A B C D.

Figure 61.—Produce A B, the side of the rectangle, and
make B E equal to B C; bisect A E i111; on I, as a centre. “'"h

 

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GEO

445

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the radius~ I E or I A, describe a semicircle, AH E; produce
the other side, 0 B, of the rectangle, to cut the circle in H ;
describe a square, B H G F, upon B H ; then B H G F is the
square required.

PROBLEM L.— To make a square equal to two given
squares.

Figure 62.—Let A and B be the two given squares. Con-
struct the right-angled triangle c a I); let one of the sides, 0 a,
containing the right angle, be equal to the side of the
square, A; and let the other, a b, be equal to the side of
the square B. On cb, describe the square C, which is the
square required.

In the same manner may a circle be made equal to two
given circles ; for, if c a, a h, be considered as diameters, or
radii of the two given circles, c b will be a diameter or radii
of a circle, equal in area to them both: and also in the same
manner, iftwo similar rectilinear figures be given, a rectilinear
figure maybe found similar to either, and equal to both ; for,
if c a and a b be considered as homologous sides, that is, those
which are Opposite to the equal angles, cb will be the
homologous side of the figure required.

PROBLEM LI.— To make a square equal to three given
squares.

Figure 63.—-Let A, B, C, be three given squares. Make
a right angle, cab,- let ac be equal to the side of the
square A, and a 6 equal to the side of the square B; join 6 c,
and it will be the side of a square equal to A and B. Draw 6 d
perpendicular to be, and make [2d equal to the side of the
remaining square C; join d e, and it will be the side of a
square equal to the three given squares, A, B, C, as was
required.

From thisprocess, it is evident that a square may be found
equal to any given number of squares, by first finding one
equal to any two of them, and then another equal to the
square found, together with one of the remaining squares;
then find another equal to the square last found, together
with one of the other remaining squares; and so on, till all
the squares are made use of, and the last square found will
be equal to all the given squares.

SCHOLIUM.——It frequently happens in the description of
the segment Of a circle, when the height of the segment is
very small in proportion to the chord, that there is no room
to find the centre; the following problems show how to
describe the are without finding the centre:

PROBLEM LIL—Having the chord and height of the
segment of a circle, to describe the segment without finding
the centre.

Figure 64,—First Method—Let A B be the chord of the
segment, and C D its height; join DA and DB; make an
instrument, E FG, so that the angle EFG may be equal to
the angle AD B, and the sides FE and FG at least equal
to the chord A B ; put a pin at A, and another at B; slide the
instrument along the pins, keeping the side F E close to
the pin A, and FG to the pin B; a pencil being held at the
angular point F will describe the are A F B, as was to
be done.

Figure 65.—Second Method—Join DB, and draw DH
parallel to BA; make an instrument, E F G, so that the angle
E r G may be equal to the angle H D B, and the sides E r and

.EG at least equal to the half chord DB; put pins in the
points A and D, and sliding the instrument along them, a
' pencil at F will describe half of the arc ; and by moving the
. pin out of A, and putting it in B, the other half will be
described in the same manner.

The former of these Problems depends on Prop. XXI.

. b. iii. Euclid, viz., that all the angles in the same segment
of a circle are equal; and the latter, on Prop. XXXII.
5 x

 

b. iii. Euclid, viz., that if a straight line touch a circle, and
from the point of contact a straight line be drawn, cutting
the circle, the angles made by such line with the line touch-
ing the circle, will be equal to the angles in the alternate
segments. ‘

Either of these instruments, in the description of flat seg-
ments, may be applied occasionally; but the latter, by reason
of the obtuseness of the angle, slides with less friction along
the pins, takes up much less room, and can be applied in
any cases where it is impossible to use the other.

_ N.B.—If CD is very small, the instrument may be made
in one plece.

Besides the methods here shown for the description of the
segment ofa circle from the rules of geometry, the following
arithmetical rule will be found eligible on many occasions,
particularly, where there is a want of a floor to draw the
lines upon, or a want of space at the ends of the curve.

RULE—Divide the square of the half chord by the versed
sine, or height of the segment; add the height of the seg-
ment to the quotient ; then half the sum is the radius of the
circle.

EXAMPLE—Suppose the chord of the segment of a circle
to be 24 feet, and the versed sine or rise of the segment
5 feet ; the radius of the circle is required.

2)24

12 half chord.
l2
5 ) 144
28.8
5

2 ) 33.8

_—

16.9 the radius required.
This is derived from Prop. XXXV. b. iii. Euclid, where

it is shown, that if two straight lines in a circle out each
other, the rectangle under the segments or parts of the one,
is equal to the rectangle of the segments of the other; and
consequently, if the segments of one of the lines be equal to
each other, the rectangle under the parts of the other line
will be equal to the square of either part of the line, which
is divided equally; but the contents of a rectangle, divided
by one of its sides, gives the other side; or the area of the
square, which is equal to the rectangle, being divided by
the given side of the rectangle, gives the other side of the
rectangle; and adding the versed sine, gives the diameter.

The method of dividing the circumference of a circle into
any number of equal parts, or to inscribe any polygon therein,
according to the approximation of Renaldinus, will be found
under the article CIRCLE, Figure 5.

The various methods of describing the ellipsis upon a plane,
will be found under the article ELLIPSIS ; but, besides What
is there shown, the following problems, concerning this
curve, will also be found necessary in the art of perspective
delineation.

PROBLEM LIII.—Given the trapezium, A B C D, and a
point, E, in one of the sides, to find a point in each of the
other sides, so that if an ellipsis were to be inscribed, it would
touch the trapezium in those points.

Figure 66,—Produce the sides of the trapezium till they
meet at K and L ; then draw the diagonals A C and BD, cut-
ting each other at F; produce B D, till it cut K L, at M.
Through F, and the given point E, draw E G, cutting B G

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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446

GIR

 

at G; and from M, through the points E and G, draw MII
and M G, cutting the other two sides in the points I and B,
then E, H, G, I, will be the four points required.

PROBLEM LIV.—A trapezium, A BC D, being given, and
a point, E, in one of the sides, to find the centre of an ellipsis
that may be inscribed in the trapezium, and pass through the
point of contact, E, without drawing any part of the ellipsis.

Figure 67.—Find the points of contact H, G, I, E, as in the
last Problem. Join the points G and E, by the right line G E;
bisect it in M, and from K, where the opposite sides A D and
B 0 meet, and through the point M, draw KM indefinitely;
also join any other two points of contact, as H I; bisect H I
and N from L, where the opposite sides B A and C D meet;
draw LN, meeting KM at P; then P will be the centre of
the ellipsis required.

In like manner, if the points G and H were joined, and
bisected at Q, and a line being drawn from B, where the
opposite sides AB and C B meet, through Q, it would also
meet in P, the centre, 8w.

PROBLEM LV.—-— Given a trapezium, A B c D, and a point. E,
in one of the sides, to find the two axes of an ellipsis that may
he inscribed in the trapezium, and pass through the point, E,
without drawing any part of the ellipsis.

Figure 68.——Find the opposite points of contact, H, E, F, G,
by Problem LIII; from thence, find the centre, P, by the
last Problem. From E, and through the centre P, draw E M,
making P M equal to P E; and through H, or any other point
of contact, draw H K, parallel to D C, cutting E M at K ; then
K H is an ordinate to the diameter E M. Through P, the
(entre, draw PR parallel to H K; then find the extremities,
R and s, of the diameter R s, by Problem 3, of ELLIPSIS.
The conjugate diameters, E M and R S, being now found, then
find the two axes, v W and x Y, by Problem 4, of ELLIPSIS.

GIBLEA CHEQUE, GIBLET CHECK, or JIBLET CHEEK,
a recess made by cutting away the right angle formed by the
front and returns of the aperture of a stone door—case, in
the form of a rebate or reveal, so as to make the outside
of the door, or closure, flush with the face of the wall. The
term is used by stonemasons in Scotland.

GIGANTIC ORDER, a name given by ScamOZZi to the
Tuscan order.

GILDING, the art of applying to various substances an
extremely thin coating of gold. If the substances to be gilt
be metallic, this is effected by simple adhesion of the surfaces,
but if not, the gold is attached by means of some adhesive
medium. The use of gilding in the ornaments and decora-
tions of an apartment, adds greatly to the richness of its
appearance, but unless applied judiciously, and sparingly, it is
apt to have a tawdry effect, most offensive to good taste.

GILL, a measure, the fourth part ofa pint. The imperial
gill now in use contains 86648125 cubic inches.

GIMLET, or GIMBLET, (from the French) a piece of steel
of a semi—cylindrical form, hollow on one side, having a cross
handle at one end, and a worm or screw below at the other :
its use is to bore a small hole in a piece of wood. The screw
draws the instrument forward into the wood while it is
turned by the handle, and the excavated part, forming a
sharp angle with the exterior, cuts the fibres across, and
contains the core of wood cut out.

GINJECONITES, (Greek) apartments in the surrounding
porticos of the Greek houses, which contained the family
rooms tricliniums and cubiculums. See HOUSE.

GIOCONDO, an architect, who flourished in the sixteenth
. century, was a native of Verona, where he first taught
languages for a subsistence, and was also well qualified in
mathematical learning. On visiting France, he was employed
to build two bridges Over the Seine. He very soon after-

 

wards obtained the title of architect royal to the French
king, but did not live long after; the exact period of his
death is uncertain. He published several works which did
him much credit as a writer, and extended his fame as an
artist. Amongst others, an edition of Pliny’s Epistles, and
a correct edition of Vitruvius, illustrated with figures, the
latter he dedicated to Pope Julius II. He assisted in editing
many other works of the ancients, and was the first person
who gave a design for Caesar’s bridge over the Rhine. In
1506, he wrote four dissertations, addressed to the magistracy
of Venice, concerning the waters of that city. He was
employed with Raphael and San Gallo, in superintending
the erection of St. Peter’s. His last work was probably the
rebuilding of the stone bridge at Verona.

GIRANDOLE, (Italian) a chandelier; a large kind of
branched candlestick. .

GIRDER, (from the Saxon)a large beam, eitherofoneentire
piece, or consisting of several, in order to shorten the joists
of a floor, which would otherwise have too great a bearing.

When girders are made double, they should be turned the
contrary way to that in which they were sawn, that the
stronger end may support the weaker. If it be found
necessary to truss girders, the truss should be similar to that
of a roof. The best form of girder for floors of moderate
dimensions, consists of two braces and a straining piece,
having one-third of the whole length, excepting the part at
each end, which is necessary for the butment or wall-hold.

The two braces are strained by means of queen-bolts, and
resisted at the other end by iron butments, which are formed
to the same section as the braces, and are made to go through
on each side, so as to have a bolt at either end; the braces
and straining piece being let into each beam.

When girders have a very great bearing, and have only
the depth of a single piece, it is well known that the strain
at the joggles and abutments is prodigious : girders of long
bearing should therefore be made into two flitches, one above
the other, and braced as above.

By this plan, the depth allowing of an upper and lower
beam, the girder will be infinitely more stiff than one of the
depth of a single piece, and consequently more able to sup-
port the naked flooring and boarding.

No summers or girders should be over the heads of doors
or windows.

No summer or girder should lie less than ten inches into
the wall ; nor joists less than eight inches.

The ceiling joists ought to be framed about halfan inch
below the girder, and the girder ought to be furred to the
level of the ceiling joists.

Girders ought to be made of heart wood, as free from
knots as possible, because they destroy the continuity of the
fibres, and impair the strength of the girder.

The following rules for finding the scantlings, are given
by Tredgold in his Elementary Principles of Carpentry.

“ Case l.-—To find the depth of a girder when the length
of bearing and breadth of the girder are given.

“Rule—Divide the square of the length in feet, by the
breadth in inches ; and the cube root of the quotient multi-
plied by 4.2 for fir, or by 4.34 for oak, will give the depth
required in inches.

“ Case 2.—T0 find the breadth when the length of hear-
ing and depth are given.

“ Rule—Divide the square of the length in feet, by the
cube of the depth in inches ; and the quotient multiplied by
74 for fir, or by 82 for oak, will give the breadth in inchvs.

Example to Case 2.-—-Let the hearing be 20 feet, and the
depth 13 inches; to find the breadth, so that the girder shall
be sufficiently stitf.

 

 

 

 

 

 

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‘I‘he cube of the depth is 2197, and the square of the
length is 400; therefore 34795)? X 74 = 13.47 inches, the
breadth required.

“In these rules, the girders are Supposed to be 10 feet
apart, and this distance should neVer be exceeded ; but
should the distance apart be less or more than 10 feet, the
breadth of the girder should be made in proportion to
the distance apart.

“When the bearing exceeds about 22 feet, it is very
difficult to obtain timber large enough for girders ; and it is
usual, in such cases, to truSS them. The methods in general
adopted for that purpose, haVe the appearance of much
ingenuity; but in reality, they are of very little use. If
a girder be trussed with oak, all the strength that can
possibly be gained by Such a truss, consists merely in the
difference between the compressibility of oak and fir, which
is very small indeed ; and unless the truss be extremely well
fitted at the abutments, it would be much stronger without
trussing. All the apparent stiffness produced by trussing
a beam, is procured by forcing the abutments, or, in other
words, by cambering the beam. This forcing, cripples and
injures the natural elasticity .of the timber; and the com
tinual spring from the motion of the floor, upon parts already
crippled, it may easily be conceived, will soon so far destroy
them as to render the truss a useless burden upon the beam.
This is a fact that has been long known to many of our best
carpenters, and which has Caused them to seek for a remedy
in iron trusses; but this method is quite as bad as the former,
unless there be an iron tie as an abutment to the truss ; for
the failure of a truss is Occasioned by the enormous com-
pression applied upon a small surface of timber at the abut-
ments. The defects of ordinary trussed girders are very
apparent in old Ones, as it is not simply strength that is
required, but the power of resisting the unceasing concussions
of a straining forCe, capable of producing a permanent derange-
ment in a small surface at every impression.” Girders of
Wrought and cast iron are now used extensively in railway
and canal works, for bridges, 8w.

GIRDING BEAM. See GIRDER.

GIRDLE, (from the Saxon) a circular band or fillet sur-
rounding a part of a column.

GIRT, the same as FILLET, which see.

GIRT, in timber measure, according to some, the fourth
part of the circumference, and is generally taken for the side
of a square, equal in area to the section of the tree cut through
where the perimeter is taken in order to obtain the girt.

GIVEN DATUM, a term frequently used in mathe-
matics, signifying a thing supposed to be known, whether
in position or magnitude; which is accordingly said to be
given in position, or in magnitude, or both, as one or the
other, or both, are known.

GLACIS, (French) an eaSy slope or declivity.

GLASS, (from the Saxon, glues) a hard, brittle, transparent
factitious substance, formed by the fusion of silicious matter,
Such as powder flint or fine sand, blended with alkaline earth,
metallic oxide, and other substances. In building, glass is
used in thin transparent plates for windows, which admit
light, while they exclude Wind and rain.

The time at which glass was invented, is very uncertain.
“It was known,” says Dr. Ure, “to the Phenicians, and
constituted for a long time an exclusive manufacture of that
people, in consequence of its ingredients, (nan-on, sand, and
fuel,) abounding upon their coasts. It is probable that the
more ancient Egyptians were unacquainted with glass, for
we find no mention of it in the writings of Moses. But,
according to Pliny and Strabo, the glass-works of Sidon and
Alexandria were famous in their times, and produced beautiful

 

articles, which were cut, engraved, gilt, and stained of the
most brilliant colours, in imitation of precious stones. The
Romans employed glass for various purposes ; and have left
specimens in HerCulaneum, of window-glass, which must
have been blown by methods analogous to the modern. The
Phenician processes Seem to have been learned by the
Crusaders, and transferred to Venice in the 13th Century,
where they Were long held secret, and formed a lucrative
commercial monOpoly. Soon after the middle of the 17th
century, Colbert enriched France with the blown mirrOr
glass manufacture.”

The application of glass to the glazing of windows, is of
comparatively modern introduction, at least in northern and
western Europe. In 674, artists were brought to England
from abroad to glaze the church windOWS at Wearmouth in
Durham ; and even in the year 1567, this mode of excluding
cold from dwellings was confined to large establishments,
and by no means universal even in them. An entry then
made, in the minutes of a survey of Alnwick Castle, the
residence of the Duke of Northumberland, informs us that
the glass-easements were taken down during the absence of
the family, to preserve them from accident. A Century after
that time, the use of window-glass was so small in Scotland,
that only the upper rooms in the royal palaces were furnished
with it, the lower part having wooden shutters to admit or
exclude the air.

At an early period of its history in this country, the glass-
manufacture became an object of taxation, and duties were
from time to time imposed on it, which operated most inju-
riously, not only on the manufacture itself, but on building
generally, by preventing the more extensive use of so orna-
mental an article. Within the last few years, however,
a more enlightened policy has prevailed; and so great a-
reduction of the duties on glass has been granted, that an
enormous increase in the manufacture and use of it has taken
place. The result is seen in the improved appearance of our
dwelling—houses, in the great superiority of the quality of
the glass used at present, and in the magnificent plate—glass
windows now so generally adopted in shop-fronts.

Of the glaSS used in building, there are three qualities in
common use, denominated best, second, and third. The best
is that which is of the purest metal, and free of blemishes
as blisters, specks, streaks, &c. The second is inferior, from
its not being so free of these blemishes. The third is still
inferior, both in regard to quality and colour, being of a
greener hue. They are all sold at the same price per crate,
but the number of tables is different, according to the
quality: best, 12 tables; second, 15 tables ; third, 18
tables.

These tables are circular when manufactured, and about
four feet in diameter ; in the centre is a knot, to which, in
the course of the process, the flashing rod was fixed, but, for
the safety of carriage and conveniency of handling, as well as
utility in practice, a segment is cut off, about four inches
from the knot: the large piece with the knot, still retains
the name of table, the smaller piece is technically termed
a slab. From these tables being of a given size, it is reason-
able to suppose that when the dimensions of squares are such
as cut the glass to waste, the price should be advanced.

Crown glass is the best description of window-glass. It
is made without any mixture of metallic oxide, and is both
specifically lighter, and much harder, than flint glass. Broad
glass is an inferior kind of window-glass, made with a cheaper
kind of alkali. Plate-glass is superior in quality and in
appearance to all other glass. From the quantity of metal
it contains, it must be almost, if not altogether, colourless—
that sort which is tinged, being of an inferior quality. It is

 

 

 

___A _ __ _,__

 

 

 

GLA

448

GLA

 

both blown and cast. Plates which are blown are limited
in dimensions, while those that are cast are made of very
great size, the limit being caused by the expensiveness of the
machinery required for the management of very large masses
of the material. Plate—glass is necessarily costly, because of
the numerous and laborious operations which it undergoes,
and of the risks of fracture while subjected to them. In
sashes it has a magnificence peculiar to itself; objects seen
through it are not distorted ; and objects seen in it, have the
same fair appearance. It is now made of very large
dimensions.

Glass has also been introduced as a material for the manu-
facture of pipes. Mr. James Hartley, of Bishopwearmouth
Glass Works, has, after extensive experiments, succeeded in
establishing the practicability of making glass pipes, suitable
for the conveyance of gas or water, and has, it is also said,
proved that pipes, stronger than the ordinary metal ones,
and much cheaper, may be made of glass.

A still more novel application of this material is noticed
in The Builder, viz., the importation from Antwerp of a
small parcel of glass-tiles. These tiles are similar in form
to the common clay-tile for roofing buildings, the advantage
held out being their lightness, and being pervious to the rays
of the sun. The latter quality is presumed to render them
suitable for the roofs of green-houses, as they will not inter-
rupt the heat and light, whilst they are sufficiently strong to
resist the efi‘ects of hailstorms, which will much reduce the
cost of insurance on green-houses. They have the appear-
ance of the common green glass, they vary in price from
eleven to sixteen shillings per dozen, according to their
thickness and weight. See STAINED GLASS.

GLAZING, the business of the glazier, consisting in fitting
glass in sashes, frames, and easements, and fixing it either in
putty or lead.

It may be classed under the denominations following :—
Sash-work, lead-work, and fret-work.

The tools necessary for sash-work are, a diamond, a
ranging-lath, a short-lath, a square, a rule, a glazing-knife,
a cutting chisel, a beading hammer, duster, and sash-tool;
and in addition, for stopping-in squares, a hacking-knife and
hammer. The diamond is a speck of that precious stone,
polished to a cutting point, and set in brass in an iron socket,
to receive a wooden handle, which is so set as to be held in
the hand in the cutting direction; the top of the handle goes
between the root of the fore-finger and middle—finger, and
the under part, between the point of the fore-finger and
thumb; there is, in general, a notch in the side of the
socket, which should be held next the lath. See DIAMOND.

Some diamonds have more cuts than one.

Plough diamonds have a square nut on the end of the
socket next the glass, which on running the nut square on
the side of the lath, keeps it in the cutting direction. Glass
benders have these plough diamonds without long handles,
as, in cutting their curious productions, they cannot apply
a lath, but direct them by the point of their middle finger
gliding along the edge of the glass. The ranging lath must
be long enough to extend rather beyond the boundary of the
table of glass. Ranging of glass, is the cutting it in breadths,
as the work may require, and is best done by one uninter-
rupted cut from one end to the other. A short lath is applied
to stripping the square to suit the rebate of a sash; as in
ranging, they are generally cut full. A square is used in
cutting the squares from the range, that they may be more
certainly cut at right angles. The carpenter’s chisel is used
in paring away some of the rebate of the sash, when the glass
does not lie so flat as to allow a proper breadth for front
putty. The glazing knife is used for laying-in the putty in

 

the rebates, for bedding-in the glass, and for finishing the
front putty. A bradding-hammer is made with a head in
the form of a small parallelopiped, with a socket for the
handle, rising at an obtuse angle from the middle of one of
its sides; the square edges of the head drive the brads in a
horizontal position, and is less liable to accident than if per-
formed by another tool: some use the basil of the chisel.

Brass points .are esteemed the best; small cut brads are '

also used. All new work should be bradded, to prevent
the glass being moved out of" its bed.

The duster is used in brushing up the front pulleys, and
taking off the oil from the glass. The sash-tool is used in
taking oil" the oil from the inside, after the back pulleys are
cleaned off, and is generally used wet. The hacking-knife
is for cleaning out the old putty from rebates, where squares

 

are to be stopped in. The use of the rule needs no explanation. ‘

N.B.—Glaziers’ rules are two feet long, in four different
pieces.
general practice throughout the country.

Lead-work is used in inferior offices, and is in ‘

Frames are made to receive these lights, with bars across, '

to which the lights are fastened by leaden bars: these bars
are called saddle bars, and where openings are wanted, a
casement is introduced, either of wood or iron. Sometimes
a sliding frame answers the same purpose.

Church windows .

are in general made in this manner, in quarries or in squares. ‘

The tools which this work, in addition to the former, require,
are these: a vice, with different cheeks; and cutters, to turn
out the different kinds of lead, as the magnitude of the win-
dow or the squares may require.

In common there is broad and narrow lead. The German
vices are esteemed the best, and turn out a variety of lead in
different sizes.

There are moulds belonging to these vices, in which bars “

of lead are cast; in which form the mill receives them, and
turns them out with two sides parallel to each other, and about
three-eighths of an inch broad, with a partition connecting
the two sides together, about an eighth of an inch wide,
forming, on each side, a groove nearly T36 by 4% of an inch,
and about six feet long.

The remainder of the tools, besides a vice and moulds,

are, a setting-board, a latterkin, setting-knife, rosin-box, tin, ;

glazing-irons, and clips.

The setting-board is that on which the ridge of the light 3
is marked and divided into squares, and struck out with a f
chalk line, or drawn with a lath, which serve to guide the 1’

workman.
head or fillet.

The latterkin is a piece of hard wood, pointed, and so
formed as to clear the groove of the lead, and widen it for the
more readily receiving the glass.

The setting-knife is a blade with a round point, loaded
with lead at the bottom ofthe blade, with a long square handle.
The square end of the handle serves to force the squares home
tight in the lead; being loaded with lead, it is of greater

weight, and also cuts off the ends of' the lead with greater i

ease, as, in the course of working these lights, the lead is
always longer than necessary, till trimmed.

The rosin-box contains powdered rosin, which is put on

all the joints previous to soldering.

Tin is for preparing the glazing before soldering.

The clips are for holding the irons.

All the intersections are soldered on both sides, except the
outside joints of the outer side, 2'. e. where they come to the
outer edge. These lights should be cemented, which is done
by thin paint being run along the lead bars, and the chasm
filled with dry whiting, and after it has stood a short time,
till the oil is secreted a little, a small quantity of dry red or

 

 

 

 

One side and end are squared, with a projecting '

 

 

 

 

GLU

449

GOB

 

white lead is dusted over it again; it then dries hard, and
will resist the weather well.

Fret—work is the ornamental part, and consists of working
ground and stained glass, in fine lead, into different patterns.
In many caSes, family arms and other devices are worked in
it. It is a branch capable of great improvement, but at
present neglected.

Old pieces are very much esteemed, and valued high. The
same expense would, doubtless, were it not for prejudice, fur-
nish elegant modern productions. They are placed in halls,
and stair-case windows, or in some particular church win-
dows ; in many instances, they are introduced where there is
an offensive aspect in a place of particular or general resort.

Glaziers clean windows ; and in London it is a great part
of their work. ,

GLOBE, (French) a spherical body, more usually called a
Sphere. See SPHERE.

GLUE, (from the French) a tenacious viscid matter, made
of the skins of animals, for cementing two bodies together.

Glue is bought in cakes ; and is better, as the skin of the
animal from which it is made is older: that which swells
much when steeped in water, without dissolving in it, is of
the best quality.

To prepare glue ; break the cakes into small fragments of
convenient size: soak them in as much water as will just
cover them; after it has remained about twelve hours, boil
the whole in a copper or leaden vessel, over a gentle fire, till
the glue is dissolved in the water, stirring it constantly with
a wooden stick : it should then be poured through a sieve, to
separate it from the scum and other filth : and lastly, it
should be boiled over a smart fire, and put into a wooden
vessel, in which it is to remain for use

To make good glue for external work: grind as much
white lead with linseed oil as will just make the liquid of a
whitish colour, and strong, but not thick; and it will then
be fit for use.

The following is given by Mr. Clennel as a good method
of making glue. The materials above enumerated are “first
digested in lime-water, to cleanse them from grease or dirt ;
they are then steeped in clean water with frequent stirring,
and afterwards laid in a heap, and the water pressed out.
They are then boiled in a large brass cauldron with clean
water, scumming off the dirt as it rises, and it is farther
cleansed, by putting in, after the whole is dissolved, a little
melted alum or lime, finely powdered. The scumming is
continued for some time, after which the mass is strained
through baskets, and suffered to settle, that the remaining
impurities may subside. It is then poured gradually into the
kettle again, and farther evaporated by boiling and scum-
ming, till it becomes of a clear dark-brownish colour. When
it is thought to be strong enough, it is poured into frames or
moulds about six feet long, one broad, and two deep, where
it gradually hardens as it cools, and is cut out when cold by
a spade into square cakes. Each of these is placed in a sort
of wooden box, open in three divisions to the back ; in this,
the glue, while yet soft, is cut into three slices, by an instru-
ment like a bow, with a brass wire for its string. The slices
are then taken out into the open air, and dried on a kind of
coarse net-work, fastened in moveable sheds, four feet square,
which are placed in rows in the glue-maker’s field. When
perfectly dry and hard, it is fit for sale.”

Mr. Austin, of Hatton Garden, some time since, took out a
patent for “a new method qulueing or cementing certain mate-
rials for building and otherpmposes.” The mode of manufac«
ture and applying it, is thus described in the specification :—

“The cement used by the patentee is made by mixing

 

ounces of India-rubber cut into small pieces, to each gallon of
naphtha, stirring it from time to time, until the India
rubber is dissolved; then, to one part, by weight, of this
mixture two parts of lac are added, and the whole is tho-
roughly blended together by the application of heat, accom-
panied with occasional stirring. When greater elasticity is
required, a larger proportion of the India-rubber solution
is used ; if greater hardness is necessary, a larger proportion
of lac is employed; and where the India-rubber would be
liable to injury from great exposure and pressure, a much
less proportion is used, and it is sometimes dispensed with
altogether; asphalte, pitch, or resin, or other materials of that
nature, may in some instances be substituted for the lac.

The materials for building-purposes to which this cement
is applied are, slate, tiles, stone, glass, and metal-plates.
When being used, the cement is kept in a heated state in a
dish or vessel containing a narrow trough, termed a stamper,
which slides up and down therein between guides; the slate
or other material is brought to the heat of 150 degrees
Fahrenheit, and placed upon the dish, and the stamper being
then raised, imprints or stamps a margin of cement thereon.
The requisite margins of cement for forming overlapping
joints being thus applied to the slate or other material, the
cemented portions or margins are laid in contact with each
other, and in a short time become firmly united, forming
water-tight surfaces. Sometimes, to expedite the process, a
coating of naphtha, or other spirit that will act upon the
cement, or a solution made by dissolving the cement in
naphtha or other spirit, is applied to the cemented portions, or
margins. The cement may also be used for securing the
above materials to the building, as well as to each other.”

“ The patentee connects pieces of glass together with the
above cement when making skylights, conservatories, frames
for horticultural purposes, &c.; he also cements slate, stone,
metal, and manufactured clays and cements, together, or to
wood, or to woven and other fabrics, to wood for building or
other purposes; he likewise cements pieces of leather for
making boots and shoes, and hose or pipes for fire-engines ;
also leather and cork together, or to wood, metal, or woven
or other fabrics, and woven and other fabrics to wood, for
the manufacture of trunks, portmanteaus, packing-cases, and
other purposes. When joining these materials, the parts
must be dry and free fron dust, and should be warmed pre-
vious to receiving a coat of the cement, in order that it may
not be chilled at the moment of application. If the joint is
to be made at once, the parts must be expeditiously put
together and pressed, as the cement rapidly loses its heat,
and becomes solidified, but the junction may be effected at
any subsequent period by the application of heat, or the spirit
or solution before described.”

GLYPH, any canal or cavity used as an ornament ; hence
the tablets in the frieze of the Doric order are called triglyphs,
from their having three vertical channels ; that is, two whole
ones and a half one at each edge of the triglyph.

GNEISS, is the name of one of the great mountain forma-
tions, being reckoned the oldest of the stratified rocks. It is
composed of the same substances as granite, v1z.: quartz, mica,
and feltspar. In gneiss, however, they are not In granular
crystals, but in scales, so as to give the mass a slaty structure.
It abounds in metallic treasures.

GOBELIN, the term applied to the celebrated tapestry,
introduced into France by the brothers Gobelin. In the
year 1677, Colbert purchased the dye-houses from the Gobe-
lin family, in virtue of an edict of Louis XIV., styled It the
Hotel Royal des Gobelins, and established on the ground a

‘ great manufactory of tapestry, similar to that of Flanders.

India-rubber with cold naphtha, in the proportion of eight 2

5r

 

 

 

The celebrated painter Le Brun was appointed director-1n-

 

 

 

 

 

 

GOT

450

GOT

 

chief of the weaving and dying patterns. Under his adminis-
tration were produced many magnificent pieces of tapestry,
which have ever since been the admiration of the world;
such as Alexander’s battles, the four seasons, the four
elements, and the history of the principal events in the reign
of Louis XIV. There is an academy within the Gobelins
for the instruction of youth in the various branches of the
fine arts, in physical science, and mechanics, subservient to
the improvement of the manufacture.

GNOMONIC COLUMN, See COLUMN.

GNOMONIC PROJECTION OF THE SPHERE, that in which the
eye is situated in the centre of the sphere, and projects all
the circles upon a plane touching its surface.

It is evident, that in this projection, all the great circles of
the sphere are projected into straight lines, since they all pass
through the centre of the sphere. Every lesser circle parallel
to the plane of projection is projected into a circle, and any
lesser circle not parallel to the plane of projection, is projected
into one of the conic sections. .

A very excellent tract upon the projection of the sphere,
by Mr. Emerson, contains the full theory of the gnomonical
prOjection.

GOCCIOLATOIO, See CORONA.

GOLA, GOLA-DIRETTA, GOLA-ROVESCIA, See CYMATIUM.

GOLDMAN, an architectural writer, as also a mathema-
tician, born at Breslaw, in Silesia, in the year 1623, and died
at Leyden, 1665. He published his Elementa Architectura
JIIilitaris, 1643 : another treatise of his, on the same subject,
was published in 1696, accompanied with numerous engra—
vings, and a life of the author.

GONIOMETER, (from ywma, an angle, and [467-910, I
measure) an instrument for measuring solid angles. A most
convenient instrument for this purpose was invented by
Dr. lVOllaston.

GONIOMETRICAL LINES, lines used in order to
determine the quantity Of an angle. Such are the lines of
sines, tangents, and secants, commonly placed upon plane
scales, the sector, Gunter’s scale, &c.

GORGE, (French) a concave moulding, much less recessed
than a scotia, used chiefly on frames, chambranles, 8m.

GORGE is sometimes used for the cyma recta. It is used
for the neck of a column ; but it is more properly called col-
larz'no, gorgerin, or gorge.

GORGERIN or GORGE, in architecture the little frieze in
the Doric capital, between the astragal at the top of the shaft
of the column, and the annulets. Some call it collarino.
Vitruvius gives it the name of hypotrachelium.

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE, a title generally under-
stood in the present day to apply to that style of building in
which the Pointed arch is the most prominent, though not
the only characteristic. The term has been variously applied
at different times, and by different writers, whether contem-
poraneous or otherwise, indeed, so great is the confusion on
the subject, that it is not always easy to define the class of
buildings alluded to under this title. Some authors include
under the term all styles of building which differ from those
adopted by the Greeks and Romans, embracing all modes of
building which were in vogue from the decline of Classical
architecture to its revival in the sixteenth century. Others
limit the phrase to those modes which prevailed from the
decline of Roman art to the introduction of the Pointed arch,
including the Romanesque, Lombardic, Saxon, and Norman
styles, in all of which the semi-circular arch was employed.
A third class of writers apply the name solely to the Pointed
style, under which restriction the term is for the most part
employed in the present day, though some would still farther
limit the application by adopting it solely for that division of

 

Pointed architecture which is by most writers designated
Pure or Decorated Gothic. .
The term Gothic seems to have been first brought into use
by the Italians, who applied it to all styles of building then
prevalent which deviated from the Classic. Vasari, an Italian
architect who lived at the commencement of the sixteenth
century, after speaking of Greek orders, says, “ there is an-

other kind called Gothic (Tedesca) which differs materially .
both as to ornament and proportion from that of ancient and ;

modern date.

S0 deficient is it in systematic rules, that it ‘

may be deemed the order of confusion and inconsistency. The I‘

portals of this description of buildings, which has so much ‘i
infested the world, are adorned with slender columns en- ;

twined like vine-branches, and unequal to sustain the weight,
however light, which is placed above them.
whole exterior, with its other decorations, its profusion of
canopied niches raised above one another, with so many pyra-
mids, leaves, and points, renders it apparently impossible, not
only that they should be durable, but that it should support
itself—giving the whole an air of being made Of pasteboard
rather than of stone and marble. This style was invented by
the Goths, who spread the contagion through Italy. May
God deliver every country in future from the adoption of
plans, that, substituting deformity for beauty, are unworthy
of further attention.”

From the description which he gives in this passage, it will
be very reasonably inferred, that he refers to the Pointed
style of architecture, but it is evident that he also includes
the modes adopted on the decline of Roman art, for he cites,
as examples, the palace Of Theodoric at Ravenna, and the

Indeed, the :

 

churches of St. John the Evangelist, and Of St. Vitalis, ‘
in the same city, as also other buildings of Lombardic and ‘
Byzantine architecture. Amongst the first writers who intro- 3

duced the term into Encland was we believe Eve] 'n and he
O. - 9 . Q ,1 3

gives the following description 2—“ Gothic arclntecture,” says

he, “is a congestion of heavy, dark, melancholy, monkish

iles, without an ‘ust ro ortion, art, or beaut ' ;” and else- i
P Y .1 P P 3

where he describes it as “ a fantastical light species of build-
ing.” Sir Christopher \Vren confirms the use of this term,
for, after describing edifices erected after this mode of build-
ing as “mountains Of stone, vast gigantic buildings, but not
worthy the name of architecture,” he says, “ This we now
call the Gothic manner ; so the Italians called what was not
after the Roman style.” In another place our author applies
the term Saracenic to buildings in the Pointed style, sup-

posing that form of arch to have been brought from the East '

by the Crusaders.

But to show what vague notions he held j

upon the subject, we must add, that he attributes the cathe- :

dral of “'inchester, and the church of St. Cross, to a period
preceding the Norman conquest. Warton‘s ideas upon this
head must have been also very indefinite, for he makes his

earliest division of the style to commence about A.D. 1:200, ‘
which he calls Gothic Saxon, as distinguished from the true ‘

Gothic, of which he makes tracery in the window-heads the
chief characteristic. He even denies the title of Gothic to
Salisbury cathedral, which he includes under the term Gothic
Saxon. Bishcp \Vati‘btii‘tOII gives the name of 1V0rman to
Pointed architecture, reserving that of Satan for those styles
in which the semi-circular arch prevailed.

Captain Grose, a few years later, adverting to the use of
the title 111 question, says, “ Most of the writers who mention
our ancient buildings, particularly the religious ones, 110t\\‘llll~
standing the striking diflErence in the styles of their construc-
tion, class them all under the common denomination of
Gothic ; a general appellation, by them applied to all build-
ings not exactly conformable to some one of the five orders
of architecture. Our n‘odern antiquaries more accurately

 

 

 

 

 

 

GOT 4

51

GOT

 

divide them into Saxon, Norman, and Saracenic; or that
species vulgarly, though improperly, called Gothic.”

Mr. Bentham, a cotemporary, remarks upon the same sub-
ject as follows :—“ The term Gothic, applied to architecture,
was much used by our ancestors in the last century, when
they were endeavouring to recover the ancient Grecian or
ROman manner ; whether they had then a retrospect to those
particular times when the Goths ruled in the empire, or only
used it as a term of reproach to stigmatize the productions
of ignorant or barbarous times, is not certain; but I think
they meant it of Roman architecture: not such certainly as
had been in the age of Augustus, but such as prevailed in
more degenerate times, when the art itself was almost lost,
and particularly after the invasion of the Goths; in which
state it continued many ages without much alteration. Of
this kind was our Saxon and earliest Norman manner of
building, with circular arches and strong massive pillars, but
really Roman architecture, and so was called by our Saxon
ancestors themselves. Some writers call all our ancient
architecture, without distinction of round and pointed arches,
Gothic; though I find of late the fashion is to apply the
term solely to the latter, the reason for which is not very
apparent. The word Gothic, no doubt, implies a relation
some way or other to the Goths; and, if so, then the old
Roman way of building with round arches above described,
seems to have the clearest title to that appellation : not that I
imagine the Goths invented or brought it with them ; but that

' it had its rise in the Gothic age, or about the time the Goths

 

invaded Italy. The style of building with Pointed arches is
modern, and seems not to have been known in the world till
the Goths ceased to make a figure in it. Sir Christopher
Wren thought this should rather be called the Saracen way
of building ; the first‘appearance of it here was certainly in
the time of the Crusades; and that might induce him to
think the archetype was brought hither by some who had
been engaged in those expeditions, when they returned from
the Holy Land."

After these remarks, no one will wonder at Dr. Milner
complaining of the confusion and difficulty with which the
study of Gothic architecture had been surrounded by the
vague and unsettled manner in which terms had been em-
ployed by his predecessors and cotemporaries who had written
upon the subject.

The employment of the term and its application seems to
have arisen from an idea entertained by the Italians, that the
style of building to which they applied it, was introduced by
the Goths after their incursion into Italy; this is evident
from the expressions of Vasari, above quoted. Now, if the
use of the title were restricted to those buildings with round
arches which were prevalent after the fall of the Roman
empire, there might be apparently some grounds for its
assumption, but this does not seem to be the case even with
the Italians, and certainly not with our own countrymen,
although some of them doubtless thought that the Pointed
arch was an invention of the Goths, in illustration of which
we quote a passage on the subject from Sir Henry Wotton.
He says :—“ As for those arches which our artisans call of the
third and fourth point, and the Tuscan writers de tergo and
dc quarto acuto; because they always concur in an acute
angle, and do spring from a division of the diameter into
three, four, or more parts, at pleasure. I say, such as these,
both for the natural imbecility of the sharp angles them-
selves, and likewise for their very uncomeliness, ought to be
exiled from judicious eyes, and left to their first inventorsthe
Goths or Lombards, amongst other reliques of that barba-
rous age.”

Whether the Pointed style, or that previously existing, be

considered as invented by the Goths, the notion in either
case is false and without foundation. The Goths had no
architecture of their own; and not only are they innocent of
introducing any new style into Italy, but, more than that, they
do not seem to have caused any alteration in the old. What
changes did take place arose very naturally from the gradual
decline of art. It is not our intention in this place to enter
into any discussion on the origin of Gothic Architecture ; we
defer that for a future paper on POINTED ARCHITECTURE;
all we desire to state at present is, that neither the Pointed
style nor that preceding, in which the semi-circular arch con-
tinued to be employed, were introduced by the Goths ; and
that, therefore, the term Gothic could not justly be applied
to them on that score.

By many writers, the term is doubtless used as a term of
reproach, and is intended as equivalent to the words—unci-
vilized, barbarous; on which account, many persons of the
present day have objected to its continued use. At the time
of the revival of classical architecture, or rather of the adap-
tation of classic orders and details to modern architecture, the
excellencies of Pointed architecture were but little under-
stood or appreciated ; and hence the desire to stigmatize it as
barbarous. Since then, however, the prejudice for the orders
has ceased, and Gothic art is viewed with a more favour-
able, and, we may add, more experienced eye, and men are
desirous of rescuing it from any stigma, even though it be
but a nominal one.

From this cause, man;r names have been suggested in. lieu
of the contemptuous Gothic, amongst which we may enume-
rate the following— Christian, Catholic, English, and Pointed
—as being the most usual. It is true, the word Gothic is
ill-devised, insignificant, and entirely inapplicable, yet we
cannot think that any of the terms proposed are sufficiently
expressive to explode a title of so long standing and such
universal acceptation. The term was originally, without
doubt, employed as a mark of reproach, but now-a-days no
such meaning is implied by it, and no one is misled by its
use. In applying the term now, no one ever thinks of its
original intention, but considers it solely as a phrase descrip-
tive of a certain class of buildings, of which each man forms
his opinion, quite independently of its appellation. Even
supposing we were to explode this expression, what could be
substituted in its place; no one term has been universally
agreed upon ; and we should have a general scramble, each
partizan seeking to adopt his own peculiar title, and probably
maintaining it to the utmost of his power; so that instead of
one, we should have several titles, each striving for, but none
obtaining, universal adoption.

We submit, that it is better to have one term well estab-
lished, even though it be confessedly a very incorrect one,
than several exceptionable ones of only partial use.

Sir James Hall speaks to the point when he says: “In
the present unsettled state of public opinion, both with
respect to the origin and the history of this style, I have
judged it best to attempt no innovation in this matter, and
have made use of the name of Gothic Architecture; which,
though certainly no less objectionable than many of those
that have been offered to the public, has the advantage of
being universally known and understood amongst us.

The two first names which we have mentioned as proposed
substitutes for the word Gothic, namely, Christian and
Catholic, are objectionable, on the grounds that this is not.
the only style which is entitled to such designations. Both
Lombardic and Byzantine were styles adopted by the Chris~
tian church; nay more, in a certain sense they may be said
to have been of Christian growth. Mr. Pugin contends, that
l although other styles have been employed in early ages, they

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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were rather of Pagan origin, or arose from unsuccessful
imitations of Pagan buildings ; in fact, that they were mere
make-shifts, used only for a temporary purpose, until a more
perfect system, and one more thoroughly Christian, should
arise. We are most willing to admit that Gothic architecture
is the perfection of Christian art, but, at the same time,
cannot in justice allow its exclusive title to that term. The
third term can only be of partial application, and only then
correctly employed when applied to the style as practised in
our own country: the theory that Gothic architecture origi-
nated in this country, has, we believe, been long since
exploded. The term Pointed, though on many accounts a
very correct one, is still open to similar objections to those
urged against the two first, inasmuch as it would naturally
include other styles besides the one to which it is intended to
be applied.

In the quotations which we have above introduced from
writers of the last two centuries, we have been necessitated
to admit some contemptuous and opprobrious observations on
the merits of Gothic buildings, when compared with those of
Greece and Rome; but we cannot permit such remarks to pass
by unheeded. At the period of what is called the revival
of classic art, such unworthy opinions as those we have
alluded to were far from uncommon; indeed, it was fashion-
able in those days to stigmatize everything belonging to the
middle ages as dark and barbarous, and no one could give
better proof of his admiration of classic antiquity than by
reviling and sneering at every other kind of art, more espe-
cially at that which threatened a most dangerous rivalry.
The quotations which we have already given on this head
have been taken from Vasari, Wotton, Evelyn, and \Vren ;
we will now give some more extracts of the same tendency,
taken, for the most part, from the writings of the last named
architect. In his Parentalia, he says: “It was after the
irruptions of swarms of those truculent people from the north,
the Moors and Arabs from the south and east, overrunning
the civilized world, that wherever they fixed themselves, they
began to debauch this noble and useful art, when, instead of
those beautiful orders so majestical and proper for their
stations, becoming variety, and other ornamental accessories,
they set up those slender and misshapen pillars—or, rather,
bundles of staves and other incongruous props—to support
incumbent weights and ponderous arched roofs, without
entablature; and though not without great industry, not
altogether naked of gaudy sculpture, trite and busy carvings ;
it is such as gluts the eye, rather than gratifies and pleases
with any reasonable satisfaction. For proof of this, without
travelling far abroad, I dare report myself to any man of
judgment, and that has the least taste for order and magnifi-
cence, if, after he has looked a while upon King Henry
VIL's chapel, at VVestminster—gazed upon its sharp angles,
jetties, narrow lights, lame statues, lace, and other out-work
and crinkle-crankle, and shall then turn his eyes on the
Banqueting House, built at Whitehall by Inigo Jones, after
the ancient manner ; or on what his majesty’s surveyor has
done at St. Paul's, and consider what a glorious object the
cupola, porticoes, colonnades, and other parts present to the
beholder ; let him well consider and compare them judicially,
without partiality and prejudice, and then pronounce which
of the two manners strikes the understanding, as well as the
eye, with more majestic and solemn greatness, though they,
in so much plainer and more simple dress, conform to the
respective orders and eutablature, and, accordingly, determine
to whom the preference is due. Not, as we have said, there
is not something solid, and oddly artificial, too, after a sort ;
but the universal and unreasonable thickness of the walls,
clumsy buttresses, towers, sharp -pointed arches, doors, and

 

other apertures, without proportion; nonsensical insertions
of various kinds of marbles impertinently placed ; turrets and
pinnacles, thick set with monkeys and chimeras, and abun-
dance of busy-work and other incongruities, dissipate and
break the angles of the sight, and so confound it that one
cannot consider it with any steadiness where to begin or end ;
taking off that noble air and grandeur, bold and graceful
manner, which the ancients had so well and judiciously
established.” “Nothing was thought magnificent that was
not high beyond measure, with the flutter of arch-buttresses
-—so we call the sloping arches that poise the higher vaulting
of the nave. The Romans always concealed their butments ;
whereas the Normans thought them ornamental. These, I
have observed, are the first things that occasion the ruin of
cathedrals; being so much exposed to the air and weather,
the coping, which cannot defend them, first failing, and, if
they give way, the vault must spread. Pinnacles are of no
use, and of little ornament. The pride of a very high roof
raised above a reasonable pitch is not for duration.” Else-
where, speaking of their construction, he says : “ Few stones

were used but what a man might carry up a ladder on his .

back from scaffold to scaffold, though they had pulleys and ‘

spoked wheels upon occasion ; but having rejected cornices,
they had no need of great engines. Stone upon stone was

easily piled up to great heights, therefore the pride of their ‘

work was in pinnacles and steeples.”
carried all their mouldings perpendicular, so that they had
nothing else to do but spire up all they could.” “They
affected steeples, though the Saracens themselves used
cupolas.”

We do not feel so much surprised at such expressions
escaping men unattached to the profession, or even Vasari,
for he was an Italian, and therefore naturally biassed in favour
of classic art ; but to hear such opinions from a man like Sir
Christopher, must ever be a subject for wonder and regret.
Wren was, without controversy, a man of great talents and
high attainments; of considerable taste, and of unusual
scientific knowledge; nor was he ignorant either of the nature
of Gothic architecture—for he had made a special profes-
sional examination of its finest examples—or of its princi-
ples; for, as we believe, he learned much from them, and
applied them in his own buildings. That prejudice should
have extorted from such a man such unhappy tirades in con—
demnation of Mediaeval art, is, we repeat, at once a matter
for wonder and regret. It is pitiable to hear such a man
challenging his predecessors with so great self-satisfaction,
and inviting a. comparison between his own Works and theirs;
complaining, too, of their faulty construction and useless
ornaments, when he himself received no little scientific infor-
mation at their hands ; and, as regards the useless ornaments
—if, indeed, we do not give him too much credit for con-
structive skill—was not only aware of their practical utility,
but even adopted their principle, though in a less skilful
manner, in his own vaunted Cathedral. But we will not
rest satisfied with our own authority. Since “'ren’s time,

“The Gothic way ‘

Mediteval art has met with less prejudiced judges; and many ‘
writers of high standing, and architects of well-known ability, ;

have given ample testimony in its favour. It is now more
fully understood, and its beauties better appreciated; in

short, Gothic art is now what Classic was in “'ren’s days—— i

the “fashion.” But ere we proceed to bring forward any

more favourable witnesses, let us do “'l‘en justice. and give ‘

another extract from his works, which tends in some measure
to qualify his previous language.
Even he recognizes, in some few buildings of this style,

“ a discernment of no contemptible art, ingenuity, and gt‘U- ‘
metrical skill. in their design and execution.” Also—“ Thus :

 

 

 

 

GOT

453

GOT

 

the work required fewer materials, and the workmanship was,
for the most part, performed by flat moulds, in which the war-
dens could easily instruct hundreds of artificers. It must he
confessed, this was an ingenious compendium of work suited
to these northern climates; and, I must also own, that works
of the same height and magnificence in the Roman way,
would be very much more expensive than in the other
Gothic manner, managed with judgment.”

But to pass on to later writers—Rev. J. Milner, alluding
to Evelyn and Wren’s remarks, says—“ Every man who has
an eye to see, and a soul to feel, on entering into York Min-
ster and Chapter-House, or into King’s College or Windsor
Chapel, or into the cathedrals of Lincoln or Winchester, is
irresistibly struck with mingled impressions of awe and plea-
sure which no other buildings are capable of producing; and
however he may approve of the Grecian architecture for the
purposes of civil and social life, yet he instinctively expe-
riences in the former a frame of mind that fits him for prayer
and contemplation, which all the boasted regularity and mag-
nificence of Sir Christopher’s and the nation’s pride, I mean
St. Paul's Cathedral, cannot communicate, at least, in the same
degree.”

Bishop Warburton says— “ Our Gothic ancestors had
juster and manlier notions of magnificence on Greek and
Roman ideas, than those mimics of taste who profess to study
only classic elegance; and because the thing does honour
to the genius of those barbarians, I will endeavour to
explain it.”

Mr. Dallaway says — “ Certain it is, that the Gothic
churches, whatever he the peculiar manner of their era,
present their beauties to every eye. We cannot contemplate
them without discovering a majestic air well worthy of their
destination, with a knowledge of what is profound in the sci-
ence and practice of building, and a boldness of construction,
of which classic antiquity furnishes no examples.”

The following words of Coleridge are remarkable: in com-
paring the Classic and Gothic modes of architecture, he says,
—“ The Greek art is beautiful. When I enter a Greek
church, my eye is charmed and my mind elated; I feel exalted,
and proud that I am a man. But the Gothic art is sublime.
On entering a cathedral, I am filled with devotion and with
awe ; I am lost to the actualities that surround me, and my
whole being expands into the infinite ; earth and air, nature
and art, all sweep up into eternity, and the only sensible
impression left is, that I am nothing.”

VVliewell, referring to the use of the word Gothic as a term
of reproach, says—“ If we would employ the term barbarous
with any significance, it is not to be applied to one style of
art merely because it differs from another. A Gothic build-
ing is no more barbarous than a Grecian one, if the ideas
which govern its forms be fully understood and executed:
but those attempts rather are to be called barbarous, which
imitate the features of good models, and which, not catching
the principle of the art, exhibit such parts incongruously com-
posed and imperfectly developed. In writing Greek, an
Anglicism is a barbarism ; but we shall not be willing to allow
English to be barbarous, because it is not Greek; and a mix-
ture of the two is equally barbarous, whether it pretends to
be one or the other.”

Mr. Poole, a recent writer on the subject, is very warm in
his admiration: he says—“ But there arose in the west in
the middle ages a style of architecture growing in all its parts
and characters out of the wants of the church ; and adapting
itself to the expression of the very things which she desires
to express in all her methods of embodying herself to the
eyes of the world, and to the hearts of her sons. And so
entirely did this style arise out of the strivings of the church

5 z

 

to give a bodily form to her teaching, that it seems to have
clothed her spirit, almost as if the invisible things had put
forth their unseen, but powerful and plastic energies, and
gathered around them on all sides the very forms and figures
which might best serve to embody them to the eye of sense.
A Gothic church in its perfection is an exposition of the dis-
tinctive doctrines of Christianity, clothed upon with a mate-
rial form ; and is, as Coleridge has more forcibly expressed,
‘ the petrifaction of our religion,’ or, as it has been expressed
by a mind essentially differing from Coleridge's, which makes
the coincidence the more remarkable, ‘ the divine order and
economy of the one seems to be emblematically set forth by
the just, plain, and majestic architecture of the other; and as
the one consists of a great variety of parts united in the same
regular design according to the truest art and most exact pro-
portion, so the other contains a decent subordination, various
sacred institutions, sublime doctrines, and solid precepts of
morality, digested into the same design, and with an admi-
rable concurrence tending to one view,—the happiness and
exaltation of human nature.’

“ Much has been said about the proper designation of this
style. The term Gothic has use on its side to so great a.
degree, that it will never be superseded, and though it has
no truth in it at all, and was at first given in ignorant derision,
one would scarce wish it altered; the style which it desig-
nates is exclusively Christian, and it is nothing new or dis-
pleasing to that which is distinctively Christian, to take a name
from a scorner, and to convert the opprobrium into a glory.

“ Such then is Gothic architecture:——theological, eccle-
siastical, and mystical, in all its parts and characters. It grew
to its perfection both in general design, and in more minute
details of ornament and execution, during many successive
generations ; and although we have few churches entire and
unmixed of its earliest forms, we have remains more or less
perfect of almost every variation in its style, from the Nor-
man of the twelfth century, to the elaborate perpendicular of
the Tudor.”

We conclude with the following remonstrance from Mr.
Pugin, a gentleman to whom we are pre-eminently indebted
for his perseverance in the study and defence of Mediaeval art,
and to whose “ Contrasts,” although somewhat overdrawn,
we would beg to refer the reader, as apropos to the question
before us.

