‘ ‘—v--.‘—.;-5/ W.

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A r9por’I On th9 grotection and restoration chime Nation s Iand and water
resourcés under Titles IV and V Of th9 Surfdfie Mmmg Control and RQcIamailon \4
Act of 1977 z _ ,7 _ 7 ,. , a“ A “#3

 

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

Manuel Lu jan, Jr., Secretary

OFFICE OF SURFACE MINING RECLAMATION AND ENFORCEMENT

Harry M. Snyder, Director

C0 VER PHOTO: Reclamation of this ZOO-acre steep-slope contour mine in Eastern Kentucky exemplifies the intent of the Surface Mining
Control and Reclamation Act. With proper planning and effective site management, both economical mining and successful reclamation

can be achieved.

EARTH SCIENCES LIBRARY

SURFACE COAL MINING RECLAMATION:
15 YEARS OF PROGRESS, 1977-1992

A report on the protection and restoration of the Nation's land and water resources under
Titles IV and V of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977

Part 1

 

United States Department of the Interior

Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement
Washington, DC.

August 3, 1992

 

For sale by the US. Government Printing Office
Superintendent of Documents, Mail Stop: SSOP, Washington, DC 20402-9328
1 SEN 0—16-037977-6

 

FOREWORD '

In 1977, Congress passed the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (Public Law 95-87) and the Interior Department began the task
of regulating surface coal mining and reclamation operations and reclaiming abandoned coal mines on a national scale. Today, 15 years
after Congress passed the surface mining law, land reclamation and environmental protection have become a successful and routine part of
the coal mining process.

In its final form, after years of con gressional debate, the Act was thought by many to be unworkable. Further, some feared that the Act would
be an economic disaster for the coal industry because of the increased operational costs of environmental safeguards and of reclaiming surface
mined lands. Those fears were mistaken. Instead, the coal industry has met the challenge, using ingenuity and state-of-the-art technology
to operate successfully and responsibly within the law. The result is clear, and it is a real American success story: surface coal mining has
truly become just a temporary use of the land. Even before surface coal mining ends in an area, reclamation is begirming, so that the land
is either returned to its original appearance and use or is improved for new uses that benefit both landowners and communities.

Successful implementation 0 f the surface mining law by State and federal agencies hasn’t come easily. The technical problems of reclaimin g
surface mined land are complex, and the law enacted to protect the environment during mining covers every aspect of mine operations. Not
every operator has complied. During the past 15 years, and especially during the early part of that period, the problems created by a small
number of irresponsible mining operators have generated disproportionate publicity, while there has been comparatively little recognition
for the majority of operators, who are achieving excellent reclamation and are complying with the law. Although violations still occur, there
tend to be fewer each year as compliance becomes more widespread.

In reviewing the results of reclamation on hundreds of mine sites, it is clear that the surface mining law is working. Many photographs of
reclaimed mine sites in this report show no indication that surface mining ever occurred. The pictures show landscapes typical of rural areas
throughout the country-~the clearest evidence that the basic intent of the law has been achieved without compromising coal production. In
fact, since 1977, the annual production of coal in the US. has increased approximately 50 percent.

In the l 5 years since enactment of the surface mining law, more than 34,000 permits formining and reclamation operations have been issued
throughout the United States. These permits have regulated mining operations onmore than 4 million acres, an area larger than the combined
states of Connecticut and Rhode Island , and have resulted in extraction of approximately 12.5 billion tons of coal. If it were all gathered
together in one place, 12.5 billion tons ofcoal would result in a pile ofcoal 1.2 miles high covering more than 8 square miles at its base.
The amount of earth and rock material removed and replaced during mining and reclamation is estimated to be approximately the size of
Oregon’s Mount Hood.

The reclamation of lands adversely affected by coal mining activities prior to August 3, 1977, is another notable accomplishment realized
through the Act. Nearly 10,000 problem sites containing abandoned mine problems have been identified anddescribed in the Office of
Surface Mining National Inventory of Abandoned Mine Land Problems. Currently almost 4,000 of these sites have been partially or fully
reclaimed.

The examples contained in this report represent only a small sample of the advances in stande mining practices and the extent of successful
reclamation that have taken place during the past 15 years. Overall, the reclamation of surface-mined land is an achievement that should
make Americans proud. The pictures of mining and reclamation shown here should help reassure the residents of the coal-producing states
that they can enjoy the economic benefits of mining without sacrificing long—terrn environmental quality and land productivity.

ii

CONTENTS

Introduction .................................................................................................................... .r ........... 1
The Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act V_ /
The Regulatory Program: Title V ............................................................................. '. ................. 2
Performance Standards
Permits

Performance Bonds
Inspection and Enforcement
Lands Unsuitable for Mining’
The Abandoned Mine Land Program: Title IV ........................................................................... 3
Emergency Projects
High-Priority Projects
Subsidence Insurance Program

Program Implementation ......................................................................................................................... 4
Interim and Permanent Regulatory Programs ............................................................................. 4
State Regulatory Programs ......................................................................................................... 4
Federal Regulatory Programs ..................................................................................................... 4
Federal Lands Programs ............................................................................................................. 4
State and Indian Land Reclamation Programs ............................................................................ 5
Federal Reclamation Program .................................................................................................... 5

Mining and Reclamation Today ............................................................................................................... 6
Area Mining

Contour Mining
Mountaintop Removal Mining

Improved Environmental Protection: A national milestone achieved
Regulatory Program: Title V

Erosion and sedimentation control ............................................................................. 10
Surface and ground water protection .......................................................................... 12
Acid and toxic drainage prevention and treatment ...................................................... 14
Topsoil ....................................................................................................................... 16
Excess spoil disposal .................................................................................................. l8
Highwall elimination and return to approximate original contour ............................... 20
Post—mining land use .................................................................................................. 22
Revegetation .............................................................................................................. 24
Blasting and explosives .............................................................................................. 26
Wildlife restoration and enhancement ........................................................................ 28
Mine waste disposal ................................................................................................... 30
Protecting historic and cultural resources ................................................................... 31
Roads ......................................................................................................................... 32
Remining ................................................................................................................... 33
Abandoned Mine Land Program: Title IV
Mine openings ............................................................................................................ 34
Mine fires ................................................................................................................... 36
Subsidence ................................................................................................................. 38
Highwalls ................................................................................................................... 40
Mine drainage and water problems ............................................................................. 42
Landslides .................................................................................................................. 44
Coal refuse, waste piles and impoundments ............................................................... 46
Glossary ................................................................................................................................................. 48
Chronology of SMCRA Implementation ................................................................................................ 50

References, endnotes, and credits .......................................................................................................... 52

An Illinois mining company assumed reclamation and water treatment responsi bility for past min ing problems when it purchased this 8, 000-
acre mine in l 96 7. The mine was often referred to as the nation ’s worst example of pre-SM CRA acid soil and water problems associated
with surface coal mining. To meet EPA discharge standards, a plant was constructed to treat 3. 5 million gallons of acid mine drainage each
day. However, without reclamation to eliminate the sources of acid runoff costly treatment would be a continuing problem. In the early
1980 ’s, reclamation of this abandoned mine began as the nation 's largest mined-land wetland reclamation eflort. Today, the result is often
described as the nation 's best example of wetland and wildlife development on surfllce-mined land.

iv

 

INTRODUCTION

Surface mining of coal involves removing soil and rock that overlay
coal beds in order to expose the coal. Compared to underground coal
mining, surface mining generally costs less, is safer for miners, and
usually results in more complete recovery of the coal. However, it
also results in much more extensive, though temporary, disturbance
of the land surface, which can cause serious environmental problems
unless the mined land is carefully reclaimed.

The earliest commercial U.S. coal production was in the anthracite
region of Pennsylvania. Beginning in 1807, mining became impor-
tant enough for the federal government to begin keeping statistics on
annual production. During those early years of coal mining, recla-
mation of mine sites and support facilities was not required by law;
however, in the 1930’s, as surface mining became more widespread,
the idea of mandatory environmental protection and reclamation
started to grow. In 1939 West Virginia enacted the first law to
regulate the coal mining industry. Similar laws were enacted by
Indiana in 1941, Illinois in 1943, and Pennsylvania in 1945. During
that period, coal production accelerated greatly and the surface
mining of coal became much more prevalent. During World War II,
the demand for coal took priority over environmental concerns, with
little consideration for reclaiming the land after mining. Mining pits
were not backfilled. Dangerous highwalls were left exposed. Trees
and other vegetation were buried by waste material that was simply
dumped down the slopes below mines. Topsoil was buried or
allowed to wash away. Landslides formed on unstable hillsides.
Slopes eroded rapidly because ofthe lack of vegetation. Polluted
water collected in mine pits. Streams became clogged with sedi-
ment. Streams and rivers were frequently polluted by acid mine
drainage. This vivid image of surface coal mining remains indelible
in the minds of most Americans, who remain unfamiliarwith modern
surface coal mining methods and the changes brought about by the
Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act.

After 1945, more coal-producing states instituted regulatory pro-
grams. Many required permits for mining. Some included inspec-
tions. A few made operators post performance bonds to guarantee
reclamation when mining was completed. However, due to the
variations in those individual programs, it cost less to produce coal
in states with less stringent reclamation requirements, giving opera-
tors in those states an economic advantage, generally at the expense
of environmental quality.

With the 1970’s came a surge in the demand for coal resulting from
the nation’s need for increasing electric power generation and the
uncertain supply and increased cost of imported petroleum-based
fuels. The resulting increased coal production prompted a series of
state laws, primarily in the West, aimed at controlling the environ-
mental effects of surface mining. During the late 1960’s and early
1970’s, North Dakota, Wyoming, Colorado, and Montana passed
laws to regulate mining and reclamation.

The continuing lack of uniformity among the state surface mining
programs and the increase in unreclaimed land and associated
pollution of water and other resources caused a growing demand for
nationwide regulation of surface coal mining, both to remove the
economic inequities and to assure an acceptable standard of reclama-
tion. After many years of debate, Congress passed the Surface
Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA), which was signed
into law August 3, 1977. The Act established a coordinated effort
between the states and the federal government to prevent the abuses
that had characterized surface coal mining in the past. The law also
applied to surface disturbances created by underground coal mining.

Two major programs were created by SMCRA:

I An environmental protection program to establish standards and
procedures for approving permits and inspecting active surface
and underground coal mining and reclamation operations; and

I A reclamation program for abandoned mine lands, funded by fees
that operators pay on each ton of coal mined, to reclaim land and
water resources adversely affected by pre—1977 coal mining. In
1990 Congress expanded the law to include reclamation of mines
abandoned during the early years of the program.

The Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement (known
as the O ffice o f Surface Mining or OSM), was created by the SMCRA
as a new federal agency within the Department of the Interior. The
Office of Surface Mining was charged with the responsibility for
preparing the regulations for both programs and for assisting the
States financially and technically. In addition, the Office of Surface
Mining strives to maintain consistency among State programs and
ensure compliance with the law and regulations through regular
oversight of State programs.

This report, which updates and supersedes the Office of Surface
Mining’s 10-year progress report‘, deals with the accomplishments
of the regulatory and abandoned mine land reclamation programs
during the first 15 years of the law. Part 1 is a description of on-the-
ground accomplishments and Part 2 is statistical information for the
15-year period. Questions about these accomplishments or informa-
tion on the availability of the reports can be obtained from the:

Public Affairs Office

Office of Surface Mining
1951 Constitution Ave., NW.
Washington, DC. 20240
(202) 208-2719

Important terms which describe mining and reclamation conditions
or techniques appear in boldface type in the text the first time they
are used and are explained in the glossary.

    

In 1991 United States coal production was over one billion tons.
More than 75 percent was used by electric utilities to generate
power. At this Missouri power plant in 1991, 2.5 million tons of coal
were used to generate over 5 billion kilowatt hours of electricity.
This is enough electricity to supply about a million cansumersfor one
year.

THE SURFACE MINING CONTROL AND RECLAMATION ACT

 

 

Mining occurred within 20 feet of this wooded area around the la nd-
owner ’s residence. Here the upper coal seam has been exposed and
is being removed.

    

Following reclamation, the land was Immediately put back into
agricultural production. Today, grain and corn crop yields have
continually exceeded targets.

2

The Regulatory Program

SMCRA contains five principal regulatory provisions that form the
basis for its implementation:

Performance Standards

Performance standards are intended to ensure that all surface mining
is conducted in a way that protects the environment and the public
and ensures that the mined land is restored to productive use
following mining.

Permits

Before developing a surface or underground coal mine, an operator
must have a permit issued under SMCRA. An application for a
permit to conduct a surface coal mining operation is a detailed
document that consists of text and numeric data describing the
propo sed mining and reclamation. Information must be furnished on
pre-mining environmental conditions, existing land use, proposed
mining and reclamation, how the performance standards will be met,
and the post-mining land use. This provides the regulatory author-
ity with the information necessary to determine that the operation
can be conducted in accordance with the regulations.

