ADELINE'S

ART DICTIONARY

ADELINE'S

ART

DICTIONARY

CONTAINING A COMPLETE INDEX
OF ALL TERMS USED IN
ART, ARCHITECTURE, HERALDRY, AND ARCHAEOLOGY

TRANSLATED

FROM

THE FRENCH,

AND

ENLARGED

WITH NEARLY 2 0 0 0 ILLUSTRATIONS

NEW
D.

APPLETON

YORK
AND
1905

COMPANY

Authorized Edition.

703
Ad3a
1905
INTRODUCTION.
•-

ALTHOUGH

Adeline's name appears on the title-page of this

Dictionary, there will be found within its pages a large number
of definitions and numerous illustrations which are not contained in that work. While nothing that has made M. Jules
Adeline's " Lexique des Termes d'Art " so excellent an authority has been omitted, a large amount of information has been
incorporated from Mr. F. W. Fairholt's " Dictionary of Terms
in Art." The publishers do not doubt of the reception that
will be given to a work based on these authorities, and also
thoroughly revised and brought up to date by an expert who
has spent some years over the task.
For instance, take the word "Academy:" First we find
the origin of the word from a grove in Athens, where Plato
taught, named after a local hero named Academus ; then the
modern definition—any society of litterateurs, scientific men,
or artists ; then an account of the first Academy of Art established in Europe, and so on to an account of the formation of
the Institute of France. Under the separate heading of Royal

vi

INTRODUCTION.

Academy we find a succinct account of our own Royal Academy, its foundation in 1768 by George III., and its objects.
Finally, under the heading of Academician we are told how
that name is applied in England with respect to the members
of the Royal Academy.
The plan includes all such terms as are generally employed
in painting, sculpture, engraving, and architecture, whether
descriptive of real objects, or the principles of action which
rule the mind and guide the hand of the artist.

It thus com-

prises the ^Esthetics of Art, as well as their practical results.
But, as it is desirable to make this a useful hand-book for all
persons interested in Art, such terms, ancient or modern, as
are used in describing the contents of a museum or picturegallery, are here explained.

Thus, the technical terms for

antique vases, or mediaeval pottery ; sacred and domestic implements; as well as for civil and military costume, armour,
arms, etc., are described ; everything which forms the component part of a picture, or may be included in its description ;
notices of the various schools of Art, and of public picturegalleries in England ; an analysis of colours and artistic
implements ; descriptions of ornamental woods or precious
stones ; of the saints and their symbols ; such manufacturing
processes as call Art to their aid, or such terms in architecture
and the cognate arts as are necessarily used in general Art.
To give a concise definition of all the terms used in Painting, Sculpture, Architecture, Etching, Engraving, Heraldry—in

INTRODUCTION.

vii

fact, in everything connected with Art—that is the aim of the
present book.

It is not intended that with its possession the

student should altogether dispense with large and exhaustive
works especially devoted to the subject; but he will find
within these pages definitions, concise but to the point, sufficient for all ordinary purposes, of every term connected with
the theory and the practice of Art.

A DICTIONARY
OF

TERMS
Abaculus. (Arch.) A die or small
tile made of stone, glass, or a composition in imitation of stone, and used in

mosaic pavements.
T h e illustration
represents a pavement at Herculaneum
composed of abaculi.
Abacus. (Arch.) A tablet placed upon
the capital of a column, which adds to
the surface of the capital and so enables it the
better to support the
superincumbent archiSome monuments are
found in Egypt in which
the capital is nothing but an abacus.
Other monuments, however, present beneath the abacus a capital consisting
of lotus flowers or acanthus leaves.
In Greek and Roman architecture
the abacus varies according to the

IN

ART.

order. In the Doric order the abacus is
strong and simple in outline, while in
the Ionic it is ornamented, and in the
Corinthian it is curvilinear instead of
straight. In the Gothic style the abaeus varies according
to the period.
In
the Romanesque period, i.e. in the
12th and 13th centuries, it is square,
and projects beyond the foliage of the
capital ; in the 13th century it is some^
times polygonal, and very often the
foliage of the capital projects beyond
it. T h e r e are also found, chiefly in Normandy, some abaci belonging to this

period perfectly circular in shape. In
the 14th century they project less, and
in the 15th their importance still more
diminishes. At the Renaissance the
ancient orders were restored to honour,
with some modifications, and the abacus
then regained the dimensions which
belonged to it in the Greek and Roman
orders.
Abat-jour. (Arch.) An opening in the
1

ABA

ART

DICTIONARY.

form of an air-hole, intended to admit
light to basements and other places

ABR

Abaissé. (Her.) Said of a charge,
which generally occupies the centre of a
shield, when it is lowered beneath the
centre.
Abatement. (Her.) A mark of degradation placed on a shield. There were nine
such marks, indicating nine offences, but
they have entirely fallen into disuse now.
Abbatial. (Arch.) A palace, house,
or church is termed abbatial when it
forms or has formed part of the collection of buildings which constitute an
which could only be lighted from above. abbey.
Abbey. (Arch.) In the Middle Ages
[Skylight.]
Abat-son. (Arch.) Pieces of wood considerable tracts of land were occupied by abbeys. These institutions concovered with tiles or
sisted of a collection of buildings, the
sheets of lead placed
most important of which was a chapel,
obliquely in the winvery often of vaster dimensions than the
dows of steeples in
churches belonging to the territory on
Gothic buildings, so
which the abbey was situated. In liteas to drive downwards
rary and artistic language the name
the sound of the bells.
abbey is still given to the churches
In the 12th and 13 th
which once belonged to religious comcenturies the abatmunities, and by an extension of meanson was sometimes
ing to any church of a remote origin.
decorated with sheets
" An ancient abbey " is a stereotyped
of lead carved and
phrase in romantic descriptions, and
otherwise ornamented.
Abat-vent. (Arch.) A term some- is applied to what are merely parish
times used synonymously with abat-son churches.
Abbozzo. (Paint.) T h e
first
dead
(q.v.), and also to denote the earthenware
cowl or cylinder of sheet iron which is colouring or first sketch of a picture,
placed at the top of chimneys to turn whether painted in monochrome or in
aside currents of air which might other- colour.
wise interfere with the regular draught
Abezzo, Olio di. (Paint.) T h e oil
of the chimney.
which exudes from the Pinus picea of
Linnaeus. It is very valuable as a
Abat-voix.
varnish.
(Arch.) A canopy
Abococke. (Cost.) A hat turned up
placed over pulbehind and coming to a peak in front.
pits, either archiIt was worn by kings and nobles in the
tectural in charac14th, 15th, and 16th centuries.
ter or composed of
Abolla. (Cost.) A cloak of double
draperies embroicloth worn by the Romans. It was
dered with allefastened by a brooch on the neck or
gorical figures, as
shoulder. Originally a military garment,
in Belgian churit came into general use about the time
ches.
Its purof Juvenal.
pose is to deflect
the sound of the
Abraxas stones were gems worn as
voice downwards.
amulets by the Gnostics. On them was

ABS

ART

DICTIONARY.

inscribed the mystic word Άβραξας,
which is said to have been the name
given by Basilides, a Gnostic, to the
Supreme Being, the seven letters of this
word, according to Greek reckoning,
making up 365. In date these gems
belong to the 2nd century after Christ.
Absorb. (Paint.) T h e canvas in oilpainting or the paper in water-colour is
said to absorb when, owing to its grain
or some flaw in its sizing, the colours
cannot be perfectly laid on, but lose
their intensity as soon as the surface
is covered.
Abutment. (Arch.) A solid piece of
masonry to support a body, which it has
a tendency to thrust outwards. Examples
of an abutment are the solid pier, against
which an arch abuts, or in bridge-build­
ing the extreme pillars which connect the
bridge with the river bank.
Academic. A figure is said to be
academic when it is treated as a study,
with perfect accuracy but little inspira­
tion, or when it is over-emphasised and
unnatural. A figure is academic in pose
when its attitude is the conventional
attitude of the studio, when it has not
been drawn from life, and does not har­
monise properly with the subject of the
picture. A drawing is of academic size
when its dimensions are those of the
studies of the antique or life customarily
produced in schools of art, i.e. a little
less than half life-size.
Academician. A m e m b e r of an
Academic Society. In England the term
is usually employed in connection with
the Royal Academy (q.v.), whose members
are called Royal Academicians.
Academy, a grove in Athens, where
Plato taught, named after a local hero
named Academus. T h e term was then
applied to Plato's school, and later on to
any society of littérateurs, scientific men,
or artists. It also denotes a school of
art, where public courses of instruction
are given in drawing, painting, sculpture,
and architecture. T h e first Academy of
Art established in Europe was founded

ACA

in 1345 by the Venetian painters, w h o
formed themselves into a society called
the Guild of St. Luke. In Paris, a society
of St. Luke was established in 1391,
which was organised in 1648 under royal
patronage into the " Academy of Fine
Art." In 1671 the Academy of Architecture, which had been established by
Colbert, was incorporated in it, and the
united institutions formed the fourth
class of the Institute of France. Most
of the important cities of Europe have
now their Academy of Art.
Academy, Royal, was founded in
London in 1768 by George I I I . Its first
president was Sir Joshua Reynolds, and
it consisted of forty members. Its object
was to give art-teaching, and especially
to instruct in drawing from the living
model, and to hold exhibitions of English
Art. It was at first located in Trafalgar
Square, where the National Gallery now
is, but its present head-quarters are at
Burlington House.
Acanthus. (Arch.) T h e acanthus is

a plant of distinctly marked foliage, which
is frequently found as a motif in architectural decoration. Its place is preeminently on capitals, and it serves as
the
distinguishing
mark of the Corinthian order. Vitruvius has
handed
down to us a curious legend in connection with
the
origin of this order, According to this
author, Callimachus, who
flourished

3

ART

ACC

DICTIONARY.

ACH

about 440 B.C., was inspired with the 1 picture, produce spots of great brilliance,
idea of the Corinthian capital from seeing which increase the picturesqueness of
on a young girl's tomb a basket covered outline of the subjects represented. In
with a tile and surrounded with acan- landscape, rays of light coming through
thus leaves. It is probable, however, masses of foliage are termed accidental.
Accolé. (Her.) When two shields
that the invention of this capital was but
are placed side by side
a modification of motifs already well 1
they are said to be accolé.
known in Egypt. Modern architects
This
Juxtaposition indihave employed the acanthus for purposes
cates the alliance of two
of ornamentation under every aspect. ;
families or nations.
It
They have represented it as pointing j
downwards or upwards, and with its I is equivalent to Collared (q.v.),
leaves either folded up or turned back.
Accosted. (Her.) A term used of
I n fact the acanthus may be termed the charges placed side by side.
classical foliage of decorative sculpture.
Accoudoir. (Arch.) A French term
A c c e n t u a t e d Outlines. (Paint.) This j signifying the ledge of a window or seat
expression is applied in painting or high enough to lean the elbow on.
Accrued. (Her.) Full-grown.
Genedrawing to the strongly accentuated lines
either of the drapery which covers the rally of a tree that has come to maturity.
A c e r r a . A small box used by the
figures or of the different planes of a land- 1
scape. It is also used to indicate that Romans to hold incense at sacrifices.
the artist has by a few strong and firm T h e incense was not burned in the acerra,
lines converted a sketch drawn in rapid
broken strokes into a finished drawing.
Accessories. (Paint.) T h e accessories,
in a portrait for example, are the drapery,
the furniture, and the ground on which
the subject is represented. Theoretically
speaking, the accessories are all those
details which are necessary for the realisation of a scene, but which at the same
time play a secondary part in the composition. They should accordingly be
treated with greater soberness than the
principal figure, which remains the
centre of interest in the picture. If a
painter, in the portrait of a woman, 1 but only taken out of it and thrown on
for instance, bestows as much care on the the altar. Boxes of this kind are frefolds of her dress or on her lace as he quently figured on bas-reliefs, from one
does on her face, he is guilty of paying of which our illustration is taken.
too much attention to accessories.
Acetabulum,
A c c i d e n t a l L i g h t s . (Paint.) Real or fic- A small vase used
titious combinations of light and shade. by the Romans to
When a ray of light throws into promi- hold vinegar, and
nence the principal part of a picture, it is employed by jugnecessary to connect this luminous por- glers in playing the
tion with other parts of the picture by pick- game of thimbleing out with delicate touches various objects represented in it. T h e rays of light, |
Achromatism.
illuminating the prominent parts of the I An achromatic lens is a complex lens
4

ACÏ

ART

ADD

DICTIONARY.

which prevents the appearance of the
iridescent colours seen by a person looking at an object through a single lens.
Aciérage. (Engrav.) A process invented by Salmon and Gamier, and
brought to perfection by Jacquin. It
consists in covering copper-plates with a
very fine film of steel by means of electroplating. T h e object of aciérage is to
obtain a metal surface with more power
of resistance than copper, and not so
likely to be worn out by the continual
wiping which printing necessitates. In
addition, the process can be repeated
if the wear and tear of the plate render it necessary or if the artist wishes
to retouch the plate. T h e removal or
renewal of the steel coating is an operation of extreme facility.
Acinaces.
A short dagger worn
by the Persians,
Medes, and Scythians.
It
was
suspended round
the waist and so
arranged as to lie
against the right
thigh.
Acketon. (Cos.)
A sleeveless tunic
of buckram
or
buckskin
worn
under t h e armour,
to which a reference will be found
in Chaucer's " Sir
Topaz."
At the
end of the 15th
century the term was applied to defences of plate.
Acratophoron. A term used by the
Greeks and Romans to denote the vessel
in which unmixed wine was put on the
table.
Acropolis. (Arch.) T h e citadel in
ancient Greek towns. T h e acropolis was I
generally a lofty rock, constituting a
natural fortification, which was further
strengthened by the construction of walls
proof against any attack. On it was I

built the temple consecrated to the deity
under whose protection the city existed.
T h e most famous acropolis in ancient
times was that of Athens, on which stood
the Propylsea, the temple of Athene
Parthenos adorned by the sculptures of
Pheidias, the Erechtheum, and many
national monuments.
Acrostolium. A sculptured orna
ment, generally in the shape
of a volute, which surmounted the prow of ancient ,
galleys. It sometimes presented the form of an animal's snout, or of some defensive arm, such as a helmet or buckler.
Acroterium. (Arch.) A
pedestal

placed at the corners as well as on the
summit of the pediment in Greek and
Roman temples. These acroteria were
sometimes of great importance, and consisted of pedestals carrying figures of
colossal size. W e
still find, in some
monuments of the
Romanesque period, examples of
acroteria placed
as end-ornaments
on the gable of the
apse.
Acus. A Latin
term for a pin or
needle. It especially denotes a pin,
made of gold, silver, bronze, ivory,
or wood used to
fasten
garments
or pass through
plaited hair.
Addorsed, Adorsed. (Her.) Said of

5

ADI

ART

DICTIONARY.

two charges when placed back to back.
Thus, we say two lions
addorsed.
Two crescents
are addorsed when their
flanks are turned towards
one another and their horns
**
to the sides of the shield.
Adit. (Arch.) T h e entrance or ap­
proach to a building.
Adobe. Sun-dried bricks, such as are
in use in Egypt and in other countries
with a warm and dry climate. They were
introduced into Spain from Africa, and
they are found under the same name in
Mexico and other parts of America.
Adrian, St. T h e patron saint of
soldiers, is represented in art with an
anvil and a sword, the former referring
to his martyrdom and the latter being
the attribute of a military saint.
Adze. (Sculp.) A
small hatchet,
one
end of which serves as
a hammer. It is used
by sculptors for work­
ing the plaster. Car­
vers in wood also
make use of an adze,
one end of which is bevel-edged.
Aegipan. A mythological deity of the
mountains and woods represented with
horns and the feet of a goat. It is often
met in Bacchanalian pictures.
Aegis. Originally a protection of
goatskin worn by
the early inhabit­
ants of Greece.
Hence it denoted
the shield carried
by Zeus and Ath­
ene, which was
made of the skin
ν of the goat Amaljl thaea and had the
Gorgon's head in
its centre. Later
on it came to
mean a breast­
plate worn
by
emperors and others.

6

AGN

Aesculapius. In Greek mythology
the God of Medicine. He is represented
in ancient art as a bearded man of a
type very similar to that of Zeus. H e
often leans upon a staff, round which
is coiled a serpent, the symbol of
rej u venescence.
Aesthetics. Strictly speaking the
theory of perception, but in a more
exclusive sense the science of the beau­
tiful.
During the last ten years the
terms aesthete, aesthetic, & c , have been
used as slang terms referring to a sham
admiration of art, which has been per­
sistently ridiculed in certain journals
and plays.
Aetos. (Arch.) T h e name given to the
triangular pediment or gable which sur­
mounted the portico of the Greek temple.
[Pediment.]
Affronté, Affronted. (Her.) This is
the converse of addorsed, and
is said of two charges facing
one another. It is also used
in the sense of " full-faced "
to the spectator.
Thus a
V*·
peacock affronté means a peacock with
his tail expanded.
A g a t e . A siliceous stone of great
hardness. T h e varieties of agate most
generally employed by gem-engravers
are the cornelian and sardonyx. T h e
chrysopras is used exclusively for jewellery, while vases, pedestals, & c , of much
richness are manufactured from the
onyx and the numerous other varieties
of agate.
Agatha, St.
A martyr saint of
Catania, who was tortured and put to
death by Quintian, a governor of Sicily.
She is represented in art as holding in
one hand a palm, in the other a dish Or
salver, on which is a woman's breast.
She wears a crown of martyrdom and a
veil, and beside her lie the shears, the
instrument with which her breast was
cut off. T h e best known picture of her
martyrdom is by Sebastian del Piombo,
and is at the Pitti Palace.
Agnes, St. T h e favourite saint of the

AGN

ART

ALA

DICTIONARY.

Roman women. She refused to marry
the son of the prefect of Rome, declared herself a Christian, and was put
to death. In art she bears the palm
of martyrdom and sometimes the book.
She is also represented as crowned
with olive and with a lamb by her
side.
Agnus Dei. [Lamb of God.]
Agora. (Arch.) A public place where
the Greeks held their assemblies and
dispensed justice. It was an enclosure
richly decorated with porticoes, statues,
and altars.
Agrafe. (Arch.) In the art of construction an agrafe is a piece of iron or
copper,
the purpose
of
which is
to hold together or consolidate. In decorative architecture the agrafe is the
keystone of an arch, the voluted ornament of which, as
it were, clasps together the mouldings of the arch.
By an extension
of meaning the
term is applied to any decorative projection which breaks a moulding.
Aiglets. (Cost.) Tags of metal attached to the laces, and
used to draw together
slashed sleeves, to
fasten portions of
dress, or to ornament
caps. They were often
made of gold and
other precious metals,
and were cut into a
variety of forms.

window. T h e façades of some churches
of the 17th and 18th
centuries afford us
examples of ailerons
of considerable size,
which serve to connect a ground floor
with a first floor of
much smaller dimensions.

Ailette. (Cost.) A
kind of epaulette, generally made of
leather, and displaying the badge of the

wearer. It was worn in the 13th and
14 th centuries.
Air. (Paint.) We say that a picture
lacks air when the figures are painted
with hardness, and do not appear to be
seen through the medium of the atmosphere, or when they seem stuck on to the
canvas and so fail to give us the illusion
of reality. We say that a portrait lacks
air when the face is badly placed on the
canvas, and when insufficient space is
left in the upper part of the picture, between the head and the frame, so that the
model seems stiff and cramped in pose.
Aisle. (Arch.) A division of or addition to a building. In church architecture the aisle is the lateral division
which flanks the nave or choir. In Greek
temples the lateral colonnade was termed
an aisle (πτερον). In French the term also
A i l e r o n . (Arch.) means the returning ends of a building,
A French term ap- which we call wings (q.v.).
plied to the inverted
Alabaster. A name given to a kind
\ \ consoles, placed at of white half-transparent stone some­
each side of a dormer times veined, which is capable of receiv­
window to take off from the hardness of ing a high polish, and is so soft that it
the right angle formed by the roof can be scratched with the nail.
and the vertical uprights of the dormer
—, Calcareous. A variety of carbonate

7

ALA

ART

DICTIONARY.

of lime, milky white in colour and veined
with yellow, red, or brown. It is some­
times called oriental alabaster.
A l a b a s t e r , gypseous. A variety of
sulphate of lime or gypsum, quite white
and half-transparent. It is also called
white alabaster.
—, Oriental. See Alabaster, Cal­
careous.
—, White. See Alabaster, Gypseous.
Alabaster. (2.) A small vase for hold
ing perfumes, gener­
ally in the shape of
ν a pear, and with or
' without a handle of
very small dimen­
sions. Some of the
specimens now in
museums are Egyp­
tian or Phoenician
in origin. In certain
Greek and Etruscan
tombs
they
have
been found made of
onyx.
Alae. (Arch.) Wings. In Roman
houses the alae were the two rooms
which were placed one on each side of
the atrium.
A la Grecque. (Arch.) An architec­
tural ornament employed in rectilineal

moulding, which resembles twisted
ribbon.
Alb. A white ecclesiastical garment,
which reached to the heels and was
fastened by a girdle. It was the second
vestment put on by the priest. From it
is derived the surplice. From the 10th
to the 16th century it was richly em­
broidered and even ornamented with
jewels round the edge.
Alban, St. Earliest British saint.
H e is represented as carrying his head
in his hands. His attributes are a
sword and a crown.

ALI

Albertotype. A process by means of
which a photographic plate, when covered
by chromate of potash and exposed to
the influence of the light, can be inked
like a lithographic stone so as to furnish
prints with the roller and printer's ink.
Alcarazza. A name given to porous
vessels used as water-coolers.
They
are found in Egypt, Asia, Spain, &c.
In the present day they are manufac­
tured in large numbers in Egypt and
are rarely used twice, as their cost is
trifling.
Alcazar. (Arch.) A fortified palace
of the Moorish kings. T h e alcazars of
Cordova, Seville, and Ségovie may be
quoted as models of their kind. In our
time the n a m e of alcazar is given to
certain theatres, music-halls, and other
modern constructions of pseudo-Arabian
design, the decoration of which is set off
by brilliant illumination.
Alcove. (Arch.) A part of a room,
often richly decorated, for the reception of a bed, which can be entirely concealed by means of folding doors or
curtains, so arranged that the room does
not lose its rectangular shape.
Alexis, St. T h e patron saint of pilgrims and beggars, is represented in a
pilgrim's ragged habit. His attributes
are a dish and a palm.
Alhambra. (Arch.) Palace of the
Moorish kings at Granada, the interior
walls of which are decorated with extraordinary profusion.
T h e courts of
Abencerages and of the Lions, surrounded by porticoes and marble colonnades, have a legendary celebrity. T h e
name is given to modern constructions
intended to serve as theatres or musichalls.
Alidade. A flat rule of metal provided at each end
with plates of copper placed at right
angles to the rule.
These plates are
pierced with longitudinal openings, across which a thread of

ALI

ART

DICTIONARY.

silk is stretched vertically. T h e alidade
is placed on a table, and a ray of light
passing through the two threads serves
to determine a direction.
Alignment.
A series of
menhirs
(q ν ) or blocks of stone placed in two

or more parallel lines, several examples
of which exist in Brittany and else­
where.
Alia Prima. (Paint.) When a picture
is painted at once without retouching, it
is said to be executed " alia prima."
This method was followed by the Van
Eycks and early Flemish painters, and
later on by Rubens. In more modern
times a good example of the method is
Wilkie's " Preaching of John Knox."
Allecret. (Cost ) A light plate armour
worn in the 16th century by French light

cavalry and
fantry.

German and
2

Swiss

in­

ALM

Allege. (Arch.) A very thin wall closing
the lower compart­
ment of Gothic
windows. In the
15th century these
leaning-places are
often
decorated
by arcades, and
in the 16th cen­
tury by bas-reliefs
or systems of orna­
ment, in the cen­
tre of which is a
scroll flanked by
figures of children.
Allegory. A name given to groups or
figures painted or sculptured, which
represent symbolic personages.
For
instance, we speak of an allegory of
justice, an allegorical figure of youth.
Allerions.
(Her.)
Small birds without claws
or beaks, represented in
the attitude
of
eagles
displayed.
Heralds apply
the term allerions only to
eaglets.
Almayne Rivets were originally over­
lapping plates of armour, but subse­
quently gave their name to complete
suits of armour thus fastened.
Almery. (Arch.) A cupboard near
the altar, in which were placed the
chalices, basins, cruets, and other
sacred utensils. It was either in the
thickness of the wall or was made of
wood.
Almond. An elliptical aureole which
surrounds the repre­
sentation of
divine
figures in the works
of early painters or
in Gothic glass-work.
This almond is also
termed a " gloria," or
an " elliptic aureole."
Almonry. (Arch.) A
room
in
monastic
buildings used for the
distribution of alms.
9

ART

ALM

DICTIONARY.

ALT

Almuce. (Cost.) A hood of fur, which was of the classical orders, while in the 17th
worn by the clergy
from the 13th to
15th century during the recital of
the divine office.
As an ecclesiastical
vestment it had
little or no significance.
Indeed,
its primary object
was to shield the
officiating
priest
from cold. It was
also worn by bachelors of canon law,
and, according to
Planché, in later
times by ordinary
laymen.

and 18th centuries it developed into a
portico with pediments, brackets, and
volutes, and was sometimes entirely
gilded. In Italy there are still in existence—at St. Peter's at Rome for instance
—altars covered with rich baldachinos.

In England the altars were taken down
at the Reformation about 1550 ; they were
restored at the beginning of the reign of
An English saint
Queen Mary, and again removed by Queen
who suffered marElizabeth. T h e high altar at Arundel,
tyrdom at
the
hands of the Danes in 1012.
H e is Sussex, is supposed to be the only original
represented as a middle-aged man with altar left in England.
Altar-back. (Arch.) T h e wall in which
a battle-axe, or a chasuble containing
stones, as emblematic of his martyrdom. the altar-piece is set.
Altar-cloth. (Dec.) A rich stuff emAltar. T h e altar of an ancient temple was a table of stone or marble, on broidered with gold and silk, and somewhich the offerings to the presiding times ornamented with precious stones,
deity were placed, or a pedestal decorated which was stretched over the altar in the
with bas-reliefs. T h e altar of the Chris- early times of the Church.
Altar-piece. (Arch.) An altar decotians is a consecraration consisting of a panel, in the centre
ted table, which was
of which is placed, according to the
in theory the tomb
period to which it
of the martyrs, and
belongs, a bas-reat which the priest
lief or picture. Becelebrates the mass.
fore the 13th cenDruidical
monutury
altar-pieces
ments, too, are as a
were movable, but
matter of fact altars
_.__.._
after this time they
erected for the offergenerally
ing of human sacrifices. T h e altars of were
the n t h , 12th, and 13th centuries are fixed. In the 15th
altarquite simple. In the Gothic period the c e n t u r y
altar took the form of a small edifice pieces were often ornamented with extraelaborately adorned with screens, pin- ordinary magnificence, while from the
nacles, and gables. At the Renaissance Renaissance to the 17th or r8th century
it assumed the form of the entablatures they were conceived in an architectural

Alphege,

10

St.

ALT

ART

spirit as porticoes, and were decorated

with entablatures and columns, flanked
by niches, in which
statues
were
placed, and terminated by pediments and vases.
Sometimes
they
were of sculptured
wood, of marvellous workmanship
and
completely
gilded.
Altar-screen. [Reredos.]
Alternation. A system of ornament
which consists in the decoration of a surface by means of two distinct motifs,
which repeat themselves in succession
in the same order.
Alto-Relievo. (Sculp.)
An Italian
term signifying high-relief.
Sculptured
figures are said to be in alto-relievo, when
they project entirely or almost entirely
from the surface of the block from which
they are cut. T h e metopes from the
Parthenon, now among the Elgin marbles, are the best extant examples of
alto-relievo.
Alura. (Arch.) A way or passage generally applied to clerestory galleries or
passages on the roof along the gutters.
Amasette. (Paint.) T h e amasette was
an instrument of wood, ivory, or horn,
with which the painters of the last
century mixed their colours on the
palette. Nowadays the palette-knife is
generally used for this purpose.
Amatito. (Paint.) A pigment prepared
from red haematite and used by early
artists in fresco-painting.
Amateur. One who, though he does

DICTIONARY.

AMA

not practise any branch of the fine arts,
has a taste and feeling for them. T h e
word is sometimes used in a contemptuous sense to denote an unskilled
artist.
Ambrose, St. T h e patron saint of
Milan, of which city he was bishop. In
devotional pictures he is represented as
wearing the pallium and mitre and carrying the episcopal crosier. His attributes
are a beehive, because tradition says
that when he was in his cradle a swarm
of bees alighted in his mouth without
harming him, and a three-thonged
scourge, which he carries as the castigator of sin.
Amazons. A race of female warriors,
the myths concerning whom were often
illustrated by Greek artists. They are
frequently represented on painted vases
as habited in Persian or Scythian dress
and wearing a Phrygian cap. They are
always armed, carrying a bow, spear,

sword, or battle-axe as well as a shield,
which is sometimes round, sometimes
crescent shaped.
They were also a
favourite subject with sculptors, and
Pliny tells us of a competition between
Polycleitus, Pheidias, and three other
sculptors for a figure of an Amazon. T h e
cut here given is said to be a copy of the
II

AMB

ART

DIC NONARY.

statue produced on that occasion either
by Polycleitus or Pheidias. T h e battle
between Theseus and the Amazons
is figured in the well-known bas-reliefs
from the Temple of Theseus, while that
between the Amazons and Centaurs is to
be seen on the Phigaleian frieze. Both
these series of bas-reliefs are at the
British Museum.
Amber. A substance washed up by
the sea in several parts of the world, but
found in especially large quantities in the
Baltic. Its vegetable origin is now generally admitted. It is probably the resinous product of a particular species of
a coniferous tree. A picture varnish of
great value is obtained from it, which
was used with success by Van Eyck and
the early Flemish painters, and has been
employed ever since.
Amber Tone. A warm tone observed
in certain paintings. An amber tint
varies from a shade of pale yellow to
light carmine red.
Ambo. (Arch.) A name given to
pulpits in Christian basilicœ, and to the
tribunes placed opposite one another in

the nave, from which the Epistle and
Gospel were read. They ceased to be
used about the end of the first half of the
13th century.
Ambulant. ( H e r ) Walking or passant
Ambulatory. (Arch ) A part of a
building suitable for walking in, such as
cloisters, &c.
Amethyst. A precious stone of a
violet hue.
Amice. (Cost.) T h e first of sacerdotal
vestments, consisting of a piece of linen,
which was worn on the head like a hood,
12

AMP

until the priest appeared at the altar and

was then thrown back (see cut). It came
into use about the 7th century.
Amorini. A name given to the Cupids
or small love-gods often represented in
art.
Amortissement. (Arch.) A French
term denoting an ornament, generally

pyramidal in form, used to terminate a
building.
Amphiprostyle. (Arch.) A temple is
said to be amphiprostyle when it has a
façade of columns at,each end.
Amphitheatre. I n Roman architecture amphitheatres were large buildings,

circular or elliptical in shape, with a large
empty space in the middle. This space

or arene was devoted to combats of
gladiators or wild beasts, while the spectators sat on tiers and were protected

AMP

ART

DICTIONARY.

from the rays of the sun by an immense
curtain. In modern times large halls
intended for public meetings or conferences, and containing seats in tiers,
where the audience sit, are called amphitheatres. T h e name is also given to
certain parts of theatres which contain
rows of seats rising one above another.
Amphora. A name given to a kind of
Greek vase, two-handled, and
generally of large size, which
was used to hold liquids. Some
amphorae were mounted on a
foot, others were not. They
were often mere objects of
ornament, and specimens have
been found with no hollow
interior, and therefore incapable of being put to any use.
T h e victors in the Panathenaic
games were awarded an amphora as
a prize. T h e unit of capacity among
the Romans was called an amphora.
Ampul. A small vessel of clay or glass
which contained
consecrated
oil
or wine for the
Eucharistie service. Such was
the holy vase preserved at Rheims
until the
first
French
Revolution, which contained the sacred
oil employed in
the consecration
of the kings of
France.
Ampulla. A n a m e given
to small glass vases of globular form, which were carried by the ancients.
Amulet. A word of Eastern origin applied to objects
of very varied character, which were
worn round the neck to ward off illness,
to turn away the evil eye, or confer
good luck on the wearer. Stones, plants,
or parts of animals, such as a hyena's

ANA

tooth, served as amulets, as well as all
kinds of small ornaments made of metals

or precious stone and cut into grotesque
forms.
Anachronism. A method of representing an event artistically, in which
the order of time is violated.
For
instance, in mediaeval representations of
scriptural scenes the costume, architecture, and accessories often belong to
the time of the artist, not of the event
portrayed.
Anadyomene. " She who rose from
the sea." T h e goddess Aphrodite was
said to have been born among the foam
of the sea, rising from which she has frequently been represented by both ancient
and modern artists.
Anastatic Process. A process of reproducing in facsimile any printed page,
either type or picture. T h e page to be
copied is first moistened with dilute
acid and then pressed down on a smooth
plate of zinc. As the acid only affects
that portion of the page which is not
printed on, the result is that the part of
the zinc plate which comes in contact
with the unprinted portions of the page
is slightly etched, while the printed
portion leaves a film on the metal. T h e
plate is then inked, and impressions
struck off as in lithography.
Photol

S

ART

ANA

DICTIONARY.

lithography has now entirely superseded
the anastatic process.
Anaglyph. A n a m e given by the an­
cients to sculptures in bas-relief (q.v.).
Anastasia, St. A saint who suffered
martyrdom at Rome for professing
Christianity.
H e r attributes are the
stake, the faggots, and the palm.
Anatomy. From the artistic point of
view, anatomy for the sculptor and pain­
ter is the study of bodily forms and the
play of muscles. T h e branches of ana­
tomy most important for artists are
osteology (the study of bones) and myo­
logy (the study of muscles). In addi­
tion to this they ought to possess a
knowledge of the elementary principles
of physiology, i.e. the science of the
phenomena of life and the functions of
the various parts of the body.
Anchor. T h e anchor in religious art
is the symbol
«\
of hope. It is
1ζ
the attribute
of Pope Cle­
ment, who is
said to have
been tied to an
anchor and
thrown i n t o
the sea in the
year 80 A.D. It
is
also
a
charge in he­
raldry, which
unless other­
wise specified
is represented
in pale (q.v.)
and without a
cable.