Mr. Pugin says—“ Before true taste and Christian feelings
can be revived, all the present and popular ideas on the sub-
ject must be utterly changed. Men must learn, that the
period hitherto called dark and ignorant, far excelled our
age in wisdom, that art ceased when it is said to have been
revived, that superstition was piety, and bigotry faith. The
most celebrated names and characters must give place to
others at present scarcely known, and the famous edifices of
modern Europe sink into masses of deformity by the side
of the neglected and mouldcring piles of Catholic antiquity.
If the renunciation of preconceived opinions on this subject,
and the consequent loss of the present enjoyment derived
from them, be considered as a great sacrifice, does not the
new and glorious field that is opened offer far more than an
equivalent? What delight, to trace a race of native artists
hitherto unknown, in whose despised and neglected productions
the most mystical feeling and chaste execution is to be found,
and in whose beautiful compositions the originals of many of
the most celebrated pictures of more modern schools are to
be traced ! what exquisite remains of the sculptor’s skill lie
buried under the green mounds that mark the site of once
noble churches I what originality of conception and masterly
execution do not the details of many rural and parochial
churches exhibit! There is no need of visiting the distant

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GOT 4

4 GOT

 

shores of Greece and Egypt, to make discoveries in art.
England alone abounds in hidden and unknown antiquities, of
surpassing interest.”

Of the peculiar effect produced upon the mind by Gothic
edifices, and of the principles upon which its excellencies
depend, Milner gives us the following explanation 2—“ The
eye is quickly satiated by any object, however great and mag-
nificent, which it can take in all at once, as the mind is with
what it can completely comprehend; but when the former,
having wandered through the intricate and interminable
length of a pointed vault in an ancient cathedral, discovers
two parallel lines of equal length and richness with it; thence
proceeding discovers the transepts, the side chapels, the choir,
the sanctuary, and the ladye chapel, all equally interesting
for their design and execution, and all of them calculated for
different purposes ; the eye, I say, in these circumstances is
certainly much more entertained, and the mind more dilated
and gratified, than can possibly be effected by any single
view, even though our modern architects should succeed in
their attempts to make one entire sweep of the contents of a
cathedral, in order to show it all at a single View, and to make
one vast empty room of the whole.”

Mr. Poole adds——“ But surely some part of the effect of a
Gothic cathedral resides in that very excess of length over
breadth, affording a long perspective, directing the eye
towards the altar, through an avenue of oft-repeated similar
parts, and creating, as it were, an artificial infinite. The roof
as well as the walls of a Gothic building is so composed as to
help this effect to the utmost. Groin beyond groin, boss
beyond boss, pendent beyond pendent, is seen,—-first of all
each distinct and clear, but by degrees approaching and
touching one another in the perspective, and at last, lost in
the complexity—not confusion, but complexity—of the whole.
The plain becomes obscure, the defined indefinite, in the long-
drawn distance.

“Even irregularity of structure lends its aid to produce
this effect, and irregularity is a beauty purely Gothic. The
eye that wanders in an oblique direction, travels through the
nearer arches to some unexpected aisle or chapel, and seems
lost in an undefined distance. It is scarcely possible to exag-
gerate the effect of this combination of elevation, length, and
irregularity, so averse from the Grecian concinnity and uni-
formity ; especially when they are helped by the dim religious
light poured through the painted windows.

“Fancy yourself for a moment standing just within the
great western entrance of one of our cathedrals, and you will
feel what is meant by breadth in architectural effect. The
eye is of course directed eastward, and there it has its point of
repose ; and the great east window limits its view, at a dis-
tance, which, with all the accessories before mentioned, seems
indefinite. But the aisles at either hand have absolutely no
termination to the mind’s eye. For a while you see through
the intervening arches; but you see less and less at each
interval, and long before the actual termination of the aisle,
the piers, approaching one another in the perspective, close
upon the unfinished view. The mind’s eye goes forward,
while the eye of sense is arrested. The limit is as effectual
as if it had been abrupt ; but it is so gradual that you scarce
feel where it occurred. There is a perfect consciousness of
the length beyond, notwithstanding the absolute impossibility
of discerning it.”

Thus much for the impugners and apologists of Gothic
architecture ;—-—it will appear somewhat incredible that so
great a difference of opinion should exist amongst men all
eminent for taste and judgment, but such is the case ; what
in Wren’s time was considered barbarous, is now upheld as
scientific and beautiful We follow the taste of our age

 

which we believe to be correct, and maintain the superiority
of Gothic over Classical art, not only as regards its general
effect, but also in scientific construction, correct and tasteful
ornamentation, accommodation, and general convenience. In
our previous extracts we have alluded more especially to the
general effect of the two styles, we will now touch upon each
of the other qualities seriatim, and, in doing so, we shall give,
as before, greater prominence to the opinions of those who
have arrived at a high standing in their profession, and prin—
cipally of those who have devoted their time specially to this
Subject, than to any observations of our own ; as we deem their
authority will carry more weight with it than anything we
can say. We need only mention the names of Pugin and
Bartholomew, Willis, and Whewell, to obtain an attentive
perusal, and would refer our readers for more extensive
information on the subject than our space will allow of, to
the standard works of those gentlemen.

In some of the extracts from the Parentalz'a, previously
given,we hear Wren inveighing against the Mediaeval builders
on account of their rude and unskilful construction ; we con-
trast their remarks with some others on the same subject by
the late Mr. Bartholomew, 'than whom we could scarcely
have a more impartial judge, for while on the one hand he is
a great admirer of the Mediaeval architects, he is no less pre-
disposed in favour of Wren, on whose scientific skill in con-
struction, he is continually pouring forth the most warm—we
had almost said the most extravagant—encomiums. Let us
hear what are his opinions in this controversy; they are
expressed as follows :—

“ During the middle ages, geometrical science was applied
to architecture in the loveliest manner: the general plan, the
columns, the arches, the doors, the windows, the galleries, .
the vaulting, the flying buttresses, every panel, every com—
partment, the most minute ornament, exhibited an intimate
acquaintance with that profound and masterly science, without
which building becomes vicious, cumbrous, expensive, mean,
fragile, absurd, and disgusting. '

“ After the decline of Gothic architecture, a foolish notion
went abroad in the world, that cumbrousness and extrava-
gance of material were characteristics of Gothic architec-
ture ; even that great and talented man, John Evelyn, who
possessed a very superior knowledge of architecture, enter-
tained the then current opinion: but of late, mankind have
become strangely undeceived upon this point ; and the plans
and sections of ancient and modern buildings, brought toge-
ther in parallel, now fill the mind with astonishment, that so
comparatively small a quantity of materials, and those fre-
quently of minor quality, could have been piled up to exist,
with little failure or decay, such a long course of time. It is
not that Gothic buildings are always perfect in constructimi,
but in general they are nearly so ; in fact, so light are some
of them, that they need more substance, as well as harder
materials, to resist the mere operation of time upon their sur-
faces. The Gothic architects always built with the greatest
economy: when square stone was easily procurable, they
formed their walls very thin; but when, from the length of the
carriage of it, it became costly, they used for their walls the
most ordinary rubble-stone of the country, and they then
gave to their walls thickness sufficient to prevent them from
reading and rolling apart‘ from the fluent nature of their
materials.”

Elsewhere he says—“ Now the Medizeval Christian builders
arrived to such a delicate and intimate acquaintance with
architectural dynamics, that, by the discovery of the way in
which all the particles of their materials are affected by gra-
vity, they were enabled, by merely subjecting them to fran-
gibility caused by compression. so to economize them and

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GOT

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reduce their quantity, that many members of Gothic edifices,
after five hundred years’ devastation by time, are more sound
than corresponding members of our modern buildings which
have not subsisted fifty years, and which contain five times
their proportion of materials.

“ It was this scientific economy which enabled those real
magicians to rear up securely their works so high towards
heaven in the beauty of architectural holiness: it was this
scientific economy which left them money enough to cover
their sweet fabrics within and without with the richest
intaglio, and the goldsmith’s work of heaven, while their
patrons grumbled not, nor grudged the rich profusion, but
joined heart and soul in the goodly work, and the wise and
noble fabricator needed none of that kind of over-persuasion,
or cajolery, or intentional misunderstanding, or tasteful out-
witting, by which alone the modern architect is frequently
enabled to wring from his employer other than bare walls ;
this scientific economy rendered unnecessary the rabble of
cement—makers and sand-concreters—those spendthrift em-
pirics, which suck out the brains of architecture, rifle her
pockets, violate her chastity, bruise her face to a mummy,
and then cover it with oil—plasters and cosmetics of white-
wash and iron oxide.

“ So admirable in general is the skill displayed in the
dynamic disposition of the material of a Gothic cathedral;
so shrewdly are the forces of its gravitation reduced to sim-
ple compression, that the whole is like a wonderful piece of
shoring, sublimely and permanently imitated in stone. He
who compares its flying-buttresses to a piece of wood-scaffold»
ing, at once confesses that it is raised with that art which
emanates from the workman's most delicate and anxious
caution.”

In truth, the erections of this style are but the embodi-
ments of constructive science, not only does the main form
and general outline depend thereon, but even those pecu-
liarities which an unpractised eye would be tempted to esteem
mere decoration: but those who have made themselves ac-
quainted with the subject, are well aware that the Mediaaval
architects never constructed decoration, but decorated con-
struction ; they made their building perfect, and then applied
their ornament with most correct judgment and refined taste.
A Gothic building is a practical illustration of the principle
of the arch, and of its application in the most perfect form.
We had almost termed it the extension and perfection of
Roman architecture, for they were the first to apply the prin-
ciple, but only in a partial and imperfect manner ; the idea
was new to them, and they did not fully comprehend it, they
did not understand its universal applicability, and therefore
only partially adopted it. In their buildings many of the
forms of Grecian architecture still remained; they were fet-
tered by its rules, by its influence, and thereby prevented
from bringing their new theory to perfection. They had
been used to the forms, they knew of no others, and hence
arises their inconsistency. Roman architecture was, so to
speak, a transition, and, so far, imperfect style ; in it we see
the new and old principles struggling for the mastery, yet
each maintaining a certain influence; we have indeed the
arch, but there still remains the entablature, which was in
this place totally useless and inconsistent, they were each the
exponent and characteristic of its own theory, and as the two
systems were repugnant the one to the other, so was their in-
troduction into the same building liable to the charge of incon-
sistency. The entablature in the one case answered the same
purpose as the arch in the other, and therefore, where the
one prevailed, the other should have disappeared ; but
this we know was not at first the case, it was left to the
Mediaeval architects to bring the new system to perfection.

 

Roman architecture is but the germ, Gothic its complete
development.

We cannot forbear offering one or two instances of the
scientific skill of the Gothic architects, as exemplified in their
mode of construction. It is a matter which has been fre-
quently alluded to in other works, but one, we think, without
which any treatise on Gothic architecture would be imper-
fect. It was their custom, as We all know, to cover their
large buildings with *aults of masonry, a method of roofing
in which they greatly excelled their predecessors. The
Romans were acquainted with this method, and applied it in
many instances, yet their specimens of vaulting, when com-
pared with the Mediasval, appear but clumsy expedients ; they
were confined to the use of the common cylindrical and quad-
ripartite vaulting, or that of which each compartment con-
sisted of four cells only, the latter kind being caused by the
intersection of two cylindrical vaults at right angles to each
other. But even in this simple kind of groining they found
a difficulty, for when the intersecting vaults were of different
span, and of the same elevation, their arches being confined
to the semi-circular form, they were at a loss how to proceed.
In Gothic architecture, the difficulty is entirely obviated by
the employment of the Pointed arch, and by its application
the Mediaeval builders were enabled to construct vaults of so
elaborate and varied a character, such as the Romans, with
their forms, dared never to have dreamed of. But this is not
the only improvement our ancestors effected in vaulting ; the
Roman vaulting consisted entirely of large stones, and was
therefore of very great weight, a circumstance which was
very detrimental to its application, for as the wall had to bear
the entire burden, it was absolutely requisite that they should
be of extraordinary strength. Now, our Gothic builders
obviated this difficulty likewise in a most scientific manner;
they made their vaults equally secure with a much smaller
consumption of material, by which means they not only saved
the walls an undue pressure, but also considerably reduced
their expenditure throughout the building. This they managed
in the following manner. In their large works, such as cathe-
drals, in which vaulting was more frequently applied, it was
their custom to carry up a pier or bearing-shaft on the face
of the nave-shafts, either springing directly from the ground,
or supported on a corbel at some point immediately above the
piers. From the top of these shafts, as points of bearing,
were extended ribs or arches across the nave from the bear-
ing-shafts on the one side to those on the other, in three or
more directions; in the more simple forms, each compartment
of the vaulting consisted of six entire arches, enclosing four
cells or spaces between the ribs, which were arranged in this
manner ;-—from each of the four bearing-shafts sprang
three arches; one, the longitudinal, extending to the next
shaft on the same side of the nave, that is, in the direction of
the length of the building ; another, the transverse, stretch-
ing at right angles to the longitudinal to the shaft immediately
opposite on the other side of the nave ; and a third, the dia-
gonal, extending between the most distant shafts from one
angle of the bay to the opposite. These diagonal ribs inter-
sect each other, and at the point of intersection butt against
a key-stone, which generally extends below the level of the
vault, and is sculptured in the form of foliage or some
other ornament; this key-stone locks the system together
securely. The ribs formed the constructive portion of the
vault ; they were the skeleton, as it were, on Which the
covering or cuticle was stretched: they were the only por-
tions of the vault in which large stones were used, the cells
being filled up with much smaller stones, and they of less
ponderous material, by which means the whole vaulting was
rendered lighter and more secure. In this way did they pain

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GOT

456

GOT

 

an incalculable advantage over the Romans; nor did their
skill cease here; having so far reduced the forces of the
enemy, they prepared to carry the remaining thrust of the
vault away from the walls of the Clerc-story, and conduct it
'safely to the foundations, and this they accomplished with
equal or even greater skill. From that point of the clere-
story wall, where the thrust of the vaulting was collected, the
force was carried over the aisles by means of an arch termed
a flying-buttress, which rested at its lower extremity on the
pillar-buttresses attached to the aisle-walls. But here it is
necessary to notice one or two peculiarities which might be
likely to escape the observation of a. transient observer. Hav-
ing collected the active force of the vaulting to one spot by
means of the ribs, they there spread out the flying-buttress
in the same manner as now-a-days we place a board against
a wall in cases of temporary shoring, and sometimes placed one
arch below another, the two being separated at the wall, but
uniting ere they reach the wall-buttress, by which method the
force was concentrated at that point, while the whole of the
clere-story wall was equally supported. Having conducted
the drift to this point, it remained to bring it safely to the
ground; and how could this be efl'ected ? The method, which
would at once naturally have suggested itself, would have been
to extend the buttresses from the wall to such an extent as
to receive the thrust within its mass until it reached the
earth ; but this would necessitate a very great projection, and
therefore a large consumption of space and materials. This
difliculty they met and nullified in the most skilful manner,
and by a most simple contrivance. It was by merely super-
adding a pinnacle to the wall-buttress above the point at
which the force was collected. We have now another force
in operation, that of the downward pressure or gravity of the
materials composing the pinnacle, and this combining with the
thrust of the vault, changes the direction of that force so as
to make it more nearly perpendicular, and bring it within
a buttress of moderate projection, which, be it remembered,
served a further purpose of strengthening the aisle-walls and
diminishing their thickness, for it is well known, that a wall
with buttresses at intervals, is as strong, or stronger, than
a mere wall of the combined thickness of the wall and but~
tress. In this manner did they press everything, whether
friendly or inimical, into their active service, and succeeded
in rearng edifices of the most skilful construction, most rigid
economy, and chaste and delicate decoration.

How Wren could have inveighed against the construction
of our Gothic buildings we cannot understand, especially as
he seems to have imitated them in several particulars, though
not certainly with equal taste or skill. He has used very
similar means to those above described, in resisting the
thrust of his vaulting, in his vaunted Cathedral ; buttresses
are carried over the aisle to the outer wall, and are concealed
by a screen running round the building, and having the
appearance of an additional story, which certainly gives
the building a more imposing appearance on the exterior,
but at the expense of truth, and, like the dome, creates afeel-
ing of disappointment when you enter the interior. To this
circumstance Mr. Pugin alludes in a passage which we shall
have occasion hereafter to quote. As regards “H‘en’s objec-
tion respecting the size of the stones used in Gothic edifices,
we need say nothing, it refutes itself, for surely if a building
can be raised with equal security by the use of small stones
which a man can carry on his back, it is much superior, at.
least in point of economy, to one raised with large blocks
which require ponderous machinery to move them to their
destined positions.

We leave Sir James Hall to answer objections made on
the score of false proport .ons ; he deals with them in a way

 

no less summary than it is decisive. After speaking of the
principles of Gothic architecture, he says :—“This view
furnishes a complete answer to the common objection made
to the Gothic style, of wanting proportions, for that accusa-
tion has always been the consequence of judging the Gothic
by Grecian rules, in which case it could not fail to appear
absurd and disproportioned ; whereas when tried by its own
laws, it will be found completely consistent and harmonious
in all its parts ;” of course, if persons commence by assuming
Grecian proportions to be the acme of perfection, and all
that differs from them to be false and barbarous, we may at
once yield the argument, for the question is decided ere we
commence.

Mr. Pugin alluding to the same subject says :—“ Under
the head of architectural propriety, we have also to consider
the scale and proportions of buildings. \Vithout vastness of
dimensions it is impossible to produce a grand and imposing
effect in architecture ; still, unless these be regulated on true
principles, they may destroy their effect by their very size ;
and here I wish to draw your attention to a point which will
prove the great superiority of the Christian architecture of
the middle ages, over that of classic antiquity, or of the
revived pagan style. In Pointed architecture the different
details of the edifice are multiplied with the increased scale of
the building ; in classic architecture they are only magnifiet .”
This principle of multiplying parts with the increased size of
the building. is a characteristic of the style, and is one in our
opinion in which it'greatly excels its rival.

It now only remains to touch upon two subjects of com-
parison ; the first as regards the application of ornament, and
the last as to convenience and accommodation. The writers
of VVren’s time were too apt to consider Gothic architecture
as a system of decoration, gaudy and puerile; a system in
which useless ornament. was the chief aim and object,
and in which it was introduced without reason or modera-
tion, and hence they termed it merctricious and barbarous.
Investigation has taught us differently ; and where they saw
naught but confusion and redundancy, we detect order and
sound judgment. Ornamentation was seldom introduced by
our old church-architects without a cause or without a mean-
ing: we do not mean to go so far as to assert that such
was never the case, but we do say that there was, for the
most part, a nice adaptation, a propriety, in their decoration ;
the parts to be enriched were not introduced without a specific
object, and their manner of enrichment was made subservient
to that object; for instance, look at the projecting string~
course, the weather—mouldings of the heads of windows, to
conduct the moisture from the enriched and delicate part of
their work, so as to preserve it from injury, and the termi-
nating dripstone to throw it off the walls. Each part was
decorated so as at once to delight the eye, and answer an
useful end ; each moulding was beautiful and appropriate to
its own peculiar duty; their contours varied, not from any
wild fancy or exuberant imagination, but simply to make it
eflicient to the purpose for which it was employed. LOok
again at their buttresses, to which we have already alluded,
and the gorgeous pinnacles, not a mere decoration, as our
forefathers would have it, but a most useful and indispensable
addition. But we can almost forgive them for seeing only
the beauty, at least where they acknowledge so much, for the
graceful finish given to the buttress thereb ', is sutiicient to
justify such an addition, even supposing it served no other
purpose than mere ornament, and we need not Wonder at
their resting satisfied with it as a means of decoration with-
out looking to any further purpose. The buttresses them-
selves likewise were equally agreeable to the eye, as they
were useful and essential to the construction; by them we

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GOT

457

GOT

 

obtain a bold and pleasing variety in the main outline of the
building, and that play of light and shade which adds so
greatly to the appearance of a Gothic edifice. Looking once
more at the smaller members, we find niches, corbels, bosses,
vaulting ribs, each answering two ends, one useful, the other
ornamental. What objects can be more beautiful than some
of the Gothic niches, especially of the later styles, and yet
what more necessary in a climate like ours ; on the exterior
of buildings, more especially, they serve to protect the higher
branches of carving from the inclemency of the weather,
and in the interior from accident or injury ; but it was pro-
bably their unusual elegance rather than their usefulness,
which caused their introduction as a means of internal decora-
tion. In short, the Mediaeval artists did not construct orna-
ment, but ornamented construction. On this subject we add
the following remarks from Pugin’s Principles of Pointed
Architecture :— _

“The two great rules for design are these :——1st. That
there should be no features about a building which are not
necessary for convenience, construction, or propriety; 2nd.
That all ornament should consist of enrichment of the essential
construction of the building.” “In pure architecture the
smallest detail should have a meaning, or serve a purpose;
and even the construction itself should vary with the material
; in which they are executed.” “ Strange as it may appear at

first sight, it is in Pointed architecture alone that these great
lprinciples have been carried out; and I shall be able to
illustrate them, from the vast cathedral to the simplest
erection. Moreover, the architects of the middle ages were
the first who turned the natural properties of the various
; materials to their full account, and made their mechanism a
I vehicle for their art.”

Pointed architecture does not conceal her construction, but
beautifies it: classic architecture seeks to conceal, instead
‘1 of decorating it. '

“ The clumsy vaults of St. Paul's, London, mere coffered
semi-arches without ribs or intersections, have their flying
buttresses; but as this style of architecture does not admit of
the great principle of decorating utility, these buttresses,
instead of being made ornamental, are concealed by an enor-
mous screen, going round the building : so that in fact one-
half the edifice is built to conceal the other. Miserable expe-
dient ! worthy only of the debased style in which it has been
resorted to."

“An architect should exhibit his skill by turning the
difficulties which occur in raising an elevation, from a con-
venient. plan, into so many picturesque beauties; and this
constitutes the great difference between the principles of
Classic, and Pointed domestic architecture. In the former
he would be compelled to devise expedients to conceal these
irregularities; in the latter he has only to beautify them.
But I am quite assured that all the irregularities that are so
beautiful in ancient architecture, are the result of certain
necessary difliculties, and were never purposely designed;
for to make a building inconvenient for the sake of obtaining
irregularity, would be scarcely less ridiculous, than preparing
working-drawings for a new ruin. But all these inconsis-
tencies have arisen from this great error ;—the plans of
buildings are designed to suit the elevation, instead of the
elevation being made subservient to the plan.”

The last observation of Mr. Pugin's leads us very naturally
to the consideration of the next subject. The Greeks were
confined to one plan in their edifices, the parallelogram ; and
in their application of this form they had but little choice,
the main variation consisting in the arrangement of the
external colonnade. It was a form well enough adapted to
their religious Observances, and restricted to buildings of that

6 A

 

 

 

nature. Their edifices were chaste and grand, but chargeable
at the same time with sameness and monotony ; the one idea
was universally resorted to, and probably because they had
no occasion for any other. The Romans, however, did not
restrict themselves to this form, their wants were more exten-
sive than those of the Greeks, from Whom they borrowed
the main idea of their architecture ; they wanted Something
more than temples; in short, they were a more secular people
than the Greeks, and thought their secular buildings worthy
of as costly magnificence as the temples of their gods. To
this circumstance we owe the introduction of the practice of
grouping, as it is termed, and the adaptation of the plans
of the buildings to the various purposes of life ; the Romans
broke through the ancient rules of uniformity, and struck out
into a wider and bolder path, which led by many directions
to a great variety of results. But even the Romans were
but tyros in this new system, which they left to after—ages to
bring to perfection. The old Greek style was but little
adapted to this altered state of things; and as much as the
Romans gained in convenience, by so much they lost in
appearance ; the old principles could but ill brook their forced
adaptation to new rules, and in process of time they died, (if
we may be allowed the expression,) a natural death. The prin-
ciples of Gothic architecture took their rise from the wants of
the times, and gave completeness to that of which the Romans
had originated the idea; and the style has this superiority
over every previous one that it can easily adapt itself to any
purpose. No matter what shape you require your plan, nay,
it matters not, though it be of no acknowledged or describable
shape at all, you may rear upon it an elevation in accordance
with the principles of the style, and one which only requires
a skilful hand and practised eye to make it at once tasteful and
convenient. Sir James Hall has the following trite remarks,
which are very much to the point, he says :—

“ In order therefore to apply Grecian architecture to our
purposes, it has been found necessary very much to alter the
old Greek plan ; but this having but little variety, could not
easily admit of any change. And a Grecian colonnade being
of itself a most perfect form, we cannot well conceive how
anything should be taken from it or added ‘to it without
injury; at least, to do so would require a hand noless dexter-
ous than that by which it was originally designed. It is not,
therefore, wonderful, that our artists, employing Grecian
architecture for new purposes, and introducing without cere-
mony forms unknown to the Greeks, should produce works
devoid of those beauties for which their’s are so highly dis-
tinguished.

“ The greatest detriment seems to have been occasioned
by the introduction of windows, for which the old Greek
masters had made no regular provision, but which are. indis-
pensable in most of our buildings. For by thus obtruding
a new form upon the old style, its unity of design must be
violated. The more so, that a set of windows partake, by
their form and arrangement, of the regularity of a colonnade,
and consequently occasion more disturbance of the general
effect, than if there had been no resemblance between them.

“ The necessity among the moderns of forming edifices
spacious within, has been a source of great confusion ; for the
old Greek masters not having need of room, have left us no
good examples of the kind, and our own artists, in pursuit
of that object, have piled order upon order, and have joined
together various parts in the same building, which, though
each may be beautiful in itself, have no connection together,
and can only deserve the name of more or less elegant pieces
of patch-work.

Thus Grecian architecture, though rich in ornamental
details, was susceptible of little variety in the general plan.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GOT

458

GOT

 

It has therefore failed when applied to our purposes, though
in the hands of the old Greek masters, and employed in the
construction of works suited to the wants of that people, it
has far surpassed any other style. Gothic architecture, on
the other hand, with great variety of ornamental details,
admitting of the greatest latitude in the general plan and dis-
tribution of the parts, and being susceptible of almost any
shape, is applicable to every purpose, and might be suited to
the manners of every nation.

“ A Gothic edifice receives and accommodates an immense
multitude of people, and furnishes an unbounded supply of
light in a manner which constitutes one of its principal orna-
ments. And this advantage seems to belong to the Gothic
exclusively ; for it does not. appear, that in any other style of
architecture, a provision has been made for the provision of
light in an ornamental manner. It possesses, in the highest
degree, several different and seemingly incompatible qualities.
When entire in all its parts, everywhere clean and fresh, and
enlightened by a bright sunshine, we admire its airy lightness
and lively elegance; but when clothed in a majestic veil of
obscurity, or reduced to ruins and overgrown with moss and
ivy, we are struck with awe by its solemn grandeur.

“ It results from this comparison, that the Grecian style
excels in all those qualities of elegance and grace which

j depend upon the nice adjustment and masterly execution of

; details.

Whereas the Gothic style, which with great truth
has been compared to the genius of Shakespeare, is lively,
picturesque, and sublime, qualities which are derived from the
bold variety, and often from the wild irregularity, of its forms.”

With this passage we naturally close our comparison; we have

: stated our own opinions on the subject, and produced authorities

 

 

on both sides—the reader must form his own decision.

lVe now proceed to a description and arrangement of the
style, but, before doing so, it will be needful to take some
notice of those styles which immediately preceded it. Soon
after the disruption of the Roman empire, we find architecture,
lapsing into_ barbarism, still retaining strong characteristics
of the previous style, but exhibiting only a clumsy imitation.
The buildings of this age were but heaps of discordant parts,
put together without reference to unity of design or arrange-
ment. 0th of this medley arose a style, which, however
barbarous it may be deemed, can still boast some title to
consistency, for, by this time, architects had broken through
the trammels of the old methods which had hitherto fettered
them. The style, known by some under the general title of
Romanesque, and by others divided according to some marked
peculiarity, or to the countries in which it was adopted,
into Byzantine, Lombardic, and Norman, was the immediate
precursor of the Gothic or Pointed style. It differs essen-
tially from the Roman method in many respects, and presents
us with several new principles, amongst which may be enu-
merated the entire disuse of the entablature, the arches
springing directly from the capital of the pier or column ; the
total disregard of classic proportions, and an unusual variety and
license in this respect, some columns being oftheaverage height
of the Classic orders, others much stunted, and others again

Mr. Rickman, to whom we are so much indebted for

 

exceedingly extended, more especially those attached to walls
or piers, which become little better than vertical mouldings ,
the practice of including two or more arched openings under
one common arch ; and some few other particulars, which it
is not necessary to mention. We give the following descrip-
tion of the buildings of the period to which we allude, as laid
down by one of the writers already quoted. It will be seen
to differ, in some respects, from our own account, but this
may arise from his more especially alluding to some particular
class of buildings, or because he was desirous of making a
marked distinction between the erections of this style, and of
that which followed it, the Gothic. He gives notice of some
particulars which we have omitted.

“The arches,” he says, “are round; one supported on
pillars retaining traces of the Classical proportions ; the pilas-
ters, cornices, and entablatures have a correspondence and
similarity with those of Classical architecture ; there is a pre-
valence of rectangular faces and square-edged projections;
the openings in walls are small, and subordinate to the sur-
faces in which they appear, the members of the architecture
are massive and heavy; very limited in kind and repetition ;
the enrichments being introduced rather by sculpturing sur-
faces, than by multiplying and extending the component
parts. There is in this style a predominance of horizontal
lines, or at least no predominance and elongation of vertical
ones. For instance, the pillars are not prolonged in corres—
ponding mouldings along the arches ; the walls have no pro-
minent buttresses, and are generally terminated by a strong
horizontal tablet or cornice."

The style, although an approach in that direction, differs in
many material points from the later Gothic; but as we
have occasion to notice the main features of distinction
between the Roman and Gothic modes of building, and
have also noticed the differences between the former and
the Romanesque styles, we do not deem it necessary to
institute a detailed comparison between the intermediate
and Gothic systems.

Sir Christopher “'ren takes notice of the variations of
the two extreme styles, and although his deductions as to
questions of merit cannot justly be assented to, his compa-
rison as to principles is, for the most part, correct, he says:

“ In this they essentially differed from the Roman way,
who laid all their mouldings horizontally, which made the
best perspective; the Gothic way, on the contrary, carried
all their mouldings perpendicularly ; so that the ground-work
being settled, they had nothing else to do but to spire
all up as they could. Thus they made their pillars a bundle
of little tori, which they divided into more when they came
to the roof, and these tori split into many small ones,
and, traversing one another, gave occasion to the tracery
work, as they call it. They used the sharp-headed arch,
which would rise with little centering, required lighter key-
stones and less butment, and yet would bear another row of
doubled arches, rising from the key-stone, by the diversify-
ing of which they erected eminent structures, such as the
steeples of Vienna, Strasburg, and many others.”

his researches on this subject, gives the following more

detailed comparison in a tabular form :—

Grecian.
The general running lilies are horizontal.
Arches not necessary.

An entablature absolutely necessary, consisting always of
two, and mostly of three, distinct parts, having a close
relation to, and its character and ornaments determined
by, the columns.

English
The general running lines are vertical.
Arches a really fundamental principle, and no pure English
building or ornament can be composed without them.
No such thing as an entablature composed of parts; ani what
is called a cornice bears no real relation to the shafts
which may be in the same buildino.

 

 

 

 

 

GOT

459

GOT

 

Grecian.
The columns can support nothing but an entablature, and no
arch can spring directly from a column.
A flat column may be called a pilaster, which may be used
as a column.
The arch must spring from a horizontal line.

Columns the supporters of the entablature.
No projections like buttresses, and all projections stopped by
horizontal lines.

Arrangement of pediment fixed.

Openings limited by the proportions of the column.

3 Regularity of composition on each side of a centre necessary.

 

Cannot form good steeples, because they must resemble un-
connected buildings piled on each other.

English.

The shafts can only support an arched moulding, and in no
case an horizontal line.

Nothing analogous to a pilaster; every flat ornamented pro-
jecting surface is either a series of panels or a buttress.

No horizontal line necessary, and never any but the small cap
of a shaft.

Shaft bears nothing, and is only ornamental, and the round
pier still a pier.

Buttresses essential parts, and stop horizontal lines.

Pediment only an ornamented end-wall, and may be of almost
any pitch.

Openings almost unlimited.

Regularity of composition seldom found, and variety of orna-
ment universal.

From its vertical, lines may be carried to any practicable
height with almost increasing beauty.

Mr. Willis, in the annexed table, treats the subject in a somewhat different form, referring rather to rules of
principles, than details of practice :—

Classz'cal styles.

Different planes of decoration avoided, and never exceeding
two in an entire composition.

Superincumbent weights united as far as possible, by resting
on the horizontal cornice, which combines them into one
mass.

Arch, foreign to this style, and when introduced its diagonal
pressure excluded from the decoration.

Artifices of construction concealed, as impairing the simpli-
city of effect.

Chamfered surfaces inadmissible, and mouldings can only
stop against a surface perpendicular to their course.

Panels mere superficial ornaments.

Elsewhere he adds :—

“ These decorative features differ in many respects from the
Classical, but the leading principle is to be found in the
increased multiplicity of parts, and in a system which affected

‘ to support them all independently, arranging them in groups,

in opposition to the Classical scheme, in which the parts are

. simple, and bound together by the dominant cornice.”

“ It is suggested to me by a friend,” says the Rev. W. Whe-

‘ Well, author of Architectural Notes on German Churches,

“that this distinctive principle of construction in the Gothic
architecture, appears to be the admission of oblique pres-
sures and inclined lines of support; in Greek architecture,

‘ the whole edifice consists of horizontal, masses reposing on

vertical props. In Gothic buildings, on the contrary, the
pointed arch is always to be considered as formed by two

‘ sides, leaning against each other at the top, and pressing out-

ward at their lower ends. The eye recognizes this statical
condition in the leading lines of the edifice, and requires the
details to conform to it. We have thus in the Grecian buildings
nothing but rectangular forms and spaces, horizontal lines
with vertical ones subordinate to them. The pediment is
one mass with its horizontal cornice, and does not violate
this rule. Arches, when they occur, are either subordinate

; parts, or mark the transition style, in which the integrity of

the principle is no longer preserved. In Gothic works, on
the other hand, the arch is an indispensable and governing
feature; it has pillars to support its vertical° and buttresses

 

M iddle-Age styles.

Dififerent planes of decoration placed behind each other to
any number, and in every possible degree of variety, even
in a single member, as in an arch.

Superincumbent weights divided into as many parts as pos-
sible, and then given to independent props.

Arch, the essential feature ; its diagonal pressures studiously
manifested, and the rest of the composition harmonized
with them by other inclined lines.

Every artifice of construction displayed.

Chamfered surfaces universal; mouldings are applied to
them, and may die against them or any other surface at
any angle.

Panels are apertures between the parts of the decorative
frame of the building.

to resist its lateral pressure; its summit may be carried
upwards indefinitely, by thejoint thrust of its two sides. All
the parts agree in this character of infinite upward extension,
with an inclination or flexure to allow of their meeting at top ;
and they obviously require, and depend on pressures acting
obliquely.”

He adds the following particulars in a more tangible and
systematic form.

“ l. The arch is essential, the entablature is not, and the
columns support arches instead of entablatures.

“2. There are any number of planes of decoration one
behind the other. When we have in this way several arches
under one, we are led, as Mr. Willis has shown, to tracery ;
when we have arches of different forms one under another,
we are led to foliation.

“ 3. The weights are divided into as many parts as possible,
and these are given to independent props ; whence we have,
among other results, clustered piers and pillars.

“4. The diagonal pressures of the arch are displayed,
whence we have buttresses and pinnacles.

“5. And, generally, the running and dominant lines are
vertical in this style, as they were horizontal in the ancient
style}: the characteristic forms of the one being horizontal,
reposmg, definite; of the other, vertical, aspiring, indefi-
nite.”

We do not feel it incumbent upon us to add anything to
the above, the subject having been fully treated of by each

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GOT

460

GOT

 

Writer, the difference of treatment which may have been
noticed, arising from the fact, that some of the writers have
leoked at the grand principles of the two styles, while the
others have confined themselves to a comparison of the
results of such principles, as applied in practice.

Having thus given a general description of the Gothic
style, and its main characteristics, as distinguished from the
Classical and succeeding modes of building, we will now pro-

‘ ceed, in order to give a more detailed account of it as a dis-

; tinct style, without any reference to other systems.

 

In order
to do this, it will be requisite to adopt some systematic
arrangement in connecting and subdividing the various
examples, so as to arrive at some clear notion of the rules
which guided the Mediatval architects in the erection of their
buildings; and in doing this, we shall confine ourselves to the

_ methods usually employed, not only because they are well

established, but further, because they have been determined
upon with great judgment.

Amongst the earlier writers, there does not seem to have
been much attention given to this part of the subject; Warton,
however, in his tract, attempts a classification, in which he
thus distributes the different varieties :—In the first division,
which he denominates Gothic Saxon, as not fully entitled to
the name of Gothic, but having a decided tendency to that style,
he places Salisbury Cathedral, and gives the thirteenth cen-
tury as the epoch of that division. The next division, which
he terms Absolute Gothic, he extends over the fourteenth
and first half of the fifteenth century ; he lays down as the
characteristic feature, the ramification of the decoration in
the window-heads, and gives as an example, the body of
Winchester Cathedral. To the third division he gives a
duration of only forty years, from A.D. 1441, to 1480, at
which latter period he places the commencement of the
Florid Gothic, the third division having the title of Orna-
mental Gothic; of the latter he gives King’s College Chapel,
as a specimen ; and of the former, the chapels of St. George,
Windsor, and of Henry VIL, Westminster.

Mr. Dallaway arranges the styles as follows :—

A. D. During the reigns of
Semi or Mixed Norman... 1170—1220 Henry 11., Richard I., &John
Lancet-arch Gothic ...... 1220—1300 Henry 111., & Edward I.
Transition or Pure Gothic 1300—1400 Ed‘Yard 1" II" 8‘ “I" 5‘
Richard II.
Decorated Gothic ............ 1400—1460 Henry IV., V., 85 VI.

Tudor or Florid Gothic 1460—1540 Edward IV., to Henry VIII.

But the arrangement which most modern writers have fol-
lowed, is that of Rickman, which is more simple, consisting of
only three divisions, viz. :—

A. D.
Early English ............... 1189—1307
Decorated English ......... 1307—1377
Perpendicular English ...... 1377—1630

Mr. Bloxam subdivides the Early English into two dis-
tinct styles, and in this he agrees with Mr. Dallaway, but he
names the earliest division Semi- or Mixed Norman, and the
later Early English. He also subdivides the period allotted
by Rickman to the Perpendicular style, restricting that title
to those examples erected before A.D. 1540, and to the later
buildings applying the term Debased.

Others again have retained the tripartite division of Rick-
man, but have used other titles, denominating the first divi-
sion First Pointed, the second Middle Pointed, and the last
Third Pointed.

The difliculty in classifying the examples of this style
arises mainly from the gradual development of each particular
dunsion, the one merging into the other by such imperceptible

 

degrees, that it is difficult to determine where the one com-
mences and the other ends, although when each style is seen
in its matured and perfect form, it is readily distinguishable
from its neighbour. The most prominent characteristics of
each style are to be seen in the windows, where the distinc-
tion is usually very manifest; the shape of the arches also,
forms another principal feature by which the date of a build-
ing may be to a certain degree determined, although not very
accurately, for the same shaped arches are used in different
styles. Perhaps the most certain distinctive marks are to be
observed in the mouldings and matters of detail ; and these,
taken together with the more prominent features, will in
general lead to a tolerably accurate decision. We shall con-
sider the peculiarities of each style in a systematic and
detailed form, dividing a building into its several component
parts, and comparing them, as it were, analytically. Before
entering on this task, however, we deem it advisable to refer

 

to the nomenclature and system of classification in the des- 5
cription of particular buildings, recommended by Mr. Willis ;
so that should any of his terms occur in the following pages, 1

they may be correctly understood. We must recommend

them for adoption, as afl’ording, for the most part, a simple, '

intelligible, and systematic mode of arrangement.

In the description of a. building, he advises that one bay
of the interior should be taken as an example ; divided into
its several parts, and each of these treated fully and syste-
matically. This, with a specification of the number of bays,
will form a description, generally speaking, of the main portion
of the building, unless any differences occur in the other
bays, and in such case it will be requisite of course to note
the variation. The same course is to be pursued on the
exterior of the building, but here it will be requisite to note,
in a more especial manner, the arrangement and decoration of
the principal facades, as also of the towers and spires, if there
be any, and of any other similar addition.

The following are some of the principal terms employed
by him in his nomenclature.

Impost, the line or surface of common section between
the arch and the support upon which it rests ; not, as hereto-
fore explained, the mouldings or capital from which the arch
springs, but the plane upon which the arch and pier meet.

Continuous imposts, those in which the mouldings of the
arch are continued without interruption, to the ground.

Discontinuous imposts, where the mouldings of the arch
die into the pier without any band of mouldings.

Corbelled imposts, where the mouldings of the arch spring
from a corbel without being continued to the ground.

Arches he divides into simple and compound, the latter
term being applied to such as consist of several different sur-
faces projecting one beyond another, or such as may be
resolved into a number of concentric archways successively
placed within and behind each other.

Shafled archways, are those in which the horizontal sec-
tion of the shaft differs from that of the arch.

Banded archways, those in which the horizontal sections

of the pier and those of the arch coincide, but which have ,

impost mouldings or capitals.

Shafts are divided as follows :—

Vaulting shafts, those which sustain the ribs of vaulting.

Bearing shafts, those which sustain the whole super-incum-
bent weight.

Sub-shafts, such as sustain arches of which the upper side
is united to the soflit of the next arch or wall.

Face shafts, such as sustain arches of which the back only
is united to the wall, and which appear as though placed upon
the face of the wall.

Edge shafts, those which support arches united by their

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GOT

461

GOT

 

sides and back to the nearest wall or arch, so as to appear to
support the edge only.

Nook shafts, are similar in plan to edge shafts, but the
rib difi'ers from an edge—rib in not being united to the con-
tiguous wall, but, like the shaft, nestled into the re-entering
angle formed by the side and face of the contiguous arches.

The same terms are applied to the arches which are sus-
tained respectively by the above-named piers ; thus we have
sub-arches, face arches, 8w. Shafts which sustain vaulting
ribs are termed by Mr. Whewell Building pillars ; and com-
pound piers, pilaster masses.

When an arch is indented with foils or cusps, it is said to
be foiled, but when it has another foiled arch below the
simple one, it is said to be foliated.

Thus, in describing an archway, it is first designated as
simple or compound, and, if compound, it is described as
consisting of so many orders, according to the number
of arches it consists of, or, in other words, according to the
number of the different soffits or projections, and thereupon
each order is described separately in reference to the nature
of the impost, whether continuous or discontinuous, as to the
position of the shafts and arches, as sub-shafts, face shafts,
&c., and so on, in accordance with the nomenclature above
given.

Mr. Whewell'describes the arches of a vault as longi-
tudinal, transverse, and diagonal, the first term being applied
to those running in the direction of the length of the build-
ing; the second, those carried at right angles to the longitu-
dinal ; and the last, to those carried diagonally, intersecting
each other at the centre, and connecting the extreme angles
of the severy.

Vaulting is also described as quadripartite, sexpartite, octo-
partz'te, &c., according to the number of cells contained in
each bay.

Mr. Willis divides the intersections of vaults into grains
and ridges, the former term being applied to those forming
an external angle or edge, and the latter to those forming an
internal angle or nook. Hence we have groin ribs, ridge ribs,
and surface ribs, the last expression applying to those spread
over the surfaces of the vaulting cells.

It will be further necessary ere proceeding to the parti-
cular description of the styles, to give some account of the
various kinds of arches employed in Gothic buildings. This
is especially necessary, as the arch forms a very strong cha-
racteristic of the style, and is of very great assistance in
deciding, by its shape and formation, the period to which
any particular example may belong.

The arches in use in Mediaeval buildings, are the triangular,
circular, and pointed. Of these, the first, composed of two
straight lines inclined towards each other, and forming two
sides of a triangle, are almost peculiar to the Saxon style,
but are occasionally, though rarely, found at a later period;
the second, the outline of which consists of a curve of con-
stant curvature, or some portion of a circle, may be divided
into three difi'crent kinds, according to the porportion of the
circle which it includes.

The most simple of these three kinds, and that which is
the more frequently used, is the semi-circular, comprising
one half of the circle, the centre of which is in the springng
line of the arch. Thisform was in general use from the
time of its introduction by the Romans, until the establishment
of the Gothic style, from which it was almost discarded;
some few instances are, however, still to be found, in exam-
ples posterior to that period.

The horse—shoe arch, as it is called, containing a larger
portion than the half of the circumference, and having the
centre of the circle above the spring-line, is of very rare

6 B

 

occurrence at any period. The segmental, on the contrary,
which contains a portion of a circle only, and which springs
above its centre, is of occasional employment at every period,
more especially as an arch of construction, but also in aper-
tures, as doors and windows. There is yet another method
of using the semi-circular arch, by stilting it on uprights, so
that the curve of the arch is continued downwards in a straight
line below the springing of the course; this is found more
especially in the pre-Gothic styles.

Of the Pointed arch, which is characteristic of the style,
there are many varieties. In the first place, they divide
themselves into two-centred and four-centred arches, of the
former of which there are at least three descriptions; the
Lancet, the Equilateral, and the Obtuse.

The Lancet consists of two segments, the centres of which
fall outside the arch, the radius being of greater length than
the span : it may be described about an acute—angled triangle.
The equilateral has the centres of the segments on the oppo-
site extremities of the span, the radii of the circles therefore
being equal to the span of the arch; it maybe described
about an equilateral triangle. In the obtuse arch, the cen-
tres of the segments fall within the arch, and has therefore
the radii less than the span of the arch ; it may be described
about an obtuse-angled triangle.

The four-centred arch, which is also named the Tudor
arch, from the dynasty during which it was in use, is
described from two centres on either side, the one being ,on
a level with the springing, and the other at a considerable
distance below it, the curves of lesser curvature, or those
described with the longer radius, meeting at a point, and thus
leaving the arch still pointed.

There is another kind of arch termed the ogee, each side
of which consists of a curve of double curvature, the lower
curve being concave on its under side, and having its centre
on a level with the spring, and the upper convex, with the
centre on a level with the apex.

There yet remains to be noticed a more ornamental kind
of arch, which is by no means uncommon, and is what is
termed a foiled—or, to designate it still more closely—a tre-
foiled arch. The appellation arises from the shape or out-
line, which is that of a trefoil, or rather of a semi-quatrefoil.
There are two kinds of these; the round-headed trefoil, in
which the curve between the cusps is a semi-circle, and the
pointed trefoil, in which the same curve is composed of seg-
ments less than a semi-circle. There are also what are termed
square-headed trefoil arches, in which the centre compart-
ment, instead of being circular, is square or rectangular,
leaving the side-ones still circular.

Such are the arches most frequently applied in Gothic
buildings; there are some few other varieties, but they are
of so rare occurrence, that it is scarcely worth while taking
notice of them.

But to return to the classification and description of the
various styles ; the first of which, the Early English, dates
from A.D. 1180 to 1300, including the reigns of Henry 11.,
Richard 1., John, Henry III., and Edward I., may be called,
in general terms, the style of the thirteenth century. The
architecture of this period is exceedingly beautiful and chaste,
simple and elegant in design, and excellent and delicate in
execution, equally applicable to the modest village church,
and the noble abbey or cathedral, remarkable in the one for

its unobtrusive simplicity, and, in the other, for its solemn

and majestic grandeur.

In describing this and the succeeding styles, we shall
follow the method commenced by Rickman, and adopted by
most of the later writers, of considering them in detail; that
is to say, we shall select the most important of the component

 

 

 

 

 

 

parts of a building, and describe them separately as to their
character and treatment in each style. We shall arrange
these parts and their descriptions in the following manner:
Arc/ms; next their supports, Piers, which we subdivide into
Shaft, Capital, and Base; then Madows, Doorwags, But-
tresses, Parapets, Roofs, and so forth, including Towers,
Spires, and decorative features, such as mouldings, paterce,
foliage, and other sculpture.

Arches. The arches principally in vogue at this period,
were acutely pointed, either lancet or equilateral, the former
being most prevalent in the larger structures; in which,
however, the latter was not unfrequent, as may be seen at
Salisbury cathedral, where it is more frequent than any other
shape. It is, however, a rule that the arches are compara—
tively more acutely pointed in larger churches and cathedrals,
and accordingly we find the obtuse-pointed arch most exten-
sively used in small parish churches. The semi-circular arch
was not entirely out of use at this period, as we find it fre-
quently combined with the pointed, two or more of which
are sometimes included under one of the former shape, as at
Whitby Abbey, and in other examples. There are also not
a few instances in which the semi-circular form is used alone,
and sometimes treated in a similar manner as regards decora-
tion, to those of a later date. Segmental arches were likewise
in use. not only as constructive arches, but also as coverings
for apertures, and more especially doorways.

The soflits of the arches were, in the more magnificent
examples, richly moulded with a series of projecting rolls
with deep hollows intervening, but in smaller churches they
were for the most part merely cut in recession, so as to
‘ present two or more surfaces, having the angles of each pro-
jection plainly and broadly chamfered.

Piers. In large edifices the shafts of the piers were often
composed of a series of pillars clustered together in various
forms, to the number of four and upwards. Sometimes these
shafts were attached to each other, but they were frequently
detached, consisting of amassive central pier, usually circular,
but sometimes octagonal or square, and surrounded by four
or more slender pillars, entirely detached from each other and
the central shaft, except at the base and capital, and occasionally
at one or two points in the height of the shaft, where they were
connected by narrow bands or annulets of mouldings. These
annulets are used also in the other kinds of shafts, and are cha-
racteristic of the style. The smaller pillars, when detached, are
often constructed of a more costly material than the other parts
of the shaft, being sometimes of Purbeck marble, and polished.
The same arrangement of central shaft, with four sur-
rounding pillars, is to be found with the pillars attached to
the main pier; specimens of both kinds exist at Westminster
Abbey. The pillars are usually simple rounds, but some-
times they have a narrow vertical fillet.

In smaller churches, the shafts were a simple circle or
octagon in plan; more frequently the former, and are distin-
guishable from those of a later date, only by the details of
base and capital. It frequently happens that the shafts
of piers in the same edifice differ in form, and they are
frequently so arranged as to have circular and octagonal
forms alternately in the same arcade.

The capitals of this period are usually bell-shaped, and
are often, especially in the smaller examples, quite plain,
with the exception of a necking, and one or two mouldings
beneath the abacus. In such cases, they are distinguished
from the capitals of later styles only by their mouldings,
which consist of rounds and deep hollows ; the bell is
generally very deeply undercut, which is a strong character-
istic of the style. The mouldings are generally plain and
few but sometimes the nail-head or dog-tooth ornament is

462

GOT

 

 

inserted between them. In the larger and richer specimens, ;
the bell is covered with foliage, which springing from the
necking, is curled over with a graceful curve beneath the
upper mouldings. The foliage is somewhat stiff in appear-
ance, but of a bold and striking character, and is sometimes
undercut to such an extent as to be partially detached from
the bell; it consists for the most part of a variety of adapta~ ,
tions of the trefoil leaf, and we rarely meet figures of any
kind. In clustered piers, the capitals follow the form of the

pier; as also in the single shaft they adopt the same form,
with the exception that the multangular shaft has not unfre-
quently a circular capital. The abacus is either circular or ‘
octagonal, and sometimes square in plan, and consists of ‘
mouldings varying in number, and made up of deep hollows
with overhanging rounds, which are either plain or filleted.

The base consists of a series of mouldings, frequently of
a deep hollow and fillet between two rounds, of which the
lower one projects beyond the other; it is also often similar
to the Attic base, with the exception that the proportions
differ, the upper torus being greatly reduced, and the con-
cave mouldings deeply undercut. The base most frequently
stands upon a single or double plinth, which in the earlier
examples is square, having the angle covered with a leaf
which springs from the mouldings of the base, and falls
over the plinth. In later specimens, the plinth assumes the
form of the base, and is either circular or polygonal: it is
sometimes of great height; having a second series of mould-
ings below the base.

The windows of ' this style are for the most part long and :
narrow, with acutely-pointed heads. The earliest and simplest .
form is that of a long narrow single light, with arched head, i
and without moulding of any kind either internally or exter~ ‘
nally, the exterior angle being merely chamfered, and the
interior widely splayed. Such windows were sometimes
without any weather-moulding, but occasionally a string- ‘
course was carried from one window to another, at a level ‘
with the springing of the head, and then lifted over it,
adopting its form, and carried on to the next aperture. In
later times such windows appear in groups of two, three, or
more, the first being commonly found in the side-walls of
churches, and the latter being almost confined to the east
end, except in very large buildings, where it is found in all ‘
positions. The separate lights of these groups are generally
placed at some distance apart on the exterior, so as scarcely
to ‘appear as belonging to the same window; but in the ,
interior, owing to the great splay given to each light, ,
the distance between them appears inconsiderable, giving *'
them the appearance of a single compound window. This ,1
idea is sometimes manifested on the outside by the two or
more lights being contained under one drip-stone. The .
glass is inserted near the outer face of the wall, which
circumstance, taken in connection with the great thickness
of the walls, accounts for the difference of the size of the ,
aperture on the two faces of the wall. This arrange- ;
ment was in all probability adopted for the purpose of ,
obtaining a larger proportion of light, or rather spreading '
what they obtained over a larger portion of the interior.

The arches of the splay on the interior, seldom follow the
form of the window heads on the exterior, but spring from
a lower level, and are almost always chamfered or moulded at
their angles or edges; the mouldings projecting below the
soffit, and either dying into the jamb, or resting upon corhels ;
at the spring of the arch. ‘

In windows of three lights, the centre one is almost
always of a greater length than those at the side, its head
rising considerably above theirs, so as to preserve the arched
form in the entire window. “7e occasionally meet with

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GOT

 

463

 

windows of four lights, the two centre ones rising above the
others, but more frequently with others of five or seven
lights rising in gradation to the centre one, which is higher
than the rest. These large windows have a very beautiful
effect, occupying as they do nearly the whole of the east wall.
In all the above cases the jambs are sometimes plain, being
merely chamfered and splayed as before described; but at
other times we find them decorated with small detached
pillars, with moulded arches. This is most frequent in the
interior, where the shafts are not unusually of polished
marble, but such decoration is also to be met with on the
exterior, especially in large buildings. In windows of a

. late date, the arched heads are sometimes foiled.

Before the termination of this style, windows of a some-
what difl‘erent appearance were introduced, which originated
thus :—In cases where windows of more than one light were
employed, it was, as.has been mentioned, a not unusual prac-
tice to include them under one arch, the head of which was
left plain; but in the course of time this space began to be
pierced with another small light in the form of a circle or
trefoil, which at once relieved the blank space beneath the
arch, and admitted a greater amount of light. At Brown-

; sover church, Warwickshire, there is a very simple arrange-

‘ sides of the larger connecting arch.

ment of this kind, in which the third light is somewhat in
the shape of a diamond placed between the arched heads of

‘ the principal lights, to which two sides of the figure are

parallel, the two remaining sides being parallel to the curved
In the earlier specimens

1 of this class, the openings are still chamfered only, with
, shafts sometimes on the inside; but at a later period the
f lights were brought closer together, and were divided by
‘ slender shafts, and the arches and ornamental lights in the
i head moulded and foliated. We have many beautiful examples

of windows of three lights, with three foliated circles in the
head, and sometimes of five or more lights similarly decorated.
The windows of the Chapter—house, York, are most beautiful
specimens of five lights, which are arranged in two pairs of

' two lights each, connected under one arched head containing

i in the extreme.

a foliated circle ; the central light being also surmounted by
an arch containing a trefoil. The whole of these are enclosed
under the principal arch, which contains above the lights,
three large foliated circles. The effect of this design is grand
The cast window of Lincoln Cathedral is
another magnificent example: it contains eight lights in all,
which are divided into two compartments containing four
lights each, with arched heads filled with foliated circles,
whilst: the principal head is filled with one large circle con-
taining seven of a smaller size. This is probably the largest
window of the kind we possess.