Performance Bonds

Before a permit can be granted, an operator must post a performance
bond sufficient to cover the cost of reclaiming the site in the event the
operator fails to complete reclamation. The bond is not fully released
until all performance standards have been met and reclamation of the
site has been determined to be successful -- after five years in the East
and Midwest, and after 10 years in the arid West. However, the bond
can be partially released as various phases of reclamation are
completed.

Inspection and Enforcement

If a violation of SMCRA or of a state surface mining and reclamation
law is observed, an inspector issues a notice of violation to the
operator. The violation must be corrected within a specific time, and
the operator may also have to pay a fine based on the severity of the
violation. If the violation isnot corrected, a cessation order is issued
to immediately stop active coal mining, and the operator must pay a
fine. If a violation is especially serious (for example, creates an
imminent danger to public health or safety or causes significant
damage to land, air, or water resources) the inspector immediately
issues a cessation order. An operator must correct all violations in
order to obtain permits for new mines.

Lands Unsuitable For Mining

Congress recognized that certain coal deposits cannot be mined
without permanent damage to unique cultural or natural resources.
As a result, SMCRA protects these resources in two ways:

I It prohibits miningwithinthe boundaries of national parks, forests,
wildlife refuges, trails, wild and scenic rivers, wilderness and
recreation areas; in areas which will adversely affect sites listed on
the National Register of Historic Places; and within a restricted
distance of occupied dwellings, public roads, buildings, parks,
schools, churches, and cemeteries; and

I Provides a process that allows anyone whose interests may be
adversely affected by proposed mining to petition to have specific
lands designated unsuitable for mining.

TheAbandoned Mine Land Program

The Abandoned Mine Land (AML) Program provides for the resto-
ration of eligible lands mined and abandoned or left inadequately
restored.

Fees of 35 cents perton of surface mined coal, 15 cents per ton of coal
mined underground, and 10 cents per ton of lignite mined are
collected on all active coal mining operations. The fees are deposited
in the interest-bearing Abandoned Mine Reclamation Fund, which is
used to pay reclamation costs of AML projects. Expenditures from
the fund are authorized through the regular congressional budgetary
and appropriations process. SMCRA specifies that 50 percent of the
reclamation fees collected in each state with an approved reclama-
tion program, and within Indian lands where the tribe has an
approved reclamation program, are to be allocated to that state or
tribe foruse in its reclamation program. The remaining 5 0 percent is
used by OSM to fund emergency projects and high-priority projects
in states without approved AML programs; to fund the Rural
Abandoned Mine Program2 (RAMP), administered by the US.
Department of Agriculture; to fund the Small Operator Assistance
Program3 (SOAP); and to fund reclamation of abandoned mine
problems directly through state reclamation programs.

In some states, particularly in the West, problems stemming from
abandoned non-coal mines are more severe than those caused by coal
mines. OSM may approve the expenditure of AML funds to abate
hazards on those lands where the states certify that threats to public
health and safety exist from non-coal sources and that all abandoned
coal sites have been addressed.

Emergency Projects

Emergency projects are those involving abandoned coal mine lands
that present an immediate danger to the public health, safety, or
general welfare. Typically, emergencies include landslides near
homes and across roads, subsidence occurring under houses and
public buildings, mine and coal waste fires, and open shafts discov-
ered near populated areas. Because public health, safety, and
property can be seriously threatened by abandoned mine emergen-
cies, the capability for rapid response is critical. Reported emergen-
cies are usually investigated within 24 hours and abated within 35
days. Emergencies are addressed through the Office of Surface
Mining’s two support centers (in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and
Denver, Colorado) and by states which have established their own
emergency reclamation programs.

High-Priority Projects

The Act sets out six priorities of eligibility for reclamation funding.
The highest-priority projects protect public health, safety, general
welfare, and property from the potential danger (as opposed to
imminent danger, which categorizes them as emergency projects)
and adverse effects of abandoned coal mining problems. The Act
requires that these priorities be reflected when reclamation is under-
taken.

Subsidence Insurance Program

The Act authorizes states and tribes with an approved reclamation
program to use abandoned mine land funds to establish self-sustain-
ing, individually administered programs to insure private property
against damage caused by land subsidence resulting from abandoned
underground coal mines. Such programs are in operation in Colo-
rado, Indiana, Kentucky, Ohio, West Virginia, and Wyoming.

    

    

wu-wwfl‘wm g-nvn w

«r.- E '-

This abandoned mine entrance, located in the borough of Moosic,
Pennsylvania, was identified by a local citizen. The Oflice ofSurflzce
Mining declared it an emergency project because it was located near
a IOU—unit mobile home park and evidence indicated that children
were playing near the mine opening.

 

Following the grading and spreading of soil, the closure of this mine
entrance was completed in less than two days at a cost of $2, 500.

3

PROGRAM IMPLEMENTATION

A primary objective of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation
Act is to establish uniform national regulatory standards to protect
the environment during mining and for reclaiming land after it is
disturbed by current and future surface coal mining. In recognition
of the wide range of climatic and geologic conditions in coal-
producing areas, Congress provided that individual states may
establish their own programs for regulating surface andunderground
coal mining and reclamation on private land. The standards for state
programs must be at least as effective as the federal standards.

Initial and Permanent Regulatory Programs
Congress recognized the importance of establishing regulations to
implement the Act as quickly as possible, while recognizing that the
preparation of such complex regulations would be a lengthy process.
Consequently, a two-phase schedule was established. An abbrevi-
ated initial program was put in place immediately, followed by a
more extensive and detailed permanent regulatory program. The
initial program regulations were published in December 1977, and
mine permits issued by states after February 1978 were required to
conform with those regulations. Regulatory provisions contained in
the initial program included 12 basic performance standards, con-
tinuation of existing state permitting, bonding, and enforcement
processes (although if those features did not already exist, they did
not have to be added), a federal inspection frequency of once every
six months, joint state and federal inspection and enforcement in
states that had existing programs, and the prohibition of mining in the
specific areas listed in the Act.

Permanent program regulations were published in March 1979,
following extensive review and comment from the public, including
the coal industry and organized environmental groups. The regula-
tory provisions in the permanent program expanded those in the
interim program by including the implementation of all performance
standards contained in SMCRA, anew permitting process, arequire-
ment for performance bonds, an increased inspection frequency (one
per month), a new enforcement process, and a process for designat-
ing lands unsuitable for surface mining. The regulations for the
permanent program have been revised several times since 1979;
more revisions can be made as new mining and reclamation tech-
niques are developed. Such changes were anticipated by Congress;
in fact, aprovision in SMCRA for experimental practices encourages
advances in mining and reclamation techniques.

 

 

I States with Regulatory Authority

I States wlth Regulatory Authovlty and Cooperative agreements

D Federal Programs

- Coal Reserves

STATE PROGRAM STATUS: 1992

 

 

 

State Regulatory Programs

States have the principal role in implementing the Act. For a state to
have authority to regulate coal mining operations within its borders
(primacy), it must enact a program that demonstrates its capability
to carry out the provision of the Act. Specifically, states are required
to:

I Establish laws that are no less stringent than those standards
contained in the Act and which regulate all critical aspects of
surface coal mining and reclamation operations;

I Provide penalties for violations of the laws, regulations, or permit
conditions;

I Create an agency with sufficient administrative and technical
personnel and adequate funding to operate the program; and

I Establish a process for the effective implementation, maintenance,
and enforcement of a permit system for all coal mining operations.

Once a state’s program is approved by the Secretary of the Interior,
the state has primacy—-that is, the state becomes the regulatory
authority for surface and underground mining of coal on private
(non-federal and non-Indian) lands within its borders. From Febru-
ary 1980 to March 1983, 25 states passed legislation and developed
regulations consistent with the federal requirement and thus attained
primacy. The expenses primacy states incur in operating their
approved regulatory programs are shared by OSM on a 50-50 basis.

Federal Regulatory Programs

The Act encourages state authority over mining and reclamation.
However, if a state chooses not to develop its own program, the
Office of Surface Mining is required to regulate all surface and
underground coal mining and reclamation operations within that
state. The Office of Surface Mining is also required to regulate all
such operations if the state does not implement, enforce, or maintain
its program adequately.

Nine states with coal reserves initially elected not to establish their
own regulatory programs. Of these, only Washington and California
have active surface coal mining. Tennessee repealed its regulatory
program in 1984. Therefore, 10 states have federal programs in
effect. 0

The Office of Surface Mining also regulates surface coal mining on
Indian lands and will continue to do so in the absence of additional
legislation authorizing Indian tribes to apply for primacy.

Federal Lands Programs

SMCRA requires the Secretary of the Interior to implement a
program for all surface and underground coal mining and reclama-
tion on federally owned land--a feature that is signi ficant because the
federal government owns vast coal reserves. In the West, 60 percent
of the 234 billion tons of identified coal reserves is federally owned.
However, any state with an approved regulatory program may enter
into a cooperative agreement with the Secretary of the Interior to
regulate surface coal mining and reclamation on federal lands within
the state. Currently twelve states have signed co operative agree-
ments to regulate mining andreclamation operations on federal land.

 

 

MINE LOCATIONS I977

 

 

 

MINE LOCATIONS I99I

 

State & Indian Land Reclamation Programs

As soon as states establish approved regulatory programs, they are
eligible to submit Abandoned Mine Lands (AML) reclamation
programs to the Secretary for approval. Beginning with Texas in
1980, OSM has approved state reclamation programs so that cur-
rently all primacy states except Mississippi have approved AML
reclamation programs. In addition, during 1988 and 1989 the
Navajo, Hopi, and Crow Tribes received approval for their AML
programs. Once states gain approval of their reclamation programs,
funds are distributed through grants to correct abandoned mine
problems through reclamation. By the end of 1991, more than $2.9
billion dollars had been collected for the Abandoned Mine Reclama-
tion Fund, with more than $1.6 billion provided to the states for
completion of high-priority reclamation projects.

By the beginning of 1992, emergency programs for the states of
Alabama, Arkansas, Illinois, Kansas, Montana, Virginia, and West
Virginia also had been approved. In addition to reclaiming high-
priority problems, these states also assume responsibility for emer-
gency projects within their boundaries.

Federal Reclamation Program

Until states had approved AML reclamation programs, the Office of
Surface Mining completed both hi gh-priority and emergency recla-
mation projects. Work now done under the Federal Reclamation
Program is principally high-priority reclamation projects in non-
primacy states and tribes, and emergency problems in states and
tribes that do not operate their own emergency programs.

 

 

MillionsnITom
. m u u m a) ‘4 en to 0

Thousands of Acrfl!

Thousands of Minn

U.S COAL PRODUCTION 1977-19915

in

4

u

N

 

SURFACE AND UNDERGROUND MINES 1977-1991I

§

§

In
8

m
8

5‘3

ACREAGE PERMITTED 1977-19917

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

MINING AND RECLAMATION TODAY

Mining and reclamation procedures that meet the requirements of
SMCRA are illustrated on pages 8 and 9 for each of the three major
surface coal mining methods -- area mining, contour mining, and
mountaintop removal mining. The three methods involve the same
basic steps: clearing the land of trees and other vegetation, removing
topsoil and overburden, mining the coal, and reclaiming the land.
Although all three methods would not usually occur on any single
site, the illustration facilitates comparison of mining and reclama-
tion methods and aids basic understanding of the reclamation pro-
cesses that take place under SMCRA.

Area Mining

    

The area mining method is commonly used to mine coal in the flat
to moderately rolling terrain found principally in the western and
midwestem states. After the overburden is excavated down to a coal
seam, the mining area is enlarged horizontally to expose more coal
for removal. In the West, where coal seams are commonly 10 to 20
feet thick (and range up to 100 feet thick in the Powder River Basin
of Wyoming), the life of some mines may be more than 50 years. In
the Midwest, coal seams are typically 3 to 7 feet thick and 75 to 100
feet below the surface. Because of the large expanse of area mines
and their relatively unrestricted sites, enormous equipment isused to
remove overburden and reconstruct the land.

The area mining operation in the illustration is on land that was
formerly used for farming. The drawing shows that the agricultural
use is being reestablished immediately following reclamation. Min-
ing is proceeding across the land toward the left side of the site. The
initial excavation was made far enough away from the stream along
the right edge of the site to prevent damage to the water supply. The
coal under most of the site has been removed, and reclamation has
been completed on some of the land. For example, some of the cattle
in the foreground and those in the feedlot behind the silo are grazing
on reclaimed land that has been mined.

