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Chemical Weathering of
Basalts and Andesites:
Evidence from Weathering Rinds

By STEVEN M. COLMAN

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1246

Weathering rinds preserve a wide spectrum of uncontaminated alteration

products, and allow documentation of the mineralogic and chemical changes
accompanying the weathering of basalts and andesites

 

 

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON:1982

11274

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

JAMES G. WATT, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Dallas L. Peck, Director

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Colman, Steven M.
Chemical weathering of basalts and andesites.
(Geogical Survey Professional Paper 1246)
Includes bibliographical references.
I. Basalt. 2. Andesite. 3. Weathering.
I. Title. II. Series,
QE462.B3C64 552’26 8l—6803 AACR2

 

For sale by the Branch of Distribution, US. Geological Survey,
604 South Pickett Street, Alexandria, VA 22304

FIGURE 1.

CONTENTS

 

Abstract

 

Introduction

 

Methods

 

Sampling procedures

 

Analytical procedures

 

Mineralogic alterations in basalt and andesite weathering

 

Stages and products of mineral alteration

 

General observations

 

Weathering stages for individual minerals

 

End products of weathering

 

Descriptions of the alteration of individual minerals

 

Alteration of glass

 

Alteration of olivine

 

Alteration of pyroxene

 

Alteration of plag'ioclmv

 

Alteration of arnphibole and K-feldspar

 

Alteration of opaque minerals

 

Stability of primary minerals

 

Rock-weathering stages

 

Rock and mineral alteration with time

 

Implications of the clay mineralogy of weathering rinds

 

Chemistry of basalt and andesite weathering

 

Weathering indicw

 

Absolute chemical changes

 

Standard-cell-cations method

 

Weight-per-unit—volume method

 

TiO2—constant method

 

Chemical changes with time

 

Summary and conclusions

 

References cited

 

Appendix 1. Generalized petrographic descriptions

 

Appendix 2. Tables of analytical data

 

ILLUSTRATIONS

Page

WMWWNMNHH

Page

 

Index map of sample localities

Typical X-ray diffractograms of the clay-size fraction of weathering rinds and of associated soil matrices
SEM photomicrographs of samples of the clay-size fraction separated from weathering rinds
Differential thermal curves for samples of the clay-size fraction of weathering rinds
X-ray energy spectrometry for samples of the clay-size fraction of weathering rinds

Photomicrographs and XES data for:

6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

 

 

 

 

Weathering product 5

 

Glass altered to chlorophaeite (weathering product 2d}

 

Glass altered to weathering product 4;:

 

Olivine altered to “iddingsite” (weathering product 2b}

 

Olivine altered along grain margins and fractures

 

Pyroxene altered along grain margins and fractures

 

Altered pyroxene

III

macaw

12
13
14
15
16

IV

FIGURE

17.
18.
19—24.

25.
26.
27.

TABLE 1.

._.
PSOWFF‘P‘PPN

11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.

CONTENTS

 

13. Plagioclase altered along fractures to weathering product 23

 

14. Zoned plagioclase altered to weathering product 3c

 

15. Plagioclase microlites altered to weathering product 4b in their cores

 

16. Plagioclase altered to weathering product 4b around its edi

 

Two titanomagnetite grains in weathering rinds

 

Sketch of relative stabilities of minerals and glass in basalts and andesit'm
Diagrams plotting:

 

19. SiOzszo3 with distance from the stone surface

 

20. Bases : R203 with distance from the stone surface

 

21. Parker’s (1970) weathering index with distance from the stone surface

 

22. Molecular percentage of water with distance from the stone surface

 

23. Fe203 : FeO ratio with distance from the stone surface

24. Weathering potential index (WPI) versus product index (PI) for weathering-rind data
Triangular plots of SiOz, R203, and bases (MgO+CaO +Na20+K20) for weathering-rind data
Three methods of calculating chemical changes on an absolute scale, using profile of sample 118 as an exarnple————————
Changes in elemental abundances, calculated by assuming TiO2 constant, for selected weathering-rind samples

TABLES

 

 

17
18
19
20
21
22

25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
35

 

General description of samp‘

 

Weathering products observed in andesites and basalts

 

Mineral-weathering stages and weathering product"

 

pH results of N aF test for allophar"

 

Estimates of relative stability for selected minerals

 

Rock-weathering stages and weathering product"

 

Rock-weathering stages for each age of deposit

 

Ratios of elements in the outermost parts of weathering rinds to that in the unaltered rock

 

Weight percentage, sample interval, and bulk density

 

Molecular percentag

 

Molecular ratios

 

Standard-cell cations

 

Weights per unit-volume

 

Weights assuming TiO2 constant

 

Normalized molecular ratios

 

Normalized weights assuming TiO2 constant

 

CHEMICAL WEATHERING OF BASALTS AND ANDESITES:
EVIDENCE FROM WEATHERING RINDS

 

By STEVEN M. COLMAN

 

ABSTRACT

Weathering rinds on basaltic and andesitic stones preserve the
alteration products of these lithologies under conditions that pre-
clude detrital contamination, physical removal, and uncertainty of
original composition. The mineralogy and chemistry of samples of
weathering rinds on andesitic and basaltic stones from several areas
with temperate climates in the Western United States were studied
using a variety of analytical methods, including thin- and polished
sections, X-ray diffraction, differential thermal analysis, scanning
electron microscopy, X-ray energy spectrometry, and bulk chemical
analysis.

Volcanic glass and olivine are the least stable phases in the rocks
examined, and early stages of rind development are largely defined
by oxidation colors produced by the alteration of these materials.
At the other extreme are the remarkably stable opaque minerals,
primarily titanomagnetites, which are commonly the only recogniz-
able primary mineral in severely altered weathering rinds. Pyroxene
and plagioclase have intermediate stabilities, which vary with the
chemical composition of these minerals. Grain size, degree of frac-
turing, and chemical zonation of mineral grains are important con-
trols in determining the location and severity of alteration.

The alteration processes that produce weathering rinds on basalts
and andesites appear to be mostly degradational; only minor sec-
ondary mineral formation was observed. Alteration products ap-
pear to result mostly from hydrolysis. leaching, oxidation, and de
struction of primary mineral structures, and the sequence from
primary minerals to the most weathered products appears to be
nearly continuous. The end product of the intensities and durations
of weathering observed in this study is a mixture of allophane,
amorphous iron oxide-hydroxide, and poorly developed clay
minerals. Because many of the samples are from well-developed
argillic B horizons formed in deposits more than 105 yr old, the poor
development of clay minerals in the weathering rinds suggests that
the clay minerals form more slowly than is commonly assumed and
that the well—developed clay minerals in the argillic B horizons are
from sources other than the weathering of primary minerals.

Chemical trends during weathering-rind formation, as indicated
by several weathering indices based on molecular percentages, in-
clude large losses of bases (Ca, Mg, Na, and K), lesser depletion of
SiO,, relative concentration of sesquioxides, oxidation of iron, and
incorporation of water. Absolute chemical changes are best
estimated by assuming the immobility of a reference consitituent,
because volume reduction apparently occurs during weathering-
rind formation. Titanium appears to be the least mobile major ele-
ment in the rinds, and both aluminum and iron are depleted relative
to titanium. Relative elemental mobilities in the rinds are:

Ca2Na> Mg> Si> Al>K> Fe> Ti.

The rate of loss of most elements appears to decrease with time.

 

INTRODUCTION

Weathering rinds on andesitic and basaltic rocks are
an important source of mineralogic and chemical data
for the weathering of these lithologies. Most previous
studies of basalt and andesite weathering have dealt
with well-developed residual soils on highly altered
bedrock in tropical to semitropical climates (Carroll,
1970, references, p. 179). Of the few studies in temper-
ate climates, that by Hendricks and Whittig (1968) on
andesites in northern California and that by Roberson
(1963) on volcanic ash in Oregon, examined rock com-
positions and environments most similar to those ex-
amined in this study.

Weathering rinds offer a number of unique advan-
tages for weathering studies. First, the parent material
involved in the weathering is known with certainty.
Thin-section examination confirms that weathering
rinds are the altered part of the original stones and
that the rinds contain no detrital contamination. This
relation usually cannot be demonstrated for residual
soil profiles. The fresh rock, the altered rock forming
the rind, and the soil matrix are easily differentiated.

Second, because weathering rinds on basalts and an-
desites are cohesive, and because they were sampled
from below the ground surface, material can be re-
moved from the weathered stone only in solution;
physical erosion of the weathered material does not af-
fect comparisons among samples.

Finally, weathering rinds contain the products of all
stages of weathering, both in the transition from the
altered rind to the fresh core of a single stone and in
stones that have been subjected to weathering for dif-
ferent lengths of time. In contrast, well-preserved
residual soils of a wide spectrum of ages on a single
lithology are uncommon.

This report is divided into two sections, based on
the mineralogic and the chemical changes that occur
during weathering-rind formation. The mineralogic
section examines various stages of mineral alteration,
identifies secondary weathering products, and docu-
ments primary mineral stabilities. The chemical sec-

1

 

 

 

2 CHEMICAL WEATHERING OF BASALTS AND ANDESITES: EVIDENCE FROM WEATHERING RINDS

tion assesses bulk chemical changes accompanying
weathering and relative elemental mobilities.

A companion report (Colman and Pierce, 1981) de-
scribes in detail the sample sites and their geology
and contains detailed descriptions of the sampling
methods and other background information.

METHODS

SAMPLING PROCEDURES

Weathering rinds were sampled on stones from
within soil profiles at depths of about 20—50 cm. This
interval represents the upper part of the B horizon for
the soils sampled, or the upper part of the C horizon
where a B horizon was not developed; it was selected
because that part of the profile is the most weathered.
Between 30 and 60 stones were sampled at each site
for measuring weathering-rind thicknesses (Colman
and Pierce, 1981); of these, several stones having ap-
proximately the average rind thickness for the site
were selected for the mineralogical and chemical
analyses reported here.

Deposits sampled were primarily till, outwash, or
fluvial gravels. Sampling sites on these deposits were
located where the land surface has been most stable.
Most sampling sites were located on broad moraine
crests or on terrace surfaces where disturbance of the
weathering profile by erosion or by colluvial or eolian
deposition has been negligible.

General sample localities and descriptions are given
in figure 1 and table 1; detailed sampling methods and
site descriptions and localities are discussed in Colman
and Pierce (1981).

120° 115“ 110° 105°
1 | I J—

 

PUGEr WASHING TON
LOWLANo '

   

MONTANA

 

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WYOMING

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40° ‘LASSEN PEAK
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UTAH

9
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7

 

TABLE 1.—General description of samples

[For detailed descriptions of sample localities, see Colman and Pierce (1981. appendixes 1
and 2). All deposits are till, except for Thorp (outwash(?) gravels) and Logan Hill
(genesis uncertain"

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Sample No. Area Rock type Deposit

98 West Yellowstone Basalt—~— Pinedale.

95 -—do ——do——- Bull Lake.
102 ——do —do——— Do.

105 McCall -—do-——— Pinedale.

104 -—do ——-—-do—— Bull Lake.

109 —do -—-do- Do.

119 Mt. Rainier Andesite— Evans Creek.
120 -do ~do-—- Hayden Creek.
121 ———do —-—do-— Wingate Hill.
118 —do ——do-———- Logan Hill.

84 Lassen Peak ———do-—— Tio a.

89 —do ——-do—— Ear y Tioga.

85 -—-do -———-do-—-— Tahoe.

86 —do ——do—— Pre-Tahoe.

75 Truckee -—do—~—- Tioga.

83 —do ~—-do-——— Tahoe.

79 —do ——do——- Donner Lake.
134 Yakima Valley——- Basalt—— Indian John.
135 —do --do-—— Swauk Prairie.
140 —do —-—do-——- Thorp.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

I ' I 1 1

 

FIGURE 1.—Index map of sample localities. Labeled triangles are
areas for which analytical data for weathering-rind samples are
presented here. Circles are other localities where weathering-
rind thicknesses were measured (Colman and Pierce, 1981).

 

 

ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES

Mineral alteration was studied using a variety of
analytical tools, including: (1) microscopic examina-
tion of thin and polished sections, (2) X-ray diffraction
(XRD), (3) differential thermal analysis (DTA),
(4) scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and (5) X-ray
energy spectrometry (XES).

About 55 thin sections were examined with trans-
mitted fight, and many of these also were polished and
examined with reflected light in oil immersion. Weath-
ered portions of the rocks were impregnated with poly-
merized methyl methacrylate (Plexiglas), and so the
thin sections contained both the unaltered rock and
the undisturbed weathering rind.

About 30 samples of the clay-size fraction of weath-
ering rinds, along with 30 samples of the associated
soil matrices, were examined by XRD using Ni-filtered
CuKa radiation. Several replicate sets of samples were
prepared: One set was mixed with a dispersing agent
(sodium pyrophosphate); another set was mixed with
the dispersing agent and placed in an ultrasonic bath
for 30 minutes. Selected samples of the second set also
were treated with a dithionite-citrate-bicarbonate solu-
tion to remove free iron (Mehra and Jackson, 1960).
The clay-size fractions (< 2 gm) of all samples were
separated by sedimentation and were oriented by
evaporation onto warm ceramic tiles.

Nineteen of the clay-size samples prepared for XRD
and 14 of the thin sections (etched with HF) were ex-

 

 

MINERALOGIC ALTERATIONS IN BASALT AND ANDE SITE WEATHERING 3

amined under the SEM, after being coated with an
Au—Pd conductor. While the morphology of these sam-
ples was examined under the SEM, semiquantitative
elemental chemical analyses were obtained by XES.
XES data for individual elements were also obtained in
the form of line scans and abundance maps.

Chemical analyses of the weathering rinds and of the
associated fresh rocks were made by laboratories of the
US. Geological Survey. Where the thickness of the
weathering rind permitted, samples for chemical anal-
ysis were obtained from several layers of the rind.
Most samples were analyzed by “rapid-rock” (wet-
chemical) methods, but a few were analyzed by a com-
bination of X—ray fluorescence (XRF) and atomic ab-
sorption (AA) techniques.

Differential thermal analysis (DTA) was performed
on the samples in an oxygen atmosphere. Precalcined
alumina, which was used as the inert material, was
heated along with the samples at a rate of 10°C/min.

MINERALOGIC ALTERATIONS IN BASALT
AND ANDESITE WEATHERING

Several topics will be discussed in this section, in-
cluding: (1) stages of mineral alteration, (2) products of
weathering, (3) relative stabilities of primary minerals,
(4) relation of weathering stages to time, and (5) rela-
tion between weathering and soil clay-mineral forma-

tion. These closely related topics are difficult to.

discuss separately. Because all conclusions concerning
the weathering of basalts and andesites are based on
data and observations for individual minerals, the
details of the stages and products of the alteration of
each major mineral group will be discussed first.

STAGES AND PRODUCTS OF
MINERAL ALTERATION

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

This section is a combined discussion of the observed
sequence of events that occurred during the weather-
ing of each of the major minerals in basalts and
andesites and of the resulting weathering products.
The observed alterations appear to be due almost en-
tirely to the degradation of the primary minerals,
rather than to the formation of distinct new mineral
species. Early alteration products appear to result
from the destruction of the primary mineral structure,
but some crystallinity is preserved and most of the
products are in optical continuity with remnants of the
primary mineral. As the intensity or duration of weath-
ering increases, the products become finer grained and
less crystalline and lose this optical continuity. Chem-

 

ical data, discussed in detail in a later section, indicate
continuous depletion of all elements (except perhaps
titanium) relative to the amounts in the unaltered rock.

Alteration appears to proceed more rapidly in the
fine-grained matrix than in the phenocryst grains,
presumably because of the larger surface area of the
matrix constituents. However, where large pheno-
crysts have abundant fractures, localized weathering
along the fractures may alter them more rapidly than
it would alter smaller, less fractured minerals.
Regardless of grain size, however, early stages of alter-
ation are mostly localized along grain boundaries and
fractures. Exceptions are glass and some pyroxene
grains, which commonly display uniform alteration
throughout, although most pyroxenes are preferen-
tially altered along grain margins and fractures.

Control of weathering by mineral structure was not
observed. The cockscomb terminations of weathered
pyroxene and amphibole, which are often observed in
sediments and soils (Birkeland, 1974, p. 160) and in
volcanic ash (Hay, 1959, pl. 2), were not found in
basalts or andesites in this study. The absence of these
features may be due to the fact that most weathered
minerals in rinds are encased in a rim of their altera-
tion products. The boundary between the mineral and
the alteration product commonly is smooth and
regular.

Compositional variation in minerals appears to af-
fect the location and the rate of weathering. Many of
the rocks examined contain plagioclase that has nor-
mal, reversed, or oscillatory zonation; the more calcic
zones in these minerals altered first and more rapidly.
In pyroxenes, varying degrees of alteration due to
compositional variation were only rarely observed.
Compositional zonation in olivine, if present, did not
affect the location or the rate of weathering.

As time passes or as weathering becomes more
severe, minerals become encased in an increasingly
thick sheath of weathering products. Hence, in time
this sheath may impede the movement of weathering
solutions to and from the remnants of primary miner-
als. In extremely weathered portions of some weather-
ing rinds, nearly fresh remnants of primary minerals
appear to be protected in this manner by sheaths of
weathering products.

Examples of the preceding general observations are
given in the next section.

WEATHERING STAGES FOR INDIVIDUAL MINERALS

The products of weathering described here primarily
result from degradational rather than from formative
processes. Therefore, they do not have distinct crystal

 

 

 

4 CHEMICAL WEATHERING 0F BASALTS AND ANDESITES: EVIDENCE FROM WEATHERING RINDS

structures or readily determinable properties, and few
have been described in the literature as distinct
species. For this reason, weathering products are given
arbitrary symbols such as 2a, 3c, and 5, and will be
referred to as such. The descriptive properties of each
weathering product are based on thin-section examina-
tions, SEM-XES data, and XRD data (table 2).

The numbering scheme for weathering products
(table 2) is based on the division of the products for
each mineral (or glass) into stages (table 3). The stages
are arbitrary, and are abstractions of the sequence of
alteration of each mineral; the stages are numbered
from I for the unaltered mineral to V for the com-
pletely weathered product. Because the stages are de-
fined for each mineral, a given stage of weathering for
one mineral is not necessarily associated either in time
or in space with that same stage of a different mineral.
For example, olivine stage IV (product 4a) is com-
monly found in less weathered portions of rocks than is
plagioclase stage IV (product 4b). These mineral
weathering stages are arbitrary; they serve only to
organize the descriptions of the weathering products
and to facilitate comparisons.

END PRODUCTS 0F WEATHERING

The fate of all minerals in the weathering observed in
the rinds is weathering product 5 (table 2). Different
minerals approach product 5 through different series
of weathering products, but eventually, all vestiges of
the primary mineral structure are lost; this loss results
in the fuzzy, indistinct masses of product 5. Consider-
able data were gathered on the properties of product 5,
and it will be discussed first and in detail prior to dis-
cussing the sequence of other weathering products for
each mineral phase.

Weathering product 5, which is very hydrated and
X-ray amorphous, is composed primarily of Si, Al, and
Fe; it has some Ti and little if any bases (Mg, Ca, Na,
and K). Abundant oxidized iron imparts a reddish to
yellowish-orange color to product 5; the Munsell colors
of the dry, pulverized outer portions of rinds that con-
tain abundant product 5 are typically 10 YR 6/5 to 5/4.

Weathering product 5 constitutes the major portion
of the clay-size fraction of the weathering rinds; the
clay-size fraction is significant in many rinds, espe-
cially in those from deposits older than about 105 yr.
Although no quantitative data were collected on the
proportion of clay-size material in the rinds, it appears
to increase with time.

XRD data indicate that the clay-size fraction of
weathering rinds is X-ray amorphous (fig. 2). In con-
trast, samples of the soil matrix immediately adjacent
to the rinds have well-defined clay-mineral peaks on

 

 

X-ray diffractograms (fig. 2). Some very highly
weathered portions of weathering rinds from old
deposits show broad, ill-defined diffraction bands
around 7 to 8 A, suggesting possible incipient
halloysite formation. The absence of clear X-ray clay-
mineral peaks for weathering-rind samples was quite
unexpected, and repeated attempts using a variety of
sample preparations (section on “Analytical proced-
ures”), including citrate-dithionite iron removal, failed
to produce clay-mineral peaks on X-ray diffractograms
of rinds. Identical techniques produced well-defined
clay-mineral peaks for samples of adjacent soil ma-
trices. The X-ray-amorphous character of the clay-size
fraction of weathering rinds is supported by the few
XRD observations that have been previously made for
rinds. Crandell (1963) did not find XRD evidence of
clay minerals in weathering rinds on andesites from
Wingate Hill deposits near Mt. Rainier; Birkeland
(written commun., 1976) also obtained negative XRD
results for weathering rinds on andesites from Donner
Lake deposits near Truckee.

XRD data were also collected for randomly oriented
powders of some of the rinds. A few of the diffrac-
tograms showed a very small, poorly defined peak at
about 19.9° 20. This peak might represent the 4.45 A
peak caused by diffraction off the (1 10) spacing of layer
silicates. However, the poor definition of this peak
makes such a conclusion tenuous.

The presence of abundant X-ray-amorphous, clay-
size material in the weathering rinds immediately sug-
gests that a major portion of this material is allophane.
This term has been commonly applied to such material
since Ross and Kerr (1934) originally defined allophane
as “amorphous [to X-rays] material composed of vari-
able amounts of silica, alumina, and water.” Since
then, much work has shown that allophane has distinct
but variable X-ray, morphological, chemical, infrared
absorption, and differential thermal properties. Much
of this work is summarized by Fieldes (1966) and
Fieldes and Furkert (1966). Depending on composition,
allophane properties vary considerably (Fieldes, 1966),
and the continuous series from completely amorphous
Si-Al gels to well-crystallized kaolin minerals has been
divided into as many as four intermediate stages: allo-
phane B (“pro-allophane”), allophane A, “imogalite”
B, and “imogalite” A (Tan, 1969).

In addition to the X-ray-amorphous character of the
clay-size fraction of weathering product 5, its mor-
phology suggests a major allophane component. The
morphology of the clay-size fraction of weathering
rinds, as determined under the SEM, consists of ir-
regular, spongelike masses and globules (fig. 3). These
observations are similar to those made for allophane

 

MINERALOGIC ALTERATIONS IN BASALT AND ANDESITE WEATHERING 5

TABLE 2.——Weathering products observed in andesites and basalts

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Properties
Symbol Tentative
Plane light Crossed polarizers Principal Clay-size identification
elements from XES1 XRD2
1 Unaltered Unaltered————-—~——-~——--—~—- Variable- —————————— —— — Fresh mineral.
23 Clear brown to Optically isotropic ---do — Stained glass.
yellow to oran e.
2b3 Translucent, ye ow to Yellowish, microcrystalline, in Si, Mg, Fe-————-———--———-- — “IddingSite.”
reddish brown; around colloform bands, simultaneous
olivine boundaries to undulatory extinction.
and fractures.
2c3 0 aque. Opaque Fc — Fe-oxides.
2d Cigar, yellow-green. Very fine grained, normal Si, Al, Fe — Chloro haeite
extinction. (Ca, Mg, Na, K). or c orite.
2ea Speckly yellow, around Microcrystalline, speckled, Si, Al, Ca — Unknown.
pl 'oclase boundaries normal extinction. (Na, Mg, Fe).
an fractures.
3a Clear, yellow to Microcrystalline, speckled to Si, Al, Fe — “Altered
yellow—green. fibrous, sometimes radiating, (C a, Mg, Na, K). chlorophaeite.”
normal extinction.
3b Clear to translucent, Microcrystalline, speckled to Si, Al, Fe Amorphous Palagonite(?).
yellow to orange. fibrous, vague undulatory (Ca, Mg).
extinction.
3c Massive, clear to gray Microcrystalline, very low Si, Al, Ca — Unknown.
birefringence, norm (K, Mg, Fe, Na).
extinction.
4a Clear to translucent, Massive, vague undulatory Fe, Al, Si——-——-—-—-—-—-—-« Amorphous Unknown.
orange to red. extinction.
4b Massive, clear to gray Massive, optically isotropic-~«o— Sii 1:Al), Ca Amorphous Allophane.
e .
4c 0 aque, white (light Opaque Fc — Hematite
gluish gray) in (maghemite).
reflected light.
5 Gray- to reddish-brown, Indistinct masses, does not Si, Al, Fe Amorphous Allophane and
indistinct masses. go to extinction. (Ti). iron oxide-
hydroxide.

 

)( ), elements present in subordinate amounts.

2X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns determined for the clay-size fraction of the weathering rinds showed all such material to be X-ray amorphous. Weathering products larger than clay-size
are shown as leaders (—); where it is uncertain whether the material was of clay size or larger, the entry is queried.
3These products result from the alteration of only part of the original mineral, commonly along grain boundaries and fractures; alteration proceeds inward from these zones toward the core.

TABLE 3.—Mineral-weathering stages and weathering products

 

 

 

 

[( ), product commonly absent; leaders (—), not observed]
Stages
Mineral‘ I 11 111 IV V
Fresh Slightly Moderately Extensively Completely
mineralz weathered weathered weathered weathered
Glass 1, (2a) (2a), (2d) 3a, 3b 4a 5
Olivine——— 1, 2b 2b -— 4a 5
Pyroxene— 1 (2c), 2d 3a, 3b (4a) 5
Plagioclase 1 2e 3c 4b 5
Am hibole- 1, 2c 1, 2c 2c, 3b — 2c, 5
K—fe dspar- 1 — 3c — 5
Opaques— 1 — — 4c 5

 

lIncludes mineraloids (glass. some Opaques).

2Fresh minerals, those found in the unweathered core of the rock, may include products of deuteric alteration, such as Fe-oxides

and “iddingsite”.

by Hay (1960), DeKimpe and others (1961), Bates
(1962), Aomine and Wada (1962), Roberson (1963), and
Wada (1967). No evidence was observed of the long,
threadlike forms of “imogalite” (Wada, 1967;
Yoshinaga and others, 1968), the tubelike forms of
halloysite (Grim, 1968, p. 168), nor the hexagonal
forms of kaolinite (Grim, 1968, p. 171).

A chemical test for the presence of allophane was
developed by Fieldes and Perrott (1966). The method is
based on the fact that aqueous solutions of fluoride
react with the hydroxy-aluminum sites in certain types
of materials, including cracking catalysts and allo-
phane; this reaction causes the release of hydroxide
ions and an increase in pH. Fieldes and Perrott (1966)

C75—135

 

 

 

 

C75—118

 

 

10 8 6 4
2 0, DEGREES

20 18 16 14 12

FIGURE 2.—Typical X-ray diffractograms of the clay-size fraction of
weathering rinds and of associated soil matrices. Numbers in
upper right corner are sample numbers. R, weathering rind; c,
coarse-grained rock type; f, fine-grained rock type; S, soil
matrix; g, glycolated; K, kaolinite; H, halloysite; C, chlorite; M,
smectite (montmorillonite(?l); I, illite. Ni-filtered CuKa radia-
tion. Peaks above 20° are from the ceramic sample holder.

 

CHEMICAL WEATHERING 0F BASALTS AND ANDESITES: EVIDENCE FROM WEATHERING RINDS

   
  

FIGURE 3.—SEM photomicrographs of samples of the clay-size frac-
tion separated from weathering rinds. A, sample 140; B, sample
79. This material is mostly weathering product 5 (table 2). Note
the irregular, spongelike masses and globules. Background is
the metal surface of the sample holder.

found that by using suitable NaF and soil solutions,
the pH of allophanic soils subjected to the treatment
rose rapidly, generally to more than 9.0, but the pH of
soils without allophane generally remained below 8.0.
Results of the fluoride test on samples of weathering
rinds and on the associated soil matrices (table 4) indi-
cate the presence of allophane in all samples tested.
The rapid rise in pH to values considerably above 9.0
in some samples suggests abundant allophane.

The only convincing evidence of clay minerals in
weathering rinds is found in differential thermal analy-
sis (DTA) data (fig. 4). In general, DTA profiles of the
clay-size fraction of weathering rinds have the follow-

MINERALOGIC ALTERATIONS IN BASALT AND ANDESITE WEATHERING' 7

TABLE 4,——pH results ofNaF testforallophmw

[Results are for samples weighing about 2 g in 100 mL of 1M NaF solution (pH 7.5), except for the 1:1 soil-water mixtures. Clay-
size fraction of outer weathering rind is mostly weathering product 5]

 

Clay-size fraction of

 

 

 

 

Soil matrix outer weathering rind
Sample
N“ 1:1 After After After After After After
soil 10 30 75 10 30 75
water min min min min min min
118 5.5 8.9 9.0 9.2 8.4 8.9 9.1
120 5.4 8.7 9.1 9.2 8.2 8.7 8.7
121 5.6 9.0 9.1 9.2 8.4 8.8 8.8
102 5.7 8.9 9.0 9.3 9.1 9.1 9.1
105 6.1 8.7 9.2 9.2 8.9 9.5 9.5
109 5.6 9.0 9.2 9.2 9.0 9.1 9.2
86 6.1 9.1 9.4 9.6 9.4 9.8 10.3
79 6.4 9.0 9.4 9.5 9.0 9.1 9.2
134 6.2 8.9 9.0 9.0 8.3 8.4 8.5
—r ‘ ' ‘ ‘ ' ' ‘ ' ' ‘ ' ‘ ' ' ' ' ‘ fl ing features: (1) A large, broad, complex endothermic
Sample 79 peak occurs between about 50°C and 350°C. This peak
commonly is centered at about 160°C and (or) has an
additional individual peak at about 160°C. (2)
A moderately sharp endothermic peak of variable size
occurs at about 540°—560°C. This peak commonly
S I 109 includes a secondary peak, or at least a shoulder, at
amp 6 about 480°-490°C. (3) A slightly variable, but gener-
ally featureless curve occurs above 570°C, and com-
monly has a weak exothermic peak at about
935°—940°C.
The broad, low-temperature endothermic peak is
Sample 95

AT

Sample 118
Sample 134

Sample 86

 

 

Illllll
500

T (°C)

Illll)
100 300

FIGURE 4.—Differential thermal curves for samples of the clay-
size fraction of weathering rinds. Sample numbers for curves
are given at right. Vertical scale is relative.

 

characteristic of allophane (Holdridge and Vaughan,
1957). This peak is due to the low-temperature loss of
weakly held water; the average peak temperature for
allophane is 160°C (Holdridge and Vaughan, 1957,
table 5).

Endothermic peaks between 400°C and 650°C are
characteristic of clay minerals, but identification of in-
dividual minerals from DTA data is difficult, espe-
cially for mixtures of clay minerals. The 540°—560°C
peak is slightly low for typical halloysite (Holdridge
and Vaughan, 1957, table 5), but some mixtures of di-
octahedral smectites and kaolin minerals have DTA
curves similar to those in figure 4 (Greene-Kelly, 1957).
The exothermic peak between 900°C and 950°C is
characteristic of allophane and of a variety of clay
minerals.

Elemental X-ray energy spectrometry (XES) ob-
tained on the SEM for samples of the clay-size fraction
of the weathering rinds (fig. 5) indicates that Si, Al,
and Fe are the principal elements in the clay-size frac-
tion. The small amounts of Ti and bases (Mg, Ca, Na,
and K) present are probably from small remnants of
primary minerals in the clay-size fraction. XES data

 

 

CHEMICAL WEATHERING OF BASALTS AND ANDESITES: EVIDENCE FROM WEATHERING RINDS

Sample 109 Sample 79

 

 

 

 

 

Si Sample 118 Sample 134

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Sample 121

Sample 140

 

 

 

 

0 1.0 3.0 5.0 7.0 9.0
Kev

 

Kev

FIGURE 5.—X-ray energy spectrometry for samples of the clay-size fraction of weatherin
product 5. Peak heights indicate relative abundance. Au and Pd are from the cond

dispersing agent, sodium pyrophosphate. Sample numbers are given at right.

g rinds. This material is mostly weathering
uctive sample coating; some Na is from the

 

MINERALOGIC ALTERATIONS IN BASALT AND ANDESITE WEATHERING 9

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Al
Fe Au
AI M
M Au 9 Pd Ca Fe

9 Pd Na K _

Ti Fe TI
l l I I L l l l I | l l I I

0 2 4 6 8 o 2 4 6 a

Kev Kev

FIGURE 6.—Photomicr0graphs and XES data for weathering product 5. Au and Pd are from the conductive sample coating.
A, Photomicrograph (plane light) of andesite matrix weathered mostly to product 5 (dark). Sample 118—3. B. XES data for product 5 in
A; note low Al content. Peak heights indicate relative abundance. C, Photomicrograph (crossed polars) of basalt, altered mostly to
product 5 below stone surface (dashed line). Sample 135—a. D, XES data for product 5 in C. Peak heights indicate relative abundance.

for in-place product 5 (fig. 6) indicate the presence of The predominance of Si and Al in the clay-size frac-
only minor amounts of bases, and the low concentra- tion is consistent with the presence of abundant
tion of Al in some samples (fig. 6) suggests depletion of allophane. XES data demonstrate that Fe is also an
this element. abundant element in the clay-size fraction. Although

 

 

10 CHEMICAL WEATHERING OF BASALTS AND ANDESITES: EVIDENCE FROM WEATHERING RINDS

XRD and DTA data do not show evidence of second-
ary iron minerals, the Fe in the clay-size fraction of
rinds may occur as very fine grained or poorly crystal-
line minerals.

In summary, weathering product 5 comprises most
of the clay-size fraction of weathering rinds; it is com-
posed mostly of allophane, and of lesser amounts of
iron oxide-hydroxides and poorly developed clay min-
erals. The poor development of clay minerals may be
due either to (1) very fine grain size, (2) poor crystallin-
ity, or to (3) very low concentrations, but likely results
from all three conditions. The clay minerals present are
X-ray amorphous and yield only moderately defined
DTA peaks. Together the XRD, DTA, SEM, and
chemical data suggest not only that the clay minerals
are a minor constituent of weathering rinds, but also
that they are very fine grained and poorly crystalline.
Allophane-rich weathering product 5 appears to be the
end product of the intensities and durations of
weathering observed in this study.

DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ALTERATION OF
INDIVIDUAL MINERALS

ALTERATION OF GLASS

Glass is an abundant constituent of most of the
rocks sampled in this study (Appendix 1); it is also the
least stable. Evidence of altered glass in the otherwise
unaltered part of a few of the rocks suggests deuteric
alteration. In weathering rinds from young deposits
(about 20,000 yr old or less), alteration of glass and
olivine is primarily responsible for the discoloration
that defines the weathering rind.

In the early stages of weathering, glass shows a
variety of weathering products. Alteration generally
proceeds throughout the entire mass, but some glass
alters inward from edges and fractures. Alteration of
some glass produces only stained glass (product 2a),
which results from the yellow, orange, or brown colors
produced by iron oxidation. Product 2a is identical in
every other respect to the unaltered glass.

In other samples, the glass alters to a clear, yellow-
green material that is very fine grained; it shows nor-
mal extinction under crossed polars (product 2d). This
material is very similar to chlorophaeite as defined by
Peacock and Fuller (1928), although it resembles chlor-
ite in a few samples. XES data for this material (fig. 7),
compared with that for the unaltered glass in the core
of the rock, suggest little or no leaching of major
elements. Further alteration of the chlorophaeite to a
more yellow material suggests some oxidation of iron;

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Al
Ca
Fe
Mg A” Tl
PdK Ca
Ti Fe
I l l 1 l l l
O 2 4 6 8
Kev

FIGURE 7.—Photomicrograph and XES data for glass altered to
chlorophaeite (weathering product 2d). A, Photomicrograph
(plane light) of altered glass (arrows). B, XES data for one of the
glass grains marked in A. Au and Pd are from the conductive
sample coating. Peak heights indicate relative abundance.

 

MINERALOGIC ALTERATIONS IN BASALT AND ANDESITE WEATHERING I 1

under crossed polars this material appears speckly to
fibrous. These changes suggest increased alteration,
but because the resulting material (product 3a) prob-
ably still fits the definition of chlorophaeite, it is called
“altered chlorophaeite” here.

Because the altered glass eventually becomes yel-
low-orange and is commonly translucent, continuing
oxidation of iron is suggested. This material (prod-
uct 3b) is speckly to fibrous under crossed polars, but
shows weak undulatory extinction throughout the
grain. Product 3b was probably included in the X—ray
samples of the clay-size fraction of the weathering
rinds and hence is amorphous to X-rays. Product 3b
appears to fit the descriptions of palagonite, as defined
by Peacock and Fuller (1928) and Hay and Iijima
(1968).

Continued alteration of product 3b produces a mater-
ial that is redder and more translucent (product 4a).
Under crossed polars this material is no longer fibrous
or speckly, but is massive and shows vague, undula-
tory extinction. XES data (fig. 8) for product 4a sug-
gest a loss of silica and bases (Mg, Ca, Na, and K) and a
concentration of iron. Product 4a was probably in-
cluded in the X-ray samples of the clay-size fraction of
the weathering rinds and is therefore X-ray amor-
phous. A description of a distinct species with proper-
ties similar to those of product 4a was not found in the
literature. Product 4a eventually alters to product 5.

ALTERATION OF OLIVINE

Olivine, like glass, is one of the least stable consti-
tuents of the rocks examined in this study, and, in
some rocks, it shows evidence of deuteric alteration.
Olivine was always observed to alter first along grain
fractures and around margins. Inward from these
zones toward the cores of olivine, unaltered remnants
persist for long periods of time considering the initial
instability of olivine. Compositional zonation, if pre-
sent, had no observable effect on the alteration.

The initial weathering product formed around the
edges and along the fractures of olivine grains is trans-
lucent and yellowish to reddish brown (product 2b).
Under crossed polars it is yellowish and microcrystal-
line and shows simultaneous to undulatory extinction;
XES data (fig. 90) indicate that it is composed pri-
marily of Si, Mg, and Fe. Product 2b is “iddingsite,”
as defined by Gay and LaMaitre (1961).

“Iddingsite” can apparently form without losing
much of the major elements present in the unaltered
mineral. Oxidation of iron and destruction of the
olivine structure are evident in thin section in the for-

 

mation of “iddingsite” (fig. 9A), but XES data for
some samples indicate little or no differential loss of Si
or Mg (fig. 9B). In other examples of the alteration of
olivine to “iddingsite” (fig. 10), significant depletion of
Si and Mg has occurred along fractures, and some of
these elements have been depleted along the grain
margins (fig. 10B).

As weathering increases, “iddingsite” becomes
redder and massive and shows vague, undulatory ex-
tinction under crossed polars. It appears to alter to
weathering product 4a and then to weathering product
5.

ALTERATION OF PYROXENE

Pyroxene appears to weather through a series of
products very similar to those described for glass. Like
glass, some pyroxenes are weathered throughout the
grain; however, other pyroxenes weather progressively
inward from grain edges and fractures. In addition,
some alterations of pyroxene produce finely dissemin-
ated opaque grains, presumably iron oxide. Pyroxene
initially alters directly to product 2d (chlorophaeite)
along grain edges and fractures, or to product 3b
throughout the grain. From there, alteration proceeds
through the same sequence as that outlined for glass
(2d—>3a-*3b->4a->5).

XES line scans for Ca, Mg, and Si on pyroxene
grains weathered along fractures and edges (fig. 11)
show concordant, localized decreases in abundance of
these elements, whereas line scans for Fe (fig. 11) are
discordant with those of other elements. These data
suggest that Ca, Mg, and Si are lost along grain frac-
tures and margins, but that most Fe remains immo-
bile. In contrast, pyroxenes that are altered mostly to
product 3b throughout the grain (fig. 12) show little if
any localized depletion of Ca, Mg, Si, or Fe. This altera-
tion appears to be due primarily to the disintegration
of the pyroxene structure and to the discoloration
caused by iron oxidation.

ALTERATION OF PLAGIOCLASE

The weathering of plagioclase is controlled by
primary chemical zonation and by fractures and grain
boundaries. Much of the plagioclase examined, especi-
ally phenocrysts in andesite, is compositionally zoned,
and the zoning may be either normal, reversed, or oscil-
latory. It appears that the more calcic zones, most of
which are in the cores of the plagioclase grains, are
more susceptible to alteration than are the less calcic
zones. Plagioclase alteration is also concentrated along

 

 

12 CHEMICAL WEATHERING OF BASALTS AND ANDESITES: EVIDENCE FROM WEATHERING RINDS

 

grain fractures and boundaries. In no sample does
plagioclase show uniform, or nearly uniform, weather-
ing throughout the grain.

The initial weathering product of the alteration of
plagioclase is a yellow, speckly material (product 2e); it
is microcrystalline and speckly and has normal extinc-
tion under crossed polars. This material is found along
grain fractures and boundaries, or in the most calcic
zones of the mineral grain. XES data (fig. 13) indicate
that product 2e is composed mostly of Si, Al, and Ca.
In some samples small amounts of Fe, K, and Mg are
incorporated into product 2e, which also contains
small amounts of Na. Compared to the composition of
the unaltered plagioclase grain, product 2e is largely
depleted in Na, Ca, and Si. A description of a distinct
species with properties similar to those of product 2e
was not found in the literature.

 

Si
Au

Al Pd

Fe

 

 

 

 

l l I I I L I

 

 

0 2 4 6 8

Kev

FIGURE 8.—Photomicrograph and XES data for glass altered to
weathering product 4a. A, Photomicrograph (plane light) of two
large glass grains (arrows) stained by iron oxidation. B, XES
dot map of iron for the two altered glass grains in A. Density of
dots is proportional to iron concentration. C, XES data for
glass grain on right in A. Au and Pd are from the conductive
sample coating. Peak heights indicate relative abundance.

As alteration increases, product 2e is transformed
into product 3c, which commonly appears light gray
and massive. Under crossed polars it is microcrystal-
line and has normal extinction and very low birefrin-
gence. XES data (fig. 14) indicate that Ca is present in
small amounts, suggesting that it has been, largely de-
pleted, compared to amounts that were probably orig-
inally present. Si and A1 are the principal constituents
of product 3c. Na has been virtually eliminated, and
very small amounts of Mg and K, and some Fe have
been incorporated. Whether product 3c was included
with the X-ray samples of the clay-size fraction is un-
certain, and so product 3c may or may not be X-ray
amorphous. A description of a distinct species with
properties similar to product 3c was not found in the
literature.

In highly weathered samples, parts of plagioclase
grains have altered to product 4b, either in their cores
(fig. 15) or around their edges (fig. 16). This material is
massive and optically isotropic, and it is typically
gray. Product 4b was probably included in the X-ray
samples of the clay-size fraction and hence is amor-
phous to X-rays. XES data (figs. 15, 16) indicate that

MINERALOGIC ALTERATIONS IN BASALT AND ANDESITE WEATHERING l3

 

product 4b is composed primarily of Si and Al and has
much smaller amounts of Ca. Na has been almost en-
tirely removed; Si and Ca have been depleted, Ca
severely, compared to the composition of the unaltered
plagioclase. The only other cations present are Fe and
some small amounts of K, which are probably incor-
porated from sources outside the plagioclase grain.
These data suggest that product 4b is allophane, and
that it differs from product 5 only in its isolation as a
discrete replacement of plagioclase and its low Fe
oxide-hydroxide content. Eventually, entire plagio—
clase grains are altered to allophane (product 4b),
which then combines with amorphous iron oxide-
hydroxides to form product 5.

ALTERATION OF AMPHIBOLE AND POTASSIUM FELDSPAR

Amphibole and potassium feldspar are rare in the
rocks examined in this study; consequently, generali-

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

l I I l I I I
SI C
Mg
Fe
Au
Pd
P Fe
I I I l L I I
0 2 4 6 8

FIGURE 9.——Photomicrographs and XES data for olivine altered
to “iddingsite” (weathering product 2b). A, Photomicrograph
(plane light) of olivine grain altered to “iddingsite” along edges
and fractures (dashed line outside grain edges). B, SEM photo-
micrograph of olivine grain in A (outlined by dashed line) and
XES line scans for Fe and Mg. Line scans show relative abun-
dances along horizontal line. C, XES data for “iddingsite” in A.
Au and Pd are from the conductive sample coating. Peak
heights indicate relative abundance.

zations concerning the stages involved in their weath-
ering are tentative at best. Amphibole phenocrysts
commonly have reaction rims of fine-grained Opaques,
presumably iron oxide, which are in part the result of
deuteric alteration. As weathering increases, these
rims become thicker, and the interiors of the grains
begin to alter to weathering product 3b, especially
along fractures. Other intermediate products between
the unweathered mineral and product 5 were not
observed.

Small amounts of potassium feldspar, probably from
xenoliths, were observed in clusters in a few samples.
These minerals appeared to be quite resistant to altera-
tion, but altered to materials resembling product 3b
and eventually to product 5.

ALTERATION OF OPAQUE MINERALS

Opaque minerals, primarily titanomagnetites
(fig. 17), proved to be extremely resistant to alteration
during the weathering of the rocks studied. In well-

14 CHEMICAL WEATHERING OF BASALTS AND ANDESITES: EVIDENCE FROM WEATHERING RINDS

 

FIGURE 10.—Photomicrographs and XES data for olivine altered
along grain margins and fractures. A, Photomicrograph
(crossed polars) of olivine grain (bottom). Note prominent frac—
tures within the grain. B, SEM photomicrograph and XES line
scans for Mg and Si of olivine grain in A. Dashed lines, grain
boundaries and major fractures. Line scans show relative abun-
dances along horizontal lines; note depletion of Si and Mg along
grain fractures and margins.

developed weathering rinds, small amounts of hema-
tite, mostly along (111) planes, and maghemite along
fractures (products 4c) were observed under reflected
light in oil immersion. In the most advanced stages of
weathering, some Opaques appear to have been altered
around their edges to a material resembling product 5.

STABILITY OF PRIMARY MINERALS

Weathering rinds provide two useful ways of com-
paring relative mineral stabilities. First, adjacent

 

grains of different minerals can be compared in the
same portion of a weathering rind, where they have
been subjected to the same environment throughout
their weathering history. Second, outer portions of the
rinds on stones from deposits of different ages can be
compared to provide a mineral-weathering sequence
through time. These comparisons are valid because
rinds beneath the ground surface are not subject to
physical erosion or detrital contamination, and they
begin to weather immediately after deposition of the
stones.

The comparisons described above provide a basis for
ranking minerals according to their stabilities (fig. 18).
Volcanic glass and olivine are the least stable materi-
als in the rocks examined. Pyroxene and plagioclase
have intermediate stabilities, which vary with chemi-
cal composition. The composition of these minerals
was estimated from optical properties, whole-rock
chemical analyses (Appendix 2, table 9), some previous
work (Appendix 1), and certain accessory minerals that
were present (such as calcite). The relative stabilities of
amphibole and potassium feldspar are tenuous because
of the scarcity of these minerals in the rocks examined.
Opaque minerals, primarily titanomagnetites, proved
to be remarkably stable in the rocks and environments
studied.

Of particular importance for weathering rinds on
basalts and andesites is the inherent instability of
volcanic glass and olivine. The rapid alteration of these
materials imparts oxidation colors to the weathered
portion of the rock soon after deposition and largely
defines the early stages of rind development.

The stability of opaque minerals (primarily iron ox-
ides in the rocks examined) has not been considered in
many previous stability schemes. Opaque minerals are
relatively abundant in basalts and andesites compared
to other lithologies and they appear to be the most per-
sistent minerals in weathering rinds on basalts and
andesites. In the unaltered rocks, the Opaques are
mostly titanomagnetites, which partly alter to hema-
tite and maghemite in the weathering rinds. In ex-
tremely weathered portions of weathering rinds, the
Opaques are often the only identifiable primary min-
erals that remain. This observation is consistent with
the work of Abbott (1958), who noted the persistence
of opaque minerals in weathered basalt in Hawaii.

Of the numerous mineral-stability schemes that
have been previously formulated (table 5), few are
based on extensive, direct observations of weathered
minerals. The classic study by Goldich (1938) of the
Morton Gneiss is one of the few exceptions. Most of
the schemes presented are based on concepts such as
bonding energies (Keller, 1954; Gruner, 1950), packing
indices (Fairbaim, 1943), bulk chemistry (Reiche, 1943;

MINERALOGIC ALTERATIONS IN BASALT AND ANDESITE WEATHERING 15

 

FIGURE 11.—Photomicrographs and XES data for pyroxene altered along grain margins and fractures. A, Photomicrograph (plane light) of
pyroxene grain (arrow). B, SEM photomicrograph of pyroxene grain in A (dashed outline) and XES line scans for Ca and Mg. C, SEM
photomicrograph of pyroxene grain in A (dashed outline) and XES line scans for Si and Fe. Note concordant, localized depletion of Ca,
Mg, and Si, probably along fractures. Line scans show relative abundances along horizontal line. D, XES dot map for Ca; density of
dots is proportional to Ca content. Dot map suggests little overall depletion of Ca in the pyroxene grain.

1950), reaction with H+ clay (Jackson and Sherman, authors are, in general, consistent among themselves,
1953), and abrasion pH (Stevens and Canon, 1948). with Goldich’s (1938) sequence, and with the sequence
The stability sequences proposed by the above _ proposed in this study. However, several differences in

16 CHEMICAL WEATHERING OF BASALTS AND ANDESITES: EVIDENCE FROM WEATHERING RINDS

TABLE 5.—Estimates of relative stability for selected minerals
[Stability increases downward in each list. Olv, olivine; Prx, pyroxene; Plg, plagioclase; Amp, amphibole; Fd, feldspar; Opq, opaques; Gl, glass; Aug, augite; Hor, hornblende; Ens,
enstatite; Hyp, hypersthene; Qtz, quartz; Mag. magnetite; Ilm, ilmenite; Lab, labradite; Hem, hematite; Ort, orthoclase]

 

 

This Goldich Jackson and Pettijohn Reiche Fairbaim Gruner Keller Stevens and
study‘ (1938)“ Sherman (1953)= 11941y 11943)5 11943)“ (1950)7 (1954)“ Carton (1948)“
G1 01v 01v 01v 01v 54 Aug 5.9 Olv 1.28 Olv 29,800 Olv 10—11
Olv Aug CaPlg Hyp Ens 50 H p 5.9 Aug 1.35 Aug30,700 Aug 10
Prx Lab Aug Aug Aug 39 0 v 5.7—5.9 Ens 1.40 Hor 31,900 Hor 10
Plg Hor CaNaPlg Hor Hor 36 Hor 5.7 Hor 1.45 Ens 32,300 Lab 8—9
Amtp KFd Hor Mag Lab 20 Qtz 5.2 Lab 1.46 Lab 33.500 Ort 8
KF Qtz NaKFd Ilm Ort 12 Ort 5.0 Ort 1.48 Ort 34,300 Qtz 6-7
Opq — Qtz — Qtz 0 — Qtz 1.80 Qtz 37,300 Hem 6

 

‘Based on observations of minerals in weathering rinds on basalts and andesites.

1Based on observations of minerals in weathered gneiss, diabase, and amphibolite.

“Based on reaction of minerals with l-IJr clay; measured as mineral cations are exchanged for H + ions on the clay.
‘Based on persistence of minerals in sediments calculated from abundances in deposits of different ages.
5Based on Weathering Potential Index; calculated from chemical analyses

“Based on a packing index for elements in the mineral lattice.

’Based on an energy index calculated from electronegativities and types of bonding in each mineral.

”Based on bonding energies (kcal) of the cations in each mineral associated with 24 oxygens.

“Based on abrasion pH; measured as hydrolysis releases cations from each mineral and HJ’ ions are consumed.

 

FIGURE 12.—Photomicrographs and XES data for altered pyroxene.
A, Photomicrograph (plane light) of large pyroxene grain (dark)
mostly altered (discolored) throughout (dashed line outside of
grain edge). B, SEM photomicrograph of pyroxene grain in A
(dashed outline) and XES line scans for Ca and Mg. C, SEM
photomicrograph of pyroxene grain in A (dashed outline) and
XES line scans for Si and Fe. Note the small variation in these
elements across the grain. Line scans show relative abundances
along horizontal line.

detail occur, particularly within the pyroxene group
and in the relation of the plagioclase series to the rest
of the sequence. The compositional complexity of the
pyroxene group and the isomorphous substitution
within the plagioclase series make this discordance ex-
pectable. For the same reasons, the detailed stability

 

MINE RALOGIC ALTERATIONS IN BASALT AND ANDE SITE WEATHERING 17

 

FIGURE 13.—Photomicrographs and XES data for plagioclase
altered along fractures to weathering product 2e. A.
Photomicrograph (crossed polars) of large plagioclase grain.
General area of B and C outlined by dashed lines. B, SEM
photomicrograph of the area outlined in A, showing relief (after
etching with HF) of weathering product 2e along fractures. C,
SEM photomicrograph of area outlined in A and XES line scans
for Ca and Na. Note the depletion of these elements in weather-
ing product 2e along fractures. Line scans show relative abun-
dances along horizonal line. Circle, area of data in D. D, XES
data for weathering product 2e at small circle in C. Au and Pd
are from the conductive sample coating. Peak heights indicate
relative abundance.

 

 

 

 

 

 

relations of these groups are also difficult to resolve by
observational methods alone. In fact, most other ob-
servational stability schemes (Abbott, 1958; Tiller,
1958; Hendricks and Whittig, 1968; Hay and Jones,
197 2) that are based on the examination of specific lith-
ologies are quite different.

However, observational data have the advantage of
physically demonstrating actual occurrences of stabil-
ity differences among different minerals, an advantage
not shared by laboratory or theoretical methods. This
is particularly true for observations of weathering
rinds, where variations in alteration among minerals
can be observed both in time and in space.

CHEMICAL WEATHERING OF BASALTS AND ANDESITES: EVIDENCE FROM WEATHERING RINDS

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Si
Al
Ca
Mg? F
f Au PdK Ca e
l l I I I
0 2 4 6
Kev

ROCK-WEATHERIN G STAGES

Because different minerals have different stabilities
and alter at different rates (fig. 18), minerals in equal
mineral-weathering stages (table 3) are not necessarily
found together. Therefore, rock-weathering stages are
defined by combinations of weathering products
(table 2) associated with different mineral-weathering
stages. Rock-weathering stages were defined for
weathering rinds (table 6) on an arbitrary scale of one
(A) for the unaltered rock to five (E) for the completely
weathered rock. The products listed for a given stage
of rock alteration are those that are associated in time
or space; that is, those that are found together in indi-
vidual rinds or in rinds subjected to similar duration or
intensity of weathering. The arbitrary subdivision of
alteration into stages is mainly a convenience for sub-
dividing the observed sequence of weathering. Transi-
tions between stages probably do not represent equal
durations or equal intensities of weathering.

ROCK AND MINERAL ALTERATION WITH TIME

Weathering rinds offer two ways of examining
mineralogic changes in rocks that occur through time:
(1) the transition between fresh and weathered rock in
individual rinds, and (2) the outer portions of rinds
(maximum weathering) from deposits of different ages.
These two approaches make weathering rinds particu-
larly useful for studying weathering that occurs
through time.

In weathering rinds on basalts and andesites, the
boundary between altered and unaltered rock (the
“weathering front”) is commonly well defined, and the
transition typically occurs over a distance of less than
0.2 mm. Because weathering-rind thickness is a func-
tion of time (Colman and Pierce, 1981), the weathering
front migrates continuously from the surface of the
stone toward the core. Therefore, the length 'of time
that a given point in the rock has been subjected to
weathering decreases with its distance from the stone
surface.

FIGURE 14.—Photomicrographs and XES data for zoned plagioclase
altered to weathering product 3c. A, Photomicrograph (plane
light) of plagioclase grains with calcic(?) zones weathered to
product 3c. B, SEM photomicrograph of plagioclase grains in A
(dashed lines) and XES line scans for Na and Ca. Note generally
low Na content in the altered zones, which probably were
originally more calcic, and sharp depletion of Ca in these zones.
Line scans show relative abundances along horizontal line. C,
XES data for spot in weathered zone shown by small circle in B.
Au and Pd are from conductive sample coating. Peak heights
indicate relative abundance.

MINERALOGIC ALTERATIONS IN BASALT AND ANDESITE WEATHERING 19

TABLE 6.—Rock-weathering stages and weathering products
[Weathering products (2a1 3b. 5, and others) defined in table 2; t ). product commonly absent]

 

 

 

 

Stages
Mineral‘ A B C D E
Fresh Slightly Moderately Extensively Completely
rock’ weathered weathered weathered weathered
Glass 1,(2a) (2a,2d),3a 3b,4a 5 5
Olivine——— 1 ,2b 2b 4a 5 5
P oxene— 1 (2d) 3a,3b (4a) 5
P agioclase 1 2e 3c 4b 5
Amphibole- 1,2c 1.2c 2c,3b 3b 3b,5
K—feldspar— 1 1 1,3b 3b 3b,5
Opaques— 1 1 1,4c 1,4c 1,4c,5

 

‘Includes mineraloids (glass, some Opaques].
2Some fresh rock (unweathered core) contains products of deuteric alteration. such as Feoxides or “iddingsite.”

 

 

 

 

 

l l l l I I l
Si C
Au
Al
Pd
K
Ca Fe
I I I I | l l
0 2 4 6 8
Kev

FIGURE 15.—Photomicrographs and XES data for plagioclase
microlites altered to weathering product 4b in their cores. A,
Photomicrograph (crossed polars) of several small plagioclase
laths with altered cores. B, SEM photomicrographs of one of
the plagioclase laths in A (dashed lines) and XES line scans for
Ca and Na. Line scans show relative abundances along horizon-
tal line. C, XES data for spot shown by small circle in B. Au and
Pd are from the conductive sample coating. Peak heights in-
dicate relative abundance.

As expected, mineral alteration in weathering rinds
decreased with distance from the stone surface. For
any given rind, arbitrary layers can be defined on the
basis of the rock-weathering stages in table 6. The
weathering stages typically decrease in a regular pro-
gression from the stone surface to the unaltered rock.
Therefore, it can be demonstrated that weathering
stages migrate continuously from the stone surface
toward the core.

However, several problems hamper the determina-
tion either of the rates of migration of weathering

 

 

CHEMICAL WEATHERING OF BASALTS AND ANDESITES: EVIDENCE FROM WEATHERING RINDS

("with

if
/

a.»
l

(V

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

AI Si
AU Ca
Pd
Ca Fe
I I I I l I
2 4 6
Kev

stages or of the time necessary for the transition from
one stage to another. These problems include: (1) Rind
thickness is not a simple function of time, but a
logarithmic one (Colman and Pierce, 1981); (2) transi-
tions between weathering stages probably do not
represent equal durations or intensities of weathering;
and (3) variations in rock type affect the rate of altera-
tion. Because of these difficulties, the data in this
study are insufficient to determine rates of mineral
alteration from observations of progressive alteration
in individual weathering rinds.

A more direct method of examining mineral altera-
tion that occurs through time is to compare the max-
imum alteration in weathering rinds from different
ages of deposits. Comparisons are facilitated by the
fact that most stones are unweathered when deposited;
thus, the duration of weathering to which the outer
part of the stones has been subjected is about the same
as the age of the deposit (Colman and Pierce, 1981). In
addition, the outer part of the stones invariably con-
tains the greatest degree of mineral alteration.

The rock-weathering stages in the outer part of the
weathering rinds that were examined (table 7) show the
expected progression with deposit age. Stages B and C
in table 6 appear to be attained rather quickly; stage C
is commonly found in deposits of late Wisconsin age.
The transition from stage C to stage D appears to take
more time, and stage D is uncommon in deposits
younger than pre-Wisconsin. Thus, more than 105 yr
are generally required to reach stage D. Stage E is
predominant only in deposits that probably are at least
several hundred thousand years old.

Both the stages defined in table 6 and the observa-
tions presented in table 7 are generalizations, and
variations in weathering stages exist among rinds
from the same deposit as suggested by entries of more
than one stage in table 7. In general, however, rock
weathering stages follow a regular age progression for
all the sampled areas.

The time necessary to form the weathering products
characteristic of each weathering stage is important to
the conclusions based on the presence of each product.

FIGURE 16.—Photomicrographs and XES data for plagioclase
altered to weathering product 4b around its edges (arrows).
A, Photomicrograph (plane light) of large plagioclase grain with
altered n'm. B, SEM photomicrograph of plagioclase grain in A
(dashed lines) and XES line scans for Ca and Si. Line scans
show relative abundances along horizontal lines. C, XES data
for the altered rim of the plagioclase in A. Au and Pd are from
conductive sample coating. Peak heights indicate relative
abundance.

IMPLICATIONS OF CLAY MINERALOGY OF WEATHERING RINDS 21

TABLE 7.—Rock weathering stages for each age of deposit
[Rock stages for the outer part of rinds. as defined in table 6; ( ), less common; leaders (—),
data not obtained. West Yellowstone, McCall, and Yakima Valley data are for
basalts; other data for andesites]

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Rock
Area Deposit weathering
stage
W. Yellowstone Deckard Flats —-
Pinedale B- C)
Bull Lake———- C-
McCall Pinedale B-C
Intermediate— —
Bull Lake———- D-E
Yakima Valley- Domerie —
Ronald C-(D)
Bullfrog C-(D)
Indian J ohn— C-D
Swank Prarie— D-E
Thorp E
Mt. Rainier— Evans Creek— B-(C)
Hayden Creek —
Wingate Hill— D-E
Logan Hill—-—— E
Lassen Peak— Tio a B-C
“ear y” Tioga- —
Tahoe C-D
pre-Tahoe—— E
Truckee Tioga B
Tahoe B10;
Donner Lake— D- E

 

This consideration is particularly true for weathering
product 5 (table 6, stages D and E), which is composed
of allophane, iron oxide-hydroxide, and poorly devel-
oped clay minerals, and which apparently takes more
than 105 yr to form in the rocks and environments ex-
amined in this study. The destruction of most primary
minerals in basalts and andesites (stage E) takes
several hundred thousand years under these condi-
tions.

IMPLICATIONS OF THE CLAY
MINERALOGY OF WEATHERIN G RINDS

It is generally assumed, either explicitly or implic-
itly, that clay minerals in well-developed soils are pro-
duced at least in part by weathering of primary
minerals (Morrison, 1967, p. 6; Birkeland, 1974,
p. 100). Therefore, the observed poor development of
clay minerals (see section on “End products of
weathering”) in weathering rinds, which are produced
solely by weathering processes, is unexpected, par-
ticularly in soils with well-developed argillic B
horizons. Because of this apparent conflict, a brief
review of previous studies of clay minerals formed by
weathering of basic volcanic rocks and a short sum-

 

u w" 30p.

 

FIGURE 17.—SEM photomicrographs and XES data for titan-
omagnetite grains in weathering rinds. Analyzed grain in A
stands in relief; analyzed grain in B shown by dashed outline.
XES line scans are for Ti and Fe. They show relative abun-
dances along horizontal line. The precise concordance of the two
line scans in B suggests that the lower contents of Ti and Fe in
the core of the grain are due to compositional zoning rather
than to depletion by weathering.

mary of several hypotheses for clay-mineral formation
will be presented, followed by an attempt to resolve the
problem on the basis of data from this and other
studies.

Numerous workers have found clay minerals that are
associated with weathered basalt and (or) andesite or

22 CHEMICAL WEATHERING OF BASALTS AND ANDESITES: EVIDENCE FROM WEATHERING RINDS

 

LEAST STABLE MOST STABLE

—‘GLASS—'
— OLIVINE—

—CL|NOPYROXENE—-—

PYROXENE
— URTHOPYRDXENE—

AMPHIBOLE

 

 

K-FELDSPAR

 

OPAOUES

 

 

 

(Ca, Na)
PLAGIOCLASE
(Na, Ca)

 

 

 

FIGURE 18.—-Relative stabilities of minerals and glass in basalts and
andesites. Ranking is based on observations of adjacent
minerals in weathering rinds, or of outer portions of rinds sub-
jected to varying intensities or durations of weathering.

with residual soils developed from these lithologies
(Hough and Byers, 1937; Hardy and Rodrigues, 1939;
Hanlon, 1944; Carroll and Woof, 1951; Eyles, 1952;
Butler, 1954; Hutton and Stephens, 1956; Nichols and
Tucker, 1956; Sherman and Uehara, 1956; Abbott,
1958; Tiller, 1958; Hay, 1960; Hay and Jones, 1972;
Bates, 1962; Carroll and Hathaway, 1963; Craig and
Loughnan, 1964; Swinedale, 1966; Hendricks and
Whittig, 1968; and Loughnan, 1969). However, almost
all of these studies were in intense weathering en-
vironments, commonly in tropical or semitropical
climates, or were concerned with very old soils (as old
as early Tertiary). In addition, most of these studies
examined residual soil profiles rather than the
weathered rock itself; exceptions include Abbott (1958)
and Hendricks and Whittig (1968).

Carroll and Hathaway (1963) reviewed a number of
these studies and concluded that the general sequence
of alteration is: fresh mineral-*montmorillonitefihal-
loysite*kaolinite->gibbsite. Not all members of
the sequence are always present, and the full sequence
appears most common during the weathering of ferro-
magnesian minerals. Plagioclase may alter directly to
halloysite (Bates, 1962), or to gibbsite (Abbott, 1958;
Swinedale, 1966). The sequence of alteration and clay
mineralogy is probably also a function of climate (Bar-
shad, 1966; Hay and Jones, 1972; Birkeland, 1974,
p. 226).

Most early workers were unaware of the presence of
allophane, or they suggested that allophane resulted
from the degradation of clay minerals (Hough and
Byers, 1937). Modern consensus seems to be that allo-
phane is abundant in soils formed from weathered

 

basic volcanic rocks and that it represents an early
stage in the transition from primary minerals to clay
minerals (Fieldes, 1966). Swinedale (1966) concurred,
but implied that primary minerals can also alter di-
rectly to clay minerals.

Theories of clay-mineral formation can be divided
into three general categories: (1) precipitation from
solution (Millot, 1970, p. 91), (2) condensation and crys-
tallization of Si-Al colloids (Siffert, 1967; Barshad,
1964), and (3) direct alteration of primary silicates, in-
cluding phyllosilicates (Krauskopf, 1967, p. 188; Grim,
1968, p. 522). These mechanisms are very difficult to
document specifically (Birkeland, 197 4, p. 90) and may
not be mutually exclusive; different mechanisms may

be dominant in individual instances.
Differences of opinion exist concerning the role of

allophane in mechanisms of clay-mineral formation.
Millot (1970, p. 91) concluded that allophane is the end
product of degradation and leaching of primary or
secondary silicates, and that its eventual fate, except
for alumina, is dissolution. Accordingly, clays are
formed in the weathering environment by precipitation
of ions from solution in contact with residual alumina,
rather than by crystallization of allophane.

In contrast, numerous studies of the weathering of
basic volcanic rocks and other rock types have shown
allophane to be an intermediate step in the transforma-
tion of primary minerals to clay minerals, commonly to
halloysite or kaolinite (Birrell and Fieldes, 1952;
Fieldes and Swinedale, 1954; Bates, 1959; Hay, 1960;
Aomine and Wada, 1962; Roberson, 1963; Swinedale,
1966; Wada, 1967; Tan, 1969; and Nixon, 1979).
Fieldes (1966, p. 601) stated unequivocably: “Allo-
phanes are formed at an early stage of weathering of
basic silicate minerals in basalt or ultrabasic rock.”
These studies suggest a continuous sequence between
random-structured allophane and crystalline clay min-
erals. Much of the degradation of primary minerals is
by hydrolysis and solution, and the residue, as well as
the precipitate from the weathering solutions, consists
mostly of allophane (Fieldes, 1966). These observa-
tions support the theory of clay-mineral formation by
dehydration and crystallization of allophane.

Direct alteration of primary minerals to clay
minerals occurs without the formation of allophane as
an intermediate step. Because of the abundance of
allophane and because of the poor development of clay
minerals in weathering rinds on basalts and andesites,
this mechanism does not appear to be significant in the
alteration of these rocks. This conclusion does not per-
tain to the transformation of primary phyllosilicates—
not present in the rocks observed—to clay minerals;
such transformations have been well documented
(Grim, 1968, p. 520—521).

IMPLICATIONS OF CLAY MINERALOGY OF WEATHERING RINDS 23

Thus, on the basis of this and past studies of basic
volcanic rocks, the mechanism of condensation and
crystallization of allophane (or silica-alumina colloids)
appears to be the most likely mechanism of clay-
mineral formation in these lithologies. This mechanism
is supported by: (1) the fact that allophane appears to
be a common early alteration product in these rocks,
(2) the fact that clay minerals do eventually form from
these rocks, and (3) the fact that continuous gradation
between random-structured allophane and crystalline
clay minerals is observed in many weathering studies.
The conclusion that the condensation-crystallization
mechanism is dominant does not exclude simultaneous
subsidiary roles of other mechanisms, and as Grim
(1968, p. 520) pointed out, all changes from primary to
clay minerals do not take place in the same way.

A number of observations concerning the conditions
affecting the stability of allophane are pertinent here.
Much of the alumina in allophane appears to be in four-
fold coordination (Fieldes, 1966); to become part of a
layer silicate, the alumina must be in sixfold coordina-
tion (DeKimpe and others, 1961; Wada, 1967, Linares
and Huertas, 1971). Sixfold coordination of alumina is
favored by low SizAl ratios (DeKimpe and others,
1961), by pH’s less than about 5.0 (Wada, 1967;
DeKimpe and others, 1961), and by fulvic acids
(Linares and Huertas, 1971). The converse of these con-
ditions, therefore, favors the fourfold coordination of
alumina and the persistence of allophane.

Because of its hydrated nature, allophane is also
favored by continuously wet conditions (Fieldes, 1966).
Other conditions that appear to contribute to high
allophane contents in soils are high organic matter con-
tents (Mitchell and Farmer, 1962; Kanno, 1959)—but
not fulvic acids (Linares and Huertas, 1971)—and
rapid weathering, weathered volcanic glass, and ex-
treme comminution (Fieldes, 1966).

Concerning the problem of the poor development of
clay minerals in weathering rinds on basalt and
andesite, the fact remains that the rinds examined in
this study contain abundant allophane and iron oxide-
hydroxide, but only very fine grained and poorly
crystalline clay minerals. Samples of the adjacent soil
matrix, many of which were part of well-developed
argillic B horizons, contain clear evidence of crystalline
clay minerals (fig. 2). These soil and rind samples are
from deposits of about 15,000 to at least several hun-
dred thousand years old. This contrast leads to one or
both of the following conclusions: (1) The clay minerals
in the soil matrix were not formed by weathering of
material in the soil, but were derived from other
sources. Possible sources include overlying eolian
deposits, aerosolic dust, suspended particles in precipi-
tation, and the original clay-mineral component of the

 

soil parent-material. (2) Conditions for crystallization
of clay minerals in weathering rinds differ markedly
from those in the adjacent soil.

The available evidence is not sufficient to evaluate
the relative merits of these two alternatives. However,
several arguments suggest that physical or chemical
differences between the rinds and the soil matrix are
probably not the only reason for the poor development
of clay minerals in the rinds. First, previous studies of
weathered andesite and basalt, rather than soil profiles
developed over these lithologies, demonstrate that the
weathering of these rock types in place does produce
clay minerals (Abbott, 1958; Hendricks and Whittig,
1968), given sufficient time and (or) weathering inten-
sity. This relation suggests that clay minerals will
probably eventually form in the weathering rinds, but
that they form much more slowly than is commonly
assumed for environments sampled in this study.

Second, mineralogic observations indicate a large
degree of weathering in the rinds and that, in many
samples, almost all of the primary minerals have been
destroyed. Chemical data, discussed in the section
“Chemistry of basalt and andesite weathering,” indi-
cate thorough leaching of the weathering rinds.
Weathering rinds are therefore weathered to a degree
that commonly would be expected to include well-
developed clay minerals as weathering products.

In summary, the fact that clay minerals are only
poorly developed in the weathering rinds examined in
this study suggests that clay minerals in associated
argillic B horizons may be at least partly derived from
sources other than the weathering of primary minerals.
These sources include the original clay mineral compo-
nent of the sofl parent material, overlying eolian
deposits, aerosolic dust, and suspended particles in
precipitation. Differences in environmental conditions
cannot be completely ruled out as an explanation for
the difference between the rinds and the soils, and in-
deed they may have played a significant role. But it ap-
pears unlikely that all clay minerals have formed by
weathering of primary minerals in the soils examined
in this study.

These conclusions have important implications con-
cerning the rates of formation, the sources, and the
controls of both soil clay minerals and argich B
horizons. In many soils, especially in those with
argillic B horizons, the clay-mineral component is com-
monly assumed to have resulted from the weathering
of primary minerals. On the basis of this assumption,
and because many soils about 105 yr old or older in the
Western United States have argillic B horizons
(Birkeland, 1974, p. 164-165), clay minerals should
form within this length of time. However, the conclu-
sions here suggest that the weathering of primary

24 CHEMICAL WEATHERING OF BASALTS AND ANDESITES: EVIDENCE FROM WEATHERING RINDS

minerals in the deposits examined in this study has
produced only poorly developed clay minerals.

Therefore, at least for basaltic and andesitic
materials in temperate climates, weathering appears to
produce clay minerals much more slowly than is com-
monly assumed. This conclusion suggests that well-
developed argillic B horizons may form at least partly
by translocation of clays from extraneous sources, or
by translocation of the original clay component of the
parent material; this formation requires little or no
contribution of clay minerals from the weathering of
primary minerals. If this be true, then climate in-
fluences the clay mineralogy of these soils only in the
transformation of inherited, or extraneous, clay
minerals to clay minerals that are more in equilibrium
with the soil environment.

CHEMISTRY OF BASALT AND ANDESITE
WEATHERING

Chemical changes accompanying rock weathering
have received much attention. (See, for example,
reviews by Loughnan, 1969, p. 32—64; Ollier, 1969; Car-
roll, 1970, p. 69—71; and Birkeland, 1974, p. 52—77.) A
number of workers have examined weathered basalt,
including Hough and Byers (1937), Tiller (1958), Craig
and Loughnan (1964), Lifshitz-Rottman (1971), and
Hay and Jones (1972), and weathered andesite, in-
cluding Hardy and Rodrigues (1939), and Hendricks
and Whittig (1968). The climatic regimes in most of
these studies were different from that in this study,
and most of the workers did not examine the complete
spectrum of basalt or andesite weathering, particularly
the early stages. Of the above studies, that of Hend-
ricks and Whittig (1968) is most comparable to the pre-
sent study; their data and conclusions will be exten-
sively cited in the following discussion.

Chemical analyses were determined for selected
stones and their weathering rinds from deposits of dif-
ferent ages (table 1), as described in the “Methods”
section. Where rinds were sufficiently thick, they were
sampled and analyzed in layers, and so chemical gradi-
ents from the outer surface to the unweathered rock
could be determined. The data were first calculated in
the form of weight percentage (actual analyses, Appen-
dix2, table 9); and then they were recalculated as
molecular percentages (table 10), molecular ratios
(table 11), standard-cell cations (table 12), weights per
unit-volume (table 13), and weights assuming TiO2 con-
stant (table 14).

WEATHERIN G IN DICES

Several ways of presenting chemical-weathering
data exist, and many have been reviewed by Reiche

 

(1943). Most of these methods recast the analyses in
terms of one or two indices, which summarize and con-
dense the cumbersome array of raw data. Most indices
are calculated from the molecular-percentage data,
because the stoichiometric proportions of various
elements are commonly more informative in weather-
ing studies than are weight percentages (Reiche, 1943;
Jenny, 1941, p. 26). Weathering indices that will be
considered here are: (1) Si02:R203 and baseszR203,
which are similar to the ratios used by Jenny (1941,
p. 26), (2) silica-bases-RZOa triangular diagrams
(Reiche, 1943), (3) Parker’s (1970) weathering index,
(4) weathering potential index (WPI) versus product
index (PI) (Reiche, 1943; 1950), (5) FezoazFeO ratio, and
(6) molecular percentage of water. For these indices,
Mg, Ca, Na, and K were grouped as total bases; and
A120,, Fe203, and TiO2 were grouped as R203. TiO2 was
grouped with A1203 and Fe203 because of its appar-
ently similar immobility (Loughnan, 1969, p. 44).

One minor problem, which was probably due to sam-
pling procedures, became apparent in almost all of the
weathering indices. In some sampling areas, especially
at Truckee and at Lassen Peak, the two youngest
deposits are close in age; the weathering indices for
these deposits suggested a greater degree of weather-
ing, but to a shallower depth in the stone, for the
youngest deposit than for the next older deposit. Rinds
from both ages of deposits were thin, and only one
sample of the rind was obtainable. Thus, the sample
from the youngest deposit contained only the most
weathered portion of the rind, whereas the sample
from the next older deposit contained both the outer-
most weathered part of the rind and the inner, less
weathered part. Therefore, the relation (for young de-
posits) of more intense weathering to a shallower depth
in the stone for the youngest deposit, compared to the
weathering in the next older deposit, is considered to
be consistent with the general trend of increasing
weathering with deposit age.

Ratios of Si022R203 and baseszR2O3 were plotted
with distance from the stone surface (figs. 19 and 20).
These ratios indicate the mobility of SiO2 and bases
relative to R203, which is generally considered stable
(Loughnan, 1969, p. 52). To the degree to which R203
remains immobile these indices approach measures of
absolute changes.

The SiOzszo3 ratio changes systematically with the
ages of the deposits sampled (fig. 19). The sequences
for the McCall, West Yellowstone, and Mt. Rainier
areas show particularly good progression with age.
These data indicate that SiO2 is systematically de-
pleted with time relative to R203. Such depletion can
exceed 50 percent, and it is commonly more than
20 percent for deposits older than about 105 yr. In ad-

 

 

CHEMISTRY OF BASALT AND ANDESITE WEATHERIN G

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

84 75
0 I I | 95 83\i~§:‘ 85 1.119 | |
98 89 79 ~\ ~ ~1\'~>\-~\‘~.~§. A
'09 86 104 \ ‘I‘ \ 1°5\\‘\\'112074“1-:“‘I~~
\ \ ‘v‘N \ "\f-
m I 121 ~f.y~\ ., v 4..
. ~ \ s . \_
E _ . v N.“ \7‘\ v ~\__\
I: I. \f
E / “NC: /
:l ( ‘r~_ ’
‘ \ : ,/
E \ \I/ : ' _
z 1 ‘ ~ g I
_ l .. \‘n
1.1.? v : ,I
o v .'
E ,
n: .'
D _ .' _
(D .'
LLI I
Z l
o ;
’— :
(I) '1
E 2 - I _
O ,'
E /
LIJ I'
o .'
z — Ill _
s.
Q ,'
Q 1'
o"
3 - ; —
I I | I W I
5
0
B
a) _
n:
LIJ
'—
LlJ
g ~ .
:l 1 — . ~ —
S ‘y
E .
ui
U .' _
< ' .'
u- l
a: .'
3 :
‘0 :
LIJ I"
Z .' _
E 2 - “I ,-
m - .'
E l (A
o '
a: : /
Ll. I 1' —
“d ‘ " EXPLANATION
Z I '0'
,‘E '. McCall ,
g 1' —--- West Yellowstone
3 _ I‘ """""" Mount Rainier _
". --—-— Truckee
l ----- — Lassen Peak
‘1“ | | l I l |
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1

NORMALIZED 5102:2903

FIGURE 19.—Plots of SiO,:R203 with distance from the stone surface. A, SiOzzR203 raw molecular ratios (table 11). B, Data
in A normalized to the value in the unaltered rock (table 15). Data points represent the midpoint of channel samples
over the sampling interval given in table 9. Arrows indicate that the sample above them is from unaltered rock. See
table 1 for the deposit and lithology of each sample (numbers).

 

 

 

26 CHEMICAL WEATHERING OF BASALTS AND ANDESITES: EVIDENCE FROM WEATHERING RINDS

 

 

 

 

 

 

84
0 l l l \L l | |
w
o:
LLI
LE
2 1.0 -
:1
-_J
2 118
Z '-.
u.- ‘-.
U _
<( ‘.
”- '.
n: .
D '\
U3 \
Lu '2
Z ‘.
E I. .
0‘) 2.0 1|
E '.|
g .' EXPLANATION I
'-‘- '.
l5 -,_ McCall
z — : —
< '-.
if) -I —————— West Yellowstone
a ‘.
------------- Mount Rainier
3.0 - _
—————— —- Truckee
. — ----- — Lassen Peak
‘1 l I l l | l |
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1

NORMALIZED 2 BASES: 2 R203

FIGURE 20.—Plots of basesszo3 with distance from the stone surface. Data are normalized to the value in the unaltered rock (table 15).
Data points represent the midpoint of channel samples over the sampling interval given in table 9. Arrows indicate that the sample
above them is from unaltered rock. See table 1 for the deposit and lithology of each sample (numbers).

dition, with minor exceptions, the SiOzzR203 ratio de-
creases regularly from the fresh interior of a stone to
its weathered outside surface.

The baseszR203 ratio (fig. 20) has trends similar to
the SiOzzRZO3 ratio, but the depletion of bases relative
to R203 is greater than that of $0,. In all sampling
areas, the baseszRZO3 ratio decreases with the age of
the deposit. In addition, with one minor exception, the
baseszR203 ratio decreases regularly from the unal-
tered rock interior to the weathered surface for all sam-
ples. These data indicate that bases are lost relatively
rapidly from weathering rinds compared to the rate of
loss of other elements. In fact, the small change in the
baseszR203 ratio for the outer portions of sample 118
suggests that the outer portion of the rind has reached
a small limiting value of bases. In samples from depos-
its more than about 105 yr old, the value of the

 

baseszR203 ratio has commonly decreased to 30—50 per-
cent or less of its value in the unaltered rock.

Parker’s (1970) weathering index, which is also a
measure of the loss of bases during weathering, was
plotted against distance from the stone surface for the
weathering-rind samples (fig. 21). The index is de-
fined as:

100(K/0.25 +Na/0.35 +Ca/0.7 +Mg/O.9),

where the denominators represent measures of the
strengths of the cation-oxygen bond. The index is not
referenced to R203 or to any other stable constituent,
so different samples (that have different initial com-
positions) are not directly comparable. However, the
index changes rapidly as bases are lost, so it is a sen-
sitive indicator of early stages of weathering in a given

 

 

CHEMISTRY OF BASALT AND ANDESITE WEATHERING

 

27

 

118
1

'I, EXPLANATION
' McCall

DISTANCE FROM STONE SURFACE, IN MILLIMETERS

.03
o
I

Truckee
Lassen Peak

.
.
L I
.
) I l I l

0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

 

 

West Yellowstone

Mount Rainier

 

 

I I I I

0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

NORMALIZED PARKER’S (1970) WEATHERING INDEX

FIGURE 21.—Plots of Parker’s (1970) weathering index with distance from the stone surface. Data are normalized to the value in the
unaltered rock (table 15). Data points represent the midpoint of channel samples over the sampling interval given in table 9. Arrows in-
dicate that the sample above them is from unaltered rock. See table 1 for the deposit and lithology of each sample (numbers).

sample. As weathering advances and bases are de-
pleted (sample 118), the minimal changes that occur in
the index suggest that the index asymptotically ap-
proaches a small limiting value. The index shows reg-
ular decreases, both with the age of the deposit sam-
pled in each area and with the distance of the sample
from the unaltered rock in individual rinds.

The amount of water incorporated in the rinds as a
result of weathering appears to be a sensitive measure
of weathering (fig. 22). Molecular percentages of water
were calculated from the analyses of water released
above 110°C (H20+) in the “Rapid-Rock” analyses and
from the difference of the total-weight percentage from
100 percent in the XRF analyses. The samples were air
dried before analysis, and the amount of water released
below 110°C (H20_) commonly was small (table 9).

 

Thus, most of the water incorporated in the weathering

rinds is released only above 110°C, and it is therefore
either included in crystal lattices or bound to hydrated
cations. Because the development of new mineral spe-
cies was minimal in the weathering rinds (see “End
products of weathering” section), the latter source is
considered to be dominant.

Water is rapidly incorporated in the rinds as weath-
ering progresses, and in highly weathered material
(sample 118) the molecular percentage of water exceed-
ed 50 percent (fig. 22). Rinds from deposits more than
105 yr old commonly contain 20—40 molecular-percent
water. The changes in water content increased as
deposit age increases in each area, and water content
increases regularly from the unaltered rock to the
weathered surface.

The Fe203:FeO ratio is a measure of the oxidation
that occurs during weathering (fig. 23); it is particu-

 

28 CHEMICAL WEATHERING OF BASALTS AND ANDESITES: EVIDENCE FROM WEATHERING RINDS

 

DISTANCE FROM STONE SURFACE, IN MILLIMETERS

3.0 — t

 

|
0 10 20

 

EXPLANATION
- H20+
+ Total H20

McCall ;

West Yellowstone
------------- Mount Rainier

Truckee :

—-‘-—--— Lassen Peak

 

-
l 4——

30 40 50

 

MOLECULAR PERCENTAGE OF H20

FIGURE 22.—Plots of molecular percentage of water with distance from the stone surface. Data are from table 10. Data points represent the
midpoint of channel samples over the sampling interval given in table 9. Arrows indicate that the sample above them is from unaltered
rock. See table 1 for the deposit and lithology of each sample (numbers).

 

larly important for weathering rinds, which are defined
largely by color. Fe203 is generally stable in most
weathering environments (Loughnan, 1969, p. 52), but
any depletion of FezO3 and the potential mobility of
FeO may affect the Fe203:FeO ratio as a measure of ox-
idation. The FezoazFeO ratio tends to increase with age
in each area and toward the outside of each rind, but
several irregularities exist (fig. 23). In addition to
potential losses of Fe203 or FeO, other complicating
factors may affect the FezosteO ratio. For example,
rinds from McCall are much more oxidized than are
those from West Yellowstone. The fact that the rinds
from McCall have incorporated more water than have
those from West Yellowstone (fig. 22) may account for
the difference in oxidation. The difference in oxidation
is also observed in the colors of the rinds, which are
much redder and brighter in those from McCall. The
redness and brightness of the rinds generally increase
with deposit age within each sampling area, but colors
are not comparable from area to area because of differ-
ences in rock type and climate.

 

Reiche (1943; 1950) devised two indices that incor-
porate almost all of the major elements involved in
weathering. They are based on molecular percentages
and are called the weathering potential index (WPI)
and the product index (PI), which are defined as:

WPI = 100(Ebases-H20)/(Ebases+Si02+ER203)
PI=100(Si02)/(Si02+ER203).

The amount of weathering in each weathering-rind
sample is clearly shown by plots of these two indices
against each other (fig. 24). In unaltered igneous rocks,
these indices have high values; as weathering pro-
gresses, WPI decreases rapidly as bases are lost and as
water is gained, and PI decreases more slowly as silica
is lost. R203 functions as a reference constituent in the
indices.

Because the WPI-PI plot combines all the major ele-
ments involved in weathering (bases, silica, R203, and
water), it is probably the optimum two-dimensional
portrayal of chemical weathering. However, it has the

 

 

CHEMISTRY OF BASALT AND ANDESITE WEATHERING 29

 

1.0 —

DISTANCE FROM STONE SURFACE, IN MILLIMETERS

3.0 - q,

 

0.5 1.0

 

.gLZJ"—’i"

EXPLANATION
McCall

West Yellowstone
------------ - Mount Rainier
Truckee

Lassen Peak

 

| | l l l

1.5 2.0

F9203 /FeO

FIGURE 23.—Plots of Fe203:FeO ratio with distance from the stone surface. Data are from table 11. Data points represent the midpoint of
channel samples over the sampling interval given in table 9. Arrows indicate that the sample above them is from unaltered rock.

See table 1 for the deposit and lithology of each sample (numbers).

disadvantage of not showing changes in individual
elements, and because it is based on percentage data, it
does not account for compensating (relative) changes
in elements or groups of elements. However, the WPI-
PI plot shows that weathering-rind samples all change
in order of increasing age in each area, and that the
changes within rinds are all systematic. In addition,
some samples (109, 86, and 118) approach or exceed the
stability fields of kaolinite and halloysite (fig. 24).
Another method of portraying overall chemical
changes occurring during weathering is a triangular
diagram of molecular percentages that has silica,
bases, and R203 as the three coordinates (fig. 25). This
plot shows that the general tendencies during weather-
ing-rind formation are concentration of R203; depletion
of bases; and small, irregular changes in SiOz.
Although the plot is useful for illustrating general

 

weathering trends, it has the disadvantage inherent in
all percentage data that the changes shown in elements
or groups of elements are relative. Concentration of
R203 is more likely due to depletion of other elements
than to actual increases in R203. Also, more silica is
probably lost than that indicated, but it is compen-
sated for by the greater depletion of bases.

The weathering indices discussed above have several
disadvantages. First, because they are based on
molecular percentages, all changes in a given element
are relative to changes in other elements. Second, in an
effort to present the data in one or two indices (dimen-
sions), changes in individual elements are obscured,
and compensating changes in grouped elements are
not apparent. However, they are useful in that they
condense and summarize the data and illustrate
general weathering trends.

 

 

 

 

30 CHEMICAL WEATHERING OF BASALTS AND ANDESITES: EVIDENCE FROM WEATHERING RINDS

 

 

 

 

 

V I l ' ‘ I I
40 - —
20 ’ _
0 — _
-20 — —
E
E
109 /' :
—4o — " " —
l/ f
,/
./ I
,/
Iv; "I
—60 — 86 _
[If EXPLANATION
[’1' —— McCall
.'l —————— West Yellowstone
-80 _ III, —
,' ............. Mount Rainier
Cb ‘ """ wee
/'
-------- Lassen Peak
—1oo — _
f
118
i I ' I l l J
60 - 65 70 75 8° 85 90

PI

FIGURE 24.—Plots of weathering potential index (WPI) versus product index (PI) for weathering-rind data.
WPI=100(Ebases—H,O)/(Ebases+Si0,+2R203); PI=100(Si02)/(Si02+)3R203) (Reiche, 1943; 1950). Enclosed areas are the fields
of igneous rocks (IR), kaolinite (K), and halloysite (H) (Reiche, 1943). Arrows indicate the trend from unaltered to weathered
rock. Data from table 11. See table 1 for the deposit and lithology of each sample (numbers).

 

 

CHEMISTRY OF BASALT AND ANDESITE WEATHERING 31

50 PERCENT BASES

  
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

EXPLANATION

McCall
—————— West Yellowstone

Mount Rainier

Truckee

 

----- — Lassen Peak

 

50 PERCENT R203

 

100 PERCENT Si02

FIGURE 25.—Triangular plots of Si02, R203, and bases (MgO+CaO+Na20+K20) for weathering-rind data. Arrows indicate the trend from
unaltered to weathered rock. Calculated from data in table 11. See table 1 for the deposit and lithology of each sample (numbers).

The weathering indices indicate that the most impor-
tant chemical processes occurring during weathering-
rind formation are: (1) rapid depletion of bases,
(2) rapid incorporation of water, (3) slower loss of silica,
(4) concentration of sesquioxides, and (5) oxidation of
iron. Reiche’s (1943; 1950) WPI-PI indices appear to be
the most useful, because they include all the major
elements involved in the weathering processes. In
general, all the indices show a trend of increasing
weathering as the age of the sampled deposit increases
and a trend of increasing weathering toward the out-
side of the stone or rind.

 

ABSOLUTE CHEMICAL CHANGES

In detailed weathering studies, changes in the quan-
tities of individual elements are important for assess-
ing degrees and processes of weathering. These
changes are most useful if they are determined on an
absolute scale, rather than on the relative scale in-
herent in percentage data. Variation in individual
elements on an absolute scale not only determines the
order of mobility of the elements but also suggests con-
clusions about the solubility of individual elements
within the weathered materials and about the composi-
tion of the weathering products.

 

 

32 CHEMICAL WEATHERING OF BASALTS AND ANDESITES: EVIDENCE FROM WEATHERING RINDS

Three general methods are available for calculating
changes in elemental abundances on an absolute scale,
using the relative weight-percentage data; each of
these methods involves at least one major assumption.
One method, which requires only the assumption that
alteration has proceeded without volume change, was
developed by Barth (1948); it is based on the cations
associated with a theoretical standard cell containing
160 oxygens. If the alteration is isovolumetric, the
number of oxygens remains constant, and the number
of cations of each element can be calculated from
molecular percentages.

A second method, which also requires the isovolu-
metric alteration assumption, is based on the weight of
each elemental oxide in a unit-volume of rock. To con-
vert the weight-percentage data to weight per unit-
volume, bulk density must be measured for each sam-
ple. If volume changes have not occurred, the weights
of a given element in unit-volumes of material in each
stage of weathering are directly comparable. This
method has been infrequently used, but Hendricks and
Whittig (1968) obtained reasonable results for andesite
weathered to saprolite, a case in which isovolumetric
weathering could be substantiated.

A third method, which is most commonly used in
weathering studies, is based on the assumption that at
least one element remains constant, or immobile, dur-
ing weathering (Reiche, 1943; Loughnan, 1969, p. 89;
Birkeland, 1974, p. 69). This method does not require
isovolumetric weathering; it only assumes the immo-
bility of a reference constituent. A1203, Fe203, and TiO2
are commonly used as reference constituents; these
elements are only slightly soluble in most weathering
environments (Loughnan, 1969, p. 52). The quantities
of each elemental oxide are calculated directly from the
weight-percentage data by multiplying the weight
percentage by the ratio of the amount of the reference
constituent in the fresh rock to that in the weathered
material. The resulting values are equivalent to the
amounts remaining after the weathering of 100 g of
fresh rock.

STANDARD-CELL—CATIONS METHOD

The data for the number of cations in a standard cell
(table 12; fig. 26A), calculated by the methods of Barth
(1948) for the weathering-rind samples, contain some
unexpected results. Silica remains nearly constant for
samples from young deposits and decreases only
slightly for those from older deposits. Alumina, iron,
and titanium tend to increase significantly compared
to the amounts in the fresh rock. Base cations (Mg, Ca,
Na, and K) show a general tendency to decrease with
weathering, but the trend is often erratic and K and

 

 

    
  
  
   
  

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

0 I ) I I I I
Fe Al Si [Tl
107.1 '9
3 -
STANDARD-CELL
CATIONS (Number) 103.69
22 e —
Lu
'—
LLI
E
_l
:’
E 0
Z
ui
0
$3
a:
D
:1)
Lu
gs
’—
(n
E
O
0:
LL
1410
o
z
<(
I" 1
‘2
0 3
WElGHT, T102 CONSTANT
6 (9/100 9 fresh rock)
.. _

 

O 5 10 15 1O 30 50

FIGURE 26.—Three methods of calculating chemical changes on an
absolute scale, using profile of sample 118 as an example. A,
Number of cations in a standard cell containing 160 oxygens,
calculated by Barth's (1948) methods, assuming isovolumetric
alteration. B, Weight per unit—volume, calculated from weight
percentages and bulk density, assuming isovolumetric weather-
ing. C, Weight resulting from the weathering of 100 g of fresh
rock, assuming TiO2 constant.

Mg increase in some samples compared to the amounts
in the fresh rock. Some K and Mg could be incorpor-
ated into clay minerals, but considering the poor devel-
opment of clay minerals in the rinds this is not believed
to be an important mechanism.

If weathering proceeds mainly by depletion, and if it
is isovolumetric, no element should increase to more
than the amount present in the unaltered rock. There-
fore, the observed increase in standard cell cations
must be due either to: (1) additions in solution from ex-
traneous sources, (2) preferential concentration of ele-
ments mobilized from within the rock, or (3) volume
decrease during alteration. Additions in solution from
outside sources and preferential concentration are con-
sidered unlikely, particularly because of the low solu-
bilities of Al, Fe, and Ti at Eh—pH conditions of normal

 

 

 

CHEMISTRY OF BASALT AND ANDESITE WEATHERING 33

weathering environments (Loughnan, 1969, p. 52). In
addition, for most samples in this study, concentration
gradients should be away from the fresh rock and
toward the stone surface, especially those for Fe, Mg,
and Ca. There is also little reason to expect that the
gradients of pH, or of other factors affecting cation
solubility, would be irregular enough to produce zones
of concentration of elements within the rinds.

If the addition of elements from extraneous sources
and the preferential concentration of elements in zones
are insignificant, then a volume decrease must have ac-
companied the weathering observed in this study.
However, no evidence of volume reduction was ob-
served in thin section, in terms either of textures, dis-
tribution of minerals, or of collapse of minerals with
weathered cores. These properties may not be sensitive
measures of volume changes, but large volume de-
creases should be evident.

Because volume reduction may have accompanied
the weathering observed, the basic assumption of the
standard-cell method is questionable. Values calcu-
lated by the standard-cell method for elemental abun-
dances in the weathered portion of the rock are there-
fore overestimates, by the amount of volume reduc-
tion, of the abundances resulting from the weathering
of the fresh rock. If neither the addition of elements
nor the preferential concentration of elements has oc-
curred in the rinds, the volume decrease can be
estimated if one element has remained immobile dur-
ing weathering. Using this assumption for TiO2 (an
assumption discussed in the section on the “TiOz—con-
stant method”), the outer portion of the rind in
sample 109, for example, has undergone more than a
50-percent decrease in volume, because Ti, calculated
by the standard-cell method (table 12), has more than
doubled. This seems to be an excessive volume de-
crease to go undetected in the physical properties of
the rinds.

Despite the anomalous elemental variations calcu-
lated by the standard-cell method, elements that are
mineralogically associated behave consistently. For
example, Fe and Mg show similar trends, as do Ca and
Na. Therefore, it appears that the process that has pro-
duced the anomalous elemental variations has affected
all the elements proportionately. This relation is con-
sistent with an overall volume reduction, rather than
with the addition of elements in solution from extran-
eous sources or the preferential concentration within
the rind. However, neither alternative is attractive,
and both volume reduction and additions or preferen-
tial concentration may have operated Within the rinds.
Analytical error, especially in TiO2 amounts, would
also explain some of the anomalies.

 

WEIGHT-PER-UNIT-VOLUME METHOD

The weight-per-unit-volume method of determining
absolute changes in elemental abundances uses bulk
density to convert percentage data to weight per unit-
volume. However, to compare a given volume of weath-
ered material directly with an equal volume of fresh
rock, one must assume that the alteration takes place
without volume change. Hendricks and Whittig (1968)
used this method to calculate changes accompanying
the alteration of andesitic rocks to saprolite. Preserva-
tion of the original fabric and structure of the rock sug-
gested to them that minimal volume changes had oc-
curred. Bulk densities measured for the saprolite were
very low, as low as 1.1.

An attempt was made to measure bulk densities for
the weathering-rind samples in this study. However,
the small size of the samples (on the order of 0.1 mm3),
their lack of coherence, and their rather high porosity
prevented consistent results using either Jolly bal-
ance, air-comparison picnometer, or direct-measure-
ment methods. Consequently, bulk densities were esti-
mated by comparing chemical analyses with the data
for similar rock types from Hendricks and Whittig
(1968); that is, the ratios of A1203 and TiO2 in the fresh
rock to those in the weathered rock for samples in this
study were compared with those of Hendricks and
Whittig’s (1968) samples for which bulk densities were
known. Changes in bulk density in the weathering
rinds, which were deliberately estimated conserva-
tively, are thought to be accurate within about
10—20 percent.

Weights per unit-volume of each elemental oxide
were calculated for the weathering-rind samples using
the weight-percentage data and the estimated bulk
densities (table 13 and fig. 268). The weight-per-unit-
volume data appear to be somewhat more reasonable
than the standard-cell data, because more elements
show a tendency to decrease, rather than to increase.
Decreases in Si are consistent with the duration of
weathering for each deposit; for example, more than
50 percent for sample 1 18. The behavior of Al and Fe is
somewhat erratic, but they tend to decrease and in-
crease, respectively, with the degree of weathering. All
base cations tend to decrease with increasing altera-
tion, although Mg and K increase slightly in some
samples. The amount of Ti has a strong tendency to in-
crease with increasing weathering. .

Using the same arguments presented in the discus-
sion of the standard-cell method (previous section), all
elements should decrease in abundance during the for-
mation of weathering rinds; most of the apparent in-
creases in elemental abundances are probably due to
volume decrease during alteration. Therefore, both the

 

 

 

34 CHEMICAL WEATHERING OF BASALTS AND ANDESITE S: EVIDENCE FROM WEATHERING RINDS

standard-cell and the weight-per-unit-volume data in-
dicate a volume decrease during weathering. Both
methods depend on the isovolumetric assumption; if
contradicted, the calculated values of elemental abun-
dances in the rinds become overestimates of the
amounts resulting from the weathering of the original
rock. The fact that mineralogically associated
elements behave consistently in both methods adds
support to the conclusion that volume decreases dur-
ing weathering.

The reason that the weight-per-unit-volume data ap-
pear to be more reasonable than the standard-cell data
is probably due to the conservative estimates of bulk-
density changes. If TiO2 is assumed to remain constant
during weathering, the volume decrease for the outer
part of the profile of sample 109 is estimated to be less
than 40 percent using the weight-per-unit-volume data
(table 13), compared to more than 50 percent using the
standard—cell data. The difference is probably due to
the conservative estimates of bulk-density changes
compensating for some of the volume decrease.

TiOz-CONSTANT METHOD

The third and most widely used method for
calculating changes in elemental abundances is based
on the assumption that some reference constituent re-
mains constant, or immobile, during weathering.
Although this assumption is impossible to prove in-
dependently, it can commonly be strongly supported.
In addition, the method is not affected by volume
changes. The most commonly used reference consti-
tuent is A1203; but Fe203, TiOz, and a combination of
the three elements are also used (Loughnan, 1969,
p. 89; Birkeland, 1974, p. 69).

TiO2 was used as the reference constituent in this
study for several reasons: First, elements that are im-
mobile or nearly immobile during weathering should
increase in weight percentage during weathering
because of the relative depletion of other elements. In-
spection of table 9 indicates that A1203 and FezO, (or
total iron) commonly decrease with weathering rather
than increase. These decreases in weight percentage in-
dicate that alumina and iron are not suitable reference
constituents for the samples in this study. On the
other hand, TiO2 increases in weight percentage in the
weathering rinds, compared to amounts in the
unaltered rocks, in almost every sample.

Second, TiO2 is virtually insoluble above pH 2.5, and
Ti(OH), is soluble only below pH 5 (Loughnan, 1969,
p. 44). Thus, if titanium is in the dioxide form, it is im-
mobile in virtually all weathering environments. Alum-
ina is immobile in the pH range of 4.5—9.5; iron is im-
mobile in normal oxidizing conditions, but is mobile

 

under reducing conditions (Loughnan, 1969, p. 52).
Both alumina and iron can be mobilized by chelating
agents in normal weathering environments (Loughnan,
1969, p. 48). Therefore, titanium is potentially the
most immobile constituent in basic volcanic rocks,
especially if it is released in the dioxide form. Even if
titanium is released as Ti(OH),, it is insoluble above
pH 5, and may dehydrate to one of the insoluble crys-
talline polymorphs of TiO2 (for instance, anatase;
Loughnan, 1969, p. 44).

Loughnan (1969, p. 45) showed a weathered profile
on basalt in which there has been differential move-
ment of titanium relative to alumina. He inferred from
this relation that titanium has been released as Ti(OH)4
from magnetite and augite and has been mobilized.
This conclusion, however, that alumina has remained
immobile as a reference is based on an unproved
assumption. The converse, that alumina has moved
relative to titanium, seems equally likely.

The third reason TiO2 was used as a reference consti-
tuent is that titanium is relatively abundant in the
rocks examined in this study and that most of it
appears to be concentrated in titanomagnetite. As dis-
cussed earlier (fig. 17), this mineral appears to be
remarkably stable in the weathering rinds, and it ex-
periences only partial alteration to hematite and mag-
hemite in highly weathered samples. XES data sug-
gest that pyroxene grains in the rocks examined con-
tain little or no titanium. Thus, it appears that most of
the titanium tends to be retained in resistant, primary-
mineral grains and that the titanium released probably
remains immobile.

Assuming that TiO2 remains immobile, the weight of
each elemental oxide in the weathering-rind samples
was calculated by multiplying its weight percentage
by the ratio of the weight percentage of TiO2 in the
fresh rock to that in the weathered sample (table 14;
figs. 260, 27). The calculated values are equivalent to
the amounts remaining after the weathering of 100 g of
fresh rock. These data appear to be more reasonable
than the data calculated using the standard-cell or
weight-per-unit—volume methods, because most ele-
ments decrease in abundance as weathering increases.
However, one cannot rule out the possibility of small
losses of titanium during weathering. If some titanium
has been lost, the elemental abundances calculated in
table 14 are overestimates by the percentage of loss. In
some of the rinds for which multiple layers were sam-
pled, TiO2 weight percentage decreased slightly in the
outermost part of the rind compared to that in the next
layer inward; this decrease suggests the possibility of
slight depletion of TiO2 in the outermost part of the
rind. Such depletion would account for the small in-
creases in A120, and SiO2 in the outermost parts of

 

 

CHEMISTRY OF BASALT AND ANDESITE WEATHERING

I AM I ' 1 OH

 
 
 
  
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DISTANCE FROM STONE SURFACE, IN MILLIMETERS

 

 

 

 

l I W | I 4
10 15 40 50 60

9/1009 FRESH ROCK

 

FIGURE 27.—Changes in elemental abundances, calculated assuming TiO2 constant, for
selected weathering-rind samples. Data are from table 14. Data for sample 118 are
in figure 260. See table 1 for the deposit and lithology of each sample (numbers).

 

35

 

 

36 CHEMICAL WEATHERING OF BASALTS AND ANDESITES: EVIDENCE FROM WEATHERING RINDS

those rinds in the data calculated assuming TiO2 cons-
tant (fig. 27). Some of the TiO2 variation could also be
due to analytical error.

The observed decreases in abundance are consistent
with what appear to be almost entirely degradational
processes responsible for forming weathering rinds,
and with the poor development of secondary-mineral
species (see section on “End products of weathering”).
Decreases of more than 50 percent in A120,, are
somewhat unexpected, but Hendricks and Whittig
(1968) also showed significant losses of alumina during
weathering of similar rock types; such losses could be
explained by the influence of chelating agents. The
data in table 14 and figure 27 also indicate trends in
losses of other elements that are similar to the losses
shown by Hendricks and Whittig (1968).

The abundances of elements on an absolute scale can
be used to estimate relative elemental mobilities.
Because volume decrease affects all elements propor-
tionately, all three methods of determining absolute
changes can be used. That these methods yield essen-
tially the same sequence lends further support to the
conclusion that individual elements have not been
added to the weathering rinds, but that an overall de-
crease in volume of the weathered material has oc-
curred. The sequence of mobility, based on the abun-
dance of each element in the weathering rinds com-
pared to that in the unaltered rock (table 16), is:

Ca>Na> Mg> Si> Al>K> Fe> Ti.

This sequence agrees rather well, except for the posi-
tion of K, with the general sequence:

Ca> Na> Mg> K> Si> Fe> Al,

which has been determined by several workers study-
ing stream waters draining igneous rocks (Polynov,
1937; Feth and others, 1964) or the weathering of
igneous rocks themselves (Goldich, 1938; Tiller,
1958). The small amount of K originally present may
be fixed by incipient formation of halloysite or other
kaolin minerals (see section on “End products of
weathering”).

CHEMICAL CHANGES WITH TIME

The most direct method of estimating chemical
changes that occur with time is to compare the
changes in rocks that have been subjected to weather-
ing for different amounts of time. This method was
used for the outer portions of weathering rinds from
different ages of deposits in all the sampling areas.
Chemical variation between rocks was accounted for
by normalizing the elemental abundances in the weath-
ering rinds by those in the unaltered rock. The weight-

 

percentage data, assuming TiO2 constant (table 14),
were used. The method involves two primary assump-
tions: (1) that the factors that affect the rate of weath-
ering are identical for sampling sites on different ages
of deposits, and (2) that the rate of loss of an element is
not significantly dependent on the amount originally
present.

The results of these comparisons (table 8) show
general trends of depletion of most elements, but many
inconsistencies and contradictions exist. Iron,
magnesium, and potassium amounts were particularly
erratic, and the apparent relative mobility of the
elements was inconsistent with that based on the se-
quences of changes in individual stones. Therefore the
basic assumptions of the method appear to be un-
founded. More consistent results could probably be ob-
tained with a larger number of samples, which would
better define the apparently large variation in the loss
of elements within a given age of deposit.

Considering probable ages of deposits sampled (Col-
man and Pierce, 1981), table 8 suggests that the rate of
loss of most elements decreases with time. The de-
creasing rate of loss of most of the elements is prob-
ably due to their rapid release as the primary minerals
disintegrate, followed by slower loss as they reach low
concentrations and as fine-grained weathering prod-
ucts impede the movement of water. The degree to
which the weathering products are more stable than
the primary minerals will also tend to slow the loss of
elements that they contain. In the outer portions of the
rinds in the oldest deposits in each area, the weathered
material is composed mostly of allophane, amorphous
iron oxide-hydroxide, and poorly developed clay min-
erals (see section on “End products of weathering”).
This composition is consistent with the chemical data,
which show that the extensively weathered material is
composed primarily of Si, Al, and Fe.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Weathering rinds on basaltic and andesitic stones of-
fer a number of advantages for studying the weather-
ing of these lithologies. These advantages include cer-
tainty of the original composition of the weathered
material, absence of detrital contamination, and
physical preservation of the insoluble weathered
material. Mineralogic changes in weathering rinds
were observed with the scanning electron microscope
combined with X-ray energy spectrometry, thin and
polished sections, X-ray diffraction, and differential
thermal analysis. Standard chemical analyses of the
rocks and weathering rinds were obtained to document
the chemical changes occurring during weathering.

The formation of weathering rinds on andesitic and

 

 

 

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 37

TABLE 8. —Ratios of elements in the outermost parts of weathering rinds to that in the
unaltered rock
[Calculated from data assuming ’I‘iO, constant (table 14). Leaders (—), not analyzed]

 

 

Sample Sio, Al,0. Fe,0, FeO MgO CaO Na,0 K,o H,o+
105 1.05 1.18 3.67 0.35 0.67 0.70 0.82 0.89 3.59
104 .66 .51 1.55 4.97 .87 .50 .49 .99 3.53
109 .30 .57 3.86 .21 .31 .18 .05 .15 3.63

98 .69 .60 1.00 .77 .73 .62 .58 1.02 3.45
95 .65 .77 1.72 .52 .57 .42 .42 1.18 11.71
102 .43 .40 .95 — .89 .45 .18 .45 1.46
119 .83 .94 1.62 .71 .75 .53 .67 .71 18.88
120 .79 .87 1.94 .39 .45 .36 .53 .58 4.13
121 .63 .75 1.82 .30 .34 .16 .32 .78 5.12
1 18 .29 .45 1.22 — .17 .02 .04 .25 2.16
75 .94 1.25 1.37 .46 .61 .56 .65 .87 12.14
83 .80 .80 1.60 .46 .78 .57 .69 .96 4.44
79 .49 48 1.39 .48 .38 .13 .26 .74 1.57
84 .85 .95 1.77 .53 .72 .61 .78 .81 6.32
89 .84 .79 1.36 .85 .91 .79 .72 1.17 3.31
85 .61 .81 1.27 .79 .59 .34 .38 .61 4.53
86 .70 1 25 2.16 .50 .47 .26 .32 1.37 3.89

 

basaltic stones appears to be due largely to degrada-
tional processes. Each of the primary minerals alters
at a different rate through a series of weathering prod-
ucts. A few of these weathering products have been
previously described and named, including chlorophae-
ite and “iddingsite.” But most of the weathering prod-
ucts described here are only arbitrarily defined stages
in a continuous process of degradation of the primary
minerals and have not been previously named or de-
scribed. Grain size, degree of fracturing, and chemical
zonation appear to be the most important lithologic
controls on the variations in the alteration rate of in-
dividual minerals.

Volcanic glass and olivine are particularly unstable
in the weathering environment, and their alteration
quickly imparts oxidation colors to weathering rinds.
Opaque minerals, primarily titanomagnetites, are re-
markably stable; they exhibit only minor and partial
alteration even in severely altered portions of weather-
ing rinds. The stability of pyroxene and plagioclase,
which is intermediate and variable, depends on the
composition of these minerals. The location and rate of
weathering in plagioclase are strongly controlled by
chemical zonation.