Circular or rose-windows are not unfrequent in this style,
and are divided into compartments by slender shafts with
capitals, &c., radiating from the centre, and sustaining at the
circumference small arches, which are usually trefoiled.
Smaller windows of this form are either left plain, foiled, or
filled with quatrefoils, Ste. Windows of triangular shape are
also found, as well as a peculiar sort of window in the form
of what is called the Vesica Piscis; but these are always
small, and placed in subordinate situations, such as t. e
gables or the clere-stories of parish churches. Small squav‘e-
headed windows are sometimes employed, but only in towns
and similar situations.

The dripstones follow the form of the arch, and usually
terminate on a projecting head or knob of foliage, but are
sometimes returned horizontally along the wall; the moulding
has a deep hollow on the under side to prevent the rain running
over it. A string-course is generally carried along the exter-
nal and internal walls, immediately below the windows.

 

The doorways of this period are most frequently furnished
with nook-shafts in the jambs, which are, for the most part,
detached from the walls, except at the capitals and bases.
The more simple doorways have only one shaft on either
side, supporting an archivolt of a few bold mouldings, the

. whole surmounted by a simple hood-moulding conforming to

the shape of the arch, and terminating in a head or bunch ‘
of foliage, or returned in a horizontal direction along the
walls. More elaborate specimens have two or more shafts
on either side, and a greater number of mouldings in the
arch. The jamb is cut in recession to receive the shafts, and
the spaces between the mouldings or shafts are frequently
filled up with the dog-tooth ornament or a running pattern
of foliage. The arched heads of doorways are most fre-
quently pointed, but not rarely round-pointed or square-
headed trefoil.

The doorways of the larger structures are mostly divided
into two arched apertures by a simple or clustered shaft,
which is often of polished marble, and furnished with a richly
moulded or foliaged capital. The arches are also foiled or
foliated, and enclosed under one main arch, the space between
being perforated in circles, trefoils, &c., and sometimes filled
with groups of sculpture.

The doors are either plain or covered with iron scroll-
work, sometimes proceeding from the hinges, which are often
of a very ornamental character, but at other times nearly
plain. In some cases this scroll-work is very elegant, and .
completely covers the door. ?

The buttresses of this period are, for the most part, of a
simple character, consisting, in smaller churches, of two or
more stages, the lowermost projecting beyond the other, each .
set—off being sloped at the top so as to carry off the rain.
The buttress finishes at the top under the parapet, or eaves,
with a simple slope similar to that of the other projections. .
In larger buildings, the buttress is frequently finished with ‘s
a triangular head or gablet, but is seldom carried above the
parapet, except where stone vaulting is employed, and, in
such cases, it is covered with a pinnacle which is either plain
or enriched with blank arcades. Sometimes each set-off is .
finished with a triangular head, and, at others, the water- 1
table is Continued round three sides of the buttress. The .
edges of such buttresses are often chamfered, or the angles
ornamented with slender shafts ; occasionally, too, the face is
formed into a niche to contain a statue.

There is a peculiarity about the position of buttresses of 1
this period, which is often the only means of distinguishing ,
them from those of later date; at the angles of buildings 2
they are not placed diagonally, but at right angles to the :
wall, so that whereas in this style we require two buttresses 3
at each angle, placed at right angles to each other and to the ,
adjoining walls, in the following styles we need but one.

Flying-buttresses, which are arches springing from the
wall-buttresses over the roof to the clere-story, were now
first introduced, and are common in all large buildings with
vaulted roofs. They are of simple design. with a plain cap-
ping and archivolt. l

Parapets are not frequent in small buildings, the roof
being carried over the walls with dripping eaves; but when '
they occur, they are of a simple character, finished at the 2‘
top with a moulded capping, and supported underneath by ‘
a corbel-table, which consists of a series of bIOcks moulded
or sculptured in the form of heads or masks, and sometimes
of foliage ; these are often connected together by trefoiled, or
other arches. The projection of the parapet above the
corbel-table is often merely chamfered, but in the richer spe- i
cimens moulded, and sometimes decorated with the dog- ‘

tooth ornament. In cathedrals, we occasionally see the l

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GOT

464

(iOT

 

parapet relieved by panelling, as at Salisbury, where the panels
a are of the form of trefoiled arches, and sometimes pierced with
trefoils, &c. Battlements are not often found in this style.

Pinnacles, which rise above the general level of the build-
ings, are often mere continuations of the rectangular buttress
capped with simple pyramids of square or polygonal bases,
without any ornamentation, but in more costly examples the
latter form is chiefly employed for the entire pinnacle, and
is enriched with one or more series of blank arcades, which
give them a light and elegant appearance ; in some instances,
the arcades are perforated. ,

The Roof; are of a high pitch, the angle at the apex coin-
ciding mostly with that of an equilateral triangle, but some-
times they are more depressed. In small buildings, as we
have above stated, they not unfrequently overhang the walls,
but in larger ones they are stopped by the parapet. In the
V interior of large churches and cathedrals the roof is gene-
rally vaulted, the vaulting being of the simplest kind,
or that which has been described as quadripartite, that is,
Consisting of four cells in each bay, and being divided only
by transverse and diagonal ribs, not having a longitudinal
one along the apex, as in later examples. The mouldings
of the ribs consist generally of rounds plain or filleted, and
deep hollows, and are covered at their intersection by bosses
of sculptured foliage.

The wooden roofs of the period were like all Gothic roofs,
except those of a very late date, open to the ridge, and un—
ceiled, so as to afford a view of the timbers from the body of
the building. In recent times, however, most of these open
roofs have been excluded from view by the intervention of
a modern ceiling, and it is seldom they are brought to light,
except on the occasion of an extensive repair or restoration
of the entire fabric. This fact will account for the paucity
of information respecting this portion of a building, a want
which is more particularly felt in respect of the early styles;
so much so, indeed, that we scarcely know for certainty how
to distinguish the Early English from the Decorated exam-
ples, and it is probable that there is no very marked difi‘er-
ence between them, although it is usual to make a distinction
in treatises of this nature.

The most simple roofs, which we may attribute as more
particularly belonging to this period, consist only of common
rafters placed at short distances apart, without the interven-
tion of trussed principals, and have a very good effect; owing
to the lengthened perspective produced by the frequent repe-
tition of the same parts. The rafters are very often secured
by means of collar beams and braces, or by intersecting braces
Springing from purlins about half-way up the rafters, and
rising to a higher purlin on the opposite side of the roof.
These two systems are very common and simple, but not

 

with cross braces intersecting at a point usually above it;
and sometimes, in addition to these, we have a strut below
all resting upon the wall-plate, so that the entire outline of
the under side presents the appearance of a polygonal arch.
In some instances, the braces are curved in the form of a
pointed arch. Where the roof is carried over both nave and
aisles, the portion over the nave is of a similar description
to those above mentioned, and in that over the aisles, the side
next the nave is supported by short beams or struts abutting
against the nave walls ; this is also common in lean-to roofs.
Although the practice of adopting only common rafters may
be more usual, the introduction of principals is not unfre-
quently resorted to, which, in such instances, follow the same
constructive form as the common rafters before referred to,
g the common rafters, however, are of a more simple character
l than the principals.

 

unfrequently the two were united, so as to have a collar beam,

 

Tie-beams do not seem to have been of frequent occur-
rence, and king-posts are still less usual, their absence being
very readily accounted for by their necessary weight in roofs
of a high pitch; when tie-beams are employed, they are
sometimes supported underneath by sloping braces abutting
against the wall, and this method removes, in a great degree,
the objection made against ties, of destroying the vertical
tendency of the general design.

The timbers of the roof are often plain or chamfered on
the edges, but in the richer specimens they are moulded, or
at least the main beams, such as principals, purlins, wall
plates, and such like, but the common rafters are mostly
plain.

The Towers of the period are of various proportions, but
generally bear a substantial, massive appearance; they are
almost always square on plan, but sometimes octagonal, and
in a few instances square below and octagonal above. They
are strengthened at the angles by buttresses, two at each
corner, projecting at right angles to the walls, which generally
terminate a stage or more below the top; projecting stair-
turrets are not uncommon, but are sometimes concealed by
the buttresses.

The tower is divided into stages by set-offs or otherwise,
of which the upper ones are frequently decorated with blank
arcades, a few being perforated to serve as windows; some-
times the faces are perfectly plain, with the eXCeption of the
apertures for windows, which consist of one or more light,
the most important being placed in the upper stories. Here,
in smaller churches, we generally have a window of two
lights divided by a shaft, and having a foiled aperture under
the arched head, but in larger churches we find windows of
three lights, or triplets, but of equal height; in the lower
stories we usually find single lancets.

These towers are occasionally covered by a low pyramidal
or a gable roof, but more frequently by a lofty spire of
stone or wood, although for the most part less acutely
pointed than those of a later style. The spires are almost
invariably broach-spires, that is to say, such as spring directly
from the roof, without the intervention of a parapet; their
plan is almost always octagonal, four of the sides sloping
down to the eaves, but the four corner ones leaving a trian-
gular space at each angle of the tower uncovered, which is
occupied either by a pinnacle, or more frequently by a trian-
gular pyramid, which connects the angles of the tower with
the angular faces of the spire. Towards the lower part of
the spire, the cardinal sides are furnished with windows,
which rise perpendicularly, so as to give a projection at the
top which is covered with a gable-head, and sometimes we
have two or more tiers of such windows placed often on
alternate sides of the spire. The whole is surmounted by a
finial and vane. The cornice below the eaves is frequently
ornamented with the dog-tooth moulding, or a running
pattern, and is often supported upon a bold corbel-table.

A very elegant substitute for tower and spire, is employed
in small churches, in the shape of a bell-gable, with one or
more openings to contain the bells.

The [Mouldings of the style have no great variety of form,
but consist almost universally of bold rounds with deep under-

cut hollows intervening, so as to produce a great amount of :

shadow. The rounds are sometimes filleted with one or more
fillets, but this is not usually the case with the smaller
mouldings. Where several mouldings are connected together,
there is considerable difference of size, the entire series being
generally divided into a few distinct portions by mouldings
of a large size, which are often tilleted, and the intermediate
spaces filled up by smaller plain mouldings. In such cases,
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that if a line be drawn to touch the most prominent points,
it will form a succession of rectangular recesses. The large
rounds are sometimes brought to a pointed edge in the middle,
and the smaller ones very deeply undercut on one side: in
some cases, a fillet intervenes at the junction of the round
and hollows, but they mostly unite in a continuous line with-
out any interruption. String-courses often consist of a plain
round-moulding, or of a roll-moulding of two different curves,
so as to cause the upper half to overlap the lower; sometimes

“hey are mere slopes with hollow underneath. Hood—mould-
ings consist for the most part of an overlapping round with
deep hollow underneath. The base-mouldings are composed
of a series of slopes, with sometimes a string-course mould-
ing along the top, but in more elaborate works they com-
prise a series of mouldings consisting of projecting and over-
hanging rounds deeply undercut.

The hollows of the mouldings are often filled with orna-
ments peculiar to the style, of which the most usual and
characteristic is that termed the dog-tooth ornament. It is
a kind of pyramidal flower of four leaves, the division between
the leaves being placed in the centre of each side of the
pyramid ; the flower is placed in an inverted position, the base
of the pyramid being placed against the hollow, with the
apex projecting. This ornament varies to some extent in
different examples, but always preserves the same general
appearance; it is very effective on account of the deep
shadow produced at the division of the leaves. They are
placed in a hollow moulding, or in the edge ofajamb, either
singly, with a space intervening between each two, but more
frequently in close proximity to each other. Single leaves
and flowers of a different character are sometimes inserted
in a similar way, and sometimes a running pattern of leaves
or foliage.

Sculptured foliage is much used in the more costly build-
ings, forming capitals, corbels, crockets, and bosses, and is
usually of a stiff character, that is to say, the leaves have
a crisp appearance not observable in other styles. It is very
beautiful, however, and worked with much taste and freedom;
although it does not present an appearance so natural or flow-
ing as that employed during the next period. Amongst other
varieties of foliage, the trefoil is predominant, the two lower
lobes of which, and sometimes all three, are worked with a
bulb or swelling in the centre, the middle lobe being fre-
quently of larger size than the others.

The crockets likewise are usually in the form of a trefoil-
leaf, curled back like the head of a pastoral stafl'.

The walls of large buildings are frequently ornamented by
a series of blank archessupported on pillars. These are
common, running round the base of the walls on the interior,
and are employed in many other situations, both externally
and internally, so much so as to become a characteristic of
the style. Another method of ornamenting blank walls is
by diapering, or carving them in low recession after some
small and recurring pattern, frequently in the form of square
leaves, as in the triforia, W estminster Abbey.

chlzes Were in use at this period, but of a less elaborate
character than those of succeeding styles. The figures
were frequently set on small pedestals, and surmounted by
a canopy consisting oftentimes of a three- or five—foiled arch
with plain pedimental head; in many cases, the canopies
project or bow forwards. Niches are often placed in ranges
of two or more, under one common arch, and in such cases
are generally separated by single shafts.

. Mr. Bloxam has subdivided this style into two, the earliest
of which he names the S'enzi-rVorman style. It is the same
as that styled by others the Transition style, and embraces
that class of buildings in which the round and pointed arches

6 C

 

seem to be struggling for pre-eminence, and which bear
evident marks of their near affinity to both systems: remark-
able examples of the kind are the Church of S. Cross, and
Malmesbury Abbey.

The general characteristics of this division consist in the
use and combination of round and pointed arches in the same
building; in some instances, pointed arches are surmounted
by others of the semi-circular form, in others semi-circular
arches are made to intersect, and thus form pointed arches.
Another characteristic is the existence of pointed arches on
massive piers of Norman design. The piers are mostly Norman
in character and proportion, but have their capitals often orna
mented with a simple description of foliage. In other respects,
the details of such buildings are for the most part Norman.

Sometimes the piers are of more slender proportions, and
attached to a large central pier, which is either square or
round; and a still closer approximation to the Early English
examples is shown in the horizontal bands surrounding the
piers about midway.

The soffits of arches are frequently recessed, which shows
an advance upon previous examples, but the chamfer com-
mon to Early English buildings is omitted, the edges being
left square.

T he Decorated style,

Otherwise termed, in architecture, the flIiddle-poz'nted,
stands next in respect of time and decoration. It had its
commencement in the reign of Edward the First, and arrived
at maturity during the reigns of the two succeeding Edwards,
from which circumstance the name of Edwardian has some
times been applied to it. It dates from 1307 to 1377, or
a little later, and may be named generally the style of the
fourteenth century. This period of architecture is of all
others the most beautiful; it rivals the preceding in chaste-
ness, while it surpasses it in richness; and at the same
time is free from the extravagant and redundant ornamen-
tation of the succeeding styles.

The arches of this period are described from equilateral
or obtuse-angled triangles, and in many instances are not
easily distinguishable by their shape from those of the pre-
vious style; and in smaller buildings, where the soffits are
merely recessed and chamfered without mouldings, it is a diffi-
cult matter to distinguish them at all; the date, however, ,
may usually be determined by the mouldings of the caps and
bases of the piers. In larger or more costly buildings, the
arches are moulded, and the distinction marked by their con-
tour. The mouldings consist of rounds projecting to the
extent of from one to three-quarters of the circumference, and
are frequently filleted, alternating with plain soflits and faces.
As arches of decoration, the trefoiled was not uncommon.
Hood-moulds frequently occur, and are terminated on heads
or foliage.

The shafts of piers in small parish-churches are mostly of
a simple circular or octagonal plan, similar to those of the
preceding period, and, like the arches, are only distinguished
by their capitals and bases. The alternate arrangement of
the circular and octagonal piers is still adhered to. In larger
buildings the piers are clustered, and consist of four or more
shafts, which are in contour either half or three-quarter
cylinders. They differ from Early English examples in being
attached to each other,whereas the latter are detached from
each other, and frequently from the central shaft. The plan
of these clustered piers is often that of a lozenge, or of a.
square placed diagonally; another shape is that of a quatre-
foil, but many other forms are found which we cannot stop
to mention. In many instances, we see four or more main
shafts with smaller shafts introduced between them, and
sometimes mere mouldings in the place of the Secondary

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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GOT

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shafts; in late examples, small shafts occur, separated by
a deep hollow and two fillets, a form which prevails in
the succeeding style, but in Perpendicular examples the
hollow is very shallow in comparison. In all the above cases
vertical fillets are employed to a very large extent both upon
the shafts and mouldings. In very large structures the piers
are made up of a very great number of shafts.

The capitals are either bell-shaped or octagonal, and in
clustered pillars usually follow the general form of the pier,
but sometimes are continued in one sweep all round without

 

any regard to the contour of the shafts. They are fre-
quently only moulded, the prevailing mouldings being rounds,
plain or filleted, ogees and hollows, in which some ornament,
such as the ball-flower, is often introduced. The mouldings
are not so deeply cut as in the Early English examples.
In most of the clustered, and many of the single pillars, the
vase is covered with ri J1 and beautiful foliage placed hori-
zontally, and consisting of very perfect and natural imita-

, tations of the oak, ivy, vine, 850., very freely and delicately

1 executed.

 

Some capitals are ornamented with sculptures
of heads, figures, and such like. The abacus is either cir-
cular or polygonal in plan, and its mouldings are composed
of rounds, frequently with an overlap, of ogees, and hollows.
We have instances of continuous imposts in this style, where
the mouldings of the pier are carried round the arch without
the intervention of a capital.

There is great variety in the bases of this period. In
plan they usually agree with the shaft, but are sometimes
octagonal where the piers are circular, the mouldings follow-
ing the contour of the pier, and overhanging the plinth ; in
some few instances the mouldings are raised on a square
plinth. The plinths are frequently double, and of consider-
able height, the lower one projecting beyond the upper with
a simple splay, reversed ogee, or hollow, with sometimes one
or two small mouldings above. The base mouldings vary,
but consist, for the most part, of reversed ogees or quarter-
1‘ounds, with the occasional insertion of one or two small
rounds. In clustered columns the bases follow the general
outline of the pier.

The doorway/s have one or more shafts in the jambs,
which differ from the Early English examples in being con-
stantly engaged. These have moulded or sculptured capitals,
but the jambs are filled up with mouldings, which are con-
tinued round the arch without interruption. Many doorways
are without pillars, being entirely composed of mouldings
which are continuous with those of the architrave, and are
composed of a series of quarter-round and semi-cylindrical
mouldings, the former being often filleted up the face. The
hollows are frequently filled up with sculptured foliage, such
as the ball-flower, or a square ornament placed at intervals, and
sometimes with a running pattern of ivy or vine leaves, 8w. ;
occasionally we find a series of niches carried up the jamb.
The doorways are not usually so much recessed as those of
the previous style, and the shafts are more slender, appproxi-
mating more nearly to mouldings. In large buildings the
arch is mostly pointed, but in smaller examples the ogee arch
is not unfrequent, and the square-headed trefoil occasional :
the architrave is usually moulded. The hood-moulds are
Seldom returned, but terminate in a head or knop of foliage.
The arches are frequently surmounted by a triangular, or
ogee canopy, which is finished with crockets and finials, and
the spandrels filled with sculpture of various kinds. The
doors themselves are often hung with ornamental hinges, as
in the previous style, but the iron-work is of somewhat
different design. In other respects the doors are mostly
plain, though sometimes panelled and with tracery in the
heads. The nails are often of an ornamental description,

being of an hexagonal form, or made in the shape of a leaf
or flower.
The windows of this period are usually of a large size, and

and their heads are frequently trefoiled.
are divided into two or more lights by vertical mullions, but
are seldom divided horizontally except in tall spire-lights, or
in domestic edifices. These vertical mullions are carried up
as far as the springing of the arch, and from that point
branch out in various directions, interlacing and forming
patterns of varied and beautiful design, known under
the name of tracery. The variation from Early English
practice is here distinctly marked, first in the employ-
ment of mullions in the place of shafts with capitals and
bases, but more prominently in the method of filling the
head or arch, of the origin of which, we have taken notice
above. In the earlier specimens the tracery is composed of
circles, trefoils, quatrefoils, triangles, and other simple and
complicated geometrical forms, arranged in various patterns,
and is hence termed, geometrical tracery; but at a later
period the lines assumed a more wavy or flowing appearance,
and were disposed with greater freedom, such description of
work being distinguished as flowing tracery. A very
simple kind of window is that in which the mullions merely
cross in the heads ; and another of two lights with a simple
trefoil in the head. This last approximates very closely to
some Early English examples, but there is another kind
which bears a close resemblance to the earlier specimens or
triplets, and consists merely of three lights comprised under
one arch, the centre one of which is higher than the two side
ones, and separated from them by mullions. The subordi-
nate arches formed by the intersections of the mullions, are
generally foiled, as are also the principal compartments of
the tracery ; but there are some few exceptions.

The heads of the windows are principally two-centred
pointed arches of various proportions; but segmental arches
both simple and pointed, not unfrequently occur, as also does
the ogee. Square-headed windows are by no means uncom-

however, are entirely devoid of tracery. Common hood-
mouldings resting on masks, heads, &c., are most frequent, but

pies introduced, and ornamented with crockets and finials.
The mullions are most frequently simply chamfered, or in
later examples slightly hollowed, but in more costly buildings
each mullion is composed of a series of mouldings, set the
mond-wise, and sometimes the hollows are filled up at inter—
vals with some ornament peculiar to the style. In some
cases we find shafts with capitals and bases still introduced,
more especially against the jambs. String-courses are seldom
omitted on the exterior beneath the windows. The windows
are splaycd on the interior, and the inner arch is frequently
of a different form to that on the exterior, its edge being

Early English examples.

Exeter cathedral, almost every one of them being of a dif-
ferent pattern ; the most elaborate, however, and the largest,
is over the west entrance.

Circular windows filled with tracery are not uncommon
in large structures, and are sometimes of excellent design.

 

as Clare-stories, gables, 8w.

of several lights, but there are also windows of a single light :
which are of a less elongated form than the Early English, ‘
Larger windows

mon, especially in subordinate parts of the building, and have ‘
their heads filled with tracery, as in the other cases ; some few, ‘

sometimes in rich examples we find pedimental and ogee cano-

moulded or chamfered, similar to the practice followed in

Very beautiful windows‘of this style are to be seen at ‘

Windows in the shape of squares, trefoils, quatrefoils, sphe- ‘
rical triangles, and sex-foiled circles, are common, but are of 3
small size, and are usually seen in subordinate situations, such .

 

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The more simple buttresses are not easily to be distin-
guished from those of other styles, consisting, as they do, of
plain piers, with one or more slopes or set-offs, without any
further decoration ; but in some cases they may be known from
those of the Early English, by their position at the angles
of buildings, where they are set diagonally. This, however,
is not a very sure criterion, for some Decorated buttresses
stand in the same position as those of the preceding style.
In many instances the set-offs are finished with a pedimental
head or gablet, which is sometimes plain, but more frequently
foliated, and decorated with crockets and finials. In rich
examples, the faces are often recessed for niches, which are
surmounted by rich canopies, small buttresses, pinnacles, 8:0.
The buttress seldom reaches above the parapet unless sur-
mounted by a pinnacle, which is mostly of an elaborate
description, being finished on all sides by a pedimented head
similar to that above described, and the whole surmounted by
an acute pyramidal top with crockets and finials.

The parapet is frequently embattled with plain or moulded
capping, but very often consists of a plain horizontal cap.
Some horizontal examples are pierced or sunk in trefoils &c.,
and very often with trefoils inserted in the spaces left on either
side of an undulating moulding. Corbel-tables are of rare oc-
currence, but the parapet is usually finished on the under side
by a cornice consisting of a roll-moulding, overlapping a
deep hollow, in which are sometimes inserted ball-flowers,
masks, and other ornaments.

The roof still continues of a lofty pitch, but somewhat
more depressed than in the previous style. The larger

churches are vaulted as before, but there is some difference

in the arrangement of the ribs, which are greatly increased
in number. Each bay or compartment of the vaulting is
intersected, not only by longitudinal, transverse, and diagonal
ribs, but these again are intersected by others in a variety of
ways, so as to divide the vault into a greater number of cells,
a practice which gives the roof a more complicated and richer
appearance. Bosses of elegant design, and excellent workman-
ship, cover the intersections of the ribs, which are moulded, and
the hollows frequently filled with the ball-flower ornament.
The same remarks apply to the wooden roofs of this period

,_ as to those of the preceding: we have but few examples now

remaining, roofs of a later period having frequently been
substituted in buildings of this style. The early roofs are
doubtless of much the same character as the Early English,
but in later examples there are some distinctions, although it
is a somewhat difficult task to decide the exact date of any.
In some examples the beams are merely chamfered as
before, but in many they are moulded or have their edges
foiled or cusped in such a manner that the spaces between
the timbers present the appearance of some description of
polyfoil. Tie-beams seem to have been of frequent occur-
rence in this style, and are often suspended by king-posts,
which are sometimes but plain timbers, but at others assume
the form of an octagonal shaft with moulded base and capital.
Polygonal roofs having the timbers so disposed as to present
to view a number of canted surfaces, are not unusual, they
are mostly of six sides, but sometimes in later examples hep-
tagonal. The principals of high-pitched roofs are frequently
disposed in the form of an arch, and where tie-beams are
employed, the same outline is preserved, by supporting them
on curved braces, fixed to awall-piece and resting on corbels.
Longitudinal braces are frequently carried from the king-post
of one principal to that of the next, and are often of an arched
form resting at each end on the tie-beams, and reaching to
the ridge-piece at the apex, such arches being frequently
foiled. A somewhat similar arrangement is adopted on the
sloping sides of the roof, the purlins resting on arched purlin-

 

braces, which stand upon the wall-plates, and are carried up 1

under the common rafters.
posts and collars are employed, in others, king-posts with

In some instances both king- ‘

struts on either side, and occasionally queen-posts and straining 2

pieces are introduced.

A curious roof of this date is thus described by Mr. 1‘

Bloxam 2—“ In the little desecrated church of Horton, near

Canterbury, is an open wooden roof, of a construction diffe- ‘

rent to those which have been described. It is divided into
bays by horizontal tie-beams, with the under parts moulded,
resting on the wall-plates and on vertical wall-pieces sup-
ported on corbels, with a curved brace between each wall-

piece and the tie-beam. From the centre of each tie—beam I

rises an octagonal-shaped king-post up to about two-thirds
in height of the valley of the roof, where it supports a longi-
tudinal rib or beam. From the principals of the roof, at

about two-fifths in height, spring plain braces, which cross ‘
diagonally just above the longitudinal rib, and rest on the ;

opposite principal.
beam nor apparent ridge-piece.
king-post spring curved braces, both longitudinal and lateral ;

Above these there is neither collar- 3
From four sides of the 1

the former support the longitudinal rib, the latter the braces ‘

which cross above it. The roof is high—pitched.” Other

examples of this or a similar description occur, and the i
arrangement of curved braces springing from the four sides ‘

of the king-post are not uncommon.
In the richer class of roofs the spandrels formed by the
intersection of the timbers are frequently filled with tracery.
The general arrangement of the towers is similar to that

of the previous style, the greatest differences appearing in j

the apertures and decorations.

The windows of the lower i

stories are many of them of small dimensions, and of single 1

lights with ogee or foliated heads, and label or square hood-
mould. The belfry -windows are the most important
features, and are arranged singly or in pairs; they are
of a large size, frequently filling up the entire story. The

largest window, however, frequently occurs on the west face i

of the lower story, or that above the entrance, and forms
one of the general range in the interior of the church; it is
often of very large dimensions and elaborate design, standing
in this respect next to that in the east wall of the chancel.

Blank arcades are not so much in vogue as in Early English :

examples, and when used are of a form and decoration
common to the period.
The spires are very acutely pointed, but in some cases are

very low, forming merely a low pyramidal roof to the tower: j;
the latter is mostly constructed of wood, a material frequently 1

employed in the construction of the loftier kinds, which in
larger structures, however, are almost universally of stone.
The large spires boast a larger number of spire-lights than

those of earlier date; and not only so, but they are of a more ‘
elaborate description, being capped by lofty pediments '

enriched with crockets and finials. They are also some-

times divided into a number of compartments by horizontal 3

bands of panelling, and the angles of the spire enriched with i
crockets running all the way up, and terminating in a large f

finial.
is either plain or embattled, and sometimes pierced in quatre.
foils, &c., and is supported on a moulded cornice, the hollows
of which are often filled with the ball-flower or some other
ornament. At the angles we frequently find projecting
gurgoyles in the form of animals, &c. Pinnacles of a pro-

minent and elaborate character are of constant occurrence, 5

and sometimes behind them rise ornamented flying-buttresses
to support the lower portion of the spire. Parapets and
gutters, however, are not universal, for we not unfrequently
meet with broach-spires of this period.

The tower is mostly finished with a parapet, which 5

 

 

 

 

 

 

GOT

468

 

GOT

 

The mouldings consist for the most part of a greater num-
ber and variety of members than those of the Early English
style. Rounds and hollows still prevail, but the latter are
not so much undercut as before; in the earlier examples
they are still deep, but grow more shallow towards the
termination of the style. Quarter, half, and three-quarter
rounds are most prevalent, and are often filleted and separated
by small hollows; ogees, too, are of frequent occurrence, as
are also ovolos and cavettos. Another undulating moulding,
similar to "that in use in the next period, but of somewhat
different projection, is also used, and is in appearance some-
what like a double cyma, consisting of a convexity in the
centre between two hollows. The roll-moulding, in which
the upper half overlaps the lower, is in constant use. Rounds
and hollows are sometimes separated by fillets, but frequently
run into each other without any interruption.

For string-courses, the overlapping roll-moulding is very
common, but sometimes a simple roll or a roll filleted, or
what is termed keeled, is used in its place; the latter term
being applied when the roll comes to a sharp edge in the
centre. These mouldings are used either separately, or with
other subordinate ones ; a. hollow is not unfrequently carried
underneath. Hood-moulds are formed of quarter-rounds or
ogees with a hollow or plain chamfer beneath, and are seldom
returned. The base-moulds consist of one or more slopes
with or without a projecting edge, the whole being surmounted
by a filleted or keeled round. In all the above cases the
ball-flower and other ornaments are often inserted in the
hollows and carettos.

The leaves selected for imitation in the foliage of this
period, are those of the oak, vine, ivy, fern, white-thorn, &c.,
which are copied with a boldness and freedom not common
in previous examples. They are also more naturally disposed,
and have a less stiff and formal appearance than those of any
other style ; there are not so many sudden projections, and
the outline is of a more gently undulating form than in the
Early English specimens: in capitals, the stems are twined
about in various directions, instead of rising vertically from
the neck.

The most usual and characteristic of the ornaments is the
ball-flower, which consists of a round ball enclosed within a
flower of three or four petals, the ball appearing beneath the
slight opening of the petals; it is supposed by some to repre-
sent a rose-bud. It is used in almost every situation, but
more especially in the hollow mouldings of jambs, arches,
cornices, &c., in which it is inserted at intervals. Another
ornament consists of an open square flower of four leaves,
with a small ornament in the centre, which is employed in
the same manner as the preceding ; but a series of them is
sometimes used, the flowers being placed in contact with each
other, in which manner it is frequently applied as a diaper.
They are sometimes introduced alternately with the ball-
flower. A representation of a very beautiful ornament which
occurs at Adderbury, is given by Mr. Bloxam in his manual.
It bears some affinity in form to the dog-tooth moulding, and
consists of four ivy leaves placed in the angles of a square,
with their upper sides to the wall, the stems projecting out-
wards, and meeting in one point, which gives the ornament
a pyramidal form. Leaves, masks, heads, &c., are often used
in similar positions.

The crockets of finials are of various descriptions, but are
readily distinguished from the Early English by their natural
and flowing outline, and by the crumpled leaves, so different
from the crisp appearance of the latter.

The niches are of a very elaborate description, and are
usually of a considerable depth, having the roof covered with
minute ribs and bosses. They are almost always surmounted

 

by pedimental or ogee canopies, which are sometimes bowed
forward in the form of an ogee, and are almost always
decorated with crockets and finials. The arches are foliated,
as are also frequently the spandrels above them. Some
niches have conical coverings like spires crocketed at the
angles, and surrounded with a series of canopies one on.
each face of the spire. The sides, too, are often enriched
with small ornamental buttresses. Some again have flat
tops.

The Perpendicular style dates its rise towards the close of
the fourteenth century, at the latter portion of the reign
of Edward III., and prevailed until the disuse of Gothic
architecture. It is characterized by the exuberance and
redundancy of its ornaments, and is wanting in the simpli-
city of the Decorated style. In the earlier examples, this
enrichment is not carried beyond bounds, but in later times
it becomes excessive, and the chief aim of the architects
seems to have been to employ as much labour as possible on
decoration. This practice proved injurious, and at last fatal,
and Gothic architecture may date its decline from the com-
mencement of the fifteenth century.

This style is called by some Third-pointed, and by others
Florid. The term Perpendicular was given to it on account
of the peculiar arrangement of the tracery in widow-heads,
which forms a very marked characteristic of the style; but
some have objected to the name, as of only partial applica-
tion, and suggest the term IIorizontal, as being much more
appropriate and significant of the general tendency of the
style; and in this they are certainly correct, as witness the
depressed arch, low-pitched roof, square-headed windows
and doorways, square hood—moulds, and the horizontal tran-
soms. But on this subject we shall not here enter ; the term
is well established, and could not readily be laid aside, sup-
posing such a course to be desirable.

Pointed arches of all descriptions are to be met with in
this style, nor do they ditfer materially from those of the
preceding period, but drop arches are perhaps more preva-
lent. An arch of a peculiar kind, however, began to be
used some time ere the close of the style, which is not
to be found in any other ; it is described from four centres,
two of which are on the springing line, and describe arcs of
very small radii, and the other two at some distance below
it. Such arches have a very depressed appearance, the
rise above the springing line being inconsiderable when com-
pared with that of the two-centred arches; the rise, how-
ever, varies to Some extent in different examples. This
arch is termed the Tudor arch, and was introduced about
the middle of the fifteenth century. Ogee arches are of
constant and universal occurrence, and foiled arches are
very frequent in decorative work.

Arches are very frequently moulded, but in the plainer
examples are only recessed and chamfered. The mouldings
consist of much the same members as before, but they are
of a less prominent character; the hollows are more shallow,
and the projecting mouldings less prominent: the contour is
of an undulating appearance, the junctions of the ditferent
members being but indistinctly marked. A large but shallow
cavetto is of frequent occurrence, and is sometimes orna-
mented by the insertion of a square flower at intervals.
The sofl'its of some arches are ornamented with panelled
work.

The shafts of piers are sometimes simple octagons in plan,
as in the preceding styles, but are not of such frequent
occurrence as before, and sometimes differ in contour, hav-
ing the sides of the octagon slightly concave; they may be
distinguished from earlier examples by their capitals and
bases. Clustered piers are very frequent, and their general

 

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plan is that of a square set diagonally, but the breadth of
the pier between the aisles is frequently greater than the
depth between the arches. They are composed of four or
more slender shafts, engaged, with hollows, ogees, and fillets
intervening. A very common arrangement presents a sec-
tion of the form of a square, having its angles cut in a broad
but shallow concavity, and the four sides Or flat faces orna-
mented with a half or three-quarter round shaft attached,
and projecting beyond the face. This shaft does not occupy
the entire face, but leaves a flat surface on either side ; it is
finished with distinct cap and base, but the surface and con-
cave angles of the parallelogram are frequently continued
round the arch Without interruption. When piers are placed
diagonally, the angles are often ornamented with slender
pillars with caps and bases, while the intermediate spaces,
which constitute the main body of the pier, are moulded and
continued uninterruptedly t0 the apex of the arch. The
sub-shafts are sometimes the only ones furnished with capi-
tals, the face-shafts being carried up to the whole height of
the building to the wall-plate without caps, but sometimes
the shaft is continued above the capital. Three or more
shafts clustered together are not unfrequently found at the
angles in the place of the single one above alluded to.

The plan of such small shafts is commonly circular and
plain, but they are sometimes filleted, and occasionally poly-
gonal, with concave sides. The piers are not unfrequently
composed of mouldings only, and these carried up conti-
nuously, without capital or any other projection, to the apex
of the arch; and where arches are neither moulded or
recessed, the sides of the pier and soffits of the arch are
usually enriched with panel—work.

Capitals are either circular or octagonal, but the necking
is usually of the former, and the upper members of the abacus
almost invariably of the latter form, whether the capital and
its mouldings be circular or octagonal. The vases are mostly
plain, but sometimes enriched with foliage, which is of a
more conventional form than in the previous style. The
mouldings consist of ogees, rounds, beads, and hollows, the
second and fourth of which are frequently combined without
forming edges, and have a bead underneath. The top of the
abacus is often splayed, and sometimes ornamented with a
crest of Small battlements: the sides are occasionally hollowed
out. In clustered piers, the capital is sometimes carried all
round without interruption, and the vase covered with foliage,
but more frequently the capital of each shaft forms a separate
and distinct member.

The base mouldings are usually set upon a lofty polygonal
plinth, which is sometimes double; the lower one projecting,
and the projection moulded with a hollow or reversed ogee.
The upper members of the base-mouldings follow the form
of the shaft, but the lower ones are often polygonal, like the
plinth which they overhang. In clustered piers, the bases
are mostly treated separately, as is the case with the capitals,
but sometimes the mouldings are continued all round, as are
the plinths almost invariably.

The earlier doorways of this style have two—centred pointed
arches, but the most common and characteristic form is the
four—centred; for smaller doorways, the ogee is sometimes
used. The two-centred arch is often surmounted by an ogee-
shaped hood-mould, enriched with. crockets and finials, but
some of them, and nearly all the four-centered, are enclosed
within a square head formed by the outer mouldings, with
hood-mould of the same form, the spandrels being filled
with quatrefoils, flambeaux, roses, shields, 8w. Sometimes,
however, the hood-mould follows the form of the arch, even
in the four-centered examples. The hood-mouldings are
often returned horizontally, and when not so, terminate at the

6 D

 

springing of the arch, on heads, shields, &c., or have the
mouldings twisted round in the form of a lozenge, or circle,
with some little ornament in the centre. The hood is usually
placed immediately above the apex of the arch, but in some
specimens it is considerably elevated, the intermediate space
above the spandrels being filled with quatrefoils, or other
panelled work: the upper members of the hood sometimes
coincide with the lower portion of a string-course. Double
doorways are of very rare occurrence.

The jambs are not unfrequently ornamented with shafts
with caps and bases, but they are mostly small, and often
not well defined, except by the capitals and bases; in many
instances all the mouldings are continued round the arch,
without apparent impost. Large hollows are very frequent
amongst the mouldings of doorways, and are occasionally
filled with foliage or other decoration.

The doors themselves are often covered with panel-work
of a rich description, and sometimes with tracery in the
head. The smaller doors are often weather-boarded, with-
out any ornament ; the iron scroll-work being rarely employed
at this period.

The windows of this style are easily distinguished from all
others, by the vertical disposition of the tracery in the heads;
the mullions of the lights, instead of branching out at the
springing into flowing lines, are continued vertically to the

intrados, and secondary mouldings are continued in the same .
. . . !
directlon from the centre of each light, and converge once or

twice ere they reach the arch. The principal and subordi-
nate lights are all arched and foliated, the principal being

 

frequently divided horizontally by transoms, which are a

further characteristic of the style.

Windows which consist *
of several lights are divided into two or more compartments, ‘

containing each two or more lights, and these are frequently ‘

arched over in the heads.

The transoms are often finished

at top with a small ornamental battlement ; and the mullions

present a concave outline.
great variety of form, some being two—centre-pointed of
various degrees of acuteness, others four-centred, others
again segmental, triangular, and square-headed. Windows
of the last class are very common, having perpendicular

tracery in the heads ; they are frequent in clere-stories, ‘

where we also find circles and quatrefoils used for the same
purpose.

The plainer buttresses, are similar to those of the preceding
styles, consisting of one or more projections, with plain faces
and set-offs, frequently terminating in a slope under the
parapet, but sometimes finished with a crocketed pinnacle.
In the richer examples the faces are covered with panel-
work, and are finished with square pinnacles, sometimes set
diagonally and terminated with a crocketed spire, or finished
with an animal or such like ornament.

The parapets are often embattled, and have usually the
coping carried all round the embrasures; the plain surface
down as far as the cornice, is not unfrequently panelled or
pierced in quatrefoils, foiled-arches, &c. The top of the
parapet is as often horizontal, and either plain or covered
with sunk or pierced ornaments, consisting of trefoils and
other polyfoils inserted within square, circular, or triangular
compartments. The cornice consists of a few mouldings, the
most prominent of which is frequently a large shallow
cavetto, which is often enriched with flowers placed at
intervals.

The early roofs of this style are of a moderate height, but
later examples are of very low pitch. The vaulting is still
more complicated than in the preceding style; the number
of ribs is increased, and they are frequently disposed so as to
form geometrical patterns, as in the choir of Oxford cathe

The heads of windows offer a

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GOT

470

GOT

 

dral, and in many other examples. A kind of vaulting pecu—
liar to the later period of this style, is termed fan-tracery
vaulting. In it several ribs diverge at equal angles, and in
all directions, from one bearing-post, and spread on the roof
In the form of a circle, the entire figure having somewhat the
appearance of a semi-cone: all the ribs preserve the same
curvature. These spring from either side of the roof, and often
meet in the centre, or the space left between, as also the span-
drels are filled with ribs, forming geometrical tracery; when,
however, a large space intervenes, it is frequently occupied
with pendent figures of the same description, forming a kind
of inverted cones suspended from the roof, the surface of
which, like those at the sides, is covered with divergent ribs,
and richly panelled. Roofs of this kind are more frequent
in small structures, such as chantries and the like, but we
have magnificent specimens of a grander description in
Henry VII.’s chapel, Westminster, St. George’s, Windsor,
Peterborough cathedral, and some few other churches.

The wooden roofs of this period are more numerous, and
more readily defined, than those of any previous era. Their
increased number arises probably from a practice common
at the time, of substituting more enriched roofs in the place
of plainer examples of earlier date, a practice which is often
evidenced by the form of a more highly-pitched roof than
that existing, being still visible on the tower, against which
it abutted. The majority of examples of this style are of a
very low pitch, so much so as sometimes to be entirely bid
on the exterior of the building by the parapet; but roofs of
a lofty pitch are by no means uncommon.

In the loftier examples tie-beams are not used, but the
principals are usually connected by a collar-beam imme-
diately below the ridge, or by a block-collar completely
filling up the angle of the ridge; where the collars are in
a lower position, a king-post is sometimes carried from
them to the ridge-beam. The collars are often ornamented
with mouldings or small battlements, which have a very good
effect. A simple form of roof consists of principals of stout
planking resting on corbels, and cut in the form of an arch,
with block-collars underneath the ridge, as at Stourbridge
church. Sometimes arched planking of this kind is sup-
ported on projecting hammer—beams, with curved braces
underneath resting on corbels, which method gives the out-
line of the entire roof the form of a trefoiled arch, either round
or pointed. A similar form is often constructed of the usual
timbers, and springs from the level of the wall-plate, without
curved braces, as at Athelhampton Hall, Dorset.

Tie-beams are sometimes used in roofs of this kind, supported
by braces resting against wall—pieces, and these again, on cor-
bels or shafts, the spandrels being often filled with tracery. The
principal rafters above the tie-beam frequently consist of
planking of arched outline, pierced with quatrefoils, &c., as at
Malvern Abbey. Some roofs again are constructed without
principals, the common rafters being tied at the top with
a collar-beam resting upon timbers disposed so as to form a
circular arch, the lower extremities of which rest upon
hammer-beams.

The hammer-beam is peculiar to this style, and is found
employed to a very great extent in the large hall-roofs of
the period. A very common form for these roofs con-
sists of two principal rafters tied at the upper part with
a collar-beam, under the extremities of which are two
queen-posts resting on hammer-beams, and these again on
curved braces. The latter are fixed to wall-pieces, which
stand on corbels at some distance down the walls. Arched
braces are frequently carried from the end of the hammer-
beam to the (fintre of the collar, which is sometimes sus-
pended by a king-post. Some examples have two sets of

 

hammer-beams, one above the other, as at Hampton Court,
where the roof is a sort of curb ; it is very strong, but com—

posed of many timbers, which are somewhat complicated in .

their disposition. We must not pass over unnoticed, the roof
of Westminster Hall, which is one of the most magnificent in
existence. Its principal feature is an arched rib composed of
three thicknesses of timber, which completely spans the
building, and is carried down below the top of the walls to
the corbels. Immediately above the apex of this arch is a
collar-beam, having in the centre a king-post reaching to the
ridge, and at the sides two queen-posts with a straining piece.
The hammer-beams are carried out beyond the line of the arch,
and are supported at the extremities on curved braces resting
on the corbels, a similar curve being also carried upwards to
touch the large arch so as to form by their combined outline
a. trefoiled arch. Above the ends of the hammer-beams rises

 

an upright or queen-post, which is carried up to the end of .

the collar, and supports the principal rafters at about mid-
way. This, as also most roofs of the kind, is moulded and
enriched with perforated panel—work, and other ornaments ;
the hammer-beams are often carved into representations of
angels bearing shields, musical instruments, &c.

The obtuse low-pitched roofs peculiar to this period, are .
often framed with tie—beams and king-posts, with curved bra- 2
cing-ribs underneath, resting against an upright wall—piece '
supported on a corbel ; the braces being mostly curved in the '

form of an obtuse arch.
open tracery, as are also the spaces above the tie—beams.
Sometimes roofs of'an exceedingly low pitch, or even per-

The spandrels are often filled with I

fectly flat, are formed without any truss whatever, consisting .

only of principal and common rafters, and purlins, without
either tie or collar beams.
often supported at the end by upright wall—pieces resting
upon corbels at a considerable distance below the wall-plates,
and from the foot of the wall-pieces curved braces are carried
up to the centre of the principals. These braces are often
solid, constructed out of a piece of stout planking, and
entirely filling up the spandrels.

In such cases the principals are .

The sloping bays of low-pitched roofs are often divi- ‘

ded into square compartments by purlins and common
rafters, the former being increased in number, and the latter
placed at a greater distance apart than usual. The intersec-
tions of the timbers are almost always covered with orna-
mental bosses, and the timbers themselves richly moulded.
Sometimes these compartments are subdivided by other
secondary mouldings, with bosses likewise at the intersec-
tions. The larger beams in almost all these examples are
moulded, and the horizontal timbers, such as wall-plates, ties,
and collars, are often enriched with small battlements, or
have the mouldings ornamented with some decoration peculiar
to the period.

The towers are frequently constructed on a very grand scale,
and are very often devoid of spires, being occasionally sur-
mounted by octagonal lanterns, as at Boston, Lincolnshire,
where the tower is of great height and magnificence. Another
very beautiful and lofty example occurs at Dundry, near
Bristol, but in this case it is finished at the top by four little
square turrets, placed one at each angle ; the turrets, as also
the lofty battlemented parapet, being pierced in panel-work, a
practice very common in parapets of this period. At Magdalen
College, Oxford, is another very beautiful example, the corners
of which are finished above the battlements with octagonal
turrets or pinnacles, carried up from the ground in the shape
of buttresses; another buttress is carried up the centre of
each face, and is finished above the parapet with a pinnacle
of smaller dimensions. Another ornament in this example
is of common occurrence, and consists of bands of sunk quatre-

 

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GOT

471

GRA

 

foils or other ornaments. In smaller churches the tower is
often finished with a plain parapet or simple battlement, but
it is a very prevalent practice of the period to carry up a
polygonal stair-turret at one angle, which rises some feet
above the general level of the tower, and forms a very pic-
turesque object. The windows and general arrangement of
the towers, are much the same as in the last style, differing
only in matter of detail; square-headed windows are of
frequent occurrence, and often appear in the belfries, espe-
cially in that class of towersjust alluded to.

Spires are not so frequent as in other styles, and are never
what are termed broach-spires, the tower being invariably
crowned by a parapet. Where spires occur, they are of the
same form and general description as before. They are often
supported at their angles by flying-buttresses, springing from
the corners of the tower. The angles are also frequently
crocketed.

The mouldings of this period are in general flatter, or of
less projection, and therefore less effectiveness, than those
of previous styles. There is also a greater prevalence of
angles or corners. Round and hollow mouldings are often
connected without any apparent line of separation; but
members of a different description are separated by either
quirks or fillets. A large shallow concave moulding is very
prevalent, and forms a characteristic mark of the style. It
appears very often in archivolts and cornices, and is often
enriched by the insertion of flowers, leaves, and other orna-
ments. Ogees are perhaps more frequently used than any
other kind of mouldings, but rounds, beads, and cavettos
are of very common occurrence. An arrangement of ogees
in close contact, with the convex sides next each other,
is of constant occurrence, and is characteristic of the style.
A moulding of an undulating contour, being convex in the
middle, and concave on either side, is common in abaci and
dripstones, as is also the reverse of this, the hollow being in
the middle, and the convexity on either side. Fillets are
used, but are not often applied to larger mouldings. In
general, it may be observed, that in all cases the mouldings
of this style are more flat, the hollows and projections
approaching more nearly to a straight line.

The ornaments used, consist mainly of detached flowers
or leaves usually of a square outline, of running patterns and
bunches of foliage, of grotesque heads and figures of animals;
of shields, and various kinds of heraldic devices. The rose,
the badge of the houses of York and Lancaster, is a charac-
teristic ornament, as is also a lozenge-shaped leaf, supposed
to represent the strawberry-leaf, and generally known under
the name of the Tudor flower. The foliage is very elabor-
ately and delicately carved, but does not exhibit the same
amount of freedom of design or execution, which is manifest
in the earlier styles.

The walls are often covered internally, and sometimes
externally, with panel-work tracery, which is a characteristic
feature of the style.

The niches of the period are somewhat similar to those of
the Decorated style, but sometimes consist of mere recessed
panels. They are usually, however, either octagonal or
sexagonal in plan, with vaulted covering. Of canopies,
some are flat, and others projecting; the latter being either
semi-circular, or polygonal in plan, and either finished
horizontally, or capped with a small spire or bell-shaped
roof. The angles are occupied with buttresses and pin-
nacles, the latter being sometimes suspended from the
overhanging covering, which is enriched with crockets and
finials, and other ornaments in profusion.

lVith the commencement of the Reformation, the practice
of Gothic architecture may almost be said to have ceased,

 

as did all ecclesiastical building to a very great extent.
The sacrilegious plunder of Henry VIII., his destruction
of the monasteries and religious houses, and the wholesale
spoliation and destruction of the works of antiquity which
was carried on under his orders, tended to discourage per-
sons from the erection of churches or religious edifices, and
the art was soon entirely lost. The introduction of the
Italian style assisted greatly in the overthrow of a mode of
building which had been in vogue some three or four hundred
years. Pure Gothic architecture may be said to have ceased
about the middle of the sixteenth century, but it still retained
some influence for a few years later The method of build-
ing adopted during this interval, has been fitly denominated
the Debased.

The characteristics of this style, if i. may be so termed,
may be briefly enumerated as followsz—The windows are
square—headed, divided into bays by perpendicular mullions,
the heads of each bay being frequently left square, but some-
times obtusely-arched. aud occasionally foiled. The mullions
are plain and unfinished, without mouldings of any kind, and
all the workmanship is of a very inferior kind. Hood-moulds
are often, but not always, used.

The doorways are either obtusely-pointed, or round-headed
with prominent key-stones. In late specimens, many of the
features of Italian architecture are introduced in details
and construction. Examples of the Debased style exhibit
a poverty of design and clumsiness of execution, in com-
parison with those of previous styles, which will at once
decide their date and position.

In the above sketch, we have made no allusion to Conti-
nental Gothic; our remarks and descriptions having been
entirely confined to the style as developed in our own country;
nor have we space here to treat of the former separately.
We can only refer to those writers who have treated this
subject specifically, amongst whom the following names
stand pre-eminent. VVhewell’s Architectural Notes on
German Churches; Willis on the Architecture of the Middle
Ages in Italy; and Moller’s Memorials of German Gothic
Architecture.

From this article, we refer to the words CHURCH, CATHE-
DRAL, ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE, and to various
articles of the same nature.

GOUFING FOUNDATIONS a term used in Scotland,
and particularly at Glasgow, for the under-pinning of a wall,
when found insecure.

GOUGE, a concave and convex chisel, the section of .
which is the frustum of the sector of a circle, serving to cut
a concave excavation in wood or stone. The basil is made
from either the concave or convex side.

GOWT, or GO-OUT, in engineering, a sluice used in
embankments against the sea, for letting out the land-waters
when the tide is out, and preventing the ingress of salt.
water. _

GRACES, GRATUE, or CHARITIES, in the heathen
mythology, were fabulous deities, and represented as three
young and handsome sisters, attendant on Venus.

Their names are Agla'ia or Egle, Thalia, and Euphrosyne;
i. e. slaining,flourislting, and gay. They were supposed by
some to be the daughters of Jupiter and Eurynome, the
daughter of Oceanus, and by others to be the daughters of
Bacchus and Venus. Vossius de Idol. lib. xiii. cap. 15.
Homer (Iliad, lib. xiv.,) changes the name of one of the
Graces, and calls her Pasithea; and he is followed by Statius.
(Theb. lib. ii.) Some will have the Graces to have been four,
and make them the same with the Hare, Hours, or rather
with the four seasons of the year.

The Lacedaemoniaus admitted only two of them, whom

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GRA

472

GRA

 

they worshipped under the names of Klyta, Kleta, or Clita,
and Phaenne. The Athenians allowed the same number, but
denominated them Auxo and Hegemone.

A marble in the king of Prussia’s cabinet represents the
three Graces in the usual manner, with a fourth, seated, and
covered with a large veil, with the words underneath, AD
SORORES 1m. Yet Mons. Beger will by no means allow the
Graces to have been four: the company there present, he
understands to be the three Graces, and Venus, who was

their sister, as being daughter of Jupiter and Dione.

They are always supposed to have hold of each other’s
hands, and never parted. Thus Horace, (lib. iii. od. 21.)
describes them :

“ Segnesque nodum solvere gratiaa.”

They were also represented in the attitude of persons dancing;
whence Horace says (lib. i. 0d. 4):

“ Alterno terram quatiunt pede.”

They were commonly thought to be young virgins. In
the earlier ages they were represented only by mere stones,
that were not cut; but they Were then represented under
human figures, at first clad in gauze. The custom of giving
them drapery was afterwards laid aside; and they were
painted naked, to show that the Graces borrow nothing from
art, and that they have no other beauties than what are
natural.

Yet, in the first ages, they were not represented naked,
as appears from Pausanias, lib. vi. and ix., who describes
their temple and statues. They were of wood, all but their
head, feet, and hands, which were white marble. Their
robes or gowns were gilt; one of them held in her hand a
rose, another a die, and the third :1 sprig of myrtle.

They had temples, as we learn from Pausanias, at Elis,
Delphos, Perga, Perinthus, Byzantium, and in several other
places of Greece and Thrace. The temples consecrated to
Cupid were likewise consecrated to the Graces : and it was
also customary to give them a place in those of Mercury, in
order to teach men, that even the god of eloquence needed
their assistance. Indeed, some authors reckoned the goddess
of Persuasion in the number of the Graces, thus intimating,
that the great secret of persuasion is to please. The Muses
and the Graces had commonly but one temple; and Pindar
invokes the Graces almost as often as he does the Muses.
Festivals were appropriated to their honour through the
whole course of the year, but the spring was chiefly conse-
crated to them as well as to Venus. Greece abounded with
monuments sacred to these goddesses ; and their figures were
to be seen in most cities, done by the greatest masters. They
were also represented on many medals. The favours which
these goddesses were thought to dispense to mankind, were
not only a good grace, gaiety, and equality of temper, but
also liberality, eloquence, and wisdom, as Pindar informs us;
but the most noble of all the prerogatives of the Graces was,
that they presided over all kindnesses and gratitude; inso-
much that, in almost all languages, their names are used to
express both gratitude and favours. '

GRADATION, (from the Latin, gradus, a degree,) in
architecture, an artful disposition of parts, rising as it were
by steps or degrees, after the manner of an amphitheatre; so
that those placed before do not obstruct the view from those
behind.