At the far left of the illustration, topsoil from the unmined area is
being removed by scrapers, transported across the area of active
mining, and immediately spread on the land on the right, which is
being reclaimed. (Reclamation of mined land as soon as practical,
asrequired by the Act, is called contemporaneous reclamation.) A

large stockpile of topsoil in the center background of the operation,
which was removed from the initial mining cut, has a vegetative
cover to prevent erosion and will be spread over the last mined area
to be reclaimed.

After it is blasted loose, overburden is removed by dragline and
dumped into an adjoining previously mined area, all in one motion.
In some mining operations, overburden is removed with power
shovels, bulldozers, or scrapers instead of draglines.

With overburden removed, the exposed coal seam is visible. Coal is
removed with power shovels and loaded into large trucks, which
carry the coal to the preparation plant (behind the dragline). After
the coal is processed, it is loaded into railroad cars, possibly for
transportation to an electric generating plant (more than 55 percent
of the electricity used in the US. comes from coal-fueled genera-
tion), or to a port loading facility for export.

Ridges formed by the dragline as it dumps overburden are regraded
with bulldozers. Topsoil is spread to provide a finished surface that
appears similar to the pre—mining surface. The land is then tilled
using traditional farming methods and, as shown, crop and pasture
land are reestablished. After reclamation is complete, the productiv-
ity of the land will be restored. Sometimes the land is even more
productive after it is reclaimed than it was before it was mined.

Contour Mining

 

The contour mining method is typically used in the mountainous
terrain of the eastern US, where coal seams are exposed in outcrops
on hillsides and mountainsides. First, a cut is made in the hillside
above a coal seam and the coal is further exposed as the overburden
is removed. Then the mine is enlarged by successive cuts that follow
the coal seam around the side of the hill. Mining extends into the hill
to the point where the overburden is too thick to make further
exposure of the coal cost-effective. Auger mining often is used at
this stage of coal recovery.

The contour mining operation in the illustration is removing mul-
tiple seams of coal. Reclamation has been completed in the

 

 

foreground. Active mining is proceeding around the hill in the
middle foreground. A sedimentation pond for this operation was
constructed adjacent to a natural drainage swale just below the
mining area. As reclamation progresses, such ponds become unnec-
essary and are usually removed as the entire site is reclaimed and
planted.

After the area has been cleared and blasted, the spoil in the active
mining area is loaded into trucks and taken to the previously mined
area, where it is spread. As coal is uncovered, it is loaded andtrucked
to a coal preparation plant. Smaller pieces of equipment, such as
front-end loaders, are generally used in contour mining because of
the restricted working area.

As can be seen in the right foreground of the cross section, a
temporary highwall remains at each level of mining after the
overburden and coal have been removed, because the mining opera-
tion has cut into the hill. One of the principal reclamation require-
ments for contour mining is that highwalls must be covered after
mining is completed. Spoil is trucked from a working cut, dumped
on the mined-out area, spread with bulldozers until it covers the
highwall, and compacted as necessary to ensure the stability of the
reclaimed hillside.

The cross section shows that a ridge of undisturbed natural material
15 to 20 feet wide is intentionally lefi at the outer edge ofthe mined
area. This barrier helps stabilize the reclaimed slope by preventing
the spoil from slumping or sliding downhill into the stream.

Following backfilling and grading of the spoil with bulldozers, the
topsoil is spread and aseedbed is prepared. In steep slope conditions,
such as in the middle foreground of the illustration, a slope disk may
be used to prepare the topsoil for seeding to avoid the need for driving
equipment on the steep slope. Hydroseeding may be used to aid in
establishing vegetation and preventing soil erosion on steep terrain.
Truck-mounted equipment makes it possible to seed the steeply
sloping ground from the base or top of the reclaimed slope without
disturbing the graded topsoil.

In the completed reclamation area shown in the center foreground of
the illustration, tree seedlings and shrubs were hand-planted to
enhance the wildlife habitat, stabilize the soil, and provide a long-
terrn economic return from the reclaimed land.

    

Augermim'ng is oflen used in combination with contourmining. Here
large auger bits drill into the exposed coal seam at the base of the
highwall. This mining technique extracts less than half of the coal
seam, making it one of the more wasteful methods of mining coal
resources.

Mountaintop Removal Mining

  

The mountaintop removal method is used predominantly in the East
to remove coal underlying the tops of mountains. Instead of mining
along the contour around the perimeter of a mountain, the top of the
mountain is area mined and either returned to its approximate
original contour or removed entirely. Either procedure results in
almost loo-percent removal of the coal seam. Removing the top of
the mountain results in a unique opportunity to create relatively flat
terrain that is suitable for residential, agricultural, and other devel-
opment in areas where much of the natural terrain is too steep for any
developed economic use. The flat or very gently rolling area on the
right side of the illustration shows land reclaimed afleramountaintop
removal operation was completed. Many new land uses can be
established on reclaimed mountaintop removal mining sites. The
illustration shows a mined area reclaimed for agricultural use in the
foreground and as the site of a new village in the background. In the
far background to the left of this reclaimed operation, another
mountaintop removal operation is underway on an adjacent hilltop.

To provide a flat surface for the operation of equipment, a first cut
is made parallel to the top of the ridge after the vegetation and topsoil
have been removed. Overburden is loosened by blasting, removed
in a series of parallel cuts, and loaded into trucks in a procedure
similar to contour mining. Once the coal seam is uncovered, the coal
is removed and trucked to a preparation plant. If the entire top of the
mountain is to be removed, the spoil created by mining is disposed
of on an adjacent area. Because mountaintop removal operations are
isolated from other mining areas where excess spoil can be disposed
of, spoil is usually placed in a valley or head-of-hollow fill in a
fashion similar to the other types of operations.

In the illustration, such a fill is located in the valley immediately to
the left of the active operation. Here, the spoil was placed at the head
of the narrow, steep-sided valley or hollow. In preparation for filling
this area, the vegetation and soil have been removed and a rock drain
was constructed down the middle of the valley, where a natural
drainage course existed previously. When the fill is completed, this
underdrain will form a continuous water runoff system from the
upper end of the valley to the lower end of the fill. Typical head-of-
hollow fills are graded and terraced to create permanently stable
slopes.

 

 

Surface
Coal Mining
and Reclamation

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, OFFICE OF SURFACE MINING
I951 CONSTITUTION AVENUE, N.W.. WASHINGTON, DC 20240

 

 

IMPROVED ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION: A NATIONAL MILESTONE ACHIEVED

REG ULA TORY PROGRAM

Erosion and Sedimentation Control

Because surface mining removes the original plant cover from the
land and exposes the soil, special care is needed. Until the minedland
is stabilized by revegetation, snowmelt and rainfall can pick up
sediment and erode mined lands much faster than undisturbed areas.

Sediment control is an important aspect of protecting the environ-
ment during mining and reclamation because without it, large
amounts of sediment can clog streams, increase the risk of flooding,
damage irrigation systems, harm aquatic habitat, and limit the use of
water for other purposes. Stream quality can be affected many miles
downstream from the mine. Before SMCRA was implemented many
streams were degraded by uncontrolled sediment from mining.

Sediment is controlled through careful planning and a design that
incorporates a variety of measures that work together to reduce soil
erosion at the mine. Disturbed areas are graded, and some areas
terraced, to achieve stable slopes, reduce runoff water velocity,
increase infiltration, and divert runoff into drainage channels so that
it flows away from unvegetated, erodible areas. Grading along the
slope contour and scarifying unvegetated slopeswith bulldozer track
marks help prevent erosion by slowing down the flow of water.
Runoff from haul roads is controlled by culverts and roadside
ditches. Sedimentation ponds or other forms of sediment control are
required at all mines to minimize the amount of sediment leaving the
site.

 

 

—7—

 

 

Pre-SMCRA mining practices did not always include proper grading
and drainage practices to ensure adequate erosion and sedimenta-
tion control. The results were large, dangerous gullies and the loss
of va luable topsoil (above). Downstream impacts were also severe,
in the form of choked, sediment-laden streams that flooded fre-
quently and suflered a loss of diverse aquatic life.

An OSM inspector checks the placement of riprap that was carefully
placed in diversion channels at this Eastern Kentucky mine (top
right). The operator has found that such careful rock placement,
while more costly than construction by dumping, actually saves
money over the long term by decreasing maintenance costs. Erosion
of these channels has been negligible.

To minimize the off-site sedimentation impacts of the mining process,
sedimentation ponds are constructed to still sediment-laden water.
Solids settle out before the clear water is allowed to flow from the
mine site. Diversion channels are designed to direct the flow into
these carefully engineered structures (flzr right). Riprap lining the
diversion channels forestalls erosion of the channel slopes.

In the arid mining areas of the West, rainfalls are brief but intense,
spawning flash floods that fill the arroyos. To monitor sediment
entrained in flood waters, operators install sediment sampling traps
mounted high enough to sample thesuspended sediment load carried
by these floods (bottom right). This two—stage sampler in New
Mexico is high and dry until a significant storm occurs upstream.

Erosion and sediment control at this Indiana mine (bottom left) is
facilitated through the construction of a series of rock check dams
that slow runofl and settle out fine sediment, thus robbing the water
of much of its erosive effect. Fine sediment deposited from this
practice is evident in the foreground. In the distance a series of check
dams extends downstream.

Alternative sediment control structures, such as this filter fabric
baffle in a Maryland operator 's sedimentation pond (above left),
provide additional sedimentation control in an area of relatively
high rainfall. The darker, sediment-laden water to the right (up-
stream) contrasts markedly with the clearer water at the outlet
(downstream) end of the pond. These measures may be used
temporarily early in the mining process when sediment loads tend to
be greatest, or they may be used throughout the mining and reclama-
tion process.

 

 

 

 

 

Surface and Ground Water Protection

Water is a valuable natural resource, particularly precious in arid
and semi-arid regions. A reliable, high-quality water supply isvital
for virtually every kind of domestic, agricultural, and industrial
activity. Since the passage of SMCRA, surface coal mining is
conducted so that the hydrologic balance of the mine and adjacent
areas is maintained, and the approved post-mining land use for the
reclaimed mine site is supported by an adequate water supply.

Today, surface and ground water protection begins with planning for
the proper handling and disposal of materials that could cause acid
or toxic contamination. Mining and reclamation practices are
designed and carried out to minimize water pollution and changes in
flow. Surface water quality and quantity are monitored to assure that
impacts on the hydrologic balance are minimal.

When necessary, impacts on watercourses are avoided by temporary
stream diversion. An existing stream may be routed around the area
to be mined after a detailed design study is performed to ensure that
the new stream course will be stable, will provide protection against
flooding, and will prevent additional turbidity or sedimentation in
streams outside the mining area.

Prior to SM CRA, coal mining frequently caused surface waters to be
polluted with sediment and acid drainage (right).

On occasion, mining operations cross a stream. SMCRA requires
careful planning to prevent loss or degradation of downstream water
supplies. At this Texas mine, a small stream was rerouted during the
mining operation (below). This kept the stream flow away from the
active mining operation and ensured continuous off-siteflows.

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
  
  
 
 
 
 

 

 

 

To monitor the flow of surface water on a mine site, a weir was
constructed to facilitate measurements (below). The flow of this
small stream is easily determined by simply measuring the height of
the water in the “vee” notch.

As part of the inspection of m in in g
and reclamation operations un-
der SM CRA, fiederal and state in-
spectors take samples of water
discharged from sedimentation
ponds (top right). Point source
effluent limitations established by
EPA must be met. Here, an OSM
inspector is taking water samples
during an early spring rainstorm
when excessive siltation would
occur if the operator had not de-
signed and constructed an ad-
equate drainage system.

In some areas, monitoring wells
are required to measure the im-
pacts of mining and reclamation
on the groundwater. This well
drilled into reclaimed land at a
Gillette, Wyoming, mine is used
to monitor the level of the ground
water following reclamation

(right).

 

Acid and Toxic Drainage Prevention and Treatment

Toxic elements and sulfur-bearing compounds, especially pyrite,
may be present in certain coal beds, overburden, and soils. These
materials can pollute water and kill vegetation if not handled and
disposed ofproperly. The sulfur inpyrite can oxidize to form sulfuric
acid when exposed to air and moisture, and, if present in sufficient
quantity, will result in acid mine drainage. Acid mine drainage kills
fish and vegetation and can create high concentrations of toxic
elements that make surface and ground water generally unusable for
livestock, domestic purposes, or irrigation.