The fate of all minerals observed in this study is
alteration to an X-ray-amorphous mixture of allo-
phane, iron oxide-hydroxide, and poorly developed clay
minerals. The presence of allophane is confirmed by its
X-ray diffraction, morphological, and chemical charac-
teristics. Previous studies have shown that allophane
is commonly an early stage in the transition of primary
minerals to clay minerals, and that clay minerals even-
tually form during the alteration of basalt and
andesite. The abundance of allophane in weathering

 

rinds on basalts and andesites suggests that, in the
alteration of these lithologies, clay minerals form by
condensation and crystallization of the allophane.

Only very fine grained, poorly crystalline, X-ray-
amorphous clay minerals were observed in samples of
the weathering rinds; the associated soil matrices,
however, are commonly part of argillic B horizons, and
many contain clear X-ray evidence of crystalline-clay
minerals. This relation suggests that the crystalline-
clay minerals in the argillic B horizons may not have
formed by weathering of primary minerals but may
have been derived from extraneous sources. Given the
probable ages of some of the deposits from which
weathering rinds were sampled, clay-mineral forma-
tion by weathering processes in the rinds appears to
occur more slowly than is commonly assumed, at least
for the environments examined in this study.

Chemical analyses of the weathering rinds, particu-
larly for different layers of the rinds, document the
chemical changes accompanying weathering of basalts
and andesites. A number of indices portray the altera-
tions well, including the Si02:R203 ratio, baseszR203
ratio, Parker’s (1970) index, Reiche’s (1943; 1950) WPI
and PI indices, molecular percentage of water,
Fe2032FeO ratio, and SiOz-Rzoa-bases triangular plots.
The general trends demonstrated by these indices are
large losses of bases, some depletion of $0,, relative
concentration of R203, oxidation of iron, and incorpora-
tion of water during weathering.

Three methods were used to estimate absolute
changes in individual elements during weathering:
(1) the standard-cell method (Barth, 1948), (2) the
weight-per—unit-volume method using bulk densities,
and (3) the method assuming an immobile reference

 

 

38 CHEMICAL WEATHERING OF BASALTS AND ANDESITES: EVIDENCE FROM WEATHERING RINDS

constituent (TiO2). The first two methods assume that
the alteration is isovolumetric; they underestimate
chemical changes in weathering rinds, because volume
reduction appears to have accompanied the alteration
in weathering rinds. The relative elemental mobilities
determined by the third method are:

Ca2Na> Mg> Si> Al>K> Fe> Ti.

All elements, except perhaps Ti, are continuously
depleted during weathering.

Absolute chemical changes as functions of time are
difficult to estimate because of variation in factors af-
fecting the rate of weathering between deposits of dif-
ferent ages. However, the data suggest that the rate of
loss of most elements decreases with time.

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Barshad, 1., 1964, Chemistry of soil development, in Bear, F. E., ed.,
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___1966, The effect of variation in precipitation on the nature of
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APPENDIXES 1 and 2

 

 

 

 

42 CHEMICAL WEATHERING OF BASALTS AND ANDESITES: EVIDENCE FROM WEATHERING RINDS

APPENDIX 1.—GENERALIZED
PETROGRAPHIC DESCRIPTIONS

The following are generalized petrographic descrip-
tions of the rock types in each of the major study areas
on which weathering rinds were measured.

BASALTS

WEST YELLOWSTONE

Basalts examined near West Yellowstone, Mont., are
derived from the Pleistocene Madison River Basalt of
Christiansen and Blank (1972). The rocks commonly
contain scattered phenocrysts of plagioclase as much
as 1 mm long and less commonly contain phenocrysts
of olivine as much as 0.5 mm in diameter, locally form-
ing glomeroporphyritic clusters. The matrix consists
of plagioclase, in laths 0.1—0.2 mm long; crystals of
clinopyroxene, olivine, and opaque minerals, about
0.05—0.1 mm in diameter; and irregular-shaped masses
of basaltic glass and chlorophaeite. Matrix textures
are mostly intergranular to intersertal and are less
commonly subophitic. Visual estimates of the modal
composition are: plagioclase, 45—55 percent; pyroxene,
25-30 percent; olivine, 5—10 percent; glass and
chlorophaeite, 5-10 percent; and opaque minerals
about 10 percent.

McCALL

Rocks examined near McCall, Idaho, are extremely
uniform in texture and composition, and are probably
derived from the upper part of the Miocene Yakima
Basalt Subgroup of the Columbia River Basalt Group
(John Bond, oral commun., 1976). The rocks, which are
mostly aphanitic, contain plagioclase laths 0.1—0.2 mm
long (and contain scattered microphenocrysts up to
0.5 mm long); crystals of clinopyroxene, olivine, and
opaque minerals 0.05-0.01 mm in diameter; and
masses of glass, chlorophaeite, and calcite of irregular
shape. The textures are mostly intersertal to hyalo-
ophitic and are less commonly intergranular to
subophitic. Visual estimates of the modal composition
are plagioclase, 45-55 percent; pyroxene, 20—30 per-
cent; olivine, 0—5 percent; calcite, 0—5 percent; glass
and chlorophaeite, 15-20 percent, and opaque
minerals, 10—15 percent.

YAKIMA VALLEY

Rocks examined from the Yakima Valley, Wash., are
derived from the Eocene Teanaway Basalt (Foster,
1958). They are mostly aphanitic, but some contain

 

scattered phenocrysts of plagioclase or opaque
minerals 0.3—0.5 mm in longest dimension. Grain size
generally ranges between 0.05 and 0.2 mm, and tex-
tures are mostly intersertal; less commonly, textures
are intergranular, hyalo-ophitic, and subophitic. Visual
estimates of the modal composition are: plagioclase,
some of which is zoned, 45—55 percent; clinopyroxene,
25—35 percent; olivine, 0—10 percent; opaque minerals,
5-10 percent; glass, chlorophaeite, and (or) chlorite,
10—20 percent; and rare (< 1 percent) potassium
feldspar.

PUGET LOWLAND

The precise source of the basalt in the Puget
Lowland drifts in Washington is not known, but it is
probably mostly drived from the Eocene Crescent For-
mation in the Olympic Mountains. The basalt contains
microphenocrysts of plagioclase, 0.5-0.8 mm long, and
clinopyroxene, 0.3—0.5 mm in diameter. The matrix
consists mostly of thin plagioclase laths 0.3—0.5 mm
long; equant clinopyroxenes 0.05—0.1 mm in diameter;
and masses of devitrified glass, chlorophaeite, and
chlorite of irregular shape. Glass is rarely present.
Textures are mostly intersertal and are less commonly
hyalo-ophitic. Visual estimates of the modal compo-
sition are: plagioclase, 40—55 percent; clinopyroxene,
25—35 percent; olivine, 0-1 percent; opaque minerals,
5—10 percent; and altered glass and chlorite,
10—20 percent.

ANDESITES

Weathering rinds from sampling areas containing
andesitic rocks were measured on two groups of
stones: “coarse grained” and “fine grained.” The two
textural groups represent an arbitrary field classifica-
tion based on phenocryst content and matrix texture.

MT. RAINIER

Most of the rocks examined from the Mt. Rainier
area, Washington, are derived from the Quaternary
Mt. Rainier Andesite of Fiske and others (1963),
although some weathering rinds were measured on
stones derived from older volcanic rocks. Mt. Rainier
Andesite is a hypersthene andesite that is remarkably
uniform in composition.

The fine-grained andesites contain scattered
phenocrysts 0.5—1.5 mm in largest dimension, but
microphenocrysts 0.1—0.3 mm long are more abundant.

 

APPENDIX 43

Plagioclase is the most abundant phenocryst, with
lesser amounts of pyroxene and a few crystals of am-
phibole and olivine. Both the plagioclase and the
pyroxene are typically zoned, and the plagioclase
shows a wide range in degree of zoning. Both ortho- and
clinopyroxenes are present; slightly pleochroic or-
thopyroxene (hypersthene?) is more abundant. Am-
phiboles and some pyroxenes have reaction rims of
iron oxides. The very fine grained matrix (0.01—
0.05 mm) appears to consist mostly of plagioclase, py-
roxene, Opaques, and glass. Visual estimates of the
modal composition are: plagioclase, 45—50 percent; py-
roxene, 30—35 percent; opaques, 5—10 percent; glass,
5—10 percent; amphibole, 0—1 percent; and olivine
0—1 percent. Textures are primarily hyalopilitic.
Coarse-grained andesites are similar compositionally
to fine-grained andesites. Grain size is highly bimodal;
the rocks contain abundant, large (0.5—3.0 mm) pheno-
crysts of plagioclase and pyroxene, and rare pheno-
crysts of olivine and opaque minerals, in a very fine
grained (0.01—0.03 mm) matrix. The pyroxene pheno-
crysts commonly occur in glomeroporphyritic clusters.
Textures range from hyalopilitic to pilotaxitic.

LASSEN PEAK

Rocks examined from the Lassen Peak area, Califor-
nia, are derived from the andesitic flows that make up
the volcanic complex around Lassen Peak (Williams,
1932). The mineralogy of these andesites is variable.

The fine-grained andesities are nonporphyritic to
weakly porphyritic. Phenocrysts, if present, range
from 0.3—1.5 mm in size; plagioclase, some of which is
zoned, is generally the largest and most abundant
phenocryst; phenocrysts of clino- or orthopyroxenes
and olivine are less common. The matrix is typically
fine grained (0.08—0.1 mm) and consists of plagioclase,
pyroxene, opaque minerals and glass; it also contains
rare calcite, potassium feldspar, and olivine. In rocks
containing calcite or olivine, clinopyroxene is more
abundant than is orthopyroxene. Textures are mainly
pilotaxitic to intergranular. Visual estimates of the

 

modal composition are: plagioclase, 40—60 percent;
pyroxene, 25—40 percent; Opaques, 5—10 percent; glass,
0—15 percent; potassium feldspar, 0—10 percent;
calcite, 0—5 percent; and olivine, 0-15 percent.

The coarse-grained andesites have similar miner-
alogy, except that they contain very little glass. Phen-
ocrysts are abundant; the most common is plagioclase
(1.0—2.0 mm long), which is commonly zoned. Pyroxene
and olivine phenocrysts range from 0.6—1.2 mm;
phenocrysts of clinopyroxenes are more abundant than
are those of orthopyxorenes. The matrix grain size is
about 0.1—0.2 mm, and textures are mostly in-
tergranular to pilotaxitic.

TRUCKEE

The rocks examined from near Truckee, Calif., are
derived mostly from the late Tertiary andesites that
are abundant in the area. A few basalt clasts (those
without olivine phenocrysts) from the Pliocene and
Pleistocene Lousetown Formation may have been in-
cluded with the fine-grained andesites (Birkeland,
1963).

The fine-grained andesites contain microphenocrysts
(0.1—0.3 mm) and a few scattered phenocrysts (as much
as 2 mm). The phenocrysts are plagioclase, pyroxene,
olivine, and amphibole in varying proportions; the
microphenocrysts are plagioclase (more abundant) and
pyroxene. A few of the plagioclase and pyroxene
phenocysts are zoned. Clinopyroxene is commonly
more abundant than orthopyroxene. The matrix is very
fine grained (0.02—0.07 mm) and consists mostly of
plagioclase, pyroxene, and opaque minerals. Glass is
scarce. Visual estimates of the modal composition are:
plagioclase, 50—65 percent; pyroxene, 20—35 percent;
Opaques, 5—10 percent; olivine, 0—10 percent; am-
phibole, 0—5 percent; glass, 0—5 percent. Textures are
primarily pilotaxitic to trachytic.

The coarse-grained andesites are similar mineralog-
ically and texturally to the fine-grained andesites.
They contain abundant phenocrysts of plagioclase and
pyroxene (0.5—2.0 mm) in a matrix whose grain size is
generally 0.01—0.1 mm.

44 CHEMICAL WEATHERING OF BASALTS AND ANDESITES: EVIDENCE FROM WEATHERING RINDS

APPENDIX 2.—TABLES OF
ANALYTICAL DATA

TABLE 9.— Weight percentage, sample interval, and bulk density
[For samples 109—82. 109-83. 102 tall). and 118 tall), N320 and MgO determined by atomic absorption; other elements determined by X-ray fluorescence; total Fe as Fe203. All other
samples analyzed by “rapid rock” (wet—chemical) methods. Leaders (—l. not analyzed]

 

Samplel Bulk

 

No. Intervalz density. Sioz A1203 mo. FeO MgO CaO N320 K20 Ti02 P205 MnO co2 r120+ H20_ Sum
109-al 0.0-0.5 2.1 35.6 17.6 16.0 4 4 2.8 3.2 0.30 0.50 4.8 0 40 0.20 0.10 9.5 3.4 98.8
109—32 0.5—1.4 2.4 38.0 12.0 21.0 — 5.3 7.2 1.01 .81 3.9 < 1 .18 .00 10.7 — 100.
109—a3 1.4—2.0 2.6 41.0 12.0 18. — 5.3 8.3 1.84 .81 3.1 < 1 .20 .00 9.5 — 100.
109—a4 > 2.0 2.8 53.7 14.1 1.9 9.8 4.2 8.1 2.8 1.5 2.2 40 .20 .10 1.2 .3 100.5
105—a1 0.0—0.5 2.7 53.6 16.8 7.0 3.0 2.7 5.4 2.2 1.1 2.0 30 .20 10 4.1 1.8 100.3
105-a2 > 0.5 2.8 53.4 15.0 2.0 9.0 4.2 8.1 2.8 1.3 2.1 40 .20 10 1.2 .5 100.3
104—a1 0.0-0.5 2.3 43.8 11.5 4.4 14.8 8.5 6.4 2.1 .70 3.4 30 .20 10 2.5 .3 99.5
104—a2 0.5—1.0 2.6 43.9 11.9 3.2 15.3 8.7 7.9 2.4 .50 3.1 40 .20 10 1.1 .1 98.8
104—a3 > 1.0 2.8 46.5 15.8 2.0 2.1 6.9 9.1 3.0 50 2.4 30 .20 10 .5 .2 99.6
102—a1 0.0—0.7 2.4 36.0 9.6 23. — 6.40 6.6 .96 .74 3.8 < 1 .26 .00 12.6 100.
102—a2 0.7—1.5 2.5 40.0 11.0 20. 6.05 7.7 1.76 .74 3.2 < 1 .24 .00 9.3 — 100.
102—a3 > 1.5 2.8 48.0 14.0 14. — 4.18 8.5 3.05 .96 2.2 < 1 .19 .00 5.0 — 100.

98—a1 0.0—0.4 2.5 46.1 13.2 5.5 10.5 6.5 7.9 2.3 .70 3.3 .30 .20 10 1.9 .1 98.6
98—a2 > 0.4 2.8 48.8 15.9 4.0 9.9 6.5 9.2 2.9 .50 2.4 .30 .20 10 .4 .1 101.2
118—a1 0.0—2.6 1.7 39.0 16. 19. — 1.6 .29 .31 .72 2.6 < 1 09 .00 20.4 — 100.
118—a2 2.6-5.2 2.0 39.0 7.2 27. — 2.45 .49 .49 .95 3.4 < 1 09 .00 18.9 —— 100.
118-a3 5.2-7.8 2.4 47.0 7.5 21. — 4.98 1.5 .95 1.5 3.0 < 1 12 .00 12.4 — 100.
118—a4 >7.8 2.7 57.0 15.0 6.6 — 3.90 7.5 3.6 1.2 1.1 < 1 11 .00 4.0 — 100.
95—a1 0.0-0.3 2.4 47.6 16.8 6.0 3.2 6.6 4.7 1.8 1.9 1 1 .17 .23 01 6.6 2.4 99.
95—112 0.3—0.7 2.5 52.8 11.6 4.3 6.4 10.9 6.3 2.0 1.6 1 3 .11 .19 01 2.2 1.1 101.
95—33 > 0.7 2.8 54.5 16.3 2.6 4.6 8.7 8.4 3.2 1.2 82 .25 .13 02 .42 .3 101.
119—a1 0.0—0.2 2.5 54.5 16.9 4.1 2.8 3.2 3.7 3.0 1.4 1.1 .41 .11 02 5.4 3.0 100.
119—a2 > 0.2 2.7 59.8 16.4 2.3 3.6 3.9 6.3 4.1 1.8 1.0 .35 .10 02 .26 .2 100.
120—a1 0.0—0.4 2.3 57.9 17.8 5.1 1.7 2.2 2.5 2.4 1.3 1.2 .15 .09 .01 6.2 2.5 101.
120—a2 0.4—1.0 2.4 57.3 13.8 5.0 3.2 3.9 3.5 2.6 3.0 1.3 .14 .11 .03 3.5 1.2 99.
120—a3 > 1.0 2.7 58.9 16.4 2.1 3.5 3.9 5.6 3.6 1.8 .96 .34 .10 .02 1.2 .45 99.
121—31 0.0-0.6 2.1 55.9 19.3 6.4 1.4 1.4 1.2 1.8 1.6 1.2 14 .07 01 7.2 2.7 100.
121-a2 0.6—1.6 2.4 63.5 12.9 4.3 4.1 3.9 1.9 2.7 2.0 1.5 08 .11 02 2.1 .8 100.
121—a3 1.6-2.8 2.5 61.9 14.1 3.0 4.7 4.2 2.5 3.0 1.8 1.3 10 .13 01 1.9 1.1 100.
121—a4 > 2.8 2.7 60.3 17.5 2.4 3.2 2.8 5.1 3.8 1.4 .82 24 .09 01 .96 .55 99.
75—bl 0.0—0.1 2.6 53.7 20.7 4.8 1.2 1.9 3.4 2.4 1.6 .70 30 .09 00 7.2 3.4 101.
75—b2 > 0.1 2.7 58.5 17.1 3.6 2.7 3.2 6.3 3.8 1.9 .72 32 .11 02 .61 .3 99.
83—b1 0.0-0.2 2.5 51.0 15.9 7.7 2.2 6.2 5.4 2.9 2.3 1.8 70 .15 00 3.3 1.1 101.
83—b2 > 0.2 2.7 53.2 16.5 4.0 4.0 6.6 7.9 3.5 2.0 1.5 56 .12 01 .62 .6 101.
79—b1 0.0—0.4 2.2 50.3 16.5 12.4 2.4 2.3 1.6 1.5 2.2 1.5 24 .16 02 6.1 2.0 99.
79—b2 0.4-0.9 2.3 52.5 14.8 10.6 3.5 4.1 2.3 2.0 2.3 1.6 20 .18 01 4.5 1.8 100.
79—b3 > 0.9 2.7 55.8 18.6 4.8 2.7 3.3 6.4 3.1 1.6 .81 25 .13 02 2.1 .8 100.
84—a1 0.0—0.1 2.5 49.6 17.6 4.9 3.0 5.7 6.2 2.6 .98 .95 .25 .13 .00 5.1 1.6 99.
84—a2 > 0.1 2.7 53.0 16.7 2.5 5.1 7.2 9.2 3.0 1.1 .86 .32 .13 .00 .73 .2 100.
89—a1 0.0—0.4 2.5 46.0 14.2 5.8 8.8 7.3 8.6 2.5 59 2.3 45 .23 .02 1 6 .3 99.
89—a2 > 0.4 2.7 47.5 15.7 3.7 9.0 7.0 9.5 3.0 44 2.0 34 .17 .02 42 .1 99.
85—a1 0.0—0.4 2.2 55.1 19.3 5.6 1.8 1.5 1.8 2.3 1.9 .84 .11 .12 .02 7.1 1.4 99.
85-a2 0.4-0.8 2.6 64.8 14.5 5.6 1.6 1.7 1.4 2.7 2.8 .89 .08 .10 .01 3.1 .7 100.
85—a3 > 0.8 2.7 63.4 16.8 3.1 1.6 1.8 3.7 4.2 2.2 .59 .19 .08 .02 1.1 .45 99.
86—a1 0.0—0.6 2.4 36.7 23.6 7.1 2.4 3.9 1.9 .79 69 .74 21 09 .01 14.0 8.4 101.
86—32 0.6—0.9 2.5 41.0 17.8 4.4 5.4 9.1 4.0 .98 49 .85 .25 15 .01 9.2 6.4 100.
86—83 > 0.9 2.7 50.8 18.3 3.2 4.7 8.0 7.0 2.4 49 .72 .13 13 .01 3.5 1.4 101.

 

‘See table 1 for description of samples.
2In mm, 0=rock surface.
3Estimated by comparison with Hendricks and Whittig's (1968) data for similar rock types, on the basis of ratios of A1203 and TiOz in the weathered rock to those in the fresh rock.

 

 

APPENDIX 45

TABLE 10.—Molecular percentages
[Leaders {—1, not analyzed]

 

 

33:3" $02 A1203 mo, “30 MgO CaO N820 K20 Tio2 13205 MnO co2 mo" Sum
109—a1 35.73 10.39 6.04 3.69 4.18 3.44 0.29 0.32 3.65 0.17 0.17 0.14 31.78 100.00
109-82 34.92 6.49 7.25 — 7.25 7.09 .90 .47 2.71 .00 .14 .00 32.77 100.00
109-33 37. 93 6. 53 6.26 — 7.30 8. 23 1.65 .48 2.17 .00 .16 .00 29.30 100.00
109-84 56.15 8. 67 .75 8.56 6.54 9.07 2.83 1.00 1.74 .18 .18 .14 4.18 100.00
105-81 55.33 10.20 2.72 2.59 4.15 5.97 2.20 .72 1.56 .13 .17 .14 14.1 1 100.00
105—a2 56.19 9.28 .79 7.91 6.58 9.13 2.85 .87 1.67 .18 .18 .14 4.21 100.00
104-81 44.73 6. 91 1.69 12.63 12.92 7. 00 2.08 .46 2.63 .13 .17 .14 8.51 100.00
104-82 46.00 7. 33 1.26 13.40 13.57 8. 87 2.43 .33 2.46 .18 .18 .14 3.84 100.00
104-83 54.41 10.88 .88 2.05 12.02 11. 41 3.40 .37 2.13 .15 .20 .16 1.95 100.00
102—a1 31.75 4. 98 7.63 — 8. 40 6. 24 .82 .42 2. 54 .00 .19 .00 37.04 100.00
102-32 37.37 6. 04 7.02 — 8. 41 7. 71 1.59 .44 2. 26 .00 .19 .00 28.96 100.00
102-83 48.54 8. 33 5.32 — 6. 29 9. 21 2.98 .62 1. 69 .00 .16 .00 16.85 100.00

98-a1 48.64 8.19 2.18 9.26 10.21 8.93 2.35 .47 2.64 .13 .18 .14 6.68 100.00

98-82 51.82 9.93 1.60 8.78 10.28 10.47 2.98 .34 1.93 .13 .18 .14 1.42 100.00
118-81 30.22 7.29 5.53 — 1.85 .24 .23 .36 1.53 .00 .06 .00 52.69 100.00
118-82 31.38 3.41 8.17 — 2.93 .42 .38 .49 2.07 .00 .06 .00 50.69 100.00
118-83 41.26 3.87 6.93 — 6.51 1. 41 .81 .84 2.00 .00 .09 .00 36.29 100.00
1 18-34 56.63 8.77 2.47 — 5.77 7. 98 3.46 .76 .83 .00 .09 .00 13.25 100.00

95-31 46.06 9. 56 2.18 2.59 9.51 4. 87 1.69 1.17 .81 .07 .19 .01 21. 29 100.00

95-82 52.25 6. 75 1.60 5.29 16.06 6. 68 1.92 1.01 .97 .05 .16 .01 7. 26 100.00

95-33 56.19 9. 89 1.01 3.96 13.36 9. 28 3.19 .79 .64 .11 .11 .03 1. 44 100.00
119—a1 54.51 9.94 1.54 2.34 4.77 3.97 2.90 .89 .83 .17 .09 .03 18.00 100.00
119-82 64.39 10.39 .93 3.24 6.25 7.27 4.27 1. 23 .82 .16 .09 .03 .93 100.00
120-81 56. 46 10. 21 1.87 1.39 3.19 2. 61 2.27 .81 .89 .06 .07 .01 20.15 100.00
120-112 59.19 8. 39 1.94 2.76 6.00 3. 87 2.60 1. 97 1.02 .06 .10 .04 12.05 100.00
120—83 62. 87 10. 30 .84 3.12 6.20 6. 40 3.72 1. 22 .78 .15 .09 03 4.27 100.00
121—a1 54.80 1 1.13 2.36 1.15 2.04 1.26 1.71 1.00 .89 .06 .06 .01 23.53 100.00
121-82 66.04 7.89 1.68 3.56 6.04 2.12 2.72 1.32 1.18 .04 .10 .03 7.28 100.00
121—a3 64.67 8. 67 1.18 4.10 6.53 2. 80 3.03 1.20 1.03 .04 .11 .01 6.62 100.00
121—84 65.27 11.14 .98 2. 89 4.51 5. 91 3. 98 .97 .67 .11 .08 .01 3.46 100.00

75-b1 52.02 1 1.80 1.75.97 2.74 3.53 2.25 .99 .51 .12 .07 .00 23.25 100.00

75-b2 64.00 11.00 1.48 2. 47 5.21 7.38 4.02 1. 32 .60 .15 .10 .03 2.22 100.00

83—b1 52.49 9.63 2.98 1.89 9.50 5.95 2.89 1.51 1.40 .30 .13 .00 1 1.32 100.00

83-b2 56.44 10.30 1.60 3.55 10.42 8.98 3.59 1.35 1.21 .25 .11 .01 2.19 100.00

79-1)] 52.18 10.07 4.84 2.08 3.55 1.78 1.51 1. 45 1.18 .11 .14 .03 21.09 100.00

79-192 54.38 9.02 4.13 3.03 6.32 2.55 2.00 1. 52 1.26 .09 .16 .01 15.54 100.00

79-133 59.08 11.58 1. 91 2. 39 5.20 7.26 3.18 1. 08 .65 .11 .12 .03 7.41 100.00

84—81 49.35 10.30 1.83 2.49 8. 44 6.61 2.50 .62 .72 .11 .11 .00 16.91 100.00

84—a2 55.48 10.28 .98 4.46 11.22 10.32 3.04 .73 .68 .14 .12 .00 2.55 100.00

89—81 48.80 8.86 2.31 7.80 1 1.53 9.78 2.57 .40 1.85 .20 .21 .03 5.66 100.00

89-a2 51.26 9.97 1.50 8.12 11.25 10.98 3.13 .30 1.64 .16 .16 .03 1.51 100.00

85-81 53. 95 11.12 2. 06 1.47 2.19 1. 89 2.18 1.18 .62 .05 .10 .03 23.17 100.00

85-32 67. 26 8.85 2.19 1.39 2.63 1. 56 2.71 1.85 .70 .04 .09 .01 10.73 100.00

85-83 68. 78 10. 72 1. 26 1.45 2.91 4. 30 4.41 1.52 .48 .09 .07 .03 3.98 100.00

86—a1 32.85 12. 43 2. 39 1. 80 5.20 1. 82 .68 .39 .50 .08 .07 .01 41.78 100.00

86-82 37.86 9. 67 1. 53 4.17 12.51 3. 96 .88 .29 .59 .10 .12 .01 28.32 100.00

86—a3 50.23 10. 64 1.19 3. 88 11.78 7 42 2. 30 .31 .54 .05 .11 .01 11.54 100.00

 

 

 

46 CHEMICAL WEATHERING OF BASALTS AND ANDESITES: EVIDENCE FROM WEATHERING RINDS

TABLE 11.—Molecular ratios
[Leaders 1—). not analyzed]

 

 

Sample 1 Parker‘s SiO / Bases/ Fezo /
No. Bases R2032 WPIS PIA Index“ R263 11.02 FeOs
109-31 8.24 21.92 —35.74 61.97 11.68 1.63 0.38 1.64
109—112 15.71 16.46 -25.43 67.97 22.65 2.12 .95 —
109—83 17.65 14.96 -16.51 71.71 26.48 2.53 1.18 —
109-a4 19.45 15.44 16.77 78.43 32.32 3.64 1.26 .09
105—211 13.04 15.78 -1.27 77.81 22.32 3.51 .83 1.05
105—82 19.44 15.71 16.67 78.15 31.99 3.58 1.24 .10
104-31 22.46 17.54 16.46 71.83 32.12 2.55 1.28 .13
104—a2 25.21 17.75 24.02 72.15 36.04 2.59 1.42 .09
104—813 27.20 14.91 26.16 78.49 40.85 3.65 1.82 .43
102-81 15.87 15.14 —33.72 67.70 22.25 2.10 1.05 —
102—a2 18.15 15.33 -15.25 70.90 26.67 2.44 1.18 —
102—a3 19.11 15.34 2.71 75.99 31.15 3.17 1.25 —
98-31 21.96 17.64 17.31 73.38 32.69 2.76 1.24 .24
98-82 24.06 17.85 24.16 74.38 36.24 2.90 1.35 .18
118—81 2.67 14.35 —105.86 67.80 4.48 2.11 .19 —
118—a2 4.23 13.65 —94.34 69.69 6.90 2.30 .31 —
118—a3 9.57 12.80 —42.00 76.32 14.91 3.22 .75 —
118-a4 17.97 12.06 5.45 82.44 30.74 4.70 1.49 —
95—a1 17.24 13.85 -5.25 76.89 27.03 3.33 1.25 .84
95—82 25.66 11.97 20.48 81.36 36.89 4.36 2.14 .30
95-83 26.62 13.52 26.13 80.61 40.37 4.16 1.97 .25
119—a1 12.53 13.49 —6.80 80.16 22.82 4.04 .93 .66
119—a2 19.03 13.75 18.62 82.40 34.47 4.68 1.38 .29
120—31 8.88 13.66 —14.27 80.52 16.98 4.13 .65 1.35
120-a2 14.45 12.73 2.77 82.30 27.52 4.65 1.14 .70
120—33 17.55 13.48 14.14 82.35 31.56 4.66 1.30 .27
121—81 6.01 14.95 —23.12 78.56 12.95 3.66 .40 2.06
121—a2 12.20 12.54 5.42 84.05 22.80 5.27 .97 .47
121—a3 13.56 12.92 7.62 83.34 24.71 5.00 1.05 .29
121—a4 15.37 14.24 12.55 82.09 28.70 .58 1.08 .34
75-b1 9.51 14.54 —18.07 78.15 18.46 3.58 .65 1.80
75—b2 17.94 14.32 16.33 81.72 33.13 4.47 1.25 .60
83-b1 19.85 14.96 9.77 77.83 33.35 3.51 1.33 1.57
83—b2 24.35 14.87 23.16 79.15 40.08 3.80 1.64 .45
79—b1 8.29 17.12 —16.50 75.29 16.60 3.05 .48 2.32
79-b2 12.40 15.91 —3.80 77.36 22.47 3.42 .78 1.36
79-b3 16.72 15.34 10.21 79.39 29.54 3.85 1.09 .80
84—a1 8.18 14.10 1.55 77.78 28.46 3.50 1.29 .73
84-a2 25.31 14.18 23.97 79.64 38.82 3.91 1.79 .22
89—111 24.27 16.93 20.68 74.25 35.71 2.88 1.43 .30
89-32 25.67 17.16 25.67 74.92 38.35 2.99 1.50 .18
85-31 7.44 14.54 —20.72 78.77 16.09 3.71 .51 1.40
85—82 8.75 12.43 -2.24 84.40 20.30 5.41 .70 1.57
85—33 13.14 13.19 9.63 83.90 28.05 5.21 1.00 .87
86—a1 8.10 16.22 —58.91 66.95 11.91 2.03 .50 1.33
86—a2 17.63 13.87 —15.40 73.18 23.21 2.73 1.27 .37
86-83 21.80 14.32 11.89 77.82 31.48 3.51 1.52 .31

 

lBases=MgO+CaaO-)-N)1,O+K20.

211,03:Al,o,+Fe,o,+Tio,.

’WPI=Weathering Potential Index:100(EBases-H20)/(Ebases+ER203+Si021 (Reiche. 1950).
‘PI=Product, Index=100 (Si02)/(SiOZ+ER20,) (Reiche. 1950).

5Parker’s (1970) Index=100 (Na;0/0.35+Mg0/0.9+CaO/0.7+KgO/0.25).

 

 

APPENDIX 47

TABLE 12. —Standard-cell cations
[Standard cell cations are the number of cations in a standard cell containing 160 oxygens calculated by methods of Barth (1948). Leaders (— ) not analyzed]

 

 

581:)” Si Al Fe3+ Fe“ Mg Ca Na K Ti P Mn 0 H Sum
109—al 33.04 19.22 11.16 3.41 3.87 3.18 0.54 0.59 3.37 0.31 0.16 0.13 58.77 137.75
109-a2 33.84 12.57 14.06 — 7.03 6.87 1.74 .92 2.63 — .14 .00 63.52 143.31
109—a3 36.63 12.61 12.09 — 7.05 7.94 3.18 .92 2.10 .00 .15 .00 56.58 139.26
109—a4 50.59 15.63 1.35 7.72 5.89 8.18 5.11 1.80 1.57 .32 .16 .13 7.54 105.97
105—a1 48.27 17.80 4.74 2.26 3.62 5.21 3.83 1.26 1.36 .23 .15 .12 24.62 113.48
105-a2 50.26 16.61 1.42 7.08 5.89 8.17 5.10 1.56 1.50 .32 .16 .13 7.53 105.72
104-a1 43.32 13.38 3.27 12.23 12.52 6.78 4.02 .88 2. 55 .25 .17 .13 16.48 115.99
104—a2 44.20 14.10 2.42 12.87 13.04 8.52 4.68 .64 2. 36 .34 .17 .14 7.38 110.88
104—a3 48.15 19.25 1.56 1.82 10.64 10.10 6.01 .66 1. 88 .26 .18 .14 3.45 104.09
102-81 31.85 9.99 15.30 — 8. 43 6.26 1.64 .83 2. 55 .00 .19 .00 74.31 151.35
102—a2 36.07 11.67 13.56 — 8.12 7.44 3.07 .85 2.19 .00 .18 .00 55.90 139.05
102—a3 43.75 15.01 9.59 — 5. 67 8.30 5.38 1.11 1. 52 .00 .15 .00 30.38 120.87

98-81 45.06 15.18 4.04 8.58 9.46 8.27 4.35 .87 2.44 .25 .17 .13 12.38 11 1.18

98-a2 46.71 17.91 2.88 7.92 9.26 9.44 5.37 .61 1.74 .24 .16 .13 2.55 104.93
118—al 30.72 14.83 11.25 — 1.88 24 .47 .72 1. 55 .00 .06 .00 107.12 168.85
118—a2 32.06 6.96 16.69 — 3.00 43 .78 .99 2.12 .00 .06 .00 103.58 166.67
118-33 40.04 7.52 13.45 — 6. 32 1.37 1.57 1.63 1. 94 .00 .09 .00 70.43 144.35
118—a4 50.36 15.59 4.38 — 5.13 7.10 6.16 1.35 .74 .00 .08 .00 23.56 114.45

95—a1 43.19 17.93 4.09 2.43 8.92 4. 57 3.16 2. 20 .76 .13 .18 .01 39.92 127.48

95-a2 49.14 12.70 3.01 4.98 15.10 6. 28 3. 60 1 90 .92 .09 .15 .01 13.65 111.52

95—a3 50.20 17.66 1.80 3.54 11.93 8. 29 5. 71 1. 41 .57 .19 .10 .03 2.58 104.02
1 19-a1 48.72 17.77 2.76 2.09 4.26 3.54 5.19 1.59 .74 .31 .08 .02 32.18 119.27
119—a2 54.65 17.63 1.58 2.75 5.31 6.17 7.25 2.10 .69 .27 .08 .02 1.58 100.09
120-81 49.70 17.98 3.29 1. 22 2.81 2.30 3. 99 1.42 .78 .11 .07 .01 35.48 119.15
120—a2 52.28 14.81 3.43 2. 44 5.30 3.42 4. 59 3.49 .90 .11 .08 .04 21.29 112.18
120—a3 53.92 17.66 1.45 2 .68 5.32 5.49 6. 38 2.10 .67 .26 .08 .02 7.32 103.34
121—al 47.94 19.47 4.13 1.00 1.79 1.10 2.99 1.75 .78 .10 .05 .01 41.16 122.27
121—a2 56.65 13.54 2.88 3.06 5.18 1.82 4.66 2.27 1.01 .06 .08 .02 12.49 103.73
121—a3 55.76 14.94 2.03 3. 54 5. 63 2. 41 5. 23 2.07 .89 .08 .10 .01 11.41 104.09
121—a4 54.78 18.70 1.64 2. 43 3. 79 4. 96 6. 68 1. 62 .56 .18 .07 .01 5.81 101.25

75-b1 46.21 20.96 3.11.86 2.43 3.13 4.00 1.75 .46 .22 .07 .00 41.31 124.50

75—b2 53.84 18.52 2.49 2. 08 4.38 6.21 6.77 2.23 .50 .25 .09 .03 3.74 101.12

83-b1 46.57 17.08 5.29 1.68 8.43 5.28 5.13 2.68 1.25 .54 .12 .00 20.09 114.13

83-b2 49.50 18.06 2.80 3.1 1 9.14 7.87 6.30 2.37 1.06 .44 .09 .01 3.85 104.60

79—b1 45.47 17.55 8.43 1. 81 3.10 1.55 2. 62 2. 53 1.03 .18 .12 .02 36.76 121.18

79—b2 47.73 15.83 7.25 2. 66 5. 55 2.24 3. 52 2. 66 1.10 .15 .14 .01 27.27 116.12

79-b3 50.50 19.80 3.27 2.04 4. 45 6.21 5. 43 1. 84 .56 .19 .10 .02 12.67 107.07

84-a1 45.18 18.86 3.36 2.28 7.73 6.05 4.58 1.14 .66 .19 .10 .00 30.97 121.11

84—a2 49.52 18.36 1.76 3.98 10.02 9.21 5.42 1.31 .61 .25 .10 .00 4.55 105.08

89—a1 44.92 16.31 4.26 7.18 10.61 9.00 4.73 .73 1.70 .37 19 .03 10.42 110.45

89—a2 46.47 18.07 2.72 7.36 10.20 9.96 5.68 .55 1.48 .28 .14 .03 2.74 105.68

85—a1 47.65 19.64 3.64 1. 30 1.93 1.67 3.85 2. 09 .55 .08 .09 .02 40.94 123.45

85—a2 56.58 14.90 3.68 1.17 2.21 1.31 4.56 3.11 .59 .06 .07 .01 18.05 106.30

85—213 56.84 17.72 2.09 1. 20 2.40 3.55 7.29 2. 51 .40 .14 .06 .02 6.57 100.80

86-a1 32.19 24.35 4.68 1. 76 5. 09 1. 79 1. 34 .77 .49 .16 .07 .01 81.85 154.54

86—a2 37.57 19.19 3.03 4.13 12.41 3. 93 1. 74 .57 59 .19 .12 .01 56.20 139.68

86—a3 46.01 19.50 2.18 3. 56 10. 79 6. 79 4. 21 .57 .49 .10 .10 .01 21.13 115.45

 

 

 

48 CHEMICAL WEATHERING 0F BASALTS AND ANDESITES: EVIDENCE FROM WEATHERING RINDS

TABLE 13.——Weights per unit-volume
[Calculations assume isovolumetric weathering; bulk density was estimated by comparison with Hendricks and Whittig's (1968) data for similar rock types. on the basis of ratios of Al,0l
and 'I‘iOz in the weathered rock to those in the fresh rock. Leaders 1—). not, analyzed]

 

 

Sagile ditty Sio2 A120, F9203 FeO MgO 0210 Map K20 TioZ P205 MnO co2 H20+ Hzo‘ Sum

109—a1 2.10 74.76 36.96 33.60 9.24 5.88 6.72 0.63 1.05 10.08 0.84 0.42 0.21 19.95 7.14 207.48
109—112 2.40 91.20 28.80 50.40 — 12.72 17.28 2.42 1.94 9.36 .00 .43 .00 25.68 — 240.24
109—a3 2.60 106.60 31.20 46.80 — 13.78 21.58 4.78 2.11 8.06 .00 .52 .00 24.70 —— 260.13
109-84 2.80 150.36 39.48 5.32 27.44 11.76 22.68 7.84 4.20 6.16 1.12 .56 .28 3.36 .84 281.40
105-8.]. 2.70 144.72 45.36 18.90 8.10 7.29 14.58 5.94 2.97 5.40 .81 .54 .27 11.07 4.86 270.81
105—212 2.80 149.52 42.00 5.60 25.20 11.76 22.68 7.84 3.64 5.88 1.12 .56 .28 3.36 1.40 280.84
104—a1 2.30 100.74 26.45 10.12 34.04 19.55 14.72 4.83 1.61 7.82 .69 .46 .23 5.75 .69 227.70
104—212 2.60 114.14 30.94 8.32 39.78 22.62 20.54 6.24 1.30 8.06 1.04 .52 .26 2.86 .26 256.88
104—a3 2.80 130.20 44.24 5.60 5.88 19.32 25.48 8.40 1.40 6.72 .84 .56 .28 1.40 .56 250.88
102—31 2.40 86.40 23.04 55.20 — 15.36 15.84 2.30 1.78 9.12 .00 .62 .00 30.24 — 239.90
102—a2 2.50 100.00 27.50 50.00 — 15.13 19.25 4.40 1.85 8.00 .00 .60 .00 23.25 —— 249.98
102—a3 2.80 134.40 39.20 39.20 — 11.70 23.80 8.54 2.69 6.16 .00 .53 .00 14.00 — 280.22
98-31 2.50 115.25 33.00 13.75 26.25 16.25 19.75 5.75 1.75 8.25 .75 .50 .25 4.75 .25 246.50
98—112 2.80 136.64 44.52 11.20 27.72 18.20 25.76 8.12 1.40 6.72 .84 .56 .28 1.12 .28 283.36
118-a1 1.70 66.30 27.20 32.30 — 2.72 .49 .53 1.22 4.42 .00 .15 .00 34.68 — 170.02
118-a2 2.00 78.00 14.40 54.00 —- 4.90 .98 .98 1.90 6.80 .00 .18 .00 37.80 — 199.94
118—a3 2.40 112.80 18.00 50.40 — 11.95 3.60 2.28 3.60 7.20 .00 .29 .00 29.76 —— 239.88
118—a4 2.70 153.90 40.50 17.82 — 10.53 20.25 9.72 3.24 2.97 .00 .30 .00 10.80 — 270.03
95—81 2.40 114.24 40.32 14.40 7.68 15.84 11.28 4.32 4.56 2.64 .41 .55 .02 15.84 5.76 237.86
95-82 2.50 132.00 29.00 10.75 16.00 27.25 15.75 5.00 4.00 3.25 .28 .47 .03 5.50 2.75 252.02
95-33 2.80 152.60 45.64 7.28 12.88 24.36 23.52 8.96 3.36 2.30 .70 .36 .06 1.18 .84 284.03
119-a1 2.50 136.25 42.25 10.25 7.00 8.00 9.25 7.50 3.50 2.75 1.03 .28 .05 13.50 7.50 249.10
119—112 2.70 161.46 44.28 6.21 9.72 10.53 17.01 11.07 4.86 2.70 .95 27 05 .70 .54 270.35
120—al 2.30 133.17 40.94 11.73 3.91 5.06 5.75 5.52 2.99 2.76 .35 .21 .02 14.26 5.75 232.42
120—a2 2.40 137.52 33.12 12.00 7.68 9.36 8.40 6.24 7.20 3.12 .34 .26 .07 8.40 2.88 236.59
120-a3 2.70 159.03 44.28 5.67 9.45 10.53 15.12 9.72 4.86 2.59 .92 .27 .05 3.24 1.21 266.95
121—a1 2.10 117.39 40.53 13.44 2.94 2.94 2.52 3.78 3.36 2.52 .29 .15 .02 15.12 5.67 210.67
121-a2 2.40 152.40 30.96 10.32 9.84 9.36 4.56 6.48 4.80 3.60 .19 .26 .05 5.04 1.92 239.78
121—a3 2.50 154.75 35.25 7.50 11.75 10.50 6.25 7.50 4.50 3.25 .25 .33 .03 4.75 2.75 249.35
121-a4 2.70 162.81 47.25 6.48 8.64 7.56 13.77 10.26 3.78 2.21 .65 .24 .03 2.59 1.48 267.76
75-b1 2.60 139.62 53.82 12.48 3.12 4.94 8.84 6.24 4.16 1.82 .78 .23 .00 18.72 8.84 263.61
75—b2 2.70 157.95 46.17 9.72 7.29 8.64 17.01 10.26 5.13 1.94 .86 .30 .05 1.65 .81 267.79
83—b1 2.50 127.50 39.75 19.25 5.50 15.50 13.50 7.25 5.75 4.50 1.75 .38 .00 8.25 2.75 251.63
83—b2 2.70 143.64 44.55 10.80 10.80 17.82 21.33 9.45 5.40 4.05 1.51 .32 .03 1.67 1.62 273.00
79—b1 2.20 110.66 36.30 27.28 5.28 5.06 3.52 3.30 4.84 3.30 .53 .35 .04 13.42 4.40 218.28
79—b2 2.30 120.75 34.04 24.38 8.05 9.43 5.29 4.60 5.29 3.68 .46 .41 .02 10.35 4.14 230.90
79—b3 2.70 150.66 50.22 12.96 7.29 8.91 17.28 8.37 4.32 2.19 67 35 05 5.67 2.16 271.11
84—a1 2.50 124.00 44.00 12.25 7.50 14.25 15.50 6.50 2.45 2.38 .63 .33 .00 12.75 4.00 246.53
84—a2 2.70 143.10 45.09 6.75 13.77 19.44 24.84 8.10 2.97 2.32 .86 .35 .00 1.97 .54 270.11
89—31 2.50 115.00 35.50 14.50 22.00 18.25 21.50 6.25 1.48 5.75 1.13 .58 .05 4.00 .75 246.73
89-a2 2.70 128.25 42.39 9.99 24.30 18.90 25.65 8.10 1.19 5.40 .92 .46 .05 1.13 .27 267.00
85-31 2.20 121.22 42.46 12.32 3.96 3.30 3.96 5.06 4.18 1.85 .24 .26 .04 15.62 3.08 217.56
85—32 2.60 168.48 37.70 14.56 4.16 4.42 3.64 7.02 7.28 2.31 .21 .26 .03 8.06 1.82 259.95
85-a3 2.70 171.18 45.36 8.37 4.32 4.86 9.99 11.34 5.94 1.59 .51 .22 .05 2.97 1.21 267.92
86—a1 2.40 88.08 56.64 17.04 5.76 9.36 4.56 1.90 1.66 1.78 .50 .22 .02 33.60 20.16 241.27
86—82 2.50 102.50 44.50 11.00 13.50 22.75 10.00 2.45 1.22 2.13 .63 .38 .03 23.00 16.00 250.08
86—a3 2.70 137.16 49.41 8.64 12.69 21.60 18.90 6.48 1.32 1.94 .35 .35 03 9.45 3.78 272.11

 

 

 

 

 

 

APPENDIX 49
TABLE 14.- Weights assuming TiOz constant
[Data in grams. represent the results of weathering 100 g of fresh rock. Leaders 1—), not analyzed]

Sag-ale rm! Sio. A1303 F9203 peg Mgo CaO Nago K20 no, P205 MnO co2 H20+ H.0‘ Sum
109-a1 0.46 16.32 8.07 7.33 2.02 1.28 1.47 0.14 0.23 2.20 .18 0.09 0.05 4.35 1.56 45.28
109—32 .56 21.44 6.77 11.85 — 2.99 4.06 .57 .46 2.20 .00 .10 .00 6.04 — 56.41
109—a3 .71 29.10 8.52 12.77 — 3.76 5.89 1.31 .57 2.20 .00 .14 .00 6.74 — 70.97
109—a4 1.00 53.70 14.10 1.90 9.80 4.20 8.10 2.80 1.50 2.20 .40 .20 .10 1.20 .30 100.50
105-a1 1.05 56.28 17.64 7.35 3.15 2.83 5.67 2.31 1.15 2.10 .32 .21 .10 4.31 1.89 105.31
105—a2 1.00 53.40 15.00 2.00 9.00 4.20 8.10 2.80 1.30 2.10 .40 .20 .10 1.20 .50 100.30
104-31 .71 30.92 8.12 3.11 10.45 6.00 4.52 1.48 .49 2.40 .21 .14 .07 1.76 .21 70.24
104—212 .77 33.99 9.21 2.48 11.85 6.74 6.12 1.86 .39 2.40 .31 .15 .08 .85 .08 76.49
104-83 1.00 46.50 15.80 2.00 2.10 6.90 9.10 3.00 .50 2.40 .30 .20 .10 .50 .20 99.60
102-81 .58 20.84 5.56 13.32 — 3 71 3.82 .56 .43 2.20 .00 .15 .00 7.29 57.89
102—512 .69 27.50 7.56 13.75 — 4.16 5.29 1.21 .51 2.20 .00 .17 .00 6.39 — 68.75
102-33 1.00 48.00 14.00 14.00 — 4.18 8.50 3.05 .96 2.20 .00 .19 .00 5.00 — 100.00

98-a1 .73 33.53 9.60 4.00 7.64 4.73 5.75 1.67 .51 2.40 .22 .15 .07 1.38 .07 71.71

98—a2 1.00 48.80 15.90 4.00 9.90 6.50 9.20 2.90 .50 2.40 .30 .20 .10 .40 .10 101.20
118—a1 .42 16.50 6.77 8.04 — .68 .12 .13 .30 1.10 .00 .04 .00 8.63 — 42.31
118-112 .32 12.62 2.33 8.74 — .79 .16 .16 .31 1.10 .00 .03 .00 6.11 — 32.35
118—a3 .37 17.23 2.75 7.70 — 1.83 .55 .35 .55 1.10 .00 .04 .00 4.55 — 36.67
118-84 1.00 57.00 15.00 6.60 — 3.90 7.50 3.60 1.20 1.10 .00 .11 .00 4.00 — 100.00

95-a1 .75 35.48 12.52 4.47 2.39 4 92 3 50 1.34 1.42 82 13 17 .01 4.92 1.79 73.80

95—a2 .63 33.30 7.32 2.71 4.04 6.88 3 97 1.26 1.01 82 07 12 .01 1.39 .69 63.71

95-a3 1.00 54.50 16.30 2.60 4.60 8.70 8 40 3.20 1.20 82 25 13 .02 .42 .30 101.00
119—a1 .91 49.55 15.36 3.73 2.55 2.91 3 36 2.73 1.27 1.00 37 10 .02 4.91 2.73 90.91
119-a2 1.00 59.80 16.40 2.30 3.60 3.90 6 30 4.10 1.80 1.00 35 10 .02 .26 .20 100.00
120—a1 .80 46.32 14.24 4.08 1.36 1.76 2.00 1.92 1.04 .96 .12 .07 .01 4.96 2.00 80.80
120—a2 .74 42.31 10.19 3.69 2.36 2.88 2.58 1.92 2.22 .96 .10 .08 .02 2.58 .89 73.11
120-a3 1.00 58.90 16.40 2.10 3.50 3.90 5.60 3.60 1.80 .96 .34 .10 .02 1.20 .45 99.00
12l-al .68 38.20 13.19 4.37 .96 .96 .82 1.23 1.09 .82 .10 .05 .01 4.92 1.84 68.33
121—a2 .55 34.71 7.05 2.35 2.24 2.13 1.04 1.48 1.09 .82 04 06 .01 1.15 .44 54.67
121—a3 .63 39.04 8.89 1.89 2.96 2.65 1.58 1.89 1.14 .82 .06 .08 .01 1.20 .69 63.08
121—a4 1.00 60.30 17.50 2.40 3.20 2.80 5.10 3.80 1.40 .82 .24 .09 .01 .96 .55 99.00

75—b1 1.03 55.23 21.29 4.94 1.23 1.95 3.50 2.47 1.65 .72 .31 .09 .00 7.41 3.50 103.89

75—b2 1.00 58.50 17.10 3.60 2.70 3.20 6.30 3.80 1.90 .72 .32 .1 1 .02 .61 .30 99.00

83-b1 .83 42.50 13.25 6.42 1.83 5.17 4.50 2.42 1.92 1.50 .58 .13 .00 2.75 .92 84.17

83—b2 1.00 53.20 16.50 4.00 4.00 6.60 7.90 3.50 2.00 1.50 .56 .12 .01 .62 .60 101.00

79-b1 .54 27.16 8.91 6.70 1.30 1.24 .86 .81 1.19 .81 .13 .09 .01 3.29 1.08 53.46

79—b2 .51 26.58 7.49 5.37 1.77 2.08 1.16 1.01 1.16 .81 .10 .09 .01 2.28 .91 50.63

79—b3 1.00 55.80 18.60 4.80 2.70 3.30 6.40 3.10 1.60 .81 .25 .13 .02 2.10 .80 100.00

84-a1 .91 44.90 15.93 4.44 2.72 5.16 5.61 2.35 .89 .86 .23 .12 .00 4.62 1.45 89.62

84—a2 1.00 53.00 16.70 2.50 5.10 7.20 9.20 3.00 1.10 .86 .32 .13 .00 .73 .20 100.00

89—a1 .87 40.00 12.35 5.04 7.65 6.35 7.48 2.17 .51 2.00 .39 .20 .02 1.39 .26 86.09

89—a2 1.00 47.50 15.70 3.70 9.00 7.00 9.50 3.00 .44 2.00 .34 .17 .02 .42 .10 99.00

85—a1 .70 38.70 13.56 3.93 1.26 1.05 1.26 1.62 1.33 .59 .08 .08 .01 4.99 .98 69.54

85-a2 .66 42.96 9.61 3.71 1.06 1.13 .93 1.79 1.86 .59 .05 .07 .01 2.06 .46 66.29

85-a3 1.00 63.40 16.80 3.10 1.60 1.80 3.70 4.20 2.20 .59 .19 .08 .02 1.10 .45 99.00

86—a1 .97 35.71 22.96 6.91 2.34 3.79 1.85 .77 .67 .72 .20 .09 .01 13.62 8.17 98.27

86—a2 .85 34.73 15.08 3.73 4.57 7.71 3.39 .83 .42 .72 .21 .13 .01 7.79 5.42 84.71

86—a3 1.00 50.80 18.30 3.20 4.70 8.00 7.00 2.40 .49 .72 .13 .13 .01 3.50 1.40 101.00

 

l’I‘i R=Ti Ratio=ratio of TiOz in the fresh rock to that in the weathered sample.

 

 

 

50 CHEMICAL WEATHERING OF BASALTS AND ANDESITE S: EVIDENCE FROM WEATHERING RINDS

TABLE 15. —Normalized molecular ratios
[Molecular ratios are normalized to values m unaltered rock. Leaders 1— ) not analyzed]

 

 

53:“ B... ww 22%;? 92%: 3.73:“ 32%
109—a1 0.42 1.42 -2.13 0.79 0.36 0.45 0.30 18.76
109—a2 .81 1.07 -1.52 .87 .70 .58 .76 —
109—a3 .91 .97 .98 .91 .82 .70 .94 —
109-a4 1.00 1.00 1.00 1. 00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
105—a1 .67 1.00 —.08 1.00 .70 .98 .67 10.50
105—a2 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
104—a1 .83 1.18 .63 .92 .79 .70 .70 .31
1 04—32 93 1.19 .92 .92 .88 .71 .78 .22
104—a3 1. 00 1.00 1.00 1. 00 1. 00 1. 00 1. 00 1. 00
102-a1 .83 .99 —12. 43 .89 .71 .66 .84 —
102-a2 .95 1.00 —5. 62 .93 86 .77 .95 —
102—a3 1. 00 1.00 1. 00 1. 00 1. 00 1. 00 1.00 —
98—a1 9.1 .99 .72 .99 .90 .95 .92 1.30
98—a2 1. 00 1.00 1. 00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
118—a1 .15 1.19 —19.41 .82 .15 .45 .13 —
118—a2 .24 1.13 —17.30 .85 .22 .49 .21 ——
118—a3 .53 1.06 —7.70 93 .48 .69 .50 —
118—a4 1. 00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 —
95-a1 .65 1.02 .20 .95 .67 .80 .63 3.32
95—a2 .96 .89 .78 1. 01 .91 1. 05 1. 09 1.19
95-a3 1. 00 1.00 1.00 1. 00 1.00 1. 00 1. 00 1.00
119—a1.66 .98 .37 .97 .66 .86 .67 2.29
119—a2 1. 00 1.00 1.00 1. 00 1. 00 1. 00 1. 00 1.00
120—a1 .51 1.01 —1.01 .98 .54 .89 .50 5.00
120—a2 .82 .94 .20 1.00.87 1.00 .87 2.60
120—a3 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1. 00 1.00 1.00 1.00
121-31 .39 1.05 —1.84 .96 .45 .80 .37 6.10
121—a2 .79 .88 .43 1.02 .79 1.15 .90 1.40
121—a3 .88 .91 .61 1.02.86 1.09 .97 8.5
121—a4 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1. 00 1.00 1.00 1. 00
75-b1 .53 1.02 —1.11.96 .56 8.0 .52 3.00
75—b2 1.00 1.00 1.00 1. 00 1. 00 1. 00 1.00 1.00
83 .b1 .82 1.01 .42 .98 .83 .92 .81 3.50
83 . b2 1. 00 1.00 1.00 1. 00 1. 00 1. 00 1. 00 1.00
79-b1 .50 1.12 —1.62 .95 .56 .79 .44 2.91
79-b2 .74 1.04 —.37 .97 .76 .89 .71 1.70
79—b3 1. 00 1.00 1.00 1. 00 1. 00 1 .00 1. 00 1.00
84—a1 .72 .99 .06 .98 .73 8.9 7 2 3.33
84—32 1.00 1. 00 1. 00 1. 00 1. 00 1. 00 1. 00 1.00
89—a1 .95 9981.99.93.97 96 1.60
89—a2 1.00 1.00 1 00 1. 00 1. 00 1. 00 1. 00 1.00
85—a1 .57 1.10 —2. 15 .94 .57 .71 .51 1. 61
85—a2 .67 .94 — .23 1.01.72 1. 04 .71 1.81
85—a3 1.00 1.00 1. 00 1.00 1. 00 1. 00 1.00 1. 00
86—a1 .37 1.13 —4. 96 .86 .38 .58 .33 4. 35
86-212 .81 .97 —1. 30 .94 .74 .78 .83 1. 20
86—33 1.00 1.00 1. 00 1. 00 1. 00 1. 00 1. 00 1. 00

 

‘Bases=Mg0+CaO+Na20+K20.

“R203=Al203+Fe,03+Ti02

3WPI= Weathering Potential Index:100(EBases-HZO)/(Ebases+ER205+Si02) (Reiche, 1950).
‘PI= Product Index=100 (SiOz )/(Si02+SR203) (Reiche. 1950).

5Parker’s (1970) Index=100 (Nap/0.35+Mg0/0.9+CaO/0.7+K20/0.25).

 

APPENDIX ' 51

TABLE 16. —Norma1ized weights assuming TiO2 constant
[Weights assuming TiO, constant (table 14) are nonnah'zed to values' m the fresh rocks Leaders (— —J. not analyzed]

 

 

83$?" TiR‘ Sio2 A1203 mo, FeO MgO CaO N320 K20 "no. 13.05 MnO co2 1120+ H20:
109-81 0.46 0.30 0.57 3.86 0.21 0.31 0.18 0.05 0.15 1.00 0.46 0.46 0.46 3.63 5.19
109-82 .56 .40 .48 6.23 — .71 .50 .20 .30 1.00 00 .51 .00 5.03 —
109-83 .71 .54 .60 6.72 — .90 .73 .47 .38 1.00 .00 .71 .00 5. 62 —
109-84 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1. 00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1. 00 1.00
105-31 1.05 1.05 1.18 3.67 .35 .67 .70 .82 .89 1.00 .79 1.05 1.05 3.59 3.78
105-32 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1. 00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
104—81 .71 .66 .51 1.55 4.97 .87 .50 .49 .99 1.00 .71 .71 .71 3. 53 1. 06
104-32 .77 .73 .58 1.24 .64 .98 .67 .62 .77 1.00 1.03 .77 .77 1. 70 .39
104-113 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1. 00 1.00 1. 00 1.00 1.00 1 .00 1.00 1.00 1. 00 1.00
102-81 .58 .43 .40 .95 — .89 .45 .18 .45 1.00 .00 .79 .00 1. 46 —
102-82 .69 .57 .54 .98 — 1.00 .62 .40 .53 1.00 .00 .87 .00 1. 28 —
102-a3 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 — 1. 00 1.00 1. 00 1.00 1.00 .00 1.00 .00 1. 00 —
98—81 .73 .69 .60 1.00 .77 .73 .62 .58 1.02 1.00.73 .73 .73 3.45 .73
98—a2 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1. 00 1.00 1. 00 1.00 1.00
118-a1 .42 .29 .45 1.22 — .17 .02 .04 .25 1.00 .00 .35 .00 2.16 —
118-82 .32 .22 .16 1.32 — .20 .02 .04 .26 1.00 .00 .26 .00 1.53 —
118-83 .37 .30 .18 1.17 — .47 .07 .10 .46 1.00 .00 .40 .00 1.14 —
118-84 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 — 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 .00 1.00 .00 1. 00 —
95-a1 .75 .65 .77 1.72 .52 .57 .42 .42 1.18 1.00 .51 1.32 .37 11.71 5.96
95—32 .63 .61 .45 1.04 8 .79 .47 .39 .84 1.00 .28 .92 ,.32 3. 30 2.31
95—a3 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1 00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1. 00 1.00
119—81 .91 .83 .94 1.62 71 .75 .53 .67 .71 1.00 1.06 1.00 .91 18.88 13.64
119-82 1.00 1.00 1. 00 1.00 1 00 1.00 1. 00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
120-31 .80 .79 .87 1.94 39 .45 .36 .53 .58 1.00 .35 .72 .40 4.13 4.44
120-82 .74 .72 .62 1.76 .68 .74 .46 .53 1.23 1.00 .30 .81 1.11 2.15 1.97
120-113 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1. 00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1. 00 1 .00 1.00
121-a1 .68 .63 .75 1.82 30 .34 .16 .32 .78 1.00 .40 .53 .68 5.12 3.35
121—82 .55 .58 .40 .98 70 .76 .20 .39 .78 1.00 .18 .67 1.09 1.20 .80
121-33 .63 .65 .51 .79 93 .95 .31 .50 .81 1.00 .26 .91 .63 1. 25 1.26
121—a4 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1 00 1.00 1. 00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1. 00 1.00
75—1101 1.03 .94 1.25 1.37 46 .61.56 .65 .87 1.00 .96 .84 .00 12.14 11.66
75-b2 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1 00 1.00 1. 00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
83-1)] .83 .80 .80 1.60 46 .78 .57 .69 .96 1.00 1.04 1.04.00 4.44 1.53
83-132 1.00 1 .00 1.00 1.00 1 00 1.00 1. 00 1. 00 1. 00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
79-b1 .54 .49 .48 1.39 .48 .38 .13 .26 .74 1.00 .52 .66 .54 1. 57 1. 35
79-b2 .51.48 .40 1.12 .66 .63 .18 .33 .73 1.00 .41 .70 .25 1.08 1.14
79-b3 1. 00 1. 00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1. 00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1. 00 1. 00 1. 00
84-8131 .85 .95 1.77 .53 .72 .61 .78 .81 1.00.71.91 .00 6.32 7.24
84-82 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1. 00 1. 00 1. 00 1.00 1 .00 1.00 .00 1.00 1.00
89—81 .87 .84 .79 1.36 .85 .91 .79 .72 1.17 1.00 1.15 1.18.87 3.31 2.61
89-32 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1. 00 1. 00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1. 00 1.00 1.00
85—a1 .70 .61 .81 1.27 .79 .59 .34 .38 .61 1.00 .41 1.05 .70 4. 53 2.19
85-82 .66 .68 .57 1.20 .66 .63 .25 .43 .84 1.00.28 .83 .33 1.87 1.03
85—83 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1. 00 1. 00 1. 00 1.00 1 .00 1 .00 1.00 1. 00 1.00
86-81 .97 .70 1.25 2.16 .50 .47 .26 .32 1.37 1.00 1. 57 .67 .97 3. 89 5. 84
86-32 .85 68 .82 1.16 .97 .96 .48 .35 .85 1.00 1. 63 .98 .85 2. 23 3. 87
86-83 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1. 00 1.00 1.00 1. 00 1. 00 1. 00 1.00 1.00

 

l'I‘1'R='I‘i Ratio=ratio of 'I‘iO, in the fresh rock to that in the weathered sample.

3} US. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1952——576-034/l25

I "FTURN EARTH SCIENCES LIBRARY
V» QQOF ’IH'L"

 

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i

Revision of Lz'l/zoszfrotz'onella
(Coelenterata, Rugosa) from
the Carboniferous and Permian

By WILLIAM j SANDO

 

A revision of colonial rugose corals based on
restua’y of Hayasa/ca’s North American species
and the literature on other species

referred to Lithostrotionella

 

 

 

 

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1983

—

 

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

JAMES G. WATT, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Dallas L. Peck, Director

 

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Sando, William Jasper.
and Permian.

Revision of Lithostrotionella (Coelenterata, Rugosa) from the Carboniferous

(Geological survey professional paper ', 1247)
tudy of Hayasaka’s North American species and the literature on other species

“A revision of colonial rugose corals based on res
referred to Lithostrotionella.”
Includes bibliographical references and index.

Supt. of Docs. no.: I 19.16:
1. Lithostrotionidae. 2. Paleontology—Carboniferous. 3. Paleontology—Permian. 1. Ti
81—607828

QE778.SZ4 563'.6
AACRZ
ribution Branch, U.S. Geological Survey,

For sale by the Dist
604 South Pickett Street, Alexandria, VA 22304

tle. II. Series.

 

4—.—

CONTENTS

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Page Page
Abstract _ 1 Systematic paleontology—Continued

Introduction _ 1 Family Lonsdaleiidae Chapman, 1893 _________________ 36
Acknowledgments _ 2 Genus Thysanopfiyllum N Icholson and Thomson, 1876 _ 36
The status of Lithost’rot’ionella __________________________ 2 Genus LonsdaletaMcCoy, 184,9 “.— “““““““““ 37
Classification 4 . SubgenusActmocyathas d Orblg'ny, 1849 ________ 37
Family Durhamlnldae Mmato and Kato, 1965 ___________ 37
Phylogeny — 6 Genus Kleopatrma McCutcheon and Wilson, 1963 ____ 37

Systematic paleontology 8 Subgenus Kleopatm'na McCutcheon and Wilson,
Family Lithostrotionidae d’Orbigny, 1851 ______________ 9 1963 38
Genus Stelechophyllum Tolmachev, 1933 ____________ 9 Uggetermined lithostrotionelloid corals ________________ 38
A itional taxa _ 39

Fami§“XifiZ‘yl:iiléfii$.32;3§?::::::::::::::: 3 Register of. Uses lsmhties forHayasaka <1936> type specimens
, ’ of thhostrotwnella speCIes ________________________ 40
Genus Acrocyathus d Orbigny, 1849 ———————————————— 15 Locality data for USNM specimens not Hayasaka types ______ 41
Family Petalaxidae Fomichev, 1953 ___________________ 23 References cited __ 42
Genus Petalaxis Milne-Edwards and Haime, 1852 ____ 23 Index _ 49

ILLUSTRATIONS

 

[Plates follow index]

PLATE 1,2. Stelechophyllum microstylum (White).
3. Stelechophyllum banffense (Warren)?.
4. Stelechophyllum banffense (Warren)? and Stelechophyllum sp. indet.
5. Acrocyathusflomfomisflomfomis d’Orbigny.
6. Acrocyathusflorfiomisflonfomis d’Orbigny?.
7. Acrocyathus flomfomisflom'fomis d’Orbigny? and Acrocyathusflomfomisflomfomis d’Orbigny.
8—11. Acrocyathusflomfomisflomfomis d’Orbig‘ny.
12. Acrocyathus flom'fomis hemisphaericus (Hayasaka).
13. Acrocyathus flonfo’r’mis hemisphaem'cus (Hayasaka) and Acrocyathus flomformis hemisphaericus (Hayasaka)?.
14. Acrocyathus flomfomis hemisphaericus (Hayasaka).
15. Acrocyathus prohfims (Hall).
16. Acrocyathus prohfe’rus (Hall) and Acrocyathusflomfomisflomformis d’Orbig'ny.
17. Acrocyathus pilatus n. sp. and Acrocyathus girtyi (Hayasaka).
18. Petalaxis simplex (Hayasaka) and Petalaacis wyomingensis n. sp.
19. Petalaxis exiguus n. sp. and Petalaxis tabulatus (Hayasaka).
20. Petalam's occidentalis (Merriam) and Lonsdaleia (Actinocyathus) berthiaumi (Merriam).

 

 

 

 

Page

FIGURE 1. Morphology of the type species of the principal lithostrotionelloid genera 7

2. Postulated phylogeny of the principal genera of lithostrotionelloid corals 8

3. Variation in maximum number of major septa and maximum corallite diameter in 56 coralla of Acrocyathus flom'fomis ______ 18
TABLE

Page

TABLE 1. Hayasaka (1936) type specimens of Lithostmtionella _ 3

 

 

III

REVISION OF LITHOSTROTIONELLA

(COELENTERATA, RUGOSA)

FROM THE CARBONIFEROUS AND PERMIAN

 

By WILLIAM j. SANDO

 

ABSTRACT

Species of predominantly massive colonial rugose corals from the
Carboniferous and Permian that were referred previously to
Lithostrotionella Yabe and Hayasaka are reassigned to the following
genera: Acrocyathus d’Orbigny (including probable junior synonym
Lithostrotionella Yabe and Hayasaka), Stelechophyllum Tolmachev
(including junior synonym Eolithostrotionella Zhizhina), Petalaxis
Milne-E dwards and Haime (including junior synonyms Hillia de Groot
and Eastonoz'des Wilson and Langenheim), Aulostylus Sando,
Kleopatm'na McCutcheon and Wilson, Lonsdaleia McCoy (subgenus
Actinocyathus d’Orbigny), and Thysanophyllum Nicholson and Thom-
son. One of the species referred to Cystolonsdaleia Fomichev is
reassigned to Petalam's.

Stelechophyllum and Aulostylus are referred to the Family
Lithostrotionidae d’Orbigny. A new family, the Acrocyathidae, is
created for the genus Acrocyathus. Petalam's is placed in the Family
Petalaxidae Fomichev, Thysamphyllum and Lonsdaleia are referred
to the Family Lonsdaleiidae Chapman, and Kleopatm'na is assigned to
the Family Durhaminidae Minato and Kato.

The principal lithostrotionelloid genera are Stelechophyllum,
Aulostylus, Acrocyathus, and Petalaxis. Stelechophyllum ranges in
age from Late Devonian(?) into the late Viséan and is represented in
the Carboniferous by 15 nominal species allocated to five species
groups; the genus occurs in the U.S.S.R., U.S.A., Canada, and Mexico.
Aulostylus is represented by two middle Tournaisian species in the
U.S.A. and Canada and a possible species from the Viséan of China.
Acrocyathus is represented by 14 nominal species (one new) from the
lower to upper Viséan of the U.S.S.R., U.S.A., Canada, and China.
Petalaxis is represented by 41 nominal species (six new) allocated to
five species groups that range from the upper Viséan into the Permian;
the genus occurs in the U.S.S.R., U.S.A., Canada, Spain, Japan, and
possibly China and Spitzbergen.

Stelechophyllum may have been derived from Endophgllum in the
Devonian. Aulostylus, Acrocyathus, and Petalam‘s are regarded as off-
shoots from the Stelechophyllum stock in the Carboniferous.

Hayasaka’s type specimens of Lithostrotiomalla species from North
America are reassigned to Acrocyathus, Stelechophyllum, Petalamls,
and Aulostylus and are revised specifically. Three new species and two
new subspecies are based on specimens studied by Hayasaka.

INTRODUCTION

Inadequate description of taxa is one of the principal
deterrents to progress in paleontology. The study of
fossil corals has been particularly plagued by this prob-
lem because many taxa were proposed before thin-

 

section techniques became widely used and thus were
founded largely or entirely on external skeletal features.
Until these extant taxa are redescribed and adequately
understood, new taxa cannot be proposed without risk
of duplication.

In North America, massive colonial rugose corals
originally referred to Litkostrotion Fleming and later to
Lithostrotionella Yabe and Hayasaka are noteworthy
examples of inadequate description. After the genus
Lithostrotionella was founded by Yabe and Hayasaka
(1915, 1920) on material from the Carboniferous of
China, Hayasaka studied North American corals in the
large U.S. Geological Survey collection of fossils (now
housed in the U.S. National Museum of Natural History
in Washington, DC.) Although Hayasaka’s visit to the
United States was in 1927, his monograph on North
American Lithostrottonella was not published until
1936. Hayasaka prepared thin sections from all the
holotypes of his North American species, but the thin
sections were small and only a few paratypes were sec-
tioned. Consequently, Hayasaka’s species concepts were
based largely on the holotypes, and many paratypes
were incorrectly identified. Moreover, the geologic ages
of these specimens were poorly known at the time the
study was made. Subsequently, the name Lithostro-
tionella came into wide use for Carboniferous and Per-
mian colonial Rugosa throughout the world.

I became acquainted with the problem of Hayasaka’s
type specimens some years ago during the course of in-
vestigations of North American Mississippian coral
faunas. Easton’s (1973) study of Acrocyathus and his
conclusion that Lithostrotionella is a junior synonym
lent impetus to a restudy 0f the Hayasaka material. All
Hayasaka’s type specimens were sectioned and re-
studied in detail except for four paratypes that could not
be found; most of Hayasaka’s specimens are illustrated
in this report. Other described and undescribed
specimens of Carboniferous and Permian age in the col-
lections of the U.S. National Museum of Natural History
were also investigated in order to broaden the base for
taxonomic conclusions. All locality data were rechecked

1

f

2 REVISION OF LITHOSTROTIONELLA FROM THE CARBONIFEROUS AND PERMIAN

and were revised as necessary on the basis of the latest
available information (see locality register on p. 40).
As work proceeded on the Hayasaka material, it
became apparent that the classification of this material
had broader implications concerning the validity of
Lithostrotionella as a taxonomic concept and concern-
ing the scope and phylogeny of other genera. According-
ly, the present study was expanded to include an evalua-
tion of all corals that have been described under the
name of Lithostrotionella; this evaluation was based on
a study of the systematic literature on these corals as of
the end of 1978. I found that most of the specimens
originally referred to Lithostrotionella by Hayasaka
(1936) should be reassigned to Stelechophyllum,
Aulostylus, Acrocyathus, and Petalam's (table 1). Corals
assigned by other authors to Lithostrotionella also
belong in these genera, but a few are assigned to
Thysanophyllum, Kleopatrina, and Lonsdaleia.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am indebted to P. M. Kier and R. E. Grant of the
U.S. National Museum of Natural History for making
Hayasaka’s types and other specimens available to me
for study. I am also grateful to P. Semenoff—Tian-
Chansky of the Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle in
Paris and to N. V. Kabakovich and T. A. Sayutina of the
Paleontologic Institute of the USSR. Academy of
Sciences in Moscow for courtesies extended to me dur—
ing visits to study material in their care. Many of the
ideas expressed in this paper were discussed with col-
leagues at the Eighth International Congress of Car-
boniferous Stratigraphy and Geology in Moscow and the
Third International Symposium on Fossil Corals in
Paris, 1975; N. P. Vasilyuk, E. W. Bamber, M. Minato,
M. Kato, P. K. Sutherland, and J. Fedorowski provided
useful suggestions and criticisms. M. Minato and M.
Kato provided me with photographs of the holotype of
the type species of Lithostrotionella and translations of
some of Hayasaka’s short papers in Japanese. E. C.
Wilson provided information on some Pacific Coast
localities and specimens. B. L. Mamet identified
foraminifers in some collections. I am also indebted to
the following for searching collections in their care for
type material: J. A. Stitt, University of Missouri; L. S.
Kent, Illinois Geological Survey; H. R. Cramer, Emory
University; A. Horowitz, Indiana University; D. B.
Macurda, University of Michigan; and R. R. Shrock,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. K. R. Moore and
H. I. Saunders searched the collections of the U.S.
Geological Survey and U.S. National Museum of Natural
History for specimens used in this study. K. R. Moore
also made thin sections and photographs of the
specimens.

 

 

 

 

THE STATUS OF LITHOSTROTIONELLA

Yabe and Hayasaka (1915, p. 94—96, 133—134) orig-
inally proposed Lithostrotionella as a subgenus of
Lithostrotion for a cerioid coral having a lamellar col-
umella and differing from true Lithostrotion by having a
lonsdaleoid dissepimentarium. They described, but did
not illustrate, the type species (by monotypy) Lithostro-
tion (Lithostrotionella) unicum from the
Carboniferous(?) of Yun—nan Province, China. They sug-
gested that Petalaxis Milne-Edwards and Haime might
be a senior synonym but concluded that Petalax’is is
identical with true Lithostrotion. In 1920, the same
authors (Yabe and Hayasaka, p. 11, pl. 9, figs. 12a, b) il-
lustrated two thin sections of the type species, but both
thin sections were cut obliquely with respect to the axes
of the corallites, making it difficult to interpret internal

structures. _
Chi (1931, p. 28—29) raised the name to generic rank

for a species from the Middle Carboniferous Weiningian
System of Kuechow Province, China, and Yu (1933, p.
101—102) described two species of Lithostrotionella from
the Lower Carboniferous of Kuechow Province.
Dobrolyubova (1935b, p. 10—20) described species from
the Middle Carboniferous of the Moscow Basin and,
later (1936a, p. 9, 28, 66), from the Upper Carboniferous
of the Urals. This early work set the stage for
Hayasaka’s (1936) monograph of Lithostrotionella in
North America.

Meanwhile, Stelechophyllum Tolmachev was ignored,
even by Soviet students, until Hill (1956, p. F286)
treated it as a distinct genus and Dobrolyubova and
Kabakovich (1962) used the name for corals from the
Kuznetsk Basin. The interpretation of Petalaxis Milne—
Edwards and Haime at that time was based on an er-
roneous designation of Petalaxis portlocki Milne-
Edwards and Haime as type species by Hill (1940, p.
165, 166), who had overlooked Roemer’s (1883, p. 387,
388) designation of P. maccoyanus Milne-Edwards and
Haime as type species. P. portlocki is a Lithostrotion,
whereas P. maccoyanus has a lonsdaleoid dissepimen-
tarium and cannot be referred to Lithostrotion.

Recent work has not unequivocally resolved the mor-
phology of the type species or the most practical limits
of the generic concept. Easton (1973) revived
Acrocyathus d’Orbigny, redescribed the type specimen
of its type species, and concluded that Lithostrotionella
is a junior synonym. By this action, Easton simply
transferred the highly variable group of corals previous-
ly referred to Lithostrotionella to Acrocyathus.

Minato and Kato (1974, p. 67 —75) restudied the
holotype of Lithostrotionella unicum. All that remains
of the original type material is one of the oblique thin
sections originally illustrated by Yabe and Hayasaka
(1920, pl. 19, fig. 12a). Minato and Kato concluded that

Hayasaka

THE STATUS OF LITHOSTROTIONELLA

TABLE 1. —Hayasaka, (1986) type specimens of Lithostrotionella

Revised stratigraphic level, age, and

 

 

 

 

species Kind of Revised USN M USGS and location (see Register of USGS Localities Plate and
identification type specimen identification No. Loc. No. (p. 40) for detailed data) page
americzma ___ Holotype ______ Acracyathus flon'fonnis flonfo’mis d’Orbigny 120240 2333—PC St. Louis Limestone, Late Mississippian Pl. 5; p. 17
(Viséan), Kentucky.
Paratype ______ Avrocyathus flmtformisjhinfm-mis d’Orbig‘ny? 120241 1211B-PC St. Louis Limestone, Late Mississippian Pl. 6; p. 17
(Viséan), Missouri.
____do ________ Acrocyathus flomfmnis flowfm’mis d'Orbigny? 162001 498-PC St. Louis Limestone, Late Mississippian P1. 6; p. 17
(Viséan), Illinois.
____do ________ Indet. lithostrotionelloid coral 174371 3858—PC (green McCloud Limestone, Early Permian, __________
label) California.
____do ________ Stelechophyllum banjfmse (Warren)? 174372 7130B-PC Alapah Limestone(?), Late Mississippian Pl. 3; p. 13
(V iséan), Alaska.
____do ________ Indet. lithostrotionelloid coral 174373 3890—PC (green McCloud Limestone, Early Permian, __________
label) California.
____do ________ Stelechophyllum banfl'ense (Warren)? 174374 970—PC Alapah Limestone(?), Late Mississippian Pl. 3; p. 13
(Viséan), Alaska.
____do ________ Stelechophyllum banffense (Warren)? 174375 3024—PC Little Flat Formation, Late Mississippian Pl. 4; p. 13
(Viséan), Idaho.
____do ________ Acrocyathus flomfomis flonfwnis d’Orbigny 174376 499—PC St. Louis Limestone, Late Mississippian Pl. 5; p. 17
(Viséan), Illinois.
castelnuui ___- Holotype ______ Acrocyathus flortfomis flom'fmnis d’Orbigny 120235 499-PC St. Louis Limestone, Late Mississippian Pl. 7; p. 17
(Viséan), Illinois.
Paratype ______ Acrocyathus flon'fo’rmis hemisphaer‘icus 120236 3282-PC Hillsdale Member of Greenbrier Limestone, P1. 14; p. 00
(Hayasaka) Late Mississippian (Viséan), West Virginia.
____do ________ Acrocyathus flortfomis flonformis d’Orbigny 161989 2226—PC St. Louis Limestone, Late Mississippian Pl. 9; p. 17
(Visean), Illinois.
____do ________ Acrocyathus florifomis flortfomis d’Orbigny 161990 346C—PC Residual chert from ’I‘uscumbia Limestone, Pl. 8; p. 17
Late Mississippian (Viséan), Alabama.
____do ________ Acrocyathus flomfomis flonfo‘r‘mis d’Orbigny 161991 643—PC St. Louis Limestone(7), Late Mississippian P1. 8; p. 17
(Viséan), Missouri.
____do ________ Acrocyathus flor'ifomt‘s hemisphae‘m'cus 161992 2020A—PC Greenbrier Limestone, Late Mississippian P1. 14; p. 00
(Hayasaka) (Viséan), Virginia.
____do ________ Acrocyalhus floriformis flmfomis d’Orbigny 161993 3159—PC Newman Limestone, Late Mississippian P1. 10; p. 17
(Viséan), Virginia.
____do ________ Acrocyathus flomfomis florifmm‘s d’Orbigny 161994 2013B—PC Greenbrier Limestone, Late Mississippian Pl. 9; p. 17
(Viséan), Virginia.
____do ________ Acrocyathus flo'rifmnis flowfomis d'Or-
bigny? 174377 3946—PC (green Unknown, probably St. Louis Limestone, Pl. 7; p. 17
label) Mississippi Valley region.
flomfomis ___ Holotype ______ Stelechophyllum banffense (Warren) 120242 3760-PC Peratrovich Formation, Late Mississippian See Armstrong
(V iséan), Alaska. (1970a)
girtyi _______ ____do ________ Acrocyathus girtyi (Hayasaka) 120243 4801H—PC (green Little Flat Formation, Late P1. 17, p. 21
label) Mississippian (Viséan), Utah.
Paratype ______ Petalazis exiguus n. sp. 162002A, B 3856-PC (green McCloud Limestone, Early Pemian, P1. 19; p. 28
label) California.
____do ________ Stelechophyllum microstylum (White)? 162003 3864—PC Lodgepole Limestone, Early Mississippian Pl. 2; p. 11
(Tournaisian), Montana.
____do ________ Acrocyathus pilotus n. sp. 162004 499-PC St. Louis Limestone, Late Mississipian P1 17; p. 19
(Viséan), Illinois.
____do ________ Specimen lost ______ 2111—PC Meridian Range, Montana. __________
____do ____do 5077A-PC (green Weber Canyon, Utah. __________
label)
____do ____do Granitville, Utah. __________
hemisphtwn‘ca. Holotype ______ Acrocyathus flortfomis hemisphaericus 120237 1148-PC St. Louis Limestone, Late Mississippian P1 12; p. 19
(Hayasaka) (Viséan), Illinois.
Paratype ______ Acrocyathus flomfomisflonfomis d'Orbigny 120238 3283—PC Hillsdale Member of Greenbrier Limestone, P]. 11; p. 17
Late Mississippian (V iséan), West Virginia.
____do ________ Stelechophyllum sp. indet. 120239 5892—PC Madison Limestone, Early Mississippian Pl 4; p. 15
(Tournaisian), Utah.
____do ________ Acrocyathus floriformis floriformis d‘Orbigny 161995 83-PC Newman Limestone, Late Mississippian P1 11; p. 17
(Viséan), Kentucky.
____do ________ Stelechophyllum microstylum (White) 161996 1439~PC Lodgepole Limestone, Early Mississippian Pl. 2; p. 11
(Tournaisian), Idaho.
____do ________ Acrocyathus flonformis flortformis d‘Orbigny 161997 2020—PC Greenbrier Limestone, Late Mississipian P1 10; p. 17
(Viséan), Virginia.
____do ________ Acrocyathus flortfomis hemisphaen'cus 161998 932A-PC St. Louis Limestone, Late Mississippian PI 12; p. 19
(Hayasaka) (Viséan), Missouri.
____do ________ Acracyathus flortformis hemisphae’rt‘cus 161999 2222A-PC St. Louis Limestone, Late Mississippian P1 13; p. 19
(Hayasaka) (Viséan), Illinois.
____do ________ Acrocyathus flortfmnis hemisphmicus 162000 22220-PC St. Louis Limestone, Late Mississippian P1 13; p. 19
(Hayasaka)? (Viséan), Illinois.
multirudiata. - Holotype ______ Stelechophyllum microstylum (White) 120244 490—PC Lodgepole Limestone, Early Mississipian Pl. 1; p. 11
(Tournaisian, Utah.
Paratype ______ Stelechophyllum microstylu‘m (White) 162005 104—PC Lodgepole Limestone, Early Mississippian Pl. 1; p. 11
(Tournaisian), Idaho.
,' Holotype P ‘ ’ ‘ ‘ ,’ (Hayasaka) 120249 5893—PC Little Flat Formation, Late Pl 18; p. 26
Mississippian (Viséan), Utah.
Paratype ______ Petalaxis wmingensis n. sp. 120675 7452—PC (green “Wells” Formation, Late Mississippian or P1. 18; p. 26
label) Early Pennsylvanian (Namurian),
Wyoming.
tabulata _____ Holotype ______ Petalaz’is tabulatus (Hayasaka) 120246 1476—PC Aspen Range Formation, Late Mississippian P1. 19; p. 26
(Viséan), Idaho.
tubtfe'ra _____ ____do ________ Aulostylus tubifem tubifems (Hayasaka) 120247 5894—PC Mission Canyon Limestone, Early See Sando
Mississippian (Tournaisian), Montana (1976)
Paratype ______ Aulostylus tubifems eotubiferus Sando 120248 3290—PC Lodgepole Limestone, Early Mississippian See Sando
(Tournaisian), Montana. (1976)
vesicular-ts ___ Holotype ______ Stelechophyllum banjfense (Warren) 120245 3747 C—PC Peratrovich Formation, Late Mississippian See Armstrong
(Viséan), Alaska. (1970a)
Paratype ______ Specimen lost ______ 970—PC(?) PorcupineArctic section, Alaska(?) _________

 

4 REVISION OF LITHOSTROTIONELLA FROM THE CARBONIFEROUS AND PERMIAN

the geologic age of the type specimen is probably Car-
boniferous. According to these writers, Lithostro-
tionella and Acrocyathus are distinct and separate
genera, Stelechophyllum is a junior synonym of
Lithostrotionella, Eolithostrotionella is a junior
synonym of Acrocyathus, and Petalaxis is a junior
synonym of Lithostrotion.

The single surviving thin section of the holotype
(Minato and Kato, 1974, pl. 15, fig. 1) does not permit an
unequivocal evaluation of all the critical internal
characters of the type species of Lithostrotionella.
However, the corallite in the upper left—hand corner of
the slide has what appear to be conical tabulae like those
of Acrocyathus and shows no peripheral tabellae. The
tabularium is certainly not that of Stelechophyllum or
Petalaxis. Although none of the corallites show clearly
defined septal lamellae, septal lamellae are not present
in all corallites of some species of Acrocyathus.

I conclude that the type species of Lithostrotionella is
most likely a species of Acrocyathus; therefore, I regard
Lithostrotionella as a probable junior synonym of
Acrocyathus. This action, although debatable, is the
most practical solution to the nomenclatural problem
because both Acrocyathus and Stelechophyllum are
founded on well—described and well-illustrated
specimens whose ages are well documented. Although
the holotype of the type species of Petalaxis is lost and a
neotype remains to be selected, the species is well
established on topotypes (Sutherland, 1977).

CLASSIFICATION

Species that have been referred previously to
Lithostrotiomlla Yabe and Hayasaka are reassigned to
the following genera in this report: Acrocyathus d’Or-
bigny (including probable junior synonym Lithostro-
tionella Yabe and Hayasaka), Stelechophyllum
Tolmachev (including junior synonym Eolithostro-
tionella Zhizhina), Petalaxis Milne-Edwards and Haime
(including junior synonyms Hillia de Groot and
Eastonoides Wilson and Langenheim), Aulostylus
Sando, Kleopat'rina McCutcheon and Wilson,
Lonsdaleia McCoy (subgenus Actinocyathus d’Orbigny),
and Thysanophyllum Nicholson and Thomson. One of
the species referred to Cystolonsdaleia Fomichev is
reassigned to Petalaxis.

Recent classification of the generic taxa recognized
herein is in a state of flux, and there has been little
agreement on their familial relations. Acrocyathus was
referred to the Family Lonsdaleiidae Chapman by Hill
(1956) (as a questionable senior synonym of Lithostro-
tionella), Easton (1973), and by Ivanovskiy (1975) (as a
junior synonym of Lonsdaleia). Dobrolyubova and
Kabakovich (1962) regarded Acrocyathus as a ques-

 

tionable junior synonym of Lithostrotion and referred it
to the Family Lithostrotionidae d’Orbigny.

Lithostrotionella was referred to the Family
Lonsdaleiidae by Hill (1956), Easton (1973) (as a junior
synonym of Acrocyathus), de Groot (1964), Armstrong
(1970a, b; 1972a, b), and Ivanovskiy (1975). It was placed
in the Family Lithostrotionidae by Easton and
Gutschick (1953) (as a junior synonym of Lithostrotion)
and by Dobrolyubova and Kabakovich (1962). Easton
(1958) placed Lithostrotionella in the Family Lithostro—
tionidae Grabau. The genus was placed in Family
Petalaxidae Fomichev by Pyzh’anov (1964) (as a junior
synonym of Petalaxis) and by Onoprienko (1970, 1976).

Stelechophyllum was referred to the Family Lithostro—
tionidae by Hill (1956) and to the Family Lonsdaleiidae
by Ivanovskiy (1975) (as a junior synonym of Lithostro-
tionella). Dobrolyubova and Kabakovich (1962, 1966)
placed this genus in the Family Endophyllidae Torley
because of its inferred derivation from Endophyllum, a
Devonian genus that they recognized as ranging into the
Lower Carboniferous.

Eolithostrotionella was referred to the Family
Lithostrotionidae by Zhizhina (1956) and in Bul’vanker
and others (1960), by Vasilyuk (1960), and by
Dobrolyubova and Kabakovich (1962) (as a junior
synonym of Lithostrotionella). It was placed in the
Family Lonsdaleiidae by Easton (1973) (as a ques-
tionable junior synonym of Acrocyathus), by Degtyarev
(197 3), and by Ivanovskiy (197 5) (as a junior synonym of
Lithostrotionella). Dobrolyubova and Kabakovich (1966)
regarded it as a junior synonym of Stelechophyllum and
placed it in the Family Endophyllidae. Pyzh’anov (1964),
Onoprienko (1970), and Kozyreva (1974) placed this
genus in the Family Petalaxidae. Fedorowski and
Gorianov (1973) placed it in the Family Lonsdaleiidae.

Petalaxis was referred by Hill (1956) (as a junior
synonym of Lithostrotion) and by Ivanovskiy (197 5) (as a
junior *synonym of Lithostrotion) to the Family
Lithostrotionidae, on the basis of an erroneous type-
species designation. Fomichev (1953), Dobrolyubova and
Kabakovich (1962), Pyzh’anov (1964), Onoprienko
(1970), and Kozyreva (1974) placed this genus in the
Family Petalaxidae. Fedorowski and Gorianov (1973)
placed it in the Family Lonsdaleiidae.

mum was referred to the Family Lonsdaleiidae by de
Groot (1964) (as a subgenus of Lithostrotionella) and by
Easton (1973) (questionably). Ivanovskiy (1975) re-
garded it as a questionable junior synonym of Lithostro-
tion and placed it in the Family Lithostrotionidae.

Eastonoides was referred to the Family Lonsdaleiidae
by Wilson and Langenheim (1962).

Aulostylus was placed in the Family Lithostrotionidae
by Sando (1976).

CLASSIFICATION 5

Kleopatrina was referred to the Family Durhaminidae
Minato and Kato by Minato and Kato (1965) and by
Ivanovskiy (1975).

Lonsdaleia was placed in the Family Lonsdaleiidae by
Hill (1956), Vasilyuk (1960), Dobrolyubova and
Kabakovich (1962), de Groot (1964), and Ivanovskiy
(1975).

Thysanophyllum was referred to the Family
Lonsdaleiidae by Hill (1956), Armstrong (1970a, b),
Degtyarev (1973), and Ivanovskiy (1975). Dobrolyubova
and Kabakovich (1962) placed it in the Family Lithostro-
tionidae. Pyzh’anov (1964) and Onoprienko (1970, 1976)
referred it to the Family Petalaxidae.

In this report, the following classification is used:

Order Rugosa Milne-Edwards and Haime, 1850
Suborder Columnariina Rominger, 1876
Family Lithostrotionidae d’Orbigny, 1851
Genus Stelechophyllum Tolmachev, 1933 (junior synonym
Eolithostrot’ionella Zhizhina in Fomichev, 1955)
S. ascende'ns species group
S. ascendens (Tolmachev, 1924)
S. ascendens simplex Dobrolyubova in
Dobrolyubova and Kabakovich, 1966
S. ascendens ascendens (Tolmachev, 1924)
S. megalum (Tolmachev, 1924)
S. grande (Tolmachev, 1924)
S. venukofli (Tolmachev, 1924)
S. venukofli venukofi‘i (Tolmachev, 1924)
S. venukofli altaicum (Tolmachev, 1924)
S. microstylum species group
S. microstylum (White, 1880a)
S. circmatum (Easton and Gutschick, 1953)
S. longiseptatum (Lisitsyn, 1925)
S. banjfense (Warren, 1927)
S. micrum species group
S. micrum (Kelly, 1942)
S. lochmanae (Armstrong, 1962)
S. ergunjaicum (Onoprienko, 1976)
S.? molar-(mi species group
S? malareni (Sutherland, 1958)
S.? birdi (Armstrong, 1970a)
S.? niake'nsis (Armstrong, 1972a)
S? macaw/Li species group
S.? macouni (Lambe, 1899)
S. sp. indet.
8.? sp. indet.
Genus Aulostylus Sando, 1976
A. tubifems (Hayasaka, 1936)
A. tubtferus tubifems (Hayasaka, 1936)
A. tubifems eotubiferus Sando, 1976
A.? sp.
Family Acrocyathidae new family
Genus Acrocyathus d’Orbigny, 1849a (?junior synonym
Lithostrotionella Yabe and Hayasaka, 1915)
A. floriformis d’Orbigny, 1849a
A. flomformis flom'fomis d’Orbigny, 1849a
A. flomfomis hemisphaemcus (Hayasaka, 1936)
A. pilatus n. sp.
A. proliferus (Hall in Hall and Whitney, 1858)
A. girtyi (Hayasaka, 1936)
A. pennsylvamcus (Shimer, 1926)

 

Order Rugosa—Continued
Suborder Columnariina — Continued
Family Acrocyathidae — Continued
Genus Acrocyathus — Continued
A. utkae (Degtyarev, 1973)
A. Total (Zhizhina in Bul’vanker and others, 1960)
A. cystosus (Zhizhina in Bul’vanker and others,
1960)
A. lissitzim' (Zhizhina in Bul’vanker and others, 1960)
A. hsujiulingi (Yoh, 1961)
A.? um’cus (Yabe and Hayasaka, 1915)
A.? shimem' (Crickmay, 1955)
A.? grechovkae (Degtyare’v, 1973)
A.? zhizhinae (Vasilyuk, 1960)
A. spp. indet.
Family Petalaxidae Fomichev, 1953
Genus Petalaxis Milne-Edwards and Haime, 1852 (junior
synonyms Hillia de Groot, 1963, and Eastonoides
Wilson and Langenheim, 1962)
P. simplex species group
P. simplex (Hayasaka, 1936)
P. wyommgensis n. Sp.
P. tabulatus (Hayasaka, 1936)
P. bailliei (Nelson, 1960)
P. flexuosus species group
P. flexuosus (Trautschold, 1879)
. donbassicus (Fomichev, 1939)
mokomokensis (Easton, 1960)
. exiguus n. sp.
brokawi (Wilson and Langen-
heim, 1962)
monocyclicus (de Groot, 1963)
. sexangulus (de Groot, 1963)
. taishakuensis (Yokoyama, 1957)
. immamls Kozyreva, 1974
. belinskt'ensis Fomichev, 1953
. major (de Groot, 1963)
P. fo'rm'chev'i n. sp.
P. grootae n. sp.
P. wagnem' species group
. wagnem' (de Groot, 1963)
. perapertuensis (de Groot, 1963)
. radians (de Groot, 1963)
. santaemam'ae (de Groot, 1963)
. cantab’ricus (de Groot, 1963)
. orboensis (de Groot, 1963)
. occidentalt's (Merriam, 1942)
P. vesiculos'us species group
P. vesiculosus (Dobrolyubova,
1935a)
P. lisitschanskensis (Fomichev,
1953)
P. exilis Kozyreva, 1974
P. confertus Kozyreva, 1974
P. persubtilis Kozyreva, 1974
P. korkhovae Kozyreva, 1974
P. mimos Kozyreva, 1974
P. widens Kozyreva, 1974

P. maccoyanus species group
P. maccoyanus Milne-Edwards and
Haime, 1851
P. stylaxis (Trautschold, 1879)
P. mohikanus (Fomichev, 1939)
P. celadensis (de Groot, 1963)

"U‘U’U‘U'Uf‘u f‘U'Uf‘U'U

"U‘U’V‘U'Tl'v‘ti

6 REVISION 0F LITHOSTROTIONELLA FROM THE CARBONIFEROUS AND PERMIAN

Order Rugosa— Continued
Suborder Columnariina— Continued
Family Petalaxidae — Continued
Genus Petalam's — Continued
P. maccoyanus species group-Continued
P. elyensis (Wilson and Langen-
heim, 1962)
P. dobrolyubo’vae n. sp.
P. donetsensis n. sp.
P. immovi (Dobrolyubova, 1935a)
P.? spp., indet.
Family Lonsdaleiidae Chapman, 1893
Genus Thysanophyllum Nicholson and
Thomson, 1876
T. astraeiforme (Warren, 1927)
Genus Lonsdaleia McCoy, 1849
Subgenus Actinocyathus d’Orbigny,
1849a
L. (A.) berthiaumi (Merriam, 1942)
L. (A.) pemtrovichensis (Arm-
strong, 1970a)
Family Durhaminidae Minato and Kato, 1965
Genus Kleopatr'ma McCutcheon and Wilson,
1963
Subgenus Kleopatm'na McCutcheon and
Wilson, 1963
K. (K.)? dilatata (Easton, 1960)
K. (K)? wralica (Dobrolyubova,
1936a)
K. (K)? wahooensis (Armstrong,
1972b)
Undetermined lithostrotionelloid corals

The foregoing classification of lithostrotionelloid cor-
als follows Hill (1956) at the ordinal and subordinal level.
Placement of Stelechophyllum in the Family Lithostro-
tionidae also follows Hill (1956). Aulostylus is placed in
the Lithostrotionidae because of its close relationship to
Stelechophyllum. The recognition of Family Petalaxidae
including only Petalaxis and Cystolonsdalez’a conforms
to Fomichev’s (1953) original definition and the subse-
quent acceptance by Dobrolyubova and Kabakovich
(1962). A new family, the Acrocyathidae, is proposed to
include only the genus Acrocyathus, which appears to
have been derived from Stelechophyllum. Only a few
species are allocated to Thysanophyllum, Lonsdaleia
(Actinocyathus), and Kleopatrina (Kleopatrina), which
are not closely related to the main stock of lithostro-
tionelloid corals. Thysanophyllum and Lonsdaleia are
placed in the Family Lonsdaleiidae following Hill (1956),
and Kleopatm'na is placed in the Family Durhaminidae
following Minato and Kato (1965). .

PHYLOGENY

Hill’s (1938, p. 35) statement that “little is known of
the phylogeny of the Rugosa” is still valid today. In the
absence of general agreement on the composition of
families, it is very difficult to sketch out even the main
phylogenetic lines. Hill (1938, p. 35—36) listed five
methods of approach to the phylogeny of genera and

 

species in Rugosa: (1) morphologic comparison without
strict attention to detailed stratigraphic chronology; (2)
the adult “Formenreihe” method used by Vaughan in his
studies of the Rugosa, in which adult characters are
traced through a stratigraphic sequence of species; (3)
the “Formenreihe” method used by Carruthers in his
classic studies of Zaphrentis, in which Haeckel’s law of
recapitulation is used on a stratigraphic succession of
species; (4) deduction of phylogeny of individual species
from their ontogeny and checking this against strati-
graphic evidence; and (5) deduction of phylogeny of in-
dividual species from ontogeny without detailed
stratigraphic evidence. Unfortunately, few studies have
been made of colonial Rugosa in the Carboniferous by
any of these methods. Nevertheless, it is useful to
speculate on how the lithostrotionelloid corals are
related phylogenetically.

The lithostrotionelloid corals may be divided into two
groups of genera, those that seem to be closely related
phylogenetically, and those that seem to be independent
unrelated forms. In the first group are species allocated
to Stelechophyllum, Aulostylus, Acrocyathus, and
Petalaxis (fig. 1), which are characterized by a
lonsdaleoid dissepimentarium, tabulae that range from
tent-shaped to conical to horizontal, and an axial struc-
ture that ranges from a simple axial plate ordinarily con-
nected to the counter septum to a complex spider-web
structure made up of axial plate, vertical axial tabellae,
and septal lamellae.

The origin of the first group of lithostrotionelloid cor-
als is uncertain. The earliest member of this group is
Stelechophyllum, which has a lonsdaleoid dissepimen-
tarium, a simple columella, and tent-shaped tabulae. Ac—
cording to Soshkina, Dobrolyubova, and Kabakovich
(1962, p. 342), Stelechophyllum was derived from En-
dophyllum Milne-Edwards and Haime, a Middle Devoni-
an coral that they considered to range into the Tournai-
sian of Novaya Zemlya. The occurrence of Endophyllum
in the Carboniferous apparently was based on Gorskiy’s
(1935, p. 49—56; 1938, p. 21—24) description of species
from the Etroeungtian beds of Novaya Zemlya, which
Gorskiy regarded as lower Tournaisian (most Car-
boniferous and Devonian stratigraphers now regard the
Etroeungtian as latest Devonian). True Middle Devo-
nian Endophyllum has a lonsdaleoid dissepimentarium,
major septa that approach the axis of the corallites but
do not meet or form a columella, and flat tabulae that
have down-turned margins (see Jones, 1929). Gorskiy’s
(1935, 1938) colonial species are more like
Stelechophyllum than Endophyllum in the nature of
their tabulae but do not have a columella. Some species
of Stelechophyllum have a poorly developed columella.
(for example, S. ascendens, S. megalum, and S. grandee).
It seems more reasonable to refer Gorskiy’s species

     

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CYL. .

           

    

 

        

STELECHOPHYLL UM

ACROC YA THUS

 

Morphology of the type species of the principal lithostrotionelloid genera. Acrocyathus: longitudinal and transverse thin

sections (x 4) of A. flomformisflorifomis d’Orbigny (USNM 120235). Stelechophyllum: longitudinal and transverse thin section ( x 4) of
of P. maccoyanus Milne-Edwards and Haime (from Fedorowski and Gorianov, 1973). Aulostylus: longitudinal and transverse thin sections

S. venukofli altaicum (Tolmachev) (from Dobrolyubova and Kabakovich, 1966). Petalaxis: longitudinal and transverse thin sections (x 4)
(x 6) of A. tubifems tubifems (Hayasaka) (from Sando, 1976).

FIGURE 1. —

8 REVISION OF LITHOSTROTIONELLA FROM THE CARBONIFEROUS AND PERMIAN

questionably to Stelechophyllum and to regard them as
possible derivatives of the Middle Devonian En-
dophyllum.

If the Famennian forms in Novaya Zemlya are refer—
red questionably to Stelechophyllum, then there is a gap
until the middle Tournaisian, when true Stelechophyllum
appears and ranges into the upper Viséan (fig. 2). In the
middle and upper Tournaisian, the axial structure was
modified to an aulos in Aulostylus, which is a closely
related offshoot of Stelechophyllum. Increased complexi—
ty of the axial structure and the formation of conical
tabulae took place in Acrocyathus, which ranges through
most of the Viséan. Acrocyathus seems to be an offshoot
of Stelechophyllum rather than a member of the
Lonsdaleiidae, although it may have been the ancestor
of Lonsdaleia (Acttnocyathus). The earliest species of
Petalaxis, which occur in the upper Viséan, are similar
to Stelechophyllum in the morphology of their septa and
columella, but they have horizontal tabulae. Petalcwcis
continues upward to the top of the Middle Carboniferous
(Moscovian), but there is a gap in its record of occur-
rence in the Upper Carboniferous before it is seen again
in the Permian. The Permian species are very similar to
Middle Carboniferous species. The significance of the
gap is not now understood; the Permian forms may be
merely homeomorphs in an unrelated phylogenetic

stock.
The second group of lithostrotionelloid corals includes

two phylogenetic stocks that do not seem to be related
to Stelechophyllum. Some species previously assigned to
Lithostrotionella are herein placed in Lonsdaleia and
Thysanophyllum, which are members of the Family
Lonsdaleiidae. The origin of Lonsdaleia, which first ap-
pears at the top of the Tournaisian (Hill, 1940, p. 151),
has been variously linked to Clisiophyllum (Vaughan,
1905, p. 184), Carcinophyllum (Vaughan, 1906, p. 148),
and Thysanophyllum (Carruthers, in Garwood, 1912, p.
563; Smith, 1916, p. 235). However, E. W. Bamber

 

(written commun., 1980) has pointed out that
Acrocyathus pennsylvanicus and A. shimem' have axial
structures and tabulation similar to those of the North
American species of Lonsdaleia (Actinocyathus), that is,
L. (A.) stelcki and L. (A.) peratrovichensts. Although
these similarities suggest derivation of Lonsdaleia (Ac-
tinocyathus) from Acrocyathus in the Viséan of North
America, they are inconsistent with the earliest occur-
rence of Lonsdaleia in the upper Tournaisian of Great
Britain. Thysanophyllum is characterized by a discon-
tinuous axial structure and may be polyphyletic (Hill,

"1940, p. 161). For the present, the origins of Lonsdaleia

and Thysanophyllum and their possible relationships to
the Stelechophyllum stock remain obscure.

Other Carboniferous corals previously assigned to
Lithostrotionella are placed herein in Kleopatrma, a
predominantly Permian genus. According to Minato and
Kato (1965, test—fig. 4), Kleopatm'na was derived from
Durhamina, and all the members of the Durhaminidae
were ultimately derived from the Lithostrotionidae in
the Lower Carboniferous. Hence, Kleopatrma does not
seem to be closely related to the main stock of lithostro—
tionelloid corals.

SYSTEMATIC PALEONTOLOGY

Morphologic terminology is generally that of Hill
(1956). The term “tent-shaped” refers to tabulae that
slope peripherally from their intersection with the col-
umella at a slight angle to a distinct rounded shoulder,
where they are vertical (see Stelechophyllum in fig. 1).
These tabulae ordinarily terminate peripherally at a
zone of horizontal tabellae without reaching the inner
margin of the dissepimentarium and rest one upon the
other. The term “conical” refers to tabulae that slope
peripherally from their intersection with the columella
at a moderate to steep angle without distinct shoulders
and reach the inner margin of the dissepimentarium (see

 

LOWER CARBONIFEROUS 7

MIDDLE CARBONIFEROUS

UPPER CARBONIFEROUS

 

DEVONIAN
Tournaisian Vise’an Serpu—
khovian

Bashkirian

PERMIAN

Moscovian Kasimovian Gzhelian

 

A CROCYA THUS (ACROCYATHIDAE)

_7 STELECHOPHYLLUM (LITHOSTROTIONIDAE)
; ?

PETALAX/S, (PETALAXIDAE)

 

 

A ULOSTYLUS
(LITHOSTROTIONIDAE)

 

 

 

 

 

No record of these corals

 

 

 

 

 

FIGURE 2. — Postulated phylogeny of the principal genera of lithostrotionelloid corals.

SYSTEMATIC PALEONTOLOGY 9

Acrocyathus in fig. 1). Convex or bell-shaped tabulae are
like tent-shaped tabulae but are horizontal at the top
where they intersect the columella. All types of tabulae
are commonly seen in the same specimen, but ordinarily
one type dominates. Sections that are not in the plane of
the axis show tabulae that appear to be progressively
flatter as one approaches the periphery of the
tabularium.

Because skeletal microstructure has not been de-
scribed in most of the species diagnosed herein, no at-
tempt is made to include it in the diagnoses of genera.
Septal microstructure is described according to the
classification of Kato (1963) only in descriptions of type
material of new species and subspecies.

The repositories for material studied by the author are
the US. National Museum of Natural History, Washing—
ton, D.C. (USNM), and the Muséum National d’Histoire
Naturelle, Paris, France (MNHN, FL). Other material
referred to is in the Rijksmuseum van Geologic en
Mineralogie at Leiden, The Netherlands (RGM).

Occurrence data are limited to information taken from
descriptive studies given in the synonymies of the taxa
concerned, unless otherwise indicated. No attempt was
made to search out all occurrences in faunal lists or
other similar citations of the taxa.

Order RUGOSA Milne-Edwards and Haime, 1850
Suborder COLUMNARIINA Rominger, 1876
Family LITHOSTROTIONIDAE d’Orbigny, 1851

Genus STELECHOPHYLLUM Tolmachev, 1933

Stylophyllum Tolmachev, 1924, p. 316; 1931, p. 606; Fomichev, 1931,
p. 43, 72 (not Reuss, 1854).

Stelechophyllum Tolmachev, 1933, p. 287 (replacement name for
Stylophyllum Tolmachev); Soshkina, Dobrolyubova, and
Kabakovich, 1962, p. 342; Dobrolyubova and Kabakovich, 1962, p.
122; 1966, p. 130; Minato and Kate, 1974, p. 69.

Eolithostrotionella Zhizhina in Fomichev, 1955, p. 303, 304;
Zhizhina, 1956, p. 40.

Lonsdaleia McCoy. Lisitsyn, 1925, p. 68.

Lithostrotion Fleming. White, 1880a (1883), p. 159 [part]; Keyes,
1894, p. 124; Lambe, 1899, p. 220; 1901, p. 176; Tolmachev, 1924,
p. 314 [part]; Warren, 1927, p. 46 [part]; Easton, 1944, p. 53;
McLaren and Sutherland, 1949, p. 631; Bassler 1950, p. 213;
Crickmay, 1955 (1961), p. 12 [part]; Nelson, 1960, p. 122 [part].

Lithostrotion [Lithostrotionella]. Bassler, 1950, p. 221; Easton and
Gutschick, 1953, p. 19.

Lithost’rotiomlla Yabe and Hayasaka. Hayasaka, 1936, p. 61, 62, 64,
65, 67, 68 [part]; Kelly, 1942, p. 354, 356, 357 [part]; Easton, 1958,
p. 31; Nelson, 1960, p. 112, 113, 119, [part]; 1962, p. 170; Bamber,
1961, p. 107 [part]; 1966, p. 9, 14, 17 [part]; Armstrong, 1962, p.
38, 39 [part]; 1970a, p. 29, 32, 35 [part]; 1970b, p. 16, 19,20, 21 25,
26; Easton, 1963, p. 297; Sando, 1969, p. 309; Onoprienko, 1976, p.
29 [part].