Ancones.
(Arch.) Sup­
ports placed
in doors and other apertures under the
cornice.
Andirons. Utensils of metal, placed on
the hearth in old houses for the purpose
of holding logs of wood and aiding in their
combustion. Though generally of iron,
14

ANG

they are sometimes of copper, silver (as
at Knole, in Kent), or even gold, and
often artistically decorated. As a rule
they were two in numbei, but at Penshurst, in Kent, a single one is found.
Andrew, St. Brother of Simon Peter
and patron saint of Scotland and Russia.
H e suffered martyrdom A D. 70. His
attribute in art is the transverse cross, on
which he is said to have been crucified.
Anelace. A short sword or dagger car­
ried by civilians until the end
of the 15th century. It was
double-edged and tapered to
a point. In representations
of it* which have come down
to us on monuments and else­
where, it is suspended from
the girdle. Our cut is from
a monumental brass of the
time of Edward III.
Angels. T h e worship of
angels was early introduced
in the Christian Church, and they are
constantly represented in devotional art.
Their characteristics are the following :
they are h u m a n in form and winged ;
they are always young and masculine,
and are draped generally in white.
They are the messengers of God, the
rulers of the stars and elements, the
guardians of the just, and the choristers
of Heaven, in which last capacity they
are frequently represented with various
musical instruments. In Christian archi­
tecture they fill up every space ; they are
found on friezes, in the spandrils of
arches, and as corbels ; they also hold
emblems, labels with inscriptions, and
candlesticks. They have been repre­
sented pictorially by many artists from
the earliest times down to William Blake,
whose drawings of angels are full of
originality and poetry. Their attributes
are trumpets, flaming swords, sceptres,
censers, and musical instruments.
Angle. T h e inclination of two straight
lines to another. An angle is rectilinear
when the lines which contain it are
straight lines. It is called curvilinear

ANG

ART

DICTIONARY.

when it is contained by portions of
curves. When one straight line standing
on another straight line makes the adjacent angles equal, each of these angles
is called a right angle. A right angle
measures go°. An angle of 45 0 (i.e. half
a right angle) is the angle most frequentlyemployed in architecture. Every angle

which measures less than a right angle
is called an acute angle, and every angle
which measures more than a right angle
is called an obtuse angle. Two angles
are called complementary when their
sum is equal to a right angle, and supplementary when their sum is equal to
two right angles.
Angle, Facial. T h e angle formed on
the face by two straight lines drawn from
the base of the nose, the
one to the base of the
ear, the other to the most
projecting point on the
forehead.
In
antique
statues the facial angle
is generally 90 0 . As a
general principle it may
be said that intelligence is proportional
to the facial angle. It is at any rate
an incontestable fact that the lower
one descends in the h u m a n race the
more the facial angle diminishes.
Angle-shaft.
(Arch.)
A round moulding,
either unbroken or ornamented, placed at an
angle.
It replaces a
sharp angle, which is
always fragile, by a
round surface, capable
of greater resistance and
less likely to wear out.
Angled. ( H e r ) This term is used
when the division of a shield forms a

ANI

projection instead of a perfectly straight
line. As an armorial bear- (
ing it has been used to indicate a bastard, and according to some authorities
it is one of the six marks
of bastardy. *

Anglo-Saxon Architecture.

(Arch.)

T h e style of architecture which prevailed
in England between the 6th and n t h
centuries. Its chief characteristics are
the following : the walls were of rubble
and herring-bone work; the arches
semicircular ; doorways either roundarched or triangular-headed, and the
windows small. T h e decoration was of
the simplest character, and the balusters
or small columns bear traces of being
copied from woodwork. T h e tower of
Sompting Church, in Sussex, is a good
example of the style.
Animals, Hybrid. In ancient and
mediaeval art we find represented certain animals which are a combination

of different species, such as centaurs
(horses with their upper part human),
sphinxes (lions with human faces), &c
Animals, Symbolic. (Arch.) Symbolic
animals are those fantastic monsters
with which the surface of walls was
15

ART

ANI

DICTIONARY.

covered both in ancient times and in
the Middle Ages. Examples of them
exist in the temple of Belhus, while the
façades of our own Gothic cathedrals
are sometimes entirely covered with
grotesque figures, the symbolic meaning
of which has been interpreted in various
ways by archeologists.
Animation. (Paint.) Certain qualities
of vivacity, quickness of imagination,
and execution which a skilful artist
can put into his work. T h u s we speak
of a painter having more skill than
animation.
Anime is a resinous gum which is mixed
with copal varnish to make it dry quicker.
Anklet. A gold ornament worn by the
Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans just

above the ankle, as a bracelet is on the
arm.
Anne, St. T h e mother of the Virgin
Mary. She is frequently represented in
pictures of the Holy Family, and is
generally reading a book.
Annealing. T o prevent glass and certain metals from becoming suddenly
brittle after melting they undergo a
process called annealing.
This process
consists in placing glass vessels in a hot
oven, where they take several hours or
even days to cool, and in heating metals
again after hammering.
Annodated. (Her.) Bent like the letter S.
Annulated, Annuly. (Her.) Said of a
charge which has an annulet at each extremity.
Annulet. (Her.) A ring, used either as
a charge or as a mark of difference of
the fifth son.
Annulets. (Arch ) Small projecting
mouldings in the shape of a ring, which
in the ancient orders are found at the
16

ANT

intersection of the shaft of the column
with the capital. In Gothic
monuments of the 12th and
13th centuries annulets are
found distributed at different
heights along the shaft of the
column, so as to slightly interrupt the lines of the column
and to increase its appearance of resistance.
Annunciation. This event in the life
of the Virgin is frequently treated in
Christian art. As a mystical subject it
almost always formed part of an altarpiece, whatever its subject, being let in
either in the spandrils or the predella.
As an event the annunciation is a
frequent subject of the early painters.
T h e scene is laid in a house or porch,
and the accessories are a pot of lilies,
a basket of work, or distaff. T h e angel
is represented as descending to earth
and generally carries a lily or a sceptre,
the latter being surmounted by a cross.
Antae. (Arch.) Pilasters increasing
the thickness of a wall at the angles of
a building. In classical architecture a
temple is said to be in antis when the

façade is decorated by two columns of
the same thickness as the pilasters or
antae, which they help in supporting the
beams and roof of the temple.
Ante-chapel. (Arch.) T h a t portion of
a chapel which lies to the west of the
choir-screen.
Antefixae. (Arch ) Ornaments which

generally take the shape of a palm leaf

ANT

ART

DIC TIO

—or sometimes that of a mask—and
form the coping of a cornice, or serve
to hide the semi-cylindrical ridge-tiles
or the overlapping projection of the
roof. They are often of exquisite work­
manship.
Antependium. Decorations placed in
front of a Christian altar, such as hang­
ings of embroidered cloth, plates of
metal or panels of carved wood.
Anthony, St. A hermit who lived in
the 4th century and underwent every
kind of temptation.
St. Anthony is
generally represented as wearing the
monk's habit and cowl, and his attri­
butes are the crutch, to mark his age,
and the bell and asperges, the instru­
ments of exorcism. Beside him a hog,
the demon of sensuality, is often figured.
T h e temptation of St. Anthony is vari­
ously treated. In early pictures he is
only confronted by a beautiful woman,
but in later times he has been repre­
sented as surrounded by foul demons
of every sort and shape, as in the gro­
tesque prints of Martin Schongauer and
Callot.
Anthropomorphism. T h e practice,
universal in ancient art, of representing
the gods in h u m a n guise.
Antiplastic. A term applied to certain
substances, such as quartz, sand, & c ,
which are used in pottery to mix with
the paste, in order that the
plasticity
of the aluminous silicates of which the
paste consists may be diminished.
Antiquaille. A term of contempt used
to denote antiques of small value or no
interest.
Antiquary. In former times a man
skilled in ancient lore or a collector of
antiquities was called an antiquary.
The
term is only used to-day to imply con­
tempt or to describe a vendor of curiosi­
ties. T h e antiquary as a learned man
is now called an archeologist.
Antique. Under this designation are
included Greek and Roman works of
sculpture, such as statues, bas-reliefs
and engraved gems. T h e study of the

ANT

NARY.

antique is the study of the b e a u t y of
form and the purity of outline as ob­
served in classical works of art.
In
modern art schools students generally
go through a course of drawing from
the antique before entering the lifeschool.
Antiquities. Under this name are
classed the ruins of buildings, monu­
ments, arms, furniture, ornaments, all
the remains in fact of ancient art. T h e
term is especially applied to the artistic
objects of the Byzantine, Gothic, and
Renaissance periods, the term antiques
being reserved for Greek and Roman
works of art.
Antonine Column. A pillar erected in
honour of M. Aurelius and decorated by
a spiral series of reliefs, representing
scenes from that Emperor's war with
the Germans. It is a close imitation of

Trajan's column, to which it is artisti­
cally inferior. Its pedestal was restored
in the 16th century, and a statue of
St. Paul now stands on its summit.
Though of little artistic merit, it is of
considerable archaeological value, as it

η

ANV

ART

DIC ΊΟΝΑΚΥ.

is our best source of information as to
the costumes, arms, and equipments of
both the Romans and Barbarians of the
second century.
Anvil. In Christian art the attribute of
St. Adrian (q.v.) and St. Eloy (q.v.).
Ape. T h e symbol of malice and lust.
In Christian art the devil is often figured
under this guise.
Aphrodite. In Greek mythology the
goddess of love. In the best period of
Greek art she was represented draped,
but in later times nude. A celebrated
picture of Apelles represented her as
Anadyomene (q.v.), or rising from the
sea. H e r symbols were the dove, hare,
dolphin, swan, and tortoise, besides the
apple, the rose, and various other flowers
and fruits.
Aplustre. A wooden ornament which
surmounted the stern of a Roman gal­
ley.
It was very graceful in shape,

resembling a fan or the outspread
feathers of a bird. It is accordingly
employed in art to symbolise a sea­
faring life or a naval victory.
Apodyterium. (Arch.) T h e room in
an ancient bath, in which the bathers
undressed.
Apollo. In Greek mythology the god
of light, both mental and physical, and
18

ΑΡΟ

so of knowledge, music, and purity. H e
is generally represented in Greek art of
the best period as a youthful athlete. In
the art of Greek decadence the Apollo
type became more effeminate. As the
god of music he holds a lyre, and is re­
presented as draped or with long flowing
hair. H e is also found with a bow and
arrow in his hand, as killing a lizard
(Sauroctonus), and as vanquishing Marsyas, whom he afterwards flayed. T h e
symbols of Apollo are the lyre, the
laurel, the wolf, swan, raven, &c.
Apollonia, St. T h e patroness against
toothache and diseases of the teeth.
She suffered a martyr's death in 250 A.D.,
her teeth being drawn out. Her attributes
are a palm and a pair of pincers with a
tooth.
Apophyge. (Arch.) A concave curve, by
which the shaft of a column
is connected with the projec­
ting mouldings of the base
and capital.
Apostles. In earliest time
the representation of the
apostles is purely emblematical, they
being figured as twelve sheep. They
were next represented as twelve men,
all alike, each with a sheep, and later
with a scroll. From the 6th century they
were distinguished each by his attribute.
Apotheosis. A ceremony by which a
mortal was placed among the gods.
T h e r e are in existence a number of
medals, paintings, and sculptures in­

tended to perpetuate the memory of this
ceremony. An essential part of it was the
burning of an effigy of the deceased. As
the smoke ascended an eagle was let loose,

APP

ART

DICTIONARY.

which was supposed to carry the soul of
the dead man to heaven. Consequently
on Roman coins struck in honour of an
apotheosis we often find a fire burning
on an altar and an eagle ascending. In
the British Museum there is an apotheosis
of Homer in bas-relief, which is said to
date from the time of the Emperor
Claudius.
In modern times some
painters have designed apotheoses, such
as that of Charles V. by Titian, and of
James I. by Rubens, the latter of which
decorates the ceiling of Whitehall Chapel.
This term is also used on the stage to
denote the final tableau in fairy scenes
or in great spectacles.
Apparels. (Cost.) A word used to denote the embroidered borders of ecclesiastical garments. They were very richly

ornamented, and often studded with
gems.
As a rule, they were placed
round the bottom and on the waist of
the vestment.
Appaumée. (Her.) Said of a hand
when it is blazoned upright with the palm
presented to view.
Apple. In classical art the apple was
an attribute of Aphrodite. In devotional
art it typifies the temptation and fall of
man.
Appliqué. A general term for ornaments which are let into or fixed on to
the surface of an object. For instance,
a wood panel may be decorated by appliqués of bronze. T h e name is par-

APP

ticularly given to candelabra, the horizontal shank of which
is terminated by an
ornament, fixed on a
vertical surface, such
as panelling, wainscoting, or pilasters.
Apse. (Arch.) T h e
semi-circular or polygonal termination of a
church, situated behind the choir. In
Christian churches, which run from west
to east, the apse is at the east end. In
the Romanesque or Norman churches
the apse generally takes the shape of a
semicircle.
In
the 13th century
it is polygonal,
but flanked by
chapels at its
base.
Though
the apse is more
commonly met
with on the Continent, many
specimens remain in England, especially
from Norman times. Good examples are
to be seen in Westminster Abbey, St.
Bartholomew's, Smithfield, and Gloucester Cathedral. In the latter case the
apse has disappeared in the superstructure, but remains in the crypt.
A p s i d a l C h a p e l s . (Arch.) Small
chapels attached to the apse of a church.
They are sometimes semicircular, sometimes polygonal. They are nearly always
uneven in number, t h e one
placed at the
a x i s of t h e
church being as
a rule considerably larger than
the others, and
dedicated to the Virgin. In English
cathedrals this chapel is called the Lady
Chapel. Apsidal chapels exist at Tewkesbury Abbey, Westminster Abbey, and in
the crypt of Gloucester Cathedral.
Apteral. (Arch.) A name given to
19

AQU

ART

DICTIONARY.

ancient temples which have no lateral
colonnades.
Aquatint. (Engrav.) A process of en­
graving by which sepia drawings can be
reproduced with great accuracy. T h e
copper plate, before being exposed to
the action of the acid, is covered by
powdered mastic. This prevents the
aqua-fortis from acting upon it, and a
mottled surface is thus produced.
Aquae-manalis. A vessel used in
churches for washing the hands by the
celebrant of the liturgy.
Aqua-fortis. Diluted nitric acid,
which is used by etchers for biting in.
Aqua-marina. A gem of a green tint,
often used by gem-engravers in ancient
times.
Aqueduct.
Constructions either
above or under ground employed to
conduct water. Aqueducts of Roman
construction, some of which are still in
existence, are absolute monuments of
art, and in some cases harmonise won­
derfully with the lines of the landscape.
In modern times aqueducts are built
from the designs of engineers, and are
as a rule nothing more than water-pipes
of immense girth. They are generally
carried underground that they may
escape the frost in winter and that the
water they convey may be kept cool in
summer.
Arabesque. A system of ornament
consisting of wreaths of foliage and
realistic or fantastic figures, combined in
an absolutely capricious style, delicately
interlaced and describing graceful curves.

In the Arabian style Arabesques are
composed entirely of ornaments drawn
from the vegetable kingdom, for repre­
sentations of men and animals were
forbidden by the prophet. In the style
20

of the Renaissance Arabesques
wonderfully rich and
elegant
Raphael
employed this sys­
tem of ornament in
the decoration of the
Loggia at the Vati­
can. It is a mistake
to apply the term
Arabesque to the
friezes of buildings
belonging to the Ro­
man period.
The
regular bands of or­
nament in vogue at
this period can only
be termed foliage.
Ar a e ο s t y l e .
(Arch.) A temple is
called
araeostyle,
when the distance
between its columns
is more than three
times the diameter
of the column.

ARC
were

Araeosystyle.
(Arch ) A term ap­
plied to an arrangement of columns set
two and two together, having half a dia­
meter for the smaller interval, and three
and a half diameters for the larger.
Arbalest. T h e name given in the
Middle Ages to the cross-bow, a weapon
which was invented by the Romans in
the East, and called by them arca-balista.
It was introduced into England at the
Norman Conquest, but its use was
prohibited by the Church in 1139.
Richard I. reintroduced the arbalest into
England, and was killed by one as a
judgment, it is said, for using a pro­
hibited weapon " in defiance of God."
Arcade. (Arch.) A series of arches,
which are employed for decorative
purposes chiefly in buildings of the
Pointed style. T h e term includes the
large arches and piers which in many
English cathedrals separate the aisles
from the nave ; but it is especially applied
to series of arches which decorate the

ARC

ART

DICTIONARY.

ARC

space under the windows either within
or without the building
Sometimes
arcades are set right against the wall,
sometimes they are detached so that
there is a clear space behind them.
When set near the ground they frequently

architecture. T h e highest point of an
arch is called the crown or vertex ; the
lowest line is termed the springing line ;
the spaces between the vertex and the
springing line are called the flanks. T h e
upper and lower surfaces of an arch are
called the extrados and intrados respectively. T h e piers of an arch are termed
abutments
or springing walls.
The
stones of which an arch is composed are
termed voussoirs, and the top stone of
all, the keystone.
The
term arch is
also applied
to the vault of
abridge. T h e
highest and
largest arch
in a bridge is
called the main arch, and occupies the
project so as to form sedilia. An arcade centre of the bridge.
Arch, Angular. An arch formed by the
sometimes occupies the triforium space
(q.v.), an instance of which may be seen
in the Temple Church. Finally, as a
system of ornament, small arcades are
found on fonts, altars, &c
Arch. (Arch.) An arch is a solid construction composed of separate stones
or bricks, so arranged that their lower
surfaces shall form the arc of a curve. inclination of straight lines to one
The origin of the arch is unknown, but it another at an angle.
—, Basket-handle. An arch formed
was first brought into general use by the
, * * • : . * · · .

Romans.

T h e earliest known instance
of an arch is in
the Cloaca Maxima at Rome.
The
pointed
arch first made
its appearance in
Western Europe
about the end of
the 12th century, and is held by some
writers on architecture to have been
suggested by the interlacing of round
arches in arcades. In all probability,
however, it was previously known, and
was adopted because it was not only
beautiful but practical. T h e arch is the
distinguishing characteristic of Gothic

by the segments of three circles meeting
each other.
—, Byzantine. [Arch, Horseshoe.]
—, Catenarian. An arch in the form
of an inverted catenary, a catenary being
a mechanical curve, which a flexible body
of uniform density would form itself into,
if freely hung from its two extremities.
—, Contrasted. [Arch, Ogee.]
—, Depressed. A flat-headed opening
21

DIC

ARC

with the angles rounded off into segments

sists of a segment of a circle, greater
than a semicircle.

ARC

ART

of circles, frequently met with in the
Perpendicular style of architecture.
Arch, Discharging, or Relieving. An
arch placed over a lintel of stone, wood

—, Ogee An arch with four centres,
two of which are in or near the springing
line, the other two above the arch. It is
or iron, the object of which is to relieve
the lintel from the weight placed upon
it.
—, Elliptic. An arch which is in the
form of a segment of an ellipse.
—, Extradossed. An arch the voussoirs of which are pierced, and of which
the intrados and extrados (q.v.) are
determined by segments of concentric
circles.
—, Four-centred. An arch with four
centres, two of which are on the springing
line and two below. These four centres
may be determined by describing a square

called an ogee arch because each of its
flanks exactly resembles the contour of
the ogee moulding. T h e monuments
of the 15th and 16th century belonging

to the Perpendicular or Flamboyant style
afford many examples of the ogee arch. x

under the springing line, each of its sides
being equal to one-third the springing
line. This arch was characteristic of the
Tudor style in England, which took its
rise in the reign of Henry VII.
—, Horse-shoe. An arch which con22

—, F o i n t e d . An arch formed by two

ARC

ART

DICTIONARY.

segments of circles, which make an angle
at their intersection.
Pointed
arches are of three
kinds: i. T h e equilateral arch, i.e.
described from two
centres, which are the whole breadth of
the arch from one another, and form
the arch about an equilateral triangle
(illustrated at bottom of opposite page).
2. T h e drop
arch,
which has its radius
shorter than
the
breadth of the arch,
and is described about
an obtuse-angled triangle. 3. T h e lancet arch, which has
a radius longer than the breadth of the
arch, and is described about an acuteangled triangle.
Arch, Rampant. An arch the imposts
(q.v.) of which are placed at different
heights. These arches have frequently

ARC

of a semicircle ; it has its centre in the
springing line.

Arch, Sloping. [Arch, Weathering.]
—, Stilted, or Surmounted. An arch
enclosing a
figure
made up of a semicircle standing on a
rectangle, the centre
of the circle thus lying in the upper sice
of the rectangle.
—, Surbased. An arch is terme 1 · 1 r
based when it is less than a semicircle,
i.e., when the height from its spring to
its crown is less than half its span.
—, Trefoil. An arch formed of three
foils or segments of circles.
- —, Triumphal. A monument to commemorate a victory, consisting of one
large archway flanked very often by two
smaller ones, surrounded with pilasters, and decorated with allegorical basreliefs. Among the triumphal arches
of the Roman period we may mention

been employed in Gothic architecture
and in the construction of piers from
flying buttresses.
—, Reversed. An arch built in the
reverse direction to ordinary arches.

It serves to connect separate piles of
masonry, and is frequently employed to
strengthen the foundations of a wall and
for other structural purposes.
—, Semicircular. An arch in the form

those of Trajan, Septimus Severus,
Augustus, and Constantine, while among
those of quite recent construction the
most famous is that which stands in the
Place de l'Étoile, in Paris. T h e latter
was erected in honour of the Grande
Armée, and is decorated with a fine
bas-relief by Rude.
23

ARC

ART

DIG 70NARY.

ARC

possessing numerous points of similarity
Arch, Tudor. [Arch, Four-centred.]
—, Weathering. An arch included with them. We say, too, that a picture
between two planes, the one vertical, the is conceived in an archaic spirit when
it recalls to us some ancient work, and
reminds us of the productions of generations long since passed away.
Archaism. T h e imitation of the
methods and processes of the ancients.
Archaism is a danger in the arts of
design, and should seldom be employed
other oblique. It is often met with in a sus- except in the restoration and reconstructaining wall or the wall of a fortified castle. tion of works of ancient art.
Archangels. T h e seven angels who
—, Zigzag. An arch of which the exstand in the presence of God.
In
trados is cut into a zigzag pattern.
Archaeological. T h a t which relates Christian art they are represented with
the following attributes :—Michael bears
to archaeology.
Archaeologist. One who devotes him- the sword and scales ; Gabriel, the lily ;
Raphael, the pilgrim's staff and gourd ;
self to the study of archaeology.
Archaeology. T h e science of anti- Uriel, a roll and a book ; Chamuel, a cup
quity, the object of which is the study of and a staff ; Zophiel, a flaming sword ;
all that relates to the arts and monuments and Zadkiel, the sacrificial knife.
of former times. It includes the study of
Architect. An artist who designs a
the styles of every period and every building and superintends its construcpeople. It is also concerned in the re- tion.
construction of the buildings, the social
Architectural. T h a t which is constate, and the manners and customs of cerned with architecture.
preceding generations by the documenArchitectural Painter. A painter who
tary evidence furnished by ruins or the only executes pictures which are archiremains of monuments which have come tectural in subject. Among architectural
down to us from early times.
painters we may mention the Dutchmen,
Archaeology of Art is that particular Van der Heyden and De Witte, the Italbranch of archaeology which is concerned ians, Bellini and Canaletti, and the Engwith the study of the monuments of the lishman, Samuel Prout.
art of antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the
Architecture. T h e art of designing and
Renaissance. It includes the study of constructing buildings.
Architecture
architecture, painting, sculpture, engrav- should keep in view above all things the
ing, numismatics, i.e. coins and medals, permanence of a building and the puriconography, i.e. the portraits of illus- pose to which it is to be put. Though it
trious men, and glyptics, i.e. engraved belongs as much to the domain of science
stones. T h e archaeology of art includes as to that of art, the study necessary to
the whole history of the fine arts from enable the architect to realise the conthe most remote times.
ditions we have named is subordinated
Archaic. When a monument is said to the demands of art.
—, Civil. T h e art of architecture apto be decidedly archaic in style, it means
that it presents the characteristics of plied to the construction of civil buildprimitive art. T h e object of archaic ings either public or private.
—, False. A decorative painting or
studies is to discover the methods and
processes of the ancients, and so to theatrical decoration, which attempts to
render possible the production of works represent the relief of a real building
not exactly like those of the ancients, but just as it would appear at the same dis24

ART

ARC

3

ARC

DICTIONARY.

tance as that at which the spectator is
placed from the painting or decoration.
Architecture, Military. Architecture
applied to military constructions.
—, Religious. The art of architecture
applied to religious constructions.
Architrave. (Arch.) T h e lower part of
the entablature. The architrave is placed
directly on the capital with a free bearing
from column to column or pilaster to
pilaster. In the Doric
order the architrave
is simply one smooth
block. In the Ionic
order it is composed
of three blocks, each
jutting slightly beyond the one underneath it. Generally speaking the architrave is unornamented, so as to form a
contrast to the rich decoration of the
frieze. This simplicity renders it quite
clear that the purpose of this portion of
the entablature is to form a horizontal
connection between the vertical supports
of the structure.
Archivolt. (Arch ) A moulding decorating an arch
and corresponding
exactly to the
contour of the
arch. In ancient architecture the archivolt only decorates one side
of an arch In buildings of the Gothic
style, however, the same moulding is generally repeated
v
on each side of
\
the arch. T h e
outline of the
archivolt varied
considerably in the different periods
of Gothic architecture. In
the 13th century it is of the utmost simplicity ; in

the 14th century it is decorated with astragals, and in the 15th century is deeply
cut out. In the Arabian style archivolts frequently consist of stucco traceries. T h e term archivolt is frequently
used by mediaeval writers to mean a
mere vault.
Archway. (Arch.) A circular opening

which assumes the various forms of the
arch.
—, Twin. An opening which presents
the appearance of two archways of similar

dimensions, placed side by side, or an
opening formed by two semi-circles,
which touch at one of their extremities.
Arcs d o u b l e a u x . [Ribs, Transverse.]
Arena. (Arch.) T h e space reserved in
the Roman circus for races and gladiatorial combats. T h e term is also applied
to entire buildings which are employed
as circuses or amphitheatres.
Areotectonics. T h e application of
military architecture to the construction
of fortifications.
Ares. T h e Greek god of war. H e is
represented in art as a youth of powerful
frame, wearing a helmet and carrying a
shield and spear. A burning torch and
a spear are his attributes, while he is
symbolised by a vulture and a dog.
Argent. (Her.) T h e metal silver. It
is generally written ar. In engraving
2

5

ART

ARM

DICTIONARY.

it is represented by a plain white surface.
Arm-chair. A chair with arms and a
back. T h e arm-chairs or faldstools (q.v.)
of the Middle Ages were simple in construction and easily folded up and transported.
At a later period they were
decorated with tapestries and, in the
14th century, often covered with a canopy.
In the 15th and 16th centuries the arms
were more and more ornamented. Finally
in the 17th and 18th centuries arm-chairs
assumed a curvilinear form ; their out-

lines became more graceful and their comfort was much increased. In France, under the First Empire, they were decorated
with heads of sphinxes and designed in a
pseudo-classical style. T h e arm-chairs
of to-day are, as a rule, reproductions of
those of former times. If we can be
said to have produced any special form
of our own, it is one in which the demands of art are entirely subordinated
to considerations of comfort.
Armature. (Arch.) Iron bars used
for strengthening or sustaining. Architraves, for instance, with a wide free

bearing, when placed upon slender
columns, are strengthened by armatures.
26

ARM

T h e term is also applied to the iron
frame-work of windows.
A r m e d . (Her.) Provided with the
natural weapons of defence. A lion is
armed of his claws and teeth, &c. In
blazoning, a knight is said to be armed at
all points when he is completely cased
in armour.
Armes Parlantes. (Her ) Under this
term are included arms and crests suggested by the name of the
family which bears them,
and so forming a kind of rebus. T h u s the coat of arms
of the King of Grenada in
Spain is a grenade. T h e
families of Salmon, Sturgeon, and i ^ m b
bear salmons, sturgeons, and lambs respectively.
Armet. A helmet of uncertain form

in use in the latter half of the 15th century. It was worn with or without a
beaver, and the cuts here given probably
represent it.
Armilausa. A sleeveless garment open
at each side, worn
by knights over
their armour. It
varied in form
considerably, but
always retained
the name armilausa.
Armorial Bearings. (Her.) T h e
devices
painted
on a shield which
serve to distinguish f a m i l i e s ,
cities, and corporations. In the n t h

ARM

ART

DICTIONARY.

century jousts or tournaments were in
vogue in Germany, and the
knights
who
competed
adopted colours or devices.
When they returned from
the wars in the East the
Western Christians preserved the armorial bearings, which had rendered them recognisable during the combat. That is how,
according to Viollet - le - Duc, armorial
bearings became hereditary like the
name and property of the head of the
family. Blazoning a coat of arms is
giving a technical description of it. By
the Art of Heraldry the rules of blazoning were set forth in the 12th century,
developed in the 13th century, and finally
fixed during the 14th and 15th centuries.
Armour. Defences worn by the ancients as well as by the knights and
warriors of the Middle Ages. Among
the Egyptians a helmet and cuirass were
worn, but the
shield was the
most important defensive
arm.
The
Greeks
carried a shield
and
added
greaves to the
helmet
and
cuirass of the
Egyptians.
T h e armour
of the Romans
only differed
in detail from
that of the
Greeks.
In
England mail
armour
was
used until the
time of Edward I., when a mixture of mail and
plate began to be worn. In the time of
Richard II. plate entirely superseded
mail, and remained in vogue until the
beginning of the 17th century, when the

ARR

altered conditions of warfare rendered
armour unnecessary.
Armourer's Art. T h e art of fashioning armour, which was often enriched
with gold and silver work, chasing, and
damascene, and was sometimes inlaid
with ivory.
Arm-rest. (Arch.) A term applied to
the arm of church stalls on which persons
leaned their elbows. T h e arm-rest is
a flat surface or
ledge supported
by
colonnettes,
ornamented consoles, or groups
of figurines, often
grotesque.
Arquebus
or
Arcubus.
A
primitive form of
gun invented in
the 15th and in
use until the 17th
century. It was the first gun fired off by
the action of a trigger.
Arraché. (Her.) [Erased.]
Arrangement. (Paint.) T h e method
in which a painter composes his figures
and combines his groups.
Arras. A woven material made at
Arras in France in the 14th century and
used as a hanging for rooms.
Arris. (Arch.) T h e angle or corner
formed by the intersection of two surfaces.

Arrondi. (Her.) A term applied to
charges which, instead of
being represented in their
ordinary shape, are curved
or rounded. T h u s we speak
of a stag's antler arrondi,
serpent arrondi, &c.
Arrow. T h e arrow of the Romans had
a plain bronze head without a barb, the
barbed head being characteristic of
Asiatics.
T h e arrows of the early
27

ARR

ART

DIC 10NARY.

Britons were headed with flint or bone,
those of the Saxons and Danes with iron.
By the latter peoples they were chiefly
used for the chase. T h e Normans used
arrows with deadly effect as weapons of
war, and after the conquest the English
became expert bowmen, the ' ' cloth-yard ' '
shaft of the English yeoman being very
celebrated in the Middle Ages.
Artemis. T h e moon-goddess and patroness of hunters. T h e Ephesian Artemis, of Eastern origin, is represented as
wearing a mural crown with a disc, as the
emblem of the full moon. Her legs are
swathed and ornamented with figures of
bulls, stags, bees, and flowers, and she is
many-breasted. In Greek Art she generally figures as a huntress. T h e incident of Actaeon being turned into a stag
and torn to pieces by his own hounds for
gazing on Artemis in her bath, is a
favourite subject both in vase-paintings
and bas-reliefs. Stags and dogs were
sacred to her.
Artisan. A name formerly applied to
artists, but now only given to those workmen employed in various mechanical
trades who possess some special skill, in
which, however, invention plays no part.
T h e artisan's business is to translate in
various materials the artist's design.
Artist One who practises the fine arts.
Artist's Proof. [Proof.]
Aryballus. An antique vase, which
was used to draw liquids from
vessels of a larger size, and also
to hold the oil with which
bathers
rubbed
themselves
down. It was almost spherical
in form with a narrowed neck and a
small handle.
Ascus. An antique vase in the form of
a hemisphere, having a neck
and a semicircular handle.
It was supposed to resemble
a wine-skin in shape, and
was used to hold liquids.
Ashlar. (Arch.) Stones hewn and cut
square for use in buildings, opposed to
rough stones straight from the quarry.
28

ASS

Asp. In Christian Art the asp symbolises malice. It is frequently placed beneath the feet of saints, bishops, and even

representations of Faith, Charity, & c , to
indicate their triumph over evil. Our
illustration is taken from the monument
of a bishop in the Temple Church.
Aspectant. (Her.) Face to face.
Asperges. T h e rod used for sprink-

ling the holy water in the service of the
Roman Catholic Church.
Asphalt. A bituminous material used
as mortar by certain Eastern peoples, and
employed in our times as a covering for
such surfaces as walls, causeways, and
roads.
Asphaltum. A brown pigment used
in the arts. T h e best kind comes from
Egypt.
Assemblage. Method of joining timber-work and carpentry.
T h e r e are
several methods of assemblage, such as

by mortise and tenon, dovetailing, & c ,
but the study of their peculiarities
belongs rather to construction than to
art.

ASS

ART

DIC 10NARY.

ΑΤΗ

Assumption. The assumption of the
Virgin is a favourite subject with early
painters. The tomb is represented be­
low, the virgin is pictured as ascending
to heaven or else as seated on a throne,
while St. Thomas receives the mystic
girdle.
Astragal. (Arch.) A moulding the
profile of which is a semicircle, placed

Atelier. A French term denoting the
workroom of sculptors or painters.
[Studio.]
Athenaeum. A building in which the
philosophers of antiquity met, and
poets and orators publicly read their
works. In modern times this word, like
Alhambra and Alcazar (q.v.), has abso­
lutely lost its meaning. It may now be
applied to any hall where public meet­
ings are held, and particularly to build­
ings where conferences take place or
courses of lectures are delivered.
Athene. Among the Greeks the virgin
at the base of capitals in the ancient or­
goddess of gentleness, wisdom, and art,
ders. Astragals are also called baguettes
and above all the protectress of Athens.
or beads, when the moulding consists of
She is represented as fully draped and
wearing the aegis, and armed with hel­
met, spear, and shield. T h e most cele­
brated statue of her was of gold and ivory,
the work of Pheidias, which was in the Par­
thenon at Athens. T h e incidents of her
birth, her contests with the giants, & c ,
an alternation of round Or pearl-shaped were often represented on painted vases.
and angular forms. They are sometimes T h e symbols of Athene are the owl, the
cock, the snake, and the olive-tree.
found on Gothic capitals.
Astragalus. T h e name among the
Athletes. T h e combatants in the
Greeks for the knuckle-bone of animals.
Astragali were used in several games,

and boys playing at knuckle-bones (astvagalizontes) were a favourite subject
with classical sculptors.
At Bay. (Her.) A term used in de­
scribing a stag with its head down in an
attitude of defence.
At Gaze. (Her.) Full-faced, said of an
animal of the chase.