Selective handling and placement of potentially acid-forming mate-
rials limit contact with air and water, thereby preventing formation
of acid drainage or extremely acid mine soils. The mine operator
analyzes overburden and soil samples ahead of time to identify
potentially acid- and toxic-formin g materials. The analysis is
included in the permit application, along with a plan for handling and
disposing of the toxic-forming material. If the analysis and mining
plan do not demonstrate that acid or toxic drainage can be prevented,
the regulatory authority may deny the permit. *

The regulations require exposed coal beds and acid- and toxic-
forming materials to be covered with nontoxic materials or treated to
eliminate their impact on water quality and revegetation. Under-
ground mine entries, auger holes, boreholes, wells, and other ex-
posed underground openings must be cased, sealed, or otherwise
controlled to prevent acid generation and drainage.

Water treatment is necessary when water flowing from the mine does
not meet the Environmental Protection A gency‘ standards for levels
of acidity, iron, or manganese.

Prior to SMCRA, acid seeps from abandoned underground workings
and surface mines would often flow untreated into nearby streams
(center right). In many areas of Appalachia, miles of "dead ”streams
with little or no aquatic life are the legacy of such unmitigated flows.
During surface excavation, aflow of acid water was encountered in
a Pennsylvania highwall. Since SMCRA, such acid drainage is
treated and neutralized before being released from the mine permit
area.

The computer has become an important tool in surfizce mining and
reclamation problem-solving, both for industry and for government
regulators. Through its Technical Information Processing System
(TIPS), OSM uses three-dimensional graphic analysis to pinpoint
levels of toxic— or acid-producing materials in overburden (below).
This graphic reveals relationships between topography, depth, and
selenium concentrations in a presentation that is meaningful to both
laymen and technicians.

Top of Coal . a“ '

 

 

Before SMCRA, the
sludge of iron sulfides and
hydroxides known as
"yellowboy " was a com-
mon sight in degraded
streams (left). T hechemi-
cal reactions associated
with acid mine drainage
deplete oxygen in the
water, making the envi-
ronment unsuitable for
aquatic life.

 

 

 

This Wyoming mine segregates toxic selenium spoil using a sophis-
ticated analysis of the selenium concentrations in the overburden.
After this toxic material is excavated, it is trucked to a disposal area
in an area mine pit where it is dumped at a depth where revegtation
will not be aflbcted (above).

In West Virginia, an operator excavates an acid-producing rock
material from the active pit and hauls it to a point high in the highwall
backfill (right). This ”high-and—dry" approach seeks to minimize
acid drainage production by keeping the material out of the water-
accumulating part of the back/ill near the pit floor. Without water,
acid drainage is prevented.

 

Topsoil

On reclaimed surface mines, topsoil is essential for reestablishing
native vegetation and crop, forage, and timber production. Subsoil
and weathered rock overburden beneath the topsoil supply additional
nutrients and moisture for plant growth. The removal and replace-
ment of all topsoil is required by SMCRA unless it is demonstrated
that selected subsoil or spoil is better suited for growing plants.
Topsoil is removed as a separate layer before mining and is either
spread on nearby regraded areas or, if necessary, temporarily stock-
piled. Topsoil is spread to the appropriate depths for the approved
post-mining land use. Prime farmland topsoil and sub-soil may be
handled with special care by using spreading techniques that mini-
mize compaction that would hinder root penetration and water
absorption by new seedlings.

The success of topsoil handling is measured by the land ’s crop
productivity after reclamation. Although mining at this Amish farm
in southern Indiana went right up to the barnyard, agricultural
production was interrupted for only one growing season (top right).

After the topsoil has been removed by scrapers, the sub-soil is
removed using hydraulic shovels and haul trucks at an Indiana mine
(bottom right). The sub-soil is immediately hauled back to the
reclamation area, dumped, and graded. This equipment, combined
with direct haul-back methods, reduces compaction, a serious prob-
lem in valuable prime fiIrmland soil.

 

Prior to 1977 it was com-
mon practice to remove the
topsoil and the overburden
in one operation, resulting
in exposed overburden. The
loss of valuable topsoil
made vegetation difficult to
reestablish (lefl).

 

When stored under proper conditions, topsoil retains much of its
value. This Illinois prime farmland topsoil being inspected by an
OSM reclamation specialist has been carefully separated and marked
for reclamation use when mining is completed (bottom center).

Today, topsoil is removed by scrapers and placed in “windrow ” piles
across regraded areas where subsoil has been replaced (bottom left).
The windrows of topsoil are then leveled to the prescribed depth
usingsmall bulldozers. The entire operation ofremoving, transport-
ing, and spreading the topsoil is completed in a few hours. Rapid
handling of the topsoil minimizes loss of important soil bacteria.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Excess Spoil Disposal

Mining operations, in removing overburden from above the coalbed,
blast or break up the layered rock into angular, broken fragments.
The volume taken up by the spoil is generally greater than that
occupied by the rock before mining. In steep slope areas with hard
sandstone or limestone overburden, the volume of spoil is much
greater than is needed to return the site to its approximate original
contour. Excess spoil must be disposed of in a safe and environmen-
tally sound manner. Before 1977, excess spoil was often pushed or
dumped from the mining bench onto undisturbed steep slopes below,
resulting in hazardous and environmentally damaging slides.

Excess spoil is now disposed of in valley fills in the upper reaches of
valleys adjacent to the mined area. The fills are carefully engineered
and constructed for stability. Terraces and diversion ditches on the
fill surface control runoff to prevent erosion. Ground water that
seeps into the fill is channeled through internal drains that follow the
original drainage pattern.

In addition, excess spoil is used to reclaim abandoned mines when
they are included in the permit of an active mining operation.
Althougth only feasible where mining is in very close proximity to
an abandoned mine, this practice results in positive benefits by using
the excess spoil that is usually costly to dispose of properly.

Before SMCRA, this was a common scene in steep-sloped areas of
Appalachia (above). Now excess spoil from initial mining cuts is
permanently stored in engineered excess-spoil fills. This environ-
mentally sound practice minimizes downslope and oflisite distur-
bances and reduces the hazard to people living down the valley from
such structures.

 

 

Completed excess spoil fills are reclaimed using terraces along a
contour to minimize infiltration of surface water into the fill mass
(right). Terrace and off/ill drainage flows into riprapped diversion
ditches that minimize erosion from the fill. Rock on the fill surface
is covered with topsoil and revegetated.

The presence of sufficient volumes of hard, durable rock on some
mine sites can make end-dumping of this hard spoil into valleys
adjacent to mining an economical way of placing excess spoil in fills
(below). Gravity segregation ensures that large rocks reach the
bottom of the fill to form a layer of freely draining rock similar to a
French drain. F ine-grained, poorly draining rock and soil are
trapped at the top of the slope where they are unlikely to affect the
fill ‘s stability.

 

 

 

 

 

Highwall Elimination and Return to Appro

As overburden and coal are removed, a cliff—like hi ghwall is formed,
with a flat working bench at its base. Highwalls can bemore than 100
feet high and can extend for thousands of feet. Exposed highwalls
may be a safety hazard, and may leave coal beds and acid- and toxic-
forming material open to weathering and consequent formation of
acid drainage. Hi ghwalls also can be a barrier to movement across
the area for people and wildlife.

Some of the most widespread and visually dramatic problems before
SMCRA were the highwalls left exposed when a mining operation
was completed. Unreclaimed pre-SMCRA surface mines lefi a
variety of conditions involving exposed highwalls and overburden
that was simply pushed downhill or piled in unstable, unsightly
ridges. Over the past 1 5 years, operators have improved overburden
handling techniques that result in effective regrading. Even under
steep slope conditions, reclamation has resulted in stable slopes that
cover the highwall and provide a finished grade that approximates
the pre-mining appearance of the land.

SMCRA requires that operators cover all highwalls created by
current mining. Generally this is accomplished by placing spoil
against the highwall and grading it so that after the highwall is
covered the contour of the land, approximates the pre-mining
contours. The Act also requires that backfilling and grading,
followed by topsoiling and revegetation, are to be coordinated with
mining and completed as quickly as possible.

   

mate Original Contour

Before 1977, mile upon mile of bare highwalls scarred the Appala-
chian skyline, as shown in this scene from Tennessee (above). In
addition, spoil that was pushed downslope from the highwalls was a
safety hazard and a threat to the environment.

The coordination of post-SMCRA mining and reclamation, termed
contemporaneous reclamation, ensures that reclamation is a ful-
filled promise to the landowner. Mining pits are now baclqilled in
a timely fashion, and vegetation is reestablished promptly to mini-
mize the effects of erosion. This Powder RiverBasin scene (top right)

 

encompasses the full range of
this process, from area mining
in the background to revegeta-
tion in the foreground.

Current reclamation practice i n—
cludes bacldilling the bench or
pit to eliminate the highwall.
Soil and rockformerly "spoiled ”
over the downslope is nowsaved
for reclamation and revegeta-
tion. The bulldozer at this Ohio
contour mine (right) pushes
earth materials back up against
the highwall to return the land
to its approximate original con-
tour.

This reclaimed contour-mined
slope in Eastern Kentucky (left)
is steep-Slope reclamation un-
der SMCRA. Afler mining, the
land is returned to its approxi-
mate original contour and reveg-
elated.

 

Post-mining Land Use

With proper reclamation, mined land can be retumed to its pre-
mining use or to a valuable new use. The Act provides several ways
that coal mining operators, working with landowners, can take full
advantage of post—mining land use opportunities while meeting all
regulatory requirements. A variance from the requirement for
regrading to approximate original contours is available when the
operator reclaims the site to a form and condition more suitable for
an improved use that is better for the landowner or the local
community. For example, steep pre-minin g conditions of unimproved
forest can be reclaimed, under a variance, to provide flat land that can
be developed into valuable real estate.

 

 

./e’ a “

When the permit for this mine site (left) near Hazard, Kentucky, was
obtained in 1981, the land was heavily impacted by pre-1977
abandoned mine problems. Landslides were common, rain on

exposed high-sulfur coal pits produced acid dra inage, and unsightly
exposed highwalls were a safety hazard. The flat terrain that
resulted from a mountaintop removal operation was prized in this
mountainous area; in 1983 the reclaimed site was selected for the
new Eastern Kentucky Regional Airport. A terminal building and a
3, 500-foot runway, constructed by the mining company, have made

the airport an outstanding example of a unique and practical post-
mining land use.

 

 

 

 

Heavy plastic liners were spread over this graded mine site near
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to create a pollution barrier for a large
landfill (top left). Reclamation for this land use required careful
grading to provide even slopes and a clean surface. Multiple
barriers of plastic and soil prevent leakage and provide drainage to
the bottom of the fill for collection and treatment. In the future, the
entire valley of this former mine will be filled with refuse and covered
with earth.

Following reclamation at this southern Indiana coal mine, the land-
owner is farming his land just as he hassince the 1930’s (bottom left).
After reclamation to prime farmland standards, the land has main-
tained its high crop production yields.

In 1990 and 1991 the trees used for the National Christmas Pageant
ofPeace tree-lighting ceremony on TheEllipse in Washington, D. C.,
were grown on a tree farm located on reclaimed mine land. Here (top
center), Jack Cox, past president of the coal company that mined and
reclaimed the land, andJohn F eisley, owner of the tree farm that was
the source of trees for 1991, watch as the trees are dug for use at the
pageant. Following the month-long pageant, the trees were trans-
planted to permanent locations in parks throughout the Washington,
D. C., area.

Regrading the land’s surface is a major part of the surface mine
reclamation process. And because golf course construction also
requires extensive surface grading, golf courses are a logical post-
mining land use. As a result, golf courses are found on many
reclaimed mine sites throughout the country (top right).

A cemetery adjacent to an active coal mining operation in Davis,
West Virginia, needed room to expand. Extra blasting in this area
reduced the size of the rocks in the baclgi ll so that this reclaimed m ine
site could become a level, well-drained cemetery (center right).

Because surface mines are usually located in remote locations, the
potential for residential post-mining land uses is limited. However,
at a mine in Colstrip, Montana, the company reclaimed land near the
town 's center to facilitate home construction. Today, this reclaimed
land contains a large number of the community ’s single-family
houses (bottom right).

 

 

 

 

 

Revegetation

SMCRA requires the establishment of a healthy, permanent vegeta-
tive cover on all land affected by coal mining, once mining is
completed. Stabilizing the soil with permanent vegetation is one of
the principal means of minimizing erosion and reducing stream
siltation and is often critical to the post-mining land use. The plant
species used are usually native to the area and capable of self-
regeneration on the site. Introduced species are often used in the East
for specific post-mining uses. The types of vegetation specified in
the permit are based on the pro-mining vegetation and the post-
mining land use. Straw or hay mulch or chemical soil stabilizers
frequently are applied during or after seeding to prevent erosion and
retain moisture. Operators are responsible for maintaining new
vegetation until it is determined to be successful -- for a minimum of
five years in the East and Midwest and a minimum often years in the
semiarid West.