The painters also use the word gradation for an insensible
change of colour by the diminution of the tints and shades.

GRADATION, in painting, relates both to chiaro-oscuro and
to colour: that is, all the different degrees in which light

and dark, and colour, may be modified, are comprehended
in it.

 

An object receding from the light, and gradually losing it,
becomes at its farthest extremity obscurely defined. A
coloured body, pure or bright in tint, under the same circum-
stances, gradually diminishes in clearness of hue throughout
its receding parts, and becomes dull and dark. By fixing
the scale of gradation in both these particulars, effects of
great force or great simplicity may be produced. The scale
of descent being made rapid, great force will ensue, from the
strong oppositions it promotes; and the reverse will take
place when the degrees of descent are prolonged, and less
contrast thereby effected. The nature of the subject, and
the situation of the figures with regard to light, must be the
artist’s guide in this matter.

The gradation of colour includes not only the different

degrees of purity, or brilliancy of the same colour, but also .

the approximations of each colour to its neighbour, necessary
to produce harmony ; and also the art of gradually losing the
local colour in obscurity, and yet maintaining its character in
the object; which is extremely difficult, and of great im-
portance, in the art of painting.
GRADETTO, GRADETTI, or ANNULI. See ANNULETS.
GRADIENT, in engineering, a term indicative of the

. t
proportionate ascent or descent of the several planes upon a

railway, thus : an inclined plane four miles long, with a total
fall of 36 feet, is described as having a fall of 1 in 586%, or
9 feet per mile. Mr. Macneill suggested the word CLIVITY,
as a more appropriate term than gradient ; and its compounds,
acclivity and declivtty, are very comprehensive and sig-
nificant.

GRAFTING TOOL, in engineering, a kind of spade,
used by navvigators in railway and canal works ; it is made
very strong and curving ; often called only a tool.

GRAIN, the plates of wood or stone, in the direction of
which it may be split into various thicknesses.

GRAIN, in mining, is applied by quarrysmen and masons
to the minute figures in most blocks of stone, by which they
are disposed to split more easily in some certain direction,
than in any other, as wood is disposed to split in the direction
of its grain.

terms of almost similar import. Experienced masons can

 

 

Beat, sheet, lamella, and stratula. are other ‘

generally discover the grain of the most homogeneous or per- ‘

feet freestone blocks, or such as will cut with equal ease in
any direction. This they often do, by observing the direc-
tions of the very minute plates of mica, or silver, as they
call it, which are frequently found arranged in the stone, in

the direction of the grain, or beat of the stone; which, it
must be observed, is not always that of the beds or stratifi- 1
cation, many rocks having stratula which cross their beds '

obliquely, often at an angle of from 30 to 45 degrees with
the bed or plane of the stratum ; and such stratula not un-
commonly dispose the stone to split into flags, or paviers, or
even tile-stones, or slates for houses, and into the most thin
and perfect lamina.
stone beds of very great thickness, and have been fre-
quently mistaken, by inattentive observers, for the stratifi-
cation itself.

GRANARY, a building contrived for laying up and sto-
ring corn, in order to preserve it for a length of time.

The construction of this class of buildings has not, we
believe, received that attention which the importance of it
deserves, and we consider therefore that some account of the

Sometimes these oblique stratula cross .

proper mode of designing and erectng granaries on scientific

principles will be both interesting and useful.

It must be evident to all, that, owing to the uncertainty .
of harvests, the produce of a year may be either abundance 3
or dearth, the frequent recurrence of the latter, in the ear- i
lier ages. obliged most of the ancient nations to seek means

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GRA 4

3 (s'rliA

 

of preserving the superabundant produce of plentiful years,
in order to be prepared against the privations of less fortu-
nate ones. This necessity was more imperative, when the
means of conveyance by land and water were less perfect
than at present. In modern times a higher state of civili-
zation has taught mankind to feel the advantages of a free
circulation of produce, famine is not now therefore so fearful
an evil as formerly. The improvements in the mode of cul-
ture have also much increased the produce of the earth ; but
the probabilities of famine, though decreased, still remain
to a certain extent, and the construction of proper reposi-
tories for storing up grain must be always important, as a
means of lessening its evils.

In some countries public granaries are established upon
a very large scale, and in them is preserved the grain col-
lected from the whole of the surrounding districts. The
French have given great attention to the subject, and the
following plan for a public granary, by an eminent French
engineer, is well worth imitation. M. Bruyere observes,
that in the calculations necessary to fix the dimensions of a
granary destined to contain a determinate quantity of grain,
the following considerations must be attended to.

A granary of reserve, as it is termed in France, contains
wheat of different ages, and the duration of their preserva-
tion is three years, the grain being supplied by thirds every
year. The disposition to ferment being caused by the degree
of moisture, and by the quantity, and the oldest corn being
the dryest, it follows that the mean depth of the heaps should
vary with the age of the corn. From these data, and by
the help of experience, the depths of the heaps of corn may
be fixed as follows ._

Corn of one year 19% inches.
two years 24 ,,
three years..................27 ,,

S, 9,

,3 3’

A distance of about a yard should be left between the foot
of the heaps and the wall, and an empty space of thirteen
to sixteen feet between the heaps, for the operation of turn-
ing. To these spaces must be added also those occupied by
the staircases, rollers, trap-doors, working-rooms, &c., and
the whole must be deducted from the superficial content of
each floor. The remainder, multiplied by the number
of stages, and the mean height of the heaps, will give the
solid content of wheat that the granary can contain.

The situation of a public granary is important ; if possible
it should be placed near a canal or navigable river, in order
to receive or send out the grain by water, or by any other
easy method of transport, as the expense is thereby much
diminished.

For the same reaSOn, granaries should be near a sufficient
quantity of mills, whose motive power can, in certain cases,
be applied to the different machines used in the manipulation
of the corn. These mills should not, however, be placed in
the same building with the granaries, or be too near to them,
on account of the danger of fire, and because the two ope-
rations are hurtful to each other; the dust of the wheat
injuring the flour, and the motion of the water rendering the
grain too moist.

The aspect of granaries should be south, as the change of
temperature will then be sufficient to keep a current of air
between the opposite openings, and it is most important to use
the driest winds for ventilating and drying the grain.

In order to diminish the extent of granaries, it is necessary
to add to their height, by multiplying the number of floors ;
and, as it is easy to raise the grain by the help of machines,
we thus gain the advantage of being able to make it descend

 

from sieve to sieve, which cleans and sorts them in the least
expensive manner.

The lowest floor, should be sufficiently elevated above the
earth to prevent damp, and to facilitate carting. Experience
has proved that a height of 8 feet is sufficient for the curve
that is described by the wheat when thrown up by a shovel.
Each floor should therefore have a height of 10 feet.

The walls of the granary should be thick, not only on
account of strength, but also to keep out damp and heat.
The windows should descend to the level of the floor, so that
the air may circulate through the lowest part, and strike the
foot of the heap of grain. The entrance of the air is facili-
tated by widening the openings from the interior to the
exterior. They should be grated with iron wire to prevent
the entrance of birds, and furnished with shutters'which,
when open, fall back on the thickness of the wall.

When the granary is of considerable size, it appears
natural to place the entrance in the middle of its length.
This entrance should be large enough to permit vehicles to
cross the building, so as to load or unload under cover. To
prevent the division of the lowest floor, this passage is some-
times made by a projecting porch, under which the vehicles
can be ranged, though in a less convenient manner. The
staircases should be placed, near the passage, for the carts,
but, to prevent interruption of the heaps of corn, some place
them in a projection opposite the porch, or in one of the
angles of the building.

It is desirable that granaries should not be of too great an
extent, in order that the grain may more readily dry by the
currents of air. On the other hand, as it is always necessary
to reserve the passages along the walls, the size of the interior
should not be less than 40 feet, or exceed 65 feet. In all
cases, they are divided by pillars of stone, wood, or cast
iron. (Bruyere Etudes Relatives d l’drt des Constructions.)

The following may be taken as a guide for the erection of
a granary in this country. The building should be rectangular
in plan, the height about twice the distance between the
opposite walls, that is, 20 feet high by 10 feet in width on
each side, and provided with numerous air-holes, declining out-
wards, to prevent the entrance of rain or snow. From each
air—hole to a corresponding one on the opposite side, should
be fixed an inverted angular spout or gutter, to permit the
air to pass through unimpeded by the corn lying about ; as
many of these gutters should be fixed, as there are holes to
receive the ends after crossing the building ; and the
extremities of the holes should be covered with wire gauze,
to defend them from vermin.

The first floor of the granary should be divided into a
series of hoppers, these hoppers to empty themselves into
one large hopper underneath, provided with a sliding door to
regulate the passage of the grain into a sack or other recep-
tacle. At the top of the building a loft should be erected, to
which the corn may be first hoisted by a tackle or crane, and
be discharged over a cross-bar into the body of the building,
which operation may be continued until it is filled to the top.
Upon drawing ofl" any corn at the bottom, the whole of it will
be put in motion, and the airing of every part promoted;
the process of airing should, however, be continually going
forward through the numerous passages under the inverted
gutters, the angles of which do not fill up by the lateral
pressure of the grain.

GRAND STAIRCASE, the principal staircase of a large
edifice, for the use of the family and visitors. See Staircase.

GRANGE, the ancient name ofa barn ; sometimes applied 3
to the farmhouse itself. The term grunge was also used in i
former times to designate the farming establishments attached ,
to religious institutions

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

‘ as shown by many.of the ancient Egyptian monuments.

GRA

474

GRA

 

GRANITE, an aggregate rock, the essential ingredients
of which are feldspar, quartz, and mica, being the same as
those of gneiss, from which granite differs chiefly in the
arrangement of the three component parts. In granite these
are mingled without order or regularity, wlnch produces a
granular structure, while that of gneiss is generally slaty.

“ GRANITE is one of the most abundant rocks at or near
the surface of the earth, it is likewise considered as the foun-
dation rock of the globe, or that upon which all secondary
rocks repose. In alpine situations it presents the appear-
ance of having broken through the more superficial strata of
the earth ; the beds of other rocks in the vicinity rising
towards it, at increasing angles of elevation as they approach
it. It forms some of the most lofty of the mountain-chains
of the eastern continent; and the central parts of the principal
mountain-ranges of Scandinavia, the Alps, the Pyrenees, and
the Carpathian mountains, are of this rock. N0 organic fossil
remains have ever been found in granite, although it is some-
times found overlying strata containing such remains.”
(Imperial Dictionary.)

Of all materials for building, granite is the most durable,
By
the Egyptians and other very ancient nations it was more
particularly applied, together with sienite, for the purposes of
architecture and statuary, and many very interesting monu-

j ments of their skill and patience are still existing in the col-

; lections of antiquities.

As instances of the extreme dura-
bility of granite, we may mention, that the obelisk in the place
of Saint Jean de Lateran at Rome, which was quarried at
Syene, under the reign of Zetus, king of Thebes, 1300 years
before the Christian era ; and the one in the place of Saint
Pierre, also at Rome, consecrated to the sun by a son of
Sesostris, have resisted the weather for full 3000 years.

The use of granite for architectural and economical purposes,
is perhaps nowhere more amply displayed than at St. Peters-
burg, where not only the imperial and other palaces, but
even ordinary dwelling-houses, have their lower parts lined
with slabs of granite. The left bank of the great Neva,
from the Foundry to the Gulf of Cronstadt, and both banks
of the Fontanka and of the Catharine canal, are lined by
high walls constructed of such slabs of granite ; as are many
bridges over the Neva, balustrades, &c. The pillars, stairs,

: balconies, &c. in the palace of Cronstadt, are almost all of the

 

finest kinds of granite. Those employed for ornamental

‘ architecture are cut and polished by lapidaries; but those

intended for less delicate purposes, such as common slabs,
steps, cylinders, troughs, &c. are worked by peasants, particu-
larly by those of Olonesk. The government-towns, however,
Moscow not excepted, are too distant from the chief granite
mountains, to be enabled to make frequent use of that rock
for the above purposes.

Mr. Brand has divided the different granites used in the
arts after their predominant colours; the following are the
principal varieties, in which, however, the black-and-white
kind is not included, one of its ingredients being hornblende,

,which assigns it a place among the sienites.

GRANITE, Gray, of Cliessi, in the department of the Rhine,
Consists of white quartz and black mica, with large crystals
of rose-coloured feldspar. The columns of the Eglise
d’Enée (ancient temple of Augustus) at Lyons, are of this
kind of granite, which has also been worked by the Romans.

GRANITE, Gray, of Thain, consists of grey quartz, black
mica, and white feldspar crystals, which are sometimes from
two to three inches long, The quarries of this granite are on
the road from Lyons to Valence, on the right bank of the
Rhone. It is very well adapted for the construction of large
monuments.

 

is exactly like this, except that its feldspar crystals are of a
rose-colour.

GRANITE, Gray, of Lavezzi, a small island near Bonifacio,
south of Corsica, in the straits which separate that island
from Sardinia, is composed chiefly of small irregular crystals
of feldspar, mixed with a little black mica, besides which it
contains also feldspar crystals, of a milk-white colour. In the
quarry of that island a large unfinished column is to be seen,
which had been relinquished by the Roman workmen.

GRANITE, Gray, of Elba.—-Its grain is pretty uniform ; its
colour sometimes approaches to light violet. There are four
columns of this variety to be seen in the Musée Napoleon:
they were taken out of the church which contained the tomb
of Charlemagne, at Aix-la-Chapelle.

The gray granites are much more common than the green
or greenish, of which the following deserve to be mentioned.

GRANITE, Antique green—Its predominant ingredient is

white quartz, with here and there some light green feldspar. .

There is a column of it in the Villa Pamfili, near Rome.
GRANITE, fine—grained antigue.—(Basalte verd oriental.)
The component parts of this sort are so minute and intimately

blended, that they can scarcely be distinguished by the naked ,

eye. Its colour approaches to deep olive.
and takes a fine polish. The Egyptians have much employed
it for the construction of monuments; and several statues of
it may be seen in the Capitol and the Villa Albani. There

It is very hard, .

is another variety with white spots, known at Rome under ,
the name of Basalto Orientalepidoc/iioso ,- but it is very rare, ’

for there are but two columns of it in existence, namely, in
the church of St. Pudentiana at Rome. Some varieties
bearing that name are silenite.

GRANITE of St. Christophe: composed of violet quartz, '

white feldspar, and green mica. This magnificent rock is
found at Oisans, in the department of the Isére.

GRANITE, Corsican, orbicular.—This beautiful rock (which
probably belongs to the sienite formation) was discovered by
M. Barral, in the island from which it derives its name. Its
composition is very extraordinary; it has a basis of ordinary
gray granite, which, however, in most parts exhibits a con-
siderable portion of hornblende. But what more particularly
characterizes it, is a number of balls, of from one to two
inches in diameter, each composed of several concentric and
perfectly parallel layers, the outermost of which, generally
white, opaque, and two or three lines thick, is composed of
quartz and feldspar, blended in various proportions, and
exhibiting a radiated appearance, rather converging towards
the centre of the ball. The second layer, which is of a
greenish-black colour, and about one line thick, is composed
of fine laminar hornblende; and this is succeeded by a white
and usually translucid quartz layer, of about four or five lines
in thickness, inclusive of two or three very thin layers of
hornblende, that are commonly seen within the substance of

this third principal layer. Each of these layers is generally ,

of equal thickness in the whole of its circumference. These
three parts may be considered as the coating: the interior of
each ball is less defined than the surrounding layers, and
consists of a blackish and a whitish substance, the former
surrounded by, and passing into the latter, the centre of
which is usually a dark gray spot.

The quarry of this rock is unknown, 3 single block only
having been found in the gulf of Valinco, in Corsica: its
weight was about 801b., but it was soon broken into small
fragments, which are now distributed among collectors. There
is a beautiful vase of it, one foot six inches high, in the
cabinet of M. Dedrée.
M. Faujas de St. Fond, in his Essai de Géologie, and in

The granite of St. Peray, not far from Thain, l Mr. Sowerby’s Exotic fililwralogy.

 

The granite of Corsica is figured by .

 

 

 

 

 

 

GRA

475

GRE

 

Among the red granites, we have what is called red oriental
granite, which usually contains hornblende, often in large
separate patches.

GRANITE, Red, ofIngria.—“ This granite,” says M. Patrin,
“is distinguished from others in this, that the feldspar,
instead of being in grains, or parallelopiped crystals, as in
most other granites, constantly appears in the shape of round
or oval pieces, of from half an inch to two inches in diameter.
This granite takes a very fine polish, and in this state exhibits
the feldspar in the shape of white, round, or oval (chatoyant)
spots, in a reddish ground. The rock which serves as a
pedestal of the equestrian statue of Peter the Great, at St.

: Petersburg, is of this granite: the block was originally 32

feet long, 21 feet thick, and 17 feet wide; but, in order to
give it its present shape, imitative of a picturesque natural
rock, it has been much diminished in size. This block was
disengaged from a swamp, about forty versts from Petersburg:
its weight was calculated to be above three millions of
pounds.” We have seen several fragments that were detached
from the very block forming the pedestal of the statue; but

. in none of them did we observe the form ascribed by Patrin

to the feldspar.

The public summer promenade-garden at Petersburg is
decorated with a superb colonnade of this granite : the
Columns, which are sixty in number, are of the Tuscan
order; their shafts, made of one piece, are about 20 feet
high, and three feet in diameter. The island, called Kotlin-
Ostrow, on which is the fortress of Cronstadt, is covered
with blocks of this granite, the feldspar of which is some-
times of the kind called Labrador-stone.

GRANITE, Bed, of the Vosges Mountains—This granite
is composed of large lamina of rose-coloured feldspar, gray
grains of quartz, and small scales of mica. It has so strong
a resemblance to the Egyptian red granite, that it is difficult
to distinguish them. Its quarries are on the heights of
Montaujeu, near the Papean mountains, in the Vosges.

GRANITE, Violet, ofElba.—The feldspar of this variety is
in large violet crystals. The pedestal of the equestrian
statue, in the Piazza della Santissima Annonziata at Florence,
is made of it, as are also the sodes in the chapel of St. Laurence
in the same town.

GRANITE, Rose—coloured, of Emma—This beautiful
granite consists of flesh-coloured feldspar, white quartz, and
Some grains of black mica. Considerable quarries of it are
found on the borders of the Lago Maggiore, which are worked
without intermission, for supplying Milan, and the whole of
the neighbouring country, with this granite. It takes a very
fine polish: here and there it exhibits ribands, or zones, Of
a gray colour, which are composed of the same ingredients
as the rest of the mass, but reduced into very minute particles.

, Many columns, porticos, Sac. are seen of it at Milan.

The name of Graphic granite is given to those kinds in

g which the feldspar forms large concretions, intermixed with

gray quartz crystals, exhibiting, when cut transversely,
angular figures, mostly shaped like a 7 ; while others are less

, regular, and bear a distant resemblance to rude alphabetical

writing. They are not considered to be genuine granite by
some mineralogists.

GRANITE, Graphic, ofPortsoy.—-The feldspar is of various
tints of pale flesh-red ; the quartz dark, but transparent, with
now and then some small particles of Inica. This rock is

i minutely described by Dr. Hutton.

GRANITE, Graphic quiheria.——Its feldspar is of a yellow-

? ish'white, or reddish colour; the quartz, exhibiting figures
, similar to those of the quartz in the preceding sort, is of the

variety called smoky topaz. Mica occurs in it in small nests,

‘ and black shorl in acicular crystals.

 

GRANITE, Graphic, of Aidan—Of a pale rose-colour ;
quartz crystals gray, very numerous; found in the neigh-
bourhood of Autun, department of SaOne and Loire, particu-
larly at Marmagne.
most beautiful of all granites. Another variety of this stone
is found at the same place : its feldspar is white ; the quartz
gray, in small crystals ; it is susceptible of a very fine polish.

GRANITE, Graphic, of Corsica.—Likewise of a rose-colour;
but generally paler than that of Autun, from which it is also
distinguishable by its quartz crystals being larger, and at
greater distance from each other. It contains some thinly
disseminated bronze-coloured mica, and takes a fine polish.

GRATICULATION, a term used by some writers for
dividing a drawing into compartments of squares, in order to
be reduced.

GRAVITY, Table of Specific, See SPECIFIC GRAVITY.

GREAT CIRCLE OF A SPHERE, a circle passing :

through the centre, which is one of the greatest.
GREAT STAIRCASE, See GRAND STAIRCASE.
GREEK ARCHITECTURE, such as was practised by
the Greeks, For information on this general subject we must

This, in Mr. Brand’s opinion, is the l

 

refer to the description of each order given under their several 1

titles, where will also be found some account of their origin
and progress. See below, GREEK ORDERS ; also ARCHITEC-
TURE, ROMAN ARCHITECTURE, 8m.

GREEK CROSS. See CRoss.

GREEK MASONRY, the manner of bonding walls, as used
by the Greeks. See MASONRY.

GREEK MOULDINGS, See MOULDINGS.

GREEK CECUs. See CECUs.

GREEK ORDERS, are the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian
orders. See DORIC, IONIC, and CORINTHIAN ; also ORDERS,
and ARCHITECTURE.

GREEK ORNAMENTS. See ORNAMENTS.

 

GREENING, in plumbery, the rubbing of a new sheet of ‘
lead with any green vegetable, where it is to be soldered, in 1

order to prevent the solder from adhering except at the places .

Where it is scraped off.
GREENHOUSE, a house of shelter in a garden, contrived
for preserving the more tender and curious exotic plants.
Structures of this kind were formerly erected with slated
roofs, like dwelling-houses, and with large upright windows

in front, divided and supported by pillars; examples of;

which may yet be seen in several of the royal gardens about
London, and also in different parts of the country. It was
soon found that handsome Specimens of plants could not be
grown in houses of this description: and the only purpose to
which they are now applied, is the growing of orange or
lemon-trees, and protecting other plants in winter.
GREENHOUSES, as now built, serve not only as conser-

vatories, but likewise as ornaments of gardens ; being usually ‘

large and beautiful structures, sometimes in the form of
galleries, wherein the plants are handsomely ranged in cases.
See CONSERVATORY.

The greenhouse is a sort of building designed for the
purpose of preserving various kinds of exotic shrubs, &c.,

 

 

through the winter season, and for growing and protecting ;
those kinds of plants which are too tender to live in the open 1

air.

It is fronted and covered with glazed frames, but the ?

aid of artificial heat is not necessary except in intensely cold i

weather. It is advisable, however, in constructing such houses,
to erect fines to use occasionally, which may prove serviceable,
not only in severe frosts, but also in moist, foggy weather,

when a moderate fire will now and then dry up the damps, ;
which would otherwise prove pernicious to manv of the tender ‘

kinds of plants.

It differs from the conservatory chiefly in this circumstance, .

 

 

 

 

l

 

 

GRE

476

GRI

 

that the plants, trees, or shrubs, are in pots or tubs, and
placed upon stands, frames, or stages, during the Winter, to
be removed to proper situations in the open air, during the
hot summer season ; while in that, there are beds, borders,
and clumps, laid out in the ground—plan, and made up with
the best earthy materials, to the depth of three or four feet,
in which the shrubs, trees, 8m. are regularly planted; the
whole of the roof being removed during the summer to admit
fresh air, and replaced on the approach of the autumn, to
remain until the following summer.

Greenhouses should stand in the pleasure-ground, near
the house, if possible, upon a somewhat elevated spot, full to
the south, and where the sun has access from its rising to its

. setting. These buildings are generally of brick or stone,

having the fronts and tops almost wholly of glass-work ; and
ranging lengthwise east and west. They are generally con-
structed upon sotne ornamental plan. As to the general
dimensions, in respect to length, width, and height, they may
be from 10 to 50 feet, or more, in length, according to the
number of plants to be contained ; and in width, from 10 or
15 feet to 20 feet ; but, for middling houses, 15 or 18 feet is
a sufficient width ; and in height in the clear, nearly in pro-
portion to the width.

The walls on the backs and ends, particularly the former,
should be carried up two bricks thick ; and if more than 15
feet high, two bricks and a half thick; at one end of the
back wall, on the outside, a furnace may be erected for burn-
ing fires occasionally, communicating with flues within,
ranging in two or three returns along the back wall, having
one flue running along the front and end walls, raised wholly
above the floor of the house.

The fronts of the buildings should have as much glass as

, possible, and wide glass doors should be made in the middle,
1 both for ornament and entrance, and for moving in and out

1 the plants.

It would also be convenient to have a smaller

3 entrance door at one end : the width of the windows for the

3 to the rays of the sun.

 

glass sashes may be five or six feet : and the piers between
the sashes may be either of timber, six, eight, or ten inches
wide, according to their height, or if of brick or stone Work,
two feet wide at least, sloping both sides of each pier inward,
that, by taking off the angles, a free admission may be given
For the same reason, the bottoms of
the sashes should reach within a foot of the floor of the house,
and their tops almost as high as the roof; and if brick or stone
piers two feet wide, shutters may be hung on the inside, to
fall back against each pier. The roof may be either wholly
or only half glass-work, next the front ; the other half slated,
especially if the upright or front piers are of timber ; and the
shutters to cover the top glasses may be so contrived as to
slide under the slated roof: where the piers are of brick or
stone, it is common to have the roof entirely slated or tiled ;
but slating is the most ornamental for a half or whole roof;
and the ceiling within should be white ; which, as well as the
whole inside wall, must be well plastered and white-washed,
so as to render it clean and neat.

But in greenhouses of modern construction, in order to have
as much glass as possible in front, the piers between the sashes
are commonly of timber only, from six to eight or ten inches
thick, according to the height, so as to admit as great a
portion of light and heat of the sun as possible, and the roofs
are wholly of glazed frame-work.

The greenhouses for large collections of plants have some-
times two wings of smaller dimensions, added to the main
building, at each end, in a right line, separated sometimes
from it by a glass partition, with sliding sashes for communi-
zation, and the front almost wholly of glass-work, and half or
whole glass roofs.

 

houses consist of three divisions, whereby the different
qualities and temperatures of the vari0us plants can be more
eligibly suited. The middle, or main division, may be for all

the principal and more hardy, woody, or shrubby kinds, which 1

require protection only from frost ; one of the wings appro- 1

priated for the succulent tribe, and the other to the more
tender kinds, that require occasionally heat in winter, but
which can live without the heat of a stove or hot-house.

On whatever plans greenhouses are constructed, the whole
of the inside walls should be neatly finished off with plaster
and whitewash, and the wood—work painted white; the bottom
being paved with large square paving tiles, or some similar
material.

In the greenhouse there should be stands, frames, or
tressels, which may be moved in and out, upon which rows
of planks may be fixed, so as to place the pots or tubs of
plants in regular rows, one above another; by which their
heads may be so situated as not to interfere with each other.
The lowest rows of plants next the windows should be placed
about four feet from them, that there may be a convenient
breadth left'to walk in front ; and the rows of plants should
rise gradually from the first, in such a manner, that the heads
of the second row may be entirely advanced above the first,
the stems only being hid; and at the back of the house a
space allowed of at least five feet, for the conveniency of
watering the plants, and to admit a current ofair round them,
that the damps occasioned by their perspiration may be the
better dissipated ; when this is not done, the damps, pent in too
closely, often occasion a mouldiness upon the tender shoots
and leaves, and, when the house is close shut up, this stagnat-
ing rancid vapour is often very destructive ; for which reason
the plants should never be crowded too close to each other,
nor should succulent plants ever be placed among them.

GRIFFIN, or GRIFFON, (from the Greek 'ypvtlz,) a fabu-
lous creature, usually supposed to have the head and wings
of an eagle, with the body, legs, and tail of a lion; but
sometimes with the head of the latter, and the horns and
beard of a goat, as in the Ionian antiquities. The ancients
adorned the statues and temples of their gods with symbols
of their supposed influence. The griffin, which was
particularly sacred to Apollo, and in fabulous antiquity
believed to be ever watching the golden mines on the Scy-
thian and Hyperborean mountains, is introduced as a guar-
dian of the lyre, which belonged to him, as inventor of
music. It has a lion's head, because Apollo, or the sun, is
most powerful when in that sign of the zodiac. The Pet‘-
sians also had a statue of him, with the head of that
animal.

GRILLAGE, in engineering, a term applied to a kind of
frame-work, tnade something like a grating, of heavy pieces
of timber laid lengthwise, and crossed by other pieces, notched
down upon them. It is used to sustain foundations. and pre-
vent their irregular settling, in soils of unequal firmness
or solidity. This frame-work is firmly bedded, and the earth
packed into the interstices between the titnbers; a flooring
of thick planks, termed a platform, is then laid on it, and
on this the tbundation-courses rest.

GRINDSTONE, a cylindrical stone, mounted on a spindle i‘

through the axis, and turned by a winch-ltatulle, for grinding ‘

edge-tools.
GRINDING, the act of wearing of the redundant parts
of a body, and tbrming it according to its destined surface.
GRIT-STONE, a stone consisting of particles of sand
agglutinated together. Of this kind of stone there “are.
many varieties, differing in the size of the particles of sand
that compose them, the several properties of these sands, and

Thus, by these additional wings, the t their various degrees of compactness and agglutination.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GRO

477

GRO

 

Some of them are used for building, others for grinding,
others for whetting sharp steel instruments, and others for
filtering water. See STONE, and WHETSTONE.

GRIT-STONE, in mining, a hard granular or gritty stone,
composed of grains of silex or quartz, cemented together,
generally either by a silicious, an argillaceous, or a ferru-
ginous cement. The first of these, or the silicious grit-stones,
are alone fit to be used in repairing roads. The other sorts,
in wet weather, soon become a heavy sandy mire upon the
road; when the argillaceous parts are dissolved and washed
away by the winter rains, this mire changes in summer to
loose sand, rendering the roads almost intolerable. Most tra-
vellers will have observed this in the argillaceous grit-stone
district about Ashby de la Zouch, in Leicestershire, and
numerous other coal countries, and the ferruginous grit-stone
district about Woburn, in Bedfordshire, and other places.
The greater part of the numerous grit-stone rocks and beds
of such stone in the coal-mines, are argillaceous, of a fine
grit, with minute plates of mica, and are unfit for roads, until
hardened by the action of fire; being still, however, very
weak and improper materials for road-making, if better can
be procured.

A large portion of the argillaceous grit-stones have but
a slight disposition to perish or moulder when exposed, and
can be used in walls and ordinary buildings ; others will
perish in a few years ; and a large portion of what appears,
when first dug, at proper distances below the surface, to be
very hard grit-stone, will, after a very short time of expo-
sure, fall to’ a loamy or clayey sand ; such very periShable
grit-stone strata are called, by the colliers, stone-binds, gray-
beds, &c., except about Newcastle, where they are denomi-
nated sand-stones.

In some places, crystallized granular lime-stones occur, as
in the yellow or magnesian lime-stone range, near Mansfield,
in Nottinghamshire, and such are, sometimes, though impro-
perly, called grit-stones, or gritty lime-stones. See SAND-
STONE.

GROIN, in architecture, the hollow formed by the inter-
section of two or more simple vaults, crossing each other at
the same height.

In a geometrical point of view, the centre of a groin is
formed by the entire meeting of the surfaces of two or more
cylindrits ; that is, such, that every straight line around the
whole circumference, on the surface of the one cylindrit, will
meet every straight line around the circumference of the one
adjoining.

Hence the sections parallel to the axes of all the cylindrits
which form the groin are in the plane of their spring-

ing; otherwise, the surfaces could not meet each other
entirely.

Hence, also, the axes of all the cylindrits are also in the
same plane, and cut each other in the same point.

In the above definition of a groin, it must, however, be
observed, that its surface is no portion of that of the solid
which would be contained by the surfaces of the cylindrits
and a plane passing through their axes, but only that part of
the whole which is formed on the outside of the space which
would be thus enclosed in the centre of the groin and form
a polygonal dome. The. surface of the groin is therefore
equal to the whole of the cylindritic surfaces, deducting that
of the dome.

The surface of any cylindrit is either that of a cylinder or
cylindroid.

When the cylindrits which form the groin are all cylinders,
the two vaults are of equal breadth.

In any simple vault of a groin, the planes, which are tan-
gents to the surfaces at the springing, have equal inclinations

6 r

 

with each respective wall. When all the openings of a grow
are equal, the groin is termed an equilateral.

The branches of a groin are each of the two opposite parts
of each simple vault.

The invention of groins must have been subsequent to that
of simple vaulting, and probably originated from arched pas-
sages, when it was necessary to occupy the whole height.
At what time they were first introduced in architecture, is
uncertain; the remains of antiquity show that they are of
very remote date, which, however, cannot be traced beyond
the times of Roman power and grandeur. Use or necessity
was, without doubt, the occasion of their invention, but in
process of time they were used as ornaments, and became
fashionable at the decline of the Roman empire ; they are to
be found in the amphitheatre at Rome, formed at the inter-
sections of the radiating and elliptic passages. In the temple
of Peace, and baths of Diocletian, at the same place, instead
of massive piers, they are supported upon columns, the most
feeble of all supports, and which would be incapable of
resisting the lateral pressure of the arches, were it not for
the auxiliary support of the walls immediately behind them,
at the sides and angles of the building, which act as
buttresses.

Groins continued to be used after the dissolution of the
Roman empire, in ecclesiastical structures; and wherever
grandeur or decoration was required, they were never omitted ;
they became the most principal ornament of the time, and
formed the most conspicuous features in the edifices in which
they were employed: at first they were used in the same
manner as by the Romans, but in after-times the groins
were supported upon ribs, which sprung from cylindrical or
polygonal pillars, with capitals of the same form ; this pro-
duced a necessary change in the figure of the vaulting, as the
bottoms of the ribs rose from the circumference of a circle,
instead of the angles of a square, with its sides parallel to
the walls ; and as the spaces between and over the ribs were
vaulted in a twisted or winding surface, so as to coincide in
every part with a straight line level between the ribs, the
angles of the groined surface were thus very obtuse at the
bottom, but diminished continually upwards, and ended in a.
right angle at the summit of the ceiling. Afterwards, when
the pillars were formed upon a square plan, the sides of which
were obliquely disposed with regard to the sides of the
building, and decorated with vertical mouldings, or small
attached columns, and the number of ribs increased, the first
idea of fan-work would be presented at the springing of the
ribs ; but in this the architects would soon perceive an
incongruity of form in the surface, as it approached the
summit of the vaulting; the ribs would be formed all of
equal radii, and disposed around, to support a concavity,
which might. be generated by revolving a curve round an
axis which was in the centre of the pillars ; and being accus-
tomed to groins meeting in lines crossing each other, it was
natural to suppose they would at first permit the ribs to run
out and meet each other, which would then be of unequal
lengths. If the difference between the openings was not
very great, the intersection thus formed by the meeting of
the opposite sides of the vaulting would not differ materially
from straight lines, but would not be parallel to the horizon,
as they would run upwards towards the centre of the groin ;
but this would depend on the angle formed by two opposite
ribs in the same plane. Thus, if the tangents formed at the
vertex of the opposite curves contained an angle of 120
degrees, the apex line on the ceiling would form a curve in
receding from the vertical angle of the said ribs, of a very
decided convexity; but in going progressively forward, the
curvature would change into a concavity, and then would

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GRO

478

GRO

 

begin again to descend. The idea of intersecting the ribs
thus disposed in vertical planes around a common axts, by
circular horizontal ribs, was natural ; and thus again would
generate another idea of supporting the upper ends of the
ribs, by a circular ring concentric with the was of the pillar,
and this being done from four pillars, would leave a space
enclosed by four convex arcs of circles : nothing farther was
required to complete this system of vaulting than to fill up
the space, and the whole would be keyed together. In this
manner, by slow and imperceptible changes, a species of
vaulting was invented, very different from that of the Greeks
and Romans. Instead of closing the space, if we suppose
another ring, forming a complete circumference, to be built
interiorly to touch the former arcs, and the four triangular
curved spaces closed and wedged together with masonry, the
whole will stand equally firm as if the middle had been solid,
and thus an aperture for light will be formed the same as in
dome-vaulting. This species of vaulting has also another
property, that it can be carried up from a square plan with
less hazard than the common mode of groining.

In warehouses which are loaded with the greatest weights,
and where the walls are placed at a remote distance, it
becomes necessary to introduce many supports to the floors :
these, if constructed of timber, being liable to accidents from
fire, and to rot, are consequently exposed to sudden danger ; to
prevent which, every precaution should be taken, at least as
far as may appear to be warrantable from the profits to arise
from the articles to be deposited. This will be fully accom-
plished by the introduction of groins, which not only answer
the same purpose as the flooring of timber—work with its
wooden supporters ; but are more durable, and proof against
fire and rot. Though groins are only employed in the lower
stories of buildings, on account of the great expense and loss
of space which would be occasioned by the requisite thickness
of the walling; yet they may at all times be used in cellars
and ground stories, without much additional labour, or expen-
diture of materials.

It having been found that brick groins, rising from rect-
angular piers, are inadequate to the weight they have to
support, and are incommodious to the turning of goods round
the corners of the piers, it will be found convenient to
employ octagonal piers, and to cutoff the square angles of
the groin, equal to the breadth of the side of the piers. This
mode of construction is decidedly preferable to that in which
square piers are used ; for the angles of the groins, built in the
common way, as they form a right angle, are hardly capable
of sustaining themselves, much less the load required to be
supported, owing to the bricks being so much cut away at
the angles, in order to fit them thereto and to each other, so
that they have little or no lap. This scheme should certainly be

‘ carried into practice, wherever groins are applied to such uses.

In the construction of edifices for dwelling, they ought
always to be employed in cellars, and other damp situations,
particularly where there are paved apartments above.

Groins for use only, may be indifferently Constructed of
brick or stone, as one or other material may be most easily
procured.

If employed by way of proportion or decoration, their
beauty depends on the generating figures of the sides, the
regularity of the surface, and the acuteness or sharpness of
the angles, which should not therefore be obtunded. In the
best buildings, where durability and elegance are equally
required, they may be constructed of wrought stone; and
where elegance is wanted at a small expense, of plaster, sup-
ported by timber-work.

Groins are consequently constructed in two different ways,
ace irding as they are built of stone or brick, or formed of

 

timber-work, lathed and plastered. In the former case, a
timber centering is made to form the concavity, and to sup-
port the groin during its erection.
several ribs, disposed at three or four feet distance, made to
the size of the vault which has the greatest opening: The
extremities of these ribs rest on beams supported by standards,
and are boarded over without any regard to the transverse
openings, which are afterwards formed by another set of ribs
adapted thereto, and then boarded so as to meet the boarding
of the first vault, which, if of considerable breadth, must have
short ribs fixed upon its surface, in order to shorten the bear-
ing of the boarding of the transverse openings; and thus
the centering will be completed. It is obvious, that in form«
ing the ribs for each vault, the outer curve must be the arc
of a circle or ellipsis within the curve of the vault, and dis-
tanced from it towards the axis equal to the thickness of the
boarding. In making the groined centre, it will be necessary
to find the place of the angles on the boarding of the large
vault, in order to ascertain the place of the ribs and boarding
of the transverse vault : this may be done by three different
methods. First, let two straight edges be placed vertiCally
at the angles, and a third straight edge, or an extended line,
be made to touch the surface of the boarding, and marked at
all the points of contact, keeping the latter straight edge or
line always upon the edges of the two vertical straight edges.

The defect of this method is, that the place of the angles
at the bottom can never be found, since it would require the
cross straight edge _or line to be of infinite length, and the
vertical ones of infinite height. A more eligible method,
therefore, where there is room, is, secondly, to fix two ribs
in the transverse part, and direct a level straight edge upon
their edges, so that the end may come in contact with the
boards, and mark the boarding in this place ; find a sufficient
number of points for the purpose, in the same manner, and

The centering consists of 1

draw curves through the points, which will give the curves .

for fixing the end of the filling-in ribs, otherwise called
jack ribs.

In constructing groins to be finished with plaster, the
angle-ribs must be first fixed, then straight longitudinal
pieces parallel to the axis of the groin fixed, either flush
with the under side of the angle-ribs, or their under sides a
little below those of the angle-ribs, so as to admit of their
being nailed together; this is the most eligible method of
constructing plaster groins.

There is another mode, by forming curved ribs, in planes
perpendicular to the axis of each simple vault : but here, as
the curve of these ribs must be the same as that of the cylin-
drit of each simple vault, the waste of timber will be very
great; though not if the ribs are constructed in straight
pieces. Whatever mode is adopted in the formation of
plaster groins, the under sides of the ribs must always range
in the intended surface of each simple vault. These con-
structions will be more clearly understood in the following
explanations.

I’late I. (CENTERING FOR GROINS,) Figure 1, No. 1.
A plan of the widest opening of the groin, first boarded the
whole length without interruption ; then the cross vaults are
boarded ; the two cross openings upon the left hand appear as
finished, ready to receive the masonry or brickwork, while
that on the right exhibits the ribs without the boarding.

No. 2. The elevation of the widest aperture, showing the }

edges of the ribs of the transverse openings fixed upon the
surface of the boarding of the longitudinal opening ; this also

shows the height of the jack—ribs, which will give their l

length also.
N o. 3. Shows the elevation of the transverse apertures, as
completely finished.

 

 

 

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GRO 479

GRO

 

PROBLEM I.— Given one of the ribs of the transverse ranges,
to find the body-range.

Suppose the given rib to be a semi-circle, or a semi-ellipsis,
describe a semi-ellipsis, the length of which is that of the
body-range, and the semi-conjugate axis the height of the

' given rib, which is that of the groin ; and the semi-ellipsis

thus described will be the contour of the ribs which are to
form the body-range.

In the same manner, if a rib of the body-range be given,
that of the transverse openings may be found.

But if the given rib be any other curve than that of a semi-
circle or semi-ellipsis, lay down the curve of half the given rib

5 upon any straight line, as a base; from the point where the

curve intersects the base, draw another straight line at a right
angle therewith: upon this line set the extent of half the

width of the range from the angular point: complete the
‘2 rectangle, of which these two straight lines are adjoining
. sides; draw that diagonal of the rectangle which meets the

curve given ; take any number of points in the given curve,
draw ordinates perpendicular to the base to intersect them ;
from these points draw lines parallel to the other two sides of
the rectangle, to meet the diagonal ; from the points of divi-
sion, draw straight lines parallel to the base of the given rib,
to meet the side of the rectangle, which joins the curve of the
given rib; from these points raise perpendiculars; transfer

the ordinates of the given rib upon the perpendiculars ; and

the curve drawn through the extremities of these perpen-
(liculars will be that of the rib required.

Figure 1, No. 4,qu gfis the given rib, gfits base, equal
to half the width, cd, No. 3, of the transverse openings;
ftz'efis the rib found from the given ribfq hgf, andfe its
base, equal to half the width, (1 b, of the body-range.

Figure 1, No. 5. Shows the method of finding the mould
for drawing the angles for placing the jack-ribs. The opera.-
tion is thus performed :

Figure 1, No. 5. Upon any straight line, ml, transfer the
arcfti, No. 4, stretched out with all its parts from I to m;
from the points thus transferred, erect perpendiculars, and
transfer e h, No. 4, to the middle perpendicular, no, No. 5 ;
then the remaining parallels of e h of the triangle eh]; No. 4,
respectively to the parallels of n 0, N0. 5, on each side of it ;
and through the remote extremities of these perpendiculars,
draw a curve each way from the point 0; and thus two equal
curves will be formed. But lest the reader should not be
able to follow a general description, the following shows not
only how any particular point may be found in the required
rib, but also how any point may be found in the covering.

First : Tofiud a point in the required rib.

Figure 1, No. 4. Take any point, q, in the given rib;
draw qp perpendicular to gf the base; draw pr parallel
tofe, cutting fh at r; draw rs parallel to gf, cuttingfe
at s,- draw 3 t perpendicular to fe; make 8 t equal to p q,
and t is a point in the curve. In like manner, as many points

may be found as required.

Now let it be required to find the point u, No. 5. Transfer
the are it, No.4, upon the straight line ml, No. 5, from
n to u; draw u v perpendicular to ml; make uv equal to s r,
and v is a point in the curve. The trilinear area m 0 l is the
envelope of the portion of the groined surface represented by
either of the two triangles of the plan of the groin, which
have the width of the body-range for the base; mo is the

edge of a mould by which the angle of the groin, or the

cylindritic lines, are found ; the point 772 is laid to the bottom,

5 and the mould bent upon the surface, so that the point 0 may

be in the summit, and the convex side of the mould towards

‘ a vertical section passing through the point from which the

bottom of the mould rises.

 

.Fz'gure 1, No. 6. Shows the envelope corresponding to
either of the two triangular parts of the plan of the transverse
parts, and is found in the same manner as No. 5. This
shows the mould for cutting the boarding, by laying it out
to the full breadth upon a plane, and drawing the ends of the
boards by the curved edge of the mould, so as to fit against
the boarding of the body-range.

Figure 2. Shows the construction of a groin upon an
inclined plane, the widest opening, or body-range, having its
ascent or descent in the direction of the inclination of the
plane; the transverse ranges are therefore level. The ribs
in both directions are set in vertical planes. The rib for the
body-range is a semi-ellipsis ; those of the sides will also be
semi-ellipses, but will not have their axes in a vertical and
horizontal position. The elevation of the transverse openings
is shown at No. 2, and that of the body-range at the lower
end. Each elevation exhibits the construction of the centre,
a section of the boarding, and the manner of placing the
jack-ribs.

No. 3. Is a section of the body-range at right angles to
the plane of its inclination.

No. 4. Shows the form of the moulds for drawing the
angles, in order to place the jack-ribs. The construction is
thus: Divide the half, df, of the curve de, No. 3, into any
number of equal parts; from the points of division draw
lines parallel to the axis of the body-range, cutting the
diagonal A L; from the points of intersection draw lines
parallel to the sides of the transverse opening, and continue
them on the other side of the inclination, g h, of the elevation
of the said openings ; from g h, as a base, make the heights of
the several lines thus continued equal to the corresponding
heights of the elevation of the body-range, and a curve drawn
through all the extremities will give the form of the ribs, ip 12,
for the transverse openings. From the summit of the centre
thus constructed, draw the line 17 to at right angles to the
inclination g h; extend the arc df, No. 3, with its divisions,
to vw, No. 4; through all the points of division in v w draw
lines at right angles thereto ; from all the points found in the
curve of the rib 2'}? it, No. 2, draw lines parallel to ih, cutting
the respective lines perpendicular to v w; and a curve drawn
on each side of v 71; will give the angles of the groin.

GnOIN CEILING, a cradling constructed of ribs, lathed and
plastered. It differs in its construction from groin centering,
as the former requires angle-ribs. There are two different
methods of constructing groin-ceilings; one by ribs fixed
vertically and perpendicularly to the sides of each branch ;

the other by angle-ribs and ceiling-joists, or straight pieces of ‘

timber, running parallel to the axis of each branch, fixed to
the angle-ribs, and to other intermediate ribs, in vertical
planes, at right angles to the sides of each of the branches,
and placed upon opposite piers, to shorten the bearing, in
order to make less scantlings-for the ceiling-joists, and thereby
save timber. But in whatever mode the groined-ceiling is
constructed, the surface must finish in the same manner. It,
is evident, however, that the latter method by ceiling-joists
will require much less timber and workmanship than the
former, where so much stuff is cut to waste, and so much time
employed in making the angle-ribs.

Figure l. The cradling of a groin ceiling, constructed with
ceiling-joists. Stout ribs are thrown across the angles and
between the opposite piers; the ceiling-joist being put on
below and spiked upwards. In this, the rib, a lb 0, of a trans-
verse range is giveu, to find the others. Take any number
of points in the half are a lb ; draw lines parallel to g i, the
base of the rib of the body-range, to cut the diagonal df;
from the points thus obtained in d]; draw lines at right angles
to (if, and make the corresponding perpendiculars equal to

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GRO

480

GRO

 

those of the given are a lb ; then construct the other half by
reversion, and it will form the whole angle-rib.

To obtain the rib of the body-range from the points of
section in the base line df, draw lines parallel to a c, to cut
g i, and produce them on the other side ofg i; from the points
thus obtained in gi, transfer the corresponding heights of the
ordinates of the given rib upon the perpendiculars as ordi-
nates, then construct the ordinates of the other half by rever-
sion, which will give the curve of the ribs of the larger
branch.

Figure 2. The cradling of a groin-ceiling, constructed
entirely of ribs. The section of the ceiling of the trans-
verse ranges is that of a semi-circle ; consequently, the
angle—ribs, and those of the body-range, are semi-ellipses, the
width of the body-range being greater than those of the
transverse branches. The description of the curves of the
ribs will be found under the article ELLIPSIS, Illethod III.
Figure 3.

The ribs must be bevelled each way, so as to range with
either branch of the groin. This is best done by getting
them in two thicknesses, then each half of each thickness
must range the contrary way, one half with the ceiling of the
largest branch, and the other half with the ceiling of the
lesser branch, in the same groin ; the branches being sup-
posed on the same side of the diagonal: so that when the
two parts are put together to form the rib completely, the
bevelling of the one half of one thickness and that of half
of the other, will range with the surface of the ceiling of one
branch, and the contrary edges with the surface of the ceiling
of the other branch. In ranging the ribs, each thickness is
cutout by the mould; then, in order to range the half of
each thickness, the mould must be shifted, so that the upper
point of the curved edge will slide in a line parallel to the
base, while its lower point will slide upon the base line to the
distance required at the bottom : this is represented on the
lower end of the principal branch.

Figure 3. A groin, in which the principal branch is inclined:
ikl is the given curve of the rib ; ab the line of elevation
of the spring of the arches. Draw the diagonal p o, and o s
perpendicular to it ; join 0 n, which produce to cut a b at r;
make 0 8 equal q r; produce op to meet H at a, and join 3 a
(the reader must however observe, that the engraver has joined
s p instead qfs a, and has not produced 0 p, as here stated, and
as it was in the drawing). Bisect 2’ l at g ; through g draw

; h 2) parallel to m 0 orpn, meeting the curve in h, and op at

 

v,- draw 1: u perpendicular to op, cutting so at t; make tu
equal to yk ; draw 1) X parallel to il, cutting a b at to; make
to x equal to g h,- then p s will be a diameter, and t u the
semi-Conjugate of the ellipsis, which forms the curve of the
angle-rib : also to r and w X are the semi-conjugate diameters
of the curve of the ribs for the transverse branches, and the
curves may be described as in filethod V. Problem I. of the
article ELLIPSIS. Or, the two axes may be found as in
Problem II. of the same article, and the curves described
according to fllethod III. Problem 1.; or the curve may be
drawn by ordinates as here exhibited. The cradling is shown
at the lower end.

Figure 4. Shows the construction of ribs for the arches of
apertures out under the pitch of a large vault at right angles
to the wall. Apertures of this description are called lunettes.

Let A z e mp D be the curve of the section ofthe principal
vault ; it is required to construct the ribs of a lunette of a
given height.

Produce the base A D to h, and the side g D to l; letfg be
‘he breadth of the aperture ; bisect fg in i; draw 2' h per-
pendicular tofg, which assume equal to the intended height
of the lunette; draw hh parallel to 9D, cuttingD h at k;

 

make D l equal to n k; draw lm parallel to DA, cutting the
curve of the principal vault in m; draw M0 parallel to D g,
cutting hi produced to o; join ofand 0g; assume any
number of points in the part md of the curve D m e A ; from
the assumed points draw lines parallel to m 0, cutting o g ; from

the points of division draw lines perpendicular to og ; make ‘

the lengths of the several perpendiculars from the base equal

to the corresponding ordinates contained between the base 72 D g
and the are m D; then a curve being drawn through the j

remose extremities of the perpendiculars not in 0g, will give

the curve of the angle-rib. Again, from the intersections in ,

of and 0g, draw lines perpendicular tofg, and produce them
on the other side offg; make the heights of the perpendicu-
lars equal to the corresponding heights of the ordinates
belonging to the curve D m, of the given rib on each side of
the middle line ih; then a curve being drawn through all the
extremities of the perpendiculars not in fg, will give the
curve of the ribs of the lunette.

On the left-hand side is shown another method of tracing
the curves of the angular rib, and of ribs forming the sides

of the lunette. The cradling is shown below the lower end of t

the plan.

GBOIN, sometimes spelt GROYNE, a kind of jetty built '
across the beach at right angles to the line of the shore from 3

high to low-water mark.

Groins are used particularly on

the southern and south-western coast of England, to retain ‘
the shingle already accumulated, to recover it when lost, or ‘

to accumulate more at any particular point; also to break

and check the action of the waves. The following description 1
of a groin is taken from Mr. \Veale's very useful little work,

‘ A Dictionary of Terms of Art :’—

“ The component parts of a groin are piles, planking, land- j
ties, land-tie bars, blocks, tail-piles, and keys and screw-bolts. ‘

The length of a groin depends on the extent, and the requisite
strength of its component parts on the nature of the beach
on which it is to be constructed.

“Those at Eastbourne, on the coast of Sussex, of which
the following is more particularly a description, are from 150

to 250 feet in length, and the beach at that place being very ‘
rough, consisting of coarse heavy shingle and large boulders, ‘

they require to be composed of proportion-ably strong materials
to resist its force.

“ The piles are from 12 to 25 feet long, and 8 by 6% inches '

scantling, shod with iron. The planking is in lengths of 8,

12, and 16 feet, 2% inches thick, and with parallel edges. 3
The land-ties are of rough timber from 20 to 25 feet long, 5

and large enough at the butt-end to receive the bars. The

land-tie bars are 13 feet 6 inches long, and 12 by 5 inches ‘

scantling. The land-tie-bar blocks are about 2 feet long, and
of the same scantling as the piles. The land-tie tail-keys
are about 2 feet 6 inches long, and 6 by 2% inches scantling.
The above materials are of oak'or beech. The screw-bolts

are of inch round iron, 2 feet 9—9L inches, and 2 feet 1%,— inch

long,

in equal proportions.

piles, one land-tie with tail-piles and keys, one land~tie bar
with two blocks, two long and two short bolts, about 180
square feet of planking, and about 1-10 six-inch spikes for
every 16 feet in length; and the expense of a groin, con-
structed with materials of the above dimensions, may be
calculated at about £30 for the same length.

“ General rules observed in the coustruction.

“ The relative proportions of the component parts are, four

“\Vhen the object, in constructing a groin, is to recover

shingle, or accumulate more, the first pile is driven at the high-

water mark of neap-tides, leaving its top level with that of 1

spring-tides. The next is driven at the point on the sands.

beyond the bottom of the shingle, to which the groin is to ‘

 

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481

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extend, leaving about four feet of it out of the beach. The
tops of these two piles may be taken for the general slope of the
groin, unless the beach should be very steep, and much curved,
in which case it becomes necessary to follow its curvature in
some degree. From the high-water mark of neap-tides, the
piles are carried back nearly level to that of spring-tides. and
as much further as may be considered necessary. The piles
are driven four feet asunder from centre to centre, and
so as to admit the planking between them alternately,
and they should be sunk about two-thirds of their length.
The longest piles are placed between the high-water mark of
neap-tides and the bottom of the shingle, particularly from
20 to 40 feet below the former point. The planking is, if
possible, carried down to about two-thirds from the tops of
the piles, and kept parallel with them. The land-ties are
placed about one-third from the top of the planking (suppos-
ing the latter to commence from the tops of the piles,) and
their tails are sunk to the level of the bottom of the planking,
or as nearly so as possible.”