Greek games provided Greek artists with
29

ATL

ART

DICTIONARY.

their finest models. Many statues of
athletes have come down to us, and are
marked by distinct characteristics, such
as short hair, sturdy limbs, powerfully
developed body, and small heads. Athletes are also often represented with
their attributes on Greek vases. T h e
study of the athletic type exercised a
decided and important influence on
Greek art.
Atlantes. (Arch.) T h e athletic male
figures in a standing or
kneeling posture, employed as supports in
some ancient
Greek
temples. T h e word is
derived
from
A tlas,
whom
the
ancients
figured as holding the
earth on his shoulders.
In
Roman
buildings
these figures were called
Telamones. T h e tepidarium in the public baths at Pompeii
was decorated with figures of this kind.
Atrium. (Arch.) In Roman buildings
the atrium was a central court surrounded by a colonnade, round which
the smaller rooms were grouped.
It
was a kind of vestibule,
either open to the sky
or covered with a curt a i n . I n B y z a n t i n e I **· " ' l ·
architecture the atrium
is the courtyard outside a building.
Such is the atrium of the mosque of St.
Sophia, which is surrounded by Ionic
columns and decorated with basins of
jasper.
Attachment. Attachments in anatomy are the points to which the muscles
or ligaments are fixed. In the language
of Art we particularly mean by attachment the way in which a limb is set on
the body. T h u s we say a piece of sculpture has delicate attachments if the
limbs are well set on the body, and that
the attachments are bad when they lack
style and show signs of careless study.
Attic. (Arch.) T h e part of the en-

3°

AUG

tablature above the cornice. Its purpose is to hide the roof and add dignity
to the design. T h e name attic is also
given to the top story of a building when

it is only one-half or at most two-thirds
of the story below it. A good specimen
of an attic is to be seen in Somerset
House in London, on the side looking
towards the Strand.
Atticurge. (Arch.) A square support,
such as a pedestal, pillar, or pilaster.
Attired. (Her.) As a lion is said to
be armed (q.v.) of his claws, so animals
with ornamental weapons of defence
such as stags are said to be attired.
Attitude. (Paint.) T h e attitude, the
pose, the movement of a figure should
always be true to nature, and at the
same time should afford the artist an
opportunity for drawing beautiful lines.
Attributes. (Paint.) Attributes in
painting are those accessories which
give character to a scene or figure. In
a portrait, for instance, should the
model be a literary man, he should be
surrounded with books, if a painter with
pictures, &c. Discretion and tact must
be exercised as well in the grouping of
the attributes as in their choice.
In
decorative art we speak of a group of
attributes. In this case the word attributes denotes the instruments and accessories characteristic of an art, a profession, or even a sport—the attributes of
painting, for example, of sculpture, of
fishing, of the chase, &c.
Augmentation. (Her.) An honour-

AUR

ART

AZU

DICTIONARY.

able addition granted by a sovereign for
distinguished services. For instance,
the Duke of Wellington was allowed to
charge upon an inescutcheon the Union
Jack. This was an augmentation.
Aureole. An aureole in the language
of art is the luminous
circle which surrounds
the head of deities or
saints represented in pictures or stained - glass
windows.
Sculptors, too, sometimes

place above their figures a circle gilded
or ornamented with stars to represent
an aureole. In this case, however, it is
generally called a nimbus.
Aure ole d. (Her.) Said of sacred figures
the head of which is surrounded by an
aureole.
Autography. A process which consists in writing or drawing with thick
ink on paper specially prepared. T h e
drawing or writing is then transferred
simply by pressure on to a lithographic

stone, and by means of another stone
any number of prints can be struck off.
T h e advantage of autography is that it
is a process which any one can employ
who can draw with pen and ink, and
that the original can be exactly reproduced ; its drawback is that, except
when handled by skilled specialists, the
prints furnished by this process are apt
to be blotchy and blurred.
Avantail. T h e front of a helmet
which could be pushed back at pleasure.
In a helmet which covered the whole

face it was a necessity, to prevent suffocation. It superseded the nasal of the
n t h century, and itself gave way to the
visor of the 14th century.
Aventurine. A delicate kind of glass,
the peculiar brilliancy of which is due
to the presence of copper filings. A venturine is also the name given to a certain colour between a green and a yellow.
• Axe. T h e attribute of St. Matthew
(q.v.) and St. Matthias (q.v.).
Axis. A straight line drawn through
the centre of a figure in such a way that
the portions of the figure lying on opposite sides of the line correspond to one
another symmetrically.
Azulejo. Tiles of enamelled faience
of Mauro-Spanish manufacture, used to
cover the walls of buildings. T h e Hôtel
de Cluny possesses some large plaques
enamelled in this style, earlier in date
than the end of the 15th century, as well
as a large signboard of the factory of
this Spanish pottery, which bears the
inscription Fabrica de Azulejos.
31

AZU

ART

Azure. (Her.) T h e tincture blue. It is
generally written az., and is represented
in engravings by horizontal lines. T h e
term is also used in painting to denote
a fine blue tint suggesting the colour of
the sky. It is obtained from copper,
mercury, and lead. T h e name is also
given to cobalt and ultramarine.
In
painting on enamel powdered azure is
used to produce a fine turquoise tint.

B.

DICTIONARY.

BAD

so minute, in fact, as very often to
detract from the main interest of the
picture.
B a c k - p a i n t i n g . A method of giving
to prints and photographs the appearance
of painting on glass, by affixing them to
glass and staining them with varnish
colours. This process was popular in
the last century with mezzotints, and has
been applied of late years to photographs
under the fanciful name of crystoleum.
B a c k - p l a t e . T h e part of the cuirass
(q.v.) which protects the b a c k ; it is
fastened to the breastplate by a hinge
and clasp or by leather-straps.
Back-yard (Arch.) A courtyard which
serves to light the rooms of a house,
and is, generally speaking, a clear space
situated at some distance from the principal façade of a building.
Baculus. A rod or staff, upon which
persons are often represented as leaning in ancient works of art. T h e long

Bacchantes. T h e inspired worshippers of Bacchus, the wine-god. In every
branch of ancient art they were popular
as subjects. In sculpture the school of
Praxiteles and Scopas was particularly
attracted towards their representation.
They are frequently found painted on
vases, and Bacchic heads are carved in
many of the finest Greek gems. They
are generally represented with vineleaves in their hair, with loose-flowing
ungirt garments, and with a tiger-skin
thrown over their shoulder. They carry
the thyrsus, timbrels, portions of kids,
and serpents. They are also known under
the names of Thyades, Maenades, &c.
Bacchus. [Dionysus.]
Back. T h e part of a seat, either vertical or slightly sloping, against which
one leans one's back — the back of a
chair for instance. T h e term is also
applied to the tapestries or decorated
panels placed at the head of a bed.
Back-enamel (Dec.) Enamel applied
to concave surfaces.
Back-ground In painting the background is the space round a portrait or
group of figures, which is so rendered as baculus was only borne by divinities,
to appear behind them. In the treat- kings, and persons of dignity, while
ment of back-grounds infinite variety has simple folk carried a far shorter one, as
been shown. In the portraits of the old in our illustration.
masters, such as Vandyke, Titian, and
Badge. (Her ) A mark of distincRembrandt, the back-grounds only repre- tion, differing from both the crest and
sented space, and were generally of a the device, which was worn during the
warm brown grey tone. In the hands of Middle Ages, and was the origin of all
modern artists, however, back-grounds armorial bearings.
It was generally
have become more ambitious and minute, worn to distinguish the servants or
32

BAD

ART

DICTIONARY.

retainers of a feudal lord, and it is said
that the Normans
adopted a badge
at the battle of
Hastings.
Nations as well as
individuals have
had their badges.
Thus St.George's
Cross and the
Red Rose are the
badges of England, the thistle
that of Scotland,
and the harp that
of Ireland. Badges worn by servants were
embroidered on the back, breast, or
sleeve, or executed in metal and attached
to the arm. They were also used as
decorations for buildings, furniture, Sec.
Badgers. (Paint.) Brushes made of
badger hair, broad, flat, or cylindrical in form. By means of badgers two
colours freshly laid on are blended the

BAL

Bainbergs. Shin-guards introduced
in the 13th century as an additional protection
for the legs, and
worn over chainarmour. At a later
date they gave
way to greaves
or joints.
Our
i l l u s t r a t i o n is
from a monumental brass in Westley W a t e r l e s s
Church, in Cambridgeshire.
Baking. (Pot.)
T h e operation of
hardening pieces
of pottery after they have been moulded
by submitting them to the action of the
fire. T h e operation is simple when the
paste and the glazing require the same
amount of baking. A double baking is
necessary when the paste, which then
becomes biscuit (q.v.), has to be baked
at one temperature and the glazing has
to be obtained at another.
Balance. (1.) T h e emblem of Justice,
which is often represented as a female
figure blind-folded and holding a balance.
It is also the attribute of the archangel
St. Michael, who is pictured weighing
h u m a n souls in a balance.
Balance. (2.) (Paint.) A synonym for
equilibrium. In a picture we say that
the composition is well-balanced, or that
the groups of figures have balance when
the work is
harmonious
and when the
lights
and
shades are in
equal masses

one with the other. They give a picture
a smooth appearance, but as they destroy outline their use cannot be recommended.
Badigeon. (Paint.) A coarse method
of painting. Many buildings are coated
with a badigeon of a yellow tint. Sometimes it consists of chalk and ochre with
some finely-ground freestone added to it.
Bague. (Arch.) An annular moulding
encircling the shafts of pillars, either
half-way between base and capital or at
lesser intervals.
Baguette. (Arch.) A moulding with
a semicircular profile. In
architecture
plain
baBalcony.
guettes are generally used, (Arch.) A probut for decorative pur- j e c t i n g p l a t *«*"" " poses cabinet-makers em- form on the
ploy baguettes ornamented with head- outside wall of
ings, garlands, and foliage.
a building. Balconies are provided with

33

ART

BAL

DICTIONARY.

BAL

so were marked out for special protection.

balustrades of wood, stone, or iron, and
are supported by props of wood or
iron, or in the case of more ambitious
structures, by consoles of stone. In theatrical architecture the galleries which
run round the theatre are called balconies.
B a l d a c h i n o . A richly ornamented
canopy, supported by columns,
suspended from
the roof or projecting from the
wall. T h e baldachino of St.
Peter's at Rome,
which dates from
the 17th century,
and is the work
of Bernini, measures about a
hundred feet in
height, and is the largest work in bronze
Ball-flower. (Arch.) An ornament
of its kind in the world. In addition to frequently employed
monumental bal- in Gothic architecd a c h i n o s , c o n - ture, consisting of a
structed of metal bead or ball partially
or wood, we find enclosed in a round
examples entirely cup or flower, somecomposed of dra- times perfectly spheriperies
tastefully cal, sometimes open. T h e name is also
arranged and of given to any projecting circular decorathe richest tex- tion, either plain or ornamented.
tures. T h e seats
Ballistraria. An opening in a wall in
Of priests
and
1
the shape of a cross.
princes, as well as
These cruciform loopaltars, are freholes were especially dequently covered with baldachinos. T h e
signed for the discharge
name was also given to the rectanof missiles from crossgular or circular coverings, adorned
bows. It was possible
with plumes, which were placed over
to shoot arrows from
the beds of the Louis XIV. period.
them in several direcB a l d r i c . A broad belt attached
tions ; on the inside they
to the shoulder and passed diawere often splayed.
gonally across the body on to the opBallium, or Bailey. (Arch.) T h e area
posite hip, by which swords, daggers, situated between the outer walls of a
& c , were suspended.
It was fre- fortress or castle and the keep. Some
quently ornamented with jewels, and mediaeval castles had double ballia, an
denoted the rank of the wearer; on example of which is to be seen in the
battle-fields surgeons wore it, and Tower of London.

34

BAL

ART

DICTIONARY.

Balteus. T h e baldric of the Romans,
serving to support a sword or dagger.

It was generally of leather, and frequently ornamented with gold and gems.
It was passed over the right shoulder and
under the left.
Baluster. A part of a balustrade in
the form of a small cylindrical column
terminated at the neck by a hemisphere,
to which it is attached by a splay. T h e
capital and base of a baluster are en-

riched by projecting mouldings.
In
Renaissance buildings balusters are
found of very varied form.
They are
sometimes even square, and their surface
is often covered with sculptured reliefs.
Balusters, Interlaced. (Arch.) Are
those which are connected by a system
of ornamentation.
—, False. (Arch ) A balustrade which
is not pierced.
Balustrade. T h e front of a gallery,
composed of stone, wood, or iron. Balustrades of wood are employed in the bal-

BAN

conies and staircases of dwelling houses.
Iron balustrades, of which the last century has left us some fine specimens,
are used for balconies and staircases, and
are often superb in design. Balustrades
of stone are used in public buildings ;

their form and ornament varies according to the order of architecture to
which the building, in which they are
introduced, belongs. In Gothic architecture balustrades sometimes bear the
name of gallery, and are ornamented
with interlaced mullions, resembling
the tracery of the period to which they
belong.
Bambino. A name given in artistic
phraseology to representations of the
Infant Christ wrapped in swaddling
clothes and bound round by ligatures,
according to the custom prevailing in
Southern Europe. In Italian paintings
bambini are often represented aureoled
and sometimes surrounded by angels.
Bambocciata. (Paint.) A drawing
or picture representing a grotesque or
rustic subject, such as Teniers or Van
Ostade delighted in. This class of compositions was brought into fashion by
Pier van Laer, to whose nickname, II
Bamboccio, the pictures owe their appellation. This painter flourished in the
17th century. His humorous drawings
were celebrated, while he himself was
grotesque on account of a physical deformity. T h e word is now but seldom
used.
Band. (Arch.) A continuous moulding, very slightly projecting, carried
along a horizontal surface or following

35

BAN

ART

the curve of an arch.

I t is frequently

quite flat, but in Gothic architecture
many examples of
bands are found
decorated
with
sculptured ornaments, and sometimes
running
round a whole building.
Banded. (Her.) A charge, such as a
sheaf of arrows, bound with a band of a
different tincture is said to be banded
of that tincture.
Bandelet. (Arch.) A small and simple
moulding, rectangular in form, and approaching more or
less nearly to a square
according
to
the
height and proj ection which is given to
it. Bandelets serve
to unite mouldings,
the profile of which
is a curve.
Banderolle. A band of fine and
wavy material, sometimes rolled up at
its ends, displaying
a legend, inscription, or device. Banderolles are frequently used in decorative or allegorical
compositions, where they
either encircle ornaments or are held
in the hands of figures who are represented as unrolling them. T h e name
is also given to flags or banners which
are carried at the funerals of distinguished persons, and which display the

36

DICTIONARY.

BAP

illustrious marriages of the deceased's
ancestors.

Bandoleer. A belt of leather fitted
with cases for holding cartridges. It
was worn by musketeers in the 17th
century.
Banner. (Her.) A square standard
fixed to a vertical staff by one of its sides,
or attached to the pole by the centre of
its upper side, so as to hang loose.
Such were the ensigns of the knights
bannerets and the banners of the Church.

They were often fringed and tasselled
and decorated with symbols and paintings. T h e national banner or standard of
Great Britain is religious in character,
and is made up of the three crosses of
St George, St. Andrew, and St. Patrick.
Banquette. (Arch.) A French term
indicating a narrow window seat.
Baptistery. (Arch.) A circular or polygonal building placed near ancient basilicae for the performance of the rite of
baptism. Later baptisteries were connected with the church by porticoes.
After the n t h century baptisteries were
replaced by baptismal fonts, large vessels of stone, marble or metal, very often

BAR

ART

BAR

DICTIONARY.

richly decorated, and covered with a
movable baldachino of
elaborate workmanship.
These baptisteries were
placed either in a chapel
or near the entrance of
the church. Among separate buildings serving as
baptisteries that at Florence must be placed
first. It is decorated with
-'" mosaics and its entrance
is closed by the celebrated bronze gates
of Lorenzo Ghiberti and Andreas of
Pisa.
Bar. (Arch.) A name given to gateways in the walls of towns such as were
erected in the Middle Ages. (Her.) An
honourable ordinary, drawn horizontally,
occupying one-fifth of the field ; a diminutive of the fess.

generally built in the Middle Ages at the
entrance to a bridge, town, &c.

Barbotine. A kind of paste reduced
to a pulp out of which certain figures
may be modelled. T h e name is in the
present age almost exclusively given to
vases decorated with flowers and leaves
in high relief and variously coloured.
Barded. (Her.) A term describing a
charger caparisoned.
Barge-board. A broad board, generally richly carved, placed in front of a
gable. It was used from the 14th century,
principally in domestic architecture, or
in churches with timber porches. Its
Barbadoes Tar, or Jews' Pitch, is chief value is decorative not structural.
really asphalte and is employed in
Barge-course. T h a t portion of the
the manufacture of the black varnish tiling of the roof which projects beyond
used in photography. In the process the roof. T h e barge-board (q.v.) is
of heliogravure it is the base which is placed beneath it.
exposed to the action of the light.
Barnabas, St. Apostle and martyr,
Barbara, St. A virgin martyr who companion and fellow-traveller of St.
suffered martyrdom in the year 383 A.D , Paul. H e suffered martyrdom by stonhaving been converted to Christianity ing in Cyprus, where he was born,
by Origen, and so having incurred the about the year 60 A.D. H e is repreanger of her father and the pro-consul sented as a man of dignified presence
Marcian.
She is one of the patron holding a stone, the symbol of his marsaints of Mantua. H e r chief attribute tyrdom, and the preacher's staff: but
is the tower, in which she was impri- pictures of him are seldom met with.
soned by her father, and in addition the
Baroque. A term used in decorative
sword, the palm-branch, and the crown art to denote a class of ornamental deof martyrdom.
In reference to the signs, in which everything is sacrificed
belief that those who worshipped her to give an impression of richness,
should not die without the sacrament meaningless disshe carries a chalice.
She is the play being more
patroness of fire-arms and the protect- considered than
ress against sudden death.
refinement and
Barbe. A piece of linen worn by a p p r o p r i a t e women in the 15th and 16th cen- ness. [Rococo.]
turies, either over or under the chin,
Barrel-vault.
according to the station of the wearer. (Arch.) A vault
Ladies of high degree wore it above the 1 b u i l t i n t h e
chin.
shape of a surmounted arch (q.v.), its
Barbican. A small tower of defence, I height being greater than its breadth.

37

ART

BAR

DICTIONARY.

T h e barrel-vault sometimes has the ap­
pearance of a hollow semi-cylinder. It
is also called " Waggon-head Vaulting."
Barrow. A term given by archaeolo­
gists to the mounds of earth heaped up
in ancient times over the remains of a
great warrior or otherwise distinguished
person. T h e r e are many barrows in ex­
istence in England, and they are the old­
est monuments which have come down to
us. Among famous European barrows
the three at Gamia Upsala, in Sweden,
should be mentioned, which tradition
asserts are the burying-places of the
gods Odin, Thor, and Freya.
Barrulet. (Her.) Diminutive of bar,
of which it is one-fifth in width.
Barry. (Her.) Said of a shield divided
horizontally or barwise.
Barry-bendy. (Her.) Divided by lines
horizontally and diagonally into a num­
ber of equal parts, alternating the tinc­
tures.
Barry-pily. (Her.) Said of a shield
covered with piles placed bar-wise.
Barry-wavy. (Her.) Said of a shield
covered with undulating lines.
Bars Gemelles. (Her.) A term applied
to beads or bars arranged
two and two on a shield.
When two bars gemelles are
placed on a shield, the dis­
tance between them is al­
ways greater than the
Λ Λ
' '
distance between the two
charges themselves.
Bartholomew, St. Apostle and mar­
tyr, was crucified head downwards ac­
cording to one account, or flayed alive
according to another, at Albanopolis, in
Armenia. H e is represented in art as
holding a knife, with reference to his
cruel torture, a book, St. Matthew's Gos­
pel, and a h u m a n skin, sometimes with
the face attached to it.
Bartizan. (Arch.) A corbelled out
turret of stone surmounted by a conical
roof, and placed either at the angle of
walls or at the summit of towers in
mediaeval castles. Bartizans date from

38

the 12 th century.
they were con­
structed with a
view to defence
and
pierced
with loopholes,
and then as­
sumed especial
importance.

BAS
In the 14th century

Basalt. A
hard compact
stone of a grey­
ish-black hue,
tinged with
copper colour,
out of which
the Egyptians
carved statues and constructed palaces
and temples.
Bascinet. A helmet
worn during the 14th
century, spherical
in
shape, sometimes plain,
sometimes fluted. T h e
crest of the wearer was
often placed on the top.
In warfare a helmet was
worn over it.
Base. (Arch.) T h e sub-basement of a
building. This pro­
jecting sub - base­
ment is often en­
riched with mould­
ings. In the Arabian
style the bases of
columns generally
c o n s i s t of v e r y
simple mouldings.
—, Attic. A base consisting of two
tori and a scotia.
T h e attic base
possesses consi­
derable elegance,
and is used in
the Ionic, Corin­
thian, and Composite orders.
—, Composite. A base formed of wo
tori, one astragal, and two scotiae.
—, Continuous. A moulding forming a
base, running the whole length of a build-

BAS

ART

BAS

DICTIONARY.

ing and following the projection of the
columns or pilasters which adorn a
façade.

Base, Corinthian. A base consisting
of two tori, two astragals, and two
scotiae, frequently replaced by the Attic
base (q.v.).
— of a pediment. T h e moulding of
a cornice which forms at the same time
the base of a pediment.
—, Doric. A base consisting of two
fillets, a torus, and a plinth. Though
this base bears the name of Doric, it must
be added that it never occurs in ancient
Greek buildings and is only characteristic
of Roman jporic. Greek temples of the
Doric order are of great purity of line—
such as the Parthenon for instance—and
their columns, which are remarkable for
the elegance of their outline, have no
other base than the flight of steps running round the building.
—, Gothic. Gothic bases are very
varied in form. In the very earliest
period they are rude imitations of ancient bases. In the ioth century they
consisted of fillets and combinations of
particular mouldings. In the 12th century the space left between the circular
torus and the square plinth was filled by
an ornament of foliage. In the 13th century this foliage ornament disappeared,
the plinth became polygonal, and the
torus sometimes projected beyond it. In
the 14th century the mouldings forming
the base begin to lose their height and
projection, and finally in the 15th century the principal base is broken by the
intersection of smaller bases. In the
16th century before the revival of the
ancient orders Roman and Gothic bases
are mixed. [ G o t h i c ]

Base, Ionic A base consisting of a
torus and two scotiae separated by many
smaller mouldings.
—, Tuscan. T h e base of the columns
of the Tuscan order. It consists of
a fillet, a torus,
and a plinth. According to Vitru- Λ}·
vius the height of
Tuscan base ought to be equal to half its
thickness.
Base-court. In the military architec­
ture of the Middle Ages this name was
given to the courts surrounded by towers
and ramparts of defence.
Basil, St. Bishop of Caesarea, was
born 328 A.D. and died 379. Artistic
representations of this saint are rare.
One of the mosaics at St. Peter's in Rome,
designed by the French painter Subleyras, represents the most dramatic scene
in St. Basil's life—the Emperor Valens,
namely, swooning with rage at St. Basil's
refusal to depart from the orthodox
ritual and administer the rites after the
custom of the Arians.
Basilica. (Arch.) Among the Greeks
and Romans the basilica was a building
with side aisles, a tribune, and an apse,
where justice was dis­
pensed and public busi­
ness transacted. T h e name
was afterwards given to
Christian churches from
the 4th to the n t h cen­
tury, which were built with
some modification of detail on the plan
of the ancient basilica. To-day the word
basilica is used to denote Catholic cathe­
drals of vast dimensions without re­
ference to the period of their construc­
tion. T h e apsidal termination seen in
many Gothic churches was derived from
the basilica. [Apse.]
Basilidian Gems. [Abraxas Gems.]
Basilisk. A legendary creature said
to have been hatched from the egg of a
hen thirty years old by a toad under
water. It was of enormous size, with the

39

ART

BAS

DICTIONARY.

body of a cock, beaked and clawed with
brass, and with a tail consisting of three
serpents armed with sharp points. It
destroyed everything it glanced at, and
could only be killed by gazing on its own
reflection in a mirror, when it burst with
rage. In early Christian art it is the
symbol of the Spirit of Evil.
Basket. In Christian art a basket is
the attribute of several s a i n t s : for instance, St. Dorothea is represented holding a basket of flowers and fruit.
Basket. (Arch.) T h e part of the
Corinthian capital to which the acanthus
leaves are applied. T h e term probably

refers to the legend quoted under Capital,
Corinthian, and is sometimes justified
by the ornamentation on the capital.
Bason. A flat shallow vessel with a
rim, used for various domestic and ecclesiastical purposes. In churches it
was used for collecting alms, for wash-

ing the hands of the priests, and for
holding the sacred vessels. Basons were
made of various metals and were often
richly ornamented.
40

BAS

Bas-relief. (Sculp.) A sculpture executed upon and attached to a flat or
curved surface.
Its
projection from this
surface is less than
that of the mezzorelievo or the highrelief. Pictorial or continuous subjects are
best suited to representation in bas-relief,
and the finest extant
specimen of this kind of sculpture is the
frieze which ran round the cella of the
Parthenon, a large portion of which is
now among the Elgin marbles at the
British Museum.
Basterna. A kind of palanquin in the
form of a covered carriage borne by two
mules, one in front and one behind. It
was chiefly used by women. Our illus-

tration is from a MS. of the 14th century
in the British Museum, and the drawing
corresponds exactly to the descriptions
of the basterna of the ancients.
Bastide. (Arch.) This term was formerly a synonym for bastille, but nowadays denotes the villas and country
houses of the south of France.
Bastille. (Arch.) A n a m e given in
military architecture to fortified con-

structions, either of wood or masonry,
which contribute to the defence of strong-

BAS

ART

DICTIONARY.

holds. It is specially applied to the citadel
erected in Paris in 1369, which was enlarged in 1383, and in 1553 comprised
eight towers connected by curtains of the
same height. For many years it served
as the state prison, and was destroyed at
the outbreak of the Revolution in 1789.
Bastion. (Arch.) An outwork placed at
the angle of a fortified enceinte, present-

ing two faces and forming a projecting
rampart on the line of defence.
Bath. A tank of oblong shape to hold
water for bathing. T h e baths generally
in use are made of zinc, but there exist
many which are real works of art. Some
are made of silver and richly chiselled,
while others are of marble.
B a t h s . (Arch.) An establishment
erected for the purpose of bathing. Of
the baths of the ancient Greeks but little
is known, but the baths of the Romans
were structures of great size and magnificence. They were uniform in construction, and consisted of several chambers, of which the following were the
most important. First came a courtyard,
flanked by stone seats, where slaves
waited for their masters to come out of
the bath ; this led into the apodyterium,
or undressing room, which communicated
on one side with the frigidarium,
or
cold bath, and on the other with the
tepidarium, or tepid c h a m b e r ; beyond
the latter was the caldarium, or hot
chamber, containing the alveus, or hot
bath, and the laconicum, which was
heated by hot air. T h e caldarium was
supported on brick pillars and was hollow
underneath, the walls being furnished
with flues, so that hot air might warm
the whole chamber.
Baton. (Her.) A diminutive of the

4

BAT

bend, being one-fourth of the width of
that charge.
Batter. (Arch.) T h e inclination given

to the outside of the wall of a building,
the inside of which is perfectly vertical.
Battle-axe. A weapon which has been
used in war from
the earliest times.
It was formed of
a stone or bronze
head fastened to a
haft of wood. In
ancient times it
frequently had two
edges, and was
then called bipennis. This species
of axe is generally
represented in the
hands of Amazons.
It was never used
by the Romans,
who regarded it
as a barbarous
weapon. It was the original weapon of
the British Isles, and many specimens
have been found in this country which
date from Druidical times. It went out
of use in the 15th century. T h e battleaxe which had an edge on one side and
a sharp point on the other was called a
pole-axe. W e give a representation of
each of these weapons.
B a t t l e m e n t . (Arch.) T h e indented
parapet which was placed upon the summit of fortified walls, and consisted of
projecting portions entitled merlons alternating with open spaces called crenelles.
Through these open spaces the defenders
of a fortress discharged their missiles on
the enemy. Corresponding to the vari-

4t

BAT

ART

DICTIONARY.

BAY

cms periods and styles there are various
kinds of battlements. Some, and these
are the most common, have square merlons, in others the merlons are pointed,
indented, or pyramidal-shaped, while the
profile of some resembles that of wallcopings. Battlements were most often

tecture the divisions formed by the
arcades of nave, cloister, or gallery are
called bays. T h u s we speak of a nave of

employed in the Middle Ages. They
are also found as parapets in religious buildings. In the 16th century
battlements of wood were used as decoration. The word battlement, now applied
to the entire parapet, once only designated what are now called the merlons
Battle-piece. A picture belonging to
that class of painting which is specially
devoted to the representation of battles
One of the most famous battle-pieces in
existence is the admirably executed
mosaic representing the Battle of Issus
discovered at Pompeii, which is particularly interesting as being a translation
into mosaic of a painting by a Greek
artist named Helena.
Among other
celebrated battle-pieces we may mention
those by Wouvermans, the battles of
Constantine by Raphael, and Le Brun's
battles of Alexander
Baudekyn. A term which is said to
be derived from Baldeck or Babylon, and
designates a woven stuff which was introduced into Europe at the time of the
Crusades. Gold thread was frequently
used in its manufacture, and sometimes
it was richly embroidered. It was originally only used for regal garments, but
afterwards for priestly vestments.
Bay. (Arch.) A rectangular or curvilinear opening in a wall. When a bay
serves as a door the lower part of it is
called the groundsill, when it serves as a
window the lower part is called the sill.
T h e upper part of a bay is called the
lintel when it is horizontal, and the arch
when it is curvilinear. In Gothic archi-

eight bays. In classical architecture the
term is applied to the space between two
pilasters.
Bay Window. A rectangular or polygonal window which projects from an
apartment and so forms a recess.
It
came into use about the 14th century,
and was generally found in the hall,
being situated at one end of the dais.
Sometimes a hall had two bay windows,
one at each end of the dais. Good examples of bay windows are to be seen in
college halls. For instance, there is a
very fine one at each end of the high
table at Trinity College, Cambridge
Bayeux Tapestry. T h e Bayeux tapestry is one of the most interesting

42

monuments of the Middle Age?. I t is a
long roll of canvas, seventy yards long
and more than half a yard wide, on

BAZ

ART

DICTIONARY.

BEA

which is embroidered a representation
Beaked. (Her.) A term in heraldry
of the conquest of England by the used when a bird's beak is of a different
Normans. Tradition says it was the tincture to the head.
work of Queen Matilda, wife of William
Beak-heads. (Arch ) An ornament emthe Conqueror, and that she presented ployed in England in
it to the cathedral of Bayeux. It is of the decoration of Roimmense value as a history of the man- m a n o - B y z a n t i n e
ners, costume, armour, & c , of the n t h monuments, and concentury, but from an artistic point of sisting of a series of
view it is entitled to little praise.
beak-heads which proBazaar. (Arch ) A covered oriental ject over a semimarket, which often occupied a consider- circular moulding.
able surface of ground.
Beam. (Arch.) A piece of stone or
Bead. (Arch.) A system of ornament wood placed in a horizontal position for
consisting of small spherical beads ap- the purpose of supporting a heavy mass,
plied to a convex moulding. (Dec.) T h e is termed a beam. An architrave is an
term also denotes small spherical objects instance of the beam.
made of glass, amber, metal, or precious
Beard. In ancient art Zeus, Poseistones, perforated so that they may be don, Cronus, the full-grown Hercules,
strung together Janus, and Aesculapius were repreThey have been sented with beards ; sometimes also
used as
orna- Dionysus, and the Indian Bacchus, called
ments in all times by the Romans Bacchus Barbatus,
and among all people. T h e Greeks prized always. In Christian art the beard is
Egyptian beads above all others, and the attribute of kings, patriarchs, and
many beads have been found in Greek prophets.
tombs which seem to be of Egyptian
Bearing. (Arch.) A term denoting the
origin. From the Middle Ages onward length of a piece of timber or iron placed
Venetian beads
were
more
esteemed than any
others.

Beadsman.

In

the Middle Ages
persons called
beadsmen were paid
to offer up prayers
for the welfare of
states or individuals.
T h e accompanying
cut represents a
beadsman holding
the beads and torch
of his office.
An
order of " bedesmen " existed in
Scotland. Their insignia of office were
a torch and beads,
as represented in the cut.

horizontally and upheld at each end by
supports.
B e a s t s , Heraldic. T h e heraldic beasts
of the 13th, 14th, and 15th century were
drawn in an entirely conventional style.
T h e object aimed at in the rendering of
these figures was simplicity, it being important that the outlines should be sharp,
and so easy to distinguish at a distance.
According to Viollet-le-Duc the coats-ofarms of the 14th century should be preferred to all others, for it is then that the
traditional forms of this decorative art
are found in the greatest purity. In the
16th century the types of heraldic beasts

43

ART

BEA

DICTIONARY.

began to degenerate, for then a tendency
sprang up to render animals realisti­
cally, which is clearly out of place in
an art so purely conventional as that of
heraldry.
Beaver. T h e lower part of the faceguard of the helmet, introduced in the
14th century. It could not be moved up
and down, and when Shakespeare says,
" He wore his beaver u p , " he is con­
fusing it with the visor (q.v.).
Bed. (Arch.) A term denoting the
horizontal surface of a stone; thus we
speak of the upper or lower bed.
As an article of furniture the bed has
always been of importance. T h e Greek
bed was very simple in construction, con­
sisting simply of an oblong plank on four
legs; the material used was generally
wood, and the coverings were very sim­
ple, being generally skins or long-haired
woollen blankets ('ρήνεα). T h e Roman
beds resembled the Greek in shape, but
were far more costly and elaborate.
They were made of rare woods, fre­
quently inlaid with ivory and tortoiseshell, of bronze, or even silver, while
their legs were carved in all kinds of
fantastic shapes. T h e mattresses were
stuffed with straw, wool, or down. T h e
beds of the Middle Ages were generally
in the form of a shallow box with raised
ends. After the Norman period beds
were often decorated with carvings,
surmounted by canopies, and draped
with beautifully embroidered stuffs. In
Renaissance times beds were still works
of art, but at the end of the 16th cen­
tury comfort alone was aimed at, and
hangings, & c , became more important
than the bed itself.
Bees. In Christian art an attribute
of St. Ambrose (q.v ), and generally
speaking of saints celebrated for their
eloquence.
Belfry. (Arch ) A tower on the out­
side of a town, or on a castle or church.
During the Middle Ages watchers were
placed in the belfry, as well as a bell on
which an alarm might be sounded. T h e
44

BEL

term also denotes the timber-work in­
side a clock-tower.