Prior to SM CRA, topsoil could be discarded along with spoil, making
it difl‘icult to establish a vegetative cover over the reclaimed area
(right). Now, topsoil is carefully salvaged and replaced over a
graded surface, as a medium for plant growth.

Given a suitable layer of growth medium, plant species not in the
reclamation seed mix will "volunteer" even in the arid West.
Flowering groundcover provides usefitl erosion control at this mine
in Colorado (bottom right).

 

Successful tree growth has been achieved on many eastern U.S. mine
sites. Zhis mixed tree stand on a reclaimed West Virginia mine site
began as a tree planting alonga ridge (below). Additional trees have
since “volunteered ” into the favorable growing conditions created
by the reclamation and now cover the entire hillside.

 

 

24

 

 

A North Dakota Public Service Commission mine
inspector examines a native silver buflalo berry shrub
that has been transplanted in advance of mining from
a thicket to a reclaimed area (right). This species has
high value as a source of food and shelter for wildlife.
This “recycling” of a valuable native shrub preserves
a pre-existing mine site resource and quickly reesta b-
Iishes the reclamation vegetation.

Seed mixes for revegetation are carefully selected in
the arid West to ensure that both warm- and cool-
season species are represented (far right). This
practice accelerates the slow process of establishing
a viable stand of vegetation under harsh conditions.
Native species, which are pre-adaptedfor local con-
ditions, are included as an aid to successful revegeta-
tion.

 

 

 

 

     

 

Blasting and Explosives

Mining requires the use of explosives to break up rock layers in the
overburden and sometimes the coal itself. To prevent damage to
nearby dwellings and other structures, blasting must be carefully
planned and carried out by qualified blasters. Before SMCRA,
blasting was sometimes performed by untrained personnel and
occasionally damaged nearby dwellings. Now blasters must be state-
certified. A pre-blastin g survey of dwellings within ahalf—mile of the
mine is performed to identify any conditions that may require special
procedures. Signs and audible warnings are provided before blast-
ing, and access within the blasting area by unauthorized persons is
restricted.

Prior to SM CRA, blasting at surface coal mines was unregulated and
a comon problem was overloaded blasts (above). This resulted in
flyrock frequently causing damage to nearby structures and adjoin-
ing properties.

By using carefully controlled amounts of explosives and time-delay
blasting, mining at this Indiana site successfully mined within 63 feet
of a residence and within 20 feet of the barn (right).

T o facil itate mining ofa coal seam in Gillette, Wyoming, blasting was
used to loosen the coal after the overburden was removed (below).
Approximately half a million tons of coal in a seam 80 feet thickwas
loosened by this blast.

Mining companies are required to monitor the ground vibration
eflects of blasting on residences near active mines. Seismographs

are used to measure the frequency of blast vibrations. Comparing
this measurement with a regulatory base-line gives the allowable
vibration level for the distance from the seismograph to the blast site

(left)-

 

 

 

Wildlife Restoration and Enhancement

Wildlife does not usually come to mind when people think of the
landscape that results from surface coal mining reclamation. How-
ever, wildlife habitat is actually one of the more common post-
mining landuses. Many mining operations use accepted reclamation
techniques to reestablish or even improve wildlife habitats. Among
the techniques used are:

I Contouring the land to better suit desirable species of wildlife,
including game species;

I Introducing adapted and selected species of plants to support
browsing and foraging;

I Creating impoundments with safe, clean water that will attract and
support a variety of aquatic and terrestrial animals; and

I Stocking fish in impoundments to provide recreation opportunities
for the public.

Such achievements reflect SMCRA’s intent to minimize the adverse
impacts of coal mining on fish and wildlife habitats and to enhance
those environmental values where possible.

 

   

The creation of ecological niches that ofi’er shelter and denning or
nesting opportunities leads to a greater diversity of wildli e on a
reclaimed site. This rockcairn in arid Wyoming is an example of this
practice that provides rodent habitat (above). Species that prey on
rodents are then likely to frequent the site.

Reesta bl ishment of rangeland after reclamation has provided forage
flJr wild grazin g animals, including these antelope on a North Dakota
mine site (right).

Wetland habitat has a particularly rich and diverse ecology. Cre-
ation or reestablishment of wetlands on reclaimed mined land is a
high priority in areas of the country where this post-mining use is
suitable. Here Canada geese forage on a wetland that was a former
mine site in Grant County, West Virginia (left). Water surrounding
the nesting islands discourages predators.

For bird species that require certain specific nesting structures,
nesting boxes are constructed to attract and retain a breeding
population on the reclaimed area. This bluebird box (top left) was
constructed by a mine operator in Ohio on a recla imed contour mine
site as part of a regional effort to sustain a species whose population
had been declining.

 

 

Mine Waste Disposal

Mine waste includes the rock and clay that must be removed from
underground mines during development and mining as well as the
processing reject from coal cleaning. Such waste, particularly the
coal cleaning reject, often contains a large amount of pyrite or other
toxic material which must be carefully disposed of to prevent
pollution of surface or ground water. Tremendous progress has been
achieved over the past 15 years in developing and applying environ-
mentally safe disposal practices. Two of these practices are:

I Performing extensive pre—mining surveys to select disposal sites
that minimize infiltration into ground water; and

I Sealing the waste material with clay barriers to further eliminate
infiltration.

 

 

 

      

This mine refuse pile adjacent to a small town in western Pennsyl-
vania is the waste product of a pre-SM CRA coal cleaning operation
(above).

This pre-SM CRA coal cleaning waste was transported to the refuse
site in a water slurry. Due to the high content of coal in the slurry
pond, solid material is beingremined with a dredge and transported
to a newly constructed coal cleaning plant through a large pipe
(below). This unusual mining method, regulated underSMCRA just
as a traditional mine would be, prevents adverse environmental
impacts during mining. The site will be reclaimed when the
dredging operation is complete.

Surface mine pits are used for disposal of combustion waste from
electric-generating power stations. At this Wyoming mine (left),
bottom ash from a coal-fired power plant is dumped by haul trucks
to bacljill an area mine pit. The material will ultimately be buried
under suflicient cover to reestablish vegetation.

 

 

 

Protecting Historical and Cultural Resources

Before mining can begin, the state regulatory authority must consult
with the state, federal, and local agencies that have historic preser-
vation responsibilities. If it is determined that the proposed mining
would adversely affect an historic property, a treatment plan is
developed to avoid or mitigate impacts to the property.

This petroglyph was salvaged by a Montana mine in an area that was
subsequently surface mined (above). Here, the company ’s environ-
mental coordinator directs the painstaking extraction of the
petroglyphjrom the soft sandstone ofEIlison ’s Rock. T he petroglyph
is on display at the Montana Historical Society museum in Helena.

Rock ledges and outcroppings on areas permitted for mining have

protected temporary or permanent habitation sites for indigenous

Early in this century, the history of the American West was still being peoples. Archaeologists from Southern Illinois University have

written. T heDoc Taylor Cabin, a historic settlement structure dating excavated this site in Arizona to document such prehistoric activity

from 1913, is shown being moved onto reclaimed land in Montana (below). In this way thearcheological record is enhanced as sitesare
(above). investigated prior to being disturbed.

 

 

Roads

Haul roads to mines constitute a significant percentage of the land
used for surface coal mining. These roads are usually well-engi-
neered, designed for heavy-equipment use in all types of weather.
Precautions must be taken during their design and construction to
ensure adequate drainage of surface water from the road surface and
right-of-way and to minimize erosion and water drainage to the road
base. Regulations describe the specific standards for locating,
grading, surfacing, and maintaining mine roads and associated
structures, such as drainage ditches and culverts.

The parts of the mine road system that can be converted to permanent
roads to serve the post-mining land use can represent a significant
benefit. Roads that are not left in place for the post-mining use are
reclaimed. Road reclamation entails regrading, topsoil replacement,
and revegetation so that the former roads blend into adjacent
reclaimed areas.

When haul roads are not kept for use after mining, they must be
reclaimed. On this reclaimed mine site in New Mexico (right), the
haul road has been seeded with native plants. The location of the
former road is revealed by the blooming orange globe mallow that
was included in the road reclamation seed mix.

Existing roads and highways are sometimes in the path of a surface
mining operation. Since the roads are public property, the mine
operator must negotiate with the local road commission or highway
authority to determine if mining can occur under the road. At this
reclaimed mine in Alabama (bottom right), a county road was
rerouted and improved at no cost to the taxpayers to facilitate
extraction of coal.

 

 

32

 

This newly constructed haul road is located on a mine with high
rainfall conditions and easily eroded soils (bottom left). T o prevent
erosion of the road and adjacent areas, water has been routed by
closely spaced check dams to a riprap-lined ditch. Nae area adjacent
to the road has been mulched and seeded to establish a grass cover.

 

 

Remining

As aresult of pre-SMCRA coal mining -- when goodreclamation was
the exception rather than the rule -- millions of surface-mined acres
were left in a condition that continues to adversely affect the
environment. If the environmental impact of an abandoned mine site
is extreme, or if the site constitutes a health or safety hazard, it is
considered a high priority for reclamation through the Abandoned
Mine Lands program. Unfortunately, many sites causing environ-
mental degradation do not meet this priority standard, and it is
questionable whether there ever will be sufficient AML funds to
provide for restoration of all abandoned sites. A partial solution to
the problem has been remining, which entails the reopening of an
abandoned mine by extending either the length or the width of the out,
then incorporating reclamation of the abandoned mine lands into the
active-mine reclamation process. Remining also may involve aban-
doned underground mines, through a process called daylighting.
Unreclaimed abandoned underground workings can generate a sig-
nificant volume of acid mine drainage. Remining abandoned under-
ground mines can result in a major environmental benefit because as
reclamation follows reminin g, old sources of acid mine drainage are
eliminated.

Coalmining companies have voluntarily reclaimed many abandoned
mine lands while mining adjacent properties. Potentially, many
additional sites could be reclaimed through remining. Recognizing
that economic conditions may limit opportunities for reclamation
through remining, the Office of Surface Mining is advancing several
initiatives designed to encourage industry to apply remining tech-
niques and to extend the voluntary reclamation of abandoned coal
mines.

Pre-SMCRA abandoned surface mines such as this one in Ohio
(above right) are remined to extract the remaining coal. Efficient
modern equipment and mining methods make mining this resource
more economical than it was in the 1940's and -50 's when mining
first took place.

 

 

 

Remining or "daylighting" an abandoned underground mine re-
quires removal of the overburden that remains above the former
underground workings (bottom left). Remining at this operation in
Pennsylvania (below) reduced mine drainage into a nearby creekby
over 26, 000 lbs. of acid and 8,000 lbs. of iron per day.

 

33

ABANDONED MINE LAND PROGRAM
Mine Openings

To mine coal by underground methods, vertical shafts, sloping
tunnels, or horizontal entries (adits) into the coal seam are needed,
depending on the overlying topography. Vertical openings are
usually subdivided into compartments approximately 8' x 10' each.
They provide access through solid rock to coal deposits that may be
several hundred feet below the surface. The dimensions of an adit
vary greatly, depending on the thickness of the coal seam and the
complexity of the mining operation.

Since enactment of SMCRA, underground coal mines that finish
operating close off their shafls, slopes, and adits, and permanently
reclaim the ground. Before SMCRA, however, many openings were
left unreclaimed. Some are still there. They are all dangerous.

Abandoned mine openings are generally categorized into the follow-
ing three broad groups:

I Shafts: Large vertical openings used for ventilation, hoisting coal
to the surface, transporting materials underground, and allowing
miners access to the mine. Open vertical mine shafts may be easy
to see if they are exposed and located in areas without much dense
vegetation. However, openings covered by underbrush or rotten
boards are extremely treacherous, because the cover can collapse
under the slightest weight, giving way to a shafi that may be
hundreds of feet deep.

I Adits: Horizontal or gently sloping mine entryways directly into
the coal seam are also referred to as “adits.” These openings may
seem like interesting places to explore, tempting curious children,
adventurous teenagers, or unwary adults who are oblivious to the
danger. Unfortunately, besides their own hazards, the openings
often lead to tunnels that may contain rotten roof supports, deadly
gases, unexpected vertical shafis, and flooded sections. As a
result, several people each year are killed or seriously injured in
abandoned mine opening accidents.

I Boreholes: Small-diameter (usually 6 to 12 inches) vertical holes
used to pump water from a mine to the surface, or to provide
electrical and communication cables to the mine. Some may be
artesian drains foramine. Boreholes are usually difficult to locate
in the field since they are often covered by debris. They are
normally found by reviewing mine maps or after the water level in
the mine has risen enough to cause the hole to discharge water. The
actual dimension of a borehole may expand to a much larger
opening afier a mine is abandoned or closed, depending on the
nature of the rock and depth to the mine. These openings are
extremely dangerous to both humans and wildlife.