GROOVE, a channel cut in a piece of wood by taking
away a rectangular prism, one of the sides of which is a
portion of the side ofthe wood in which the excavation is made.
Agroove therefore forms two external, and two internal angles.
It differs from the rebate thus : the rebate is formed by
taking away a. rectangular prism at the angle, and conse-
quently the part taken away has two of its sides common to
those of the piece, with one internal, and two external
angles.

A groove is made in joinery by a plough, which is move-
able so as to admit of the excavation being run at any

; distance from the arris.

Grooves are frequently used in order to insert a tongue in
thejoint of two pieces of wood, intended to be united. They
are also used for inserting the panels in framed work, as in
doors, shutters, partitions, &c.

In the present day, grooves are among the most fashionable
ornaments ; but there are few or no instances of their deco-
rative use among the ancient Greeks and Romans.

GROTESQUE, that beautiful light style of ornament
used by the ancient Romans, in the decoration of their
palaces, baths, and villas. It is also to be seen in some

, of their amphitheatres, temples, and tombs, the greatest part
; of which being vaulted, and covered with ruins, have been
‘ dug up and cleared by the modern Italians, who for these
1 reasons gave them the name of grotte, which is perhaps a

 

corruption of the Latin cryptce, a word borrowed from the
Greeks, as the Romans did most of their terms in archi-
tecture : and hence the modern word grotesque, and the
English word grotto, signifying a cave.

In the time of Raphael, Michael Angelo, Julio, Romano,
Polidore, Giovanni d’Udine, Vasaro, Zuchero, and Algerdi,
there is no doubt but there were much greater remains of the
grotte than what are now to be seen, and in imitation of them
were decorated the loggias of the Vatican, the villas of
Madonna, Pamfili, Capraola, the old palace at Florence, and
indeed whatever else is elegant or admirable in the finishing
of modern Italy.

This classical style of ornament, by far the most perfect
that has ever appeared for inside decorations, and which has
stood the test for so many ages, like other works of genius,
requires not only fancy and imagination in the composition,
but taste andjudgment in the application, and when these
are happily combined, this gay and elegant mode is capable
of inimitable‘beauties.

Vitruvius, with great reason, condemns an over licentious-
ness of this kind, and blames the painters of his time for
introducing monstrous extravagances. We do not mean to

6 G

 

vindicate anything that deserves such appellations; but surely
in light and gay compositions, designed merely to amuse, it is
not altogether necessary to exclude the whimsical.

Its origin is discernible in the Egyptian hieroglyphic
writing, where the heads and limbs of men and beasts are
attached to blocks of stone, to vases, or to foliage, &c., thereby
characterizing the inclinations and the powers of the deity or
person whose history they record, or whose peculiar trans-
actions they are intended to preserve in the remembrance of
future ages.

With the Egyptians it remained rude and unpolished ; but
when the Greeks adopted it, they made an ornamental use of
it, and it became a medium to exhibit their general knowledge
of nature. The taste with which they united in one form,not
only parts of various animals, but objects so totally diverse
in their nature and appearance, as the productions of the
animal and vegetable kingdoms, is in the highest degree
delightful to contemplate. The formation of chimerical
beings, as the dragon, the Sphinx, the griffin, &c., owe their
origin to this taste; which received much of its force and
interest in heathen days, from the mythological enigmas
couched under these compound forms. Such is the character of
that ornament so common on Egyptian structures, the winged
serpent surrounding an egg. Now that these mysterious
emblematic meanings are disregarded, and no longer treated
with reverence, grotesque painting and sculpture are con-
tinued in use merely because the forms they produce are
pleasing to the eye; and although the understanding is
insulted by them, such is the power of the beauty of form,
that we are gratified by it, in spite of our reason.

Those who wish to make themselves acquainted with it,
will find the best exemplars on ancient Greek sarcophagi,
altars, vases, friezes, &c., of which Piranesi and Rocchegiani
have given an ample store to the public in their valuable
works. Mr. C. H. Tatham has given likewise a tasteful and
judicious series of examples of this kind, in his Collection of
Etc/tings of Ornamental Architecture, from the Antique at
Rome. Le Roy’s, Le Potre’s, and many other works of the
like kind, may also be consulted with advantage.

GROTTO (from the French, grotte) is used for a little
artificial edifice made in a garden, in imitation of a natural
grotto.

The outsides of these grottos are usually adorned with
rustic architecture, and their inside with shell-work, fossils,
8w. finished likewise with jets d’eau, or fountains, &c.

A cement for artificial grottos may be made thus: take
two parts of white rosin, melt it clear, and add to it four parts
of bees’ wax; when melted together, add two or three parts of
the powder of the stone you design to cement, or so much
as will give the cement the colour of the stone ; to this add
one part of flour of sulphur ; incorporate all together over a
gentle fire, and afterwards knead them with the hands in
warm water. ‘.Vitli this cement, the stones, shells, &c., after
being Well dried before the fire, may be cemented.

Artificial red coral branches, for the embellishment of
grottos, may be made in the following manner: take clear
rosin, dissolve it in a brass pan ; to every ounce of which add
two drams of the finest vermiliou; when you have stirred
them well together, and have chosen your twigs and branches,
peeled and dried, take a pencil, and paint the branches all over
whilst the composition is warm: afterwards shape them in
imitation of natural coral. This done, hold the branches
over a gentle coal tire, till all is smooth and even as if
polished.

In the same manner white coral may be prepared with
white lead, and black coral with lamp-back. A grotto may
be built, with little expense, of glass, cinders, pebbles, pieces

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GRO

482

GUT

 

of large flint, shells, moss, stones, counterfeit coral, pieces of
chalk, &c., all bound or cemented together with the above-
described cement.

The grotto at Versailles is an excellent piece of building.
Solomon de Caux has an express treatise of grottos and
fountains.

GROUND CILL. See GROUND SILL.

GROUND JOISTS, the joists which rest upon sleepers laid
upon the ground, or on bricks, prop-stones, or dwarf walls ;_
they are consequently only used in basements and ground-
floors.

GROUND LINE, in perspective, the intersection of the
picture with the ground plane. See GROUND PLANE.

GROUND NICHE, a niche whose bottom is on a level with
the floor.

GROUND PLAN, the plan of the story of a house on the
same level with the surface of the ground, or elevated only a
few steps before the door. The ground floor is not always
the lowest floor, the basement being frequently beneath it.

GROUND PLANE, in perspective, the situation of the original
plane in the supposed level of our horizon. It differs from
the horizontal plane thus : the horizontal plane is any plane
parallel to the horizon ; whereas the ground plane is a tangent
plane to the surface of the earth on which we walk, and is
supposed to contain the objects to be represented, the earth
itself being considered as a spherical body.

The term ground plane is used in a more confined sense
than that of original plane, which may be any plane, whether
horizontal or inclined.

GROUND PLATE. See GROUND SILL.

GROUND PLOT, the plan of the walls of a building, where
they first commence above the foundation ; though it is more
properly the piece of ground selected for building upon. For
dwellings, its chief properties are a healthy situation, a con-
venient supply of water and other necessaries of life, and an
agreeable aspect. If for trade or manufacture, it must be
convenient for receiving the raw materials, and for exporting
the articles manufactured.

GROUND RENT. Rent paid for the privilege of building on
another man’s land. In the neighbourhood of London, it is
very difficult to obtain freehold-land, and most of the building-
ground, therefore, is let on long leases; subject of course to the
payment of ground-rent.

GROUND SILL, or GROUND PLATE, the lowest horizontal
timber on which the exterior walls of a building are erected.
It chiefly occurs in timber buildings ; or in buildings whose
outside walls are formed of brick panels with timber
framings.

GROUND TABLE. The top of the plinth.

GROUND WORK. See FOUNDATION.

GROUNDS, in joinery, certain pieces of wood concealed
in a wall, to which the facings or finishings are attached,
having their surfaces flush with the plaster. Narrow grounds
are those to which the bases and surbases of rooms are
fastened. Grounds are used over apertures, not only to
secure the architraves, but also to strengthen the plaster. In
order to keep the plaster firm, should the materials happen to
shrink, a groove is sometimes run on the edge of the ground
next to the plaster, or the edge of the ground is rebated on the
side next to the wall; so that in the act of plastering, the
stulf is forced into the groove or rebate, which prevents it
from shifting when it becomes dry.

GROUP, in painting or sculpture, an assemblage of two
or more figures of men, beasts, or other things which have
some relation to each other.

GROUPED COLUMNS, or PILASTERS, those which
consist of more than two. Nothing of this description is to

 

be found among the ruins of the ancients ; nor are they con-
formable to the strict rules of architecture, though some few
examples exist in modern buildings.

GROUT, a thin semi-liquid mortar, composed of quick-
lime with a portion of fine sand, which is prepared and
poured into the internal joints of masonry. It is particularly
used where the work consists of large masses of stone. The

‘_ process is called grouting.

Grouting is also now generally used in street-paving.
GRY (Greek) 3 measure containing one-tenth of a line.
A line is one-tenth of a digit, :1 digit one-tenth of a foot,

3 and a philosophical foot one-tenth of a pendulum, whose
I diodromes or vibrations, in the latitude of 45 degrees, are each

equal to a second of time, or one-sixtieth of a minute.
GUARDS (from the French garde, a defence) in engineer-

: ing, upright pieces of wood, nailed to the lock-gates of a canal,

to prevent the barges from striking the planks of the gates.
GUERITE (French) in fortification, a sentry-box ; being
a small tower of wood or stone, placed usually on the point
of a bastion, or on the angles of the shoulders, to hold a
sentinel who is to take care of the ditch, and watch against
a surprise.
GUILD-HALL, or GILD-HALL, the great court of judi-

 

cature for the city of London, and other cities; where are "

kept the lord-mayor’s court, the sheriff’s court, the court of
lmstings, court of conscience, court of common-council, cham-
berlain’s court, &c.

GUILLOCHI (Italian) an ornament in the fOrm of
two or more bands or strings twisting over each other,
so as to repeat the same figure in a continued series by the
spiral returnings of the bands.
the ornaments, consisting of bands turning at right angles,
commonly called frets.

GULA ,or GUEULE. See CYMATIUM.

GULBE. the same as GORGE, which see.

GULLIES, in engineering, a name applied in some places 3

to the iron tram-plates or rails laid for the use of tram-
waggons.

GULOICK, the same as IMPOS’I‘, which see.

GUNTER‘S CHAIN, so called from the inventor, the chain

commonly used by surveyors in measuring land.

into 100 links of 7.92 inches each ; 100,000 square links make
one acre.

GURGOYLE, the same as GARGOYLE.

GUTTZE (Latin) ornaments formed like the frustum of a
cone, depending from the soffits of the mutules and regula
under the band Of the architraves of the Doric order. In
several of the Grecian Dorics, the guttze are cylindrical
instead of being conical : their number on the soflits of the
mutules is eighteen, disposed in three rows, each row parallel
to the front.

They are sometimes also called lacliryma’, tears ; and
campanaa, or campanulce, bells. Leon Baptista Alberti calls
them nails. See DROPS, and Dome ORDER.

GU'I‘TER, in building, a channel for collecting and con-
veying the water from the roof, situated between the parapet
and the inclined side of the covering, or between the inclined
sides of a double roof, the intersection of the vertical plane
Of the wall and the inclined plane of the roof, or the two
inclined planes forming horizontal lines. When two inclined
sides of a roof meet each other at an internal angle, and form
an inclined intersection to the horizon, the angle thus formed
is called a valley. The external angles formed by two
inclined planes are called hips; and hence hips are exactly
the reverse of valleys, and thus we have the difference between
gutters, hips, and valleys. The intersections of the planes

The term is also applied to Q

It is 66 feet :
long, or 22 yards, or 4 poles of 5% yards each ; and is divided fi

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GUT

483

GYM

 

which form the sides of gutters are horizontal, but the inter-
sections of the planes which form hips and valleys are
inclined. Gutters for lead are formed partly by a boarding
perpendicular to the plane of the walls, and partly by the
inclined sides of the roof and the vertical planes of the walls,
and are supported by horizontal bearers from the walls to the
sides of the rafters, against which they are nailed at one end;
the other end is supported close to the wall upon small posts
or puncheons, which are notched and nailed to the bearers.
The boarding, which is supported by the bearers, and which
stands perpendicular to the planes of the walls, forms the
bottom of the gutter, and is laid with a declivity in the
parallel direction of the plane of the wall, of about an inch
in 10 feet, and with steps, called drips, at every 12 or 18
feet. The drips are formed in planes perpendicular to the
horizon and to the walls, rising about two, or two inches and
a half, so as to add to the descent of the gutters, and at such
distances from each other as are equal to the length of the
sheets. Gutters are laid with lead of such weight, that the
superficial foot contains from seven to twelve pounds, accord-
ing to the stress that is supposed to be on the surface. The
sheets are laid from 12 to 18 feet in length, as the descent
for the water may permit. “Then there is a sufficient cur-
rent for the water, shorter sheets of 12 feet in length are to be
recommended in preference to longer ones, on account of the
latter sometimes cracking by expansion, as all metals are
liable to do. Cast lead is preferable to milled lead, as being
more solid in its texture, and on this account is more to be
depended upon when it expands, so as to keep from tearing
asunder ; but milled lead is equally thick throughout, and
has its surface regularly smooth, properties which are not to
be found in cast lead ; therefore, wherever beauty and neat-
ness of workmanship are required, _ milled lead must be
employed. The goodness of cast. lead depends upon the
equality of its thickness, which cannot at all times be
depended upon; and it should be observed, that plumbers
themselves are divided in their opinion whether cast or milled
lead ought to have the preference.

In London, parapet walls and leaden gutters are indispen-
sable, on account of the Building Act, as the numerous
inhabitants are less liable to accidents from the falling of
broken slates or tiles; and in cases of fire in the lower part of
the building, they are convenient for making an escape from
the danger, and also for assisting in extinguishing the flames.
Several attempts have been made to substitute copper, but this
material has not been found to have the desired effect, though
zinc has been extensively used of late years instead of lead.
The water is conveyed from the gutters by leaden pipes. In
the country, dripping eaves are much used, and are to be
preferred in elevated situations, as in the winter season the
gutters and pipes are frequently stopped by snow or frost, so
as to bring down the ceilings and plastering, injure the walls,
and rot the timber ; and thus not only render the building
unfit for living in, but reduce it to ruin in the course of a few
years. On this account, many of the first-rate houses suffer
much by the overflowing of the water, unless the gutters are
so constructed, that the water may escape before it finds its
way into the building. Gutters should never be soldered
where it can be avoided, particularly when the soldering
would make the sheets of unusual length, as in this case it
would be impossible to ensure it from cracking ; the expenses
of repairing would be frequent, and the ultimate effect
ruinous. The thickest lead is used in gutters and flats, each
generally of the same weight, while the hips and ridges are
from five to six pounds to the foot, and most generally of milled
lead.

The following are the legulations in the Metropolitan

 

Building Act relating to parapets and gutters. “ If an
external wall adjoin a gutter, then such external wall must
be carried up, and remain one foot at the least above the
highest part of such gutter. And the thickness of an

. external wall so carried up above the level of the under side

of the gutter-plate. and forming a parapet, must be at the
least

“ In every such wall of the extra first—rate of the first class,
and in every such wall of the first-rate of the second class,
13 inches thick ; and

“ In every other external wall, of whatever rate, or which-
ever class, 8% inches thick.”

GUTTERING. ‘See GUTTER.

GUTTUS (Latin) a term among antiquaries for a sort of
vase, used in the Roman sacrifices, to receive the wine. and
sprinkle it guttalim, drop by drop, upon the victim.

Vigenere on T. Livy, gives the figure of the guttns as
represented on divers medals and other ancient monuments.

GYMNASIUM, a place fitted for performing exercises
of the body.

The word is 'yva/aa'wv, formed of yuprog, naked ; because
they anciently put. off their clothes, to practise with the more
freedom.

Among the ancients, the gymnasium was a public edifice
destined for exercise, and where people were taught, and
regularly disciplined, under proper masters.

According to Solon, in Lucian's Anaclzarsis, and Cicero,
De Oral. lib. ii. the Greeks were the first who had
gymnasia; and among the Greeks, the Lacedaemonians;
after them the Athenians, from whom the Romans borrowed
them.

There were three principal gymnasia at Athens : the
Academy, where Plato taught ; the Lyceum, famed for
Aristotle’s lectures; and the Cynosargus, allotted to the
populace. '

Vitruvius describes the structure and form of the ancient
gymnasia, lib. V. cap. 2. They were called gymnasia,
because the champions performed naked; and palwstme, from
wrestling ;‘ which was one of the most usual exercises
there: the Romans sometimes also called them Thermal},
because the baths and bagnios made a principal part of
the building.

It appears, that so early as the time of Homer, they did not
perform their exercises quite naked, but always in drawers ;
these they did not lay aside before the thirty-second Olympiad.
One Orsippus is said to have been the first who introduced
the practice: for having been worsted, by means of his
drawers undoing and entangling him, he threw them quite
aside, and the rest afterwards imitated him.

The gymnasia consisted of seven members, or apartments.
M. Burette, after Vitruvius, recites no less than twelve.
viz. l. The exterior partico, where the philosophers, rhetori-
cians, mathematicians, physicians, and other virtuosi, read
public lectures, and where they also disputed, and rehearsed
their performances. 2. The ephebeum, where the youth
assembled very early, to learn their exercises in private,
without any spectators. 3. The coryceum, apodyterz'on, or
gymnasterion, a kind of wardrobe, where they stripped,
either to bathe or exercise. 4. The elteotlzesium, alipterz'on,
or unctuarium, appointed for the unctions, which either pre-
ceded or followed the use of the bath, wrestling, pancratia,
&c. 5. The conisten'um, or conistm, in which they covered
themselves with sand, or dust, to dry up the oil, or sweat.
6. The palwstra, properly so called, where they practised
wrestling, the pugillate, pancratia, and divers other exercises.
7. The splzceristerz'um, or tennis-court, reserved for exercises
wherein they used balls. 8. Large unpaved alleys, which

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GYN

484

GYP

 

comprehended the Space between the porticos and the walls
wherewith the edifice was surrounded. 9. The xgsti, which
were porticos for the wrestlers in winter, or bad weather.
10. Other wgsti, or open alleys, allotted for summer and
fine weather, some of which were quite open, and others
planted with trees. 11. The baths, consisting of several
different apartments. 12. The stadium, a large space of
a semicircular form, covered with sand, and surrounded
with seats for the spectators. For the administration of the
gymnasia, there were divers officers: the principal were,
1. The ggninasiarch, who was the director and superintendent
of the whole. 2.. The xgstarch, who presided in the xystus,
or stadium. 3. The ggmnasta, or master‘of the exercises, who
understood their different effects, and could accommodate
them to the different complexions of the athletaz. 4. The
pcedotriba, whose business was mechanically to teach the
exercises, without understanding their theory or use. Under
these four officers were a number of subalterns, whose names
distinguished their different functions.

As to the kinds of exercises practised in the gymnasia, they
may be reduced to two general classes, as they depend either
on the action of the body alone, or as they require external
agents or instruments. The former are chiefly of two kinds,
orchestice and palcestrice. V

The orchestice comprehended, 1. Dancing, 2. Gubistice, or
the art. of tumbling. 3. Sphceristice, or tennis, including all
the exercises with pilae, or balls.

The palcestrice comprised all exercises under the denomi-
nation of palcestra; as wrestling, boxing, pancratia haplo-
machia, running, leaping, throwing the discus, the exercise of
thejavelin, and that of the hoop, denominated by the Greeks
rpoxog, which consisted in rolling an iron hoop five or six feet
in diameter, beset with iron rings, the noise of which appris-
ing the people to give way, afforded them also an amusement.
Both strength and skill were requisite in directing this hoop,
which was to be driven with an iron rod.

To these must also be added the exercises belonging to the
medicinal gymnastics, as 1. Walking. 2. Vociferation, or
shouting. 3. Holding one’s breath.

The bodily exercises, which depended on external agents,
may be reduced to mounting the horse ; riding in a chaise, or
other wheeled vehicle ; rocking in beds or cradles, and
sometimes swinging : to which may be added, the art of
swimming. Hoffman enumerates no less than fifty-five sorts
of gymnastic exercises.

The term gymnasium has descended to modern times. In
Germany, the higher schools, intended especially as imme-
diately preparatory to the universities, are termed gymnasia.
Schools for the improvement of bodily strength, grace, or
agility, are also called gymnasia. Within the last few years
small portions of the newly-formed parks in the neighbour-
hood of London have been set aside for this purpose, and
provided with the proper appurtenances for gymnastic
exercises. To these the ancient word gymnasium is still
applied.

GYNJECEUM, (from the Greek 711177, a woman, and oucog,
a house,) among the ancients, the apartment of the women ;
or a separate place, in the inner part of the house, where the
women kept themselves retired, employed in their spinning,
out of the sight of the men.

Under the Roman emperors there was a particular estab-
lishment of gynaecea, being a kind of manufactories managed
chiefly by women, for the making of clothes, furniture, &c.,
for the emperor’s household. Mention is made of these
gynaecea, in the Theodosian and Justinian code, and by divers
other authors.

In imitation of these, divers of the modern manufactories,

 

particularly those of silk, where a number of women and
maids are associated and formed into a body, are called
gncecea.

GYPSOGRAPHY, a new method of engraving on
plaster, to which this term has been given by the inventors.
Gypsography, or metallic relief-engraving, is performed in the
following manner. The surface of a copper-plate is prepared
with a thin coating, or layer of plaster-of-paris, of uniform
depth, through which the draughtsman etches with a point to
the surface of the copper: he is enabled, as he proceeds, to
observe the effect of every touch of the etching point. When
the drawing or etching is completed, it forms a complete
matrix or mould, and is cast in type-metal, in a similar
manner to the process of stereotype-casting, and at once forms
a block or plate, which must in every minute feature produce
a perfect fac-simile of the original design of the artist, and
from which, at the type-press or steam-machine, thousands of
impressions can be worked in a few hours.

GYPSUM, a substance formed by the combination of
sulphuric acid with calcareous earth.

Gypsum is found in a compact and crystallized state, as
alabaster and selenite, or in the form of a soft chalky stone
which in a very moderate heat gives out its water of crystalli-
zation, and becomes a very fine white powder, extensively
used under the name of plaster-of-paris. This last is the most
common, and is found in great masses near Paris, where it
forms the hill Montmartre, near Aix in Provence, and near
Burgos in Spain. It is found in smaller portions in various
parts of Europe.

Of the different kinds of plaster the coarser sorts are
employed, with the admixture of common lime-stone, for
cements.

 

The gypsum, which naturally Contains carbonate j'

of lime, makes very good cement; but that which has an

admixture of clay and sand, affords a cement of an infei‘ior
quality.

The kilns in which the plaster-stones are burnt, are gene- I
rally of a very simple construction ; often they are built of ‘

gypsum itself.

The fragments to be calcined are loosely put ;

together, in such a manner as to form a parallelepiped heap, ‘

below which are vaulted pipes or flues, for the application of
amoderate heat. The calcination must not be carried to
excess, since in this case the plaster will be deprived of its
quality of forming a solid mass when mixed with a certain
portion of water. During the process of calcination, the
water of crystallization rises as a white vapour, which, if the
atmosphere be dry, is quickly dissolved in air.

On the river \Volga, in Russia, the burning of gypsum
constitutes one of the chief occupations of the peasantry.
They calcine all kinds of gypsum promiscuously, on grates
made of wood, they then reduce the plaster to powder,
pass it through a sieve, and form it into small round cakes,

which they Sell at from one, to one and a half rouble, per ‘

thousand.

. l

In order to make use of the plaster, water is added to the a
powder, which is produced by pounding the calcined frag- '
ments ; an operation performed either in mills constructed for I

the purpose, or by the hands of men.
ingly prejudicial to the persons employed in it, whose health

This work is eXceed- ;

is soon impaired by the pernicious effects which the dust of ‘

this substance has upon the lungs.

The less the gypsum intended for plaster is mixed with
other substances, the better it is qualified for the purpose of
making casts, stucco, Ste. ; the sparry gypsum, or selenite,

‘ which of course is the purest of all, is employed for taking

impressions from coins and medals ; and forthose beautiful

‘ imitations of marble, granite, and porphyry, that are known

by the name of scagliola derived from the Italian word, scagli,

 

l
!

 

 

 

 

 

GYP

485

GYP

 

or laminae of selenite ; the latter is vulgarly called talc in Italy
and France, and also in England.

The compact gypsum of Kirwan (alabastrite, La Meth. ;
albatre gypseax, de Lisle ; dickter gypstein, Werner) when of
a white, or yellowish, or greenish colour, semi-transparent,
and capable of receiving a polish, is known among statuaries
, by the name of alabaster, which term is also retained as a
secondary appellation in most books of mineralogy, and is
certainly the alabastrites of Pliny, which is characterized by
that author as a stone resembling gypsum. When its colours
are disposed in bands or clouds, it is called, in the first case,
onyx alabaster, and in the latter, agate alabaster. It not
unfrequently contains a sufficient- portion of carbonated lime
to produce a brisk efi‘ervescence with nitrous acid ; and hence
has originatedthe confusion of authors, who make the circum-
stance of efi'ervescence an essential distinctive character
between the gypseous and calcareous alabasters. Its specific
gravity seldom exceeds 1.9. Its fracture is compact, splintery,
sometimes verging on the fine-grained foliated. In trans-
parency, it is considerably superior to white wax, allowing
light to pass readily through it, but not transmitting the forms
of objects.

Gypseous alabaster is very easily worked, but it is not sus-
ceptible of a polish equal to marble. It is made into vases,
columns, tables, and other ornamental articles of furniture ;
thin slabs of it have even been used in one of the churches of
Florence instead of window-glass. Its brittleness, however,
and want of lustre, have caused it to be almost wholly super-
seded by more durable materials. Among the ancients, the
most esteemed came from Caramania, Upper Egypt, and
Syria : of the variety called onyx, the boxes for holding per-
fumes were mostly fabricated ; thus, in Horace, we meet
with “ Nardz' parous onyx.”

The calcareous alabaster, or sinter, (albatre calcaire,) is a
stone of the same family as stalactite, consisting chiefly of
carbonate of lime, and exhibiting a considerable variety of
colours ; such as pure white, yellowish, greenish, reddish, and
bluish gray : its fracture is striated or fibrous, the strias
sometimes parallel and sometimes divergent : its hardness is
somewhat inferior to that of marble, which nevertheless does
not prevent it from receiving a good polish: its specific
gravity from 2.4 to 2.8 : its transparency is nearly equal to
that of white wax: it effervesces with acids, and burns to
lime. Two sorts of alabaster are distinguished by statuaries,
the common and oriental ; under the latter of these are
ranked the hardest, the finest, and the best coloured pieces;
a number of sub-varieties are also produced by the colours
being in veins, or dentritic, or in concentric undulating zones.
Italy and Spain yield the most beautiful specimens : the
inferior kinds are found in Germany and France. It is
manufactured, like the gypseous alabaster, into tables, vases,
statues, chimney-pieces, 8w.

Many of the hot sulphureous waters rise out of the ground
of a turbid wheyish colour, on account of a large quantity of
gypsum and chalk, which they hold suspended, and in a state
of half solution; as these grow cool, and lose their carbonic
acid, the earthy particles are for the most part deposited,
lining the bottom and sides of the channels in which they
flow with a compact alabaster. Advantage has been occa-
sionally taken of this circumstance to obtain very beautiful
impressions of has-reliefs, by exposing the moulds to a current
of such water, till they have become filled with the earthy
deposit. The most remarkable of these springs in Europe,
is that which supplies the baths of St. Philip in Tuscany : it
is situated on a mountain near Radicofani, and forms the
source of the little river Paglia. The water as it issues forth
is very hot, springs out with great impetuosity, has a strong

6 H

 

sulphureous odour, and holds in solution a large quantity of
calcareous matter. From its very source it flows in deep
channels, covered with a thick crust of stalactite, of a dazzling
white, especially when the sun shines upon it ; and which is
harder or softer in proportion to the rapidity of the stream,
and the obliquity of its fall. This circumstance suggested to
Dr. Vegni, the idea of establishing on this mountain, a manu-
facture of artificial alabaster. For this purpose, he first col-
lected a number of plaster-models, of the best bus-reliefs, in
Rome and other places of Italy. These models serve to form
the hollow moulds, which are made of sulphur, according to
the following process. The plaster model is rubbed over
with boiled linseed oil, and surrounded with an edging of
plaster, of the same height as the intended thickness of the
subsequent bas-relief. Then sulphur, melted with just suffi-
cient heat to make it flow, is poured on the plaster model, and
fills it to the height of the edging. The sulphur mould thus
made, is placed in a kind of wooden tub, roughly put together,
open at top and bottom, and of less diameter below than
above. This tub has on the inside a false bottom, made of
slips of wood laid cross-wise, in order to detain, for a short
time, the water which (lashes on them. Just above this, is a
row of wooden pegs, fastened to the tub, around its whole
inner circumference, on which the sulphur mould is let down,
and thus supported. The whole is then placed under the
boiling spring, and inclosed with walls, to prevent it from
being displaced by the wind. The water, which dashing on 7
the moulds, deposits its earth both within and without them,
giving the impression of has-relief within, and disposing itself
in an undulated surface on the outside. The hardness of the
alabaster depends on the degree ot'obliquity at which the mould
is placed, in order to receive the dashing of the water. The
more vertical its position, the harder is the alabaster. However,
as the hardest models are not so white as the softer, the water
is in some cases caused to make a circuitous course, in order to
deposit all its grosser particles before it arrives at the mould.
Even the softer ones, however, are as hard as Carrara marble,
and surpass it in whiteness. The time required for these
productions varies, according to the thickness, from one
month to four. When the sulphur mould is sufficiently filled,
and the ground of the model has acquired a thickness capable
of supporting the figures, the whole is removed from the
water ; the wooden supports are broken by gentle strokes of
the hammer, and the incrustation on the outside of the mould
is chipped off by repeated strokes. Then the tub is struck
with a smart blow of a hammer, which separates the model
from the mould ; generally, however, cracking the latter.
The brilliancy of the models is completed by brushing
them with a stiff hair-brush, and rubbing with the palm of
the hand.

The composition of this alabaster is gypsum, mixed with a,
small proportion of carbonated lime. Dr. Vegni, after many
attempts, succeeded in giving a fine black, or flesh colour, to
the figures thus formed, by putting a vessel half full of
colouring matter into the water, before it arrives at the
mould. The colouring may also be varied, by protecting par-
ticular parts of the mould, while the water continues charged
with colouring matter.

A spring of the same kind as that just described, and
applied to similar purposes, is that of Guancavelica in Peru.

. The water rises from the ground into a large bason, boiling

hot, and of a muddy yellowish-white colour. At a little
distance from the bason, the water becoming cool, deposits
calcareous matter in such vast abundance, as to fill large moulds
with a compact stone, of which some of the houses of the
town are constructed. The moulds of statuaries, in like
manner, being exposed to the water, are filled with hard, con-

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

HAL

486

HAL

 

fusedly crystallized alabaster, and the has-reliefs thus pro-
duced, by polishing, become semi-transparent and very beau-
tiful. The images made use of by the Catholics of Lima, in
their religious ceremonies, are said to be formed in this
manner.

Gypsum, pulverized by grinding or burning, has been used
as a manure in France and America ; and its fertilizing pro-
perties highly extolled. The use of it in this country, how-
ever, does not seem to have been attended with similar suc-
cessful results. '

H.

HACKING, in walling, the interruption of a course of
stone, by introducing another course upon a different level, in
consequence of the want of stones to complete the whole
thickness; and thus frequently making two courses at one
end of the wall or pier, of the same height with one course
at the other end. The last stone laid in one height is fre-
quently notched, to receive the first stone of the other, where
the two heights commence. Hacking is never employed in
good workmanship, and ought always to be guarded against
by the superintendent, in case of work performed by contract,
where the contractor furnishes the stones. The term is used
in Scotland, and particularly in Glasgow.

HALF-MOON, in fortification, the same as RASELIN;
which see.

HALF ROUND, a semicircular moulding, which may be
either a bead or torus.

HALF SPACE, or PACE as it is sometimes called, a resting
place in a double parallel-flighted stair, where the higher
riser of the lower flight is in the same vertical plane with the
lowest riser of the higher flight. Also any raised platform such
as the dais at the upper end of the halls of the middle ages.

HALF~-TEINT, now more generally written Half-Tint, in
painting, is, precisely speaking, the teint which lies exactly
midway between the extreme light and the extreme dark
which any colour is capable of receiving and reflecting. But
painters use it in a far more general sense, viz., as inclusive
of almost all the intermediate gradations between these two
points; and therefore regard all objects, in what relates to
colour and chiaro-oscuro, as composed of these three—light,
dark, and middle-tint, or half-tint.

How much of the vision of objects is included within the
sphere of halfvtint, may be illustrated by imagining a ball of
ivory placed opposite the sun, and viewed in nearly the same
direction. In this situation, a small portion of it will reflect
an image of the sun to the eye of the observer, which image,
in the language of artists, will be termed its high-light.
Towards its lower part a very small portion will be lost in
shade. The far greater part of the ball, not reflecting light
enough to come under the former of these denominations, nor
being sufficiently deprived of it to receive the latter, is recog-
nized under the term we are now discussing.

When pictures therefore represent the ordinary effect of
day-light, where the illumination produces breadth of light,
as the sun does, and still more in that kind of light produced
by an illumined atmosphere when the sun is not clearly seen,
it is evident that half-tint must be the reigning portion of
tone and colour in them. Add to this, that as objects recede
in the plane of the picture from the source of light, they fall
into comparative half-tint, their high-lights and shadows
participating of the hue with which the intervening atmos-
phere envelopes them. From both these causes it may fairly
be reckoned that nine-tenths at least, and a greater propor-
tion occasionally, in subjects of this nature, will be half-tint,
unless artificial shadows are introduced.

This being the case, too much attention cannot be given

 

to the management of the half-tint, as it produces the pre-
vailing tone of colour in the picture.

The difficulty lies in g

giving each colour introduced a gradation participating of 3

the same hue, but at the same time preserving the true
characters of the original colours in the whole.

The reason ;

of blending this one hue with all colours is made evident by ‘
considering the mode of operation adopted by nature, in

which all gradations of shade are the effect of privation of
light, and consequently of colour, which depends upon it, till
at last every colour is lost in one dark hue, by the total lack
of illumination; and that hue is alike with all. It is that
hue, therefore, in different degrees, which produces the gra-
dation from extreme light to dark, and which, acting equally
on all, produces harmony in the efl'ects by breaking each with
a participation of itself.

This is the simplest mode of producing the half-tint, and
maintaining it with an harmonious efl‘ect throughout the
various parts of a picture. It will of course allow of inter-

mixtures of reflections, either from parts of the same body, ,

as in the folds of draperies, or from different coloured objects
acting upon each other; and thus with its simplicity, rich- ‘

ness and variety may be combined. “'hat the hue of the

dark shade, with which it is produced, may be, depends ,
entirely upon the taste of the painter, and the nature of the :

illumination. One only rule can be given.
mixture with the light, or local colour, to produce a tint more
cool than that in its hue.

HALF-TIMBERED HOUSES, such as were in use during the
reign of Elizabeth, and the period immediately preceding.
They consisted of wooden framing, filled in with plaster, and
had a very picturesque appearance.

HALL, (Saxon) a word anciently used for a mansion—
house, or habitation.

HALL, (French, salle) in architecture, a large room at the
entrance of a tine house, palace, or the like.

Vitruvius mentions three sorts of halls: the tetrastyle,
which has four columns supporting the plafond or ceiling;
the Corinthian, which has columns all round, let into the
wall, and is vaulted over; and the Egyptian, which had a
peristyle of insulated Corinthian columns, bearing a second
order with a ceiling : these are called aci. The hall is pro-
perly the first and finest partition or member of an apart-
ment; and in houses of ministers of state, public magiSo

It ought, in its ‘

s .._.-. _.

 

trates, &C., is that wherein they dispatch business, and give =

audience.

In very magnificent buildings, where the hall is a

larger and loftier than ordinary, and placed in the middle of ‘

the house, it is called a saloon.

The length of a hall should be at least twice and a quarter
its breadth; and in great buildings three times its breadth.
As to the height, it may be two-thirds of the breadth ; and
if made with an arched ceiling, it will be rendered much
handsomer, and less subject to accidents from fire. In this
case, its height ist‘ound by dividing its breadth into six parts,
five of which will be the height from the floor to the under
side of the key of the arch.

 

 

 

 

 

HAN

487

HAN

 

A royal apartment is said to consist of a hall, or chamber,
of guards, aula prcetoriana: an ante-chamber, procamera;
a chamber, camera ,- a cabinet, conclave ; and a gallery,
particus. ,

HALL, also the principal apartment in the castles and man-
sions of the middle ages. These were usually of great length and
size, having the chief entrance at one end, where was a screen
surmounted with a minstrel’s gallery. At the farther end
was a raised platform or dais, with frequently an oriel window
on one or both sides, where the principal guests dined. The
fire-place was sometimes in the middle of the hall, with an
aperture in the roof for the escape of the smoke; but at others
at the side, with a chimney carried up in the walls. The
aperture in the roof was often covered by an open lantern.

Amongst the larger halls in England, may be reckoned
those of Westminster, and Crosby Hall, London; Eltham,
and Penshurst, Kent; and that of Hampton-Court.

HALL, a public building erected for the administration of
the police and justice of a city or corporation.

In this sense we say the town-hall, a company’s lzall, &c.

A stately building in the city of London, and the great
court of judicature for that city, is called Guild-hall; and
many of the City companies have very fine buildings called
their Halls, as the Goldsmiths’ Hall, Fishmongers’ Hall, &c.

HALL is also particularly used for a court ofjustice; or an
edifice wherein there is one or more tribunals.

In Westminster-hall are held the great courts of this king-
dom, viz., the Chancery, Exchequer, Queen’s Bench, and
Common-Pleas.

In adjoining apartments is likewise held the high court of
parliament. Westminster-hall was the royal palace, or place
of residence, of our ancient kings ; who ordinarily held their
parliaments and courts ofjudicature in their dwelling-houses,
and frequently sat in person in the courts of judicature, as
they still do in parliament.

The great hall, wherein the courts of Queen’s Bench, &c.
are kept, is said to have been built by William Rufus; others
say by Richard I. or II. It is reckoned superior, in point of
dimensions, to any hall in Europe; being 238 feet long,
and 68 broad.

HALVING, a method of joining timbers by letting them
into each other : it is preferable to mortising, even where the
timbers do not pass each other, as they are less liable to be
displaced by shrinking.

HAM, a Saxon word, signifying a house.

HAM, is also used to denote a street or village ; whence it
is, that the names of many of our towns end in ham, as
Nottingham, Buckingham, &c.

HAMMER, an instrument used by carpenters, for driving
nails, spikes, &c.; and by masons, for reducing stone, by
breaking it in chips.

HAMMER-BEAM, a transverse beam at the foot of the
rafter, in the usual place of a tie. Hammer-beams are con-
structed in pairs, having each a beam disposed on opposite
sides of the roof. They are chiefly used in roofs constructed
after the Gothic style; the end which hangs over, being
frequently supported by a concave rib, springing from the
wall as a tangent to the curve, and in 'its turn supporting
another rib forming a Gothic arch with the counter-part.
The ends of hammer-beams are decorated with various
devices.

HANCES, or HAUNCHES, the arcs of circles forming the
ends ofarches described with compasses, in imitation of elliptic
arches. The figure representing the whole ellipsis is gene-
rally described with four circular segments, of which those
that are opposite are equal to each other, and are bisected by
each extremity of each axis ; the two arcs which terminate

 

the greater axis are called the flames, and those which
terminate the shorter, the schemes.

HAND, a measure of four inches.

HAND-IRONS. See END-IRONS.

HAND-RAIL, of a stair, a rail raised upon slender posts,
called balusters, intended to assist persons in ascending and
descending, and to protect them from falling down the
well-hole.

HAND-RAILING, the art of making hand-rails by moulds,
according to geometrical principles.

The art of forming hand-rails was never, before the pub-
lication of the Carpenter’s Guide, subjected to any certain
geometrical principle. The best method then known, was
that of tracing it, like an angle-bracket, from the rise and
tread of as many steps as the rail was supposed to occupy in
winders, and making the face-mould of a parallel breadth,
after obtaining the middle of the concave side. This is
manifestly false; and the magnitude of the error will be
greater, as the circumference of the are at the plan of the
rail is greater than its chord. A rail, or any portion of a rail,
formed upon this principle, could never stand vertically over
its plan. The method here shown is founded upon the fol-
lowing principles : that if a cylinder be cut in any direction
except parallel to the axis or base, the section will be an
ellipsis ; if cut parallel to the axis, its section is a rectangle ;
and if parallel to the base, its section is a circle.

Let us suppose a hollow cylinder made to a given plan, the
interior will be concave, and the exterior convex ; and let
this cylinder be cut by any inclined or oblique plane, the
section formed will be bounded by two concentric similar
ellipses; consequently, the section will be at its greatest
breadth at each extremity of the greater axis, and at its least
breadth at each extremity of the lesser axis. Therefore, in
any quarter of the ellipsis, there will be a continued increase
of breadth from the extremity of the lesser axis to that of the
greater. Now a cylinder can be cut by a plane through any
three points; therefore suppose we have the height of the
rail at any three points in the cylinder, and cut the cylinder
through these points, the section will be a figure equal and
similar to the face-mould of the rail; and if the cylinder be
cut by another plane, parallel to the section, at such a distance
from it as to contain the thickness of the rail, this portion of
the cylinder will represent a part of the rail with its vertical
surfaces already wrought; and if the back and lower surface
of this cylindric portion be squared to vertical lines, either
on the convex or concave side, through two certain parallel
lines, drawn by a thin piece of wood bent upon that side;
the portion of the cylinder thus formed will represent the
part of the rail intended to be made.

The principles upon which this art depends are those of
cutting a right prism through any three given points in space,
and of forming a development of any portion of the surface
of the prism.

Thus, let the interior surface of the surrounding wall be
that of an entire cylinder, the breadth of the steps divided
into the frustums of equal and similar sectors, and the
heights all equal, as is universally the case ; then, if an inte-
rior cylinder surface be erected concentric with the wall, and
the ends of the steps or surfaces to be trodden upon, and the
planes of the risers tending to the axis be supposed to meet
the interior cylindric surface, it is evident that if the por-
tion of the intercepted surface contained between the indented
line formed by the ends of the steps, and the circumferent
line at the base be developed, or stretched out, all the points
of the indented line formed by the outward or salient angles,
will be in the same straight line, and all the points formed
by the inward or re-entrant angles will be in another straight

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

HAN

488

HAN

 

line. It is equally evident, that this will not only be the
case with cylinders, but with cylindroids, and every other
description of prisms : that is, the points of the development
of the indented line will always have such a position, that
two straight lines parallel to each other may be drawn
through the whole number of them.

The points of concourse of the salient angles, are called
tke nosings of the steps.

The line drawn through all the nosingsof the steps, is
called the line of the nosings.

Now let the portion of the cylinder before uncovered, be
again enveloped, the development in this state becomes an
envelope, and the line of nosings becomes a uniform helix,
which would be the form of the rail for such a stair.

In this case, it would be easy to execute the rail to any
length, in equal portions succeeding each other; for as the
curvature of the helical line is everywhere the same, the same
moulds which are used in the formation of one piece, would
serve for every succeeding piece.

The steps around the circular part are termed winders; in
these the risers tend to the axis of the cylinder.

Steps with their treads of the same breadth, are termed
flyers; in these the risers are all parallel.

Very few staircases are entirely circular ; but those of the
semi—circular form, with winders in the semicircle, and
flyers below and above, are very numerous ; in such, the line
of nosings would be crooked, and would form an angle at
the junction of the flyers and the winders, and that round
the semicircle would be an helix, consisting of half a
revolution.

In the development of the steps, the line of nosings
would consist of three straight lines ; the two straight lines
through the nosings of the flyers, would be parallel to each
other, and each extremity of the middle one would join
one extremity of each of the other two; but the angles
are commonly taken away, by introducing a curve in their
places.

A hand-rail, however, is not a mere helical line, but a
solid, which may be contained between two concentric cylin-
dric surfaces, or concentric prismatic surfaces. The prin-
ciples are the same, whatever be the form of the plan. A
solid erected upon any plan, is called a prism ; a cylinder is
therefore a round prism, and a cylindroid an elliptic prism.
A hand-rail may stand upon a circular base, or partly circular
and partly straight, or upon an entire elliptic base. In the
construction of hand-rails, all prisms are excluded, which
consist of plain surfaces ; or, which is the same thing, where
the sides of the plan consist entirely of straight lines; as in
such cases, the rails themselves are either straight, or partly
curved and partly straight upon the top and lower sides only,
the sides being in vertical planes.

Let us therefore confine ourselves to prisms upon a circular
or an elliptic base, or upon a base partly circular and partly
straight; or lastly, upon a base partly elliptical and partly
straight. The two last may be said to have compound bases
or plans, and the two former simple bases or plans. Such
a prism may be denominated a curved prism. The plan of
any curved prism is understood to be of the same breadth,
and consequently the solid erected thereon will be every-
where of the same thickness. The prism may therefore be
a hollow cylinder, or a hollow cylindroid, or a concave body,
partly cylindric and partly straight ; the latter may be open
on one side, and may have the four planes which join the
curved surfaces parallel to each other, and tangent to each of
the cylindric surfaces.

Let us therefore suppose such a prism as that last men-
tioned, to be cut entirely through its vertical surfaces, i'

 

such a manner that any point in the surface of division may
coincide with a straight line everywhere perpendicular to the
external prismatic surface, then, every such line will be
parallel to the plane of its base, and those lines in the cylin-
drical part of the prism will tend to the axis. Now it is
evident, that the cut, or dividing surface, will not be a plane,
but will wind or twist between the cylindric surfaces. It is
also evident, that the cut may pass through a line drawn in
any manner we please, in one of the prismaticlsurfaces; or,
that the development of this line may have any degree of
curvature in the whole length, or in any portion of the
length, or may even be a straight line. One of these being
supposed to be the case, let the upper part of the prism be
taken away, then the upper surface of its remaining part
will be brought to view ; let a line be drawn on the
exterior surface parallel to the arris, and another on the con-
cave side parallel to its arris ; and let another cut or dividing
surface be made to pass through the two lines thus drawn,
and let the upper part be removed by this division ; then the
part thus removed will form a solid helix, or kind of half
screw, which may be either uniform in its upper and lower
surfaces, or have any degree of curvature in any part that
may be required, according to the development before men-
tioned. This is the form of the rail for such a stair ; but to
form the solid helix, without cutting it from a hollow curved
prism, is what is required in hand-railing.

Now, as two of its sides are actually cylindrical, and
would be vertical if placed in position, and the other two
winding surfaces may be formed to any development desired;
take any determinate portion of the helical solid, as a quarter
of a revolution, or perhaps something more, as occasion may
require, and endeavour to form such a portion, or wreath, out
of a thin plank, instead of cutting it from a. solid curved
prism. Before this can be done, it is necessary to understand
the principle of cutting a prism through any three fixed
points in space, by a plane passing through those points; the
points may be in the surface of the prism itself, and may be
either all in the concave side, or all in the convex side ; or
partly in the concave side, and partly in the convex side ;—
that such a supposition is possible will readily appear, since
any three points are always in the same plane; and, there-
fore, the plane may cut the prism through any three given
pomts.

The three points through which the section is cut, are said
to be given, when the Seats are given on the plane of the
base of the prism, which plane is understood to be at right
angles to the axis of the prism, and when the distances or
heights from the seats to the points themselves are given.

It is always to be understood, that the three seats are not
in a straight line, and consequently the three points them-
selves not a straight line.

The seat of a point in space on any plane, is that point in
the plane where a perpendicular drawn through the point in
space cuts the plane.

In the helical solid, the winding surface connecting the two
prismatic surfaces, has been defined to be of such a property
as to coincide with a straight line perpendicular to the exte-
rior prismatic surface, and, consequently, if the axis of the
curved prism be perpendicular to the horizon, every such
line will be parallel to the base; now, let the seats of three
such lines be given on the plan, viz., let each extreme boun-
dary be one, and let another be taken in the convex side
passing through the point, which would give the middle ot
the development of the said side of the plan ; the three seats
would be terminated by the convex and concave sides of the
plan, and will always be perpendicular to the convex side,
and equal in length to each other. Call the three level lines,

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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of which their seats are given, the lines of support; let
a plane be laid on the three lines of support, and it will rest
either upon three points, or upon one of the said lines and
two points; hence the points which come in contact with
the plane, will be at one extremity of each line of support;
let each of these points, which come in contact with the plane
thus posited, be called a resting point. The three resting
points are the three points in space, through which the plane
is supposed to pass that cuts the curved prism.

Now, because each line of support has two extremities,
there will be 51‘: extreme points in all, but as only three can
be resting points, unless the plane coincides with one of the
lines of support, it will be proper to show, which three of
the six are the resting points. Let the plane, thus laid upon
some three extremities of the lines of support, be continued
to intersect the base of the. curved prism, then the nearest
extremity of the seat of any line of support, to the intersect-
ing line, is the seat of the resting point of that line. For
this purpose, let a development of the convex side of the
rail be made according to the plan and rise of the steps.
The part of this development that is made to bend round
the concave or convex cylindric surface of the helical portion
_ or wreath, is called a falling-mould, which is supposed to be
brought to an equal breadth throughout its length. Only
one falling-mould is used in the construction of hand-rails.
Let therefore the falling-mould for the convex side be con-
, structed, and let two straight lines be drawn from the ends of
l the upper edge of that part of the falling-mould corresponding
‘ to the ends of the wreath perpendicular to the base of the
i whole development; also let another intermediate line be
drawn parallel to the other two, so as to bisect the part of
j the base intercepted by the said two parallels, the three
‘ parallels will give us the heights of the three resting points,
the shortest height is at one extreme, and the longest at the
other. Suppose now the shortest of these three heights taken
from each of the three, and the remainders taken as heights,
instead of the whole, then the height of the first resting
point will be nothing, and will therefore coincide with its
seat; and if the middle height be less than half the length
of the remaining height, the seats of the resting points will
be the first and second extremities of the first and second
lines of support taken on the convex side, and the extremity
of the third on the concave side. The first resting point is
a point in the intersection of the plane of the base with the
inclined plane.

The process is now completely reduced to that of finding
the section of a prism through three given points, which sup-
pose to be done, and the plane of section will touch the sup-
posed wreath at the resting points of each line of support
without cutting the wreath at any such line; then the three
lines of support will be on the same side of the plane, viz.,
on the under side. Suppose now another section taken below,
and parallel to the former, so that the wreath may be just con-
tained between these parallel sections or planes, and the
distance between the two sections will represent the thickness
of the plank. The section of the prism through its vertical
surfaces, is called the rake or the rake of the plan ; and a mould
being cut to the rake is called the face-mould.

The manner of forming a helical line or screw is as
follows :—

Plate VIII. Figure 1. Divide the circumference of the
outer circle of the base into equal parts ; draw a line through
the centre to represent the axis of the cylinder, parallel to
the axis, and through the points of division in the outer
!circumference draw lines; divide the line of heights or the
Iline representing the axis, into as many equal parts as the
circumference of the base is divided into, and through the

6 I

 

 

' 489

 

HAN

points of division draw lines at right angles to the axis, inter.
secting, as in the figure ; through the points of intersection,
draw a curve which will represent the helix, or one of the
arris lines of the rail.

Figure 2.—-The projection of the solid helix coiling round
the cylinder ; which helix represents the hand-rail before it
is moulded.

Figure 3.—No. 1.——A solid section of a cylinder contained
between two parallel planes, a part of the side of this solid
contained between two planes passing through the axis is the
form of a piece from which the rail is made after it is cut
out of the plank. No. 2, half the solid section, No. 3, the
inclination of the cutting planes.

Such large portions as these, however, are by no means
proper to be employed in hand-railing, as the size would neces-
sarily occasion the fibres of the wood to run in a transverse
direction to the length of the rail, and consequently weaken it,
but they are useful in this place to convey clear ideas of the
principle upon which the art is founded.

Figure 5.—No. 1.——The proper form of a part from which
a portion of the rail is to be made after it has been cut out of
the plank; exhibiting the convex side of the same, and the
upper plain surface, which is that of the plank. No. 2. The
concave side of the same, with the joints and lower surface of
the plank.

Figure 4.——-A portion of the rail completely squared with
the concave side, the joints, the bottom part of the upper
winding surface, and the upper part of the lower winding
surface, brought into view. No. 2. The convex side of the
same, showing the upper part of the upper surface, and the
lower part of the lower surface.

The business of hand-railing is to find the mould for cutting
a rail out of planks,

Though hand-railing is only treated of here, as connected
with cylindrical well-holes: it is equally applicable to rails
erected upon any seat whatever.

The mould, which applies to the two faces of the plank,
regulated by a line drawn on its edge, so as to be vertical
when the plank is elevated to its natural position, is called the
face-mould,- or sometimes the raking-mould.

A parallel mould, applied and bent to the side of the rail-
piece, for the purpose of drawing the back and lower surface
(which are to be so formed that every level straight line,
directed to the axis of the well-hole, from every point of the
side of the rail formed by the edges of the falling-mould, shall
coincide with the surface) is called afalling-mould.

When the upper surface of the plank is not at right angles
to a vertical plane passing through the chord of the plan, in
order to cut the corresponding portion of the rail out of the
least thickness of wood, the plank is said to be sprung.

A right-angled triangular board, made to the rise and tread
of a step, is called the pitch-board.

In a stair-case, where there are both winders and flyers,
two pitch-boards will be concerned, of different treads, but of
the same heights, as the height of the steps must be equal. ‘

The bevel by which the edge of the plank is reduced from
the right angle, when the plank is sprung, in order to apply
the face-mould, is called the spring ofthe plank; and the edge
or narrow side thus reduced, is called the sprung edge.

The bevel by which the face-mould is regulated to each side
of the plank, is called the pitch.

The formation of the upper and lower surface of a rail is
called thefitllirzg of the rail.

The upper surface of the rail is called the back.

The first thing in the practice is to spring the plank, then
to cutaway the superfluous wood, as directed by the draughts
formed by the face-mould. This may be cut so very exactly

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

HAN

490

HAN

 

with a saw, by an experienced hand, as to require no further
reduction ; and when set in its place, the surface on both sides
will be vertical in all parts, and in a surface perpendicular to
the plan. In order to form the back and lower surface, the
falling-mould is applied to one side, which is generally the
convex side, in such a manner, that the upper edge of the
falling-mould at one end may coincide with the face of the
plank, the same in the middle, and to leave so much wood at
the other end to be taken away, as not to reduce the plank on
the concave side. The piece of wood to be thus formed into
the wreath or twist, being agreeable to three given heights.
This description is general, in order to comprehend the follow-
ing construction of the moulds themselves, which when
explained, we shall then enter into a more particular detail of
their application.

T 0 construct the falling and face—moulds of a rail to a level
landing, supposing the plane of the plank to rest upon the
middle point of the section, which separates the upper and
lower circular parts, and to rest upon the line parallel to, and
in the middle of the straight part, so as to have the grain of the
wood parallel.

Plate I. Figure 1.—The falling-mould of the hand-rail :
B C the extension of the semicircular part ; BA and C D the
treads of the adjoining flyers.