Bell. I n Christian art the attribute
of St. Anthony (q.v.).
Bell. (Arch.) A term applied to the
ornamented part of a capital (especially
in the Corinthian order) which somewhat
resembles a bell in shape. It is also
termed the basket.
Bell Canopy. A stone or wooden
structure shaped like a canopy under
which a bell is placed.
Bell Cot. A small structure terminating
in a spire, in which a bell is hung.
Belled. (Her.) A term ap­
plied to figures of animals
represented with a bell round
their neck. T h u s we say a
cow gules belled in azure.
Bell Gable. A stone
structure terminating
in a gable and pierced
with openings,
in
which bells may be
placed.
Bell Turret. (Arch.)
A pyramidal structure
of
several
sides,
shaped like a small
steeple, terminating
a pier or flanking the
angles of a steeple.
Some bell turrets of
the n t h century are
square ; these, how­
ever, are rare. Those
of the 12th century
are of delicate pro-

BEL

ART

BER

DICTIONARY.

portions and often octagonal. After the
13th and 14th centuries they became
more slender, and their arrises were
ornamented with crotchets.
At the
Renaissance they disappeared altogether.
Belt. (Arch.) A slightly projecting
band running round a tower or turret is
termed a belt. The term band (q.v.) or
string course, however, is now generally
used.
In costume a belt is a cincture worn
round the hips, often highly ornamented.
From it were suspended the sword and
dagger. In the 14th and 15th centuries
it was a mark of knighthood, and so
was often worn as a mere badge without
any arms attached to it.
Belvedere. A covered terrace. A
kind of pavilion or prospect tower
placed on the roof of a building, so that

a spectator may obtain from it a widely
extended view of the surrounding country.
Berna. (Arch.) A n a m e given in
ancient architecture to the orator's
tribune or the proscenium of theatres.
In early Christian buildings in the East
it designated the pulpit, the sanctuary,
and the throne of the bishop placed in
the apse.
Bench. A seat to hold several persons formed of a slab of stone or
wood, sometimes with and sometimes
without a back. In the dwelling houses

of the Middle Ages coffers played
the part of benches. Churches were
not
furnished
with benches for
the faithful until
the 16th century.
In the parks and
gardens of the
17th century we
find benches of
stone or marble,
elegant in outline and decorated with much skill and care. In the
present practical and economic age
artistic benches have been replaced by
cast-iron supports, upon which planks of
wood are screwed, to serve as seat and
back.
Bench Table. (Arch.) T h e table of
stone which projects from the interior
wall of a building and forms a seat. In
many cases a blind arcade runs along
above it and the base of the columns
rest upon the bench table.
Bend. (Her.) An ordinary, crossing
the shield diagonally from dexter to
sinister, and occupying when charged
one-third of the shield, when uncharged
one-fifth.
Bendlet. (Her.) An ordinary, half the
width of the bend.
Bendy. A shield having several bends
may be described as bendy.
Benedict, St., was born 480 A.D., and
was the founder of the Benedictine order
of monks. H e established several monasteries, in which the strictest discipline prevailed. His attributes are
a cup on a book, a raven with bread
in its bill, and a sieve. H e is represented as surrounded by nettles and
thorns, indicative of his ascetic life,
and he carries the asperges and pastoral
staff.
Benetier. [Stoup.]
Benzoin. A balsam, used as an ingredient in spirit varnishes.
Beryl. A precious stone of a bluish
reen tint, called also aquamarine.
This

45

ART

BES

DICTIONARY.

stone was used by the Greeks for in­
taglios, and was much prized by the
Romans.
Bestiarium. A term used to denote
poems of the 12th and 13th centuries,
which created a kind of mystic zoology,
and gave rise to the allegorical repre­
sentation of the virtues and vices of
mankind under the form of animals. It
was the bestiario,, according to some
archaeologists, which inspired the enig­
matical bas-reliefs which decorate so
many Gothic monuments. Other writers,
however, regard these reliefs as pure
works of the imagination or as vague
reminiscences of illiterate men, who
could not understand the bestiaria, the
interpretation of which is difficult even
to scholars.
Beton. (Arch.) A mixture of peb­
bles and limestone mortar, of which
the foundations of buildings are com­
posed.
Bezants.
(Her.)
A subordinate
charge in the shape of a disc and
always of metal, i.e. of or or argent.
There are never more than eight bezants
on one shield. In architecture the term
is applied to a simple ornament consist­
ing of roundles or discs on a flat sur­
face.
Bezants-tourteaux.
(Her.)
Discs,
half of metal and half of
colour. For instance, we
speak of Bezants-tourteaux
of argent and gules, vert
and argent, &c.
Bezel. A metal mounting, either pierced or solid,
^ Λ
generally in the shape of a disc, on
which precious stones are fixed when
they are going to be mounted in rings or
other ornaments.
Biacca. (Paint.) T h e Italian term
for white lead, used for painting in secco
but not in fresco
Biadetto. (Paint ) An Italian term for
a blue pigment derived from copper.
It is synonymous with bice (q.v ).
Bianco Secco. (Paint.) A white pig-

46

BIF

I ment, prepared from slack lime and
water, which is of great value in fresco
painting.
Bibelots. By this term we understand
any object which is used to decorate a
whatnot, a chimney-piece, a sideboard,
or the surface of a wall. Bibelots are,
according to the taste of the collector,
bronzes, faïence, arms, works of Chinese
or Japanese art, or a thousand other
curiosities. In fashionable houses all
possible corners are crammed with them ;
they are piled one upon another or heaped
up in pyramids. They form a distinct
subdivision of curiosities.
They have
their own bibliography and authors devoted to their discussion, and thanks to
fashion there is scarcely a house which
in some degree or another is not an
asylum for bibelots.
Bice. (Paint.) An obsolete term which
once denoted a blue pigment prepared
from lapis armenius.
Green verditer is
sometimes called green bice.
Bickern. T h e extremities of an anvil
It is on the bickern that
pieces of iron are
curved.
Bickerns vary in form,
they may be round,
square, pointed, &c.
Biclinium. A hybrid word, half Latin,
half Greek, denoting a couch or sofa in
which two persons might sit or recline
at table.
Β i-c o r ρ o r a t e . (Her.) Having two
bodies joined in one.
Bidental. (Arch.) A shrine or small
temple consecrated by the Roman augurs
on a spot which had been struck by
lightning. T h e name originated in the
custom of sacrificing a sheep two years
old in such shrines
Bifoil. T h a t which has two foils or
arcs.
Bifrons. (Sculp.) A double-faced bust
representing two persons with different
features and as it were placed back to
back. T h e distinction between the two
is often lost in the upper part of the head
and in the hajr,

BIG

ART

DICTIONARY.

Biga. An antique chariot drawn by

two horses. A biga is often figured on
the reverse of ancient coins.
Bill. A weapon used in the 14th and
15th centuries, consisting of a broad blade
fixed to a long staff.
Its edge was

curved like a scythe, and it was furnished
with two sharp points, one at the end and
the other at right angles to the blade.
Billet-moulding. (Arch) A kind of

moulding used for decorative purposes
in the Romanesque period. It consists

BIR

of a bowtell (q.v.), cylindrical, square,
or prismatic in form, and cut up into
parts equal in size and divided by equal
spaces.
Billets. (Her.) A subordinary in the
shape of a small oblong figure rather
longer t h a n it is broad. They are said

to be reversed when they are placed on
their long side. In blazoning it must be
specified whether they are voided or not.
Billeté. (Her.) Said of a shield strewn
with billets.
Bill-head. A kind of curved chisel.
T h e term is also applied to other objects
twisted in the shape of a sharp hook or
bill-head.
Binding-joist. (Arch.) A beam or arch
strengthening or doubling the resistance
of a ceiling or vault.
Bipennis. An axe with two edges, used
principally as a weapon
of war but also as an
ordinary chopping tool
It was never carried as
a weapon by the Romans, but Amazons
and other mythical
persons are
figured
with it in their hands.
[Battle-axe.]
Birds. Representations of birds are found
in the art of all peoples
and ages. Among the
Egyptians a bird symbolised the soul of man.
Certain birds were sacred to the Greek
deities, the eagle to Zeus, for instance,
the peacock to Hera, the owl to Pallas
Athena, &c. In Christian art birds symbolised the human soul as well as the
virtues and vices of mankind. In Gothic

47

ART

BIR

DICTIONARY.

BIT

architecture birds are a frequent ornament, and are generally symbolic. In
the Renaissance style they are purely
decorative and conventional.
Bird-bolt. (Her.) A flat-headed arrow
used as a charge in heraldry.
Bird's-eye View. A method of drawing by which objects are represented
as though seen from an elevation, the
point of sight being far above the objects
represented. It is valuable principally
in depicting groups of buildings or wide
tracts of country.
Biremis. A vessel having two banks
of oars placed diagonally one above the

large enough for two, as is suggested by
its name, it was probably only used by
one, the specimens found at Pompeii
having but one footstool in the centre.
Bishop's Length. A term applied to
canvas of certain dimensions, 58 inches
by 94Bishop's Throne. T h e seat of a bishop
placed in the choir of a cathedral church
from the 12th century onwards.
In
some churches in Italy there are
thrones decorated with mosaics.
The
throne at Avignon is of veined white
marble, while that at Toul is of stone
and dates from the 13th century. At the
end of the 14th century stuff canopies
were replaced by canopies of sculptured
stone. In the 15th century the throne
was placed among the stalls surrounding
the choir, and the bishop's throne could
only be distinguished from the others by
the richness of its ornamentation.
In
the 17th and 18th centuries bishops'
thrones were often constructed with canopies of carved wood. In early times
in England they were called bishop's
stools.
other. Representations of the biremis
Bistre. (Paint.) A brown colour geneare common on bas-reliefs, and one is to rally of a light yellowish tint. T h e artists
be seen on Trajan's column.
of the last century prepared it in an exBiscuit. (Pot.) A term applied to tremely simple way by boiling the soot
pieces of unglazed white faïence or porce- of wood in water, and have left us many
lain, the surface of which is neither sketches in bistre, some of which are in
enamelled nor painted. T h e term is also an admirable state of preservation.
applied to the double baking which some
Biting-in. (Engrav.) A term used in
pieces of porcelain undergo.
etching to denote the action of nitric
Bisellium. A seat of honour which acid diluted with water upon those
parts of the copper plate from which the

was occupied in the Roman provinces by
magistrates and distinguished persons,
as the sella curulis was at Rome. Though
48

etching-ground or varnish has been removed by the etching-needle. Before
beginning the biting-in the protected
surfaces of the plate are once more
coated with the etching-ground, and the

BIT

ART

BLE

DICTIONARY.

plate, if it is a small one, is plunged in a
bath. If the plate is of large dimensions
it is rimmed with wax and so transformed
itself into a bath. In all cases feathers
are necessary to burst the bubbles which
form while the metal is being attacked.
T h e acid used for this process is gene­
rally common nitric acid mixed with
water in equal proportions. T h e process
of biting-in is repeated according to the
difference of depth which the artist
desires to produce in his etching. T h e
higher is the temperature of the studio
the more rapid is the action of the acid.
Finally, some artists use perchloride of
iron for the last biting-in. T h e latter
process enables them to obtain very deep
lines, which when printed produce fine
velvety blacks.
Bitumen. (Paint.) Scientifically speak­
ing, bitumen is a hydro-carbon rich in
hydrogen. It is sometimes liquid, some­
times of the consistency of pitch, and
sometimes solid. T h e bitumen used in oilpainting produces a colour closely allied
to sepia or bistre. Many of the pictures
of the school of to-day, and above all
those of the first half of the present
century, have suffered from the use of
bitumen. It contracts and cracks with
atmospheric change to such an extent,
that pictures in which it is employed
soon deteriorate.
Bituminous. (Paint.) T h e tones of a
picture are said to be bituminous when
it has a reddish brown appearance.
Bizarre. T h a t which is opposed to
the canons of good taste or offensive to
the cultivated eye ; capricious.
Black denotes a quality classed among
colours, due to the absence or total
absorption of light. Black pigments
are of two kinds, they are either pro­
duced by the calcination of animal or
vegetable substances, or they are found
in a natural state. T o the first class
belong lamp black, ivory black, Indian
ink ; to the second, black ochre, graphite,
&c In the art of the Middle Ages black
symbolised darkness, death, mourning,

evil, falsehood, and despair. In heraldry
black is termed sable (q.v.).
Black Chalk. A kind of bituminous
schist or ampellite, used in the manu­
facture of drawing crayons.
Black-lead, also termed plumbago or
graphite, is a carboniferous substance
which is found in Cumberland, and is
used for making lead pencils. Its name
is confusing, as it contains no lead.
Bladed. (Her.) A term used when the
stem or stalk is of a different tincture
from the fruit or ear.
Blank. (Numis.) A disc of metal,
which, after it is struck, becomes a coin.
Blanket. (Engrav.) A name given
to the piece of flannel or thick cloth
which is wrapped round the roller of the
press when a line-engraving is to be
struck off. An elasticity of pressure is
thus ensured during the printing, and
the sheet of paper is applied with greater
force to the surface of the plate.
Blase, St. Bishop of Sebaste and
martyr. He is represented in Christian
art in episcopal vestments, and he holds
a crozier and book and a wool-comb.
From the last attribute, which was the
instrument with which he is said to
have been tortured, he has become the
patron saint of the wool-combers.
Blasted. (Her.) Said of a trunk of a
tree with its branches lopped off and
without leaves.
Blazon. (Her.) T h e charges or devices
of a coat of arms
are called bla­
zons. T h e accom­
panying cut re­
presents Shake­
speare's coat of
arms.

B l a z ο n r y.
(Her.) A knowedge of the he­
raldic art and of delineating coats of arms.
Blend. (Paint ) To soften tints so that
they gradually diminish in intensity and
blend with another tint or colour, which
has been similarly softened. In oil-paint-

49

ART

BLE

DICTIONARY.

BOA

ing colours are blended by delicately coldness. T h e typical blues are Prussian
softening the colours into one another, blue, ultramarine, cobalt, and indigo.
and by gently mixing them with a light In the symbolism of early Christian art
brush passed over the surface. In water- blue, as suggesting the sky, is symbolical
colour or washed drawings tints are blen- of heaven and so of eternity, as well as
ded by means of fine brushes charged of piety, godliness, &c. It has always
with colour more and more diluted been adopted as the colour of the Virgin's robe. On ceilings it is used to
with water and finally with pure water.
represent the sky.
Blender. [Badgers.]
Blind-story. (Arch.) A name someBlue, Prussian. (Paint.) T h e Prussian
times given to the triforium (q.v.) of a blue used in water-colour painting is
church. It is so called as opposed to the of a greenish tint, but is easily laid on
clerestory which is above it and is and of wonderful transparency and perpierced with windows.
manence. T h e Prussian blue used in
Blister. (Paint ) A term applied to oil-painting is one of the colours which
parts of a picture which swell, and so have the most body, and when mixed
become detached from the canvas or with white it produces tones of great
intensity It is a compound of iron and
panel.
Block. (Sculp.) A mass of unhewn cyanogen, the base of prussic acid.
Blue-black. (Paint.) A cold black pigstone or marble. T h e piece of wood
upon which engravers work is also called ment obtained from well-burnt charcoal.
When mixed with white lead it produces
a block.
Block of buildings. (Arch.) A collec- silvery greys.
tion of buildBoar. In Christian art the boar is
ings forming a symbolic of sensuality and gluttony.
compact mass.
Board, Leather. Board, in the paste
In the construc- of which scraps of leather are mixed. It
tion of
new is used in the manufacture of ornastreets or pub- ments which are moulded by a special
lic ways whole process.
blocks
of
Boards. A term applied to a method of
houses
often bookbinding, in which the sides consist of
have to disappear. We speak of a block a thin board covered with linen or paper.
of buildings forming the angle of a street
Boaster. (Sculp.) An instrument used
or of a block of houses isolated by four for working clay or wax. Boasters vary
streets.
considerably in size and form. They
Bloodstone. A green jasper with red
spots upon it. In the Middle Ages it
was held in high honour, because it was
said to have been the stone which lay at
the foot of the cross and received the
blood which dropped from the wounds
of Christ.
Blottesque. (Paint.) Painted in heavy
blots or masses ; a term introduced into
the language of art criticism by Ruskin,
who opposes it to Dureresque. It first
occurs in " Modern Painters," vol. iv.
generally consist of a short piece of
Blue. (Paint.) One of the three primary iron, wood, or ivory, rounded and slightly
colours, which possesses the quality of curved at one end and flat at the other.
50

BOD

ART

DICTIONARY.

Bodkin. A large pin, several inches in
length, of gold, silver,
ivory, or wood, which
Greek women used to
pass through their
j hair at the back when
it was plaited and
turned up. T h e head
of the bodkin was
often elaborately ornamented,
sometimes even with sculptured figures.
Body-colour. (Paint.) Water-colour
drawings are said to be executed in bodycolour when the colour is laid on thick and
mixed with Chinese white, in contradistinction to the older method of watercolour, in which the colours are laid on
in transparent washes. Generally speaking a colour is said to have body
when it possesses the quality of
covering the canvas when thickly
laid on.
Boldness. That quality of confidence and fearlessness which
characterises the work of an
artist who is thoroughly master
of his art and of the material in
which he works. It is at the opposite pole from tameness.
Bole, Armenian. (Gild.) An
oily earth of a red colour found in
Burgundy and in the neighbourhood of Paris. It enters into
the composition of the material
which forms the ground on objects which are to be regilt.
Bolt. A flat-headed arrow.
Boitant. (Her.) Springing forward.
Bombylios. An antique vase of small
dimensions, which in shape
suggests the cocoon of a silkworm, but is more elongated.
Vases of this shape were sometimes made in ancient times
with so narrow an orifice that
the liquid could only escape a
drop at a time
Bond. (Arch.) A term employed to denote the way in which bricks or stones are

BOR

arranged.
T h e two bonds generally
used are English Bond and Flemish
Bond. In the former the courses are laid
alternately, consisting one of headers
the other of stretchers ; in the latter all
the courses are alike and are made up of
alternate headers and stretchers.
Bonder. (Arch.) A stone or brick

placed in a wall so that its shorter face,
i.e. one of its ends, is alone apparent.
Bone-black. A black pigment obtained
by burning bone in close vessels, kept
from contact with the air.
Book. In Christian art the book is
the symbol of learning, knowledge, and
intelligence. It is therefore an attribute
of the evangelists, apostles, bishops,
and fathers. When the Holy Ghost is
represented as a man he carries an open
book, the tables of the law.
Border, (i) An engraved design illustrating a book, within which a white or
empty space, defined by a regular or
irregular outline, is left to receive the
text.
Border. (2) A flat or convex moulding,

either simple or ornamented, which forms

the frame of a picture. T h e name is also

ART

BOR

DICTIONARY.

given to the systems of decoration which
run round the edge of carpets, tapestry,
hangings, pavements, & c , and form a
frame for panels, mosaics, &c.
Bordering Wax. (Engrav.) Green or
moulding wax which engravers use as
a border to their plates, thus transforming them into a bath. Bordering wax
is awkward to handle, as it is glutinous
and sticks to the fingers when it is too
soft.
It is made into small sticks,
which are flattened by the thumb, and
placed vertically along the copper-plate
so as to form a ledge.
A key or piece
of hot iron is then passed over the wax,
which causes it to melt, and thus closes
up all the interstices by which the acid
might escape.
Bordure. (Her.) A belt at least onesixth the size of the shield,
which it completely surrounds. T h e bordure is a
mark of difference of a
younger son. Bordures compony (q.v.) indicate the
number of younger sons
there are in a family.
Boss. (Arch.)
richly sculptured
stud employed
to
ornament
doors, &c. Bosses
sometimes
have a structural
purpose, sometimes they are
merely decorative. T h e bosses
on the door of
the Pantheon at
Rome are especially famous. T h e term is also applied

to metal nails placed as ornaments on
boxes, leather belts, &c.
It denotes in addition the rosettes or
52

BOT

other ornaments placed at the intersection of the ribs of a vault. In the 13th
century they were simply rosettes or

geometric patterns ; in the 14th century
they became much larger in size ; and
were superseded in the 15th and 16th

centuries by flat rosettes, pierced and
bordered with ornaments. Sometimes
we find pendants in the place of bosses.
T h e lower surface of
the pendant projects
below the spring of the
vault, and is generally
terminated by an ornament in the form of
an agrafe. In buildings of the Gothic style
these bosses, which
are really pendants placed at the key of
the vault, are ornamented with rosettes
and foliage, and are often of considerable
dimensions.
T h e term boss in armour denotes the
stud or projecting ornament in the centre
of a shield or buckler.
Bossage. (Arch.) A term applied to
masonry, in which the angles of the
stones are cut off obliquely, so that when
they are laid side by side a space is left
between them, which gives them an
appearance of projecting.
Bòttcher Ware. (Pot) A kind of
pottery of red unglazed clay, polished
with a lathe. It was first manufactured

BOT

ART DICTIONARY.

in 1709 by Bôttcher, an alchemist who
was occupied in searching for gold.
Bôttcher also made the first white porcelain manufactured in Germany.
Bottega. An Italian word, literally
meaning " a shop," but generally applied
to the place where Italian artists
used to paint their pictures and
expose them for sale, as well as
instruct their pupils.
Botteroll. (Her.) T h e piece
of iron with which the bottom
of a scabbard is shod, used as a
charge in heraldry.
Bottony. (Her.) A term applied to a
cross, the extremities of which end in
trefoils or buds.
Boudoir. A name given to a small
room decorated in an elegant and refined
manner, where a lady receives her most
intimate friends.
Boulevard. Originally an earth-work
fortification, but in the present day an
avenue or walk planted with trees.
Bourdon. A tall staff, on which pilgrims are often represented as leaning
The scrip and purse were sometimes
suspended from it.
Bourse. (Arch ) A name given to
buildings containing large halls in
which financial business is carried on.
Bow. (Arch.) An old term for an
arch or an arched gateway. One of the
gates at Lincoln is still called " Stone
Bow."
As a weapon of defence the bow has
been used from the remotest times and
by all nations. Our illustrations represent the Egyptian bow (1), the Greek
(2), the Roman (3), and the Phrygian
(4), which is almost crescent - shaped.
The bow was of immense importance in
England from the 12th century onwards.
The most fully developed form of it, the
long bow, was of yew or ash, and six feet
in length. It shot an arrow a yard
long, and was a deadly weapon in the
hands of the English yeomen.
The
bow was an attribute of Apollo, Artemis, and Cupid in classical art, while

BOW

in Christian art the bow and arrows

symbolise the martyrdom of St. Sebastian.
Bowed. (Her.) A term applied to serpents coiled up, with their heads coming
through the folds.
Bow-drill. A tool, which consists of a
shank of steel, furnished with a handle
at one end. It is
bent in the form
of an arc by a
piece of catgut.
By drawing the bow backwards and forwards, a circular movement is communicated to the drill. T h e bow-drill is employed in all kinds of locksmith's work,
but sculptors in stone, marble, and wood
also find it of considerable use.
Bowl. (Pot.) A round vase, without a
rim and without projecting handles.
The
bowls of China and
Japan, which are sometimes very large in size,
are often placed upon
pedestals of wood or mounted upon
bronze.

Bowtell, Boutell, or Bottle. (Arch.)

53

BOW

ART

DICTIONARY.

An old term denoting a round moulding
or bead.
Bow Window. (Arch.) A projecting
window which differs from a bay window
(q.v.) in being circular or segmental.
Box, Colour. (Paint.) A box of oilcolours is generally almost square and
divided into compartments, in which are
placed brushes, a maulstick in three
pieces, tubes of colour, and bottles of
oil with screw-tops. It contains also a
palette and some panels of thin wood, on
which to fix drawing paper for making
sketches from nature.
—, Studio. (Paint.) A table with drawers, the upper part of which forms a box
in which colours, brushes, &c , are kept.
Boxwood. (Engrav.) T h e box is a
tree (Buxus sempervirens), the wood
of which is very hard and has a
close and equal grain. It is of a bright
yellow colour, and its stem is richly
veined and in great demand for artistic
purposes.
In wood-engraving small
blocks of box are used equal in height
to printers' types.
In engravings of
large dimensions these small blocks are
fastened together by means of sizing
and are held secure by screws. They
may be separated at will, if, as is the
case with large wood-cuts intended for
illustrated papers, it is necessary, in
order to expedite the work, to distribute
the small blocks among different engravers. All that is necessary when the
blocks are finally joined together is to
add a few touches to make the different
parts of the engraving harmonise. Some
box-trees are found in the Jura, but it is
- -~ from the East that we
obtain most of the
boxwood used by
engravers.

Brace. (Arch.) A
p i e c e of t i m b e r
either straight or
curved, used in roofs
to keep the purlins,
tie-beams, &c, in
their proper positions.

54

RA

Bracelet, d ) (Arch.) A system of ornament employed on the shaft of columns,
the purpose of which is to break the
line of flutings in the ancient orders. At the Renaissance the bracelet came once
more into use. In Gothic
architecture the bracelets
which serve to connect the
columns with the horizontal
mouldings, decorating the
adjacent surfaces, are often
called armlets.
Bracelet. (2) An ornament which has
been worn upon the wrist in all ages
and in all countries. It was generally

made of gold or silver and was often
enriched with precious stones. It not
unfrequently takes the form of a serpent.
Bracket. A small support of wood, iron,
or other material,
sometimes richly
carved,
projecting from a wall,
and serving to
hold
lamps,
clocks, s t a t u e s
and other ornaments. [Corbel.]
Brass. A very
ductile alloy of
copper and zinc,
to which is sometimes added a
small quantity of
tin, lead, or iron.
Brassard. T h a t portion of plate armour which protects the arm from the
shoulder to the wrist. It consisted of

BRA

ART

two parts which were joined

Brasses, Monumental.
sepulchral

at

DICTIONARY.
the

A form of

monument,

consisting of
a plate of engraved
brass,
or latten, as the
alloy was called,
representing
the personage
whose
death
it
commemorates.
Those
found in England are always
cut to the outline of the figure
they represent,
and are inlaid
in a stone slab,
while those of
Flemish
and
French workmanship
are
square pieces
of brass with
the background to the figure richly
carved. Monumental brasses are of
extraordinary value to the student of mediaeval art, as they illustrate completely
the armour, costume, and heraldry of
the period to which they belong.
Brazier. A flat shallow vessel of
metal, standing upon four legs, in which
wood, & c , was burnt for the heating of
rooms. Braziers were commonly in use

BRI

among the Greeks and Romans, and also
in the Middle Ages.
Breach. An opening, generally irregular, made in a wall.
Breadth. (Paint.) In painting the
quality of grandeur or largeness is termed
breadth. This quality is not limited by
the size of the picture, and is often found
in the smallest canvases, nor does it
depend on finish. It is to be obtained
by skilful colouring and light and shade.
Breast-high. T h e balustrade of a window-sill, when it is of average height, is
said to be breast-high.
It may be rather
less than four feet, but it is never more.
Breast-plate. A term applied among
the Romans to that part of the armour
which protected the breast. T h e highpriests of the Jews wore a breast-plate
consisting of an embroidered square decorated with twelve precious stones
Bressummer. (Arch.) A term applied
to beams of wood or iron, which span
wide openings, and generally support a

wall. In modern buildings bressummers
of iron are commonly used. In some
cases they remain apparent, in others
they are concealed in plaster ceilings.
Bretess. (Arch.) A balcony of wood
often attached in the 15th and 16th
centuries to the façade of town halls.
T h e term also denotes additional galleries or fortifications of carpentry frequently used in the Middle Ages.
Bretessé. (Her.) A fess
bend or bend sinister is
said to be bretessé when
it is embattled on both
sides, and when the projections lie opposite each
other
Bric-a-brac. A general term applied

55

BRI

ART

DICTIONARY.

to curiosities of all sorts, works of art,
furniture, whether valuable or worthless,
which the curiosity dealer exposes for
sale in his shop. Here the amateur
often unearths what he takes to be fine
pearls and pays heavily for them, but
finds them out to be nothing but vulgar
paste when he gets home. Apart from
their value, however, they often produce
a picturesque effect.
Bricks. (Arch.) Pieces of clay dried
and baked in a furnace in the shape
of small rectangular parallelopipeds.
Bricks have been universally used in
rustic buildings, or those constructed
only with a view to use and economy.
At the same time in artistic buildings
excellent results have been produced
from judiciously mixing bricks and stone.
In the façades of chateaux of the time
of Louis XIII. pilasters of stone form a
framework with excellent effect to panels
of brick. In the annex of the South
Kensington Museum an ingenious system of decoration is furnished by the
use of ornamentally stamped bricks.
—, Common. (Constr.) Bricks made of
sandy clay mixed with argillous or calcareous marl.
—, Perforated.
(Constr.)
Bricks
pierced with cylindrical holes used to
lighten the construction of partitions.
—, Floating. (Constr.) Bricks manufactured of porous magnesia or siliceous
tufa, which have the property of floating
on water. They are employed on account
of their infusibility in the construction
of reverberating furnaces.
—, Dutch or clinker. Bricks half vitrified by constant baking.
Brickwork. (Arch.) A construction or
facing of masonry composed of bricks.
Bridge. (Arch.) A construction of
stone, wood, or iron, which spans a
river or connects two points separated
by a natural depression of the earth. A
bridge may consist of several arches, or
of beams or girders supported by piers,
or it may be suspended on iron chains.
T h e Romans were the first who tho-

56

BRO

roughly understood how to make bridges,
and their bridges still remain among the
most wonderful constructions of ancient
times. In the Middle Ages chapels and
dwelling houses were frequently built
upon the roadway of bridges, as was the
case on old London Bridge.
Brigandine Armour. A species of
defence consisting of small thin plates of
iron sewn on to leather. It was worn in
the 13th century, and is said to have got
its name from the fact that it was first
worn by irregular troops called " origans." Its great advantage was its flexibility.
Brinded, or Brindled. (Her.) Spotted,
said of animals.
Brio. (Paint.) A picture is said to be
painted with brio or dash when it seems
to have been done without exertion, but
with spirit, and as it were at the first
attempt.
Bristled. (Her.) Said of a boar when
the hair on the back of the neck is of a
different tincture from the body.
Bristol Board. Bristol board is a
white board of a fine and satiny texture.
It is frequently used as a mount to watercolour or pencil drawings. Bristol board
of extraordinary whiteness is also used
for pen-and-ink drawings, which have to
be reduced for purposes of reproduction
by one of the modern processes of engravings.
Water-colour drawings and
miniatures which are to be very highly
finished are often executed on Bristol
board, its smooth surface being well
adapted for this method of work.
Broach. (Arch.) An old English term
for a spire.
Brocade. A silk stuff figured in gold
or silver with systems of ornament consisting of foliage, scrolls, flowers, animals,
figures, &c.
Brocatel. A kind of Breccia marble,
differing considerably in colour.
The
brocatel of Boulogne is dark, that of
Spain resembles the lees of wine, that of
Moulins is bluish grey, and that of Siena
is yellow. T h e tone of these marbles is,

BRO

ART

BRU

DICTIONARY.

however, by no means uniform. They
are, on the contrary, sprinkled with a
variety of delicate shades. Andalusian
brocatel, for instance, is reddish in
colour marbled with yellow, grey, and
white.
Brocatelle. An imitation brocade,
lighter and less rich than the last. Gold
and silver do not enter into its composition, and silk is only used in the figures
worked on it.
Broché. Stuff ornamented in relief by
means of a special process of weaving.
Broken Colour. [Colour, Broken.]
Bronze. An alloy of copper, tin, and
zinc, combined in different proportions
according to the purpose to which the
bronze is to be put ; also a work of art
cast in bronze. A small quantity of lead
is added when the bronze is to be employed in the reproduction of works of
art. We frequently speak of fine bronzes,
antique bronzes, meaning thereby statues
or statuettes cast in bronze. Antique
bronzes are works of art of the highest
value. Whatever be their form or dimensions they invariably give evidence
of extraordinary science and widely extended practical knowledge. After them
must be mentioned bronzes of the 12th
and 13th centuries, as well as those of
the Florentines, such as Donatello and
Ghiberti, which are absolute masterpieces. In the time of Louis XIV. immense vases, those in the garden at
Versailles for instance, were cast in
bronze, while the best examples of the
art during the last two centuries are
equestrian statuettes and Chinese and
Japanese bronzes, in which the arts of
founding and chiselling the metal have
reached their highest limit. To-day the
manufacture of ornamental bronzes is
one of the most flourishing of the decorative arts.
Bronzing. An operation, the purpose
of which is to give objects an appearance
of bronze. T h e r e are two processes of
bronzing.
T h e one is nothing more
than the application of certain chemi5

cal grounds. T h e other, which is chiefly
concerned with metal objects, consists
in the depositing of real bronze by
electrotyping.
This process can be
repeated as often as necessary and
gives to the objects thus covered an
extraordinary hardness. A green or
coloured coating may be given to any
object according to the tone of the
bronze which it is desired to imitate.
Brooch.
An ornament infinitely
varied in form and material, and always

provided with a long pin. It is used in
women's toilets to fasten shawls, cloaks,
collars, &c.
Brown. (Paint.) A colour of a reddish tone, somewhat warm and at the
same time somewhat sombre, generally
obtained from metallic oxides. Some
browns are obtained from coal and
belong to the series of aniline colours.
—, Red. (Paint.) A kind of brown
obtained by a different degree of calcination from the same materials as the
ordinary brown pigments. In painting
in water-colour an opaque brown of a
brick-red tone is employed.
When
mixed with other tints it is rapidly precipitated.
Brunswick Green. [Green, Brunswick.]
Brush. (Paint.) Painting brushes are

made of the hair or bristles of animals,

57

ART

BRU

DICTIONARY.

securely fixed either in a quill or a
ferule of tin and fastened to a stick.
They are either flat or conical in shape,
and are used to lay on and spread the
colours
Brushwork. (Paint.)
When a picture is
painted with spirit and
without affectation, or
is freely and broadly
treated, its brushwork
is said to be vigorous.
Bucentaur. In classical mythology a bucentaur was a monster,
half ox, half man. This
name was given in later
times to the state galley
in which the Doge of
Venice and the Senate
went to sea during the
ceremony, the " M a r riage of t h e A d r i a tic."
Buckle. (Her.) A buckle furnished
with a tongue is a charge in
heraldry. It is generally circular in form, and when it is
lozenge-shaped it should be
specified in the blazoning.
Buckler. (Arch.) An ornament used in
the decoration of
friezes and trophies.
It is sometimes circular in form and
sometimes lozengeshaped. Bucklers of
the latter shape are
often placed obliquely and bound up
with bundles of arms.
B u c r a n i a . (Arch.) Ornaments in
the form of ox-sculls with their horns
wreathed in flowers, which
were employed to adorn
the frieze in the ancient
orders of architecture.
Bucrania were generally
placed in the metopes or
intervals between the triglyphs (q.v.). Some have and some have

s»

BUL

not wreaths of flowers round the horns,
and their representation on ancient
temples suggested the victims offered in
sacrifice.
Buff. A clear yellow colour.
Buffet. A piece of furniture on which
dishes, plate, and glass are displayed.
T h e difference between a buffet and
dresser lies in the fact that the latter is
only fitted with shelves, while the former

has drawers and a cupboard enclosed by
doors capable of a good deal of decoration.
B u g l e - h o r n . (Her.) A figure in
blazonry in the shape
of a small hunting horn. ^ ^
T h u s we say a " bugleVV
horn gules." In blazoning we should specify whether it is
" enguicM" i.e. whether it has a cord
attached to it or not.
Buhl. A kind of furniture which was
invented and manufactured by Charles
André Boule or Buhl (1642-1732). It was
richly inlaid with tortoise-shell, gold,
copper, & c , and was much in vogue at
the court of Louis XIV.
Building. (Arch.) A building is a
general term applied to any construction whether completed or not.
Bulge. A line or surface slightly convex is said to bulge.

BUL

ART

BUS

DICTIONARY.