In the past, mine openings were usually filled with rock material or
covered with boards or a concrete coverwhen mining was completed,
although sometimes they were simply abandoned without being
closed or covered. Openings that were filled or capped and then
reopened due to weathering or vandalism can become serious
hazards.

Since 1977, AML funds have been used to fill or close over 14,000
mine openings. Although abandoned mine openings are one of the
highest-priority AML projects, they are a constant problem, because
all openings were not properly mapped and additional openings are
often discovered wherever underground coal mining has taken place.

34

 

Abandoned mine openings such as this one in Kentucky (above) are
extremely dangerous. Partially caved in at the entrance, this
example is typical of a bandoned mine openings found throughout the
country in areas were underground coal mining has taken place.

The first state AML project to use a grant from the AML Fund was
approved in August 1981. This project included the closure of a
dangerous abandoned underground mine opening located in a
Benwood, West Virginia, city park. Although fenced, the opening
was readily accessible to children playing in the park (below).
Reclamation work included clearing the area around the mine
opening, demolishing an old fence and metal steps leading into the
mine, sealing the opening with concrete blocks, filling in the opening
with rock and soil, and revegetating the site. Today the site is free
of AML dangers and the only reminder of this problem is a marker
located on the hillside behind the swing (bottom center).

 

A sloping mine entry located close to a picnic area in Pennsylvania
was especially dangerous because the area around the opening had
eroded, leaving a large, almost vertical, funnel-shaped hole more
than 1 00 feet deep (above). Emergency reclamation work included
filling the entire depth of the opening with rockmaterial and grading
the surface to prevent water from draining into the fill. With
reclamation complete (top right), another dangerous AML problem
was eliminated.

This mine entrance on an Indian reservation in Colorado was closed
by building a concrete wall faced with natural stone (right).

Abandoned mine openings that drain water are closed using a "wet
seal " (bottom right). A wet seal incorporates a drain located at the
bottom of the fill material that covers the mine opening. The drain
prevents a build-up of water in the mine and eliminates the possibility
that water pressure inside the mine will break the seal.

 

Mine Fires

Fires in abandoned coal mines are some of the most serious coal-
mining-related problems. As early as 1766, avisitorto Fort Pitt (now
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania) noted in his diary that a fire in a coal mine
near the top of Mt. Washington “has now been burning almost 12
months entirely underground.” Another visitor also referred to this
fire six years later, in an entry dated October 14, 1772.

As coal mining increased during the nation’s industrial growth, the
problem of abandoned mine fires also increased. In 1954, President
Eisenhower signed into law a program that provided funds to control
and/or extinguish outcrop and underground fires in coal formations.
This was the earliest federal abandoned mine land reclamation

program.

In most cases, fires begin when trash is burned near coal exposed at
the surface or when forest fires ignite exposed coal. On occasion,
underground mine fires are believed to be the result of a fire that was
never completely extinguished in the workings of an active mine.
Fire in an abandoned mine is not usually detected until long after it
is ignited.

Mine fires present a danger to the public because fires may spread to
homes and wooded areas, fumes rise through ground fissures and into
buildings, carbon monoxide and smoke can asphyxiate residents or
cause long-term respiratory problems, and land subsidence may
result from the void that remains after an underground fire has burned
the coal.

Underground mine fires are among the most challenging and com-
plex of all abandoned mine problems. It is often difficult to detect
an underground fire until it has spread out of control. Complete
identification of the full extent of a fire area is virtually impossible
because the fire spreads in irregular patterns and forms isolated
pockets of combustion. In addition, the two commonly used methods
of extinguishing the fire - excavation and water quenching -- are
expensive and not always entirely successful. One other method of
extinguishment is fire-fighting foam, which has been successfully
used to extinguish or control the spread of fires in populated areas.

Coal mine fires can be grouped into one of three broad categories:
underground mine fires, coal outcrop fires, and coal refuse pile fires.
Fire control techniques include complete excavation, the digging of
a trench barrier (or the installation of an incombustible barrier) to
prevent the spread of fire, flushing mine voids with solid material in
a water slurry to prevent the flow of air to the burning coal, surface
scaling to eliminate ventilation of the fire, and floodingthe mine with
water to extinguish the fire.

Since 1977, 385 sites have been identified as having fires, and over
200 have been funded for reclamation. Although many mine fires
have been eliminated with Abandoned Mine Land funding, new fires
start each year. During the fall of 1991, in West Virginia alone, it is
estimated that forest fires started more than 25 coal mine and coal
refuse fires.

36

 

 

In the anthracite coal region of eastern Pennsylvania, coal seam fires
are common. This fire, located under a Pennsylvania town, periodi-
cally burns to the surface, emitting smoke and noxious fumes (top
left). Here, smoke and fumes had killed all vegetation; emergency
action to remove the burning coal was required (above). Left in
place, the burning coal could have started a forest fire and further
endangered nearby residents.

A Pennsylvania mine refuse fire started when burning trash ignited
coal in a refuse pile. The immediate concern was to prevent a forest
fire and keep the fire fiom spreading into a nearby coal seam.
Reclamation of this two-acre site included first constructing a
firebreak around the perimeter of the fire to control its spread, then
excavating and water-quenching the burning refuse, and finally
grading the area, covering it with non-combustible material, and
planting it with grasses (top right).

The first OSM/state cooperative agreement project started under
SM CRA was the abatement of the Peach Creek refuse fire in Logan
County, West Virginia. The project contained 38 acres of burning
refuse that was excavated and quenched using water fi'om a ten-acre
pond constructed on the project site. Ten years after the project ’5;
completion, the area was covered by a wide variety of vegetation
(bottom right).

Water is hosed on a small fire in a coal refuse pile in Tennessee
(above). This technique is reflective where adequate quantities of
water are available and the fire is located near the surface.

 

Subsidence

Mine subsidence is identified by the ground surface depressions and
cracks that develop above an underground mine afier coal is mined
and the mine roof and overlying rock material sag or collapse.
Subsidence phenomena above abandoned mines are commonly
categorized as:

I Pit subsidence: small diameter depressions at the surface that
extend varying depths towards the mine.

I Room subsidence: occurs when the overburden across the width
of the mine room fails and a shallow depression develops on the
surface.

I Sag subsidence: develops where the pillars are failing in conjunc-
tion with roof failure of themine. Substantial damage to structures
is common, especially when the structure is at the edge of the
subsiding area.

Subsidence may occur during mining or may not develop until many
years after mining is completed. A US. Bureau of Mines study8
estimates that over 7 million acres in the United States are underlain
by abandoned coal mines. Approximately two million acres have
been affected by subsidence. The remaining five million acres are
susceptible to future subsidence. About 10 percent of the five million
acres is located in urban areas.

Subsidence problems have the potential to affect more land than any
other abandoned mine problem. In addition, because subsidence
causes direct damage to property, this problem receives a large
amount of public attention.

In subsidence-prone urban areas, electric and gas service, water and
sewer lines, and roads and sidewalks may require flexible couplings,
hinged joints, and other special provisions to permit a measure of
flexibility and prevent the need for frequent repair.

Subsidence that occurs within residential neighborhoods and highly
developed commercial areas is usually stabilized by filling the mine
voids to prevent additional ground movement. This is commonly
done by drilling holes both into the soil and rock above the collapsed
mine voids and into the mine voids themselves. Open fractures
within the collapsed bedrock above the mine are grouted by pumping
a cement material into the voids. Larger mine voids are filled by
flushing loose material such as sand, flyash, and mine refuse material
into them.

Because subsidence can be serious, many subsidence incidents have
been addressed through the AML Emergency Program. To date, over
2,000 subsidence problems have been corrected as emergency proj ects.
However, because it may take subsidence many years to cause
surface damage, it is expected that subsidence problems will con-
tinue to occur wherever abandoned underground mines exist.

38

 

The degree to which the surface eflects of subsidence can be seen
depends on the depth of the mines, the strength of the overlying rocks,
and the amount of coal that was removed. Sinkholes and troughs are
the most obvious indications of subsidence. Sinkholes like these in
North Dakota (above) open up unexpectedly, posing a serious
danger.

According to the homeowner, rumbling sounds began to emanate
fiom the basement one September evening and continued for several
hours. Investigation revealed that the home was shifting on its
foundation. The noise was rockmaterial under the basement falling
into the subsidence void. The residents were immediately evacuated
fiom the house and emergency work began (below). The eflects of
subsidence split the house in half: making it uninhabitable. The total
area affected by subsidence was about 1 20 feet in diameter and was
ringed by surface tension cracks up to three feet deep and 40 feet
long. In addition to this house, four other houses were afirected.
Reclamation consisted of flushing more than 100,000 cubic yards of
rock material into 25 boreholes drilled into the abandoned mine
workings located about 90 feet under the house. In addition, the
project required replacement of the road and sewer lines located
nearby.

 

 

Subsidence frequently damages man-made structures. This chimney
was destroyed by the twisting and shifting action resulting from
subsidence (right). The chimney separated as ground movement
caused the building ’s foundation to shift to the right approximately
six inches.

Surface subsidence resulted when the roof collapsed in an aban-
doned underground mine 1 50 feet below a residential area adjacent
to a high school in Fairmont, West Virginia. After a drill rig drilled
320 boreholes (below), 2, 000 cubic yards of concrete was pumped
into the boreholes. The resulting concrete pillars support the mine 's
roof and will prevent future subsidence.

L

m.
w

 

 

 

Highwalls

Before 1977, surface coal mine operators ofien abandoned the final
cut of a mine operation without backfilling or left only a minimal
amount of strip spoil covering the exposed coal seam. The result was
the creation of a sheer wall of rock, up to 150 feet high. These sheer
cuts, known as highwalls, are subject to natural weathering. As they
weather, highwalls become unstable and prone to collapse if dis-
turbed.

The danger of injury or death from falling rock makes highwalls
serious threats to public safety when they occur adjacent to public
roads and near populated or public use areas. In addition, highwalls
present a special hazard to off-road vehicles, whose drivers may
accidentally drive over the edge. In some cases isolated “islands” or
“apple cores” were formed, preventing access to the land above.

To date, more than 200 miles of dangerous highwalls have been
eliminated.

Prior to SMCRA, surface mines often were not baclyilled. Pools of
water impounded in the pits and exposed rock highwalls are typical
reminders of past surface mining (above right).

Reclamation at this West Virginia AML site eliminated 6, 000 linear
feet of highwall and sealed four mine openings. To prevent future
damage, an under-drain was placed along the length of the highwall
to collect drainage from auger holes. Since no topsoil was available,
the spoil was direct-seeded with a special seed mix. Today this
landscape bears little resemblance to its appearance before the
abandoned highwalls and spoil were reclaimed (right).

 

 

This Pennsylvania highwall project was one of the largest to receive
a grant from the Abandoned Mine Land Fund. The problem was
extensive and particularly dangerous. The highwall was1.25 miles
long and over 4 00 feet deep; a residential area was located less than
1 00 yards from the top. In 1978, a 12-year-old boy died after he fell
over the edge. This view shows the abandoned highwall project as
it neared completion (below). The highwall in the foreground has
been eliminated, while in the distance work continues.

 

40

 

 

 

Mine Drainage and Water Problems

Abandoned surface and underground mines cause a variety of water
problems that endanger the health and safety of people who live
nearby. The principal types of problems include flooding, im-
pounded bodies of water, and acid mine drainage.

I Flooding results from clogged streams. The erosion commonly
associated with abandoned coal mine sites results in stream
sedimentation. Erosion occurs when rainfall, runoff, and melting
snow loosen soil and rock particles from unprotected spoil banks,
processing waste, haul roads, orunvegetated mine lands, and wash
the particles into nearby streams. As the water velocity of the
stream slows down, the particles settle into the streambed as
sediment. Accumulation of sediment reduces the stream’s capac-
ity to carry water and can result in many costly problems: flooding
can increase, culverts and bridges can clog, additional water
treatment is required, and the habitat of aquatic life is destroyed.

I Impounded water trapped in abandoned mine pits and sediment
basins becomes a potential hazard because of possible darn
failures. Many impoundments have steep or unstable banks,
ledges or sharp rocks hidden underwater, or debris on the bottom.

I Acid mine drainage is acidic water that flows from abandoned
underground mines and mine refuse and spoil areas. Acid mine
drainage lowers pH and increases the chemical content of sub-
stances such as iron, manganese, and other metals. Concentrations
can reach toxic levels and, along with the acidic conditions, can
reduce or eliminate life in nearby streams, creeks, and lakes.
Repeated fish kills may occur whenever heavy rains flush toxic
water from mine areas into rivers or lakes. In worst cases, entire
stream systems continuously receive toxic runoff that kills plant
and animal life. Acid mine drainage may also pollute water used
for irrigation or livestock, diminishing the value of affected
agricultural land.