Lithostrotion [Lithostrotiomzlla] [Thysancphyllum] Sutherland, 1958,
p. 95.

Type species. —Stylophyllum venukofi Tolmachev,
1924, p. 318, pl. 19, figs. 9, 10 and 1931, p. 607, pl. 23,
fig. 2 (by designation of Tolmachev, 1933, p. 287). Lower

 

Carboniferous (Tournaisian), Kuznetsk Basin, U.S.S.R..

Diagnosis. —Cerioid corals with tabular to
hemispherical growth form. Septa of two orders. Major
septa thin, ordinarily extending across tabularium to
columella but discontinuous or absent in dissepimen-
tarium. Minor septa absent to variably developed. Col-
umella ordinarily a simple, smooth or serrated, strong,
continuous axial rod or plate that may have been derived
from one or more septa, but thysanophylloid variants
are known. Tabularium ordinarily consisting of an axial
series of bell-shaped to tent-shaped complete tabulae
resting one upon the other and a weak peripheral series
of horizontal or inclined, concave-upward tabellae (“split
tabulae” of Soviet authors). Dissepimentarium
lonsdaleoid, commonly showing traces or crests of
discontinuous septa in transverse section. Increase ax-
ial, peripheral, and intermural.

Discussion. —Tolmachev’s (1924, 1931) original
diagnosis of this genus described a coral similar to
cerioid Lonsdaleia but without an axial plate and having
a false columella formed by arched tabulae. Some of
Tolmachev’s figures of transverse sections suggest that
an axial rod is present, but the point is ambiguous. Hill
(1940, p. 164; 1956, p. 286) and Cotton (1973, p. 195)
followed the original diagnosis. However, Fomichev
(1931, p. 43, 72) restudied Tolmachev’s types and con-
cluded that Tolmachev’s longitudinal sections are cuts
that do not intersect the axes of the corallites. Fomichev
found a columella like that of Lithostrotion in
Tolmachev’s transverse sections. These observations
were confirmed by Fomichev’s study of topotypes.
Subsequent study by Dobrolyubova and Kabakovich
(1962, 1966) on specimens from the Kuznetsk Basin con-
firmed Fomichev’s findings and also showed that the
Kuznetsk Basin species form a genetic series from
weakly to strongly columellate forms.

Most authors (Hill, 1956, p. F286; Soshkina,
Dobrolyubova, and Kabakovich, 1962, p. 342;
Dobrolyubova and Kabakovich, 1962, p. 122—124; 1966,
p. 130—157; Cotton, 1973, p. 195) regarded
Stelechophyllum as a distinct genus, but Wang (1950, p.
212), Ivanovskiy (1967, p. 34), and Minato and Kato
(1974, p. 69—71) regarded it as a junior synonym of
Lithostrotionella Yabe and Hayasaka. In my opinion,
Stelechophyllum is a distinct genus and Lithostrotionella
is a probable junior synonym of Acrocyathus d’Orbigny.

Stelechophyllum is differentiated from Acrocyathus
and Petalaxis by the nature of its axial structure and
tabularium (fig. 1). In Stelechophyllum, the axial struc-
ture consists of a simple columella in the form of a rod or
plate unmodified by septal lamellae or axial tabellae.
The major septa may or may not join the columella, and
the columella may be slightly serrated where the septa
fall short of it. The tabularium in Stelechophyllum con-

10 REVISION OF LITHOSTROTIONE'LLA FROM THE CARBONIF‘EROUS AND PERMIAN

sists of an axial series of convex to tent-shaped tabulae
with well-defined shoulders that rest one upon the other
and a weak peripheral zone of more or less horizontal,
ordinarily concave-upward tabellae. Acrocyathus has a
complex axial structure composed of an axial plate, axial
lamellae, and steeply inclined tabulae or tabellae. The
major septa seldom extend to the axial complex. The
tabulae are essentially conical and ordinarily extend
without shoulders to the periphery of the tabularium;
peripheral tabellae are rare. Petalaxis has an essentially
simple columella like that of Stelechophyllnm, although
some species have impersistently developed axial
tabellae. The tabulae in Petalaxis are essentially
horizontal.

Eolithostrotionella Zhizhina was proposed for corals
that differ from Lithostrotion by having lonsdaleoid
dissepiments and from Lithostrotionella by having
arched, rather than horizontal, tabulae. Although the
morphology of the type species of Lithostrotionella is in
doubt, it seems to have conical tabulae like those of
Acrocyathns; at any rate, the tabulae are not horizontal.
The type species of Eolithostrotionella has an axial
structure identical with the type species of
Stelechophyllnm and is here placed in the synonymy of
Stelechophyllnm.

Species of Stelechophyllum are distinguished on dif—
ferences in mature corallite diameter, number of major
septa at maturity, presence or absence and length of
minor septa (weak or strong), development of the col-
umella (absent, weak, or strong), major septal exten—
sions into the tabularium (weak or strong), major septal
extensions in the dissepimentarium (weak or strong),
shape of the axial tabulae (flat, tent-shaped, convex),
spacing of the tabulae, development of peripheral
tabellae (absent, weak, or strong), number of rows of
dissepiments, size and shape of dissepiments (large,
small, inflated, flattened), and ratio of tabularium width
to corallite diameter.

The species of Stelechophyllnm fall into five major
groups:

1. S. ascendens group, including ascendens, megalnm,
grande, and venukofi‘i. This group is characterized
by its large corallites, moderate number of major
septa, and by having a variably developed col-
umella. The group is exclusively Tournaisian.

2. S. microstylum group, including microstylnm, cir-
cinatum, longiseptatum, and banfiense. This group
is characterized by its large corallites, large
number of major septa, and well developed col-
umella. The group is Tournaisian and Viséan.

3. S. micrum group, including micrnm, lochmanae,
and ergnnjaicnm. This group is characterized by
its small corallites and small number of major sep-
ta. The group is Tournaisian and Viséan.

 

4. S.? mclareni group, including mclareni, birdi, and
niakense. This group is characterized by its strong-
ly polymorphic corallites. The group is exclusively
Viséan.

5. S.? macanni group, including only 8.? macouni from
the Viséan. This group is characterized by its
weakly lonsdaleoid dissepimentarium.

Occurrence—Upper Devonian (Famennian)(?) and
Lower Carboniferous, middle Tournaisian to upper
Viséan. U.S.S.R., Canada, U.S.A., Mexico.

Stelechophyllum ascendens species group
Stelechophyllum ascendens (Tolmachev)

Stylophyllnm ascendens Tolmachev, 1924, p. 319, pl. 19, figs. 14, 15;
1931, p. 608, pl. 23, fig. 4.

Stelechophyllum ascendens (Tolmachev). Dobrolyubova and
Kabakovich, 1962, p. 123, pl. C—5, fig. 11, p1. C—6, figs. 1a, b; 1966,
p. 136.

Diagnosis. —Stelechophyllnm with corallite diameter 7
to 12 mm and 13 to 17 major septa that seldom extend
into the dissepimentarium. Major septa join the col-
umella or end a short distance from it or from the axis
when a columella is absent. Minor septa weakly
developed or absent. Columella weakly developed or ab-
sent from some corallites. Dissepimentarium composed
of a single row of large inflated dissepiments. Axial
tabulae flat to strongly convex, spaced 0.5 to 1 mm
apart. Peripheral tabellae absent or weakly developed.
Ratio of tabularium width to corallite diameter 0.5 to
0.6. Increase is peripheral.

Discussion. —This species is distinguished by its weak
development of minor septa and columella.

Occurrence. —Lower Carboniferous, upper Tournai-
sian. Nizhnetersin Horizon, Kuznetsk Basin, U.S.S.R.

Stelechophyllum ascendens simplex Dobrolyubova,
in Dobrolyubova and Kabakovich

Stelechophyllum ascendens simplex Dobrolyubova, in Dobrolyubova
and Kabakovich, 1966, p. 137, pl. 23, figs. 1, 2, text-fig. 7.

Diagnosis. —Stelechophyllnm ascendens in which most
of the corallites are without a columella and have
tabulae that range from flat (without columella) to tent-
shaped (with columella).

Description of holotype.—See Dobrolyubova and
Kabakovich (1966, p. 137).

Discussion-This form is the most primitive in the
Russian Stelechophyllnm sequence (Dobrolyubova and
Kabakovich, 1966, p. 134).

Occurrence—Lower Carboniferous, Tournaisian.
Nizhnetersin Horizon, Kuznetsk Basin, U.S.S.R.

Stelechophyllum ascendens ascendens (T olmachev)

Stelechophyllum ascendens ascendens (Tolmachev). Dobrolyubova and
Kabakovich, 1966, p. 139, pl. 24, figs. 1, 2; pl. 25, figs. 1, 2; pl. 28,
fig. 3; text-figs. 8, 9.

SYSTEMATIC PALEONTOLOGY 1 1

Diagnosis. —Stelechophyllum ascendens in which most
of the corallites have a columella and axial tabulae and
peripheral tabellae are present.

Description of lectotype. —See Tolmachev (1924, p.
319)

Occurrence. —Lower Carboniferous, upper Tournai-
sian. Nizhnetersin Horizon, Kuznetsk Basin, U.S.S.R.

Stelechophyllum megalum (Tolmachev)

Stylophgllum megalum Tolmachev, 1924, p. 319, pl. 19, figs. 11, 12;
1931, p. 608, pl. 23, fig. 3.

S telechophgllum megalum (Tolmachev). Dobrolyubova and Kabakovich,
1962, p. 123, pl. C—5, fig. 1; 1966, p. 143, pl. 26, figs. 1a—c, 2, text—
fig. 10.

Diagnosis. —Stelechophytlum with corallite diameter 7
to 14 mm and 13 to 19 major septa that most commonly
extend from the columella across the tabularium and in-
to the dissepimentarium. Minor septa generally well
developed. Columella variable in form and thickness,
commonly thick and lenticular, in some corallites re-
placed by ends of one or more major septa, absent from
many corallites. Dissepimentarium consists of 1 to 3
poorly defined rows of large and small inflated dis-
sepiments. Axial tabulae tent-shaped, spaced about 5 in
1 mm. Peripheral tabellae well developed. Ratio of
tabularium width to corallite diameter about 0.4. In-
crease is peripheral.

Description of tectotype.—See Tolmachev (1924, p.
319)

Occurrence—Lower Carboniferous, upper Tournai-
sian. Nizhnetersin Horizon, Kuznetsk Basin, U.S.S.R.

Stelechophyllum grande (T olmachev)

Lithostrotion granule Tolmachev, 1924, p. 315, pl. 19, fig. 13; 1931, pl.
22, fig. 6.

Stelechophyllum grande (Tolmachev) Dobrolyubova and Kabakovich,
1966, p. 146, pl. 27, figs. 1, 2; text-figs. 11-14.

Diagnosis. —Stelechophyttum with corallite diameter 9
to 18 mm and 13 to 20 major septa that most commonly
extend from the columella across the tabularium but
seldom extend into the dissepimentarium. Minor septa
absent to weakly developed. Columella variable in form
and thickness, commonly thick and lenticular, in some
corallites replaced by ends of one or more major septa,
absent from some corallites. Dissepimentarium consists
of 1 to 4 rows of small to large dissepiments. Tabulae
spaced 0.5 to 1 mm apart, variable in form. Peripheral
tabellae poorly developed. Ratio of tabularium width to
corallite diameter about 0.4 . Increase is peripheral.

Description of lectotype. — See Tolmachev (1924, p.
315)

Occurrence. —Lower Carboniferous, upper Tournai-
sian. Nizhnetersin Horizon, Kuznetsk Basin, U.S.S.R.

 

Stelechophyllum venukofli (Tolmachev)
See subspecies below for synonymy.

Diagnosis.—Stelechophyllum with corallite diameter
5.5 to 15 mm and 12 to 20 major septa that ordinarily ex-
tend from the columella across the tabularium but
seldom extend into the dissepimentarium. Minor septa
absent to well developed. Columella absent to very
thick. Dissepimentarium composed of 1 to 4 rows of
small to large dissepiments. Axial tabulae convex to
tent-shaped, spaced about 0.5 mm apart. Peripheral
tabellae poorly to well developed. Ratio of tabularium
width to corallite diameter about 0.3 to 0.4. Increase is
peripheral, axial, or intermural.

Stelechophyllum venukoifi venukoffi (Tolmachev)

Stylophgllum venulcofl’i Tolmachev, 1924, p. 318, pl. 19, figs. 9, 10;
1931, pl. 23, fig. 2.
Stelechophgllum oenukoffi (Tolmachev). Dobrolyubova and
Kabakovich, 1962, p. 124.
Stelechophyllum cenukoffi venukofli (Tolmachev). Dobrolyubova and
Kabakovich, 1966, p. 156, pl. 28, figs. 1, 2, text-fig. 15.
Diagnosis. —Stelechophyllum venukoffi with minor
septa absent or weakly developed and predominantly
large dissepiments.
Description of lectot'gpe. —See Tolmachev (1924, p.
318)
Occurrence. —Lower Carboniferous, upper Tournai—
sian. Nizhnetersin Horizon, Kuznetsk Basin, U.S.S.R.

Stelechophyllum venukoffi altaicum (Tolmachev)

Lithostrotion altaicum Tolmachev, 1924, p. 314, pl. 19, figs. 7, 8; 1931,
pl. 23, fig. 1.

Stelechophyllum uenukofii altaicum (Tolmachev). Dobrolyubova and
Kabakovich, 1966, p. 157, pl. 29, figs. 1-3, pl. 30, fig. 1.

Diagnosis. —Stelechophyllum venukofi’i with minor
septa well developed and variable, predominantly small
dissepiments.

Description of lectotype. — See Tolmachev (1924, p.
314)

Discussion. — This subspecies is similar to
S telechophyllum microstytum (White) but has fewer ma-
jor septa, fewer extensions of the septa in the
dissepimentarium, and a lower ratio of tabularium width
to corallite diameter.

Occurrence. -Lower Carboniferous, upper Tournai-
sian. Nizhenetersin Horizon, Kuznetsk Basin, U.S.S.R.
Stelechophyllum microstylum species group
Stelechophyllum Inicrostylum (White)

Plates 1 and 2
Lithostrotion microstglum White, 1880a (1883), p. 159, pl. 40, fig. 7a;
Keyes, 1894, p. 124; Easton, 1944, p. 53, pl. 13, figs. 1—3, pl. 17,
fig. 1; Bassler, 1950, p. 213, Nelson, 1962, p. 170.
Lithostrotionella microstyla (White). Bamber, 1961, p. 110, pl. 8, figs.

4a, b, pl. 9, figs. 1a—h; Bowsher, 1961, pl. 110, figs. 4, 5a—c;
Carlson, 1964, p. 663, pl. 110, figs. 4, 6.

12 REVISION OF LITHOSTROTIONELLA FROM THE CARBONIFEROUS AND PERMIAN

?Lithostrotionella cf. microstyla (White). Bamber, 1961, p. 121, pl. 9,
figs. 2a—e.

Lithostrotionella microstylurn (White). Easton, 1963, p. 297; Bamber,
1966, p. 9, pl. 1, figs. 5a—g, pl. 2, figs. 1—3, pl. 3, figs. 1—3.

Lithostrotionella jasperensis Kelly, 1942, p. 356, pl. 51, figs. 3, 6;
Nelson, 1960, p. 112, pl. 21, figs. 1—4; 1961, pl. 1, figs. 1—3; 1962, p.
170; Stensaas and Langenheim, 1960, p. 184, text-figs. 9a, b, 10a,
b; Easton, 1963, p. 297.

Lithostrotion [Lithostrotionella] jasperensis (Kelly). Bassler, 1950, p.
221.

Lithostrotionella confluens Easton, 1958, p. 31, pl. 1, fig. 12, pl. 2, figs.
8, 9; Armstrong, 1962, p. 39, text-fig. 18, pl. 4, figs. 1-5, Nelson,
1962, p. 170; Easton, 1963, p. 297.

?Lithostrotionella girtyi Hayasaka, 1936, p. 65 [part].

Lithostrotionella hemisphaerica Hayasaka, 1936, p. 61 [part].

Lithostrotionella multiradiata Hayasaka, 1936, p. 67.

Diagnosis. —Stelechophyllum with corallite diameter 4
to 17 mm and 15 to 22 major septa that most commonly
extend across the tabularium from the columella and in-
to the dissepimentarium. Minor septa well developed.
Columella ordinarily very well developed. Dissepimen-
tarium composed of 1 to 10 rows (ordinarily 5 rows) of
small to large, commonly flattened dissepiments. Axial
tabulae convex to tent—shaped, spaced 2 to 4 in 1 mm.
Peripheral tabellae well developed. Ratio of tabularium
width to corallite diameter 0.4 to 05‘. Increase is inter-
mural(?).

Description of neotype. —Acc0rding to Easton (1944,
p. 54), the holotype of S. microstylum was probably lost
in a fire. USNM specimen 66838, described and il-
lustrated by Bamber (1961, p. 110, pl. 8, figs. 4a, b, pl. 9,
figs. la—h; 1966, p. 10—11, pl. 1, figs. 5a—g, pl. 2, figs. 3a,
b), is here designated neotype for this species.

Discussion—This is the most widespread species of
Stelechophyllum in North America, ranging from the
Mississippi Valley area to western Canada, where its oc-
currence is exclusively middle and upper Tournaisian
(upper Kinderhookian and lower Osagean). S.
microstylum is distinguished from the Russian species
S. megalum by its greater maximum corallite diameter,
more numerous major septa, ordinarily stronger col-
umella, and more numerous, generally less inflated
dissepiments. It is separated from S. banfiense by its
greater maximum corallite diameter, stronger minor
septa, more numerous septa] extensions into the
tabularium, less flattened axial tabulae, and less inflated
dissepiments.

Bamber (1966, p. 12-14) has discussed the synonymy
of Lithostrotionella jasperensis Kelly and Lithostro-
tionella confluens Easton with S. microstylum, on the
basis of study of the type material of these taxa. Three
of Hayasaka’s (1936) specimens are here referred
definitely to S. microstylum. These are the holotype and
paratype of Lithostrotionella multiradiata Hayasaka,
USNM 120244 and 162005, respectively, and a paratype
of L. hemisphaerica Hayasaka, USNM 161996. A fourth

 

specimen, a paratype of L. girtyi Hayasaka, USNM
162003, is referred questionably to S. microstylum.
These specimens are all illustrated herein.

Occurrence. —Lower Carboniferous, middle and upper
Tournaisian. Chouteau Limestone and Northview Shale,
Missouri, U.S.A.; Gilmore City Limestone, Iowa,
U.S.A.; Lodgepole Limestone, Montana(?), Idaho, and
Utah, U.S.A.; Joana Limestone, Nevada, U.S.A.;
Keating Formation and Lake Valley Limestone, New
Mexico, U.S.A.; Represo and Venada Formations,
Sonora, Mexico; Banff and Pekisko Formations, Alber-
ta, Canada.

Stelechophyllum circinatum (Easton and Gutschick)

Lithostrotion (Lithostrotionella) circinatus Easton and Gutschick,
1953, p. 19, pl. 3, figs. 5, 6 [part].

Lithostrotionella. circinatus (Easton and Gutschick). Nelson, 1962, p.
170; Easton, 1963, p. 297; Sando, 1969, p. 309, pl. 38, figs. 1-7.

Diagnosis. —Stelechophyllum with corallite diameter 9
to 13 mm and 21 to 30 major septa that most commonly
extend from the columella across the tabularium but
seldom extend into the dissepimentarium. Minor septa
absent to poorly developed. Columella absent to very
well developed. Dissepimentarium composed of 1 to 4
rows of small to large, commonly flattened dis-
sepiments. Axial tabulae flat to tent-shaped, spaced 4 in
1 mm. Peripheral tabellae well developed. Ratio of
tabularium width to corallite diameter 0.4 to 0.5. In-
crease is peripheral.

Description of type specimens. —See Easton and
Gutschick (1953, p. 19).

Discussion. —This species is similar to S. microstylum
but differs in having more major septa, a columella that
is variably developed, and fewer extensions of the major
septa into the dissepimentarium. S. circinatum occurs
at a slightly higher stratigraphic level than S.
microstylum.

Occurrence. -—Lower Carboniferous, upper Tournai-
sian. Redwall Limestone, Arizona, USA.

Stelechophyllum longiseptatum (Lisitsyn)
Lonsdalia longiseptata Lisitsyn, 1925, p. 68, p. 1, fig. 4.
E'olithostrotionella longiseptata (Lisitsyn). Zhizhina, 1956, p. 40, pl. 9,
figs. 1a, b.

Diagnosis.—Stelechophyllum with corallite diameter
15 to 20 mm and 24 to 32 major septa that most com-
monly extend from the columella across the tabularium
and into the dissepimentarium. Minor septa well
developed. Columella well developed. Dissepimentarium
composed of 2 to 5 rows of small to large inflated
dissepiments. Axial tabulae convex to tent-shaped,
spaced 0.2 to 1 mm apart. Peripheral tabellae well
developed(?). Ratio of tabularium width to corallite
diameter 0.4 to 0.5. Mode of increase unknown.

SYSTEMATIC PALEONTOLOGY 13

Description of holotype. — See Zhizhina (1956).

Discussion. —This species is similar to S. circinatum
but differs in having larger corallites, more major septa,
a stronger columella, and in having the major septa com-
monly extending into the dissepimentarium.

Occurrence. -Lower Carboniferous, middle Viséan.
Zone Clvd Donetz Basin, U.S.S.R.

Stelechophyllum banflense (Warren)
Plate 3; plate 4, figures 1, 2

Lithostrotion banfiensis Warren, 1927, p. 46, pl. 3, figs. 5, 6, pl. 5;
Crickmay, 1955, 1961, p. 12, pl. 1, figs. 13, 14.

Lithostrotionella banjfensis (Warren). Kelly, 1942, p. 354; Bamber,

1966, p. 17, pl. '3, fig. 5; Armstrong, 1970a, p. 29, pl. 10, figs. 1—8, pl.
13, figs. 1-7; 1970b, p. 16, pl. 3, figs. 5-8, pl. 4, figs. 1—4, pl. 10, fig.
1.

Lithostrotionella banfi’ense (Warren). Nelson, 1960, p. 119, pl. 23, figs.
4, 5; 1961, pl. 17, figs. 1, 2.

Lithostrotionella cf. banflensis (Warren). Bamber, 1961, p. 133, pl. 10,
figs. 3a—d.

Lithostrotioncllaflomformis Hayasaka, 1936, p. 64, pl. 17, figs. 1a, b.

Lithostrotionella vesicularis Hayasaka, 1936, p. 68, pl. 14, figs. 3a, b.

?Lithostrotionella amcricana Hayasaka, 1936, p. 62 [part].

?Lithostrotionella aff. L. banfi’ensis (Warren). Armstrong, 1970b, p.
19, pl. 4, figs. 5, 6.

Diagnosis. —Stelechophyllum with corallite diameter 6
to 13 mm and 19 to 26 major septa of variable length
that seldom join the columella and seldom extend into
the dissepimentarium. Minor septa absent to poorly
developed. Columella well developed. Dissepimentarium
composed of 1 to 6 rows of small to large inflated
dissepiments. Axial tabulae ordinarily broadly tent-
shaped, spaced 2 to 4 in 1 mm. Peripheral tabellae poor-
ly to well developed. Ratio of tabularium width to cor-
allite diameter 0.5 to 0.6. Increase is peripheral.

Description of lectotype. —See Nelson (1960) and
Bamber (1966).

Discussion. - This highly variable species is common in
rocks of early and middle Viséan age in western Canada
and Alaska. It appears to have been derived from S.
microstylum, from which it differs in having smaller cor-
allites, weaker major and minor septa, somewhat flat-
tened tabulae that are variable in form, ordinarily fewer
rows of dissepiments, and a larger ratio of tabularium
width to corallite diameter.

Armstrong (1970a, p. 29-31) has discussed the
synonymy of Lithostrotionellafloriformis Hayasaka and
Lithostrotionella vesicularis Hayasaka with S. banfiense
on the basis of study of the type material. Hayasaka’s
type specimens are illustrated in Armstrong’s paper.
Three paratypes of Lithostrotionella americana (USNM
174372, 174374, and 174375) are here referred to the
species with query and are illustrated herein.

Occurrence. —Lower Carboniferous, lower and middle
Viséan. Mount Head Formation, Alberta, Canada;
Prophet Formation, British Columbia, Canada;

 

Peratrovich, Nasorak, Kogruk, and Alapah(?) Forma-
tions, Alaska, U.S.A.; Little Flat Formation, Idaho,
U.S.A.(?).

Stelechophyllum micrum species group

Stelechophyllum micrum (Kelly)

Lithostrotionella micra Kelly, 1942, p. 357, pl. 50, fig. 7; Nelson, 1960,
p. 113, pl. 21, figs. 5, 6; 1961, pl. 6, figs. 1—3; Bamber, 1966, p. 14,
pl. 3, figs. 4a—e.

Lithostrotion [Lithostrotionella] micra (Kelly). Bassler, 1950, p. 221.

Lithostrotion micra (Kelly). Brindle, 1960, pl. 10, fig. 2.

Diagnosis. —Stelechophyllum with corallite diameter 2
to 6 mm and 10 to 15 major septa that most commonly
extend from the columella across the tabularium but
seldom extend into the dissepimentarium. Minor septa
poorly developed. Columella poorly to well developed.
Dissepimentarium composed of 1 to 2 rows of large in-
flated dissepiments. Axial tabulae convex, spaced 2 in 1
mm. Peripheral tabellae poorly developed. Ratio of
tabularium width to corallite diameter about 0.6. In-
crease is peripheral(?).

Description of holotype. — See Kelly (1942) and Bamber
(1961).

Discussion. — This species is similar to Stelechophyllum
lochmanae and S. ergunjaicum. S. lochmanae has larger
corallites and stronger major septa. S. ergunjaicum has
slightly more major septa and only one row of
dissepiments.

Occurrence—Lower Carboniferous, upper Tournai-
sian. Pekisko and Shunda Formations, Alberta, Canada.

Stelechophyllum lochmanae (Armstrong)

Lithostrotionella lochmanae Armstrong, 1962, p. 38, pl. 4, figs. 6—8,
text fig. 17.

Diagnosis. -—Stelechophyllum with corallite diameter 5
to 8 mm and 13 to 15 major septa that most commonly
extend from the columella across the tabularium and in-
to the dissepimentarium. Minor septa well developed.
Columella well developed. Dissepimentarium composed
of 1 to 2 rows of large inflated dissepiments. Axial
tabulae convex, spaced 3 in 1 mm. Peripheral tabellae
poorly developed. Ratio of tabularium width to corallite
diameter about 0.6. Mode of increase unknown.

Description of type material. — See Armstrong (1962).

Discussion. —This species is similar to S. micrum and
S. ergunjaicum. S. micrum has smaller corallites and
weaker minor septa, and S. ergunjaicum has weaker
minor septa and fewer extensions of the major septa in-
to the dissepimentarium.

Occurrence—Lower Carboniferous, middle Tournai-
sian. Keating Formation and Lake Valley Limestone,
New Mexico and Arizona, U.S.A.

Stelechophyllum ergunjaicum (Onoprienko)

Lithostrotionella ergunjaicum Onoprienko, 1976, p. 29, pl. 11, figs. 3, 4.

14 REVISION OF LITHOSTROTIONELLA FROM THE CARBONIFEROUS AND PERMIAN

Diagnosis. —Stelechophyllnm with corallite diameter 4
to 6 mm and 15 to 16 major septa that most commonly
extend from the columella across the tabularium but
seldom extend into the dissepimentarium. Minor septa
poorly developed. Columella well developed. Dis-
sepimentarium composed of a single row of large in-
flated dissepiments. Axial tabulae convex to tent-
shaped, spaced 0.1—1.2 mm apart. Peripheral tabellae
well developed. Ratio of tabularium width to corallite
diameter 0.5 to 0.6. Mode of increase unknown.

Description of type material. — See Onoprienko (1976).

Discussion—This species is similar to the North
American species S. lochmanae and S. micrnm. S.
ergunjaicnrn differs from S. micrnm by having convex
to tent—shaped tabulae, better developed peripheral
tabellae, and only one row of dissepiments. The Russian
species differs from S. lochmanae by having smaller cor-
allites, weaker minor septa, fewer extensions of the ma-
jor septa into the dissepimentarium, and only one row of
dissepiments.

Occurrence—Lower Carboniferous, upper Viséan.
Utaveem Suite, East Chukotka, Chegitun’ River basin,
U.S.S.R.

Stelechophyllum? mclareni species group

Stelechophyllum? mclareni (Sutherland)

Lithostrotion sp. McLaren and Sutherland, 1949, p. 631, pl. 103, figs.
1—9.

Lithostrotion [Lithostrotionella] [Thysanophyllnm] mclareni
Sutherland, 1958, p. 95, pl. 33, figs. 1a—g.

Lithostrotionella. mclareni (Sutherland). Armstrong, 1970b, p. 21, pl.
5, figs. 4, 7, 8—10, pl. 6, figs. 1, 2, 7—9.

?Lithostroti0nella aff. L. mclareni Sutherland. Armstrong, 1970a, p.
35, pl. 8, figs. 8, 9.

Diagnosis.—Stelechophyllum? with corallite diameter
3.5 to 4.4 mm and 12 to 15 major septa of variable length
that may or may not join the columella and may or may
not extend into the dissepimentarium. Minor septa ab-
sent to well developed. Columella weakly developed (or
discontinuous) to strongly developed. Dissepimentarium
composed of 1 to 3 rows of small to large inflated
dissepiments. Axial tabulae flat to tent-shaped, depend-
ing on strength of columella, spaced 2 in 1 mm
Peripheral tabellae absent to poorly developed. Ratio of
tabularium width to corallite diameter about 0.5. In-
crease is peripheral.

Description of holotype. - See McLaren and Suther-
land (1949).

Discussion. — McLaren and Sutherland (1949),
Sutherland (1958), and Armstrong (1970b) have dis-
cussed in detail the extreme morphologic variability in
this species. According to E. W. Bamber (written com—
mun., 1980), who has studied the species, serial sections
of the corallites show vertical discontinuity of the septa
in the dissepimentarium and vertical discontinunity of

 

the colummella so that some sections have the ap-
pearance of Sciophyllnm in corallites that are mainly
characterized by the Stelechophylln'm structure. The
amount of variation is notable in this species.

8.? molareni is similar to 8.? birdi and S.? niakense,
from which it differs in corallite diameter, in number of
major septa, and in the degree to which the major septa
extend into the dissepimentarium Armstrong’s (1970a)
Lithostrotionella aff. L. mclareni has characters that
place it close to S.? birdi and is here referred to 8.?
melareni with query.

Occurrence—Lower Carboniferous, Viséan. Prophet
Formation, British Columbia, Canada; Kogruk Forma-
tion, Alaska, USA

Stelechophyllum? birdi (Armstrong)
Lithostrotionella birdi Armstrong, 1970a, p. 32, pl. 7, figs. 1—4, pl. 8,
figs. 1—7; 1970b, p. 20, pl. 4, fig. 1, pl. 5, figs 1—3, 5, 6.

Diagnosis.-Stelech0phyllnm? with corallite diameter
3.5 to 7.5 mm and 15 to 20 major septa of variable length
that seldom join the columella and may or may not ex-
tend into the dissepimentarium. Minor septa absent to
poorly developed. Columella absent to weakly devel-
oped. Dissepimentarium composed of 1 to 2 rows of
mostly large inflated dissepiments. Axial tabulae flat to
flattened tent-shaped, spaced 2 in 1 mm. Peripheral
tabellae absent to poorly developed. Ratio of tabularium
width to corallite diameter about 0.6. Increase is
peripheral.

Description of holotype. — See Armstrong (197 0a).

Discussion. —This species shows intracolony variation
similar to that of S.? melareni (see discussion of S.?
mclareni). It is distinguished from S.? mclareni by its
larger corallites and larger number of major septa. Its
extreme morphologic variation makes generic place-
ment questionable.

Occurrence—Lower Carboniferous, Viséan. Peratro-
vich and Kogruk Formations, Alaska, USA.

Stelechophyllum? niakense (Armstrong)
Lithostrotionella sp. A. Armstrong, 1970b, p. 25, pl. 7, figs. 1—6.
Lithostrotionella sp. B. Armstrong, 197 0b, p. 26, pl. 7, figs. 7-9.
Lithostrotionella niakensis Armstrong, 1972a, p. A23, pl. 4, figs. 2, 6,

pl. 9, figs. 1—3, pl. 9, figs. 1—6.

Diagnosis.—Stelech0phyllnm? with corallite diameter
2.5 to 4.7 mm and 9 to 14 major septa of variable length
that seldom extend from the columella across the
tabularium but commonly extend into the dissepimen-
tarium. Minor septa poorly to well developed. Columella
absent to poorly developed. Dissepimentarium com-
posed of 1 to 2 rows of mostly large inflated dis-
sepiments. Axial tabulae flat to tent-shaped, spaced 2 in
1 mm. Peripheral tabellae absent to poorly developed.
Ratio of tabularium width to corallite diameter about
0.6. Increase is probably peripheral.

 

SYSTEMATIC PALEONTOLOGY 15

Description of holotype. — See Armstrong (1972a).

Discussion-8.? niakense is similar to S.? molareni
but differs in having fewer major septa, more extensions
of the major septa into the dissepimentarium, and less
polymorphic variation between corallites. S.? niakense
differs from 8.? mucouni in having larger corallites,
more major septa, and fewer extensions of the major
septa to the columella.

Occurrence—Lower Carboniferous, Viséan. Kogruk
Formation, Alaska, U.S.A.

Stelechophyllum macouni species group

Stelechophyllum? macouni (Lambe)

Lithostrotion macouni Lambe, 1899, p. 220; 1901, p. 176, pl. 14, figs.
11, 11a, 11b.
Lithostrotion? macauni Lambe. Nelson, 1960, p. 122, pl. 23, figs. 1, 2

art.
Litiidstrdtionella macouni (Lambe). Armstrong, 1970b, p. 23, pl. 12,
figs. 1—6.

Diagnosis.—Stelechophyllum? with corallite diameter
1.9 to 2.8 mm and 9 to 11 major septa that commonly ex-
tend from the columella across the tabularium and into
the dissepimentarium. Minor septa absent to poorly
developed. Columella ordinarily well developed.
Dissepimentarium composed of a single row of small in-
flated dissepiments. Axial tabulae nearly flat to conical,
spaced 3 in 1 mm. Peripheral tabellae poorly developed.
Ratio of tabularium width to corallite diameter 0.7.
Mode of increase unknown.

Description of lectotype. —GSC 4327 is here designated
lectotype for this species. See Nelson (1960) and Arm-
strong (1970b) for description of this specimen.

Discussion. —This species is distinguished from all
other species of Stelechophyllum by its smaller corallite
diameter, fewer major septa, and very weakly developed
lonsdaleoid dissepimentarium. Its morphology ap-
proaches that of Lithostrotion (Lithostrotion), which is
unknown in North America

Occurrence—Lower Carboniferous, Viséan. Prophet
Formation, British Columbia, Canada.

Stelechophyllum sp. indet.
Plate 4, figures 3, 4
Lithostrotionella hemisphaerica. Hayasaka, 1936, p. 61 [part].

Discussion. — An indeterminate species of
Stelechophyllum is represented by USNM 120239, which
is a paratype of Lithostrotionella hemisphaerica
Hayasaka. This specimen has corallites 9 to 12 mm in
diameter, 18 to 20 major septa, and an impersistent col-
umella, but the corallites are too badly crushed to permit
evaluation of all specific characters.

Occurrence. —Lower Carboniferous, Tournaisian.
Madison Limestone, Utah, U.S.A.

Stelechophylluxn? sp. indet.
Lithostrotiorwlla sp. Bamber, 1961, p. 129, pl. 10, figs. 2a—d.

 

Discussion. —Bamber’s (1961) specimen has corallites
4 to 8 mm in diameter, 19 to 21 major septa, a simple col-
umella, and tabulae that appear to be of the
Stelechophyllum type. Formal recognition of this species
is deferred pending discovery of more specimens.

Occurrence—Lower Carboniferous, Viséan. Prophet
Formation, British Columbia, Canada.

Genus AULOSTYLUS Sando, 1976
Aulostylus Sando, 1976, p. 427.

Type species. —Lithostrotionella tubifera Hayasaka,
1936, p. 69, pl. 16, figs. 1a, b, 2. Lower Carboniferous
(Tournaisian), Montana.

Diagnosis. - See Sando (1976).

Discussion. —This genus was established for lithostro-
tionelloid corals that have an aulos and a weak col-
umella. Two middle Tournaisian species from the U.S.A.
and Canada and a possible representative from the
Viséan of China are the only described species. The
species formerly referred to Lithostrotionella are listed
below; pertinent information on them has been given by
Sando (1976).

Aulostylus tubiierus (Hayasaka)

Lithostrotionella tubifera Hayasaka, 1936, p. 69, pl. 16, figs. 1a, b, 2;
Smith and Yfi, 1943, p. 42; Sando, 1963, p. 1076.

Lithostrotion [Lithostrotionella] tubifera (Hayasaka). Bassler, 1950,
p. 220.

Aulina tubifera (Hayasaka). Hill, 1940, p. 190; Bamber, 1961, p. 161,

pl. 12, figs. 3a—d.

Aulostylus tubiferus (Hayasaka). Sando, 1976, p. 428, figs. 3, 4.
Description of holotype. — See Sando (1976).
Diagnosis. — See Sando (197 6).

Discussion. — Sando (1976) recognized two subspecies,
A. tubiferus tubiferus and A. tubiferus eotubiferus. The
holotype of A. tubiferus tubiferus is probably from the
lower part of the Mission Canyon Limestone in Montana
rather than from the Woodhurst Member of the
Lodgepole Limestone as stated by Sando (197 6).

Aulostylus? sp.
Lithostrotionella sp. A Lo and Chao, 1962, p. 184, pl. 19, fig. 1.
Aulostylus? sp. Sando, 1976, p. 431.

Family ACROCYATHIDAE new family

Diagnosis. —Cerioid and fasciculate colonial Rugosa
that have two orders of septa, a columella that ranges
from a simple axial plate joined to the counter septum to
a complex Spiderweb structure made up of axial plate,
septal lamellae, and axial tabellae; ordinarily complete
conical tabulae; and a lonsdaleoid dissepimentarium.

Type genus—The type and only included genus is
Acrocyathus d’Orbigny, 1849.

Genus ACROCYATHUS d’Orbigny, 1849
Astraea Castelnau, 1843, p. 45 (not Fischer von Waldheim, 1830, pl.
31, fig. 3).

 

 

16 REVISION OF LITHOSTROTIONELLA FROM THE CARBON IFEROUS AND PE RMIAN

Acrocyathus d’Orbigny, 1849a, p. 12; 1850, p. 160; 1852, p. 184;
Thevenin in Boule and others, 1906, expl. pl. 6; 1907, p. 90; 1923,
p. 90; Easton, 1973, p. 130, 132 [part]; Minato and Kato, 1974, p.
70 [part].

Lithostrotion Fleming. Milne-Edwards and Haime, 1851, p. 433, 483
[part]; Owen, 1852, expl. pl. 4; Hall in Hall and Whitney, 1858, p.
667; Milne-Edwards, 1860, p. 423 [part]; Owen, 1862, p. 364; Rom-
inger, 1876, p. 111; White, 1880a (1883), p. 159 [part]; 1880b, p.
506; 1882, p. 401; Weller, 1898, p. 329 [part]; Ulrich, 1905, p. 33;
Butts, 1917, p. 46; 1926, p. 176; 1941, p. 239; Shimer, 1926, p. 27
[part]; Morse, 1930, p. 104; Weller, 1931, p. 274; Kelly, 1942, p.
361 [part]; Allen and Lester, 1954, p. 101.

?Lithostrotion (Lithost’rotionella) Yabe and Hayasaka, 1915, p. 133,
1920, p. 11; Bassler, 1950, p. 217, 221.

Lithostrotionella Yabe and Hayasaka. Hayasaka, 1936, p. 58, 61, 62,
65 [part]; Kelly, 1942, p. 352 [part]; Parks, 1951, p. 180; Weller and
others, 1952, p. 84; Allen and Lester, 1954, p. 101; Nelson, 1960, p.
117, 118 [part]; 1961, pl. 17 [part]; Yoh, 1961, p. 8; Bamber, 1961,
p. 107 [part]; 1966, p. 19 [part]; Armstrong, 1962, p. 39 [part];
1970a, p. 31 [part]; Wu in Yii and others, 1963, p. 86; Nations,
1963, p. 1257; Minato and Kato, 1974, p. 72 [part].

Lonsdaleia McCoy. Crickmay, 1955, 1961, p. 13.

Eolithostrotionella Zhizhina. Vasilyuk, 1960, p. 95; Zhizhina in
Bul’vanker and others, 1960, p. 250, 251, 252; Degtyarev, 1973, p.
192, 193.

Type species. —Acrocyathus floriformis d’Orbigny,
1849, p. 12 (by monotypy). Lower Carboniferous
(Viséan), Indiana, U.S.A.

Diagnosis. —Ordinarily cerioid colonial corals with
tabular to hemispherical growth form; one fasciculate
species is known and cerioid-fasciculate coralla are rare.
Septa of two orders. Major septa thin, seldom extending
across tabularium to columella and ordinarily discon-
tinuous or absent in dissepimentarium. Cardinal septum
short and situated in a fossula formed by downwarped
tabulae in some species. Counter septum commonly long
and extending to columella. Minor septa ordinarily ab-
sent or poorly developed. Columella ranging from a sim-
ple axial plate joined to counter septum to a complex
Spiderweb structure made up of an axial plate, septal
lamellae, and axial tabellae or upturned edges of
tabulae. Tabulae ordinarily complete, conical, without
well-defined shoulders, but may be nearly horizontal in
some species. Peripheral tabellae rare. Dissepimen-
tarium lonsdaleoid, commonly showing traces or crests
of discontinuous septa in transverse section. Increase
peripheral.

Discussion. — d’Orbigny’s (1849a) original proposal and
subsequent citations (1849b, 1852) of Acrocyathus pro-
vided only brief diagnoses of the genus, and Thevenin’s
(in Boule, 1906, 1907, 1923) reinvestigation of the type
specimen added only illustrations of the exterior of the
specimen. Most earlier authors (Milne-Edwards and
Haime, 1851, p. 432, 433; 1852, p. 192; Lindstrom, 1883,
p. 5, 11; de Koninck, 1872, p. 26; Thevenin, in Boule,
1907, 1923, p. 90; Sanford, 1939, p. 405; Soshkina and
others, 1962, p. 336) regarded Acrocyathus as a junior
synonym of Lithostrotion Fleming, although de

 

Fromentel (1861, 304) thought it was a Diphyphyllum
Lonsdale, and Wang (1950, p. 212) placed it in
synonymy with Lonsdaleia McCoy. More recently, some
authors (Hill, 1956, p. F307; Ivanovskiy, 1967, p. 34, and
Cotton, 1973, p. 12) linked it questionably with Litho-
strotionella Yabe and Hayasaka.

Easton (1973) redescribed in detail the type specimen
and illustrated thin sections of it, thus providing the first
adequate basis for a determination of the morphology
and affinities of the type species. Easton regarded
Acrocyathus as a senior synonym of Lithostrotionella
and espoused a broad generic concept that included
species placed herein in Stelechophyllum Tolmachev and
Petalaxis Milne—Edwards and Haime. Minato and Kato
(1974, p. 70—71) regarded Acrocyathus as a distinct
genus distinguished from Lithostrotionella by having a
complex axial structure rather than a simple axial plate.

In my opinion, Acrocyathus is a distinct genus
separated from Stelechophyllum and Petalam's by its
complex axial structure and complete conical tabulae. It
is distinguished from Lithostrotion by its lonsdaleoid
dissepimentarium and complex axial structure and from
Lonsdaleia by its lack of a distinct separation of axial
and peripheral series of tabellae. Although the mor-
phology of the type species of Lithostrotionella is in
doubt, Lithost’rotionella is regarded as a probable junior
synonym (see p. 4).

Eolithostrotionella is included in the synonymy of
Acrocyathus because some of the Russian species were
referred to that genus. The type species of Eolithostro-
tionella is a Stelechophyllum.

Species of Acrocyathus are distinguished on dif—
ferences in mature corallite diameter, number of major
septa at maturity, development of major septa, develop-
ment of minor septa, complexity of the columella, shape
and spacing of the tabulae, size and number of
dissepiments, number of rows of dissepiments, and ratio
of tabularium width to corallite diameter. Most of the
species of Acrocyathus have a cerioid corallum, but one
fasciculate species, A. proliferus, is included here
because of its internal morphologic similarity to cerioid
species and the presence of transitional forms. Cerioid
species included here are the abundantly represented A.
florifowm's from the Eastern United States; A. pilatus
from the Mississippi Valley; A. girtyt' from the Western
United States; A. pennsylvanicus from western Canada;
A. utkae, A. rotai, A. cystosus, and A. lissitzim' from the
U.S.S.R.; and A. hsujtulingi from China. Questionable
forms include A.? unicus and A.? zhizhinae, whose mor-
phology is in doubt, and A.? shimem’ and A.? grechovkae,
which have essentially horizontal tabulae like Petalam's
but have a complex columella characteristic of
Acrocyathus.

 

 

SYSTEMATIC PALEONTOLOGY 17

Occurrence-Lower Carboniferous, lower to upper
Viséan. U.S.S.R., U.S.A., Canada, China.

Acrocyathus floriiormis d’Orbigny
Plates 5—14, 16

Not Astrowa mamillaris Fischer von Waldheim, 1830, pl. 31, fig. 3

Astraea mamillaris Castelnau, 1843, p. 45, pl. 24, fig. 5.

Acroc’yathusflorifomis d’Orbigny, 1849a, p. 12; 1850, p. 160; 1852, p.
184; Thevenin in Boule and others, 1906, expl. pl. 6, pl. 6, figs. 1, 2;
1907, p. 90; 1923, p. 90, expl. pl. 6, pl. 6, figs. 1, 2; Easton, 1973, p.
130, pl. 1, figs. 1a—f.

Acrocyathus sp. Easton, 1973, p. 132, pl. 1, figs. 2a-b.

Not Aninura canadensis Castelnau, 1843, p. 49, pl. 24, fig. 4.

Lithostrotion mamillare Milne-Edwards and Haime, 1851, p. 433, pl.
13, fig. 1 [part]; Hall in Hall and Whitney, 1858, p. 667, pl. 24, figs.
5a, b; Rominger, 1876, p. 111, pl. 55, upper-right figure [part].

Lithostrotion mamillare (Castelnau). White, 1880a (1883), p. 159, pl.
40, figs. 6a, b; 1880b, p. 506, pl. 6, figs. 1, 2; 1882, p. 401, pl. 52,
fig. 3.

Not Lithostrotion mamillard?) Meek, 1864, p. 5, pl. 1, figs. 4—4b.

Lithostrotion canudense Milne-Edwards and Haime, 1851, p. 483, pl.
13, fig. 1 [part]; Milne-Edwards, 1860, p. 423; Owen, 1862, p. 364,
fig. 6; Butts, 1926, p. 176, pl. 58, figs. 12, 13; Morse, 1930, p. 104,
pl. 9; Weller, 1931, p. 274, pl. 36, figs. 13., b.

Lithostrotion canadense (Castelnau). Weller, 1898, p. 329 [part].

Lithostrotion? canadense Ulrich, 1905, p. 33, pl. 3, figs. 1, 2.

Lithostrotion “canadensis” (Castelnau). Butts, 1941, p. 239, pl. 129,
fig. 3.

Lithostroticn basaltifor'mc Owen, 1852, expl. pl. 4, pl. 4, figs. 5, 6;
Butts, 1917, p. 46, pl. 11, figs. 1, 2.

Lithostrotionella castelnaui Hayasaka, 1936, p. 58, pl. 11, figs. 1, 2
[part]; Weller and others, 1952, p. 84, pl. 1, figs. 6, 7; Allen and
Lester, 1954, p. 101, pl. 26, fig. 1.

Lithostrotion [Lithostrotionella] castelnaui (Hayasaka). Bassler, 1950,
p. 217 [part].

Lithostrotionella americana Hayasaka, 1936, p. 62, pl. 14, figs. 1, 2
[part].

Lithostrotion [Lithostrotionella] americanum Bassler, 1950, p. 217
[part].

Lithostrotionella hemisphaerica Hayasaka, 1936, p. 61, pl. 12, fig. 1,
pl. 13, figs. 1, 2 [part].

Lithostrotion [Lithostrotionella} hemisphericum (Hayasaka). Bassler,
1950, p. 217 [part].

Not Lithostrotionellaflorifomis Hayasaka, 1936, p. 64, pl. 17, fig. 1.

Material studied.—MNHN 1140 (holotype), FL 411;
USNM 756, 3779, 8211, 13669, 15526, 17071, 17848,

37466, 39654, 42695, 42766, 71646, 98102, 120235,
120236, 120237, 120238, 120240, 120241, 135092,
135094, 135096, 135097, 135172, 135173, 135174,
135177, 135179, 135300, 135301, 135302, 136704,
161989, 161990, 161991, 161992, 161993, 161994,
161995, 161997, 161998, 161999, 162000, 162001,
166604, 166605, 174376, 174377, 216198, 216199,
216200, 216202, 216203, 216204, 216205, 216206,

216207, 216208, 216210, 216211, 216212, 216214.
Diagnosis. —Predominantly cerioid Acrocyathus with
corallite diameter 10 to 30 mm and 20 to 40 major septa
that are ordinarily short and do not extend across the
tabularium to the columella and seldom extend into the
dissepimentarium. Cardinal fossula ordinarily well

 

developed. Counter septum commonly joined to col—
umella. Minor septa weakly developed as crests on
dissepiments. Columella highly variable, ranging from a
simple axial plate joined to the counter septum to a com-
plex Spiderweb structure made up of an axial plate, sep-
tal lamellae, and axial tabellae or upturned edges of
tabulae; thysanophylloid variants are known. Dis-
sepimentarium composed of 1 to 5 rows of large and
small, ordinarily inflated dissepiments. Tabulae com—
plete, conical, sharply deflected upward at columella and
without shoulders or with poorly defined shoulders and
spaced about 1 mm apart. Peripheral tabellae rare. Ax-
ial tabellae common. Ratio of tabularium width to cor-
allite diameter 0.4 to 0.6. Increase is peripheral.

Description of holotype. —See Easton (1973).

Discussion. —This species is characterized by the
highly variable structure of the columella and the great
range in corallite diameter and number of major septa
(fig. 3). The variation in the latter two characters ap—
pears to be continuous and does not permit recognition
of separate species or subspecies. The species has been
divided into two subspecies on the basis of the complexi-
ty of the columella (see below). Similarities between
Acrocyathus floriformis and the fasciculate species A.
proliferus are discussed under A. proliferus.

Occurrence. —A. floriformis is abundant in and
characteristic of the St. Louis Limestone and correlative
formations in the Southeastern Province of Sando and
others (1975, 1977). Data on its occurrence are noted
under the two subspecies of the species.

Acrocyathus floriformis floriiormis d’Orbig-ny
Plates 5—11; plate 16, figure 2

Not Astrtwa mamillaris Fischer von Waldheim, 1830, pl. 31, fig. 3.

Astraea mamillaris Castelnau, 1843, p. 45, pl. 24, fig. 5.

Acrocyathnsflorifomis d’Orbigny, 1849a, p. 12; 1850, p. 160; 1852, p.
184; Thevenin in Boule, 1906, expl. pl. 6, pl. 6, figs. 1, 2; 1907, p. 90;
1923, p. 90, expl. pl. 6, pl. 6, figs. 1, 2; Easton, 1973, p. 130, pl. 1,
figs. 1a—f.

?Lithostrotion mamillare Milne-Edwards and Haime, 1851, p. 433, pl.
13, fig. 1 [part]; Rominger, 1876, p. 111, pl. 55, upper right figure
[part].

Not Lithostrotion mamillare (Castelnau). White, 1880a (1883), p. 159,
pl. 40, figs. 6a, b; 1880b, p. 506, pl. 6, figs, 1, 2; 1882, p. 401, pl. 52,
fig. 3.

Not Lithostrotion mamillarefl) Meek, 1864, p. 5, pl. 1, figs. 4—4b.

?Lithostrotion canadense Milne-Edwards and Haime, 1851, p. 483, pl.
13, fig. 1 [part].

Lithostrotion canadense Butts, 1926, p. 176, pl. 58, figs. 12, 13.

Lithostrotion? canadense Ulrich, 1905, p. 33, pl. 3, figs. 1, 2.

?Lithostroti0n basaltifome Owen, 1852, expl. pl. 4, pl. 4, figs. 5, 6.

Lithostrotion basaltiforme Owen. Butts, 1917, p. 46, pl. 11, figs. 1, 2.

Lithostrctionella castelnaui Hayasaka, 1936, p. 58, pl. 11, figs. 1, 2.

Lithostrotion [Lithostrotionella] castelnaui (Hayasaka). Bassler, 1950,
p. 217.

Lithostrotionella amricana Hayasaka, 1936, p. 62, pl. 14, figs. 1, 2

[part].

 

 

 

18 REVISION OF LITHOSTROTIONELLA FROM THE CARBONIFEROUS AND PERMIAN

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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35
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10 15 20 25 30 35 40

MAXIMUM CORALLITE DIAMETER (MM)

FIGURE 3,—Variation in maximum number of major septa and maximum corallite diameter in 56 coralla of Acrocyathus flomformis. Polygon
defines field of variation of coralla from one locality (Livingston, Tenn.). Numbers beside dots indicate more than one corallum.

Lithostrotion [Lithostmtionella] americanum Bassler, 1950, p. 217.

Lithost’rotiomalla hemisphaerica Hayasaka, 1936, p. 61, pl. 12, fig. 1,
pl. 13, figs. 1, 2 [part].

Lithostrotion [Lithostrotioiwlla] hemisphericum (Hayasaka). Bassler,
1950, p. 217 [part].

Not Lithostrotionellafloriformis Hayasaka, 1936, p. 64, pl. 17, fig. 1.
Description of holotype. —See Easton (1973).
Material studied.—MNHN 1140 (holotype), FL 411;

USNM 13669, 71646, 120235, 120238, 120240,

120241(?), 161989, 161990, 161991, 161993, 161994,

161995, 161997, 1620010), 174376, 1743770), 2162050),

216206.

 

Diagnosis. —Acrocyathus floriformis having an axial
structure ranging from a simple axial plate to a complex
structure composed of an axial plate, a few axial
lamellae, and a few concentric intercepts of axial
tabellae or upturned edges of axial tabulae in transverse
section.

Discussion. —This predominant subspecies of the
widespread species A. florifo'rmis is distinguished from
A. florifomis hemisphae’ricus by its less complex col-
umella. The two subspecies occur in the same formations
in the same geographic areas.

 

 

SYSTEMATIC PALEONTOLOGY 19

Occurrence—Lower Carboniferous, middle or upper
Viséan. St. Louis Limestone, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa,
Kentucky, Missouri, Tennessee, U.S.A.; Greenbrier
Limestone and Newman Limestone, Virginia, U.S.A.;
Hillsdale Member of Greenbrier Limestone, West
Virginia, U.S.A.; Newman Limestone, Kentucky,
U.S.A.; Tuscumbia Limestone, Alabama, U.S.A.

Acrocyathus floriformis hemisphaericus (Hayasaka)
Plates 12—14

Lithostrotion mamillare (Castelnau). White, 1880a, p. 159, pl. 40, figs.
13., b.
Lithostrotion “canadensis” (Castelnau). Butts, 1941, p. 239, pl. 129,
fig. 3.
Lithostrotiori castelnaui Hayasaka, 1936, p. 58 [part].
Lithostrotion [Lithostrotioriella] castelnaui (Hayasaka). Bassler, 1950,
p. 217 [part].
Lithostrotioriella hemisphaerica Hayasaka, 1936, p. 61, pl. 12, 13, figs.
2a, b. [part].
Lithostrotion [Lithostrotionella] hemisphericum (Hayasaka). Bassler,
1950, p. 217.

Material studied. —USNM 8211, 98102, 120236,
120237 (holotype), 161992, 161998, 161999, 162000(?).

Diagnosis.—Acrocyathus florifomis having an axial
structure ranging from a simple axial plate to a very
complex structure composed of an axial plate, many ax-
ial lamellae, and many concentric intercepts of axial
tabellae or upturned edges of axial tabulae in transverse
section.

Description of holotype. —The specimen is a fragment
of a large, silicified, cerioid, hemispherical colony. It is
about 15 cm high and was more than 18 cm in diameter.
Internal structures are poorly preserved.

Corallites are polygonal, have straight double-layered
walls as much as 0.25 mm thick, and range from 10 to 15
mm in diameter at maturity. Increase is peripheral. The
major septa seldom extend to the columella but com-
monly extend into the dissepimentarium. The cardinal
septum is shorter than the other major septa, and the
counter septum commonly joins the columella. There are
26 to 32 major septa at maturity. Minor septa are
relatively well developed at the corallite walls and as
crests on the dissepiments. The columella ranges from a
simple axial plate joined by a few septal lamellae in
young corallites to a very complex structure composed
of an axial plate, many septal lamellae, and as many as 4
concentric traces of axial tabellae; the columella is as
much as 2.5 mm in diameter. Tabulae are ordinarily
complete, conical, curved upward to the columella, and
spaced 0.25 to 1 mm apart. The dissepimentarium is
weakly lonsdaleoid and consists of 2 to 3 rows of inflated
to flattened dissepiments of varying sizes. There are or-
dinarily 2 or 3 dissepiments in 1 mm. The ratio of the
tabularium width to the corallite diameter is about 0.6 to
0.7. Septal microstructure has been destroyed by
silicification.

 

Discussion—This subspecies is distinguished by its
compact, very complex columella. The holotype (pl. 12,
figs. 1, 2) is a poor example of the species because of the
poor preservation of internal structures. A paratype,
USNM 161998, is a much better example. This specimen
pl. 12, figs. 3, 4) has as many as 5 tabellar rings around
the medial plate. The other paratypes have fewer
tabellar rings than USNM 161998, but all have a more
complex columella than is found in A. floriformis
florifownis.

The transverse section of this subspecies mimics that
of Lonsdaleia (Actinocyathus) because of its complex col-
umella and lonsdaleoid dissepimentarium. It is readily
distinguished from Lonsdaleia (Actinocyathus) in
longitudinal section by lacking a distinct continuous
separation of axial and peripheral tabellae. The
longitudinal section (pl. 12, fig. 3) also shows that the
complexity of the columella ranges from a simple struc—
ture like that of A. floriformis floriformis to a complex
structure in the same corallite.

Occurrence—Lower Carboniferous, middle or upper
Viséan. St. Louis Limestone, Illinois, Indiana, and
Missouri, U.S.A.; Newman Limestone and Greenbrier
Limestone, Virginia, U.S.A.; Hillsdale Mamber of
Greenbrier Limestone, West Virginia, U.S.A.

Acrocyathus pilatus n. sp.
Plate 17, figures 1, 2

Lithostrotionella girtyi Hayasaka, 1936, p. 65 [part].

Material studied. —USNM 162004 (holotype).

Description of holotype. —The specimen is a fragment
of a small, cerioid, hemispherical corallum. It was more
than 4.5 cm high and more than 8 cm in diameter. The
outer part of the specimen is silicified.

Corallites are polygonal, have straight, double—
layered, beaded walls 0.25—0.5 mm thick, and range from
8 to 11 mm in diameter at maturity. Increase is
peripheral. The major septa most commonly extend to
the columella and may or may not extend into the
dissepimentarium. The cardinal septum is elongated in
some corallites. There are 17 to 19 major septa at
maturity. Minor septa are poorly developed as spines on
the corallite walls. The columella is complex, composed
of a medial plate, septal lamellae, and conical axial
tabellae and is as much as 2 mm in diameter; it is or-
dinarily thickened by stereoplasm. Tabulae are ordinari-
ly complete, conical, uncurved, and spaced about 0.7 to
0.8 mm apart. The dissepimentarium is weakly
lonsdaleoid and consists of 1 or 2 rows of inflated
dissepiments of variable size. There are ordinarily 2 or 3
dissepiments in 1 mm. The ratio of the tabularium width
to the corallite diameter is about 0.6 to 0.7. Septal
microstructure is obscured by recrystallization, seem-
ingly diffusotrabecular.

 

 

20 REVISION OF LITHOSTROTIONELLA FROM THE CARBONIFEROUS AND PERMIAN

Discussion. —This species is most similar to
Acrocyathus floriformis hemisphaericus by virtue of its
complex columella but is distinguished by having fewer
tabellar rings and by the stereoplasmic thickening of the
columella.

Occurrence. —L0wer Carboniferous, middle Viséan.
St. Louis Limestone, Illinois, U.S.A.

Acrocyathus proliferus (Hall in Hall and Whitney)
Plate 15; plate 16, figures 1, 3, 4

Lithostrotion mamillare Milne-Edwards and Haime, 1851, p. 433, pl.
13, figs. 1a, b. [part]; Rominger, 1876, p. 111, pl. 55 [part].

Lithostrotion canadense Milne-Edwards and Haime, 1851, p. 483, pl.
13, figs. 1a, b. [part].

Lithostrotion canadense Castelnau. Weller, 1898, p. 329 [part].

Lithostrotion proliferum Hall in Hall and Whitney, 1858, p. 668, pl.24,
figs. 6a—c; Rominger, 1876, p. 111, pl. 55; Butts, 1917, p. 45, pl. 10,
figs. 15-17; 1926, p. 176, pl. 58, fig. 14; Morse, 1930, p. 102, pl. 8;
Weller, 1931, p. 276, pl. 37, figs. 1a, b; Kelly, 1942, p. 361, pl. 51,
figs. 1, 4; Allen and Lester, 1954, p. 101, pl. 26, fig. 2; not Davis,
1956, p. 31, pl. 2, figs. 32., b.

Lithostrotion? proliferum Hall. Ulrich, 1905, p. 32, pl. 3, figs. 3—7.

Lithostrotionella prolifera (Hall). Butts, 1941, p. 239, pl. 129, figs. 1,
2; Weller and others, 1952, p. 84, pl. 1, fig. 5.

Lithostrotion [Lithostrotionella] proliferum (Hall). Bassler, 1950, p.
217.

Material studied. —USN M 841 (neotype), 4587, 37469,
37470, 37471, 39655, 42667, 42705, 42714, 42845,
49941, 52681, 60306, 71647, 135085, 135087, 135091,
135095, 135098, 135168, 135176, 216201, 216207,
216209, 216213, 239233.

Diagnosis. —Fasciculate Acrocyathus with corallite
diameter 10 to 25 mm and 26 to 49 major septa. Internal
morphology like that of Acrocyathus florifor'mis, but
dissepimentarium is consistently weakly lonsdaleoid. In-
crease is peripheral.

Description of neotype. —I have been unable to locate
the specimens originally described and illustrated by
Hall (in Hall and Whitney, 1858). I have therefore
selected USNM 841, from the St. Louis Limestone,
Hardin County, 111., as neotype for the species. 7

The neotype is a fragment of a large phaceloid cor-
allum. The specimen is about 12 mm high and 17 x 9 mm
in diameter.

Corallites are cylindrical, have single—layered walls
about 0.2 mm thick, and range from 12 to 15 mm in
diameter at maturity. Increase is peripheral. The major
septa do not extend to the columella but do extend into
the dissepimentarium, most commonly reaching the cor-
allite wall. There are 26 to 29 major septa at maturity.
The cardinal septum is slightly shorter than the other
major septa and is in a fossula formed by downwarped
tabulae. Minor septa are poorly developed as spines on
the corallite walls. The columella ranges from a simple
axial plate to a structure made up of axial plate, a few
axial lamellae, and a few concentric traces of axial
tabellae in transverse section. Tabulae are ordinarily

 

complete, conical, curved upward at the columella, and
spaced about 1 mm apart. The dissepimentarium is
weakly lonsdaleoid and consists of 1 to 3 rows of inflated
dissepiments of variable size. There is ordinarily 1
dissepiment in 2 mm. The ratio of the tabularium width
to the corallite diameter is about 0.6 to 0.8. Septal
microstructure is diffusotrabecular.

Discussion. —Colonies of the fasciculate A. proliferus
show the same range in variation of internal structures,
such as the columella and tabulae, as the cerioid A.
floriformis. Both forms have a shortened cardinal sep-
tum and commonly a long counter septum. The only con-
sistent internal difference is in the dissepimentarium,
where the fasciculate forms have fewer rows of
dissepiments, and the dissepimentarium is only weakly
lonsdaleoid. Increase in both the fasciculate and cerioid
forms is peripheral. In the fasciculate forms, the offsets
tend to arise in clusters of several new individuals at
levels of rejuvenation of the parent corallite.

Form variation was studied in 263 USNM specimens
from the St. Louis Limestone and equivalent beds in
Alabama, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Kentucky, Missouri,
Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia, Georgia, and
Michigan. Of these specimens, 154 are cerioid A.
floriformis and 95 are fasciculate A. proliferus. Both
forms occur together at two localities. Ordinarily cerioid
and fasciculate forms are discrete colonies, but 14
specimens show both growth forms in the same colony
(pl. 16). In most of these, cerioid corallites gave rise to
fasciculate corallites, but in one colony, a fasciculate
form became cerioid at a later stage.

The form variation noted above presents problems in
taxonomic treatment of these corals. Some authors (for
example, Hill, 1940, p. 151, 166) place cerioid and
fasciculate forms of Lithostrotion and Lonsdaleia in the
same genus. Others (for example, Kato, 1966, p.
100—101; Sando, 1975, p. 020) regard the two growth
forms as subgenera. The evidence with respect to form
variation in “Lithostrotionella” floriformis and
“Lithostrotion” proliferum suggests a strong genetic
relationship between the two forms. Indeed, the basic
similarities in internal structure and the presence of
transitional forms might lead to the conclusion that the
two forms are merely ecologic variants of the same
biologic species. However, the rarity of transitional
forms, the lack of detailed information on geographic
and stratigraphic distribution of the morphotypes, and
the obvious practicality of recognizing the two growth
forms as separate entities lead me to maintain them as
separate species. The treatment is different from my
treatment of Lithostrotion and Lonsdaleia, because in
North America, Lithostrotion is represented almost en-
tirely by the fasciculate form (Siphonodendron), and
fasciculate and cerioid Lonsdaleia are separated from

 

 

SYSTEMATIC PALEONTOLOGY 21

each other in different faunal provinces. Furthermore,
no transitional forms are known between the subgenera
of either Lithostrotion or Lonsdaleia in North America.

Occurrence—Lower Carboniferous, middle or upper
Viséan. St. Louis Limestone and equivalent strata, Il-
linois, Georgia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, and
Michigan, U.S.A.

Acrocyathus girtyi (Hayasaka)
Plate 17, figures 3, 4
Lithostrotiorwlla girtyi Hayasaka, 1936, p. 65, pl. 13, figs. 3a, b.
TLithostrotionella sp. Parks, 1951, p. 180, pl. 29, figs. 2a, b.

Material studied. —USNM 120243 (holotype).

Description of holotype. -The specimen is a fragment
of a large hemispherical corallum. It was more than 15
cm in diameter and attained a height of more than 8 cm.
The outer part of the specimen is silicified.

Corallites are polygonal, have straight double-layered
walls as much as 0.3 mm thick, and range from 8 to 11
mm in diameter at maturity. Increase is peripheral. Ex-
cept for the counter septum, the major septa are short
and do not extend to the columella and seldom extend in-
to the dissepimentarium. There are 18 to 21 major septa
at maturity. Minor septa are absent or poorly developed.
The columella is a simple axial plate connected to the
counter septum in young corallites but is composed of an
axial plate, septal lamellae, and upturned edges of
tabulae in mature corallites. The columella is ordinarily
thickened by stereoplasm and attains a maximum
diameter of 2 mm. Tabulae are ordinarily complete, con-
ical, turned up at the columella, and spaced 0.5 to 1 mm
apart. The dissepimentarium is strongly lonsdaleoid and
consists of a single row of large inflated dissepiments.
There are ordinarily 1 or 2 dissepiments in 2 mm. The
ratio of the tabularium width to the corallite diameter is
about 0.6 to 0.7. Septal microstructure is fibronormal.

Discussion. —This species has a columella and corallite
diameter like that of A. pilatus but is distinguished from
the latter by its strongly lonsdaleoid dissepimentarium,
single row of dissepiments, and septa that seldom ex—
tend to the columella. The specimen illustrated by Parks
(1951) from the “Brazer Limestone” in Utah may belong
here, but the lack of information on morphological
details prevents certain identification.

Occurrence. —Lower Carboniferous, middle or upper
Viséan. Little Flat Formation, Utah, U.S.A.

Acrocyathus pennsylvanicus (Shimer)

Lithostrotion pennsylcanicum Shimer, 1926, p. 27, pl. 5, figs. 3—5
[part].

Lithostrotionella pennsylvanica (Shimer). Kelly, 1942, p. 352, pl. 50,
figs. 1, 2, 5, 6, 8; Bamber, 1961, p. 145, pl. 11, figs. 1b, c, 3a-f;
1966, p. 19, pl. 4, figs. 1a—c, 2a—c.

Lithostrotion [Lithostrotionella] pennsylvanicum (Shimer). Bassler,
1950, p. 221.

 

Lonsdaleia pennsylvanica (Shimer). Crickmay, 1955, 1961, p. 13, pl. 1,
figs. 11, 12.

Lithostrotionella pennsylvanicum (Shimer). Nelson, 1960, p. 117, pl.
22, figs. 4-6; 1961, pl. 17, figs. 3, 4.

Diagnosis. —Cerioid Acroeyathus with corallite
diameter 10 to 17 mm and 18 to 23 major septa that or-
dinarily approach the columella but do not reach it and
seldom extend into the dissepimentarium. Minor septa
weakly developed. Columella complex, composed of an
axial plate, septal lamellae, and axial tabellae or up-
turned edges of tabulae. Dissepimentarium composed of
1 to 3 rows of large and small inflated dissepiments.
Tabulae complete, conical, sharply deflected upward at
columella, without shoulders or with poorly defined
shoulders, and spaced about 0.5 mm apart. Ratio of
tabularium width to corallite diameter 0.5 to 0.8. Mode
of increase unknown.

Description of lectotype.—See Nelson (1960) and
Bamber (1966).

Discussion—This species falls within the range of
Acrocyathus florifor'mis on corallite diameter and
number of major septa. A. pennsylvanicus is distin—
guished from A. florifor'mis by lacking differentiation of
the cardinal and counter septa, by having fewer rows of
dissepiments, and by its larger ratio of tabularium width
to corallite diameter.

Occurrence—Lower Carboniferous, middle or upper
Viséan. Mount Head Formation, Alberta, Canada;
Prophet Formation, British Columbia, Canada.

Acrocyathus utkae (Degtyarev)
Eolithostrotionella utkae Degtyarev, 1973, p. 192, pl. 1, figs. 1a, b.

Diagnosis. —Cerioid Aeroeyathus with corallite
diameter 1 to 15 mm and 22 to 25 major septa that ap-
proach the columella but ordinarily do not reach it and
seldom extend into the dissepimentarium. Minor septa
absent. Columella composed of a thickened axial plate
commonly joined by counter and cardinal septa, septal
lamellae, and concentric traces of upturned tabulae in
transverse section. Dissepimentarium composed of 1 to
3 rows of large inflated dissepiments. Tabulae complete,
conical to nearly horizontal, and spaced about 0.5 mm
apart. Ratio of tabularium width to corallite diameter
about 0.6. Mode of increase unknown.

Description of holotype. —See Degtyarev 1973).

Discussion. —This species is similar to A.? greehovkae
but differs in having larger corallites, more major septa,
a more complex columella, and conical tabulae.

Occurrence—Lower Carboniferous, lower or middle
Viséan. Zapadnouralsk Horizon, Ural Mountains,
U.S.S.R.

Acrocyathus rotai (Zhizhina in Bul’vanker and others)

Eolithostrotionella rotai Zhizhina in Bul’vanker and others, 1960, p.
251, pl. 61, figs. 2a, b.

 

 

22 REVISION OF LITHOSTROTIONELLA FROM THE CARBONIFEROUS AND PERMIAN

Diagnosis. —Cerioid Acrocyathus with corallite
diameter 15 to 20 mm and 22 to 26 major septa that
commonly reach the columella but seldom extend into
the dissepimentarium. Minor septa absent or poorly
developed. Columella seemingly simple to complex.
Dissepimentarium composed of 1 to 3 rows of mostly
large inflated dissepiments. Tabulae complete, conical,
and spaced about 0.5 mm apart. Ratio of tabularium
width to corallite diameter about 0.6. Mode of increase
unknown.

Description of holotype. — See Zhizhina (in Bul’vanker
and others, 1960).

Discussion. —At first glance, the transverse section of
this species suggests Stelechophgllum, but the tabulae
are clearly of the Acrocyathus type, and the axial struc-
tures in some corallites appear to be complex.

Occurrence—Lower Carboniferous, middle or upper
Viséan. Zone Clvf, Donetz Basin, U.S.S.R.

Acrocyathus cystosus (Zhizhina in Bul’vanker and others)
Eolithostrotionella cystosa Zhizhina in Bul’vanker and others, 1960, p.
250, pl. 61, figs. 1a, b.

Diagnosis. —Cerioid Acrocyathus with corallite
diameter 20 to 30 mm and 28 to 38 major septa that may
or may not extend to the columella and seldom extend
into the dissepimentarium. Minor septa poorly
developed. Columella seemingly simple to complex.
Dissepimentarium composed of as many as 5 rows of
dissepiments of varying sizes. Tabulae complete, con-
ical, and spaced about 0.5 mm apart. Ratio of tabularium
width to corallite diameter about 0.4 to 0.5. Mode of in-
crease unknown.

Description of holotype. —See Zhizhina (in Bul’vanker
and others, 1960).

Discussion. —This species is distinguished by its broad
dissepimentarium.

Occurrence. —Lower Carboniferous, lower to upper
Viséan. Zones Cf’b to Clvf, Donetz Basin, U.S.S.R.

Acrocyathus lissitzini (Zhizhina in Bul'vanker and
others)

E'olithostrotionella lissitzini Zhizhina in Bul’vanker and others, 1960,
p. 252, pl. 61, figs. 3a, b.

Diagnosis. — Cerioid Acrocyathus with corallite
diameter 15 to 20 mm and 18 to 25 major septa that ap-
proach the columella but seldom reach it and seldom ex-
tend into the dissepimentarium. Minor septa absent.
Columella seemingly simple to complex. Dissepimen—
tarium composed of 1 to 3 rows of dissepiments of vary-
ing sizes. Tabulae complete, conical, and spaced about 1
mm apart. Ratio of tabularium width to corallite
diameter about 0.4 to 0.5. Mode of increase unknown.

Description of holotype. —See Zhizhina (in Bul’vanker
and others, 1960).

 

Occurrence—Lower Carboniferous, middle or upper
Viséan. Zone CIVf, Donetz Basin, U.S.S.R.

Acrocyathus hsujiulingi (Yoh)
Lithostrotionella hsujiulingi Yoh, 1961, p. 8, 16, pl. 13, figs. 1a—c.

Diagnosis. —Cerioid Acrocyathus with corallite
diameter averaging 6 mm and about 16 major septa that
approach the columella but seldom reach it and do not
extend into the dissepimentarium. Minor septa well
developed. Columella composed of a thickened axial
plate joined to the counter septum, septal lamellae, and
concentric traces of tabulae in transverse section.
Dissepimentarium composed of a single row of dis-
sepiments of varying sizes. Tabulae complete, conical,
and spaced about 0.5 mm apart. Ratio of tabularium
width to corallite diameter about 0.5. Mode of increase
seemingly peripheral.

Description of holotype. — See Yoh (1961).

Discussion. —This species differs from the other
Chinese species, A.? unicus, in having fewer major sep-
ta, fewer rows of dissepiments, and a somewhat more
complex columella.

Occurrence. —Lower Carboniferous(?), Kwangsi Prov-
ince, China.

Acrocyathus? unicus (Yabe and Hayasaka)

Lithostrotion (Lithostrotionella) unicum Yabe and Hayasaka, 1915, p.
133; 1920, p. 11, pl. 9, figs. 12a, b.

Lithostrotionella unica Yabe and Hayasaka. Wu in Yii and others,
1963, p. 86, pl. 24, figs. 7a, b.

Lithostrotionella unicum Yabe and Hayasaka. Minato and Kato, 1974,
p. 72, pl. 15, fig. 1.

Diagnosis. —Cerioid Acrocyathus? with corallite
diameter averaging 7 mm and about 22 to 26 major sep-
ta that approach the columella but seldom reach it and
seldom extend into the dissepimentarium. Minor septa
well developed. Columella seemingly a simple axial plate
augmented by a few axial tabellae and septal lamellae.
Dissepimentarium composed of 1 to 3 rows of large in-
flated dissepiments. Tabulae complete, conical, and
spaced 6 to 7 in 2 mm. Ratio of tabularium width to cor-
allite diameter about 0.5. Mode of increase unknown.

Description of holotgpe. —See Yabe and Hayasaka
(1915, 1920) and Minato and Kato (1974).

Discussion. —This species, the type of Lithostro-
tionella, is referred to Acrocyathus with query because
of uncertainty concerning the morphology of the type
specimen (see previous discussion on page 4).

Occurrence.—Carb0niferous(?), Yun-nan Province,
China.

Acrocyathus? shimeri (Crickmay)

Lithostrotion pennsylvanicum Shimer, 1926, p. 27 [part].
Lonsdaleia shimeri Crickmay, 1955, 1961, p. 13, pl. 1, figs. 9, 10.

 

 

SYSTEMATIC PALEONTOLOGY 23

Lithostrotionella shimeri (Crickmay). Nelson, 1960, p. 1 14, pl. 21, figs.

9—15, pl. 22, figs. 1—3; 1961, pl. 14, figs. 3—5, pl. 16, figs. 8, 9, pl. 17,
fig. 5, pl. 18, figs. 4, 5; Bamber, 1961, p. 137, pl. 10, figs. 4a—d, pl.
11, figs. 1a, d—j, 2a—d; Armstrong, 1962, p. 39, pl. 3, figs. 13—15,
text-fig. 19.

Lithostrotionclla pennsylvanica (Shimer). Armstrong, 1970a, p. 31, pl.
9, figs. 1—3.

Diagnosis. —Cerioid Acrocyathas? with corallite
diameter 7 to 13 mm and 17 to 30 major septa that com-
monly extend across the tabularium to the columella and
seldom extend into the tabularium. Minor septa or-
dinarily well developed. Columella complex, composed
of an axial plate, septal lamellae, and the upturned
edges of tabulae. Dissepimentarium composed of a
single row of inflated dissepiments. Tabulae complete,
essentially horizontal, but deflected upward at col-
umella, and spaced about 0.7 5 mm apart. Ratio of
tabularium width to corallite diameter about 0.4 to 0.5.
Increase is peripheral.

Description of holotype. — See Nelson (1960).

Discussion. — This species is distinguished by its nearly
horizontal tabulae, which approach the morphology of
Petalaxis. It differs from the species of Petalaxis by its
complex columella.

Occurrence. —Lower Carboniferous, middle and upper
Viséan. Mount Head Formation, Alberta and British
Columbia, Canada; Peratrovich Formation, Alaska,
U.S.A.; Black Prince Limestone, Arizona, U.S.A.

Acrocyathus? grechovkae (Degtyarev)
Eolithostrotionella grechookac Degtyarev, 1973, p. 193, pl. 1, fig. 2, pl.
2, figs. 1a, b.

Diagnosis.—Cerioid Acrocyathas? with corallite
diameter 10 to 12 mm and 18 to 24 major septa that ap—
proach the columella but seldom reach it and seldom ex-
tend into the dissepimentarium. Minor septa absent.
Columella ordinarily a simple thickened axial plate sur-
rounded by intersections of upturned tabulae in
transverse section and occasionally abutted by a few
septal lamellae. Dissepimentarium composed of 2 to 3
rows of large inflated dissepiments. Tabulae complete,
nearly horizontal at the periphery, but deflected upward
at the columella, and spaced about 0.5 mm apart. Ratio
of tabularium width to corallite diameter about 0.6.
Mode of increase unknown.

Description of holotype.—See Degtyarev (1973).

Discussion. —This species is similar to A.? shimeri in
having nearly horizontal tabulae but differs in having
fewer major septa, no minor septa, more rows of
dissepiments, and a less complex columella.

Occurrence—Lower Carboniferous, lower or middle
Viséan. Zapadnouralsk Horizon, Ural Mountains,
U.S.S.R.

Acrocyathus? zhizhinae (V asilyuk)
Eolithostrotionella zhizhinae Vasilyuk, 1960, p. 95, pl. 25, figs. 1, 1a.

 

Diagnosis.—Cerioid-fasciculate Acrocyathas? with
corallite diameter 13 to 20 mm and 25 to 27 major septa
that extend to the columella but do not extend into the
dissepimentarium. Minor septa well developed, con-
tratingent. Columella seemingly simple to complex, ab-
sent in some corallites. Dissipimentarium composed of 1
to 4 rows of dissepiments of varying sizes. Tabulae com-
plete, flat to conical, and spaced 0.75 to 1 mm apart.
Ratio of tabularium width to corallite diameter about
0.5. Mode of increase unknown.

Description of type material. — See Vasilyuk (1960).

Discussion. —The original description and illustrations
of this species leave some doubt concerning the struc-
ture of the columella and the tabulae. The species is
therefore referred to Acrocyathus with a query. The
long contratingent minor septa are noteworthy.

Occurrence—Lower Carboniferous, lower to middle
Viséan. Zones Clvc and C1Vd, Donetz Basin, U.S.S.R.

Acrocyathus spp. indet.
The following taxa are not adequately described and il-

lustrated for specific identification:

Lithostrotionella americana Hayasaka(?). Nelson, 1960,
p. 118, pl. 23, fig. 3. Lower Carboniferous, Viséan.
Mount Head Formation, Alberta, Canada.

Lithostrotionella shimeri (Crickmay). Nations, 1963, p.
1257, pl. 176, figs. 1, 2. Base of Black Prince
Limestone in pebble derived from Escabrosa
Limestone, Arizona, U.S.A.

Family PETALAXIDAE Fomichev, 1953

Genus PETALAXIS Milne-Edwards and Haime, 1852

Stylaxis Milne-Edwards and Haime, 1851, p. 452 [part] (not McCoy,
1849, p. 119).

Petalaxis Milne-Edwards and Haime, 1852, p. 204 [part]; Milne-
Edwards, 1860, p. 440 [part]; not Barrois, 1882, p. 305; Roemer,
1883, p. 387, 388 [part]; Lindstrom, 1883, p. 12; Stuckenberg,
1888, p. 20 [part]; 1895, p. 74 [part]; Yanishevskiy, 1900, p. 89[?];
Etheridge, 1900, p. 17; Grosch, 1909, p. 5; Yabe and Hayasaka,
1915, p. 94 (32); Bolkhovitinova, 1915, p. 63[?]; Gabounia, 1919, p.
39[?]; not Chi, 1931, p. 28; Dobrolyubova, 1935b, p. 10; Heritsch,
1939, p. 18; not Hill, 1940, p. 165; not Lang, Smith, and Thomas,
1940, p. 97; Kolosvary, 1951, p. 39[?]; Fomichev, 1953, p. 449; not
Hill, 1956, p. F 282; Soshkina, Dobrolyubova, and Kabakovich,
1962, p. 339; de Groot, 1963, p. 81; Onoprienko, 1970, p. 3;
Fedorowski and Gorianov, 1973, p. 58; not Minato and Kato, 1974, p.
68; Kozyreva, 1974, p. 24 [part]; Sutherland, 1977, p. 185.

Lithostrotion Fleming. Eichwald, 1861, p. 149; Trautschold, 1879, p.
36 [part]; Bassler, 1950, p. 222 [part].

Lithostrotion (Petalaxis) Fomichev, 1931, p. 43.

Lithostrotion (Lithostrotionella) Merriam, 1942, p. 377 [part]; Bassler,
1950, p. 220, 222, 235, 252; Easton, 1960, p. 578.

Lithostrotionella Yabe and Hayasaka. Chi, 1931, p. 28; Yii, 1933
[1934], p. 102[?]; Dobrolyubova, 1935a, p. 10; 1935b, p. 10, 12;
1936a, p. 28; Hayasaka, 1936, p. 65, 70 [part]; Heritsch, 1937, p.
164; Fomichev, 1939, p. 60; Minato, 1955, p. 99[?]; Yokoyama,
1957, p. 78; Nelson, 1960, p. 114 [part]; Yamagiwa, 1961, p. 102[?];
Bamber, 1961, p. 107 [part]; de Groot, 1963, p. 80 [part]; Wu in Yu

 

 

24 REVISION OF LITHOSTROTIONELLA FROM THE CARBONIFEROUS AND PERMIAN

and others, 1963, p. 86[?]; Minato and Kato, 1974, p. 68;
Onoprienko, 1976, p. 29 [part].
Lithostrotionella (Hillia) de Groot, 1963, p. 86.
Lonsdaleia McCoy. Dobrolyubova, 1935a, p. 12; 1935b, p. 29.
Cystolonsdale'ia Fomichev, 1953, p. 464 [part].
Eastonot'des Wilson and Langenheim, 1962, p. 511.

Type species. —Stylax’£s M ’coyama Milne-Edwards and
Haime, 1851, p. 453, pl. 12, figs. 5, 5a, equals Petalamls
M ’coyana Milne-Edwards and Haime, 1852, p. 205,
equals Petalaxis maccoyomus Milne-Edwards and Haime
(by subsequent designation of Roemer, 1883, p. 387,
388). Middle Carboniferous (Moscovian), Moscow Basin,
U.S.S.R.

Diagnosis—Cerioid colonial corals with tabular to
hemispherical growth form. Septa of two orders. Major
septa thin, ordinarily extending into the tabularium but
seldom reaching the columella and ordinarily discon—
tinuous or absent in the dissepimentarium, but species
with weakly lonsdaleoid dissepimentarium are known.
Minor septa absent to well developed. Columella or-
dinarily a simple axial plate joined to counter and (or)
cardinal septum but composed of axial plate, impersis-
tent vertical axial tabellae, and a few axial lamellae in
some species. Tabulae complete and incomplete, essen-
tially horizontal, flat, concave, or convex, turned up at
columella in some species. Peripheral clinotabellae may
be present. Dissepimentarium ordinarily lonsdaleoid but
may be mostly regular in some species. Increase
peripheral and intermural.

Discussion. — Milne-Edwards and Haime (1852, p. 204)
proposed Petalaxis for corals previously described and
named Stylamls M ’coyama and Stylaxis portlocki (Milne
Edwards and Haime, 1851, p. 452) because Stylam's had
become a junior synonym of Lithost’rotion, and these
two species were distinct. P. M ’coyana, described and il-
lustrated in 1851, was distinguished by having septa
that were interrupted by the dissepiments and did not
reach the corallite wall. The type specimen was collected
by Verneuil at Kolomna on the Oka River in the Moscow
Basin, U.S.S.R., where it is now known that beds of
Middle Carboniferous (Moscovian) age are exposed.
Subsequently, Hill (1940, p. 167) determined that P.
portlocki, from the Lower Carboniferous of England, is
a Lithost’rotion. Milne-E dwards (1860, p. 440) diagnosed
the genus Petalaxis for the first time, basing the
diagnosis on the previous description of P. M ’coyoma.

Lang, Smith, and Thomas (1940, p. 97) concluded in-
correctly that Petalaxis is a replacement name for
N ematophyllum and that, therefore, Petalaxis is a junior
synonym of Lithost’rotion. Hill (1940, p. 167) also at-
tempted to place Petalaxis in the synonymy of Lithostro—
tion by selecting P. portlocki as type species. However,
the foregoing nomenclatura] actions were invalidated by
Roemer’s (1883, p. 387, 388) earlier designation of P.
M ’coyana as the type species of Petalaxis.

 

Although the name Petalaacis was used by several
earlier Russian authors (Stuckenberg, 1888, 1895;
Yanishevskiy, 1900, Bolkhovitinova, 1915; Gabounia,
1919, Fomichev, 1931), there was confusion over the
meaning of the name for many years. In the meanwhile,
Yabe and Hayasaka (1915) had proposed Lithost’ro-
tionella, and some authors (for example, Dobrolyubova,
1935a, b, 1936a) used this name in preference to
Petalaxis for corals with a simple columella and
lonsdaleoid dissepiments, regardless of the nature of the
tabulae. Fomichev (1953, p. 449—463) sought to clarify
the usage of Petalaxis by regarding P. maceoyanus as
the type species and describing some other Middle Car-
boniferous corals under the name of Petalaxis; he noted
that forms with horizontal tabulae are characteristic of
the Middle Carboniferous in contrast to the tent-shaped
tabulae of Early Carboniferous corals.

Kozyreva (1974, p. 24—26) summarized the history of
Petalaxis and stressed the importance of horizontal
tabulae in the definition of the genus. She included in the
genus some North American species that actually
belong to Stelechophyllum, Acrocyathus, and
Thysanophyllum.

Sutherland (1977) reviewed the Petalaxis problem and
pointed out that the type specimen has been lost. He
based his discussion of the genus on a study of topotypes
at the Paleontological Institute in Moscow. Sutherland
called attention to the fact that the topotypes have a
variable axial structure that is complex in some cor-
allites. He also stressed the horizontal tabulae as a
distinguishing feature of Petalaxis, which occurs
predominantly in the Middle Carboniferous.

Petalaxis is distinguished from Acrocyathus and
Stelechophyllum chiefly by its horizontal tabulae and by
its columella. In Acrocyathus, the tabulae are conical,
without well-defined shoulders, and in Stelechophyllum,
the tabulae are tent-shaped, with well-defined shoulders
and a peripheral zone of more or less horizontal tabellae.
In Petalaxis, the columella is most commonly a simple,
thickened or unthickened axial plate connected to the
counter and (or) cardinal septum, but some species have
impersistent vertical axial tabellae and rare septa]
lamellae. In Acrocyathus, the columella ranges from a
simple axial plate to a complex Spiderweb structure com-
posed of axial plate, septa] lamellae, and axial tabellae or
upturned tabulae. In Stelechophyllum, the columella is
always a simple axial plate or rod unmodified by axial
tabellae or septa] lamellae.

Fomichev (1953, p. 464) proposed Cystolonsdaleia as a
subgenus of Petalaxis for corals from the Middle and
Upper Carboniferous of the Donetz Basin that have a
columella composed of a medial plate, a few septa]
lamellae, and axial tabellae similar to the Early Car-
boniferous Lonsdaleia. The type species of

 

 

SYSTEMATIC PALEONTOLOGY 25

Cystolonsdaleia is C. lutugini Fomichev from the Mosco-
vian of the Donetz Basin. Fomichev also included
Lonsdaleia portlocki (Stuckenberg) of Dobrolyubova
(1935a, b) and Lonsdaleia ivanom' Dobrolyubova (1935a,
b) from the Moscovian of the Moscow Basin and in-
dicated that species attributed to Stylidophyllum from
the Permian of China by Yoh and Huang (1932) and
Huang (1932) might belong to the new subgenus. The
Permian species were later reassigned to genera of the
Family Waagenophyllidae by Minato and Kato (1965).

Petalaxis mascoyanas, the type species of Petalaxis,
has an impersistently developed complex axial structure
with the same morphologic elements as the axial struc—
ture of most of the Moscovian species assigned to
Cystolonsdaleia by Fomichev. It seems impractical to
separate these species generically from P. maceoyanus.
The type species of Cystolonsdaleia, C. latagini, differs
from the other Moscovian species by having a complex
Spiderweb columella with inner zone of tabellae distinct
from an outer zone of regular concave tabulae. Accord-
ingly, Cystolonsdaleia is retained as a separate genus for
this complex species, whereas the other species are plac-
ed in Petalaxis.

De Groot (1964, p. 86) proposed Hillia as a subgenus
of Lithostrotionella for corals from the Bashkirian of
Spain that differ from Lithost'rotio'n by having major
septa that fall short of the columella, horizontal tabulae,
and a columella connected to the cardinal septum; they
differ from true Lithost'rotionella by having a poorly
developed lonsdaleoid dissepimentarium.

In other corals that have a columella arising from a
single septum, that septum is the counter septum
wherever the septa can be identified. De Groot gave no
evidence for her conclusion that the septum in Hillia is
the cardinal septum, and her illustrations of species
assigned to Hillia show no basis for that conclusion. The
columella appears to be the same as that seen in many
species of Petalaxis. Moreover, the name H illia is preoc-
cupied by Hillia Grote (1883) and Hillia Mallock (1929),
according to Cotton (1974, p. 13), and a replacement
name has not been proposed. In my opinion, the reasons
for separating H illia de Groot from Petalaxis are insuf-
ficient, and I am reassigning the species of Hillia to
Petalaxis, recognizing them only as a species group
within that genus.

Eastonoides was proposed by Wilson and Langenheim
(1962, p. 511) for a Permian coral that has a columella
composed of an axial plate connected to the counter sep-
tum augmented by rare axial tabellae, slightly sloping
tabulae, and a vertically discontinuous lonsdaleoid
dissepimentarium. Lonsdaleia ivanovi Dobrolyubova
was included as the only other known species referred to
Easto'noides. The essential features of this genus are so
similar to the type species of Petalaxis that I regard

 

Eastonoides as a junior synonym of Petalaxis, which in-

cludes four other Permian species.

Species of Petalaxis are distinguished on differences
in mature corallite diameter, number of major septa at
maturity, development of minor septa, complexity and
development of the columella, major septal extensions
into the tabularium, major septal extensions into the
dissepimentarium, shape and completeness of the
tabulae, spacing of the tabulae, number of rows of
dissepiments, size and shape of the dissepiments, and
the ratio of tabularium width to corallite diameter.

The species of Petalaxis may be arranged in five
species groups:

1. P. simplex group, including simplex, wyomingensis,
tabulatas, bailliei, and tschucoticas. This group
comprises simple forms having mostly complete
tabulae turned up at the columella and a simple
columella; these forms occur in the Lower Car-
boniferous (Viséan) and lowest Middle Car—
boniferous (Namurian).

2. P. flexaosus group, including flexaosus, donbassicus,
mokomokensis, exiguas, brokawi, monocyclicus,
sexangalus, taishakuensis, immanis, belinskiensis,
major, fomichevi, and grootae. This group com-
prises forms having a simple columella and a nar-
row dissepimentarium (large ratio of tabularium
width to corallite diameter); these forms occur in
the Middle Carboniferous (Bashkirian and Mosco-
vian) and Permian.

3. P. wagneri group, including wagneri, perapertuen—
sis, radians, intemedius, santaemariae, can-
tabricus, orboensis, and occidentalis. This group
comprises forms having a simple columella and a
weakly lonsdaleoid dissepimentarium; these forms
occur in the Middle Carboniferous (Bashkirian and
Moscovian) and Permian.

4. P. vesiculosas group, including vesicalosas,
lisitschanskensis, exilis, confertus, persubtilis,
korkhovae, minis, and widens. This group com-
prises forms having a simple columella and a nar-
row dissepimentarium (small ratio of tabularium
width to corallite diameter); these forms occur in
the Middle Carboniferous (Bashkirian and Mosco—

vian).
5. P. maccoyanus group, including maccoyanas,
stylaxis, mohikanas, celadensis, elyensis,

dobrolyubovae, donetse’nsis, and ivanovi. This
group comprises forms having a complex col-
umella; these forms occur in the Middle Car-
boniferous (Moscovian) and Permian.
Occarrence.—Lower Carboniferous (Viséan), Middle
Carboniferous (Namurian, Bashkirian, and Moscovian),
and Permian. U.S.S.R., U.S.A., Canada, Spain, Japan,
China(?), Spitzbergen(?).

 

 

26 REVISION OF LITHOSTROTIONELLA FROM THE CARBONIFEROUS AND PERMIAN

Petalaxis simplex species group

Petalaxis simplex (Hayasaka)
Plate 18, figures 1—3
Lithostrotionella simplex Hayasaka, 1936, p. 70, pl. 14, figs. 4a, b;
Bamber, 1961, p. 155, pl. 12, figs. 2a—c.

Lithostrotion [Lithostrotionella] simplex (Hayasaka). Bassler, 1950,
p. 220.

Material studied. —USNM 120249 (holotype).

Description of holotype. —The specimen is a fragment
of a corallum of indeterminate shape in limestone
matrix. It was more than 9 cm in diameter and more
than 4 cm in height.

Corallites are polygonal, have straight, slightly
beaded, double-layered walls as much as 0.3 mm thick,
and range from 6 to 9 mm in diameter at maturity. Ex-
cept for the counter septum, the major septa are short,
do not extend to the columella, and seldom extend into
the dissepimentarium. There are 16 to 18 major septa at
maturity. Minor septa are absent or poorly developed.
The columella is a simple thin axial plate that may or
may not be connected to the counter septum. Tabulae
are ordinarily complete and essentially horizontal; some
are turned up at the columella to produce concentric
traces in the transverse sections of some corallites.
Tabulae are irregularly spaced 0.5 to 1 mm apart. The
dissepimentarium is strongly lonsdaleoid and consists of
a single row of large inflated dissepiments. There are or-
dinarily about 2 dissepiments in 2 mm. The ratio of the
tabularium width to the corallite diameter is about 0.6 to
0.7. The mode of increase is indeterminate. Septal
microstructure is fibronormal.

Discussion. —Comparison with P. wyomingensis is
made under the discussion of that species.

Occurrence. —L0wer Carboniferous, upper Viséan.
Little Flat Formation, Utah, U.S.A.

Petalaxis wyomingensis, n. sp.
Plate 18, figures 4, 5

Lithostrotionella simplex Hayasaka, 1936, p. 70 [part].

Material studied. —USNM 120675 (holotype).

Description of holotype. —The specimen is a fragment
of a corallum of indeterminate shape in limestone
matrix. It was more than 7 cm in diameter and more
than 4 cm in height.

Corallites are polygonal, have sinuous, beaded,
double-layered walls as much as 0.6 mm thick, and range
from 7 to 9 mm in diameter at maturity. The major septa
ordinarily extend to the columella but seldom extend in-
to the dissepimentarium. There are 17 to 18 major septa
at maturity. Minor septa are absent. The columella is a
simple thickened axial plate ordinarily connected to the
counter septum. It is as much as 0.7 mm in short
diameter and 1 mm in long diameter. Tabulae are com—
plete or incomplete, essentially horizontal, turned up at

 

the columella, and irregularly spaced 0.25 to 0.5 mm
apart. The dissepimentarium is strongly lonsdaleoid and
consists of 1 to 3 rows of inflated dissepiments of vary-
ing sizes. Ordinarily, there are 1 to 3 dissepiments in 2
mm. The ratio of tabularium width to the corallite
diameter is about 0.5 to 0.6. The mode of increase is in-
determinate. Septal microstructure is fibronormal.

Discussion—The holotype of this species was a
paratype of Lithostrotionella simplex Hayasaka. P.
wyomingensis is similar to P. simplex (Hayasaka) but
differs in having longer major septa, a thickened col-
umella, thicker corallite walls, more rows of
dissepiments, a smaller ratio of tabularium width to cor-
allite diameter, and more tabulae.

Occurrence—Middle Carboniferous, Namurian.
“Wells” Formation, Wyoming, U.S.A.

Petalaxis tabulatus (Hayasaka)
Plate 19, figures 5—7

Lithostrotionella tabulata Hayasaka, 1936, p. 69, pl. 17, fig. 2.
Lithostrotion [Lithostrotionella] tabulatum (Hayasaka). Bassler, 1950,
p. 220.

Material studied—USNM 120246 (holotype), USNM
216197 (paratypes).

Description of holotype. —The specimen is a fragment
of a corallum of indeterminate shape. It was more than
12 cm in diameter and 14 cm in height.

Corallites are polygonal, have straight, beaded, and
denticulate double-layered walls as much as 0.4 mm
thick, and range from 8 to 10 mm in diameter at maturi-
ty. The major septa ordinarily extend to the columella
and into the dissepimentarium. There are 16 to 18 major
septa at maturity. Minor septa are ordinarily well
developed. The columella is a simple, serrated, thick-
ened axial plate connected to one or more major septa.
Tabulae are mostly complete, essentially horizontal,
commonly turned up at the columella, and irregularly
spaced 0.25 to 0.5 mm apart. The dissepimentarium is
composed of 1 to 2 rows of inflated dissepiments of vary-
ing sizes. There are 2 to 4 dissepiments in 2 mm. The
ratio of tabularium width to corallite diameter is about
0.6 to 0.7. The mode of increase is peripheral. Septal
microstructure is obscure, seemingly amorphous.

Discussion—The transverse section of this species
looks like that of a Stelechophyllnm. It is placed in
Petalaacis because of its horizontal tabulae. The species
differs from P. wyomingensis in having a serrated, less
thickened columella, to which more major septa are at-
tached, thinner corallite walls, a larger ratio of
tabularium width to corallite diameter, more extensions
of the major septa into the tabularium, and well-
developed minor septa.

Occurrence— Lower Carboniferous, upper Viséan.
Aspen Range Formation, Idaho, U.S.A.

 

 

SYSTEMATIC PALEONTOLOGY 27

Petalaxis bailliei (Nelson)
Lithostrotionella bailliei Nelson, 1960, p. 114, pl. 21, figs. 7, 8; 1962,
pl. 14, figs. 1, 2.
Lithostrotionella cf. bailliei Nelson. Bamber, 1961, p. 126, pl. 10, figs.
la—g.

Diagnosis. —Petalaxis with corallites 5 to 6 mm in
diameter and 17 to 18 major septa that ordinarily extend
to the columella but seldom extend into the dissepimen-
tarium. Minor septa ordinarily well developed. Col-
umella a simple thickened axial rod or plate formed by
extension of the counter septum. Dissepimentarium
composed of a single row of large inflated dissepiments.
Tabulae ordinarily complete, essentially horizontal, and
irregularly spaced 3 in 1 mm. Ratio of tabularium width
to corallite diameter about 0.5. Mode of increase
unknown.

Description of holotype. —See Nelson (1960).

Discussion. —This species is distinguished from P.
wyomingensis and P. tabulatus by its smaller corallite
diameter.

Occurrence. —L0wer Carboniferous, Viséan. Mount
Head Formation, Alberta, Canada, and Prophet Forma-
tion, British Columbia, Canada (E. W. Bamber, written
commun., 1980).

Petalaxis tschucoticus (Onoprienko)
Lithostrotionella tschucotica Onoprienko, 1976, p. 30, pl. 10, fig. 6, pl.
11, figs. 1, 2.

Diagnosis—Petalaxis with corallite diameter 5 to 7
mm and 15 to 17 major septa that ordinarily extend to
the columella but seldom extend into the dissepimen-
tarium. Minor septa poorly developed. Columella a sim-
ple axial plate connected to cardinal and counter septa.
Dissepimentarium composed of a single row of large in-
flated dissepiments. Tabulae ordinarily complete,
horizontal, commonly turned up at columella, regularly
spaced 0.3 to 0.5 mm apart. Ratio of tabularium width to
corallite diameter about 0.5 to 0.6. Mode of increase
unknown.

Description of type material. — See Onoprienko (1976).

Discussion-This species differs from P. bailliei by
having fewer major septa, a less robust columella, and
weaker minor septa.

Occurrence. — Lower Carboniferous,
Yunon Suite, West Chukotka, U.S.S.R.

Namurian.

Petalaxis flexuosus species group

Petalaxis flexuosus (T rautschold)

Lithostrotionflexuosum Trautschold, 1879, p. 37, pl. 5, figs. 7a, b.

Lithostrotionella flexuosa (Trautschold). Dobrolyubova, 1935a, p. 11,
pl. 3, figs. 1, 2; 1935b, p. 18, pl. 3, figs. 1, 2.

'lLithostrotionellaflemosa (Trautschold). Heritsch, 1939, p. 30, pl. 13,
fig. 5, pl. 19, fig. 5.

?Lithostrotion [Lithostrotiorwlla] flexuosum Trautschold. Bassler,
1950, p. 235.

 

Diagnosis.—Petalaxis with corallite diameter 5 to 7
mm and 14 to 17 major septa that approach the col-
umella but seldom reach it and commonly extend into
the dissepimentarium. Minor septa well developed. Col-
umella a simple thickened axial plate ordinarily con-
nected to the counter septum and to the cardinal septum
in some corallites. Dissepimentarium composed of 1 to 2
rows of generally small inflated dissepiments of varying
sizes. Tabulae complete and incomplete, horizontal to in-
clined, flat, concave or convex, irregularly spaced 0.25
to 1 mm apart. Ratio of tabularium width to corallite
diameter 0.6 to 0.7. Mode of increase unknown.

Description of type material. — See Trautschold (1879).
The diagnosis is taken largely from Dobrolyubova’s
(1935b) descriptions and illustrations of topotypes.

Discussion. —Petalaxis flexuosus differs from P.
stylaxis by lacking a complex columella and by having
better development of the minor septa, more extensions
of the major septa into the dissepimentarium, and
generally smaller dissepiments.

Fomichev (1953, p. 453) and Kozyreva (1974, p. 25)
placed P. flexuosus in the synonymy of P. maccoyanus
Milne-E dwards and Haime because of general similarity
in morphology. I regard these two species as distinct
because P. flexuosus does not seem to have axial tabellae
like P. maccoyanus. However, Sutherland (1977, p. 187)
pointed out that the complexity of the axial structure is
a variable feature in topotypes of P. maccoyanus; hence,
Dobrolyubova’s (1935b) description may be based on
simple corallites in a variable colony.

Heritsch’s (1939) specimen is referred questionably to
the species because no longitudinal section is available.

Occurrence. —Middle Carboniferous, Moscovian.
Myachkovo Horizon (C24), Moscow Basin, U.S.S.R.
Kings Bay, Spitzbergen(?).

Petalaxis donbassicus (Fomichev)
Lithostrotionella donbassica Fomichev, 1939, p. 60, pl. 9, figs. 4a, b.
Lithostrotion [Lithostrotionella] donbassica (Fomichev). Bassler,
1950, p. 222.

Diagnosis—Petalaxis with corallite diameter 5 to 7
mm and 14 to 17 major septa that approach the col-
umella but seldom reach it and commonly extend into
the dissepimentarium. Minor septa well developed. Col-
umella a strongly thickened axial plate ordinarily con-
nected to the counter septum. Dissepimentarium com-
posed of 1 to 2 rows of inflated dissepiments of varying
sizes. Tabulae ordinarily complete, horizontal, irregular-
ly spaced 0.25 to 0.5 mm apart. Ratio of tabularium
width to corallite diameter 0.5 to 0.6. Mode of increase
unknown.

Description of type material. — See Fomichev (1939).

Discussion. —This species is very similar to Petalaxis
flexuosus, from which it differs in having better develop-

 

 

28 REVISION OF LITHOSTROTIONELLA FROM THE CARBONIFEROUS AND PERMIAN

ment of the minor septa, a thicker columella, a wider

dissepimentarium (smaller ratio of tabularium width to '

corallite diameter), and more complete tabulae.
Occurrence.—Middle Carboniferous, Moscovian. Svita
C26 (L5), Donetz Basin, U.S.S.R.

Petalaxis mokomokensis (Easton)
Lithostrotion [Lithostrotionella] mkomokensis Easton, 1960, p. 578,
text-figs. 9, 10.

Diagnosis. —Petalaxis with corallite diameter about 7
mm and 15 major septa that ordinarily are short and do
not extend to the columella or into the dissepimen-
tarium. Minor septa poorly developed. Columella a thin
axial plate connected to the counter septum.
Dissepimentarium composed of 1 to 2 rows of large in-
flated dissepiments. Tabulae complete and incomplete,
essentially horizontal, mostly concave, irregularly
spaced 0.25 to 0.75 mm apart. Ratio of tabularium width
to corallite diameter about 0.7. Mode of increase
unknown.

Description of type material. — See Easton (1960).

Discussion. — This species is distinguished from Middle
Carboniferous species from the Soviet Union by its thin-
ner columella and more generally concave tabulae.

Occurrence—Permian. Arcturus Formation, Nevada,
U.S.A.

Petalaxis exiguus n. sp.
Plate 19, figures 1—4
Lithostrotionella girtyi Hayasaka, 1936, p. 65 [part].
Lithostrotion [Lithostrotionella] girtyi (Hayasaka). Bassler, 1950, p.
220 [part].

Material studied. —USNM 162002B (holotype) and
USNM 162002A (paratype).

Description of holotype. —The specimen is a small com-
plete silicified corallum 3.5 cm in diameter and 2 cm in
height.

Corallites are polygonal, have straight to rounded,
beaded, sinuous, double-layered walls as much as 0.4
mm thick, and range from 10 to 12 mm in diameter at
maturity. Except for the counter and cardinal septa, the
major septa extend about halfway to the columella and
are present in the dissepimentarium only as crests.
There are 14 to 15 major septa at maturity. Minor septa
are absent. The columella is a simple thickened axial
plate, commonly connected to both counter and cardinal
septa. Tabulae are complete or incomplete, essentially
horizontal, concave to convex, and irregularly spaced
0.5 to 1 mm apart. The dissepimentarium is strongly
lonsdaleoid and consists of 1 to 2 rows of mostly large in-
flated dissepiments. The ratio of tabularium width to
corallite diameter is about 0.6. Increase is peripheral.
Septal microstructure is fibronormal.

Discussion—The holotype and paratype of this new
species were paratypes of Lithostrotionella girtyi

 

Hayasaka. The two type specimens are so small that
they may actually represent immature coralla, although
no larger coralla were found at the type locality. The
description of the holotype serves as a diagnosis for the
species, because the paratype is essentially identical
with the holotype.

Petalaxis exiguus is distinguished from P. mokomoken-
sis, another Permian form, by its diminutive corallum,
thickened columella, larger corallite diameter, and
smaller ratio of tabularium width to corallite diameter.

Occurrence—Permian. McCloud Limestone, Califor-
nia, U.S.A.

Petalaxis brokawi (Wilson and Langenheim)

Lithostrotionella sp. Langenheim and others, 1960, p. 151.
Lithostrotionella brokawi Wilson and Langenheim, 1962, p. 512, pl.
88, figs. 7, 8.

Diagnosis. —Petalaxis with corallite diameter 4 to 5
mm and 10 to 15 major septa that ordinarily are short
and do not extend to the columella and seldom extend in-
to the dissepimentarium. Minor septa ordinarily well
developed. Columella a simple thickened axial plate or-
dinarily connected to the counter septum. Dissepimen-
tarium composed of 1 to 2 rows of mostly large inflated
dissepiments. Tabulae mostly complete, inclined slightly
toward columella, and irregularly spaced 0.25 to 0.5 mm
apart. Ratio of tabularium width to corallite diameter
about 0.5. Mode of increase unknown.

Description of type specimens. —See Wilson and
Langenheim (1962).

Discussion. —Petalaxis brokawi is distinguished from
P. mokomokensis by its smaller corallites, thickened col-
umella, well-developed minor septa, and smaller ratio of
tabularium width to corallite diameter.

Occurrence. —Lower Permian. Ely Limestone,
Nevada, U.S.A.

Petalaxis monocyclicus (de Groot)
Lithostrotionella 'nwnocyclica de Groot, 1963, p. 85, pl. 17, figs. la—c.

Diagnosis—Petalaxis with corallite diameter 5 to 8
mm and 20 to 24 major septa that ordinarily approach
the columella but do not reach it and seldom extend into
the dissepimentarium. Minor septa absent. Columella a
simple thin axial plate connected to the counter septum
and to the cardinal septum in some corallites. Dis-
sepimentarium composed of 1 to 3 rows of elongate
dissepiments of varying sizes. Tabulae complete, essen-
tially horizontal, concave, turned up at the columella,
and irregularly spaced 0.25 to 1 mm apart. Ratio of
tabularium width to corallite diameter about 0.4 to 0.5.
Mode of increase peripheral.

Description of holotype. —See de Groot (1964 [1963]).

Discussion. — This species differs from the Middle Car-
boniferous and Permian species diagnosed on previous
pages in this report by having tabulae that are regularly

SYSTEMATIC PALEONTOLOGY 29

concave and turned up at the columella. It also has more
major septa.

Occurrence—Middle Carboniferous, Bashkirian. San-
ta Maria Limestone, Palencia, Spain.

Petalaxis sexangulus (de Groot)
Lithostrotionella sexangulus de Groot, 1963, p. 84, pl. 16, figs. 3a—c,
4a, b.