A small ornament of gold ever, have taken advantage of the bur to
which was worn round strengthen their shadows.
Burin. [Graver.]
the neck of free-born
Burnish. T o burnish is to polish
children at Rome. It
was laid aside when gold or silver and give it a brilliant surthe youth assumed face by means of a notched agate or
Burnished metal reflects,
the toga virilis.
T h e bloodstone.
" b u l l a e " of poor per- and seen at a certain angle, its tone
sons were made of seems darker than that of the dull metal,
leather. It was re- almost black in fact ; hence the expresgarded as a charm and sion to burnish.
Burnisher. (Engrav.) A steel instruas especially efficacious in keeping off
ment not having a very sharp edge
the evil eye.
Bull's-eye. (Arch.) A round or oval in the form of an elongated oval, used
window, placed either in the front of a by engravers to soften a harsh line or
Bulla.

house or in a roof From the period of
the Renaissance, the 17th and 18th cen-

turies, many specimens of bull's-eye:,
have come down to us richly ornamented.
Bur. (Engrav.) A bur is a ridge of
metal on the edge of the lines of an
engraved plate, which is generally
removed by an instrument termed the
scraper (q.v.). Some engravers, how-

remove it altogether.
A burnisher
worked by both hands is employed to
burnish a copper-plate before engraving it.
Burnishing. An operation by means
of which the roughnesses of a metal
plate are taken away and the whole
surface reduced to the same level.
When burnished the plate becomes an
excellent reflector.
B u r n t S i e n n a . (Paint.) A fine
orange red pigment of a warm rich
tone, which is obtained by burning raw
sienna earth. It has the property of
dissolving at once in water, and by
means of it wonderfully clear tints may
be obtained at once. It is used for
topographical drawings and sketches of
constructions and machines, as well as
for water-colours. It is also suitable
for oil-painting.
Burnt Umber. (Paint.) A russetbrown pigment produced by burning
raw umber. It is semi-transparent, permanent, dries and mixes easily, but is
not much used.
Buskin. A high boot made of leather
and often elaborately ornamented,
In
classic times it was worn by hunters,
horsemen, and tragic actors, and is
especially characteristic of some deities,

59

BUS

ART

DICTIONARY.

such as Diana the Huntress, Bacchus,

J

and Mercury. Buskins were also worn
in the Middle Ages,
and kings at their
c o r o n a t i o n wore
them of cloth of gold
and other costly maBust. T h e upper
part of the human
body ; the representation, painted, drawn, engraved, or
modelled, of the head, shoulders, breast,
and arms cut off above the elbow. A portrait bust represents the head and upper
part of the body without the hands. A
sculptured bust is said to be antique in
style when the neck and upper part of the
breast are bare and cut off vertically. In
modern busts a part of the arms is
generally shown and the model is draped,
sometimes in a mantle which covers the
lower part of the breast. In a picture
we say that the bust of such and such a
figure is badly proportioned, or in a work
of sculpture that we do not feel the
bust under the drapery, referring in each
case to some fault in the proportion or
execution of this part of the body.
Bustle. (Paint ) A term signifying a
restlessness and want of harmoniousness
in the colouring of a picture. Sir Joshua
Reynolds contrasts the " quietness and
chastity of the Bolognese pencil with the
bustle and tumult that fills every part of
a Venetian picture."
Busy. (Paint.) Full of bustle (q v.).
Buttery (Arch.) A room near the
hall and kitchen in monasteries and
mediaeval mansions from which beer
and wine were served out.
Buttress. (Arch ) A massive piece
of masonry which served as a support
and added to the resistance of the vertical wall. Buttresses are universally
used in Gothic architecture. They were
indispensable in holding up the lofty
walls of churches. Originally they consisted merely of a squared mass, the
60

BYZ

surface of which was inclined to the
wall at a sharp angle so that the rain
might run off; they were afterwards

polygonal and decorated with pinnacles,
and in the 14th century terminated in
turrets.
Buttress, Flying. (Arch.) A pier which
stands at some distance from a wall surmounted by a rampant arch, which connects it with the wall. It is intended to
counteract the thrust from the vaulting.
It is found in Roman monuments, and was

introduced early into England. In the
north choir aisle of Canterbury are some
flying buttresses, which belong to the
transition period. In the 12th century
they were very simple, and were not
much decorated until the 15th century.
Byzantine Art. T h e art which owes
its origin to Byzantium.
It engrafted
Christian sentiment on reminiscences of

BYZ

ART

CAD

DICTIONARY.

Greek and Roman art.
T h e Roman
arch was retained in Byzantine architecture, but entablatures disappear, circular cupolas are erected, and the capitals
adorned with arabesques. T h e Byzantine style exercised a powerful influence
on the art of the Middle Ages. Many
mosaics and paintings on a gold ground,
as well as ivory-carvings of Byzantine
origin, have come down to us, and give
us a high idea of this extraordinarily
rich and brilliant art, which imposed its
characteristic forms on the style of
many generations (328 A.D. to 1204 A D.).
Byzantines. (Num.) Coins struck from
the time of Constantine to the fall of the
empire of the East.

coration of Byzantine capitals. T h e cornices of buildings of the same style also
afford many examples of it.
Caboched or Cabossed.
(Her.) Full-faced.
This
term is used to indicate
that the head of the
animal is placed looking
at the spectator and that
the neck is concealed.
Cabochon. A French term applied
to precious stones set in gold but pre-

c.

served in their primitive form, that is,
polished but not cut.
Cadmium, Red. (Paint.) A simple
pigment containing no base but cadmium.
It is of a bright orange-red colour and is
valuable on account of its permanence.
—, Yellow. (Paint ) A pigment prepared from sulphide of cadmium. It is
a rich orange and is useful in painting
sunsets. When mixed with Chinese
white it yields a brilliant series of tints.
It is permanent and not affected by the
atmosphere.
White lead is the only
pigment which seriously injures it.
Caduceus. T h e staff carried by Mercury or Hermes. Around
it two s e r p e n t s w e r e
coiled, and it was winged
at the top. It was the
symbol of peace.
The
term is also applied to
the staff covered with velvet and surmounted with
a fleur-de-lis, which the
king of arms and the
herald of arms carried in
grand ceremonies. It denotes also a
herald's wand, which is a rod ot olive
sisting of wreathed striae (q.v.)i resem- wreathed in garlands.
Cadus. A name given to the large
bling the strands of a rope. This moulding was frequently employed in the de- jars of terra-cotta used in ancient times.

Cabinet. A piece of furniture fitted
with drawers, in which from the 16th
century to the present time coins and
curiosities of every kind have been
kept and classified. T h e term is also
applied to public or private collections
of works of art or curiosities, such as
pictures, engravings, coins, medals, &c.
Thus we speak of a cabinet of medals,
of prints, &c. In former times the term
was synonymous with collection.
The
inscriptions on certain prints of the last
century call attention to the fact that
such and such a subject came from the
cabinet of Mr. X., meaning that the
original, after which the print was engraved, was in Mr. X.'s collection.
Cabinet-picture. A picture of small
dimensions, and generally of high finish,
such as is found in private collections.
Cable - moulding. (Arch.) A round
moulding either projecting or sunk, con-

61

CM

ART

DICTIONARY.

Pieces of pottery, rather more tapering
in form, have also been
found bearing this name.
T h e cadus was generally
used to hold wine, but also
employed to contain oil,
dried fruit, &c.
Caelatura. T h e Latin term for raised
work in metal or chasing (q.v.).
Cage of a Building. (Arch.) T h e col­
lection of outside walls which define the
shape of a building.
Cairn. A heap of stones, often shaped
like a pyramid and raised over a grave.
T h e custom of building up cairns is of
very ancient date, but it now only prevails
in some districts of Ireland and Scotland.
Caissons. (Arch.) A French term
applied to the sunk panels in a ceiling.
[Coffers.]
Calantica. (Cost ) A head-dress in
the form of a net or bag and fastened
tightly round the head by a band. In

CAL

tection for the foot and so differed from
the sandal. Different kinds of calcei
designated difference of
rank.
T h e senators ο
Rome, for instance, wore
one of a peculiar pattern,
while in the time of the
Empire calcei were fre­
quently made of costly material and de­
corated with gems.
Caliga. (Cost.) T h e shoe worn by the

rank and file of Roman soldiers. It was
heavy and shod with nails.
Caligraphy. T h e art of writing. T h e
greatest masterpieces or handwriting are
to be found in the manuscripts of the
Middle Ages and the Renaissance, and in
some rare collections of the 17th and
18th centuries. T h e people of the far
East have also produced some fine
specimens of caligraphy.
Caliver. An arquebus with a wide
bore. It was in use in England from the
time of Elizabeth until about the middle
Egypt it was worn by both men and of the 17th century.
Calix. A cup-shaped drinking vase in
women, but when introduced from the
use among the Greeks,
East into Greece and Rome it was only
set on a stem and
adopted by women.
**
generally
furnished
Calathus. A basket in which women
with two small handles.
in ancient times kept the
Callipers. A kind of compass, the
wool, which they were going
branches of which are twisted
to spin. It was generally
and of unequal length. They
made of
wicker-work,
are used by sculptors to
rarely of metal, and was
check measurements. Their
narrow at the base, gradu­
points are curved in different
ally expanding towards
directions, so that it is possible to mea­
the top. Representations
of calathi are frequently found on vases sure both inside and outside surfaces.
and other monuments of Greek art.
Callipyge. Literally aux belle fesses.
Calceus. (Cost.) T h e Roman term for T h e name of a statue of Venus in the
a shoe or boot. It was a complete pro­ Farnese Palace.
62

CAL

ART

DICTIONARY.

Calotte. T h e portion of a sphere, not
exceeding a hemisphere in
volume, cut off by an intersecting plane. T h e term
also denotes vaults of this
form.
Calotype. A method of photography
invented by Mr. Fox Talbot. An iodide
of silver is formed on paper by successive coatings of iodide of potassium and
nitrate of silver. This is rendered sensitive to the action of light by the application of gallic acid and nitrate of silver,
and only a brief exposure is necessary to
obtain an image on the paper.
Calpis. (Pot.) A large earthenware
vessel used by the Greeks for drawing

CAM

projecting points, which were laid on
the ground in battle to wound the feet
of the enemy's horses. They are sometimes borne as a charge in heraldry.
Calvary. (Arch.) A cross of stone or
iron, generally richly
decorated and sometimes raised upon a
p l a t f o r m w h i c h is
reached by steps. Some
calvaries,
especially
those of Brittany, are
ambitious monuments
supported by arcades
and surmounted
by
numerous statues. T h e
term is also applied to
pictures
representing
the scenes of the passion.

C a m a i e u . (Paint.
Engrav.) A painting in a single colour in
imitation of a cameo. T h e effect of a
painting in camaieu is produced by difference of tone, and objects are represented
light on a dark ground or vice versa, but
only one colour is employed, such as
red, blue, black, &c. Paintings in imitation of bas-reliefs, i.e modelled with greys
of different values, whites, or blacks, are
called pa intings in camaieu. These latter
are also termed grisailles (q v.). Engravings in camaieu are printed in colour, but
water.
It somewhat resembled the with ink of a uniform tint, the gradations
hydria (q.v.), and was furnished with of tone being obtained by hatchings. T h e
three handles, as in the cut.
term is applied as a term of contempt to
Caltraps, Cheval-traps, or Galtraps. dull and monotonous paintings.
Camail. A name given to the chain-

Instruments of iron having four sharp I mail which was attached to the bascinet
6,

ART

CAM

DICTIONARY.

and covered a warrior's head and neck.
Etymologically the term means camel s
hair, and it was first applied to a garment
of soft wavy texture worn by priests, to
the shape of which the chain-mail bore
some resemblance.
Cambered. Curved, arched. A wellcambered figure is a figure describing a
graceful curve.
Cameo. Gems cut in relief are called
carnei or cameos.
Great care was
shown by the ancients in choosing
stones, consisting of several variegated
strata. Cameos vary considerably in
size, and as a rule the figures or objects represented stand out in white
on a sombre red ground ; sometimes the
white and red are reversed. T h e term
cameo is applied generally to all gems
cut in relief, while those hollowed out
or depressed are called intaglios.
Camera Lucida. A prism by means of
which the image of any object may be
thrown upon a sheet of paper. It was
invented by Woollaston in 1804, and has
been brought to perfection since. It is
of great service to artists and others, as

by its aid natural objects, & c , can be
traced with great accuracy. T h e only
difficulty which it involves lies in the
fact that the draughtsman must at the
same time watch the image and follow
the point of his pencil.
C a m e r a Obscura. An apparatus by
means of which a reduced tracing may
be made of natural objects. There are
two kinds of camerae obscurae. T h e
one consists of a hut of wood hermetically sealed. In the roof of this hut

64

CAM

is an opening across which a mirror is
placed to collect the rays of light and
throw them on a lens, so that an actual
image is thrown upon the white paper
in front of the artist. T h e outline can
then be drawn with a pencil. T h e other

kind of camera obscura is portable and
so more convenient. T h e optical apparatus is placed upon a tripod, round
which curtains are drawn, so that the
artist is placed in darkness and is able
to catch the image thrown upon the
white paper in front of him.
Campanes. (Her.) Bells suspended to
any charges. (Sculpt.) This
word is also used by the
French to denote little bells
carved in wood as a motive
of ornamentation for bishops' thrones,
altar canopies, &c.
Campanile. A tower in which bells
are placed, built near
a church but not
actually attached to
it. Campaniles are
frequently met with
in Italy and elsewhere. In England
they are rare ; there
is one at Evesham,
and formerly there
was one at Salisbury.
T h e term is also
applied to an open construction of timber
work surmounting a roof, in which as a
rule either a bell or a clock is placed.

CAM

ART

DICTIONARY.

Campanulated. (Arch.) A term ap­
plied to capitals or orna­
ments, the profile of which
suggests that of an inver­
ted bell.
Candelabrum. A candle­
stick or stand to support a lamp. Can­
delabra generally have several branches.
When placed on altars they are very

often richly ornamented, but many
dating from the Gothic period are per­
fectly simple. T h e large candelabra

which are placed on the ground and only
hold one candle are often of huge dimen­
sions. Some of modern workmanship

CAN

are no less than twelve feet in height.
They are infinite in shape and often
designed by the most renowned archi­
tects. Sometimes they support a lamp
hexagonal or circular in shape surmount­
ing an open-work crown. Their shaft is
frequently decorated with carefully exe­
cuted sculptures.
Finally, there are
candelabra still richer in design, con­
sisting of bronze or marble statues, which
are found in the vestibules of hotels or
palaces or at the foot of staircases. T h e
candelabra in use among the Romans
generally consisted of a column of a
considerable height, standing upon a
tripod, frequently fluted and sometimes
decorated with climbing animals, upon
which was placed the tray which held
the lamp. Representations of candelabra
are often found as ornaments on friezes.
T h e term is also applied to the column
representing a candelabrum, placed on a
pier or on a square tower surmounting
a cupola.
Canephorus. T h e basket-bearer;
a
name given to the Athe­
nian maidens who walked
in the processions of Demeter and Athena, carry­
ing upon their heads fiat
baskets containing the
sacred cake, &c. They
are represented in the
Parthenon frieze.
In
architecture the term de­
notes a decorative statue holding a vase
or basket, sometimes employed as a
caryatid (q.v.). Those of the Villa Albani
at Rome are celebrated.
1 Cannets. (Her.) Ducks withi j» %
out feet or beaks, generally
l^w A W depicted in profile.
I
Canon. This word signifies
ΥΛ«
an artistic rule or law based
upon observation.
It was applied in
ancient times to statues or monuments,
which were intended to serve as types
or embodiments of the principles of
art, and also to fix the length of the
finger, the height of the face, from
65

CAN

ART

DICTIONARY.

which might be determined the exact
proportions of the whole figure. T h e
most celebrated canon in ancient times
was that of Polycleitus, which he exemplified in his statue of the Doryphorus.
This was in turn superseded by the canon
of Lysippus.
Canopa. A n a m e given to Egyptian
vases which contained the
viscera of the dead. As
inscriptions
they
bear
various formulae of benediction.
On their lid a
h u m a n skull is sometimes
placed, sometimes the symbolic head of a cynocephalus, a hawk, or
a jackal.
Canopy. A system of decoration belonging to the Gothic period. It consists
of a vaulting placed
above statues fixed |
against a wall, or 1
above niches made
to receive a statue.
Canopies of the
12th and 13th centuries suggest on
a small scale the
features of build- »
ings of the period. J
In the 13th century they are surmounted by disengaged
arcades, flanked with pinnacles, bellturrets, and flying buttresses. In the
14th and 15th centuries canopies become
still more ornate.
—
In certain instances
equestrian statues are
crowned with
canopies formed
of two pointed
arcades spreading out over a
considerable area. Finally in the 16th
century canopies, still ornate, frequently
have the form of lanterns surrounded by
volutes and scrolls, and arranged in
stages receding as they mount, the whole
often terminating in a graceful statuette.

66

CAN

Canopies formed of drapery were often
employed to decorate the top of
the seats of distinguished people.
In the
same way the
word canopy is
applied to the
covering formed
of plumes and embroidered stuffs, which
was often carried over the heads of kings
and important personages In modern
Europe such canopies are only used in
Roman Catholic processions.
Canted. (Arch ) A term used by carpenters to denote that the angles of a
square have been cut off. T h u s an oriel
is said to be a canted window.
Cantharas. A Greek two-handled vase
or cup, sacred to Bacchus, varying in

shape and size. On Greek vases Bacchus
is frequently represented as holding it in
his h and.
C a n t i l e v e r . (Arch.) A projecting
bracket employed to support balconies,
cornices, &c.
Canting Arms. (Her.) Armorial devices which fall under the definition
of a rebus (q.v.). They abound in early
heraldry.
Canton. (Her.) May be regarded as a
diminutive of the quarter
(q.v.), and is one of the
honourable ordinaries. It
is placed in a corner of
the shield, usually the dexter chief, and occupies a
third of the chief, or a ninth
of the shield If placed on ti e other side
of the shield it is called a canton sinister.
Cantoned. A cross or saltire is said to
be cantoned when it is placed between
four charges, or groups of charges. T h e

CAN

ART

DICTIONARY.

term is also employed to denote a single
charge in the first quarter of the shield.
Canvas. (Paint ) A material upon
which pictures in oil-colour are painted.
T h e canvas is placed on a stretcher (q.v.),
from which it may be removed if neces­
sary. In the language of critics and
historians of art a canvas means a pic­
ture. Thus we speak of a canvas of
Raphael. Special names are given to
canvases of special dimensions, such as
kit-cat (q ν ), and bishops' length (q.v.).
Cap-à-pie. (Her.) Said of a knight
armed head to foot.
Caparison. Armour or richly embroidered stuff with which horses were
covered in the Middle Ages at the Renaissance.
Capital. An ornamental letter of a
large size, beginning
the first word of a
chapter. In editions
de luxe capitals are
generally decorated
with scrolls and
figures.
In ancient
ΠΒϋιΤυΤίΠίΙί
manuscripts
they
y F f i f c * " ^ ^ were often red or
Ά
illuminated in the
" "'
most brilliant colours.
They sometimes en­
croached upon the
margin and even the text of a page.
Capital. (Arch.) An ornament consist­
ing of various projecting mouldings,
placed at the summit of a column, pillar,
or pilaster.
—, Angular. A capital placed at the

angle of a pilaster supporting an entab­
lature.
—, Byzantine. T h e capitals in the

CAP

early times of Byzantine Art were very
simple in form, and were sometimes
decorated with palm leaves, flowers and
wreaths. T h e capitals of the decadence,
on the other hand, were decorated with
purely geometrical systems of ornament,
consisting of combinations of straight
lines and curves. Finally some Byzantine
capitals present examples of volutes orna­
mented with rosettes. But as a rule the
sculptured ornament is in very low relief
and sometimes the abacus is bevelled.
Capital, Composite. A Corinthian
capital
with
highly developed
volutes, which
closely resemble
t h o s e of t h e
Ionic capital,
w i t h t h i s diff­
erence, however,
that the
four
sides of the capi­
tal are absolutely symmetrical.
There
are very varied types of this capital,
which was held in high esteem by the
architects of the Italian Renaissance.
—, Corinthian. Corinthian capitals
are the richest
of t h e p u r e
orders, their
characteristic
being rows
of a c a n t h u s
leaves placed
one upon the
other with volutes above
them at each
corner supporting the projecting abacus.
T h e latter is not
square but hollowed # out, so as to de­
scribe a concave
curve. T h e r e is in
existence a great
variety of Corinth­
ian capitals, the
handiwork not
only of Greek and
6-7

CAP

ART

Roman artists, but also of the architects
of the Renaissance and the present day,
as the Corinthian order is the one which
has been most frequently employed in
the decoration of modern buildings.
Generally speaking, Greek Corinthian
capitals are more decorative than Roman,
and at the same time exhibit a remark­
able amplitude of line.
Capital, Doric. T h e Greek Doric
ρ*. t ..
•—r, capital, which is the
I.·· ·

·'

i- · ·

«..••....Ν tn|!»

*•

\<J simplest of the clas­
sical orders, consists
of an abacus, an echi­
nus, and annulets, just
above the neck of the shaft. In Roman
buildings the echinus is replaced by an
ovolo moulding, an ogee is added to the
abacus, a cymatium and fillet is some­
times substituted for the simple form
of the abacus while
the delicate annulets
which separate the
e c h i n u s from the
neck of the shaft are
changed to astragals.
These modifica­
tions render the Roman Doric capital far
less graceful than the Greek, which should
always be regarded as the true type.
T h e total height of the Doric capital
should be equal to the length of the
radius of the base of the column.
—> Egyptian. T h e principal forms of
capitals in the Egyptian
style are a simple cube
without mouldings, or a
splayed vase or bell. They
are decorated with systems
of ornament, sculptured
and painted in bright colours, represent­
ing lotus flowers or hieratic figures or car­
touches with hieroglyphic inscriptions.
—, Indian. T h e system of ornament
on Indian capitals is of extraordinary
richness and variety. They can, how­
ever, be reduced to three types, in which
groups of figures, animals, and flowers
and foliage predominate respectively.
The general outline is sometimes quite
simple; the most frequent principle of
68

DICTIONARY.

CAP

the Indian capital being a flattened
sphere surmounting consoles, which
diminish the bearing of the lintel.
Capital, Ionic. This capital is character­
ised by spiral
volutes placed
underneath
the abacus.
T h e profile of
the
Greek
Ionic capital
is far more delicate than that of the
Roman Ionic. T h e latter is overcharged
with details of or­
nament. T h e Re­
naissance as well
as the 17th and
18th centuries pro­
duced some fine
examples of the Ionic capital, especially
from the point of view of profusion of
sculptured orna­
ments.
Among
the theories of
the origin of vo­
lutes, attention
should be called
to that which compares them to the
folds of a cushion interposed between
the shaft of the column and the abacus,
a theory which is precisely justified
by the lateral appearance of the volutes.
—, Latin. T h e capitals of Christian
basilicae from the 8th to the 10th cen­
tury are generally only heavy, clumsy
imitations of ancient capitals, and are
often decorated with palm-leaves or
other ornaments care­
n i less in execution and
barbarous in design.
—, Moorish. Capi­
tals of the Moorish
or Arabian style are
generally cubic in
form and are con­
nected by rounded
curves with the cylin­
drical shaft of the
column. They are
ornamented with astragals and sur-

CAP

ART

DICTIONARY.

mounted by an abacus, while their surface is decorated with systems of ornament consisting of floral and geometrical
designs.

Capital, Neo-Greek. A capital of a
column or pilaster conceived in a style
of architecture of modern origin, which

consists chiefly in cutting off the mouldings sharp and decorating the flat surface
thus obtained with floral ornaments
thinly incised.
—, Persian. T h e point of support in
capitals of the Per=--.T .—_---->__ g ^ a n style generally takes
the
form of the heads
of h o r s e s , u n i corns, or bulls terminated in volutes
and surmounting
c y l i n d r i c a l and
fluted shafts.
—, Pointed. T h e capitals which surmount the pillars
in buildings of the
Pointed style are
rather p r o j e c t i n g
copings reaching to
the spring of the arch
and corresponding to
the projection of the
columns, than capitals properly socalled. In the 12th
century they consisted of rows of buds,
which developed by degrees into crockets
and reached their full expansion in the
14 th century. In the 14th century capitals were of so little importance as to be
hardly distinguishable ; in the middle of
the 15th century the capital disappeared
altogether, the ribs of the arch being

CAP

carried on to the pillars without any
break in the continuity. T h e most
marked
characteristic of
the
capitals of the
Pointed style is
the execution of
the foliage, which
is never conventional, but as close
a reproduction as possible of the object
chosen for representation, and in nearly
every case drawn from the flora of the
locality.

Capital, Renaissance. All the capitals
used at the period of the Renaissance
are borrowed from the ancient orders,
but with modifications of proportion and
detail which give them a special character. They are as a rule more richly
decorated with sculptured ornaments
than their prototypes.

-, Romanesque. The Romanesque

capitals of the n t h century are splayed
in form and sometimes surmounted by
a double abacus and embellished with
ornaments. In
the 12th century
c a p i t a l s were

decorated with foliage and became more
graceful in profile. Some capitals of

69

ART

CAP

DICTIONARY.

this period are simply corbels, others
are decorated with grotesque and symbolic figures, generally surmounted with
twisted foliage or volutes.
Capital, Tuscan. This capital is nothing more than a Doric capital stripped
of a great deal of its grace. It consists
of an ovolo moulding, an abacus and an
astragal separating the capital from the
shaft of the column. In spite of its
inelegance it has been frequently used
by some architects of the Renaissance.
Cap of Maintenance. (Her.) This is
sometimes worn above the helmet in
place of a wreath. It is made of crimson
velvet ornamented with ermine,
Capitol. (Arch.) T h e citadel and temple of Jupiter at Rome. Later the term
was applied to the principal temple in
the cities of the Roman Empire.
Cappah Brown. (Paint.) A pigment
obtained from a manganese peat, called
cappah. It is a useful colour and almost
permanent, but is adversely affected by
a strong light. This danger may be
obviated by mixing the pigment with a
permanent colour, such as umber or
Chinese black.
Caprices. A set of drawings or engravings, of which the grotesque subject and
original composition belong rather to the
realm of fancy and imagination than that
of observation. T h e caprices of Goya
are collections of engravings representing phantasmagoric scenes and hallucinations.
Carat. A special weight which is the
traditional standard in goldsmiths' work
and jewellery, and is also employed as
the measure of pearls and diamonds.
T h e weight of a carat is twenty-four
grains. T h e term carat is also applied
to small diamonds.
Caravanserai. (Arch.) A building intended in the East for the use of travellers. It is in the form of a quadrangle, enclosing an immense courtyard.
Carbine. A fire-arm which was introduced into this country in the 16th century. Whence it came is uncertain, but
?o

CAR

in all probability we owe it to the Spaniards. It had a wheel lock and a wide
bore.
Carbon Process. T h e fixing of photographic proofs by the carbon process,
although it does not render them absolutely unalterable, makes them far more
durable than those obtained with silvered
paper, as the powdered carbon is fixed
by means of an adhesive substance. Its
unsatisfactory feature is that it gives to
the proof a heavy look and destroys the
transparency of the shadow.
Carbuncle. A precious stone, a variety
of red garnet of extraordinary brilliance.
Carcanet, (Cost.) A necklace of pearls
or other precious stones.
Carcass. (Arch). T h e skeleton, either
of wood or iron, of buildings in general.
Carchesium. A Greek drinking vessel

furnished with two handles which ex-

CAR

ART

DICTIONARY.

tend from the rim to the bottom
In
form it somewhat resembles the modern
loving-cup. The term was also applied
to a portion of a Greek ship, which corresponded to our top. From the carchesium the sails were managed and
in it sailors stood to keep a look-out. It
got its name from its supposed likeness
to the drinking-cup.
Cardboard. A light card consisting of
sheets of paper pasted together throughout their surface.
Cards. Playing cards are of great importance in the history of art. They are
first heard of in Europe in the 14th century, and no doubt the first packs were
simply painted by hand. At least so
we may infer from the very high price
paid for the pack made by Jacquemin
Gringonneur for Charles VI. of France.
T h e oldest ones still in existence are
stencilled. Cards, however, are chiefly
interesting to us because they influenced
or even led to wood-engraving. At any
rate the earliest wood-cuts that have
come down to us are playing cards.
T h e packs in use at present are copies
of those made in the 16th century, and
are generally produced by means of
lithography.
Caricature. An extravagant representation, in which reality is so far exaggerated as to become ridiculous and
grotesque. It has been practised in all
times as a method of satire. Egyptian
and Greek caricatures have come down
to us, while at Pompeii many burlesque
travesties of ancient myths were discovered. In modern times caricature
has been freely used as a political
weapon, and Englishmen have reason to
be proud of their long line of caricaturists from Rowlandson to Furniss.
Caricaturist. An artist who draws or
models caricatures.
Carmine. (Paint ) A bright rose red
colour. In water-colour painting carmine, when ultramarine, Prussian blue,
or indigo is added to it, produces rich
violet tints. A few drops of carmine

CAR

added to a solution of Indian ink gives it
a warm tone. Oil and varnish protect it,
and as a rule it is permanent, being only
adversely affected by a strong light.
Sometimes it is obtained from the cochineal insect, sometimes from madder.
Carnation. (Paint.) Flesh tints (q.v.).
Carol. (Arch.) A small room or closet,
in which one might sit and read. In
monasteries carols were set apart for the
monks to study or illuminate missals in.
T h e recesses formed by a bay window
are also termed carols.
Carpentum. A carriage with two
wheels and an awning over it. It held
two or three persons, and could be

shut in with the awning when desired.
As a rule it was drawn by two mules,
and it was chiefly used by Roman
ladies.
Carpet. A woven fabric used for covering the floors of chambers. In the East
carpets were employed by Oriental
nations for sitting or reclining upon, or
for kneeling on while in prayer. They
existed in very early times in the East,
in Egypt and Persia for instance, and
were imported into Spain by the Moors.
From Spain they reached Venice, and
then spread all over Europe.
The
manufacture of carpets was introduced
into France from Persia in the reign of
Henri Quatre, while the celebrated factory at Beauvais, still in existence, was
established by Colbert, the minister of
Louis XIV., in 1664. A carpet factory
71

ART

CAR

DICTIONARY.

was established at Mortlake by James I.,
but it was unsuccessful. However the
manufacture flourished later at Wilton,
Kidderminster, and elsewhere in England.
T h e r e are two methods of carpet-making
In the first, the materials of the pattern
are knitted into the warp. This is followed in Persian, Turkey, and Indian
carpets. In the second the pattern is
woven up in the loom. T h e latter is followed in Kidderminster, Brussels, and
Wilton carpets. T h e carpet in a room
which contains much furniture should
be dark in tone, as it then forms the
most efficient background for the furniture.
Carrara Marble. A white marble of
extraordinary beauty and brilliance obtained from the quarries of Carrara in
Italy, and used by sculptors.
Cartisane. A small piece of parchment, which was worked into ancient
embroideries of silk, gold, or silver
thread in order to obtain relief.
Cartoons. (Paint.) A name given to the
studies made by artists before they undertake the execution of a picture or fresco.
As frescoes (q.v.) have to be executed
on a fresh ground, which renders any
retouching impossible, fresco painters
are obliged to make full-sized designs
which have only to be traced upon the
ground. T h e paper used for this purpose was called in Italian
cartone.
Thence it became the custom to denote
by the term cartoon all preparatory
sketches of artists. T h u s the designs
executed by Raphael to be carried out
in tapestry, and now in the South
Kensington Museum, are known as cartoons.
Cartouche. An ornament with an
empty space in its centre to receive
an inscription, cipher, or emblem. Cartouches sometimes consist of mouldings,
but more generally
of scrolls trimmed
with garlands,
flowers,
and foliage. In the Gothic period cartouches
72

CAR

assumed the form of bannerolles with
their ends rolled up.
T h e richest and most
beautiful
cartouches
date from the Renaissance. Those of the
17th and 18th centuries are generally
too exuberantly decorated, but they
always bear
evidence of a
fertile imagination.
The
name
cartouche is also
given to the
ovals bearing

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fcc^flfc'.s

'

hieroglyphic

instructions,
which were
placed in the tombs of Egyptian kings.
Cartridge Paper. A strong paper with
a rough surface much used for drawing
upon. It received its name from the
fact that it was originally employed in
the manufacture of gun cartridges.
Carving. T h e art of cutting wood and
ivory into beautiful forms and shapes is
called carving.
Among the ancients
rude figures of the gods were carved in
wood. In the earliest works of sculptured stone, the influence which woodcarving had on the artist may easily be
discerned. T h e art of carving ivory was
carried to perfection by the Greeks, and
was particularly employed in the production of chryselephantine statues (q.v.).
Throughout the Gothic period woodcarving was cultivated with great success, and especially applied to the decoration of churches with stalls, screens,
rood-lofts, and canopies. At the Renaissance the details of classical architecture
were introduced into furniture and carved
in wood. Numberless cabinets, chairs,
and tables are in existence, both of the
Gothic and the Renaissance period,
which testify to the skill of wood-carvers.
T h e most celebrated wood-carver of more
modern times is perhaps Grinling Gibbons, to whom we owe the stalls of St.

ART

CAR

DICTIONARY.

CAS

Paul's Cathedral and many other master- general term for all forms of headpieces. In the present day wood-carving guards.
like all other handicrafts has fallen into
Casquet. A small coffer, either comdecay.
posed of or decorated with precious
materials, such as sweet-scented woods,
Caryatides. (Arch.)
chased metals, gold, silver, enamels,
Figures of women
which serve as a support and take the
place
in
classical
buildings of columns
or pilasters T h e caryatides of the Pandroseion at Athens represent female figures
holding baskets of
gems, &c. In the Middle Ages and at
fruit on their heads.
the time of the Renaissance casquets
[Atlantes.]
were made of iron with open panels
Casement. (Arch.)
covered with leather or variously
A frame, generally of
coloured stuffs.
wood, which encloses
Casquetel. A small casque or helmet
the glazing of a winwith no visor, but a projection in front.
dow and opens on a
hinge.
Casino. (Arch.) A collection of buildings in watering-places and sea-side
resorts on the Continent, which is used
as a kind of club, and includes ball, concert, and gambling rooms.
Casque. A term applied to the headpiece which came into vogue in England
in the reign of Henry VIII. It was not It afforded but little protection, and was
intended to be worn in warfare, and was worn chiefly for display.

not provided with a visor. It was frequently elaborately carved and often
copied in shape from the antique. In
the language of poetry casque is a

6

Cassock. This name was given to
several very dissimilar articles of dress.
Originally it appears to have been a
loose kind of coat, and was in the
17th century worn by hackney-coachmen and others. In the 18th century it
was an overcoat worn by the gentry.
At the same time, from the 17th century until the time of George II., the
cassock was the distinctive dress of the
clergy, and during the performance of
the service was worn by Protestant
priests at least under the academical
gown. In the present age it only survives as an ecclesiastical vestment.
Cast. (Sculp.) T o cast is to reproduce
a work of sculpture from a mould.
Plaster is the material generally used in

73

CAS

fier

DICTIONARY.

casting. Gelatine is also employed, and
is valuable on account of its elasticity.
T h e term is also applied to a work of
sculpture thus reproduced ; for in­
stance, we speak of " a cast of the Venus
of Milo." T h e process of plaster-casting
is as follows. When the clay model,
which is the first step in a sculptor's
work, is finished it is covered with wet
plaster of Paris laid on in several pieces ;
the mould thus formed being called a
piece-mould.
T h e plaster of Paris is
then removed in pieces and fitted to­
gether, so as to form a complete mould
of the clay model. Water and plaster
mixed is then poured over the inside
of the mould, and when the mould is
removed there is left a hollow cast of
the figure. [Founding and Lost Wax
Process.]
Castle. (Arch.) A fortified feudal
dwelling, also the palace of the feudal
lord. T h e fortified castles of the n t h
and 12th centuries had a donjon sur­
rounded by fosses. In the 13th century
the circuit of the walls was extended
and was flanked by towers, while a n
air of luxury was imparted to the por­
tion occupied as a dwelling by the lord.
T h e castles of the 15th century were
built with princely magnificence but
were no longer fortresses ; those of the
Renaissance were palaces.
Catacombs.
Underground burial
places.
It was in the catacombs at
Rome that the Christians took refuge to
celebrate their services.
Catacombs
also exist at Syracuse, Palermo, and
Agrigentum, and in Tuscany and Etruria.
T h e catacombs of Paris were originally
stone quarries, but they contain an im­
mense quantity of bones regularly piled
up, coming from different cemeteries,
such as those of the Innocents and of
St. Eustace, as well as from the burying
grounds which surrounded churches
which have now been destroyed. Finally,
in the catacombs of Paris the remains
of those who fell in August, 1788, in
April, 1789, and September, 1792, have

74

CAT

been placed.
In the catacombs of
Rome have been found a large number
of paintings, which constitute the first
attempts of Christian Art. T h e artists
who painted them are absolutely un­
known to us. They are hieratic or
symbolic representations, the value of
which was not the actual sign itself, but
the thing symbolised.
Such, for in­
stance, is the fish (ιχθνς), the sign of
Christ ; the anchor, the symbol of hope ;
the dove, the symbol of the soul, &c.
From an investigation of these signs we
arrive at a mysterious writing, depend­
ing entirely on initial letters.
Catafalque. A richly decorated stage
set up in churches, on which coffins are
placed during funeral ceremonies.
Catalogue. A list of works of art
classified either alphabetically or accord­
ing to schools. T h e term is generally
applied to a list of works in a public or
private collection, or such as have been
got together for the purposes of ex­
hibition or sale.
— Raisonné. A catalogue which not
only gives a list of works of art, but
describes their subject and style, and
discusses them from an historical point
of view.
—, To. T o draw u p the catalogue of
a collection of works of art. T o catalogue works of art as completely as
possible, it is not only necessary to
quote the title of each object, but to
give its dimensions and description, to
mention its author and province, to
make out its genealogy, and where
possible to reproduce in facsimile the
signature or mark which exists upon it.
Catenary Curve. T h e curve formed by
a flexible body of uniform thickness,
suspended by its extremities from two
points in the same horizontal line. This
curve inverted is frequently employed
in arches, &c.
Cathedral. (Arch.) A cathedral church
is a church in which the cathedra, or
bishop's throne, is placed. Any consecrated building, therefore, may be con-

CAT

ART

DICTIONARY.