To find the extension of the semicircular part, from the
middle point, I, of B c, draw I x L perpendicular to B C ; divide
the radius I K into four equal parts, and repeat one of these
: parts from K to L seven times ; draw the diameter M N parallel
i to B O ; join L M and L N, and produce each of these lines to
‘ B and C ; then B C is the rectification of the semi-circumference
1 M IN. Draw B T and D H perpendicular to A D ; make B E

equal to the height of a step ; I 0 on the straight line I L, one
. step and a half ; C F equal to the height of two steps ; and D H
equal to the height of three steps ; join A E and 11 F, and
through 0 draw P Q parallel to BC ; produce A E and II F to
meet P Q at P and Q ; then cut off the angles at P and Q by
? equal touching curves, one at each ; then A E 0 F is the middle
lof the falling-mould ; and as the rail is generally made two
{inches deep, draw two parallel lines each an inch distant from
ithis central line, and s U 85 will be the' upper edge of the
ifalling-mould, and 3 YJ the lower edge.

T 0 find the face-mould of the hand-rail.

Figure 2.——At any convenient place lay down the half plan,
a l) c dcfa, of the hand-rail ; a l) of being the straight part
of the rail, and c defthe plan of the circular part ; drawg e d
parallel to af or b c; bisect de at h, and draw hi perpen-
dicular to g d; make h i equal to I U, Figure 1, and the angle
hilt equal to the angle GHF; let h represent the middle
} point of the section between the two circular parts ; and
*suppose n to represent the resting point in the middle of the
section, which separates the straight and circular parts ; make
B R, Figure 1, equal to c l) or fa, Figure 2, and draw R S,
Figure 1, perpendicular to A B, cutting the upper edge of the
falling-mould at s ; make h r, Figure 2, equal to B ’1‘, Figure 1,
and draw rs, Figure 2, parallel to g d, cutting ih at s; make
hm equal to r s, and join m n, which is the directing ordinate ;
from I: draw kl parallel to m n, and h l is the intersection of
the plane of the plank ; find the countersection h t, as in the
SECTIONS OF CYLINDERS, or, as in the subsequent part of this
Work, under SOLID ANGLES.

To find any point in the curve of the face-mould—Draw
u vw parallel to h l, cutting k d at u, and the concave side of
the plan at 'v, and the convex side at to; draw it x parallel to h i,
cutting 11‘: i at a: ; draw a: ,2/ 2 parallel to h t; make my equal to
ac, and a: z equal to u w ,- then 3/ is a point in the concave
side of the face-mould, and z is a point in the convex side.
The pitch-bevel shown by the dark lines, is found by drawing

 

 

 

a vertical line to the pitch-line, and the angle formed by these
lines is the pitch-bevel.
In this manner as many points may be found as will be

necessary to complete the concave and convex sides of the
falling-mould ; or rule each system of lines at the same line 1
thus ; take as many points in the convex side of the plan as I
will be found requisite ; through all these points draw lines

parallel to k l, to cut gd; from all the points of division in

geldraw lines parallel to h 2', cutting 13 i; through all the
points of division in hi draw lines parallel to h t; terminate
each line from the point of intersection equal to the corres-
ponding outer and inner ordinates of the plan, and through
the points found by its concave side draw a line; afso
through the points found by the convex side of the plan
draw another curve : then the corresponding points found for
each extremity of the plan will complete the face-mould. It

is evident that the parts 3-4, 5-6 of the face-mould corres- ‘

ponding to a 6, cf on the plan, is a parallelogram, therefore if

the point 6, where the concave side and the straight parts ‘

meet, and the point 5, where the convex and straight parts
meet, are found, andjoined by the line 5-6; and if 5-4 and
6-3 be drawn parallel to hi, and the point 9 correspondinor to
0, be found, by drawing 4-3 through 9, the straight part ofothe
face-mould will be completed.

The line of separation 5-6 will be more exactly determined
as follows : Through n draw 72 7 parallel to h i, cutting hi at
7 ; then find only one of the points 5 or 6, say 5 ; drai’v 5-7
then 5-6, which is a part of 5-7, is the line of separation.

This face-mould will answer for the upper, as well as the
lower half.

The angle l2-1 is the spring of the plank, and is found in 1
the same manner as in solid angles, and having the inter- ‘

section and cointersection, the face-mould is found as in the
sections of a cylinder. The face—mould might have been
found as in Figure 3, by taking the heights from a line drawn
over the face-mould parallel to A D, Figure l, and laying the
plan upwards, as in Figure 3, then proceeding with the
operation downwards, as directed in Figure 2 upwards. Or,
if the drawing is inverted, the line v H, Figure 1, will become
the base of the heights, and everything else will be in the
same position as in Figure 2.

In the application of the moulds, imagine the plank set up
to the pitch, and in the same way spring the edge from the

under side for the lower piece, and from the upper side for the

upper piece. To apply the moulds to-the plank, now sup-
posed to be sprung 0r beveled, take the pitch and draw the
vertical line, the stock of the bevel being applied to the acute
edge of the plank, upwards or downwards, as the case may

require : then draw a line equal to the distance of 3-6 from

k i, upon each plane of the plank parallel to the side ; then
the point 8 being kept to the end of the vertical line, and the

side 3—6 upon the parallel line, draw round all the edges of ‘
the mould ; turn the mould to the other side, apply the point ;
8 to the other end of the vertical line, and the part 3-6 upon 3
the line drawn parallel to the face, and draw round all the 3

edges as before ; then cut away the superfluous stuff. The
snles of the piece intended to form the twist must be perfectly
cylindrical, and all the parts so formed, that a straight line or

edge may apply to any point, at the same time that it coincides :
With the surtace, and is parallel to the vertical line drawn ;

on the edge of the plank.

'The falling-mould is thus applied : Draw a line upon the l
ends of the solid piece, at right angles to the vertical sides, ‘
from zero at each end, next to the upper side; then apply .

the upper edge of the thee-mould next to the top of the plank,

and each end to the corresponding end of the piece, bending ;
it so that all parts may be in contact with the stull‘; then i

 

 

 

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draw a. line round all the edges, and it will show the super-
fluous wood to be cut off.

To construct the face-mould of a hand-rail to a stair upon
a level landing, in two parts, round a semicircular newel ,- so
that when the two pieces are united or fixed in their places,
the grain or fibres of the wood will mitre at the joint.

Plate IL—Let Figure 1 be the rail stretched out, as in the
preceding example : draw the chord of the rail, ih, Figure 2,
No. l ; bisect the end hu at a, and the other end iw at c;
draw _] z b C perpendicular to the chord hi, cutting the con-
cave and convex sides at z and C ; make 2 (2 equal to 2'0, and
E c, Figure 1, equal to w c, Figure 2, No. 1, extended :
draw CD, Figure 1, perpendicular to A E, cutting the upper
edge of the falling-mould at D, and the lower edge at H. In
Figure 2, No. 1, draw a d perpendicular to h i, and c e parallel
to a d; make a dequal to A B, Figure 1 ; c e, Figure 2, No. 1,
equal to E F, Figure l ; and of, Figure 2, No. 1, equal to C D,
Figure l ; join a c and de, Figure 2, No. 1 ; drawfg par-
allel to a 0, cutting de in g ; draw g t parallel to ec, cutting
a c in t; join t I); draw cg parallel to t 6, cutting the convex
side of the plan at g ; produce 3/ c to cut the chord h i at 2 ;
draw 2h parallel to ce; make 2 h equal to c e,- draw h K
parallel to a d; make h K equal to a d; join h K ; produce h K
and ih to meet each other in I; draw l m parallel to th: from
any point, m, in lm, draw m 3 perpendicular to li; produce il
to 1), cutting m 3 at 3 ; through 3 draw 4 n perpendicular
to h I; produce hl to 4; make 3 0 on pl equal to 3-4;

‘ join 0 m; make 4 n equal to 0m, and join nl: then draw

ordinates on the plan parallel to l m, to cut both sides of it,
and also the chord hi; from the intersections in hi, draw
lines parallel to c e, to cut h I; from the points of section in h l,
draw lines parallel to l n ; make the lines thus drawn parallel
to In, equal to the corresponding lines on the plan; and a
curve drawn through these respective points will give the
face-mould.

In drawing ordinates upon the plan, care should be taken
that an ordinate be drawn through the points upon each side
of the plan at the line of separation of the straight and circular

‘ parts, and also through each extremity of the ends ; or, by

finding M N, the line of separation, and the point K, the
point L will be found by drawing K L parallel to NM, and M L
parallel to N K; and thus the portion M N KL, corresponding
to 12 :ch u on the plan, will be obtained.

The angle p 0 772 gives the spring-bevel, Figure 2, No. 3;
and the angle 5 rq gives the pitch-bevel, Figure 2, No. 2.
The face-mould is applied to the plank by laying the points
P and K close to the edge that is sprung; then drawing the
pitch-bevel, N0. 2, from either point For K; for it is not
necessary to draw them from both, as the corresponding point
will be found upon the other side of the plank; then proceed
with the remaining parts as before directed.

To Spring the plank for a level landing through two given

‘ points, so as to parallel the grain.

Plate III.—Let N0. 3 be the falling-mould, as before :
draw any line, CA, for the base of the heights of the face-
mould; then C D is the lower height, where the two wreathed
pieces meet, and AB is the upper height, making allowance
for the squaring of thejoint. Lay down the plan A h C, No. I;
draw on parallel to Ah; draw AB perpendicular to Ah;
make A B equal to A B, No. 3, and the angle A B E, No. 1, equal
to the angle VW s, No. 3; produce A h to E; draw C D par-
allel to A B; make C D equal to C D, No. 3, and the angle C D F
equal to the angle A B E,tl1.1t is, equal to the angle v W s, No. 3:
produce no to F; join F E; in FE take any point, E, and
draw E I perpendicular to F 0, meeting it in I ; from I draw
I K perpendicular to F G, cutting it in L ; make I H equal to
IL, and join us; make L K equal to II E, and join FK;

 

then F E is the director of the ordinates of the base, and F K
that of the face-mould. Proceed with the rest as in Plate I.
Figure 1.

N 0. 2 shows the other mould; but it must be observed, that
one mould is sufficient for both wreaths.

Plate IV. shows the falling and face-moulds of a rail with
winders. As to the method of laying down the moulds from
three given heights, the principle is the same as described in
Plate 1. for a level landing. It therefore only remains to
speak of the manner of forming the butt-joints. Draw a line
at right angles to the sides of the falling-mould, through the
middle of the vertical line, where otherwise would have been
the splice joint; from the end of this line draw another at the
upper edge, and also one from the under edge, perpendicular
to the base line; then the middle height being taken as usual,
the remote line is the height of the face-mould.

Thus, H I, No. l, is the height of h i, No. 2; KL, No. l,
the height of h I, No. 2 ; and M N, No. l, the height of m 72,
No. 2; the remaining part of the construction is as usual.
N0. 3 is the upper face-mould, taken from inverted heights :
or the falling-mould may be considered as inverted. The
same letters are put upon both constructions, to show the
similar parts. Here are eight winders, all drawn to a scale,
to show the proportion of the parts in practice. This hand-
rail requires two moulds, on account of the middle of the
falling-mould being much higher than the hypothenuse of
the winders. '

Plate V. shows the falling and face-moulds for a rail con-
structed as in Plate IV. The only difference is, that in this
Plate the middle of the falling-mould is the hypothenuse of
the wreath. This situation of the falling-moulds will cause
both the face-moulds to be identical: that is, their figures
will be equal and similar, so that considerable time will be
saved in the preparation. This position, and the identifica-
tion of the moulds, may always be adopted when the distance
between the opposite parts of the string is more than ten
inches. The mode of making the height of the rail in the
middle of the winders the same as that of the flyers, is prac-
tised by several celebrated staircase hands, though it is nothing
more than a mere matter of opinion, and may be adopted or
not, at the option of the architect, or of the workman, if left
to him.

It is worthy of notice, that the springing of the plank is
of the utmost consequence in the saving of stuff, where the
well-hole is wide ; but where it is narrow, very little will be
gained by it.

To draw the scroll of a hand-rail, and tofind the mould
for executing the twist.

Plate VI. Figure 1, No. 1, represents the plan of the rail.
The scroll is drawn by centres, in the following manner:
Make a circle in the centre, 3% inches in diameter; divide
the diameter into three equal parts, one of which subdivide
into six equal parts ; set one part from the centre upwards,
draw a line from the end of that part, at right angles, towards
the left hand, and limit this perpendicular to two parts; from
the end of the last perpendicular draw a third downward,
limiting it to three equal parts ; proceed in this manner till
six perpendiculars have been drawn, each differing in length
by one from the preceding, and the form of a spiral fret will
be obtained. The points of concourse of every two lines
will give the centres, which are six in number, besides the
centre of the circle, and are numbered in order from such
centre: draw a straight line downward from the first centre,
by continuing the line already drawn till it cuts the circle :
continue the second perpendicular to the right hand, and the
third upwards to the left hand ; these will form the limiting
lines for the four arcs, which will complete one revolution

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

HAN 492 HAN

 

Continue the lines in the same order for the next revolution,
or for the portion of it required. Begin with the centre next
to that of the circle for the first centre, and describe aquarter
are from the point of contact of the circle to the next limiting
line; then around the second centre, with the distance to the
intersection of the preceding are, on the preceding limiting
line, describe another are; proceed in this manner till the
whole spiral is completed. Set the breadth of the rail from
0 to a, and describe another spiral by the same centres, by
turning the arcs the contrary way, till the last arc of the spiral
cuts the first ; which will complete the scroll of the rail; then
the addition of a part of the straight of the rail will complete
the whole.

The outer spiral consists of one revolution and a half, and
the inner of only about half a revolution, which also makes
the scroll itself appear only half a revolution; but if more is
required, every additional centre will add a quarter of a
revolution to the scroll.

To find the face-mould for the shank of the scroll.

Figure 1, No. 1. Lay the base of the pitch—board upon the
outside of the shank of the scroll, with the acute angle turned
to the outside, or largest convexity : draw a line parallel to
the base of the pitch-board, to touch the convex side of the
scroll next to the straight part; let this line cut the outside
of the rail at 6 : between 0 and 6 take any number of inter-
mediate points, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and draw lines perpendicular to
the base of the pitch-board, to cut the hypothenuse of the said
pitch-board; from the points of section draw lines at right
angles to the hypothenuse; let the perpendiculars parallel to
the base line of the pitch-board be continued downwards, to
cut the concave side of the shank; and let one of the perpen-
diculars be drawn from the concave, and another from the
convex side of the rail, where it is intersected by the line
parallel to the base line ; make all the lines at right angles
to the hypothenuse equal to the respective ordinates of the
shank taken from both concave and convex sides of it : then
curves being traced, and the straight parts joined to the
angular points, will be the face—mould.

Tofind thefalling-mould.

Divide the distance between 0 and 6, Figure 1, No. 1,
into six equal parts, and run the chord on the convex side as
far as the rail is required to fall; upon any convenient line,
A D, No. 2, run the chord of the part from 0 to 13; place the
angular point, C, of the pitch-board at 4 ; with the base A C,
upon A D, tange the angle B C D made by the hypothenuse of
the pitch-board and the line AD, with a curve to touch at B
and D, as shown at No. 3; then draw another curvilinear
parallel, containing the depth of the rail between the two
curves; and the falling-mould, No. 2, will be completed as
far as the rail has a descent, which-ends at 13. The block
of the scroll, which is the remaining part after the shank is
taken away, is wrought out of a solid piece of wood, the
height of the perpemlicular upon 0. The shank is squared
in the same manner as shown in Plate II.

No. 4. The falling-mould for the concave side of the rail
is exhibited here, in order to show, that if the ramp and the
curve of the scroll do not begin together, and if the rail be
made absolutely square, that is, having all its plumb sections
rectangles, and the convex side made agreeable to its falling-
mould, with an easy curve, it will be impossible to form the
back with a regular curve on the concave side, and a hump
will always be formed. Therefore, in reducing the hump to
an agreeable curve, the rail will be thrown out of the square;
but the degree by which it deflects from the truth is so small
as not to be perceived.

The inside of the falling—mould is formed by taking the
stretch out of a h, 60, cd, &c., of the corresponding parts

0 1, 1 2, 2 3, &c., in No. 1, and applying them from a to b,
from b to c, from c to d, &c., No. 4 ; then drawing the per-
pendiculars from the points a, b, c, &c., and transferring
thereto the corresponding perpendiculars insisting upon
0, 1, 2, &c., No. 2, and then tracing the curves. According
to the principles of hand-railing, a vertical or plumb section
of the rail at right angles to the cylindric sides, or tending to
the axis of the cylinder, is level on the back ; therefore, as
the concave and convex sides of the plan of the scroll are
concentric circles, the are on the concave side, so far as relates
to the same quadrant, will be divided equally, as well as the
outside; and therefore drawing lines to the centres from
the points of section on the convex side will divide each
quadrant equally, and the lines thus radiating will be perpen-
dicular to the curve on both sides of the plan ; all the parts
throughout the same quadrant will be equal on the concave
side as well as on the convex side ; and on the convex side
the parts will be equal throughout all the quadrants ; but on
the concave side the parts of each succeeding quadrant, in
turning towards the centre, will be quicker than those in the
preceding quadrant. In the part of the rail which is straight
upon the plan, the sections at right angles to the sides divide
each side into equal parts, and the parts on the one side equal
to those of the other : hence the reason why the hump takes
place at the junction of the ramp and twist.

If a scroll is made agreeable to the form of the plan as
struck round centres with compasses, it will always appear 4
to the eye as ifcrippled at the separating section of the
straight and twisted parts. To remedy this defect, the curve '
of the vertical sides, or that which relates' to the plan,
ought to be extended with an easy curve into the straight
part.

No. 5. An elevation of the shank of the scroll. The por-
tion of the plan is taken from No. 1, and the heights which '
give the curves are taken from the falling—mould, No. 2; its
use is to show the thickness of stuff which is contained
between two parallel lines ; the lower line comes in contact
with the projection at two points, the upper one comes in
contact with the projection in one point only.

To show the method of forming the curtail of the first

 

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Plate VII. Figure 1, No. l.—Draw the scroll as in the
preceding Plate ; set the balusters in the middle of the
breadth, putting one at the beginning of every quarter ; then
the front of the balusters is in the plane of the face of the
riser, and the opposite side in the plane of the string-board :
set the projection of the nosing before the baluster on both
sides, and draw two spiral lines parallel to the sides of the
scroll, till the curves intersect each other, and they will then
form the curtail end of the step, as required. F G H I K repre-
sent the convex side of the scroll ; L M N, the convex side of ;
the curtail ; and A, B, C, D, E, the centre points of the
balusters. ‘

No. 2 shows the profile of the curtail, the end of the
second step, and part of the end of the third. 1

Figure 1, No. 3, shows the centres for drawing the curtail, 3
which are the same as for drawing the scroll. j

To describe a section of the rail, supposing it to be two ‘
inches deep, and two and a quarter inches broad, the usual
dimensions.

Figure 2.—Let A B C D be a section of the rail, as squared.
On AB describe an equilateral triangle, ABg; from g, as
a centre, describe an arc to touch A B, and to meet g A and
gB: take the distance between the point of section in 9A
and the point A, and transfer it from the point of section to
la, upon the same line g A ; join D k ; from k, with the distance i
1 between h and the end of the arc, describe another are, to

 

 

 

 

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meet Dk; with the same distance describe a third arc, of
contrary curvature, and draw a vertical line to touch it; thus
will one side of the section of the rail be formed. The
counter-part is formed by a similar operation.

Figure 3 is the most simple form for the section of a rail,
being that of a circle.

To describe the Mitre-cap of a rail.

Figure 4.——Describe a circle, a e b d, to the intended size
(the proportion here between the rail and the cap is as 2 to
3) ; draw the diameters a b and ed at right angles; produce
e d, and place the middle of the section of the rail upon 9 d ;
draw BQ to touch the section of the rail, and to cut the circle
are 6 din Q; draw the side P Q of the mitre ; draw A B to
meet the points of contact, A and B, of the lines parallel
to e d, which are tangents to the section. Then to find any
point in the curve of the section of the mitre-cap : let G be
a point in the section of the rail; draw G 1:, meeting P Q in
k ,- from the centre of the circle ae b d, describe an arc, k f,
meeting ab inf; from the point of section f, draw f g, per-
pendicular to a b ; and make f 9 equal to F G.

All other points are found in the same manner ; or a series
of lines may be drawn from any number of assumed points
in the section, and lines parallel to ed, drawn from them to
cut P Q; arcs may then be described from each point of sec-
tion to meet a b, and perpendiculars drawn from the points
of section in ab; all these perpendiculars should be made
equal to the respective ordinates of the section, and a curve
drawn through their extremities will form the curve of the
mitre-cap.

HANGING, of doors, or shutters, the act of placing them
upon centres or hinges, for the convenience of opening and
shutting. See HINGING.

HANGING STYLE, the style of a door or shutter, to which
the hinge is fastened.

The term is also applied to a narrow style fixed to the
jamb, on which the door or shutter is sometimes hung. In
this case the hanging style is used with the view of making
the shutter or door revolve more than a right angle, in order
to turn it into a given position ; as to bring a door close to
a partition, to keep it out of the way.

HANGIN GS, linings for rooms, made of arris, tapestry,
or the like.

HANGS OVER, an expression used in speaking of a wall,
when the top projects beyond the bottom.

HARD BODIES, such bodies as are absolutely inflexible
to any shock or collision whatever. .

This is the common meaning of the term: but Huygens,
by hard bodies (corpora dura) meant what others call
perfectly elastic bodies ; for he thus expresses himself :
“Quaecunque sit causa, corporibus duris, a mutuo contactu
resiliendi cum se invicem impinguntur: ponimus, cum cor-
pora duo inter se aequalia, aequali celeritate, ex adverso ac
directe sibi mutuo occurrent, resilire utrumque eadem qua
advenit celeritate.” Huyg. De Mom Corp. ex Percuss.
Hypoth. 2. But this hypothesis is consistent only with per-
fect elasticity, and not with the common supposition of hard-
ness or inflexibility, which produces no resilition. The laws
of motion for hard bodies are the same as for soft bodies, and
these two sorts of bodies might be comprised under the com-
mon name of unelastic.

Some who follow Leibnitz’s doctrine, concerning the measure
of the moving force of bodies, deny the existence of hard or
inflexible bodies. And it is so far true, that no experience
ever taught us that there are any such. The hardest bodies
to appearance do not preserve their figures in collision, such
bodies being only elastic, yielding to the shock, and then
restoring themselves.

6 K

 

M. Bernoulli goes so far as to say, that hardness, in the
vulgar sense, is absolutely impossible, being contrary to the
law of continuity. For supposing two such hard bodies of
equal masses, and with equal velocities, to meet directly, they
must either stop or return after the collision. The first sup-
position is commonly admitted ; but then it follows, that these
bodies must instantaneously pass from motion to rest, without
going through successive diminutions of their velocities till
they stop : but this is thought to be contrary to the funda-
mental laws of nature. Hence this author rejects perfectly
solid and inflexible atoms, which others think a consequence
of the impenetrability of matter.

HARD, a name given to a ford or passable place in a river
particularly in and near the Fens, where many of these
formerly occurred, composed of gravel, probably brought
thither for the purpose. These HARDS proved very detri-
mental to navigation in dry seasons, and obstructed and aug-
mented the floods in wet ones, until they were removed.
Frequent mention is made of them by Mr. Smeaton, and
by other writers on the navigation and drainage of those
districts.

HARD FINISHING. See PLASTERING.

HARDENING OF TIMBER. See TIMBER.

HARMONIC or HARMONICAL PROPORTION, is
when, in a series of quantities, any three adjoining terms
being taken, the difference between the first and second is to
the difference between the second and third as the first is to
the third. The reciprocals of a series of numbers in arith-
metical progression are in harmonical proportion: thus the
reciprocals i, %, J5, %, Soc. of l, 2, 3, 4, &c., are in harmonical
proportion; also, the reciprocals 1-, 7}, f}, 1%,, &c., of l, 3, 5, 7,
8:0. are harmonicals.

HARMONY, an agreement between all the parts of a
building ; the word is of similar import with SYMMETRY,
which see.

HARNESS ROOM, 3 small apartment for keeping the
harness in, that it may be preserved from mouldiness. The
harness-room should be perfectly dry, and placed as near the
stable as possible.

HASP, 3. fastening; it is in form a small clasp that passes
over a staple to be fastened by a padlock.

HAT CH-VVAY, an aperture through the ceiling, to afford
a passage to the roof.

HATCHET (from the French hackette) a small axe, used
by joiners for reducing the edges of boards.

HAUNCH. That part of an arch between the vertex and
the springing.

HEAD. (from the Saxon) an ornament of sculpture of
carved work, frequently serving as the key of an arch or
platband.

These heads usually represent some of the heathen deities,
virtues, seasons, or ages, with their attributes. The heads of
beasts are also used in suitable places ; as a bullock’s or sheep’s
head, for a shambles or market-house ; a dog’s, for a kennel ;
a deer’s or boar’s, for a park or forest; or a horse’s, for a
stable.

In the metopes for the friezes and other antique Doric.
temples, we meet with representations of bullocks’ or rams’
heads flayed, as a symbol of the sacrifices offered there.

HEAD, Jerkin, See J ERKIN HEAD.

HEADER. See HEADING COURSE.

HEADING COURSE, in masonry, a course of stones in
which their length is inserted in the thickness of the wall ;
those with their length in the face of the wall are called
stretchers. The same is also to be understood of brickwork.

HEADING JOINT, in joinery, the joint of two or more boards
at right angles to the fibres; or. in hand-railing, at right

 

 

 

 

 

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HEL

494

HEP

 

angles to the back: this is done with a view to continue the
length of the board when too short. The heading-joints in
good work are always ploughed and tongued, as in flooring,
dado, &c. In dado, the heading-joints, besides being ploughed
and tongued, are also glued.

ITEAD-WAY OF A STAIR, the clear distance, measured per-
pendicular to the horizon, from the tread of any step, resting-
place, or landing, to the ceiling immediately above, in one
revolution, making allowance for the thickness of the steps.

HEARSE or HERSE, a metal frame sometimes set over
efligies on tombs.

HEART-EON D, in masonry, the lapping of one stone
over two others, which together make the breadth of the wall.
This is practised when thorough-stones cannot be procured.
See MASONRY.

HEARTH. See CHIMNEY.

HEATHER-ROOF, that kind of roof employed in build-
ing which is thatched over or covered with heather or heath,
instead of some other material. It is recommended, as well
adapted to buildings of the farm description, by the writer
of the Survey of the County of Argyle, in Scotland, on the
principle that it does well with timber of the ordinary sort, is
capable of being procured for a trifle, lasts nearly as long as
slates, and gives less trouble in the repair. It is asserted that
a roof of this material, when well put on, will last one
hundred years, provided the timber continues good that length
of time. And it is stated, that formerly, most of the churches
in the above county were covered with this sort of roof;
likewise, that heather-roofs are frequently met with in the
district of Cowal, and that there are a few of them in
Kintyre.

This sort of material may certainly be employed with
advantage as a covering for small houses and other buildings,
Where other kinds of substances cannot be procured, except at
a great expense ; but at the same time it is very inferior to
slate, and other similar matters, in forming the coverings of
such erections.

HECATOMPEDON (from émrov, a hundred, and wag
a fool) a name given to the Parthenon, or temple of Minerva,
at Athens.

HECATONSTYLON (EKaTovs‘vhov) in ancient archi-
tecture, a portico with a hundred columns. This name was
peculiar to the great portico of Pompey’s theatre, at Rome.

HECK, a rack.

HEEL, in mouldings, the same as the sima-inversa.

HEEL OF A RAFTER, the foot of the rafter, as it is formed
to rest upon the wall-plate.

HEIGHT, the perpendicular distance of the most remote
.part of a body from the plane on which it rests.

HELICOID PARABOLA, or the PARABOLIC SPIRAL,
a curve arising upon a supposition of the axis of the common
Apollonian parabola being bent round into the periphery ofa
circle. The helicoid parabola, therefore, is a line passing
through the extremities of the ordinates, which converge
towards the centre of the said circle.

HELIOPOLIS, or THE CITY or THE SUN, in ancient
geography, a city of Egypt, placed by geographers not far
from I'Iellé, at some distance from the eastern point of the
Delta. It was built, according to Strabo, on a long artificial
mount of earth, so as to be out of the reach of the inundation.
This causeway, covered with rubbish, is still visible two
leagues to the north-east of Grand Cairo, and three from the
separation of the Nile. This city had a temple to the sun,
where a particular place was set apart for the feeding of the
sacred 0x, which was there adored under the name Mnevis, as
he was at Memphis under that of Apis. There was also in
this city another magnificent temple, in the ancient Egyptian

 

taste,with avenues of sphinxes and superb obelisks, before the
principal entry. These temples were fallen into decay under
the reign of Augustus ; as the city had been laid waste with
fire and sword by the fury of Cambyses. Of the four obelisks
built by Sochis in that town, two were removed to Rome;

another has been destroyed by the Arabs; and the last of ;

them is still standing on its pedestal.

It is composed of a '

block of Thebaic stone, perfectly polished, and is, without .
including its base, 68 feet high, and about 6% feet wide on each ‘

aspect. It is covered with hieroglyphics. This beautiful

monument, and a sphinx of yellowish marble, overset in the l

mud, are the only remains of Heliopolis. See EGYPTIAN
ARCHITECTURE.

HELIX, a term applied to the little scrolls in the Corinthian
capital, called also arillce : they are sixteen in number, viz.
two at every angle, and two in the middle of the abacus,
branching out of the caulicoli or stalks which rise between
the leaves.

HELMET, a. warlike ornament, in imitation of the helmet
worn by the cavaliers, both in war and in tournaments, as a
cover and defence of the head ; the helmet is known by divers
other names, as the [lead-piece, steel-cap, &c. The Germans
call it ltelen or hellem ,- the Italians elmo ; the French casqae,
as did also the ancient English.

The helmet covered the head and face, only leaving at
aperture about the eyes, secured by bars, which served as
a Visor.

HEM, the protuberant part of the Ionic capital, formed
by spirals. '

HEMI, a word used in the composition of divers terms.
It signifies the same with semi or demi, viz., half; being an

 

 

abbreviation of {hum-v9, lzemz'sys, which signifies the same. ‘
The Greeks retrenched the last syllable of the word ‘llllllavg, i
in the composition of words ; and, after their example, we have :

done so too, in most of the compounds borrowed from them.
HEMICYCLE, (Latin, laemicgcliam, compounded of
flptavg, half, and KUKAOQ, circle) a semicircle. This word is

particularly applied, in architecture, to vaults in the cradle f
form - and arches or swee s. of vaults, constitutincr a erfect j
, a P a P

semicircle. To construct an arch of hewn stone, they divide
the hemicycle into so many voussoirs; taking care to make

them an uneven number, that there be no joint in the middle, i

where the key-stone should be.

HEMICYCLIUM, a part of the orchestra in the ancient

theatre. Scaliger, however, observes, it was no standing part

of the orchestra; being only used in dramatic pieces, where 1

some person was supposed to be arrived from sea, as in
Plautius’s Radens.

HEMISPHERE, (Latin, hemispherium, compounded of
i/pta'vg, ltalf, and apatpa, sphere) in geometry, one half of a
globe, or sphere, when divided into two by a plane passing
through its centre.

HEMISPHEROIDAL, a body approaching to the figure
of a hemisphere, but not exactly so; of this description are
what may be termed elliptical domes, upon either axis.

IIEMITRIGLYPH, the half triglyph.

HENDECAGON, Exnncaeox, or UNDECAGON, (com-

pounded of éydsa‘a, eleven, and 7mm, angle) in geometry, a
figure which has eleven sides, and as many angles. If each side
of this figure be 1, its area will be equal to 9.3656399 : 1;,1
tangent 737%, radius being 1.

HEPTAGON, (of firm, septem, seven, and warm, mar/lo)
in geometry, a figure consisting of seven sides and Seven
angles.
a regular lwptagon.

If the sides and angles be all equal, it is called .
The area of a regular heptagon is f

equal to the square of one of its sides multiplied by '

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HEPTAGONAL, consisting of seven angles, and there-
fore also of seven sides.

HERBOSUM MARMOR, a species of marble, much
esteemed and used by the ancient architects and statuaries.
It was of a beautiful green colour, but had always with it
some cast of yellow. It was dug in the quarries of Taygetum,
but was esteemed by the workmen the same in all respects,
except colour, with the black marble dug at Tzenarus in
Lacaedemonia, and thence called Twnarian marble.

HERRING-BONE, a term applied to a particular kind
of masonry, in which the stones are laid aslant, inclining
alternately right and left. Such work was common in
Roman and Saxon structures.

HERMOGENES, the inventor of the eustyle intercolum-
niation; also of the octostyle pseudodipteros. He is men-
tioned by Vitruvius, chap. 2. book iii.

HEWN STONE, any stone when reduced to a given form
by means of the mallet and chisel.

HEXAEDRON, or HEXAHEDRON (formed of 55, six, and
ildpa, seat) in geometry, one of the five regular bodies, popu-
larly called a cube. See CUBE.

The square of the side of a hexaedron is in a subtriple
ratio to the square of the diameter of the circumscribed
sphere. Hence, the side of the hexaedron is to the diameter
of the sphere in which it is inscribed, as one to the ¢ 3:
and consequently it is incommensurable to it.

HEXAGON, (from £5, six, and yen/ta, angle) a figure of
six angles, and consequently of six sides. If the angles and
sides are equal, the figure is called a regular hexagon. If
the side of a hexagon be denoted by s, its area will
be 2.5980762 s.

HEXASTYLE, (from 55, six, and eukog, column) a build-
ing with six columns in front.

HINDOO ARCHITECT URE. See INDIAN ARCHI-
TECTURE.

HINGES, metal ligaments, upon which doors, shutters,
folds, lids, 8pc, turn in the act of opening and shutting.

There are many species of hinges, viz., butts, rising-hinges,
pew-hinges, casement-hinges, casting-hinges, chest—hinges,
coach-hinges, desk-hinges, dovetail-hinges, esses, folding-
hinges, garnets, weighty side, side-hinges with rising joints,
side-hinges with squares, screw—hinges, scuttle-hinges, shutter-
hinges, trunk-hinges, of various descriptions, hookeand-eye-
hinges, and centre-pin-hinges.

HINGING, a branch of joinery, which shows the art of
hanging a board to the side of an aperture, so as to permit
or exclude entrance at pleasure. The board which performs
this office is called a closure. The placing of hinges depends
entirely on the form of the joint, and as the motion of the
closure is angular, and performed round a fixed line as an
'lXiS, the hinge must be so fixed that the motion may not be
interrupted: thus if the joint contain the surfaces of two
cylinders, the convex one in motion upon the edge of the
closure, sliding upon the concave one at rest on the fixed body,
the motion of the closure must be performed on the axis of
the cylinder, which axis must be the centre of the hinges; in
this case the joint will be close, whether the aperture be shut
or open. But if the joint be a plane surface, it must be
considered upon what side of the aperture the motion is to
be performed, as the hinge must be placed on the side of the
closure where it revolves. ,

The hinge is made in two parts, movable in any angular
direction, one upon the other.

The knuckle of the hinge is a portion contained under a
cylindric surface, and is common to both the moving part and
the other part at rest; the cylinders are indented into each
)ther, and made hollow to receive a concentric cylindric pin

495

 

HIN

which passes through the hollow, and connects the moving
parts together.

The axis of the cylindrical pin is called the axis qf the
hinge.

\Vhen two or more hinges are placed upon a closure, the
axes of the hinges must be in the same straight line.

The straight line in which the axes of the hinges are plaéed
is called the line of hinges.

The following are examples of the different cases.

The principle (3f hanging doors, shutters, or flaps, with
hinges.

The centre of the hinge is generally put in the middle of
the joint, as at A, Figure l ; but in many cases there is a
necessity for throwing back the flap to a certain distance from
the joint; in order to effect this, suppose the flap, when folded
back, were required to be at a certain distance, as AB in
Figure 2, from the joint; divide AB in two equal parts
at the point. C, which will give the centre of the hinge;
the dotted lines B D E F, show the position when folded
back.

N'ote—The centre of the hinge must be placed a small
degree beyond the surface of the closure, otherwise it will
not fall freely back on the jamb or partition.

It must also be observed, that the centre of the hinge must
be on that side that the rebate is on, otherwise it will not open
without thejoint being constructed in a particular form, as
will be afterwards shown. '

Figure 3 shows the same thing opened to a right angle.

To hang two flaps, so that when folded back, they shall be
at a certain distance from each other.

This is easily accomplished by means of hinges having
knees projecting to half that distance, as appears from Figure4;
this sort of hinges is used in hanging the doors of pews, in
order to clear the moulding of the coping.

T o nzahe a rule joint for a window—shutter, or other
folding-flaps.

Figure 5.——Let A be the place of thejoint; draw AC at
right angles to the flap, shutter, or door ; take C, in the
line A C, for the centre of the hinge ; and the plain part A B,
as may be thought necessary ; on C, with a radius, 0 B, describe
the arc B D ; then will A B D be the true joint.

Totes—The knuckle of the hinge is always placed in the
wood, because the farther it is inserted the more of the joint
will be covered, when it is opened out to a right angle, as in
Figure 6; but if the centre of the hinge were placed the least
without the thickness of the wood, it would showan open
space, which would be a defect in workmanship.

Toform the joints of styles, to be hung together, when the
hnuchle of the hinge is placed on the contrary side if the
rebate.

Figure 7.—-Let C be the centre of the hinge, M I the joint
on the same side of the hinge ; K L the depth of the rebate
in the middle of the thickness of the styles, perpendicular
to K M, and L F the joint on the other side, parallel to K M;
bisect K L at H, join H c; on 11 C describe a semicircle, C 1 H,
cutting KM at I: throagh the points I and H, draw IHG,
cutting F L at G ; then will F GIM be the truejoint ; but if
the rebate were made in the form of MK L F, neither of the
styles could move round the joint or hinge.

To form the edges or joint qf door-styles, to be hung to
each other, so that the door may open to a right angle, and
show a bead to correspond exactly to the hnuchle ofthe hinge.
Also the manner of constructing the hinges for the various

forms of joints, so as to be let in egually upon each side.

Figure 8, No. 1, shows the edge of a style, or it may in
some cases be a jamb, on which a head is constructed exactly
to the size of the knuckle of the hinge, and rebated backwards,

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

IIIN

496

IIIP

 

equal to half the thickness of the bead : the manner of con-
structing the rebate will be shown as follows :

Through C, the centre of the bead, which must also be the
centre of the hinge, draw C B D perpendicular to E F ; draw A G
parallel to it, touching the bead at G; make G A equal to G C,
the radius of the bead; join CA; make AB perpendicular
to A C, cutting C D at B; then will G A B D be thejoint
required.

No. 2, shows a part of the hanging style constructed so as
to receive the edge of No. 1.

No. 3, shows the above hinged together with common
butt-hinges.

Note—It must be observed in this, and all the following
examples of hinges, that thejoints are not made to fit exactly
close, as sufficient space for the paint must be allowed.

Figure 9, No. 1 and 2. The manner of constructing these
being only a plain joint at right angles to the face of the style,
no farther description is necessary.

No. 3 shows No.1 and 2 hinged together, and the par-
ticular construction of the hinge, so as to be seen as a part
of the bead, and the strap of the hinge to be let equally
into each style : this construction will admit of a bead of the
same size exactly opposite to it.

Figure 10, No. 1 and 2. The manner of constructing the
edges of styles to be hinged together with common butts, to
be let equally into each style: the manner of constructing
this joint is so plain, by the figure, that it would be useless
to give any other description of it. No. 3, the two pieces
hinged together.

[Methods of jointing styles together so as to prevent seeing
through the joints, each side of the styles to finish with beads
of the same size, exactly opposite to each other, and for the
strap of the hinges to he let equally into both parts or styles.

Figure 11, No. l and 2, the manner of constructing the
joint, before hinged together.

No. 3 shows No. 1 and 2 hinged together with common
butts.

Figure 12, No. 1 and 2, shows another method of construct-
ing the joints, before hinged together.

No. 3, shows No. 1 and 2 hinged, and the particular form
of the hinges for the joint.

The principle of concealing hinges, showing the manner of
mahing them, and of forming the joint of the hanging style,
with the other style connected to it by the hinges, either for
doors or windows.

. Figure 13,, for a window :

X, inside bead of the sash-frame.

Y, inside lining.

Z, style of the shutter.

Let A be the intersection of the face of the shutter, or door,
with that of the inside lining of the sash-frame.

A R, the face of the inside lining.

Bisect the angle PAR by the right line AA; now the
centre C being determined in A A at C, so that the knuckle of
the hinge may be at a given distance from the face P A of the
shutter; through C draw the line D D, at right angles to A A;
then one side of the hinge must come to the line CD, the
hinge being made as is shown by the figure.

To construct the jam!) to be clear of the shutter.—

On C, as a centre, with a radius CA, describe an are A M,
and it will be the joint required.

Tote—When these sort of hinges are used in shutters, the
strap of the hinge may be made longer on the inside lining,
than that which is connected with the shutter.

Figure 14, is the manner of hanging a door on the same
principle: the shadowed part must be cut out, so that the
other strap of the hinge may revolve. 5. the edge, 0 D, of the

 

hinge, will come into the position of the line A A, when the
window is shut in.

Here the strap part of the hinge may be of equal lengths.

Figure 15, the common method of hanging shutters
together, the hinge being let the whole of its thickness into
the shutter, and not into the sash-frame.

By this mode it is not so firmly hung, as when half is let
into the shutter and half into the sash-frame, but the lining
may be of thinner stuff.

Note—It is proper to notice, that the centre of the hinge
must be in the same plane with the face of the shutter, or
beyond it, but not within the thickness.

Figure 16, the method of hanging a door with centres.
Let A D be the thickness of the door and bisect it in B;
draw B C perpendicular to A B; make B 0 equal to BA or B D;
on C (the centre of the hinge) with a radius C A or C D,
describe an are, A E D, which will give the true joint for the
edge of the door to revolve in.

HIP, in architecture, a piece of timber placed between
every two adjacent inclined sides of a hip-roof, for the pur-
pose of fixing the jack rafters. For the manner of finding
the length and backing of the hips, see HIP-ROOF.

‘ HIP-KNOB, a pinnacle, finial, or other ornament placed
on the top of the hips of a roof, or on the apex of a gable,
especially where barge-boards are employed.

> HIP-MOULD, a mould by which the back of the hip-rafter
is formed: it ought to be so constructed as to apply to the
side of the hip, otherwise there will be no guide for its
application. '

HIP-ROOF, a roof whose ends rise immediately from the
wall-plate, with the same inclination to the horizon as the
other two sides of the roof have.

The backing of a hip is the angle made on its upper edge,
to range with the two sides or planes of the roof between
which it is placed.

Jack-rafters.are those short rafters fixed to hips equidis—
tantly disposed in the planes of the sides and ends of the roof,
and parallel to the common rafters, to fill up the triangular
spaces, each of which is contained by a hip-rafter, the adjoin-
ing common rafter, and the wall-plate, between them. The
seat or base of the rafter is its ichnographic projection on the
plane of the wall-head, or on any other horizontal plane.

The principal angles. concerned in hip-roofing are, the angle
which a common rafter makes with its seat on the plane of
the wall—head; the vertical angle of the roof; the angle which .
a hip makes with the adjoining common rafter; the angles
which a hip makes with the wall-plate on both sides of it;
the angle which a hip-rafter makes with its seat; and the
acute angle which a hip-rafter makes with a vertical line
The principal lengths concerned are, the height of the roof,
the length of the common rafters and their seats ; the length
of the hips and their seats ; and, lastly, the length of the wall-
plate contained between the lower end of a hip and the lower
end of the adjacent common rafter.

The sides and angles may be found by geometrical con-
struction or trigonometrical calculation. It is evident, that
if the hipped end of a roof be cut otf by a vertical plane
parallel to the wall, through the upper extremity of the hips,
it will form a rectangular pyramid, or one whose base is a
rectangle. The base of this pyramid is bounded by the wall-
plate between the two hips on one side, and 011 the opposite
side by the seat of the two adjoining common rafters; on the
other two opposite sides, by that part of the wall-plate on each
side contained by the lower end of the hip and the next com-
mon rafter adjoining. One of the sides is the isosceles triangle
contained by the two adjoining common rafters with their
seat; the opposite side is the hipped end of the roof, forming

 

 

 

 

 

 

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also an isosceles triangle; the other two opposite sides are the
right-angled triangles contained by the two hips and the two
adjoining rafters on the side of the roof. This rectangular
pyramid may be divided into three triangular pyramids by
the two vertical triangular planes, formed by the hip-rafters,
their seats, and the common perpendicular from their vertex.

Two of these pyramids, when the plan of the building is a
rectangle, are equal and opposite. In each of these equal and
opposite pyramids the base is a right-angled triangle, con-
tained by the seat of the hip-rafter, the seat of the adjoining
common rafter, and the part of the wall-plate between the
hip and the adjoining common rafter. One of the sides is a
right-angled triangle contained by the adjoining common
rafter, its seat, and perpendicular; a second side is a right-
angled triangle contained by the common rafter, the hip-
rafters, and the wall-plate, between them ; and the remaining
third side is the triangle contained by the hip—rafter, its seat,
and perpendicular. With regard to the remaining pyramid,
its base is a right—angled triangle contained by the seats of
the two hips and the wall-plate between them, the right angle
being that contained by the seats of the two hips ; two of its
sides are the triangular planes passing the hip-rafter, which

‘ are also common to the other two pyramids ; its third side is

the hipped end of the roof.
Given the plan of a building, or the form ofa wall-plate of
a hip-roof; and the pitch of the roof, to find the various lengths
and angles concerned, whether the roof is square or bevel.
EXAMPLE I.— To find the length of the rafters, the baching
of the hips, and the shoulders of jack-rafters and purlins,

. geometrically.

Plate I.—Figure l.'—Let A B C D be the plan. Draw E F
parallel to the sides, A D and B C, in the middle of the distance
On DC, as a diameter, describe the semi-
circle DFC; draw FD and F C, then the angle DFC is a right
angle. Draw GFH perpendicular to FF, cutting the sides
AD and BC in G and H; from FE cut off F1 equal to the
height or pitch of the roof, and join G I; from F C out off F K
equal to F1, and join K D; then GI is the length of a common
rafter, and D K that of the hip ; for if the triangles G FI and
DFK be turned round their seats, GF and DF, until their

; planes become perpendicular to the triangle G FD, the per-
‘ pendicular FI will coincide with FK, and the point I will

coincide with the point K; the lines G I and D K, representing
the rafters, will then be in their true position.

The same by calculation. GI2 : Gr? + F12 (Euclid
i.47.), therefore GI : (G F2 + F12) % the length of the
common rafter, DF2 2 G F2 + GD2 the square of the seat
of the hip. DK2 : DF2 + FK’ : Gr” + GD2 + F12,

———_—i
therefore DK : GF2 + GD2 + F122.

In the same manner the other hip-rafter CL is found, as
also the hip-rafters A M and BN.

Let it be required to find the backing of the hip-rafter,
whose seat is c F.

Geometricallg.—Imagine the triangle CFL to be raised
upon its seat CF, until its plane becomes perpendicular to
the plane of the wall-plate A B CD, then there will be two
right-angled solid angles; the three sides of the one are the
plane angles of F C D, F C L, and the hypothenusal plane angle
D C L. In each of these solid angles the two sides, containing
the right angle, viz., the plane angles FC H, FCD, and the
perpendicular plane angle CFL, which is common to both,
being given, to find the two opposite inclinations to the sides
F C H and F C D, and the remaining third sides.

Now the angles G D C and H C D are besected by the seats
‘1‘ D and FC of the hip-rafters; for if E F is produced to meet
DC in U, I' will be the centre of the circle DFC; and UC,

6 L

 

U E, U D, are equal to each other; and because U F is equal
to U c, the angle 0 r U is equal to F c U; but 0 F U is equal to
the alternate angle F C H; therefore, the angle F C U is equal
to F C H; that is, the angle U C H is besected by the seat F C
of the hip-rafter. In the same manner may be shown that
U D G is besected by the seat DF of the other hip-rafter.
From any point, 0, in FC, draw 0V perpendicular to LC,
cutting it in P, and o W perpendicular to F C, cutting DC in
W; from o C out othQ equal to 0P. Join Q W, then 0 QW
will be the inclination opposite the plane angle F CU, and this
is the angle which the end of the roof makes with the vertical
triangle contained by the hip-rafter, its seat, and perpen—
dicular. Produce W0 to meet B C in X, and join QX, then
WQ X is the inclination of the two planes of a side and end
of the roof, whose intersections are B C and C D, on the plane
of the wall-head. Now, the angle WQX, which is double
the angle W Q 0, is the backing of the hip. Make P v equal
to QW, and join C v, then will PC V be the angle contained
by the two sides L C, CD, or that of the hypothenusal plane
angle contained by the intersection BC, and the hip-rafter
L C. This angle may be otherwise found thus :—Produce GH
to R; make C R equal to C L, then the angle H C n is equal to
Pcv. Now the angle HC R, or PC v, is the angle which the
purlins (when one of their faces is in the side of the roof)
make with the hip-rafter L C; and the angle C V P, or C R H,
is the angle which a jack-rafter makes with the same hip ; in
the same manner may the backings of the other hips be found.
The other bevel of the jack-rafters is the angle H 1F. To
find the other bevel for cutting the shoulder of the purlin,
proceed thus : on F, as a centre, with the distance F G,
describe the arc GY; draw F Y perpendicular to G I, Y 2
parallel to E F, cutting F D in z, and z & parallel to G H, cut-
ting A D in 85. Join 8t F, then G St F is the angle which the
other side of the shoulder makes with the length of the purlin.

At the other end of this diagram is shown the manner of
finding the two bevels for cutting the shoulder of the purlin
against the hip—rafter, when the side of the purlin is not in
the plane of the side of the roof.

To find the same things by calculation—The backing of
the hip—rafter and hypothenusal side is obtained as follows :—
It has been shown that the three plane angles, and the three
inclinations ofsolid angles, consisting of three plane angles,
are found exactly as the sides and angles of spheric triangles,
any three parts being given ; the degrees of the plane angles
being exactly the same as the sides of the spheric triangles,
and the inclinations the proper measures of the spheric angles;
therefore, if two of the plane angles should be perpendicular
to each other, the spheric triangle representing this solid angle
will have also two of its sides perpendicular to each other.
Now, in this, there are given the two sides containing the
right angle to find the hypothenuse and angles.

It is shown, by writers on spherical trigonometry, that in
any right-angled spherical triangle, radius is to the cosine of
either of the sides, as the cosine of the other side to the cosine
of the hypothenuse. Suppose the plane angle FCL to be
27°, and the angle FCH 52°, to find the hypothenuse and
angles of a right-angled spherical triangle, one of whose legs
is 27° and the other 52°, it will therefore be—

 

As radius, sine of 90° = 1000000
Is to the cosine ofF c L, 27° = 9.94988
So is the cosine ofF C H 52° , : 9.78934
19,73922
10.00000
To the cosine of the hypothenusal side 56° 44? 9.73922

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

HIP

498

HIP

 

This ascertains the angle which thejack-rafter makes with
the hip. Since all the sides are now given, we shall have,
by another wellvknown property, of the sines of the Sides
being as the sines of the opposite angles, the followmg pro-
portion :—

 

 

As the sine of the hypothenuse 56° 44’ _ 9.92227
Is to the sine of a right angle, or 90° : 10.00000
So is the sine of the side F C H, 52°............ : 9.89653
19.89653

9.92227

To the sine of the opposite angle 70° 28'...... : 9.97426
Therefore the backing is twice 70° 28’......... : 140° 56’

In finding the angle opposite the side FCII, it was not
necessary that the hypothenusal side should have first been
found. It might have been found independently thus :——The
sine of either of the sides about the right angle is to radius,
as the tangent of the remaining side is to the tangent of the
angle opposite to that side ; therefore,

As the sine of the side F CL, 27°............... : 9.65705,
Is to the tangent of the side F C H 52°.... ...... : 10.10719
So is radius, sine of 90° : 10.00000
20.l0719

9.65705

To the tangent of the angle opposite the side
F C H, 70° 28' ...... . .............. ......... : 10.45014
, In the same manner may other bevels be found by trigo-
nometrical calculations; but as such extreme exactness is not
necessary, the geometrical constructions ought to be well
understood.

EXAMPLE IL— The figure A B C D (Figure 2) of the wall-
plate of a hip span-roof; and the height of the roofbeing given;
tofind the backing of the hips, the angles made upon the sides
ofthe purlins by their longitudinal arrises, and the angles
made upon the sides of the jack-rafters ,- the roof being equally
inclined to the difl‘erent sides of the building, except at the
oblique end, A B.

Figure 2.——Let the two sides, A B, A D, and D C of the wall—
plate be at right angles to each other, and the end CB at
oblique angles to A B and C D ; draw the seat, E F, of the ridge
in the middle of the breadth, parallel to A B and D C ; make
A G and D H equal to half the breadth of the building ; join
G H, which will be the seat of the common rafters adjoining
the hips; make E I equal to the height of the roof; and draw
IG and I H, which are the length of the common rafters.
Draw ED and E A, the seats of the hips; make E K equal to
E I ; and draw K A, which gives the length of each hip.
Through any point, L, in the seat of the hip AE, draw M N
perpendicular to AE, cutting the adjacent sides of the wall-
plate at M and N; take the nearest distance from L to the
rafter AK, and. make LO equal to it ; and draw 0 M and 0 N ;
and M o N is the backing of the hips, represented by their seats
A E and D E.

This operation is the same as having the two legs of a
right-angled solid angle to find the angle opposite to one of
the legs; the angle MON being exactly the double of the
angle so found ; for the hip angle of the roof consists of two
equal solid angles.

Suppose the bevel end at C B to be inclined at a different
angle to the other sides, and let F C and F B be the seats of
the hips; draw I“ Q perpendicular to F C, and F P perpendicu-

lar to F B, each equal to the height of the roof; then draw
Q C and P B, which are the lengths of the hip-rafters.

The backings su'r and VW x, are found in the same
manner as above, and may be described in the same words.

From A, with the distance A K, describe an arc cutting G H
at J, andjoin A J; then G JA will be the side bevel, which
the jack-rafters make with the hips ; and if a right angle be
added to GJA, it will form an obtuse angle, which is that
made by the upper arris of the side of a purlin placed in the.
inclined side of the roof with the hip-rafter.

Let a be the position of a purlin in the rafter H I; in G H
take any point, b, and draw be parallel to the inward direc-
tion of the purlin a ; from b, with any distance, b c, describe
an arc cd, cutting G H at d; draw b e, of, and dg, parallel to
E F ; the former two cutting E D at e andf; drawfg parallel
to G H, and join eg ; produce b e to h; and h eg, or b eg will
be the angle required, according to which side it is applied :
this will be found synonymous to one of the legs, and the
adjacent angle of a right-angled solid angle being given, to
find the hypothenuse. In the same manner, if neither side
of the purlin should be parallel to the inclined side of the
roof, as at h in the rafter G I, the bevel or angle upon each
side may be found, as shown.

Plate II.—Figure 3, shows half the angle of the backing
of the hips, the length of the common and hip-rafters, the
bevel of the jack-rafters on their upper sides in an equal
inclined roof, without laying down or drawing any more than
the necessary seats; and this is all that is necessary when
each side of the‘ roof is alike ; AB being the wall-plate
between the hip and the rafter which joins the top of the hip,
AC the seat of the rafter which joins the top of the hip, BC

hip, B E the length of the hips, C H G half the backing, A D B
the angle which the jack-rafters form with the upper sides of
the hips, and, consequently, with the addition of a right-
angle, the side bevel of the purlin.

Figure 4, shows the same bevels, except that the side joint

against the hip-rafter.

F A C shows the form of the heel of the common rafters, and
E B C that ofthe hips.