Diagnosis. —Petalaacis with corallite diameter 3 to 4
mm and 13 to 15 major septa that ordinarily extend
about halfway to the columella and seldom extend into
the dissepimentarium. Minor septa poorly developed.
Columella a simple slightly thickened axial plate con-
nected to the counter septum and to the cardinal septum
in some corallites. Dissepimentarium composed of a
single row of small dissepiments. Tabulae mostly com—
plete, essentially horizontal, but commonly nearly tent—
shaped, turned up at the columella, and irregularly
spaced 0.25 to 1 mm apart. Ratio of tabularium width to
corallite diameter about 0.8. Mode of increase unknown.

Description of type material. - See de Groot (1964
[1963]).

Discussion. —This species is distinguished from other
members of the P. flexuosus species group by its very
large ratio of tabularium width to corallite diameter and
its tabulae that are commonly nearly tent-shaped and
turned up at the columella.

Occurrence. — Middle Carboniferous,
Palencia, Spain.

Moscovian.

Petalaxis taishakuensis (Yokoyama)
Lithostrotionella taishakuensis Yokoyama, 1957, p. 78, pl. 10, figs.
1—4.

Diagnosis.-Petalaxis with corallite diameter 3 to 4
mm and 13 to 15 major septa that ordinarily are short
and do not extend to the columella and seldom extend in-
to the dissepimentarium. Minor septa well developed.
Columella a simple axial plate connected to the counter
septum and joined by 2 or 3 other major septa.
Dissepimentarium composed of 1 to 2 rows of inflated
dissepiments of varying sizes. Tabulae complete and in-
complete, essentially horizontal, and irregularly spaced
0.25 to 1 mm apart. Ratio of tabularium width to cor-
allite diameter about 0.6 to 0.7. Mode of increase
unknown.

Description of holotype. — See Yokoyama (1957).

Discussion. —This species is distinguished from P. sex-
angulus by having its columella joined by several major
septa, by having stronger major septa, by its tabulae not
being turned up at the columella, by its smaller ratio of
tabularium width to corallite diameter, and by having
more rows of dissepiments.

Occurrence-Middle Carboniferous. Dangyokei For~
mation, Hiroshima, Japan.

 

Petalaxis ixnmanis Kozyreva

Petalaxis immanis Kozyreva, 1974, p. 30, pl. 2, figs. 4a—c, 5a, b.

Diagnosis.-Petalaxis with corallite diameter 8 to 18
mm and 17 to 18 major septa that ordinarily approach
the columella but do not reach it and seldom extend into
the dissepimentarium. Minor septa absent or poorly
developed. Columella a simple, strongly thickened axial
plate connected to counter septum. Dissepimentarium
composed of 2 rows of small inflated dissepiments.
Tabulae complete, essentially horizontal, turned up at
columella, and irregularly spaced 0.25 to 0.5 mm apart.
Ratio of tabularium width to corallite diameter about 0.5
to 0.6. Mode of increase unknown.

Description of type material. — See Kozyreva (1974).

Discussion. —This species is distinguished from all
other members of the P. flexuosus species group by its
very large corallites and its strongly thickened col-
umella.

Occurrence—Middle Carboniferous,
Horizon bl-bz, Voronezh anteclise, U.S.S.R.

Bashkirian.

Petalaxis belinskiensis Fomichev
Petalaxis mccoyana var. belinskiensis Fomichev, 1953, p. 457, pl. 31,
figs. 33., b.

Diagnosis.—Petalaxis with corallite diameter 7 to 12
mm and 16 to 24 major septa that approach the col-
umella but seldom reach it and commonly extend into
the dissepimentarium. Minor septa well developed. Col-
umella a simple thickened axial plate ordinarily con—
nected to the counter septum. Dissepimentarium com-
posed of 1 to 3 rows of inflated dissepiments of varying
sizes. Tabulae mostly complete, essentially horizontal,
and spaced 0.25 to 0.5 mm apart. Ratio of tabularium
width to corallite diameter about 0.4 to 0.5. Mode of in-
crease unknown.

Description of type material. -See Fomichev (1953).

Discussion—This species is distinguished from P.
donbassicus by having larger corallites, more major sep-
ta, and a broader dissepimentarium. It lacks the com—
plex columella that characterizes P. mccoyana.

Occurrence—Middle Carboniferous, Moscovian. L5
Limestone, Donetz Basin, U.S.S.R.

Petalaxis major (de Groot)

Lithostrotionella maccoyana forma major de Groot, 1963, p. 83, pl. 16,
figs. 2a, b.

Diagnosis.—Petalaxis with corallite diameter 5 to 9
mm and 17 to 22 major septa that closely approach the
columella but seldom reach it and that commonly extend
into the dissepimentarium. Minor septa well developed.
Columella a simple axial plate, seldom dilated, con-
nected to the counter septum. A few septal lamellae
present in some corallites but no axial tabellae.
Dissepimentarium composed of 1 to 3 rows of inflated

 

 

30 REVISION OF LITHOSTROTIONELLA FROM THE CARBONIFEROUS AND PERMIAN

dissepiments of varying sizes. Tabulae mostly in-
complete, horizontal, concave, and irregularly spaced
0.25 to 0.5 mm apart. Ratio of tabularium width to cor-
allite diameter about 0.6. Increase peripheral.

Description of holotype—See de Groot (1964 [1963]).
The holotype is RGM 112726.

Discussion—This species differs from P. mccoyanus
by lacking a complex columella and by its larger corallite
diameter and more numerous major septa. It differs
from P. vesiculosus by having longer major septa, more
major septa, by the presence of septal lamellae, and by
having more rows of dissepiments.

Occurrence. —Middle Carboniferous, Moscovian.
Vafies Formation, Palencia, Spain.

Petalaxis fomichevi n. sp.
Petalaxis maccoyana Milne-Edwards and Haime. Fomichev, 1953, p.
453, pl. 31, figs. 1a~d, 2a—d. '

Diagnosis.—Petalaacis with corallite diameter 5 to 8*
mm and 13 to 22 major septa that extend about half way
to the columella and commonly extend into the
dissepimentarium. Minor septa well developed. Col-
umella a simple thickened axial plate ordinarily con-
nected to the counter septum and to the cardinal septum
in some corallites. Dissepimentarium composed of 1 to 3
rows of inflated dissepiments of varying sizes. Tabulae
complete and incomplete, flat to convex, horizontal, and
spaced 0.25 to 0.5 mm apart. Ratio of tabularium width
to corallite diameter about 0.5 to 0.7. Mode of increase
unknown.

Description of type material—See Fomichev (1953).
The holotype is here designated specimen number 57 of
Fomichev (1953, p. 456).

Discussion. —This species differs from P. maccoyanus
by lacking a complex columella and other morphological
details. It is distinguished from P. flexuosus by having
more major septa, more regular tabulae, and more rows
of dissepiments.

Occurrence. —Middle Carboniferous, Moscovian. L5
Limestone, Donetz Basin, U.S.S.R.

Petalaxis grootae, n. sp.
Lithostrotionella maccoyana (Edwards and Haime). De Groot, 1963, p.
82, pl. 16, fig. 1a, b.

Diagnosis. —Petalaxis with corallite diameter 4 to 6
mm and 14 to 16 major septa that approach the col-
umella but seldom reach it and seldom extend into the
dissepimentarium. Minor septa well developed. Col-
umella a simple axial plate, curved in some corallites,
and ordinarily connected to the counter septum.
Dissepimentarium composed of 1 to 3 rows of inflated
dissepiments of varying sizes. Tabulae complete and in-
complete, essentially horizontal, flat, concave or convex,
and spaced 0.25 to 0.75 mm apart. Ratio of tabularium

 

width to corallite diameter about 0.6 to 0.7. Mode of in-
crease unknown.

Description of type material. — See de Groot (1964
[1963], p. 83). The holotype is here designated RGM
112721.

Discussion. —This species differs from P. maccoyanus
by lacking a complex columella. It is distinguished from
P. flexuosus by having longer major septa, a thinner,
commonly curved columella, more rows of dissepiments,
and more regularly spaced tabulae.

Occurrence. —Middle Carboniferous, Moscovian.
Vanes Formation and Cotarraso Limestone, Palencia,
Spain.

Petalaxis wagneri species group
Petalaxis wagneri (de Groot)
Lithostrotionclla (Hillia) wagneri de Groot, 1963, p. 88, pl. 18, figs.
1—3.

Diagnosis. —Petalaxis with corallite diameter 3 to 4.5
mm and 14 to 16 major septa that closely approach the
columella but seldom reach it and extend into the
dissepimentarium, ordinarily being attached to the cor—
allite wall. Minor septa ordinarily well developed. Col—
umella a simple axial plate connected to counter or car-
dinal septum. Dissepimentarium weakly lonsdaleoid,
composed of a single row of small inflated dissepiments.
Tabulae complete or incomplete, essentially horizontal,
mostly concave, and spaced 0.5 to 1 mm apart. Ratio of
tabularium Width to corallite diameter about 0.7 to 0.8.
Increase peripheral.

Description of type material. —See de Groot (1964
[1963]).

Discussion. —This species is similar to P. maccoyanus
but has smaller corallites, fewer major septa, a weakly
lonsdaleoid dissepimentarium, and a simple columella.

Occurrence. —Middle Carboniferous, Bashkirian.
Perapertu Formation, Palencia, Spain.

Petalaxis perapextuensis (de Groot)
Lithostrotionella (Hillia) perapertuensis de Groot, 1963, p. 89, pl. 19,
figs. la-c, 2a-d.

Diagnosis—Petalaxis with corallite diameter 3.5 to
4.5 mm and 14 to 19 major septa that closely approach
the columella but seldom reach it and ordinarily extend
across the dissepimentarium to the corallite wall. Minor
septa ordinarily well developed. Corallite walls strongly
dilated. Columella a simple thickened axial plate con-
nected to counter or cardinal septum. Dissepimentarium
weakly lonsdaleoid, composed of 1 to 2 rows of small in-
flated dissepiments. Tabulae incomplete, essentially
horizontal, mostly concave, and spaced 0.25 to 0.5 mm
apart. Ratio of tabularium width to corallite diameter
0.6 to 0.8. Increase peripheral.

Description of type material. — See de Groot (1964
[1963]).

SYSTEMATIC PALEONTOLOGY 31

Discussion—This species differs from P. wagneri by
having more major septa, more tabulae, and strongly
dilated corallite walls.

Occurrence—Middle Carboniferous, Bashkirian.
Perapertu Formation, Palencia, Spain.

Petahxis radians (de Groot)
Lithostrotionella (Hillia) radians de Groot, 1963, p. 89, pl. 20, figs.
1a—c.

Diagnosis—Petalaxis with corallite diameter 7 to 9
mm and 15 to 18 major septa that closely approach the
columella but seldom reach it and extend into the
dissepimentarium, ordinarily being attached to the cor-
allite wall. Minor septa ordinarily well developed. Col-
umella a simple axial plate connected to the counter or
cardinal septum. Dissepimentarium weakly lonsdaleoid,
composed of 1 to 3 rows of inflated dissepiments of vary-
ing sizes. Tabulae incomplete, horizontal, mostly con-
vex, and irregularly spaced 0.25 to 1 mm apart. Ratio of
tabularium width to corallite diameter about 0.5 to 0.6.
Mode of increase unknown.

Description of type material. -See de Groot (1964
[1963]).

Discussion-This species differs from P. wagneri by
having larger corallites, more rows of dissepiments, and
less regular tabulae.

Occurrence. —Middle Carboniferous, Bashkirian.
Perapertl’i Formation, Palencia, Spain.

Petalaxis intermedius (de Groot)
Lithostrotionella (Hillia) intermedia de Groot, 1963, p. 90, pl. 20, figs.
2a, b, 3.

Diagnosis—Petalaacis with corallite diameter 5 to 7
mm and 16 to 19 major septa that closely approach the
columella but seldom reach it and extend into the
dissepimentarium, commonly being attached to the cor—
allite wall. Minor septa well developed. Columella a sim-
ple axial plate connected to counter or cardinal septum.
Dissepimentarium weakly lonsdaleoid, composed of 1 to
4 rows of mostly small inflated dissepiments. Tabulae
mostly incomplete, flat, concave or convex, horizontal,
and irregularly spaced 0.25 to 0.75 mm apart. Ratio of
tabularium width to corallite diameter about 0.7 to 0.8.
Increase peripheral.

Description of type material.—See de Groot (1964
[1963]).

Discussion. -This species differs from P. wagneri by
having larger corallites, more major septa, and more
tabulae.

Occurrence. —Middle Carboniferous, Bashkirian.
Perapertu Formation, Palencia, Spain.

Petalaxis santaemariae (de Groot)

Lithostrotionella (Hillia) santaemariae de Groot, 1963, p. 91, pl. 21,
figs. 1a-e.

 

Diagnosis. —Petalaxis with corallite diameter 3.5 to 8
mm and 16 to 19 major septa that closely approach the
columella but seldom reach it and extend into the
dissepimentarium, ordinarily attached to the corallite
wall. Minor septa poorly developed. Corallite walls
strongly dilated. Columella a simple thickened axial
plate connected to counter or cardinal septum.
Dissepimentarium weakly lonsdaleoid, composed of a
single row of small inflated dissepiments. Tabulae most-
ly complete, horizontal, mostly concave, and irregularly
spaced 0.25 to 1 mm apart. A peripheral zone of
clinotabellae may be present. Ratio of tabularium width
to corallite diameter about 0.8. Increase peripheral.

Description of holotype. —See de Groot (1964 [1963]).

Discussion. —This species differs from P. perapertuen—
sis by having larger corallites, poorly developed minor
septa, and fewer tabulae.

Occurrence—Middle Carboniferous, Bashkirian. San—
ta Maria Limestone, Palencia, Spain.

Petalaxis cantabricus (de Groot)
Lithostrotionella (Hillia) cantabrica de Groot, 1963, p. 92, pl. 22, figs.
1—4.

Diagnosis—Petataxis with corallite diameter 4 to 8
mm and 19 to 28 major septa that closely approach the
columella but seldom reach it and extend into the
dissepimentarium, ordinarily being attached to the cor-
allite wall. Minor septa well developed. Corallite wall
strongly dilated and denticulate. Columella a simple
commonly thickened axial plate connected to counter or
cardinal septum. Dissepimentarium weakly lonsdaleoid,
composed of 1 to 3 rows of small inflated dissepiments.
Tabulae mostly complete, horizontal, concave, and
spaced 0.25 to 1 mm apart. A peripheral zone of
clinotabellae may be present. Ratio of tabularium width
to corallite diameter about 0.6 to 0.7. Increase
peripheral.

Description of type material. —See de Groot (1964
[1963]).

Discussion—This species is distinguished from all
others in the P. wagneri species group by having more
major septa.

Occurrence—Middle Carboniferous, Bashkirian to
Moscovian(?). Santa Maria Limestone, Perapertu For-
mation, and Celada Limestone, Palencia, Spain.

Petalaxis orboensis (de Groot)

Lithostrotionella orboensis de Groot, 1963, p. 85, pl. 17, figs. 2a—d.

Diagnosis. —Petalaxis with corallite diameter 4.5 to 8
mm and 16 to 21 major septa that closely approach the
columella but seldom reach it and extend into the
dissepimentarium, commonly being attached to the cor-
allite wall. Minor septa well developed. Columella a sim-
ple axial plate connected to counter or cardinal septum;

 

 

32 REVISION OF LITHOSTROTIONELLA FROM THE CARBONIFEROUS AND PERMIAN

columella absent or discontinuous in some corallites.
Dissepimentarium weakly lonsdaleoid, composed of 1 to
3 rows of inflated dissepiments of varying sizes. Tabulae
complete and incomplete, generally horizontal but
turned up at columella, and spaced 0.25 to 0.5 mm apart.
Ratio of tabularium width to corallite diameter about
0.7. Mode of increase unknown.

Description of type material. —See de Groot (1964
[1963]).

Discussion. —This species is distinguished from others
in the P. wagneri group by having tabulae that are
turned up at the columella and by having the columella
absent or discontinuous in some corallites.

Occurrence. —Middle Carboniferous, Moscovian. Orbo
Limestone, Palencia, Spain.

Petalaxis occidentalis (Merriam)
Plate 20, figures 1, 2
Lithostrotion (Lithostrotionella) occidentalis Merriam, 1942, p. 377,
pl. 56, figs. 2, 4, 7, 8, 11.
Lithostrotion [Lithostrotionella] occidentale Merriam. Bassler, 1950,
p. 252.

Diagnosis—Petalaxis with corallite diameter 4.5 to
6.5 mm and 16 to 19 major septa that closely approach
the columella but seldom reach it and extend into the
dissepimentarium, commonly being attached to the cor-
allite wall. Minor septa well developed. Corallite wall
dilated and denticulate. Columella a simple thickened
axial plate connected to the counter or cardinal septum.
Dissepimentarium weakly lonsdaleoid, composed of 1 to
2 rows of small inflated dissepiments Tabularium con-
sists of a peripheral zone of clinotabellae and a periaxial
zone of mostly complete, horizontal, flat or concave
tabulae spaced 0.25 to 0.75 mm apart. Ratio of
tabularium width to corallite diameter about 0.6. Mode
of increase unknown.

Description of holotype. —See Merriam (1942). The
holotype is USNM 143440; new thin sections of this
specimen are illustrated herein for clarification of mor-
phologic details.

Discussion. —This species differs from P. perapertuen—
sis by having larger corallites, a thicker columella, and
well-developed clinotabellae.

Occurrence.— Permian. Coyote Butte Formation,
Oregon, U.S.A.

Petalaxis vesiculosus species group

Petalaxis vesiculosus (Dobrolyubova)
Lithostrotionella uesiculosa Dobrolyubova, 1935a, p. 11, pl. 2, figs. 3,
4; 1935b, p. 19, pl. 2, figs. 3, 4.
Lithostrotion [Lithostrotionella] vesiculosa Dobrolyubova. Bassler,
1950, p. 222.
Diagnosis. —Petala.ris with corallite diameter 6 to 12
mm and 10 to 14 major septa that may or may not ex-
tend to the columella and seldom extend into the

 

dissepimentarium. Minor septa ordinarily well
developed. Columella a simple thickened axial plate or-
dinarily connected to the counter and cardinal septa.
Dissepimentarium composed of 2 to 6 rows of inflated
dissepiments of varying sizes. Tabulae complete or in-
complete, horizontal, concave or convex, and irregularly
spaced 0.25 to 1 mm apart. Ratio of tabularium width to
corallite diameter about 0.3 to 0.4. Mode of increase
peripheral.

Description of holotype. —See Dobrolyubova (1935b).

Discussion—This species is distinguished from all
species of the P. flexuosus and P. wagneri groups by its
broader dissepimentarium.

Occurrence—Middle Carboniferous, Moscovian.
Myachkovo Horizon (C24), Moscow Basin, U.S.S.R.

Petalaxis lisitschanskensis Fomichev

Petalaxis vesiculosa (Dobrolyubova) var. lisitschanskensis Fomichev,
1953, p. 462, pl. 32, figs. 3a, b.

Diagnosis. —Petalaxis with corallite diameter 12 to 15
mm and 16 to 21 major septa that approach the col-
umella and may or may not reach it and do not extend in-
to the dissepimentarium. Minor septa ordinarily well
developed. Columella a simple thickened axial plate or-
dinarily connected to the counter septum. Dissepimen-
tarium composed of 1 to 5 rows of inflated dissepiments
of variable size. Tabulae complete or incomplete,
horizontal, concave or convex, and irregularly spaced
0.25 to 0.7 5 mm apart. Ratio of tabularium width to cor-
allite diameter about 0.4. Mode of increase unknown.

Description of holotype. — See Fomichev (1953).

Discussion. —This species is distinguished from P.
vesiculosus by having larger corallites, more major sep-
ta, and generally fewer rows of dissepiments.

Occurrence. —Middle Carboniferous, Moscovian. L4
and L5 Limestones, Donetz Basin, U.S.S.R.

Petalaxis exilis Kozyreva
Petalaxis exilis Kozyreva, 1974, p. 26, pl. 1, figs. la—d.

Diagnosis.—Petalaxis with corallite diameter 5 to 11
mm and 10 to 14 major septa that ordinarily are short
and do not extend to the columella or into the dis-
sepimentarium. Minor septa absent. Columella a simple
thickened axial plate ordinarily connected to the counter
septum and to the cardinal septum in some corallites.
Dissepimentarium composed of 1 to 3 rows of mostly
large inflated dissepiments. Tabulae complete, horizon-
tal or slightly elevated toward columella, and irregularly
spaced 0.5 to 1.25 mm apart. Ratio of tabularium width
to corallite diameter about 0.4. Increase probably

- peripheral.

Description of holotype. — See Kozyreva (1974).
Discussion. — This species is distinguished from P.
vesiculosus by having fewer septa that extend to the col-

SYSTEMATIC PALEONTOLOGY 33

umella, by lacking minor septa, by having fewer rows of

dissepiments, and by having fewer tabulae.
Occurrence. — Middle Carboniferous,

Horizon b4, Voronezh anteclise, U.S.S.R.

Bashkirian.

Petalaxis coniertus Kozyreva

Petalaxis confertus Kozyreva, 1974, p. 27, pl. 1, figs. 2a, b, 3a, b.

Diagnosis. —Petalaxis with corallite diameter 8 to 12
mm and 19 to 20 major septa that commonly approach
the columella but do not extend into the dissepimen—
tarium. Minor septa absent. Columella a simple
thickened axial plate connected to the counter septum.
Dissepimentarium composed of 1 to 3 rows of inflated
dissepiments of varying sizes. Tabulae mostly in-
complete, varying in attitude, and irregularly spaced
0.25 to 1 mm apart. Ratio of tabularium width to cor-
allite diameter about 0.4 to 0.5. Mode of increase
unknown.

Description of type material. - See Kozyreva (1974).

Discussion. -This species is distinguished from P. eac-
ilis by having more major septa, longer major septa, and
by its incomplete tabulae.

Occurrence. —Middle Carboniferous, Bashkirian.
Voronezh anteclise, U.S.S.R.

Petalaxis persubtjlis Kozyreva
Petalams persubtilis Kozyreva, 1974, p. 27, pl. 1, figs. 4a—c, 5, 6.
Diagnosis.—Petalaxis with corallite diameter 9 to 15
mm and 15 to 17 major septa that commonly approach
the columella and may or may not extend into the
dissepimentarium. Minor septa absent or variably
developed. Columella absent or weakly developed as a
simple axial plate connected to the counter septum.
Dissepimentarium composed of 2 to 4 rows of large in-
flated dissepiments. Tabulae complete, horizontal, com-
monly weakly turned up at columella, and irregularly
spaced 0.25 to 1 mm apart. Ratio of tabularium width to
corallite diameter 0.3 to 0.4. Increase peripheral.
Description of type material. — See Kozyreva (197 4).
Discussion. —This species is distinguished from P. con-
fertus by having larger corallites, more major septa,
more rows of dissepiments, and a smaller ratio of
tabularium width to corallite diameter.
Occurrence. — Middle Carboniferous,
Horizon b1, Voronezh anteclise, U.S.S.R.

Bashkirian.

Petalaxis korkhovae Kozyreva

Petalaais korkho'vae Kozyreva, 1974, p. 28, pl. 1, figs. 7a—c.

Diagnosis. —Petalaxis with corallite diameter 9 to 15
mm and 16 to 18 major septa that ordinarily extend
about halfway to the columella but seldom extend into
the dissepimentarium. Minor septa absent or poorly
developed. Columella a simple thickened axial plate con-
nected to the counter septum. Dissepimentarium com-

 

posed of 3 to 4 rows of inflated dissepiments of varying
sizes. Tabulae complete, horizontal, mostly flat, and ir-
regularly spaced 0.25 to 1 mm apart. Ratio of
tabularium width to corallite diameter 0.3 to 0.4. In-
crease peripheral.

Description of type material. — See Kozyreva (1974).

Discussion. -This species is distinguished from P. per-
subtilis by having a stronger columella, shorter major
septa, and flatter tabulae.

Occurrence. — Middle Carboniferous,
Horizon b1, Voronezh anteclise, U.S.S.R.

Bashkirian.

Petalaxis mirus Kozyreva
Petalaxis mirus Kozyreva, 1974, p. 29, pl. 2, figs. 1a—c.

Diagnosis. —Petalaxis with corallite diameter 7 to 15
mm and 16 to 18 major septa that ordinarily extend
about halfway to the columella but seldom extend into
the dissepimentarium. Minor septa absent or very poor-
ly developed. Columella a simple thickened axial plate
connected to the counter septum in most corallites but
absent in some. Dissepimentarium consists of 1 to 3
rows of large elongate dissepiments. Tabulae complete,
horizontal, and spaced about 1 mm apart. Ratio of
tabularium width to corallite diameter about 0.3 to 0.4
Increase peripheral and intermural.

Description of type material. — See Kozyreva (1974).

Discussion—This species is distinguished by its
polymorphic coralla, which include the morphologies of
Petalaxis, Sciophyllum, and Thysanophyllum.

Occurrence—Middle Carboniferous, Bashkirian.
Horizon b4, Voronezh anteclise, U.S.S.R.

Petalaxis evidens Kozyreva

Petalaxis widens Kozyreva, 1974, p. 30, pl. 2, figs. 2a, b, 3.

Diagnosis. —Petalaxis with corallite diameter 8 to 16
mm and 18 to 22 major septa that extend about two-
thirds of the way to the columella but seldom extend into
the dissepimentarium. Minor septa absent or very poor-
ly developed. Columella a simple thickened axial plate
connected to the counter septum. Dissepimentarium
consists of 1 to 3 rows of large inflated dissepiments.
Tabulae complete and incomplete, horizontal, concave,
turned up at the columella, and irregularly spaced 0.25
to 1 mm apart. Ratio of tabularium width to corallite
diameter about 0.3 to 0.4. Mode of increase unknown.

Description of type material. - See Kozyreva (1974).

Discussion-This species is distinguished from P.
korkhovae by having more major septa, longer major
septa, and by having its tabulae turned up at the col-
umella.

Occurrence. Middle Carboniferous,
Horizon b4, Voronezh anteclise, U.S.S.R.

Bashkirian.

34 REVISION OF LITHOSTROTIONELLA FROM THE CARBONIFEROUS AND PERMIAN

Petalaxis maccoyanus species group
Petalaxis maccoyanus Milne-Edwards and Haime

Stylaxis M’coyana Milne—Edwards and Haime, 1851, p. 453, pl. 12,
figs. 5, 5a.

Petalaxis M’coyana Milne-Edwards and Haime, 1852, p. 205; Milne—
Edwards, 1860, p. 440; Roemer, 1883, p. 387.

Lithostrotion Portlocki Milne-Edwards and Haime. Eichwald, 1861, p.
149, 150.

Lithostrotion Mac-Coyannm Milne-Edwards and Haime. Eichwald,
1861, p. 150.

Lithostrotion maccoyanum (Milne-Edwards and Haime). Bassler,
1950, p. 222.

Petalaxis mccoyana Milne-Edwards and Haime. Fedorowski and
Gorianov, 1973, p. 58, pl. 12, figs. 4a, b, text-figs. 20a, b;
Sutherland, 1977, p. 185, figs. 1—7.

Not Petalaxis maccoyana Milne-Edwards and Haime. Fomichev, 1953,
p. 453, pl. 31, figs. 1a—d, 2a—d.

Not Lithostrotionella maceoyana (Edwards and Haime). de Groot,
1963, p. 82, pl. 16, figs. 1a, b.

Diagnosis. —Petalaxis with maximum corallite
diameter 5.4 to 7.8 mm and 13 to 18 major septa that ap-
proach the columella but seldom reach it and seldom ex-
tend into the dissepimentarium. Minor septa poorly
developed. Columella a thickened axial plate connected
to the counter septum augmented in some corallites by
vertical axial tabellae and rare, poorly developed septal
lamellae. Dissepimentarium composed of 1 to 2 rows of
small inflated dissepiments Tabulae mostly incomplete,
essentially horizontal, flat, concave, or convex, and ir-
regularly spaced 0.5 to 1 mm apart. Ratio of tabularium
width to corallite diameter about 0.6. Increase
peripheral.

Description of type material. —See Milne-Edwards
and Haime (1851). According to Sutherland (1977, p.
185), the holotype and paratype are lost and a neotype
may have to be designated from a topotype lot in the col-
lections of the Paleontological Institute of the Academy
of Sciences of the USSR in Moscow. Pending further
work by Sutherland, the diagnosis is based largely on
descriptions and illustrations of topotypes published by
Fedorowski and Gorianov (1973) and Sutherland (1977).

Discussion. —This species, the type of Petalaxis, has a
narrow dissepimentarium like species of the P. flexuosus
group but is distinguished by its variable columella,
which ranges from a simple thickened axial plate to a
complex structure made up of axial plate, vertical
tabellae, and rare septal lamellae. Specimens of similar
general morphology but lacking a complex axial struc-
ture were referred to the species by Fomichev (1953)
and de Groot (1964) but are here excluded from the
species. The only described material included in the
species is from the Moscow Basin.

Occurrence—Middle Carboniferous, Moscovian.
Myachkovo Horizon, Moscow Basin, U.S.S.R.

 

Petalaxis stylaxis (T rautschold)

Lithostrotion stylaxis Trautschold, 1879, p. 36, pl. 5, figs. 6a—c.

Petalaa'is stylaxis Stuckenberg, 1888, p. 21, pl. 3, figs. 17—21.

?Petalaxis stylaxis Trautschold. Bolkhovitinova, 1915, p. 63, pl. 5,
f1 . 1.

LitMEtrotiomlla stylaxis (Trautschold). Dobrolyubova, 1935a, p. 10,
pl. 1, figs. 1—5, pl. 2, figs. 1, 2, 5; pl. 13, figs. 1—3; 1935b, p. 14, pl.
1, figs. 1—5, pl. 2, figs. 1, 2, 5, pl. 13, figs. 1—3; Fomichev, 1939, p.
60, pl. 9, figs. 6a, b; not Wu and Zhao, 1974, p. 271, pl. 137,
figs. 5, 6.

?Lithostrotionella stylaxis (Trautschold). Heritsch, 1937, p. 164, figs.
1—4; 1939, p. 29, pl. 18, fig. 7, pl. 21, figs. 17, 18.

?Lithostrotion [Lithostrotiomalla] stylawis (Trautschold). Bassler,
1950, p. 235.

Diagnosis. —Petalaxis with corallite diameter 3.5 to 9
mm and 11 to 18 major septa that approach the col-
umella but seldom reach it and seldom extend into the
dissepimentarium. Minor septa absent to well
developed. Columella ranging from a simple axial plate
ordinarily connected to the counter septum to a complex
structure in which the axial plate is augmented by im-
persistent vertical axial tabellae and rare septal
lamellae. Dissepimentarium composed of 1 to 3 rows of
inflated dissepiments of varying sizes. Tabulae complete
and incomplete, horizontal, flat, concave or convex, and
irregularly spaced 0.25 to 2 mm apart. Ratio of
tabularium width to corallite diameter 0.4 to 0.7. Mode
of increase unknown.

Description of type material. — See Trautschold (1879).
The diagnosis is taken largely from Dobrolyubova’s
(1935b) descriptions and illustrations of topotypes.

Discussion. —D0brolyubova (1935a, b) recognized
three morphological variants in her study of topotypes:
Lithostrotimwlla stylaxis, L. stylaxis var. 1, and L.
stylaxis var. 2. These were treated like separate species
in a morphological series. The three morphotypes were
collected from the same horizon at different geographic
locations, all in the Moscow Basin. Pending further
study, I have included all three morphotypes in the con-
cept of Petalaxis stylaxis.

Bolkhovitinova’s (1915) specimen is included here with
a question because of inadequate description and i1-
lustration. Heritsch’s (1937, 1939) specimens are refer-
red questionably to the species because no longitudinal
sections are available.

Petalaxis stylaxis differs from P. maccoyanus by hav-
ing slightly larger corallites, an unthickened columella,
and some well-developed minor septa.

Occurrence—Middle Carboniferous, Moscovian.
Myachkovo Horizon (024), Moscow Basin, U.S.S.R. Cor-
akalk, Kings Bay, Spitzbergen(?). Arabian Desert(?).

Petalaxis mohikanus (F omichev)

Lithostrotiomlla mohikam Fomichev, 1939, p. 60, pl. 9, figs. 5a, b.
Petalaxis mohikana Fomichev, 1953, p. 459, pl. 32, figs. 1a, b, 2a, b, pl.
33, fig. 1.

SYSTEMATIC PALEONTOLOGY 35

Diagnosis—Petalaxis with corallite diameter 6 to 10
mm and 13 to 18 major septa that closely approach the
columella and commonly extend into the dissepimen-
tarium. Minor septa well developed. Columella ordinari-
ly a simple axial plate but augmented by rare short sep-
tal lamellae and a few vertical axial tabellae in some cor-
allites. Dissepimentarium composed of 1 to 3 rows of
mostly large inflated dissepiments. Tabulae complete
and incomplete, essentially horizontal, commonly turned
up at columella, and spaced 0.25 to 0.5 mm apart. Ratio
of tabularium width to corallite diameter about 0.4 to
0.5. Mode of increase unknown.

Description of type material. - See Fomichev (1953).

Discussion-This species differs from P. maccoyanus
by having larger corallites, more extensions of the major
septa into the dissepimentarium, well-developed minor
septa, and more tabulae.

Occurrence. —Middle Carboniferous, Moscovian. M3
Limestone, Donetz Basin, U.S.S.R.

Petalaxis celadensis (de Groot)
Lithostrotionella celadensis de Groot, 1963, p. 82, pl. 15, figs. 2a—d.
Diagnosis. —Petalaxis with corallite diameter 3.5 to 6
mm and 12 to 16 major septa that extend about halfway
to the columella but seldom extend into the dissepimen-
tarium. Minor septa absent or poorly developed. Col-
umella ranging from a simple axial plate connected to
the counter septum to a complex structure composed of
an axial plate, vertical axial tabellae, and a few septal
lamellae. Dissepimentarium composed of 1 to 2 rows of
large inflated dissepiments. Tabulae mostly incomplete,
flat to concave, horizontal, and irregularly spaced 0.25
to 0.75 mm apart. Ratio of tabularium width to corallite
diameter about 0.6. Mode of increase unknown.
Description of holotype. —See de Groot (1964 [1963]).
Discussion. —This species differs from P. maccoyanus
by having smaller corallites, fewer and shorter major
septa, weaker minor septa, and more tabulae.
Occurrence. —Middle Carboniferous, Moscovian.
Celada Limestone, Palencia, Spain.

Petalaxis elyensis (Wilson and Langenheim)
Eastonoides elyensis Wilson and Langenheim, 1962, p. 512, pl. 88,
figs. 4—6.

Diagnosis. —Petalaxis with corallite diameter 4 to 5
mm and 10 to 15 major septa that extend about halfway
to the columella. Major septa are attached to the cor-
allite wall except where impersistent lonsdaleoid
dissepiments are present. Minor septa poorly developed,
contratingent. Columella a thickened axial plate con-
'nected to the counter septum and augmented by rare im-
persistent vertical axial tabellae and very rare septal
lamellae. Dissepimentarium consists of a single row of
impersistent inflated dissepiments. Tabulae mostly com-
plete, generally flat, locally sagging or domed, and

 

spaced 0.5 to 1 mm apart. Tabularium width equals cor-
allite diameter, except where dissepiments are
developed. Mode of increase unknown.

Description of type material.—See Wilson and
Langenheim (1962).

Discussion. —This species is distinguished from most
other species of Petalaxis by having an impersistent
lonsdaleoid dissepimentarium and impersistent axial
tabellae. P. elyensis is the type species of Eastonoides
Wilson and Langenheim, which was proposed to include
the type species and Lcmsdateia ioanooi Dobrolyubova,
which Fomichev (1953, p. 464) included in
Cystolonsdaleia. These species have the general mor-
phology of P. maccoyanus, the type species of Petalaxis,
which also has impersistent axial tabellae. Thus,
Eastonoides is regarded as a junior synonym of
Petalaxis, and P. elyensis is included in the P. mac-
coyanus species group.

Occurrence—Lower Permian. Ely Limestone,
Nevada, U.S.A.

Petalaxis dobrolyubovae n. sp.

Not Stylaxis portlocki Milne-Edwards and Haime, 1851, p. 453.

Not Petalaxis portlocki Milne-Edwards and Haime, 1852, p. 204, pl.
38, figs. 44, 4a; Haime, 1860, p. 441.

Petalaxis portlocki Edwards and Haime. Stuckenberg, 1888, p. 22, pl.
2, figs. 44-49.

Lonsdaleia portlocki (Stuckenberg). Dobrolyubova, 1935a, p. 12, pl. 9,
figs 1—4, not pl. 10, figs. 1, 2; 1935b, p. 29, pl. 9, figs. 1—4, not pl.
10, figs. 1, 2.

Not Cystotonsdaleia portlocki (Dobrolyubova). Fomichev, 1953, p. 467,
pl. 32, figs. 4a—v.

Not Lonsdaleia portlocki (Stuckenberg) densiconus de Groot, 1963, p.
79, pl. 15, fig. 1.

Diagnosis. —Petalaxis with corallite diameter 5 to 11
mm and 11 to 17 major septa that extend halfway to or
closely approach the columella but seldom reach it and
commonly extend into the dissepimentarium. Minor sep-
ta absent to well developed. Columella ranging from a
simple axial plate connected to the counter septum to a
complex structure composed of axial plate, vertical axial
tabellae, and rare septal lamellae augmented by
stereoplasm in some corallites to produce a netlike
structure in transverse section. Dissepimentarium com-
posed of 1 to 2 rows of inflated dissepiments of varying
sizes. Tabulae mostly incomplete, flat, concave, or con-
vex, horizontal, and irregularly spaced 0.25 to 1 mm
apart. Ratio of tabularium width to corallite diameter
about 0.6 to 0.7. Mode of increase unknown.

Description of type material. —See Dobrolyubova
(1935b). The holotype is the specimen illustrated by
Dobrolyubova (1936b) as her plate 9, figures 1 and 2.

Discussion.—Dobrolyubova’s illustrations suggest
that more than one species may be present in the type
lot. I exclude the specimen figured as her plate 10,
figures 1 and 2, because it seems much more complex

36 REVISION 0F LITHOSTROTIONELLA FROM THE CARBONIFEROUS AND PERMIAN

than the other two specimens illustrated. The remaining
figured specimens are notably different from one
another but are retained in the species concept pending
further work on the type material.

Cystolonsdaleia portlocki (Dobrolyubova) Fomichev
does not belong here and is described below as a new
species. Lonsdaleia portlocki (Stuckenberg) densiconus
de Groot is a separate species assigned to
Cystolonsdaleia Fomichev.

P. dobrolyubouae differs from P. maccoyanus by hav-
ing larger corallites, more abundant complex col-
umellae, and more extensions of the major septa into the
dissepimentarium.

Occurrence—Middle Carboniferous, Moscovian.
Myachkovo Horizon, Moscow Basin, U.S.S.R.

Petalaxis donetsensis n. sp.
Cystolonsdaleia portlocki (Dobrolyubova). Fomichev, 1953, p. 467, pl.
32, figs. 4a-v.

Diagnosis. —Petalaxis with corallite diameter 8 to 10
mm and 13 to 16 major septa that approach the col-
umella but do not ordinarily reach it and seldom extend
into the dissepimentarium. Minor septa absent or poorly
developed. Columella ranging from a simple axial plate
connected to the counter septum to a more complex
structure composed of axial plate and impersistent ver-
tical axial tabellae. Dissepimentarium composed of 2 to
4 rows of inflated dissepiments of varying sizes. Tabulae
mostly incomplete, mostly concave, horizontal, and ir-
regularly spaced 0.25 to 1 mm apart. Ratio of
tabularium width to corallite diameter about 0.3 to 0.6.
Mode of increase unknown.

Description of holotype.—See Fomichev (1953). The
holotype is specimen number 36 of Fomichev.

Discussion. —This species differs from P.
dobrolyubo'vae by having more rows of dissepiments,
weaker minor septa, a smaller ratio of tabularium width
to corallite diameter, and by its less abundant complex
columellae.

Occurrence. —Middle Carboniferous, Moscovian. N1
Limestone, Donetz Basin, U.S.S.R.

Petalaxis ivanovi (Dobrolyubova)
Lonsdaleia inano'vi Dobrolyubova, 1935a, p. 12, pl. 11, figs. 1, 2;
1935b, p. 31, pl. 11, figs. 1, 2.

Diagnosis. —Petalaxis with corallite diameter 6 to 6.5
mm and 13 to 14 major septa that closely approach the
columella but seldom reach it. Major septa are attached
to the corallite wall, except where impersistent
lonsdaleoid dissepiments are present. Minor septa well
developed. Columella ranging from a simple axial plate
to a complex structure consisting of axial plate, vertical
axial tabellae, and a few septal lamellae commonly rein-
forced by stereoplasm to form a thick rod or netlike

 

structure in transverse section. Dissepimentarium im-
persistent, composed of a single row of dissepiments of
varying sizes where present. Tabulae mostly incom-
plete, horizontal, flat, concave, or convex, and irregular-
ly spaced 0.25 to 1 mm apart. Tabularium width equals
corallite diameter except where dissepiments are pres-
ent. Mode of increase unknown.

Description of holotype. —See Dobrolyubova (1935b).

Discussion—This species differs from P. elyensis by
having larger corallites, stronger minor septa, and a bet-
ter developed complex columella.

Occurrence. —Middle Carboniferous, Moscovian.
Myachkovo Horizon, Moscow Basin, U.S.S.R.

Petalaxis? spp. indet.

The following taxa are referred questionably to
Petalaxis and are not diagnosed because of insufficient
illustration or description of morphological details:
Lithostrotionella tingi Chi, 1931, p. 28, pl. 4, figs. 6a, b;

Wu in Yii and others, 1963, p. 86, pl. 24, figs. 6a, b.
Middle Carboniferous, Moscovian. Laokunchai
Limestone, Kueichou, China.

Lithostrotionella aff. stylaxis Trautschold.
Dobrolyubova, 1936b, p. 127, figs. 55, 56. Middle
Carboniferous, Moscovian. Ural Mountains,
U.S.S.R.

Lithostrotionella sp. indet. Yamagiwa, 1961, p. 102, pl.
5, figs. 1—3. Lower Permian. Atetsu Limestone,
Okayana, Japan.

Lithostrotionella kitakamiensis Minato, 1955, p. 88, pl.
4, figs. 2, 7, 8, 10, pl. 34, figs. 2, 3. Middle Car-
boniferous, Bashkirian. Nagaiwa Series, Iwate,
Japan.

Lithostrotionella spiniformis Yu, 1933 [1934], p. 102, pl.
21, figs. 2a, b; Wu in Yii and others, 1963, p. 87, pl.
24, figs. 5a, b. Lower Carboniferous, Viséan.
Shangssu Limestone, Kueichou, China.

Petalaxis timanicus Stuckenberg. Heritsch, 1939, p. 18,
pl. 2, fig. 8, pl. 3, fig. 1, pl. 15, figs. 2, 3, pl. 21, figs.
8—16. Carboniferous or Permian. Cora Limestone,
Spitzbergen.

Petalaxis timanicus Stuckenberg. Kolosvary, 1951, p.
39, pl. 9, figs. 5—7. Permian, Hungary.

Petalaxis maccoyana var. multiseptata. Fomichev, 1953,
p. 458, pl. 31, fig. 4. Middle Carboniferous, Mosco-
vian. L5 Limestone, Donetz Basin, U.S.S.R.

Petalaxis maccoyana forma orlo’vkensis Fomichev, 1953,
p. 456. Middle Carboniferous, Moscovian. L5 and L6
Limestone, Donetz Basin, U.S.S.R.

Family LONSDALEIIDAE Chapman, 1893
Genus THYSANOPHYLLUM Nicholson and Thomson, 1876

Thysarwphyllum Nicholson and Thomson, 1876, p. 150; Hill, 1940, p.
160.

SYSTEMATIC PALEONTOLOGY 37

Type species-Thysanophyllnm orientate Nicholson and
Thomson, 1876, p. 150. Lower Carboniferous, Scotland.

Discussion.—Thysanophyllum is distinguished by its
cerioid corallum having corallites with a lonsdaleoid
dissepimentarium and lacking an axial structure or hav-
ing a weak impersistent axial plate. The genus is prob-
ably polyphyletic like other colonial rugose corals
without a persistent axial structure, corals such as
Diphyphyllum and Pseudodo'rlodotia.

Thysanophyllum astraeiiorme (Warren)

Diphyphyllum astraeifomis Warren, 1927, p. 44, pl. 3, figs. 2, 3.
Lithostrotionella. astraeifmmis (Warren). Kelly, 1942, p. 352; Bamber,
1961, p. 152, pl. 12, figs. 1a, b; Nelson, 1961, pl. 18, figs. 1—3.
Lithostrotionella (Thysanophyllnm) astraeifo'rmis (Warren). Nelson,
1960, p. 115, pl. 22, figs. 7—10.
Thysanophyllum astraeifo'nne (Warren). Bamber, 1966, p. 23, pl. 4,
figs. 3a—b, 4a-c; Armstrong, 1970a, p. 37, pl. 11, figs. 5—8; 1970b,
p. 28, pl. 9, figs. 1-6, text-fig. 33.
Description of lectotype. —See Bamber (1966).
Discussion. —This species is rather common in
western Canada and Alaska, where it ranges from
Mamet Zone 13 into 16i; it is most common in Mamet
Zones 14 and 15. These occurrences are of middle and
late Viséan age. The structure of the columella, where
present, suggests relationship to Acrocyathus.

Genus LONSDALEIA McCoy, 1849
Lonsdaleia McCoy, 1849, p. 11; Smith, 1916, p. 218; Hill, 1940, p. 151;
Sando, 1975, p. 020.

Type species.—Erismatolithns Madrepo'rites
(duplicatus) Martin, 1809, equals Lonsdaleia duplicata
(Martin). Lower Carboniferous, England.

Diagnosis—See Cotton (1973, p. 117).

Discussion—The genus is subdivided into two
subgenera on the basis of growth form: Lonsdaleia
(Lonsdaleia), phaceloid, and Lonsdaleia (Actinocyathns),
cerioid.

Subgenus ACTINOCYATHUS d’Orbigny, 1849

Actinocyathus d’Orbigny, 1849a, p. 12.

Stylidophyllum de Fromentel, 1861, p. 316.
?P*rotolonsda,lia Lisitsyn, 1925, p. 68.

?Sublonsdalia Lisitsyn, 1925, p. 68.

?Protolonsdaleia Lang, Smith, and Thomas, 1940, p. 106.
?Sublonsdaleia Lang, Smith, and Thomas, 1940, p. 128

Type species—Cyathophyllum crennlare Phillips,
1836, equals Erismatolithus Mad'reporites (florifomis)
Martin, 1809, equals Lonsdaleia flom'fomis (Martin).
Lower Carboniferous, England.

Diagnosis. — Cerioid Lonsdaleia.

Discussion—See Sando (1975, p. 020) for discussion
of the type species and synonymic placement of
Stylidophyllum. Protolonsdalia (nomen vanum Pro-
tolonsdaleia) and Snblonsdalia (nomen vanum
Sublonsdaleia) are both inadequately founded on type

 

material that has been lost (N. P. Vasilyuk, oral com—
mun., 1975); they may be junior synonyms of Ae—
tinocyathus, but neotypes need to be described before a
final decision can be made.
Lonsdaleia (Actinocyathus) berthiaumi (Merriam)
Plate 20, figures 3, 4
Lithostrotion (Lithostrotionella) berthiaumi Merriam, 1942, p. 378, pl.
56, figs. 9, 10; Bassler, 1950, p. 252.

Description of holotype. — See Merriam (1942).

Discussion.—Lonsdaleia (Actinocyathns) was
previously represented‘in North America by a single
species, L. (A.) stelcki Nelson (1960, p. 119, pl. 23, figs.
6—10), as determined by Sando (1975, p. 021). Nelson’s
species is restricted to the upper Viséan and lower
Namurian (Mamet Zones 16s, 17, and 18). Examination
of the holotype (USNM 132988) and a topotype (USNM
132989) of Merriam’s species reveals that it is very
similar to Nelson’s species but differs in having fewer
tabulae. New thin sections of Merriam’s holotype
(USN M 132988) are figured herein to provide a better
basis for interpreting this specimen.

Merriam (1942, p. 379) stated that the type material of
L. berthiaumi is from the Permian Coyote Butte Forma-
tion of Oregon, a stratigraphic level that is inconsistent
with other North American occurrences of the genus to
which it is now assigned. According to E. C. Wilson
(written commun., 1979), exposures in the type area are
poor, geologic structure is complex, and beds in the area
range from Devonian to Permian. I conclude that the
specimens are probably from beds of Carboniferous (late
Viséan or early Namurian) age.

Lonsdaleia (Actinocyathus) peratrovichensis (Armstrong)
Lithost'rotionella pemtrovichensis Armstrong, 1970a, p. 35, pl. 12,
figs. 8—11.

Description of holotype. — See Armstrong (1970a).

Discussion. —Examination of the holotype (USNM
160493) of L. pemtro'uichensis reveals a morphology
consistent with Lonsdateia (Actinocyathus). The species
differs from the widely distributed L. (A.) stelcki
(Nelson) by its smaller corallite diameter, thicker cor-
allite walls, fewer dissepiments, and tabulae of varying
form, some of which are inclined upward toward the col-
umella.

The presence of L. (A.) pemtrovichensis in beds of late
Viséan age and the nature of its tabulae suggest that it
is ancestral to L. (A.) stelcki.

Family DURHAMD‘IIDAE Minato and Kato, 1965

Genus KLEOPATRINA McCutcheon and Wilson, 1963

Ptolemaia McCutcheon and Wilson, 1961, p. 1020 (not Osborn, 1908,
p. 267).

Kteopatrina McCutcheon and Wilson, 1963, p. 299; Minato and Kato,
1965, p. 67 (replacement name for Ptolemaia McCutcheon and
Wilson).

38 REVISION OF LITHOSTROTIONELLA FROM THE CARBONIFEROUS AND PERMIAN

Type species.—Ptotemaia fiatateeta McCutcheon and
Wilson, 1961, p. 1025, pl. 123, figs. 1—6. Lower Permian,
Nevada.

Diagnosis. —See Minato and Kato (1965).

Discussion—This genus is found predominantly in
Permian strata, although Bamber and Macqueen (1979,
p. 11) reported Kleopatrina (Porfierevella) from beds of
Moscovian Age in British Columbia. The two species
questionably referred here (see below) are the first
possible representatives from the Upper Carboniferous.

Subgenus KLEOPATRINA McCutcheon and Wilson, 1963

Type species. —As for genus Kieopatrina.
Diagnosis. — See Minato and Kato (1965).

Kleopatrina (Kleopatrina)? dilatata (Easton)
Lithostrotion [Lithostrotiorwlla] dilatata. Easton, 1960, p. 578, text-
figs. 7, 8.

Description of holotype. — See Easton (1960).

Discussion-Judging from Easton’s description and
illustrations, the type material of this species has most
of the essential features of Kleopatrina (Kleopatrimz).
However, the types do not seem to have a complex axial
structure, which casts doubt on the taxonomic place-
ment. The type material needs to be reinvestigated.

Occurrence. —Permian. Arcturus and Rib Hill Forma-
tions, Nevada, U.S.A.

Kleopatrina (Kleopatzina)? uralica (Dobrolyubova)

Lithostrotionella uralica Dobrolyubova, 1936a, p. 28, pl. 13, figs.
33-35.

Description of type material.—See Dobrolyubova
(1936a).

Discussion—Dobrolyubova’s description and illustra-
tions of this species suggest that it may be an early
representative of Kleopatrina (Kieopatrina). This
species occurs in beds of Late Carboniferous age,
whereas all other known representatives of the
subgenus are from the Permian. The type material
needs to be reinvestigated.

Kleopatrina (Kleopatrina)? wahooem‘s (Armstrong)
Lithostrotiorwlia wahooenis Armstrong, 1972b, p. 14, pl. 5, fig. 1, pl.
6, figs. 1-5, pl. 7, figs. 1-3.

Description of holotype and paratypes—See Arm-
strong (1972b).

Discussion.—Armstrong’s holotype and paratypes
have the essential morphological characters of
Kieopatrina (Kleopatrina). Differences between these
specimens and the holotype of K. (K .) fiatateeta seem to
be of specific rank only. However, Armstrong’s species
is from beds that are much older than those in which
other known species of the subgenus are found. The oc-
currence is Middle Pennsylvanian (Atokan) Mamet Zone
21, which equates with high Bashkirian or low Mosco-

 

vian of the U.S.S.R. Because of possible homeomor-
phism with the Permian forms, the placement of this
species in Kteopatrina (Kleopatrina) is made with ques-
tion.

UNDETERMINED LITHOSTROTIONELLOID CORALS

The following taxa are not identified generically
because of inadequate specimens or inadequate illustra-
tions and descriptions:

Lithostrotionella americana Hayasaka, 1936, p. 62
(Paratypes, USNM 174371 and 174373). Permian.
McCloud Limestone, California, U.S.A.

Lithostrotionellaflexuosa (Trautschold). Heritsch, 1940,
p. 72, pl. 2, figs. 1, 2. Upper Carboniferous,
Yugoslavia.

Petalaxis grandis Heritsch, 1939, p. 27, pl. 2, figs. 4, 5,
pl. 19, fig. 11. Carboniferous or Permian, Spitz—
bergen.

Petalaxis? inconfertus Lonsdale. Yanishevskiy, 1900, p.
89. Carboniferous, Ural Mountains, U.S.S.R.

Petalaxis indigae Stuckenberg, 1895, p. 76, pl. 19, fig. 7.
Upper Carboniferous, Timan, U.S.S.R.

Lithostrotionella kuechouensis Yii, [1933] 1934, p. 101,
pl. 21, figs. 1a, b; Wu in Yii and others, 1963, p. 87,
pl. 25, figs. 1a, b. Lower Carboniferous, Viséan.
Shangssu Limestone, Kueichou, China.

Petalaxis kunthi Stuckenberg, 1888, p. 23; 1895, p. 78,
pl. 12, fig. 7; Heritsch, 1939, p. 25, pl. 11, fig. 1, pl.
13, figs. 3, 7, pl. 19, fig. 4. Upper Carboniferous,
Moscow Basin and Ural Mountains, U.S.S.R. Car-
boniferous or Permian, Spitzbergen.

Petalaxis sibiricus Gabounia, 1919, p. 39, pl. 2, fig. 2, pl.
3, fig. 1; Fomichev, 1931, p. 44, 72, pl. 1, figs. 2a—e;
1955, p. 303, pl. 80, figs. 5, 6. Lower Carboniferous,
Kuznetsk Basin, U.S.S.R.

Lithostrotionella stylaxis (Trautschold). Rukhin, 1938,
p. 40, pl. 5, figs. 7—9. Lower Carboniferous, Siranka
River basin, U.S.S.R.

Lithostrotionella. stylaxis (Trautschold). Wu and Zhao,
1974, p. 271, pl. 137, figs. 5, 6. Middle Car-
boniferous, Wei-Ling Group, Kueichou, China.

Petalaxis timanicus Stuckenberg, 1895, p. 76, pl. 12, fig.
5. Upper Carboniferous, Ural Mountains and Timan,
U.S.S.R.

Lithostrotionelta tingi Chi. Yi‘i, Lin and Fan, 1962, p.
24, pl. 4, figs. 3a, b. Middle Carboniferous, Sinkiang,
China.

Styllophyllum tolmache'vi Rukhin, 1938, p. 41, pl. 5, figs.
10, 11. Lower Carboniferous, Omulevka River,
U.S.S.R.

Petalaacis uchtensis Stuckenberg, 1895, p. 77, pl. 12, fig.
2, pl. 16,fig. 4. Upper Carboniferous, Timan,
U.S.S.R.

SYSTEMATIC PALEONTOLOGY 39

Lithostrotionella cf. spinifomis Yfi. Wu, 1964, p. 35,
79, pl. 4, figs. 7, 8. Lower Carboniferous, Viséan.
Hunan, China.

Lithost'rotionella sp. B. Lo and Chao, 1962, p. 184, pl.
22, fig. 6. Lower Carboniferous, Viséan. Ching-hai,
China.

Lithostrotionella sp. Kolosva'ry, 1951, p. 38, pl. 10, figs.
4—9,pl. 18, figs. 1—3. Carboniferous or Permian,
Hungary.

Lithostrotionella sp. Dobrolyubova, 1936a, p. 29, pl. 13,
figs. 36, 37. Upper Carboniferous, Ural Mountains,
U.S.S.R.

Lithostrotionella sp. undet. Minato, 1955, p. 87, pl. 1,
fig. 3, pl. 34, fig. 11, pl. 37, fig. 9. Lower Car-
boniferous, Iwate, Japan.

Lithostrotionella? sp. Ross and Ross, 1963, p. 418, pl.
49, figs. 1, 2, 4, 10. Upper Carboniferous, Virgilian.
Gaptank Formation, Texas, USA.

ADDITIONAL TAXA

While the manuscript was being processed for publica-
tion, several additional studies of lithostrotionelloid cor-
als described under the names of Hillia, Lithostro—
tionella, Petalaxis, Stelechophyllum, and
Thysanophyllum came to my attention. Translations of
the descriptions of these taxa that are in Chinese and
Russian papers were not available at the time, prevent-
ing a complete evaluation of them. Moreover, taxa in the
Chinese papers are poorly illustrated. These additional
taxa are listed below, by publication.

Fan, Y. N., 1978, in Southwest China Geological In-
stitute, [Paleontological atlas of southwestern
China, Sichuan Province]: v. 2, 684 p., 191 pls. (In
Chinese.) See p. 182-184.

Lithostrotionella maccoyana (Edwards and Haime)

. sexangula de Groot

mui (Lo)

. fugimotoi (Igo)

. orboensis de Groot

. o'rboe'nsis regularis Fan, n.subsp.

pinguis Fan, n. sp.

. awenggouensis Fan, n. sp.

. vesiculosa vesiculosa Fan, 11. subsp.

?L. sp.
Stelechophyllum ascendens ascendens (Tolmachev)
S. ascende’ns simplex Drobolyubova

Gorskiy, I. I., 1978, Korally Srednego Karbona zapad-
nogo sklona Urala [The Middle Carboniferous corals
of the western slope of the Urals]: Akademiya Nauk
SSSR, Otdelenie Geologii, Geofiziki, i Geokhimi, Iz-
datelstvo “Nauka,” 223 p., 23 pls., 43 figs. See p.
150—152.

bbbbbbbb

 

Lithost’rotionella stylaxis (Trautschold) subsp.
umlica Gorskiy, n. subsp.
L. flexuosa (Trautschold)

Guo, Z. C., 1976, in Northeastern Geological Institute
and Geological Bureau of Inner Mongolia, [Paleon-
tological atlas of northern China, part of Inner
Mongolia]: v. 1, 502 p., 232 pls. (In Chinese.) See p.
86.

Lithost'rotionella ivanovi Dobrolyubova
L. banfi‘e'nse (Warren)

Wang, H. D., 1978, in Stratigraphic—Paleontological
Working Team of Guizhou Province, [Paleon-
tological atlas of southwestern China, Guizhou Prov-
ince]: v. 2, 638 p., 165 pls. (In Chinese.) See p.
133—140.

Lithostrotionella kueichouensis Yii

. kuechouensis magnet Wang, n. subsp.

. baijinensis Wang, n. sp.

. multivesiculata Wang, n. sp.

. spiniformis Yii

. changshunensis Wang, n. sp.

. stylaxis (Trautschold)

. tingi Chi

. dushammsis Wang, n. sp.

. elegantula (Wu and Zhao)

. jiamoe’nsis Wang, n. sp.

Hillia pempertuensis de Groot
H. minor (Wu and Zhao)

Wilson, E. C., 1982, Wolfcampian rugose and tabulate
corals (Coelenterata: Anthozoa) from the Lower
Permian McCloud Limestone of northern California:
Los Angeles County Natural History Museum Con-
tributions in Science no. 337, 90 p., 48 figs. See p.
65—73.

Petalaxis allisonae Wilson, n. sp.
P. besti Wilson, n. sp.

P. kennedyi Wilson, n. sp.

P. pecki Wilson, n. sp.

P. suthe'rlomdi Wilson, n. sp.

Xu, 1977, in Central Southern Geological Institute and
Geological Bureaus of Henan, Hubei, Hunan,
Guangdong, and Guangxi Provinces, [Paleon-
tological atlas of central southern China]: v. 2, 856
p., 253 pls. (In Chinese.) See p. 202—203.
Lithostrotionella hsujiulingi Yoh
L. micm Kelly
L. maccoyana (Edwards and Haime)
Thysanophyllum ascendens ascendens (Tolmachev)
T. ascendens simplex (Dobrolyubova)

Yu, G. C., Lin, 1. T., Huang, C. H., and Tsai, T. S., 1978,
[Early Carboniferous stratigraphy and corals of
eastern Xinjiang]: Chinese Academy of Geological
Sciences, Editorial Committee of Professional
Papers of Stratigraphy and Paleontology, Profes—

bbbbhhhbbh

40 REVISION OF LITHOSTROTIONELLA FROM THE CARBONIFEROUS AND PERMIAN

sional Papers of Stratigraphy and Paleontology No.
5, p. 1—70, 10 figs, 16 pls. (In Chinese with English
summary.) See p. 29, 38-40. Peking, Geological
Publishing House)

Lithostrotionella shimem' (Crickmay)

L. pennsylvam'ca (Shimer)

L. crassus n. sp.

REGISTER OF USGS LOCALITIES FOR
HAYASAKA (1936) TYPE SPECIMENS OF
LITHOSTROTIONELLA SPECIES

83—PC: Newman Limestone, St Louis Limestone Member. West side
of Roundstone Creek, 300 ft (100 m) above creek, about 0.5 mi (0.8
km) south of site of town of Langford near intersection of Round-
stone Creek and Renfro Creek, southeast quarter of Wildie
quadrangle, Rockcastle County, Ky. Collected by F. B. Weeks,
June 29, 1896. See Gualtieri (1968) for geologic map.

104—PC: Lodgepole Limestone (Zone C1 of Sando and others,
1969).Sec. 12, T. 11 S., R. 44 E., Montpelier quadrangle, Bear
Lake County, Idaho. Collected by G. R. Mansfield, June 12, 1911.
This collection is composed of two lots, one that has a fauna from
the upper part of the Lodgepole Limestone and another that con-
tains Faberophyllum and is from the Aspen Range Formation.

346C—PC: Boulders of residual chert derived from Tuscumbia
Limestone (St. Louis Limestone equivalent) at unconformity at top
of Tuscumbia Limestone. Along pike about 0.5 mi (0.8 km)
southwest of Cherokee, probably in SE1/4 sec. 34 or SW1/4 sec. 35,
T. 3 S., R. 14 W., Cherokee quadrangle, Colbert County, Ala. Col-
lected by P. V. Roundy, 1911. See Butts (1926) for geologic map of
the area. See McCalley (1896, p. 152—153, 158) and Butts (1926, p.
175) for description of the geology.

490—PC: Float from Lodgepole Limestone (Zone C1 of Sando and
others, 1969). Old Laketown Canyon, near center of sec. 32, T. 13
N., R. 6 E., Randolph quadrangle, Rich County, Utah. Collected by
G. B. Richardson, 1912. See Richardson (1941) for geologic map
and Sando and others (1959) for discussion of geology.

498—PC: St. Louis Limestone, at base. Outskirts of Maeystown, prob-
ably in bed of Maeystown Creek about 1 mi (1.6 km) southeast of
Maeystown in SW1/4 sec. 1, T. 4 S., R. 11 W., Selma quadrangle,
Monroe County, Ill. Collected by G. H. Girty, September 8, 1912.

499—PC: St. Louis Limestone, basal beds just above cephalopod bed.
Ravine in river bluff about 1 mi (1.6 km) southeast of Maeystown,
probably in SEl/4 sec. 1 or NE1/4 sec. 12, T. 4 S., R. 11 W., Selma
quadrangle, Monroe County, Ill. Collected by Weller and Girty,
September 8, 1912.

643—PC: St. Louis Limestone(?). On Tebo Creek about 1.5 mi (2.4 km)
east of Leesville, Leesville quadrangle, Henry County, Mo.(?). Col-
lected by W. P. Jenney, 1891.

Original locality data indicate that the stratigraphic unit was
probably the Cherokee limestone or Seneca chert of J enney (1894),
which J enney thought to be of Warsaw or St. Louis age. According
to Wilmarth (1938, p. 415), subsequent authors regarded the
Cherokee limestone as Boone Formation and the Seneca chert as
the Grand Falls Chert Member of the Boone. According to Wilson
(1922, p. 180), most of Henry County is underlain by the Cherokee
Shale of Pennsylvanian age, but the Burlington and Keokuk
Limestones are exposed beneath the Cherokee in the valley of
Tebo Creek.

Hayasaka’s specimen attributed to this locality is surely a St.
Louis Limestone form. Thus, the locality data may be erroneous or
the specimen may be a residual fragment derived from the St.

 

Louis Limestone during post-St. Louis, pre-Cherokee erosion.
There are no other specimens in the collection.

932A—PC: Float from St. Louis Limestone. In cut of St. Louis and San
Francisco Railroad in NE1/4 SE1/4 or SE 1/4 NE1/4 sec. 10, T. 4 N., R.
5 E., Kirkwood quadrangle, St. Louis County, Mo. Collected by G.
H. Girty, August 8, 1904. See Fenneman (1911, pl. 1) for geologic
map of the area.

970—PC: Alapah Limestone(?). 141st meridian, easterly spur from
ridge between headwaters forks of Incog Creek, about 2 mi (3.2
km) northwest from station 966, Table Mountain quadrangle,
northeastern Alaska. Collected by A. G. Maddren, July 1, 1912.

1148—PC: Float from St. Louis Limestone. 3 mi (4.8 km) west of
Tennessee, 111., in NW 1/4 SW1/4 sec. 19, T. 5 N., R. 4 W., Colchester
quadrangle, McDonough County, Ill. Collected by Henry Hinds,
November 22, 1912. See Hinds (1919) for geologic map.

1211B—PC: Oolite in lower part of St. Louis Limestone. Mosher quarry
(Ste. Genevieve Lime and Quarry Company) at Macy (Mosher Sta-
tion) about 2 mi (3.2 km) southwest of Ste. Genevieve on Illinois
Southern Railroad in T. 38 N., R. 9 E., Weingarten quadrangle,
Ste. Genevieve County, Mo. Collected by E. O. Ulrich, November
2, 1903. See Weller and St. Clair (1928) for geologic map of the
area.

1439-PC: Lodgepole Limestone, Woodhurst Member (Zone CI of
Sando and others, 1969). In low saddle on west slope of hill
(altitude 8,172 ft (2,490 m)) west of Georgetown Canyon, NW 1/4
sec. 34, T. 10 S., R. 44 E., Slug Creek quadrangle, Bear Lake
County, Idaho. Collected by G. H. Girty, November 11, 1914. This
locality was mapped as Madison Limestone by Mansfield (1927, pl.
6). Megafossils associated with the coral specimen are all compati-
ble with a Zone Cl determination.

1476-PC: Aspen Formation (Mamet foraminifer Zone 14). SW1/4 sec.
8, T. 5 S., R. 43 E., at altitude 6,650 ft (2,015 m) in point projecting
north from ridge south of Grays Lake, Lanes Creek quadrangle,
Caribou County, Idaho. Collected by E. L. Jones and G. H. Girty,
November 5, 1914. This locality was mapped as Brazer Limestone
by Mansfield (1927, pl. 4). The file card by Girty indicates “near
top” of the Brazer, but this locality is in a fault block, so the posi-
tion is doubtful. Microfossils in the collection indicate Mamet Zone
14, and megafossils indicate Zone E of Sando and others (1969).

2013B—PC: Greenbrier Limestone, Hillsdale Member, near base. In
cut of Norfolk and Western Railroad along Indian Creek 1.5 mi
(2.4 km) northeast of Cedar Bluff, Tazewell quadrangle
(30-minute) and Pounding Mill quadrangle (15-minute), Tazewell
County, Va. Collected by G. H. Girty, June 17, 1920. See Campbell
(1897) for geologic map of the area.

2020—PC: Greenbrier Limestone, Hillsdale Member, at base. Forks of
road 0.5 mi (2.4 km) southeast of Shrader, Tazewell quadrangle
(30-minute), Tazewell County, Va. Collected by Hamsberger,
September 1916. See Campbell (1897) for geologic map of the area.

2020A—PC: Greenbrier Limestone, Hillsdale Member, about 25 ft (7.5
m) above base. Same geographic location as 2020-PC. See Girty
(1923, p. 470) for fauna] list and description of the locality.

2222A—PC: St. Louis Limestone, 0.75 mi (1.2 km) northeast of Hicks,
probably in NE1/4 sec. 19, T. 11 S., R. 8 E., Equality quadrangle,
Hardin County, Ill. Collected by Charles Butts, 1916. See Weller
(1920, pl. 1) for geologic map of the area.

22220—PC: Same as 2222A—PC.

2226-PC: St. Louis Limestone. 0.75 mi (1.2 km) north of Big Creek
School, probably in SE1/4 sec. 21, T. 11 S., R. 8 E., Equality
quadrangle, Hardin County, Ill. Collected by Charles Butts, 1916.
See Weller (1920, pl. 1) for geologic map of the area.

2333-PC: St. Louis Limestone. Near top of divide near Allen Springs,
8 to 10 mi (12.8 to 16 km) northwest of Scottsville, Allen Springs

 

LOCALITY DATA FOR USNM SPECIMENS NOT HAYASAKA TYPES 41

quadrangle, Allen County, Ky. Collected by E. W. Shaw, 1917 . See
Moore (1963) for geologic map of the area.

3024—PC: Little Flat Formation (Mamet foraminifer Zone 14). NW1/4
sec. 13, T. 7 S., R. 40 E., altitude 6,650 ft (2,015 m), Henry
quadrangle, Caribou County, Idaho. Collected by P. V. Roundy,
June 29, 1916. This locality is mapped as Brazer Limestone by
Mansfield (1927, pl. 3). Megafossils in the collection indicate Zone
E of Sando and others (1969), and microfossils are Mamet Zone 14.

3159—PC: Newman Limestone, at base. 1.5 (2.4 km) mi northeast of
Cleveland, Carbo quadrangle (7 1/2-minute), Russell County, Va.
Collected by Charles Butts, March 1912. See Campbell (1899) for
geologic map of the area.

3282—PC: Hillsdale Member of Greenbrier Limestone, lower 50—7 5 ft
(15-23 m). In low hills and flats of the “little levels” within 1 mi (1.6
km) west and southwest of Mill Point, Marlintown quadrangle
(15—minute), Pocahontas County, W. Va. Collected by W. A. Price
and G. H. Girty, September 23, 1920. See Price (1929) for geologic
map of the area and Girty (1923, p. 456) for faunal list and descrip-
tion of the locality. The collection contains corals, bryozoans, and
brachiopods listed by Girty.

3283—PC: Hillsdale Member of Greenbrier Limestone, lower 70 ft (21.2
m). Limestone ledges at Mill Point in small hill (altitude
2,260—2,330 ft, 685—706 m) just north of residence of Mr. Wallace,
east of Stamping Creek and north of highway from Mill Point to
Buckeye, Marlinton quadrangle (15-minute), Pocahontas County,
W. Va. Collected by W. A. Price and G. H. Girty, September 22,
1920. See 3282—PC for further information on this locality.

3290—PC: Lodgepole Limestone, Woodhurst Member (Zone C1 of San-
do and others, 1969). Near Lime Spur, probably in sec. 17, 18, 19,
or 20, T. 1 N., R. 2 W., Jefferson Island quadrangle, Jefferson or
Madison County, Mont. Collected by D. C. Bard. See Chelini (1965,
fig. 5) for geologic map of the area. Collection contains megafossils
that indicate Zone C1 of Sando and others (1969) and algae that in-
dicate Mamet Zones 7—8.

3747C—PC: Peratrovich Formation, limestone and chert member (up-
per Meramecian). South shore of Shelikof Island at entrance to
Soda Bay, about on parallel 55° 15', southeastern Alaska. Collected
by G. H. Girty, June 9, 1918. See Armstrong (1970a, p. 29—31) for
discussion.

3760—PC: Peratrovich Formation, limestone and chert member (upper
Meramecian). West end of south shore of Madre de Dios Island,
southeastern Alaska. Collected by G. H. Girty, June 18, 1918. See
Armstrong (1970a) for discussion.

3856—PC (green label): McCloud Limestone (Lower Permian). Crest of
Limestone ridge 0.5 mi (0.8 km) north of James ranch in NE 1/4 sec.
22, T. 33 N., R. 4 W., Redding quadrangle, Shasta County, Calif.
Collected by J. S. Diller, July 5, 1902. The occurrence of
H eteroccmin’ia? gabb’i (Meek) and Omphalotrochus whitneyi (Meek)
in the collection confirm the McCloud assignment.

3858—PC (green label): McCloud Limestone (Lower Permian). 1 mi (1.6
km) northwest of Lillienthal, probably in NE 1/4 sec. 27, T. 33 N., R.
4 W., Redding quadrangle, Shasta County, Calif. Collected by
Stanton and Richardson, July 8, 1902. The locality was mapped as
McCloud Limestone by Diller (1906). The only other fossil in the
collection is Heritschioides? sp. The locality number was er-
roneously given as 3859 by Hayasaka (1936, p. 64).

3864—PC: Float from Lodgepole Limestone, Woodhurst Member (Zone
C1 of Sando and others, 1969). Unknown canyon on south side of
Little Rocky Mountains, Phillips County(?), Mont. See Knechtel
(1959, pl. 52) for geologic map of the area.

The stratigraphic level assigned to this locality is the only one in
which corals of this kind occur in the Little Rocky Mountains. The
canyon in which the specimen was found was said to be the one
containing the powerline to Zortman, but on recent maps of the
area, I can find no powerline shown in any of the canyons on the
south side of the Little Rocky Mountains.

 

3890—PC (green label): McCloud Limestone (Lower Permian). Summit
of Gray Rock Ridge northwest of road above Black Diamond mine,
probably in NE1/4 sec. 5, T. 33 N., R. 4 W., Redding quadrangle,
Shasta County, Calif. Collected by Storrs and Washburne. See
Diller (1906) for geologic map of the locality. Brachiopods in the
collection indicate a Permian age. The locality number was er—
roneously given as 3896 by Hayasaka (1936, p. 64).

3946—PC (green label): Probably from St. Louis Limestone of the
Mississippi Valley region. The specimen was said to come from the
Santa Anna Mountains, Orange County, Calif, which is an area of
post-Paleozoic rocks. It is a museum specimen attributed to Dr.
Steven Bowen of Los Angeles, Calif. The specimen has all the
characteristics of corals that are abundant in the St. Louis
Limestone of the Mississippi Valley region. The locality number
was erroneously given as 3446 by Hayasaka (1936, p. 61).

4801H—PC (green label): Little Flat Formation (Member B of
Brazer Limestone of Mullens and Izett, 1964). Probably in sec. 30,
T. 10 N., R. 2 E., Paradise quadrangle, Cache County, Utah. Col-
lected by E. M. Kindle, August 12, 1907.

This specimen was erroneously attributed by Hayasaka (1936, p.

66) to USGS Mesozoic 10c. 4801H, which is from the Monte de Oro
Formation (Upper Jurassic), “western portion of the Oroville plant
beds, north side of Feather River, 3 to 4 mi above Oroville, Califor-
nia.” Foraminifera in the specimen are Mamet Zones 13—15 (prob-
ably 14) and are Western United States species.

5892—PC: Madison Limestone (Zone C1 of Sando and others, 1969).
Ridge west of Holiday Park, probably in sec. 26, 34, or 35, T. 1 N.,
R. 8 E., Coalville quadrangle, Summit County, Utah. The collec-
tion contains megafossils that indicate Zone C1 of Sando and
others (1969).

5893—PC: Little Flat Formation (Member B of the Brazer
Limestone of Mullens and Izett, 1964). Probably in sec. 5 or 6, T. 9
N., R. 2 E., Paradise Canyon, Paradise quadrangle, Cache County,
Utah. Collected by E. Finch. The collection contains
Faberophyllum sp. (Zone F of Sando and others, 1969) and
foraminifers of Mamet Zone 14.

5894—PC: Float probably from lower part of the Mission Canyon
Limestone (Zone C2 of Sando and others, 1969). Crest of ridge east
of Old Baldy at altitude of about 9,000 ft (2,727 m), probably in sec.
26 or 27, T. 7 S., R. 3 W., Varney quadrangle, Madison County,
Mont. Collected by R. W. Richards. See Hadley (1969) for geologic
map of the area.

7130B—PC: Cobble in river wash derived probably from the Alapah
Limestone. Along Hulahula River, Mount Michelson quadrangle,
northeastern Alaska. Collected by E. de K. Leffingwell, February
1908.

7452—PC (green label): “Wells” Formation (this may actually be a
Mississippian unit related to the Humbug Formation). South end of
Cokeville Butte, just west of phosphate mine 1.5 mi (2.4 km) nor—
theast of Cokeville, probably in NW1/4 sec. 4, T. 24 N., R. 119 W.,
Cokeville quadrangle, Lincoln County, Wyo. Collected by G. H.
Girty, July 22, 1909. Foraminifers in the specimen are Mamet
Zones 18—20.

LOCALITY DATA FOR USNM SPECIMENS NOT

 

 

 

 

 

HAYASAKA TYPES
USNM No. Stratigraphic unit Locality
Acrocyathus floriformis floriformis

13669 St. Louis Limestone _____ Mt. Pleasant Iowa
71646 St. Louis Limestone _____ Rainbow Mountain, Ala.

[equivalent].
216206 St. Louis Limestone _____ Livingston, Tenn.

Acrocyathus floriformis hemisphaericus
8211 St. Louis Limestone _____ Monroe County, Ind.
98102 St. Louis Limestone _____ 1.25 mi (2 km) north of

[equivalent]. Cleveland, Va.

 

 

42

REVISION OF LITHOSTROTIONELLA FROM THE CARBONIFEROUS AND PERMIAN

LOCALITY DATA FOR USNM SPECIMENS NOT

HAYASAKA TYPES—Continued

LOCALITY DATA FOR USNM SPECIMENS NOT
HAYASAKA TYPES—Continued

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

USNM No. Stratigraphic unit Locality USNM No. Stratigraphic unit Locality
Acrocyathus floriformis subspecies undet. Acrocyathus proliferus—Continued
756 St. Louis Limestone _____ St. Francisville, Mo. 42845 ____do ________________ Scott County, Ill.
3779 Lower Carboniferous ____ Sugar Creek, Iowa 49941 ____do ________________ Clarksville, Tenn.
15526 ____do ________________ Near Prairie du Rocher, Ill. 49942 ____d0 ________________ Eddyville, Ky.
17071 ____d0 ________________ Clear Springs, Harrison 52681 Mississippian __________ Hardin County, Ky.
County, Ind. 60306 St. Louis Limestone _____ Eddyville, Ky.
17848 St. Louis Limestone _____ Kentucky 71647 St. Louis Limestone _____ Blount Springs, Bount
37466 ____do ________________ St. LouiS, M0, [equivalent]. County, Ala.
39654 ————do ________________ Elizabethtown Ky. 135085 Hillsdale Member of the Opposite Bishop High
42695 ____do ________________ Eddyville, Ky.) Greenbrier Limestone. School on Virginia
42766 ____do ________________ Clarksville, Tenn. glghyayvlfi, Tazewell
135092 ____do ________________ M c t 1 . , , 91m .7, a-
135094 ____do ________________ ngzfirs 032.232}, 2? Des 135087 St. Louis Limestone _____ 1 mi (1.6 km) east of
Moines River, near . . Rockwell, Ky.
St. Francisville Clark 135091 St. Loms Limestone _____ 2.5 m1 (4 km) southeast of
County Mo. ’ [equivalent]. Bandy, Pounding Mill
135096 ____do ________________ L' ~ t ’ ’ T ' quadrangle, Virginia
135097 ____d0 ________________ 1v1n1g):-on enn 135095 St. Louis Limestone _____ Eddyville, Ky.
135172 ____do ________________ Do. 135098 ____do ________________ St. Francisville, Mo.
135173 ____do ________________ Hillside north of South 135168 —-——d0 ———————————————— 0-7351“ g2 lfirln) east of
F k f l ' O um 1a, .
5 2;, (,3 15,1") 3333““ 135176 ____do ________________ Eddyville, Ky.
of Kingsport’ Tenn, 216201 -———d0 ———————————————— Maeystown, 111'
135174 Mississippian __________ Millpoint, Pocahontas 216207 ————d0 ———————————————— Llwngston, Tenn-
County, W. Va. 216209 ——-—d°—.————.— —————————— . d0: .
135177 St. Louis Limestone _____ Iowa 216213 Greenbrier Limestone ___ Right river cut, 1 m1.
135179 ____d0 ________________ Horse and Muddy Creeks, (1'6 km) northeast Of
Dade County, Mo. . . 02d” Bluff, V3"
135300 Mississippian __________ Elgin, 111 239233 St. Louis Limestone _____ 2 mi (3.2 km) northeast of
135301 ____d0 ________________ Caney Fork River, Dekalb M1115 Springs, Ky-
County, Tenn.
135302 St. Louis Limestone _____ Livingston, Tenn.
136704 ____do ________________ 0.
166604 Mississippian __________ Franklin, Ky. REFERENCES CITED
166605 ____do____T ____________ . D0.
216198 St‘ Lou1s leestone ----- 1 $110156 13181.?”ch Of Red Allen, A. T., Jr., and Lester, J. G., 1954, Contributions to the paleon-
Mlarshgsll 00:10:63, Ala tology of northwest Georgia: Georgia Geological Survey Bulletin
216199 ____do ________________ River bluff 1 mi (1.6 km) 62, 166 9-, 42 918-
south of Maeystown, 11], Armstrong, A. K., 1962, Stratigraphy and paleontology of the
216200 ____do ________________ Do. Mississippian System in southwestern New Mexico and adjacent
216202 ————d0 ———————————————— R‘gk Czeelfl’l Hancock southeastern Arizona: New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral
oun y, . . .
216203 Mississippian __________ Bloomington, Ind. Resources M99“? 8.’ 99 p., 12 p Is, 41 figs. . .
216204 ____do ________________ Slick Rock Creek, Barren 1970a, M1SSiss1ppian rugose corals, Peratrov1ch Formation,
County, Ky. west coast, Prince of Wales Island, southeastern Alaska: U.S.
216205 St. Louis Limestone _____ 2 mi (3.2 km) west of Geological Survey Professional Paper 534, 44 p., 13 pls., 30 figs.
.Ste. Genevieve, Mo. 1970b, Carbonate facies and the lithostrotionoid corals of the
216207 —--—d° ---------------- Livmgston, Tenn. Mississippian Kogruk Formation, DeLong Mountains, north-
216208 ____do ________________ Do. . . f -
216210 Mississippian __________ N ear F orbuss, F entr e ss western Alaska. U.S. Geological Survey Pro ess10nal Paper 664,
County, Tenn. 38 p., 37 figs, 14 pls.
216211 ____do ________________ About 1 mi (1.6 km) east of 1972a, Biostratigraphy of Mississippian lithostrotionoid corals,
Little Crab, Stand- Lisburne Group, arctic Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Profes-
'lf‘legnsltlgrsISeguadrangle, sional Paper 743—A, 28 p., 9 pls., 25 figs.
216212 Greenbrier Limestone 0 5 mi (0 8 km) southeast of 1972b, Pennsylvaman carbonates, paleoecology, and rugose col-
_" .Shrader Pounding Mill onial corals, north flank, eastern Brooks Range, arctic Alaska:
quadrangle, Virginia U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 747, 21 p., 8 pls., 16
216214 ____d0 ________________ Millpoint, Pocahontas figs.
0011th, W. Va. Bamber, E. W., 1961, Mississippian corals from northeastern British
Acrocyathus proliferus Columbia, Canada: Princeton, N.J., Princeton University, Ph.D.
841 St. Louis Limestone _____ Hardin County, Ill, thesis, 199 p., 14 pls., 1 fig.
4587 Mississippian __________ Gallatin County, Ill. 1966, Type lithostrotionid corals from the Mississippian of
37469 St; 11011.15 Limestone ————— Marion, Ky. western Canada: Canada Geological Survey Bulletin 135, 28 p., 4
37470 M1ss1§s1ppian __________ Saginaw Bay, Mich. plS
37471 ____ o ________________ Belleview, Mich. ' -
39655 St. Louis Limestone _____ Elizabe th town, Ky. Bamber, E. W., and Macqueen, R. W., 1979, Upper Carboniferous and
42667 ____do ________________ Eddyville, Ky. Permian stratigraphy of the Monkman Pass and southern Pine
42705 ____d0 ________________ D0, Pass areas, northeastern British Columbia: Canada Geological
42714 ____do ________________ Clarksville, Tenn. Survey Bulletin 301, 27 p., 40 figs.

 

 

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44 REVISION OF LITHOSTROTIONELLA FROM THE CARBONIFEROUS AND PERMIAN

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ed., Osnovy paleontologii [Fundamentals of paleontology]:
Akademiya Nauk SSSR, Ministerstvo Geologii i Okhrany Nedr
SSSR, Ministerstvo Vysshego Obrazovaniya SSSR, v. 2, p.
286—356, 23 pls., 108 figs. (English translation published by Israel
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Soshkina, E. D., Dobrolyubova, T. A., and Porfir’ev, G., 1941, Perm-
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Stensaas, L. J ., and Langenheim, R. L., Jr., 1960, Rugose corals from
the Lower Mississippian Joana limestone of Nevada: Journal of
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Stuckenberg, A. A., 1888, Korally i mshanki verkhnego yarusa
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paleontologii, novaya seriya, no. 12, p. 39—41, pl. 9.

 

 

 

 

  
 

 

 

 

 
 

 

 

 

    

Page

A
Abstract ____________________________________ 1
Acknowledgements __________________________ 2
Acroeyathidae ___________________________ 1, 5, 6, 15
Acrocyathus __ 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7,9,15,20,37
systems __ ___________________ 5, 16, 22
flomfmn1s __ ____________ 5,16, 17, 19, 20, 21
flom'fommw _____ 3, 5, 7, 16, 17, 41; pl. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
10, 11, 16
hemisphaericus ____ 3, 5, 18, 1.9, 41; pl. 12,13, 14
girtyi _________________________ 3, 5, 16, 21; pl. 17
y. 1 5, 21, 2s
1 J" " ,‘ 5, 22
[1331121711 ________ 5, 16, 22
penmylvanms _ 5, 8, 16, 21
mums _____________________ 3, 5, 16, 19,21;p1. 17
prol1fems _________________ 5, 16, 20, 42; pl. 15, 16
' _________ 5, 16, 21
5, 8, 16, 22, 23
________________ 5, 16, 22
utkae ________________________________ 5, 15, 21
'- 1 5, 16, 28
spp ___________________________________ 5, 17,
spp. indet _______________________________ 23
Additional taxa _____________________________ 39
A " Hum 1, 4, 6, 37
(Actinocyathus), Lonsdaleia _ ___ 1, 4, 6, 8, 19, 37
berthiaum‘i, Ltmsdakw ___ ___ 6, 18, 37

pemtmv’ichxmsis, Lonsdalew ______________ 6, 8, 37

 
 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

stelck1, Lo'nsdalem _______________________ 8, 37
Alabama ___________ - 3
Alapah Limestone ________________ 3
Alaska ___________________________ 3
all1sonwe, Pewhwis ______________ 39
(1,11an, Lithastrotion _______________________ 11

SA 1 L L H 7 f7: 5’ 7 11
amemam, L1thost1‘ot1o7wlla __________ 3, 13, 17, 23, 38,

pl. 3 4, 5, 6

ameMcanum, Lithost'rotion [Lithostrotionella] ____ 17, 18
J SA 1 1. r1. 1! 51 6, 10

511 1‘1" ,, 4 5,1039
s1mplex ___________________________ 5, 10, 59

s ,' r L "n m - 10

l. ‘ 1. ”W... n J .99
3177117122 _____________________________ 39
asoe'nde’ns, Stelechophyllum ___________-__ 5, 10: ‘99
Thysanophyllum ______________________ 39

1 5* ' l 1 " 5, 10, 39
Thysanophyllrum ______________________ 39

Aspen Range Formation ______-_____________ 3,26, 40
Astraea ____________________________________ 15
.” "is 17
astrmfmrw, Thysanophyllu’m ________________ 6, 37
astram'fimnu, L1thost’rot1orwlla ________________ .17

Lithost’rotitmella (Thystmorphyllum) ___
Aul1’m tub1fe'ra _____________________________
Autostylws ____ 1, 2,4, 5,617,15

 
  

   
 
 

tub1fems ___________ 3, 5, 7, 15
sp __________________________ 5, 15
uwenggmmis, Lithostrotio'rwua _ __ 39
Axinura camdens’is __________________________ 17

B

ba1j1'nens1s, L1thost1'ot1'mlla __________________ 39

 

INDEX

[Iialic page numbers indicate major references]

Page

baill1e1, Lithostrotionella _____________________ 27
Pemlax'is ____________
basaltifo'rme, L1thost1‘ot1071 _
banjfense, Lithostrommella

  

 
 

 
 

 
 

 

 

  

 

   

  

Stelechxyphyllum _______________ 3, 5, 10, 18; pl. 3, 4
banflensis, L1thostrot1o11 __________ 13
Lithost’rotwnella. __ 13
belmskwnsw, Petaluxw _____________________ 5, 25, 29
Petaumls mccoyam _______________________ 29
be'rth1'aum1, L1thastrot1‘on [L1thost1'ot1'o7wlla] _____ 37
Lousdaleia, (Actmocyathus) _ _ 6, 18, 87; pl. 20
besti, Pemlazis ____________ ___- 39
birdi, Lithost1'ot1'onella _______________________ 14
Swwchophyllum _______________________ 5, 10, 11;
brokaw1, Lithostrou'mwlla _ _______ 28
Petalaxis ____________________________ 5, 25, 28
C
California __________________________________ 3
canadense, L1thost’rot1'on _
”’ 5-3, Acc11mm
camdensis, L1thost’rot1o’n ____________________ 17, 19
cantabMa, L1thost7‘ot10nella (H1ll1'a) _ __ 31
cantab’r‘icus, Petalax1s ______________________ 5, 25, 31
Cw! ' r‘, " 8
castelnau1, L1thost’rot1'on _____________________ 17, 19
Litlmst'rotion [Lithostrotio'rwlla] _ 17, 19
L1thost7'ot1'omlla _____ _ 3; pl. 7, 8, 9, 10, 14
0214111271813, Lithostrotiomlla _ ________ 35
Petalmpis _____________________________ 5, 25, 35
changshunemis, Lithostrom'zmella ______________ 89
Cherokee Shale ______________ 40

 
 

 

 

 

   

 
 

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

China ____________________
c17"1m S" 1‘1 71
circinatus, Lithostrotio'n (Lithostrotiomlla) ______ 12
Lithostrot'imlla ____________ 19
Classification _______________________________ 4
cr - L n 8
Columnariina _______________________________ 5
confe'rtus, Petalamls _______ _ 5, 25, 33
confluens, L1thastrot1onellu __ ________ 12
crassus, L1thostrot1omlla __ _____ 40
cremulare, Cyathophyllum ____________________ 37
Cyathophyllum 019111111172 _____________________ 37
CystoLo’nsdalem _________ 1, 4, 6, 24, 35
lutugini ______________________ 25
portlock1 ____________________ 35
cystosus, Acrocyathus ____________ _ 5, 16, 29
Eolithostrafio’rwlla _______________________ 22
D
J ' L J ’ ' portlock1 36
d1latata, KLeopatm'm _____ 6
Kleorpat’r'irw. (Kleopatm'm) _________________ 38
Lithnstrotion [L11hostrot1onella] _____ _ 38
Diphyphyllum _______________________ 16 37
dobrolyubtwtw,Petalaac18 ________________ 6,25, 35, 36
darnbasswa, Lithost'ron'on [L1thost1‘ot1'1meua] _____ 27
L1'thost7‘otionella _________________________ 27
J ‘ ' P" 1“ 5,25,27,29
J 1 .13,P" ' 25,36
J ’1' 5 L J 7 ‘ 37
duplicatus, Emismatolithus M 11117213071323 ________ 37
Durhaminidae _________________________ 1, 5, 6, 3, 37
Du:L ' 8
dushanens1s, Lithostrotionella _________________ 39

 

 

 

 
  

 

 

 

 

 
  

 

 

 

 

 

 
  

  

Page
E
m, . A 1, 4, 5, 24
7, 35
elegantula, Lithastrotionella ________ _____ 39
elym1s, Easwnowes _____ 35
_ 25 35, 36
Endophyllidae ______________________________ 4
E J rL 11 1’ 4y 6
mm}. ‘ 1 ” 1,4,5,9, 16
9 A 22
y, L ' 2?
11581121711 ________________________________ 22
long182ptata _________ _ 12
701111 _________________________ 21
utktw __________________________________ 21
L' 1‘ 28
“ 1“f 11.3, A ’ ‘,' tubife'r‘us 3, 5,15
m, ,' L1thostr " ”n 18
n1 1 L l. H 5 10’ 13
Ensmtomhus M adrepmtes (11111211031113) ________ 37
M adrepmtes (florifmmls) _______ __ 37
2171112113, Petalax’is ______________ __ -5, 25, 3-9
221113, Petalams ___ 5, 25, 32, 33
91117118,Pemm1‘s __________________ 3, 5, 25, 28, pl. 19
F
Faberophyllum _____________________________ 40
fkamosa, Lithostrot’iomlla. _ ______ 27, 39
flexuosmn, L1thostrot1'o'n __________ ______- 27
L1thostrot1on [Lithostrofionella] ____________ 27
flemm.Petal<ms ____________ 5, 25,27, 29, 30 32, 34

 

flor'ifomius,Ac’rocyathus __ ___ _5, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21
Acrocyathusflonfo‘rmm ___3, 5, 7, 16, 17, 41, pl. 5, 6,
7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 16

 

 

 

L1thost7‘ot1'omalla _________________ 3, 13 17, 18, 20

I. .1 1 ‘ 37

flmfomw, Acrocyathus _____ 3, 5, 7,16,17, 41; pl. 5,

6, 7, 8,9,10,11,16

hemisphaericus, Acrocyathus __ 3, 5, 18, 19, 41; pl. 12,

13, 14

(flmfw’ms), Emmtolithus Modrepor’ites _______ 37

fom’iche’vi, Petalatc’is _________________ 5, 30

“Formenreihe” method _______________________ 6

fmn1che’v1',Peta.la<c1ls __________________________ 25

flamteeta,KLeopatr1m(Kleopatr1M) ____________ 38

P‘ . 38

fug1'nwto1', L1thost1‘ot1'omlla ___________________ 89
G

girtyi, Acrocyathus _________________ 3, 5, 16, 21;!)1- 17

Lithost'rotion [L1Lhostrot1'vmella] ____________ 28

L1thostrot1'onella _________ 3, 12, 19, 28; pl. 2, 17, 19

gmnde, L1thost'rot1o71 11

 

Swwchophyllum _____________________ 5, 6, 10, 11

 

 

 

  

gmwdis, Petalaxis ___________________________ 35
y. L I ,Am a ' 5,21,23
F‘nla'fl ‘ “ ” 23
Greenbrier Limestone ________________________ 3
Hillsdale Member ___________ _ 3
Granitville, Utah _______________ _ 3
groom, Petalax’is _________________________ 5, 25, 30
H

hem1sphaeMa, Lithostrofiornella __ 3, 12, 15, 18, 19; pl. 2,
4, 10, 11

49

 

 

50 REVISION OF LITHOSTROTIONELLA FROM THE CARBONIFEROUS AND PERMIAN

Page

hemisphericum, Lithostrotion [Lithostrotimwlla] ____ 17,
18, 19

hemisphaefi'cus, Acrocyathusflmformis ____ 3, 5, 18, 19,
41; pl. 12, 13, 14

  
    
   

   

Hillia, _____________ ___________ 1, 4, 5, 25, 39
minor _________________ 39
perapertuensis ____ ___________ 39

(Hillia), Lithostrotionella __ _____ 21¢
cantabritu, Lithost’rotio’nella _ .91
intermedia, Lithostrotionella ___ .91
pempertuensis, Lithostrationella __ 30
radians, Lithostrotianella ________ 31
santwemariae, Lithostrotimlla ____________ 31
wagnem‘, Lithostrotiomzlla _________________ 30

Hillsdale Member, Greenbrier Limestone ________ 3

hsujiulingi, Acrocyathus _ ____________ 5, 22
Lithostrotio’nella. ___ _______ 22. 39

Humbug Formation _______________________ 41

I

Idaho

Illinois _

 

 

 

 

 

 

J a P l 1 88
intermedia, Lithostrotia‘rwlhz (Hillia) ___________ 31
1'"th 1' , P ‘ ’ ' 25, 31
Introduction __________________________ 1
ivanmri, Lithastrotionella. ___ 39

Lonsdaleia ___________________________ 25, 25, 26

 

 

  
 

 

  
   
   
  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

J
jasperensis, Lithost'rotitm [Lithost'rotiomlla] _____ 12
Lithost'rolionella. 12
jiamoensis, Lithostrotitmella. 39
K
kennedyi, Petalazis __________________________ 39
Kentucky _________ _
1M" ’ ' ', Lithost'r _ 36
Kleopatn'mz ____________________ _ 1,2, 4, 5, 6, 3, 37
dilatata 6
uml‘ica 6
l. ' _ 6‘
(Kleopat’r‘ina) ____________________________ 38
dilatata __ 3E
flatateeta _ ____________ 38
uralica _____ ____________ 38
wuhooensis __ 38
(Po'rfierevella) ___________ 38
(Kleopatn'na), Kleopatrina _____ 39
dilatata, Kleopum'na _______________ 38
flatateeta, Kleopatriml _____________ _ 38
uralica, Kleopat'r'im _____________________ 38
wahooens'is, K leopat'rma __________ ______ 38
korkhouae, Petalax’is ______________________ 5, 25, 33
’ ‘" ‘ ,Lithostr " ” 38, 39
mamm, Lithostrat’io‘rwllu ________________ 39
Kuechow Province, China _______ 2
kunthi, Petalaxis ______________ 33
Kuznetsk Basin ______________________ 2
L
“8;; L 1 "P47 ______ 5,25,32
P 1 1 - ' I 32
1' 'l' ‘,A., a ' 5,16,22
Enli‘l- l 1' ”a 22
Lithostrotion _________________ 1, 2, 4, 9, 16, 20, 23, 24
ll ' 11
l “‘ L, 13
basaltifomw _____________________________ 1 7
J 1 7, 20
J ‘ 17, 19
‘ ’ ' 17, 19
" 27

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

   

  
 
 
  
 
 
 
     
  

Page

grande ___________________ 11
Mac-Goyanum __________________________ 34
, 34

' 15
mumillare ___________________________ 17, 19, 20
microstylum ____________________________ 1 1
r ,' ‘ 21, 22
Porrtlock'i _______________________ 34
prolifemm _ ______ 20
styhlxis _________________ ____ 31,
Sp _____________________ _ 14
(Lithost’rotion) __________________ _ 15
(Lithostrotiomlla) _______________ 16‘, 23
circinatus ___________________________ 12
occidentalis __________________________ 32
um'cwm ____________________ 2, 22
[Lithostratianella] _ ________________ 9
amflcanum _ ________ 17Y 18

berthiaumi _____ 37
castelnaui_ _ 17, 19
dilatata. ___________________ 38
27
2 7
9mm" _______________________________ 28

hemisphemm _
jasperensis _
micro. _______
mokomokokmis __

 
  

 

occidenmle _______ 3?
pennsylvanicum _________ 21
prolifemm ______________ _ 20
simplex _____________________________ 26‘
styltwis _____________________________ 34
tabulatum _________________ 26
tub’éfem __ _________________ 15
vesiculosa ____ __________ 32
[Thysanophylluml ___ ________ 9
mlarem ________________________ 14
(P £ 1 ' l 23
(Lithastrotion), Lithostron‘zm __________________ 15
Lithastrationella ________ 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, .9, 15, 16', 22, 23, 39
amnicana ____________ 3,13, 17, 23, 38; pl. 3, 4, 5, 6
astraeifo'r‘mis ____________________________ 37
awenggouensis ___________________________ 39

A ,

 

 

.1
bailliei ____
banflense _

 

 

 

 

 

 

  
  
  

     
   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

elegantula ______________________________ 39
er ,' ‘ ___ 1,9
flemosa _____________________________ 27, 38, 39
flonfo’mnis _____________________ 3, 13, 17, 18,20
fug’imotoi 39
girtyi ____ _____ 3, 12, 19, 28; pl. 2, 17, 19
hmisphaema _ 3,12, 15, 18, 19; pl 2, 4, 10, 11
hsujiulingi ___________ ______ 22, 39
ivanmn' _________ _ 3.9
jaspe’rensis ____________________________ 12
Jam '
In" I
l L

magma ______________________________
I l.
macaw/am ____________

major _____________
molwrem' ________________________________ 14
micro, ___________________________ __ 13, 39
microstyla _____________________________ 11

min, ‘ ' 12

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
  

 

   
  
 
 

 

 
    

 
 

 

 

Page
m 1. '1 34
a " 23
mm ____________________________________ 39
multiradiata ________________________ 3, 12; pl. 1
mm“- ‘ I In 3.9
M ‘ 1 ' 14
w 1 ' 31, 39
regulan's ______________ 39
pennsylvamica _____________________ 21, 23, 40
r a ’ ' 21
pemtrovichensis _________________________ 37
pinguis _________________________________ 39
prolifem ________________________________ 20
I
semngulus ____
shimn' __
simplex __ __ 3, 26; pl. 18
spimformis _______ ____ 86, 39
stylrm's _____________________ _ 31,, 36, 38, 39
uralica __________________ 39
talmlata. ____
4 ' In 1 IA: 29
mm ________________________________ 36‘, 38, 39
I L " 27
tubifem ________________________________ 3

 

 

 

 

     
 

 
 
  
    
  
  
 
 
 

vesiculosa ___________________________ 39

l" ‘ 38

sp _______________________ 15, 21, 28,39
sp. A ___ _________ 14
sp. B ___________________ 1!,
sp. indet ___________ _ 36
sp. undet ______________________ _ 39
(Hillia) _____________________ _ 24
cantab’rica __________________________ 31
intermedia _________________________ 31
perupertumis _______________ 30
radians ___ ________________ 31
suntaemam'ae __ 31
wagmn' __________ 30
(Thysanophyllum) astraeifomw 37
[Lithostratiomlla], Lithost‘rotion ________ 9

 

 

 
 
  

  
  
 
   
   

amen’cum, Lithostrotian ____________
berthiaumi, Lithoslrotion _____
castelnaui, Lithost’rotitm __________________ 17. 19
dilatata, Lithostrotion ___ _________ 38
danbassu'a, Lithostrotion _ 27
flexuosum, Lithastrotion 27
girtyi, Lithostrotion _____ _ ___ 28
hemisphen'cum, Lithoscron'on _ 17, 18, 19
juspe’rensis, Lithost’rotitm __________________ 12
micro, Lithostrotion _____________________ 15’
mokomokensis, Lithost’rotitm ______________ 28
occidentale, Lithostrotion __________________ 32
pennsylvanicum, Lithostrotion 21
prolifemm, Lithostrotion __ 20
simplex, Lithost'rot’ion __ 26
stykwis, Lithostrotion _______ 34
tabulatum, Lithostrat’icm _____ _ 26'
tub/ifem, Lithost’rotitm ___________________ 15
113st80., Lithost’rotion ___________________ 32
[Thysanophyllum], Lithostrotion ____________ 9
mcwreni, Lithostrotion ________________ 14
(Lithostrotianella), Lithostrotimt _________ 16, 23
circinatus, Lithostrotitm __ 12
accidentalis, Lithastrotion _ _ 32
unicum, Lithostrotitm ________ 2. 22
Lithostrotionidae ________________ ___- 1, 4, 5, 6
Little Flat Formation _ _________ 3. 13. 21, 26, 41

 

Locality data, USNM specimens not Hayasaka
types ____________________________ 41
lochmamze, Lithostrotionella __
SteLechophg/llum _____
Lodgepole Limestone _

 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 
  
  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Page
1 a. r A S” Lr‘L 11 510,12
Lonsdabeia ________________ 1,2,4, 5, 6,8, 16, 20, 24, 37
.l (1' 4 37
flomfomis _ ________________________ 37
1111111091 ______________________________ Z5, 35, 36
r a ’ ' 21
portlocki _______________________________ 25, .95
densicmms ________________ - 36
shimri _____________________ __ 22
(Actinocyathus) ____ _ 8, 19, 87
berthiaumi _____ 18 37,111. 20
pmtrovichensis __ __ 6, 8, 37
steicki _____________________________ 8, 37
(L J ' ' I 37
(Lonsdabeia), Lomdaleia ______________________ 3 7
L 41-14,, 4,5,6,“
L J 1' 9
lamiseptata. _______________ 12
lutugini, Cystolansdaleia _____________________ 25
M
macwyana, Lithost'rotionella _______________ 30, 34, 39
Petalaais _______________________________ 30, 34
major, Lithostrotiomlla ___________________ 29
WW],- .‘ 4 P l , - 36
m ’ ’ ' , Petalaxis 86
Mac- Coyanum, Lithostrotitm __________________ 314
macwyanum, Lithostrotian ___ .94

 

Weayanus, Petalaxis ___2, 5, 7, 24,25, 27, 30, 34, 35 36

 

   
 

 

 

 

 

 
 

 

 

    

 

   

mactmni, Lithostrotio’n _______________________ 15
Lithast'rotionellu _ 15
Stelechophyilum _______________________ 5, 10, 15

Madison Limestone ______________________ __ 3

Madrepo’rites (duplicatus), Eiismtolithus _ _ 37
(flmfmnis), Eiismxltolithus ____ _ 37

magm, Lithostrotiomua kuechwemis _ 39

major, Lithostrotiomlia mwccoyana ____________ 29
Petalazis __________________ 5, 25, 29

mamillare, Lithostrotio‘n _________________ 17, 19, 20

mamilla'ris, Ast’mea _________________________ 17

McCloud Limestone

, Petalazis
belinskmis, Petalaxis ____________________ 29
, Petalaxis 30
mbareni, Lithost'rotion [Lithostrotionelia]
[Thysanophyllum] _________________ 14
Lithostrotio’nella ______
Stewehophyllum ________________

M ’coyana, Petalwcis _________________________ 24, 311

~ :1 24, 34
7 ,5?" ‘" 5,6,10,11
Stylophyllum ___________________________ 1 1

Meridian Range, Mont ________ __ 3

micro, Lithostrotiorn [Lithostrotiomlla] __13
Lithost’rotionella _______________________ 1,3 19

microstyla, Lithostrotionelia _ 11

microstylum, Lithostrotion ____________________ 11
Lithost'rotioneua _________________________ 12
Stelechophyllum _______________ 3, 5, 10, 11 ; pl. 1, 2

micmm, Stelechophyllum ______________ 5, 10, 13

minor, Hillia ____________ 39

mim, Petalaxis _________
Mission Canyon Limestone _
Missouri ______________

 

 

 

 

 

 

mohikam, Lithostrotio’rwlla ___________________ 34
P 1 l 34

l. 'l n P 5 I ' 57 25‘ 34
moko'mokensis, Lithostrotion [Lithostrotimlla] ___ 28
Petalaxis _______________ 5, 25, 28
mmcyclica, Lithostrotitmella _________________ 28
" Petalazis 5, 25, 28

Moscow Basin _____________________ 2
mui, Lithostrotionelia ___ __-________ ________ 39
multiradmta, Lithost'rotio’nella _____________ 3, 12; pl. 1
14‘ ‘ l f” P J 1 ' 36

 

multiveswulata, Lithostrotitmella ________-____- 39

N

Namurian __________________________________ 3

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
 
 
 
  

 

 

INDEX

Page
N * ,L "w 24
Newman Limestone _________________________ 3, 40
niakense, Stelechophyllum ____________________ 10, 14
naikensis, Lithostrutiorwlla ___________________ 14
SA 1 I. (L 11 5

O
occidentale, Lithost’rotion [Lithostrotio’rwlla] _____ 32
occidentalis, Lithostrotion (Lithostrotiorwlla) _____ 82
Petalaxis ________________________ 5, 25, 32; pl. 20
ml ' Lithustl " " .91, 39
Petalaxis _____________________________ 5, 25, 31
regulmis, Lithost’rotionella ________________ 89
o" .1, TL, ‘L n 37
m’ ' ' Petalaxis 36

P
pecki, Petauwis _____________________________ 39
permsylvanwu,Lithostrotiomlla ____________ 21, 23, 40
Lonsdaleia ______________________________ 21
pennsylwnicum, Lithosnotitm ________________ 21, 22
Lithost’rotio‘n [Lithostrotioiwlla] ___________ 21
Lithostrotionella ________________ __ 21
pennsylvamlcus, Acrocyathus ___- __ 5 8, 16, 21
pempe‘rtuensis, Hilliu ______ __ 39
LithostrotionelLa (Hillia) ________ 30
Pemmm ____________ 5 25, 30, 31 32
Peratrovich Formation_ 3
pemtroviche'nsis, L1thost'rat1oneila ___ 37
Lonsdaleia (Actinothyathus) _____________ 6, 8, 87
w. u I Petalaxis 5, 25, 33
Petalaxidae _____________________________ 1, 4, 5, 23

Petalaxis _____ 1,2, 4, 5,6 7, 9, 16, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28,
29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 39

 
  
 
 

 

 

 
 

 

 

  

allisoww ________________________ 39
bailliei ___ ________ 5, 25, 27
belinskiensis ______-____-__ 5, 25, 29
besti ______ __-_____-_______ ___ 39
brokuwi ____________________________ 5, 25, 23
cantab'ricus ___________________________ 5, 25, 31

’ J ‘ 5, 25, .95
confer-tug __________________ __ 5, 25, 33
dobrolyubovae _____ , 25, 35, 36
dmbassicus ___________________ 5, 25, 27, 29
J . ,8 25, 36
elyensis ___________________________ 6, 25, 35, 36
w 5, 25, 33
94131974143 _______________________ 3, 5, 25, 28; pl, 19
exilis ___- _______________________ 5, 25, 32, 33
fleavuows __________________ 5, 25 27, 29, 30, 32 34

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

multiseptata ________________________ 36
orio‘ukensis ______ 36
maceoyanus ________ 2, 5, 7, 24, 25, 27, 30, 34, 35, 36
mjar ________________________________ 5, 25, 29
.7 29, 34
belinskie'nsis _________________________ 29

30

M’ cog/am _______________________________ 24, 34
"WW“ -__ ___________________________ 5, 25, 33
1.1. m. 81,,

“ ’ 5, 25, 84
mkomokensis _________________________ 5, 25, 28
5, 25, 28

cementum ______________________ 5, 25, .92; pl. 20

 

51

 
  

 

 

 

 
 
 
   

 

 

 

 

 

 

  
 

 

 

 

   
 

 

 

 

   
  
 
 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

Page
arboensis _____________________________ 5, 25, 31
pecki ________ 39

pempertuensis _
persubtilis ____________________________ 5, 25, 33
po’rtlocki _____________________________ 2, 35
radians ___ 5, 25, 31
mm" m 5, 25, 31
Ian 5, 25, 29
sibiricus _______________________ 38
simplex __ _ 3, 5, 25, 26; pl. 18
stymis ___ ___________ 5, 25, 27 , 34
suthe'rland1 __________________ 39
tamzams ___________________ 3, 5, 25,26, 27, pl. 19
‘ ' L ' 5, 25,29
" ' 36, 38
1 L 1' 25, 27
, 1 ‘ 38
’ Ms“ L ’ ' 32
vesmlosus _________________________ 5, 25, 30, 39
wagneii ______ 5, 25,30, 31,32
urymningemis_ 3 5 25 26,27 pl 18
6
36
(Petalazis), Lithostrution ________________ 23
Phylogeny _________________________________ 6
pilatus, Acrocyathus _________ _ 3, 5, 16, 19, 21, pl. 17
pinguis, Lithost'rotionella ___ ____ 39
Porcupine-Arctic section __ __ 3
(Porfie'revella), Kleapatrina _ 88
portlocki, Cystalonsdaleia _____________________ 35
L ,1 1m». 25, 35
P 1 1 ‘ 2, 35
S g’ ' 24, 35
densicionus, Lonsdaieia ___________ _ 36
Pwtlocki, Lithost’rotion _____ _ 34
pralifem, Lithost’rotionella _ 20
prolifemm, Lithostrotion ___________ 20
Lithost‘rotion [Lithostrotitmella] ______ 20
prol1fems, Acrocyathus _________ 5, 16, 20, 42, pl. 15, 16
P, A I ,1 1 ' 37
P, i , J ,. 37
P 1 J . J 1' 37
p‘ 1 ' 37
flutateeta _______________________________ 38

R

1' 4' s Lithost’r " 11,. (11111141) 31
Petamis ___________ _________ 5, 25, 31
References cited __ 42

 

Register of USGS localities, Hayasaka (1936)
Litiwstrotionella type specimens _____ 40

 

 

 

 

  
  
 
   

 

 

regularis, Lithostrotionella orboensis ___________ 89
rotai, Acrocyathus ________ 5, 16, 21
Eolithostrotwnella __________ 21
Rugosa ___________________________________ -’1 5, 6
S

St, Louis Limestone _______________________ 3, 20, 40
suntaem'riae, Lithostrotionelia (Hillia) _________ 31
Petalaxis _____________________________ 5, 25, 31

5 ~ (La ,, 14, 33
, In Liam, “ " 39
592117191113, Lithostrotiomlla ___________________ 29
Petalaxis _____________________________ 5, 25, 2,9
shimem', Ac’rocyathus _________ _ 5, 8, 16, 22, 23
Lithostrotionella _________ ___ 23, 40
Lcmsdakia _____ _ 22
sibi'ricus, Petalaacis -__ _____ ____--____- 38
simplex, Lithostrotitm [Lithostrotimwlla] ________ 26
Lithostrotionella _______-_______-____ 3, 26'; pl. 18
Petalaan‘s ______________________ 3, 5, 25, 26; pl. 18
SA! ‘LrL n ,, J 5,10,39

S ',." J " u» 20
spinifomis, Lithostrotio’rwlla _________________ 36, 39
Status of Lithost’rotitmella _____ 2

 

steleki, Lo’nsdaieia (A ctinocyathus) _____________ 8, 37

 

 

52 REVISION 0F LITHOSTROTIONELLA FROM THE CARBON IFEROUS AND PERMIAN

 

 

  
  
   
  

 

 

   

 

 

     
   
 
 
 
 

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Page

SteleChophg/llum ____ 1, 2,3,4, 5, 6, 7, .9, 16, 22, 24, 26, 39
J 5, 6, 10
ascendens __________________ 5, 10, 39
amplex __ 5, 10, 39
banflme ____________ _ 3, 5, 10, 13; pl. 3, 4
bird’i _______________________ 5, 10, 14
circimtum __________________ _ 5, 10, 12
ergunjaicum ________________ _ 5, 10, 13
grande ___ ___________________ 5, 6, 10, 11
lochmmw ___- ___________________ 5, 10, 13
lmgiseptatum _______________________ 5, 10, 19

' 5, 10, 15

molar-em _____________________________ 5, 10, 1/»
megalum __________________ 5, 6, 10, 11
microstylum _________ 3, 5, 10, 11; pl. 1, 2
micm’m ______________________________ 5, 10, 13

' ’ 10, 14
niakensis _______________________________ 5
venukofli ____ ____________________ 5, 10. 11
altaicu‘m _ _______________ 5, 7, 11
venukofii _ 5, 11

sp indet ___ ___ 5, 15; pl. 4
Stylaxis ___________________ 23
M’coyana. ___________ _ 24, 34
portlocki ________ _ 24, 35
Lithostration ___________________ __ 34
Lithostron‘tm [Lithostrationella] ____________ 34
Lithostrotiorwlla _ ________________ 31;, 36, 38, 39
Petalaxis ___________________ 5, 25, 27, 31:
umlica, Lithostrotionella 39

S‘ 1-1 1 L '14.»... 25, 37
Stylophyllum _______________________________ 9
n J 10

a , 11

1 I l. ' _ 38
venukofli ________________________________ 9, 11

S Li J I ‘ 37
S 1.1 .1 1 37
sulherlawdi, Petalaxis ______ 39
Systematic paleonmlogy __________ 8

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
  
  
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Page

T
tabulata, Lithost’rotio‘rwlla ____________________ 3, 26'
tubulatum, Lithastrotion [Lithostrotitmella] ______ 26
tabulatus, Petalms _____________ 3, 5, 25, 26. 27; pl. 19
‘ ' L ’ La, Lithostr “ ” 29
Petalaxis _____________________________ 5, 25, 29
Thysanophyllum ___ _____ 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 24, 33, 86, 39
J J 39
simplex _____________________________ 39
astraeifo'rme _____ 6, 37
orientale ___________ __ __- 37
(Thysanophyllum) astraeifmmis, Lithostrotionella 37
[Thysanophyllum], Lithostrotion [Lithostrotiomlla 9
melareni, Lithostrotion [Lithastrotiomlla] ____ 11,
timanicus, Petalax’is _________________________ 36, 38
ting'i, Lithostrotionella ____________________ 36‘, 38, 39
41 L 1, S‘a'rla,’ 38
tschucotica, Lithostrotiorwlla __________________ 27
tschucoticus, Petalazis ____________ 25, 27
tubifem, Aulim ___________ ___ __ 15
Lithostrotion [Lithostrotionella] _ _ 15
Lithostrotizmella ______________ _ 3
tubifems, Aulostylus ________________ 5, 15
Aulostylus tubifems ___________________ 3, 5, 7, 15
‘ “J uS,A ' ‘,' 3,5,15
tubifems, Autostylus _ _______________ 3, 4, 7, 15
Tuscumbia Limestone ________________________ 3, 40

U
L‘ ‘ , Petalaxis 38
Undetermined lithostrotionelloid corals _________ 38
umlca, Lithostrotionella 22
unicum, Lithostrotion (Lithastrotionella) _ 2, 22
Lithostrotiamlla _______________ __ 2, 22
um‘cus, Acrocyathus _____________________ 5, 15, 22
U.S.S.R. _ 16
umlica, Kleopatrina _______________________ 6

Kleopatrina. (Kleopatr'ma) _________________ 38

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

   

 

 

 

  
 
 
   

 

Page
Lithostrotionella _________________________ 38
stybaxis ___________________ 39
Utah 3, 40
utkae, Acrocyathus ________________________ 5, 16, 21
Eolithost’rotiomlla _______________________ 21
V
’ 157,3" ‘ FL," 5,10,11
S" Lrl H 'JJ,‘ 5,11
Stylophyllu’m ____________________________ 9, 11
11‘ 3‘1 Lrla” 5'7,“
’ ,J£,.S" ’ L #1," 5,11
vesiculam, Lithostrotionella __________________ 3, 13
vesiculosa Lithos trotitm [Lithostrotio’rwlla] _ _ 32
Lithostrotionella 32
vesiculosa 39
" " L ' Lo, Petalaxis 32
, Lithost‘r " ” 39
vesmlasus, Petalaxis _ _________ 5, 10, 30, 32
Virginia ___________________________________ 3
W
wagmm‘, Lithostrotiomlla. (Hillia) ______________ 30
Petalaxis _______________________ 5, 25, 30, 31, 32
wahooensis, Kleopam'na ______________________ 6
Kleopatn‘m (Kleopatr'ma) 38
Lithastrotionella ___ 38
Weber Canyon, Utah _ 3
“Wells” Formation _______________ 3, 26, 41
West Virginia ___________________ _- 3
Wyoming _________________________________ 3
wyo’mingensis, Pemlaxis __________ 3, 5, 25, 26, 27; pl. 18
Z
Zaphrentis _________________________________ 6
L"' Ac’r ,“0 5,16,23
Eolithostrotionella _______________________ 23

 

 

 

PLATES 1—20

Contact photographs of the plates in this report are available, at cost, from U.S. Geological Survey Library,

Federal Center, Denver7 Colorado 80225

 

 

 

 

 

PLATE 1

[All figures x 4]

FIGURES 1, 2. Stelechophyllum microstylum (White) (p. 11).
USNM 120244 (holotype of Lithostrotionella multiradiata Hayasaka). USGS loc. 490—PC, Lodgepole Limestone, Utah.
1. Longitudinal thin section, USNM 120244b.
2. Transverse thin section, USNM 120244a.