CEC

verted into a cathedral at any time by capital and curl round the volutes which
placing a bishop's throne within its support the abacus.
walls. Considering the important office
C a u s i a . (Cost.)
discharged by a cathedral it is natural A
broad - brimmed
that buildings of beauty and dignity hat worn by Roman
should, where possible, be chosen as fishermen and adoptcathedral churches. But it must not be ed by them from the
supposed that a cathedral need differ, Macedonians, who inarchitecturally speaking, in any respect vented it. Represenfrom an ordinary parish church.
tations of it are found
Catherine, St. According to the legend on vases and other
St. Catherine was an Egyptian princess, works of art.
who suffered martyrdom at the hands of
Cavaedium. (Arch.) T h e hollow or
the Emperor Maximin or Maxentius open part of a Roman house. T h e
because she would not renounce t h e Romans in early times built their houses
Christian faith.
She is said to have in t h e form of a small quadrangle, thus
been very beautiful, as well as learned leaving an empty space in the middle,
in all the science and philosophy of the and it is this empty space which was
heathen. T h e Emperor attempted on called t h e cavaedium.
one occasion to break her to pieces on
Cavetto. (Arch.)
wheels armed with sharp spikes, but t h e A concave moulding,
wheels were destroyed with fire from which generally has
heaven, and the spikes flew about and a quarter of a circle
killed three thousand people.
Mrs. as its profile. It is
Jameson holds that the legend of St. principally a cornice
Catherine is based upon t h e story of moulding.
Hypatia, who suffered martyrdom at
Cavo-relievo. (Sculp.) A method of
Alexandria, not at the hands of heathen
carving in relief,
tyrants, but of Christian fanatics. St.
in
which
the
Catherine is represented over and over
highest part is on
again in art. H e r attributes, besides
a level with the
the wheel, which particularly belongs
surface of t h e
to her, are a palm, a sword, a crown, and
stone, and the
a book. H e r marriage with the Infant
lowest part is deChrist, symbolising t h e union of her soul
pressed considerwith Christ, was a favourite subject with
ably
below it·
painters, especially during the 16th cenThis method of
tury. Representations of it are in exsculpture was
istence by Perugino, Correggio, Titian,
chiefly practised
Vandyck, and others,
by the Egyptians, and our cut represents
Cat's Eye. A stone of a yellowish or an Egyptian work.
greenish hue, furCecilia, St., was a Roman who lived
rowed with rays in the reign of Alexander Severus. She
of
a
brilliant was educated in the Christian faith by
green.
her parents, and being gifted with a
C a u l i c o l i . genius for music she composed and
(Arch.)
Stalks sang hymns, and is said to have inwhich spring from vented the organ. She suffered martyrbetween the folds dom in Rome soon after her husband
of the acanthus leaves in the Corinthian and his brother had been put to death

75

CEI

ART

DICTIONARY.

for professing the Christian faith. T h e
executioner sent to put her to death
trembled so that he failed to carry out
his purpose, and having wounded her
left her to die. In early representations
of St. Cecilia the saint appears simply
holding a palm-branch; after the 15th
century she is generally painted with her
musical instruments, and from that time
she is regarded almost exclusively as
the patroness of music.
Ceiling. (Arch.) T h e ceiling is the
covering of a roof or floor, which hides
its timbers from the room below. It
may be of timber or plaster. It is
generally of the latter in the present
day. T h e timber ceilings of the Middle
Ages, especially those in churches, were
often richly gilded and brilliant with
colour. T h e use of piaster in ceilings
came in with the revival of the classical
style about the time of James I.
Celadon. (Pot.) This term was origin­
ally applied only to the sea-green colour
upon old Oriental porcelain. Pieces of
this colour ,are extremely rare and of
great antiquity.
T h e term is now
applied to all porcelain in which the
colour is mixed with the glaze and
burnt in at the first firing.
Celebe. (Gk. κελέβη.) T h e n a m e of cer­
tain Greek vases, elegant in
form, with two handles and
a foot. Some are quite plain
while others have their sur­
face richly decorated.
Cella. (Arch.) T h e sanctuary in
ancient temples.
Our
illustration
represents
the plan of an ancient
temple, and the part
enclosed within black
lines is the cella. A
magazine or store room
on the ground-floor of a Roman house.
A name given to the separate chambers
variously heated in ancient baths.
Celt. T h e term celt is applied to
hatchets, adzes, and chisels of stone,
which were once used as implements in

76

CEN

nearly every part of the world. It was
long held that the instruments called
celts were so termed because they were
made by the Celtic nations. But this
derivation has been given up, and it is
now generally recognised that the word
is only an anglicised form of the Latin
celtis, a chisel. T h e period at which
they were used is so remote that for
centuries a superstition has been in
existence that celts were not fashioned
by h u m a n hands, but were in reality
thunderbolts, and fell from heaven. In
every part of the world they have been
held in reverence as of supernatural
origin, and called thunderbolts or light­
ning stones. Medical virtues have been
ascribed to them. In some countries
they are said to keep off the cattleplague, in others to purify wells.
They are generally made of flint, but
sometimes of quartz, porphyry, jasper,
and other stones. In length they vary
from two to sixteen inches. They be­
long to what is called the Neolithic age,
which carries us back to a time when the
use of bronze and iron was unknown.
They, as well as the moulds in which
they were made, have been found in
large numbers in every part of the globe.
Cement. (Arch.) A mixture of lime
and some hard substance, thoroughly
crushed, or of sand, puzzolana, and lime.
It is used to bind solid bodies to­
gether.
—, Roman. (Arch.) A cement obtained
from the crushing of special stones.
On being soaked in water it forms a
soft paste, which rapidly hardens in the
air.
Cenaculo. [Last Supper.]
Cendal. A silk stuff, of which banners
and rich vestments were made in the Mid­
dle Ages.
Cenotaph. A monument raised to the
memory of a dead person, whose mortal
remains are elsewhere.
Censer. A metal vessel for burning
incense. Over the cup where the incense
burns is an ornamental open-work cover,

CEN

ART

DICTIONARY.

and the whole is supported by chains
attached to the
cup.
In the
Gothic period
censers
were
AWIML·
decorated with
mullioned openings. In the
17th and 18th
centuries
the
covers were
often
domeshaped, and the
cups were ornamented with statuettes
standing at the points where the chains
were attached.
Centaur. (Myth.) A fabulous being,
half man, half horse, often introduced
by Egyptians, Etruscans, Greeks, and
Romans into their bas-reliefs, and forming the subject of numerous works of art.
The artists of the Renaissance and
modern times have also given us repre-

sentations of this mythological figure, the
human torso placed upon the body of a
horse affording an opportunity for grandeur of line. Centaurs are sometimes represented on Greek vases with their fore
feet human. T h e female centaur was
a later invention and is more rarely
represented in works of art.
Centre. In geometry the centre is
a point within the circumference of a circle,
all lines drawn from
which to the circumference are equal.
The
term is also applied to
the central point in a picture and to the

CER

spot in a painting where the effect of
light is concentrated. T h u s we speak of a
luminous centre, or of a composition the
centre of which is not distinctly marked.
Centre. A temporary structure of wood
upon which arches
are built. For small
arches centres consist simply of pieces
of wood cut to the
curve of the arch and supported under
it by props. For longer arches, such
as tunnels, the centres are composed
of several upright curved frames or
ribs, joined together by narrow battens
nailed across them horizontally and
called laggings ; the whole being supported by struts resting either on the
ground, or, if the arch is high, on corbels
introduced into the side walls. Between
the top of each strut and the rib which
it supports is placed a pair of small
wedges of wood, which can be easily
withdrawn. By this device it is possible
to ease the centre before the masonry is
quite set. T h e two wedges are driven
slightly outwards, thus allowing the rib
to sink a little. This causes the whole
of the arch to settle slightly and uniformly and to take its bearing, the mortar being compressed in the joints.
When the mortar has completely set,
the centres are removed together.
Ceramic. T h e ceramic art is the art
of manufacturing objects of all sorts in
every kind of clay, and of decorating
them by means of painting or modelling
or both. T h e difference in the quality
of clay and the variety of decorative
processes have given rise to a variety of
products. Under the general name of
ceramics we include (1) bricks, tiles,
terra-cotta, and common pottery ; (2)
faïences ; (3) stone-ware ; (4) porcelain.
T h e ceramic art occupies in consequence a very important place among
the decorative arts.
It is allied to
architecture on the one hand, and to
painting and sculpture on the other.
[Pottery.]

77

CER

ART

DICTIONARY.

Ceramography. The historical and
technical study of the ceramic art.
Cerberus. T h e three-headed
dog
which guarded the entrance to Hades.
H e fawned on those who entered, but
showed his teeth to those who went out.
Representations of him are found on
painted vases.
Ceres. [Demeter.]
C e r o g r a p h y . Painting on wax.
Ceroplastic. T h e art of modelling in
wax. This art was practised by the
ancients and by artists of the Renaissance, whose wax figures were often
coloured and heightened in effect with
gold tints. Among the finest specimens
of ceroplastic are Michael Angelo's
studies, which are to be seen in the
South Kensington Museum. T h e art
was cultivated until the end of the 18th
century, and Benoît's portrait of Louis
XIV. is a justly celebrated masterpiece.
In spite of occasional attempts to revive
it in our own century it has practically
died out from an artistic point of view.
It is now principally used for scientific
purposes, such as the construction of
anatomical figures, many of which are
to be seen in museums of anatomy.
Modern waxwork exhibitions have no
connection whatever with art.
Cerostrotum. A method of encaustic
painting on ivory, in which furrows were
cut in the ivory with a heated cestrum or
etching needle, and then filled up with
wax. This is the explanation generally
given of the process, but the whole subject is shrouded in obscurity.
Cerulean. (Paint.) Azure-tinted, of
a fine transparent blue colour.
Ceruse. (Paint.) Pure carbonate of
lead, out of which the pigment ceruse or
white lead is manufactured.
Cervelas. Red marble veined with
white.
Cestus. T h e cestus was the boxingglove of the Romans. It consisted of a
thong of leather wound round and round
the hand and wrist. Sometimes the
leather was studded with iron bosses,

78

CHA

which rendered the cestus a dangerous
weapon. Representations
of boxers armed with the c
cestus are very common J
in Roman art.
Chair. T h e chair of today is generally a seat with
a back and no arms. T h e
chairs used in the 13th century, on the contrary, had
arms and no back, and
were placed against the
wall with pieces of richly
wrought tapestry behind them. In the
15th, 16th, and 17th centuries highbacked chairs became fashionable ;
these gave way in
the 18th century to
chairs with oval
backs. Iron chairs
with trellis-work
seats are the invention of our own
period, and have
superseded rustic
seats of wood or
stone. For the
furniture of our houses we have produced
no new form of chair, but have been content to imitate with some measure of
success the style of former times.
—, Curule. A seat inlaid with ivory,
granted as a privilege to consuls, praetors, and curule aediles at Rome. T h e
curule chair had bent legs in the shape
of the letter X, and was made to fold up.
—, Sedan. A vehicle much used in the
17th and 18th centuries, consisting of a
glass body containing a seat, and carried
by two men by means of straps and two
long poles. Sedan chairs were frequently
ornamented with paintings and sculptured
reliefs picked out with gold, and many of
them are masterpieces of decorative art.
Chair-rail. T h e rail which runs round a
room at a height of three or four feet from
the floor and prevents the backs of the
chairs from injuring the wall decorations.
Chalcedony. A milky white agate,

CHA

ART

DICTIONARY.

striped or veined with different colours,
used by engravers of precious stones.
Chalcography. (Engrav.) T h e art of
engraving on copper.
Chalcotype. (Engrav.) A process of
engraving in relief on copper, invented
by the German Heims in 1851.
Chalet. (Arch.) A rustic house with balconies and galleries of carved wood, built
in imitation of Swiss houses of planks
and trunks of trees and covered with a
roof which projects over the façade.
Chalice. A sacramental vessel used
at holy mass for the consecration of the wine. It
is a deep cup mounted
on a stem, and of all religious vessels is the one
which has given the most
opportunity to the imagin a t i o n of d e c o r a t i v e
artists. Some chalices
are ornamented
with
precious stones and enamels.
Chalk. (Paint.) A white calcareous
substance, which is used in distemper
painting. Chalk in the shape of a crayon
is also used to draw the outlines of a
composition on a canvas.
Chamber. (Arch.) A room or apartment in a house, generally a room in
which a bed is placed.
Chambers. (Arch.) A term applied to
a set of rooms, which can be used either
as offices or as a residence for bachelors.
For instance, the set of rooms in the Inns
of Court are invariably called chambers.
Chambranle. (Arch.) A slightly projecting casing, either plain or consisting
of a collection of mouldings. It follows the outline of
a real or pretended
rectangular opening,
such as a door, window, &c.
Chamfer. (Arch.)
A small surface in a
wall, formed by flattening a right angle
so as to get rid of a sharp corner, which

CHA

would be easily broken or damaged. A
right angle is thus replaced by two obtuse angles.

Chamfron. A
piece of armour
generally of steel
used to protect the
head of a warhorse from the
ears to the nose.
Though
apparently known to
the Persians and
Greeks in ancient
times the chamfron did not appear in modern
Europe until the
15th century.
Champagne. (Her.) A French term
used to describe a charge
which occupies the lower
third portion of the shield.
T h i s charge is hardly
known in English heraldry,
but is frequently employed
in German coats-of-arms.
Champ-levé. A process of enamelling
in which furrows are cut in the metal
plate in accordance with the design
adopted, and the enamel colours inserted in these furrows. T h e colours
are thus separated from one another by
a thin band of metal with a sharp edge,
and cannot mix in the firing.
Chancel. (Arch.) T h e chancel in a
catholic church is that part of the choir
near the altar where the deacons or subdeacons stand to assist the officiating
priest. It is generally shut off by a rail.
Channel. (Arch.) T h e groove in copings or volutes,
and,
generally
speaking, any
surface obtained
by cutting out the
b o d y of
the
moulding. Some channels deeply hollowed out are bordered by a projecting
fillet.

79

CHA

ART

DICTIONARY.

Chantry Chapel. A small chapel built
over the grave of one who had left a
chantry or endowment for the chanting
of masses for his soul. T h e practice of
bequeathing money for the building of
a chantry chapel was frequent before the
Reformation, and many of these chantries are to be seen in our abbey churches.
T h e r e are several at St. Albans.
Chape. A tip or case of metal fixed
on the scabbard of a sword or dagger
to strengthen it. In the 13th and 14th
centuries chapes were quite plain, but
those which belong to the 16th century
are often elaborately decorated.
Chapel. (Arch.) A religious building
of small size, either isolated or annexed
to, and so forming part of, a church.
When, however, they belong to palaces,
mansions, colleges, & c , buildings of
whatever size are termed chapels. These
chapels are of course often of large
dimensions and exquisite architecture.
Such is the Sistine Chapel belonging to
the Vatican, which contains Michael
Angelo's " Last Judgment," and such are
the chapels which form part of the
colleges of Oxford and Cambridge.
Chapels annexed to a church are rare in
Byzantine architecture. They appear in
Romanesque churches under the name
of apsidal chapels, and as time goes on
increase in number and extent. In the
12th century chapels which appear square
outside have often a polygonal interior.
In the 13th century chapels of large
dimensions, and dedicated to the Virgin,
were frequently built on to the end of
a church. These were termed Lady
Chapels. Some churches have chapels
attached to them not only round the
choir but round the side aisles.
— of the Dead. (Arch.) A chapel
built in the Middle Ages in the midst of
a burying place or cemetery. It was
frequently nothing but a simple canopy
of stone supported by columns and
sheltering an altar.
—, S e p u l c h r a l . (Arch) A chapel
annexed to a church or subterranean
80

CHA

crypt (q.v.) in which the dead were
buried.
Chapelle-de-fer. An iron hat used
by knights in the
Middle Ages as a
protection for the
head. Its peculiarity was its
brim,
which,
though narrow in
the 13th century,
grewg radually
broader.
The
crown was at first
flat, then it followed the shape of the head, and finally
assumed a conical form.
When the
bascinet (q.v.) was introduced, knights
abandoned the chapelle-de-fer.
Chaperon. (Her.) A French heraldic
term signifying a hood, such
as knights used to wear
under their helmets.
In
ta England the term is confined to little shields bearing death's-head and other devices that
used to be placed on the foreheads of
horses at ceremonious funerals.
Chapiter. (Arch.) An old term for
the capital of a column.
aplet. (Arch.) A moulding decorated

with pearls or small rosettes threaded
together.
Chapter-house. T h e meeting place of
the canons of a cathedral church.
Character. By this word we denote
both the originality of a work of art and
its general effect. When we say that a
landscape has character we mean that it
has fine outlines. A work of art lacks
character when it is trivial or commonplace and fails to impress the spectator.
Charcoal.
Charcoal either manufactured into crayons or in its rough
state is used for drawing purposes. It
is prepared by burning wood, especially

CHA

ART

DICTIONARY.

box and willow, in a close furnace. T h e
term is also applied to drawings executed
in this medium. Thus we speak of a
charcoal drawing.
Charge. (Her.) Any heraldic figure represented in a coat of arms. [Ordinary.]
Charge. A French term applied to a
composition, or more often a portrait, in
which individual peculiarities are accentuated so as to become grotesque. T h e
charges of Callot are celebrated. [Caricature] .
Charged. (Her.) A shield carrying
some figure is said to be charged, and in
the same way a figure may be charged
by superposing some other figure upon it.
Chariot. An ancient carriage mounted
on two wheels and entered from behind.
The chariot, in the allegorical art of today, has a triumphal signification.
Charities. [Graces.]
Charm. [Amulet.]
Charnel-house. (Arch.) A gallery or
covered place annexed to a cemetery,
where the bones of the dead were placed
in the Middle Ages.
Charon. In Greek mythology the ferryman appointed by the gods to take the
souls of the departed across the river
Styx. Repiesentations of him are to be
seen on Greek vases and stelae.
Charter-house. (Arch.) A special
building or hall where charters, titles,
and other manuscripts of historic interest
and great value are kept.
Chasing. T h e art of embossing metal
and then cutting or chasing it with a
graver. T h e art of chasing was much
practised by the ancients, and the names
of several Greek artists who practised
this branch with success have come
down to us. One of these named Mys
was famous for having made a chariot
and horses which a fly could cover with
its wings. T h e art of chasing was of
importance in the creation of those
masterpieces of art, the chryselephantine statues, the gold portion being
elaborately chased. In the great period
of Italian art many gold and silver

CHA

vessels were exquisitely chased. T h e
great master of the art in this period
was Benvenuto Cellini. There are some
indications at the present time that this
long neglected art is coming once more
into favour.
Chasuble. An
ecclesiastical
vestment worn by
all grades of the
Roman Catholic
clergy. It is very
simple in form,
being a circular
piece of cloth
with a hole in the
middle, through
which the head
is thrust.
It is
put on last and
covers all the
other vestments.
In early times it
was the same
length before as
behind, but in
the n t h century
the front was considerably shorter than

the back.

Soon afterwards, however, it
81

CHE

ART

DICTIONARY.

regained its symmetrical form, and un­
derwent no further change. It was fre­
quently richly ornamented. T h e modern
chasuble does not conform in any re­
spect to the true model. Our second
cut is from Rubens' picture of Ignatius
Loyola.
Cheeky. (Her.) A term used to de| τ - η ~ | scribe a shield divided into
[ j 0 4 small squares. There are
generally
six rows of
squares, and if there are
less the fact should be
specified in describing the
shield.
Chef d'oeuvre. [Masterpiece.]
Cheiron. In Greek mythology Cheiron
is the kindly centaur to whom Achilles
and Jason owed their education. He
possessed nothing in common with the
centaurs except his shape, and was
skilled in all the
sciences and arts.

Cheniscus.

An

ornament in the
shape of a goose's
head which was
affixed sometimes
to the prow, some­
times to the stern
of ancient vesselsIt is very often
met with in re­
presentations
of
ships on classical
monuments. One
is to be seen on
Trajan's column.
Cherub. The head of an angel emerg­
ing from two wings em­
ployed as a painted or
sculptured ornament. In
the 17th and 18th centuiies these figures were frequently em­
ployed, and sometimes they are found
on monuments of colossal proportions.
Chesnut. A dark red brown colour.
Chest. A piece of furniture which
serves the double purpose of a large
coffer in which to store linen and of a
82

bench to sit upon.

CHI
It was the most im­

portant item in the household furniture
of the Middle Ages. In early times it
was simple in form
and only decorated
by o r n a m e n t a l
iron-work. In the
14th and 15th cen­
turies its panels were richly carved and
it was raised upon legs.
Chevet. [Apse.]
Chevron. (Her.) T h e chevron is formed
by two bands one-fifth or onethird the width of the shield,
issuing respectively from the
dexter and sinister bases of
the shield and conjoined at
r
<3"
the centre or rather above
it. T h e point of the chevron should not
touch the top of the shield as in the cut.
T h e term chevron is also applied to a
very simple decoration of a geometric
pattern consisting of a series of lines in­

clined to one another at a certain angle.
It is the most ancient ornament and is
found in prehistoric and savage drawings.
Chevronel. (Hér.) A diminutive of
the chevron.
Chevronny. (Her.) Used to describe
a shield divided by a number of lines or
strips in the form of chevrons.
Chiaroscuro. (Paint.) T h e art of distributing light and shade in a picture,
and especially of enveloping the figures
or other parts of the scene represented
in transparent half-tints or shadows very
fine in tone. Rembrandt above all excelled in the rendering of the effects of
chiaroscuro. T h e term is also applied,
but very rarely, to drawings in camaieu
(q.v.)
In former times a drawing or

CHI

ART

DICTIONARY.

picture in chiaroscuro meant a drawing
executed in monochrome, and depending for its effect entirely on the contrast
of light and dark tints.
Chic. A word of wide application very
often used in artistic slang, and generally
indicating either skilful execution or an
effect far removed from the conventional
or commonplace.
Chicory. T h e water-colour painters of
1830 gave this name to a colour of a
reddish yellow tone, not sold in the shops,
which they obtained by evaporating what
was left after four consecutive hours' boiling of a packet of common chicory burnt
and diluted in a quart of water. T h e
colour thus obtained was bituminous in
tone, like sepia, and closely resembled
the pigments employed in the style of
oil-painting then in vogue.
Chief. (Her.) T h e chief is an ordinary
which occupies the upper
third portion of a shield,
and is considered the most
honourable of ordinaries.
It has one diminutive called
the fillet, which is one-fourth
of the size of the chief.
When any charge is placed in the uppermost part of the shield it is said to be in
chief.
Chilled. (Paint.) T h e varnish on a
picture is said to have chilled when it
becomes dim and cloudy. This defect is
generally caused by moisture.
Chimaera. A fabulous monster, de-

scribed in Homer as having the head of

CHI

a lion, the body of a goat, and the tail of
a dragon. Fantastic animals with the
head of a bird, the winged body of a lion,
or the figure of a man, and various other
chimerical combinations were employed
in the Middle Ages as subjects for decoration either painted or sculptured. T h e
chimaeras of the Renaissance were employed as caryatids or supports in pieces
of furniture, &c. Fine examples are also
found on the frames of mirrors or borders
of tapestry, placed in the midst of foliage
and terminated in fantastic scrolls.
Chimney-back. (Arch ) T h e plate of
metal placed at the bottom of a fire-place.
T h e space between the hearth and the
joints.
Chimney-hood. (Arch.) A mantelpiece in the shape of
a pyramid. T h e chimneys of the Middle
Ages present many
examples of hoods
richly decorated with
arcadesand sculptured
ornaments. T h e chimney-hoods of the period of the Renaissance are vertical, but are even more
extravagantly ornamented.
Chimney-piece. (Arch.) T h e chimneypiece was once
an i m p o r t a n t
element in the
decoration of a
room. To-day it
is generally set
into the wall or
concealed in its
thickness, and
consists of nothing more than
a marble frame,
sometimes richly
carved and surmounted by panels embellished with mirrors and paintings.
The chimney-pieces of the Middle Ages
were, on the contrary, monuments of art.
Above the shelf, which was supported by
a chambranle of large enough dimensions
io allow a man to walk under it with ease,
83

ART

CHI

DICTIONARY.

appeared the funnel or flue, pyramidal
in shape and decorated with bas-reliefs,
arcades, and a thousand other deli-

^ S S /

-

cately sculptured ornaments, sometimes
painted or heightened in effect with
gilding. T h e chimney-pieces of the 12th
and 13th centuries were very simple and
strong in outline. In the 15th and 16th
they were extraordinarily rich In the

CHI

chin-pieces, for breath speedily condenses on the sui face of the stone,
dilutes the ink or crayon, and seriously
interferes with the work.
Chippendale. A name applied ignorantly to almost all the furniture produced in England in the last century.
Thomas Chippendale, who has given
his name to so many chairs and tables
to which he never put his hand, was a
native of Worcestershire and a cabinetmaker.
His designs are somewhat
heavy and clumsy and are generally
imitated with a leaning towards the
classical style from the French. Chippendale furniture should be distinguished
from the slender and graceful productions of Sherraton.
Chisel. (Sculp.) An instrument of iron
or steel with a sharp bevelled edge, used as a
cutting tool by sculptors.
It may be either straight
or bent. T h e word is
also a p p l i e d to the
sculptor's a r t : thus we
say that a sculptor has
a delicate chisel when his work is
executed with fine feeling. T h e chisel
and the brush are used absolutely to indicate the arts of sculpture and painting.
A cutting tool with a handle of wood

17th and 18th centuries they were decorated with pilasters and scrolls, while the
funnel was replaced by vertical panels.
China. Pottery made of a transparent
paste and originally brought to Europe
from China.
Chinese Paper. A fine yellow-tinted
paper, manufactured from bamboo fibre,
used for taking proofs of engravings. It
is generally called India paper (q.v.)
Chinese White. (Paint ) A white
pigment prepared from oxide of zinc.
It is not thoroughly satisfactory in oil- and a bevelled point is also called a
painting, but is the best white for use chisel.
in water-colour. It is permanent under
Chiton. (Cost.) T h e chiton was the
all circumstances.
garment worn next the skin by both men
Chin-piece. (Engrav.) A piece of linen and women in Greece. It consisted of
or cardboard, somewhat resembling a an oblong piece of cloth which was closed
gag, worn on the mouth by wood en- on one side, only a hole being left for the
gravers. T h e object of it is to pre- arm to be put through. On the other
vent the breath from spoiling the side it was open, though sometimes the
drawing ink. Lithographers also employ ends below the thigh were stitched to
84

CHL

ART

DICTIONARY.

gether, and the upper ends were fastened
together by a clasp. Round the waist it

CHO

when they attained the age of an ephebus,
and was the distinctive dress of traveller
and soldier.
Choir. (Arch.) T h e part of a church
reserved for the clergy.
In Latin
churches the choir was at the crossing.
At the end of the 12th century the choir
was extended and was placed in front of
the sanctuary below the apse of the
church. In the 13th and 14th centuries
the choir was closed by a wood roof and
surrounded by a cloister. Within this
cloister were placed the stalls, while
outside it was decorated with arcades
sometimes containing painted and gilded
bas-reliefs.
Chopine. A wooden clog or stilt worn
under the foot. T h e fashion of wearing
chopines came from Italy to England, and
prevailed in the 15th and 16th century.
In Venice the custom of wearing them

was fastened by a girdle, over which,
when the chiton was long, it was drawn
up so as to fall in graceful folds.
Chlamys. (Cost.) T h e chlamys was an
oblong piece of cloth thrown over the left
shoulder, and fastened by a brooch on

was universal, but they never became
popular in England. Shakespeare mentions the chopine in Hamlet, act ii. sc. 2 :
" Your ladyship is nearer heaven than
when I saw you last by the altitude of a
chopine."
Choragic Monum e n t . (Arch) A
choragic monumen c
was a small monument erected to
hold the tripod
which was awarded
to the choragus who
furnished the successful chorus in
the theatrical rethe right. T h e ends were kept in their p r e s e n t a t i o n s at
It was
place by small weights attached to them. A t h e n s .
It was worn by the youth of Athens sometimes merely a pillar, at others a

85

CHO

ART

DIC TIONARY.

small temple. T h e best specimen of a
choragic monument is that of Lysicrates
which stood in the Street of the Tripods
at Athens. It consists of a small rotunda
upon a square base, and has six fluted
Corinthian columns bearing a frieze
representing the transformation of the
Tyrrhenian pirates into dolphins.
Choragium. A room where the cos­
tumes and properties were kept in an
ancient theatre.
Chord. A straight line which joins the
extremities of an arc of a circle.
Chrism. T h e monogram of Christ
painted or engraved on religious monu­
ments. This monogram consists of a
X and a P interwoven, the first letters of
the word XPI2T02. This monogram is
often complicated by the insertion of the
letters A and Ω in the lateral angles of
the X. In the fifth century the Ρ dis­
appeared, at the same time the three
letters i.H.s. began to be substituted for
XP.

Chrismatory. A vessel used in the
Roman Catholic Church to contain the
consecrated oil, which was termed
chrism.
Christ. T h e crucifix and image of
Christ on the cross. T h u s we speak of
the Christ of Vandyke, of Rembrandt,
meaning well-known pictures by cele­
brated artists.
Christina, St. Christina is a purely
legendary saint, and the legend concern­
ing her has been rejected by the Catholic
Church. She is said to have been the
daughter of a Roman patrician named
Urbanus. She was early converted to
the Christian faith and adopted the name
Christina.
She incurred her father's
displeasure, says the legend, by breaking
up his idols of gold and silver, and distri­
buting them among the poor. H e ordered
her to be thrown into the lake of Bolsena
with a mill-stone round her neck, but
the mill-stone proved a support to her,
and she was not drowned. She is said
to have at last won the crown of martyr­
dom, being shot to death by the arrows

86

CHR

of Roman soldiers. Her proper attribute
is the mill-stone, but she is sometimes
represented bearing arrows and the
crown of martyrdom
Christopher, S t . According to the
legend St. Christopher was a Canaanitish giant named Offero, whose desire it
was to serve the most powerful king in
the world. A hermit urged him to serve
Christ by dwelling on the banks of a tur­
bid stream and helping wayfarers to cross
it. At length one night he heard a child's
voice calling to him, " Christopher, carry
me over this night."
He raised the in­
fant on his shoulders, but soon found
his burden growing heavier and heavier,
and at last tottered beneath the weight.
When finally he reached the opposite
bank he found that he had borne Christ,
and henceforth was called Christopher.
He suffered martyrdom at Samos, and
is represented in art with the infant
Christ on his shoulders.
Chromatics. T h a t portion of optics
which treats of the diffusion, the decom­
position and recomposition of light, the
rays of the spectrum, the theory of
colours, and the particular properties of
coloured rays. T h e term is also applied
to the method of employing and arrang­
ing colours in painting.
Chrome Green. (Paint) A pigment
obtained from oxide of chromium. It is
of a dark green colour and of great per­
manence.
—, Yellow. (Paint ) A pigment ob­
tained from chromate of lead.
The
lead is too much acted upon by oils for
the colour to be permanent. In tint
with white it becomes a grey.
Chromolithography. T h e process of
lithographic printing in several colours.
T h e drawing is executed in portions on
as many different stones as there are
colours required, then by means of suc­
cessive printings, in the course of which
the colours are superposed the one on
the other and combine, reproduction's of
oil-paintings, water-colours, and minia­
tures may be obtained.
It is in its

CHR

ART

DICTIONARY.

application to the last-named that chromolithography has obtained its best
results.
Chromotype. The art of printing in
several colours by means of typographic
processes.
Chromotypography. A process of
printing in colour analogous to chromolithography, with this difference that the
prints are struck off typographically, that
is from relief blocks.
Chryselephantine. A term applied to
works of sculpture executed in ivory,
gold, and other precious metals Chryselephantine statues were much esteemed
in Greece. T h e Athene of the Parthenon
as well as the Zeus Olympius, both from
the hand of Pheidias, were chryselephantine statues of colossal size. In modern
times the sculptor Simart, at the instance
of the Duke de Luynes, has attempted
to restore the Athena of the Parthenon,
and his work was exhibited at the Universal Exhibition of 1855.
Chrysographer. An illuminator who,
in the Middle Ages, traced in letters of
gold or silver initials, inscriptions to
miniatures, and sometimes whole manuscripts.
Chrysography. T h e art of tracing
characters by means of gold or silver
ink on parchment, which was sometimes
purple-tinted. Chrysography was much
pursued as an art up to the 10th century
In the n t h and 12th centuries letters of
gold occur, with less frequency, but they
came into vogue again in the 14th, 15th,
and 16th centuries.
Chrysolite. A precious stone of a
yellow colour.
Chrysoprase. A green agate shaded
with yellow.
Church. A building consecrated for
Christian worship. Churches are generally cruciform, and are either in the
shape of a Greek cross, when the four
branches are equal, or of a Latin cross,
in which case the nave is longer than
either the chancel or transepts.
—, Collegiate. A church which pos-

CIB

sesses a chapter of canons, but is not the
seat of a bishopric. Such was the church
of St. Mary the Virgin at Manchester,
before it became a cathedral.
Church, Conventual. A church attached to a convent.
—, Metropolitan. A church which is
the seat of an archbishop.
—, Bound. A church the ground plan
of which is circular. This is a very rare
form. T h e best known examples are the
Temple Church in London and St.
Saviour's at Cambridge.
Church Bells. (Her.) When church
bells are borne as an heraldic charge they are always represented in perspective and the clapper
should be visible below the
rim of the bell, while the
shank should be seen at the top. T h e
bell and the clapper need not be of the
same tincture ; thus, a church bell argent
with a clapper sable.
Ciborium. A sacred vase in the shape
of a covered chalice,
either gold or gilt inside, in which the
host was kept. T h e
term is also applied
to a b a l d a c h i n o

covering an altar, or
to the tabernacle of
the high altar.
In
some Christian basilicae the ciborium
was of gold or silver,
and was an elegant
structure generally supported by four
columns and with its openings veiled by
curtains of rich material. Other ciboria

«7

CIN

ART

DICTIONARY.