I Alkaline mine drainage occurs primarily in mid-western and
western coal fields and results from either the leaching of soluble
sulfate and carbonate or saline minerals or the neutralization of
acid mine drainage by carbonate present in natural waters. Be-
cause of these varied sources of alkaline mine drainage, the water
quality and resulting effects on surface and ground water are also
quite varied. Typically, though, the effects of alkaline drainage
are not as severe as acid mine drainage and are not as easy to see.

To date, nearly 1,500 sites throughout the country have been identi-
fied as having abandoned mine land water problems. Of these sites,
almost 500 have been reclaimed or have received funding to begin
reclamation.

Acid mine drainage pollution occurs when pyrite in coal (and in the
rock associated with the coal seam) is oxidized and the soluble
oxidation products are transported by water that flows through the
mine to nearby streams. Although not all mines produce acid
drainage, it is a problem in Ohio, Maryland Pennsylvania and
northern West Virginia and can be recognized by the orange color of
iron precipitates in the streams and rivers (top left).

Although not as common as the iron precipitates associated with acid
drainage, mine drainage occasionally contains a high concentration
of aluminum, which precipitates as a white coating on thestream bed.
This precipitation occurs when alkaline mine water containing high
concentrations of aluminum is oxidized by turbulence at the point it
is discharged from the underground mine (bottom left).

42

 

A variety of measures are used to control the acid mine drainage from
abandoned mines: grading and covering acid-forming materials to
promote water runoff and eliminate pyrite oxidation; eliminating
surface subsidence sinkholes that divert surface runofir into under-
ground mines; and sealing underground mines to reduce the oxygen
content in the air and minimize the flow of water from the mine. This
acid pond (top center) was eliminated by baclqilling with clean
material, then grading and revegetating the reclaimed site (top
right).

This stream flowing through an extensive area of abandoned mine
refuse flooded frequently, causing damage to downstream residen-
tial areas. T o eliminate the problem, the refuse was graded and
revegetated, and the stream was reconstructed. In areas of steep
grade it was necessary to grout the rock in place to maintain the
stability of the stream bed and prevent erosion of the underlying
material (right). When completed, this project eliminated flooding;
mine refuse no longer caused pollution downstream.

 

Landslides

Landslides are potentially hazardous problems associated with aban-
doned mines, especially in the steep-terrain, hi gh-rainfall areas of the
eastern United States. Landslides occur when rainfall and storm
runoff cause mine spoil dumped on the outslope (downslope) below
a contour surface mine to become unstable. Landslides also happen
when water flowing out of underground mine openings saturates soil
below the opening. As these areas are saturated with rain or with
water draining from an abandoned mine, the whole mass suddenly
moves downhill. Landslides may also result from mine subsidence
that destabilizes the bottom of a marginally stable hillside covered
with mine spoil. Landslides may cover many acres.

When homes, roads, and streams lie in the path of a landslide, its
destructive force creates an extremely dangerous threat. Landslides
m y damage or destroy property. They can block roads, leaving local
residents stranded and cut off from essential or emergency services.
Floods may result from streams that are dammed with landslide
debris.

Most landslide reclamation methods include the elimination of
surface and ground water flow into unstable spoil material, the
removal of the sliding material, and the construction of retaining
structures to stabilize the slopes.

Since 1977, OSM and state abandoned mine land programs have
reclaimed almost 800 dangerous landslides.

This Tennessee landslide (above) occurred when spoil material from
a pre-SMCRA strip mine located near the top of the hill became
unstable and slid down the hillside. The principal cause of this and

most other mine-related landslides is saturation of slopes by mine
water.

Signs are used by both OSM and the states to identify Abandoned
Mine Land project sites and advise the public that the funds used for
reclamation have been made available flom fees paid by the coal

industry (left).

 

A landslide above this Kentucky house (bottom right) required
emergency workta prevent further damage. Surface and subsurface
drains at the top of the hill divert water around the house. The
concrete wall will provide a solid base at the bottom of the hill and
prevent future sliding. The large pipe covered with gravel behind the
wall will prevent water build-up and keep added pressure off the
wall. As the last step in the reclamation process, the entire site will
be graded and revegetated.

Repairing roads damaged from landslides in steep-sloped A ppala-
chia often involves construction of concrete retaining walls (bottom
center). In this example, water draining from an abandoned mine
above the road had saturated the side of the hill below the road. The
water acted as a lubricant, causing the hillside under the road to slide
down the hill. Rerouting the drainage has prevented a recurrence of
the problem.

Once the slumped material was excavated from this West Virginia
landslide (right), extensive surface drains were constructed, and the
aflected area was covered with rock riprap to stabilize the surface
and prevent future erosion.

 

 

 

 

 

Mine Refuse Waste Piles and Impoundments

Under some mining conditions, large quantities of waste products
accumulate from coal cleaning. During mining, rocky material from
above and below the coal seam is extracted with the coal, along with
thin rock layers that are sometimes found within the coal bed.
Historically (before enactment of SMCRA), the disposal of this
waste material consisted of simply dumping it in piles from trucks,
conveyors, or tramways, creating literally mountains of refuse. As
the material was dumped, the larger lumps of rock rolled to the
bottom of the pile and the fine particles stayed on top. The result was
piles which air and water moved freely through the cumbustible
material making them a significant fire hazard. Because little or
nothing grew on them, they were subject to erosion. Some also
impounded water.

Reclamation of coal refuse problems includes controlling surface
drainage and runoff, controlling the level of impounded water,
lowering the height of the refuse pile to reduce the potential for
slides, regrading and stabilizing slopes, and buttressing fill to
prevent slides.

Prior to 1977, coal mining produced piles of m inc and cleaning plant
wastes, known as refuse or gob piles, that dotted the hillsides and
valleys of the coal regions (right). These refuse piles often caught
fire, created landslides, produced acid mine drainage, or allowed
fine material to wash into adjacent streams, clogging them with
sediment and causing floods.

 

Before reclamation, this 5 0—acre area adjacent to an active Indiana
mine (bottom left) consisted of a very large abandoned gob pile and
a slurry pond. The site was the principal source of acid mine
drainage that was polluting the local watershed. The area was
graded and covered with approximately two feet of shale and
unconsolidated subsoil materials, then revegetated in pasture and
hay fields. Costs to complete this reclamation project were shared
by the mining company and the landowner, saving the public over
$200,000 in AML funds.

Refuse from an old mine continually washed into a West Virginia
stream, causing downstream flooding of homes and an adjacent
highway. The refuse was graded and the dump was covered with
eight inches of topsoil. In addition, a stream running through the site
was riprapped and the entire area was revegetated to prevent further
erosion and flooding (right).

Prior to reclamation, this West Virginia site (below) contained 30
acres of coal refuse. Today, this reclaimed AML site shows few
traces of this former problem.

 

GLOSSARY

Acid- and toxic-forming materials. Rock or coal layers containing significant amounts of pyrite or other minerals which, if exposed
by coal mining, will cause acid or toxic drainage to occur when acted upon by air and water.

Acid mine drainage. Any water with a pH less than 6.0 draining from a coal mine. Water is often orange-colored because of the
presence of oxidized iron.

Adit. An underground mine entry at sites where coal seams are exposed at ground level.

Apple core. A complete hilltop (360°) left exposed by not backfilling the highwall.

Approximate original contour. The surface configuration achieved by backfilling and grading the mined area so that the reclaimed
land closely resembles the general pre-mining surface configuration and blends into and complements the drainage pattern of

the surrounding terrain.

Area mining. A surface mining method that is carried on in level to gently rolling topography on relatively large tracts of land. Active
area mine pits may be several miles long.

Arid and semiarid regions. Lands, generally west of the 100th meridian, where water use by native vegetation equals or exceeds that
supplied by natural precipitation, and rainfall is insufficient to support agriculture. Annual precipitation is normally 20 inches
or less.

Auger mining. A mining technique often used by surface mine operators when the overburden becomes too thick for the coal to be
mined economically using traditional surface mining methods. Large-diameter (usually 2'-4') horizontal holes are drilled as
much as 300 feet into the vertical face of the coal bed by an auger. Like a bit used for boring holes in wood, coal augers
consist of a cutting head with a screw-like extension. As the auger turns, the head breaks up the coal and the screw carries it
back into a conveyor that loads it directly into a truck.

Backfilling. The operation of refilling an excavation using material removed during the mining process.

Bench. The level or flat working area at the base of the hi ghwall that is excavated between the exposed coal seam and the original
surface of the ground. A

Bucket wheel excavator. A continuous-digging machine that uses a rotating vertical wheel with buckets for large-scale stripping and
excavating.

Cessation Order. Order to cease mining issued to a coal operator by the regulatory authority due to severity of violations.

Contemporaneous reclamation. Restoration of mined land that occurs as soon as practical afier coal removal.

Contour mining. A mining method commonly used in eastern mountainous topography where coal is removed in a narrow strip around
the hillside. The extent of the cut into the hillside is determined by the depth of overburden at the highwall compared with

the thickness of the coal seam.

Daylighting. A term used to describe a surface mining procedure that exposes abandoned underground coal mine workings to enable
removal of the remaining coal. Daylighting is followed by land reclamation.

Dragline. An excavating machine, usually used in large, flat areas, that drags a bucket (which holds up to 220 cubic yards of material)
toward the machine by cables, loads it with spoil, and then hoists it with a boom up to 350 feet long, allowing the machine to

excavate wide benches by depositing the spoil hundreds of feet away from the highwall.

Grading. The process of smoothing the disturbed areas of the mine site, after the coal is removed, to closely approximate the pre-
mining terrain.

Haul road. Any road constructed, improved, maintained, or used by mine operators and located within the permit area.
Head-of-hollow fill. See “valley fill.”
Highwall. The cliff-like excavated face of exposed overburden and coal in a surface mine.

Hydroseedlng. Planting of seed mixed in a water medium. Water, mulch, lime, fertilizer, and seed are blended and sprayed onto
regraded soil.

48

Hydrologic Balance. The relationship among precipitation, surface runoff, evaporation, and ground- and surface-water storage.
Impoundment. A pond or other water-holdin g structure or depression, formed naturally or artificially built.
Landslide. Unconsolidated material that becomes unstable due to overloading or water saturation and slides downslope.

Legumes. A group of plants, valuable for both food and forage, that are used in reclamation planting because of their nitrogen-fixing
characteristics. Commonly used reclamation legumes include clover, alfalfa, lespedeza, and vetch.

Mountaintop removal mining. A mining method commonly associated with the mountainous conditions of Appalachia. The
overburden covering 100 percent of a coal seam is removed to allow complete recovery of the coal, and excess spoil is
hauled to a nearby valley and deposited in valley fills. The reclaimed mine site resembles a mesa or highland plateau.

Multiple seams. Locations where the vertical separation between coal beds is close enough to allow mining of more than one seam.

Notice of Violation. Notice presented to coal mine operators by inspectors when performance standards or permit conditions are not
being met.

Outcrop. The natural surface exposure of a coal bed or identifiable rock layer.

Overburden. Rock material overlying the coal deposit, but excluding soil. Soil is generally removed separately for use in reclamation.

Perform ance bond. A financial guarantee posted by a mine operator to ensure faithful performance of the reclamation requirements of
the Surface Mining Act. Bonds are returned to the operator upon successful completion of reclamation. If the operator does

not complete the required reclamation, the bond is forfeited and the money is used to reclaim the site.

Permit. A document issued by the regulatory authority that gives approval for the operation of a surface coal mine under conditions set
forth in SMCRA and the implementing regulations.

Permit area. The area of land and water within the boundaries specified in the mining and reclamation permit. At a minimum, this
includes all areas that will be directly affected by the surface coal mining operation during the term of the permit.

Preparation plant. A facility at which coal is cleaned or processed before being shipped or used.

Prime farmland. A special category of highly productive cropland that is recognized and described by the US. Department of
Agriculture’s Soil Conservation Service and receives special protection under SMCRA.

Priority. Eligibility of AML projects for fund expenditures based on the degree of adverse effects on health and safety.

Pyrite. A yellowish mineral, iron disulfide (FeSz), commonly found in coal beds and associated rocks, that results in acid drainage
when it comes into contact with air and water. ,

Regulatory authority. The state agency, or OSM, which has responsibility for administering the Act in a given geographic area.

Riprap. Large pieces of broken or crushed durable rock or concrete placed on earth dams and in drainage channels for protection
against erosion.

Sedimentation pond. An impoundment constructed on the mine site to remove suspended solids from surface water before the water
leaves the permit area.

Spoil. The overburden, not including the soil layers, that has been removed in surface mining to gain access to the coal seam.