3, 4. Stelechophyllum microstylum (White) (p. 11).

USNM 162005 (paratype of Lithost’rotionella multiradiata Hayasaka). USGS 10c. 104—PC, Lodgepole Limestone, Idaho.
3. Transverse thin section, USNM 162005a.
4. Longitudinal thin section, USNM 162005b.

 

 

PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1247 PLATE 1

 

GEOLOGICAL SITRYEY

 

           

   

 

 
 

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STELECHOPHYLLUM MICROSTYLUM (WHITE)

 

 

 

PLATE 2

[All figures x 4]

FIGURES 1, 2. Stelechophyllum microstylum (White) p. 11).

USNM 161996 (paratype of Lithostrotionella hem
1. Transverse thin section, USNM 161996a.
2. Longitudinal thin section, USNM 161996b.

3. 4. Stelechophyllum microstylum (White)? (p. 11).
USNM 162003 (paratype of Lithostrotiomzlla
3. Transverse thin section, USNM 1620033..
4. Longitudinal thin section, USNM 162003c.

isphae’rica Hayasaka). USGS loc. 1439—PC, Lodgepole Limestone, Idaho.

girtyi Hayasaka). USGS loc. 3864—PC, Lodgepole Limestone, Montana.

 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

  

PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1247 PLATE 2

 

    

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STELECHOPHYLLUM MICROSTYLUM (WHITE)

 

 

 

PLATE 3

[All figures x 4]

FIGURES 1, 2. Stelechophyllum banfi‘ense (Warren)? (p. 13).
USNM 174372 (paratype of Lithostrotionella americana Hayasaka). USGS Loc. 713OB—PC, Alapah Limestone(?), Alaska.
1. Transverse thin section, USNM 174372a.
2. Longitudinal thin section, USNM 174372b.

3, 4. Stelechophyllum banflense (Warren)? (p. 13).

USNM 174374 (paratype of Lithostrotionella amem'cana Hayasaka). USGS Loc. 970—PC, Alapah Limestone(?), Alaska.
3. Transverse thin section; USNM 174374a. .
4. Longitudinal thin section, USNM 174374b.

 

 

 

PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1247 PLATE 3

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STELECHOPHYLLUM BANFFE'NSE (WARREN)?

 

 

PLATE 4

[All figures x 4]

FIGURES 1, 2. Stelechophyllum bomflense (Warren)? (p. 13).
USNM 174375 (paratype Lithostrotiorwlla americana Hayasaka). USGS Loc. 3024—PC, Little Flat Formation, Idaho.
1. Transverse thin section, USNM 174375a.
2. Longitudinal thin section, USNM 174375c.

3, 4. Stelechophyllum sp. indet. (p. 15). '

USNM 120239 (paratype of Lithostrotionella hemisphaem'ca Hayasaka). USGS Loc. 5892—PC, Madison Limestone, Utah.
3. Longitudinal thin section, USNM 120239c.
4. Transverse thin section, USNM 1202393..

 

 

 

PLATE 4

 

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STELECHOPHYLLUM BANFFENSE (WARREN)? AND STELEC

 

 

 

PLATE 5

[All figures x 4]

FIGURES 1, 2. Acrocyathus flomfomisflom‘formis d’Orbigny (p. 17).
USNM 120240 (holotype of Lithostrotiomlla americana Hayasaka). USGS Loc. 2333—PC, St. Louis Limestone, Kentucky.
1. Transverse thin section, USNM 120240a.
2. Longitudinal thin section, USNM 120240b.
3, 4. Acrocyathus flomfomisflomfomis d’Orbigny (p. 17).
USNM 174376 (paratype of Lithost’rotionella ame'r'icana Hayasaka). USGS Loc. 499—PC, St. Louis Limestone, Illinois.

3. Longitudinal thin section (cut slightly off axis of corallite), USNM 174376b.
4. Transverse thin section, USNM 1743763..

 

PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1247 PLATE 5

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

 

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ACROCYATHUS FLORIFORMIS FLORIFORMIS D’ORBIGNY

 

 

 

PLATE 6

[All figures x 4]

FIGURES 1, 2. Acrocyathusflomfomis flom’formis d’Orbigny? (p. 17).
USNM 162001 (paratype of Lithostrotiomella america’na Hayasaka). USGS Loc. 498—PC, St. Louis Limestone, Illinois.
1. Transverse thin section, USNM 162001a.
2. Longitudinal thin section, USNM 162001b.
3,4. Acrocyathus flomfomis flomfomis d’Orbigny? (p. 17).
USNM 120241 (paratype of Lithost’rotionella amem'cana Hayasaka). USGS Loc. 1211B—PC, St. Louis Limestone, Missouri.
Thysanophylloid variants in a polymorphic corallum.
3. Longitudinal thin section, USNM 120241b.
4. Transverse thin section, USNM 12024121.

 

PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1247 PLATE 6

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ACROCYATHUS FLORIFORMIS FLORIFORMIS D

 

 

PLATE 7

[All figures x 4]

FIGURES 1, 2. Acrocyathus flomfomt’sflomfomds d’Orbigny? (p. 17).
USNM 174377 (paratype of Lithostrotionella castelnaui Hayasaka). USGS 3946—
Louis Limestone, Mississippi Valley region.
1. Transverse thin section, USNM 174377a.
2. Longitudinal thin section (cut slightly off axis of corallite), USNM 17437 7b.
3, 4. Acrocyathusflomfomisflom'fomis d’Orbigny (p. 17).
USNM 120235 (holotype of Lithost’rotionella castelnaui Hayasaka). USGS Loc. 499—PC, St. Louis Limestone, Illinois.
3. Longitudinal thin section, USNM 120235c.
4. Transverse thin section, USNM 120235a.

PC (green), unknown locality, probably St.

 

PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1247 PLATE 7

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

 

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ORBIGNY? AND

ACRUCYATHUS FLORIFORMIS FLORIFORMIS D’ORBIGNY

ACROCYATHUS FLORVIFORMIS FLORIFORMIS D'

 

 

 

PLATE 8

[All figures x 4]

FIGURES 1, 2. Acrocyathus flomformisflomfomis d’Orbigny (p. 17).

USNM 161991 (paratype of Lithostrotionella castelnaui Hayasaka). USGS Loc. 643—PC, St. Louis Limestone(?), Missouri.
1. Transverse thin section, USNM 161991a.

2. Longitudinal thin section, USNM 161991b.

3, 4. Acrocyuthusflorifomis flomfomis d’Orbigny (p. 17).
USNM 161990 (paratype of Lithost‘r‘otionella castelnau
Limestone, Alabama.
3. Longitudinal thin section, USNM 161990b.
4. Transverse thin section, USNM 161990a.

i Hayasaka). USGS Loc. 346C—PC, residual chert from Tuscumbia

 

 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1247 PLATE 8

 

ACROCYATHUS FLORIFORMIS FLORIFORMIS D’ORBIGNY

 

 

PLATE 9

[All figures x 4]

FIGURES 1, 2. Acrocyathus flomfomisflomfomis d’Orbigny (p. 17).
USNM 161994 (paratype of Lithostrotionella castelnaui Hayasaka). USGS 2013B—PC, Greenbrier Limestone, Virginia.
1. Transverse thin section, USNM 16199421.
2. Longitudinal thin section, USNM 161994b.

3, 4. Acrocyathus flomfomisflomformis d’Orbig‘ny (p. 17).

USNM 161989 (paratype of Lithostrotionella castelnam' Hayasaka). USGS Loc. 2226—PC, St. Louis Limestone, Illinois.
3. Transverse thin section, USNM 1619893..
4. Longitudinal thin section, USNM 161989c.

 

 

 

 

 

   

       

PLATE 9

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PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1247

 

     
     

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ACROCYATHUS FLORIFORMIS FLORIFORMIS D’ORBIGNY

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

 

 

PLATE 10

[All figures X 4]

FIGURES 1, 2. Acrocyathusflorifomis flomfomis d’Orbigny (p. 17).

USNM 161997 (paratype of Lithost‘rotionella hem
Virginia.
1. Transverse thin section, USNM 161997a.
2. Longitudinal thin section, USNM 161997b.
3, 4. Acrocyathusflom'fomis flomfo‘r’mis d’Orbigny (p. 17).

USNM 161993 (paratype 0f Lithostrotionella castelnam' Hayasaka). USGS Loc. 3159—PC, Newman Limestone, Virginia.
3. Longitudinal thin section, USNM 161993b.
4. Transverse thin section, USNM 161993a.

isphaerica Hayasaka). USGS Loc. 2020—PC, Greenbrier Limestone,

 

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GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

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ACROCYATHUS FLORIFORMIS FLORIFORMIS D’ORBIGNY

 

PLATE 11

[All figures x 4]

FIGURES 1, 2. Acrocyathus florifomis flomfomus d’Orbigny (p. 17).
USNM 161995 (paratype of Lithostrotionella hemisphaerica Hayasaka). USGS Loc. 83—PC, Newman Limestone, Kentucky.

1. Transverse thin section, USNM 161995a.
2. Longitudinal thin section, USNM 161995b.
3, 4. Acrocyathus floriformis florifomis d’Orbigny (p. 17).
USNM 120238 (paratype of Lithostrotiomlla hemisphaem'ca Hayasaka). USGS Loc. 3283—PC, Hillsdale Member of Green-
brier Limestone, West Virginia.
3. Longitudinal thin section, USNM 120238d.
4. Transverse thin section, USNM 120238b.

 

PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1247 PLATE 11

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

 

 

 

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ACROCYATHUS FLORIFORMIS FLORIFORMIS D’ORBIGNY

 

 

FIGURES 1, 2.

3, 4.

PLATE 12
[All figures x 4]

Acrocyathus flomfomis hemisphaericus (Hayasaka) (p. 19).
Holotype, USNM 120237. USGS Loc. 1148—PC, St. Louis Limestone, Illinois.
1. Transverse thin section, USNM 12023721.
2. Longitudinal thin section, USNM 120237 c.
Acrocyathus florifomis hemisphaericus (Hayasaka) (p. 19).
Paratype, USNM 161998. USGS Loc. 932A—PC, St. Louis Limestone, Missouri.
3. Longitudinal thin section, USNM 161998b.
4. Transverse thin section, USNM 161998a.

 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1247 PLATE 12

 

 

ACROCYATHUS FLORIFORMIS HEMISPHAERICUS (HAYASAKA)

FIGURES 1, 2.

4—6.

PLATE 13

[All figures x 4]

Acrocyathus flomfomis hemisphcwm’cus (Hayasaka) (p. 19).
Paratype, USNM 161999. USGS Loc. 2222A—PC, St. Louis Limestone, Illinois.
1. Transverse thin section, USNM 161999a.
2, 3. Longitudinal thin section, USNM 161999b.

Acrocyathus flomfomis hemisphaericus (Hayasaka)? (p. 19).
Paratype, USNM 162000. USGS Loc. 2222C—PC, St. Louis Limestone, Illinois.
4, 5. Longitudinal thin section, USNM 162000b.
6. Transverse thin section, USNM 162000a.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1247 PLATE 13

 

ACROCYATHUS FLORIFORMIS HEMISPHAERICUS (HAYASAKA) AND
ACROCYATHUS FLORIFORMIS HEMISPHAERICUS (HAYASAKA)?

PLATE 14
[All figures x 4]

FIGURES 1, 2. Acrocyathus flom’formis hemisphaem’cus (Hayasaka) (p. 19).
USNM 161992 (paratype of Lithostrotionella castelnaui Hayasaka). USGS Loc. 2020A—PC, Greenbrier Limestone, Virginia.
1. Transverse thin section, USNM 1619923..
2. Longitudinal thin section, USNM 161992b.

3, 4. Acrocyathus flomfomis hemisphaericus (Hayasaka) (p. 19).
USNM 120236 (paratype of Lithostrotionella castelnaui Hayasaka). USGS Loc. 3282—PC, Hillsdale Member of Greenbrier
Limestone, West Virginia.

3. Longitudinal thin section, USNM 120236b.
4. Transverse thin section, USNM 12023621.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1247 PLATE 14

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ACROCYATHUS FLORIFORMIS HEMISPHAERICUS (HAYASAKA)

 

 

PLATE 15

FIGURES 1—3. Acrocyathus prolifem (Hall) (p. 20).
Neotype, USNM 841. St. Louis Limestone, Illinois.
1. Transverse thin section, x 4, USNM 841a.
2. Longitudinal thin section, x 4, USNM 841b.
3. Side view of corallum, x 1.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1247 PLATE 15

 

ACROC YATH US PROLIFE'R US (HALL)

PLATE 16

FIGURES 1. Acrocyathus proliferus (Hall) (p. 20).
USNM 216207. St. Louis Limestone, Tennessee.
Transverse thin section, x 2, USNM 21620721, showing crowdin
2. Acrocyathus flomformis flomfomis d’Orbigny (p. 17).
USNM 161994. Greenbrier Limestone, Virginia.
Transverse thin section, x 2, USNM 1619943., showi
corallum.
3, 4. Acrocyathus proliferus (Hall) (p. 20).
USNM 216209. St. Louis Limestone, Tennessee.
3. Longitudinal thin section, x 1, USNM 216209b showin

4. Transverse thin section, x 2, USNM 216209a sh
ciculate corallum.

g of corallites by profuse budding.

ng cylindrical tendency of some corallites in a predominantly cerioid

g cylindrical corallites in a predominantly fasciculate corallum.
owing prismatic tendency in crowded corallites in a predominantly fas-

4

 

ACROCYATHUS PROLIFERUS (HALL) AND ACROCYATHUS FLORIFORMIS FLORIFORMIS D’ORBIGNY

PLATE 17

[All figures x 4]

FIGURES 1, 2. Acrocyathus pilatus n. sp. (p. 19).
Holotype, USNM 162004 (paratype of Lithostrotionella girtyi Hayasaka). USGS Loc. 499—PC, St. Louis Limestone, Illinois.
1. Transverse thin section, USNM 162004a.
2. Longitudinal thin section, USNM 162004b.

3, 4. Acrocyathus giv'tyi (Hayasaka) (p. 21).

Holotype, USNM 120243. USGS Loc. 4801H—PC (green), Little Flat Formation, Utah.
3. Longitudinal thin section, USNM 120243b.
4. Transverse thin section, USNM 1202433..

 

4
(HAYASAKA)

PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1247 PLATE 17

 

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A'CROCYATHUS PILATUS N. SP. AND ACROCYATHUS GIRTYI

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GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

 

PLATE 18

[All figures x 4]

FIGURES 1—3. Petalaxis simplex (Hayasaka) (p. 26).
Holotype, USNM 120249. USGS 5893—PC, Little Flat Formation, Utah.
1. Transverse thin section, USNM 120249a.
2, 3. Longitudinal thin section, USNM 120249b.

4, 5. Petalaxis wyomingensis n. sp. (p. 26).
Holotype, USNM 120675 (paratype of Lithostrotiomalla simplex Hayasaka). USGS 7452—PC (green), “Wells” Formation),
Wyoming.

4. Longitudinal thin section, USNM 120675b.
5. Transverse thin section, USNM 1206750.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1247 PLATE 18

 

 

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PETALAXIS SIMPLEX (HAYASAKA) AND PETALAXIS WYOMINGENSIS N. SP.

PLATE 19

FIGURES 1—4. Petalaxis emiguus n. sp. (p. 28).
Holotype, USNM 162002B (paratype of Lithost'rotionella girtyi Hayasaka). USGS Loc. 3856—PC (green), McCloud Lime-
stone, California.
1. Transverse thin section, x 4, USNM 162002Ba.
2, 3. Longitudinal thin section, x 4, USNM 162002Bb.
4. Oblique view of corallum, x 1.
5—7. Petalaxis tabulatus (Hayasaka) (p. 26).
Holotype, USNM 120246. USGS Loc. 1476—PC, Aspen Range Formation, Idaho.
5. Longitudinal thin section, x 4, USNM 120246b.
6. Longitudinal thin section, x 4, USNM 120246c.
7. Transverse thin section, x 4, USNM 120246a.

PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1247 PLATE 19

 

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GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

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PETALAXIS EXIGUUS N. SP. AND PETALAXIS TABULATUS (HAYASAKA)

FIGURES 1, 2.

3, 4.

PLATE 20

[All figures x 4]

Petalax'is occidentalis (Merriam) (p. 32).
Holotype, USNM 143440. Coyote Butte Formation, Oregon.
1. Transverse thin section, USNM 1434400.
2. Longitudinal thin section, USNM 143440e.

Lonsdaleia (Actinocyathus) berthiaum'i (Merriam) (p. 37).
Holotype, USNM 132988. Unknown formation, Oregon.
3. Longitudinal thin section, USNM 132988d.
4. Transverse thin section, USNM 1329880.

PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1247 PLATE 20

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

. meuuor.‘

      

PETALAXIS OCCIDENTALIS (MERRIAM) AND LONSDALEIA

(ACTINOCYATHUS) BERTHIAUMI (MERRIAM)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Compositional Variations and
Abundances of Selected Elements

’ in Granitoid Rocks and
Constituent Minerals, Central
Sierra Nevada Batholith, California

By F. C. W. DODGE, H. T. MILLARD, JR., and H. N. ELSHEIMER

 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1248

A geochemical study of the lateral compositional
variations in granitoid rocks across the
central Sierra Nevada batholith

 

 

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON: 1982

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
JAMES G. WATT, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
Dallas L. Peck, Director

Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 82—600541

 

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, US. Government Printing Office
Washington, DC. 20402

 

CONTENTS

Page

Abstract
Introduction
Background summary
Analytical procedures ..
Elemental abundances and compositional variations
Rare-earth elements
Alkali metals and alkaline earths
Elements covariant with iron
Variations of other elements
Variations across the batholith
Variations relative to SiO2 .....
Conclusions
References cited

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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H...

 

 

ILLUSTRATIONS

Figures 1—17. Graphs showing:

Table 1.

«1630‘ng

1
2

3

01%

. Twelve representative chondrite-normalized rare-earth-element patterns of Sierra Nevada granitoids ................
. Rare-earth-element mineral-rock ratios or ranges of ratios for some constituent minerals of Sierra Nevada
granitoids .
. Potassium plotted against caesium and rubidium for Sierra Nevada granitoids ..........................................................
. Atomic proportions of large alkali metals in potassium-feldspars and biotites of Sierra Nevada granitoids ........
. Potassium plotted against barium for Sierra Nevada granitoids and constituent biotites and potassium-
feldspars
. Cobalt plotted against iron for Sierra Nevada granitoids
. Scandium plotted against iron for Sierra Nevada granitoids and constituent ferromagnesian minerals ______________
. Vanadium plotted against iron for Sierra Nevada granitoids
. Uranium plotted against thorium for Sierra Nevada granitoids
. Hafnium plotted against zirconium for Sierra Nevada granitoids
. Uranium and thorium in biotites, hornblendes, and feldspars relative to host granitoids ..........................................
. Total rare-earth elements plotted onto a line approximately normal to the axis of the Sierra Nevada
batholith
. Correlation coefficients (r) of total rare-earth elements and individual rare-earth elements relative to easterly
distance across the batholith
. Tantalum plotted onto a line approximately normal to the axis of the Sierra Nevada batholith ..............................
. Barium plotted onto a line approximately normal to the axis of the Sierra Nevada batholith ...................
. Selected elements and elemental ratios plotted against silica for Sierra Nevada granitoids ...........................
. Solid/liquid distribution coefficients of rare-earth elements for minerals of mafic and intermediate rocks ..........

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE S

 

. Neutron activation analyses of hornblende
. Neutron activation analyses of magnetite

Rock units and locations of the representative samples

. Elemental analyses of representative granitoid rocks showing compositional variation
. Neutron activation analyses of potassium feldspar

 

 

. Neutron activation analyses of plagioclase and plagioclase+quartz concentrates
. Neutron activation analyses of biotite

 

 

 

 

III

Page

3

9
10
12

Page
16
17
20
21
22
23
24

 

COMPOSITIONAL VARIATIONS AND ABUNDANCES OF SELECTED ELEMENTS IN
GRANITOID ROCKS AND CONSTITUENT MINERALS,
CENTRAL SIERRA NEVADA BATHOLITH, CALIFORNIA

By F. C. W. Dodge, H. T. Millard, Jr., and H. N. Elsheimer

ABSTRACT

Contents of several elements have been determined in 27 repre-
sentative granitoid samples from the central Sierra Nevada batho-
lith andain 36 separates of their major constituent minerals. The
chemical data confirm some previously established lateral composi-
tional trends and also demonstrate eastward increase in light rare-
earth elements and tantalum across the batholith. These variations
are attributable to the heterogeneity of the source regions from
which magmas were derived.

Continuous fractionation of ferromagnesian minerals throughout
the differentiation history of Sierra Nevada magmas is suggested by
systematic decrease of iron and a group of related trace elements
with increasing Si02. Chemical and mineralogical evidence indicate
that hornblende dominated fractionation when the magma con-
tained 55-72 percent SiOz, and at higher Sl02 levels iron depletion
reflects removal of small amounts of magnetite. Biotite was appar-
ently not an important fractionated phase. Below 72 percent Sl02,
several elemental variations are largely controlled by hornblende
fractionation, whereas above 72 percent both strontium and Eu/Eu*
drop abruptly indicating a shift to plagioclase as a controlling frac-
tionate. The low barium content of a high S102 leucogranite implies
K—feldspar depletion, and the rock may be a true eutectic granite.

INTRODUCTION

In recent years there has been increasing realization
that knowledge of the distribution of chemical constit-
uents provides important evidence for origin and
magmatic history of granitic batholiths. In the Sierra
Nevada batholith, which has been intensively studied
in a wide belt across its central part between lat 36°45’
and 38°00’ N., the gross distribution of its chemical
constituents is difficult to discover because the batho—
lith is made up of many differing plutonic bodies. For
this study, part of a continuing program of geochemi-
cal study of this batholith, the chemical constituents in
27 samples of granitoid rocks and in 36 separates of
their major constituent minerals have been deter-
mined. Analyses by neutron activation and X-ray fluo-
rescence have revealed the distribution of several ele-
ments, including rare-earth elements (REE) and
alkali metals.

Rock samples used in this investigation are from
carefully identified localities and were collected as
representative of mapped rock units (table 1). The

same samples have been used in many other detailed
studies of the batholith: for example, Hurley and oth-
ers, 1965; Kistler and others, 1965; Dodge and others,
1968, 1969; Piwinskii, 1968; Naeser and Dodge, 1969;
Bateman and Dodge, 1970; and the samples have been
previously analyzed for major element oxides and have
been studied petrographically.

BACKGROUND SUMMARY

The Sierra Nevada batholith is a composite of many
plutonic bodies ranging in outcrop area from less than
a square kilometer to several hundred square kilo-
meters. Individual bodies are either in sharp contact
with one another or are separated by remnants of meta-
morphosed sedimentary and volcanic rocks.

Several of the bodies in the central Sierra Nevada
have been grouped into intrusive sequences. Each
sequence consists of rocks emplaced during a single
intrusive epoch; field, petrographic, and chemical
data suggest that the rocks in each sequence are coge-
netic. Within individual sequences there is a chrono-
logical progression from mafic to felsic; the oldest
rocks have silica contents as low as 55 weight percent
and contain abundant hornblende, biotite, and inter—
mediate plagioclase. Successively younger rocks in
each sequence have increasingly greater silica con-
tents, lesser hornblende and biotite, and more sodic
plagioclase. The youngest rocks in some sequences
have as much as 80 weight percent silica, contain
abundant quartz, K—feldspar, and sodic plagioclase,
and are void of hornblende.

Lateral gross compositional changes across the en-
tire batholith are superimposed on the recurrent com-
positional variations within individual sequences. A
study by Bateman and Dodge (1970) of variation of
major chemical constituents showed clearly that K20
increases systematically eastward, suggested that
Fe203 and TI02 may also increase eastward, but that
FeO, MgO, and CaO may decrease, and indicated no
significant change in amount of 8102, A1203, Na20,

1

2 VARIATIONS AND ABUNDANCES OF ELEMENTS, SIERRA NEVADA BATHOLITH, CALIFORNIA

H20, P205, and MnO across the batholith. The oxida-
tion ratio [mol(2Fe203x100)/(2Fe203+FeO)] increases
eastward (Dodge, 1972a). In addition, the minor ele-
ments rubidium, uranium, thorium, and beryllium
have been shown to increase eastward (Dodge, 1972b)
as does the initial 87Sr/8“Sr ratio (Kistler and Peter-
man, 1973). Batholithic rocks generally range in age
from Triassic to middle Cretaceous (Evernden and
Kistler, 1970); however, the regional compositional
patterns are independent of age patterns (Kistler,
1974). The age succession, from oldest to youngest, of
the intrusive sequences mentioned in this report is:
Scheelite, Palisade, Fine Gold, Shaver (Taft Granite is
tentatively included with the Shaver), and John Muir;
the generalized geographic position, from west to east
is: Fine Gold, Shaver, John Muir, Palisade, and
Scheelite.

ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES

Rocks analyzed in this study were selected from a
suite of intensively studied samples. Separates of sev-
eral constituent minerals were prepared for analysis
from carefully sized rock powders of some of the same
rock samples by electromagnetic and density concen-
tration. With the exception of plagioclase and quartz,
which generally could not be separated from one
another, final sample purity of individual separates
generally exceeded 98 percent.

Rocks and major mineral phases were analyzed by
instrumental neutron activation analysis (Gordon and
others, 1968; Hertogen and Gijbels, 1971) for REE,
alkali metals, and an assortment of other elements.
Splits of 1.5 grams of rock powders, mineral separates,
and standards (U.S. Geol. Survey standard rock G-2
and synthetic standards prepared by mixing elements
with high-purity quartz powder) were irradiated for
30 minutes in the USGS Denver TRIGA reactor in a
neutron flux of 3x1010 n/cmZ/s, and then counted over a
4-hour decay interval using coaxial Ge(Li) detectors
(resolution 2.0 keV FWHM at 1333 keV, efficiency ~10
percent). The samples and standards were then irra—
diated for a second time for 8 hours in a neutron flux of
3x1012 n/cmZ/s and counted with both coaxial Ge(Li)
detectors and planar Ge(Li) detectors (resolution ~500
eV FWHM at 122 keV) after decay times of 7, 14, and
60 days. Spectra of induced gamma-ray activities were
stored on magnetic tape, and areas under photopeaks
were calculated and compared to the standards by
computer. A few of the elements determined by neu-
tron activation in this study have been determined on
some of the materials in other studies (for example,
Dodge and others, 1968, 1969, 1970; Greenland and
others, 1968, 1971; Wollenberg and Smith, 1968; Til-

ling and others, 1969); in general, agreement with pre-
vious analyses is satisfactory.

Rock analyses for Sr, V, and Ni were performed on
pressed cellulose powder pellets with a sample/cellu-
lose ratio of 85/15. Conventional X—ray fluorescence
techniques were employed utilizing an automated,
computerized X-ray spectrometer system. Results
were determined using previously established calibra-
tion curves for standard silicate rocks; the curves were
generated using multiple linear regression equations
taking into account various matrix effects.

ELEMENTAL ABUNDANCES AND
COMPOSITIONAL VARIATIONS

Rock analyses have been grouped in table 2 accord-
ing to rock type using the classification and nomencla-
ture recommended by the IUGS Subcommission on
the Systematics of Igneous Rocks and are arranged
within groups in order of increasing silica contents.
Mineral analyses of tables 3 through 7 are listed
simply in order of increasing silica contents of host
rocks.

RARE-EARTH ELEMENTS

REE data on the granitoid rocks have been normal-
ized to chondrite values summarized by Hermann
(1970). Twelve chondrite normalized patterns are
shown in figure 1. The patterns show an overall REE
enrichment and heavy REE depletion relative to light
REE. They are generally similar to those determined
by Frey, Chappell, and Roy (1978) for granitoid rocks
of the Tuolumne Intrusive Series of the central Sierra
Nevada, except for lower light REE in a quartz gab-
bro (CL-1) and a trondjhemite (ST-1) and the presence
of large negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu*, the ratio of
the actual chondrite—normalized Eu value to the
chondrite—normalized Eu value if there were no anom-
aly, of less than 0.5) in four leucogranite samples (FD—
12, HL-29, R-99, MG-2). Undetermined REE values
have been estimated by extrapolation using chondrite-
normalized diagrams. Total REE contents range from
74 to 250 ppm if the determined values are added to the
estimated values. La/Yb ratios range from 2.9 to 48,
but the ratios for three-quarters of the samples range
between 15 and 40.

Contents of REE in separates of major mineral
phases from the Sierra Nevada granitoid rocks are
generally somewhat lower than contents reported on
the same minerals from granitic suites in other regions
(for example, Towell and others, 1965; Buma and oth-
ers, 1971; Masuda and others, 1972), whereas REE
contents of Sierra Nevada accessory sphenes and apa-
tites (Dodge and Mays, 1972) are similar to those

REE ROCK/REE CHONDHITE

REE ROCK/REE CHONDRITE

Figure 1.—Twelve representative chondrite-normalized rare-earth-element patterns of Sierra Nevada granitoids. A, Plag‘ioclase-rich

ELEMENTAL ABUNDANCES AND COMPOSITIONAL VARIATIONS

 

1000 I

llITT

l

EXPLANATION

Sample number

0 CLA‘l
I WV-l
O ST-l

 

 

FlEE ROCK/REE CHONDRITE

1000

EXPLANATION

Sample number

0 MG-3
I JB-l
O FD-2

 

IIII lllil

 

 

B
‘ l I I L I I I l I I I I I I I I I I 1 I I I I I 1
La Ce Nd Sm Eu Tb l'Jy Tm Yb Lu La Ce Nd Sm Eu Tb Dy Tm Yb Lu
RARE-EARTH ELEMENTS HARE-EARTH ELEMENTS
‘00" I I I I I I If I I I I r _ "10° _ I I I I I I I I I I I _
,_ _ _ _
_ EXPLANATION EXPLANATION
_ Sample number Sample number
— O MG-l — — 0 HL-29 —
I BP-l I 93-99
0 FD-ZO O MG-2

 

 

| l l | l l I | l | l

 

 

La Ce

Nd Sm Eu Tb Dy Tm Yb

RARE-EARTH ELEMENTS

Lu

REE ROCK/REE CHONDRITE

o
o
--

 

 

 

 

La

Ce

Nd Sm Eu Tb Dy
RARE-EARTH ELEMENTS

granitoids, B, quartz monzodiorites, C. granodiorites, and D, Ieucogranibes.

Tm Yb

4 VARIATIONS AND ABUNDANCES 0F ELEMENTS, SIERRA NEVADA BATHOLITH, CALIFORNIA

reported from several granitic suites in other regions
(for example, Towell and others, 1965; Lee and others,
1969, 1973; N agasawa, 1970; Staatz and others, 1977).
As noted by Towell, Winchester, and Spirn (1965),
small amounts of accessory mineral impurities would
concentrate relatively large amounts of REE in major
mineral phases, and the bulk of REE in magnetites
(table 7) are probably contained in accessory mineral
impurities. The Sierra Nevada separates are as pure
as is practicable without resorting to acid washing.
Nagasawa (1970) has shown that, at least in zircon,
acid washing preferentially leaches the lighter REE.

The range of mineral/rock ratios for hornblendes,
K-feldspars, and sphenes, based on 12 sphene analyses
used by Dodge and Mays (1972) from the same rocks as
those analyzed in this study, and the ratios for a plagio-
clase are shown in figure 2. Ranges are not shown for
biotites, as only a relative few of the REE have been
determined, or for magnetites. The mineral/rock ratios
fall within rather limited ranges and are similar to
mineral/groundmass partition coefficients for REE in

 

‘°°°IIIIIIIIIIIII

lllllll

l

100
General range of 12 sphenes

I lllllll

|

 

Range of 7 hornblendes

l J

REE MINERAL/REE ROCK

Plagioclase
(SampleiCL-I)

lllllll

0.1

||l|l|||

Range of 7 potassium feldspars

 

,0, I I I I I I I
La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Y Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

RARE-EARTH ELEMENTS

Figure 2.——Rare-earth-element mineral-rock ratios or ranges of
ratios for some constituent minerals of Sierra Nevada
granitoids.

dacitic volcanic rocks (for example, Higuchi and
Nagasawa, 1969; Schnetzler and Philpotts, 1970;
Nagasawa and Schnetzler, 1971; Arth and Barker,
1976).

ALKALI METALS AND ALKALINE EARTHS

Sodium in the granitoid rocks shows little relation to
the other alkalis. Bateman and Dodge (1970) showed
Na20 ranged from less than 2 to over 5 weight percent
in 193 samples of Sierra Nevada granitoids, but 80
percent of the samples contained between 3 and 4 per-
cent N ago. The 27 rock samples of the study have Na20
within or very near the 3 to 4 percent range.

The relation between K and the two less abundant
large alkali metals, Rb and Cs, is shown in figure 3.
Potassium ranges a full magnitude from 0.484 to 4.01
weight percent (0.583483 percent K20), Rb from 13.8
to 182 ppm, though not determined in the least potassic
sample (CL-1), and Cs from 1.10 to 8.56 ppm. Rubid-
ium varies positively with K throughout the entire
suite, as shown previously by Dodge, Fabbi, and Ross
( 1970) and Kistler and Peterman (1973) for Sierra
Nevada granitoid rocks. Although there is considera-
ble scatter in the K-Cs plot, it is apparent that the
relationship of Cs to K is quite different from that of Rb
to K. In low K samples, Cs is low, but tends to increase
with increasing K to a maximum at 2 weight percent
K, then abruptly decreases at higher K contents.

Relative contents of the three large alkali metals in
K—feldspar and biotites, which contain the bulk of
these elements in the granitoid rocks, are shown in
figure 4. Rubidium is concentrated in biotite (498—
1,740 ppm) relative to K—feldspar (212-468 ppm), and
Cs is even more relatively concentrated in the biotite
(10.1 to 157 ppm) compared to K-feldspar (1.15 to 5.70
ppm); similar relations have been reported by Carron
and Lagache (1972) and Bernotat, Carron, and Lag—
ache (1976) among others. The dropoff of Cs in rocks
with high K contents reflects the decreasing amounts
of biotite contained in these rocks, an effect probably
present but not so pronounced for Rb.

Barium, generally thought to be characterized by its
ability to substitute for K, shows a rather poor correla-
tion with K (fig. 5). Bateman and Chappell (1979) have
also noted that Ba, which they expected to follow K, is
unexpectedly erratic in its behavior in the Tuolumne
Intrusive Series of the central Sierra Nevada. Of the
two potassic minerals, K-feldspar and biotite, Ba tends
to be much more highly concentrated in the former
(fig. 5). K-feldspar has an average K/Ba ratio of only
28, whereas biotite has an average ratio of 94, and if a
single biotite which does not coexist with K-feldspar is
excluded, the ratio is even greater at 100. The presence
of significant amounts of Ba in both hornblende and

ELEMENTAL ABUNDANCES AND COMPOSITIONAL VARIATIONS

 

 

 

 

10 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I f _
_ v a —
v 3V W V v A AAAA
- V VW V v a AAA ‘
Iz— V V v AA A
LLI _.
E ’ v ‘7 V [AA A
E A
I— Vv A
I
L9
LLI
3 1.0 — —_
E : _
S _ _
9 _
a v A _
E v
‘L ‘ EXPLANATION
— V Caesium —
A Rubidium
I l I l I I I I I l I l I I I I I I I I l I I I I I
0'110 10 100 1000

CAESIUM, RUBIDIUM, IN PARTS PER MILLION

Figure 3,—Potassium plotted against caesium and rubidium for Sierra Nevada granitoids.

plagioclase may help account for the rather poor corre-
lation of Ba with K.

Evernden and Kistler (1970) and Kistler and Peter-
man (1973) recorded a range of 86 to 764 ppm Sr and of
0.14 to 2.14 Rb/Sr for Sierra Nevada granitoid rocks.
With the exception of a leucogranite sample with 42
ppm Sr and 4.14 Rb/Sr, all samples of this study are
within these ranges. We do not present data for Sr in
mineral analyses herein; however, relatively low Sr
values of 16-65 ppm have been reported for horn—
blendes (Dodge and others, 1968) and of less than 6-28
ppm for biotites (Hurley and others, 1965; Dodge and
others, 1969) from granitoids of the central Sierra
Nevada. These values were determined on many of the
same mineral separates analyzed in the present study.
In addition, the following Sr values have been deter-
mined spectrographically on four of the K-feldspars of
table 6 (R. E. Mays, written commun.)z HL-29, 40 ppm;
BP-l, 120 ppm; MG-l, 150 ppm; MG-3, 240 ppm. Thus,
the major rock-forming minerals, hornblende, ,biotite,
and K-feldspar, all have considerably lower Sr con-
tents than their respective host rocks, and the bulk of
the Sr in the granitoids is believed to be contained in
plagioclase feldspar.

ELEMENTS COVARIANT WITH IRON

Several elements, including Sc, V, Cr, Mn, Co, and

Ni, show a high positive correlation with Fe (7" = 0.6)
and are largely concentrated in the ferromagnesian
minerals. The plot of Co against Fe (fig. 6) and Sc
against Fe (fig. 7) in the granitoids illustrates the close
relations between these elements exceptionally well.
Vanadium shows two distinctly different, though
strongly positive, trends relative to Fe (fig. 8). The
reason for the divergent V trends is not clear.

Although these elements are concentrated in the
ferromagnesian minerals, consistent strong partition-
ing of the elements between coexisting individual fer-
romagnesian minerals is shown only by Cr, which is
generally concentrated in magnetite, and importantly
by So, which is enriched in hornblende, concentrated
to a lesser extent in biotite. and impoverished in mag—
netite (fig. 7). This partitioning is further shown by the
greater Sc contents of hornblende—bearing rocks rela—
tive to hornblende—free rocks. Interestingly, biotites
that do not coexist with hornblendes have greater Sc
contents than those that do. Vanadium and Ni were
determined only on whole rocks in this study; however,
previous work on constituent biotites and hornblendes
(Dodge and others, 1968, 1969) show little partitioning
of these elements.

VARIATIONS OF OTHER ELEMENTS

Of the potpourri of remaining determined elements,

Potassiumx0.01

 
  
  
 
   

EXPLANATION
+ B iotite

[1 Potassium feldspar

V

Rubidium Caesium X 100

Figure 4.—Atomic proportions of large alkali metals in potassium
feldspars and biotites of Sierra Nevada granitoids.

100

VARIATIONS AND ABUNDANCES OF ELEMENTS, SIERRA NEVADA BATHOLITH, CALIFORNIA

U and Th (fig. 9) and Zr and Hf (fig. 10) are geochemi-
cally coherent pairs.

Uranium and Th contents and the U/Th ratios of the
analyzed rocks are similar to those determined by Wol-
lenberg and Smith (1968) on numerous samples from
the central Sierra Nevada batholith. Feldspars tend to
contain less Th relative to their host rocks than do
biotites or hornblendes, whereas U contents normal-
ized to host granitoid rocks for all these minerals show
no consistent differences (fig. 11). The bulk of the U
and Th in these rocks is undoubtedly concentrated in
accessory phases, particularly zircon, sphene, allanite,
and monazite (Wollenberg, 1973).

Theer/Hf ratio of the granitoids falls in a limited
range from 35 to 60. The bulk of the Zr is believed to be
present in accessory zircon, and Zr values are not given
for mineral separates. It is of interest that Hf contents
of hornblende generally exceed those of biotite by
nearly an order of magnitude; a single exception is a
biotite (ST-1) which contains appreciable Hf and does
not coexist with hornblende.

 

lllll

llllll

I

POTASSIUM, IN WEIGHT PERCENT

 

llll

llIlli

l

EXPLANATION

+ Biotite

Illlli

a Whole rock

El Potassium feldspar

 

 

'100

1000

BARIUM, IN PARTS PER MILLION

Figure 5.—Potassium plotted against barium for Sierra Nevada granitoids and constituent biotites and potassium feldspars.

COBALT, IN PARTS PER MILLION

SCANDIUM, IN PARTS PER MILLION

ELEMENTAL ABUNDANCES AND COMPOSITIONAL VARIATIONS

 

 

 

 

100 l l I llllll I I I lll|l_
_ x _
_ xxxx .

x

10.— R’xx ‘2
- ,5 x I
Z x _
- x _
_ xx .
_ x _
_ x -.

x
Ir x —:
I x x I
- x _

0'1 . I I
0.1 ‘I 10

IRONI IN WEIGHT PERCENT

Figure 6.—Cobalt plotted against iron for Sierra Nevada

VANADIUM, IN PARTS PER MILLION

1000

100

 

I I ll'll'T]

I lllllll

 

III I III

 

 

0,1

IRON, IN WEIGHT PERCENT

Figure 8.—Vanadium plotted against iron for Sierra Nevada

 

 

 

 

granitoids. granitoids.
1000 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I _
_ EXPLANATION _
‘ III Biotite without hornblende ‘
— I Biotite accompanying hornblende ‘
O Hornblende-free granitoid rocks :2
, x
100 — X _
_ X Hornblende x xx _
._ D _.
_ . Hornblende granitoid rocks _
_ + Magnetite _
_ . I:I _
I
3 ' _
I 53
'°' II
10 — C o —
Z 0 I _
_ ~ . _‘
_ . _
_ . _
I— .. _
_ O O _
O O
_ O _
0 I
O +
1 I | I I I I I I I I I l I I I I I I | I I I I I I I
0.1 'I 10 100

IRON, IN WEIGHT PERCENT

Figure 7.—Scandium plotted against iron for Sierra Nevada granitoids and constituent ferromagnesian minerals.

 

 

 

 

100_ I | I IIIIII I l I lllll:

z ' :

Q .

3 ~ -

S x

5105-- x xxx x .21

u. 2 I

,,, - aflk .
_ X _

I; x x

at ‘ ‘ § * ‘

E x

2“:— x —:

:> - _

z I I

< _ _

I:

D _

0., . ......I .
1 10 100

THORIUM, IN PARTS PER MILLION

Figure 9.—Uranium plotted against thorium for Sierra Nevada
granitoids.

 

10 ...IIIIII I ....r

HAFNIUM, IN PARTS PER MILLION

 

 

10 100 1000
ZIRCONIUM, IN PARTS PER MILLION

 

Figure 10.—Hafnium plotted against zirconium for Sierra
Nevada granitoids.

 

I .I......l 1 IIIIIIII Y lllllll

llllll
+
D

+ :
++ ° EXPLANATION -

Plagioclase (:quartz)

rllllll

Potassium feldspar -

Biotite

OU+x

Hornblende

URANIUM IN MINERAL/URANIUM IN ROCK
O
I
U
I

 

 

0‘0, . I . I ....
0.001 0.01 0.1 1
THORIUM IN MINERAL/THORIUM IN ROCK

 

Figure 11.—Uranium and thorium in biotites, hornblendes, and
feldspars relative to host granitoids.

VARIATIONS AND ABUNDANCES 0F ELEMENTS, SIERRA NEVADA BATHOLITH, CALIFORNIA

Distribution of Ta in Sierra Nevada granitoids is
similar to its distribution in rocks of the southern Cali-
fornia batholith (Gottfried and Dinnin, 1965); how-
ever, overall the element is more abundant in the Sier-
ran rocks, ranging from about 0.2 ppm in two plagio-
clase-rich granitoids to more than 2 ppm in a leuco-
granite. Hornblende generally contains greater
amounts of Ta than coexisting biotite although biotites
from hornblende-free rocks are especially enriched in
the element.

Antimony, which ranges from less than 0.1 to more
than 1.0 ppm in the granitoids, shows little relation to
other determined elements. Greatest Sb contents are
in hornblendes, and, unlike Ta, biotites from horn-
blende-free rocks are not enriched in Sb.

VARIATIONS ACROSS THE BATHOLITH

Previous workers (Wollenberg and Smith, 1968;
Bateman and Dodge, 1970; Dodge and others, 1970;
Dodge, 1972a, b; Kistler and Peterman, 1973) have
demonstrated eastward increase in K, Rb, U, Th, Be,
and the initial 87Sr/S‘SSr ratio and the oxidation ratio,
that is, the molecular ratio (2F8203X100)/(2F6203+
FeO), across the central Sierra Nevada batholith.
Although our data are limited to a few samples, they
confirm some of these trends and indicate others may
be coexistent.

The most important other geographic trend is that of
total REE. In figure 12, the total REE, including
values estimated from chondrite-normalized dia-
grams, are plotted onto a line which crosses the batho-
lith approximately normal to its axis. Although there
is some scatter, total REE clearly increases gradually
from an average of about 80 ppm in the western Sierra

300

 

_,

250

+ ++ ++

N
o
o
Illlllllllllllllllll
+

IN PARTS PER MILLION
a“ a
O O

4,

TOTAL RARE-EARTH ELEMENTS,
+

01
O

O IITI'I

 

IIIIIJIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

I..l

40 80
DISTANCE ACROSS BATHOLITH, IN KILOMETERS

 

 

N
O

Figure 12.——Total rare-earth elements plotted onto a line
approximately normal to the axis of the Sierra Nevada
batholith.

ELEMENTAL ABUNDANCES AND COMPOSITIONAL VARIATIONS 9

Nevada foothills to over 160 ppm in the eastern part of
the batholith. Of the 14 REE, the lightest 2, La and Ce,
constitute from one- to two-thirds of the total REE of
the granitoids. Thus, the light REE dominate the total
REE, and the trend is basically a reflection of varia-
tion in contents of light REE. This dominance is
graphically illustrated in figure 13, where correlation
coefficients of contents of individual REE are plotted
relative to easterly distance across the batholith. The
light REE show a high positive degree of correlation,
the intermediate REE a poor correlation with Eu
being slightly negative, and the heavy REE show pro-
gressively higher positive correlation coefficients.
La/Yb ratios, a measure of REE fractionation, and
Eu/Eu* ratios show considerable scatter and no clearly
discernible trends when projected onto a line crossing
the batholith.

Tantalum also clearly increases eastward even
though there is considerable scatter in the data (fig.
14). Barium does not show a clear trend completely
across the batholith, but two samples suggest a sharp
decrease of the element on the extreme west side of the
batholith (fig. 15). A third low-Ba sample on the east
side of the batholith probably has no geographic signif-
icance; it is discussed further in the following sections.

VARIATIONS RELATIVE TO SiO2

To further investigate compositional variations, K,
Rb, Cs, Sr, Ba, Sc, Fe, total REE, and the ratios La/Yb

 

0.7

VLF

0.4

H 0.3

0.2

I
Tota| rare-earth elements
1

0.1 - ..

La Ce Pr Nd Sm lGd Tley v Ho E
o
lEul

RARE-EARTH ELEMENTS

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Tm Yb Lu

 

 

 

 

‘0]

Figure 13.—Correlation coefficients (r) of total rare-earth
elements and individual rare-earth elements relative to
easterly distance across the batholith.

and Eu/Eu* have been plotted against Sl02, an index
of differentiation in granitoid rocks (fig. 16). Horn-
blende-free and hornblende-bearing rocks have been
distinguished on the plots; hornblende, which de-
creases as silica increases, is absent in rocks with more
than 70-72 percent silica.

Several of the elements and elemental ratios show
fundamental changes in trends at about 72 percent
Sl02. One of the most pronounced changes is shown by
Sr, which displays considerable scatter and no dis-
cernible trend at Si02 values below 72 percent, but
between 72 and 74 percent Si02 it drops abruptly from
values greater than 300 ppm to less than 200 ppm and
decreases to less than 100 ppm at 80 percent SiOg. The
Eu/Eu* ratio is relatively constant, but with scatter,
from 55 to 72 percent Si02, generally ranging from 0.6
to 1.0, then drops abruptly above 72 percent Si02 to

 

 

 

25 ""|""|""l""l""|""l""|""|"”I'”'l'"'|""|""l""l"r'
2,25.— :
I + I
Z 2.“ —_
9 3 :
S 1.75:— + —:1
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g 125_— + + + _
z ‘ + ++ E
g 1— + + + _
3 : + + + E
E 0.75? + + + —:
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0.25 ‘—+ + __
: + _
:llllllllllllllllI1llll|lllllllllllIllIllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll:

 

O

0 8 16 24 32 40 4B 56 64 72 80 88

DISTANCE ACROSS BATHOLITH, IN KILOMETEHS

96 104 HZ 120

Figure 14.—Tantalum plotted onto a line approximately normal to
the axis of the Sierra Nevada batholith.

 

 

 

 

2000 ""I""l""|""l""l""|""l""l""|""|""l' "I""|""l"
g 1500— + —
3 _
E - + +
m
m - + + .
E 1000— + + i ——
CL - + _
E — ++ +
. + + + + +
g - + + +
a + + +
a 500—— —
_+
+
0 ....|....l....l....|....l....l....|1...l....|....|....l....|..i.l....
0 8 15 74 37 40 48 56 54 72 00 88 95 104 H? 120

DlSTANCE ACROSS BATHOUTH, lN KlLOMETERS

Figure 15.~Barium plotted onto a line approximately normal to
the axis of the Sierra Nevada batholith.

10 VARIATIONS AND ABUNDANCES OF ELEMENTS, SIERRA NEVADA BATHOLITH, CALIFORNIA

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

50,000 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
2 40,000 —
O .—
3 o o
a - . 0 ° -
2 ~ . o . —
I — _
3‘ 30000 — —-
52 ' _ . o ' ° ° _
CC ,_ . _
E _ . o . _
g .. -
» 20,000 — o o —
g _ O o _
m _ _
‘2 _ . ° -
I.
S _ —
10,000 — —
:- ° ‘
0 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I T
200 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
_ o o
' 0
Z - . o
g 150 — O
s : - ° :
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Bi ' . 0 o _
e _ . o o . . _
g 100 —- . -‘
EL _
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g _ . o _
E — ._
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a 50 — o ——
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0 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
10 _ I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
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B — .—
Z '— _
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I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I _

 

 

0
55 60 BS 70 75
SILICA, IN WEIGHT PERCENT

o:
c:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

BUU:IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
_ 0
Z 7005—
9 :
‘—‘ 600:— o
E .—
0: : o ' o o
E 500:- °
‘3 : o o S o
n: — o
g 400:— 0 . 0
z — . a
_ 1 .
2‘ 300:
a _
,_. _
g 200:— O
E _
W100; °°
U llillllIII||II|llll|lll
2000 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
1500— . '—
Z
9 _ —
S . T
E . -
a. _ o .—
S 0
21000— c . . o _
EL _ . _
3 _ . 0.. o _
o o
3 _ . o . _
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a - . ' o o -
500— ‘“
: ° —
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0 I'll llllllllllllllllll
30 IIII Ill IIII III II IIIIIII
Z — _
9
g 20— —
E — o . _
a.
3 ~ 0 —
B:
<( 0
CL _ . _
é _ ..
E _
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g IO- . . o _
g __ I
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. I
_ a
. _
. ..
o
_ ° 00 fi
0
0 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

55 00 65 70 75 80
SILICA, IN WEIGHT PERCENT

Figure l6.—Selected elements and elemental ratios plotted against silica for Sierra Nevada granitoids. Dots, hornblende-bearing
granitoids; circles, hornblende-free granitoids.

values below 0.5. The high Eu/Eu* value at 72 per-
cent SIO2 is from a high SiOz, low K20, garnet-bearing
trondhjemite from a borehole in the extreme western
Sierra Nevada (sample ST—l). Total REE show consid-

erable scatter throughout the entire range of Si02
values, whereas the La/Yb ratio shows a rather ill-
defined increasing trend with increasing SIO2 to about
70 percent, then even more scatter at higher SIOz

ELE MENTAL ABUNDANCES AND COMPOSITIONAL VARIATIONS 1 1

 

 

 

 

 

70.000 _ I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I _
60,000 } —:
_ . -
§ 50.000 _— . —;
= — . —
E : o . I
55 40,000 — _.
n. — . _
:2 : ' i
a: _ Q o _
5 30,000 — " —
z I O I
T _ o. _
Z _ _
’3 20.000 _— o o —;
_ so —
I o 2
10,000 — —‘
_ o o —
0 _ J I I l I I I I I I I I I I l I I I I I I I I 30
300 _ I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I _
Z _ .1
g _ _
g 250 — I -—
2 - ° ‘
E : ° 0 :
V3 200 - _
E _- ° ‘—
3 : o I
(If _ 0 _
E 150 I— ' . ° . AI
5 * - . ° ‘ o ‘
E : C . . O :
E I00 — —
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3? :0 :
f — ° —
.i‘ 50 — —
C) _
I_ _
0 _ I I I I I I I I 1 I I I I I I 1 I I I I I I I I .4

 

 

 

m
m

60 65 70 75
SILICA, IN WEIGHT PERCENT

co
c:

 

 

 

 

 

50 I I I I
I— II I II I I I I l I I I I I I I I I_
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40'— _
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a _ g . O O _
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s — - ~ —
D_ a
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D
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0 I | | | I l I l I I I | L I I I I l I I | I I I

 

 

 

55 60 65 70 75 80
SILICA, IN WEIGHT PERCENT

Figure 16.—-Continued.

values. The plot of Sc against SiOz shows a systematic
decrease of Sc with increasing Si02 to 70—72 percent
SlOz. At higher Si02 percentages, the Sc trend flat—
tens, and the element stays fairly constant at about 2
ppm. Conversely, Fe does not exhibit a change in
trend, progressively decreasing throughout the range
of SI02 values.

As an aid in evaluating plots of the trace alkali ele-
ments and Ba, K has also been plotted against SiOg. A
detailed discussion of variations of K20 relative to Sl02
in the central Sierra Nevada batholith has been pre-
sented by Bateman and Dodge (1970); they concluded
that the K20/Sl02 ratio decreases systematically with
decreasing SIOz within individual intrusive sequences,
but that the decrease is more pronounced in easterly
sequences. Samples have not been distinguished by
sequences on the plots herein; however, the samples

with K contents less than 20,000 ppm are all from the
western Sierra Nevada and the three hornblende-free
samples with low K contents are from the most west-
erly intrusive sequence. Excluding these three sam-
ples, there is an overall trend of increasing K20 with
increasing Si02, although there is considerable scatter
in the data as several different sequences are repre-
sented on the K versus SIOz plot. Rubidium behaves
very similar to K, increasing with increasing Si02 with
considerable scatter, and low Rb, hornblende—free
samples are all from the extreme western Sierra N e-
vada. In contrast, the Cs against SiO2 plot shows no
discernible trend and considerable scatter. Barium
values are also widely dispersed relative to Si02. Two
samples with low K from the western Sierra Nevada
and one significant sample with the highest K and Sl02
from the eastern Sierra Nevada have Ba values con—

12 VARIATIONS AND ABUNDANCES 0F ELEMENTS, SIERRA NEVADA BATHOLITH, CALIFORNIA

siderably below the range of values of the other sam-
ples; this finding tends to confirm the earlier made
statement that there is a rather poor correlation of Ba
and K in these granitoid rocks.

CONCLUSIONS

Regional lateral chemical variations across the cen-
tral Sierra Nevada batholith, particularly exempli-
fied by K but including some other elements and
ratios, have been attributed to changes in the composi-
tions of the sources from which the magmas were
derived. Thus, the eastward increase in total REE
manifested particularly by the light REE, which con-
firms a trend noted by Dodge and Mays (1972) in
sphenes from the granitoid rocks, is believed to be
another reflection of these changes. Enrichment of
light REE is characteristic of sediments of the earth’s
crust (Haskin and Frey, 1966), and the Sierra Nevada
trend may be the result of progressively increasing
amounts of crustally derived materials included east—
erly in juvenile, presumably mantle-derived material.

Eastward increasing depths of magma generation
have been proposed as an alternative hypothesis to
changes of source materials as a means of explaining
lateral compositional variations across the Sierra
Nevada (Dickinson, 1970; Kistler and Peterman, 1978).
Green and Ringwood (1969) have suggested that chem—
ical characteristics of various calc-alkaline suites are
dependent on their depth of origin. According to their
model, there is a continuum of fractionation processes
with depth; at shallow levels of melting, magma com-
positions will largely be governed by separation of
amphibole, at increasingly deeper levels, by separa-
tion of garnet, clinopyroxene, and amphibole, and
finally at even greater depths by garnet and clinopy-
roxene. This model is difficult to evaluate, as Sierra
Nevada granitoid rocks were derived from highly
evolved magmas. A basalt or andesite source with a
constant amount of melting or fractionation and a sys-
tematic progression of amphibole to garnet or simply
increasing garnet separation could not have produced
the lateral trend of eastward increasing total REE, as
the REE partitioning pattern for garnet from basaltic
and andesitic rocks intersects unity (that is, from
where removal of the mineral will cause enrichment to
where it will cause depletion) at intermediate REE
(fig. 17). If increasing amounts of garnet separation or
a shift from amphibole to garnet separation were
responsible for light REE enrichment eastward, these
kinds of separation would produce a concurrent deple-
tion in heavy REE; this depletion was not observed. On
the other hand, a decrease in the percent of melting
along with a change from amphibole to residual garnet

could buffer heavy REE while light REE increased.
Depth-dependent processes at relatively shallow levels
involving only increasing amphibole separation from a
mafic source are unlikely, because although K and Rb
contents increase eastward, the K/Rb ratio does not
change significantly (Dodge and others, 1970); amphi-
boles from basalts characteristically have high K/Rb
ratios (Hart and Aldrich, 1966), and increasing sepa-
ration of amphibole would cause significant lowering
of the K/Rb ratio from resultant easterly magmas.
Also Sc, which has been shown to be concentrated in
Sierra Nevada hornblendes, would be expected to
decrease eastward; it does not show significant lateral
variation. In any case, REE variation, like that of K
and some other elements and ratios, is independent of
the age of the granitic rocks, making it unlikely that
this variation was necessarily caused by eastward
increasing depth of magma generation.

As with total REE, the eastward increase in Ta is
also thought to reflect a progressive shift in source
materials. Wedepohl (1978) notes that Ta increases in
weathered products relative to alkali, alkali earth, and

 

100

  
  
 
 

DEPLETTON
ENRTCHMENT

    
  

Clrnupyroxene
or hornblende

   

Flagvoclase —

REE CONCENTRATION lN SOLID/REE CONCENTRATION lN LlOUlD

0.01 —

 

 

 

DWIIIIIIIIIIIII

La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Hu Er Tm Vb Lu
(Y)
RAREVEARTH ELEMENTS

Figure 17. Solid/liquid distribution coefficients of rare-earth
elements for minerals of mafic and intermediate rocks (from
data compiled by Arth, 1976).

REFERENCES CITED 13

several other major elements.

Age relations of contiguous sequences of the Sierra
Nevada batholith generally indicate that the oldest
plutons of the sequences are the most mafic, and the
progressively younger plutons are increasingly more
felsic. This succession has been explained by hypothe—
sizing that each sequence was formed from a single
fusion event, and subsequent fractional crystallization
of the derived magmas formed individual plutons
(Presnall and Bateman, 1973). Silica contents that do
not systematically vary laterally across the batholith
(Bateman and Dodge, 1970) are probably largely
independent of differing source materials. Thus the
amount of Si02 offers a measure of fractionation of the
granitoid rocks or degree of melting of source rocks, or
both.

The systematic decrease of Fe and related elements
with increasing Sl02 suggests continuous fractiona-
tion of ferromagnesian minerals throughout most of
the differentiation history of Sierra Nevada magmas.
Progressive decrease of Sc indicates that hornblende
dominated the crystal fractionation when the SlOz
ranged from 55 to 72 percent. This reference is sub—
stantiated by the absence of hornblende in the grani-
toids that contain more than 72 percent SiOz. Biotite,
on the other hand, apparently was of minor impor-
tance as a fractionate throughout differentiation in
view of the considerable scatter of Cs relative to Sl02
and the general increase of Rb with increasing SlOz.
Depletion of Fe above 72 percent Si02 may merely
reflect removal of small amounts of magnetite.

Below 72 percent SiOg, neither the Eu/Eu* ratios
nor Sr values show systematic changes. This fact sug-
gests that at lower SlOz contents crystal fractionation
of feldspar was overshadowed by hornblende fraction-
ation. On the other hand, above 72 percent SiOg both
Eu/Eu* and Sr drop abruptly; this indicates signifi-
cant depletion of feldspar at the higher Si02 values.
Although the plot of Ba against SiOz is complicated
with two low Ba rocks from the extreme western
Sierra Nevada, the general absence of a trend suggests
that the feldspar fractionate was plagioclase rather
than K-feldspar. The low Ba content of the highest
Sl02 rock in eastern Sierra Nevada implies K-feldspar
was depleted, and the rock may be a true eutectic
granite, having solidified from a magma from which
both plagioclase and K~feldspar had fractionated.

REFERENCES CITED

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processes—A summary of theoretical models and their applica-
tions: U.S. Geological Survey Journal of Research, v. 4, no. 1,
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Arth, J. G., and Barker, Fred, 1976, Rare-earth partitioning

between hornblende and dacitic liquid and implications for the
genesis of trondhjemitic-tonalitic magmas: Geology, v. 4,
p. 534-536.

Bateman, P. C., and Chappell, B. W., 1979, Crystallization, fraction-
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Bateman, P. C., and Dodge, F. C. W., 1970, Variations of major
chemical constituents across the central Sierra Nevada batho-
lith: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 81, p. 409-420.

Bernotat, W. H., Carron, J. P., and Lagache, Martine, 1976, K/Rb
and Rb/Cs partition between K—feldspars and biotites of pre-
Cambrian granites from Sinai: Tschermaks Mineralogische und
Petrographische Mitteilungen, v. 23, p. 23-38.

Buma, Grant, Frey, F. A., and Wones, D. R., 1971, New England
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Carron, J.-P., and Lagache, Martine, 1972, Etude du partage des
elements alcalins Na, K, Li, Rb, Cs entre les mineraux de
quelques roches granitiques de France: 24th International Geo-
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Dickinson, W. R., 1970, Relations of andesites, granites, and deriva-
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Dodge, F. C. W., 1972a, Variation of ferrous—ferric ratios in the
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logical Congress Proceedings, Section 10, Montreal, 1972, p.
12-19.

1972b, Trace-element contents of some plutonic rocks of the
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F, p. F1-F13.

Dodge, F. C. W., Fabbi, B. P., and Ross, D. C., 1970, Potassium and
rubidium in granitic rocks of central California, in Geologi-
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Paper 700-D, p. D108-D115.

Dodge, F. C. W., and Mays, R. E., 1972, Rare-earth elementfraction—
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Geological Survey research 1972: U.S. Geological Survey Profes-
sional Paper 800-D, p. D165—D168.

Dodge, F. C. W., Papike, J. J., and Mays, R. E., 1968, Hornblendes
from granitic rocks of the central Sierra Nevada batholith, Cali-
fornia: Journal of Petrology, v. 9, p. 378—410.

Dodge, F. C. W., Smith, V. C., and Mays, R. E., 1969, Biotites from
granitic rocks of the central Sierra Nevada batholith, California:
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Evernden, J. F., and Kistler, R. W., 1970, Chronology of emplace-
ment of Mesozoic batholithic complexes in California and west-
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Nevada batholith, California: Geology, v. 6, p. 239-242.

Gordon, G. E., Randle, K., Goles, G. G., Corliss, J. B., Beeson, M. H.,
and Oxley, S. S., 1968, Instrumental activation analysis of stand-
ard rocks with high resolution X-ray detectors: Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta, v. 32, p. 369-396.

Gottfried, David, and Dinnin, J. I., 1965, Distribution of tantalum in
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Green, D. H., and Ringwood, A. E., 1969, High-pressure experimen-
tal studies on the origin of andesites, in McBurney, A. R., ed.,
Proceedings of the Andesite Conference: Oregon Department of
Geology and Mineral Industries Bulletin 65, p. 21-32.

 

14 VARIATIONS AND ABUNDANCES OF ELEMENTS, SIERRA NEVADA BATHOLITH, CALIFORNIA

Greenland, L. P., Gottfried, David, and Tilling, R. I., 1968, Distribu-
tion of manganese between coexisting biotite and hornblende in
plutonic rocks: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 32, p.
1149-1163.

Greenland, L. P., Tilling R. 1., and Gottfried, David, 1971, Distribu-
tion of cobalt between coexisting biotite and hornblende in igne-
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33-42.

Hart, S. R., and Aldrich, L. T., 1966, Fractionation of potassium/
rubidium by amphiboles: implications regarding mantle compo-
sition: Science, v. 155, p. 325-327.

Haskin, L. A., and Frey, F. A., 1966, Dispersed and not-so-rare
earths: Science, v. 152, p. 299—314.

Hermann, A. G., 1970, Yttrium and lanthides, in Wedepohl, K. H.,
ed., Handbook of geochemistry, V. II: Berlin, Springer-Verlag,
p. 39, 57-71-B-1 to 39, 57-71-0-9.

Hertogen, J ., and Gijbels, R., 1971, Instrumental neutron activation
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Higuchi, Hideo, and Nagasawa, Hiroshi, 1969, Partition of trace
elements between rock-forming minerals and the host volcanic
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Hurley, P. M., Bateman, P. C., Fairbairn, H. W., and Pinson, W. H.,
Jr., 1965, Investigation of initial Sr'37/Sr36 ratios in the Sierra
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Kistler, R. W., 1974, Phanerozoic batholiths in western North Amer-
ica: a summary of some recent work on variations in time, space,
chemistry, and isotopic compositions: Earth and Planetary
Science Annual Review, v. 2, p. 403-418.

Kistler, R. W., Bateman, P. C., and Brannock, W. W., 1965, Isotopic
ages of minerals from granitic rocks of the central Sierra Nevada
and Inyo Mountains, California: Geological Society of America
Bulletin, v. 76, p. 155-164.

Kistler, R. W., and Peterman, Z. E., 1973, Variations in Sr, Rb, K,
Na, and initial Sr37/Sr86 in Mesozoic granitic rocks and intruded
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of initial strontium isotopic compositions of Mesozoic granitic
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Accessory sphene from hybrid rocks of the Mount Wheeler mine
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cal SurveylProfessional Paper 650—B, p. B41—B46.

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Macdonald, G. A., 1941, Geology of the western Sierra Nevada
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sity of California Publications Bulletin of the Department of
Geological Sciences, v. 17, p. 325-386.

 

Masuda, Yasuyuki, Yagi, Shinjiro, Nishimura, Susumu, and
Asayama, Tetsuji, 1972, Rare-earth distributions in the Ibaragi
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Naeser, C. W., and Dodge, F. C. W., 1969, Fission-track ages of
accessory minerals from granitic rocks of the central Sierra
Nevada batholith, California: Geological Society of America Bul-
letin, v. 80, p. 2201-2212.

Nagasawa, Hiroshi, 1970, Rare earth concentrations in zircons and
apatites and their host dacites and granites: Earth and Planetary
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35, no. 9, p. 953-968.

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Presnall, D. C., and Bateman, P. C., 1973, Fusion relations in the
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Wedepohl, K. H., 1978, Tantalum, in Wedepohl, K. H., ed., Hand-
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73-0—1.

Wollenberg, H. A., 1973, Fission-track radiography of uranium and
thorium in radioactive minerals, in Jones, M. J., ed., Geochemical
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347-358.

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nal of Geophysical Research, v. 73, no. 4, p. 1481-1495.

 

 

TABLES 1 - 7

 

 

16

VARIATIONS AND ABUNDANCES OF ELEMENTS, SIERRA NEVADA BATHOLITH, CALIFORNIA

Table 1.—Rock units and locations of the representative samples

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Samp1e Rock unit USGS 15' Latitude Longitude
No. quadrang1e (N.) (H.)
John Muir intrusive sequence (Bateman and Dodge, 1970)
MG-1 ------- Lamarck Granodiorite ------------------------------ Mount Goddard -------- 37°13' 118°36'
MT-Z ------- Round Va11ey Peak Granodiorite -------------------- Mount Tom ------------ 37°28' 118°43'
Bea-20 ----- Mount Givens Granodiorite ------------------------- B1ackcap Mountain—--- 37°14' 118°57'
BCc-12 ————— —- do --------------------------------------------- -— do ---------------- 37°05' 118°58'
HC-1 ------- —- do --------------------------------------------- -- do ---------------- 37°08' 118°59'
R-99 ------- A1askite of Evo1ution Basin ----------------------- Mount Goddard -------- 37°07' 118°38'
Shaver intrusive sequence (Bateman and Dodge, 1970)
SL-1 ------ Granodiorite of Dinkey Creek ---------------------- Shaver Lake ---------- 37°06' 119°18'
BCc-13 ----- —- do --------------------------------------------- B1ackcap Mountain---- 37°01' 118°59'
SL—18 ------ -- do --------------------------------------------- Shaver Lake ---------- 37°09' 119°18'
HL-29 ------ Quartz monzonite of Dinkey Dome ------------------- Huntington Lake ------ 37°10' 119°06'
FD-12 ------ Taft Granite -------------------------------------- Yosemite ------------- 37°43' 119°36'
Fine Go1d intrusive sequence (Stern and others, 1981)
CL-1 ------- Pyroxene quartz diorite of Macdona1d (1941) ------- C1ovis ---------------- 36°54' 120°04'
JB-1 ——————— Tona1ite of B1ue Canyon --------------------------- Shaver Lake ----------- 37°06' 119°23'
wv-i ------- Tona1ite south of B1ack Mountain(?) --------------- Watts Va11ey ---------- 36°58' 119°29'
SJ-1 ------- P1agiogranite of Ward Mountain -------------------- Mi11erton Lake -------- 37°06' 119°44'
SL-3? —————— Tona1ite of B1ue Canyon --------------------------- Shaver Lake ----------- 37°02' 119°23'
ST-1 ------- Tona1ite of Sherman Thomas dri11 ho1e ------------- Le Grand -------------- 37°10' 120°04'
FD—ZO ------ Granodiorite of Know1es --------------------------- Raymond --------------- 37°12' 119°53'
Pa1isade intrusive sequence (Bateman and Dodge, 1970)
MG-3 ------- Inconso1ab1e Granodiorite ------------------------- Mount Goddard -------- 37°07' 118°31'
BP-? ------- ,Granodiorite of McMurray Meadows ------------------ Big Pine ------------- 37°06‘ 118°22'
BP—1 ------- Tinemaha Granodiorite ----------------------------- -- do ---------------- 37°O7' 118°27'
FD—2 ------- Hunter Mountain Quartz Monzonite ------------------ Independence --------- 36°48' 118°02'
FD-4 ------- Tinemaha Granodiorite---——-a ---------------------- -- do ---------------- 36°57' 118°08'
FD-3 ------- Paiute Monument Quartz Monzonite ------------------ —- do ---------------- 36°49' 118°02'
Schee1ite intrusive sequence (Bateman and Dodge, 1970)
MT-1 ------- Nhee1er Crest Quartz Monzonite -------------------- Mount Tom ------------ 37°23' 118°38'
MG—2 ------- Tungsten Hi11s Quartz Monzonite ------------------- Mount Goddard -------- 37°14' 118°36'
Unassigned metamorphosed granitic rock
KR --------- Granodiorite of the Goddard pendant --------------- B1ackcap Mountain---- 37°12‘ 118°47'

 

17

 

 

 

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TABLES

 

 

 

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VARIATIONS AND ABUNDANCES OF ELEMENTS, SIERRA NEVADA BATHOLITH, CALIFORNIA

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TABLES 21

Table 4.—Neut1'on activation analyses of plagioclase and plagioclase+quartz concentrates

[Ana1yzed by H. T. M111ard, Jr., and R. J. Knight. Resu1ts in parts per mi11ion]

 

 

 

E1ement P1agioc1ase P1agioc1ase and quartz

CL-1 MG-1 SL-18 BP—1
La ............... 4.60 3.84 3.03 6.19
Ce ............... 5.65 3.60 3.73 6.01
Nd ............... 2.04 1.22 1.44 1.79
Sm ............... .224 .118 .141 .156
Eu ............... .611 .157 .291 .243
Tb ............... .0191 .0163 .0171 .0223
Yb ............... .0416 .0310 .0488 .0478
Lu --------------- .0042 --- —-- .0133
Na ............... 38,700 25,400 24,400 32,400
K ................ 2,740 2,630 1,670 3,060
Rb ............... 2.36 9.39 7.43 10.6
cs ............... .0882 .495 2.62 .266
Ba ............... 193 99.8 87.9 174
Th ............... .136 .337 .704 1.28
U ................ .0908 .444 .662 .437
5c ............... .115 .0623 .0492 .182
Hf ............... .0261 .0840 .193 .0810
Ta ............... --- —-- .0079 .0157
Cr ............... .414 .278 .362 ---
Mn _______________ 23.0 9.66 6.89 21.8
Fe ............... 1 ,960 516 561 827
C0 ............... .883 .121 .111 .295
Sb ............... .0950 .141 .252 .0773

 

’22

VARIATIONS AND ABUNDANCES 0F ELEMENTS, SIERRA NEVADA BATHOLITH, CALIFORNIA

Table 5.—Neutron activation analyses of biotite

EH. T. M1'11ard, Jr., and R. J. Knight, ana1ysts. Resu1ts in parts per mi111'on]

 

 

 

 

 

E1 ement MG-3 KR NV—1 MG-1 SL-18 BP-1
La ---------- 2.10 6.36 2.34 4.59 3.91 6.23
Ce ---------- 3.64 10.9 3.97 6.24 6.34 6.34
Nd ---------- 1.86 5.45 --— 3.73 3.30 3.55
Sm ---------- .326 1.03 .408 .510 .714 .503
Eu ---------- 1 .32 .202 .050 .160 .206 .194
Yb .......... -—— .469 .233 —-— -—- .230
Lu ---------- .0300 .0870 .0279 .0448 0677 .0386
Na ---------- 681 894 604 939 822 957
K ........... 69,600 104,000 74,200 72,000 78,400 75,200
Rb ---------- 639 567 498 744 768 792
Cs ---------- 28.0 10.1 18.3 37.0 59.8 28.6
Ba ---------- 930 413 1 ,330 672 897 526
Th ---------- .671 5.59 1.29 1.04 2.44 1.46
U ---------- 1.09 1.31 .221 1.74 2.32 .550
Sc ---------- 7.91 25.9 14.1 11.9 11.8 14.3
Hf ---------- .0818 .521 .220 .229 .437 .293
Ta ---------- .607 .291 1.91 .213 .534 .0921
Cr ---------- 95.0 17.2 125 59.8 57.8 32.0
Mn ---------- 2320 6780 2,260 3,190 2,450 3,220

1 Fe ---------- 136,000 125,000 154,000 134,000 149,000 122,000
Co ---------- 88.0 69.9 64.6 87.2 68.1 81.7
Sb ---------- .209 .350 .157 .508 .722 .299

BCa-ZO MT—1 SL-32 ST-1 FD-20 HL-29

La ---------- 2.43 4.01 6.61 .736 .503 2.32
Ce ---------- 4.05 4.90 4.29 --- --- 3.85
Nd ---------- --- -—- --- -—- -—- --—
5m __________ .222 .625 .171 .178 .173 .239
Eu __________ --- .222 .0936 .0690 .0594 .174
Yb ---------- —-- -—- --- --- —-- -——
Lu ---------- .0376 .0752 .0571 .0549 .0380 .0985
Na ---------- 663 747 609 809 51 2 533
K ........... 74,700 98,400 81,000 74,700 80,500 82,000
Rb ---------- 869 1 ,210 845 302 609 1 ,740
Cs ---------- 80.6 77.9 60.6 23.6 30.1 157
Ba ---------- 902 279 549 2,790 1 ,800 1 ,330
Th ---------- 1.10 1.77 3.96 .109 .287 1.79
u ___________ .543 1.06 1.77 .343 .327 3.72
Sc ---------- 11.4 8.67 15.1 15.9 32.0 70.1
Hf ---------- .190 .592 .265 3.68 .364 .395
Ta ---------- .293 .311 .507 2.52 7.94 27.0
Cr ---------- 52.3 11.7 79.4 31.1 22.5 9.23
Mn ---------- 2,820 8,130 3,440 1,280 3,360 9,190
Fe ---------- 136 ,000 121,000 156,000 160,000 159,000 178,000
Co ---------- 76.8 45.0 63.1 36.6 37.3 26.6
Sb ---------- .313 .140 .237 --- -—- .455

 

23

TABLES

 

 

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at Mount St. HelenS
he irst 100 Days ‘

 

 

 

 

 

Volcanic Eruptions of 1980
at Mount St. Helens

The First 100 Days

«- #51
U3 {BEEP-OS; afisx i“

,1 we ‘ ;‘ i: “.1011
JELLY ”‘L d 336.":

 

Photographs of Mount St. Helens after (top) and before (bottom) the May 18, 1980, eruption, taken from exactly the same spot at
Coldwater II observation station, 5.7 miles north-northwest of the peak. Haze in the top view is mostly airborne volcanic ash, which is
present near the volcano during all but the calmest (or rainy) days. These photographs were taken by Harry Glicken on May 17 and

September 10, 1980.

 

Volcanic Eruptions of 1980
at Mount St. Helens

The First 100 Days

By BRUCE L. FOXWORTHY and MARY HILL

 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1249

 

 

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON21982

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

JAMES C. WATT, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Dallas L. Peck, Director

 

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Foxworthy, B. L. (Bruce LaVerne), 1925-
Volcanic eruptions of 1980 at Mount St. Helens.

(Geological Survey professional paper ; 1249)

Bibliography: p.

Supt. of Docs. no.: I 19.161249

1. Saint Helens, Mount (Wash.)—Eruption, 1980. I. Hill, Mary, 1923— . 11. Title. 111. Series.
QE523.SZ3F69 1982 551.2 '1 '0979784 82—60023]

 

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, US. Government Printing Office
Washington, DC. 20402

IN DEDICATION

DAVID A. JOHNSTON
DECEMBER 1949—MAY 1980

Volcanologist David A. Johnston writing
field notes at Coldwater II observation
station May 17, 1980, the evening before
he was killed by the lateral blast of the
Mount St. Helens eruption. Earlier in the
day, Johnston had. collected volcanic gas
samples from a fumarole high on the
unstable northern side of the volcano (see
fig. 20.). This photograph was taken by
Harry Glicken, who was relieved of his
observer duties at Coldwater II by
Johnston and who brought this film out
of the area the night before the fatal erup-
tion.

 

Among those who lost their lives in the May 18, 1980, eruption of Mount St. Helens
was an exceptional colleague, volcanologist David Johnston.

David was special not only because he was the first member of the US. Geological
Survey to die in a volcanic eruption but also because of his capabilities and his dedica-
tion to his science. He knew well the personal risks involved in studying active
volcanoes. Yet, his belief in the need to better understand volcano behavior led him to
vigorous service in the “front lines” at Mount St. Helens. Through it all, he displayed a
rare combination of inventiveness and originality in his scientific observations and in-
terpretations.

On the morning of May 18, David was alone at the Coldwater II observation station,
5.7 miles from the mountain’s summit, measuring the volcano's bulging northern side.
He was among the first to see the beginning of the eruption and tried to send a warning
to the control center. ”Vancouver, Vancouver, this is itl,” he shouted into his radio.
Then, as the black, billowing front of the lateral blast raced toward him, he tried a sec-
ond message, which was garbled by atmospheric disturbance from the eruption.
Then—nothing.

The lateral blast obliterated Coldwater II observation station. Ironically, the loca-
tion was (and is again) considered to be much safer than some of the sites on the moun-
tain itself that David and his colleagues visited regularly.

We dedicate this report to David Johnston, an untimely loss to his science as well as
to his friends.

 

 

PREFACE

This report is unusual for the U.S.
Geological Survey's Professional Paper
series. Not only does it attempt to
describe volcanic events that are un-
precedented in United States history, it
also tries to describe those events in
ways that the nontechnical reader will
understand and in a context of human
concerns to which he can relate. This
account will serve as a backdrop for
more technically written scientific
reports on the volcanic activity at
Mount St. Helens and the geologic and
hydrologic effects of its eruptions.

Because this report is intended for a
broad audience consisting mainly of
nonscientists, we have avoided tech-
nical language wherever it was possi-
ble. Discussions of the volcanic proc-
esses and related hazards, however,
touch upon many scientific specialties
and involve some terms and concepts
for which nontechnical counterparts
simply do not exist. Some of these
technical terms are explained when
they are used in the main body of the
report, and some are defined in a
glossary at the back of the report (p.
121 ). A term that is explained in the
glossary appears in bold italicized type
the first time that it is used in the text.

Similarly, we have used mostly Eng-
lish units of measurement (inches,
feet, miles, and so forth) rather than
metric units for presenting quantitative
information. Exceptions include alti-

tudes and contour intervals (given in
meters) on one of the general maps (fig.
7) and ash thicknesses (given in milli-
meters) on the ash-distribution maps
(figs. 35, 43, and 48). Temperatures are
given in both Fahrenheit and Celsius
units. A table for converting other
units to the metric system is provided
at the back of the report (p.125).

Although the words in this report
are largely ours, most of the informa-
tion comes from the work of many
others. These information sources
range from scientific publications
prepared years before the 1980 erup-
tions to oral accounts, news releases,
and data obtained after the major erup-
tions. It is impossible to present ap-
propriate and balanced credits for all
information and materials used; gener-
ally we have cited only the more readi-
ly indentifiable sources, such as
photographers (in photographic cred-
its) and published reports (listed in the
reference section).

Among the sources that can be iden-
tified are the daily, summary, and
hazard reports prepared by the leaders
of the U.S. Geological Survey’s Mount
St. Helens task force—Robert L. Chris-
tiansen, Dwight R. Crandell, Robert
W. Decker, Donal R. Mullineaux, and
Donald W. Petersen—and by the
leader of the University of Washington
seismology center, Stephen D. Malone.
We also have borrowed freely from
U.S. Geological Survey press releases
prepared by Donovan Kelly, Edna C.
King, and Donald R. Finley. With per-
mission, we have quoted the eye-
witness account provided by Keith L.
Stoffel, first published in Information

Circular 71 of the Washington Depart-
ment of Natural Resources, Division of
Geology and Earth Resources (Korosec
and others, 1980). Many other eye-
witness accounts and observations by
both scientists and nonscientists are
quoted or paraphrased.

Christiansen provided us with a
typescript copy of a paper published in
Nature (June 19, 1980) (Christiansen,
1980). We made extensive use of it and
of monthly reports prepared by many
scientists on the U.S. Geological
Survey—University of Washington
team. We also have quoted from
Potential Hazards from Future Erup-
tions of Mount St. Helens Volcano,
Washington, published as U.S.
Geological Survey Bulletin 1383—C
(Crandell and Mullineaux, 1978). The
”Glossary of Volcanic and Related
Terms" (p. 121) is derived largely from
a glossary prepared by Roy A. Bailey.

Although most of the technical in-
formation for this report was provided
by colleagues in the U.S. Geological
Survey, other individuals and agencies
also provided valuable information.
Malone furnished summary data on
seismic events recorded by the Univer-
sity of Washington Geophysics Pro-
gram. We used information selectively
from bulletins prepared by the Mount
St. Helens Technical Information Net-
work; other information was taken
from daily reports and news releases of
the U.S. Forest Service, the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers, and the Federal
Emergency Management Agency. For
the human side of the volcanic events,
we relied on the news media and a few
personal interviews.

Photographs used to depict various
events or features discussed in the text
were selected, insofar as it was prac-
tical, to reflect the first occurrence or
discussion of the specific event or
feature. Better illustrations of several
subjects, however, are provided by
photographs that were not strictly
equivalent in time. Other illustrations
are enhanced by paintings by US.
Geological Survey hydrologist-artist
Dee Molenaar.

Technical reviews of part or all of
this report were provided by Mul-

lineaux, Peterson, Crandell, Molenaar,
David G. Frank, David P. Dethier,
Philip J. Carpenter, Edwin H.
McGavock, John E. Cummans, Mark
L. Holmes, and Jerry C. Stephens of
the US. Geological Survey; Malone of
the University of Washington Geo—
physics Program; James L. Unter-
wegner of the U.S. Forest Service; and
geologists Vaughn E. Livingston, Jr., J.
Eric Schuster, and Michael A. Korosec
of the Washington Department of Nat-
ural Resources, Division of Geology
and Earth Resources. Individual credits

for the many other scientists, graphics
specialists, and reviewers who con-
tributed to this report are impractical,
but the helpful cooperation of all is
most gratefully acknowledged.

Finally, we wish to acknowledge the
key role played by David A. Rickert,
assistant to the Chief Hydrologist of
the U.S. Geological Survey, who de-
veloped the concept for this report and
provided encouragement and many
helpful suggestions during its prepara-
tion.

m yaw;
,(A’zc

CONTENTS

1 ' Abstract

2 . Introduction

3 0 Cascade Range volcanoes

4 ' TABLE 1. Activity of major Cascade Range volcanoes

9 ' Mount St. Helens before 1980

13 ' TABLE 2. Summary of volcanic events and deposits formed at
Mount St. Helens before 1980

14 0 Perception and warning of the hazards

16 0 Chronology of the first 100 days

16 ‘
18 '
20'
25'
30 °
32'
37°
44'
66'
77°
92‘
97'

Unusual earthquakes begin

Ash eruptions begin

Mountaintop cracks and craters grow
State of emergency

Eruptive activity decreases

Northern side bulges alarmingly
Eruptive activity resumes
Cataclysmic eruption

Continuing threats and mounting toll
Another explosive eruption and its aftermath
Third explosive eruption

Lava dome grows

105 ' At the end of the first 100 days

105 °
114 °

Summary of conditions

Continuing hazards

116 ' Outlook for the future

121 ' Geologic hazard responsibilities

121 ' Glossary of volcanic and related terms

123 0 More about Mount St. Helens and other volcanoes

125 ' Unit conversion

 

 

 

Volcanic Eruptions of 1980 at
Mount St. Helens

The First 100 Days

By BRUCE L. FOXWORTHY and MARY HILL

ABSTRACT

On May 18, 1980, after nearly 2 months
of local earthquakes and steam eruptions,
picturesque Mount St. Helens, a Cascade
Range volcano in southwestern Washing-
ton, suddenly began a major explosive
eruption directed first northward and then
upward. The lateral blast, which lasted
only the first few minutes of a 9-hour con-
tinuous eruption, devastated more than 150
square miles of forest and recreation area,
killed countless animals, and left about 60
persons dead or missing. The 9-hour erup-
tion, the huge debris avalanche that im-
mediately preceded it, and intermittent
eruptions during the following 3 days
removed about 4 billion cubic yards (0.7
cubic mile) of new magmatic material and
of the old upper and northern parts of the
mountain, including about 170 million
cubic yards (0.03 cubic mile) of glacial snow
and ice. The eruption caused pyroclastic
flows and many mudflows, the largest of
which produced deposits so extensive and
voluminous that they reached and blocked
the shipping channel of the Columbia River
about 70 river miles from the volcano. The
May 18 eruption blew volcanic ash, con-
sisting of pulverized old rock from the
mountain’s core as well as solidified new
lava, more than 15 miles into the air. Winds
carried the ash generally eastward across
the United States and, in trace amounts,
around the world. The ash, which fell in
troublesome amounts as far east as western
Montana, severely disrupted travel, caused
widespread economic loss, and resulted in
other problems that persisted to the end of
the first 100 days of the volcano's activity
(June 27, 1980). During that time, two other

major eruptions (May 25 and June 12) also
produced troublesome ashfalls in western
Oregon and Washington.

Mount St. Helens had been labeled in a
1975 US. Geological Survey report as the
Cascade volcano most likely to erupt.
When frequent earthquakes began beneath
the mountain on March 20, 1980, the po-
tential for volcanic activity was recognized
quickly by University of Washington
seismologists and soon was accepted by
most other knowledgeable scientists. Of-
ficials of emergency-services agencies and
other appropriate organizations at all
governmental levels were alerted to the
possibility of an imminent eruption. Scien-
tists quickly stepped up the collection and
interpretation of pertinent geologic,
geophysical, hydrologic, and atmospheric
data. As events progressed toward the cli-
mactic eruption of May 18, scientists, law-
enforcement officers, and other responsible
officials teamed up in round-the-clock ef-
forts to evaluate the increasing hazards and
to protect tourists and local residents (often
against their will) while also attempting to
minimize panic and hardships among the
citizenry. Officials of the State of Washing-
ton and the US. Forest Service established
restricted-entry zones around the volcano.
Most people respected these restrictions,
but the spectacular eruptions of steam and
ash from the mountaintop were an irresisti—
ble attraction to some, who entered the
danger zone by way of logging roads too
numerous to blockade. An information
center established at Vancouver, Wash.,
coordinated the release of warnings and
other information, including thousands of
news releases and responses to telephone in-
quiries, daily briefings by scientists, and ex-
planatory meetings with officials and local
citizens.

From mid-April to May 17, eruptions
and seismic activity diminished to such a
degree that some residents and loggers were
clamoring for entry into the restricted area
near the volcano. (Limited entry was, in
fact, granted on May 17 and scheduled also
for the morning of the cataclysmic erup—
tion.) The scientific data, however, showed
that the mountain was bulging on its upper
northern side and undergoing other omi-
nous changes and, therefore, that the
hazards were increasing rather than de—
creasing. Although opposition to official
restrictions was widespread before the May
18 eruption, the human responses to the
far-reaching effects of that eruption includ-
ed acts of exceptional heroism, and selfless
cooperation was commonplace.

The May 18 eruption differed from what
was generally expected by the scientific
team mainly in the character and destruc—
tiveness of the lateral blast and the lack of
prior seismic warning. With these notable
exceptions, the scientists’ evaluation pro—
vided an ample hazard warning and un-
questionably saved hundreds of lives. That
evaluation was based not only on the
many-faceted project for monitoring rest-
less Mount St. Helens but also on informa-
tion obtained by earlier geologic investiga—
tions of this volcano, of other Cascade
volcanoes, and of other volcanoes
throughout the world.

Hazards that continued after the first 100
days of activity at Mount St. Helens in 1980
included possible ashfall and ash clouds,
pyroclastic flows, lateral blasts, lava flows,
floods, mudflows, and fires. The main
flood hazard existed along the channels of
the Toutle and lower Cowlitz Rivers, which
were so choked with mudflow deposits
from the May 18 eruption that normal wet-
season runoff could have caused severe
overbank flooding. Dredging undertaken
on an emergency basis to open the channels
probably will be continued in subsequent
years.

Abstract 1

The volcanic activity at Mount St.
Helens during the 100-day period ending
June 27, 1980, is not exceptional in recorded
history or in the evolution of the Cascade
Range. Mount St. Helens was only one of
perhaps 50 volcanoes worldwide that were
active during 1980, although its May 18
eruption was by far the most powerful dur-
ing the year and, perhaps, during the last
decade. At the end of the 100-day period,
the mountain remained dangerous to those
nearby, but the near-term likelihood of
another eruption as destructive as that of
May 18 was considered to be small. So far
as is known, the 1980 eruptions of Mount
St. Helens do not increase the probability
that other Cascade Range volcanoes will
erupt. The eruptions should, however,
serve as a reminder that other Cascade

volcanoes will erupt in the future as surely
as they have in the past and that they are
likely to produce effects that no amount of
farsightedness or good intentions will be
able to prevent.

The outlook for the future of Mount St.
Helens and the areas that it affected can be
discerned only partially. Salvage of blown-
down timber was begun in June 1980, but
proposals have been made to incorporate
part of the devastated forest area into a
park. Tourists are expected to be attracted
in great numbers. Future uses of land near
the volcano probably will resume largely as
they were—forestry, farming, recreation,
and hydropower generation—but will de-
pend ultimately on the behavior of the
volcano. The volcano might go through a
period of dome building (as it was on June

INTRODUCTION

On May 18, 1980, Mount St. Helens
in southwestern Washington exploded
in a volcanic eruption more violent
than any in the conterminous United
States during the 20th century. An im-
mense avalanche from the volcano’s
northern side was followed immediate-
ly by an explosive eruption directed
first northward and then upward. The
sustained lateral blast spewed. hot gas
and rock particles from the volcano at
hurricane speeds, its devastation
reaching nearly 16 miles outward from
the volcano’s center. Nearer the moun-
tain, massive deposits of rock and ice
from the avalanche were followed by
intensely hot pyroclastic flows and by
countless mudflows. In a wide swath
northward from the mountain, surviv-
ors of the blast—plant, animal, or
human—were rare.

Some of the consequent, more dis-
tant effects of the May 18 eruption,
which were themselves considered to
be major disasters, included smother-
ing layers of volcanic ash that fell on
much of Washington and parts of other
States. Others were the extensive
floods and mudflows that poured
down stream courses leading from the
mountain and left huge deposits of
sediment that choked the channels of
major rivers in southwestern Washing-

ton—even a part of the mighty Colum-
bia River.

The eruption of May 18, 1980, so far
has been the main event in a sequence of
volcanic activity that began on March
20 of that year and persisted for 100
days (to June 27) and beyond. The
eruptive events at Mount St. Helens
during the spring of 1980 were prob-
ably the most intensively observed,
photographed, documented, and
reported series of geologic events in
history. The broad coverage of the
events, particularly by the news media,
resulted in many different accounts,
from many different viewpoints, on
many different aspects of the volcanic
activity and its impacts. Unfortunate-
ly, these accounts do not all agree or
reflect the facts as they are now
known.

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)
has played a major role in the observa-
tion, interpretation, and documen-
tation of this sequence since it began.
As the Federal agency responsible for
geologic and hydrologic investigations
and geologic hazard warnings (see p.
121), the USGS has an obligation to
report to the Nation on these events.
This paper is intended to provide a
scientifically sound, general descrip-
tion of the events and their effects—to

2 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

27, 1980) interspersed with occasional ex-
plosive eruptions; it might extrude enough
lava to overflow the crater that was left
open to the north; or the volcanic activity
might simply stop indefinitely at any stage.

In the meantime, the ash gradually will
be assimilated into the soil. The streams and
lakes that persist on the mountain Hanks
and in the devastated area will adjust to the
new conditions of runoff and sediment
load. Glaciers and snowfields will adapt to
the different shape and lower altitude of the
cone. Animals and vegetation, already re-
turning to the devastated areas at the end of
June 1980, will become abundant again.
The restorative phase of the cycle, repeated
many times before at this volcano and
others in the Cascades, has begun once
more.

supply answers for the general reader,
from the perspective of earth scientists,
to the questions, ”What happened?"
and "What does it all mean?"

Another major purpose of this re-
port is to provide an accurate summary
of the events before, during, and short-
ly after the devastating eruption of
May 18, 1980, and the two lesser erup-
tions of May 25 and June 12. A
chronological summary is preceded by
a brief general discussion of Cascade
Range volcanoes, the geologic proc-
esses involved in a volcanic sequence,
the conditions at and near Mount St.
Helens before the volcanic activity
began, and the perception of and warn-
ing about the volcanic hazards. The
chronology is followed by a short
discussion of the continuing hazards,
the outlook for future volcanic activi-
ty, and some implications for the
future use and management of affected
land and water resources.

 

CASCADE RANGE VOLCANOES

Mount St. Helens is one of a group
of high volcanic peaks that dominate
the Cascade Range between northern
California and southern British Colum-
bia, Canada (fig 1.) The distribution of
these volcanic peaks in a band that
roughly parallels the coastline is
typical of the so—called “Ring of Fire," a
roughly circular array of volcanoes
located on islands, peninsulas, and the
margins of continents that rim the
Pacific Ocean (Anderson, 1980).

Even before it began erupting in
1980, Mount St. Helens and at least six
other volcanoes in the Cascade Range
were known to be active—that is, to
have erupted at least once during his-
torical time. Few major Cascade vol—
canoes are known to have been inac-
tive long enough to be considered
extinct or incapable of further erup-
tion. Most display some evidence of
residual volcanic heat, such as
fumaroles, hot springs, or hot ground
where snow melt is unusually rapid.
Information about the previous erup-
tions of some major Cascade volcanoes
is presented in table 1.

Dramatic eruptive activity in the
Cascades has been rare so far in the
20th century. Until the recent eruptions
at Mount St. Helens, the only Cascade
volcano that had a major eruption dur-
ing this century was Lassen Peak in
California. A series of intermittent
eruptions of steam and volcanic ash
beginning in May 1914 and lasting un-
til 1921 climaxed, during the 4 days
from May 19 to 22, 1915, in a series of
violent events comprising small lava
flows, massive lava-triggered mud-
flows, and explosive eruptions of ash.
The most destructive of these eruptions
included a nearly horizontal (lateral)
blast that reached only about one—fifth
as far as the recent Mount St. Helens
lateral blast (Day and Allen, 1925).
From the time when Lassen Peak
quieted until March 1980, the only
other known increase in activity at a
Cascade volcano occurred at Mount

Baker (fig. 1), when a sudden increase
in emanations of heat, steam, and
other gases from a previously steaming
old crater began on March 10, 1975.
Although new fumaroles were formed
and minor amounts of ”volcanic dust”
and sulfur were emitted, "the greatest
undesirable natural results” that were
observed at Mount Baker were ”an in-
crease in local atmospheric pollution
and a decrease in the quality of some

local water resources" (Bortleson and
others, 1977, p. B1). Since 1976,
however, even those effects have sub-
sided to levels only slightly higher than
those that prevailed before 1975.
Eruptions of Cascade volcanoes tend
to be much more explosive than those
of, for example, the well-known
Hawaiian volcanoes. This explosive
tendency is related to the chemical
composition of the magma that feeds

 

    
   
  

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FIGURE 1.—Sketch map of the Pacific Northwest and the western Pacific Ocean showing
major Cascade Range volcanoes and other regional features. The position and aline-
ment of the Cascade Range volcanoes result from the slow grinding together (con-
vergence) of huge plates of the Earth's crust as new volcanic rock is added at spreading
zones beneath the ocean (after Atwater, 1970). Arrows indicate relative movement of
the crustal plates. These processes are further illustrated in figure 2.

Cascade Range Volcanoes 3

 

 

 

 
                   
     

                          

              

                         
        
    
         

             

   

       

 

   

    

              

      
 

             

               
               
 
                 
         
           
                   
            
                  
                            
         
        
                     
                
              
                         
            
           
      

           

   

      

     

      

       

     
                      

         

    
 

          

   

               

             

                     

    

 

       

 

                          

            

       

  

     

                      

 

          

  
       

 

                             

         
 

                

               

          
          

             
    

  

 
   

   

          

       

                               
   

 
 
  

       

         
      

          
   
     

   

  

 
 

         

         

              

      

      
  

                   
                     
      
                                       
              
           

   

    

                    
 

               

 

         

           

             

                 
           

                  

     

  

 

 

                    

                    

           
          

 

                     

 
      

           

 
   

     

               

 

 
                     

       

         

  

 

    

   

                       
                     
              

                    

              

 

                    

       

    

   

   

   

                

                 

                                        

                    

              

           

                    

      

         

                 

 

                         

      
             

 

                             

 

    

     

 

     

  

  
  

        

                     

     

      

           

     
 

 

               

          

 
   

     

                       

     

      
      

  

               
 

 

        
 

 
 

 
    

    

                

       

                         

   

    

            

    

       

                     

 

               

   

                                 
        
  

    

                                         

    
              

  

               
       

            

      

 
      
         

        

  
  

    
         

       

                                                    

            
                           
             
  

       

  
 
 
   
   

                     

 

         

 
   

        

 
                        

         

 

  
     

          
  

             

       

                                   

                  

                  

 

            
 

   
 

                   

 

                  

              

              

        

             

         

 
       

 
       

            

 
    
               

       

   

         

             

            

            

        

       

 

 

 

         
  

   

      

 

    

 

 

 

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6 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

 

 

 

 

 
    

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FIGURE 2.—The Juan de Fuca crustal plate is slowly thrusting under the North American plate and into the hotter mantle layer,

 

 

 

as this greatly

simplified diagram shows. This process results in the formation of magma and probably also causes the zones of weakness in the North
American plate through which magma rises to feed Cascade volcanoes. As the Juan de Fuca plate moves northeastward (relative to the
mainland) at a rate of perhaps 1 inch a year, new rock material is added by volcanic extrusion in the Juan de Fuca Ridge spreading zone.

(Data from Atwater, 1970; Srivastava and others, 1971; Riddihough, 1978.)

Cascade Range Volcanoes 7

 

 

GAMERA, K ‘
3550mm

 

  

FIGURE 3,—Typical warning signs of possible increase in volcanic activity and some ways in which they can be detected and monitored. In

addition to

the phenomena shown, slight variations in local gravity or ma
of these clues tells for sure whether or when a volcano wi

photographs, precise optical surveys, and laser-electronic distance measurements that span the period of inflation. D, Steam-driven

 

(phreatic) eruptions of old rock and ash; monitored by visual observation, radar observation, photography and video recording, and by

studies of the ejecta.

the volcanoes and to the amount of gas
contained in the magma. Magma from
the more explosive volcanoes contains
relatively large amounts of gas and
silicon and produces rocks such as
andesite, dacite, or rhyolite. Magma
from‘the less explosive volcanoes con-
tains smaller concentrations of gas and
silicon and produces basalt as well as
andesite. Some Cascade volcanoes, in-
cluding Mount St. Helens, have had

nonexplosive eruptions of andesite and
basalt, as well as explosive eruptions,
in the past.

The existence, position, and recur-
rent activity of the Cascade volcanoes
are generally thought to be related to
the convergence of shifting crustal
plates (figs. 1 and 2). The Juan de Fuca
plate and the Gorda plate are oceanic
crustal plates that apparently are
slowly but inexorably thrusting under

8 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

the North American plate at a rate of
perhaps 1 inch a year along a con-
vergent margin that generally parallels
the northern Pacific coast. Although
the deep structural relationships are
complex and not thoroughly under-
stood, the presence of magma bodies
beneath the Cascade Range, as well as
the zones of structural weakness along
which the magma rises to form the
Cascade volcanoes, probably is related

to the convergence of these crustal
pllates. The diagrammatic cross section
(fig. 2) shows the relationship between
the Juan de Fuca plate and the North
American plate and the source of
magma for Cascade volcanoes.

Lava eruptions occur when magma,
formed many miles beneath the Earth’s
surface, moves upward through zones
of weakness in the crustal rock layers
and is ejected from surface vents. Till-
ing (1977, p. 37) described the proc-
esses leading up to a typical eruption:
” . . magma is fed from depths into a
[magma] reservoir [analogous to air
filling a balloon], the internal pressure
increases, and the surface [rock] layers
are pushed upward and outward in
order to accommodate the swelling, or
inflation. The net effects of such infla—
tion include: the :steepening of slope of
the volcano's surface; increase in
horizontal and vertical distances be-
tween points on the surface; and, in
places, the fracturing of the [rock]
Layers stretched beyond the breaking
point. Such rupturing of materials ad—
justing to magma-movement pressures
results in earthquakes." The earth-
quakes, inflation, and related phe-
nomena can be monitored by several
methods (fig. 3), and such monitoring
provides the best available guidance
about the state of volcanic activity and
associated hazards. Although this con-
cept of internal volcanic processes was
developed through years of research on
volcanoes in other parts of the world,
the foregoing description is generally
applicable to the sequence of the
Mount St. Helens eruptions.

FIGURE 4.—A, Aerial view of Mount St.
Helens from the west in October 1977.
The symmetry of the cone and its snow
cover gave the volcano its nickname, the
“Fuji of America,” because of its similari-
ty in appearance to the famous Japanese
volcano. Mount Adams is in the
background. (Photograph by Dee
Molenaar, USGS.) B, View of Mount St.
Helens from Goat Marsh Lake, 5 miles
southwest of the peak, in 1978.
(Photograph by Dwight R. Crandell,
USGS.)

MOUNT ST. HELENS

BEFORE 1980

Mount St. Helens was known as ”the
Fuji of America” because its symmetri-
cal beauty was similar to that of the
famous Japanese volcano (fig. 4A).
The graceful cone top, whose glisten-
ing cap of perennial snow and ice
dazzled the viewer, is now largely
gone. On May 18, 1980, the missing

mountaintop was transformed in a few
hours into the extensive volcanic ash
that blanketed much of the North-
western United States and into various
other deposits closer to the mountain.