Figure 5, is a diagram showing the length of the parts and
angles concerned in the roof, in the same manner as above;
but the plan of the building, or form of the wall-plate, is a

a level on the top, from the top of the hips at the narrow end
to the other extremity, as otherwise the roof must either
wind, or be brought to a ridge forming a line inclined to the
horizon; and either of the two last cases is very unsightly.
But, that nothing should be wanting, the construction is given
in the next figure.

Plate III.—Figure 6.—To lay out an irregular roof in
ledgment, with all its beams bevel upon the plan, so that the
ridge may be level when finished ,- the plan and height if the
roof being given.

The lengths of the common and hip-rafters are found as
usual. From each side in the broadest end of the roof,

 

, through 0 and I), draw two lines parallel to the ridge-line;

Besides the angles already mentioned, A F C Figure 3, shows =
the angle formed by the upper side of the rafter and the ridge- 3
piece, and the angle BE C, the angle which the top side of 3
the hips makes with a vertical or plumb-line: also the angle é

 

 

 

that of the hip, A F the length of the rafter which joins the _

of the purlin is found by a different process, thus: from B, ‘.
with the distance B A, describe an are at D; from G, with the 3
distance AC, describe another arc, cutting the former at D; ‘
join B D, and the angle GB D will be the angle in the plane of .
the roof, made by the lower arris of the purlin and the joint :

quadrilateral, which has neither part of its opposite sides par- ‘
allel ; the method of executing the roof in this case is to form ‘

 

 

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R (D (I) F

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fig. 7.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

HIP

499

HIP

 

_ draw lines from the centres and ends of the beams, perpen-

dicular to the ridge-line, and lay out the two sides of the roof
2 and 3, by making E D at 3 equal to XN in l, the length of
the longest common rafter, and ca in 3 equal to u (3 at A, and
so on with all the other rafters.

Tojind the winding of this roof—Take y &, half the base
of the shortest rafter, and apply this to the base of the longest
rafter from z to 1; then the distance from 1 to 2 shows the
quantity of windinou

To lay the sides in winding.—Lay a straight beam along
the top ends of the rafters at E, that is, from c to E, and lay
another beam along the line A B, parallel to it, to take the
ends of the hip—rafters at M and L, and the beams to be made
out of winding at first. Raise the beam that lies from a to B,
at the point B, to the distance 1 2 above the level; which
beam, being thus raised, will elevate all the ends of the
rafters gradually, the same as they would be when in their
places.

The same is to be understood of the other side D ; the ends
are laid down in the same manner as in making a triangle of
any three dimensions.

In this example, the purlins are supposed to be framed into
the sides of the rafters flush, so that the lop of the purlins
may be flush with the back of the rafters. The manner of
framing the dragon beams and diagonal ties, is shown at the
angles.

Plate IV.—Fz'gure 7, shows the manner of framing a roof
when the sides are square. The purlins are prepared to
bridge over the rafters, which are notched out of the sides
next to the back, in order to receive them.

HIPPIUM, in antiquity, that part of the hippodrome
which was beaten by the horses’ feet.

HIPPODROME, (from the Latin, hippodromus, composed
of immg, horse, and Epopog, course, of the verb 595,111», curro, I
run,) in antiquity, a list, or course, wherein chariot and
horse—races were performed, and horses exercised.

The Olympian hippodrome, or horse-course, was a space
of ground 600 paces long, surrounded with a wall, near the
city Elis, and on the banks of the river Alpheus. It was
uneven, and in some degree irregular, on account of the situ-
ation; in one part was a hill of moderate height, and the
circuit was adorned with temples, altars, and other embellish-
ments. Pausauias has given us the following account of this
hippodrome, or horse-course :——“ As you pass out of the
stadium, by the seat of the Hellanodics, into the place
appointed for the horse-races, you come to the barrier (a¢5gtg)
where the horses and chariots rendezvous before they enter
into the course. This barrier, in its figure, resembles the
prow of a ship, with the rostrum or beak turned towards the
course. The other end, which joins on to the portico of
Agaptus, (so called from him who built it) is very broad. At
the extremity of the rostrum or beak, over a bar that runs
across the entrance (em rayon/09,) is placed a figure of a
dolphin in brass. (This dolphin is a symbol of Neptune, sur-
natned Hippian or Equestrian, for his having produced a horse
by striking the earth with his trident, according to the fable ;
without the recollection of this circumstance, the reader
might be surprised to meet with the figure of a dolphin in a
horse-course.) On the two sides of the barrier, each of which
is above 400 feet in length, are built stands or lodges, as well
for the riding-horses as the chariots, which are distributed
by lot among the competitors in those races ; and before all
these lodges is stretched a cable, from one end to the other,
to serve the purpose of a barrier. About the middle of the
prow is erected an altar, built of unburnt brick, which, every
Olympiad, is plastered over with fresh mortar; and upon the
altar stands a brazen eagle, which spreads out its wings to a

 

great length. This eagle, by means of a machine, which is
put in motion by the president of the horse—races, is made
to mount up at once to such a height in the air, as to become
visible to all the spectators; and, at the same time, the
brazen dolphin before mentioned sinks to the ground. Upon
that signal, the cables stretched before the lodges, on either
side of the portico of Agaptus, are first. let loose, and the
horses there stationed move out and advance, till they come
over against the lodges of those who drew the second lot,
which are then likewise opened. The same order is observed
by all the rest, and in this manner they proceed through the
beak or rostrum; before which they are drawn up in one
line, or front, ready to begin the race, and make trial of the
skill of the charioteers and fleetness of the horses. On that
side of the course, which is formed by a terrace raised with
earth, and which is the largest of the two sides, near to the
passage that leads out of the course across the terrace, stands
an altar, of a round figure, dedicated to Taraxippus, the terror
of the horses, as his name imports. The other side of the
course is formed, not by a terrace of earth, but a hill of
moderate height, at the end of which is erected a temple,
consecrated to Ceres Chamyne, whose priestess has the privi-
lege of seeing the Olympic games.”

There is a very famous hippodrome at Constantinople,
which was began by Alexander Severus, and finished by
Constantine. This circus, called by the Turks Atmeidan, is
400 paces long, and above 100 paces wide, 2'. e. geometrical
paces of five feet each. Wheeler says, it was in length about
550 ordinary paces, and in breadth about 120; or, allowing
each pace to be five feet, 2,750 feet long and 600 broad. At
the entrance of the hippodrome there is a pyramidal obelisk
of granite, in one piece, about 50 feet high, terminating in a
point, and charged with hieroglyphics, erected on a pedestal
of eight or ten feet above the ground. The Greek and Latin
inscriptions on its base show that it was erected by Theodo-
sius; the machines that were employed to raise it were
represented upon it in basso—relievo.

The beauty of the hippodrome at Constantinople has been
long since defaced by the rude hands of the Turkish conque-
rors ; but, under the similar appellation of Atmez'dan, it still
serves as a place of exercise for their horses. Whether the
Olympic hypodrome was so long or so wide as this of Con-
stantinople, it is not now easy to determine; but it must
evidently have been Considerably longer than an ordinary
stadium, in order to allow for the turnings of the chariots
and horses round the pillars which served as metas or goals,
without running againSt them, or against one another. The
length of the Course, or the distance between the two metas
or goals, is not easily ascertained. It is probable, however,
that the two pillars, viz, that from which the horses started,
and that round which they turned, which divided the course
into two equal lengths, were two stadia distant from each
other; consequently, the whole length of the race, for a
chariot drawn by full-aged horses, consisting of 12 roundS,
amounted to 48 stadia, or six Grecian miles ; and that of the
chariot drawn by Colts consisted of eight rounds, or 32 stadia,
or four Grecian miles—a Grecian mile, according to Arbuth-
not’s computation, being somewhat more than 800 paces,
whereas an English mile is equal to 1,056. Pausanias
informs us, that in the Olympic hippodrome, near that pillar
called Nyssé, probably that which was erected at the lower
end of the course, stood a brazen statue of Hippodamia,
holding in her hand a sacred fillet or diadem, prepared to
bind the head of Pelops for his victory over (Enomaus ; and
it is probable that the whole space between the pillars was
filled with statues or altars, as that in the hippodrome at
Constantinople seems to have been. Het'e, hOWever, stood

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

? it were, the heart of the brick being removed.

 

 

, temperature is ensured in the interior.
; less easily communicated by them than by common bricks.

H00

500

HOT

 

the tripod, or table, on which were placed the olive-crowns
and the branches of palm destined for the victors. Besides
the hippodromes at Olympia and Constantinople, there were
courses of a similar kind at Carthage, Alexandria in Egypt,
and other places.

We have some vestiges in England of the hippodrome, in
which the ancient inhabitants of this country performed their
races. The most remarkable is that near Stonehenge, which
Is a long tract of ground, about 350 feet, or 200 druid cubits
wide, and more than a mile and three-quarters, or 6,000 druid
cubits in length, enclosed quite round with a bank of earth,
extending directly east and west. The goal and career are
at the east end. The goal is a high bank of earth, raised
with a slope inwards, on which the judges are supposed to
have sat. The metre are two tumuli, or small barrows, at
the west end of the course. These hippodromes were called,
in the language of the country, ricedagua, the racer rhedagwr,
and the carriage rlzeda, from the British word rhedeg, to run.
One of these hippodromes, about half a mile to the southward
of Leicester, retains evident traces of the old name r/zedagua,
in the corrupted one of rawdikes. There is another of these,
says Dr. Stukely, near Dorchester, another on the banks of
the river Lowther, near Penryth, in Cumberland, and another
in the valley just without the town of Royston.

HISTORICAL COLUMNS. See COLUMN.

BOARDING, (from the Saxon,) an enclosure about a
building, while erecting or under repair.

HOIS'I‘, an apparatus, or lift, for raising bodies from a
lower to an upper story in a building.

HOLLOW, (from lwle,) a concave moulding, whose section
is about the quadrant of a circle. It is, by some writers,
called easement.

HOLLOW BRICKS, a kind of brick recently invented,
moulded of various sizes and shapes, but usually of larger
size than those commonly in use. They are mere shells, as
The advan-
tages claimed for such bricks are their superior strength
when considered with reference to the quantity of material;
and as a consequence, their comparative lightness, a quality
which tells in very many ways. In the manufacture, they
are more evenly baked and dried, the heat being equally
distributed over every part; and hence their texture and
hardness are more to be depended upon than in solid bricks.
When used for houses, there is much less fear of damp than
in new work as at present constructed; and an equability of
Sound also is much

It has been proposed to construct them with grooves and
ledges, or with some similar contrivance, so that they may
be titted compactly together in a short space of time, for
temporary or other purposes. Floors also are proposed to
be constructed of the same materials, so as to render buildings
entirely fire-proof.

HOLLOW NEWEL, an opening in the middle of a staircase.
The term is used in contradistinction to solid newel, into
which the ends of the steps are built. In the hollow newel,
or well-hole, the steps are only supported at one end by the
surrounding wall of the staircase, the ends next the hollow

‘ being unsupported.

HOLLOW \VALL, a wall built in two thicknesses, having a
cavity between, either for the purpose of saving materials, or
to preserve a uniform temperature in the apartments.

HOLLOW QUOINS, in engineering, piers of stone or large
bricks, made behind each lock-gate of a canal, which are
formed into a hollow from top to bottom, to receive the
rounded head of the lock-gates. In some instances, the

 

shape, and fixed vertically against the wall. Cast-iron is
also now frequently used for forming the hollow quoin or
hinge for the lock-gates of large canals, or the entrance-
basons to docks.

HOMESTALL, or HOMESTEAD, the place of a man-
sion-house; the word is used in some counties to signify the
original house or dwelling attached to an estate.

HOMOLOGOUS, (from dpvog, similar, A0709, reason,) in
geometry, the correspondent sides of similar figures.

HOOD—MOULD, a band or string carried over any aper-
ture, such as a door or window ; more particularly employed
in Pointed architecture : the term is synonymous with LABEL
and WEATHER MOULDING.

HOOK PINS, in carpentry, iron pins made tapering
towards one end, for the purpose of drawing the pieces of a
frame together, as in floors, roofs, 8L0. In joinery, the pins
which answer a similar purpose are called DRAW-BORE PINs.

HOOKS, (Saxon) bent pieces of iron, used to fasten bodies
together, or to hang articles on, out of the way. They are
of various kinds, some of iron and some of brass; as case-
ment-hooks, chimney-hooks, which are made of both brass
and iron ; curtain-hooks, hooks for doors and gates, double-
line-hooks, tenter-hooks, armour-hooks, &c.

HORDING. See BOARDING.

HORIZONTAL CORNICE, of a pediment, the level part
under the two inclined cornices.

HORIZONTAL LINE, in perspective, the vanishing lines of
planes parallel to_the horizon.

HORIZONTAL PLANE, a plane passing through the eye,
parallel to the horizon, and producing the vanishing line of
all level planes.

HORIZONTAL PROJECTION, the projection made on a plane
parallel to the horizon. This may be understood either per—
spectively or orthographically, according as the projecting
rays are directed to a given point, or are perpendicular to the
horizon.

HORN, (Saxon) a name sometimes applied to the Ionic
volute.

HORSE PATH, in engineering, a name sometimes
applied to the towing-path by the side of canals, and narrow
navigable rivers, for the use of the towing or track horses.

HORSE RUN, in engineering, a simple and useful modern
contrivance, for drawing up loaded wheel-barrows of soil
from the deep cuttings of canals, docks, &c. by the help of a
horse which goes backwards and forwards, instead of round,
as in a horse-gin.

HORSING BLOCK, a square frame of strong boards,
used by navvigators or canal diggers for elevating the ends of
their wheeling planks.

HOSPITAL. According to present usage, the term is
applied to buildings endowed by public or private charity, as
infirmaries, in which invalids are lodged and attended; but

 

in Olden times the term was used to signify any building ‘

erected for charitable purposes, as for the reliet'of the indigent,
the entertaimnent of travellers, &c.

HOSTEL, 0r HOTEL, a French term, anciently signifying
a house, but now more commonly used for the palaces or
houses of the king, princes, dukes, and great lords. The
word is also applied to large inns, taverns, or places of public
entertainment.

HOT-HOUSE, in horticulture, is a structure in which
eXotic plants are cultivated, under circumstances approximat-

ing, as closely as possible, to those under which they natu- :
rally exist; or it is used for accelerating the production of
flowers and fruits of either indigenous or exotic plants. Hot- 3

houses appropriated to the latter purposes are very frequently

hollow quoin is formal of one piece of oak, cut to the proper l termed jbrcing-houses.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

HOT

501

HOT

 

In the beginning of the seventeenth century, that descrip-
tion of hot-house generally termed the green-house began to
be constructed in Germany; and one in the Apothecaries’
Garden at Chelsea is mentioned by Ray in 1684. These,
like many others of a later construction, had glass only in
the front, which was perpendicular ; and the mode of apply-
, ing artificial heat exhibited little more knowledge of means
for the end, than the remains of flues found in the ruins of
the dwelling-houses and baths of the Romans.

In l724,qwhen Switzer published his treatise entitled “ The
Practical Fruit Gardener,” the principles of managing hot-
houses were still very imperfectly understood ; for he
observes, p. 305, that “ peaches, nectarines, and apricots
don’t love to be forced; at least, the fruit is very seldom
good: there being much occasion to keep the glasses close,
the fruit is always rendered flat and insipid. This is not
pure speculation, but the result of the practice that I have
observed in the glass-houses at Brompton Park.”

Considerable alterations, particularly in houses for grapes,
were made towards the end of the last century. The most
material improvement was the substitution of a slanting glass
3 roof for a perpendicular glass front; but the advantages of
this were much diminished by the heaviness of the sashes,
and the large quantity of opaque matter which it was thought
necessary to employ in order to ensure the durability of such
structures.

In the present century great advances have been made in
- hot-house building, and more particularly since 1815. The
application of heat by steam or hot water through iron pipeS,
and the admission of a greater quantity of light by glazing
3 on metallic bars, instead of wooden sashes, are the principal
1 features of these improvements. The employment of hollow
bricks, too, will probably prove of great advantage, although
we are not aware of their adoption in any building at present
erected. See CONSERVATORY.

Those houses which are intended for the peach, nectarine,
cherry,fig, &c. should, in cold situations, be constructed against
lwalls, and made with glass on one side. But in climates
‘ less severe, houses formed of glass on all the sides, having
; the trees so planted as to grow irregularly in the standard
‘ method, will be more beneficial as well as more ornamental.

For the forcing of vines, they may be of any kind of form,
either small or large, according to the season at which the
trees are to be brought into fruit. But a double-roofed
house, with an inner roofing, is recommended as the most
proper for general crops, as well as the cheapest in cost of
erecting.

In the general construction of these houses, a wall of eight
or ten feet in height, or more, is raised behind, with a low
wall in front and both ends, on which is placed upright glass-
work, four, five, or six feet in height, and a sloping glass
roof, extending from the top of the front to the back wall.
Internal fines for fire-heat, in winter, are also contrived, and
a capacious oblong or square pit in the bottom space, in
which to have a constant bark—bed, to furnish a continual
regular heat at all seasons ; so as in the whole to warm the
enclosed internal air always to a certain temperature. Houses
thus formed are generally used in raising pines.

Hot-houses are mostly ranged lengthwise, nearly east and
west, that the glasses of the front and roof may have the full
. influence of the sun. This is the most convenient situation
for common houses, either for pines or exotic plants. But
some houses of the sort, instead of being placed in this direc-
tion, are ranged directly south and north, having a sloped
roof to each side, like the roof of a house; as also to the
, front or south end ; both sides and the south-end front being
‘ of glass. These houses are made from ten or twelve to
II 6 M

I
M *_., ,,______,

 

 

 

 

fifteen or twenty feet wide, the length at pleasure ; and from
ten to twelve feet high in the middle, both sides fully head-
height ; being formed by a brick wall all round, raised only
two or three feet on both sides, and south. end ; but carried
up at the north end like the gable of a house. Upon the top
of the side and south-end walling is erected the framing for
the glass-work, which is sometimes formed two or three feet
upright, immediately on the top of the wall, having the
sloped glass-work above; and sometimes wholly of a con-
tinued slope on both sides, rising immediately from the top of
the side-walls to that of the middle ridge. They are furnished ,
either with one or two bark-pits; but if of any considerable
width, generally with two, ranging parallel, one under each
slope of the top glass, and separated by a two-foot path run-
ning along the middle of the house, and sometimes continued
all round each pit, with flues ranged along against the inside
walls ; the whole terminating in an upright funnel, or
chimney, at the north end of the building. There are other I
hot—houses which are formed entirely on the square, having a 3
ten or twelve feet brick wall behind ; that of the front, and ‘
both sides, being only two or three feet high, for the support
of the glass-work, which is placed nearly upright almost
the same height, and sloped above on both sides and front, 1
which are wholly of glass. These are furnished within with
bark-pits and flues, as in the previous instances.

In particular cases they are made semicircular, or entirely ;
circular, being formed with a two or three feet brick wall
supporting the glass-framing, which is continued quite round. 1
The bark-pit. is also circular, and the fines, after being carried 1
all round the inside of the walling, terminate in a chimney on 1
the northern side of the house. However, the first forms j
are probably the best for general purposes.

Hothouses on these plans are made of different dimensions, .
according to the size of the plants they are designed to con- 1
tain. For common purposes they should be only of a mode- ‘
rate height, not exceeding ten or twelve to fourteen feet ’
behind, and five or six in front; some are, however, built
much more lofty behind, to give sufficient height for the
taller-growing exotics, placed toward the back part. Those
of the first-described size are, however, best adapted to the ‘
culture of pines, and other moderate-growing plants, as well i
as for forcing in. Very lofty houses require a greater force 7
of heat, and by the glasses being so high, the plants naturally i
tending towards the glasses, receive less benefit from the sun,
and are apt to draw up too fast into long slender leaves and
stems. Where the top-glasses are at a moderate distance
from the plants, they receive the benefit of the sun’s heat
more fully, which is essential in winter, become more stalky
at bottom, assume (particularly the pine-apple) a more robust
and firm growth, and are rendered more capable of producing
large fruit in the season.

After having determined on the dimensions of the house as
to length and width, the foundations of brick-work should be
set out accordingly, allowing due width at the bottom to sup-
port the flues a foot wide, wholly on the brick basis; de-
tached an inch or two from the main walls ; then setting off
the back or north-wall, a brick and a half or two bricks thick,
and the front and end walls nine inches, carry up the back
wall from ten to fourteen feet high ; those of the front and
ends to be only from about two feet to a yard. Take care in
carrying up the walls to allot a proper space for a door-way,
at one or both ends, towards the back part; setting out also
the furnace or fire—place of the fines in the bottom foundation,
towards one end of the back wall behind, formed also of
brick-work, made to communicate with the lowermost flue
within. \Vhen the house is of great length, as forty feet or
more, a fire-place at each end may be necessary ; or, if more

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

HOT

 

convenient, both may be in the back part of the end walls, or
in the middle way of the back wall; each must communi-
cate with a separate range of fines. In either case they
should be formed wholly on the outside of the walls, about
tWelve or fourteen inches wide in the clear, but more in
lengthwise inward ; the inner end terminating in a funnel to
communicate internally with the fiues. An iron-barred grate
should be fixed at bottom to support the fuel, and calculated
for coal, wood, peat, turf, 8w. An ash-hole should be made
underneath. The mouth or fuel-door should be about ten or
twelve inches square, having an iron frame and door fixed to
shut with an iron latch, as close as possible. The whole
furnace should be raised sixteen or eighteen inches in the
clear, finishing the top archwise. Then continue carrying
up the walls of the building regularly, and on the inside erect
the fiues close along the walls.

It is sometimes advantageous to have the flues a little
detached from the walls, one, two, or three inches, that, by
being thus distinct, the heat may arise from both sides, which
will be an advantage in more effectually diffusing the whole
heat internally in the house; as, when they are attached close
to the walls, a very considerable portion of the heat is lost in
the part of the wall behind. In contriving the fiues, they
should be continued along the front and both ends, in one
range at least, in this order. But it is better if they are
raised as high as the outward front and end walls, in one or
. two ranges, one over the other. On the tops of these may
I be placed pots of many small plants, both of the exotic and
forcing kinds, with much convenience.

In the construction of the fiues, make them generally about
a foot wide in the whole, including six or eight inches in the
clear, formed with a brick-work on edge; the first lower
flue should communicate with the furnace or fire-place with-
out, and be raised a little above it, to promote the draught of
heat more freely. Continue it along above the internal level
of the floor of the back alley or walk of the house the above
width, and three bricks on edge deep, returning it in two or
three ranges over one another, next the back wall, and in one
or two along the ends and front wall, as the height may
admit; each return two bricks on edge deep, and tiled or
bricked over. In the beginning of the first bottom-flue a
sliding iron regulator may be fixed, to use occasionally, in
admitting more or less heat, being careful that the brick-work
of each fiue is closely jointed with the best sort of mortar for
that purpose, and well pointed within, that no smoke may
break out. Have each return closely covered with broad
square paving tiles on the brick-work; covering the upper-
most fiues also with broad thick fiat tiles, the whole width,
all very closely laid, and joined in mortar. The uppermost,
or last range of flues, should terminate in an upright vent or
chimney, at one end of the back wall ; and where there are
two separate sets of fiues, there should be a chimney at each
end. An iron slider in the termination of the last flue next
the chimney may also be provided, to confine the heat more
or less on particular occasions, as may be found necessary.

Sometimes, in very wide houses, in erecting the fines,
spare ones, for occasional use, are continued round the bark-
pit, carried up against the surrounding wall, but detached an
inch or two, to form a vacancy for the heat to come up more
beneficially, and that, by having vent, it may not dry the tan
of the bark-bed too much. In the beginning a sliding iron
regulator may be fixed, either to admit or exclude the heat,
as expedient ; so that the smoke, by running through a
larger extent, may expend its heat wholly in the flues ; before
it be discharged at the chimney. Great care should be
taken that neither the fire-place nor fines be carried too near
any of the wood-work of the buildings.

 

 

After this work is done,

the bark-pit, first allowing a space next the flues for an

proceed to set out the cavity for I
alley I

or walk, eighteen inches or two feet all round, and then in 7

the middle space form the pit for the bark-bed, six or seven

feet wide, the length in proportion to that of the house, and a l

yard or more deep ; enclosing it by a surrounding wall.

It.

may either be sunk at bottom a little in the ground, raising '

the rest above by means of the parapet wall ; or, if there is
danger of wet below, it should be raised a little above the
general surface. The surrounding wall should be nine inches,
but a half-brick wall is often made to do, especially for that
part which forms the parapet above ground. It should be
coped all round with a timber plate or kirb, framed and
mortised together, which effectually secures the brick-work in
its proper situation.

The bottom of the pit should be levelled and well rammed,
and, if paved with any coarse material, it is of advantage in
preserving the bark. The path or alley round the pit should
also be neatly paved with brick or stone, as may be most
convenlent.

The glass part, for enclosing the whole, should consist of ‘

a close continued range of glass sashes all along the front,
both ends and roof, quite up to the back wall; each sash
being three feet or three feet six inches wide; and for the
support of these, framings of timber must be erected in the
brick walling, conformable to the width and length of the
sashes, the whole being neatly fixed.

For the reception of the perpendicular glasses in the front
and ends, a substantial timber plate must be placed along the
top of the front and end walls, upon which should be erected
uprights, at proper distances, framed to a plate or crown-
piece above, of sufficient height to raise the whole front head-
high, both ends corresponding with the front and back. To
receive the sloping bars from the frame~work in front, a plate
of timber must be framed to the back wall above, proper
grooves being formed in the front plate below and above, to
receive the ends of the perpendicular sashes, sliding close
against the outside of the uprights all the way along the front.
Or they may be contrived for only every other sash, to slide
one on the side of the other, but the former is the better
method.

From the top of the upright framing in front should be
carried substantial cross-bars or bearers, sloping to the back
wall, where they are framed at both ends to the wood-work
or plates, at regular distances, to receiVe and support the
sloping glass sashes of the roof. These are placed close
together upon the cross-bars or rafters, and generally range
in two or more tiers, sliding one over the other, of sufficient
length together to reach quite from the top of the upright
framing in front to the top of the back wall. The cross-bars
should be grooved lengthwise above, to carry off \vet falling
between the frames of the sloping lights ; and the upper end
of the tier of glasses should shut close up to the plate in the
wall behind, running under a proper Coping of wood or lead,
which must be fixed along above close to the wall, and lapped
down, of due width to cover, and shoot off the wet sufficiently
from the upper termination of the top sashes. Some wide
houses have, exclusive of the sliding glass sashes of the main
slope, a shorter upper tier of glass fixed; the upper ends
being secured under a Coping as above, and the lower ends
lapping over the top ends of the upper sliding tier, and this
over that below in the same manner, so as to shoot the wet
clear over each upper end or termination. Likewise, along
the under outer edge of the top plate or crown-piece in front,
may be a small channel to receive the water from the sloping
glass sashes, and convey it to one or both ends without run~

ning down upon the upright sashes, being careful that the

 

 

 

 

 

 

I being very careful to have the glazing well performed, and
i proof against any wet that may happen to beat against them.
‘ The doors should have the upper parts sashed and glazed to
; correspond with the other glass-work of the house.

1 white-washed: and all the wood-work, within and without,
, painted white in oil-colour.

‘ ported either by brackets suspended from the cross-bars

HOU

503

HOU

 

top part behind be well framed and secured water-tight, and
the top of the back wall finished a little higher than the
glass, with a neat coping the whole length of the building.

The bars of wood which support the glasses should be
neatly formed, and made neither very broad nor thick, to
intercept the rays of the sun. Those, however, at top, should
be made strong enough to support the glasses without bending
under them. In wide heuses, uprights are arranged within,
at proper distances to support the cross rafters more perfectly
than could otherwise be the case.

But in respect to the glass-work in the sloping sashes, the
panes of glass should be laid in putty, with the ends lapping
over each other about half an inch, the vacancies of which
are, in some, closed up at bottom with putty, others leave each
lapping of the panes open, for the admission of air,-and that
the rancid vapours arising from the fermentation of the bark-
bed, &c., within, may thereby be kept in constant motion, to
diminish condensation, and also, that such as condense against
the glasses may discharge themselves at those places without
dropping upon the plants. The upright sashes in front may
either be glazed as above, or the panes laid in lead-work;

On the inside, the walls should be plastered, pargeted, and

Some, however, have the back
wall painted or coloured rather dark.

Ranges of narrow shelves, for pots of small plants, may be
erected where most. convenient, some behind over the fines, a
single range near the top glasses towards the back part, sup-

above, or by uprights erected on the parapet wall of the bark—
pit. A range or two of narrow ones may also be placed
occasionally along both ends above the fines, where there is
a necessity for a very great number.

In wide houses, where the cross-bars or bearers of the
sloping or top glass sashes appear to want support, some neat
uprights, either of wood or iron, may be erected upon the
bark-bed walling, at convenient distances, and high enough
to reach the bearers above. This is a neat mode of affording
them support.

On the outside, behind, should be erected a close shed, the
whole length, or at least a small covered shed over each
fire-place, with a door to shut, for the convenience of attending
the fires. The former is much the best, as it will serve to
defend the back of the house from the outward air, and to stow
fuel; also for garden tools when not in use; as well as to lay
portions of earth in occasionally, to have it dry for particular
purposes in winter and early spring, as in forcing-frames, 8m.

Sometimes hot—houses are furnished with top-covers, to
draw over the glass sashes occasionally, in time of severe
frosts and storms ; and sometimes by slight sliding shutters,
fitted to the width of the separate sashes; but these are
inconvenient, and require considerable time and trouble in
their application. At other times they are formed of painted
canvass, on long poles or rollers, fixed lengthwise along the
tops of the houses, just above the upper ends of the top
sashes, which, by means of lines and pulleys, are readily let
down and rolled up, as there may be occasmn.

HOVEL (Saxon), a low building, with some part of the
lower side open, to afford shelter to young animals during
Stormy weather. . .

HOVELING, the carrying up of the sxdes of a chimney,
that when the wind rushes over the mouth, the smoke may

 

escape below the current, or against any one sale ot it. lhe ,

working up of the sides is covered at the top with tiles or
bricks in a pyramidal form, in order to get rid of the incon-
venience occasioned by adjoining buildings being higher than
the chimney, or by its being in the eddy of any very lofty
buildings, or in the vicinity of high trees; in which cases
the covered side must be towards the building.

HOUSE, a habitation, or a building constructed for shel-
tering a man’s person and goods from the inclemencies of
the weather, and the injuries of ill-disposed persons. Houses
differ in magnitude, being of two or three, and four stories ;
in the materials of which they consist, as wood, brick, or
stone; and in the purposes for which they are designed, as a
manor-house, farm-house, cottage, 8:0.

A pleasure-house, or country-house, is one built for occa-
sional residence, and for the pleasure and benefit ofretiremcnt,
air, &c. This is the villa of the ancient Romans ; and
what in Spain and Portugal they call quinta; in Provence,
cassino; in some other parts of France, closerz'e; in Italy,
’vzgna.

The citizens of Paris have also their maisons de bouteilles
(bottle-houses) to retire to, and entertain their friends ; which,
in Latin, might be called micce; the emperor Domitian
having a house built for the like purpose, mentioned under
this name by Martial.

It is a thing principally to be aimed at, in the site or
situation of a country-house, or seat, that it have wood and
water near it.

It is far better to have a house defended by trees than hills:
for trees yield a cooling, refreshing, sweet, and healthy air
and shade during the 'heat of the summer, and very much
break the cold winds and tempests from every point in the
winter. The hills, according to their situation, defend only
from certain winds ; and, if they are on the north side of the
house, as they defend from the cold air in the winter, so they
also deprive you of the cool refreshing breezes which are
commonly blown from thence in the summer; and if the
hills are situate on the south side, they then prove also very
inconvenient.

A house should not be too low-seated, since this precludes
the convenience of cellars. If you cannot avoid building on
low grounds, set the first floor above the ground the higher, to
supply what you want to sink in your cellar in the ground ; for
in such low and moist grounds, it conduces much to the dryness
andhealthiness of the air to have cellars under the house, so that
the floors be good, and ceiled underneath. Houses built too
high, in places obvious to the winds, and not Well defended
by hills or trees, require more materials to build them, and
more also of reparations to maintain them ; and they are not
so commodious to the inhabitants as the lower-built houses,
which may be built at a much easier rate, and also as complete
and beautiful as the other.

In houses not above two stories with the ground-room,
and not exceeding twenty feet to the wall-plate, and upon a
.good foundation, the length of two bricks, or eighteen inches
for the heading course, will be sufficient for the ground-work
of any common structure, and six or seven courses above the
earth to a water-table, where the thickness of the walls is
abated or taken in on either side the thickness of brick,
namely, two inches and a quarter.

For large and high houses, or buildings of three, four, or
five stories, with the garrets, the walls of such edifices ought
to be from the foundation to the first water-table three
heading courses of brick, or 28 inches at least; and at every
story a water-table, or taking in on the inside for the girders
and joists to rest upon, laid into the middle, or one quarter of
the wall at least, for the better bond. But as for the inner-
most or partition wall, a half brick will be sufficiently thick ;

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

HOU

504

 

HOU

 

and for the upper stories, nine inches or a brick length will
suffice.

The general principles of the construction of edifices and
private houses will be found under the article BUILDING.
We shall under this head give a description of the private
houses of the ancients :—

Of the private dwellings of the ancients, we have but little
or no account, and it is probable that they possessed but
small pretensions to architectural grandeur. We hear of
temples, palaces, and such like public buildings, and of these
we have careful and detailed descriptions, but of the habita-
tions of the mass of the people, we have only a cursory notice.
This fact would lead us to believe that but little attention
was paid to domestic buildings of the earlier periods of
history, and such indeed seems to have been the case; all
the care of the people being confined to the temples of their
gods, and the palaces of their governors. With a proper
though misplaced zeal, the taste of their architects was
exhausted in erecting and adorning the habitations of their
deities; and indeed in all ages and countries, the art seems
to be principally indebted for its progress to the religious
feelings of mankind.

In his description of Babylon, Herodotus speaks of houses
being ranged on either side of the various streets into which
the city was divided, and of others of a smaller character, on
either side of the outer wall, so placed as to allow of a wide
passage or roadway between the two ranges. The former
are described as consisting of three or four stories, and the
latter of only one story.

If we may form a judgment from the paintings of the
ancient Egyptians, their domestic buildings were of very
uniform character. Some houses were two or three stories
in height, and these seem to have belonged to the more com-
mon sort, but the larger mansions were only of one story, but
of considerable extent in plan. They consisted of one or
more rectangular courts surrounded by chambers similar to
the existing specimens of Roman construction ; or sometimes
a group of building was placed in the centre of such a court.
The roofs, as in all Eastern buildings, were flat, and probably
covered with an awning, as a protection from the heat.

According to Pliny, the Greeks originally dwelt in caves,
and were taught the art of house-building by two brothers,
Euryalus and Hyperbius, who were 'l‘yrrhenians, from which
nation buildings of all kinds are said to have been introduced
into Greece. During their early history, up to the time of
Aristides and Pericles, their dwellings were of a very simple
description, nor did they arrive at any magnificence until the
time of Alexander, when they had given themselves over to
a luxurious mode of living. At this period their dwellings
became of great extent, and were very highly embellished,
being similar in form and arrangement to those of the
Romans,—of which in all probability they afforded the idea,—
but far inferior to them in extent and magnificence. Ere,
however, the Romans had become thus extravagant in the
adornment of their villas, they had passed through the same
stages as their predecessors, and it was not until by their
conquests they had become acquainted with the luxury of
Asia and Greece, that they began to erect such splendid
mansions. The villa of Marcus Cato, we are told, was so
rude, that the walls were not even plastered; nor did that
of Scipio Africanus, or the Villa Publica, greatly excel in
richness of decoration. The first houses of the Romans were
nothing better than simple cottages thatched with straw; and
when the city was rebuilt after it was burned by the Gauls,
the houses were mostly constructed of wood and covered with
hingles, although of so great a height as to become danger-

us. This was the case, even in the reign of Augustus.

 

The greater part of the city was again destroyed by fire in
the time of Nero, and was rebuilt in a more substantial and
elegant manner; but we can form only a remote idea of the
houses, having no examples remaining.

The country seats or villas were the dwellings on which
the higher classes expended the greatest care, and a full
description of these will be found in Pliny’s Letters, which
we proceed to give, but, before doing so, insert some remarks
and directions on the subject by Vitruvius.

0f the private and public Apartments of Houses, and of
their Construction according to the difl'erent Banks of People;
(from Vitruvius.)

 

“ These buildings being disposed to the proper aspects of ‘

the heavens, then the distribution of such places in private

houses as are appropriated to the use of the master of the j
house, and those which are common for strangers, must be i
also considered: for into those that are thus appropriated, ‘
no one can enter unless invited ; such as the cubiculum, the ‘

triclinium, the bath, and others of similar use. The common
are those which the people unasked may legally enter; such
are the vestibulum, cavasdium, peristylium, and those that

may answer the same purposes: but to persons of the com- ,
mon rank, the magnificent vestibulum, tablinum, or atrium, :
are not necessary, because such persons pay their court to

those who are courted by others.

“ People who deal in the produce of the country must have 1

stalls and shops in their vestibules, and cryptae, horreae, and
apothecae, in their houses, which should be constructed in
such a manner as may best preserve their goods, rather than
be elegant. The houses of bankers, and public offices, should
be more commodious and handsome, and made secure from
robbers; those of advocates and the learned, elegant and
spacious, for the reception of company; but those of the
nobles, who bear the honours of magistracy, and decide
the affairs of the citizens, should have a princely vestibulum,
lofty atrium, and ample peristylium, with groves and exten-
sive ambulatories, erected in a majestic style ; besides libraries,
pinacothecas, and basilieas, decorated in a manner similar to
the magnificence of public buildings ; for in these places, both
public affairs and private causes are oftentimes determined.
Houses therefore being thus adapted to the various degrees
of people, according to the rules of decor, explained in the
first book, will not be liable to censure, and will be con-
venient and suitable to all purposes. These rules also are
applicable, not only to city houses, but likewise to those of
the country; except that in those of the city the atrium is
usually near the gate, whereas in the country pseudo—urbana,
the peristylium is the first, and then the atrium; having
a paved porticus around, looking to the palestra and
ambulatories.

“I have, as well as I have been able, briefly written the
rules relative to city houses, as I proposed. I shall now treat
of those in the country, how they may be made convenient,
and in what manner they should be disposed.

“ Of Country IIouses, with the Description and use of their l

several Parts.

“ In the first place, the country should be examined with ‘

regard to its salubrity, as written in the first book concerning
the founding of a city, for in like manner villas are to be
established. Their magnitude must be according to the quan-
tity of land and its produce. The courts and their size must
be determined by the number of cattle and yokes of oxen to
be there employed.
kitchen is to be situated, and adjoining thereto the ox-house,
with the stalls turned towards the fire and the eastern sky ;
for the cattle seeing the light and fire, are thereby rendered
smooth-coated ; even husbandmen, although igncraut of the

In the warmest part of the court, the .

 

 

 

 

 

HOU 505

nature of aspects, think that cattle should look to no other
part of the heavens than to that where the sun rises. The
breadth of the ox-house should not be less than ten feet, nor
more than fifteen; the length should be so much as to allow
no less than seventeen feet to each yoke.

“ The bath also is to be adjoined to the kitchen, for thus
the place of bathing will not be far from those of the husbandry
occupations. The press-room should be near the kitchen,
that it may be convenient for the olive business; and adjoin-
ing thereto the wine-cellar, having windows to the north;
for, should they be toward any part which may be heated by
the sun, the wine in that cellar would be disturbed by the
heat, and become vapid. The oil-room is to be so situated
as to have its light from the southern and hot aSpects; for
oil ought not to be 'congealed, but be attenuated by a gentle
heat. The dimensions of these rooms are to be regulated by
the quantity of fruit, and the number of the vessels; which,
if they be culleariae, should in the middle occupy four feet.
Also, if the press be not worked by screws, but by levers,
the press-room should not be less than forty feet long, that
the pressers may have sufficient space: the breadth should
not be less than sixteen feet, by which means there will be
free room to turn, and to dispatch the work; but if there
be two presses in the place, it ought to be twenty-four feet
broad. The sheep and goat-houses should be so large, that
not less than four feet and a half, nor more than six feet,
may be allowed to each animal. The granary should be
elevated from the ground, and look to the north or east, for
thus the grain will not so soon be heated, but, being cooled
by the air, will endure the longer : the other aspects generate
worms and such vermin as usually destroy the grain.

“ The stable, above all in the villa, should be built in the
warmest place, and not look toward the fire, for if these
cattle be stalled near the fire, they become rough-coated:
nor are those stalls unuseful which are placed out of the
kitchen, in the open air, toward the east ; for in the winter
time, when the weather is serene, the beasts, being led thi-
ther in the morning, may be cleaned while they are taking
their food.

“ The barn, hay-room, meal-room, and mill, are placed
without the villa, that it may be more secure from the danger
of fire.

“ If the villa is to be built more elegantly, it must be
constructed according to the symmetry of city houses, before
described; but so as not to impede its use as a villa.

“ Great care ought to be taken, that all buildings have
sufficient light, which in villas is easily obtained; because
there are no walls near to obstruct it. But in the city, either
the height of the party-walls, or the narrowness of the
streets, may occasion obscurity. It may, however, be thus
tried : on the side where the light is to be received, let a line
be extended from the top of the wall that seems to cause the
obscurity, to that place to which the light is required ; and if,
when looking up along that line, an ample space of the clear
sky may be seen, the light to that place will not be obstructed ;
but if beams, lintels, or floors, interfere, the upper parts
must be opened, and thus the light be admitted. The upper
rooms are thus to be managed: on whatsoever part of the
heavens the prospect may lie, on that side the places of the
windows are to be left, for thus the edifice will be best
enlightened. As in tricliniums and such apartments, the
light is highly necessary, so also is it in passages, ascents,
and staircases, where people carrying burdens frequently
meet each other.

“ I have explained, as well as I have been able, the dis-
tribution of our buildings, that they may not be unknown
to those who build ; I shall now also briefly explain the dis-

6 N

 

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tribution of houses, according to the custom of the Greeks,
that they also may not be unknown.

“ Of the Disposition of the Houses of the Greeks.

“ The Greeks use no atrium, nor do they build in our
manner ; but from the gate of entrance they make a passage
of no great breadth: on one side of which is the stable, on
the other, the porters’ rooms, and these are directly termi-
nated by the inner gates. This place between the two gates
is called by the Greeks thyroreion. After that, in entering,
is the peristylium, which peristylium has porticos on three
sides. 'On that side which looks to the south, are two antae,
at an ample distance from each other, supporting beams, and
so much as is equal to the distance between the antes, want-
ing a third part, is given to the space inwardly; this place is
called by some prostas, by others parastas. From this place,
more inwardly, the great oeci are situated, in which the mis-
tress of the family, with the workwomen, reside. On the
right and left of the prostas, are cubiculae, of which one is
called thalamus, and the other amphithalamas ; and in the
surrounding porticos, the common tricliniums, cubiculums,
and family rooms are erected. This part of the edifice is
called gynwconitis.

“ Adjoining to this is a larger house, having a more ample ,
peristylium, in which are four porticos of equal height, or
sometimes the one which looks towards the south has higher
columns: and this peristylium, which has one portico higher
than the rest, is termed rhodium. In these houses they have
elegant vestibulums, magnificent gates, and the porticos of
the peristyliums are ornamented with stucco, plaster, and
lucunariae, of inside work (wood) In the porticos which look
to the north, are the Cyzicene triclinium, and pinacothecae;
to the cast are the libraries, to the west the exedrae, and in
those looking to the south are the square oeci, so large that
they may easily contain four sets of dining couches, with the
attendants, and a spacious place for the use of the games.
In these oeci are made the men’s dining couches, for it is not
their custom for the mothers of families to lie down to dine.
This peristylium and part of the house is called androm'tides,
because here the men only are invited Without being accom-
panied by the women.

“ On the right and left also, small houses are erected,
having proper gates, triclinae, and convenient cubiculae, that
when strangers arrive, they may not enter the peristylium,
but be received in this hospitalium; for when the Greeks
were more refined and opulent, they prepared tricliniae,
cubiculae, and provisions, for strangers ; the first day inviting
them to dinner, afterwards sending them poultry, eggs, herbs,
fruits, and other productions of the country. Hence the
pictures representing the sending of gifts to strangers, are by
the painters called zenia. Masters Of families, therefore,
while they abode in the hospitium, seemed not to be from
home, having the full retirement in these hospitaliums.
Between the peristylium and hospitalium are passages, which
are called 'mesaulw; because they are situated between two
aulw; these are by us called andronas; but it is remarkable
that the Greeks and Latins do not in this agree; for the
Greeks give the name of andronas to the oecus where the
men usually dine, and which the women do not enter.

“ It is the same also with some other words, as mstos, .
prothyrum, telamones, and others; for wg/stos is the Greek:
appellation of those broad porticos, in which the athletae
exercise in winter time; whereas, we call the uncovered ‘
ambulatories wystos ; and which the Greeks call peridromz'das.

 

The vestibula, which are before the gates, are by the Greeks E
called prothym ; whereas, we call prothyra that which the
The statues of men bearing mutules‘

Greeks call diathyra.
or cornices we call telamones, for what reason Is not to. be

 

 

 

 

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found in history ; but the Greeks call them atlantes ; Atlas
being in history represented as supporting the world ; for he
was the first who, by his ingenuity and diligence, discovered
and taught mankind the course of the sun and moon, the
rising and setting of all. the planets, and the revolutions of
the heavens; for which benefit the painters and statuaries
represented him bearing the whole earth; and the Atlantides,
his children, which we call Vergilius, and the Greeks
Pileiades, are placed among the stars in the heavens. I have
not, however, mentioned this in order to change the customary
names or manner of discoursing, but only to explain them,
that these things might not be unknown to the lovers of
knowledge.”
Extracts from Pliny’s Letters.

Description of the villa at Laurentinum.

“ You are surprised, it seems, that I am so fond of my
Laurentinum, or (if you like the appellation better) my
Laurens; but you will cease to wonder, when I acquaint
you with the beauty of the villa, the advantages of its situa-
tion, and the extensive prospect of the sea-coast. It is but
seventeen miles distant from Rome ; so that, having finished
my affairs in town, I can pass my evenings here, without
breaking in upon the business of the day. There are two
different. roads to it: if you go by that of Laurentum, you
must turn off at the fourteenth mile-stone; if by Ostia, at
the eleventh. Both of them are, in some parts, sandy, which
makes it somewhat heavy and tedious, if you travel in a
carriage, but easy and pleasant to those who ride on horse-
back. The landscape, on all sides, is extremely diversified,
the prospect, in some places, being confined by woods, in
others extending over large and beautiful meadows, where
numberless flocks of sheep and herds of cattle, which the
severity of the winter has driven from the mountains, fatten
in the vernal warmth of this rich pasturage. My villa is
large enough to afford all desirable accommodations, without
being extensive. The porch before it is plain, but not mean,
through which you enter into a portico in the form of the
letter D, which includes a small but agreeable area. This
affords a very commodious retreat in bad weather, not only
as it is enclosed with windows, but particularly as it is shel-
tered by an extraordinary projection of the roof. From the
middle of this portico you pass into an inward court, ex-
tremely pleasant, and from thence into a handsome hall, which
runs out towards the sea ; so that when there is a south-west
wind, it is gently washed with the waves, which spend them-
selves at the foot of it. On every side of this hall, there are
either folding-doors, or windows equally large, by which
means you have a view from the front and the two sides, as
it were, of three different seas : from the back part, you see
the middle court, the portico, and the area ; and, by another
View, you look through the portico into the porch, from
whence the prospect is terminated by the woods and moun-
tains which are seen at a distance. On the left-hand of this
hall, somewhat farther from the sea, lies alarge drawing-
roorn, and beyond that, a second of a smaller size, which has
one window to the rising, and another to the setting sun:
this has, likewise, a prospect of the sea, but being at a greater
distance, is less incommoded by it. The angle which the
projection of the hall forms with this drawing-room, retains
and increases the warmth of the sun; and hither my family
retreat in winter to perform their exercises: it is sheltered
from all winds, except those which are generally attended
With clouds, so that nothing can render this place useless,
but what, at the same time, destroys the fair weather. Con-
tiguous to this, is a room forming the segment of a circle, the
Windows of which are so placed, as to receive the sun the

 

whole day : in the walls are contrived a sort of cases, which
contain a collection of such authors whose works can never
be read too often.

From hence you pass into a bed-chamber ‘

through a passage, which, being boarded, and suspended, as it 3

were, over a stove which runs underneath, tempers the heat
which it receives, and conveys it to all parts of this room. The
remainder of this side of the house is appropriated to the use

of my slaves and freed-men: but most of the apartments, 1

however, are neat enough to receive any of my friends. In
the opposite wing, is a room ornamented in a very elegant
taste ; next to which lies another room, which, though large
for a parlour, makes but amoderate dining-room ; it is exceed-
ingly warmed and enlightened, not only by the direct rays of
the sun, but by their reflection from the sea. Beyond, is a
bed-chamber, together with its ante-chamber, the height of

which renders it cool in summer ; as its being sheltered on .

all sides from the winds makes it warm in winter. To this
apartment another of the same sort is joined by one common
wall. From thence you enter into the grand and spacious
cooling-room, belonging to the bath, from the opposite walls

of which, two round basons project, sufficiently large to swim ‘;
in. Contiguous to this is the perfuming-room, then the
sweating-room, and next to that, the furnace which conveys Q

the heat to the baths : adjoining, are two other little bathing- [
rooms, fitted up in an elegant rather than costly manner: ;
annexed to this, is a warm bath of extraordinary workman- ‘

ship, wherein one may swim, and have a prospect, at the
same time, of the sea. Not far from hence, stands the tennis
court, which lies open to the warmth of the afternoon sun.

From thence you ascend a sort of turret, containing two :
entire apartments below; as there are the same number i

above, besides a dining-room which commands a very exten- ,

sive prospect of the sea, together with the beautiful villas '

that stand interspersed upon the coast.
a second turret, in which is a room that receives the rising
and setting sun. Behind this is a large repository, near to
which is a gallery of curiosities, and underneath a spacious
dining-room, where the roaring of the sea, even in a storm,

is heard but faintly : it looks upon the garden, and the gestatio i

which surrounds the garden. The gestatio is encompassed
with a box-tree hedge, and where that is decayed, with rose-
mary : for the box, in those parts which are sheltered by the
buildings, preserves its verdure perfectly well ; but where,
by an open situation, it lies exposed to the spray of the sea,
though at a great distance, it entirely withers. Between the

At the other end, is -‘

 

garden and this gestatio runs a shady plantation of vines, the ;
alley of which is so soft, that you may walk bare-foot upon it j

without any injury.
and mulberry trees, to which this soil is as favourable, as it
is averse from all others. In this place is a banqueting-
room, which, though it stands remote from the sea, enjoys a
prospect nothing inferior to that view: two apartments run
round the back part of it, the windows whereof look upon
the entrance of the villa, and into a very pleasant kitchen-
ground. From hence an enclosed portico extends, which, by
its great length, you might suppose erected for the use of the
public.
which looks towards the sea, they are double the number
of those next the garden.

The garden is chiefly planted with fig 3

It has a range of windows on each side, but on that ‘

\Vhen the weather is fair and .

serene, these are all thrown open; but if it blows, those on ‘

the side the wind sets are shut, while the others remain un-
closed without any inconvenience. Before this portico lies a
terrace, perfumed with violets, and warmed by the reflection
of the sun from the portico, which, as it retains the rays, so
it- keeps off the north—east wind : and it is as warm on this
side as it is cool on the opposite: in the same manner it
proves a defence against the south-west ; and thus, in short,

 

 

 

 

 

HOU 5

by means of its several sides, breaks the force of the
winds from what point soever they blow. These are some
of its winter advantages : they are still more considerable in
summer ; for at that season it throws a shade upon the ter-
race during all the forenoon, as it defends the gestatio, and
that part of the garden which lies contiguous to it, from the
afternoon sun, and casts a greater or less shade, as the day
either increases or decreases; but the portico itself is then
coolest, when the sun is most scorching, that is, when its
rays fall directly upon the roof. T 0 these its benefits I must
not forget to add, that, by setting open the windows, the
western breezes have a free draught, and, by that means, the
enclosed air is prevented from stagnating. On the upper end
of the terrace and portico stands a detached building in the
garden, which I call my favourite ; and indeed it is particu-
larly so, having erected it myself. It contains a very warm
winter-room, one side of which looks upon the terrace, the
other has a view of the sea, and both lie exposed to the
sun. Through the folding-doors you see the opposite cham-
ber, and from the Window is a prospect of the enclosed por-
tico. On that side next the sea, and opposite to the middle
wall, stands a little elegant recess, which, by means of glass-
doors and a curtain, is either laid into the adjoining room,
or separated from it. It contains a couch and two chairs.
As you lie upon this couch, from the feet you have a pros-
pect of the sea; if you look behind, you see the neigh-
bouring villas; and from the head you have a view of the
woods: these three views may be seen either distinctly from
so many different windows in the room, or blended together
in one confused prospect. Adjoining to this is a bed-
chamber, which neither the voice of the servants, the mur-
muring of the sea, nor even the roaring of a tempest, can
reach; not lightning nor the day itself can penetrate it,
unless you open the windows. This profound tranquillity is
occasioned by a passage, which separates the wall of this
chamber from that of the garden; and thus, by means of
that intervening space, every noise is precluded. Annexed
to this is a small stove-room, which, by opening a little win-
dow, warms the bed-chamber to the degree of heat required.
Beyond this lies a chamber and ante-chamber, which enjoys
the sun, though obliquely indeed, from the time it rises, till
the afternoon. When I retire to this garden-apartment,
I fancy myself a hundred miles from my own house, and
take particular pleasure in it at the feast of the Saturnalia,
when, by the license of that season of festivity, every other
part of my villa resounds with the mirth of my domestics:
thus I neither interrupt their diversions, nor they my studies.
Among the pleasures and conveniences of this situation,
there is one disadvantage, and that is, the want of a running
stream; but this defect is, in a great measure, supplied by
wells, or rather I should call them fountains, for they rise
very near the surface. And, indeed, the quality of this coast
is remarkable; for in what part soever you dig, you meet,
upon the first turning up of the ground, with a spring of
pure water, not in the least salt, though so near the sea. The
neighbouring forests afford an abundant supply of fuel; as
every other accommodation of life may be had from Ostia:
to a moderate man, indeed, even the next village (between
which and my house there is only one villa) would furnish
all common necessaries. In that little place there are no less
than three public baths ; which is a great conveniency, if it
happen that my friends come in unexpectedly, or make too
short a stay to allow time for preparing my own. The whole
coast is beautifully diversified by the contiguous or detached
villas that are spread upon it, which, whether you View them
from the sea or the shore, have the appearance of so many
different cities. The strand is sometimes, after a long calm,

07

 

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perfectly smooth, though, in general, by the storms driving
the waves upon it, it is rough and uneven. I cannot boast
that our sea produces any very extraordinary fish; however,
it supplies us with exceeding fine soles and prawns ; but as
to provisions of other kinds, my villa pretends to excel even
inland countries, particularly in milk; for hither the cattle
come from the meadows in great numbers, in pursuit of
shade and water.

“ Tell me now, have I not just cause to bestow my time
and my affection upon this delightful retreat? Surely you
are too fondly attached to the pleasures of the town, if you
do not feel an inclination to take a view of this my favourite
villa. I much wish, at least, you were so disposed, that to
the many charms with which it abounds, it might have the
very considerable addition of your company to recommend it.
Farewell.”

The following observations may tend to illustrate several
of the obscure parts, in the foregoing description of Pliny’s
villa at Laurentinum.