Steep slope. Areas with slopes greater than 20 degrees. Steep slopes commonly require special mining and reclamation techniques due
to the difficulty of stabilizing reclaimed land and preventing erosion.

Stream diversion. The temporary or permanent rerouting of a stream. Acceptable diversion requires the reconstruction of existing
streambed features such as riffles, falls, and meanders.

Terrace. A depression across the face of a steep hillside that slows the flow of surface water and minimizes soil erosion.
Topsoil. The dark, fertile uppermost layer of the soil.
Valley fill. A stable, planned disposal area for spoil not needed for reclamation, which is placed in the uppermost part of a valley. No

significant area of natural drainage occurs above the fill.
49

CHRONOLOGY OF SMCRA HVIPLEMENTATION

Prior to SMCRA 25 states regulated surface coal mining; no program met requirements established by SMCRA.

August 3, 1977. Public Law 95-87 (SMCRA) signed into law by President Carter; OSM established by the Secretary of the Interior; Headquarters, five
regional offices, 14 district offices, and 28 field offices planned.

September 7, 1977. Proposed initial program rules published; 300 written comments received in response.

December 13, 1977. Initial program regulations published containing 12 performance standards and regulations governing assessment and collection of
reclamation fees.

January 30, 1978. First AML fees due for the fourth quarter of 1977.
February 3, 1978. Mining and reclamation operations with permits issued after this date required to comply with initial program regulations.
May 3, 1978. All coal mining and reclamation operations required to comply with initial program regulations.

July 3-12, 1978. Proposed draft permanent program regulations distributed; nearly 2,000 pages of public comments received on these advance copies of
rules.

August 3-11, 1978. Public meetings on proposed regulation held in Washington, DC; Charleston, WV; Knoxville, TN; Indianapolis, IN; Kansas City, MO;
and Denver, CO; nearly 2,000 pages of comments received; 173 witnesses testified.

September 18, 1978. Proposed permanent program regulations published; more than 15,000 pages of cements received from approximately 600 sources.
Oct. 25, 1978. Final rules for administration of AML fund promulgated.

January 7, 1979. Wyoming signed cooperative agreement with the Department of the Interior covering regulation of coal mine reclamation on federal
lands; Montana and Utah signed agreements in the following months.

March 1979. Abandoned Mine Land Inventory began with 25 states and one Indian tribe submitting information.

July 20, 1979. Texas submitted proposed state program; Mississippi submitted plan on Aug. 2, 1979; followed by Montana on Aug. 3 and Wyoming on
Aug. 15.

February 27, 1980. First state primacy program approved (Texas); Montana followed on April 1, 1980.

March 30, 1980. Deadline for state program submission, 24 state programs submitted. (Georgia and Washington did not submit programs.)
June 23, 1980. First Abandoned Mine Land Reclamation Plan approved (Texas); Montana followed in October 1980.

August 19804anuary 1981. Fifteen additional states received primacy.

December 16, 1980. First designation of lands as unsuitable for coal mining, an area adjacent to Bryce Canyon National Park.

May 21, 1981. OSM reorganized to reflect role change from direct regulation to oversight; Technical Centers established in Pittsburgh and Denver, 13 Field
Offices and 6 Area Offices created; number of field locations reduced from 42 to 22.

September 30, 1981. First Indian tribe cooperative agreement signed between Navajo Tribe and OSM (Crow and Hopi Tribes followed in May 1982).
January 1982. Regulatory reform task force established; during next 9-month period 91 percent of all regulations were rewritten.

February 1, 1982. Three US. Bureau of Mines AMI. programs transferred to OSM (PL. 738, Extinguishment of Outcrop and Underground Fires; PL. 162,
Anthracite Mine Drainage Act; and P.L. 89-4, Appalachian Regional Development Act, Section 205).

May-August 1982. Remaining 6 state regulatory programs approved; all 24 major coal-producing states have primacy.

June 25, 1982. Comment period began on revised regulations; more than 6,100 specific comments received.

September-December 1982. Three federal regulatory programs established for non-primacy states (Georgia, Michigan, and Oregon).
February 16, 1983. Federal lands program promulgated.

March 23, 1983. Alaska regulatory program approved; 25 states have primacy.

May 2, 1983. Arkansas assumes emergency project responsibility; followed by Montana on Aug 18, 1983 and Illinois on June 11, 1984.

May-October 1983. Six more federal programs established in non-primacy states (Idaho, Massachusetts, North Carolina, Rhode Island, South Dakota, and
Washington).

December 23, 1983. Alaska AML Reclamation Plan approved; 22 states have approved reclamation plans.

50

Aprll 30, 1984. Deficiencies in Oklahoma and Tennessee programs resulted in direct federal enforcement of inspection portion of programs.
October 1, 1984. Full federal program instituted in Tennessee afier state repealed program; 24 states have primacy.

October 12, 1984. Public Law 98-473 authorized states and tribes vsn'th approved reclamation plans to use AML funds for establishing self-sustaining,
individually administered subsidence insurance programs.

February 1, 1985. Court order (known as “Revised Parker Order") required computerized permit applicant/violator/debtor matching system to prevent
violators from receiving new permits.

November 5, 1985. Two-acre task force established to enforce violations and collect unreported fees in Virginia and Kentucky.
December 10, 1986. Louisiana AML Reclamation Plan approved; 23 states now have approved reclamation plans.

May 7, 1987. Public Law 100-34 amended Section 402(g) authorizing states to set aside up to 10 percent of the state-share portion of their annual AML
grants for use after Aug. 3, 1992.

June 6, 1987. Public Law 100-34 eliminated the two-acre exemptions for newly permitted operations and set Nov. 8, 1987, as final day for exemptions.
June 22, 1987. First annual Excellence in Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation Awards presented to nine operators.

July 11, 1987. Public Law 100-71 authorized Navajo, Hopi, and Crow Tribes to administer AML programs without approved regulatory programs. (Navajo
and Hopi AML plans approved May 16 and June 28, 1988.)

October 1987. Applicant Violator System (AVS) operational.
November 1987. First prototype Technical Information Processing workstations (TIPS) installed in states of Montana, Illinois, and Pennsylvania.

November 13, 1987. Virginia assumes responsibility for AML emergency projects; followed by West Virginia on Aug. 1, 1988, and Kansas on Jan. 10,
1989.

December 22, 1987. Public Law 100-202 authorized civil penalties collected under Section 518 ofSMCRA to be used to reclaim land mined and abandoned
afier Aug. 3, 1977.

February 23, 1988. Cooperative Agreement signed between OSM and Kentucky to implement Settlement Agreement between the National Wildlife
Federation and Kentucky; agreement dealt with added financial support from OSM.

May 16, 1988. Navajo Tribe Reclamation Plan approved; followed by the Hopi and Crow Tribes in June 1988 and January 1989.
July 13, 1988. Federal regulatory program for California promulgated.

January 9, 1990. New OSM emblem adopted; symbolizes balance between the country’s need for coal to supply energy and the need for environmental
protection.

January 24, 1990. Settlement agreement with environmental groups signed, ending 10 years of controversy and litigation over the “two-acre exemption,”
which was repealed in 1987.

March 15, 1990. Federal grand jury indicted of two mine operators for alleged scheme to defraud mine reclamation fund.

September 5, 1990. Federal court approved settlement agreement ending eight-year legal dispute between environmental groups over the Applicant
Violator System.

August 20, 1990. Sliding fee scale for federal coal mine permits adopted; new fee includes a schedule of fixed charges, plus a per-acre fee.

January 23, 1991. Alabama assumes responsibility for AML emergency projects; seven states have emergency project authority.

August 15, 1991. Non-reporting of coal output and non-payment of AML fees results added to pennit-blocking criteria of Applicant Violator System.

October 1, 1991. Public Law 101-508 revised Title IV: Collection offees extended until Sept. 30, 1995; interest \w'll accrue on the Fund’s unappropriated
balance; small operatortonnage definition increased from 100,000 to 300,000 tons; funds may be used to reclaim interim-program sites; and
states may establish a trust fund for an acid mine drainage program.

November 8, 1991. West Virginia strengthens regulatory program in response to OSM oversight report identifying a decline in performance.

May 22, 1992. Federal appeals court dismissed environmental lawsuit over AVS performance on jurisdictional grounds; OSM affirmed role of AVS in
permit processing and kept AVS operational.

May 29, 1992. OSM received special national award for management excellence from the President’s Council for Management Improvement. The
award honored OSM for improvements in AVS operation since 1990, plus the outstanding record achieved in getting overdue fees and fines paid.

51

 

REFERENCES AND FOOTNOTES

1.

6.

7.

8.

US. Department of the Interior, Office of Surface Mining. Surface Coal Mining Reclamation: 10 Years of Progress: 1977-1987.
Washington, D.C. August 3, 1987. 48 pp. (For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington
DC. 20402.)

. The Rural Abandoned Mine Program (RAMP), authorized by Section 406 of SMCRA, provides for the control and prevention of erosion

and sediment damages from unreclaimed abandoned mine lands.

. The Small Operator Assistance Program (SOAP), authorized by Section 401(b)(l) and 507(c) of SMCRA authorizes up to 10 percent of

the fees collected for the Abandoned Mine Reclamation Fund to be used for technical assistance to help qualified small mine operators
obtain techincal data needed for permit applications. Operators who produce fewer than 300,000 tons of coal per year are eligible for
assistance.

. OSM regulations 30 CFR 81 6.42 and 817.42 require water from areas distrubed by mining activities be in compliance with all applicable

state and federal water-quality laws and effluent limitations for coal mining established by the US. Environmental Protection Agency.

. Sourse: Abandoned Mine Lands Fee Collection System, Data from OSM—1 form.

Sourse: Abandoned Mine Lands Fee Collection System, Data from OSM-1 form.
Source: OSM Field Office Annual Reports.

Johnson, W. and G.C. Miller, Abandoned Coal-Mine Lands: nature, extent, and cost of reclamation. U. S. Bureau of Mines, 1979, 29 pp.

PHOTOGRAPHIC CREDITS

Front cover, pp. i, l, 2 bottom, 7 right, 10 bottom left, 11 top, 11 bottom right, 12 top, 13 bottom, 14 bottom right, 15, 16 bottom, 17
top, 17 bottom right, 18 bottom, 19, 20 bottom, 21 top, 22, 23, 24 bottom, 25 bottom, 26 bottom left, 26 bottom right, 27, 28, 29 top, 30
bottom, 32 bottom right, 33 top, 34 top, 35 top left, 35 bottom left, 35 bottom right, 36 top, 37, top right, 37 bottom, 38 bottom, 39, 41,
42 top, 43 bottom, 44 bottom left, 44 bottom right, 45, 46, 47, and 53: Chuck Meyers, OSM.

Page 2 top and center: Tony Fuhs.

Page 3: John Sharkowicz, OSM.

Page 6 left: North American Coal Corp.

Pages 6 right, 7 left, 11 bottom left, 13 top left, 13 top right, 17 bottom left, 21 bottom, 25 top left, 25 top right, 29 bottom, 30 center,
32 top, 32 bottom left, and 38 top: Bob Welch, OSM.

Page 10 top left: Donald Stump, OSM.

Pages 10 right, 14 top right, 14 center right, 18 top, and 44 top: Ron Hill, EPA.

Page 12 bottom: Texas Utilities Co.

Pages 16 top, 20 top, 24 top: Tennessee Valley Authority.

Page 26 top right and 26 center left: Richard Dick, US. Bureau of Mines.

Pages 30 top, 33 bottom left, 33 bottom right, 35 top right, 36 bottom, 37 top left, 40 top, 40 bottom, 42 bottom, 43 top left, and 43 top
right: Jim Boyer, OSM.

Page 31 top left, and 31 top right: Bruce Waage, Western Energy Co.

Page 31 bottom: Rex Wilson, OSM.

Page 34 bottom: West Virginia Division of Abandoned Mine Lands.

Page 35 center: William Weist, Jr., OSM.

52

Abandoned mine land sites frequently contain a variety of environmental problems. At this 45-acre West Virginia site adjacent to a small
town, 11 abandoned underground mine openings were discharging acid water, mountains of exposed coal refuse from an abandoned coal
cleaning plant covered the valley floor, and 6, 500 linear feet of dangerous highwallsfiom an abandoned pre-SM CRA surface mine were
present. A fler reclamation, it is difficult to find any traces of past mining or the associated abandoned mine problems. Here, as the architects
of the SM CRA envisioned, use of Abandoned Mine Land funds has resulted in permanently removing the health and safety hazards, leaving

the land essentially as it was before mining took place.

53

 

 

 

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g ‘ ‘t 53% g
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(D 151% flnniversary 3

197 7—1992