Even before its recent loss of height,
Mount St. Helens was not one of the
highest peaks in the Cascade Range. Its

 

122°15'
46°15’ _ r

       

ological Survey
1:62.500 Mount St. Helens, 1958

—N

1? MILES

_._1
N
(A)

J
4 KILOMETERS
CONTOUR INTERVAL 80 FEET

FIGURE 5.—Map of pre-1980 Mount St. Helens showing named features referred to in the text. The shaded area surrounding the peak
indicates the approximate extent of timber in 1958, much of which had been logged by 1980. The dashed line encloses the part of the

north-side slope that became the unstable bulge area. By 1980, Timberline Campground had been closed and replaced by a public view-
point about a quarter of a mile to the east (see figs. 7 and 18).

10 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

 

summit altitude of 9,677 feet made it
only the fifth highest peak in Washing-
ton (table 1). It stood out handsomely,
however, from surrounding hills be-
cause it rose thousands of feet above
them and had a perennial cover of ice
and snow (fig. 4B). The peak rose more
than 5,000 feet above its base, where
the lower flanks merge with adjacent
ridges. The mountain is about 6 miles
across at the base, which is at an alti-
tude of about 4,400 feet on the north-
eastern side and about 4,000 feet else-
where. At the preeruption timberline
(upper limit of trees), the width of the
cone was about 4 miles (fig. 5).

Mount St. Helens is 34 miles almost
due west of Mount Adams, which is in
the eastern part of the Cascade Range
(figs. 1 and 4A). These “sister and
brother” volcanic mountains are each
about 50 miles from Mount Rainier,
the giant of Cascade volcanoes. Mount
Hood, the nearest major volcanic peak
in Oregon, is about 60 miles southeast
of Mount St. Helens.

Mount St. Helens was named for
British diplomat Alleyne Fitzherbert
(1753-1839), whose title was Baron St.
Helens, The mountain was named by
Commander George Vancouver and
the officers of H.M.S. Discovery while
they were surveying the northern
Pacific coast from 1792 to 1794.

Mount St. Helens was recognized as
a volcano at least as early as 1835; the
first geologist apparently viewed the
volcano 6 years later. James Dwight
Dana of Yale University, while sailing
with the Charles Wilkes U.S. Exploring
Expedition, saw the peak (then quies-
cent) from off the mouth of the Colum-
bia River in 1841. Another member of
the expedition later described ”cellular
basaltic lavas” at the mountain's base.

Although Mount St. Helens is in
Skamania County, the best access
routes to the mountain run through
Cowlitz County on the west. State
Route 504 (fig. 6), which formerly
ended at Timberline Viewpoint (fig. 7)
.2.6 miles from the summit, connects
with the heavily traveled Interstate
Highway 5 about 34 miles to the west.

123°

122°

 

Cow [(2
El

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Silver Lake

Castle Rock

 

46°

 
 

Woodland

OREGON
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7
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Base from U.S. Geological Survey
State base map, 1:500,000 unedited
advance print 1981

    
  
    
  
    
  
    

VANCOUVER

WASHINGTON

Bonneville Dam

fl
.Camas d ’ “NE
“%
COLUMBIA
PORTLAND
0 5 10 MILES
U 5 10 15 KILOMETERS

 

FIGURE 6.——Sketch map showing selected streams, population centers, and other features in
relation to Mount St. Helens.

That major north-south highway skirts
the low-lying cities of Castle Rock,
Longview, and Kelso along the Cowlitz
River (fig. 6) and passes through the
Vancouver, Wash—Portland, Oreg.,
metropolitan area less than 50 miles to
the southwest. The community nearest
the volcano is Cougar, which is in the

Lewis River valley about 11 miles
south-southwest of the peak. Gifford
Pinchot National Forest surrounds
Mount St. Helens, but some land on
the mountain and much of the area
adjacent to the national forest are
Washington State lands or are private-
ly owned.

Mount St. Helens Before 1980 11

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

N‘

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

15%;?

 

 

 

46°15’

 

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Base from U.S. Geological Survey
1:1oo,ooo Mt. St. Helens, Washington 0 1 2 l
April 1980, Special Edition

 

l
4 KILOMETERS
CONTOUR INTERVAL 50 METERS

FIGURE 7.—Map showing Mount St. Helens and vicinity before the 1980 eruptions. The heavy line indicates the area shown in figure 5.

12 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

 

 

 

Streams that head on the volcano
enter three main river systems—the
Toutle River on the north and north-
west, the Kalama River on the west,
and the Lewis River on the south and
east (fig. 6). The streams are fed by
abundant rain and snow that dump an
average of about 140 inches of water
on Mount St. Helens a year, according
to National Weather Service data. The
Lewis River is impounded by three
dams for hydropower generation. The
southern and eastern sides of the
volcano drain into an upstream im-
poundment, the Swift Reservoir,
which is directly south of the volcano.
The streams that drain the mountain
also are somewhat regulated naturally
by the mountain’s perennial snowfields
and glaciers (blue-contoured white

TABLE 2.—-.Summary of volcanic events and deposits form
tions (after Cmmiell and Mullineaux,
[Eruption dates in the 1800's generally agree with eyewitness accounts summarized by Harris

areas on fig. 7; see names on fig. 5).
Water is stored as snow and ice during
the cool, wet periods and is released as
melt water during warmer, drier pe-
riods.

Water-related recreation has been
one of the major activities in the area.
All three reservoirs on the Lewis River
(fig. 6) have been used extensively for
recreation, as was Spirit Lake (fig. 7)
before 1980. Before the eruption, Spirit
Lake was impounded in the North Fork
Toutle River valley by a natural dam
formed chiefly of deposits from one or
more ancient mudflows (table 2). The
principle resource of the region is
timber, and many areas near the vol-
cano had been logged recently and
were still being logged at the beginning
of the 1980 eruptive activity.

Mount St. Helens, like most other
Cascade volcanoes, is a great cone of
rubble consisting of lava rock in-
terlayered with pyroclastic and other
deposits. Volcanic cones of this inter-
nal structure are called composite
cones or stratovolcanoes. Mount St.
Helens includes layers of basalt and
andesite through which several domes
of dacite lava have erupted. The largest
of the dacite domes formed the
previous summit; another formed Goat
Rocks on the northern flank. Figure 8 is
a diagrammatic section through
preeruption Mount St. Helens showing
the inferred relationship of the former
summit dome to the lava layers and the
interbedded rubble. Information about
previous eruptions is given in table 2.

ed at Mount St. Helens during the period of about 3,000 years before’the 1980 amp-
1978; Hopson and Maison, 1980) _
(1980). All dates AD. unless indicated-Otherwise}

 

 

 

‘ 50 (i 100: years) _______________________
, Between about 700 and 100(7) B.C ________

_ Between 1200 and 700 B.C. ____-__.._--_-

 

Date Event or type of deposit

1857 Last-reported eruptions before 1980; no resultant deposit has been recognized

About 1847 to 1854 ____________________ Steam and ash; no recognizable deposits

1842 to 1844(7) ________________________ Dacite pumice (extending northeast of volcano); followed by dome of dacite
(Goat Rocks), glowing avalanches, hot and cool mudflows, and andesite lava

_ flows (north-northwestern and south-southwestern flanks).

1831 and 1835 _________________________ Steam and ash; no recognizable deposits

About 1800 to 1802 ____________________ Dacite pumice

Between 1600 and 1700 _________________ Voluminousflows of andesite lava from flank vents on all four sides of the
mountain; pyroclastic flows on northern and southwestern sides; mudflows-

* _ from summit‘area.

About 1500 to 1600 ____________________ Thick, extensive dacite pumice; at least three pyroclastic flows down Kalama
River valley; andesite lava flows; hot and cool mudflows, some reaching Spirit
Lake; growth of Summit Dome (dacite), followed by glowing avalanches on
south-eastern, southern, southwestern, and west-northwestern flanks.

800 (i200 years) ______________________ Strong flank explosion, laterally directed on the northeast, followed by the
growth of a dacite dome (Sugar Bowl).

300 (i200 years) ______________________ Pyroclastic flows; extrusion of dacite dome (East Dome); lava flows

Voluminous basalt lava flows on southern and southwestern sides

Pyroclastic flows; lava flows; mudflows extending from southeastern and south-
ern sides of mountain. ,

Sequence of extensive pyroclastic flows and mudflows, some reaching Spirit Lake
and into North Fork Toutle River valley; several mudflows reached the present
site of castle Rock; dacite dome formed. ' _

 

 

Mount St. Helens Before 1980 13

 

Summit dome

SOUTH

    

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EXPLANATION

  

 
 

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Lava rock I Pyroclastic and
mudflow deposits

Older rock

FIGURE 8,—Mount St. Helens is a composite volcano, or stratovolcano, built of alternating
layers of lava rock and pyroclastic debris. This cross section of the pre-1980 volcano
shows the generalized relationships between the layers of the volcano’s cone, the lava
dome (emplaced about 1600 A.D.) that formed the summit, and the north-flank dome
called Goat Rocks, which formed during the 1840’s (table 2). For simplicity, the magma
chamber as shown here is much shallower, in relation to the mountain’s height, than it

actually is thought to be.

PERCEPTION AND WARNING
OF THE HAZARDS

The death toll from the May 18 erup-
tion undoubtedly was greatly lessened
by the timely dissemination of reliable
scientific information about the vol-
cano and the hazards that it presented
and by public and private use of that
information in response to those
hazards. The volcanic hazard informa-
tion was derived from geologic studies
of Mount St. Helens and other Cascade
volcanoes and from monitoring the
volcano visually and by various
geophysical methods. This information
was widely spread in written reports
and news releases, briefings of public
officials and news reporters, replies to
thousands of individual telephone in-
quiries, and the formal announcement
of a “Hazards Watch" and subsequent
updates by the USGS. Responsible of-
ficials reacted to that information by

taking steps that significantly reduced
public exposure to the risks. These
steps included restricting and eventual-
ly prohibiting access to lands identified
as being within zones of relatively high
risk and lowering the water level in
Swift Reservoir (fig. 6).

Although historical accounts of
eruptions during the 1800’s (table 2)
suggested the possibility of renewed
volcanic activity at Mount St. Helens,
the foundation of scientific informa-
tion that allowed‘ realistic evaluation of
the hazards was laid over several dec-
ades. Because the volcano has long
been a favorite of climbers and natural-
ists, the two areas of fumaroles and
warm ground known before 1980 had
been documented as early as 1939 in a
report on the flora of the mountain
(Lawrence, 1939). The first systematic

14 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

geologic investigation of Mount St.
Helens, begun in the 1930’s, was a
reconnaissance-type study by Ver-
hoogan (1937). The report was con-
cerned mainly with the character of the
rocks that make up the volcanic cone
and underlie adjacent areas. Two of
Verhoogen's statements were especially
pertinent to the recent activity of the
volcano. According to Verhoogen
(1937, p. 268), ”The activity of the
volcano seems to have continued with-
out interruption until very recent
times. Many [lava] flows cannot be
more than a few hundred years old, as
evidenced by the vegetation." Further
on, he said, “The writer has been told
that, until a few years ago, climbers on
Mount St. Helens could witness solfa-
taric action [emission of sulfurous
gases] and hot springs. Today [1937]
the mountain is completely dormant."

Later geologic studies verified the
relative youthfulness of volcanic de-
posits from Mount St. Helens, and
geologists most familiar with the Cas-
cade volcanoes gradually became
aware of the unusual potential hazards
posed by the volcano. The geologic
record of past eruptions was sufficient-
ly well documented by 1975 to enable
USGS geologists Dwight Crandell and
Donal Mullineaux and geochemist
Meyer Rubin to warn, in an article in
Science magazine, that . . an erup-
tion [of Mount St. Helens] is likely
within the next hundred years, possi-
bly before the end of this century”
(Crandell and others, 1975, p. 441).

That judgment was verified in a
more comprehensive assessment of the
volcanic hazards of Mount St. Helens
produced by the USGS in 1978 as part
of a broad program for the systematic
evaluation of volcanic hazards (see sec-
tion on “Geologic Hazard Responsibil-
ities”). The results of that assessment
were published as USGS Bulletin
1383—C, Potential Hazards from Fu-
ture Eruptions of Mount St. Helens
Volcano, Washington (Crandell and
Mullineaux, 1978). The report sum-
marized the mountain's volcanic
history since the year 2500 BC. and

 

 

showed the extent of the deposits
resulting from those events. On the
basis of that reconstructed history, as
well as prevailing land uses and
developments near the volcano, Cran-
dell and Mullineaux described the an-
ticipated effects of future eruptions and
included maps showing the hazard
zones for various kinds of future erup—
tion results (ashfalls, lava flows,
pyroclastic flows, mudflows, and
floods). The Crandell-Mullineaux re-
port proved to be remarkably prophet-
ic, differing from the actual eruptive ef-
fects of May 18, 1980, mainly in not
anticipating such an extensive and
devastating lateral blast. Among the
accurate forecasts made Crandell and
Mullineaux (1978, p. C1) was . . we
believe [Mount St. Helens] to be an
especially dangerous volcano because
of its past behavior and relatively high
frequency of eruptions during the last
4,500 years." Another (Crandell and
Mullineaux, 1978, p. C25) was “If [a
typical eruptive] sequence is followed
during future eruptions, the greatest
potential danger will exist at or soon
after the onset of volcanic activity.”

Information about the flow and
water quality of streams draining the
volcano and other streams likely to be
affected by eruptions was available
from data collected over several dec-
ades by the USGS in cooperation with
other agencies and utilities. The stream
data were collected primarily for
water-resource assessment by the
USGS and for water management by
other cooperating agencies; the data
also, however, provided important
background information about
preeruption stream conditions, in-
cluding the flood—carrying capacity of
the stream channels.

Under the special responsibilities
given to the USGS in the Disaster
Relief Act of 1974 to warn of geologic
hazards (p. 121 ), the Crandell and
Mullineaux (1978) report and a letter
discussing its hazard implications were
disseminated as a ”Notice of Potential
Hazard" in December 1978. The report
and letter were sent to appropriate

Federal and Washington State officials
and selected county and local agencies
in southwestern Washington. Also,
USGS scientists explained the hazard
implications of the report during a
meeting with key Federal and State of-
ficials in Olympia, Wash., on January
8, 1979.

While the assessment of volcanic
hazards was being prepared, the vol-
cano was already being monitored to
detect early signs of an impending
eruption. No one knew what kinds of
monitoring techniques would provide
the most reliable warning, however,
because knowledge about the behavior
of Cascade volcanoes in general was
limited and because Mount St. Helens
had not been active recently. Universi-
ty and USGS studies in the 1970's had
monitored Mount St. Helens intermit-
tently by means of three instrumental
methods: (1) seismometers that could
detect earthquakes caused by the
movement of molten rock into a vol-
cano, (2) precise ground-surface
measurements that could detect swell-
ing of the volcano, and (3) aerial in-
frared surveys and surface-temperature
measurements of two ”hot spots” high
on the mountain to detect any changes
in heat emission from the volcano (fig.
3). The volcano also was one of many
glacier-clad mountains that were pho-
tographed routinely from the air to
detect changes in snow and ice as part
of a USGS glaciology research project.
At the beginning of March 1980, the
only instrument directly monitoring
Mount St. Helens was a seismometer
on the western flank of the volcano,
from which a record of seismic shaking
was automatically transmitted by
radio (telemetered) to seismic recorders
at the University of Washington in
Seattle. That seismometer was one of
about 100 seismic instruments de-
ployed in a network throughout
western and central Washington by the
university’s Geophysics Program in
cooperation with the USGS.

That seismometer was one of the
first instruments to warn, by register-
ing earthquakes on March 20 and

thereafter, of impending eruptive ac-
tivity. When increasing seismic activity
suggested the possibility of an impend-
ing eruption, University of Washing-
ton and USGS scientists at Seattle
notified other USGS volcano experts
throughout the country and the USGS
Hazards Information Coordinator in
Reston, Va. Aerial observations were
begun as soon as possible. Within a
few days, additional geophysical in—
struments were brought into use, in-
cluding more seismometers, precision
tiltmeters to measure slight changes in
the slope of the volcano’s flanks, and
gravity meters and magnetometers to
detect changes in the character of the
subsurface rocks. Photographic and
heat-monitoring (thermal infrared)
surveys from the air were resumed as
weather permitted.

After the first eruption on March 27,
scientists and technicians intensified
their monitoring activities and began
sampling and analyzing volcanic gases,
volcanic ash, and snow and melt water
from and near the volcano. In the
following few weeks, they began using
laser distance-measuring instruments
and other precise surveying equipment
to detect small shifts of the volcano’s
surface. They also expanded an ex-
isting network of hydrologic measur-
ing sites to monitor changes in stream-
flow and water quality on streams
draining Mount St. Helens and streams
likely to be affected by volcanic ash.
These additional stream-monitor sites
were intended to help detect (1) any
unusual changes in flow, such as sud-
den increases in melt water that might
result from rapid heating of the rocks
under ice and snow, and (2) changes in
water quality that might be caused by
volcanic gases dissolving in the melt
water or by materials leached from
volcanic ash.

As scientists and information
specialists assembled, first in response
to the forewarning earthquakes and
then because of the early eruptive
events, scientists already on the
scene at the University of Washington
and in Vancouver, Wash., provided

Perception and Warning of the Hazards 15

 

 

most of the information that was
available to local agency officials, the
news media, and the general public. In
Vancouver, initial information releases
were coordinated by the US. Forest
Service at its administrative head-
quarters for the Gifford Pinchot Na-
tional Forest, where an emergency op-
erations center was set up to provide
incoming scientists with work space,
communications facilities, and other
logistical support until such support
could be arranged otherwise. This ac-
tion greatly assisted the newly
launched scientific effort and also was
instrumental in providing anxious re-
porters, officials, and the public with
the necessary hazard warnings and
authoritative information. The USGS
also set up its own temporary head-
quarters in Vancouver under the gen-
eral guidance of Mullineaux, in close
coordination with the Forest Service.
Volcanic hazards analysis and inter-
agency coordination were directed by
Crandell, and volcanic monitoring and
observational investigations were
supervised by Robert L. Christiansen.

In the meantime, USGS hydrolo-
gists, glaciologists, and technicians
operated their stepped-up program of
water-related monitoring and data col-
lection from their normal headquarters
at Tacoma, Wash., and Portland,
Oreg. Studies of Mount St. Helens
glaciers were largely directed by Mark
F. Meier in Tacoma. Stream surveil-
lance and water-quality monitoring
were supervised by Charles R. Collier
in Tacoma and by Stanley F. Kapustka
in Portland.

After President Carter declared on
May 21 that the State of Washington
was a disaster area, the Federal Emer-
gency Management Agency assumed
responsibility for coordinating the
release of information and hazard
warnings at a temporary emergency-
operations center in Vancouver. Inten-
sive coverage of the volcanic events by
the news media, as well as actions by
State and local officials based on co-
ordinated information released by
scientists, provided most of the warn-
ings and guidance for local residents.

 

CHRONOLOGY OF THE FIRST

100 DAYS

The following chronology begins
with the first telltale earthquake on
March 20 and ends during a dome-
building phase on June 27. This inter-
val gave rise to countless fascinating
stories about the volcanic events and
the human responses to those events.
This chronology emphasizes the se-
quence of geologic occurrences and
processes as well as the hazard-
warning aspects of that historic period,
but it also describes other incidents
that relate public and agency responses
to the volcanic events.

This chronology has been written as
if it were an evening journal recounting
the events of the day—a method tradi-
tionally used by field scientists. Indeed,
the major sources for the account that
follows were the daily reports of field
scientists 'and other observers who
were on the scene as the Mount St.
Helens story unfolded.

By far, the most important event of
this period was the devastating erup-
tion of May 18, hereafter referred to as
“E Day." For the convenience of the
reader, all dates in the chronology are
referred to that day.

Unusual Earthquakes
Begin

Thursday, March 20, 1980
E Day Minus 59

Seismographs at the University of
Washington in Seattle registered at
3:37 p.m. today the first sizable earth-
quake to shake Mount St. Helens since
recording devices were installed in
1972. The quake was distinctly felt
near the volcano. It measured
magnitude 4.1 on the Richter scale,
was followed by many aftershocks,
and originated at shallow depth from a
point immediately northwest of the
summit of Mount St. Helens. That
quake and the others that followed
were unlike any earthquake sequence
ever recorded in the Northwest.

16 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

The initial quake differed from other
such earthquakes in the Cascade Range
because of its unusually shallow origin
(how shallow is yet unknown) and its
many aftershocks. A telephone call
from the University of Washington
seismology center notified the USGS
regional office in Menlo Park, Calif.,
of the earthquake and the unusual per-
sistence of its aftershocks.

Only one telemetered seismic station
(linked to university recorders by
radio) is operating in the area, but the
decision was made to install additional
seismometers immediately. Coinciden-
tally, four of the instruments already in
shipment to Seattle arrived this even-
mg.

Friday, March 21
E Day Minus 58

Evidence of aftershocks persisted
this morning in the record being trans-
mitted by the Mount St. Helens seismic
station, and telephone advisories be-
tween the Forest Service, USCS, and
the University of Washington were
stepped up. Forest Service officials in
Vancouver telephoned a report of
yesterday's earthquake to personnel of
the USGS Volcanic Hazards Project in
Denver, Colo. Scientists at the Univer-
sity of Washington seismology center
contacted the Forest Service in Van-
couver for assistance in locating addi-
tional seismic stations (because of
snowy conditions) and were told that

. the earthquakes had caused large ava-

lanches yesterday on Mount St.
Helens. The seismology center staff
also notified the USGS Menlo Park of-
fice that yesterday’s main shock had a
very shallow source, which was indica-
ted by the reported avalanches, the
character of the recorded shock waves,
and the fact that the earthquake was so
strongly felt nearby.

Working together, USGS and Uni-
versity of Washington scientists in-

 

 

stalled four additional seismic stations
near Mount St. Helens. Three of these
stations (one each a few miles east,

, north, and south of the volcano) are
designed to begin recording as soon as
they detect a shock and to continue op-
erating unattended for 5 days unless
they are reset. The other station, about
20 miles to the northeast, will automat-
ically transmit electronic signals of
earth movements to the seismology
center in Seattle.

Seismologists expect that the addi-
tional instruments will help to define
the geologic processes that caused the
shocks. Those processes, they believe,
involve fairly ordinary crustal move-
ment along subsurface faults.

Saturday, March 22
E Day Minus 57

A second earthquake greater than
magnitude 4 occurred today, together
with many smaller ones similar to
those occurring on Thursday. Seismol-
ogists decided that this event was not a
single large quake with smaller after-
shocks but an earthquake swarm con-
sisting of many separate events.

Scientists at the University of Wash-
ington advised the Forest Service’s ava-
lanche warning center in Seattle (as they
advised the Vancouver office yester-
day) that the possibility of continuing
earthquake-triggered avalanches on
Mount St. Helens was high. A field trip
has been arranged for tomorrow to col-
lect records from the 5-day recording
instruments in the hope of determining
a more precise location for today's
major quake.

Sunday, March 23
E Day Minus 56

Visits to the seismic stations near
Mount St. Helens today were frustrat-
ing. All three recording seismographs
installed on Friday were not working
properly, two because of bad batteries.
Thus, no records are available from
them to help pinpoint the source of
yesterday’s large shock.

Meanwhile, seismic data being re-
ceived at Seattle show a sharp increase

in earthquake activity. Five quakes
greater than magnitude 3 were re-
corded today, including (shortly after 8
p.m. tonight) the third one greater than
magnitude 4. Seismologists in Seattle
have decided that this earthquake se-
quence may be a forerunner of volcan-
ic activity, and they will alert Denver
Volcanic Hazards Project personnel
tomorrow morning.

Monday, March 24
E Day Minus 55

Observers flying over the volcano
today were unable to detect obvious
signs of increased volcanic or new ther-
mal activity, but they did note1 a
number of snow avalanches triggered
by the continuing earthquakes.

Seismic activity continues to in—
crease. Ten earthquakes greater than
magnitude 3 were recorded from the
Mount St. Helens area; 4 were greater
than magnitude 4, and the strongest
was magnitude 4.7. The University of
Washington seismology center is now
being staffed 24 hours a day.

Seismologists added another seismic
station to the USGS-University of
Washington network monitoring the
volcano, reinstalled one of the failed
recorders, and made plans for future
additions. They also advised USGS
Volcanic Hazards Project personnel in
Denver, as well as the USGS regional
headquarters in Menlo Park, Calif.,
and the Forest Service Vancouver of-
fice, that a ”tremendous increase in
seismicity” has been observed and that
the seismic records are indicating a
volcanic earthquake sequence. The
University of Washington and the
Forest Service immediately began ask—
ing the public to stay away from
Mount St. Helens and Spirit Lake. The
USGS Hazards Information Coordina-
tor in Reston, Va., was advised that
the earthquakes near Mount St. Helens
were showing a ”classic preeruption
pattern,” a behavior seen previously at
Japanese volcanoes.

David Johnston, a USGS volcanolo-
gist from Menlo Park, Calif ., who was
vacationing in the Seattle area, visited

the seismology center and stayed on to
help handle the rapidly accumulating
seismic data.

Tuesday, March 25
E Day Minus 54

Seismic activity increased greatly
again today, when as many as 5 earth-
quakes of magnitude 4 or greater were
recorded in 1 hour (22 during one
8-hour period). At this rate, recorder
traces of earthquakes even as large as
magnitude 3.5 are buried in the con-
tinuations of traces of previous quakes.

This sharp increase in the number
and magnitude of earthquakes has
prompted USGS geologist Mullineaux
to leave Denver for Forest Service
headquarters for the Gifford Pinchot
National Forest in Vancouver, where
an interagency meeting about Mount
St. Helens has been scheduled for
tomorrow. Mullineaux will stay on to
direct the USGS study of the volcano.

The Forest Service announced that
national forest areas on the mountain
above the tree line (or timberline; fig 5)
have been closed, along with the infor—
mation center at Spirit Lake, and
warned residents near the mountain of
the danger of earthquake-induced ava-
lanches. The closed area ranges from
less than 2 miles to nearly 4 miles from
the summit. The Skamania County
Sheriff’s office closed the main high-
way into the north-side area, State
Route 504 (fig. 7), at a point even far-
ther away—about 5 miles northwest of
the peak. Many national forest roads
also were closed.

News reporters and photographers
have flocked to the mountain. The
Federal Aviation Administration has
imposed special flight restrictions near
the volcano because of the number of
aircraft carrying scientists, reporters,
and other observers for a close look.

Bud Kimball, a commercial aerial
photographer, reported to USGS scien-
tists in Tacoma that he had photo-
gaphed a large crack in the snow and
ice across the top of Mount St. Helens.

Chronology of the First 100 Days 17

 

 

Wednesday, March 26
E Day Minus 53

Extensive cloud cover hid the moun-
tain from view all day.

The University of Washington seis-
mology center this evening registered
the 100th quake of magnitude 3.5 or
larger in the MOunt St. Helens area
since March 20. Today, 7 earthquakes
of magnitude 4.0 or greater oc-
curred—many less than the 25 record-
ed yesterday. Most of these quakes
originated at relatively shallow depths
of about 3 miles or less below the land
surface.

Additional recording equipment was
installed at the seismology center to
handle the saturation of seismic data
from the telemetered stations. Data
processing and attempts to locate
earthquakes’ origins are now round-
the-clock efforts.

A meeting of Federal, State, and
county emergency-services officials
was held today in Vancouver. USGS
scientists explained their interpreta-
tions of the seismic events and poten-
tial hazards. An emergency coordina-
tion center was set up by the Forest
Service at its Vancouver headquarters.

In spite of the earthquakes and news
reports, some residents do not believe
that an eruption is possible. Said one,
according to the Associated Press, ”It’s
just . . . cooked up by the Federal
forestry service for them environmen-
talists to delay a big development of
the Spirit Lake recreation area. That's
my opinion."

Ash Eruptions Begin

Thursday, March 27
E Day Minus 52

USGS officials today issued a formal
”Hazards Watch" announcement to
more than 300 State and Federal of-
ficials, representatives of other agen-
cies, and the local congressional dele-
gation.

At 11:20 a.m., an observer in an
Army National Guard reconnaissance
airplane reported seeing a hole in the

icecap on the mountain near the sum-
mit and a gray streak (presumably ash)
extending southeast from the hole. No
emissions from the hole were reported
at that time. Then, at about 12:30
p.m., people near the volcano heard a
loud boom. This boom probably
marked the first sighted eruption,
which took place during cloudy
weather. Mike Beard, a reporter from a
Portland radio station, was flying over
the cloud-shrouded mountain and ap-
parently was the first to report seeing
the eruption. He is quoted as saying
that he “ . . . saw ash and smoke
spewing out, a little like smoke out of a
chimney. It was not explosive. . . ."

At 2:00 p.m., the University of
Washington seismology center record-
ed a magnitude 4.7 earthquake, the
second strongest to date. The quake
was one of 57 during the day to register
magnitude 3.5 or greater. (Earthquakes
have become so common in the Mount
St. Helens area that a half dozen
quakes greater than magnitude 4 are
considered normal for a day.) After
this magnitude 4.7 shock, the eruption,
as described by airborne observers,
was a thick black plume rising about
7,000 feet above the volcano.

Observers flying over the mountain
shortly afterward saw a crater about
200 to 250 feet wide near the summit
(fig. 9). They also noted that the ice,
snow, and rocks around the crater
were deformed and that volcanic ash
had darkened the snow in a band that
extended across the crater and down
the cone’s southeastern slope. Two
crack systems trending east-west were
seen extending across the peak. The
southernmost crack is about 1 mile
long; it turns north on both the eastern
and western sides of the summit and
reaches short distances down the
northeastern and northwestern flanks
of the mountain.

Within hours of the initial eruption,
hundreds of people were evacuated
from logging camps, scattered homes,
and public facilities in the area.
Emergency-services officials advised
residents within a 15-mile radius of the

18 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

 

mountain to leave. Forest Service
employees and their families left the
ranger station at the head of Swift
Reservoir. About 300 loggers moved
out of three Weyerhaeuser Company
logging camps near the volcano, as did
20 people from the State fish hatchery
on the North Fork Toutle River, about
30 miles downstream from the vol-
cano. Skamania County Sheriff's depu-
ties moved 45 people, mostly newsr‘nen
and scientists, from the Spirit Lake
area. Cowlitz County law-enforcement
officers evacuated people farther
downstream along the Toutle River.
Deputies from both counties set up
roadblocks on several main routes to
keep out the curious. The Washington
Department of Emergency Services
distributed to residents of the town of
Cougar information sheets suggesting
that they “pack an overnight bag” and
be ready to move quickly.

One longtime resident, Harry Tru-
man, proprietor of the Mount St.
Helens Lodge at the southwestern end
of Spirit Lake, refused to leave in spite
of strong urging to do so.

The evacuations were spurred by
two major concerns. One is that the
cracks across the summit resulted from
a slumping of the ice field on the upper
northern flank of the volcano, which
may increase the danger of major ava-
lanches. The other is that widespread
flooding and mudflows might result if
heat from the volcano melts the moun-
tain’s mantle of snow and ice. By even-
ing, however, USGS hydrologists
reported that none of the streams that
drain the volcano’s slopes was rising.

More scientists have been arriving at
the Vancouver coordination center to
study phenomena such as earthquake
activity, deformation of the volcano
surface, composition of volcanic gas
and ash, heat emissions, and changes
in the quantity and quality of melt
water (fig. 3).

Friday, March 28
E Day Minus 51

Another explosive eruption began
about 3:00 a.m. today and lasted near-

 

 

 

 

 

 

$1,... .

FIGURE 9.—On March 27, 1980, observers saw Mount St. Helens erupt for the first time in 123 years. The eruption, which was preceded by a
loud “boom," left a single crater, 200 to 250 feet across, in the snow and ice that capped the volcano’s cone. The snow around the crater
was coated with volcanic ash, a material that was to become all too familiar to many residents of the Northwest. The view here is from

 

the north. (Photograph by Austin Post, USGS, March 27, 1980.)

ly 2 hours. Although observations
were hampered by bad weather and
darkness, a cloud of ash and steam was
seen by airborne observers to rise
“more than a mile” above the volcano,
and an ash cloud cascaded slowly
down its eastern flank.

By dusk, at least a dozen other erup-
tions lasting from a few minutes to
nearly an hour had occurred. Columns
of steam and ash at times reached near-
ly 10,000 feet above the volcano and
drifted eastward. An eruption just
before sunset threw out not only ash
but also rocks that ranged in size from
a few inches to: about 3 feet across. A
short time later, volcanic ash was fall-
ing in a wide swath east of the volcano.
It was reported as far away as Trout
Lake, about 35 miles to the southeast.

Several mud-darkened avalanches of
snow and ice moved down the eastern
flank of the mountain; a few extended
down to the 6,400-foot level. Because
of their dark color, some observers
mistook them for lava flows or mud-
flows, an error that added to concerns
about flood hazards in the valleys of
streams draining the mountain.

Earthquake activity remains about
the same. Eight events of magnitude 4
or greater took place today; the
strongest earthquake to date, which
occurred shortly after midnight this
morning, registered 4.9 in Seattle.
Geophysicists report that the earth-
quakes are centered beneath the vol-
cano at a depth of less than 1 mile.

Scientists from the University of
Washington Cloud Physics Research

Group flew over the volcano to collect
samples of the emanating gases. They
found that sulfur dioxide, which is
associated with high temperatures, was
the main sulfur gas present. This dis-
covery was the first indication that a
high-temperature source inside the
mountain is releasing gas during erup-
tions. The presence of sulfur dioxide in
the gases is of special interest because
its content is usually low in geothermal
steam but relatively high in gases
emanating from magma.

Despite the bad weather and fre-
quent eruptions, scientists in a
helicopter flew to the 4,000-foot level
of the volcano to collect ash samples
for analysis to determine whether the
volcanic ash was coming from new
magma or from pulverized old rock.

Chronology of the First 100 Days 19

 

University of Puget Sound scientists
began making gravity measurements at
sites near the volcano to detect any
changes that might be related to intru-
sion of magma.

USGS water specialists began col-
lecting water-quality data system-
atically from sites around Mount
St. Helens and in the direction of
prevailing winds from the volcano.
They also began installing additional
water-quality monitors near the
volcano.

The Pacific Power and Light Com-
pany has been releasing water from its
Swift Reservoir to two reservoirs
downstream; the water level in the
Swift consequently was about 20 feet
below capacity today. The objective
was to create storage space to accom-
modate rapid snowmelt runoff or mud-
flows that might be caused by erup-
tions. A USGS report (Crandell and
Mullineaux, 1978) had pointed out that
Swift Reservoir, the closest one to the
volcano, was both a danger and a
margin of safety—a danger if floods
were to overtop it, a margin of safety if
it could be used to hold back sudden
floods or mudflows.

Sightseers jammed possible evacua-
tion routes with their vehicles and tried
to evade roadblocks to get closer views
of the volcano. Officials of the Wash-
ington Department of Emergency Serv-
ices have implored curiosity seekers to
keep away from potential danger
areas.

Yesterday, volcanologist Johnston
left his volunteer duties at the Universi-
ty of Washington seismology center in
Seattle for Vancouver to join the field
studies at the volcano. In an interview
today with reporters at Timberline
Viewpoint, he likened the mountain to
dynamite with a lit fuse; “ . . . but you
don’t know how long the fuse is,” he
said.

Mountaintop Cracks
and Craters Grow

Saturday, March 29
E Day Minus 50

The weather cleared today, and air-
borne observers noted a second, larger
crater west of the first (fig. 10).
Sporadic eruptions of steam and ash
were now coming mainly from this
new crater.

Clouds of erupted ash and steam
that swept slowly down the mountain
(fig. 11) sometimes were accompanied
by lightning flashes, some of them 2
miles long. Scientists speculated that
the ground-hugging lightning bolts
were caused by rock particles in the ash
cloud rubbing togethér to produce elec-
trostatic discharges, much as static
electricity is sometimes generated by
walking over a rug.

The first USGS analyses of volcanic
ash showed that the ash is composed of
pulverized old rock propelled into the
air by steam eruptions. There was no
evidence of “juvenile” rock material
(from the magma) that would indicate
the presence of the magma at shallow
depth in the volcano.

The explosive eruptions to date are
phreatic eruptions, attributed mainly
to subsurface water coming into con-
tact with very hot rocks that are being
heated by the magma beneath. When
the water reaches boiling temperature,
it expands suddenly and violently into
steam. Rapid expansion of other gases,
such as carbon dioxide, also may con-
tribute to these eruptions.

Earthquakes recorded today in the
Mount St. Helens area included 39
ranging in magnitude from 3.5 to 4.4,
part of a total of 86 that exceeded
magnitude 3.

20 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

Field crews installed the first tilt-
meter station, which will help to
measure the surface deformation of
the volcano. A tiltmeter network is
planned, in conjunction with the use of
precise distance-measuring instru-
ments, so that changes in the volcano's
shape—particularly swelling that
might indicate upward movement of
the magma (fig. 3)—can be detected.

USGS hydrologists continue to
monitor the streams closely but have
detected no unusual increases in
streamflow. Stream-water quality also
has remained stable, except at sam-
pling sites on two streams southeast of
Mount St. Helens, both about 40 miles
from the mountain and in the path of
ash from yesterday's eruptions. Water
acidity, hydrologists have found, in-
creased slightly at those sites; the pH,
an index of acidity or alkalinity, went
from about 7 (neutral) to 6 (slightly
acid). (The pH returned to normal
within 2 days.)

FIGURE 10,—The sight of two craters in-
stead of one greeted airborne observers
as clouds lifted over Mount St. Helens on
March 29, 1980, after more than a day of
bad weather and frequent eruptions. At
night, blue flames, probably from burn-
ing hydrogen sulfide gas, were flickering
within the old crater (left) or jumping
from crater to crater. The view here is
from the north. (Photograph by David
Frank, USGS, March 30, 1980.)

FIGURE 11.—Erupted plumes of ash and
steam (and minor amounts of other
gases) were carried from the crater by
winds and sometimes streamed down the
flanks of Mount St. Helens for con-
siderable distances. Spectacular displays
of lightning occasionally were generated
in these ground-hugging plumes by
charges of static electricity built up when
ash particles rubbed against one another
in the turbulent cloud. This photograph
was taken from the northwest by David
P. Dethier (USGS) on April 8, 1980.

 

 

 

 

 

Some tourists admitted to reporters
that, despite roadblocks, they had
evaded the barriers and gone closer to
the mountain but could not see the
volcano because of the cloud cover.

Sunday, March 30
E Day Minus 49

The first major eruption of the day
was reported at 4:10 a.m. By 7:40
a.m., a huge anvil-shaped cloud of
steam and ash had formed; drifting to
the southeast, it produced light ashfalls
miles away. Fine gray volcanic ash was
reported at Stevenson, Wash., about
25 miles south of the volcano, and of-
ficials were concerned about the effects
of the ash on the quality of the Bull
Run River, the main water source for
Portland. Five later eruptions sent ash
more than 1 mile above the twin
craters. Altogether, observers counted
93 eruptions of steam and ash from the
volcano today.

Last night, airborne observers could
see a flickering blue flame burning
within the old crater or jumping from
crater to crater. Volcanologist Johns-
ton reasoned that the blue flame meant
that a flammable gas was being emit-
ted. Possible gases were hydrogen,
hydrogen sulfide, methane, or carbon
monoxide, the most likely being
hydrogen sulfide. (The flame disap-
peared on April 2 before scientists
could determine the exact composition
of the gas.) Burning gas has been
observed previously above lava flows
and lava lakes in other volcanic regions
but not in craters before the ap-
pearance of lava.

Seismographs at the University of
Washington recorded 58 earthquakes
of magnitudes greater than 3.0, in-
cluding 6 above 4.0.

A group from Dartmouth College in
Hanover, N.H., began remote moni-
toring of sulfur dioxide (50;). Early
results showing that the volcano is
emitting SO; at the rate of 0.3 tons a
day verify the March 28 identification
of the gas, which is typically found in

emanations from magma. This meas-
urement also shows that Mount St.
Helens at present is not a major source
of sulfurous air pollution. (For com-
parison, some large coal-burning
powerplants may emit more than 100
tons of SO; a day.)

In the afternoon, as many as 70 air-
craft reportedly were flying around the
volcano at the same time, and strict
air-traffic control was necessary to pre-
vent aerial collisions.

Monday, March 31
E Day Minus 48

Shifting winds sent ash from the
volcano’s frequent eruptions toward
different, more densely populated
areas today. By noon, the Kelso-
Longview area, about 40 miles west of
Mount St. Helens, was lightly dusted
by ash. No juvenile rock material has
been seen in the ash at month’s end.

Airborne observers reported that the
twin craters are both growing and have
nearly merged.

The frequency of earthquakes near
the volcano slackened, although an in-
crease in the number having magni-
tudes greater than 4.3 suggests that the
total energy release remains about the
same.

Tourists, who earlier had been dis-
appointed by bad weather and road-
blocks around the mountain, have
been penetrating the closure boundary
during the good weather at the end of
March . . until it appeared," wrote
Bill Stewart in the Vancouver Colum-
bian, “that there was a competition to
see who could get closest. Some people
[in helicopters] actually landed on the
crater rim and climbed inside.” One
group wearing camouflage clothing
climbed to the top and filmed scenes in-
tended for a documentary movie—and
for beer commercials.

Tuesday, April 1
E Day Minus 47

Clouds shrouded the lower part of
the mountain, as they do much of the
time, but the top was clear enough for

22 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

aerial observations. Several eruptions
of ash and steam made clouds that
reached as high as about 20,000
feet—10,000 feet above the peak. Light
ashfall was reported on the outskirts of
Vancouver, and the village of Cougar,
11 miles southwest of the volcano,
received somewhat larger amounts.
Some observers believe that these emp-
tions are the strongest since the vol-
cano reawoke last month.

USGS scientists reported that a huge
wedge (graben) of ice-capped rocks,
including the crater area, has settled at
least 200 feet downward between the
systems of major cracks crossing the
mountaintop (see fig. 14). This settling
has caused a noticeable outward dis-
placement, or bulging, of the rocks and
glacier ice north of the crater. Airborne
observers noted that the two summit
craters are now essentially a single
crater more than 600 feet across. At
least two new steam vents also were
spotted in the crater area.

Last night and early this morning,
seismographs recorded three of the
strongest quakes to date—two with
magnitudes of 4.6 and one of 4.7. This
afternoon, another of magnitude 4.6
occurred.

Between 7:25 and 7:30 p.m., the first
weak harmonic tremor was noted on
the seismograms at the University of
Washington seismology center. It was
an undulating ground movement of the
kind typically associated with the
underground movement of magma
(fig. 12). (Although harmonic tremor
has preceded and accompanied volcan-
ic eruptions in Hawaii, it may occur
without being followed by an
eruption.)

Volcano experts are saying that the
possibility of eruptions involving
magma seems to be increasing. Their
evidence includes the stronger earth-
quakes accompanied by harmonic
tremor; the new steam vents and the
more vigorous eruptions, which may
reflect a general heating up of the
volcano; and the presence in the gas
samples taken last Friday of sulfur

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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i

 

 

 

 

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m
._...- sum" 4. .
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. _ . 4‘
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FIGURE 12.—Seismograph traces comparing harmonic tremor (top) to normal earthquake
pattern (bottom). (Data from the University of Washington Geophysics Program.)

dioxide, which shows that a high-
temperature source for the gas exists
within the mountain. A magmatic
eruption may not occur soon, how-
ever, and its onset cannot yet be
predicted.

Scientists are eager to get new aerial
photographs looking straight down on
the mountain to compare with similar
vertical photographs taken in 1979.
Comparison of the two sets of photo-
graphs will help to determine the
physical changes that the mountain has
undergone during the last few months.
A U-2. reconnaissance plane took high-
altitude pictures of the volcano today,
but the images were unsatisfactory
because clouds obscured too much of
the area.

Representatives of the University of
Washington Geophysics Program and
the USGS field headquarters have de-
cided to install a computer link be-
tween the seismology center in Seattle
and the Vancouver facility to improve
the exchange of scientific data and to
speed warnings of earthquake-related
hazards.

April 1, which usually marks the
start of the mountain-climbing season,

finds Mount St. Helens closed to climb-
ing. Spirit Lake, which (by Forest Serv-
ice records) averages 658,000 “visits” a
year, is also closed. Farther from the
mountain, however, about 300 loggers
have returned to their jobs on and near
the lower flanks of Mount St. Helens
and at Camp Baker, some 15 miles
northwest of the peak (fig. 13).

Officials of Cowlitz and Skamania
Counties have decided, because of
limited county budgets and small law-
enforcement staffs, that they must ask
the Washington National Guard to
help maintain the roadblocks around
the volcano. Sheriffs' deputies from
both counties have been manning
roadblocks across several main access
roads west and south of the mountain
around the clock since last Thursday,
the day of the first eruption.

The restricted zone (fig. 13) is not
difficult to enter because the mountain
is crisscrossed by dirt logging roads.
One official estimated that, instead of
the 6 roadblocks being maintained by
Cowlitz County, as many as 29 bar-
riers requiring about 180 officers
would be needed to completely block
the mountain roads.

Nolan Lewis, Cowlitz County Emer-
gency Services Director, was quoted
today in the Tacoma News Tribune: “I
just can’t fathom it,” he said. “People
are swarming in from all over, putting
their lives in danger. . . Sunday, when
the weather was clear, the road up to
the mountain looked like downtown
Seattle at rush hour.”

Wednesday, April 2
E Day Minus 46

A stronger burst of harmonic tremor
was recorded by many seismographs in
the Mount St. Helens area between
about 7:35 and 7:50 a.m. This burst
confirmed the recognition of the har-
monic tremor of yesterday and is the
best indication to date that magma is
moving beneath the mountain. (Seis-
mologists later determined that short
episodes of harmonic tremor also oc-
curred on March 31 and earlier this
morning.)

The number of earthquakes greater
than magnitude 3.0 increased to 63 to-
day, reversing the decreasing trend of
the past 3 days. Five of the quakes were
stronger than magnitude 4.0; one was
4.8, among the strongest of the vol-
canic sequence to date. (Today was to
be the most active day, for earthquakes
stronger than magnitude 3.0, during
the month of April.)

At least a dozen major eruption
plumes shot above the mountain, one
reaching an altitude of more than
20,000 feet. Large boulders and ”blocks
of undetermined matter" (rock or ice)
were thrown out of the crater during
one 30-minute eruption in midafter-
noon. A light ashfall left small
amounts of ash on automobiles in Van-
couver and Portland.

The Forest Service’s Pine Creek
Ranger Station, south of the volcano,
was closed permanently today. It had
been evacuated on March 27.

Asked about the likelihood of an ex-
plosive eruption—one that would hurl
rock and lava from the mountain
—-Mullineaux replied that it was the

Chronology of the First 100 Days 23

 

 

 

 

 

         
  

      
   

 

 

 

 

 

 

  
 

      
  
 
  
 
 
 

 

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period from March 25 to June 27, 1980.
Entry to hazardous zones was further
restricted by State and county ‘
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least likely of the volcano’s possible ac-
tions. ”A series of small eruptions
would be more likely than a large,
cataclysmic event," he said.

State of Emergency

Thursday, April 3
E Day Minus 45

Washington Governor Dixy Lee Ray
today declared a state of emergency
and set up a “Mount St. Helens Watch
Group.” Local officials in both
Washington and Oregon issued leaflets
prepared by the Federal Emergency
Management Agency entitled “What
To Do During a Volcano Ashfall.” The
leaflet gives advice on the dangers of
ashfalls, mudflows, and floods.

Seismographs recorded six earth-
quakes of magnitude 4.0 and greater,
the strongest of which was 4.6. Two
more bursts of harmonic tremor occur-
ring this evening indicate continued
movement of magma beneath the
mountain. The total duration of har-
monic tremor—33 minutes—is more
than double last evening’s 15-minute
episode.

Airborne observers reported that the
crater has enlarged to a diameter of
about 1,500 feet and a depth of about
300 feet. Plumes of steam and ash
billow from the crater almost hourly.
Traces of volcanic ash fell in and near
Tacoma, about 70 miles north of the
mountain.

Friday, April 4
E Day Minus 44

Two episodes of harmonic tremor 27
and 32 minutes in duration were re-
corded by seismographs today, as were
five earthquakes stronger than
magnitude 4.0 and many weaker
quakes.

Governor Ray called out the Na-
tional Guard to share duties at
roadblocks around Mount St. Helens.

Only property owners and scientists
are to be allowed inside the blockaded
zone.

In an effort to protect sightseers and
to keep them out of the way, Washing-
ton State officials moved one road-
block on State Route 504 about 20
miles farther from the mountain and
established a major public viewing area
near Ridgefield, Wash., about 40 miles
from the volcano.

Loggers and truckers are urging
county officials to let them resume
work in the restricted zone, and they
have offered to sign waivers releasing
public officials from liability for any
volcano-related casualties. An at-
torney for several logging companies
argued that loggers should be able to
make their own choice about entering
and working in the restricted zone,
"since they make their living in the
woods and are familiar with the dan-
gers," according to a story in the Seat-
tle Post-Intelligencer.

No measurable radioactivity was
found in the volcanic ash during
radiological testing reported today by
the Washington Department of Social
and Health Services. According to
State health officials, there is no reason
to believe that the small amounts of
ash that sometimes drift beyond the
immediate vicinity of the volcano are
dangerous to people in good health.

Most scientists believe that the
greatest hazard currently posed by the
reawakened volcano is the possibility
of flash floods or mudflows, especially
those that might enter Swift Reservoir
and cause a massive overflow and
flood surge into the downstream chan-
nel and reservoirs.

USGS hydrologist David Frank set
up a time-lapse movie camera to take
color pictures of the periodically erupt-
ing volcano. The camera, designed to
expose one frame of film after each
preset time interval, was installed on a
logged-off ridge accessible only by log-
ging roads, 8.4 miles northwest of the
volcano's summit. The site overlooks
the North Fork Toutle River near the
mouth of Coldwater Creek and affords

an unobstructed view of Mount St.
Helens. It also is high enough to be safe
from even the largest mudflow that
might result if the ice and snow were
melted by the volcano’s heat. The site
was selected a few days ago as a scien—
tific observation post, and a tent was
set up to shelter observers. Additional
instruments, including another time-
lapse camera, will be installed within
the next few days. Scientists refer to
the observation site as “Coldwater”
(later called “Goldwater I”; see fig. 7).

Saturday, April 5
E Day Minus 43

At least three eruptions today sent
ash to altitudes of about 15,000 feet,
and scientists using airborne measuring
devices detected low concentrations of
sulfur dioxide in the plume. Only four
earthquakes today reached magnitude
4.0 or greater. Harmonic tremor oc-
curred for 16 minutes shortly before
noon.

Sixty Washington National Guards-
men took up duties this morning at
four roadblocks on major routes to
Mount St. Helens. They immediately
moved two of the roadblocks farther
away from the mountain to allow them
better control of side roads leading to
the volcano and to place some of the
most congested (and therefore poten-
tially most dangerous) viewing spots
off limits.

Scientists and technicians have been
working long hours in the field under
difficult and often risky conditions.
When the weather permits, some are
flown by helicopter from Vancouver to
various places on the mountain or to
nearby sites such as Timberline View-
point or Spirit Lake (fig. 7), depending
on their scientific specialty or work
assignment. If expensive helicopter
support is not available, investigators
must drive to the area, usually by way
of State Route 504 through the valley
of North Fork Toutle River, from
headquarters in Seattle and Tacoma as
well as in Vancouver. Ground travel
away from the vehicles usually involves

Chronology of the First 100 Days 25

 

 

trudging through deep snow. Heavy
rain or snowfall, often accompanied by
bitter wind, is common in the area.
When bad storms hit, fieldworkers use
tents and umbrellas to shelter sensitive
instruments during the measurements.
Fieldwork includes visiting instrument
sites to change batteries and calibrate
instruments already in place or to in-
stall additional instruments; photo-
graphing the widening crevasses in the
upper glaciers; making measurements
of gravity and magnetic field with
portable instruments; and sampling
and measuring fumarole gases,
volcanic ash, and the flow of streams
draining from the mountain. Some of
the work must be done on avalanche-
prone slopes while the upper parts of
the mountain are hidden in clouds. At
such times, the sudden, strong earth-
quakes can be startling. During good
weather, helicopters ferry scientists
from one site to another during the day
and return them to Vancouver in the
evening. The helicopter flights are
made during the daylight hours, but
the long drives to and from the area
often begin and end in darkness.
Workers from Vancouver then conduct
evening conferences to review the day's
activities. Fourteen-hour working days
are common; clockwatching is mainly
for timing scientific observations and
resetting instruments.

Most scientists, however, prefer the
hardships and long hours in the field to
remaining at the Vancouver center and
being besieged by news reporters, who
persist in asking questions that the
scientists cannot answer about what
the volcano will do next.

Sunday, April 6
E Day Minus 42

Although clouds, rain, snow, and oc-
casional “mud rains” containing ash
hampered visibility today, they did
keep away much of the expected crowd
of sightseers. The Spirit Lake area
received 6 inches of new snow. Scien-
tists termed the few eruptions of ash
and steam as "insignificant."

Earthquake activity around Mount
St. Helens was about the same as it has
been in the last few days—hundreds of
quakes of magnitude 3 or less, 54
greater than magnitude 3, and 6 of
magnitude 4.0 or greater. N o harmonic
tremor was recorded today, however.

Scientists found the ash to be 3 in-
ches thick on the eastern flank of the
mountain at the 5,000-foot level.

In an interview with Seattle Times
reporter Hill Williams, USGS geologist
Crandell explained that scientists really
do not know what to expect from the
volcano because information about ac-
tual eruptions of Cascade Range vol-
canoes is limited and because the erup-
tive history of Mount St. Helens is
different from that of other Cascade
volcanoes. ”Mount St. Helens has done
so many different things in the past
that hardly anything would be a sur-
prise,” Crandell said. "The only thing
it hasn’t done is blow itself apart.”

Monday, April 7
E Day Minus 41

For the first time, observers today
got a clear view of a vent in the floor of
the enlarged crater and saw a single cir-
cular “throat” at least 20 feet in
diameter in the deepest part of the floor
(fig. 14E). The crater, which has been
enlarging progressively since March
27, is now about 1,700 feet long (east
to west), 1,200 feet wide, and 500 feet
deep. Airborne observers reported
ponds of muddy water, large enough
to float chunks of ice, in depressions in
the crater floor. The ponds are fed by
melt water from the crater walls and a
capping of ice 30 feet thick on the
crater’s rim. The water reportedly
disappears with each eruption, but
more watt accumulates again soon
after an eruption subsides. Two of the
ponds have short streams draining
from them into the crater bottom. This
is the first report of substantial pond-
ing in the crater.

Overall seismic activity at Mount St.
Helens continues at about the same

26 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

level. Although the number of earth-
quakes greater than magnitude 3 de-
clined slightly today, the activity in-
cluded one event of magnitude 4.7 and
one of 4.6. A 15-minute episode of har-
monic tremor occurred, the first in 2
days. Most quakes were clustered be-
neath the volcano at depths ranging
from 0.5 to 3 miles. A plot of earth-
quake epicenters since March 20, com-
pleted today by scientists from the
University of Washington Geophysics
Program, showed a heavy concentra-
tion of quake locations under the
northern slopes of Mount St. Helens.

Scientists installed a new tiltmeter in
the parking lot at Timberline View-
point, 2.6 miles northeast of the crater
(fig. 7). The snow there, 3 feet deep in
places, hampers the work of scientists
who are using various kinds of geo-
physical instruments to detect changes
in the shape and subsurface makeup of
the mountain. The snow surface is
coated with volcanic ash, and pits dug
in the snow show alternating layers of
ash and snow that have fallen during
the last 12 days.

Tuesday, April 8
E Day Minus 40

One long, single eruption, visible for
more than 5 hours, was first seen at
8:22 a.m. and continued until at least
2:00 p.m. today.

During the eruption, a hole opened
in the ice at the head of Wishbone
Glacier (fig. 5), near the northwestern
rim of the crater, and melt water from
the surrounding ice poured into the
hole for several minutes to form a
pond. Then the rim cracked, the water
disappeared, and a slice of the upper
Wishbone Glacier caved into the
crater, enlarging the crater’s north-
western side by more than 300 feet. For
several minutes after the cave-in, air-
borne observers noted an especially
heavy concentration of dark ash in the
eruption cloud.

On calm days, the white clouds of
steam from the volcano sometimes rise
nearly 10,000 feet above the crater rim,

 

 

 

and they often resemble thunderheads.
On windy days, the steam is carried
out laterally from the crater. At times,
winds direct the clouds downslope on
the leeside of the cone as a ground-
hugging plume that deposits ash as it
moves (fig. 11). A pattern of black
scallops on the slope of the volcano
often marks the lower limit of these
downslope plumes.

There is still much uncertainty and
speculation about what the volcano
will do next. Some news reporters
complain that they get a different idea
or view from each scientist inter-
viewed, depending on his background
and specialty. Most scientists prefer to
withhold judgment until they have
more data to help them decipher the
volcanic events.

Wednesday, April 9
E Day Minus 39

Cloud cover prevented scientists
from observing the mountain today,
either from the air or the ground, but
light ashfalls near Timberline View-
point and Spirit Lake and the odor of
sulfur marked at least three eruptions.

An apparent decrease in seismic ac-
tivity, begun yesterday, continued to-
day. Yesterday, only 38 earthquakes
greater than magnitude 3 were record-
ed, 4 of which reached or exceeded
magnitude 4. Today’s totals were 37
and 6, respectively. No harmonic
tremor was recorded either day. (This
general level of seismic activity was to
continue throughout April. Most days
this month saw less than 40 events
stronger than magnitude 3 and less
than 10 events of magnitude 4 or
greater.)

The new tiltmeter installed near
Timberline Viewpoint started sending
to Vancouver continuous records that
are expected to show any deformation
of the mountain’s northern flank.

The Forest Service officially desig-
nated Mount St. Helens as a ”Geologi-
cal Area," an area that is protected
from land-use changes because of its
geologic importance.

Thursday, April 10
E Day Minus 38

Clouds covered the mountain most
of the morning, but they cleared
enough for aerial observation by early
afternoon. Several major and minor
eruptions of steam and ash occurred at
irregular intervals, most of them
lasting no more than a few minutes.

A fresh snowfall last night, as yet
unsullied by ash on the southern side of
the peak, gave residents and tourists to
the south much the same view of the
mountain that has existed for more
than a century. Fracturing and slump-
ing on the upper northern side, how-
ever, are causing cracks in the ice cap
that are much too large to be hidden by
the fresh snow.

The progressively enlarging crater
now measures about 2,000 by 1,200
feet. Coatings of gray volcanic ash give
the northern side of the crater's interior
a velvety look, except for some jagged
rock outcroppings and scattered huge
blocks of fallen rock on the crater floor
(fig. 14E). The eruptions are confined
to a single circular vent, perhaps 30
feet across, in the position of the sec-
ond (western) crater but now at least
500 feet lower than the opening origi-
nally blasted through the volcano’s ice—
cap on March 27. The position of the
first, more easterly crater has been
largely obscured by crater growth. To
the west of the active vent, however,
the presence of a cone-shaped depres—
sion in the crater floor, separated from
the active vent by a small, sharp ridge,
suggests that a third orifice for the
eruptions of steam and ash may have
been active until recently.

Some of the intermittent eruptions
since March 27 have consisted of a
single explosion; others have surged
upward in pulses. The cloud sometimes
consists of three parts: (1) a lower,
very dark, tephra-rich finger, (2) an in-
termediate gray cloud of ash and
steam, and (3) an upper cloud of white
steam (figs. 143, C). The intermediate
part develops from the dark finger and
soon roils out in all directions to

obSCure the finger that feeds it. Blocks
of rock and ice occasionally blast
through the cloud. As the gray clouds
drift downward, thin veils of ash fall
from them.

Lobate fingers of several “genera-
tions" of ash-darkened snow and ice
avalanches reach down to the lower
slopes of the mountain. The youngest
are darkest and contrast sharply with
the stark white of the newly fallen
snow.

Harmonic tremor, the first in 3 days,
occurred twice today. One episode
lasted for 22 minutes, the other for 16.

Gravity has been measured repeat-
edly at most of the established gravity
stations, but, so far, measurements
near the mountain have shown little
change. Precise instrumental
measurements on the mountain often
are hampered by rapid, short-term
tilting of the ground. Two scientists
measuring the gravity at East Dome
(fig. 5) felt an earthquake and then
watched with fascination as the level
bubbles on their gravity instruments
moved far offcenter in response to a
strong upward tilt of the mountainside
above them. This tilt was followed a
few minutes later by a puff of steam
from the crater, whereupon the bub-
bles registered a similar tilt in the op-
posite direction.

Friday, April 11
E Day Minus 37

Good weather returned to the moun-
tain, which continued to erupt inter-
mittently. Airborne observers could
see into the crater during a moderate
eruption that took place from 6:12 to
6:58 a.m. They saw large blocks of ice
being hurled into the air along with ash
and steam and also noticed two new
steam vents on the northwestern flank
of the volcano, just below the crater
rim, as well as ponded water on the
floor of the crater.

For only the second time since activi-
ty began 23 days ago, a magnitude-4.9
earthquake occurred today at 3:51
p.m. This quake and the similar one on

Chronology of the First 100 Days 27

 

 

 

FIGURE 14.—Aerial views of the Mount St.
Helens crater and eruptions on April 10,
1980, from the north and northwest. A,
The oblong crater, enlarged since the
merging of two smaller pits, continued to
grow with the repeated eruptions and
avalanches from the crater walls. The
summit graben had slumped noticeably
since March 30, as the prominent offset
(scarp) along the major crack (fault) on
the southern side (back) of the crater
shows. (Compare with fig. 10.)
(Photograph by John Whetten, USGS.)
B, The beginning of one of several erup-
tions observed on April 10. The eruptive
cloud often included a lower, very dark,
ash-rich finger; an intermediate gray
cloud of mixed ash and steam; and an
upper, white cloud of steam. (Photo-
graph by Fred Pessl, Jr., USGS.) C, These
phreatic eruptions seemed to grow in
slow motion because of the immensity of
the scene. Some were powerful enough to
throw out automobile-sized blocks of
rock and ice. (Photograph by John
Whetten, USGS.) D, A moderate-sized
eruption cloud obscured the crater as
steam and ash drifted eastward.
(Photograph by John Whetten, USGS.)
E, By April 10, eruptions were coming
from a single circular vent (shown by an
arrow) in the lowest part of the crater
and almost directly below the position of
the crater first seen on March 29 (fig. 10).
Traces of what probably was another,
but now-dormant, vent can be seen to
the right of the active vent, here steaming
weakly. The active vent was about 30
feet across. (Photograph by John Whet-
ten, USGS.)

March 28 have been the strongest of
the volcanic earthquakes to date.

The results of tiltmeter measure-
ments on the volcano’s northern and
eastern flanks are, so far, inconclusive.
Although the ground both swells and
subsides over periods of minutes or
hours, the net change seems to be in-
significant.

Signs now have been posted along
Interstate Highway 5 notifying motor-
ists of four safe points from which to
view Mount St. Helens.

 

 

Saturday, April 12
E Day Minus 36

Continued clear weather allowed
viewers as far away as Portland to see
some of today’s many eruptions. Most
were small, as activity was less than it
has been in the past 2 weeks, but a few
larger ash-rich clouds lifted above the
crater rim. As the summit crater gradu—
ally deepens, eruptive plumes must rise
to greater heights in order to be visible
above the mountain.

 

 

Instruments have detected a slight
swelling on the northern flank of the
mountain near Goat Rocks (fig. 5), and
scientists working on the volcano’s
flank report fresh, new ground cracks

in the swelling area. The clearer
weather today made it possible to take
aerial photographs so that the shape of
the mountain could be compared sys-
tematically with its shape as shown on
photographs taken last year. Pro-
gressive shifting and cracking of the ice
on the northern side below the crater

are increasing concern that a large
mass of ice and rock could break loose
and form an avalanche reaching to the
valley of the North Fork Toutle River.

A period of harmonic tremor begin-
ning at 2:12 p.m. and lasting until 2:29
p.m. ended with an earthquake of
magnitude 4.5. (This harmonic tremor
was to be the last recorded for nearly a
month.)

USGS Director H. William Menard
arrived in Vancouver to observe the
volcano and to inspect the scientific in-
strument installations and data-col-
lection activities.

Officials of Skamania County, in
which Mount St. Helens is located, are
speculating about how long they can
(and can afford to) control access to
the mountain. Some question whether
it is even appropriate for the county to
keep people out against their will.

Sunday, April 13
E Day Minus 35

Between sunrise and sunset today,
USGS scientists counted 18 eruptions
of steam and ash ranging in duration
from a few minutes to 45 minutes.

The recording tiltmeter installed in
the parking lot at Timberline View-
point showed small but consistent
changes, the overall results indicating a
slight subsidence of the central part of
the volcano relative to the Timberline
instrument station. In order to monitor
surface tilt more closely, the USGS in-
stalled an additional tiltmeter on East
Dome at the foot of Ape Glacier.

The number of earthquakes of mag-
nitude 4 or greater increased slightly
today; there were nine, the largest
number since March 29.

Clear weather brought record-break-
ing numbers of sightseers to the area
from all over the United States and
from other countries. This weekend,
two television camera crews were
airlifted onto the mountain in defiance
of closure orders, and unauthorized
climbers were also sighted. Forest Serv-
ice officials warned again that the
mountain is not safe and that it is off
limits to the press and public above the
4,400—foot level.

Chronology of the First 100 Days 29

 

 

Eruptive Activity
Decreases

Monday, April 14
E Day Minus 34

Cloudy weather prevented scientists
from seeing the volcano, and no new
ash fell today. Instruments, however,
continue the volcano watch. Seis-
mometers show a continuation of
sizable earthquakes but no eruptions.
The recording tiltmeter at Timberline
Viewpoint showed a shift that may
represent additional slight subsidence
in the central part of the volcano. The
evidence from this one instrument,
however, is not conclusive.

Tuesday, April 15
E Day Minus 33

Mount St. Helens became visible by
midday for the first time since Sunday,
and observers were able to verify that
the volcano has slowed its eruptive ac-
tivity. Only one eruption, near dawn,
was seen today. The apparent slight
subsidence of the cone has stopped; no
change in the ground tilt was recorded
by the tiltmeters. Teams are in the field
during this lull to collect samples and
to try to evaluate the volcano’s status.

The Washington Department of
Game announced that three popular
fishing lakes near Mount St. Helens
will remain closed when the regular
fishing season opens next Sunday. Of-
ficials felt that Merrill Lake, Spirit
Lake, and Swift Reservoir, if they were
not closed, would add to the tempta-
tion to slip around the roadblocks and
enter hazardous areas.

Wednesday, April 16
E Day Minus 32

Activity was low again today,
although at least nine small steam
eruptions and some ashfalls occurred
during daylight hours. Seismic activity
is lower than it has been at any other
time during the month; only 30 earth-
quakes greater than magnitude 3 oc-
curred today. Three quakes greater
than magnitude 4 were recorded during

the early morning hours, and two more
were recorded this evening. The tilt-
meters continued to show no change in
ground tilt.

Some erupting volcanoes have
shown a marked decrease in activity
followed by a dramatic increase in
seismic activity just before a major
eruption. Scientists have no way of
knowing, however, whether Mount St.
Helens is experiencing a “lull before the
storm” of a magmatic eruption or pos-
sibly is in the final part of the eruptive
sequence.

A sampling project begun on April
14 ended today as scientists completed
taking ash from 30 stations. The sam-
ples were taken from accumulated
snow so that the ash would not be con-
taminated by soil.

Thursday, April 17
E Day Minus 31

The summit crater of Mount St.
Helens erupted frequently but mildly
today; 12 plumes were seen between
7:00 a.m. and 1:30 p.m. Two of them
formed vertical columns that extended
about 500 feet above the crater rim,
but strong winds then carried the
plumes away from the summit. In the
afternoon, weather conditions pre-
vented observers from seeing clearly
into the crater.

Seismic activity remained compara-
tively low, although two earthquakes
of magnitude 4.6 occurred. Scientists
took advantage of the relative lull in
activity to make a gravity survey
around the mountain, to place survey-
ing targets near the summit, and to col-
lect information on the total amount of
ash accumulated.

Some fisheries specialists are con-
cerned that accumulating ash washed
into the streams by water from the
melting snow may harm the valuable
fish population in streams near Mount
St. Helens. When Mount Baker (fig. 1)
suddenly increased its steaming activi-
ty in 1975, some of its emanations of
gases and “fumarole dust” were acidic.
A stream draining the fumarole area of

30 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

Mount Baker apparently once carried
enough acid water into nearby Baker
Lake to cause some of the fish there to
die. So far, however, none of the
Mount St. Helens ash has been found
to be strongly acidic.

The greatest hazard other than ash,
USGS scientists reported today, is the
increasing instability of the northern
flank of the volcano. Contributing to
this instability are ground shaking,
avalanching caused by continuing local
earthquakes, subsiding of the summit
graben, fracturing of ice and rocks,
and accelerated melting of snow and
ice caused by the heat of the volcano
and possibly by solar heating of the
fallen ash. This announcement marks a
shift in the emphasis on hazards. The
possibility of volcano-related flooding
in the Lewis River drainage system is
now thought to be less of a threat than
the possibility of large avalanches from
the volcano’s northern slope.

Friday, April 18
E Day Minus 30

Eruptions of steam and ash were ris-
ing only about 500 feet above the
crater today, and seismic activity
stayed at a moderate level. “Because all
pertinent factors seem to remain about
the same each day,” USGS scientists at
Vancouver have decided to reduce
their information releases from daily to
twice weekly.

Scientists are encouraged in their
grueling work by the excitement de-
rived from Mount St. Helens’ spec-
tacular, historic reawakening and by
the opportunity for major scientific
achievement. Few of the scientists, if
any, had seriously expected to see a
Cascade volcano in eruption, much
less to be part of an intensive study of
the volcanic activity. They are fas-
cinated by what has occurred already,
and each hopes for a spectacular event
that will advance his or her scientific
specialty. They also feel frustrated,
however, by the frequent bad weather
that obscures the mountain from view
and hampers ground travel and
fieldwork.

 

i_

 

Scientists who lack aircraft support
are especially frustrated. Many aspects
of the volcano can be seen only from
the air, and scientific work on the
mountain itself is not practical without
helicopter support. For reasons of
public safety, teams whose work deals
with assessment or warning of the
hazards have first call upon aircraft
owned or chartered by Federal agen-
cies. Scientists whose work does not
relate closely to the hazardous poten-
tial of the volcanic activity may have
long waits before they can be fitted in-
to the busy flight schedule. Some
distinguished scientists and govern-
ment officials have arrived at Van-
couver expecting to be given tours of
the volcano, only to find that senior
USGS scientists have Federal aircraft
completely booked for urgent hazard
assessments.

Saturday, April 19
E Day Minus 29

Seismographs today recorded about
the same amount of earthquake activi-
ty as they have in recent days—37
'earthquakes greater than magnitude 3,
including 8 greater than magnitude 4.
One this afternoon, however, reached
magnitude 4.9, equaling the strongest
to date. No harmonic tremor has ap-
peared in the past week.

Local scientists who are most famil-
iar with the shape of Mount St. Helens
are saying that the upper northern side
of the mountain obviously has moved
outward (northward), but they are not
unanimous about cause and effect.
Some believe that the outward
displacement is caused by the down-
ward-settling mass of the summit
graben. Others believe that intruding
magma is inflating the mountain and
causing a spreading of the summit that
allows the graben to subside (see fig.
3).

Snow surveyors from the U.S. Soil
Conservation Service, who periodical-
ly measure snow depth and water con-
tent in order to predict snow-water
resources, have been observing the
melting rate of the ash—rich snow near

Mount St. Helens. They reported re-
cently that the snow is melting faster
where it is covered by the dark ash
because it absorbs more heat from the
sun than the clean snow does. Whether
spring runoff this year will be faster
and the danger of flooding greater are
still uncertain, because much of the
water melted at the snow surface can
be held in lower parts of the snowpack.
USGS hydrologists report no evidence
of unusual runoff at their stream—
gaging stations so far.

Sunday, April 20
E Day Minus 28

No eruptions were seen today, but
seismic activity increased somewhat.
The number of earthquakes stronger
than magnitude 3 was 47; 7 were
stronger than magnitude 4. This count
was the highest in 2 weeks.

Although clouds have covered the
peak most of the weekend, tourists
continue to be a problem. These first
weeks of volcanic activity have been
treated as a gigantic carnival by some
people in the Northwest, who have
come to see Mount St. Helens “per-
forming” on center stage. T-shirts im-
printed with various slogans, coffee
cups bearing photographs, plastic bags
filled with ash, and other souvenirs are
being offered for sale. Sightseers line
the roads leading to the mountain in
spite of the several ”Mount St. Helens
viewpoints” that the State of Wash-
ington has designated near Interstate
Highway 5 so that the local roads
leading to the mountain would be less
congested. The opening of the sport-
fishing season this weekend doubtless-
ly contributed to the crowds in this
popular fishing area. Understandably,
a great many people want to see the
first erupting volcano in the conter-
minous United States in more than half
a century.

Monday, April 21
E Day Minus 27

The lull in eruptive activity con-
tinues. Poor visibility kept scientists

from observing the volcano closely to-
day, but the instruments continue to
watch. The seismographs indicate that
earthquake activity today was less
than it was yesterday and more like the
previous week.

On many of these typical cloudy
spring days, airborne observers can fly
above the clouds and see the mountain
peak even though the lower slopes re-
main hidden. Mount St. Helens and its
neighboring volcanoes then seem to be
riding on a billowing sea of clouds.
Nearest to Mount St. Helens are
Mount Adams, Mount Hood, and
Mount Rainier (fig. 1), all easily visible
and identifiable. Mount Rainier is the
giant of the group. Rising 14,410 feet
above sea level, it dominates this part
of the Cascade Range. Of these three
neighboring volcanoes, only Mount
Adams, closest to and due east of
Mount St. Helens, has not erupted in
historical times (table 1.) Even Mount
Adams, however, may not be extinct.

Tuesday, April 22
E Day Minus 26

Improved weather today brought
better aerial views of Mount St.
Helens, although low clouds still
prevented observers on the ground
from seeing the volcano clearly. Dawn
disclosed a new mantle of snow on the
mountain, covered in only one spot
with a light dusting of ash. The only
eruptions reported during the day were
small bursts of steam during the noon
hour that barely cleared the crater rim.
Steam vents, not directly associated
with the eruptions, can be seen on the
eastern part of the summit area. The
tiltmeters continued to record small
changes that have not, as yet, shown a
consistent pattern.

In discussing the leveling off of erup-
tive and seismic activity, USGS
volcanologist Johnston reminded re-
porters that, “Lassen in California
went through a year of this kind of ac-
tivity before it turned into a magmatic
eruption in 1915."

Chronology of the First 100 Days 31

 

 

Northern Side Bulges
Alarmingly

Wednesday, April 23
E Day Minus 25

Good weather allowed scientists to
observe the volcano more closely and
to note that there were no eruptions
large enough to add to the light mantle
of ash seen on yesterday’s new snow.
The volcano’s quiet period also permit-
ted researchers to collect gas samples
from the steaming areas near the sum-
mit itself. (Analyzed later, these
samples were found to contain a high
concentration of sulfur.) Two new
steam vents were seen in the crater to-
day.

Although the slumping of the sum-
mit graben and the breaking up of
glacier ice on the volcano’s northern
side have been evident for about 3
weeks, the first real indication of the
amount of deformation came today
when optical comparisons of aerial
photographs taken on August 15,
1979, and on April 12, 1980 (11 days
ago), were completed. These com-
parisons show that some places on the
northern flank are about 250 feet
higher than they were last year (fig.
15). The full extent of the bulged area is
not known. Scientists and technicians
flying in by helicopter placed survey-
ing targets on the northern flank of the
volcano today to help monitor its
changes in slope.

Tiltmeters at Timberline Viewpoint
and Spirit Lake indicated a slight tilting
of the ground surface downward to the
northwest; on the southern side of the
mountain, tilting was downward to the
southwest. This surface tilting suggests
that the volcano may be inflating
because of increasing magma pressure
beneath it (fig. 3).

The sustained period of relative
quiet prompted Forest Service officials
to schedule discussions within the next
few days on opening some areas
around the volcano to restricted use.

USGS geologist Crandell, Mount St.
Helens Hazard Coordinator, warned,
however, that avalanches could begin
on the unstable, bulging area of the
northern slope and surge into areas
downslope. Such avalanches, he said,
could also cause floods by suddenly
raising the level of Spirit Lake. An
avalanche also could dam the North
Fork Toutle River temporarily, and the
dam could fail later in a washout that
would release a torrent to downstream
areas.

USGS scientists in Vancouver, in re-
sponse to demands for more frequent
information about the volcano, agreed
to resume daily information releases.

Thursday, April 24
E Day Minus 24

Although fumaroles continued to
emit steam near the summit crater, no
ash eruptions were large enough to
throw material outside the crater walls.
The number of earthquakes was about
the same as it has been in recent days,
but the quakes were stronger; eight
were of magnitude 4 or greater, and
one reached magnitude 4.7.

The USGS Volcanic Hazards Project
made public a map showing the possi-
ble dangers presented by the bulge area
and emphasized the potential for ava-
lanches.

Friday, April 25
E Day Minus 23

Fumaroles continued to steam to-
day, and seismic activity continued at
about the level that it has maintained
for several days. About 1,560 earth-
quakes stronger than magnitude 3 have
been recorded since activity at the
volcano began March 20. More than
200 have been stronger than magnitude
4.

Tiltmeters continue to show slight
tilt that, once again, does not have a
consistent pattern. In an effort to better
define changes in the shape of the
volcano, scientists are using electronic
distance-measuring devices. They were

32 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

able today to measure the precise
distances to five targets on the upper
slopes of the volcano, as well as two
additional reference points nearby.
These measurements, together with
others to be made by using markers in-
stalled on the mountain today, will
help to define the size, shape, and
growth of the bulge on the northern
flank in days to come (fig. 16).

Saturday, April 26
E Day Minus 22

The mountain is relatively quiet to-
day. Clear weather allowed observers
a good view of the crater, but they saw
only fumaroles emitting steam and
eruptive bursts too weak to lift ash out-
side the crater. The seismographs in-
dicate that earthquake activity was
about as low as it has been since March
24.

Tiltmeters on the mountain’s eastern
and southern flanks showed small, un-
systematic changes, but the tiltmeter at
Timberline Viewpoint recorded down-
ward tilt to the north.

Sunday, April 27
E Day Minus 21

The mountain remains quiet,
although fumaroles continue to send
up steam. One fumarole on the south-
eastern crater wall is especially active.
Clear weather gave observers a good
view today, but they saw no ash erup-
tions.

On the ground, changes are being
detected by the instruments. Ground
tilt measured by the tiltmeter at
Timberline Viewpoint now shows an
increase in tilt, downward toward the
northeast. This tilt is interpreted to
mean that the volcano is swelling. In
addition, surveys of the Goat Rocks

FIGURE 15.—A comparison of the shape of
Mount St. Helens (A) at the time of the
March 27 eruption and (B) just before the
May 18 eruption shows the large out-
ward displacement of the bulge area. The
View here is from the northeast. (Paint-
ings by Dee Molenaar, USGS.)

 

 

 

 

 

 

FIGURE 16.—At Goldwater II observation station, a scientist (back to camera near rear of
vehicle) uses a laser ranging instrument to measure distances to reflector targets on the
northern side of Mount St. Helens, including the unstable bulge area (left and center
parts of the mountain as viewed here). Dogs Head is on the skyline to the right of the
tree, and Goat Rocks, the lava dome that formed during an eruptive period in the
18405, is directly above the rear of the vehicle. (Photograph by Harry Glicken, May 4,

1980.)

area using instruments on the flank of
the volcano indicate that the area has
moved outward, away from the main
mass of the mountain, at least 15 to 20
feet in the past 4 days. Geologists
report seeing new fractures in the
bulge; some ground locations on the
bulge are now about 300 feet higher
than they were in 1979.

Monday, April 28
E Day Minus 20

Although poor visibility hampered
aerial observations, there was no in-
dication today that any eruptions of
ash were large enough to extend be-
yond the crater. When the crater was
visible, it was emitting clouds of steam
punctuated by occasional short bursts
of ash.

The northern flank continues to
deform, as the tiltmeter at Timberline
indicates. Most scientists are unwilling
to specify the exact cause of the tilting,
but they generally agree that it prob-
ably is related to the subterranean
movement of magma.

Tuesday, April 29
E Day Minus 19

Continuing studies of aerial
photographs show that the bulging
area on the northern side of the moun-
tain is now about 1 mile long and 0.5
mile wide and has a northeast-trending
axis that extends from the northern
side of the summit crater toward Sugar
Bowl, on the northeastern flank of the
volcano. The outward displacement of
the slope has caused ground positions
on part of the bulge to be as much as
320 feet higher than they were last
year. From this maximum, the bulge
decreases toward the east, north, and
west. Ground surveys confirm that the
deformation is continuing. Between
April 27, when the last survey was
made, and today, Goat Rocks has
shifted about 9 feet toward the north-
northwest, and little or no vertical
uplift has occurred.

The tiltmeter at Timberline View-
point, on the northeastern side of the
volcano, indicates tilting downward to

34 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

the north and confirms that the bulge
extends to that site as well.

The mountain itself remains relative-
ly quiet; it has produced only 27 earth-
quakes stronger than magnitude 3.0
and no sizable eruptions.

The bulge continues to cause scien-
tists concern. They now believe that it
represents the most serious potential
hazard from the present volcanic ac-
tivity. They are especially worried
about the likelihood of avalanches
headed toward the North Fork Toutle
River and Spirit Lake. (Spirit Lake
itself was formed over a period of time
by volcanic mudflows damming the
river.) USGS geologist Crandell said,
in a prepared statement to be released
tomorrow morning, that Forsyth
Glacier (fig. 5), upslope from Spirit
Lake, “looks so unstable that a sharp
earthquake or volcanic explosion could
trigger a large avalanche of snow, ice,
and possibly rock, without warning. In
addition, measurements indicate that
the upper part of the volcano from
Forsyth Glacier west to Goat Rocks
is shifting and may be unstable. An
avalanche from this high part of the
volcano could result in [millions of]
tons of debris dropping a vertical
distance of more than 4,000 feet, from
an altitude of about 7,600 feet down to
about 3,200 feet, the altitude of Spirit
Lake. Such an avalanche could move
downslope at a high velocity—more
than 100 miles per hour—and could
move long distances, certainly as far as
[State Route] 504, about two and a
quarter miles away."

Scientists believe that such an
avalanche could extend beyond Tim-
berline Viewpoint as far as Spirit Lake
and could cause a large surge wave in
the lake. The momentum of such an
avalanche might carry parts of it across
the valley of the North Fork Toutle
River west of Spirit Lake and upslope
along the northern wall of that valley,
as well as down the valley to the west.

Emergency-services officials are be-
ing frustrated in their attempts to make
the public aware of potential dangers.
One official, quoted in the Seattle Post-

Intelligencer, said, “The hardest thing
is to warn people of the danger. The
mountain looks so serene, so people
can’t fathom 4,000 vertical feet of
earth, rock, and ice plunging into
[Spirit Lake] in less than two minutes.”

Wednesday, April 30
E Day Minus 18

The crater was not active today, ex-
cept for steam venting from many
fumaroles. Earthquakes continued, al-
though larger ones—those stronger
than magnitude 4—numbered only 6,
and only 15 stronger than magnitude 3
were recorded. Since March 20, about
240 earthquakes of magnitude 4 or
greater have been recorded.

The northern flank of the volcano
continues to swell and move outward.
In order to compare the large move-
ment at Goat Rocks with possible
movement elsewhere on the mountain,
scientists commenced ground measure—
ments near Sugar Bowl and Dogs
Head, ancient lava domes that are
prominences on the northeastern side
of the cone near the base and the upper
flank of the bulge, respectively (figs.5
and 16).

During the lull in eruptive activity,
volcanologist Johnston flew by heli-
copter to the crater rim and climbed
down into the crater to collect samples
of water from a small lake that had
formed in the crater bottom. Formed
by melting ice, the lake had a temper-
ature of 17°C (62°F), and gas bubbled
through it. Analyzed later, the sample
of lake water was found to have a pH
of 5.1 (slightly acid), 120 milligrams of
chlorine per liter, and 32 milligrams of
sulfur in the form of sulfate per liter.
These analyses indicate that the water
has a low to moderate concentration of
dissolved minerals. The radioactive gas
radon was present in the minor amount
of 100 picocuries per liter, well within
the range found in geothermal waters
in other regions.

USGS scientists, concerned over the
increasing instability of the bulge area
and the possibility that large ava-
lanches of snow, ice, and rock could

disrupt State Route 504 south and west
of Spirit Lake, today issued an updated
Hazards Warning to State and local of-
ficials and to the Forest Service.

Governor Ray and the Forest Serv-
ice’s Forest Supervisor Robert Tokar-
czyk, acting on this and earlier hazard
assessments, closed additional areas
near the volcano to entry. A ”Red
Zone" (fig. 13) was established around
the peak to distances ranging from
about 3 to 8 miles and included the
Spirit Lake area. Only scientists, law-
enforcement officers and other of-
ficials, and search-and-rescue person-
nel are permitted in this zone. In a
“Blue Zone," which extends beyond
the Red Zone, logging operations are
allowed to continue, and property
owners holding special permits may
enter, but no overnight stays are al-
lowed. As an added precaution,
Governor Ray also declared the entire
State an emergency area because,
under certain conditions, winds could
scatter tephra from volcanic activity
over hundreds of miles.

Toutle Lake School, located about
25 miles from the mountaintop, held a
”volcano drill," the first of its kind in
the United States.

Despite the ominous bulging on its
northern side, the mountain remains
quiet as the month closes. The erup-
tions of March and April spread ash
for at least 30 miles in every direction
and as far as 60 miles to the south-
southeast and 70 miles to the north. So
far, the ash has been derived from
pulverized old rocks. Although 35 days
have passed since the first eruption, no
new lava has been seen or found in the
ejected ash.

The installation and use of in-
struments to measure and monitor the
volcano have continued throughout
the month. As April closes, the in-
struments being used to measure at
various sites include:

0 Six 5-day seismic recorders
operating within 10 miles of the sum-
mit of Mount St. Helens and 10
telemetered seismometers within 35
miles of the summit. Receiving and

recording equipment at the Universi-
ty of Washington seismology center
in Seattle has been expanded to han-
dle the blizzard of data, and a com—
puter link has been established with
the USGS group in Vancouver to
speed data transfer and communi-
cations between the two centers.

0 A network of five tiltmeter stations
and their automatic telemetering in—
struments at distances ranging from
less than 2 to about 9 miles from the
summit.

0 Fourteen reflector-type surveying
targets on the mountain, many of
them precariously accessible only by
helicopter, used in making precision
measurements that detect changes
such as slumping or swelling of parts
of the volcano. Distances between
base stations and the targets on the
mountain are measured with a
geodimeter (electronic laser instru-
ment). Horizontal and vertical
angles are measured with a
theodolite (manual optical instru—
ment).

0 A network of six gravity stations
spread over the northwestern, north-
ern, northeastern, and eastern sides
of the volcano at distances ranging
from less than 2 to about 5 miles
from the summit. Each station is
visited twice in a typical day, and
the gravity is measured with one of
three electronic-readout precision
gravimeters. These measurements
are repeatedly checked against meas-
urements of presumed stable gravity
made at a base station about 12 miles
west of the summit.

0 Three recording magnetometers
located northeast, east, and west of
the volcano at an average distance of
about 2.5 miles from the crater.
Magnetic field intensity is auto-
matically recorded on tape every 10
minutes.

' A preexisting network of hydrologic
measuring sites expanded by the ad-
dition of 33 stream sites for collect-
ing water-quality data (chemical,

Chronology of the First 100 Days 35

biological, and sediment character-
istics) and monitoring changes in
streamflow. Nineteen of these addi-
tional sites are on streams that drain
Mount St. Helens; 14 are on other
streams likely to be affected by ash
from the volcano. Two of the addi-
tional sites have monitoring instru-
ments that automatically send
telemetered data by way of an or-
biting Earth satellite to the USGS of-
fice in Tacoma.

0 Two time-lapse cameras that are
making a photographic record
(when visibility permits) of the erup-
tions and profiles of the volcano.

Thursday, May 1
E Day Minus 17

As the month opens, the mountain is
steaming continuously but otherwise is
not erupting. USGS observers report
that a small lake has formed again in
the volcano’s crater and has covered
one of the steam vents and that gas
bubbles up through the water. The
most active steam vents, however, are
above the lake surface on the southern
side of the crater.

The swelling on the northern flank
continues. One point on the bulge, ac—
cording to measurements, moved
about 2 feet outward in less than 12
hours.

Earthquakes, too, continue; 26
stronger than magnitude 3 and 5 of
magnitude 4 or greater were recorded
today.

A seismic station was installed today
at Dogs Head to help detect earth-
quakes that might trigger a major
avalanche and to improve the accuracy
of earthquake location. Near the
7, 500-foot level, it is the highest instru-
ment station on the mountain.

Also today, a new observation sta-
tion was established on a ridgetop east
of the Coldwater I site and 2.7 miles
closer to Mount St. Helens. The new
site is between the valleys of the North
Fork Toutle River and South Cold-
water Creek, 5.7 miles north-north-
west of the summit. It is at an altitude

of about 4,100 feet—about 1,400 feet
above the floor of the adjacent river
valley. Automatic cameras, other
monitoring equipment, and radios for
communication have been moved there
from Coldwater I. Also, a travel trailer
has been brought in to shelter volcano
watchers, who now are at the site 24
hours a day. The new station is called
Coldwater II (fig. 16).

Friday, May 2
E Day Minus 16

The mountain is not erupting,
although it continues to steam. Thirty
earthquakes stronger than magnitude 3
were recorded today, 8 of which were
of magnitude 4.0 or greater. The bulge
is growing outward at a rapid rate, as
much as 5 feet a day near Goat Rocks.

Scientists studying a thermal in-
frared survey made by personnel of the
US. Naval Air Station at Whidbey
Island, Wash., detected a previously
unknown area of warm rock in the
middle of the bulge on the northern
slope of the volcano. Ice continues to
break up in this area, which is about
100 feet long and 50 feet wide. No one
knows whether it is a new hot spot or
one that existed before and has been
hidden by a covering of ice.

Skamania County Sheriff Bill Clos-
ner accused television newsmen of
practicing “one-upsmanship” by flying
helicopters into the volcano’s dan-
gerous Red Zone, according to an ar-
ticle in the Seattle Post-Intelligencer.
He is quoted as saying, “The mountain
is getting more dangerous all the time.
It's getting to the point where some-
body’s going to get hurt, and we’re go-
ing to arrest them. . . . ” Most news
reporters and photographers, how-
ever, seem to be responsible and law
abiding in their efforts to present the
Mount St. Helens story to the public.
Some news teams have provided air-
craft rides for scientists who otherwise
would have had no access to the
volcano area.

Owners of some of the many sum-
mer cabins in the Spirit Lake area
reportedly have refused to make their

36 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

semiannual property-tax payments be-
cause they have not been allowed to
use or even enter their property since
the area was evacuated after the erup-
tions of March 27.

Saturday, May 3
E Day Minus 15

The bulge continues to grow as Goat
Rocks moves northward at an alarm-
ing rate. Although steam continued to
issue from summit fumaroles today,
there were no eruptions, and seismic
activity was down—only 26 earth-
quakes of magnitude 3 or greater, in-
cluding 5 exceeding 3.9.

USGS scientists in Vancouver took
time out from their measurements to
discuss funding for the increasingly ex-
pensive volcano watch and whether
some of them should return to their
regular duties. Volcanologist Johnston,
who normally is assigned to the Menlo
Park office but who has been involved
since the first earthquake on March 20,
told newsmen, “We all want to stay.
We don’t want to be in California,
Denver, or Virginia if something hap-
pens. I even offered to move here.”

Sunday, May 4
E Day Minus 14

The mountain remains quiet, and
scientists were able to remeasure the
bulge. They confirm that outward
movement continues at a rate of about
5 feet a day. USGS geologists are now
convinced that some bulging of the
northern flank resulted from a mag-
matic intrusion within the volcano dur-
ing late March. They do not know yet
whether the intrusion is still active or
how much of the continuing change in
the mountain's shape may be merely a
gravitational spreading of the moun-
tain accompanying the settling of the
summit graben (fig. 14A).

Volcanologist Johnston has been
using a spectrometer, which measures
the wavelengths of light components,
to examine the makeup of the gases
emanating from the crater. He uses the
instrument at Timberline Viewpoint at

 

midday when the sunlight shining
through the gas is brightest. So far, he
has not detected significant amounts of
sulfur dioxide, which would indicate
that the volcanic gases are from a high—
temperature source.

Monday, May 5
E Day Minus 13

Mount St. Helens continued to
steam but did not erupt today. Smoke
from the burning of timber slash
(debris) led to rumors of lava flows,
but there were none. Although strong
eruptions of ash have not been com-
mon during the past 3 weeks, scientists
do not think that the volcanic activity
is subsiding yet.

Jack Hyde, a Tacoma Community
College geologist who has done exten-
sive research on Mount St. Helens and
has worked with USGS geologists on
studies of other Cascade Range vol-
canoes, was interviewed today by
reporter ]im Erickson of the Tacoma
News Tribune. ”1 have a gut feel-
ing . . . that as the bulge continues to
grow, something dramatic is going to
happen soon," Hyde said. He spec-
ulated that the instability of the north-
side bulge might result in massive land-
slides, which could be followed by a
“spectacular” explosion of lava,
possibly without warning, as lava
vents on the northern slope are opened
up. When he was told that scientists
are watching the northern face of the
volcano from nearby ridges, Hyde
replied, ”I hope they’re not in a direct
line. That’s like looking down the bar-
rel of a loaded gun."

The frequency with which the
famous Hawaiian volcanoes erupt and
the type of lava flows that they pro-
duce have contributed to the popular
belief that all volcanoes have fluid,
channeled lava flows. Because of this
notion and because Hawaiian volcan-
oes, being less explosive, are much
safer than volcanoes like Mount St.
Helens, some people who have visited
Hawaii do not understand why scien-
tists and officials are being so cautious.
“We’re logging 10 miles away from the

/peak,” one logger was quoted as say-

ing. “I don’t see any hazard. I just came
back from Hawaii, where they run
tourist buses right up to the edge of a
venting volcano."

Tuesday, May 6
E Day Minus 12

Athough clouds obscured the moun-
tain most of the day, there was no
reason to suspect that it had erupted.
The northern flank continues to bulge
at the rate of 4 to 5 feet a day; earth-
quakes continue at about the same rate
as they have in recent weeks.

The relatively gentle behavior of
Mount St. Helens so far in this eruptive
sequence makes it difficult for those
who are unfamiliar with explosive
volcanoes to realize the potential
danger. For the last 2 weeks especially,
the mountain has done nothing to con-
vince a nonscientist that a volcanic
hazard exists. If the scientific in-
struments were not measuring the omi-
nous displacement of the bulge and if
the news media were not reporting the
scientists’ concerns extensively, the
public clamor to do away with the
roadblocks and entry restrictions un-
doubtedly would be greater.

Eruptive Activity
Resumes

Wednesday, May 7
E Day Minus 11

The volcano resumed activity after a
lull of about 2 weeks, sending up erup-
tions of steam and ash late today as high
as 13,000 feet. The northern flank of
the mountain maintains its outward
creep, but earthquakes are mostly of
low magnitude.

Some who are trying to carry on
their daily lives in the shadow of the
volcano find that their patience is
wearing thin. Bombarded by rumors as
well as official warnings, some
residents say that they glance at “The
Mountain” whenever they hear a

noise. Several, according to reporters,
wish that the volcano would ”blow and
get it all over with.” One was quoted as
saying, ”Inflation and that damn
volcano—it's a wonder we don’t have
ulcers."

Thursday, May 8
E Day Minus 10

Muddy rain fell on the Timberline
monitoring station today, and ash
blew to the north and east as the moun-
tain continued its sporadic eruptions.
The crater steamed, as did areas near
the head of Shoestring Glacier and the
Boot, high on the eastern and northern
sides of the cone, respectively.

Many geologists agree that it is only
a matter of time before the bulge area
fails, probably in a gigantic landslide.
They are unable to judge, however,
when the failure is likely to occur. The
strength of the rocks under the bulge
and the depth to which they are af-
fected by the deformation are not
known. In the meantime, the northern
flank continues its outward creep.

Earthquake frequency is about the
same as it has been in previous weeks
(25 stronger than magnitude 3), but 11
quakes stronger than magnitude 4 were
recorded—the largest number of higher
magnitude quakes since April 24. The
strongest of these registered 5.0, the
most powerful single quake to date.

Harmonic tremor returned to the
records for the first time since April 12.
Tremor was recorded in three bursts,
from 4:43 to 5:03 a.m., 10:04 to 10:13
a.m., and 10:03 to 10:12 p.m.

Friday, May 9
E Day Minus 9

The mountain continues to behave
as it did yesterday, sending up inter-
mittent plumes of steam and ash,
steaming continuously in the main
crater, on the upper northern flank,
and at the head of Shoestring Glacier,
and bulging farther outward on the
northern side.

Seismicity, too, is about the same.
Twenty-one earthquakes stronger than

Chronology of the First 100 Days 37

 

 

magnitude 3 were recorded, including
nine that ranged from 4.0 to 4.9, but
no harmonic tremor was noted today.

USGS scientists curtailed observa-
tions at Timberline Viewpoint because
of the increasing danger that a sudden
avalanche might reach that site. Many
volcano observations now are being
made at Coldwater I and Coldwater II,
about 6 and 3 miles farther from the
crater, respectively (fig. 7.)

Saturday, May 10
E Day Minus 8

The volcano was under cloud cover
most of the day, but erupting steam
and ash could be seen when the clouds
lifted. USGS scientists remeasured the
bulge on the northern side when
weather permitted and found that the
rate of movement apparently has
slowed to less than 3 feet a day—about
half its average rate for the previous 2
weeks. (The apparent low rate was
later thought to be due to an erroneous
measurement.) Seismicity continues at
about the same level; of 20 events ex-
ceeding magnitude 3.0, 10 were magni-
tude 4.0 or greater.

University of Puget Sound geologist
Al Eggers told reporters that tide-
producing gravitational forces will be
exceptionally strong on May 21, and
he warned that the extreme force might
trigger a major eruption if the volcano
were already set to erupt. Although
most USGS geologists do not totally
discount this idea, they believe that
other factors, such as magmatic pres-
sure inside the mountain, are likely to
be much more important.

Sunday, May 11
E Day Minus 7

Although the crater emitted only
small bursts of steam and ash, 10 earth-
quakes of magnitude 4.0 or greater oc-
curred again today. Increased steaming
observed at the hot area on upper
Shoestring Glacier may indicate
changes in the distribution of heat in-
side the volcano, according to USGS
volcanologist Johnston.

Volcanic-hazard scientists and pub-
lic safety officials are feeling the
pressures of responsibility these days.
They believe that the volcano is cap-
able of producing dangerous ava-
lanches, mudflows, and explosive
eruptions, and they are striving to give
realistic warnings and to provide ade-
quate protection for the public. At the
same time, they recognize that per-
sonal hardships and economic loss to
local individuals and businesses could
result from an overreaction to the
hazards.

Scientists hope to provide advance
warning of any impending disaster.
They are watching the mountain close-
ly from the observation post at Cold-
water II, which is being manned 24
hours a day. Also, a Forest Service
observation airplane is in the air
around the mountain almost contin-
uously when weather permits. In addi-
tion, instruments such as the tele-
metering seismometers remain “on du-
ty" and are closely monitored around
the clock. Most USGS and University
of Washington scientists who are stud-
ying the volcano believe that any ma-
jor eruption would be preceded by a
change in the seismic activity or in the
rate of bulging; therefore, they believe
that they can give adequate warning if
a dangerous eruption occurs. If,
however, earthquake patterns do not
change before the onset of a major
event—such as the expected massive
avalanche—or if the event occurs when
visibility is hampered by darkness or
clouds, even scientifically trained
volcano watchers may not be able to
give warning.

Monday, May 12
E Day Minus 6

The mountain continues to erupt ash
and steam, and observers today could
see a new cluster of fumaroles on the
western rim of the crater. The bulge
continues to move out in the same
direction (fig. 17) at a rate of about 5
feet a day. Scientists agree that the
bulge poses a danger, but they still can-

38 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

not determine how extreme that danger
lS. .

Earthquakes stronger than magni-
tude 3.0 have increased over the past
few days; of the 28 recorded today, 8
exceeded 4.0. One earthquake of mag-
nitude 5.0 triggered an 800-foot-wide
debris avalanche that plunged more
than half a mile down the northern
flank of the mountain. The avalanche
did not take the bulge with it, nor was
it the huge avalanche that scientists an-
ticipated. They believe that today’s
avalanche demonstrates the increasing
instability of the northern flank and
that it was just a sample of larger
events to come.

A University of Washington seis-
mology group moved a portable
seismic recorder from a station at Spirit
Lake to a ridgetop location northeast
of Mount St. Helens. A major ava-
lanche probably would reach the Spirit
Lake station and would destroy the in-
strument if it were to remain there.

Tuesday, May 13
E Day Minus 5

Steam and ash continue to erupt, but
the rate slackened in the afternoon.
The eruption cloud rose only about
3,000 feet above the crater, and most
of its ash fell nearby. However, a false
report (of unknown origin) that a
“mammoth” eruption had sent ash as
high as 18,000 feet above sea level
caused the Federal Aviation Ad-
ministration to issue a pilots' warning
that an ash-plume area extended 20
miles north-northeast of the volcano
and was ”of extreme hazard to
aircraft."

The pit at the head of Shoestring
Glacier has enlarged, and steam emis-
sion from that site has increased. USGS
observers reported also that new
steaming areas have opened up on the
western side of the mountaintop, just
outside the crater rim. Geologists
noted yellow-green encrustations on
the old ash on the upper southern
slopes of the volcano, probably from
sulfur that was either deposited by the
fumes or leached from the ash. Similar

 

 

SOUTH

METERS
3,000

2.500

2,000

1500

FIGURE 17.—Profile drawing of Mount St. Helens showin
(dotted line), and April 7, 1980 (dashed line). Diagram is mo

encrustations have been seen for weeks
within the crater and around the rim.

Earthquake activity continued at a
lesser rate; 21 events stronger than
magnitude 3.0, including 6 of
magnitude 4 or greater, were recorded.

Scientists at Vancouver spent much
of today quashing rumors about the
exaggerated size of the ash plume and
also about a nonexistent lava flow,
which was reported to have been mov-
ing down the side of the volcano.

Wednesday, May 14
E Day Minus 4

Although bad weather obscured the
volcano more than half of today,
observers did see some eruptions of
steam and ash. They noted one new
steaming vent between the two small
peaks on and just north of the northern
crater rim along part of the fault
system on the northern side of the sum-
mit graben. Instruments show that the
northern flank continues to swell at a
rate of about 5 feet a day and that
seismicity is about the same or slightly
less than it has been in recent days.

Scientists from Dartmouth College,
who are cooperating with the USGS in
studying gas from the volcano, report
that sulfur dioxide (50;) is being

 
 
 
 
 
   

Graben

Fault zone

 

emitted at rates of 10 to 20 metric tons
a day during the eruptive pulses and
about 1 ton a day between eruptions.
These SO; rates are much higher than
those estimated from samples collected
on March 30 (0.3 ton a day). Because
volcanic SO; requires a very high-
temperature source, the increased
emission of this gas might indicate that
the magma is moving closer to the sur-
face.

Thursday, May 15
E Day Minus 3

The volcano was visible part of the
day; USGS observers saw no erup-
tions, but they could see new ash on
the southwestern flank. Some of the
summit vents appear to be filled with
fallen blocks of ice.

The north—side bulge continues to
shift outward at a rate of about 5 feet a
day. Seismic activity included one
earthquake of magnitude 4.8 early this
morning.

Mount St. Helens continues to at-
tract the curious from around the
world. Hard-pressed law-enforcement
officers, unable to man roadblocks on
the maze of logging roads around the
mountain, can only check periodically
for people trying to get around the bar-

 

——————— Postutated boundary of‘

NORTH

FEET
EXPLANATlON --. 10,000
o o o o I In August 36,1979
————— April 7, 1930
May 12, 1980
8,000

dome-forming mass

6,000

 

4,000

g the shape of the north-side bulge on May 12, 1980 (solid line), August 16, 1979
dified from Moore and Albee (1981).

ricades and locked gates for a closer
look at the volcano. Many roadblocks
have become places where visitors
congregate—picnicking, socializing,
photographing, or just waiting for the
clouds to lift and for the volcano to “do
something." Their vehicles often cl ~
the very routes that they would need to
escape an explosive eruption.

Fifty days have now passed since the
March 27 eruption, but no lava has
been seen, and no evidence of fresh
magma has been found in the ash. Even
with the renewal of ash eruptions on
May 7, the amount of tephra ejected
since March 27 has not been great in
comparison with that ejected during
eruptions of other volcanoes in the
Cascade Range or during previous
eruptions of Mount St. Helens itself.

Friday, May 16
E Day Minus 2

The lull in eruptions continues, and
seismicity has remained at about the
same level for the past few days. To-
day, there were 28 earthquakes
stronger than magnitude 3.0; 10
reached 4.0 or greater. No harmonic
tremor has been recorded since May 8.

Airborne observers could see clearly
into the growing summit crater and

Chronology of the First 100 Days 39

 

40

 

FIGURE 18.——A, This aerial photograph of the northeastern side of Mount St. Helens shows
conditions on May 17, the day before the devastating eruption. This quiet scene belies
the forthcoming lateral blast. Dark streaks on either side of Sugar Bowl are deposits
from avalanches of ice and rock caused by earthquakes and the increased breakup of
the northern slope. (Photograph by Robert M. Kimmel, USGS.) B, Named features on
the mountain and the extent of the north-side bulge are shown on the accompanying
sketch.

The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

 

 

noted that steam continues to emanate
from the summit area, particularly
from a large fumarole on the southern
wall and from a gradually enlarging pit
at the head of Shoestring Glacier. The
bulging northern side also was steam-
ing today, especially on its higher
parts.

The volcano has changed shape con-
siderably during the last week and a
half. The northern and northwestern
rims of the crater show abundant
cracks, which have been partly filled
by snow and ash; this area appears to
be moving downward as a mass

toward the crater. The bulge area, too,
continues to be highly broken and

distorted.
Before dawn today, an aerial ther-

mal survey of the volcano was made
by the US Department of Energy.
Because the results of the survey were
recorded as digital data on tape, they
are not immediately available for inter—
pretation.

Glaciologists set up a time-lapse
camera on Dogs Head, 1 mile north-
east of the mountain’s crest, and aimed
it at the growing bulge. The camera
takes a picture every half hour and can

 

operate for more than 5 days without
being reloaded.

Cabins and camps at Spirit Lake, at
the foot of the volcano, have been
deserted for the most part, as they are
in the Red Zone. Yesterday and today,
however, workers were allowed to
remove equipment from the Boy Scout
and YMCA camps along the lake.
Owners of private property in the no-
entry zones are demanding similar ac-
cess to the homes and cabins that they
were forced to leave weeks ago. Some
threatened to converge in numbers on
the roadblocks and go through ”come
hell or high water.” The penalty for be-
ing found in the zone without permis-
sion has been set at $500 or a 6-month
jail sentence.

The National Weather Service
predicts good weather for volcano
watching this weekend.

Saturday, May 17
E Day Minus 1

No ash erupted from the mountain
today, but the bulge on the northern
side continues to expand (fig. 18).
Seismic activity decreased to its lowest
level this month, which is only slightly
lower than the May 7 level. Eighteen
earthquakes stronger than magnitude
3.0 were recorded today, six of which
were of magnitude 4.0 or greater.

Responding to pressure from prop-
erty owners and with Governor Ray's
consent, law-enforcement officers to-
day escorted about 50 carloads of
property owners to their property in
the Red Zone to retrieve some of their
possessions. Those who entered the
zone were required to sign liability
releases at the road barricades and to
be back out by nightfall. Authorities
have agreed to allow a second caravan
of property owners to go in at 10 a.m.
tomorrow, if the mountain remains
quiet.

At least two people have remained in
residence in the restricted zones. Harry
Truman, proprietor of the Mount St.

Chronology of the First 100 Days 41

 

FIGURE 19.—This aerial View of Spirit Lake, seen from the southeast on the morning of May ’
18, is probably the last photograph taken of this popular recreation area before the
devastating eruption. At the left end of the lake is Mount St. Helens Lodge, where pro-
prietor Harry Truman presumably was buried a few minutes later beneath hundreds of
feet of avalanche debris. (Photograph copyright 1980 by Keith and Dorothy Stoffel.)

Helens Lodge (fig. 19), has stayed in his
home at Spirit Lake (in the Red Zone)
in defiance of government authorities
and the threatening volcano and has
become something of a folk hero in the
process. Ray Jennings also has not left
his cabin in the Blue Zone near Swift
Reservoir (fig. 13). Because the road
barricades are not difficult to evade,
the number of others in the restricted
zones is not accurately known.

”No one would listen,” Skamanian
County Sheriff Closner was later
quoted in the Vancouver Columbian as
saying. “It didn’t matter what we did.
People were going around, through,
and over the barricades. Some were
climbing right up to the rim of the
crater. Maps were even being sold
showing back-country roads around
the barricades."

One man will be in the Red Zone
legally tonight. He is volcanologist

 

Johnston, who today took up duties at
the USGS Coldwater II observation
post 5.7 miles north-northwest of the
summit of Mount St. Helens. Johnston
is taking instrument readings of the
distances to targets on the swelling
bulge and radioing them to the
volcano-watch headquarters in Van-
couver. He also has been gathering in-
formation about the volcano’s condi-
tion by studying the volcanic
gases—his scientific specialty (fig. 20).
He will be alone at the ridgetop site
overnight but expects to be joined in
the morning by other USGS staff
members. Johnston is taking over for
geology student Harry Glicken, an in-
termittent USGS employee who has
been at Coldwater II most of the time
since May 1 but who left at 9 p.m.
tonight to participate in a required col-
lege field trip. Geologists Daniel Miller
and Donald Swanson plan to visit

42 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

Coldwater II tomorrow to change film
in the time-lapse cameras and to pick
up a geodimeter. They expect to leave
Vancouver about 8 a.m. Normally, the
trip could be made in a few minutes in
a charter helicopter. Tomorrow,
however, the helicopter will not be
available, so they face a 2-hour trip by
automobile.

On the next ridgetop beyond
Johnston’s is the post of Gerald Martin,
a retired Navy radioman from
southern California, who is one of a
team of amateur radio operators serv-
ing as volunteer volcano watchers for
the Washington Department of
Emergency Services. Martin will spend
the night in his radio-equipped camper
at a site just outside the northern boun-
diary of the Red Zone, less than 2 miles
north of the Coldwater II observation
station and about 7 miles north of the
volcano’s top.

Also staying near the volcano, but
not inside the restricted zone is Reid
Blackburn, a staff photographer for the
Vancouver Columbian. Blackburn is at
the Coldwater I observation post,
which is 8.4 miles northwest of the
mountain's summit and 2.4 miles west
of the present Red Zone boundary.
Blackburn will stay overnight to record
images of the mountain at intervals
during the night and also to
photograph it in the clear light of early
dawn. Two of his colleagues, Fred
Stocker and Jim McWirter, who also
have been camping at Coldwater I,
went into Vancouver and ”on a whim"
have decided to remain in the city
overnight.

FIGURE 20.—A, On May 17, volcanologist
David Johnston collected gas samples
from a fumarolerecently found high on
the unstable north-side bulge (shown by
the arrow). (Photograph by David
Frank.) B, Johnston and assistant Harry
Glicken were lifted by helicopter to a
precarious landing site nearby. C,
Johnston scrambled over the chaotic rock
mass to crouch at the edge of the
fumarole and collect the samples.
(Photographs by Harry Glicken.)

 

 

Chronology of the First 100 Days

 

In eastern Washington, everyday ac-
tivities are going on with little or no
concern for the increasing instability of
Mount St. Helens. In Spokane,
Washington’s third largest city, the an-
nual Lilac Festival has brought an in-
flux of visitors to the city. Fair weather
is expected for tomorrow’s festivities,
after which many people will be travel-
ing homeward.