Pliny had no estate round his seat at Laurentinum; his
whole possessions there being included (as he informs us,
B. 4. let. 3.) in the house and garden. It was merely a win-
ter villa, in which he used to spend some of the cold months,
whenever his business admitted of his absence from Rome;
and, for this reason it is, that we find warmth is so much
considered in the disposition of the several apartments, 8:0.
And, indeed, he seems to have a principal view to its advan-
tages as a winter house, throughout the whole description
of it.

Scamozzi, in his Arckz'tect. Univers. lib. 3. 12. has given
a plan and elevation of this villa. Mons. Felibien has also
annexed a plan to his translation of this letter ; as our own
countryman, the ingenious Mr. Castel, has done in his Villas
oft/1e Ancients illustrated. But they differ extremely among
themselves as to the disposition of the several parts of this
building, and, perhaps, have rather pursued the idea of
modern architecture, than that which is traced out in their
original ; at least, if the supposition advanced by one of the
commentators upon this epistle be true; who contends that
the villas of the ancients were not one uniform pile of build-
ing contained under the same roof, but that each apartment
formed a distinct and separate member from the rest. The
ruins of this villa are said to have been discovered some time
about the year 1714, but whether any plan was ever taken of
so valuable a remain of antiquity, or the reality of it ascer-
tained, the translator has not been able to learn.

The Roman magnificence seems to have particularly dis-
played itself in the article of their baths. Seneca, dating
one of his epistles from a villa which once belonged to Scipio
Africanus, takes occasion, from thence, to draw a parallel
between the simplicity of the earlier ages, and the luxury of
his own times in that instance. By the idea he gives of the
latter, they were works of the highest splendour and expense.
The walls were composed of Alexandrine marble, the veins
whereof were so artfully managed, as to have the appearance
of a regular picture : the edges of the basons were set round
with a most valuable kind of stone, found in Thasius, one of
the Greek islands, variegated with veins of different colours,
interspersed with streaks of gold; the water was conveyed
through silver pipes, and fell, by several descents, in beau-
tiful cascades. The floors were inlaid with precious gems,
and an intermixture of statues and colonnades contributed to
throw an air of elegance and grandeur upon the whole. Vide
Sen. Ep. 86.

“ The custom of bathing in hot water was bec0me so
habitual to the Romans, in Pliny’s time, that they every day
practised it before they lay down to eat; for which reason,

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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ir't the city, the public baths were extremely numerous; in
which Vitruvius gives us to understand, there were, for each
sex, three rooms for bathing, one of cold water, one of warm,
and one still warmer ; and there were cells of three degrees
of heat, for sweating : to the fore-mentioned members, were
added others for anointing and bodily exercises. The last
thing they did before they entered into the dining-room was
to bathe ; what preceded their washing was their exercise in
the spheristerium, prior to which it was their custom to
anoint themselves. As for their sweating-rooms, though
they were, doubtless, in all their baths, we do not find them
used but upon particular occassions.” Castel’s Villas of the
Ancients, p. 31.

“ The enclosed porticos in Pliny’s description differed no
otherwise from our present galleries, than that they had
pillars in them : the use of this room was for walking.”
Castel’s Villas, p. 44.

Mr. Castel observes, that though Pliny calls his house
Villula ,- it appears that, after having described but part of
it, yet, if every diaata or entire apartment may be supposed
to contain three rooms, he has taken notice of no less than
forty-six, besides all which, there remains near half the house
undescribed, which was, as he says, allotted to the use of the
servants ; and it is very probable this part was made uniform
with that he has already described. But it must be remem-
bered, that diminutives in Latin do not always imply small-
ness of size, but are frequently used as words of endearment
and approbation; and in this sense it seems most probable
that Pliny here uses the word Vill'ula.

The following is Pliny’s description of his summer villa in
Tuscany, book v. letter vi. addressed to Apollinaris.

“ The kind concern you expressed when you heard of my
design to pass the summer at my villa in Tuscany, and your
obliging endeavours to dissuade me from going to a place which
you think unhealthy, are extremely pleasing to me. I con-
fess, the atmosphere of that part of Tuscany, which lies
towars the coast, is thick and unwholesome: but my house is
situated at a great distance from the sea, under one of the
Apennine mountains, which, of all others, is most esteemed
for the clearness of its air. But that you may be relieved
from all apprehensions on my account, I will give you a de-
scription of the temperature of the climate, the situation of
the country, and the beauty of my villa, which I am per-
suaded you will read with as much pleasure as I shall relate.
The winters are severe and cold, so that myrtles, olives, and
trees of that kind, which delight in constant warmth, will
not flourish here : but it produces bay-trees in great perfec-
tion ; yet, sometimes, though indeed not oftener than in the
neighbourhood of Rome, they are killed by the severity of
the seasons. The summers are exceedingly temperate, and
continually attended with refreshing breezes, which are sel-
dom interrupted by high winds. If you were to come here,
and see the numbers of old men who have lived to be grand-
fathers and great-grandfathers, and hear the stories they can
entertain you with of their ancestors, you would fancy your-
self born in some former age. The disposition of the country
is the most beautiful that can be imagined ; figure to your-
self an immense amphitheatre ; but such as the hand of
nature only could form. Before you lies a vast extended
plain, bounded by a range of mountains, whose summits are
covered with lofty and venerable woods, which supply variety
of game: from thence, as the mountains decline, they are
adorned with underwoods. Intermixed with these are little
hills of so strong and fat a soil, that it would be difficult to
find a single stone upon them ; their fertility is nothing
inferior to the lowest grounds ; and though their harvest, in-
deed, is somewhat later, their crops are as well matured. At

 

the foot of these hills the eye is presented, wherever it turns,
with one unbroken view of numberless vineyards, terminated
by a border, as it were, of shrubs. From thence you have a
prospect of the adjoining fields and meadows below. The
soil of the former is so extremely stiff, and, upon the first
ploughing, turns up in such vast clods, that it is necessary to
go over it nine several times, with the largest oxen and the
strongest ploughs, before they can be thoroughly broken;
whilst the enamelled meadows produce trefoil, and other
kinds of herbage, as fine and tender as if it were but just
sprung up, being continually refreshed by never failing rills.
But though the country abounds with great plenty of water,
there are no marshes ; for, as it lies upon a rising ground,
whatever water it receives without absorbing, runs off into
the Tiber. This river, which winds through the middle of
the meadows, is navigable only in the winter and spring, at
which seasons it transports, the produce of the lands to Rome ;
but its channel is so extremely low in summer, that it scarcely

deserves the name of a river ; towards the autumn, however, .
It begins again to renew its claim to that title—You could '

not be more agreeably entertained, than by taking a view of

 

the face of this country from the top of one of our neighbour- i

ing mountains : you would suppose that not a real, but some
imaginary landscape, painted by the most exquisite pencil, .

lay before you: such an harmonious variety of beautiful
objects meets the eye, which way soever it turns. My villa

is so advantageously situated, that it commands a full view of .
all the country round ; yet you approach it by so insensible %

a rise, that you find yourSelf upon an eminence, without per-
ceiving'you ascended. Behind, but at a great distance,
stands the Apennine mountains.
refreshed by the winds that blow from thence, but so spent,
as it were, by the long tract of land they travc: over, that
they are entirely divested of all their strength and violence
before they reach us. The exposition of the principal front
of the house is full south, and seems to invite the afternoon
sun in summer (but somewhat earlier in winter) into a
spacious and well—proportioned portico, consisting of several
members, particularly a porch built in the ancient manner.

In the calmest days we are 3

In the front of the portieo is a sort of terrace, embellished :

with various figures, and bounded with a box-hedge, from
whence you descend by an easy slope, adorned with the
representation of divers animals, in box, answering alternately
to each other, into a lawn overspread with the soft, I had
almost said the liquid, acanthus: this is surrounded by a
walk enclosed with tonsile evergreens, shaped into a variety
of forms.
a circus, ornamented in the middle with box cut in number-
less different figures, together with a plantation of shrubs,
prevented by the shears from shooting up too high : the whole
is fenced in with a wall covered by box, rising by different
ranges to the top. On the outside ofthe wall lies a meadow
that owes as many beauties to nature, as all I have been
describing within does to art ; at the end of which are several
other meadows and fields interspersed with thickets. At the
extremity of this portico stands a grand dining-room, which
opens upon one end of the terrace; as from the windows
there is a very extensive prospect over the meadows up into
the country, from whence you also have a view of the terrace,
and such parts of the house which project forward, together
with the woods enclosing the adjacent hippodrome. Opposite
almost to the centre of the portico, stands a square edifice,
which encompasses a small area, shaded by four plane-trees,
in the midst of which a fountain rises, from whence the water,
running over the edges ofa marble bason, gently refreshes
the surrounding plaue~trees, and the verdure underneath
them. This apartment consists of a bed-chamber, secured

 

Beyond it is the gestatio, laid out in the form of

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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509

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from every kind of noise, and which the light itself cannot
penetrate; together with a common dining-room, which I
use when I have none but intimate friends with me. A
second portico looks upon this little area, and has the same
prospect with the former I just now described. There is,
besides, another room, which, being situated close to the
nearest plane-tree, enjoys a constant shade and verdure : its
sides are incrusted half-way with carved marble ; and from
thence to the ceiling a foliage is painted with birds intermixed
among the branches, which has an effect altogether as agree-
able as that of the carving: at the basis a little fountain,
playing through several small pipes into a vase, produces a
most pleasing murmur. From a corner of this portico you
enter into a very spacious chamber, opposite to the grand
dining-room, which, from some of its windows, has a view of

‘ the terrace, and from others, of the meadow ; as those in the

' very well supplies his absence.

front look upon a cascade, which entertains at once both the
eye and the ear ; for the water, dashing from a great height,
foams over the marble bason that receives it below. This
room is extremely warm in winter, being much exposed to
the sun ; and in a cloudy day, the heat of an adjoining stove
From hence you pass through

I a spacious and pleasant undressing-room into the cold-bath-

room, in which is a large gloomy bath: but if you are dis-
posed to swim more at large, or in warmer water, in the

J middle of the area is a wide bason for that purpose, and near

the hot-bath, which projects farther.

it a reservoir from whence you may be supplied with cold
water to brace yourself again, if you should perceive you
are too much relaxed by the warm. Contiguous to the cold-
bath is another of a moderate degree of heat, which enjoys
the kindly warmth of the sun, but not so intensely as that of
This last consists of

1 three divisions, each of different degrees of heat: the two
3' former lie entirely open to the sun ; the latter, though not so
. much exposed to its rays, receives an equal share of its light.
‘ Over the undressing-room is built the tennis-court, which, by

means of particular circles, admits of different kinds of games.
Not far from the baths, is the staircase leading to the enclosed
portico, after you have first passed through three apartments :

a one of these looks upon the little area with the four plane-

. they have as many different prospects as expositions.

trees round it; the other has a sight of the meadows; and

from the third you have a View of several vineyards : so that
At

a one end of the enclosed portico, and, indeed, taken off from

it, is a chamber that looks upon the hippodrome, the vine-

' yards, and the mountains ; adjoining is a room which has a

full exposure to the sun, especially in winter; and from

I whence runs an apartment that connects the hippodrome with
3 the house : such is the form and aspect of the front.

On the

j side, rises an enclosed summer portico, which has not only a
prospect of the vineyards, but seems almost contiguous to them.

From the middle of this portico, you enter a dining-room,
cooled by the salutary breezes from the Apennine valleys ;
from the windows in the back front, which are extremely
large, there is a prospect of the vineyards ; as you have also
another view of them from the folding-doors, through the sum-
mer portico. Along that side of this dining-room, where there
are no windows, runs a private staircase for the greater con-
veniency of serving at entertainments : at the farther end is a
chamber from whence the eye is pleased with a View of the vine-
yards, and (what is not less agreeable) of the portico. Under-
neath this room is an enclosed portico, somewhat resembling
a grotto, which, enjoying, in the midst of the summer heats, its
own natural coolness, neither admits nor wants the refresh-
ment of external breezes. After you have passed both these
porticos, at the end of the dining-room stands a third, which,
as the day is more or less advanced, serves either for winter
6 o

 

 

or summer use. It leads to two difl'erent apartments, one
containing four chambers, the other three; each enjoying,
by turns, both sun and shade. In the front of these agree-
able buildings, lies a very spacious hippodrome, entirely open
in the middle, by which means the eye, upon your first
entrance, takes in its whole extent at one glance. It is
encompassed on every side with plane-trees, covered with
ivy, so that while their heads flourish with their own foliage,
their bodies enjoy a borrowed verdure; and thus, the ivy
twining round the trunk and branches, spreads from tree to
tree, and connects them together. Between each plane-tree
are planted box-trees, and behind these, bay-trees, which »
blend their shade with that of the planes. This plantation,
forming a straight boundary on both sides of the hippodrome,
bends at the farther end into a semi-circle, which being set
round and sheltered with cypress-trees, varies the prospect,
and casts a deeper gloom; while the inward circular walks,
(for there are several) enjoying an open exposure, are per-
fumed with roses, and connect, by a very pleasing contrast,
the coolness of the shade with the warmth of the sun. llaving
passed through these several winding alleys, you enter a
straight walk, which breaks out into a variety of ethers,
divided by box edges. In one place you have a little meadow;
in another, the box is cut into a thousand different forms ;
sometimes into letters, expressing the name of the master;
sometimes that of the artificer; whilst here and there little
obelisks rise intermixed alternately with fruit-trees: when,
on a sudden, in the midst of this elegant regularity, you are
surprised with an imitation of the negligent beauties of rural
nature: in the centre of whichlies aspot surrounded with a knot
of dwarf plane-trees. Beyond these is awalk planted with the
smooth and twining acanthus, where the trees are also cut into
a variety of names and shapes. At the upper end is an alcove
of white marble, shaded with vines, supported by four small
Carystian pillars, From this bench the water, gushing through
several little pipes, as if it were pressed out by the weight of
the persons who repose themselves upon it, falls into a stone
cistern underneath, from whence it is received into a finely
polished marble bason, so artfully contrived, that it is always
full without ever overflowing. When I sup here, this bason
serves for a table, the larger sort of dishes being placed round
the margin, while the smaller ones swim about in the form
of little vessels and water-fowl. Corresponding to this, is a
fountain which is incessantly emptying and filling; for the
water which it throws up a great height, falling back into it,
is, by means of two openings, returned as fast as it is received.
Fronting the alcove (and which reflects as great an ornament
to it, as it borrows from it) stands a summer-house of exquisite
marble, the doors whereof project and open into a green
enclosure; as from its upper and lower windows, the eye is
presented with a variety of different verdures. Next to this
is a little private recess (which, though it seems distinct, may
be laid into the same room) furnished with'a couch; and,
notwithstanding it has windows on every side, yet it enjoys
a very agreeable gloominess, by means of a spreading vine
which climbs to the top, and entirely overshades it. Here
you may recline and fancy yourself in a wood; with this
difference only, that you are not exposed to the weather. In
this place a fountain also rises, and instantly disappears :
in different quarters are disposed several marble seats, which
serve, no less than the summer-house, as so many reliefs after
one is wearied with walking. Near each seat is a little foun-
tain; and, throughout the whole hippodrome, several small
rills run murmuring along, wheresoever the hand of art
thought proper to conduct them, watering here and there
different spots of verdure, and, in their progress, refreshing
the whole.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

HOU 5

HOU

 

“ And now, I should not have hazarded the imputation of
being too minute in this detail, if I had not proposed to lead
you into every corner of my house and gardens. You will
hardly, I imagine, think it a trouble to read the description
of a place which, I am persuaded, would please you were you
to see it ; especially as you have it in your power to stop,
and, by throwing aside my letter, sit down, as it were, and
rest yourself as often as you think proper. I had, at the
same time, a View to my own gratification ; as, I confess, I
have a very great affection for this villa, which was chiefly
built or finished by myself. In a word (for why should I
conceal from my friend my sentiments, whether right or
wrong?) I look upon it as the first duty of every writer
frequently to throw his eyes upon his title-page, and to con-
sider well the subject he has proposed to himself; and he
may be assured, if he precisely pursues his plan, he cannot
justly be thought tedious; whereas, on the contrary, if he
suffers himself to wander from it, he will most certainly incur
that censure. Homer, you know, has employed many verses
in the description of the arms of Achilles, as Virgil also has
in those of JEueas ; yet neither of them are prolix, because
they each keep within the limits of their original design.
Aratus, you see, is not deemed too circumstantial, though he
traces and enumerates the minutest stars ; for he does not go
out of his way for that purpose, he only follows where his
subject leads him. In the same manner (to compare small
things with great) ifendeavouring to give you an idea of my
house, I have not deviated into any article foreign to the
purpose, it is not my letter which describes, but my villa
which is described, that is to be considered as large. But
not to dwell any longer upon this digression, lest I should
myself be condemned by the maxim I have just laid down;
I have new informed you why I prefer my Tuscan villa to
thOSe which I possess at Tusculum, Tiber, and Praeneste.
Besides the advantages already mentioned, I here enjoy a
more profound retirement, as I am at a further distance from
the business of the town, and the interruptirn of troublesome
avocations. All is calm and composed; circumstances which.
contribute, no less than its clear air and unclouded sky, to
that health of body and cheerfulness of mind which I parti-
cularly enjoy in this place; both which I preserve by the
exercise of study and hunting. Indeed, there is no place
which agrees better with all my family in general; I am
sure, at least, I have not yet lost one (and I speak it with
the sentiments I ought) of all those I brought with me hither:
may the gods continue that happiness to me, and that honour
to my villa ! Farewell!”

This villa in Tuscany was Pliny’s principal seat, lying
about 150 miles from Rome, and in which he usually resided
during the summer season. The reader will observe, there-
fore, that he considers it in a very different manner from
that of Laurentinum (his winter villa,) both with respect to
the situation and the house itself. Cluver, in his geography,
has placed this villa a little above Tgfermcm Tiberium, now
called Citta di Castello, where our author built a temple at
his own expense. This has given room to imagine that
possibly there may be yet some remaining traces of thishouse
to be discovered in Tuscany, near a town which the Italians
call Stintignano, in the neighbourhood of Pontc di San
Stefano, about ten miles north of an episcopal city now
called Borgo di San Scpulc/tro.

Amongst the Jews, Greeks, and Romans, houses were flat
at top, so that persons might walk upon them ; and usually
had stairs on the outside, by which they might ascend and
descend without coming into the house. Each house, in fact,
was so laid out that it enclosed a quadrangular area or court.
This court was exposed to the weather, and being open to

 

the sky, gave light to the house. This was the place where !
company was received, and for that purpose it was strewed ‘
with mats or carpets for their better accommodation. It was .
paved with marble or other materials, according to the Z
owner’s ability, and provided with an umbrella of vellum, to
shelter them from the heat and inclemencies of the weather. :
This part of their houses, called by the Romans implu'vium 1
or cava radium, was provided with channels to carry off the
water into the common sewers. The top of the home was §
level, and covered with a strong plaster, by way of terrace.
Hither, especially amongst the Jews, it was customary to
retire for meditation, private converse, devotion, or the
enjoyment of the evening breezes.

Some examples of the domestic buildings of the Romans
still exist at Herculaneum and Pompeii, but they by no
means equal those above described. At the former place ‘
the houses are small, and only one story in height ; but at the ‘
latter we have a few on a somewhat grander scale. There f
are about 80 houses standing in this town, of which those of
Diomedes, Sallust, and Pansa, are the finest; the second
standing upon a plot of ground about 40 yards square ; and
the latter occupying, with its court and garden, a space of
about 100 yards by 40. 3

Towards the close of the last, and commencement of the
present century, some few examples have also been discovered
in our own country. The most important is that at IVood-
chester, in Gloucestershire, which was discovered by Mr.
Lysons in 1795, -and consists of a large open court or atrium,
an inner court, and a smaller one in the wing—the whole
being surrounded with offices and apartments about sixty in
number. The length of the apartments is about 25 feet.
Another example in the same county was discovered in 1818,
at Great Witcombe. Another example is that at Bignor,
Sussex, discovered by Mr. Lysons in 1811, of which we give
the following description, extracted from the original account,
and partially from Stuart’s Dictionary :—

“The first discovery of this villa occurred in 1811. A
farmer who occupied the land, in removing the earth, dis-
covered a fine mosaic pavement, which was afterwards found
to have formed a part of the floor to one of the rooms. In
the centre of this apartment was an hexagonal piscina, or
cistern, formed of a hard white sort of stone, 4 feet in
diameter, and 1 foot 7% inches in depth, with a border of
stone round it 9% inches wide, and a step within it, at nearly
half its depth, 5?},- inches wide; at the bottom is a round hole,
3 inches in diameter, from which a leaden pipe for carrying
off the water was afterwards discovered on the outside of the
south wall, running in a southern direction. The room
appeared to have been heated by an hypocaust, and, in clear-
ing away the earth, part of a small Doric column was found.
In the next room discovered, the walls remained to the height
of more than two feet at the north-east corner, where was a.
funnel above the pavement, communicating with the hypo-
caust below. The pavement was in good preservation ; and
the dimensions of the room were 40 feet 4 inches by 17 feet.
The first room, 31 feet 11 inches by 19 feet. The walls on
the east, west, and north sides, were 2 feet 6 inches thick;
that on the south, 3 feet. This is conjectured to have been
the triclinium, or grand banqueting room. Another pave-
ment was found in a third room, at the end of which, opposite
from the room last mentioned, was a doorway 3 feet 3% inches
wide, leading into another room, 22 feet by 10 feet 4 inches
-—the pavement formed of coarse red tesserte. 0n the south
side of the great pavement. the foundations of a cryptopor-
ticus were discovered, which appears to have been of much
larger dimensions than any one hitherto discovered in this
island; it was 10 feet wide, and 157 feet 6 inches long. Its

 

 

 

 

 

 

HOU

tesselated pavement was destroyed, except at the west end;
on the north side of this gallery the foundation-walls of a
range of rooms was discovered, running eastward, in a line
with the great room first discovered. The one which adjoined
that room on the east side was 19 feet 2 inches by 18 feet 9
inches, and had a floor of terras of a light red colour. The
next room to the eastward was nearly of the same dimensions,
and had a coarse tessellated pavement. Adjoining the two
last-mentioned rooms on the north side, were the foun-
dations of one 16 feet square, containing a mosaic pavement.
The prwfumium of the hypocaust, by which the great room
and others had been heated, was discovered on the north side
of the north wall of the third-mentioned room, and consisted

; of two walls 18 inches thick and 18 inches asunder, project-

ing 16 inches from the wall of the building; between them
was a kind of arch formed by bricks projecting beyond each
other, and communicating with the flues under the different
pavements; about 30 feet north of the room, marked 5, in
Mr. Lysons’ plan, a very fine mosaic pavement was dis-
covered, and a magnificent apartment, marked 3, was traced,
to which 5 was found to have served as an ante-room. The

i wall on the north side of this room was found to continue
‘ 32 feet towards the west, where it terminated with a projec-

tion or buttress of two feet, forming two sides of what

' appeared to have been a kind of court, enclosing an area of

30 feet, filled with great quantities of stones, bricks, and
tiles. At a small distance from the west wall of the great

room, last described, the base and part of the shaft of a small
‘ column were discovered.

At the west end of the ante-room,
5, was a very small room, 4, (9 feet by 12 feet,) having two
doorways, one on the east, opening into 5, and the other on
the north, communicating with the square area marked 1.
The continuation of the east wall of the room 11, at the
west end, or rather the continuation of the cryptoporticus,
was next explored to the southward, and traces of it were
found to the extent of 100 feet. The room 27, adjoining 26,
had its walls still remaining on the east, north, and south
sides, to about two feet high, which were covered with stucco

; two inches thick, painted red, with a skirting of plaster at
‘ two inches high, projecting two inches and a half from the

wall. On the east side was found, in good preservation, a
fireplace 21% inches wide in front, 17 at the back, and 8 deep,
with a hearth formed of 8 bricks, each about 7 inches square.
The fireplace was formed by two brick tiles on each side,
which had been cramped together with iron, and were placed
on the sides of the stove introduced by Count Rumford.
I am not aware, Mr. Lysons observes, of any open fireplace of
this kind having been discovered elsewhere in the remains
of a Roman building, though it is certain, from various pas-
sages in the Roman writers, that other means were employed
by the ancients for warming their apartments, besides hypo-
causts. The caminu/sis mentioned by Cicero, Horace,Vitruv1us,
and others; but the learned commentators on these authors

. are by no means agreed as to its form or situation, and it has

been much questioned by some of them, on the authority of
several passages in ancient writers, and from none havmg
been discovered in Roman buildings, whether there was any
chimney, or other means of conveying away the smoke,
though it is hardly to be conceived that a room could have
been habitable under such circumstances at tunes, when it
was necessary to close the doors and windows.

This room was 1412- by 17; the room 29 was 16 feet
5 inches by 15 feet 6 inches, and against the wall was another
fireplace resembling the one described: .The range of rooms
running eastward from the great trichniumawhere found to
extend the whole length of the cryptoporticus 10.11. On
the south side of the building, another cryptoporticus was

511

 

HOU

discovered, marked 45; which communicated with a range
of 12 rooms, containing nothing remarkable except those at
the east end, which furnished many interesting remains of
baths. The room 56 is nearly a square of 25 feet, and con-
tained a finely preserved mosaic pavement. Beyond this
mosaic pavement were three rows of black and red tiles,
6 inches square, laid chequer-wise; and next to the wall
a row of bricks, each 11 inches by 15%. Great part of a.
small stone column was found on the pavement, in the same
style as the fragment first discovered, being a sort of irregular
Doric, the tori of the base being both of the same size. The
adjoining room 55 was 30 feet by 25; the floor formed of
black and white stones, and next to the wall a row of bricks.
Nearly in the middle, was a cold bath 18 feet from east to
west, and 3 feet 2 inches deep; it had 3 steps on the east,
north, and west sides. On the west side of this room appeared
the remains of an extensive hypocaust, marked 53.54; and
from the frequency of the brick piers, it appeared that the
apartment over it must have been a sudatory, probably
divided into several smaller rooms. The praefurnium was
on the outside of the wall, on the south end ; the piers were
2 feet 9 inches high, and 7% inches square, and consisted
of 18 layers of bricks, with a larger one 10% inches square,
laid at the top and bottom. In room 52 adjoining, was
another hypocaust, communicating with a larger one by an
arch of brick. The area No. 1 was in another examination
found to be surrounded by an inner wall, which appeared to
have formed a kind of portico; and an entire column was
found resembling the fragments found before, which showed
that it had been surrounded by a colonnade. A cold bath
was also found in the apartment marked 21. Mr. Lysons
thinks the villas to have been the residence of aproprwtor,
or at least of the legate or governor of the province. At
the time Mr. Lysons first communicated an account of this
villa to the Archaeologia, the discovery was confined to
the rooms marked No. 1 to 26. During the years 1816
and 1817, by tracing the foundations of the walls on the east
and west sides of the great court, it was discovered that the
cryptoporticus extended all round. The western crypto—
porticus 46, was 8 feet wide and 108 long, including a small
room 45, at the north end, which had a mosaic pavement.
Several rooms, No. 27, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56 and 57, besides
the cryptoporticus and passages, were discovered on the
western side of the great court, most of them extending into
an arable field belonging to the rector of Bignor. No remains
of pavements were discovered in this division of the building,
except those in the cryptoporticus above mentioned, and
some fragments of the coarser kind in the rooms No. 28 and 29.
Many large tesserae were found among the rubbish in the
passage No. 50. By digging further to the eastward of the
single wall mentioned in the former account, that wall was
ascertained to be part of an Eastern cryptoporticus. Nos. 60
and 61, which completed the enclosure of the great court,
and the foundations of the buildings, were discovered in a
field called the Loure-field, extending 181 feet eastward.
Nos. 62 to 71.; several of these buildings were of large
dimensions, and they were enclosed within a boundary wall
of considerable thickness, not built at right angles with the
eastern side of the principal court, but in a very irregular
manner, the following being the dimensions of the several sides
of this court, viz. : the eastern side 277 feet 4 inches; the
west side 385 feet 5 inches; the north side 286 feet; and
the south side 322 feet 8 inches.

It would appear reasonable to suppose that the Britons
must have advanced considerably in the civilized arts of-life,
by such examples of Roman luxury as were afforded in their
larger residences, such as that above described, for although

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

9 about this time.

 

IIOU

512

HOU

 

not equal to those in Rome, it is evident that they were of
considerable dimensions, and decorated with taste and skill,
in proof of which we have only to refer to the mosaics and
paintings. Whether, however, the Britons did not profit by
such examples ; or whether they were prevented by external
circumstances from turning their increased skill and know-
ledge to practical account, it is tolerably certain that they
did not improve so much in these matters as they might rea-
sonably be expected to have done.

It is true, that after the departure of the Romans, they
were fully employed in resisting the attacks of their rougher
neighbours, and probably had but little time for cultivating
the arts of peace. They cannot have made much progress
in house-building before the arrival and successful invasion
of the Saxons; for had they, we should certainly look for
some proof of it in the erections of their invaders, and this
we do not find. Most of their churches and cathedrals, or at
least of the earlier ones, seem to have been constructed of
timber, and we cannot therefore suppose that their domestic
buildings were erected in a more durable or costly manner.
William of Malmsbury speaks of them as “low and mean
dwellings ;” they were probably constructed of wood, and
roofed with reeds and straw. But even in Norman times,
and for some period after the Conquest, there seems to have
been but little progress made in this respect. The principal
buildings erected for habitation immediately after the con-
quest of the Normans, consisted of small round towers raised
on a mound, and designed with an eye to security rather
than convenience. Located in an enemy’s country, and in the
midst of men who, although conquered in battle, were never-
theless impatient of their victors’ control, and unsubdued in
courage, it became a matter of necessity to secure themselves
against the contingency of a sudden attack, and William
found it a matter of policy to promote the erection of fortified
residences by his followers. The earliest buildings of this
kind were simple towers, either round, rectangular, or poly-
gonal in plan, and of small size, but of considerable strength,
the walls being sometimes as much as 12 feet in thickness,
while the external diameter of the entire building did not
measure more than from 40 to 50 feet. The windows and
apertures were very narrow, and the entrance raised several
feet above the ground, and approached by a steep flight of
steps. Such a building is the keep at Conisborough, erected
It is circular in plan, about 90 feet in
height, which is divided into three stories, the lowermost,
which is lighted only from the interior, being used probably
as a dungeon; the next, in which is the entrance, as a store-
room ; and the upper ones, for residence. The interior dia-
meter, in this instance, is about 23 feet, and the thickness of
the walls from 10 to 13 feet. At a somewhat later period,
such towers or keeps were surrounded by a court enclosed
within a strong wall and ditch, the former being strengthened
by towers at intervals, and the latter crossed at the entrance
by a drawbridge, which was defended by an advanced out-
work or watch—tower, termed the barbacan. In such castles
the keep was not used as a place of residence, except in cases
of danger or emergency, more convenient and roomy apart-
ments being provided in the towers or court-yard.

We next arrive at the Edwardian castles, which present
an improved appearance. The keep was now dispensed with,
the castle being still strongly fortified by an outer wall, with
towers at intervals ; but greater attention seems to have
been paid to convenience and domestic comfort ; and the
buildings begin to assume the character of a fortified resi-
dence rather than of a mere stronghold : strength is evidently
not the only property considered, although still a necessary
qualification. Caernarvon castle is a good example of this date.

 

During the fourteenth century, the sterner features of
castles were considerably mod fied, and assumed a lighter and
more peaceful appearance. The apartments were enlarged,
and rendered at once more commodious and agreeable. The
apertures of the windows also were considerably enlarged,
and, late in the period, filled with tracery in the heads.
Examples exist at Windsor, Warwick, and Kenilworth.

It must not be forgotten, however, that during all this time
there was in existence a different class of dwellings of a less
imposing character, but perhaps more strictly entitled to the
appellation of' domestic buildings. They are included under
the general term of manor houses.

 

Previous to the thirteenth century, houses were built of?

timber, and at first only of one story, being somewhat in the

form of the inverted hull of a ship, formed of timber frame-
work, the intervals being filled in with horizontal planks.
Afterwards, this hull was raised on walls, likewise of timber
frame-work filled up with clay, stones, and plaster.

Stowe ‘

says that the houses in London of this period were not more ‘

than 16 feet in height; built of wood, and covered with reeds
and straw. The general plan seems to have been that of a
parallelogram, and where there were two stories, the approach
to the upper was by an external staircase. The lower story
was vaulted, and lighted by small windows; but there does
not appear to have been any convenience for warming, except
in the upper floor, where there is a hearth in the middle of

the floor with smoke-hole above: the windows also of the _
upper floor were larger than those below. In some instances, 5

the building was surrounded by a moat. An example of this
kind exists at Boothby Pagnel, Lincolnshire. In some houses
of the same date, the principal feature was the hall, which
extends the whole height of the building, and is sometimes
divided into aisles similar to those of a church, as in the palace
of the bishop of Hereford.

In the thirteenth century the same general plan was pre-
served; but at its close, some little differences occur, as at
Little VVenham Hall, Suffolk, where, above the general range
of building, which is two-storied, one portion is carried up
an additional story, so as to present externally the appearance
of a tower. In this example, the lower portion of the build-
ing is constructed of flint and stone, and the upper part of
brick—a material not found in any previous example, and
not generally used for a considerable time afterwards.
Square towers were common additions to the houses of the
next century, the plans of which were more varied than those
of preceding periods. The Mote, Ightam, Kent, is an exam-
ple of this date ; it. is square on plan, and surrounded by a
moat. Timber houses of this date exist at York and Salis-
bury, with ornamental barge-boards, which appear to have
been introduced about this time, as were also dormer windows
and chimney-shafts.

In the fifteenth century, the erection of castles, as distin-

guished from manor-houses, may be said to have ceased ; the ‘

two were merged together, as it were; for although the

dwellings were still fortified, they were incapable of a regular ‘

siege, as comfort was no less considered than security.
Houses were erected of all shapes and materials, and often
considerably ornamented. The square plan, amongst others,
was still in use, as was also the surrounding moat, although
the latter was not so frequent as formerly. Chimneys became
common at this period, and Several shafts were often con-
nected into one stack. Panelled ceilings were now intro-

duced, both of wood and plaster ; and the windows became 3

large, and highly ornamented ; bay and oriel windows were
common. The internal walls of large mansions were often
painted, or hung with tapestry, and, towards the close of the
century, lined with wainscot. Examples of this date are

l

t

 

 

 

 

 

HOU

Eton College, Eltham and Hampton - Court palaces, and
Crosby-Hall, Timber houses, which have the spaces be-
tween the timbers filled with ornamented plaster, are also
of this date. Brick came into very general use during this
century.

During the commencement of the next century, the houses
retained much the same character, although perhaps some-
what more enriched, and occasionally with some introduc-
tions of Italian work. Ere the close, however, the Italian
style had become predominant, which gives a vast difference
in the buildings of the sixteenth century. The ceilings
of this last style were entirely of plaster, which is often
highly enriched with carving. Ornamental staircases and
galleries were first introduced at this period, but open balus—
ters were not common at the first, the space below the hand-
rail being filled up with plaster. Timber houses are still
common, and often of good design, the intervals between the
quartering being filled with bricks or plaster. Examples of
this date are Wollaston-Hall, Nottinghamshire; Longleat,
Wiltshire; the Quarries, Rochester; and Little Charlton
House, Kent.

During the next century, the Italian style of building
continued to prevail, the Gothic features gradually dis-
appearing until they werc entirely lost in the works of Inigo
Jones, Vanbrugh, &c. Amongst the earlier works may be
mentioned Audley End, Essex ; Hatfield House, Herts ; and
Holland House, near London; and amongst the latter, the
spacious mansions of Blenheim and Castle Howard.

In the earlier Domestic buildings of this country but little
attention was given to comfort. For a very long period
the houses were constructed of a timber framing, either
covered with planks, or having the intervals between the
parts of the framing filled in with clay. Such materials of
course rendered the houses subject to frequent conflagrations ;
and in cities where the houses were closely packed toge-
ther in narrow streets, such accidents were most destructive.
A law was enacted by Richard I., that all houses in the city
should be built to a certain height of stone, and covered with
slate or tiles ; and after the fire, which consumed the greater
part of Oxford in 1190, the same precaution was adopted in
that city; and in cases where the people were too poor to
effect this, a high stone wall, built up between every fourth
or fifth house, was deemed suflicient. In these cases, how-
ever, the stonework was only rough rubble-work. Brick
was introduced from Flanders, and we do not find any
instance of its employment in this country until the close of
the thirteenth century at Wenham-Hall, where the lower
part is of stone, and the upper story of brick. This material
did not come into general use until the reign of Henry VI,
at the early part of the fifteenth century, but before its close
it was very much employed.

In the interiors, the walls were, in most cases, left bare,
or sometimes painted or hung w/ith arras or tapestry sus-
pended on hooks three or four inches from the wall. This
ornamentation, however, was seldom introduced but in regal
mansions, or such as vied with them in splendour ; they were
by no means of frequent or common use, nor were probably
employed at all till the fourteenth century. There was
a splendid specimen of tapestry in Warwick Castlein 134%,
and Chaucer, who lived a few years later, in describing his
chamber, says—

“ All the walls with colours fine,
Were paint both text and glose ;"

The floors were either of earth or stone, but at a later
period were rough-cast with plaster and pebbles, and the
dais, or upper end of the hall, plankcd. They were strewed

6 P

513

 

:HOU

with straw, or leaves, even in royal residences, for we hear
of parties holding lands of Edward I., on condition of pro-
v1ding straw for strewing the king’s chamber in winter, and
herbs in summer; and Fitzstephen tells us, that Thomas
a Becket, when chancellor to Henry IL, “had his hall strewed
every day in the winter, with fresh straw or hay, and in the
summer with rushes and green leaves fresh gathered, that
such knights as the benches could not contain, might not
dirty their fine clothes when they sat on the floor.” From this
we learn, that such litter served for a seat even in great
houses; it also served for a bed amongst a lower class of
persons. ‘
The fireplace was in the centre of the hall, where logs of
wood were supported on dogs, the smoke being allowed to
find its way as best it could, through an opening in the roof,
which was usually covered with a small turret or lantern, the
sides being left open, or filled with louvre-boards. There does
not seem to have been any means of warming the smaller
chambers, except by pans of charcoal. It is true, we find
chimneys in Winwall House, which is supposed to belong to
the twelfth century, but this is an unique specimen, and it is
certain that they were not in use for a considerable period
after that. At Rochester and Hedingham Castles also, we have
examples, but the fines are carried up only a very short dis-
tance in the wall, and then- turned out. Early examples of
chimneys are found at Conway Castle, built by Edward I.
in the middle of the thirteenth century, and at Kenilworth
of about the same date. These, however, are but exceptions;
chimney flues were not common in the fourteenth century.
Glass for windows does not seem to have been in use in
any other than ecclesiastical buildings, until the time of

Edward I., and then it was of very rare occurrence, to be .

found only in the halls of princes.
adopted for the admission of light consisted in the insertion

The common practice ;

of louvre-boards in apertures at the upper part of the apart- ‘

ment, but these, although effectual to exclude the rain, were
but little adapted to exclude the wind also. To this end
another expedient was resorted to—oiled canvas or linen was

stretched over the apertures, which was to a certain extent 3
effectual for all requirements, and certainly a great improve- ,

ment upon louvre-boarding. Glass did not come into general
use for gentlemen’s houses before the reign of Henry VIII,
and we find Sir Thomas More, in his “ Utopia,” alluding to
this circumstance, when he says, that they keep the wind OH
their houses with glass, for it is there much used, and some
also with very fine linen dipped in oil or amber.
was occasionally in use some time previous to this period, is

That it

evident from Chaucer’s description of his chamber, for 3

he says :—
“With glas
Were all the windowes well yglazed ;
Full clere, with not a hole ycrased ;”

They were also beautifully painted, for he goes on—

“ That to behold it was greatjoy ;
For holly all the story of Troy
Was in the glaising wrought.”

Such were the comforts of our ancestors ; we should
scarcely call them by that name now-a-days, when the regal
luxuries of former times are looked upon as necessaries even
by our poorer classes. From the time of the Reformation,
however, domestic convenience and comfort made rapid pro-
gress ; we fear we might say too rapid, for the real happiness
and welfare of the people. Belonging to the olden times, we

 

find ecclesiastical structures, which, even in their present 1

state of neglect and decay, rival the resources of modern

taste and skill, while their domestic buildings were mean and 3

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

I-IUN

514

HYP

 

cheerless : we have lived to see the tables turned—churches
mean, cold, and neglected; nay, even our old structures, the
bequests of our ancestors, allowed to fall to ruin and decay,
while our own dwellings are loaded with luxuries, and over-
crowded with ornament. But this scandal is passing away,

and we are glad to see some slight return to the principles of
our forefathers.

For a further elucidation of this subject, as regards the
Domestic buildings of Old England, we refer to the article
on TUDOR ARCHITECTURE.

The dwelling-houses of the metropolis are divided by act of parliament into three classes, each of which is subject to
certain regulations as regards the building, as is shown in the following table :—

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It‘ in height If in area If containing The Raters. The thickness of external walls must be The thickness of party-walls must be
29» in. from top of foot- . 21; in. from top of footing and 17; in. thence to and 13 in.
moredth‘aor: 7:13;; ")2th hhoaizrinbgdglizii 7 stories lst class ingto underside of floor “Sledge 1:; to underside of floor next underside of floor thence
:11“ 85 ft 14 s ‘ next but 3 below top- t 1. ll but three below topmost next below top to topof
1an . sqr - most floor, op ° wa floor, most floor, wall.
21% in. from top of foot- . 21; in. from top of footing . and 13 in.
- - d 17% 1n. - and 17; in. thence to
more than 7 mg to underside of floor an to undersxde of floor next . thence
more than 85 ft' more than 14 sqrs. stories. extra lst. next but 2 below top- thence to but three below topmost unders‘de or top- to top of
most floor, ‘ top of wall floor, most floor, wall
17; in. from top of foot- . 17; in. from top of footing
moredthzmt 5:12;" mag: 1:253:53?" ing to underside of floor antlherlige To to underside of floor next 13 in. thence to top
a‘n 1718 ft e 10 r an 6 stories. 2nd. next but 1 below top- t f a“ but one below topmost of wall.
t ”m ' sq 5' most floor, opo W floor;
17; in. from top of foot- . 17% in. from top of footing . and 8 in.
moredthaié 38 fire, "‘21:: 13;: 31.3.5323 5 stories. 3rd. ing to underside of floor “318,139 To to underside of floor next 13d1n. 'ahenget to u"; theflce
all: 2‘; “mo 6 rs next but 2 below top— to ofwall but two below topmost flersx e 0 opmos to topol
t an ‘ sq ' most floor, p floor; 00” Wall.
13 in. from top of foot- and 8} in 13 in. from top of footing
not more than 38 not more than 4 not more ing to underside of floor ‘ ' to underside of floor next and 8 thence to to
. - 4th thence to p
feet. sqrs. ' than 4stors. ‘ next below topmost top ofwall but one below topmost of wall.
floor, floor,

 

HOUSING, the space excavated out of a body, for the
insertion of some part of the extremity of another, in order
to fasten the two together : thus the string-board of a stair
is most frequently excavated, or notched—out for the recep-
tion of the steps. The term is also applied to a niche for
containing a statue.

HOVELLING, a method adopted for the prevention of
smoky chimneys by carrying up the two sides which are
the most obnoxious to currents of air, above the others;
or by leaving apertures on all sides for the escape of the
smoke.

HUE (from the Saxon) in painting, any degree of strength
or vividness of colour, from its greatest 0r deepest, to its
weakest tint.

HUMERI, the angles of a temple formed by the longi—
tudinal and transverse walls of the cella.

HUNDRED OF LIME, a denomination of measure, in
some places denoting 35, and in others 25 heaped bushels
or bags.

HUNDRED, Great or Standard, 2 1121b. avoirdupoise =
4 quarters : 7 stone (of 161b.) = 14 cloves (81b.) : 16
cloves (71b.) = 1,792 ounces = 90,972 drachms avoirdu-
poise : .93333 long cwt. (1201b.) = 1031b. 2% oz. Dutch,
or Scottish weight. This is the legal hundred-weight of the
custom-house of London, and in all the southern parts of
England.

HUNDRED, Long, or Northern, : 1201b. : 8% stones
(14lb.) = 12 rationes(101b.) ,1: 1.0714286 great cwt (11211).)
This weight is legalized on all or most of the canals and
navigable rivers in the north of England and of the midland
counties, by their acts for collecting tolls, 8w.

HUNDRED is also used as a measure to express a certain
quantity or number of things.

Deal boards are sold at six score to the hundred, called
the long hundred. Pales and laths are counted at five score
{0 the hundred if five feet long, and six score if three feet
ong.

HUNG, Double, see DOUBLE HUNG.

HUNTING TOWERS, ancient buildings erected, as is
supposed, for the purpose of giving ladies an opportunity of
viewing the progress of the chase. Examples remain at
Chatsworth, and at Tibbermuir near Perth, in Scotland.

HURLERS, a name given to a rude erection of stones
existing near St. Clare, Cornwall. They are of Druidical
origin. See CELTIC ARCHITECTURE.

HURRIES, in engineering, is sometimes applied, at New-
castle and other places, to the strong stages of wood erected

l

on the sides of navigable rivers and harbours, to which the i
railways are conducted from the coal pits; by which means ¥
the load is emptied at once, by the help of a spout, from the '

railway waggons into the holds of ships.

HUT (from the Saxon hutte) a small cottage or hovel.
It is also used for the soldiers’ lodges in the field, otherwise
called barracks or case-ms.

HUT, in rural economy, a low sort of building, of the
cottage kind, generally constructed of earthy materials, as
strong loamy clay, Ste. A number of huts of this descrip-
tion have been built on the borders of the South Esk, in
Scotland, which have a very neat and rural appearance,
affording the idea at a distance of their being formed of a
kind of brown brick-work. The materials employed consist

of a sort of muddy clay, blended with the roots of aquatic ‘

plants, which are dug beyond the flood-mark of the river, in

such sizes and shapes as are suitable for the intended pur- -

pose. The pieces, or peats, as they are called, are generally
cut out in the form of bricks, but somewhat larger, being
prepared in every respect in the manner of peat-fuel. It is
useful in some cases to build huts with lime-mortar, but more
commonly with clay only

These huts are generally preferred by the cottagers to such
as are built of stone, being warmer, and nearly as durable.

It seems not improbable but that a similar sort of material
for building this kind of cottages may be met with in many
situations where it has not yet been discovered, and be made
use of in this way, as well as for various fences of the wall
kind.

HYPJETHRAL TEMPLE, see the following article.

HYPJETHRON, or HYPjET-HROS (from the Greek, open
above) a temple with ten columns on the pronaos and posticus,
in external appearance similar to the dipteral ; but within, it
had a double tier of columns on each side, detached from the
wall, and the middle area was open to the sky. The cell
was approached from both front and rear. From the descrip-

 

tion given by Vitruvius, it appears, that Rome did not afi‘ord

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1 from the cone.

 

l

HYP

any example of this species ; and he points out the temple of
Jupiter Olympus at Athens as one.

HYPERBOLA (from {lirep and same) one of the conic
sections, being that which is made by a plane cutting the
opposite side of the cone produced above the vertex, or, by a
plane which makes a greater angle with the base than the
opposite side of the cone makes. In this figure the squares of
the ordinates are greater than, or exceed, the rectangles under
the parameters and abscissas, whence the name hyperbola.

A few useful properties of the hyperbola—1. The squares
of the ordinates of any diameter are to each other, as the
rectangles of their abscissas.

2. As the square of any diameter is to the square of its
conjugate, so is the rectangle of two abscissas to the square of'
their ordinate.

3. The distance between the centre and the focus, is equal
to the distance between the extremities of the transverse and
conjugate axes.

4. The difference of two lines drawn from the foci to meet
in any point of the curve, is equal to the transverse axis.

5. All the parallelograms inscribed between the four con-
jugate hyperbolas, are equal to each other, and each is equal
to the rectangle of the two axes.

6. The rectangles of the parts of two parallel lines, termi-
nated by the curve, are to each other as the rectangles of the
parts of any other two parallel lines, anywhere cutting the
former. Or, the rectangles of the parts of two intersecting
lines are as the squares of their parallel diameters, or squares
of their parallel tangents.

7. All the parallelograms are equal which are formed
between the asymptotes and curve, by lines parallel to the
asymptotes.

For other properties, see the articles CONE, and CONIC
SECTION.

HYPERBOLA, Acute, one whose asymptotes make an acute
angle.

HYPERBOLA, Ambigenal, that which has one of its infinite
legs falling within an angle formed by the asymptotes, and
the other falling without that angle.

HYPERBOLA, Apollom'an, the common hyperbola, as derived
See HYPERBOLA.

515

 

HYP

HYPERBOLA, Deficient, a curve having only one asymptote,
though two hyperbolic legs running out infinitely by the side
of the asymptote, but contrary ways.

HYPERBOLA, Equilateml, has its asymptotes equal to each
other.

HYPERBOLAS, Infinite, or HYPERBOLAS OF THE HIGHER
KINDS, are expressed or defined by general equations similar
to that of the conic or common hyperbola, only having gene-
ral exponents, instead of the particular numeral ones, but so
that the sum of those on one side of the question is equal to
the sum of those on the other side. Such as ay m+” :
b x‘“ (d + at) “, where x and y are the abscissa and ordinate
to the axis or diameter of the curve; or w” 3/“ : a'“+",
where the abscissa x is taken on one asymptote, and the or-
dinate y parallel to the other.

HYPERBOLIC CONOID, a solid formed by the revolu-
tion of an hyperbola about its axis: it is otherwise called
HYPERBOLOID, which see.

HYPERBOLIC CURVE, the same as the Hyperbola. To
draw a tangent to any point in the hyperbolic curve, draw a
semi-diameter to the given point, and find its conjugate ; then
through the given point, draw a straight line, parallel to the
conjugate diameter ; which line will be a tangent to the
curve.

To find the focus of the hyperbolic curve, take the dis-
tance between the extremities of the transverse and conjugate
axes, and apply it from the centre upon the axis, and the
remote extremity of the distance gives the focus.

HYPERBOLIC CYLINDROID, a solid formed by the revolution
of an hyperbola about its conjugate axis, or line through the
centre perpendicular to the transverse axis.

HYPERBOLOID, a conoid formed by the revolution of
an hyperbola about its axis. It is otherwise called an hyper-
bolic conoid.

To find the solidity of an hyperboloid, or the frustum of
an hyperboloid—To the areas of the two ends, add four
times the area of the middle section parallel thereto, and mul-
tiply the sum by one-sixth part of the axis or height, and the
product is the solidity. In the complete hyperboloid, the area a
of the end at the apex being nothing, the rule will be similar
to what is laid down under the article CONOID.

. i . 2 .
An hyperboloid is to a. parabolmd of the same base and altitude as t + E?- is to t + x.

 

 

 

Let t = the transverse .
c = the congugate axes of the generating hyperbola.
x : the abscissa or altitude of the solid.
3/ : the ordinate or radius of the base.
p = 3.1416.
. . tr + as’ .
Then 3 : c X -——F—-, by the property of the solid ;
t 2
1nd gig/2a: : p c2 is X git—9:, the fluxion of' the solid ;
, . . at + a: . .
py :L' : p c x X til—l , the fluent ot the solid :
t :c? . l“
but because 2, :: c’ X %, we obtain 02 : BEE,
[2 . L t .2. 2 z ,
Therefore, substituting [ K; x, for c2 In the fluent p 023:7 x g_‘lt_‘2_3_x we obtain 1": z X %f = half the area of
. . . . t + %:v , . . . .
‘ the base multiplied into the altitude, x m, for the solidity of the solid. But the parabolmdal area is half the area of
, ' , 1 2 x 2 a: t 2 a: ’2:
Tthe base multiplied into the altitude; that 13,19: ; now &g_ x .ti-Fsa: : p—‘Z— : : t + £2: : l + z; and hence the

3 proposition is manifest.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

HYP

5H5

II'Y P

 

HYPERTHYRUM, the lintel of a doorway, or that part
of the frame which stands over the supercilium. In Grecian
buildings in consisted of a frieze and cornice, the latter sup-
ported by a console at each extremity.

HYPOCAUSTUM, from {in-o, under, and Kavsov, to burn,)
among the Greeks and Romans, a subterraneous place, in
which was a furnace for heating the baths. Another kind of
hypocaustum was a sort of kiln to heat their winter parlours.

Several hypocausts have been found amongst the Roman
remains still existing in Britain. About three years since, the
remains of a portion of a Roman villa were laid open in Lower
'Thames-street, London, and beneath the floor of one of the
rooms was discovered a hypocaust formed of columns about
two feet in height, each consisting of fourteen tiles about
itwelve inches square. These were connected at the top by
3larger tiles, which formed the superstructure of the floor.
Flue—tiles, with varied patterns incised on their surfaces, were
likewise found amongst the ruins, which originally conveyed
warm air up the sides of the building.

More recently, a hypocaust was discovered at Cirencester,
and in a most perfect condition, the furnace, which was
in existence, still containing some portion of the fuel. In this
case, the columns were of two kinds, square and circular, the
former being composed of tiles laid one upon the other to
the number of ten, and the latter being formed of blocks of
stone. Resting upon these pillars were large square tiles, as
in the preceding example, and above these a layer of concrete
six inches in thickness, on which the pavement was laid. The
room above the hypocaust measured twenty-five feet square,
and it is remarkable that the hypocaust extended only half-way
underneath, the remaining half of the pavement being laid
solid. .

Still more recently, the remains of some apartments have
been found within a Roman camp at Lymne, Kent. An exten-
sive hypocaust was discovered under the floor of these apart-
ments, formed entirely of layers of large tiles placed at regular
intervals, but the pavement had been totally destroyed. Seve-
ral hollow flue-tiles were also discovered of a similar descrip-

 

tion to those above alluded to. These, in all probability, were .
connected with the hypocaust, and served to convey the hot %
air from the furnace through the principal apartmemts of the
villa, the hypocausts being used not only for baths, as is by 1
some supposed, but also in the place of fires, and answered an :
exactly similar purpose to our modern hot-air pipes.
In a hypocaust discovered at Lincoln some few years since,
Ehe piers supporting the pavement were all of the circulari
orm. l
HYPODROMUS, (Greek, {Sn-6, under, and $90,109, from
rpexéw, to run,) amongst the Romans, a shady or covered
walk or ambulatory. }
HYPOGJEUM, (from {in-o, under, and 71‘] the cart/2,) in
ancient architecture, a name given to all parts of a building
that were underground. ‘
The term was more particularly applied to the common sort
of sepulchres used by the Romans; they were built under-
ground, whence their name, and are now known under the
name of catacombs. The urns containing the ashes of the
deceased were placed round the chamber in niches cut out in
the walls, which, from their resemblance to the niches of a
pigeon-house, were called columbaria. :
Montfaucon has given descriptions and illustrations of
several such hypogzea in his Antiquité Expliquée. In many
examples, especially in those of later date, the chambers are
highly ornamented. l
HYPOPODIUM, (from {in-o, under, and 7789, foot,) 3.
piece of'furniture in the ancient baths, on which the feet
rested. '
HYPOSCENIUM, from {in-o, under, and 6mm), a scene,)
a partition under the logium appointed for the music. .
IIYPOTRACHELIUBI, (from ii7ro, undcr, and rpaxr’lltov,‘
the nee/2,) the lower part of the Tuscan and Doric capitals,
comprehended between the astragal at the top of the shaft,
and the fillet or annulets under the ovolo. This description
applies only to the Roman Doric; for the Grecian, instead
of an astragal, had from one to three horizontal grooves cir-
cumscribing the column.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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