CIP

were made of marble or stone. Some in heraldry is a conventional represenRomanesque churches retained the use tation of a five-cusped leaf.
Cinquefoil. (2) (Arch ) An architectural
of the ciborium as late as the 13th century, but it is unknown in pointed
churches.
Cincture. A term applied in furniture
to certain surfaces decorated with systems of ornament. Thus, for example,
the cincture of a table is the vertical
portion reaching beneath the horizontal
slab and forming a sort of frieze, sup- ornament consisting of five equal diviported by the feet.
sions or lobes, frequently used in the
Cincture of a Column. (Arch.) A Gothic style, either as a pure ornament
squared moulding or a fillet bound by an or in ecclesiastical windows.
apophyge (q.v.) placed at the summit
Cipher. A mark in the form of a
and foot of a column. T h e term is also monogram or punning device placed by
applied to the foliage ornament which artists as a signature upon their works.
separates the fluted portion from the We give two monograms, the one of
plain in the truncated columns which Christopher von Sichem, the other of
were used in the 17th and the 18th
centuries to decorate the high altar 'in
churches.
Cinerary Urn. An urn in which in ancient times the ashes of the dead were
placed. It was set up in a niche prepared for it in a mausoleum, and was Adrian Bolswert, both artists of the
sometimes of clay and sometimes of Netherlands. As an instance of the
stone or marble.
punning cipher we may mention the
Cinnabar. Native sulphide of mercury crane with which Mr. Walter Crane inwhich forms a bright red pigment. It is variably signs his works.
of great service to the painter, and by
Cipolino. A kind of marble striped
mixing it with whites we obtain flesh with broad wavy lines of white and green.
tints. Under ordinary circumstances Its foliaceous structure renders it difit is permanent, but should not be ficult for the sculptor to handle, but as
used on enamel, as when fired it is it will take a fine polish it is much used
decomposed by alkalies and alkaline as a facing. Its name is derived from an
carbonates.
Italian word meaning a small onion,
Cinquecento. Cinquecento literally the colour and form of its markings
means 500, but it is used as an abbrevia- suggesting the concentric circles of an
tion for mille cinquecento, i.e. 1500, and onion cut vertically.
is applied as a general term to the art
Cippus. (Arch.) A
of Italy in the 16th century. During the sepulchral column of
brilliant period termed the cinquecento small dimensions ; a
the classical revival was at its height in pilaster with a meItaly, and classical art and classical morial inscription ; a
mythology exercised a powerful influ- pedestal
sometimes
ence on Italian artists, among whom circular, but generally
we may mention Michael Angelo, Dona- r e c t a n g u l a r , ornatello, and Benvenuto Cellini.
mented with sculpCinquefoil. (1) (Her.) T h e cinquefoil tures. It either contained the ashes of

ART

CIR

DICTIONARY.

a dead man or marked the spot where
he was buried. T h e larger of our two

cuts represents a cippus in the British
Museum.
Circle. In geometry a plane figure,
enclosed within a curved line, called the
circumference, all points in which are
equidistant from a fixed point called the
centre. In Christian art the circle is the
emblem or symbol of heaven and eternity, and no doubt it suggested many
forms of decoration to ecclesiastical
architects.
Circle of Stones. (Arch.) An ancient
monument formed of blocks of stone
placed in a circle.
Circular. T h a t which has the form of
a circle or of a segment of a circle.
Circumscribe. T o describe one geometrical figure round another so that
there are points of contact between the
two figures.
Circus. (Arch.) A vast enclosure where
the Roman people witnessed chariot
races, games, and public spectacles.
The circus of the Romans was simple in
construction. It was oblong in shape
and terminated at one end in a semicircle, in which the spectators took their
seats. At the end opposite the spectators were the carceres or stalls for the
horses. Down the middle of the area
ran a low wall called the spina, round
which the racing chariots turned. T h e
spina was decorated with statues, altars,
and obelisks. Wherever the Romans

7

CLA

went they established circuses, and
examples exist in England at Richborough, Dorchester, and elsewhere. In
modern times the term is applied to a
circular building in which feats of horsemanship and athleticism are displayed.
Cire-perdue. [Lost Wax.]
Cista. T h e mystic chest or cist, in
which the articles pertaining to the
mysteries of Demeter or Bacchus were
kept. T h e cista was in early times
made of wicker-work, but at a later
period was of bronze or even a costlier
material, and was artistically decorated.
T h e most celebrated cista known to us
is one that was found at Praeneste,
apparently of Roman workmanship, but
worthy of the traditions of the Greek
style. It is of bronze, and is surmounted
by two figures, one a bacchante, the
other a faun. Its outside is decorated
with a design, the subject of which is
the arrival of the Argonauts at Cyzicus.
Citadel* (Arch.) A castle or stronghold placed on a height to defend the
city near which it is built.
Cithara. A musical instrument of the
greatest antiquity, known to the Greeks,
but no doubt borrowed by them from

the East. It resembled the guitar in
shape, and was played by the finger or
struck by the plectrum. Our cut represents an Egyptian playing the cithara.
City. A town, and also the special
precinct or quarter of a town where the
cathedral is situated.
Claire-voire. [Clerestory.]
Clamp. (Arch.) A piece of wrought
iron which holds together and binds into
a stolid mass two walls or two pieces of
timber.
Clasp. T h e purpose of a clasp is to
89

CLA

ART

DICTIONARY.

securely fasten

a closed book
The
bindings of valuable
MSS are generally
ornamented with rich
clasps Some are decorated with figurines
executed with the
utmost care, others
with foliage or oti.er ornament
Classical. Classical in the strict sense
of the term is applied to the best period
of ancient Greek art, when such sculptors as Pheidias and Polycletus, and such
architects as Ictinus, united in their
works respect for truth, observation of
nature, and worship of beautiful forms.
Although classical literature includes
the works of the Latin Augustan age,
the art of the Romans is only the art of
a period of decadence
By analogy the
name is given to schools which take the
monuments of Greek art as their models,
deducing from them their canons and
inspiration, and sometimes even confining themselves to a slavish reproduction of classical masterpieces without
making any attempt to grasp the principles underlying them. This unintelligent imitation has at different times
given rise to violent reactions and has
provoked vigorous aesthetic discussions.
T h e term classical is also applied to such
masters as Raphael, whose work without
being the result of direct imitation of
Greek art, yet recalls it by the purity
and perfection of its design. And finally
modern work may be called classical, if
by common consent it takes a place
among the masterpieces of the world.
Classicism. A term applied to the
artistic tendency towards the classic
style.

Classico-Romantic. Said of works of
undecided style which exhibit at the
same time a classic and romantic spirit.
Claude Glass. A dark glass, in which
a landscape may be observed in reverse.
T h e effect produced in it is said to resemble a picture by Claude, and from
this it derives its name.
90

CLE

Clay. A rich and compact earth, a
kind of clayey marl with an admixture
of iron, sand, and limestone, in which
sculptors execute their models
It
ought to be kept damp, as it is then
easy to mould and yet offers sufficient
resistance to the fingers. When they
leave their work sculptors wrap up their
clay models in soft moist linen cloths,
upon which they sprinkle water from
time to time from a particular kind of
syringe with a rose at the end like a
watering-can. Clay models if they are
left to dry in the open air shrink and
crack and speedily come to pieces.
Cleat. A small piece of wood nailed
on to the principal rafters of a roof in
order to support the purlins or horizon-

tal beams on which the common rafters
rest. It is a kind of h a m m e r beam in
the shape of a wedge, and its purpose is

to prevent the beams which support the
rafters from slipping Our illustrations
show the cleat in section as well as in
perspective.
Cleave. T o cut or divide diamonds
and crystals in parallel layers.
Clement, St. St. Clement was one of
the disciples of St. Paul and St. Peter,
and he is said to have been the Bishop
of Rome for many years He was banished by a prefect who governed Rome
in the Emperor Trajan's absence, but
even in his banishment he did not escape
from the malice of his enemies. He was

CLE

ART

DICTIONARY.

bound to an anchor and thrown into the
sea, but the water receded three miles,
and his followers found a small temple,
and within it the body of St. Clement
with an anchor round his neck. In art
St. Clement is represented with a tiara
and an anchor either round his neck or
at his side.
Clerestory. (Arch.) T h e row of windows placed in the upper story of the
nave in Gothic churches. It rises clear
above the roof of the nave-aisles. T h e
term, however, was once applied generally to any row of windows in a wall or
building.
Cliché. A relief in metal obtained by
electrotyping, from which engravings
are printed. Cliché especially denotes
the stereotype casts taken of woodblocks, from which the cuts in books
and journals are now generally printed.
By this means not only can a far larger
number of impressions be struck off, but
the block itself can be easily multiplied.
T h e term is also applied to the photographic proofs on glass, which are called
negatives or positives, according as the
whites and blacks of the object represented are transposed or not.
Clipeus. T h e large round shield car-

ried by the Greeks and Romans.

It was

CLO

circular in form, was made either of
beaten bronze or of wicker-work strengthened with ox-hides.
Cliquart. (Arch.) A coarse limestone
used in the laying of foundations.
Cloisonné.
Cloisonné enamel
is
obtained by dividing a metal surface by
means of strips of wire welded on to the
metal plate. T h u s hollows are formed,
in which the enamel in coloured powder
is deposited. Cloisonné enamels have
been manufactured since the 6th century. T h e altar given by Justinian to
the church of St. Sophia was decorated
with cloisonne enamels. These enamels
were as a rule executed on plates of gold.
Cloisonné work of the highest merit
comes from China and Japan.
Cloister. A construction forming part

of a monastery or adjoining a church.
It is generally a covered gallery surrounded by a pierced arcade, and enclosing a garden or courtyard. Cloisters
were ranged round the
sides of a quadrangle.
T h e arches which
looked into the quadrangle were sometimes glazed.
The
cloisters were
set
apart for recreation and study, and
carols or recesses exist in some cloisters,
in which the monks sat at work. A
lavatory, too, is frequently found in a
cloister, and is accounted for by the
fact that the cloister led to the refectory.
Closet. (Her.) A diminutive of the
bar, which is itself a diminutive of the
yi

CLO

ART

DICTIONARY.

fess. T h e closet should be half the width
of the bar.
Clothed. (Her ) A shield is said to be
clothed when a lozenge is
laid upon it in such a man­
ner as to cover the bulk
of the shield, leaving only
the four corners uncovered.
This device is not much
*
employed in English he­
raldry.
Clouded. A term applied to precious
stones when their translucency is
dimmed.
^
Club. (Her.) A charge in her^ Ά
aldry representing the weapon "
usually carried by Hercules.
Clubs are sometimes furnished
with spikes. Generally more than
one is represented on a shield.
Clymant. (Her.) Said of a goat
standing on its hind legs.
Coat, (i) (Paint.) A layer of colour
of a uniform tint passed once over the
surface of a canvas. A coat of paint is
said to be thin when the ground or
another coat can be seen underneath it.
Coat. (2) A coating of plaster in which
the-putty mould is wrapped after rebaking in the operation of casting.
Coat Armour. A term applied to any
military garment upon which the
armorial bearings of the wearer were
embroidered.
Coating. (Paint.) A preparation with
which walls are covered before they are
painted in fresco.
It consists of a mix­
ture of chalk and sand or puzzolana
T h e walls must be painted while the
coating is fresh, and the surface which
is to be painted during the day should
be coated in the morning.
Coat of Arms. (Her.) A coat bearing
armorial insignia worn over the armour
by mediaeval warriors, so that they
might be distinguished by their soldiers.
T h e " Coat of Arms " as now understood
is a complete and distinctive heraldic
composition.
Cobalt-blue. (Paint.) A pigment com­
92

COF

posed of alumina and phosphate of cobalt,
or of silicate of cobalt and potassium.
It is a bright blue pigment and is useful
in fresco and enamel as well as in oil
painting. It is permanent as a rule,
though it is adversely affected by light
and bad air.
Cobalt-green. (Paint.) A permanent
green pigment composed of zinc and
oxides of cobalt It is bright in tone, but
on the whole inferior to chrome greens.
Cob-wall. A wall built of straw, lime,
and earth is called a cob-wall. Cobwalls are only found in the present day
in barns and outhouses of rude construc­
tion, but the houses of the Greeks and
Romans in their best period are said to
have been built on this rough plan.
Cochineal. (Paint.) A dried insect,
soluble in water, from which a brilliant
carmine lake is obtained.
Cock. T h e emblem of watchfulness,
placed from a very early date on the
summit of churches. It also symbolises
St. Peter in allusion to his denial of
Christ.
Cockatrice. A fabulous monster, half
cock and half dragon, somewhat resem­
bling a basilisk (q.v.). In Christian sym­
bolic art it is the emblem of sin.
Coeur. (Her.) A term sometimes used
in heraldry to denote the heart or centre
of the shield.
Coffers. Compartments of which the

circumierence is enriched with mould­
ings and the
centre with a
sculptured
or­
nament.
They
are used in the
d e c o r a t i o n of
ceilings
and
vaults. Their purpose was originally

COG

ART

DICTIONARY.

COL

to fill the vacant spaces which exist Among the many operations in the
between the joists making of coins the engraving of the dies
of t h e c e i l i n g s ; and the execution of the matrix and coin
they soon became, are those which belong to the domain of
however, mere de- art.
corations to surCoins. Pieces of metal of different
faces, which when value, struck with the image of the
bare did not har- sovereign authority, sometimes repremonise
suffi- sented by an allegorical figure or group
ciently with their ensemble. Many vaults of figures. Many coins, those of Greece
are decorated with coffers, and in for instance, are of the utmost imporRenaissance times many wooden ceil- tance in the study of art. For not only
ings were formed of hexagonal or oc- are they in themselves works of art of
tagonal coffers decorated with floral the highest merit, but they often bear
ornaments or arabesques, with penden- upon them representations of welltives often richly sculptured attached to known statues, and so are of great
their centre
service in the illustration of the history
Cognisance. (Her.) A cognisance or of art.
badge is a device adopted by families as
Cointise. A general term originally
a distinctive mark. It is not blazoned applied to any scarf or other ornamental
on a shield, and it differs from a crest in garment quaintly cut and fashioned.
being complete by itself, needing neither T h e wearing of cointises (from quinteux,
wreath or cap of maintenance to support fanciful) prevailed during the 13th and
it. Among notable badges may be enu- 14th centuries. T h e term especially
merated the ostrich feathers of the Prince denotes the kerchiefs worn by knights on
of Wales, the white and red roses of the the top of their helmets.
Yorkists and Lancastrians, and the broom
Coliseum. (Arch.) An amphitheatre
sprig of the Plantagenets.
in ancient Rome of elliptic form and
Cognoscente. [Connoisseur.]
colossal dimensions.
Coif. (Cos ) A head-dress fitting tightly
Collaboration. Participation in the
and originally tied under the chin. Worn eon-ception or realisation of a work of
at first by hunters and knights, it gradu- art. T h e r e is sometimes collaboration
ally became distinctive of the ecclesias- between architects, or between architical and legal professions, and in an tects and sculptors, especially in the
altered form finally became exclusively execution of a statue, a fountain, &c.
a portion of the lawyer's costume.
Artists who follow different industries
Coilanaglyph. This barbarous and frequently collaborate in the execution
harsh-sounding word is sometimes of one object, such as a piece of furniapplied to works of sculpture cut in a ture on which a sculptor, a cabinetsolid substance, in which the relief of maker, a painter on enamel, a chaser
the figures is scarcely flush with the and an upholsterer may be engaged.
plane surface surrounding them. This In a case like this, however, the design
is the case with many bas-reliefs, to is generally due to one man alone, and
which the thickness of the stone forms the collaborators would more properly
a border, projecting beyond the most be called assistants or executants.
projecting of the figures. [Cavo-ReCollar. An ornament worn round the
lievo.]
neck, especially as the insignia of an
Coin. (Arch.) A belting course placed order of knighthood. T h e oldest order,
the knights of which are invested with a
at the angle of construction.
Coinage. T h e manufacture of coins. collar, is the order of the Golden Fleece,

93

ART

COL

DICTIONARY.

which was established by Philip the
Good, Duke of Burgundy, in 1429. T h e
knights of the English order of the Garter, though an older body than the
knights of the Golden Fleece, did not
wear a collar until the reign of Henry
VIII. T h e knights of the following
English orders are invested with a collar :
the orders of the Bath, St. Michael and
St. George, and the Star of India.
Collar-beam. (Arch.) A horizontal
beam connecting a pair of rafters above,
their point of support.
Collared. (Her.) This term is applied
to an animal depicted on a shield with
a collar about its neck, or in the case of
an ape about its loins. T h e French
term is accolé (q.v ), which has also
another meaning.
Collarino. (Arch.) That part of the
capital in the Roman Doric and Tuscan
orders which is included between the
fillet below the ovolo and the astragal at
the top of the shaft. T h e collarino is
not found in the ancient orders, except in a few buildings of the Ionic
style.
Collection. A term given to a number
of pictures, drawings, prints, and objects
of art or curiosities belonging to one
person, by whom they have as a rule
been got together. These are private collections, but the name is also applied
to the treasures amassed by public bodies
and kept in public museums.
College (Arch). A building or collection of buildings established for the
education of youth. T h e colleges at
Oxford and Cambridge are among our
most interesting architectural monuments. They usually consist of one or
more quadrangles, with buildings ranged
round them, in which the fellows and
students live, as well as a chapel, a
library, and a dining-hall
Collegiate Church. [Church, Collegiate.]
Collodion. A solution of gun-cotton in
ether, a thin coating of which was spread
on photographic glass plates before the

94

COL

invention of plates prepared with gelatino-bromide
Cologne Earth. (Paint.) A pigment
obtained from a bituminous earth resembling sepia. It is chiefly used for
making sketches in which broad effects
are aimed at.
Colonnade. (Arch )
columns symmetrically
arranged in one or more
rows. T h e columns are
surmounted by an entablature or a series of
arches according to the
style of the building ~~
T h e term colonnade is also applied to
porticos. This form of decoration was in
general use in ancient architecture, and
is also found in modern buildings of the
classic style. T h e west front of St.
Paul's, the work of Sir Christopher
Wren, may be mentioned as a good
example of a colonnade.
Colonnette. (Arch ) A column, the
diameter of which is very small in proportion to its height. Colonnettes are
frequently used in buildings of the
Gothic style to support arcades, and
when clustered form piers.
Colossal. Monuments, statues, or
works of art are termed colossal when
they are of extraordinarily vast dimensions.
Colossus. A statue of colossal dimensions, such as were the Egyptian figures
of Osiris and the Sphinx. T h e statue of
Apollo erected at Rhodes was a colossus. Such, too, is the enormous statue
of Independence executed but just now
by the French sculptor Bartholdi, and
set up at the entrance to New York
harbour in America.
Colour. (Paint.) Colour in a general
sense is the impression produced upon
the eye by coloured substances. In a
more special sense it is the effect produced by the arrangement of colours in
a picture. T h u s we say, " T h e Venetians
have the genius of colour." Colour is not
only applied to drawings, in which objects

COL

ART

DIC VIONARY.

are modelled by means of different tints,
but also to those in which the effect is produced only by means of contrasts of black
and white. An engraving or lithograph,
for instance, without any other tone but
black and white, may be more full of
colour than a painting, if it produces a
more brilliant effect than the latter.
Colour, Bronze. A colour of a greenish
or reddish tint.
—, Flame. A warm brilliant shade
of red.
—, Flesh. A colour of a pale red tint,
mixed with rose, white, yellow, and sometimes with bluish gr.ey in its shaded
portions.
—, General. A term applied to the
tonality (q.v.) of a whole picture.
—, Livid. A leaden tint, blue, violet,
or green, approaching to black.
—, Local. T h e colour which belongs
to a special object.
T h e romantic
school extended this expression to mean
the accurate presentment of site, costumes, and accessories. When Decamps
represented for the first time the true
Turks of Asia Minor instead of the conventional Turks with their garments
decorated with a sun, he gave us an
example of local colour.
—, Pearly. A colour of a very fine
and harmonious grey tone.
—, Shot. A colour which varies accordding to the angle at which it is seen.
—, Wood. Wood colour is a yellowish brown tint. When we say that a
figure is wood colour, we mean it is heavy
and false and disagreeable in tone.
Dark wood colour is frequently used in
industrial art to give to common white
woods the appearance of darker and
more valued woods.
Coloured. W h e n certain
surfaces
either in a drawing or engraving are
covered with colour they are said to be
coloured. T h e engraved plates in scientific works, for instance, are frequently
copied from models and coloured by
hand. This method of colouring is as a
rule unsatisfactory and has a tendency

COL

to fade. In fact it is now generally replaced by chromolithography (q.v.). In
cheap publications a process of colouring
has been invented which is nothing more
than mechanical, but it can only be
applied with satisfactory results to surfaces of considerable extent. It consists
in the employment of different patterns
cut out in linen like vignettes equal to
the number of the colours which are to
be applied. T h e operator, by means of
leading points, places the pattern on the
engraving which he desires to colour,
and passes a sponge impregnated with
the necessary colour over the whole
print, the colour only adhering to the
vacant space where the pattern has been
cut out. This operation is repeated as
many times as is necessary, either before
or after the drying is complete ; in the
former case an effect of blending can be
obtained. In spite of the careful management which is essential to this process it is inexpensive.
Colouring. (Paint ) T h e general effect
produced by the colours employed in a
painting. When we say that the colouring of a picture is violent, bold, sad, fine,
delicate, we refer to the sensation which
the colouring produces in us.
Colourist. (Paint.) A painter is termed
a colourist when he prefers to aim at
grand effects of colour, and to excel
in giving his works a mingled brilliance
and harmony.
T h e painters of the
Venetian School are most celebrated as
colourists, and among them Titian and
Veronese must first be mentioned. After
them come Ribera and Velasquez of the
Spanish School, Rubens and Rembrandt
of the Flemish and Dutch Schools, and
Eugène Delacroix of the French School.
T h e modern English School has produced
several artists eminent in colour, the
Pre-Raphaelites being especially entitled
to mention.
Colours, Blended. T h e effect obtained
by the passing of one colour or tone to
another by means of imperceptibly graduated shades or tints.

95

COL

ART

DICTIONARY.

Colours, Complementary.
Colours
the combination of which produces white
light. According to the laws of physics
the complementary colour to green
is red, that to blue is orange, that to
purple is yellow, and vice versa.
In
practice the combination of complementary colours does not produce pure white
at all, but grey.
—, Heraldic. (Her.) Heraldic colours,
as distinguished from the heraldic metals
and furs, are five in number : azure or
blue, gules or red, sable or black, vert
or green, and purpure or purple. In
blazoning they are thus abbreviated:
az., gu., sa., vert, and purp.
—, Light. Colours which by the addition of white remain clear.
—, Primary. Primary colours, which
cannot be compounded by mixture of
other colours, are three in number, red,
yellow, and blue. They are also termed

COL

Colum. A strainer for wine in use
among the Greeks and Romans at an

early date. It was adopted by the
Christian Church for straining the sacramental wine.
Columbaria. (Arch). T h e recesses in
ancient tombs in which the urns containing the ashes of the dead were
placed. They got their name from their
supposed resemblance to dove-cots.
T h e term is also applied to holes left in
a wall for the insertion of timbers.
Column. (Arch.) A cylindrical support
placed vertically, consisting generally of
three parts : the base, the shaft or cylindrical portion, and the capital.
—, Attic. (Arch.) A column decorating an attic storey above the entablature.
—, Cantonned. (Arch.) An engaged
—, Prismatic. A term applied to
the seven simple colours, purple, indigo, column placed at an angle to strengthen
blue, green, yellow, orange, and red, a pillar and to support the spring of an
which result from the decomposition of arch.
a ray of light by means of a prism.
—, Composite. (Arch.) A column sur—, Relative. (Paint.) Colours which mounted by a composite capital.
—, Corinthian. (Arch.) A lofty column
blend easily and produce harmonious
with the proportions of the Corinthian
tones.
—, Secondary, are three in number. order. [Corinthian.]
—, Cylindrical. (Arch) A column of
Each of them is formed by the mixture
of two of the three primary colours : constant diameter, the outline of which
thus, orange from red and yellow, green is determined by parallel lines.
—, Diminished. (Arch.) A column
from blue and yellow, purple from red
having the diameter at its
and blue.
—, Symbolic. In the works of early base greater than its diaChristian painters certain colours sym- meter at its capital. Doric
bolised or were exclusively associated temples offer the finest
with certain persons or subjects. For examples of diminished
instance, white was the symbol of light, columns. T h e diminished
purity, and faith, while black suggested column, which forms a
mourning, wickedness, and death. As truncated cone, was enart freed itself from the trammels of tirely abandoned in the
tradition this symbolism was soon for- 17th and 18th centuries and
replaced by the swelling column.
gotten or neglected.
—, Doric. (Arch.) A lofty column with
—, T e r t i a r y . Colours, variable in
number, which enter into the composi- the proportions of the Doric order.
[Doric]
tion of another colour.
96

COL

ART

DICTIONARY.

Column, Embedded. (Arch ) A column
partly lost in the vertical wall against
which it is placed.
It is called a half
column when half of
it is engaged and the
projecting portion is
a semicircle.
—, Engaged. [Column, Embedded.]
—, Flanked. (Arch.) A column surrounded by pilasters.
—, Fluted. (Arch.) A column the
shaft of which is ornamented with
flutings.
—, Gnomonic. A column upon which
a dial plate is placed.
—, Gothic. (Arch ) T h e name given to
the clustered columns, forming a pier,
which are used in Gothic buildings.
—, Grouped. (Arch ) A group of at
least three columns placed upon a single
pedestal.
—, Hermetic. (Arch.) A column
covered with hieroglyphics placed in the
most secret portion of an Egyptian temple.
— in bands. (Arch.) A column formed
of drums placed one upon the other, the
height of which is less than the diameter.
— in trencheons. A column formed
of drums placed one upon the other,
the height of which is greater than the
diameter.
—, Ionic. A lofty column with the proportions of the Ionic order.
—, Manubiary. A column the shaft
of which is decorated with trophies.
—, Menian. A column the capital of
which is surmounted by a gallery or
balcony.
—, Miliary. A column placed on Roman roads at regular intervals of a thousand paces.
—, Monumental. A column erected
in memory of a great person or event.
—, Nicked. A column set back in
a vertical wall in such a way that a clear
space is left between the wall and the
shaft of the column from base to capital.

COL

C o l u m n , O v a l . (Arch.) A flattened
column, the section of whose shaft is an
ellipse.
—, Paestian. A lofty column with
the proportions of the Doric columns of
the temple of Paestum.
—, Pastoral. A column the shaft of
which resembles the trunk of a tree.
—, Polygonal. (Arch.) A column the
shaft of which is polygonal.
—, Ringed. (Arch.) A column decorated with annulets in relief.
—, Rostral. (Arch.) A column with its
shaft decorated by the prows of galleys.
—, Rustic. (Arch.) A column the shaft
of which is decorated with projecting
rustic work.
—, Serpentine. (Arch.) A column
formed of interlaced serpents.
—, Statuary. A column surmounted
by a statue.
—, Swelling. A column in the form
of a prolonged spindle. Its diameter is
the same at its base and capital, but increases considerably towards its centre.
Sometimes the swelling is only observable in one-third of the height of the
column.
—, Triumphal. A column erected in
memory of a great victory.
—, Tuscan. A lofty column with the
proportions of the Tuscan order.
—, Twin. (Arch.) A support consisting
of two columns of the same diameter,
placed side by side or welded together
from base to capital.
—, Twisted. (Arch.) A column the
shaft of which is made up
of several spirals. According to Vignole this column
should not consist of more
than six spirals. There are,
however, many examples
of the twisted columns,
the number of whose
spirals exceed that laid
down by Vignole. T h e twisted column
is chiefly used in cabinet-making, the
decoration of furniture, &c.
Columna Bellica. A column of the
97

COL

ART

DICTIONARY.

COM

temple of Janus at Rome before which
proclamations of war were issued.
Columns. Clustered. (Arch.) A collection of columns in
j u x t a p o s i t i o n or
welded together,
which form a pier
in Gothic architecture. T h e plan of
some clustered
columns
exhibits
complicated combinations of arcs of
circles and squares, which serve to
detach the columns from one another.
—, Coupled. (Arch.) Columns placed
two and two, side by side, no account
being taken of the rules by which the
intercolumnation is fixed. T h e purpose of this arrangement is not only to

briefly a commission, when it is ordered
by a collector, a municipality, or by the
state, and has to conform to certain
conditions laid down in advance
Common-place. Said of works of art
in which the figures lack distinction
either in line or colour, or in the choice
of subject.
Common Wall. (Arch ) A wall which
serves to divide two adjoining properties, and half of which belongs to each
of the proprietors.
Compass. An instrument used to
measure dimensions or describe curves.
Compasses, generally of metal, consist
of two branches or legs, joined by a rivet
at the top, and terminating at their lower
end in a point. One of these points is
movable and can be replaced by a

increase at certain points the actual
resistance of the supports, but to render
this resistance more evident.
Sometimes the abacus (q.v.), extends without
a break over the two capitals.
—, Doubled. Columns placed one before the other in the same plane at right
angles to a façade.
—, Median. Columns placed in the
centre of a portico, and separated from
one another by an intercolumniation
greater than the space between the
other columns in the same range.
Comet. (Her.) A star with
a fiery tail. T h e star may
have five or more points,
and the tail always streams
behind it in bend. A comet is
usually blazoned or, but may
be equally well blazoned
Proper.
Commission. A work of art is said to
be executed on commission, or is called

drawing-pen or pencil-case. Large compasses of wood are used to trace diagrams.
Sculptors sometimes use large compasses of iron, the two branches of which
move on an arc of a circle, sometimes
compasses with unequal and crooked
branches which allow them to take the
measure of concave surfaces.
Compasses, Elliptic. Compasses the
purpose of which is to trace elliptic
curves.
—, Sector. Compasses consisting of two branches connected by a movable button,
each branch terminating in a
point.
—, Spherical.
Compasses
with curved branches.
—, Trisection. Compasses
which are intended to divide angles
into three equal parts.

98

COM

ART

CGN

DICTIONARY.

Compasses with fixed points. Compasses both branches of which are
sharpened to a point and which only
serve to take the measurements of a
drawing.
Compass-roof. (Arch.) A roof which
extends the whole width of a building
from one wall to the other. It is used
in opposition to a lean-to roof, and is
especially applied to open timber-roofs.
[Span Roof.]
Competent. An amateur, collector,
critic, or expert is competent when special
studies added to natural taste have rendered him capable of a sound judgment
and appreciation of works of art.
Complementary. Two colours are
said to be complementary to one another,
when their combination, according to the
laws of optics, produces white. Thus, red
is the complementary colour of green,
while blue has orange for its complementary colour, violet yellow, and reciprocally.
Complex. A term applied to works of
art comprising several distinct elements,
the composition of which requires the
union of qualities generally very diverse.
Complicated. A term applied to works
of art or compositions which are confused and embarrassed, or encumbered
with too great a mass of details or accessories, and which aim at expressing too
subtle motives.
Compluvium. (Arch.) In a Roman
house the compluvium was the open
space in the roof of the atrium (q.v.),
through which the water fell into the
impluvium (q.v.).
Compony, or Gobony. A term applied
to a border or other ordinary divided into small
squares of alternate tinctures. For example, the
accompanying cut would be
blazoned argent, a bend
sinister, compony gules and
sable.
Compose. T o compose is to combine

the numerous elements of a work of art,
so that the subject is presented in a
manner which is easily intelligible, and
that the arrangement of the figures, the
disposition of the groups, the equilibrium of the masses, and the light and
shade produce a general effect of graceful lines and harmonious colouring,
which contribute to the unity of the
work.
Composite. (Arch.) An order of ancient
architecture, the character of which is
specially determined by the capital composed of volutes and acanthus leaves,
and produced by the combination of the
Ionic and Corinthian capital.
Composition. (Arch.) T h e composition
of a statue or picture is good or bad in
proportion as the lines and groups are
happy in arrangement, the attitudes are
probable, and the scene free and unstudied. A view of a town, for instance,
composes well when the succession of
buildings exhibits a graceful and picturesque outline. A landscape is well composed when the trees, the distances, and
the foreground represent masses well
weighted and pleasant to the eye.
Concentration of Effect. An arrangement of light and shade by means of
which the artist attempts to draw attention to one particular spot in preference
to other portions of his picture, which
are intentionally neglected or sacrificed.
Conception. T h e faculty of conceiving,
understanding, and creating a work of
art. We say, for instance, that the conception of a picture is bold, happy, or
undeveloped, &c.
Conch. T h e shell used by the Tritons
on ancient paintings and reliefs ; hence
in decorative art an ornament resembling the shell in shape.
Conduit. (Arch.) A small
aqueduct or pipe to drain
off water.
Cone. A solid figure formed by the rotation of a
right-angled triangle round one of its
99

CON

ART

DICTIONARY.

sides as axis. T h e term cone of light is
applied to the divergent rays of light
escaping from a very small circular
opening.
Confessional. (Arch.) A kind of enclosed retreat devoted to confession, the
use of which does not go farther back
than the 15th century. In the 17th and
18th the confessional was an important
element in the interior decoration of
churches. T h e r e is no specimen of a
confessional left in England which belongs to the period before the Reformation, and therefore we are unable to say
what form it took in this country in early
times. In those parts of the Continent
where Catholicism reigns, confessionals
are as a rule unpretentious structures
of wood resembling sentry-boxes, and
fitted with a lattice. Some churches in
Belgium possess confessionals of wood
decorated by caryatides and covered
with sculptured canopies marvellously
rich in ornament.
Conical. T h a t which has the form of
a cone.
Connoisseur. A term applied to a
m a n capable of giving a certain and
well-grounded judgment on one branch
or other of the fine arts.
Console. (1) A piece of furniture in the
shape of a table which is supported by
feet, colonnettes, balustrades, & c , according to the epoch to which it belongs.