In the farming area around Ritzville,
the winter wheat is about 20 inches

Cataclysmic Eruption

Sunday, May 18
E Day

Today began free of clouds and so
quietly that some scientists delayed
planned reconnaissance flights over the
mountain. Seismicity during the early
morning was moderate, about the
same as it has been in recent weeks.
The Oregon Army National Guard
flew over the volcano before dawn to
make a thermal survey. ’The infrared
scanner in the aircraft recorded the
relative temperatures of the volcano's
surface on photographic film, which
was processed in a matter of hours
after the plane landed.

In Yakima, the sky was almost
cloudless. Keith and Dorothy Stoffel,
geologists working in the Spokane
area, were visiting Yakima to attend a
meeting. They decided to charter an
airplane and fly to Mount St. Helens to
photograph and observe the volcano.
At about 7:15 a.m., they took off from
Yakima airport with pilot Bruce
Judson.

At 8:30 a.m., some campers north of
the mountain were up and enjoying a
clear blue sky and warm gentle breezes
from the west; others were still in their
tents and sleeping bags. Fishermen, a
few loggers, and other early risers had
long been on the move. Several
volunteer volcano watchers and
amateur radio operators were at their
posts. Some photographers, cameras
cocked, were already awaiting the

high. Although spring has been cooler
than normal this year, good crop yields
are expected because precipitation has
been abundant, and the soil is moist.

At Yakima, the late spring has de-
layed crops, but the blossoms are gone
from the extensive orchards now, and
the tiny fruit is beginning to form. The
alfalfa crop is good; the first cutting of
hay is about 5 percent complete, and
the rest of the fields are about ready to
cut.

mountain’s next move. The Stoffels
and pilot Judson were in the air over
the volcano. In Yakima, Robert L.
Washburn, geologist for the Wash-
ington Department of Transportation,
and his friend Chris Linschooten
started on a morning run along a road
west of the city.

At Coldwater II, Johnston had
already made two sets of laser
measurements to the growing bulge
and had transmitted the last data to
Vancouver at about 7:00 a.m.

The quiet was ended abruptly at 8:32
a.m. by an earthquake of about
magnitude 5.1, the first in a day-long
series of sharp quakes and seismic
noise “like we’d never had before."
That earthquake started a chain of
events that was to leave the mountain
and its surroundings drastically
changed and was to claim the lives of
about 60 people.

The earthquake shook the walls of
Mount St. Helens’ summit crater and
started many small avalanches. Then,
a huge slab of the northern slope of the
volcano in the area of the bulge began
to separate from the main cone along a
crack across the upper part of the
bulge. As this immense mass of rock
and ice plunged northward, small,
dark clouds emerged from the base of
the slide, followed closely by vertical
plumes of steam and ash from the
crater area.

As the huge avalanche raced down
the volcano’s lower flank, black clouds
grew from the scar of the mountain-

44 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

The Army National Guard's 116th
Air Cavalry Squadron is also in the
Yakima area with its helicopters for
summer field training.

Nearer to Mount St. Helens, about
30 ships are expected to depart at the
busy ports of Vancouver and Portland
in the next day or two and head down
the Columbia River for the Pacific
Ocean. About 20 incoming ships are
expected to steam upriver to these
same port facilities.

side. Within seconds, as more of the
northern flank slumped downward,
these clouds developed into a large
blast, directed outward, that became a
devastating hurricane of ash and
coarser fragments. The avalanche,
now outdistanced by the lateral blast,
slammed into a ridge about 5 miles
north of the old summit, forming a
hummocky debris flow that over-
topped the ridge at one place but most-
ly turned to flow westward down the
valley of the North Fork Toutle River
as far as 14 miles. Farther east, part of
the avalanche debris dived into Spirit
Lake, where it displaced the water as a
huge swash onto adjacent slopes,
buried countless trees already blown
into the lake, and raised the lakebed by
more than 200 feet.

The major lateral blast probably
began about 20 to 30 seconds after the
triggering earthquake and spread
northward at remarkable speed.
Seventy-seven seconds after the earth-
quake began, a seismic station about
3.5 miles from the blast origin stopped
sending signals to the University of
Washington seismology center, pre-
sumably when the instrument was hit
by the blast. That timing suggests an
outward speed of 220 to 250 miles an
hour for the debris-laden blast cloud.

Johnston was among the first to see
the avalanche and the beginning of the
eruption. He probably was outside his
trailer making measurements to the
mountain and recording data. He
grabbed his radio. ”Vancouver, Van-

 

 

couver, this is it," he shouted—then, as
the black, hot cloud of the lateral blast
raced toward him, a final transmission,
too garbled to be understood.

The center in Vancouver did not
receive his warning; atmospheric
disturbance caused by the eruption
probably blocked the radio signals.
Johnston’s message was received in-
stead on the radio of a private citizen
and recorded on an attached tape
recorder.

A more detailed warning came from
volcano watcher Martin on the
ridgetop north of Coldwater 11. When
the action started, he coolly radioed a
description of the avalanche, the begin-
ning of the eruption, and the progress
of the blast cloud. “The camper and the
car just over to the south of me [Cold-
water 11] are covered,” he reported. "It
[the blast cloud] is going to get me,
too.” He was right. There was no
escape from his position.

No one could see what was happen-
ing within the spreading dark hur-
ricane, but later observations showed
that the blast had spanned an area
north of the crater in an arc of nearly
180°, which measured 23 miles across
from east to west and extended from
the mountain crest northwestward for
about 18 miles. Within that area was
an inner zone nearly 6 miles wide in
which almost all life was destroyed.
Trees were stripped of their branches
and snapped off near the ground or
uprooted, and vehicles were over-
turned. In an area rimming that zone
and extending to near the edge of the
blast area, trees were mostly denuded
and toppled; on the outer limit, trees
were left standing but seared.

How hot the blast was can only be
estimated by its effects; melted plastic
and charred wood found in its path
suggest temperatures as high as 680 °F
(360°C). Later, scientists made a pre-
liminary estimate that the energy of the
blast was equivalent to at least a few
megatons of TNT and greater than the
first atom bomb, although the sus-
tained volcanic explosion was entirely
different in character

VIEW FROM ABOVE

The Stoffels watched and photo-
graphed the beginning of the eruption
from the air, narrowly escaping the in-
itial blast and the rapidly spreading ash
cloud. Here is their story (Korosec and
others, 1980):

”At about 7:50 a.m., we entered
(with permission) the restricted air
space around Mount St. Helens from
the northeast and began our first pass
in the clockwise direction. We were im-
mediately impressed and surprised by
the wet appearance of the north face.
We circled above the base of the
volcanic cone, at an altitude of about
11,000 feet, taking photographs. The
mountain looked serene, with only
very minor wisps of steam blowing
toward the north and west. Striking
features on the north side of the moun-
tain included large wet areas glisten-
ing around Goat Rocks and Sugar
Bowl, where small avalanches had
kicked up rocks and snow. The
reddish-brown debris flows surround-
ing the two domes contrasted sharply
with the lighter color of surrounding
slopes. We wondered if these flows
were very recent features and if they
were hours or days old.

“After we had completed the first
pass, we began the second from the
north-northeast, with a tight bank and
a pass directly over the south side of
the summit crater, at an altitude of
about 11,000 feet. Again we were im-
pressed by the serenity of the scene
below. Activity included very minor
steaming from a vent at the bottom of
the main crater and from a small hole
on the southeast side of the top surface
of the raised southern lip of the crater
[fig. 218]. We saw numerous wet seeps
on the north-facing wall of the main
crater, and a small lake had formed on
the crater floor just below this area. As
we continued westward across the
crater’s edge, we noted the immense
fractures on the top of the south lip.

“After we circled around to the
north, we began a third pass along the
same path followed in the previous

pass, crossing directly over the sum-
mit. We didn't notice anything dif-
ferent, but the pilot thought he noticed
more extensive cracking.

”The fourth pass began with a wide
sweep to the northwest to get a better
overview of the entire mountain. We
circled clockwise at a distance of about
5 or 6 miles from the summit, passing
over the northern end of Spirit Lake,
and viewing each of the flanks as we
continued the circular path. We turned
sharply on the west side of the crater,
intending to pass over the summit and
continue east back to Yakima.

”As we approached the summit, fly-
ing at an altitude of about 11,000 feet,
everything was as calm as before. Just
as we passed above the western side of
the summit crater, we noticed land-
sliding of rock and ice debris inward
into the crater [fig. 21C]. The pilot
tipped the wing towards the crater,
giving us a better view of the land-
sliding. The north-facing wall of the
south side of the main crater was
especially active.

“Within a matter of seconds—
perhaps 15 seconds—the whole north
side of the summit crater began to
move instantaneously. As we were
looking directly down on the summit
crater, everything north of a line
drawn east-west across the northern
side of the summit crater began to
move as one gigantic mass. The nature
of movement was eerie, like nothing
we had ever seen before. The entire
mass began to ripple and churn up,
without moving laterally. Then the en-
tire north side of the summit began
sliding north along a deep-seated slide
plane [figs. 21D, E, F]. We were
amazed and excited with the realiza-
tion that we were watching this land-
slide of unbelievable proportions slide
down the north side of the mountain
toward Spirit Lake. We took photo-
graphs of this slide sequence occurring,
but before we could snap off more than
a few pictures, a huge explosion
blasted out of the landslide-detachment
plane [fig. 21G]. We neither felt nor
heard a thing, even though we were

Chronology of the First 100 Days 45

 

,v
.1 mg

46 The First 100 Days of Mount St.

 

FIGURE 21,—Aerial closeups of the earthquake-triggered landslide
and the beginning of the devastating May 18 eruption of
Mount St. Helens. (Photographs copyright 1980 by Keith and
Dorothy Stoffel.) A, The airplane carrying geologists Keith
and Dorothy Stoffel skirted the northern side of the crater dur-
ing the earthquake that triggered the huge north-side ava-
lanche and the start of the May 18 eruptions. Symbols show
the approximate flightpath and positions of the airplane when
the accompanying photographs were taken. B, View from a
position about 1,000 feet higher than the northwestern lip of
the summit crater, less than 1 minute before the major erup-
tion. The crater was serene, and there was little steaming. A
fumarole in the Notch (fault trench) north of the crater was
fuming only enough to show a slight haze. C, As the airplane
passed just north of the crater, a strong earthquake started
avalanches of ice and rock debris on the southern wall of the
crater, seen here from the northeast, and also triggered a huge
avalanche on the northern side. When this photograph was
taken, the area shown in the lower right was “rippling and
churning in place” but had not yet slumped downward. A puff
of steam that had appeared from the Notch fumarole (shown
by an arrow) also shows clearly in D, E, and F. D, This view
westward across the upper northern side of the crater stops the
action as a large slab of the mountainside was dropping to the
north and forming an avalanche tongue. The slide mass has
detached from a steep slide face, seen here from the edge, to
the right (north) of the steaming Notch area (shown by an
arrow). Fuming from the slide face also had begun. The north-
western rim of the crater is seen in the upper left of this
photograph, and the eastern part of the South Fork Toutle
River valley is in the upper center. E, Moments later, the slide
mass had moved farther down and toward the north (right),
and a second slab had begun to slide down after the first. Fume
emission increased from the slide face and Notch areas. The
first dark ash plumes were seen starting from the lower edges
of the slide face—one above and to the left of center in this
view and the other at’the bottom edge to the right of center. F,
The initial slide mass had moved even farther down, and the
entire remaining mass of rock and ice north of the crater rim
(upper left) had begun to slump as this picture was taken.
Fume and ash eruptions were beginning from the slide face, the
Notch area, and the bottom of the crater itself (just out of view
at the upper left). G, The eruption cloud grew from emana-
tions from the north-side slide face, the former Notch area,
and the bottom of the crater. These sources determined the
initial shape of the eruption cloud, here partly hidden from
View (see figs. 23 and 24). H, Although the vertical crater
plume appeared almost stationary, the lateral cloud grew
quickly and violently. Note the projectiles (rock and ice) being
thrown to the north (right of this view). I, This view,
photographed shortly after H, shows slight further growth of
the vertical plume. At this point, the darker cloud (right) was
becoming the upper part of the rapidly expanding lateral blast
(see figs. 23, 24, 25, and 26). The Stoffels had used all their
film, and the pilot opened the throttle and dove the airplane to
escape the expanding blast cloud.

 

 

 

Chronology of the First 100 Days 47

122°15'

 

LEWtS COUNTY

 

SKAMANIA COUNTY

Goldwater |
Blackburn X

X

46° 15’

  

Rogers
and the
Kearneys

 
 

Merrill La 9

 

  
  

Coldwater ||

Johnston

 

3 Ryan Lake

    

   

X Rosenquist
and
Honnholm

   

x Martin

    
 

 

     
  
   

Eagle Cliff
Bridge

 

 

46°

 

10 MILES

l
l l
10 15 KILDMETERS

FIGURE 22.—Sketch map of the Mount St. Helens area showing where some of the victims of
the May 18 lateral blast and some of the photographers contributing to this report were
located. (Modified from Cummans, 1981.)

just east of the summit at this time.
Dorothy saw the southern portion of
the summit crater begin to crumble and
slide to the north just after the initial
explosion [fig. 211].

“From our viewpoint, the initial
cloud appeared to mushroom laterally
to the north and plunge down. Within
seconds, the cloud had mushroomed
enough to obscure our view. At about
this time, the realization of the enor-
mous size of the eruption hit us, and
we focused our attention on getting out
of there. The pilot opened full throttle
and dove quickly to gain speed. He
estimated that we were going 200
knots. The cloud behind us mush-

roomed to unbelievable dimensions
and appeared to be catching up with
us. Since the clouds were billowing
primarily in a northerly direction, we
turned south, heading straight toward
Mount Hood.

“After a couple of minutes, we felt
sure we had outrun the clouds. Behind
us, we could see the clouds continue to
mushroom to the north and northwest.
An ash cloud rolled across the summit
and down the south face, completely
enveloping the cone and eventually
obscuring all but the lower slopes. The
pilot suggested turning west and flying
around the west side of the cloud, but
after we thought about it briefly, we

48 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

realized that the billowing clouds were
moving west faster than we could fly.
To the east of the volcano, the ash
cloud separated into billowing,
mushroom-shaped clouds and a higher
overhang of cirrus-type clouds. Ashfall
from the mushroom-shaped clouds was
heavy. Lightning bolts shooting
through the clouds were tens of
thousands of feet high. Soon, the ash
extended to altitudes higher then
50,000 feet.

“We thought about flying back to
Yakima and even turned to the east
briefly, but again we decided against it,
realizing we could never beat the ash
cloud. Sometime between 9:00 and
9:15 [a.m.] we landed at a Portland air-
port."

VIEW FROM THE WEST

Ty and Marianna Kearney were at a
ridgetop site 7.6 miles west of the sum-
mit outside the restricted zone (fig. 22).
Like Martin, they were amateur radio
operators serving as volunteer volcano
watchers, and they had been living in
their camper van at that site for nearly
a week. Also at the viewpoint that
morning was sightseer Robert Rogers.
The triggering earthquake drew their
attention to the peak; they then
watched the avalanche and the grow-
ing eruption plumes in profile.

Rogers ran for his camera, which
was about 60 feet away, and began
taking pictures (fig. 23). He was able to
expose only a few frames during a span
of perhaps 15 seconds before his
camera jammed.

Kearney radioed a warning about
the eruption and then began using his
camera, taking his first picture (fig.
24A) several seconds after Rogers'
camera failed. The observers heard a
roaring sound as the laterally directed
cloud began to roll down the moun-
tain, and they could see fires starting as
lightning in the cloud ignited trees.
They drove southward to safety by
roundabout logging roads as winds
generated by the eruption rocked their
vehicles.

FIGURE 23.—These photographs of the
early part of the May 18 eruption were
taken from a ridgetop 7.6 miles west of
Mount St. Helens. The photographer felt
the triggering earthquake, saw the begin—
ning of the eruption, and operated his
camera as fast as possible (manually) un-
til it jammed after he took the last picture
shown here. He estimated that this se-
quence required about 15 seconds. Even
at this early stage of events, the front of
the avalanche was already out of sight
below the horizon to the left of the large,
streaked hump (which probably was a
dust cloud). Marianna Kearney, a
volunteer observer and radio operator
stationed at the site, is in the right
foreground near her camper van. (The
earlier development of this avalanche is
shown in fig. 21.) These pictures also
show the growth of both a lower and an
upper laterally directed eruption cloud.
Similarities in the sizes and shapes of the
eruption clouds show that the second pic—
ture in this sequence must have been
taken at about the same time as figure
21G. (Photographs copyright 1980 by
Robert Rogers.)

 

 

 

 

 

 

FIGURE 24,—This sequence of photo-
graphs, which, like that in figure 23, was
taken at a site 7.6 miles west of the sum-
mit of Mount St. Helens, picks up shortly
after the sequence shown in figure 23
leaves off and covers a time interval of
about 15 seconds. It shows the further
development of the north-directed blast.
The panoramic photograph (C) spans an
arc of about 90°. Mount Rainier is at the
lower left edge; the site of Coldwater II is
in the lower center of the left half,
obscured (and probably already demol-
ished) by the rapidly expanding lateral
blast cloud. The photographs were taken
by Ty Kearney, an amateur radio
operator and volunteer volcano observer
for the Washington State Deparment of
Emergency Services. Observers at the site
distinctly felt the earthquake that trig-
gered the huge debris avalanche
preceding the eruption. (Photographs
copyright 1980 by Ty and Alan
Kearney.)

 

 

 

 

52 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

 

 

 

VIEW FROM THE
NORTHEAST

At Bear Meadow, about 11 miles
northeast of the summit of Mount St.
Helens (fig. 22:), Gary Rosenquist, an
amateur photographer, and Keith
Ronnholm, a graduate student in the
University of ‘Washington Geophysics
Program, were camped within a few
hundred yards of each other, along
with several other parties of campers.
Earlier in the morning, Rosenquist had
mounted his camera on a tripod and
aimed it at the volcano. Thus
prepared, he was able to begin taking
pictures as soon as he realized that a

 

 

huge avalanche was occurring. After
taking the remarkable sequence of
eruption photographs shown in figure
25, he snapped a few more pictures,
warned other campers who had not yet
stirred, and drove his vehicle to safety
northward of the blast zone.
Ronnholm was in his camper when
the avalanche began, and he estimates
that he did not start taking pictures
(fig. 26A) until about 10 seconds after
the eruption began (compare figs. 26A
and 25G). He waited, taking more pic-
tures from the same site and expecting
the blast cloud to be stopped or
diverted upward by ridges closer to the
volcano. When the turbulent gray

FIGURE 25.—This remarkable sequence of

photographs was taken by Gary Rosen-
quist, who was camped at Bear Meadow
about 11 miles northeast of the
summit of Mount St. Helens. On the
morning of May 18, he had mounted his
camera on a tripod and was thus well
prepared to record the fast-moving
events that began at 8:32 a.m. These
photographs (copyright 1980 by Gary
Rosenquist) are estimated to span about
20 seconds. A, This photograph was
made at about the same time that Keith
Stoffel, flying above the volcano, was
taking the picture in, figure 21E, looking
down the avalanching northern face of‘
the mountain. At this early stage, the
summit eruption cloud was just begin-
ning to emerge. The first huge avalanche
mass was roaring northward; its front
was already below the crest of the
timbered ridge (lower right), and a sec-
ond slab of the mountain’s northern side
was beginning to slump. The beginning
of the lateral blast is shown here by small
black eruption clouds on the left- and
right-hand sides of the scarp left by the
avalanches. B, and C, In these views, the
second large slab from the upper north-
ern side was falling and also was begin-
ning to be blown apart by the lateral
eruption, and the eruption plume from
the summit area was rising rapidly. The
left—hand (eastern) side of the avalanche
mass consisted largely of ice from the
Forsyth Glacier (white area in left center
of both views), which was flowing
around a dark rock obstruction. (Com-
pare with ice extent in A.) D, E, and F,
Both the vertical and the lateral eruption
clouds enlarged rapidly as the avalanche
mass moved downward and to the north
(right). D stops the action during the col-
lapse of the entire remaining upper north-
ern side of the mountain. At about the
same instant, Robert Rogers was taking
his first picture (fig. 23A) from the west.
G, The forceful blast cloud overtook the
trailing edge of the avalanche mass and
may have boosted its upper part (lower
right) in its northward rush. H, By the
time that this picture was taken, the
upper (darker) and lower parts of the
lateral blast had merged, and the blast
was in full force. Most of the upper
northern side of Mount St. Helens was
involved. Large blocks of rock and ice
(right center) were thrown through the
air to the north.

Chronology of the First 100 Days 53

 

 

 

FIGURE 26,—Ground views of the rapidly
expanding lateral blast cloud of the May
18 eruption. (Photographs copyright
1980 by Keith Ronnholm, University of
Washington Geophysics Program.) A,
View from about 11 miles northeast of
the summit (from Bear Meadow), where
geophysicist Keith Ronnholm began
taking pictures about 10 seconds after the
eruption began. The front of the ava-
lanche was already out of view behind
the ridge at the lower right; the upper and
lower lateral eruption clouds (figs. 23 and
24A) were merging as they grew. B,
Telephoto View from the same spot about
4 seconds later (about 14 seconds after
the eruption began), taken at nearly the
same instant that figure 25H was taken.
Note the streaming projectiles (blocks of
ice and rock) being thrown beyond the
eruption cloud to the right.

 

54 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

 

 

cloud continued rushing toward the
camp about 90 seconds after the erup-
tion began, he took one more picture
(fig. 26C) and began driving north-
ward to outrun the cloud. Keeping
barely ahead of the menacing hot
cloud, he stopped about 3 miles farther
from the mountain to take a picture of
the towering front of the cloud (fig.
26D). About 8 minutes after the emp-
tion began, airborne ash from the
volcano was streaming eastward with
the wind (fig. 26E). By that time,
lightning was flashing, and thunder
was a constant rumble. Shortly
thereafter, rocks the size of golf balls
began to fall on him. Ronnholm’s vehi-
cle was soon engulfed in an ashfall so
thick and so dark that he could con-
tinue driving only by following a log-
ging truck that was being guided by
men walking ahead to feel out the
road.

FIGURE 26. — Continued. C, The blast
cloud quickly obscured the mountain and
expanded northward. Ronnholm waited
at the same site, expecting the cloud to be

. stopped or diverted upward by ridges
between him and the volcano (A). When
the cloud continued to expand beyond
the first ridge and then the second and
was still rushing toward him, he took this
photograph (about 90 seconds after the
eruption began) and then began driving
his vehicle northward to outrun the
cloud. D, Keeping barely ahead of the
towering hot cloud, Ronnholm stopped
about 3 miles farther from the mountain
(about 6.5 minutes after the eruption
began) and took this photograph by aim-
ing his camera upward between trees. E,
This photograph, taken toward the south
from the same site about 1.5 minutes
later, shows clear sky below the ash
cloud, which by then was streaming
eastward with the wind. (The volcano is
to the right ”about two photo widths”)
By this time, lightning was flashing, and
thunder was a constant rumble. Amid a
shower of golf-ball-sized rocks and ash so
thick and dark that he could barely see,
Ronnholm escaped to the north.

Chronology of the First 100 Days 55

VIEW FROM THE
NORTHWEST

Marshall Huntting was up early at
his home about 30 miles northwest of
the mountain near the town of Silver
Creek, Wash. (fig. 13). A former State
Geologist, he was very interested in the
volcano and had been observing it in-
tently through binoculars during the
past weeks as weather permitted.
When he learned of the eruption, he
made a hasty start in his car toward a
nearby hill where he and his neighbors
had watched previous eruptions of
steam and ash. After a spinout at a
road intersection, he got his car back
on the road and arrived at the hilltop in
time to see a widespread vertical erup-
tion cloud rising to an amazing height
and a ground cloud (from the lateral
blast) spreading westward, apparently
following the valleys of the North Fork
Toutle River or the Green River or
both. At about 8:42 a.m., the westward
front of the ground-hugging cloud ap-
peared to stop at a position about 2
miles upstream (southeast) from Camp
Baker (fig. 22). Thereafter, the ground
cloud seemed to be ”sucked up into the
vertical ash plume" rising toward the
stratosphere.

About 20 minutes after the eruption
began, observers at Silver Creek saw a
second ash cloud rise from the direc-
tion of Mount St. Helens and begin
moving westward near the ground, as
the first cloud had. They could not see
whether the second cloud originated at
the volcano or was some kind of after-
effect of the original lateral blast.
About 10 minutes after the second
\ cloud appeared, the observers saw a
white halo forming and rising around
the vertical eruption plume from the
volcano (fig. 27A). They noted that the
second ground-hugging cloud extended
even farther west than the first; ac-
cording to Huntting, it stopped slightly
west of the direction of Camp Baker, at
about 9:30 a.m. (fig. 278). Thereafter,
the lower cloud seemed to settle rather
than to rise. Part of it moved north-
westward out of the Green River

valley, crossed the Cowlitz River, and,
at about 10:15 a.m., stopped at Silver
Creek, the northwesternmost extent of
ashfall from this eruption. The higher
ash cloud gradually drifted eastward as
the volcano continued its upward erup-
tion, and the western side of the
volcano was clearly visible (fig. 28).

OTHER OBSERVATIONS

After watching the “slow-motion’
beginning of the eruption, other
observers sought escape as the lateral
blast cloud sped outward to the north
and overtook dozens of people in a
wide area. Some survivors told of rac-
ing their automobiles at breakneck
speeds along mountain roads to escape
the turbulent dark cloud.

At least one couple, however, drove
to the mountain after they heard about
the eruption. They avoided roadblocks
and drove as far as they could up a log-
ging road. Three miles from the moun-
tain, their car was disabled by volcanic
ash. Luckily, a passing helicopter crew
spotted them and flew them to safety.

A party of 12 climbers had risen
early to ascend Mount Adams, 34
miles east of Mount St. Helens. They
had reached the false summit, at an
elevation of 11,800 feet, when the
eruption started. Within 10 minutes,
they ‘ felt a “heat wave”—a rise in
temperature of 30° to 40°F
(17°422 °C)-—that lasted several
minutes. Afterward, a gray cloud cut
off the sun, and the atmosphere
became charged with electricity.

The climbers heard no sound from
the eruption, nor did observers at
Silver Lake, 30 miles west of Mount St.
Helens, but others 18 miles northeast
of theT mountain heard a rumbling that
sounded like a large avalanche 1 or 2
minutes after the first dark eruption
cloud? rose. The sound of the initial ex-
plosidn was heard distinctly in north-
western Washington and southern
British Columbia in Canada. In-
struments at the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration labora-
tory in Silver Spring, Md., detected an

I

56 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

atmospheric wave 3 hours and 20‘
minutes later; in another 10 minutes,
instruments at Columbia University’s
Larriont-Doherty Geophysical
Observatory in New York registered it.
The average speed of the wave travel-
ing across country was nearly 700
miles an hour.

Seismograph records show that the
triggering earthquake came from a
depth of roughly 1,000 feet below sea
level and from a point about 1 mile due
north of the summit. The initial quake
was followed about 2 minutes later by
a second earthquake of roughly the
same magnitude (about 5). Strong
seismic signals were recorded for
another 10 minutes (until 8:44 a.m.);
then, seismic activity was relatively
low for the following 3 hours. At 11:40
a.m., instruments at the University of
Washington seismology center began
to show a gradual increase in seismic
activity. By 1:30 p.m., it was impossi-
ble to discriminate individual earth-
quake traces on the recorder charts

FIGURE 27,—Photographs taken about 1
hour after the start of the May 18 erup-
tion from a spot about 31 miles north-
west of Mount St. Helens. (Photographs
by Mrs. Jim Lenz.) A, This photograph,
taken about 9:20 a.m., shows, beyond
the distant ridges, the westward-
spreading plume of a ground-hugging ash
cloud (the second that was seen) when it
had reached a position about 14 miles
west of the volcano, probably following
the valley of the North Fork Toutle
River. Also shown is the “halo” that first
began to appear around the ash column
rising from Mount St. Helens (hidden at
left edge of this view) about half an hour
after the eruption began. B, This view,
taken from the same site about 9:30 a.m.,
shows the second ground plume near its
westernmost extent, about 15 miles west
of the volcano. The umbrellalike higher
cloud from the vertical eruption column
first spread outward in all directions but
later was swept eastward, and the west-
ern side of the mountain was left clearly
visible (see fig. 28). The ground plume
continued to spread northward, its
northwestern edge stopping at about
10:15 a.m. near where these pictures
were taken.

 

 

 

 

FIGURE 28,—The dense column of ash from the May 18 eruption billowed out of the volcano almost steadily for more than 9 hours after the

58

lateral blast had removed the upper northern side of the mountain (hidden in this view from the south-southwest). The ash reached an
altitude of more than 15 miles, well into the stratosphere, but most of it was carried eastward at lesser altitudes by the prevailing winds
and often formed distinct horizontal layers in the sky, as seen here. The large white cloud extending above the low layer of ash to the left
of the eruption column was rising from large steam explosions in hot avalanche deposits near the southwestern end of Spirit Lake (see
fig. 30). Less violent steam vents (left of mountain) were scattered across avalanche deposits that extended into the upper valley of the
North Fork Toutle River. This photograph was taken about 11: 0 a.m., May 18, 1980, by David Frank (USCS).

The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

 

because of the large number of seismic
events and the strong harmonic
tremor. The seismic activity peaked
about 3:40 p.m., declined, and reached
“moderate” levels by 5:30 p.m. Har-
monic tremor continued at fluctuating
levels.

ASH SPRTEADS
EASTWARD

Although vertical plumes of steam
and ash accompanied the beginning of
the lateral blast (figs. 21G, H, I), the
lateral blast was well underway before
the strong vertical eruption from what
had been the: volcano’s summit crater
began. Ash from the vertical eruption
column, which within 10 minutes had
risen to a height of more than 15 miles,
was rapidly blown to the east-
northeast. The ash cloud produced

countless lightning flashes that started
hundreds of fires in trees and forest
debris near the volcano.

Dense clouds of ash from the contin-
uing eruption turned daytime to
darkness as far as 120 miles away, and
a lighter covering of ash dusted areas
many hundreds of miles away. Ash fell
heavily in Montana and visibly as far
east as the Great Plains of the Central
United States (fig. 29).

By 9:30 a.m., Washburn and Lin-
schooten had run from Yakima toward
the community of Cowiche. As they
continued running in the warm, clear
morning, they began to see what they
thought was a very dense rain cloud
rising over the foothills of the Cascade
Range from the west, the normal direc-
tion for storms moving into the area.

FIGURE 29).—Satellite pictures and map show the eastward spread of the ash plume from the
May 18 eruption, which began at 8:32 a.m., Pacific Daylight Time. (Photographs from
the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.) A, By 8:45 am. (eruption
plus 13 minutes), the eruption cloud (shown by an arrow) was already large enough to
be seen clearly in the image from a satellite more than 22,000 miles above the Earth. B,
By 9:15 a.m. (E plus 43 minutes), the eruption cloud was spreading rapidly, still ex-
panding in all directions from the volcano. C, By 10:15 a.m. (E plus 1 hour, 43
minutes), the ash had expanded eastward across the Cascade Range into eastern Wash-
ington, reaching beyond Yakima (see accompanying map). D, By 12:15 p.m. (E plus 3
hours, 43 minutes), the ash was falling on Spokane and had extended into Idaho. A
dense aslh cloud from the continuing eruption persisted near the volcano. E, Sketch
map showing times of arrival of the airborne ash as it spread across the Northwest. The
time lines represent the margins of the ash plume as seen in satellite images at half-hour
intervals (from Sarna-Wojcicki and others, 1981).

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The cloud appeared very dark
blue—the "darkest thunderhead” either
had ever seen—and had a very abrupt
edge on its northwestern side.
Although the cloud looked ominous,
they still hoped to outrun the “storm.”
When they were about 2 miles east of
Cowiche (8 miles from home), they
were suddenly heavily pelted with
sand-sized particles; they then realized
that Mount St. Helens had begun a ma-
jor eruption, and they turned back
toward Yakima. The sky very quickly
turned black, and the pelting ash par-
ticles were accompanied by "bad
lightning.” They sought shelter under
the stairs of an old fruit warehouse
near the road. After about 15 minutes,
a young man in a flatbed truck came
by; the runners flagged him down and
were driven back to their homes. By
this time (10:30 a.m.), it was black as a
dark night, and ash continued to fall.
The ashfall diminished, and the sky
started to lighten about 3:30 p.m., but
soon the darkness and the ashfall
resumed.

Just before the ash arrived at
Yakima, aircrews of the National
Guard 116th Armored Cavalry Squad-
ron quickly detached armaments from
their helicopters and scrambled to get
the aircraft into the air. Twelve of their
32 helicopters did not get off the
ground in time. The other 20 headed
north where they ”could still see light
in the sky." They flew a long route

FIGURE 30.—Steam erupting from still-hot
parts of the avalanche deposits 18 days
after the major eruption. Hundreds of
steam vents and craters formed near the
site of Spirit Lake and the head of the
North Fork Toutle River wherever the
very hot volcanic deposits were con-
tacted by water, which then turned to
steam and blew out through the overly-
ing deposits. The view here is toward the
southeast. The steaming crater in the
right foreground is about 250 feet across.
The southwestern end of Spirit Lake,
largely covered with floating forest
debris, is in the lower left. (Photograph
by Philip Carpenter, USGS, June 5,
1980.)

60 First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

north and then west around the ash
cloud and were directed to the Kelso
airport and to the Toutle River valley
to help with search-and-rescue efforts.
Ground-based radar observations at
the National Weather Service’s station
in Auburn, Wash., showed increases in
vertical ash emission at four distinct
times—at about 8:40 a.m., 10:15 a.m.,
12:45 p.m., and 2:00 to 4:00 p.m.
Other observers said that the strength
of the eruption at about 4:30 p.m. was
second only to the 8:40 am. pulse.
The ash column (fig. 28) persisted
for more than 9 hours, producing
numerous pyroclastic flows. The early
ones were mostly ash flows, which
were produced as the dense part of the
eruption column fell back onto the

volcano's flanks and poured down-
slope at least short distances on all
sides. Later pyroclastic flows, from
about noon on, consisted of pumice,
which was produced by the fountain-
ing of lava froth from the eruptive
center and poured out through the
giant breach in the northern side of the
crater. The pumice and ash flows
fanned out over the huge mass left by
the debris avalanche and extended part
way down the North Fork Toutle River
valley. Now and then, explosions
caused by water flashing into steam
within the hot pyroclastic and debris-
avalanche deposits along the former
river course blew material as high as 1
mile into the air and left craters as
much as 2,000 feet across (fig. 30).

 

MUDFLOWS AND
FLOODS

Water from melting snow and ice on
the slopes of Mount St. Helens and in
the avalanche debris and from the
now-buried and disrupted stream
channels produced dozens of mud-
flows, large and small (fig. 31). On or
near the blasted mountain, mudflows
developed within minutes, some pour-
ing over and eroding deposits of the
debris avalanche itself. Many mud-
flows stopped on the lower flanks of
the volcano, and others were dammed
temporarily behind debris deposits;
many, however, coalesced and began
to move through the major drainage-
ways, generating floods all the way
down the Toutle River and the Cowlitz
River below it (fig. 32) and on into the
Columbia River. The mudflows swept

FIGURE 31,—Elffects of the May 18 mud-
flows in the vicinity of Mount St. Helens.
(Photographs by Philip Carpenter,
USGS, May 20, 1980.) A, The mudflow
in the South Fork Toutle River reached
the Camp 12 logging camp (27 miles
downstream from headwaters on Mount
St. Helens) about 1 hour and 40 minutes
after the start of the May 18 eruption and
left a tangled mass of logs and heavy
equipment. B, The mudflow in the Mud-
dy River left streambanks strewn with
logs between ash-coated trees at a reach
16 miles downstream from headwaters
on Mount St. Helens. C, Mudflows
destroyed nearly all the bridges that
crossed streams draining from the north-
ern, northeastern, and northwestern
parts of Mount St. Helens. This lack of
stream crossings greatly hampered
ground rescue and recovery efforts. The
steel highway bridge shown in D was
formerly at this site, on the North Fork
Toutle River 23 miles downstream from
headwaters on Mount St. Helens. D, The
mudflow in the North Fork Toutle River
was dense. enough to support heavy
machinery and this section of a steel two-
lane highway bridge as it carried them
downstream. The mudflows moved some
of this heavy debris for miles before
depositing it at places where the mud lost
velocity.

 

62

 

The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

 

FIGURE 32.—Effects of floods and mud-
flows in the Toutle and Cowlitz River
valleys. A, The maximum stage of the
May 18 mudflows on the Toutle River
reached the second story of this house, as
mud coatings on trees and structures
show. When the high water (mud) re-
ceded, sediment deposits completely
covered this homesite to a level about 3
feet above the first floor of the large
house. The structure on the right was a
large wing of the house that the surging
mud ripped off and moved to the posi-
tion shown here. Many lower or less pro-
tected homes were completely swept
away by the mudflows or more severely
smashed than this house by debris that
the mud carried. The shallow, debris-
choked channel in the background is the
South Fork Toutle River near its con-
fluence with the North Fork. (Photo-
graph by Dwight R. Crandell, USGS,
May 24, 1980.) B, Debris-laden flood-
water from the Toutle River inundated
the flood plain of the Cowlitz River,
shown here, to a width of about 1 mile at
Castle Rock. The volume of flood de-
posits left on the flood plain and in the
channel of the Cowlitz is estimated to be
as much as 40 million cubic yards, not
counting a huge, unmeasured amount
that was carried downstream into the
Columbia River. (Photograph copyright
1980 by Bud Kimball, June 20, 1980.)

 

 

up thousands of logs (and heavy log-
ging equipment) from timbering opera-
tions, destroyed homes, vehicles,

roads, and bridges, and inundated
broad areas of the Cowlitz River flood
plain.

One small mudflow developed in the
valley of South 'Coldwater Creek (fig.
7) from the tongue of avalanche debris
that crossed into that valley over the
ridge west of Spirit Lake. The mudflow
probably buried everything that the
lateral blast had carried into that valley
from the site of Coldwater II.

Mudflows also moved rapidly down
Smith Creek and Muddy River, which
drain the eastern side of the mountain,
and Pine Creek on the southeastern
side. The mudflows, which were laden
with logs and forest debris, took out a
bridge near the mouth of Pine Creek as
well as Eagle Cliff Bridge across the
head of Swift Reservoir (fig. 22). A

tree-planting crew that had been work-
ing near the upper Swift Reservoir op-
posite the volcano reported that Eagle
Cliff Bridge was taken out by a tower-
ing flood surge "perhaps 30 feet high”
that struck without warning about 9:00
am. Observers reported that the flood
surge entering the upper (eastern) end
of the reservoir caused an initial 6—foot
rise in the water level at that end of the
reservoir in about 15 minutes; the
USGS reservoir gage at the dam 9 miles
downstream recorded a rise of 2.6 feet
by noon. The reservoir, whose level
had been lowered previously, held the
added volume and did not overtop the
dam; thus, the flooding anticipated
along downstream parts of the Lewis
River was avoided. The mudflow left
the eastern end of Swift Reservoir filled
with mud and forest rubble, its brown
color contrasting sharply with the clear
blue of reservoir water farther west
(fig. 33).

FIGURE 33.—Timber and mudflow debris,
carried by flooding tributary streams that
drain the eastern and southeastern slopes
of Mount St. Helens, began entering the
eastern end of Swift Reservoir about half
an hour after the May 18 eruption began.
The flood surge reportedly caused an in-
itial rise of about 6 feet at this end of the
reservoir in 15 minutes, but the level of
the reservoir had been drawn down
about 30 feet in anticipation of floods
from the mountain. The mudflows
poured about 11,000 acre-feet (about 18
million cubic yards) of mud and debris
into Swift Reservoir and caused a water-
level rise of 2.6 feet throughout the reser-
voir. (Photograph by Philip Carpenter,
USGS, May 20, 1980.)

 

It took time for the major floods to
build up in the Toutle River drainage
system—time that allowed many in
low-lying areas to escape with what
they could carry. Within minutes of
the lateral blast, law-enforcement of-
ficers were dispatched to warn people
about the danger of flash floods and to
police evacuation routes. Cowlitz and
Skamania County personnel were
ordered to prearranged flash-flood
observation positions along the Lewis,
Kalama, Toutle, and Cowlitz Rivers.
People along these streams were
alerted by radio, telephone calls,
sirens, and loudspeaker warnings to be
prepared for hasty evacuation.

The USGS stream-measuring sta-
tions were destroyed or disabled by the
muddy floods or the bank-to-bank
flood debris. By midaftemoon, how-
ever, USGS hydrologists were in the
area observing the floodflows. Their
accounts, other eyewitness reports,
partial records from the gages, and
communication logs allowed USGS
hydrologist John Cummans to recon-
struct the downstream progress of the
flood crests (Cummans, 1981).

The first of the Toutle River floods
began as a major mudflow traveling
down the river’s South Fork. The mud-
flow originated in water-saturated
eruption deposits on the western flank
of the volcano and began developing
during early phases of the eruption. By
about 10:10 a.m., the mudflow was 27
miles downstream from the volcano at
Camp 12 logging camp, where it de-
molished equipment and left a tangled
mass of logs and debris (fig. 31A). The
flow was swift, perhaps as fast as 20
miles an hour, in headwater reaches,
but its speed decreased as the crest
swept downstream. As the mudflow
progressed downvalley, it battered
down streamside trees and carried them
along, swept up buildings and auto-
mobiles, washed away miles of roads
along the channel, and destroyed at
least one bridge. No one is known to
have drowned in the South Fork flood,
however, despite a few close calls.

By 10:14 a.m., the flood crest was
nearing the confluence of the South
and North Forks of the Toutle River
and was described by a deputy sheriff
as a 12-foot wall of water containing
logs, debris, and buildings. The mass
of debris came close to the underside of
a bridge across State Route 504, about
half a mile downstream from the con-
fluence of the two forks, but floated
safely underneath.

Downstream from the confluence,
floodwater from the South Fork stayed
within the channels, and its velocity
decreased. The water level also
dropped quickly after the flood crest
passed. At a USGS stream gage on the
Toutle River about three-quarters of a
mile below the confluence of the two
forks, the peak flow probably was
reached before 11:00 a.m., but mud
disabled the recording equipment, and
so the exact time is not known. Hy-
drologists did determine, however,
that the flood crest there was about 21
feet high, 1 foot higher than the highest
flood recorded at that site since the
gaging station was established in 1909.
The floodwater apparently had
dropped most of its sediment before it
reached the Toutle River, where it was
described as being very muddy water
rather than the mud of farther up-
stream.

After the crest of the South Fork
flood reached the Cowlitz River, its ef-
fects diminished greatly. At a USGS
gage on the Cowlitz River at Castle
Rock 2.7 miles downstream from the
mouth of the Toutle River (fig. 6), the
flood peak, which occurred there at
1:30 p.m., caused a water-level rise of
only 3.2 feet. The arrival of the flood-
water at Longview, Wash. (fig. 6),.was
marked not by a rise of water level but
by the arrival of ”logs, trees, limbs,
and bark," which continued to float
down the river past Longview for more
than 3 hours.

The South Fork mudflow apparently
was not greatly heated by the eruption
deposits from which it originated. A
survivor described the mud in the up-

64 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

per part of the valley of the South Fork
as being like “warm, fluid brown con-
crete," but no other comment about
the warmth of the mudflow was heard.

A second surge of mudflow was
observed in the upper valley of the
South Fork Toutle River about 2:00
p.m. This mudflow did not reach more
than a few miles downvalley, however,
and did no further damage.

Before the South Fork flood had
reached Castle Rock, airborne ob-
servers had already reported that mud-
flows were developing in the upper
Valley of the North Fork Toutle River.
Search-and-rescue flights into the area
by military helicopters were getting
underway at the time. No one knew
how many residents had chosen to re-
main in the valley of the North Fork in
spite of evacuation warnings or how
many survivors of the eruption might
be trying to make their way out of the
area by the main highway (State Route
504) that follows the valley. More large
mudflows, however, obviously would
be a major danger.

The mudflow that came down the
valley of the North Fork Toutle River
originated in water-saturated parts of
the debris-avalanche deposit in the up-
per valley. It was made up of many
smaller mudflows and took hours to
develop because individual small flows
crossing the hummocky surface of the
avalanche deposit became ponded in
closed depressions and could break out
and merge with adjoining mudflows
only after filling the depressions. In the
process, the mud picked up heat from
the volcanic materials in the avalanche
deposit and became steaming hot. The
crest of the mudflow did not pass the
downstream end of the avalanche
deposit until after 1:30 p.m. By that
time, the crest of the South Fork flood
had passed Castle Rock, and the mud-
flows entering Swift Reservoir had sub-
sided greatly.

The North Fork mudflow moved
more slowly than the South Fork mud-
flow but was much larger and more
destructive. The downvalley progress

of the mudflow was complicated by
several massive logjams that, when
they broke loose, caused flood surges
that were especially destructive and
that added to the uncertainty of flood-
response efforts. The maximum flow at
Camp Baker (fig. 22), about 5 miles
downstream from the end of the
avalanche deposit, came about 3:00
p.m. The mud destroyed most of the
camp and carried away hundreds of
stored logs as it moved downstream.

Unlike the South Flow mudflow,
which became more fluid as it flowed
downvalley, the North Fork mudflow
remained thick and dense with sedi-
ment and thus was able to carry almost
anything that it swept up or broke
loose. A tongue of the mud flowed
upstream into the Green River (fig. 6)
and filled the rearing ponds of a fish
hatchery with debris that included steel
bridge girders. A few miles farther
downstream on the North Fork Toutle
River, observers said that the mud had
the consistency of fresh mortar and
that it carried ice chunks, buildings,
and a variety of equipment, ”riding
high.” They reported seeing a fully
loaded logging truck being carried up-
right in the mud and submerged only
to the lowermost tier of logs. Motion
pictures of this steaming mudflow car-
rying everything from houses to a steel
bridge framework, as well as an un-
imaginable number of trees and logs,
were shown in color on local television
stations within hours of the eruption.
These films were the first visual indica-
tion for most people in the Pacific
Northwest that such colossal devasta-
tion had begun.

'When the North Fork mudflow
reached the Toutle River valley, it was
so great in height and volume that it
dwarfed the record flood just estab-
lished on the South Fork and extended
flood damage to higher levels and
broader areas. About 6:00 p.m., the
mudflow destroyed the bridge at State
Route 504, half a mile below the con-
fluence of the North and South Forks
of the Toutle River, just as it had car-
ried away several other bridges up-

stream. Shortly thereafter, it also de-
stroyed the gaging station a quarter of
a mile downstream.

By 8:30 p.m., the mudflow reached
the mouth of the Toutle River and
began to raise the level of the Cowlitz
River as well. At 8:41 p.m., a report
said that a bridge 6.5 miles upstream
from the mouth of the Toutle River
had just been destroyed and that the
flood level was still rising. This report
raised serious concerns about a bridge
on Interstate Highway 5 that crosses
the Toutle River about a quarter of a
mile above the river’s mouth. Interstate
5 is the main north-south highway; if
this bridge were to be destroyed or
seriously damaged, transportation in
this region would be severely curtailed.
Moreover, if the mudflow were to
wash out this bridge, it probably also
would destroy a smaller highway
bridge less than 1 mile upstream and a
bridge for the main railroad just
downstream from Interstate 5.

Washington State Patrol officers

halted traffic on Interstate 5, as they_

had done for hours during the South
Fork flood. Officials, local residents,
and stalled motorists watched in
anxious fascination as the mud lapped
higher and higher on the concrete
bridge abutments. Soon, large pieces of
floating debris were scraping and bang-
ing on the underside of the bridge. The
largest masses, such as cabins and
vehicles, began to strike the upstream
side of the trestle. They would hang
there briefly and then submerge further
and roll noisily under the bridge, caus-
ing it to shudder ominously. As dark-
ness fell, the flood level was still rising.
Then flood waves themselves began
lapping the underside of the trestle.
Logs could no longer float freely
underneath; bark and limbs were sliced
from their topsides as they scraped
under the bridge. The number of logs
banging the trestle forcefully before
being carried underneath by the
powerful mudflow was increasing.

No one knows how long the bridge
and its approaches can withstand this
battering from the debris and the

erosive power of the mudflow. There
are encouraging reports from ob-
servers, however, that flood levels
upstream are receding.

Meanwhile, the nearby channel of
the Cowlitz River can no longer carry
the flow; its banks, too, have been
overtopped by the muddy floodwater,
which is spreading outward and inun-
dating homesites and farms on the
flood plain near Castle Rock.

CLOSE OF E DAY

Although the full story of today’s
events will not be known for months to
come, their significance cannot be
doubted. Within a few minutes, what
was once Washington’s fifth-highest
peak lost about 1,300 feet of its height.
What remains of its top, formerly a
glistening white cone, has changed to
ashy gray. The scenic view on the
northern side has changed to one of
stark desolation. Vast green forests
have been transformed into jumbles of
giant matchsticks. Spirit Lake, once
clear and blue, is now a steaming ex-
panse of black water and floating shat-
tered trees. Broad ribbons of mud ex-
tend up the valleys of former trout
streams and disappear into clouds of
ash around the volcano. Gone are most
of the glaciers that yesterday mantled
the mountain’s northern slope. Gone is
Goat Rocks, relic of a past eruption
episode.

Gone too, are the observation posts
called Coldwater I and Coldwater II.

The toll continues to rise as losses
and damage are reported. Dozens of
homes and camps along the Toutle
River and its forks have been de-
stroyed, along with cabins and camp-
sites at lakes north of the mountain.
Volcanic ash inches thick is being re-
ported from eastern Washington, al-
though conflicting reports suggest that
some of these thicknesses may be exag-
gerated. The North Fork Toutle River
mudflow continues at very high levels,
but, so far, it has spared the critically
important highway and railroad

Chronology of the First 100 Days 65

bridges that cross the lower Toutle
River. The Cowlitz River is flooding
extensive low-lying areas near Castle
Rock, but it is still staying within its
banks in downstream areas.

How many people died or are miss-
ing is not known, but some officials
say that the total may reach into the
hundreds. By dusk tonight, military
and other helicopter crews had rescued
or evacuated more than 130 survivors.
They had also seen grisly evidence in
the blast zone that others did not sur-
vive.

No one knows whether the worst is
over or what the volcano will do next.

Continuing Threats
and Mounting Toll

Monday, May 19
E Day Plus 1

The pace of the eruption has slowed.
The ash column seldom rises more than
a few hundred to a few thousand feet
above the volcano; during the night, it
appeared to consist mostly of steam.
The volcano seems to be quieting. No
one knows how long it will remain so.

Earthquakes, too, have diminished.
What earthquakes there were today
came from depths of 10 to 20 miles
rather than from 3 miles or less, as they
had before yesterday’s eruption. Only
three were stronger than magnitude 3.

Daylight revealed that the Interstate
Highway 5 bridge was still standing,
although it bore a load of mud and
debris from last night’s battering mud-
flow. The nearby highway and rail-
road bridges also survived. The Toutle
River was still high, but the flood was
diminishing, and the debris that it car-
ried was no longer striking the under-
sides of the bridges. Mud lay thick on
the riverbanks and on the wreckage
that they held; it also coated the trunks
of surviving trees up to the maximum
flood level. Steam from the still-warm
mudflow created a mist that added an
eerie aspect to the morning's scene of
mud and destruction. A bulldozer
cleared the mud and debris from the In-

terstate Highway 5 bridge, which was
reopened to traffic about 8 am.

Search-and-rescue operations were
resumed at dawn but are hampered by
ash and unstable deposits. No one
knows how much time may be left be-
fore the mountain lets loose another
killing blast.

ReSCue efforts and attempts to assess
damage north of the mountain are be-
ing made by aircraft only. Access
roads in valleys affected by mudflows
are largely buried or eroded away, and
blown-down trees (fig. 34) block all
roads throughout a wide area of the
uplands. Ground vehicles also are
hampered in other areas by loose,
blinding ash, which slickens the roads
and chokes engines. Many bridges that
provided access across streams east
and west of the mountain have been
washed out by giant mudflows (fig.
31).

Even aircraft cannot always get
close. Visibility is hampered by air-
borne ash and, in the upper valley of
the North Fork Toutle River and near
Spirit Lake, by steam from hundreds of
new fumaroles rising from the hot
volcanic debris. More important to
fliers, however, is the danger to air-
craft engines. No one knows for sure
how much ash an aircraft engine can
take in before it stalls. Still, the heli-
copter sweeps, flown mainly by Army
and Army National Guard, Air Force,
and Coast Guard aircraft, continue as
frequently and as far afield as possible
to locate and assist whatever survivors
remain. National Guard helicopters
alone reportedly helped rescue another
15 people today. (Eight National
Guardsmen later would be awarded
medals for heroism during the rescues.)

Visibility is hampered, too, by forest
and ground fires started yesterday by
the lateral blast and by lightning bolts
from the ash clouds. Although the ash
blanket is acting as a fire retardant,
hundreds of fires inside the blast area
are burning in wood debris buried be-
neath the surface. People in the area
are too busy rescuing others—or trying
to survive—to worry about the fires.

66 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

The magnitude of the disaster is just
beginning to be realized. At least 5 peo-
ple are known dead, and 21 are miss-
ing. These figures will no doubt swell
in coming days as bodies are discov-
ered and as relatives and friends are
missed.

Among those known dead are Fred
and Margery Rollins of Hawthorne,
Calif., who stopped 15 miles from the
volcano to watch the eruption. Includ-
ed among the missing are USGS vol-
canologist Johnston, who had been at
Coldwater II observation station; pho-
tographer Blackburn, stationed at
Coldwater 1; Mount St. Helens Lodge
proprietor Truman, who had simply
refused to leave; and volunteer radio
operator Martin, whose radioed warn-
ing about the eruption provided
precious lead time for organizing the
rescue efforts.

Survivors tell harrowing stories of
pumice raining on them, of outracing
ash clouds and floods, of seeing others
die, and even of seeing crows fall
lifeless from the sky. Stranded sur-
vivors are being sheltered in churches,
schools, and other public buildings in
nearby communities.

In the Cowlitz River valley down-
stream from the mouth of the Toutle
River, an area about 1 mile wide near
Castle Rock lies under mud and water
(fig. 328). The flood crest from the
North Fork Toutle River mudflow
reached Castle Rock about midnight,
causing a maximum water-level rise of
20 feet in the Cowlitz River at that
point. That crest was more than 6 feet
above the lowest nearby banks of the
river. Much of the Cowlitz River flood

FIGURE 34.—Within a few minutes, hurri-
cane—force winds from the May 18 lateral
blast transformed vast stands of ever-
green forest into drab tangles of giant
matchsticks. The trees were stripped of
their branches, toppled, and “combed”
into patterns. The logging roads shown
here are about 12 feet across. (Photo-
graph by Austin Post, USGS, June 30,
1980.)

 

plain farther downstream was inundat-
ed to at least shallow depths all the
way to a point about 4 miles upstream
from Longview at the community of
Lexington, where several low-lying
homes were flooded. The cities of
Kelso and Longview, however, were
spared. The flood crest reached Long-
view about 4:00 a.m. today.

The North Fork mudflow has
dumped huge volumes Of sediment and
debris into the Cowlitz River, which,
in turn, is carrying it on to the Colum-
bia River. Tugboat crews worked
through the night on the Cowlitz River
to keep floating trees and logs from
forming logjams that would force
water levels still higher. The Coast
Guard reported that the Columbia
River channel near the mouth Of the
Cowlitz also is littered with floating
debris; another mass of logs and trees
about 600 feet wide and extending for
about 20 miles reportedly is floating
down the Columbia River toward the
Pacific Ocean.

This morning, the ocean-going
freighter Hoegh Mascot went aground

in the Columbia River near Longview,
the first indication that the navigation
channel of that river is blocked by
deposits of mud and debris carried into
it by the floodwaters from the Cowlitz.
A Coast Guard spokesman said that
the channel depth had decreased from
40 to 15 feet for a distance of 2 miles,
“which severely limits the ships that
can come to Portland.” The Coast
Guard closed the Columbia River to
major shipping tonight; the closure
strands 24 ships at the mouth of the
Columbia waiting to come upriver and
another 23 ships in the Portland-
Vancouver area that cannot move
downstream over the shallows in the
navigational channel. The US. Army
Corps of Engineers dredge Biddle is
slowly pushing its way through the
floating debris in the Columbia toward
the shallow area to begin reopening a
navigation channel for oceangoing
ships.

The North Fork mudflow remained
warm throughout its course to the Co-
lumbia River. Its temperature as it
passed a bridge on the lower Toutle

River was 91°F at 9:45 a.m. this mom-
ing. At Castle Rock, the mixture of
mudflow and Cowlitz River water
measured 85°F at 1:15 a.m. and again
at 6:30 a.m. At Longview, the water
temperature at 8:00 a.m., about 4
hours after the flood crest had passed,
reportedly was 90°F. Fish could not

FIGURE 35.—Approximate distribution and
thickness of measurable ashfall from the
May 18 eruption of Mount St. Helens.
Lines represent equal ash thickness, in
millimeters (1 inch=25.4 mm), and are
dashed where observations were lacking.
Circles represent measurement sites; plus
signs, sites where trace or light dusting
was observed; crosses, sites where no ash
was observed. The measurements were
made over several days by several in-
vestigators. At many of the measuring
sites, enough time had elapsed before the
measurements were taken for the ash to
settle and drift,- at some sites, rain had
fallen. Therefore, individual reports Of
ash-thickness measurements, especially
those made before the ash had been
disturbed by wind or rain, may be at
variance with this map. (Map from
Sarna-Wojcicki and others, 1981.)

 

 

  

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OREGON

    

 

The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

300 KILOMETERS

 

 

 

    

FIGURE 36.—Volca.nic ash from the May 18 eruption blanketed much of eastern Washington

*3

and caused great disruption, hardship, and economic loss. A, Street scene in Yakima
the afternoon of May 18. The dense ashfall made the day “black as the darkest night.”
(Staff photograph from Yakima Herald—Republic.) B, Many motor-vehicle accidents
(most of them minor) were attributed to the ashfall. Most occurred when drivers,
blinded by the ash, smashed into stalled vehicles ahead of them or, like the car shown
in this photograph, lost traction in the ash and slid off the roadway. (Photograph

courtesy of U .8. Soil Conservation Service.) C, Dozens of emergency vehicles in the
“ash belt” were disabled, mostly by ash that clogged engine cooling systems or air
filters. Several ingenious modifications were tried to keep vehicles operating, including
large diesel truck air cleaners, like the one seen on this Washington State Patrol car.
Because the fine ash rose in clouds at the slightest disturbance, the dust mask worn here
by Trooper Leonard Whitney was an essential part of his outdoor uniform.
(Photograph by Carolyn Whitney, May 19, 1980.) D, By May 19, the farming com-
munity of Ritzville was beginning to dig out from an ashfall of more than 3 inches, at
the same time that it was providing emergency accommodations for more than 2,000
stranded travelers. The ash ”drifted like snow but did not melt.” (Photograph by

 

Ronald Hartman, U.S. Soil Conservation Service.)

survive in water this warm, and hun-
dreds were found floating dead on the
floodwater.

Meteorologists tracking the east-
ward—moving airborne ash estimate
that it will take 3 days to cross the
country. No one knows how danger-
ous to health the ash may be, but other
problems that it is causing are almost
overwhelming.

The ash has halted transportation
almost completely throughout most of
central, eastern, and southeastern

Washington, as well as in parts of
Idaho and western Montana (fig. 35).
State and local police have banned
driving on the most dangerous roads
and highways, and the Federal Avia-
tion Administration yesterday closed
all airports in affected areas. West-
bound trains stopped today as far
away as Billings, Mont., and Minot,
N.D., to avoid entering the equipment-
damaging ash.

In ash-blanketed areas of eastern
Washington (fig. 36), thousands of

 

motorists have been stranded by con-
tinuing poor visibility or by disabled
cars. They spent last night wherever
they could find shelter from the chok-
ing ash. One traveler in eastern Wash-
ington described the ashfall as ”like be-
ing in a desert sandstorm without the
wind.” Minor highway accidents were
reported in which cars ran off roads
after losing traction in the ash or
smashed into stalled vehicles that
drivers could not see (fig. 363), but no
deaths have been reported.

Chronology of the First 100 Days 69

 

Law-enforcement and other
emergency-services crews struggled to
keep patrol and service vehicles run-
ning, but about 200 patrol cars were
disabled by ash yesterday and today.
The damage to vehicles included seized
engines that overheated after their
cooling systems were clogged with ash,
ruined vital parts that were just ”worn
out" by the abrasive ash, and clogged
carburetors and air filters (fig. 36C).
The fine ash, blown into clouds by
each passing vehicle or gust of wind,
enters every crack and crevice of a
vehicle and seems impossible to con-
trol. Where the ash is deep, highway
snowplows are at work in sometimes
futile attempts to clear the ash off the
roadways. Washington Department of
Transportation officials said that high-
way-clearing work is being slowed up
because the plows have to stop every
100 miles or so to have the ash blown
from engine air filters. The ash drifts
like snow but does not melt. It often
blows back into cleared areas as fast as
the crews can scoop it off.

The heavy ash, frequently described
as being like Portland cement, has flat—
tened many field and row crops in cen-

FIGURE 37,—The avalanche deposit, largely
the remains of the bulge mass from
Mount St. Helens, included hot parts of
the volcano as well as blocks of ice from
destroyed glaciers. A, USGS hydrologist
J. R. Williams examines a fumarole area
within the cooler avalanche deposit at the
northern base of Mount St. Helens. The
heat was derived from hot rock material
buried within the deposit. (Photograph
by Philip Carpenter, USGS, June 5,
1980.) B, The huge debris avalanche that
"uncorked" the lateral blast included ice
from five glaciers on Mount St. Helens.
Barry Voight of Pennsylvania State
University examines this ice block, which
was rafted along on the avalanche debris
in the North Fork Toutle River valley. A
small pond of water was forming as the
ice melted in the warm springtime.
Another ice block, found closer to the
mountain and not shown here, had a
diameter of about 300 feet, the length of a
football field. (Photograph by Robert L.
Smith, USGS, June 2, 1980.)

70 First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

tral and eastern Washington. State of-
ficials and various agricultural experts
expressed deep concern today that
agricultural production, one of the
mainstays of Washington’s economy,
could be greatly curtailed by the vol-
canic ash. They are concerned that a
dense covering of volcanic ash could
damage orchards, hayfields, grazing
lands, and extensive grain acreages. It
all depends, said one, on the buildup of
ash and on the amount of water (rain
and artificial sprinkling) available to
wash the plants.

The results of both the May 16 and
the May 18 thermal surveys of the

 

mountain are now available. They
show that, in addition to the warm
areas found during the May 2 survey, a
new hot spot had appeared at the top
of Shoestring Glacier and that the up-
per area of the bulge had been “per-
forated" with new warm areas. Ther-
mal features detected in both the
surveys were very similar. Geothermal
specialists interpret the images as proof
that the magma had moved up to a
very shallow position—perhaps within
a few hundred yards of the surface—
before yesterday’s eruption.

At 5:09 p.m. this evening, an erup-
tion produced what appeared to be a

 

small pyroclastic flow, which prompt-
ed officials to call back rescue units
from the Toutle River valley. How-
ever, the volcano soon returned to a
quiet state, and no evidence of the
pyroclastic flow was found.

At dusk, the level of the Cowlitz
River at Castle Rock was still about 10
feet higher than it had been before the
eruption, and the channel downstream
from the mouth of the Toutle River re-
mained choked with mud, logs, and
wreckage, most of it from the valleys
of the Toutle River and its two forks.
Much of the lower Cowlitz River flood
plain remains inundated. USGS hy-
drologists warn of even more serious
flooding if water trapped in the debris-
dammed Toutle River system, in-
cluding the area of Spirit Lake, were to
be suddenly released.

Tuesday, May 20
E Day Plus 2

Sporadic eruptive activity is produc-
ing mostly steam. Seismicity, too, has
declined to a level lower than any since
March 22; no earthquakes registered
more than magnitude 3 today.

Scientists in the field are finding that
the debris flow that rushed down the
upper valley of the North Fork T-outle
River immediately after the initial Sun-
day morning blast includes hot areas as
well as cold ones. Scattered warm
masses in the avalanche debris, which
is largely the remains of the ”bulge”
mass from the mountain, probably
came from hot parts of the volcano,
and colder parts are blocks of ice from
the destroyed glaciers that were caught
in the flow (fig. 37). The debris-
avalanche deposit is riddled with
fumaroles, and, now and then, scien-
tists hear explosions, which, no doubt,
occur when the buried heat in the
deposit causes subsurface water to
flash into steam.

Field crews also have measured the
temperature of some of the pyroclastic
flows that followed the initial blast
(fig. 38). At a depth of about 2 feet,
they obtained readings of nearly 150°C
(300°F).

 

FIGURE 38,—Mount St. Helens pyroclastic deposits. A, Geologists R. P. Hoblitt of the USGS
(left) and Edward Graeber, Jr., of Sandia Laboratories (right) use a thermocouple probe
to measure the temperature in a pumice slope north of Mount St. Helens. Although the
pumice at the surface was cool enough to walk on, at a depth of a. few inches it was hot
enough to boil water. (Photograph by Terry Leighley, Sandia Laboratories, May 30,
1980.) B, Hobblitt digs into a deposit of pyroclastic material near the head of Smith
Creek, about 2 miles east of Spirit Lake, for samples of charred wood (see piece below
his foot in left foreground). The dark-gray deposit is overlain by several inches of light-
colored airfall pumice, which, in turn, is overlain by a thin layer of gray ash that
developed mud cracks when it dried. (Photograph by Robert L. Smith, USGS, June 6,
1980.)

Chronology of the First 100 Days 71

No one yet knows how much of a
flood threat the “new,” higher Spirit
Lake may be. One crucial unknown
factor is the stability of the debris-
avalanche deposit that buried the lake’s
former outlet (to North Fork Toutle
River) 'and impounded the lake at its
new, higher level. Another uncertainty
is whether the lake, now that its former
outlet is blocked, will rise until it over—
tops the debris darn. Although most of
the water displaced from the lake by
last Sunday’s giant avalanche already
has drained back, the lake continues to
receive inflow from its various tribu-
tary streams. If the dam is overtopped,
Crandell said, ”It will be like water go-
ing over a spillway; but, in this case,
the spillway is not made of concrete,
but of very unstable material." The
spilling water could quickly erode a
channel through the debris dam that
would release more floodwaters, per-
haps at catastrophic rates, to down—
stream areas.

Scientists who are watching the lake
(as best they can) report that the water
level thusfar has remained below the
top of the debris dam, and no flooding
from this source is imminent. They
cannot measure the lake’s level direct—
ly, and aerial observation of the
deposits southwest of the lake, in the
area that might be overtopped, is
greatly hampered by steam pouring
from dozens of fumaroles. However,
aerial radar imagery has shown no
signs that the area of the lake is enlarg-
ing, and some observers have seen
water seeping through (or beneath) the
debris dam and flowing westward. If
this seepage keeps pace with inflow to
the lake, the chances that the lake level
will stabilize below the dam crest and
that the dam itself will hold are greatly
increased.

If the dam does fail, it might go
quickly and (if visibility were poor
when it failed) with little warning. A
flash-flood watch remains in effect
along the Toutle River, and Washing—
ton State Patrol officers are stationed
at the Interstate Highway 5 bridge
across the Toutle River to close the

highway again, if it becomes neces-
sary. Hydrologists working with
limited data are trying to estimate the
likely height and speed of the flood
crest that would occur if the dam is
breached. On the basis of the available
information, they cannot guarantee
even a 1-hour warning for downstream
areas.

Mapping specialists from the Forest
Service, USGS, and the Washington
Department of Natural Resources met
today to coordinate production of
aerial photographs and maps of areas
affected by the eruptions and flooding.
New aerial photographs of the modi-
fied areas will be obtained as soon as
weather permits. In the meantime, a
new color topographic map of Mount
St. Helens and vicinity, showing
features as they were just before the
March 27 eruption, will be prepared
from existing data as soon as possible.
These maps are urgently needed for
evaluating changes in landscape, lakes,
and streams and for guiding rehabilita-
tion efforts and further scientific
studies.

Existing maps of the Cowlitz River
channel and flood plains are as obso-
lete as preeruption maps of the Spirit
Lake area. Today, hydrologists began
remapping the debris-choked channel
in order to evaluate the continuing
flood hazard. They are finding that the
river bottom is as much as 15 feet
shallower than it was before the mud-
flows and that the water-carrying
capacity of the channel is greatly
reduced.

Since the May 18 eruption, nearly
continuous bad weather has prevented
flying over the mountain to obtain ac-
curate data on changes in heat emis-
sion. An aerial infrared survey flown
by a U.S. Navy airplane at midday,
however, and a daytime helicopter
survey over the accessible western and
southern flanks of Mount St. Helens
revealed no new sources of volcanic
heat emission outside the crater.

The City of Yakima has declared
itself a disaster area, and Washington

72 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

Governor Ray telegraphed President
Carter to ask that the entire State be
declared so. Many schools and roads
are still closed, and the Columbia River
remains closed to most shipping, but
people are digging out of the ash.

Residents of Ritzville, which re-
ceived more than 3 inches of ash, have
an especially difficult cleanup problem.
After spending most of Sunday and
Monday helping each other (and about
2,000 stranded travelers) survive, they
are now seeking places to dump the ash
where it will not just blow back into
town.

Although people in areas where vol-
canic ash is present are still being cau-
tioned to avoid breathing it, agrono-
mists are now predicting less long-term
harm to animals and crops than they
had expected. Some say that the effects
in most of the ”ash belt” will not be
much worse, if any, than those of a
bad dust storm. Much of the first hay
crop, however, apparently has been
lost.

The airborne ash cloud from last
Sunday's eruption is still moving east-
ward and has now reached beyond the
Mississippi Valley. USGS Chief Hy-
drologist Philip Cohen assigned the
task of mapping the areas of noticeable
ashfall beyond the Pacific Northwest
to USGS hydrologists in the other
States along the path of the ash cloud
(fig. 39). Some meteorologists had ex-
pected the ash to fall in trace amounts,
at least, on every State east of the
Rocky Mountains except Texas,
Louisiana, and Florida.

Ben Bena, Cowlitz County Deputy
Sheriff, has compiled a ”scorecard" of
the number of people rescued from life-
threatening situations by aircraft
crews: Air Force, 61; Washington Ar-
my National Guard, 28; Coast Guard,
6; Army, 4; and Civil Air Patrol, 1.
These same crews have plucked dozens
of other people from less desperate
situations. Several rescues also have
been made by scientists and news re-
porters in other helicopters. Ninety-
eight people are now on the official
“missing” list.

Wednesday, May 21
E Day Plus 3

Eruptive and seismic activity con-
tinues at a low level. The mountain
vented only plumes of steam today,
and only two earthquakes greater than
magnitude 3 were recorded.

Scientists flew to Spirit Lake and
found the level to be about 150 feet
below the top of the debris flow;
although the danger of an outburst
flood is thus lessened somewhat, they
nevertheless placed markers along the
lake to help maintain a watch on its
level.

The Federal Aviation Administra-
tion today warned flyers that volcanic
ash can pock aircraft Windshields and
clog engines. The ash cloud in the
stratosphere reached the Atlantic
coast.

Reporters in Yakima, after establish-
ing a grid within the city and sampling
and weighing ash from grid locations,

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FIGURE 39.—Approximate distribution in the United States of noticeable ashfall from the
May 18 eruption of Mount St. Helens, as of May 23, 1980. Most of these ashfall areas,
which were identified during a rapid reconnaissance by USGS hydrologists and others,
received only trace amounts. Other areas to the east probably received minute amounts
of ashfall. Minor concentrations of ash from the same eruption were suspended in the
stratosphere (above 36,000 feet) and carried slowly in convoluted paths around the

world.

determined that about 600,000 tons of
ash from Sunday’s eruption have fallen
on the 12.9-square-mile city.

Spokane and several smaller com-
munities have been forced to ration
city water because residents’ attempts
to wash ash from cars, streets, and
buildings have depleted reservoirs. The
City of Longview has instituted emer-
gency water-use measures for another
reason. Intake pipes from the Cowlitz
River, which normally supply the city’s
reservoirs, have been clogged by mud
and debris from the flooding that
began on May 18. The mass of muddy
debris so far has resisted all efforts to
remove it from the intakes.

Electrical utility crews in the ”ash
belt" are busy removing accumulations
of ash from high-voltage powerline in-
sulators by using high-pressure air and
water jets. Although the ash is an in-
sulator when it is dry, it conducts elec-
tricity when it is wet and causes high-
voltage arcing and power surges that
damage electrical equipment. Electrical
service has been interrupted because
power must be switched off during the
cleaning operations.

Airports and roads in eastern Wash-
ington have begun to reopen. Wash-
ington Department of Transportation
officials report that about half of the
1,100 miles of State roads that were

Chronology of the First 100 Days 73

closed because of ash have been re-
opened.

President Carter today declared
Washington State a disaster area, and
major Federal aid to victims of the vol-
cano's devastation can begin.

The Coast Guard reported that 31
oceanbound ships now are tied up at
Portland and Vancouver awaiting the
reopening of the Columbia River ship-
ping channel. Another 10 ships are
waiting at Astoria, Oreg., to come to
those upriver ports. Several incoming
ships originally scheduled to call at
Columbia River ports now have been
diverted elsewhere.

Thirty military helicopters scheduled
to search today for survivors and vic-
tims of the catastrophe were grounded
because of cloudy weather. The official
count is now 14 dead and 90 missing.
The body of photographer Blackburn
was recovered today from Coldwater I
observation station. He had been
seated in his car, which was mired in
ash to the windows (fig. 40A).

Thursday, May 22
E Day Plus 4

Eruptive activity has slowed to a
steady pattern. Eruptions of steam are
frequent or nearly continuous, and the
plumes sometimes rise 18,000 feet
above sea level when the wind is light.
Little or no ash darkens the plumes,
although the familiar ”rotten egg"
smell attests to the presence of hydro-
gen sulfide.

Earthquake activity has diminished.
Small quakes recorded today were
from deeper sources; some originated
northeast of the volcano.

Crandell reports that the water level
in Spirit Lake behind the debris dam is
declining; the water seems to be flow-
ing out through the debris-avalanche
deposit and gravel in the old channel
that was buried by the avalanche
deposit. Geologists have determined
that the avalanche deposit is hundreds
of feet thick near the southwestern end
of Spirit Lake. Scientists now think
that the avalanche deposit can retain

74 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

 

FIGURE 40.—Desolate vehicles in the blast zone created by the May 18 eruption. A, The body

of photographer Reid Blackburn was recovered from this car on May 21, 1980, at Cold-
water I observation station. None of the photographic film in the car produced a discer-
nible image. The small red flags indicated to other searchers that the vehicle had been
checked. (Photograph by Terry Leighley, Sandia Laboratories, May 28, 1980.) B, An
ash-covered truck and horse trailer near Ryan Lake, more than 12 miles northeast of
Mount St. Helens. The vehicles were parked at the edge of the area in which trees were
blown down by the lateral blast. Two men, one the owner of these vehicles, were
camped at the lake nearby and were asphyxiated by the hot volcanic ash, which
covered this spot to an average depth of about 6 inches. The blast temperatures were
hot enough to melt the plastic of the truck grill, trailer window, signal indicators, and a
lunch box. The tires and glass truck windows, however, were intact. (Photograph by
Daniel Dzurisin, USCS, May 27, 1980.)

 

the lake indefinitely unless its water
level rises greatly.

USGS geologist David Dethier was
among the first to get a broad view of
the huge new crater. He was riding in a
Forest Service airplane that was flying
an observation and radio-relay mission
at an altitude of 18,100 feet above the
general cloud cover that has persisted
since the night of May 18 and 19. (Al-
though helicopters have been able to
edge up to the crater, clouds and steam
have obscured the interior.) About
6:00 p.m., the clouds began to open,
and the pilot spiraled down steeply to a
lower altitude over the devastated area
north of the volcano, from where the
observers got the first spectacular view
of the mountain’s interior and from
where Dethier took the photograph in
figure 41. They saw a greatly shortened
peak, now crested by a jagged rim en-
closing a huge, steaming crater shaped
like a giant amphitheater open to the
north.

James Moore and Peter Lipman, also
of the USGS, were the first scientists to
get a close look at features inside the
volcano’s crater today. Lipman said
that there is now a second crater inside
the larger one. A ridge rising above the
middle of the large crater’s floor forms
the rim of the smaller crater, which lies
in the southern half of the large amphi-
theater. Small pools of muddy water
are collecting in depressions in the am-
phitheater floor, which is about a third
of a mile wide. Much of the steam
creating the plume above the volcano
is jetting upward from several large
vents within the central crater, which
form a ring around the deepest part of
the crater and probably mark the vol-
cano's central “throat."

Short-term plans for scientific
studies give first priority to mapping
the devastated areas and evaluating the
flood hazard that may still remain.
Lost or damaged scientific instruments
will be reinstalled as soon as conditions
are considered safe.

Spokane International Airport re—
opened today "under limited condi—
tions" after an all-night cleanup effort,

( _

 

FIGURE 41,—The ”new,” shorter Mount St. Helens. A, The first opportunity for a broad

view of Mount St. Helens after the May 18 eruption came on May 22, when clouds
that had obscured the area since the eruption parted to reveal the stubbed-off,
hollowed-out volcano, newly coated with 4 to 6 inches of snow. This photograph look-
ing into the open mouth of the amphitheaterlike crater was taken from an airplane
about 3 miles north-northwest of the crater’s center at an altitude of 6,000 to 7,000 feet.
The new 8,364—foot “summit” of the mountain (the highest part of the crater rim on the
southwestern side) was obscured by vapor clouds. (Photograph by David P. Dethier,
USGS.) B, The cratered stump of Mount St. Helens as viewed from the northeast. The
dashed lines show the height lost (about 1,300 feet) in the May 18 eruption. This paint-
ing by Dee Molenaar (USGS) also shows remnants of Shoestring Glacier, descending
from the notch in the left side of the crater rim, and of Forsyth Glacier (right center).

Chronology of the First 100 Days 75

 

 

but most airports in the “ash belt” re-
main closed. Trains in the region are
running on near-normal schedules, and
interstate bus service is resuming.
Idaho police lifted a travel ban on their
State's ash-covered highways, but they
cautioned motorists to drive with care.
State of Washington health officials
said that crystalline silica, which can
cause chronic lung disease, has been
found in the ash. Available informa-
tion, however, is not adequate for
judging the actual risk to the general
population. Also, postal officials
warned the public not to mail "sou-
venir" ash in paper envelopes that can
leak and damage postal machinery.
President Carter toured the stricken
area today in company with Gover-
nors Ray of Washington and John
Evans of Idaho. The eruption was,
President Carter said, "a natural dis-
aster of unprecedented proportions."
The Corps of Engineers began dredg-
ing mud and debris from the Columbia
River shipping channel near the mouth
of the Cowlitz River. Thirty-one
vessels remain stranded above the
shoal waiting to move downriver and
out to the Pacific Ocean.
The Forest Service began ground
searches today for more victims of the
eruptions.

Friday, May 23
E Day Plus 5

Although the weather was very
cloudy until late afternoon, the clouds
finally broke up, and today was one of
the best days for viewing the mountain
since May 18. Today’s eruption pattern
in the crater was similar to yesterday's;
plumes of steam and other volcanic
gases were rising above the crater rim.
Observers saw one small ash cloud but
concluded that the ash had avalanched
down from the walls of the crater and
was not new material.

There is a lull in seismic activity; no
earthquakes registered above mag-
nitude 3 today. Although there were
several smaller quakes, they were
spread over a larger area than the

 

quakes before May 18 had been. At a
seismic station at Elk Rock about 10
miles northwest of the crater, one of
several instrument stations that had
been destroyed by the lateral blast, in-
struments were reinstalled today to
help supply data for continuing studies
of earthquake activity.

A large area north of Mount St.
Helens is dotted by steam vents and
craters from steam explosions. The
steam is from underground water that
is heated by hot avalanche and blast
deposits. One vent near the southwest-
ern end of Spirit Lake (fig. 30) erupted
steam 5,000 to 6,000 feet into the air
early this evening, startling the pilot
and passengers of a Forest Service
airplane that happened to be flying
over the area.

A chemical analysis shows that the
glassy ash blown out of the volcano on
May 18 and since has the composition
of dacite; this rock is formed from a
type of magma that has a moderately
high silica content and is generally
quite viscous.

The first Disaster Assistance Center,
mandated by President Carter and
Governor Ray, opened today in Kelso,
Wash. The center is operated by the
Federal Coordinating Office of the
Federal Emergency Management Agen-
cy in cooperation with the Washington
Department of Emergency Services. In
addition to the Kelso center and the
temporary Federal Emergency Man-
agement Agency headquarters in Van-
couver, other centers will be opened as
needed in eastern Washington and in
Idaho communities.

Governor Ray called out the Na-
tional Guard to help clean up volcanic
ash in eastern Washington this
weekend. A major manufacturer of
dust masks donated 21,000 of them for
use in ash-covered areas. Hay is being
sought for animal herds in areas of
thick ashfall in eastern Washington
and for surviving animals near Mount
St. Helens.

By the end of the day, USGS
hydrologists had installed new stream-
flow-measuring stations equipped for

76 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

 

radio telemetry on the Cowlitz River at
Castle Rock, on the Toutle River about
6 miles upstream from its mouth, and
on the North Fork Toutle River farther
upstream.

State of Washington officials this
evening released an estimate of more
than $1 billion for most of the losses
suffered in the State as a result of the
May 18 eruption.

Today is the beginning of the
Memorial Day weekend, a time when
eastern Washington normally would
receive hordes of vacationers from
western parts of the State and from the
Portland area. The Washington
Department of Transportation, how-
ever, warned of windblown ash, con-
tinuing restrictions on road use, and
limited public transportation in ashfall
areas. These warnings, as well as the
continuing closure of traditional
recreation areas around Mount St.
Helens, are expected to cause unusual-
ly heavy use of recreation areas in
western Washington, especially the
Pacific Ocean beaches.

The number of bodies recovered
from the Mount St. Helens area rose to
17, but 71 people are still missing. The
body of one man was found on the seat
of his car,- his camera was still held
toward the volcano.

Saturday, May 24
E Day Plus 6

The volcano ejected plumes of ash
and steam about 15,000 feet above the
crater twice today, at about 2:30 p.m.
and 11:05 p.m. Ash sprinkled towns as
far south as Salem, Oreg. Harmonic
tremor, which has continued at vary-
ing weak levels throughout the past
week, was somewhat stronger most of
today.

USGS scientists installed new targets
on the mountain for laser distance-
measuring instruments today. They
also measured temperatures of about
540°F (280°C) in pyroclastic flow
deposits on the volcano's northern
flank. Geologists mapping in the
devastated area found that the lateral

 

 

 

blast had carried stones as large as
grapefruit that undoubtedly caused
much of the stripping and battering
clone to the exposed surfaces of trees
(fig. 42).

About 45 National Guardsmen ar-
rived today in Ritzville, which has
received the heaviest ashfall of any
community away from the volcano.
They began shoveling ash from some
of the town’s flat roofs to reduce the
danger of collapse.

Scientific instruments and related
equipment lost as a result of the May
18 eruption include:

0 One electronic laser distance-
measuring instrument, 1 theodolite,
and 18 surveying reflector tar-
gets—destroyed. Three other reflec-
tors—damaged.

0 Three telemetered seismic stations
and two 5-day recorders—de-
stroyed.

0 Two automatic platform tilt-
meters—destroyed.

0 Two recording magnetometers—
buried (one may be shallow enough
to recover).

0 Three time-lapse cameras, two video
cameras, and several hand-held cam-
eras—destroyed.

0 Several communication radios and
two satellite-relay data trans-
mitters—destroyed.

0 One portable spectrometer—de-
stroyed.

0 One stream-gaging station and its in-
struments and two water-quality
monitoring stations and their instru-
ments—destroyed by mudflows.

Another Explosive
Eruption and Its
Aftermath

Sunday, May 25
E Day Plus 7

Shortly after 2:30 a.m., the volcano
began ejecting a huge vertical column

of ash, the most vigorous eruption
since last Sunday. Airborne observers
could see that the column reached a
height of 24,000 feet in about 7 minutes
and began to mushroom at the top.
The National Weather Service radar
operator in Portland watched it reach
an altitude of 45,000 feet by 2:45 a.m.
Because winds were moving in dif-
ferent directions at different altitudes
today, the ash was scattered over wide
areas of western Washington and
Oregon.

The eruption was heralded at 2:32
a.m. by an increase in the amplitude of
harmonic tremor, which had been
present at a very low level since about
midnight. A swarm of small earth-
quakes began at 2:40 a.m. and con-
tinued at a rate of one or two an hour,
all originating about 5 miles beneath
the mountain. By 8:00 a.m., the inten-
sity of tremor had diminished, and the
earthquake swarm began to subside,

although the volcano continued to
erupt.

Aerial surveillance was continued
from a Forest Service airplane through
the early morning, but only once could
observers see the volcano itself. That
brief glimpse revealed that the ash was
rising from two vents—one in the
northeastern part of the crater and
another in the southwestern part. A
new, small mudflow had descended
south of Shoestring Glacier on the
southeastern side of the mountain but
did not extend beyond the base of the
cone. Even aerial observation,
however, was halted when Portland
International Airport closed because of
the ash, which had begun to fall heavi-
ly in Portland and Vancouver as early
as 6:00 a.m.

Most people still living near the
volcano on the southern side—about
200 in all—were evacuated this morn-
ing. Flood warnings were issued for

 

FIGURE 42.—This shattered tree stump on an exposed ridge about 5 miles north of the crater
is striking evidence of the tremendous force of the May 18 lateral blast. The handle of
the folding shovel is 1.7 feet long. (Photograph by David Frank, USGS, August 19,

1980.)

Chronology of the First 100 Days

77

 

most rivers draining from Mount St.
Helens, in case renewed eruptions
should trigger new mudflows or floods
that might spill out of river channels
still choked with debris from the May
18 eruption.

The top of the ash column remained
between 13,000 and 20,000 feet above
sea level most of the day. By early
evening, the erupted column, as seen
on the weather radar, was only a few
thousand feet above the crater rim; as
of midnight tonight, activity had
returned to its former subdued level.

Measurements of the sulfur dioxide
(80;) content of an ash-laden eruption
plume this afternoon showed the
highest concentrations found to date
According to Richard Stoiber, a Dart-
mouth College air-quality specialist,
the amounts measured were equivalent
to an emission rate of 2,400 metric tons
of 50; a day.

The ash content appeared to lessen
as soon as the column began to
mushroom, and the height of the col-
umn decreased within the first hour;
still, the quantity of ash was so great
that it hampered visibility throughout
the day at places in nearly every direc-
tion from the volcano except north-
east. Most airports in southwestern
Washington and northwestern Oregon
were closed at various times during the
day because of poor visibility and the
fear that the ash would harm vital air-
craft parts. Airports in the Seattle area
also were closed briefly.

The latest ashfall at it heaviest is
much less than the thickest deposits
laid down last week in eastern
Washington; it has been troublesome
nonetheless and has affected several ur-
ban areas that had received only light
dustings before. Traces of today’s ash
reached as far north as Seattle in
western Washington and south of
Portland in western Oregon. The bulk
of the ash, however, blew to the north-
west (fig. 43). Chehalis, 50 miles north-
west of the volcano, received about
half an inch of ash. Light ashfall
reached the ocean beaches of south-
western Washington and northeastern

 

124°30'

 
 

48°19

121°43

Angeles

46°UU’

  
    
  
 

0 Seattle

MOUNT
ST. HELENS

l

FIGURE 43.—Generalized distribution of ash from the May 25 eruption of Mount St. Helens,
as compiled by Sarna-Wojcicki and others (1981). Lines represent equal ash thickness,
in millimeters (1 inch=25.4 mm), and are dashed where observations were lacking.
Circles represent measurement sites; plus signs, sites where trace or light dusting was
observed; crosses, sites at which no ash was observed. Other observers reported that
ashfall in the areas of Olympia, the Washington coast, and the Portland-Vancouver
metropolitan area was greater than the map indicates.

Oregon. In areas of densest ashfall, the
sky stayed dark until midmorning.
While the ash was still falling in
many areas, the rain started. As one
observer said, “It was raining mud."
Many traffic accidents were attributed
to a combination of roads made slick
by wet ash and visibility obstructed by
the muddy rain. Drivers reported that
they could drive only so long as their

78 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

windshield washers operated—
and then only if they could keep their
vehicles on the slippery roads. These
conditions resulted in a 15-vehicle
pileup, with injuries, on Interstate
Highway 5 near Chehalis, For much of
its route between Olympia and Van-
couver, Interstate Highway 5 was in
the path of the densest ashfall. Officers
of the Washington State Patrol and

 

 

 

sheriffs’ departments closed that
highway and others while driving con-
ditions were most dangerous. Portland
Mayor Connie McCready limited traf-
fic in that city to 15 miles an hour to
help avoid stirring up the fallen ash.

The ashfall disrupted business as
well as travel. In Kelso, even the
Disaster Assistance Center was closed.
Road and airport closures temporarily
stranded thousands of travelers this
Memorial Day holiday weekend.
Ironically, many travelers were in
ashfall areas because they had been
warned away from traditional recrea-
tion areas in eastern Washington.
Major traffic jams were caused when
motorists returning early from the
coastal areas~converged on population
centers in the Puget Sound and
Portland-Vancouver areas.

Travel in eastern Washington was
restricted, too. Interstate Highway 90
was closed through most of the eastern
part of the State as winds stirred up
blinding clouds of the fine ash that fell
last Sunday. Busloads of National
Guard troops from Seattle, on their
way to help clean up at Moses Lake,
were stranded overnight at Ellensburg,
Wash. (about 30 miles north of
Yakima). Nine pieces of cleanup equip-
ment already had been trucked to
Moses Lake, but no one arrived to
operate them.

Emergency crews in areas blanketed
by wet ash worked rapidly to clean
transformers and insulators, so that
electrical systems shorted out by the
sticky ash could be restored.

Participants in the Mount St. Helens
Technical Information Network, a
group newly organized by USGS scien-
tist Robert L. Wesson under a directive
issued by President Carter and Gover-
nor Ray, met in Spokane today. Their
purpose is to find answers to health,
agricultural, and transportation prob-
lems caused by volcanic ash. Because
solutions to many of these problems do
not now exist, the group, which con-
sists of specialists in various fields, will
summarize what is known about

volcanic ash hazards and focus
research on what is not.

The Corps of Engineers reported that
the removal of approximately 300,000
cubic yards of material from the Co-
lumbia River channel has deepened it
to a minimum water depth of 20 feet—
about half the 40-foot depth of the nor-
mal shipping channel. The dredged
material is being dumped on islands in
the Columbia River and along parts of
the riverbank. The Cowlitz River,
engineers estimated, also will have to
be dredged upstream at least to Lex-
ington (9 river miles upstream from the
Columbia) and probably beyond Cas-
tle Rock (to river mile 21) for flood
control.

The levee along the Cowlitz River
near Castle Rock is being built up 5 feet
along a front 2,000 feet long. At Lex-
ington, 300 feet of the levee was raised
3 feet, and, at Kelso, the levee was
raised 2 feet. Cowlitz County has been
given 40,000 sandbags to help in flood
control.

USGS geologist Crandell today
presented a new map showing the
volcanic hazards of the Mount St.
Helens area to Governor Ray. He
pointed out that the main dangers from
the volcano still consist of ash,
mudflows and floods, pyroclastic
flows, and lateral blasts. The history of
this volcano, however, and that of
others like it suggest that lava flows are
an unlikely event.

Governor Ray, by executive order,
extended the Red Zone around Mount
St. Helens out to 20 miles in all direc-
tions from the volcano (fig. 13). Only
people on official business (including
approved scientific work) or holding
special permits are to be allowed in the
zone. The penalty for unauthorized
presence in the Red Zone was set at a
fine of $1,000 or a year in jail or both.

Monday, May 26
E Day Plus 8

Although both the volcanic erup—
tions and their seismic accompaniment
have settled down, ash continues to fall
during the day and to be picked up

again by the wind. Observers in the
round—the-clock surveillance plane can
see the volcano now and then; when it
is visible, it seems to be emitting steam
almost entirely, although occasional
traces of gray ash are sighted. No
earthquakes above magnitude 3 were
recorded.

By 10:00 a.m., only four State
highways in Washington were still
closed, three of them being in the
southwestern part of the State near
Mount St. Helens. Interstate Highway
5, which received a troublesome
amount of ash between Portland and
Olympia, is no longer closed, but
blowing ash along that reach of
highway remains a hazard to the still-
heavy Memorial Day traffic.

The Federal Aviation Adminis-
tration lifted the restrictions imposed
yesterday on air travel in the ashfall
area. Air traffic in the vicinity of the
volcano, however, is still restricted.

A National Guard helicopter crew
rescued five hikers who were in the Red
Zone illegally. All five were nearly
blinded by ash; one was hospitalized.

Communities near the volcano have
suffered from either too much or too
little water during the previous week
and a half. A flash-flood watch con-
tinues on the Toutle River and parts of
the Kalama, Lewis, and Cowlitz Riv-
ers. At Longview, water intakes from
the Cowlitz River remain clogged and
have caused the water system to go dry
in part of the city. In eastern
Washington, ash clogging the sewage-
treatment plants in Spokane and
Yakima has forced officials to dump
raw sewage into the Spokane and
Yakima Rivers.

The Port of Portland reports that
closing of the Columbia River to ship-
ping has meant a revenue loss of $4
million a day. The Port of Vancouver,
across the Columbia from Portland,
estimates losses of $1 million a day.

The first autopsies conducted on vic-
tims of the May 18 eruption indicate
that they were suffocated by hot ash or
gas, not killed by burns or other in-
juries.

Chronology of the First 100 Days 79

 

A group calling itself ”The Friends of
Washington” announced its intention
to sell ash at $1 a packet to benefit
search-and-rescue groups. It was,
however, only one of many ash sellers
in the stricken area. ”Volcanic Ash—U
Haul,” one wag advertised. (By mid-
summer, many advertisements running
in magazines and newspapers through-
out the country were offering samples
of Mount St. Helens ash at various
prices.)

Many large blocks of ice on and in
the rubble north of the volcano might
seem to have been thrown out by the
May 18 lateral blast. Most, however,
are actually chunks of glaciers that
were part of the huge initial avalanche
and were carried along with the ava-
lanche debris to their present locations
(fig. 37). Scientists paced off the
diameter of one ice block that is mostly
buried in debris overlooking the North
Fork Toutle River and reported that it

is about 300 feet across—the length of
a football field.

Farther west along the North Fork
(beyond the avalanche debris) and in
valleys where other major mudflows
occurred, much of the bottomland is
“flat as poured concrete" and just as
gray (fig. 44). Mud from the mudflows
of May 18 now fills most depressions
and is still too soft to walk on in many
places.

USGS hydrologists today completed
their first appraisal of the debris-
choked Cowlitz River channel down-
stream from the mouth of the Toutle
River. They found that mud and debris
from the Toutle had reduced the depth
of the Cowlitz channel by as much as
12 to 15 feet and probably had ac-
counted for about 40 million cubic
yards of new flood-plain deposits and
channel fill between the Columbia
River and the mouth of the Toutle
River.

80 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

 

 

FIGURE 44.—The May 18 mudflows from
Mount St. Helens reached levels much
higher than those of any earlier recorded
floods in the major valleys that carried
them. (See the highest mud marks on the
tree in the foreground and on trees in the
right background.) When the mudflows
receded, they left tangled masses of
assorted debris such as this jumble of
boulders, branches, and machinery
pieces. The rock particles in the mud
stripped and abraded the trees left stand-
ing and sharpened trailing tree limbs to
tapered points. As the mud settled out of
the receding floodwater, it filled and
buried former depressions and left much
of the valley floor “flat as poured con-
crete.” In this View, looking downstream
along the Muddy River 9 miles southeast
of Mount St. Helens, a hydrologist
(yellow figure on boulder in center of
background) is surveying the mud marks
to determine the downvalley slope of the
mudflow at its highest position. (Photo-
graph by Philip Carpenter, USGS, June
4 1980.)

 

 

 

Yakima reopened its downtown dis-
trict today. Officials said that the
citizens have done a remarkable job of
“pitching in” and cleaning up. In the
city, a block-by-block cleanup was
organized and supervised by “block
captains.” Outside of town, property
owners volunteered parts of their land
as dumps for ash cleared from the city.

Tuesday, May 27
E Day Plus 9

Seismicity was very low during the
day, and eruptions of mixed ash and
steam were mild.

USGS scientists examined ash from
Sunday’s eruptions and found it to be a
mixture of pumice, glass shards,
crystal fragments, and fragments of
older rock —simi1ar to the composi-
tion of the May 18 ash. Field crews saw
younger pyroclastic flows on top of
the May 18 deposits. The pumice in the
newer deposits is of two types—one a
light-colored, frothy rock and the
other darker and more dense.

As the ash from last Sunday’s erup-
tion dries out, motorists along In—
terstate Highway 5 find that problems
with visibility and clogged air cleaners
are increasing. The Washington State
Patrol imposed an emergency speed
limit of 25 miles an hour, but, accord—
ing to reporter Kerry Webster of the
Tacoma News Tribune, it was being ig-
nored by so many impatient drivers
that “dust clouds were spread for miles
obscuring both sides of the highway."
State Patrolmen were greatly
hampered in enforcing the new regula—
tion because Speeders were creating
dense “smokescreens” of ash dust.
Finally, according to Webster, after a
multicar accident had delayed north-
bound traffic for more than 1 hour,
truckdrivers took matters, into their
own hands. Communicating by
citizen’s band radios, they maneuvered
their rigs into three-abreast formations
and formed moving roadblocks travel-
ing at the emergency speed limit. The
trios of trucks spaced themselves about
7 miles apart, just about far enough for

the dust from one convoy to settle
before the next arrived. A State Patrol
sergeant who was interviewed by
Webster reported that the accident rate
dropped immediately and that the dust
began to clear. He added that, al-
though the State Patrol did not con-
done the truckers' action, it certainly
kept the highway open and probably
saved some lives.

Gifford Pinchot National Forest
Supervisor Robert D. Tokarczyk today
announced preliminary estimates,
prepared by his staff, of damage
caused by the Mount St. Helens erup-
tion (fig. 45). The total loss of $114
million worth of timber and resources
within the national forest, not in-
cluding damage to private timberlands,
is as follows:

0 One billion board feet of timber,
valued at $100 million, has been
damaged or destroyed. This amount
is nearly a thousand times as much
timber as the Lassen volcanic erup-
tion of 1915 destroyed.

0 Two lakes, Crane and H00 H00,
covering a total surface area of 6
acres, perhaps have been destroyed.
Spirit Lake and 26 other lakes have
been severely damaged. No
estimates were given of how long it
might take for aquatic life to return
to the lakes.

0 Valley floors of the North and South
Forks of the Toutle River, Pine
Creek, and the Muddy River have
been buried by mudflows, and Cold-
water Creek has been severely
disrupted, as have the lower reaches
of Spirit Lake tributaries—a total of
152 miles of streambed. Forest Ser-
vice biologists surmised that only
pockets of aquatic life survive in the
297 miles of heavily damaged
streams. In addition, more than
2,000 miles of stream channels were
moderately or lightly damaged. The
damage to stream channels will be
especially disastrous to fish, in-
cluding the anadromous species that
spawned in these waters.

0 About 59,200 acres of deer and elk
habitat reportedly have been com-
pletely or almost completely
defoliated. An additional 62,080
acres have been moderately dam-
aged. An estimated 2,000 black-
tailed deer have been killed, as were
300 elk, 30 bear, and 12 mountain
goats. Mount St. Helens’ ptarmigan
population, the southernmost
known in the Cascade Range, prob-
ably has been destroyed. (This
estimate does not take into account
the smaller mammals, birds, reptiles,
and amphibians that have been
killed. Wildlife loss is not included
in the $114 million damage figure.)

0 Twenty-seven Forest Service recrea-
tion sites in the devastated area have
been destroyed; the largest of these
was Spirit Lake Campground. All
Forest Service administrative build—
ings in the blast area, including the
Visitor Center and the Spirit Lake
Work Center, have been destroyed
totally. The St. Helens Ranger Sta-
tion has been abandoned. Four pri-
vate areas under Forest Service use
permit, primarily used as summer
camps for organizations, also have
been destroyed.

0 Sixty-three miles of road within the
blast and mudflow areas have been
totally obliterated, and 154 miles of
paved road and 1,560 miles of gravel
road have been covered with 1 to 8
inches of ash. Seven permanent road
bridges, five logging-road bridges,
and five trail bridges are known to
have been destroyed. Also 97 miles
of national forest trails have been
obliterated, and 30 miles are covered
with ash.

Governor Ray estimates that total
eruption damage, of which national
forest losses are but a small part, is
”$1.1 billion and might go higher."

Flash-flood warnings for the Cowlitz
River were cancelled today by the Na-
tional Weather Service. The flood
watch for the Toutle is still in effect.

The death toll now stands at 21.
Sixty-eight are still missing.

Chronology of the First 100 Days 81

 

S
n
b...
e
H

t 100 Days of Mount St

The Firs

 

 

EXPLANATION

Unaffected area,
forested and logged

Pyroclastic or debris flow
with dammed marginal lakes

Damaged standing timber
and downed or
blast-removed timber

Valley mudflow

    

FIGURE 45.—A shaded relief map of the Mount St. Helens vicinity after the devastating
May 18 eruption and before (inset).(Painting by Dee Molenaar, USGS.) B, Map label-
ing features shown in A.

Chronology of the First 100 Days 83

Wednesday, May 28
E Day Plus 10

The amount of ash in the eruptive
plumes has been generally decreasing
since the last big ash eruption of May
25, and little was emitted today.
Although the weather has been poor
for viewing the volcano, radar images
by the Oregon Army National Guard
showed an area that could be either a
dome or a ridge of ash and pumice
within the large amphitheater and
south of its open end. During the night,
observers using light-enhancing
binoculars reported seeing bright spots
in the crater, which led to speculation
that molten lava may be nearing the
surface of the crater floor.

Seismicity was low, and quakes were
centered near Mount Margaret (fig. 7)
to the north. Although two earth-
quakes were of magnitudes 4.0 and
3.8, seismologists found no indication
that these were directly connected with
the eruption of Mount St. Helens.

An evaluation committee, headed
jointly by John Eliott Allen, professor
emeritus at Portland State University,
and retired Oregon State Geologist
Ralph S. Mason, was formed to proc-
ess applications for permission to con-
duct scientific research in the closed
areas around Mount St. Helens. The
committee was charged with making
certain that the applications were for
legitimate scientific research by compe-
tent scientists.

The Mount St. Helens Technical In-
formation Network issued its first
bulletin—”The Nature of Mount St.
Helens Ash." The ash from the May 18
eruption, it says, consists of three
layers. The bottom layer, which
erupted first from the volcano, is a
dark-gray ash composed of tiny frag-
ments of older rocks and mineral
crystals. The middle layer is a mixture
of pumice and crystal fragments. The
top layer, which forms the bulk of the
ash that overlies much of eastern
Washington and Idaho, is a light-gray

ash composed mainly of fine particles
of volcanic glass and mineral crystals.
Geologist Washburn of the Washing-
ton Department of Transportation,
stationed at Yakima, described the
thickness of the three layers that fell on
that city as about one-sixteenth inch for
the dark basal layer, about one-half
inch for the middle layer of ”beach-
sand-size” particles, and only a “final
dusting” of the upper fine, light-gray
ash.

Although too few analyses of the ash
have been made to predict long-term
effects, two fears were allayed. First,
the ash is not sufficiently acidic to form
“acid rain" or to increase the acidity of
streams and lakes markedly. Second,
the fluorine content is low; thus, the
amount of fluorine leached from the
ash will not be significantly greater

than the amount of fluorine found in
fluoridated city water systems. The

amount of free silica in the ash, which
might constitute a long-term health
problem, and the quantity of trace
elements are still being studied and
debated.

In its second bulletin, the Technical
Information Network gave ”Precau-
tions for Handling Volcanic Ash.”
These precautions include moving the
ash only in well-ventilated areas or
outdoors, keeping it wetted if possible,
and using dust masks to protect res-
piratory systems.

All of Washington and eight Idaho
counties are now considered disaster
areas by the Federal Emergency
Management Agency. About 300
houses in western Washington have
been destroyed or badly damaged,
mostly by floods and mudflows,
according to estimates prepared by the
American Red Cross and the Skamania
County Assessor. The Washington
Department of Emergency Services
estimated private timber loss at about
$143 million.

The death toll reached 22 when one
man, hospitalized earlier for burns,
died today.

84 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

Thursday, May 29
E Day Plus 11

An Air Force SR-71 reconnaissance
aircraft today flew a mission to take
photographs showing topographic fea-
tures of the altered mountain. Radar
imagery obtained by the Oregon Army
National Guard and reportedly show-
ing a recently formed hump on the
floor of the Mount St. Helens crater led
to speculation that the volcano may be
producing a lava dome. The presence
of a lava dome, however, could not be
checked by direct observation because
steam and clouds permitted only occa-
sional glimpses into the crater.

Emergency-services officials an-
nounced a critical need for hay and
grain to feed animal survivors, both
domestic and wild.

Because of the danger of flooding on
the Cowlitz River, the USGS issued an
updated Hazards Watch to local of-
ficials. They pointed out that the
capacity of the Cowlitz River channel
has been reduced about 85 percent,
from about 76,000 cubic feet per sec-
ond down to about 10,000 cubic feet
per second, a flow rate that usually is
exceeded at least once every year.

Airborne search-and-rescue opera-
tions were ended at 5:00 pm. today.
Altogether, nearly 18,000 manhours
have been spent in the extensive and
dangerous search for victims and sur-
vivors. More than 100 people have
been rescued since the May 18 erup-
tion. The toll stands at 22 dead and 71
missing. Ground searches, however,
continue.

Friday, May 30
E Day Plus 12

The crater was cloud free for prob-
ably the first time since May 18, and
the crater floor was visible through the
steam plumes that rose from dozens of
vigorously fuming vents'within. Ob-
servers could see that the hump

detected by radar is not a dome but is,
instead, a ridge, or “rampart,” of ash
and pumice that has built up between
the most active steam vents and the
open end of the amphitheater on the
north. South of the rampart, an ir-
regular crater (fig. 46) occupies only a
fraction of the broad floor of the huge
May 18 crater. In addition to the steam
spewing from the vents, a burst of ash
rises now and then, and, even less
often, a block of pumice is thrown up-
ward and tumbles back into the crater.

According to the tiltmeters that have
survived the two major eruptions, the
ground near the volcano has deformed
only slightly. One tiltmeter about 4
miles south-southwest of the volcano's
center has shown an almost continuous
slight inflation of the volcano since
before May 18; instruments farther
away show little or no change.

Seismographs today recorded a few

periods of weak harmonic tremor,
which died out within a few hours.
Costs for flood-control, navigation,
and water-supply rehabilitation proj-
ects necessitated by the eruption of
Mount St. Helens could reach $219
million, according to preliminary
estimates made by the Corps of Engi-
neers. Of this amount, $44 million will
be needed to restore the Columbia
River channel, where 22 million cubic
yards of material will have to be
removed. The shoal near the mouth of
the Cowlitz River extends farther
upstream in the Columbia than
engineers first believed. The channel-
filling debris from the Cowlitz River
may have caused the Columbia River
itself to deposit much of its sediment
load where it encountered the shoal.

The Corps of Engineers estimated
that the cost of clearing intakes and

rebuilding or restoring water-supply

systems in Toutle, Castle Rock, Long—
view, and Kelso will be about $14
million. An additional $28 million will
be needed to restore the Cowlitz River
channel, including dredging an esti-
mated 25 million cubic yards of

FIGURE 46.—View of the “crater within a
crater” between the May 25 eruption and
the June 12 eruption, looking into the
north-facing mouth of the main crater
from the northeast. The smooth slope in
the right foreground is a rampart of
pyroclastic debris and ash that built up in
front of the main eruption center, which
is at the base of the large steam plume.
The rock ridge on the left side is old
volcanic rock, formerly buried, that was
exposed for the first time in centuries by
the May 18 eruption. (Photograph by
Terry Leighley, Sandia Laboratories,
June 4, 1980.)

 

volcanic and flood debris. All Corps of
Engineers dredges on the west coast
have been assigned to work on rivers
affected by the eruption.

USGS hydrologists have now made
preliminary calculations of the size of
the May 18 mudflows down the major
valleys radiating from Mount St.
Helens. The volume of water in these
mudflows is estimated to have been
more than 100 million cubic yards, or
more than 20 billion gallons—enough
to supply household water for every
person in the United States for 1 day.
The mudflow from the South Fork
Toutle River, which crested at the
steam—gaging station on the main Tou-
tle River about 11:00 a.m. on May 18,
2.5 hours after the main eruption
began, reached a peak stage (high-
water level) that would be equivalent
to a water-flow rate of 46,000 cubic
feet per second, or 1,700 cubic yards
per second; the actual flow rate was
less (by an unknown amount), how-
ever, because the mud slurry could not
flow as fast as water.

The mudflow from the North Fork
Toutle River, which destroyed the
Toutle River gage about 6:00 p.m. on
May 18, left high-water marks that in-
dicated a peak flow roughly two to
three times that of the previous
mudflow from the South Fork. The
peak stage near the mouth of the Tou-
tle River was equivalent to a water
discharge of about 100,000 cubic feet
per second, but, again, the actual rate
of flow into the Cowlitz was less
because of the lower velocity of the
mud slurry.

Hydrologists also completed and
released to emergency-services agen-
cies the first computations of probable
flood levels in the mud-choked Toutle
and Cowlitz River valleys if various
amounts of storm runoff were to oc—
cur. They found that a wedge-shaped
mass of mud even extended upstream
in the channel of the Cowlitz for 2.5
miles above the mouth of the Toutle
River; the volume of this upstream
deposit, however, was only a small
fraction of the amount deposited

downstream. The volume of sediment
left in the channel and on the flood
plain of the Cowlitz River between
Castle Rock and the Columbia River
(not including the vast, but unknown,
amount that flowed through to the
Columbia) is estimated to be as much
as 40 million cubic yards. This volume,
if it were the concrete that the wet mud
resembles, would be enough to pave
an eight-lane highway between Mount
St. Helens and New York City.

Daily checks of 40 hospitals in
Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and
Montana have failed to reveal any
severe respiratory ailments caused by
ash from the May 18 eruption, accord-
ing to information released by the Na-
tional Center for Disease Control.

Ray Jennings, the south—side resident
who had resisted earlier evacuation at-
tempts, and his four dogs were airlifted
out of the Red Zone today by a Na-
tional Guard helicopter. He had been
in his cabin on the volcano’s flank since
before the May 18 eruption, but,
because his whereabouts were known,
he was never on the list of missing per-
sons.

Saturday, May 31
E Day Plus 13

Travel in the Northwest is nearly
normal again. Only four sections of
State highways are still closed, and two
of those allow local traffic. No airports
are closed on account of ash. On the
Columbia River, nearly 550,000 cubic
yards of material have been dredged to
form a shallow navigation channel,
which has allowed 18 vessels to move
upriver and 10 to move downriver.

The volcano steamed more strongly
today than it has in the immediate
past; clouds reached an altitude of
15,000 feet. Seismic activity was low,
and small earthquakes—none greater
than magnitude 3—centered near
Mount Margaret, 8 miles northeast of
Mount St. Helens.

The volcano is still emitting
sulfurous gases, even though there
were no eruptions of ash; the emission

86 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

rates are several times higher than
those measured before May 18. Con-
centrations of sulfur dioxide (50;)
measured by Thomas Cassadeval on
May 26 and 31 averaged about 150
tons a day, in contrast to the few tens
of tons a day measured before May 18.
The team of gas specialists reports that
the volcano is also emitting at least as
much hydrogen sulfide (H25) as 502.

Forest Supervisor Tokarczyk an-
nounced that the Forest Service prob—
ably will recommend that Mount St.
Helens and some of the devastated areas
surrounding it be designated a “Na-
tional Volcanic Area." Others are pro—
posing that the area become a national
monument or a national park.

The Mount St. Helens Technical In-
formation Network issued two bul-
letins today; one gives advice on driv-
ing in heavy ash areas (drive slowly;
change oil, air filters, and other filters;
and clean brakes occasionally), and the
other suggests that exposure to the ash
may have reduced the insect popula-
tion significantly. Honey bee colonies,
although damaged, apparently were
not obliterated.

Rod Preston of the Washington State
University Animal Sciences Depart-
ment reported that the only elements in
the May 18 ash that concern animal
scientists are copper and molybdenum.
Although the concentrations of these
elements in the ash are small, they
might cause illness in livestock that eat
feed containing unusually large
amounts of ash.

At the month’s end, no lava has ap-
peared at the surface. Recently,
however, there have been several night
observations of incandescent rocks,
which probably are caused by hot
gases streaming through the vents from
a magma body not far below.

Sunday, June 1
E Day Plus 14

The month has opened quietly. The
volcano continues to vent steam,
which rises in clouds to about 12,000
feet. Poor weather has prevented good

aerial observation, but field crews,
transported by helicopters, continued
making ground observations (fig. 47)
and deploying monitoring instruments
today. Measurements of the “new”
Spirit Lake revealed that its depth is
now about 100 feet or less, instead of
its former depth of about 200 feet. The
lake-water temperature was measured
at 97°F (36°C) at the surface and 95°F
(35°C) on the bottom.

Earthquakes were small and few, and
harmonic tremor, which returned to
the mountain a few days ago, de-
creased in amplitude by about two-
thirds early this morning. This
decrease could mean that movement of
magma under the volcano is subsiding,
but no one knows.

Winds blowing at about 25 miles an
hour plagued parts of eastern
Washington and northern Idaho by
redistributing ash deposits from the
May 18 eruption. Poor visibility
caused temporary closure of sections of
two highways in east-central
Washington.

USGS geologists warn that, al-
though the volcano appears to be
relatively quiet now, it still remains
dangerous to anyone nearby. If a lava
dome were to build in the crater—an
event that would be in character for
this volcano—the dome building
would likely be accompanied by more
explosive eruptions, pyroclastic flows,
and mudflows.

Search dogs have been used in
ground searches for survivors and vic—
tims of the May 18th eruption; how-
ever, these searches have now been
suspended. From now on, special
search-and-rescue missions will be con—
ducted only if the last known location
of a possible victim can be closely
fixed. The count now stands ‘at 22 dead
and 53 still missing.

Monday, June 2
E Day Plus 15

Both eruptive activity and earth-
quake activity are quite low today.
Ash plumes barely reach the crater
rim, but the ash from the May 18 erup-

tion has circled the Earth in the high-
altitude air mass. A meteorologist with
the Air Resources Laboratory of the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration said today, ”The ash is
over the Aleutian Islands in Alaska,
possibly up to the North Pole, and then
extends south through Canada.” He
added that the ash is in the 20,000- to
40,000-foot altitude zone and is in such
low concentrations that it is invisible to

the eye.
Scientists generally agree that,
although the worst dangers from

Mount St. Helens may be over tem-
porarily, the volcano remains danger-
ous. USGS geologists Crandell and
Mullineaux, in a hazards statement,
said, “At present there is a relatively
high degree of risk in working in areas
near the volcano. The degree of risk
varies according to wind direction (for
ash) and according to topography (for
pyroclastic flows). By comparison with
an ashfall of about 4,000 years ago
[table 2], a major eruption now could
result in the deposition of as much as 3
feet of ash at a distance of 20 miles and
1 foot at 50 miles. The sector affected
would depend on wind directions and
strengths.

”Pyroclastic flows tend to move
down valleys and other depressions,
and clouds of hot ash accompanying
them may affect areas beyond the sides
and ends of pyroclastic flows. There is
some risk even beyond the pyroclastic
flow limits shown on [previous] vol-
cano hazards maps because of the
possibility that some will occur that are
longer than those of the past.

“A sector directly north of the
volcano will be especially hazardous if
and when a dome is formed in the
crater because of the possibility of
strong lateral blasts.

“There is no unequivocal boundary
anywhere around the volcano that
sharply divides areas of risk from areas
of no risk. Risk increases toward the
volcano in all directions for all kinds of
volcanic events, but the rate of increase
is different for different kinds of
volcanic events.

”It is not possible to predict now
what the volcano will be doing a
month from now, or even a week from
now. It should be assumed, for plan-
ning purposes, that a major explosive
eruption could begin and progress to a
climax very rapidly, so there would be
essentially no time for warning."

Governor Ray today changed the ex-
ecutive order that established the
restricted zones around Mount St.
Helens (fig. 13). The exact boundary of
the Red Zone was defined, and new
rules for entry were set forth. The
Governor also asked today for more
Federal aid, saying, “Clearly, neither
this State nor its local sub-units of
government can continue [on their
own] to cope with the physical effects
of the disaster, let alone the financial
burden.”

A second manufacturer of dust
masks suitable for use in volcanic areas
donated 160,000 of them to the State of
Washington to distribute to people in
the “ash belt."

A new report by the Mount St.
Helens Technical Information Network
said that, when the May 18 ash is
viewed under the microscope, two
main ingredients can be seen: (1)
pumiceous volcanic glass and (2)
crystal fragments of the mineral
feldspar, which is composed of
sodium, calcium, aluminum, and
silica. These ingredients are ”new”
(juvenile) volcanic material, mixed
with variable, small quantities of other
minerals and particles of the “old"
volcanic rock torn from the walls of
the eruptive vent.

When USGS researchers examined
the ash, they found only minute
amounts of the free-silica minerals
(quartz, cristobalite, tridymite, flint,
chalcedony, and opal) that have been
of such great concern as a potential
long-term hazard to the health of those
breathing the ash.

The ash is about as abrasive as finely
crushed window glass. Its density is
about two or three times as great as
that of water, but it is almost insoluble
in water. For that reason, it should

Chronology of the First 100 Days 87

 

FIGURE 47.—Fieldwork in the avalanche de-
posit. A, Geologists collecting samples
at a weakly steaming fumarole in the
May 18 debris-avalanche deposit. The
view here is eastward; the fumarole is in
the valley of the North Fork Toutle
River, just south of the destroyed Cold-
water II observation site and about 5
miles north—northeast of the crater’s
center (see fig. 51). The debris-avalanche
deposit, derived from the upper north-
ern side of the mountain, here is about
300 feet thick. Part of a new pond,
covered with floating pumice and wood
debris, is at the lower right. (Photograph
by David Frank, USGS, June 7, 1980.) B,
USGS geologist Robert L. Christiansen is
dwarfed by the jagged landscape formed
by debris from the avalanche and a
tangle of uprooted trees at this site north
of the western lobe of Spirit Lake. The
view here is toward the southwest.
(Photograph by Robert L. Smith, USGS,
May 30, 1980.)

weather slowly, giving up some plant
nutrients such as lime, potash, and
phosphorous in the process. Some
potentially harmful substances—
chiefly acids and salts—cling to the
tiny particles, but the amounts of these
substances are small.

The USGS completed a new topo-
graphic map showing preeruption
features in a 2,700-square—mile area
surrounding the volcano. An accurate
single map showing features in the
degree of detail needed for posterup—
tion planning and rehabilitation had
not been available previously. (Some
earlier USGS maps showing features at
a larger scale and in more detail are
badly out of date with regard to roads,
trails, and logged-off tracts.)

Athough the death toll remains at
22, the list of missing persons is shrink—
ing as some people, initially reported
missing by worried friends or relatives,
come forward to tell authorities that
they survived.

Tuesday, June 3
E Day Plus 16

Harmonic tremor, which has been
fluctuating in a range of low
amplitudes for the past several days,

fell off to a very low level last night;
then, about 2:00 a.m.,it began to in-
crease strongly. The University of
Washington seismology center con-
tacted USGS scientists in Vancouver
and informed them that this pattern of
harmonic tremor was similar to the one
that had preceded the May 25 erup-
tion. Furthermore, no earthquakes
(”none at all”) have occurred since
Monday morning, reminiscent of the
gradual decrease in earthquakes that
took place before the May 18 eruption.
Because of these similarities, scientists
are keeping an especially careful watch
on the volcano. As of midnight,
however, no eruption is evident.

Measurements of sulfur dioxide pro-
duction from Mount St. Helens today
show that the volcano is emitting
about 200 tons of SO; a day. This
emission rate is about the same as the
rates measured in late May.

Two men, an injured professional
photographer and his uninjured helper,
were picked up from the flank of Mount
St. Helens by a Forest Service
helicopter and brought to Vancouver
early this evening. They reportedly
have been in the restricted zone taking
pictures and eluding airborne
observers most of the time since before
the May 18 eruption. They may face
both State and Federal prosecution for
deliberately entering the restricted
area.

The Corps of Engineers reports that
its plans for flood control and water
rehabilitation include not only dredg-
ing the rivers and raising dikes along
the Cowlitz but also constructing rock-
fill dams and settling ponds on the two
forks of the Toutle River. The dams
and settling ponds are intended to
catch additional sediment eroding from
the area of the volcano blast and car-
ried by the two river forks and,
thereby, to lessen the filling of channels
downstream. The captured sediment
reportedly will be removed from catch-
ment ponds later by earth—moving
equipment.

The National Weather Service office
in Seattle began issuing “St. Helens

plume trajectory forecasts” warning
where ash will fall if more erupts.
Enough rain fell today in Portland to
permit cancellation of an “air-pollution
alert” that has been in effect since the
May 25 eruption dusted that city with

fine ash.
Automatic banking machines are the

latest victims of the ash. Two bank
machines in Yakima and 40 in Portland
reportedly have been disabled by ash
that has blown into their mechanisms.

The ash may be useful in some
manufacturing processes, however. A
California firm announced that, when
the ash is mixed with a plastic resin, it
forms a porcelainlike material that can
be used to make bathroom fixtures and
other products. An instructor at
Spokane Falls Community College
(near Spokane) previously had
reported that the ash is a “ready-made"
glaze material for some ceramic prod-
ucts.

Wednesday, June 4
E Day Plus 17

The volcano’s plumes continued to
be principally steam, which rose
regularly to altitudes of 12,000 to
14,000 feet. Earthquake activity was
low. Harmonic tremor, which yester-
day was stronger than it has been at
any time since May 25, decreased in
amplitude. Upward (inflationary)
tilting on the volcano’s southern side
continues at a very slow rate, quite
unlike the rapid bulging of the north—
ern side before the May 18 eruption.
Scientists continue to warn that the ap-
parent quiet may be misleading—the
volcano may be poised for another
eruption. Despite the continuing ap-
prehension of scientists, however, the
Red Zone is scheduled to reopen today
for loggers, residents, and news report-
ers if the volcano remains quiet.

A hospital patient died today of
burns received during the May 18 erup-
tion. A body discovered about 3 miles
west of the crater was identified as that
of a missing Portland photographer,
Robert Landsburg. These two events
brought the death toll to 24 and reduced
the missing persons total to 50.

Chronology of the First 100 Days 89

Thursday, June 5
E Day Plus 18

Eruptive and seismic activity at
Mount St. Helens remained low today.
USGS and University of Washington
scientists have concluded that the
ominous pattern of earthquakes and
harmonic tremor earlier this week,
which had been thought to indicate an
impending eruption, “must be con-
sidered a false alarm."

The Forest Service announced that it
will set up seismographs at the visitor
centers on Interstate Highway 5
southwest of Mount St. Helens and at
Lewis and Clark State Park northwest
of the mountain, so that visitors can
follow the recording of the volcano’s
earthquakes as they occur.

Washington State University scien—
tists in Pullman have determined, on
the basis of experimental work with
chickens, that the ash is not acutely
toxic to domestic animals. Scientists
are still concerned, however, that
eating and breathing ash will have
some effect on larger animals.

There is no evidence that food raised
in ashfall areas poses a health threat,
the Technical Information Network re-
ports, but careful cleaning of fruits and
vegetables is recommended.

The Coast Guard office in Portland
reports that dredging of the Columbia
River shoal has deepened the naviga-
tion channel to 33 feet, more than three
times deeper than the 10-foot depth left
after the May 18 and 19 floods from
the Cowlitz River.

Colleagues of photographer
Blackburn, who died in the May 18
eruption, found one of the remote-
controlled cameras that he had been
operating from Coldwater I observa-
tion station. Film from the battered
camera was processed, but it had been
fogged by the heat and showed no clear
images of the May 18 blast that killed
Blackburn.

Friday, June 6
E Day Plus 19

Seismic activity remained low, and
plumes consisting mostly of steam rose
only about 15,000 feet above sea level.

Loggers and property owners
"swamped” State offices today seeking
permits to get into the Red Zone, as
Governor Ray’s most recent executive
order allows.

Emission of SO; has increased signif-
icantly between June 3 and today. To-
day’s measurement of about 900 tons a
day is nearly four times greater than
the June 3 measurements.

Researchers from the National
Center for Disease Control who
analyzed four samples of volcanic ash
for free silica found concentrations to
be low—about 6 percent of the
respirable size (less than 10 microns) by
weight. Of this, two-thirds was in the
form of the mineral cristobalite, and
one-third was quartz. (Some chemical
analyses previously had reported a
high percentage of silica in the ash;
most silica, however, was chemical-
ly bound in various other minerals,
and it was not the dangerous “free
silica," or SiOz.) Although exposure to
free silica for many years can cause
silicosis and exposure to large concen-
trations for a short time can cause an
acute form of the disease, Federal
health scientists do not think that
short-term exposure to the ash is a sig-
nificant public health hazard. They
suggest that persons working in the
ash, as well as those having respiratory
diseases, should wear dust masks.
Children should be cautioned not to
play strenuously in ash-filled air, and
they should not be allowed to play in
deep ash.

Tourists, the lifeblood of Wash-
ington's ocean beach communities, are
”staying away in droves” after the traf-
fic jams and accidents, strandings, and
other problems that ashfall from the
May 25 eruption created for Memorial
Day travelers. The Ocean Shores
Chamber of Commerce, according to
the Tacoma News Tribune, reports
that business in that normally busy
resort community is ”down 60 to 70
percent."

One huge industrial vacuum cleaner
was operated for 2 days to remove 17
tons of volcanic ash from the roof of
the Yakima City Hall.

90 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

Saturday, June 7
E Day Plus 20

Mount St. Helens continued its low
eruptive activity today, sending steam
plumes, but little ash, to an altitude of
about 11,000 feet. No earthquakes
were recorded, and harmonic tremor
was as low as it has been since May 18.

USGS water-quality specialists say
that the chemical constituents of
Mount St. Helens ash should not affect
water supplies significantly. They
soaked ash samples collected in
Spokane and Richland, Wash. (near
Pasco) (fig. 29G), and in Helena and
Kalispell, Mont., in water for 4 hours
and then analyzed the leachate (soak-
ing water). The test simulated the ef-
fects of rain falling on one-half inch of
ash. The test was designed to show a
“worst case"—that is, to produce the
highest likely concentrations of
chemicals in water draining through
the ash.

The first water draining through the
ash did contain some chemical ions‘(in-
cluding chloride, fluoride, sulfate, am-
monium, manganese, boron, cad-
mium, and selenium) in concentrations
that exceed the water~quality standards
for public water supplies. Later soak-
ings yielded much lower concentra-
tions of these ions. Under natural con-
ditions, reactions within the soil and
dilution by other ground water or sur-
face water would lower these concen-
trations in the runoff or in water in-
filtrating from ashy lands.

Manganese, one element that could
prove to be annoying, was present in
the leachate in concentrations as much
as 100 times the recommended level.
Although manganese could impart an
objectionable taste to water and
perhaps cause staining of light-colored
objects washed in affected water, it
should not be a health hazard.

Boron concentration in the leachate
was as much as 2.5 times the maximum
recommended for long-term irrigation
of such boron-sensitive crops as apples
and some berries. Under natural condi-
tions, however, such strong concentra-
tions would be unlikely to reach the

roots of the plants before irrigation

water had diluted them adequately.

The ash could change acidity levels
slightly but reportedly not enough to
damage crops. The pH of the leachate
was about 6.0 (very mildly acidic),
slightly less acidic than the average for
rainfall in the Northwest, which
generally has a pH of about 5.

The new State system for gaining en-
try to the Red Zone provides “blanket”
30-day permits for logging corpora-
tions and other companies. To qualify,
each company must: ‘

0 Have a method for identifying and
locating each employee, agent, and
(or) contractor authorized to be in
the Red Zone.

0 Inform each employee of a predesig-
nated escape route.

0 Monitor radio frequencies estab-
lished by the local sheriff’s depart-
ment or other governmental agency
for transmitting emergency signals
about Mount St. Helens.

0 Check each authorized employee in
and out daily.

0 Issue an identification card, tag, or
other form approved by the Wash-
ington Director of Emergency Serv-
ices to each worker.

0 Provide the foreman of each work
crew with a two-way radio and re-
quire him to make regular contact
with a central dispatcher.

0 Inform each worker that he must
stay within a 15-minute walking dis-
tance of his vehicle.

Weyerhaeuser, one of the largest
owners of timberland in the Mount St.
Helens area, reports that most of its
downed timber seems to be salvageable
and that the company expects to begin
immediately restoring its equipment,
facilities, and routes into the blow-
down area.

Loggers in ash-coated timber areas
report that they must sharpen their
saws about three times as often as they
did before May 18.

The Federal Emergency Management
Agency closed most of its remaining
disaster assistance centers in eastern
Washington and northern Idaho this
evening. Only the centers at Kelso,

Spokane, and Moses Lake remain
open. Agency officials report that
more than 3,700 people have registered
at centers in the two States to inquire
about or apply for disaster assistance
loans or grants or to seek counseling.
Scientists are still warning that the
volcano could explode or send out
eruptions of pumice and ash. USGS
geologist Richard Waitt said today that
a larger eruption plume and a thicker
ashfall are still “very possible."
Scientists in the field report the reap-
pearance of small plants of the
horsetail rush type, as well as small
animals, in the devastated area. They
also have seen fresh deer and cougar

tracks in the ash.
News reports remind the public that

Mount St. Helens is not the only
volcano now active. Mount Etna in
Sicily is erupting and reportedly has
killed nine people. Worldwide, prob-
ably 30 to 40 volcanoes are active now.

Sunday, June 8
E Day Plus 21

Several nervous residents called the
Mount St. Helens coordination center
today to ask if the sharp lightning
flashes visible over the volcano meant
that it was erupting. It was not.

The mountain remained quiet again
today; only very low level harmonic
tremor was recorded at the University
of Washington seismology center. Rain
and clouds kept observation aircraft
grounded, but an Oregon Army Na-
tional Guard airplane flew over the
mountain to obtain radar and thermal
infrared images. Radar showed the
base of a steam plume that rose lazily
through the rain clouds to an altitude
of about 12,000 feet. The thermal in—
frared images showed a general
heating, since late May, of the eruptive
center that was active May 18. The im-
ages also showed that heat was still be-
ing emitted by the pyroclastic flows.

Scientists used the sporadic periods
of clear weather this weekend to
reestablish some of the survey lines on
the southwestern side of the mountain
for ground-deformation studies. The
lines are to be measured as regularly as
weather conditions permit.

Observers are watching closely for
the formation of a dome—a buildup of
extruded lava that is too pasty to flow
far from the extrusion vent. A dome
could signal a rebuilding of the moun-
tain, although not necessarily the end
of danger. Following previous erup-
tions, Mount St. Helens has formed
other domes; the now-vanished Goat
Rocks was probably the latest such
dome (table 2). Dome-building activity
in the inner (May 25) crater has been
reported but not verified.

Monday, June 9
E Day Plus 22

Steam plumes and some ash con-
tinue to be vented. No harmonic
tremor was recorded today, and
seismicity was low. New avalanches
took place under the persistent cloud
cover, but none was observed in prog-

ress.
When observers were able to see into

the crater, they noticed a new,
crescent-shaped lake in the northern
part of the crater floor. It was about
1,000 feet long and 300 feet wide.

On Friday (June 13), the moon will be
at its closest proximity to the Earth
since May 17, and strong tides will
result. Although geologists generally
agree that tides, by themselves, cannot
cause volcanic eruptions, some con-
cede that strong Earth tides might be
“the straw that breaks the camel’s
back” if the volcano is already primed
for an eruption.

The persistence of ash from the May
18 eruption has caused the Army to
cancel its usual summer exercises at the
extensive desert training center near
Yakima. Normally, one or two bat-
talions at a time would be using the
Yakima Firing Center, but uncertainty
about the effects of the dry, blowing
ash on the health of soldiers and on
precision equipment prompted the

cancellation.
Because volcano damage has been

rare in this country, no one is certain
how much of the private losses caused
by the eruption will be covered by in-
surance. People who are listed as miss-
ing pose special problems for life-
insurance companies and claimants.

Chronology of the First 100 Days 91

Tuesday, June 10
E Day Plus 23

The mountain remained quiet again
today; only minor amounts of ash
were vented in plumes of steam that
rose less than 2,000 feet above the
crater rim. No harmonic tremor and no
earthquakes were recorded

USGS scientist Arnold Okamura
says that one tiltmeter on the southern
side of Mount St. Helens has been
showing a slight inflation of the
southern flank for the past month. The
rate of tilt has been relatively constant
since about May 9, even through the
eruptive periods of May 18 and 25.

The Corps of Engineers reports that
the dredge Art Riedel began operations
in the mouth of the Cowlitz River.
Previous dredging has been concen-
trated in the Columbia River naviga-
tion channel.

Nearly 4,200 people reportedly had
visited Federal disaster assistance
centers in Washington and Idaho by
this evening, when the centers in Spo-
kane and Kelso were shut down. Plans
call for the center at Moses Lake to be
closed Thursday evening and for a new
center to be set up in Centralia, Wash.,
that same day.

Governor Ray, in an appearance
yesterday before the US. Senate Ap-
propriations Committee, had praise for
the “timely warnings” about the Mount
St. Helens eruptions. "We were warned
of all possible consequences and tried
to have a general plan, and as a result
of that I believe many, many lives
were saved,” she said.

No major population centers have
reported serious problems with
drinking-water quality as a result of
volcanic ash, although some smaller
water systems have been plagued by
turbidity and equipment damage, nor
has anyone reported toxic levels of
metallic ions or other chemicals de-
rived from ash in drinking water.
However, Washing away the ash taxed
some water supplies, particularly at a
time when many normal surface-water
supplies were not usable.

Wednesday, June 11
E Day Plus 24

No harmonic tremor, no unusual
earthquake activity, and no strong
eruption changed the even tenor of the
day at Mount St. Helens.

Officials of Federal agencies and the
State of Washington told Congress to-
day that the bill for damages caused by
the Mount St. Helens eruptions will be
about $2.7 billion. The total would
have been even greater if volunteers
had not assisted the State and Federal
governments, according to the Wash~
ington Department of Emergency Serv-
ices. Besides volunteer service groups,
such as the Tri-County Search-and-
Rescue Association, the Lower Colum-
bia Amateur Radio Association, the
Salvation Army, and the American
Red Cross, many individual volunteers
have been working steadily throughout
the emergency.

A machine specially designed to lift,
comb, and shake ash-coated alfalfa is
being manufactured in eastern Wash-
ington and is expected to salvage part
of the hay crop in the ”ash belt.”

Salmon can be killed if sharp ash
particles damage their gills, according
to a Washington Department of Fish-
eries investigation. The department
concluded that fish probably could not
survive a swim through the ash-filled
Cowlitz River.

The official death toll remains at 24.
The removal of four more names from
the list of missing persons has reduced
its number to 46.

Third Explosive
Eruption

Thursday, June 12
E Day Plus 25

The third explosive eruption of
Mount St. Helens occurred tonight. It
was preceded by a buildup of harmonic
tremor, which began at low levels
about midday and increased in

92 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

amplitude throughout the afternoon.
The University of Washington seis-
mology center notified the Vancouver
coordination center and the Wash-
ington Department of Emergency Serv-
ices that a buildup in tremor similar to
the one that preceded the May 25 erup-
tion was occurring. A marked increase
in the harmonic tremor was noted at
7:05 p.m., and reports of an eruption
cloud rising to an altitude of at least
13,000 feet were received 5 minutes
later. Tremor dropped off in strength
immediately after the eruptive pulse and
fluctuated at moderate amplitudes for
more than 2 hours.

This temporary lull was broken
dramatically by a large increase in
tremor amplitude at 9:11 p.m. Shortly
thereafter, observers in a Forest Service
airplane witnessed the very rapid climb
of an eruption column to an altitude
greater than 35,000 feet. About 400
families living in the latest Red Zone
were warned to evacuate, but many
reportedy declined to do so. A flash-
flood watch was put in effect for the
Toutle, Cowlitz, Kalama, and Lewis
Rivers.

National Weather Service radar
observers in Portland tracked the
eruption plume to an altitude of 50,000
feet at 9:18 p.m. Forest Service air-
borne observers reported that the col-
umn was “several kilometers wide” at
its base and was producing lightning.
Cloud cover, however, prevented ob-
servers from seeing whether new mud-
slides or pyroclastic flows were occur-
ring. The plume height as detected by
radar fluctuated between about 15,000
and 35,000 feet above sea level until
about midnight, when it diminished.

Prevailing winds are carrying ejected
ash to the south and southwest, and
pumice particles as large as one-half
inch across are falling “like hailstones"
on Cougar, about 11 miles downwind
from the volcano. Ashfalls began in
Vancouver and Portland about 10:50
p.m. and are still continuing as of mid-
night.

Recognition of the preemption pat-
tern of the harmonic tremor warned

 

 

emergency-services officials of the im—
pending eruption and allowed them to
warn the public quickly. No casualties
were reported.

Friday, June 13
E Day Plus 26

The eruption that began last night
apparently continued sporadically into
the early hours of this morning. At
2:02 a.m., the Portland office of the
National Weather Service reported
that its radar showed ”a heavy plume”
up to 15,000 to 16,000, feet above sea
level. The pilot of the Forest Service
observation airplane reported at 2:31
a.m. that, at his position 22 miles
northwest of Pendleton, Oreg., he was
“in ash” at an altitude of 24,000 feet
and that the plane was being peppered
with pumice particles as large as one-
eighth inch in diameter. (The plane
outdistanced the eastward-moving ash
and landed safely in Spokane after
having been warned away from Port-
land area airports). At 4:00 a.m., the
National Weather Service radar
showed the plume top to be at 13,000
feet and the ash content to be slightly
reduced. At 6:00 a.m., the University
of Washington seismology center re-
ported that steacly, low-level harmonic
tremor was being recorded.

The Federal Aviation Administra-
tion closed airspace and airports as far
away as 150 miles from Mount St.
Helens (Portland International Airport
reopened about 7 hours later). The Na-
tional Weather Service issued travelers'
warnings for anyone using roads
within 50 miles. of the mountain. By
6:00 a.m., the Washington Department
of Emergency Services had announced
that all Red Zone entry permits had
been suspended. and that only perma-
nent residents would be allowed in the
area. This action will keep more than
200 loggers out of areas where they had
resumed work only a few days ago.

Although last night's eruption was
shorter than the one on May 25 (about
5 hours as opposed to more than 12
hours), it may have spewed more ash,

according to USGS geologists. The
prevailing winds at most altitudes
reached by the ash plume seem to have
spread the ash mostly in the quadrant
extending south to west from the
volcano (fig. 48). Traces of ash,
however, were reported falling as far
away as Seattle to the north and Salem
(and perhaps Medford) to the south.
Vancouver received about one-eighth

124°

 

U 10 20 3U 40

0 20 40 60

inch, and Portland received about one-
sixteenth inch. The coastal city of
Tillamook, Oreg. , nearly 100 miles
southwest of Mount St. Helens, ap-
parently lay directly in the path of the
plume that reached the Oregon coast.
As much as one-eighth inch of ash
reportedly fell on that city, but little or
none fell on nearby communities to the
north and south.

123° 122°

50 MILES

80 KlLOMETERS

FIGURE 48.—Generalized pattern of ashfall thickness from the June 12 eruption of Mount St.
Helens (modified from Sarna-Wojcicki and others, 1981). Although winds at the dif-
ferent altitudes reached by the ash were blowing in different directions, most of the ash

was distributed to the southwest of the volcano. 1 formation on the extent of trace
amounts of ash was not available. Lines of equal ash thickness are designated in

millimeters (1 inch=25.4 mm).

Chronology of the First 100 Days

93

 

 

The National Weather Service,
which has been monitoring the move-
ment of the airborne ash, predicts that
some of the ash carried out over the
Pacific Ocean last night will be blown
back over northern California by
tonight. (The curved path of the ash
cloud may account for reports that ash
reached Medford, near the southern
border of Oregon.)

Day-long rains in much of the ashfall
area settled the ash and helped cleanup
efforts, but the rain also fOrmed slick
mud that made driving hazardous. A
speed limit of 15 miles an hour that was
imposed in Portland during the ashfall
was lifted by midmorning. The flash-
flood watch for the Toutle, Cowlitz,
Kalama, and Lewis Rivers, which was
imposed last night, also was cancelled.

In the 8 hours following last night's
eruption, many small “aftershocks”
were recorded at the University of
Washington seismology center.
Twenty-one of these shocks were
strong enough that preliminary loca-
tions could be calculated. These quakes
originated at depths of about 4 to 7
miles below the surface and were lo-
cated just west of the volcano’s crater.

Bad weather and the fuming volcano
prevented observation of the crater to-
day, but radar imagery obtained at
about 2:00 p.m. by the Oregon Army
National Guard clearly shows that the
amphitheater and rampart are about
the same as they were when last seen
and that what appears to be a dome
now is in the position of the former in-
ner crater.

Helicopter reconnaissance around
the mountain today could not verify
the presence of the dome, but obser-
vers could see that the eruption had
caused extensive new pumice flows
north of the volcano and also minor
mudflows that ended on the mountain
itself. The pumice flows had poured
out of the open end of the amphi-
theater and rushed downslope to the
north, completely burying the ash flow
from the May 25 eruption and filling
steam-explosion craters that formed in
the May 18 debris-avalanche deposits

 

(fig. 30). One lobe flowed nearly 5
miles, stopping within 30 yards of
Spirit Lake. Another extended west~
ward more than 1 mile in the upper
part of the North Fork Toutle River
valley. USGS geologist Peter Rowley
said that the material ejected in the
eruption was from fresh magma rather
than old rock or ash from the larger
(May 18) crater. Like those from the
May 25 eruptions, the latest pyroclas-
tic deposits contain dense dark-gray
pumice and vesicular tan pumice. The
deposits also contain blocks of dense
gray dacite rock. Temperatures meas-
ured in the June 12 ash flows are more
than 1,100 °F (600°C)—hotter than any
measured in the May 18 ash flows and
nearly hot enough to melt aluminum.
USGS volcanic hazards geologists
today described the effects of the erup-
tions and the outlook for continued ex-
plosive activity to a US Senate sub-
committee hearing in Portland called
by Oregon Senator Robert Packwood.
By this evening, the volcano was still
emitting steam but little or no ash.

Saturday, June 14
E Day Plus 27

Although avalanches in the crater
could be heard from the ground, the
mountain itself was quiet today. All
that could be seen was a small steam
plume rising to an altitude of about
15,000 feet. Poor visibility prevented
viewing of the crater. Although the
strength of the harmonic tremor con-
tinues to diminish, the University of
Washington seismology center says
that the mountain still is more
seismically active than it was before
the last eruption.

Scientists began installing new
tiltmeters near the cone, but they could
not reach gravity-monitoring sites
because of poor flying weather.
Ground parties found that pyroclastic
deposits from the eruption of Thursday
and Friday were still very hot, coated
with sulfur in places, and dotted with
fresh pumice blocks. Temperature
measurements made at a depth of 10

94 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

 

feet in deposits filling an old steam-
explosion pit near the downslope end'
of the pyroclastic flows registered near-
ly 1,100°F (600°C).

Ash from the eruption of June 12 and
13, collected dry in Vancouver, was
soaked with distilled water, and the
leachate was analyzed, as was that of
the earlier ash. The chemical constit-
uents of the leachate were about the
same as those of the earlier ash, except
that this leachate was more acidic (pH
3.6-4.2).

Designated State of Washington of-
fices began reissuing permits today
allowing residents to return to their
homes in the Red Zone.

Washington Department of Fisheries
biologists say that salmon are
”bleeding to death” in the ashy mud
carried by the lower Cowlitz River;
they doubt that fish will ever be able to
adapt to river water made muddy by
the ash. Dissection of the fish shows
tiny, razor-sharp particles of silica
lodged in their gills “cutting them to
shreds.”

Agricultural experts, however, are
now saying that ash damage to
Washington's agriculture industry (fig.
49) is less than originally estimated.
Scientists from Federal and State

FIGURE 49.—Effects of ash from the May 18
eruption on agricultural areas in eastern
Washington. A, Compacted ash 0.75 to 1
inch thick smothered lentil plants in this
field about 25 miles south of Spokane.
The severe damage to this crop is ob-
vious, but many crops in the “ash
belt” produced profitable returns in 1980
despite the ashfall. (Photograph by Earl
Baker, U.S. Soil Conservation Service,
July 1980.) B, Tractor towing a disc
cultivator through a field at the Lind
Agricultural Experiment Station, about
12 miles southwest of Ritzville. As much
of the ash as possible was mixed into the
underlying soil in this manner. The thick
cloud of ash dust raised by this rather
gentle cultivation method shows why
dust respirators were strongly recom-
mended for agricultural workers in the
“ash belt." (Photograph by C. Kelley,
U.S. Soil Conservation Service, summer
1980.)

 

 

 

FIGURE 50.—Aerial photographs of the lava dome that extruded into the crater of Mount St.

96

Helens during the latter part of June 1980. The volcano’s dacite lava has a pasty con-
sistency when it is molten, and it tends to pile up rather than to flow laterally. This
dome, which was largely destroyed in a subsequent eruption on July 22, 1980 (fig. 613),
was, at this stage, about 1,200 feet across and 200 feet high. Its rough, shattered ap-
pearance resulted mainly from the expansion and shattering of the solidified outer crust
as more molten lava was forced upward by the great pressure in the magma chamber
underlying the volcano. A, View through the amphitheater mouth from the northeast
(direction of view same as that in fig. 46 but farther out). The lava extruded into a
depression left by the June 12 explosive eruption. The curved ridge, or rampart, across
the inner crater mouth is clearly visible in the middle of this photograph. At this time,
fuming was strongest in the southern and eastern parts of the crater floor and inner
crater walls and at places in the “moat" around the base of the dome. Two cracks in the
crater floor, radiating outward from the dome, are marked by rows of faint vertical
vapor plumes (white streaks) at left center. (Photograph by Michael P. Doukas, USGS,
June 28, 1980.) B, View from the west over the crater rim from a helicopter taking
geologists to collect samples and measure temperatures inside the crater. The bread-
crust texture of the dome’s surface is well shown here. The white area inside the crater
rim in the left foreground is sunlight reflecting from vapor and light-colored tephra.
The tephra rampart is at the extreme left. (Photograph by Jules D. Friedman, USGS,
June 29, 1980.)

The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

agricultural agencies today placed the
total agricultural damage at between

$175 and $186 million. Previous
estimates were $200 million or more.

Volcanic activity at Mount St.
Helens has caused renewed concern
about Mount Baker, the northernmost
steaming volcano in Washington. The
interagency “Mount Baker Information
Committee," formed in 1975 when that
volcano heated up, has been reac-
tivated. Recent flights over Mount
Baker by USGS observers and others,
however, have not yielded any indica-
tion of an increase in volcanic activity.

Many "volcano watchers" in Van-
couver are getting their first real taste
of the aggravating personal effects of
the persistent ash—effects that have

 

been all too familiar to residents in the
eastern Washington ”ash belt.” These
include wearing dust masks whenever
there is a need to go outside; careless
drivers whose vehicles raise un-
necessary dust clouds; the slipperiness
of ash during a rain and the return of
dust almost as soon as the rain stops;
and the continual presence of ash on
hair, clothing, furniture, and equip-
ment.

Lava Dome Grows

Sunday, lune 15
E Day Plus 28

Weather conditions today permitted
detailed observations of the crater's in-
terior for the first time since the latest
eruptions, and the presence of the
dome shown on radar images last Fri-
day was confirmed visually (fig. 50).

The dome was seen first this morning
by observers in a Forest Service

airplane and later from a helicopter at
crater level. The dome is a symmetrical
mass, circular in area, about 700 feet in
diameter and rising 130 feet above the
level of the crater floor. It is tan to light
gray, and its surface is cracked into a
pattern resembling large-scale bread-
crust texture. A slight red glow
emanates from within the hot dome
through cracks in the crust of solidified
lava. Almost its entire margin was
fuming today, as was much of the
crater floor near the steeper crater
walls. Small steam explosions, con-
centrated mainly at the northeastern
edge of the dome, were periodically
spouting small amounts of gray ash up
to heights of about 300 to 700 feet
within the crater. A shallow moatlike
depression lies between the dome and
the rampart to the north. The dome is
the cooling top of a column of magma
rising from beneath the volcano. No
flows or other obvious signs of rapid
growth were seen today, however.

 

The appearance of the dome does
not, scientists say, change the assess-
ment of hazards from the volcano.
Although the dome may represent a
late, less highly explosive stage in this
eruptive sequence, the flank of the
volcano directly north of the breach in
the crater (fig. 51) is still subject to
small explosions, partly because of the
crater’s shape and partly because of the
position of the new dome. Further—
more, the record of Mount St. Helens’
previous eruptions shows many highly
explosive eruptive sequences within
long-term eruptive episodes. There is
"life in the old girl yet," scientists point
out, and highly explosive eruptions of
both tephra and gas could reach into
the stratosphere, and pyroclastic flows
could speed down the volcano flanks
into adjacent valleys. Although the
dome may cap the present volcanic
vent, it could be blown away by erup-
tions, or explosions from beneath

Chronology of the First 100 Days 97

 

98 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

FIGURE 51.—Aerial photograph of Mount
St. Helens taken from about 7 miles to
the north-northwest, looking over the
site of the demolished Coldwater II
observation post (marked by an X) and
debris-avalanche deposits in the eastern
part of the North Fork Toutle River
valley. The location of the geologists
shown in figure 47A is indicated by the
vertical arrow (center foreground).
(Photograph by Austin Post, USGS, June
30, 1980.)

could direct lateral blasts down the
slopes at high speeds.

University of Washington seis-
mographs recorded vibrations caused
when sections of the crater rim ava-
lanched back into the crater; low-level
harmonic tremor also was recorded,
but there were no actual earthquakes.

A few measurements of sulfur diox-
ide gas taken since the eruptions of
Thursday night show that the emission
rate has averaged about 1,000 tons a
day during the initial growth of the
dome.

The most consistent of the Mount St.
Helens tiltmeters, located about 3.5
miles south-southwest of the volcano’s
center, stopped sending data today.
That instrument, which had been
operating during all three of the major
eruptions, had indicated a nearly con-
stant, though very small, inflation of
the southern flank throughout May
and early June but had shown little or
no change in tilt beginning the second
week of June.

Warm, dry weather and light breezes
combined to create zero-visibility con-
ditions in some parts of northwestern
Oregon that had received a substantial
dusting of ash during last Thursday
night’s eruption. In the Vancouver-
Portland metropolitan area, blowing
ash also was causing problems. In
Portland, a speed limit of 15 miles an
hour was reimposed to reduce traffic
hazards. Area residents spent much of
their weekend hosing ash from cars,
homes, sidewalks, and streets. Flushed-
off ash clogging the filters of sewage-
treatment plants necessitated dumping

partly treated sewage into the Colum-
bia River.

Dust masks were a common sight on
area residents and even on participants
in the Portland Rose Festival, which
ended today. The parade, a major
event of the festival, took place yester-
day despite ash-related problems.
Three airlines temporarily suspended
flights into Portland International Air-
port for fear that the ash would
damage airplane engines.

The Corps of Engineers reports that
a second dredge has now begun work—
ing in the lower Cowlitz River channel
to remove debris deposited by the
flood of May 18 and 19. A third dredge
is expected to move into the lower
Cowlitz tomorrow.

Monday, June 16
E Day Plus 29

It was a quiet day on the mountain;
no harmonic tremor or significant
earthquakes were recorded. Poor
visibility prevented scientists from
observing the height and size of the
new dome. Mullineaux reminded news
reporters that, although the dome
represents the first lava to be seen dur-
ing this year's eruptions, the building
and destruction of lava domes have
been repeated occurrences in the
40,000-year history of Mount St.
Helens. The previous summit was
formed by a dome extruded 400 to 500
years ago, and Coat Rocks was a dome

formed in the mid-1800's (table 2).
The Corps of Engineers reports that

five dredges now have scooped out a
narrow channel in the Columbia River
shoal, off the mouth of the Cowlitz
River, that will allow passage of ships
having a maximum draft of 36 feet.
The volcanic ash that powdered
many forests may reduce the danger of
forest fires in central and eastern
Washington and northern Idaho this
year, according to University of Idaho
scientists. They say that the ash looks
and acts just like some fire retardants
now in use. They concede, however,
that blowing ash could hinder fire-
fighting efforts and also could reduce

visibility from fire-lookout stations
and thus allow small fires to grow
before they are spotted.

The Mount St. Helens Technical In-
formation Network suggested ways to
suppress the volcanic dust that has
fallen so widely on the Northwest. One
method is to mix the ash with
agricultural lime and use the mixture as
a cementing agent to form a windproof
crust over ash dunes and other loose
ash. A crust also c0uld be formed by
using lignin sulfonate (a byproduct of
wood-pulp industry), asphalt com-
ponents and emulsions, or soft asphalt
itself.

Tuesday, June 17
E Day Plus 30

Mount St. Helens has remained quiet
since its eruption on June 12. Today
was partially clear, but steam and gas
continued to rise from the crater and
formed clouds too dense to allow
observation of the new dome. Shortly
after 4:00 p.m., the volcano briefly
ejected a plume of dense ash—the
“most significant" since last week’s
eruption. The top of the dark plume
leveled off at about 12,000 feet above
sea level, and, because the air was still,
most of the ash fell back into the
crater. Seismographs recorded no
significant local earthquakes and no
harmonic tremor.

Field crews remeasuring the defor-
mation network on the mountain have
found no appreciable change. A week
ago, the southern side of the mountain
was swelling slightly; now, it is stable.

A light rain last night reduced the air
pollution caused by persistent volcanic
ash in the Portland-Vancouver
metropolitan area. Most of the time
since last Thursday night’s eruption,
both cities have been shrouded in a
foglike cloud of ash dust that makes
breathing uncomfortable and occa-
sionally disrupts automobile and air-

craft traffic.
Autopsies have been performed on

22 of the bodies so far recovered from
the blast area. Sixteen deaths resulted
from inhalation of hot ash, three from

Chronology of the First 100 Days 99

burns, and three from head injuries
(two of these caused by falling trees).
Two other people rescued as they were
fleeing later died in the hospital from
burn-related injuries. The death toll
now stands at 24, and 45 are still of-
ficially missing. The Skamania County
Coroner has been holding hearings
about the last-known activities of per-
sons still listed as missing. These hear-
ings could result in the issuance of
“presumptive death certificates” for
some or all of the missing.

Wednesday, June 18
E Day Plus 31

The mountain was quiet today. The
University of Washington seismology
center recorded one minor seismic
event at 7:00 a.m. that may have been
caused by an avalanche in the crater or
by cracking of the new dome’s outer
crust. Forest Service airborne
observers said that the 7:00 a.m.
seismic event was followed about 3
minutes later by a burst of steam and
ash that rose a few thousand feet above
the crater before dissipating. An earth-
quake that was recorded at about 11:00
a.m. registered as magnitude 2.8 and
was located to the north of Mount St.
Helens. About 5:30 p.m., the volcano
again shot a plume of steam up to
about 13,000 feet and then lapsed back
to minor activity.

The new dome has grown 60 feet in
height since Sunday, or an average of
about 20 feet a day. The height of the
dome is difficult to estimate because
the crater floor is irregular and largely
obscured by steam. Another major
eruption could destroy the dome en-
tirely, or the dome could continue to
grow, perhaps for decades. If the dome
were to continue rising and if it were
fluid enough, it could begin moving
out to the north through the breach in
the crater. If and when that were to
happen, volcanologists say, the thick
lava probably would flow downhill at
a rate of no more than a few feet a
day—a rate much slower than that of
the more fluid basaltic lava flows from
erupting Hawaiian volcanoes.

The US. House of Representatives
today passed a supplemental ap-
propriations bill that includes more
than $783 million for disaster relief
programs in response to the Mount St.
Helens eruptions. The funds will be
used to reimburse State and local
governments for cleanup costs and to
pay for dredging and debris removal,
streambank restoration, construction
of sediment-retention dams, restora-
tion of farmlands, loans to businesses
that suffered economic loss, and con—
tinuation of scientific study and
monitoring of the volcano.

USGS scientists Moto Sato and Ken
McGee installed a hydrogen gas sensor
today on the southern flank of Mount
St. Helens at an altitude of 7,000 feet.
The instrument will continuously
monitor the hydrogen emissions from a
cool crack (not a steaming fumarole) in
a prehistoric lava flow; the data will be
transmitted by radio to Vancouver.
This information and other data being
gathered about gas emanations from
the volcano should lead to a better
understanding of the volcano’s internal

processes.
Oregon Governor Victor Atiyeh

asked President Carter to declare
Oregon a major disaster area. The

Governor also called up 100 National
Guard troops to help clean up the

volcanic ash in Portland this coming
weekend.
Local newspapers report that a man

with a gun commandeered a Portland
city bus for a trip 30 miles east into the
Columbia River Gorge after telling the
driver, “I want to get out of town—out
of all this ash." The hijacker ordered
the driver to stop and fled on foot after
an Oregon State Police car began fol-

lowing the bus.
A meeting with officials of the

Washington Department of Emergency
Services was held in Kelso to present
arguments for moving the Red Zone
boundary 12 miles closer to the
volcano. Mullineaux said that the basic
issue was not that of being “safe” at
some specific distance from the vol-
cano but rather “the difficult decision
of what is an acceptable ris ."

100 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

An early warning system is planned
to alert those who might be endangered
by floods during the coming winter.
Floods may be worse than usual this
year because waterways already
clogged with sediment and debris will
be filled further when more sediment
washes downstream from the blast
area. Although the Corps of Engineers
has been dredging and today brought
in a fourth dredge to speed sediment re-
moval from the lower Cowlitz River,
how much of the clogged channel can
be opened up before the next flood is
not known. In order to monitor flood
threats more closely, 22 new river
gages will be installed; the Corps of
Engineers plans to install 8, the USGS
2, and the National Weather Service
12. The Weather Service also plans to
install nine new precipitation gages
linked by radio to emergency-services
centers.

USGS hydrologists completed de-
tailed surveys of the Cowlitz and Tou-
tle Rivers and computed a second set of
floodwater profiles for several
postulated conditions of runoff from
rainfall and snowmelt. These data were
sent to the Federal Emergency Manage-
ment Agency. They showed that, if no
changes are made in the choked chan-
nels, Castle Rock could be flooded this
year by runoff from precipitation that
is no greater than normal. If the chan-
nels are not opened up and the winter
brings an extended period of moderate
rainfall, the result could be a record-
breaking flood at Castle Rock, as well
as severe flooding on the Cowlitz in the
area of Kelso and Longview.

The missing-persons list was reduced
to 44 today when a Seattle man called
authorities to report that he is alive and
well.

Thursday, June 19
E Day Plus 32

The weather today was clear enough
for good viewing of the crater and for
aerial photography. Photographs to be
used in mapmaking were obtained by
the National Aeronautics and Space

 

 

Administration and by a contractor for
the Washington Department of
Natural Resources.

Mount St. Helens was inactive to-
day, except for steaming inside the
crater. The dome has grown another 6
to 10 feet since yesterday, and its top
now stands about 200 feet above the
crater floor.

Thermal infrared surveys of the
volcano were made from U.S. Navy
and Oregon Army National Guard air-
craft. These surveys reveal a circular
pattern of fumaroles on the crater floor

southeast of the dome and about the
same size as the dome. Some scientists
speculate that the circular area may be
a forerunner of a second lava dome or
of a new lobe on the present one.

A new instrument station was
established this morning on the high
point of a ridge about 5 miles north of
the crater floor (fig. 52). The ridgetop
provides a good view directly into the
crater, and several distinctive features
of the dome top can be tracked from
there with a theodolite (telescopic
surveying instrument). The station is

 

FIGURE 52. -—A scientist aims a laser beam at
one of several reflecting targets on steam-
ing Mount St. Helens to measure precise-
ly any change in distance that might in-
dicate swelling of the mountain or pro-
vide other clues to the likelihood of an
eruption (see fig. 3). This instrument site
is about 5 miles north of the crater floor
on a ridge informally called ”Harry’s
Ridge” because it overlooks the former
location of Mount St. Helens Lodge (out
of view to the left), where proprietor
Harry Truman presumably died during
the May 18 eruption. (USGS photo-
graph.)

Chronology of the First 100 Days 101

 

informally known as “Harry's Ridge”
because it overlooks the now-buried
site of Mount St. Helens Lodge, where
proprietor Harry Truman presumably
was killed during the May 18 eruption.
Use at this station of other instruments;
including a remote-controlled televi-
sion camera, is planned.

Friday, lune 20
E Day Plus 33

No sizable steam or ash plumes
were seen today. No seismic events
were recorded, other than those that
could be attributed to avalanches
down the inner slopes of the crater.
Cloudy weather prevented measure-
ments of the dome. Last night,
however, observers again saw the
glowing red cracks in the lava dome, as
they have for the past few nights.

Clement Shearer, USGS hazards
geologist, said that there is no way to
know whether the dome will eventual-
ly build up to become the mountain’s
new top, as at least one volcanic dome
became in the past (table 2), or whether
this dome will be blasted out in a new
series of eruptions.

University of Washington geologist
Anthony Irving believes that the
growth of the dome is "probably the
best thing that could happen” because,
as long as the lava oozes out, the
pressure in the magma chamber
beneath Mount St. Helens is unlikely
to build up to an explosive eruption. If
the growth stops ”for a period of
weeks," he says, the danger of an ex-
plosion will increase.

The Washington Department of
Emergency Services announced that it
has decided not to decrease the size of
the Red Zone (fig. 13), as had been re-
quested last Wednesday.

Several streams that formerly flowed

into the upper (eastern) part of the

North Fork Toutle River were blocked
near their mouths when the May 18
avalanche sent debris into that part of
the river valley. These tributary
streams include Coldwater, South
Coldwater, and Castle Creeks (fig. 7),

Studebaker Creek (fig. 5), and a few
smaller streams. Ponds have formed
behind dams of avalanche debris, and
water levels generally have been rising
since May 18 as the streams continue to
flow into these ponds (fig. 45). Some of
the ponds, which already contain large
volumes of water, might continue to
grow until they overtop or break
through the debris dams. The conse-
quent outflows could increase in
volume as they incorporate the easily
erodible debris, and a major mudflow
coursing down the channel of the
North Fork Toutle River and further
damaging downstream areas might
result. Geologists are assessing the
stability of the debris dams, while
hydrologists are calculating how much
water is in the ponds and watching the
rates of water—level rise to determine
whether and when steps should be
taken to drain the ponds artificially.

Saturday, June 21
E Day Plus 34

The volcano is very quiet. When the
dome was measured last on Thursday,
it was growing at a rate of about 6 to
10 feet a day, and so the crater area still
must be considered unstable and dan-
gerous. Clouds and plumes of steam
that rose to an altitude of about 11,000
feet obscured the view into the crater.
Seismometers on the mountain's flanks
were jiggled today but only by ava-
lanches of rock crashing down the in-
ner walls of the crater.

About 180 National Guardsmen
used shovels and powered street-
cleaning equipment today in Portland
to assist in cleaning up ash from the
June 12 eruption. About 235 of an
estimated 350 miles of main streets
already had been cleaned before the
Guardsmen started. Air quality
generally improved throughout the
city. The Oregon Department of En-
vironmental Quality suspended an air-
pollution warning for the Portland
metropolitan area, but it kept in effect
the warning for Tillamook County on
the coast.

102 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

The mayor of Ritzville, a farming
community of less than 2,000 people
that received more than 3 inches of ash
on May 18, said that conditions are far
from normal now, more than a month
after the ashfall. The ash is still very
troublesome, despite valiant cleanup
efforts by local residents and National
Guard troops. The town is surrounded
by flat to gently rolling farmland, and,
when the frequent winds blow, the ash
cannot be prevented from “redistribut-
ing itself.” The mayor added that,
although about 65 percent of the ash in
town has been cleaned up, it is the
other 35 percent that is causing much
of the problem.

Sunday, June 22
E Day Plus 35

Mount St. Helens has spent a quiet
weekend. No earthquake or harmonic
tremor was recorded, but there were
minor seismic jiggles, probably caused
by avalanches. Persistent clouds of
steam and fumes continue to rise above
the crater to altitudes as high as 14,000
feet. Although the dome could be
glimpsed within the crater, visibility
was too poor to permit measurements
of its growth.

The scientific team continues to
work hard to learn as much as possible
about Mount St. Helens and, conse-
quently, about this type of volcano in
general. The main thrust of the work
so far has been hazard evaluation; in
this effort, many team members have
been voluntarily working 16 to 18
hours a day. Geologist Rowley says
that they really believe that they will
learn enough from Mount St. Helens to
help save many lives during future
eruptions of other volcanoes. The
USGS crew at Vancouver numbers
about 20 to 25 at any given time, but
many more can be recruited, if needed,
from other USGS installations. At the
pace now being maintained, “people
get ’burned out,’ " Rowley said, ”and
we bring others in.”

The official casualty count—24 dead
and 44 missing—presumably will

I

 

 

change tomorrow. A geologist riding
in a Forest Service helicopter today
spotted another body, which will be
recovered tomorrow, if possible.

Monday, June 23
E Day Plus 36

This morning, a steam plume rose
briefly—first to about 13,500 feet and
then to only 11,000 feet—before
dissipating. Otherwise, neither erup-
tive nor seismic activity was recorded
on the mountain. Most of the day, the
mountain again was shrouded in
clouds, and scientists could not see into
the crater to observe the dome.

USGS scientist Joseph Rosenbaum
has reported on some of the details of
the lateral blast—the great north-
directed “wind” caused by the sudden
release of gases that had been held
within the magma. Blast damage was
caused, he believes, not by a shock
wave or by an ultrahigh-speed wind
but by a hurricane-speed wind heavily
laden with debris. Such a particle-
laden wind that could “sandblast”
everything in its path would explain
the pattern of destruction, according to
Rosenbaum. Trees, stumps, and even
soil were removed from exposed ridges
nearest the mountain; only bare rock
was left. Farther from the volcano,
trees were snapped off at the ground,
and bark was cleanly removed from
trunks. A normal wind would have
had to reach speeds of 150 to 200 miles
an hour to destroy the trees in that
manner. If the density of the ”wind
cloud" were increased by suspended
rock particles, however, a wind mov-
ing at lesser speeds could achieve the
same results. Investigations in the
devastated area give ample proof that
the blast wind was carrying pulverized
rock (stones up to 4 inches across car-
ried at least 8 feet off the ground) as
well as other debris picked up in its
outward rush.

The Forest Service is asking Con-
gress for additional funds to pay for
monitoring smoldering timber debris
under the ash and blast deposits on
and near Mount St. Helens. Several

hundred fires caused by lightning and
hot ejecta from the May 18 eruption
still burn beneath the ash. The ash is
acting as a fire retardant, but Forest
Service officials expect that, when it
dries and the wind blows it away,
flames and sparks could spread fires to
neighboring timber stands.

Governor Ray announced today that
tourism in Washington so far this year
is only about half the amount ex-
pected, largely because of adverse
publicity about ash dangers.

Financial institutions across the
country apparently are wary of in-
vesting in some Pacific Northwest
bond issues because of disruptive ef-
fects and economic risks attributed to
the ashfall from Mount St. Helens. A
San Francisco bank official estimates
that this perceived increase in financial
risk could drive up interest rates for
borrowers such as school districts and
city or county governments in affected
areas.

The body sighted yesterday was
recovered by a helicopter team today
and identified by Lewis County of-
ficials. The official number of dead is
now 25; 43 are still missing.

Tuesday, June 24
E Day Plus 37

The crater remained obscured by
clouds all day, and light snow began
falling on the mountain tonight. The
volcano emitted only occasional bursts
of steam that rose above the clouds.
Tonight, two episodes of harmonic
tremor were recorded—the first since
June 15. The tremor was very weak,
and it was detected only by the
seismometer nearest the mountain.

USGS glaciologist Melinda Brugman
reports that about 70 percent, or 170
million cubic yards, of Mount St.
Helens’ glacial ice mass was lost during
the May 18 eruption. All of Leschi and
Loowit Glaciers, most of Wishbone
Glacier, and the upper parts of For-
syth, Nelson, Ape, and Shoestring
Glaciers (fig. 5) disintegrated on May
18. Toutle and Talus Glaciers now ap-
pear to be significantly thinner than

they were before; large amounts of
snow were removed from the surfaces
of these two glaciers and Shoestring
Glacier by both the heat of tephra and
scouring. Only Swift and Dryer
Glaciers appear largely unchanged.
Surprisingly, the melting rate of the
surviving glaciers at their surfaces of
contact with the mountain’s rock
flanks does not seem tohave increased.
Increased melting probably would
cause accelerated downslope ice move-
ment and (or) increased flows in
streams still draining Mount St.
Helens" glaciers, but neither effect has

been seen so far.
A controversy has developed be-

tween people who think that the timber
downed by the May 18 blast should be
left as a testament to the awesome
force of the volcano and those who
believe that the timber should be
salvaged. Foresters point out that
downed ash-coated timber is likely to
be a threat to nearby healthy forests
because it increases the risk of fire, tree
disease, and insect infestation. Private
timber companies plan to begin remov-
ing all salvageable trees from their
lands soon. Forest Service official Nor-
man Anderson said that it probably
will take several months to work out
plans for salvaging downed timber on
national forest lands without jeopard-
izing adequate scientific study of the
eruption aftermath. Some areas of
blown-down forest probably will be
left for public exhibit.

Wednesday, June 25
E Day Plus 38

The volcano continued to expel
plumes of steam, which occasionally
contained light ash, several thousand
feet above the crater rim. The ash bare-
ly tinged the white of last night’s snow
on the upper part of the mountain.

Seismic activity increased again to-
day; two small earthquakes (magni-
tudes 2 and 2.5) occurred, as did more
harmonic tremor. The University of
Washington seismology center reports
that this morning’s earthquakes were
centered about 7 miles southeast of

Chronology of the First 100 Days 103

 

 

 

 

Mount St. Helens. The quakes were
not of volcanic origin but were perhaps
the result of a crustal adjustment to re—
cent volcanic and seismic activity at
Mount St. Helens. Soon after the
earthquakes were recorded, “sustained
harmonic tremor” began.

Scientists cannot tell how the latest
harmonic tremor may relate to condi-
tions in the volcano’s crater because
poor weather and dense clouds of
steam and fumes have prevented obser-
vations of the crater floor and dome
for the past several days.

Thursday, June 26
E Day Plus 39

Harmonic tremor occurred early this
morning (3:30 a.m.) but ended about
9:00 a.m. No earthquakes were re-
corded, and no unusual eruption
plumes were seen.

Airborne observers got a brief look
at the dome inside the crater, but they
were unable to see well enough to
judge whether the dome has grown
during the past week.

Forest Service biologist William
Ruediger reports finding some encour-
aging signs of wildlife in the generally
bleak areas covered by Mount St.
Helens ash. Eggshells from hatched
eggs have been discovered, an indica-
tion that some birds stayed with their
eggs during the ashfall. Native rainbow
trout also have been found ”surviving
remarkably well." Conversely, cut-
throat trout appear thin, sick, and less
likely to survive.

In Japan, according to the As-
sociated Press, geophysicist Motokazu
Hirono reportedly has measured mi-
croscopic particles, which he ascribes
to ash from the May 18 eruption of
Mount St. Helens, at an altitude of
about 11 miles in concentrations that
might block sunlight and lower the
Earth’s temperature. Hirono cites the
example of the stratospheric ash band
from the 1883 eruption of Mount

Krakatoa in Indonesia (see fig. 62),
which caused record low temperatures
and severe crop damage in Japan and
elsewhere the following year. Scientists
from the National Weather Service and
the University of Washington, how-
ever, dispute Hirono's evidence for that
much Mount St. Helens ash in the
stratosphere and, especially, his com-
parison to the Indonesian eruption.
Krakatoa blew a volume of ash into the
stratosphere much larger than the en-
tire mass of material blown out of
Mount St. Helens so far this year.
“Comparing Krakatoa to [Mount] St.
Helens is like an elephant versus a
gnat," says one scientist.

Friday, June 27
E Day Plus 40

The 100th day of activity at Mount
St. Helens showed evidence that
magma is still moving beneath the
volcano. Harmonic tremor, which
preceded the last two major eruptions,
was recorded again today. Seismolo—
gists at the University of Washington
said that, although today’s harmonic
tremor was the strongest since June 12,
it had only about one-fourth the ampli-
tude of the tremor preceding the June
12 eruption. Seismologists also
reported a small (magnitude 2-2.5)
earthquake that seemed to be centered
about 7 miles north of the volcano.

The volcano continued to vent steam
to an altitude of 11,000 feet today, but
airborne observers were able to see in-
to the yawning crater and reported that
the dome of solidified lava looks no
larger than it did when it was seen last.
It was previously measured from pho-
tographs as about 1,200 feet across and
200 feet high.

USGS geologist Tim Hait said that,
if the dome has really stopped grow-
ing, gases may be building up in the
volcano. He repeated earlier warnings
that the volcano could still explode
without warning into further large
eruptions of ash, along with pyro-

104 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

clastic flows of superheated gas and
shattered rock. “It still is a mighty
dangerous area," Hait said.

Water from the pond on Castle
Creek (fig. 45), which was dammed by
avalanche debris, has emerged from
the debris deposits about 1 mile
downstream from the pond after ap—
parently seeping out along its buried
channel deposits. The outflow is
eroding a new creek channel through
the valley-fill deposits. The debris dam,
which contains timber debris as well as
rock material, probably will not be
undermined by outflow at the rate seen
today. The water now is flowing into
the next pond downstream, however,
and may increase the danger of an Out-
burst from that smaller pond.

The Corps of Engineers is moving a
large dredge farther upstream (to river
mile 6.3) in the Cowlitz River, which is
still clogged by millions of cubic yards
of volcanic flood debris. The dredge is
intended to help clear a channel 25
miles long in the lower Cowlitz for
flood passage and navigation. The
dredge was moved from the mouth of
the Cowlitz River, where it had been at
work since June 10.

FIGURE 53.—Views of Mount St. Helens and
Spirit Lake from the north-northeast
before (top) and after (bottom) the erup-
tions of May and June 1980. The dashed
outline in the bottom view shows how
much of the original volcano cone was
lost during the early part of the May 18
eruption. Spirit Lake (bottom view) now
is more extensive and shallower, and its
shoreline is about 200 feet higher than it
was formerly. The lake now is choked
with thousands of logs blown into it by
the initial blast. (Paintings by Dee
Molenaar, USGS.)

1’

V

 

AT THE END OF THE FIRST 100

Summary of
Conditions

At the end of its first 100 days of
1980 activity, which began with the
sudden earthquakes of March 20,
Mount St. Helens is quiet, but it cannot
be considered stable or safe.

 

Mount St. Helens has been called “a
volcano in a hurry." In 11 weeks
(March 27—June 13), the volcano has
had three major eruptions of ash and
pumice and related pyroclastic flows,
as well as countless smaller eruptions
involving only ash, steam, and other
fumes. It has lost an estimated 3.4
billion cubic yards (0.63 cubic mile) of

DAYS

its cone (fig. 53) and has pulverized
about 400 million cubic yards (0.07
cubic mile) of new magma; it has scat—
tered volcanic ash and pumice over
much of the Northwest and has begun
to build a new dome inside its new
crater. Volcanologists say that many
volcanoes of this type require months
or even years to complete these steps.

 

FIGURE 54.—Aerial view of Mount St. Helens from the southeast showing extensive
mudflows on the eastern flanks. The larger mudflows originated from or near Shoe-
string Glacier, which now heads at the deeper notch in the crater rim. Many smaller
mudflows cover the upper slopes on all sides of the mountain, but the dark areas seen
here on the upper slopes are mostly ash that had been wetted by underlying snow or
ice. The major streams shown here are the Muddy River, which leaves the photograph
at the lower right, and Pine Creek, which leaves at bottom center. The pattern on the
land to the left of Pine Creek is the result of logging before the eruptions. The haze in
the picture is mainly from windborne volcanic ash, which is present near the volcano
most of the time. (Photograph by Ralph Keuler, USGS, July 1, 1980.)

Above the timberline (on the sides of
the volcano where timber still
survives), the stubbed-off cone is ash
gray streaked with brown from count-
less mudflows (fig. 54). Snow and ice
remain on the upper slopes beneath the
insulating blanket of ash but can be
seen from the air only where the
melt water has darkened the overlying
ash or where steep ice faces have shed
the ash. Many mudflows reach down-
slope into dusty timber, and the larger
flows extend down the courses of
preeruption streams. Tongues of
mudflow deposits have killed some of
the standing conifer trees and turned
them brown.

Observations of the volcano, as well
as general visibility in the area are
often hampered by cloudy weather, by
haze caused by blowing ash, and by
smoke from hundreds of fires. These
fires, which originally were started by
lightning and hot pyroclastic material

during the May 18 eruption, still
smolder beneath the volcanic deposits.
The fumaroles in the vicinity of Spirit
Lake and the upper valley of the North
Fork Toutle River that formerly were
so effuse have dwindled greatly in their
output.

The cratered cone yawns open to the
north. The rampart on the northern
side of the inner crater at its lowest
point is now at an altitude of about
6,150, about 2,200 feet lower than the
highest part (8,364 feet) of the sharp,
jagged crater rim on the southwestern
side. A broad ramp of avalanche debris
and older rocks, somewhat smoothed
by a mantle of pyroclastic deposits,
descends northward from the rampart
into the valley of the North Fork Tou-
tle River and to the southern shore of
the raised Spirit Lake (fig. 55). Ava-
lanches frequently bring showers of
rock and some blocks of glacier ice left
at the crater rim down the inside crater

106 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

walls. The horSeshoe-shaped crater,
which stretches about 7,000 feet (1.33
miles) from rim to rim in an east-west
line, tapers to about half that width at
its irregular inner floor, which, in
places, is lower than the northside ram-
part by about 100 feet. North of the
center of the inner crater floor is the
roughly circular dome of gray, broken
lava rock, surrounded by a “moat."
Steam rises from the margin of the
dome, but most of the steam now
emanating from the volcano comes
from a concentration of vents along the
southern, or closed, part of the crater
floor and the lower crater walls. Dur-
ing most of the period from June 15 to
June 27, there was no running or stand-
ing water on the crater walls and floor;
by June 28, however, a small pond had
formed in the southwestern part of the

crater floor.
The profile of the lava dome remains

much as it was when it was first seen
on June 19. The dome grew rapidly the
first few days after its appearance, but
its growth now seems to have slowed
or stopped. No one knows what the
final size of the dome will be (it is now
roughly 24 acres in area) or what the
volcano will do next. (This dome was
almost completely blown away by an
explosive eruption on July 22, 1980,
which is shown in progress in figure
613. Thereafter, dome building re-
sumed.) USGS and State of Wash-
ington mapmakers are hoping that
there will be no major changes in the

FIGURE 55.—Views from Mount St. Helens
northeastward across Spirit Lake toward
Mount Rainier before (top) and after
(bottom) the eruptions of May and June
1980. Decades may pass before the bar-
ren ridges and log-choked Spirit Lake
return to something like their former
beauty. However, the coating of ash on
Mount Rainier(bottom, background) was
soon hidden beneath fresh snow. (Paint-
ings by Dee Molenaar, USGS.)

 

 

landscape for a while, since they are
busy preparing maps of the "new”
Mount St. Helens and vicinity.

Sulfur dioxide emissions from the
volcano were about the same at the end
of June as they had been since mid-
month—that is, about 1,200 tons a
day. The presence of this gas proves
that the volcanic fumes are coming
from an underground source that re-
mains very hot, and the rapid rate of
emission makes Mount St. Helens the
greatest point source of SO; air pollu—
tion in the Pacific Northwest.

The size of the area devastated by
the May 18 lateral blast and the scale of
the changes wrought by the eruption
are often difficult to comprehend,
especially from the air (fig. 56). Only
when the view includes a familiar ob-
ject such as a low-flying aircraft or
when the observer is reminded that the
tumbled mass of "matchsticks" may
consist of trees 80 to 100 feet long does
the immensity of the disaster become
apparent.

On the ground, there is heartening
evidence of the resurgence of vegeta-

 

tion and wildlife. A few green plants
are emerging from the ash and blast
deposits (fig. 57), and deer and other
animals have been seen in the blast
area. The restorative part of the cycle,
repeated many times before at this
volcano and others in the Cascade
Range, has begun once more.

The Red Zone is still closed. Its
boundary, established on June 2, re—
mains at a distance of about 17 to 27
miles from the mountain (fig. 13). The
Blue Zone boundary extends beyond
that of the Red Zone to the east, south,
and north. Individual entry into the
Red Zone is by permit only; the only
human activities legally allowed are
logging, scientific studies, law enforce-
ment, firefighting, and searching for
those still missing and presumed dead.
State officials are receiving requests to
decrease the size of the restricted zone,
despite the facts that the three major
eruptions have spewed out hot pyro-
clastic flows and that no one can be
sure if there are more eruptions to
come.

Salvage of about a billion board-feet
of blasted-down timber has begun
slowly. Work is greatly hampered by a
lack of access roads and even pathways
between the large, tumbled trees and
by the blinding, choking ash that rises
in clouds at each disturbance. The ash
affects machinery, as expected, by in-
creasing wear and necessitating fre-
quent maintenance. To humans work-
ing in ash areas, however, the ash is

FIGURE 56.—Aerial view of Mount St.
Helens across the devastated area from
about 13 miles to the north-northwest.
The Viewpoint is well within the area of
blown-down trees. Elk Lake (lower
center) and the quarter-mile—long
Hanaford Lake (center) are among about
30 small lakes and ponds, formerly
jewellike in forested settings, that were
turned brown and desolate by blast and
ashfall in a few minutes. Coldwater II
observation station, where David
Johnston was on duty at the time of the
May 18 blast, is at right center.
(Photograph by Austin Post, USGS, June
30, 1980.)

FIGURE 57.—Life returns to the vicinity of
Mount St. Helens. A, Ferns and other
small plants pushed up through a blanket
of ash 4 inches thick on the southern
flank, 3 weeks after the May 18 eruption.
(Photograph by J. R. Stroh, U.S. Soil
Conservation Service.) 8, Avalanche
lilies (Er thronium montanum) growing
through blast deposits from the May 18
eruption, about 10 miles northwest of the
volcano. (Photograph by Joseph G.
Rosenbaum, USGS, June 8, 1980.)

At the End of the First 100 Days 109

 

proving to be even more troublesome.
Some dust masks and respirators that
are effective in filtering out the ash are
unpleasant to wear and make stren-
uous labor difficult. Other masks leak,
and some respirator filters are difficult
to keep clean.

In the eastern part of the North Fork
Toutle River valley, the debris ava-
lanche has left a hummocky deposit
(estimated volume, two-thirds of a
cubic mile) that extends about 14 miles
westward down the valley from the
avalanche source on the flank of the
volcano (fig. 47). The former valley
floor is buried under more than 600

feet of avalanche debris directly north
of the crater, but the debris deposit
thins gradually in the downvalley
direction. Farther west in the valley of
the North Fork and also in the valley of
the South Fork Toutle River, the
former valley floors were buried by ex-
tensive but thinner mudflow deposits
(fig. 31).

The valley of the main Toutle River,
which is a scene of mud-plastered tree
trunks, shattered buildings, miss-
ing bridges, and barren mudflow
deposits, is slowly beginning to recover
(fig. 58). The rebuilding of damaged or
destroyed homes (fig. 32) has been

110 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

slowed by the destruction of many ac-
cess roads and driveways, by the
widespread loss of income among log-
gers, farmers, and merchants, and by
the threat of future floods.

Even the valleys of the North and
South Forks of the Toutle River are
coming back to lifé. At logging camps
in both valleys, the chaos caused by
the May 18 floods is beginning to be
overcome. The tangled masses of logs
and machinery are gone, and the logs
have been restacked in neat storage
piles. Logging trucks are moving along
some roads again, trailing clouds of
ash behind them.

 

 

 

 

 

FIGURE 58.—Effects of the Mount St. Helens eruptions in the upper valley of the South Fork
Toutle River. A, Aerial photograph of mudflow deposits on the valley floor, looking
east towarcl steaming Mount St. Helens and Mount Adams, in the distance.
(Photograph by Austin Post, USGS, June 30, 1980.) B, A tongue of the hot lateral
blast, which generally went to the north and east of this area, jumped across the ridge
from the valley of the North Fork Toutle River and left an area of blown-down and
scorched trees in the valley of the South Fork. The view here is to the northeast, at the
point marked by the arrow in A. (Photograph by Edwin McGavock, USGS, May 20,

1980. )

The channels of Pine Creek, Muddy
River, the Toutle River system, and the
lower Cowlitz River are still largely
choked with sediment and debris. Near
the volcano, the streams are eroding
new courses through the avalanche and
mudflow deposits (fig. 59). Farther
downstream, most original stream
channels have been reoccupied by
postflood streams, but they are ob-
viously very shallow. Where former

streams were deep and clear, many
bars and shallows show through the
muddy brown water. These channels
probably will not enlarge much natu-
rally before the period of increased
runoff begins next autumn during the
wet season.

Travelers along Interstate Highway
5 can easily see the effects of flooding
at the bridge across the Toutle River
and southward beyond Castle Rock.

 

Most trees standing near the highway
seem to have survived the flooding.
Some leafy trees, however, are chang-
ing to their dormant coloring, giving
the impression of an early autumn.

Farther downstream on the Cowlitz
River, the Corps of Engineers is
operating dredges to restore as much of
the channel capacity as possible before
the next wet-season floods begin (fig.
60). Off the mouth of the Cowlitz,
dredging has restored the depth, if not
the full width, of the Columbia River
ship channel. As the dredges operate,
areas of brown dredge spoil grow daily
along the Cowlitz riverbanks and on
the Columbia channel islands.

In the “ash belt" of eastern
Washington, light-gray volcanic ash
still borders the highways and blankets
many uncultivated areas. Where the

At the End of the First 100 Days 111

 

 

ashfall was thick, workers in the fields
(fig. 49) face the same kinds of prob-
lems with breathing protection and
machinery wear and maintenance as
the loggers near Mount St. Helens. The
ash rises into the air at the slightest
disturbance, unless it is wet. Fortunate-
ly, rainfall in the main ashfall areas
during June 1980 was unusually fre-
quent and abundant (20 to 25 percent
greater than normal) and greatly
alleviated the dust problem in the
region. Ash is still being removed from
highways in eastern Washington, and
motorists may experience some delay
during the upcoming Independence
Day holiday.

Some insect populations in eastern
Washington have been badly depleted
by the ash, and other competing
species have flourished as a result
Many crops have suffered at least some

damage, even if it is only stunted
growth because the ash on leaves
retarded photosynthesis this spring.
Crops that still bear the persistent
coating of fine ash bring lower prices
on commodity markets.

In southwestern Washington and
northwestern Oregon, evidence of the
ash also persists, even in the cities of
Portland and Vancouver, which re-
ceived relatively light ashfalls and
where cleanup efforts were extensive.
However, by this time, little ash re-
mains in the air, and deposits on
buildings and streets are becoming less
apparent.

Spokesmen for the tourist industry
in Oregon and Washington are warn-
ing of dire impacts on that industry,
which ranks third largest in both
States. Ripple effects could be felt
throughout local commercial struc-

112 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

tures unless the Northwest can manage
to shed the “image of a hazardous
volcanic disaster" and turn Mount St.

Helens from a liability into a tourist at-
traction.

Economic losses in the State of
Washington have been estimated of-

ficially at $860 million, down substan-
tially from earlier estimates. The
largest loss, reported to be $450
million, was standing timber in areas
affected by the lateral blast and
mudflows. Losses in agricultural out-
put, which apparently are less than of-
ficials had expected, may range from
$40 to $100 million. Except for losses in
areas near the volcano, most economic
damages were caused by ashfall.
Notable exceptions are the flood
damage along the Toutle and lower
Cowlitz Rivers, the costs of dredging
and levee building, and economic
losses related to interrupted shipping

 

 

4 FIGURE 59.—Debris from the May 18 eruption in the valley of the North Fork Toutle River.
A, View eastward up the debris—choked valley toward steaming Mount St. Helens (the
edge of the crater mouth is barely visible). This area is near the southern fringe of the
blast zone. (Photograph by Austin Post, USGS, June 30, 1980.) B, Stream eroding a
new channel in avalanche and mudflow deposits in the valley of the North Fork Toutle
River. This kind of erosion will go on for years, or even decades, until the stream net-
work reestablishes itself into a new, stable system. (Photograph by Edwin McGavock,
USGS, June 23, 1980.)

FIGURE 60.—One of several dredges that b
were clearing 'mudflow debris from the
dangerously filled channel of the Cowlitz
River during the summer of 1980. The
floating pipeline carries dredge spoil
(mud) to the dumping ground on the
river flood plain. (Photograph copyright
1980 by Bud Kimball.)

 

 

on the Columbia River. The economic
impacts on communities in the “ash
belt" varied greatly, but, as a general
rule, the greater the ashfall thickness,
the greater the economic loss.

Oregon also has suffered economic
losses, mostly because of ash effects
and cleanup costs. A notable
agricultural loss in northwestern
Oregon (and also in southwestern
Washington) occurred after the ashfall
of June 12 and 13. Much of the
strawberry crop rotted in the fields
when ash-laden leaves pressed the fruit
against the soil. Other losses to berry
crops occurred because ash could not
be washed from the fruit.

Most economic loss in the Portland-
Vancouver metropolitan area has been
related to ash cleanup, but a major loss
also has resulted from the disruption of
shipping on the lower Columbia River.
For example, the Port of Portland
reportedly expects to lose at least $5
million in revenues through the month
of August 1980 because of closure of
the Columbia River shipping channel.
In addition, workers dependent on
port business reportedly are losing
about $4 million a month, and ship-
ping firms also are suffering loss of
business.

The number of victims stands at 25
dead and 37 missing and presumed
dead as of late June. Searches for the
missing now are being made only when
there is evidence that can be used to
pinpoint areas of search. Search dogs
are often brought in by helicopter to
help find human remains. Still, no
trace of USGS volcanologist Johnston
has been found.

How many lives were saved because
essential information about the
volcanic hazards was available and
was used to reduce public risks? There
will, of course, never be a precise
answer, but estimates can be made.
Forest Service records indicate that,
during a nice spring weekend, as many
as 2,000 visitors normally would have
been in the Spirit Lake area. The added
attraction of an active volcano might
have brought as many as several thou-

sand people into the area of destruc-
tion, had it not been for the desig-
nation and closure of the hazard zone.

Continuing
Hazards

Potential hazards related to the

Mount St. Helens eruptions have con-
tinued beyond the first 100 days. Infor-
mation about these hazards comes
from several sources. The discussion of
hazards from ashfall, lateral blasts,
pyroclastic flows, lava flows, and
mudflows is taken mostly from an in-
formation bulletin (Federal Emergency
Management Agency, 1980) prepared
by Crandell. (Although he compiled
that information before the June lava
dome was seen, he anticipated its ap-
pearance.) Information on flood
hazards is modified from a description
prepared by USGS hydrologists to
accompany a May 29 Hazards Watch
update. Information on fire hazards
comes from a variety of sources, in-
cluding discussions with Forest Service
officials. The following perceptions of
hazards, as well as the hazardous con-
ditions themselves, undoubtedly will
change in the future.

ASHFALL

Because Mount St. Helens is still in
an explosive eruptive phase, eruptions
similar to those of May 25 and June 12
should be expected. Either a coarser
grained pumice and ash eventually will
erupt from the volcano, or else magma
will form a dome within the present
crater. The formation of a dome also
could be accompanied by an eruption
of ash, probably smaller than the erup-
tions of May 18 and 25. As of June
1980, it was not known whether such
changes would take days or weeks.

If the maximum expectable eruption
of pumice and ash were to occur, ap-
preciable amounts could fall in any
direction from the volcano but would
be more likely in southeasterly, easter-
ly, and northeasterly directions
because of the most probable wind pat-
terns. As the May 25 and June 12

114 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

ashfall patterns show, however, areas
in other directions cannot be con-
sidered immune. The actual areas
covered by future ashfalls would de-
pend on the directions and strengths of
winds at the altitudes reached by an
ash column at the time of an eruption.
The effects of the May 18 ashfall, bad
as they were, would have been in-
calculably worse if the winds had car-
ried the ash northward over the major
cities of northwestern Washington.

Autopsies on people killed by the
May 18 eruption indicate that the in-
halation of hot ash was a major cause
of death. Thus, hot ash clouds from the
volcano, even from an eruption other-
wise considered to be ”light" or
“moderate,” can be an extreme hazard
to humans and animals nearby.

LATERAL BLASTS

Present conditions at the volcano
suggest that another lateral blast
similar in force to the one of May 18 is
unlikely unless a prolonged period of
increasing seismicity and ground defor-
mation occurs. However, the extrusion
of a dome within the crater might be
accompanied by lateral blasts that
could carry rock debris outward at
high velocity. The present shape of the
crater suggests that lateral blasts from
a growing dome most likely would be
directed northward; blasts in other
directions would tend to be deflected
upward by the crater walls. If a dome
were to grow to a height above the
crater rim, however, lateral blasts also
could affect the western, southern, or
eastern sides of the volcano.

Magma could move into subsurface
parts of the volcano at some point east,
south, or west of the existing crater.
Such movement probably would cause
inflation that could be detected by
surveys and perhaps also by visual
observation, as the north-flank bulge
of March 27 to May 18 was. Surveying
and tiltmeter observations have been
resumed, but, at the end of June 1980,
no such bulge or other sign of instabili-
ty had been detected on the other
flanks.

 

 

LAVA FLOWS

Explosive eruptions of dacite, like
those of May 18 and 25 and June 12,
typically are not accompanied by lava
flows. Molten dacite is relatively
viscous and would tend to pile up
around a vent and form a dome rather
than a lava flow. The past history of
the volcano suggests that, as this erup-
tion progresses, magma of a more fluid
type could be extruded and might form
lava flows. Flows, however, are not
anticipated in the near future.

PYROCLASTIC FLOWS

Pyroclastic flows can form during an
eruption of pumice and ash. The
largest and longest pyroclastic flows,
which could be expected during an
eruption of coarse pumice, would oc-
cur as a large eruption column was ris-
ing above the volcano. Pyroclastic
flows of this kind most probably
would follow the valleys of the North
Fork Toutle River, Muddy River, and
Pine Creek because the present north-
ward opening of the crater rim and the
notch in the southeastern wall of the
crater would direct them toward these
valleys. They are less likely, although
possible, on all other sides of the
volcano.

Pyroclastic flows probably would
occur also during the eruption of a
large dome. Such flows could be
formed as the steep and unstable flanks
of the dome crumbled and avalanched
or as they were disrupted by earth—
quakes and volcanic explosions.
Pyroclastic flows of this type probably
w0uld not extend into the North Fork
Toutle River valley more than 10 miles
from the dome, and they would not oc—
cur at all in the other valleys as long as
the crater rim retained its present
shape.

MUDFLOWS

The debris-avalanche deposit that
now forms the floor of the upper North
Fork Toutle River valley appears to be
stable in the opinion of soil-mechanics

experts who have examined it. The
possibilities of piping (erosion along
subsurface water conduits) or of sud-
den liquefaction of the deposit during a
strong earthquake appear to be negligi-
ble in view of the fairly gradual general
slope of the deposit and its poorly
sorted texture. Mudflows may occur as
streams cut down through the debris-
flow deposit, but they probably would
be small in volume in the immediate
future and would not reach the heights
or distances of the May 18 and 19
mudflows. Probably the greatest
potential for major mudflows lies in
the possibility that water in ponds
behind the debris dams blocking
tributary streams along the valley of
the North Fork Toutle River could
break out. A sudden outburst of this
impounded water, especially from the
largest pond at the mouth of Cold—
water Creek (fig. 45), could rush down
the valley of the North Fork, increasing
in volume as it mixes with the easily
erodible mudflow deposits, and might
become large enough to inflict damage
in the main Toutle River valley. The ef-
fects of such an outburst, if it were to
occur, would be intensified by the
diminished capacities of the stream
channels. The principal danger zone of
such mudflows would be in the North
Fork Toutle River valley. Ample warn-
ing of any such outburst mudflow
probably can be assured by continuous
monitoring of water levels in the
ponds.

Mudflows could also be caused by
pyroclastic flows occurring during
heavy rainfall or moving across snow-
covered flanks of the volcano. Al-
though this type of mudflow could oc-
cur in any valley that heads at the
volcano, it would be most likely in the
valleys of the North and South Forks
of the Toutle River, Pine Creek, and
Muddy River, which are the most
probable routes for pyroclastic flows.
Mudflow hazard zones should be
regarded as extending up to and onto
the flanks of the volcano.

In the long run, increased discharge
into Spirit Lake by streams in its

drainage basin could occur during
periods of heavy precipitation and (or)
rapid snowmelt. Although the lake
currently has no surface outlet, water
from the lake is seeping into and
through the debris flow. During times
of rapid inflow into the lake, water
could enter the lake faster than seepage
through the debris flow could carry it
away. In such a situation, the lake
water might rise to the top of the valley
fill west of the lake, spill over, and
begin to erode a new outlet channel. If
the rate of spillover from the lake were
adequate and if water were available
from other sources, such as ponds be-
hind debris dams at the mouths of
tributaries, mudflows could form in
the North Fork Toutle River valley.
USGS hydrologists are studying this
situation.

FLOODS

Sediment and debris in the channels
of the Toutle and Cowlitz Rivers have
increased greatly the short-term
flooding hazard posed by even
relatively small storms. Moreover, the
threat of flooding in the Toutle River
valley and along the Cowlitz River
from the mouth of the Toutle down-
stream to the Columbia River may re-
main one of the greatest residual
hazards associated with the volcanic
activity.

The Cowlitz channel was filled as
much as 15 feet above its normal
depth. The flood-carrying capacity of
the channel thus was reduced by about
85 percent, from a former ability to
carry 76,000 cubic feet per second to a
capacity of about 10,000 cubic feet per
second. A flow of 10,000 cubic feet per
second is about the average annual
discharge of the river, and wet-season
freshets often cause flows at several
times that rate. Therefore, unless the
channel can be restored and main-
tained at or near its former capacity,
more frequent flooding seems in-
evitable.

Although dredging of the Cowlitz
channel undoubtedly will help, at least

At the End of the First 100 Days 115

 

 

during the first major flood, the prob-
lem is complicated by the vast amount
of easily erodible sediment in the Tou-
tle drainage area. This sediment will
move downstream, mostly during
periods of high flow, and may occa-
sionally add to the sediment “plug” in
the Cowlitz channel.

FIRES

As of June 1980, hundreds of
smoldering fires still were burning in

OUTLOOK FOR

The question of greatest interest con-
cerning the future of Mount St. Helens
probably is, “Will Mount St. Helens
continue to erupt?"

The answer is, “Yes.” The volcano
most probably will go through a period
of repeated small- to moderate-scale
eruptions producing ash, pyroclastic
flows, and lava-dome growth. No one
can predict how long that period will
continue or how many such eruptions
will take place. Less likely, but not im-
possible, is another large eruption
among the expected smaller eruptions.

The natural evolution of Mount St.
Helens and a few other Cascade Range
volcanoes, as geologic evidence ac-
cumulated over the last several decades
indicates, has included repeated ex-
plosive destruction of parts of the
volcanic cones followed by generally
longer periods of cone rebuilding. Both
the destructive and the rebuilding
phases have involved eruptions that
could (and often did) damage the sur-
rounding countryside. No one can be
certain yet that Mount St. Helens is
truly in a rebuilding phase; moreover,
even if it is, the volcanic activity may
take a different course this time. For
example, the rebuilding may include
long periods of nonexplosive lava
eruptions, similar to those at Bezy-
mianny, Siberia, in the U.S.S.R.(Gorsh-

 

the timber beneath the volcanic ash
near Mount St. Helens. The danger of
these fires breaking out and spreading
to standing timber is greatest during
the dry season and is a threat to timber
on Federal, State, and private lands.
Hot spots caused by the buried fires
can be located by using infrared sen-
sors carried on aircraft, but reaching
and extinguishing the fires pose other
problems. Firefighters are hampered by
a lack of ready access, by the ag-
gravating ash, and, most of all, by the

THE FUTURE

kov, 1959) (fig. 61A). Conversely,
frequent explosive eruptions that
remove accumulated lava might con-
tinue for years in the future (fig. 618).

Seismologists at the University of
Washington and USGS are cautiously
optimistic that a pattern of preeruptive
seismic activity at Mount St. Helens
may provide advance warning of
future eruptions. The key to fore-
casting volcanic activity may be the
pattern of harmonic tremor. Before
both the May 25 and the June 12 erup-
tions, the tremor built up steadily and
then stopped for a time just before the
explosive eruptions. The pattern must
be used cautiously, however, because
it was seen on June 2 and 3 as well, and
no eruption occurred. If, however, the
seismic pattern proves to be a useful
predictive tool at Mount St. Helens, it
may be useful for other volcanoes, as
well. Some scientists believe that using
this seismic clue to predict and assess
volcanic activity could help save lives.

Other Cascade volcanoes also will
erupt in the future, just as surely as
they have erupted in the past. There is
every reason to believe that the oceanic
crustal plates will continue to thrust
under the North American plate and
generate magma to feed future erup~
tions (figs. 1 and 2). The rate of under-
thrusting is relatively slow, how-

116 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

 

need for heavy machinery to uncover
and unpile the smoldering logs.

All or most of the fires still burning
beneath the ash were set by the light-
ning and hot debris that fell during the
May 18 eruption, and more fires could
be set by lightning accompanying
future eruptions of ash and ash ava-
lanches. Many of the volcano's pre-
vious heavy eruptions of ash were ac-
companied by lightning, so it is
reasonable to assume that future erup-
tions might bring ash-generated light-
ning into standing forests.

ever—on the order of 1 inch a year—
so, in the long run, Cascade volcanoes
may be expected to erupt less frequent-
ly than some other groups of volcanoes
around the Pacific Ocean's "Ring of
Fire.” The possibility still exists, how-
ever, that any volcano could erupt
again at any time. Although scientists
are not now capable of predicting
which of the other Cascade volcanoes
will be the next to erupt, the lessons
learned from Mount St. Helens may
allow them to forecast more accurately
when a volcano is approaching erup-
tion and to better anticipate when that
eruption will occur. Volcanoes,
however, are notoriously individual-

istic; therefore, much of what is learned
by studying the activity at Mount St.

Helens might not be valid if another
Cascade volcano came to life.

The May 18 eruption of Mount St.
Helens was not a large eruption by
world historical standards or even
among prior Cascade eruptions,
although it was by far the most power-
ful of the year and, perhaps, of the last
decade. Mount St. Helens is only one
of perhaps 50 volcanoes worldwide
that were active during 1980. As figure
62 shows, the amount of volcanic
material thrown out of Mount St.
Helens on May 18 (less than one-tenth
cubic mile) was only about one-
eightieth of the volume ejected during
the 1815 eruption of Tambora volcano
in Indonesia and less than one-
hundreth of the estimated ejecta from

FIGURE 61.——T‘wo possible futures for
Mount St. Helens. A, The recent history
of Bezymianny, Siberia, in the U.S.S.R.,
suggests one possible behavior pattern
for Mount St. Helens in the near future.
After exploding violently in March 1956
with a lateral blast that created an am-
phitheater crater similar to that of Mount
St. Helens, Bezymianny has remained ac-
tive; dome-building lava extrusions have
dominated the volcanic activity. How-
ever, explosive eruptions also have oc-
curred, the last in 1979. (Photograph by
S. Gorshkov, May 1957, from Bulletin
Volcanologique, 1959.) B, Mount St.
Helens may continue in the near future
having occasional explosive eruptions
that remove accumulated lava. An erup-
tion on July 22, 1980, shown here in
progress, blew away nearly all of the
June dome and thus confirmed the expec—
tation of most volcanologists that ex-
plosive activity was not ended by the ap-
pearance of that dome. (Photograph
copyright 1980 by J. Stewart Lowther,
University of Puget Sound.)

 

 

 

A.D. 79 l

1707 I Fuji, Japan

1842— I

Vesuvius, Italy

 

Mount St. Helens

- Krakatoa, Indonesia
- Mount Katmai, Alaska

1956 I Bezymianny, Kamchatka

1857

1883

 
 

1912

1980 ' MOUNT ST. HELENS

 

Volume, in cubic miles

FIGURE 62.—Comparison of the volumes of ejecta thrown out by selected volcanoes during
historic eruptions. The volume of ejecta from the May 18 eruption of Mount St. Helens
(less than one-tenth of a cubic mile, not including avalanche or mudflow deposits) is
relatively small in comparison with amounts from several earlier eruptions, including
those from Mount Mazama (Crater Lake) in Oregon. (Data from Hédervari, 1963;

Friedman and others, 1981; other USGS sources.)

118 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

 

W

 

 

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Mount Mazama during the eruptive
period that resulted in Crater Lake.
Therefore, future eruptions of large
Cascade volcanoes, including Mount
St. Helens itself, might be even larger
than the May 18 eruption.

So far as volcano experts know, the
magma reservoirs deep beneath the
Cascade volcanoes are not intercon-
nected—at least not to the degree that
an eruption at one volcano increases
(or lessens) the chances of eruption at
another. Nor are the region’s earth-
quakes typically related to volcanic ac-
tivity, except for the unusual shallow,
frequent quakes (”swarms") of the kind
that preceded the March 27 eruption of
Mount St. Helens. The normal, deeper
earthquakes are related to volcanic ac-
tivity only indirectly—that is, only in
the sense that earthquakes and
volcanic activity all result from the
same complex system of moving
crustal plates (Hamilton, 1977).

Erosion of the volcano’s deposits, as
well as transport and deposition of the
sediment derived from this erosion,
will continue at a rate that is historical-
ly unprecedented in southwestern
Washington. Moderate to intense
rainstorms or even rapid melting of
snow are now much more likely to
cause flash floods and mudflows than
they were before May 18, because little
vegetation remains in the blast area to
retard runoff and erosion and because
all the volcano-related deposits are
readily erodible. The erosion is most
rapid on bare or ash-covered steep
slopes, especially where avalanche
debris and mudflow deposits have
buried former stream channels at con-
siderable depths. These deposits have
disrupted greatly the natural stream
gradients, which adjust automatically
to the combination of sediment load,
water available to carry the sediment,
and differences in the altitudes of the
headwaters of the channel system and
of the stream mouth. Stream channels
began adjusting (by erosion and sedi-
ment deposition) to the new volume of
sediment supplied by the volcano dur-
ing the floods of May 18 and 19 and
will continue to do so for the fore-

.—

 

seeable future—probably for several
decades. Erosion occurs most rapidly
during periods of high runoff and
floodflows, and sediment is deposited
largely as floods begin to subside. In
western Washington, more than 90
percent of sediment transport by
streams takes place during brief
periods of high runoff from rainstorms
and rapid snowmelt. The sediment
loads carried by the Toutle River to the
lower Cowlitz River and by the
Cowlitz to the Columbia River also are
greatest during these high-runoff
periods, which usually occur during
winter, spring, or late autumn.

Sediment transport from the Toutle
River system will be an integral part of
the stream-gradient readjustment; it is
inevitable and will be largely uncon-
trollable by human intervention. Flood
hazards along the lower Cowlitz River,
however, can be reduced by dredging
out previous flood deposits to increase
channel capacity before the arrival of
each succeeding flood and its new load
of sediment.

Some areas that probably will be
subject to a great deal of erosion or
sediment deposition can be identified
now; other areas where such changes
may occur in the future will be found
through studies now being conducted
by the USGS and other organizations.
After a few annual cycles of high and
low streamflow, the patterns and
trends of erosion, flooding, and sedi-
ment deposition will be more apparent
than they are at present.

Revegetation is occurring in the
blast-cleared areas, with and without
human assistance. Surviving trees and
other plants around the devastated
area, especially the few small stands of
remaining old-growth trees, would
seem to be of critical importance in
reestablishing the forest ecosystem.
New vegetation eventually will slow
erosion on the slopes but, in the short
run, will have little effect on the re-
adjustment of major stream channels
themselves.

At times when the capacity of the
lower Cowlitz River channel is sub-
stantially smaller than it was before

May 18, the susceptibility of the lower
Cowlitz to flooding may complicate
the management and operation of
hydropower reservoirs upstream. The
reservoirs upstream from the Toutle
River conceivably could be managed
so that they provide more flood con-
trol than they have in the past. That is,
reservoir levels could be controlled so
that there would be storage volume
available to retain peak flows from the
upper Cowlitz basin when floodflows
of the Toutle River (or other down-
stream tributaries) threaten to exceed
the limited channel capacity of the
lower Cowlitz. Operating those reser-
voirs to increase their flood—controlling
capacity, however, might reduce the
amount of electrical power that they
can provide.

The low-level flows of streams that
drain the flanks of the volcano and that
are sustained largely by melt water
from glaciers and snowfields on the
mountain will be reduced to some ex-
tent because much glacial ice was lost
on May 18. How the remaining glaciers
will adjust and what the effects of this
adjustment on the flows of the various
streams are likely to be are now being
studied by USGS hydrologists and
glaciologists. If eruptions were to be-
come less frequent and the volcano
were to cool and stabilize in its present
form, year-round snowfields or even a
glacier might grow inside the largely
shaded amphitheater. A crater lake
also might form; if it did, it probably
would act like a reservoir for a stream
(or streams) draining from it,
presumably to the North Fork Toutle
River.

The main uses of land on and near
Mount St. Helens before the 1980 erup-
tions were generally well suited to an
area of long-term volcanic hazards,
and these uses probably will be re-
sumed. Forestry, farming, recreation,
and hydropower generation seem to
have struck a reasonable balance be-
tween using the land productively and
minimizing human risk. In view of the
known volcanic mudflow deposits in
the major river valleys (including the
site of the town of Castle Rock) and the

frequency of historical volcanic activ-
ity, human occupancy of the flood
plains was probably a less appropriate
use. As volcanic activity decreases in
the future and as former land uses are
resumed, new flood plains (mudflow
deposits) can be used more ap-
propriately for nonresidential pur-
poses. These valley—floor areas, along
with the areas near and north of the
crater mouth, should be considered the
most hazardous places, unless changes
occur indicating increased volcanic ac-
tivity or related hazards on other sides
of the mountain, as well.

Human reactions to the hazards
and' to warnings about them are being
studied, and the lessons learned from
the first 100 days of Mount St. Helens’
activity doubtlessly will be applied to
future hazard warnings and responses
of emergency-services agencies.
Visitor information centers such as
those already established near In-
terstate Highway 5 are of great benefit
in informing the public about erup-
tions, about volcanic hazards, and
about the natural-hazards warning
procedures. An essential prelude to
good education already has been
achieved; Mount St. Helens' eruptions
have increased the American public’s
awareness of and interest in volcanic
activity in the Cascade Range and else-
where in the world.

State of Washington officials,looking
beyond the dampening effect that the
eruptions have had on the State’s im-
portant tourist industry, envision a
future that includes a Mount St. Helens
National Park (or Monument or
Volcano Area); as many as 2 million
visitors to the volcano each year; more
motels, restaurants, and visitor centers
near the mountain; and a resultant
$150 million boost to the State
economy.

Even President Carter, when he
visited the devastated area, predicted
that, “People will come from all over
the world to observe—when it's safe. It
will be a tourist attraction to equal the
Grand Canyon.”

Public tours of the volcano itself,
however, may be a long time off.

Outlook for the Future 119

 

Volcanologists warn that relatively
small but dangerous eruptions might
be expected for an indefinite time.
Mount St. Helens' eruptive period dur-
ing the mid-1800's apparently spanned
at least 15 years.

How soon it will be ”safe" to ap-
proach the volcano on its northern
side, no one can answer simply. Part of
the answer depends, as Mullineaux
recently said, on “how much risk one is
willing to assume” (fig. 63). Some dif—

ficult decisions will have to be made
about when and where to open the
restricted areas. For the foreseeable
future, a continuing flow of sound
scientific information will be needed to
guide these decisions and others like
them; the USGS intends to provide
such geologic and hydrologic informa-
tion as long as it is needed. If intermit-
tent explosive eruptions and dome
building continue as expected, the need
for such information may extend for
years or even decades.

120 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

FIGURE 63.—The June 1980 dome viewed
though “the gun barrel,” the north-
sloping ramp bounded by sidewalls of the
Mount St. Helens crater. This informal
name, used by scientists and officials,
acknowledges the continuing hazards of
working in the area north of the crater
mouth. This ramp, sculpted by the May
18 lateral blast, was the route taken by
several later pyroclastic flows that would
have cremated anyone caught in their
paths. (Photograph copyright 1980 by
Bud Kimball.)

 

GEOLOGIC HAZARD RESPONSIBILITIES

The broad responsibilities assigned
to the USGS by the Organic Act of
1879 include collecting, analyzing, and
disseminating information about the
Earth, its processes, and its water and
mineral resources. As part of its basic
historical mission, the USGS has, for
many decades, undertaken studies of
earthquakes, volcanoes, and other
natural hazards. In recent years, as
knowledge of these phenomena and
related geologic processes has in-
creased, the USGS has developed capa-
bilities for predicting some potentially
hazardous events in certain areas. The
USGS has an implicit obligation to in-
form civil authorities and the public of
all such predictions.

The USGS mechanism for assuring
that the public and its officials get
needed information quickly and in a
form suitable to their needs is the
Hazards Warning and Preparedness
Program, developed in 1976 in
response to previous Federal legisla-
tion. Under the provisions of Public
Law 93-288, the “Disaster Relief Act of
1974" (88 Stat. 143), and subsequent
delegations of responsibility, the Direc-
tor of the USGS is required to ” . . .
provide technical assistance to State
and local governments to insure that
timely and effective disaster warning is
provided . . . for an earthquake, vol-
canic eruption, landslide, mudslide, or
other geological catastrophe.”

A USGS Hazards Information Coor-
dinator receives information about a
potential geologic hazard and then is
responsible for obtaining expert review
of the data and conclusions and for
disseminating information to the
public, government officials, and news
agencies. The program’s procedures,
outlined in the Federal Register of
April 12, 1977, define three levels of
geologic-hazard information and
notification:

0 Notice of Potential Hazard—

Information on the location and

possible magnitude of a potentially
hazardous geologic condition.

0 Hazard Watch—Information, as it
develops from monitoring or from
observed precursors, that a poten-
tially catastrophic event of a gen-
erally predictable magnitude may
occur within an indefinite time
(possibly months or years).

0 Hazard Warning—Information (pre-
diction) as to the time, location, and
magnitude of a potentially disas-
trous geologic event.

Notices are then sent to appropriate
local, State, and Federal agencies and,
through the news services, to the
public.

These procedures do not apply to
flood warnings, even if the floods are
related to volcanic activity. Flood
warnings, as well as predictions about
windborne ash distribution, are the
responsibility of the National Weather
Service of the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric. Administration.

Concern about potential hazards
posed by Cascade Range volcanoes led

the USGS to establish a Volcanic
Hazards Project in 1967. This project is
based on the concept that a volcano’s
behavior pattern can be determined by
studying deposits formed by its past
eruptions. This project assesses the
potential threat of a volcano by a
special kind of geologic ”detective
work.” Such investigations involve
determining (1) the ways in which
various volcanic rock materials and
deposits originated, (2) the order and
sequence in which rock materials from
the volcano and other deposits inter-
bedded with them were deposited, (3)
the timing of past volcanic events as in-
dicated by the deposits that they pro-
duced, and (4) the various areas that
received deposits from and, therefore,
were affected by past eruptions. Mod—
ern eruptions of a volcano may not af-
fect exactly the same areas exactly the
way that a geologic study might in-
dicate; such studies of areas affected in
the past are, however, the best gage
available and are used as a rough guide
to the potential impacts of future erup-
tions.

GLOSSARY OF VOLCANIC
AND RELATED TERMS

Active volcano: A volcano that is
erupting. Also, a volcano that is
not presently erupting but that has
erupted within historical time and
is considered likely to do so in the
future (there is no distinction be—
tween “active ” and “dormant" in
this sense).

Andesite: Volcanic rock (or lava) char-
acteristically medium dark in
color and containing 54 to 62 per-
cent silica and moderate amounts
of iron and magnesium.

Ash (volcanic): Fine pyroclastic ma-
terial in fragments less than 4.0

millimeters in diameter. ”Ash” in
this sense is quite distinct from the
ash produced by common com-
bustion because the rocks do not
catch fire and burn during a vol-
canic event.
Ash cloud: Eruption cloud containing
appreciable amounts of ash.
Ashfall (airfall): Volcanic ash that has
fallen through the air from an
eruption cloud. A deposit so
formed is usually well sorted and
layered.

Ashflow: A pyroclastic flow consisting
predominantly of ash-sized (less

Geologic Hazard Responsibilities 121

than 4 millimeters in diameter)
particles. Also called a glowing
avalanche if it is of very high
temperature.

Avalanche: A large mass of material
or mixtures of material falling or
sliding rapidly under the force of
gravity. Avalanches often are
classified by their content, such as
snow, ice, soil, or rock ava-
lanches. A mixture of these
materials is a debris avalanche.
(See also Debris avalanche.)

Basalt: Volcanic rock (or lava) that
characteristically is dark in color,
contains 45 to 54 percent silica,
and generally is rich in iron and
magnesium.

Crater: A steep-sided, usually circular
depression formed by either explo—
sion or collapse at a volcanic vent.

Dacite: Volcanic rock (or lava) that
characteristically is light in color
and contains 62 to 69 percent silica
and moderate amounts of sodium
and potassium.

Debris avalanche: A rapid and un-
usually sudden sliding or flowage
of unsorted masses of rock and
other material. As applied to the
major avalanche involved in the
eruption of Mount St. Helens, a
rapid mass movement that in—
cluded fragmented cold and hot
volcanic rock, water, snow,
glacier ice, trees, and some hot
pyroclastic material. Most of the
May 18 deposits in the upper
valley of the North Fork Toutle
River and in the vicinity of Spirit
Lake are from the debris ava-
lanche.

Dome: A steep-sided mass of
viscous (doughy) lava extruded
from a volcanic vent, often cir-
cular in plan view and spiny,
rounded, or flat on top. Its surface
is often rough and blocky as a
result of fragmentation of the
cooler, outer crust during growth
of the dome.

Dormant volcano: A volcano that is
not presently erupting but that is
considered likely to erupt in the
future. (See also Active volcano.)

Ejecta: Material that is thrown out
by a volcano, including pyro-
clastic material (tephra) and,
from some volcanoes, lava
bombs. -

Extinct volcano: A volcano that is
not presently erupting and is not
likely to do so for a very long time
in the future.

Fumarole: An opening at the Earth’s
surface from which water vapor
and other gases are emitted, often
at high temperature.

Graben: An elongate crustal block
that is relatively depressed
(downdropped) between two fault
systems.

Harmonic tremor: A continuous
release of seismic energy typically
associated with the underground
movement of magma. It contrasts
distinctly with the sudden release
and rapid decrease of seismic
energy associated with the more
common type of earthquake
caused by slippage along a fault.

Lava: General term for magma
(molten rock) that has been
erupted onto the surface of the
Earth.

Lava flow: An outpouring of lava
onto the land surface from a vent
or fissure. Also, a solidified
tonguelike or sheetlike body
formed by outpouring lava.

Magma: Molten rock beneath the
surface of the Earth. (See also
Lava.)

Magnitude: A numerical expression
of the amount of energy released
by an earthquake, determined by
measuring earthquake waves on
standardized recording instru-
ments (seismographs). The num—
ber scale for magnitudes is loga-
rithmic rather than arithmetic;

122 The First 100 Days of Mount St. Helens

therefore, deflections on a
seismograph for a magnitude 5
earthquake, for example, are 10
times greater than those for a
magnitude 4 earthquake, 100
times greater than for a magnitude
3 earthquake, and so on.

Mudflow: A flowage of water-
saturated earth material possess-
ing a high degree of fluidity during
movement. A less-saturated flow-
ing mass is often called a debris
flow. A mudflow originating on
the flank of a volcano is properly
called a lahar.

Phreatic eruption (explosion): An
explosive volcanic eruption
caused when water and heated
volcanic rocks interact to produce
a violent expulsion of steam and
pulverized rocks. Magma is not
involved.

Pumice: Light-colored, frothy vol-
canic rock, usually of dacite or
rhyolite composition, formed by
the expansion of gas in erupting
lava. Commonly perceived as
lumps or fragments of pea size and
larger but can also occur abun-
dantly as ash-sized particles.

Pyroclastic: Pertaining to frag-
mented (clastic) rock material
formed by a volcanic explosion or
ejection from a volcanic vent.

Pyroclastic flow: Lateral flowage of
a turbulent mixture of hot gases
and unsorted pyroclastic material
(volcanic fragments, crystals, ash,
pumice, and glass shards) that can
move at high speed (50 to 100
miles an hour). The term also can
refer to the deposit so formed.

Rhyolite: Volcanic rock (or lava) that
characteristically is light in color,
contains 69 percent silica or more,
and is rich in potassium and
sodium.

Tephra: Materials of all types and
sizes that are erupted from a crater
or volcanic vent and deposited
from the air.

v

 

 

 

MORE ABOUT MOUNT ST. HELENS
AND OTHER VOLCANOES

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U.S. Geological Survey information
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Atwater, Tanya, 1970, Implications
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Beget, J. E., 1979, Late Pleistocene
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Bortleson, G. C., Wilson, R. T., and
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Brugman, M. M., and Post, Austin,
1981, Effects of volcanism on the
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Christiansen, R. L., 1980, Eruption
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Crandell, D. R. 1971, Postglacial Iahars
from Mount Rainier volcano,
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1976, Preliminary assessment of
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Map MF-774, scale 121,000,000 (with
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1980, Recent eruptive history of
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hazards fom future eruptions: U.S.
Geological Survey Bulletin 1492, 81 p.

Crandell, D. R., and Mullineaux, D. R.,
1967, Volcanic hazards at Mount
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E1973, Pine Creek volcanic
assemblage at Mount St. Helens,
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Bulletin 1383—A, 23 p.

1975, Technique and rationale
of volcanic-hazards appraisals in the
Cascade Range, northwestern United
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no. 1, p. 23—32.

1978, Potential hazards from
future eruptions of Mount St. Helens
volcano, Washington: U.S. Geological
Survey Bulletin 1383—C, 26 p.

Crandell, D. R., Mullineaux, D. R., and
Rubin, Meyer, 1975, Mount St. Helens
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(Reprinted in The Ore Bin, 1975, v. 37,
no. 3, p. 41—48.)

Cummans, John, 1981, Mudflows re-
sulting from the May 18, 1980, erup-
tion of Mount St. Helens, Washington:
U.S. Geological Survey Circular
850—B, p. B1—B16.

Day, A. L., and Allen, E. T., 1925, The
volcanic activity and hot springs of
Lassen Peak: Carnegie Institution of
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Endo, E. T., Malone, S. D., Noson, L. L.,
and Weaver, C. S., 1981, Locations,
magnitudes, and statistics of the March
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Federal Emergency Management Agency,
1980, Current volcanic hazards at
Mount St. Helens, Washington:
Mount St. Helens Technical Informa—
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Friedman, J. D., Olhoeft, G. R., Johnson,
G. R., and Frank, David, 1981, Heat
content and thermal energy of the June
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P. W., and Mullineaux, D. R., eds.,
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1116—1125.

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UNIT CONVERSION

Quantitative information in this report is given in the traditional (English) units
of measurement that are most familiar to the general population of the United
States, the intended major readership for this report. This conversion table is for
the convenience of those who prefer metric units.

 

 

Multiply inch-pound unit By To obtain 81 unit
acre 4,047 square meter

.4047 hectare
cubic yard .7646 cubic meter
cubic feet per second 28.32 liters per second

.02832 cubic meters per second
cubic mile 4.166 cubic kilometer
foot .3048 meter
gallon .003785 cubic meter

3.785 liter
gallons per minute .06309 liters per second
inch 2.540 centimeter
mile 1.609 kilometer
miles per hour 1.609 kilometers per hour
square mile 2.59 square kilometer
ton, short (2,000 pounds) .9072 ton, metric
907.1848 kilograms

Unit Conversion

125

 

 

 

 

 

 

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