It generally occupies a fixed place
before a window or mirror. T h e consoles of the period of Louis XIV. and
Louis XV. are masterpieces of decorative sculpture.
Console. (2) (Arch.) A projecting archi100

CON

tectural motive, which supports still
further projecting mouldings, cornices,
balconies, &c. ; and is generally decorated with volutes at each end, which
curve in different directions.
Console, Reversed. A console sometimes employed as a
,j
support, but more
often to fill a vacant
space between two
s u r f a c e s , o n e of
which retreats behind the other, and
so to connect two
architectural members.
T h e lower
portion of the console, which is placed
vertically, not horizontally, is occupied by a scroll. T h e
reversed console is never found in classical buildings, but only in those belonging to the period of decadence
Construction. T h e art of employing
materials in a building according to their
character and quality, so as to combine
solidity and convenience.
Contour. An outline or line which
defines a figure or other object, whether
drawn or sculptured.
C o n t o u r n é (Her.) This term is used
to describe a charge which
is reversed on the shield,
that is to say, placed in a
position the opposite to its
usual one. Thus animals
should always face to the
dexter, so that the fish in the cut is contourné.
C o n t r a s t . (Paint.) An intentional opposition between several portions of a
picture, by reason of which each portion
has its proper value and their distinct
qualities are sufficiently evident.
C o n t r a s t of Colours. When two
strips of paper of the same colour but
of different intensity are placed side by
side that portion of the lightest strip
which touches the darkest strip appears
lighter than it really is, while the portion

CON

ART

DICTIONARY.

of the darkest strip which touches the
lightest strip appears darker than it is.
T h a t is, the juxtaposition of colours
changes their effect.
Furthermore
each colour has a tendency to assume
the colour complementary to the colour
next to it. T h e discovery of this law of
the simultaneous contrast of colours is
due to M. Chevreul.
There is one
remark to add : if two bodies contain
a common colour, the effect of their
juxtaposition is to weaken the intensity
of their common element. T h e laws of
optics which regulate this simultaneous
contrast of colours may be formulated
thus : istly. Every colour has a tendency
to tinge the colours near it with its complementary colour. 2ndly. If two objects
contain the same colour, the effect of
their juxtaposition is to weaken the intensity of their common element.
Contre-corbeau. (Arch.) A French
architectural term used in the architecture of the 13th century, denoting a
medallion replaced between the corbels
supporting the springing of an arcade
and serving as a point
of support for two
s m a l l a r c h e s inscribed with the large
one.
Co-operator.
An
artist who assists in
the execution of a
I work of decorative
I art, but takes no part
in its creation.
Cop. (Arch.) [Merlon.]
C o p e . An ecclei siastical vestment
generally made of a
stiff and costly material and ornamented
with embroideries or
jewels. It is semicircular in form and has
a hood but no sleeves.
It was originally a
protection against in-

COP

clement weather and was worn by officiating clergy at vespers, mass, celebration and consecration. It was fastened
by a clasp and adorned with apparels
(q v.) richly embroidered and even resplendent with jewels.
Coping. (Arch.) A term given to the
stones on the top of a wall, which protect
it from the weather. From the stress of
weather to which they were exposed,
ancient copings are extremely rare, and
few have come down to us earlier than

the Early English period. In buildings
belonging to the Gothic period, a coping
in the form of a small wall supporting a
roof is placed behind a balustrade which
runs along by a gutter, as is shown in the
cut.
Copper. A metal which has proved of
the greatest value in the arts. In the
first place it was used by the ancients in
the manufacture of shields, swords, vases,
&c. In modern times it has been of the
utmost service to engravers, and still
remains from an artistic point of view
the best metal both to work upon with
the burin and to print from. T h e oxides
of copper yield a number of fine pigments,
such as blue verditer and Brunswick
green.
Copper-plate. (Engrav.) A plate of
red copper, planed and polished, with
its edges bevelled and its corners slightly
rounded, upon which engravers execute
their work. T h e term is often applied
to the completed work ; thus we speak of
a " successful copper-plate" in referring
to the engraving itself.
Coptography. T h e art of cutting out
101

COP

ART

DICTIONARY.

pieces of card so that when brilliantly
lighted they throw shadows representing
figures and objects of all kinds on a
white surface.
Copy. A reproduction of a work of
art. If a painter copies his own picture,
it is dignified with the n a m e of a replica.
Copy, To. T o make copies of pictures
or to imitate the works, subjects, and
manner of an artist.
Copyist. An artist who copies or reproduces either for the purpose of personal study or with some other avowed
object the work of another artist.
Copyright, Artistic. Copyright is a
distinct and valuable property recognised
by law, and may be defined as the sole
and exclusive right of multiplying copies
of an original work after it has been published. This right is by law vested in the
author of an original painting, drawing,
or photograph and his assigns for the
term of the natural life of the author,
and seven years after his death, provided
that on the first sale of such painting or
drawing or the negative of such photograph the copyright was expressly reserved to the vendor by agreement in
writing signed by the purchaser. A register of proprietors of copyright in paintings, drawings, and photographs is kept
at Stationers' Hall, and registration is
compulsory. In the case of sculpture,
the copyright, whether commissioned or
not, belongs to the 8 author for fourteen
years, provided that before publication
he inscribes his name and date on every
model copy, or cast, or finished work If
at the end of fourteen years the proprietor is still living, he may, unless he has
divested himself of the right, retain it for
a further period of fourteen years. A
registry of sculpture is kept at the Patent
Office, and every copy or cast published after registration must be marked
"registered." T h e sculptor, however,
cannot protect himself against paintings, drawings, engravings, or photographs.
102

COR

Coquerelles. (Her.) A French heraldic term applied to a
bunch of three filberts
in their husks conjoined
together
Coquerelles
g e n e r a l l y a p p e a r in
number on shields, for example, three
coquerelles gules.
Coquetries. A term applied to elegant
scenes, graceful figures, painted in a
bright and fresh tone.
"Coral. A calcareous product of the
sea of a fine red colour used in making
all kinds of ornaments. A fine clear
red, vivid and brilliant in tone.
Corbel. (Arch ) A projecting stone,
the purpose of which is to support a
cornice, the
springing of an
a r c h , or t h e
projection of a
gallery.
The
corbels of the
ioth, n t h , and
12th centuries
are decorated
with figures of men and animals, representing symbolic subjects. In the 13th
century corbels
disappeared from
cornices, and
were used only as
supports to balustrades, machiolations (q v.), the
s p r i n g i n g of
t r a n s v e r s e ribs
(q.v.), or to serve
as the point of
support. T h e r e are numerous examples
of wooden corbels in the civil architecture of the Middle Ages, and very often
these corbels are placed in the upper
part of the building, and uphold the projecting cornice.
Corbelling. (Arch ) Generally speaking, a projecting construction supported
by the courses of a wall jutting out, one
above the other, or by beams or corbels
resting on a wall. T h e fronts of a great

COR

ART

DICTIONARY.

number of Gothic houses present examples of corbelling. Each story juts out
beyond the one below it, so that when
the streets are narrow and the gables
high the top stories of the houses ap-

proach so near to one another as to
almost touch The galleries, passages,
arcades, and towers of many Gothic
buildings are similarly designed, projecting beyond the sui face of the wall,
and resting upon corbels, consoles, or
decorated mouldings.
Côrbel-table. (Arch.) A series of corbels placed at regular intervals to support
a parapet or any continuous projection.
Corbie (Arch.) A Scotch term applied
to the steps in the roof of a gabled house.
C o r d o n . (Her.) T h i s
term is used in French
heraldry to denote the
cord with tassels suspended round the shield
of an ecclesiastic by way
of crest. It is supposed
to represent the girdle
worn by the religious orders.
Core. T h e interior of a mould employed in the founding of a statue. T h e
metal runs between the core and the
mould, and when the work is complete
the core is removed through an aperture
left for the purpose. [Founding.]
Corinthian. (Arch.) An antique order
of great richness, the character of which
is invariably determined by a capital
decorated by two rows of acanthus

COR

leaves, between which small volutes are
inserted. [Capital, Corinthian.]
Corium. Body armour composed of
leather is called
corium. It is frequently made to
imitate scale
armour, as in
our cut, which
is from Trajan's
column. It was
w o r n by t h e
Romans, but its
use continued
far i n t o t h e <
Middle Ages.
T h e Saxons wore it, and representations
of it are found in the Bayeux tapestry.
Corner (Arch.) Angle or sharp edge
of a block of stone or wood. T h e term
is also used to denote an angle formed by
two walls meeting
at right angles or
disposed cantwise.
T h e term corner
cupboard is applied to a piece
of furniture of triangular shape, which
is placed in an angle formed by the
meeting of two walls.
Corner of the Abacus. (Arch.) T h e
projection of the entablature in capitals
of the Corinthian
order and in certain
Ionic capitals of the
Renaissance of the
17th and 18th centuries, of which the
four surfaces are symmetrical.
Corner-post. (Arch) an architectural
member placed at the angle or corner of
a building.
Cornice. (Arch.) T h e upper part of
an entablature which projects beyond
the frieze. A large moulding, which
forms the coping of a façade or portion
of a façade, runs round an apartment
underneath the ceiling, or surmounts
a door, window, dresser, &c.
The
103

COR

ART

DICTIONARY.

COR

term is also applied in Gothic architecture to the high moulding, sometimes

perity, and in classical art was associated with those deities, which had
power over the natural world.
Corona. (Arch.) A slight projection in
a roof which serves
to protect part of a
building from the
running of water.
In old houses corodecorated' with foliage, which extends nale are often found
over each opening.
I n classical architecture the term is
applied to the projecting moulding which forms a cornice.
T h e horizontal surface of a corona is

/,„//·· "11

along a façade at the height of a story or
the rise of a tower.
Cornice, Architrave. A cornice placed
immediately upon the architrave where
no frieze exists in the entablature.
—, Broken.
A projecting cornice
which is interrupted by sculptured ornaments, pilasters, &c.
—, Centred. A cornice which follows
the outline of a circular pediment or
describes a curve.
—, Chamfered. A cornice without a
moulding formed by a simple bevel on
the angle of projection.
—, Mutilated. A cornice which is
placed upright upon a corona (q.v.).
—, Unbroken. A projecting cornice
which runs the whole
length of a façade,
and is not broken by
any sculptured ornament or vertical architectural member.
C o r n u c o p i a . An
ornament consisting
of a horn, in which
are flowers, fruits,
and other natural
objects. It symbolises peace and pros104

sometimes quite simple and sometimes
enriched by coffer-work, mutules, or corbels. T h e edge of the corona always

projects so that the water falls clear to
the ground and does not wear out the

ART

COR

DICTIONARY.

COU

outline of the corona. In ecclesiastical
Cost. [See Cotice.]
decoration the term is applied to a
Costume. This term denotes in a
crown, hanging from the roof, in which general sense the clothing, arms, and
lighted tapers are placed at important accessories belonging to the epoch or
ceremonies.
place in which the artist has laid the
Coronet. (Her.) A coronet is an orna- scene of his picture. T h u s we say of an
mented fillet of gold worn above the coats artist that he " pays no attention to
of arms of peers and peeresses. In a costume," that he " carefully studies the
duke's coronet, here shown, the circlet of costume," t h a t " his rendering of costume
geld is chased and is surmounted by is admirable."
Cothurnus. (Cost.) A high boot worn
by the Romans, reaching to the middle
of the leg. It was particularly characteristic of the tragic actor. [Buskin.]
Cotice. (Her.) A diminutive bend.
T h e diminutives of the bend are the
bendlet or garter, which is half the
width of the bend, the cost or cotice,
which is half the bendlet. T h e riband
eight strawberry leaves. T h e coronet is sometimes half the cotice, sometimes
of a marquis has four strawberry leaves the same width, but does not extend to
separated by pearls. A viscount's corothe edge of the shield, its
net is a rim of gold surmounted by sixends being couped (q.v.).
teen pearls, while a baron's has only six
Cotised. (Her.) When an
or four pearls, and is otherwise plain.
ordinary, such as a fess or
Coroplastae. Literally, " modellers of
a bend, is bordered on both
dolls." A name given by the Greeks to
sides by a strip of a diffethe fashioners of small images in clay or
rent tincture to itself, it is
terra-cotta. T h e artists, for instance, to said to be cotised. In the first of our
whom we owe the Tanagra figures (q.v.) cuts, for instance, we have a bend sinister
were coroplastae.
gules cotised sable. But the
Correct. A term which is principally term is not necessarily conapplied, as regards drawing, to purity fined to the case of two
and exactness of form. A drawing may strips, but may also be used
be absolutely correct and yet devoid of to describe any border to
significance.
In the work of some a charge. Thus the accomartists correctness is a negative quality. panying cut would be blazoned, Argent,
Corridor. (Arch.) A long passage a bend gules cotised with trefoils sable.
running round a building, which leads
Cotyliscus.
(Pot.) A
to the various rooms in the building;
name given to a small
sometimes it is closed on both sides,
Greek vase with one
handle. It was used to
sometimes on one only.
hold liquids, and in its
Corundum. A chemically pure alumina.
general shape resembled
A precious stone, hard and transparent.
an amphora. T h e latter,
Cosmorama. An exhibition of pictures
however, was doublerepresenting views of different countries,
handled, and considerably
either in body-colour, water-colour, or
larger than the cotyliscus.
oil, and seen through a lens. T h e first
Coulisse. A groove made
cosmorama was set up in Paris in 1808
in the boards of a stage in which the
by the Abbé Gazzera.

8

105

cou

ART

side scenes are moved along

T h e term

DICTIONARY.

is also applied to the side scenes them­
selves, which represent a palace, a cotage, a clump of trees, &c.

Counter - changed. (Her.) When a
shield bearing charges is
divided by a partition line,
so that part of the field is
a colour and part a metal s
then the charges are
counter-changed ; that is to
say, their tinctures are reversed so that
metal may not fall on metal, nor colour
on colour.
Counter-draw. [Tracing.]
Counterfeit. A reproduction or frau­
dulent imitation of a print or any other
work of art.
Counterfeit, To. T o counterfeit is to
reproduce, copy, or imitate a work of art
with intent to pass off the counterfeit as
the original
Counter-knocker. (Arch.) T h e plate
of metal on which a door-knocker strikes
Counter-mark. (Numis ) A sign en­
graved or struck upon a coin after the
coin itself has been struck.
Counter-part. T h e empty space in­
tended to receive the inlay in marquetry
work. T h e term is also applied to
scenes or figures, which in composition
or attitude resemble scenes or figures
already executed, but in the reverse
direction.
Counter-passant. (Her.) Said of two
beasts passing each other in opposite
directions.
Counter-pilaster. (Arch.) A pilaster
placed in front of another pilaster.
ιοβ

Counter-plate.

COU

(Engrav.) A second

plate on which certain parts of a print
are engraved which were left untouched
on the first plate
Counter-potent. (Her.) One of the
heraldic furs, in which the potents or
crutch heads are arranged head to head
as in counter-vair
Counter-profile. T h e outline of a
moulding
Counter-proof. (Engrav.) T h e proof
of an engraving reproducing the original
the reverse way. A counter-proof is
obtained by placing over the original
proof while it is still wet a sheet of blot­
ting paper, which takes up the ink, and
so produces a reversed impression
We
also term any painting or engraving a
counter- proof which is a reverse repro­
duction of the original.
Counter-vair. (Her.) One
of the heraldic furs.
It
differs from vair by having
its bells or cups all of the
same tincture, and placed
base to base and point to
point.
Couped. A charge is said to be coitped
when its ends are cut off so that they do
not reach to the edge of the shield T h e
term is also applied to a charge the
ends of which are cut off evenly, in
opposition to erased (q.v.).
Couples. (Constr.) Rafters framed
together in pairs connected with a tie.
This method of framing is frequently
used in country houses in Scotland.
Course. (Arch ) A range of stones or
bricks of uniform size running continu­
ously in the wall ot
a building.

—,

Belting.

(Arch.) A pillar of
brick or stone, pro­
jecting little or not
at all, used for the
purpose of holding
a wall together. Belt­
ing courses are al­
ways toothed that they may the more

cou

ART

solidly unite with the wall which is built
up round them.

Couteau de Chasse. The
knives in use in the 16th
and 17th centuries were
notable works of art.
Their hilt and sheath was
generally elaborately carved.
T h e sheath contained besides the knife
itself several instruments,
such as a fork and bodkin,
which might be of service
to the hunter. These may
be observed in our cut,
which represents a couteau de chasse from the
once famous Meyrick collection.

Cover a Canvas, To.

DICTIONARY.

CRA

Crackle. (Pot ) A kind of pottery the
enamelled surface of
which is covered with
a network of irregular
cracks. This method of
JT^J^1^^
decoration was only at- iT'Cfev''
tained with consider- · £ ^ > \
able difficulty.
Specim e n s of J a p a n e s e
crackle are very highly
valued. T h e traité crackle, so called
because it resembles the scales of a
trout, bears the name of tsoni-yem. In
many pieces of Chinese manufacture the
crackle is filled in with a variety of
colours.
Cracowes. (Cost.) Shoes with long toes,
which generally
turned upwards,
and were often
fastened to' the
knee by chains.
They were first
worn in the 14th
century at Cracow, in Poland,
from whence they
spread all over
Europe. It was
thought
necessary in England
to pass a law
limiting their
length. Our cut,
representing a
man wearing cracowes, is from a manuscript in the British
Museum.
Cradle. [Rocker.]
Cramp. (Arch ) A piece of iron sunk
in masonry, which holds together two

(Paint ) T o paint with
rapidity A term not always used in a good sense. Many
artists, when they have settled upon
their design and are beginning to paint
their figures, often lightly cover their
canvas with some neutral tint, which
serves as a temporary ground and relieves their eye from the chalky tone of
the canvas.
Coverchief. (Cost.) A complete covering for the head worn in the n t h , 12th,
and 13th centuries by English women of
every class.
Cowl. (Arch.) A pipe of earthenware
or iron in the shape of a
cone, placed on the top
of a chimney-pot to regulate the draught. Sometimes cowls are furnished with weathercocks,
which, by their rotatory movement, prevent the wind blowing down the chimney.
Crack. A small slit or surface chink
which appears in vaults or on panels
painted in oil. In the latter case they
are caused by dampness and excess of
heat and cold, and increase in proportion to the bad quality of the colours or blocks of stone placed either upon one
varnish employed.
another or side by side.
107

ART

CRA

DICTIONARY.

Cramponné. (Her.) A charge is said
to be cramponné when it
terminates in a cramp.
T h u s we speak of a potence
cramponné, a muscle cramponné.
It is cramponné
dexter or cramponné sinister, according to the side
upon which the cramp is placed.
Crancelin. (Her.) A coronet extended
in bend. T h e word is of
German origin and signifies
a garland of flowers. It is
borne in the arms of Saxony,
and the Prince of Wales
quarters it in his shield.
Crater. An antique vase in the shape
of a truncated cone,
which stands upon a
hemispherical
base
and is double handled.
It was used for mixing
wine and water. T h e
name crater is sometimes given to drinking cups. In ancient times craters were
made of silver or bronze, and were very
large in size.
Crayon. Small cylinders of chalk or
some other material, which are used for
drawing purposes. Black crayons are
composed of chalk and blacklead, red
crayons of ochreous clay containing red
iron oxide, while white crayons are simple
sticks of chalk. A drawing executed in
black crayon is sometimes called a crayon
or chalk drawing. In lithography an oily
kind of crayon is used composed of a
mixture of soap, wax, tallow, and lampblack. It is non-resisting and is very
difficult to cut.
Craze. (Pot.) A term which denotes
the cracking of the glaze on a piece of
pottery, caused either by imperfect fusion
or by the too sudden removal of the
pottery from the kiln,
Credentia. A piece of furniture consisting of several shelves one above the
other. T h e ecclesiastical credentias of
the Middle Ages were sometimes circular in form, and upon them were placed
108

CRE

the vessels used in the services of the
Church. At the time of the Renaissance

and in the 17th century they were lavishly
decorated with sculptured reliefs and

other ornaments, and made the receptacle for gold and silver plate.
Cremnitz White. (Paint.) A white pigment composed of pure white lead. It
is the brightest white used in oil painting, but has less body than flake white.
It is also termed Vienna white, as it is
manufactured in Vienna.
Crenellated.
Embattled.
[Battlement.]
Crenelle. (Arch.) A term properly

applied only to the loopholes in a battle-

ART

CRE

DICTIONARY.

CRI

cuts here
crests.
Creste.
ornament
of a roof.
buildings

given represent ecclesiastical

ment, but also used to signify the battlement itself. The adjective crenellated
is used of a building which is furnished
with a battlement as a means of defence.
[Battlement.]
Créquier. (Her.) A French heraldic
term applied to a chandelier of seven branches,
sometimes borne as a
charge. T h e word créquier
is an old French word for a
plum-tree, but it is now
only employed in the sense
just defined.
Crescent. (Her.) A common charge in
heraldry, and also a mark of difference
used to distinguish the second son. It is
said to be reversed when its horns are

turned to the bottom of the shield; increscent when they look towards the
dexter side ; decrescent when they look
towards the sinister.
Crest. (Her.)
In heraldry the
term crest denotes any addition such as
a helmet or a
crown
placed
above
the
shield. In the
case of an ecclesiastic the crest is a

IF

IT

pastoral staff or else a cap.

Both the

(Arch.) A pierced leaden
placed vertically on the ridge
Many churches, as well as
erected for civil purposes, in

the Middle Ages and the period of the
Renaissance have their roofs decorated
with crestes richly ornamented and sometimes gilded.
Crevasse. (Arch.) An irregular crack
in a wall running longitudinally.
Crimson Lake. (Paint.) A rich red
pigment consisting of the extract of the
coccus cacti insect, with oxide of iron as
a base. It is more useful in watercolour than in oil-painting. It is not
very permanent, and disappears under a
strong light.
Criophorus.
The
word κριοφόρος
means literally " o n e who carries a r a m . "
It was the name given by the people of
Tanagra to Hermes, who had saved them
from a plague by carrying a ram round
the walls. Examples of the criophorus
are found not only in Greek art, but
in Graeco-Roman and Christian art.
Hermes especially is thus represented.
Crispin and Crispianus, SS. Two
saints who left Rome with St. Denis to
preach the gospel in France. During
their mission they worked at their trade
as shoemakers, and they are said to have
been supplied with leather by angels.
They are consequently the patron saints
of shoemakers, and representations of
them are frequently found in the shoe­
makers' guilds of France and Germany.
They were long very popular saints in
England. Their attributes are an awl
and the^palm.
109

CRI

ART

DICTIONARY.

Crispine. (Cost.) A head-dress ; the
mediaeval form of
the classical calantica (q.v ). It was
fastened over the
head by a clasp, and
it is uncertain what
its exact form was.
By some writers it
is described as a
transparent veil, by others as a network
to confine the hair.
Critic. A writer who examines, discusses, and expresses a judgment upon
works of art.
Crock. (Pot.) A general term denoting
any vessel m a d e of clay. From this
crockery is derived.
Crocket. (Arch.) A projecting ornament, often employed in Gothic architecture. It terminates in a curve or roll
in the form of foliage or flowers. T h e

crockets of the 13th century have stalks
of considerable length, and decorate not
only roofs and gables but also cornices.
In the 14th century they underwent some

change, assuming more varied forms. In
the 15th century they became more florid
and ornate, and were only used to decorate gables and bell-turrets, never
cornices or horizontal mouldings.

no

CRO

Cromlech. A Celtic monument consisting of a series of menhirs (q.v.) ar-

ranged in a circle, in the midst of which
stands a sun-stone (hyrmensul) or a
druidical sphere (feyra).
Cross. (1) A cylinder or octagonal
prism pierced by longitudinal
slits, which with the help of
stakes is used to trace straight
or perpendicular lines upon
the ground. T h e openings,
which are opposite to each
other, consist respectively
of a straight slit and of a
rectangle divided into two
parts by a thread of silk. T h e visual
ray passing through this slit, and the
thread of silk covering a stake placed
at some distance from it, are the
points which determine the position of a
straight line.
Cross. (2) (Arch.) In the days when
England was a Catholic country, crosses,
frequently of some architectural pretensions, were placed either in open spaces
in towns or villages or by the roadside.
Some few are still in existence, but the
majority are sadly defaced. T h e cross
of old St. Paul's was long celebrated, for
it was from this that sermons were
delivered. Crosses too were set up in
England in commemoration of a notable
event. For instance, the crosses named
after Queen Eleanor were erected at
every place at which her body rested
between Lincoln and London, whither
it was brought for interment.
Market
crosses built for secular purposes are
still to be seen, at Salisbury and Glastonbury among other places.
Cross. (3) In Christian art the cross
is the symbol of the Passion of Jesus
Christ. In heraldry, the cross is an
ordinary produced by a vertical band

GRÒ

ART

DICTIONARY.

meeting a horizontal band near the fess
point, the four limbs thus
formed being of the same
width. When charged (q.v.)
the limbs of the cross maybe one-third of the width
of the shield, otherwise onefifth. No ordinary is subject
to so many modifications of form as the
cross. Only the principal forms of the
cross are here given.
Gross, Anchored. So called because
the four extremities of it
resemble the flukes of an
anchor.
T h e cross anchored is much used in
coats of arms, its frequency being due to the
practice of crusaders, who, on returning
from the Holy Land, in many cases
changed their arms and replaced figures
of animals by a cross.
—, Batons. A cross formed by the
interlacing of four batons,
placed slightly apart so
that the field of the es, cutcheon is visible between. T h e batons are
not necessarily all of the
same tincture.
—, Câblée. A cross made of thick
cords or cables interlaced.
—, Calvary. A Latin
cross set upon three steps.

—, Cercellée. A cross
the ends of which are divided and bent back on both
sides so as to form a crook.
—, Cléchée. A cross voided so that the
field of the escutcheon
is visible. T h e limbs
of this cross expand
' slightly from the centre
towards the extremities, which latter are
ornamented each with
three pearls.
—, Corded. A cross the limbs of which
are wound round with cord, yet so that
the cords do not hide the cross.

CRO

C r o s s , C o u p e d . (Her.)
A cross is said to be
couped when the limbs
are cut off and do not
extend to the edge of the
shield.
—, C r o s s l e t . In this
cross each of the limbs is crossed again
at a short distance from
the end. It is a very
common charge. It may
be described as four Greek
crosses joined together by
a square
—, Eguisce. (Her.) In this cross the
four extremities are pointed
by having the square corners
cut off. It differs from the
cross fitché, in which the
limb gradually tapers to a
fine point.
—, Fimbriated. A cross is said to be
fimbriated when it is surrounded completely by a narrow band or hem of a
different tincture to that of the cross or
to that of the,field.
—, Fitché. T h e lower limb of this
cross tapers to a point from the
centre downwards. T h e upper
limbs may have any of the common forms, thus, for example, a
cross-crosslet fitché. It is said
that the early Christians carried
fitched crosses in their pilgrimages, so that they could readily fix them in
the ground and perform their devotions.
—, Flory. T h e limbs of
this cross are terminated
by fleurs-de-lis, and hence
it is somewhat called a
cross fleurdelisée. These
crosses are
frequently
found in Spanish coats of
arms.
—, Fourchée. This cross may best be
described as a cross moline (q.v.) with
the eight points cut off. It gets its name
from the resemblance of its limbs to the
forks or crutches (Fr. fourchette) on which
soldiers used to rest their muskets.
Ill

ART

CRO

DICTIONARY.

Cross, Greek. A plain cross with four
equal limbs. It is sometimes
represented inscribed in a
circle ; for example, the robes
of saints are often ornamented
with a border composed of
Greek crosses placed in circles. Most
of the Eastern churches are built in the
form of a Greek cross.
—, Gringolée. A cross the limbs of
which are terminated
each by two snakes'
heads turned outwards.
T h e term gringolée may
also be applied to saltires or other charges
ornamented in this way.
—, Latin. In this cross the lower
limb is longer than the other
three. Nearly all Romanesque
and Gothic churches are built
on the model of this cross.
T h e nave takes the place of
the long lower limb, the choir
is the head of the cross, and
the transepts are the two arms.
—, Maltese. A cross with equal limbs
which widen from the centre
outwards.
T h e Knights of
Malta, as heirs of the Knights
Hospitallers of St. John of
Jerusalem, bore this cross as
the distinctive mark of their order. In
heraldry this cross is more frequently
represented with an indentation in the
middle of the broad end of each limb,
thus distinguishing it from the cross
pâtée, and earning for it the second n a m e
of cross of eight points.
—, Moline. A cross the limbs of
which are terminated
by fers de moulin or
millrinds (q.v.) It is
not unlike the cross
anchored, but the ends
expand more, and sometimes the limbs are
pierced as in the cut.
—, Pâtée. Like the Maltese cross this
is composed of four equal limbs widen112

CRO

ing from the centre outwards. Some·
times the sides of the
limbs are curved as in the
accompanying cut, sometimes straight as in the
Malta cross, but in either
case the limbs in the cross
patée are always terminated by a straight
line.
Cross, Patriarchal. This is a Greek
cross, the upper limb of which
is crossed again, so that a
double cross is formed.
It
is also called the cross of
Lorraine, from the fact that
it was borne by the dukes
of that province.
—, Pommée. T h e limbs of this cross
are terminated by a single ball. It is
called by the French cross bourdonnée
from bourdon, a pilgrim's staff, which
was a long stick with its upper end
rounded off in the form of an apple
(pomme).
—, Potent. This cross has its four
limbs crossed again at the
ends, so that each is in the
form of the letter T. T h e
term potent, which is also
applied to an heraldic fur,
is an old English word for
crutch (cf. Fr. potence.) T h e word still
survives in Norfolk under the form of
pottent.
—, Processional. A cross
with or without the figure of
Christ upon it, generally of
metal, and carried at the end
of a shaft or handle. As its
name implies it is used in
the ceremonial processions of
the Roman Catholic Church.
Processional crosses are often
composed of precious metal
adorned with gems. In the
early days of the Church the
large processional crosses
were garlanded with flowers,
each arm supporting a flaming
torch, while swinging from the arms by

CRO

ART

DICTIONARY.

chains hung the letters A and Ω. Many
fine examples of processional crosses are
still preserved, notably at St. Denis, near
Paris, where is to be seen a cross of the
12th century, of oak, covered with plates
of silver and copper gilt.
Cross, Roadside. On the continent of
Europe numerous roadside crosses, or
calvarys, are to be found at conspicuous
places, such as the meeting of four
cross roads, the entrance to a village, &c.
In England they were mostly destroyed
by the Puritan iconoclasts.
—, St. Andrew's. T h e cross of St
Andrew is in the form of the
letter X. In heraldry it is
more frequently described as
a saltire.
In woodwork a
cross of this shape formed
of two beams is constantly used to
strengthen a rectangular structure.
—, St. Anthony's. T h e cross of St.
Anthony is simply the letter T .
—, Tau. This is identical with the
cross of St. Anthony. It takes its name
from the Greek letter.
—, Trefled. A cross the limbs of
which are ornamented at
their extremities
with
three semicircles repre­
senting the trefoil. It is
sometimes called the cross
of St. Lazarus, and in
France the cross fleuronêe.
Cross-bow. A weapon introduced into
England in t h e n t h century. It discharged iron-shod arrows or burning

the key-stone itself.

CRO
T h e term is like-

wise applied to the projection of mouldings which surround a bay.
Cross-hatch, To. T o draw lines crossing other lines to obtain depth of shadow.
[Hatchings.]
Cross-hatching. Lines or hatchings
crossed by other hatchings.
Crossing. (Arch.) T h e part of a Gothic
church west of the choir where the nave
and transepts cut one another at right
angles.
Crotala. Castanets of wood used in
very ancient times, especially in the

mysterious worship of Cybele.
They
were also used by dancers to beat time
with.
Crown, (i) (Her.) A crown differs from
a coronet in being arched over, and being
generally more elaborate. T h e distinguishing feature of what is called the

material to set fire to buildings. It was imperial crown is the ball surmounted
a very deadly weapon especially in the by a cross as shown in one of the accomhands of the Venetians and Genoese. panying cuts. This feature is common to
[Arbalest.]
all countries, but other details are subject
Cross-cut. T o cut across the edges of to variation. T h e other cut here given
a piece of wood.
represents what is sometimes called the
Crossette. (Arch.) T h e projection of royal crown.
a key-stone which is carried on above I We give a few examples of various

"3

ART

CRO

DICTIONARY.

kinds of crowns. T h e first cut represents
the simple crown of bay leaves, worn in
ancient Rome.
Cut 2 is the mural
crown, placed in ancient art upon the
head of Cybele. Cut 3 is a radiated
crown.
Cut 4 represents the square
crown worn by the Saxon kings. Cut 5

CRU

following centuries they were siili richer
in design, but in the 17th century they

assumed the bent appearance which they
have ever since retained.
Crucifix. A representation of the pun­
ishment of Jesus Christ on the cross.
T h e term is specially applied to the

is the crown of King Edgar (A.D. 966).
Cut 6 is the crown of William the Con­
queror. Cut 7 represents the imperial
crown of Germany, and cut 8 the crown
of Charlemagne. T h e crown was the
symbol of martyrdom as well as of king­
ship.
Crown. (2) (Arch.) A term applied to
the highest point or vertex of an arch.
Crowning. (Arch.) A general word
denoting anything that terminates a
piece of architecture.
For instance,
cornices and pediments are crownings
Crozier. T h e sign of office of an abbot
or bishop, shaped like a crooked staff.
T h e croziers in use in the early days of
the church were of wood or ivory, and
generally in the form of the Τ or tau.
T h e croziers of the 13th century were of
greater length, were made of either gold
or silver, and were richly chased and
otherwise ornamented.
In the three
H

4

sculptured images which in Catholic
churches are placed upon the altar. Be­
fore the time of Constantine the plain
cross was used.
Cruciform. (Arch.) In the form of a
cross. A church is said to be cruciform
when the nave, choir, and presbytery
form a cross with the two transepts.
This is the ground plan of the majority

CRU

ART

DICTIONARY.

CUP

of Gothic churches
Churches of this by six equal squares at right angles to
plan generally assume the form of the one another. T o find
Latin cross, but churches in the form the cubic content of a
of a Greek cross are sometimes met wall is to calculate the
with.
number of cubic yards
Crude. (Paint.) a term applied to col­ and feet which it con­
ours which owing to their unskilful tains.
distribution appear too violent and hard.
Cuir-bouilly. Leather prepared by
Cruets. T h e small vessels which con­ boiling, of which armour was made in
tain the wine and water the 13th century. It was employed prin­
used in the celebration of cipally for leg-guards and elbow-pieces.
the sacrament. It is or­
Cul-de-Lampe. (Arch.) A French term
dered by the Roman Catho­ denoting an ornament employed in ceil­
lic Church that they should ings or vaults. T h e effect of culs-de-lampe
be of glass or some trans­ was sometimes heightened by painting or
parent substance, that the
officiating
priest might
easily distinguish between
the water and the wine This ordinance,
however, is not adhered to, and the cruets
are frequently made of metal.
T h e term commonly denotes the ves­
sels which hold condiments at table.
Crypt. (Arch.) A subterranean chapel
generally vaulted, serving as a place of
burial. Crypts were also built to keep gilding. In the 13th century they gene­
alive the memory of the first Christian rally took the form of foliage ; while in
churches. In many English churches, the 14th and 15th centuries they were
such as Ripon and Rochester Cathedrals, frequently allegorical figures. In the
the crypt is older than any portion of the 15th century they were used to support
superstructure. Among the finest speci- arches, and were then richly decorated.

mens of the crypt in England may be
mentioned those of Canterbury and
Gloucester. In the 13th century crypts
were of a vast size, but in the 14th they
disappeared. They were, however, re­
introduced in the classical style, and a
large crypt lies beneath St. Paul's Cathe­
dral in London.
Cube. A regular solid body contained

At the period of the Renaissance culs-delampe uniformly consist of a circular
capital terminated by a sculptured orna­
ment.
Cul-de-Sac. An impassable alley. A
street which has only one outlet.
Cup. A large vase of no great depth,
with or without handles, mounted on
πς

ART

CUP

DICTIONARY.

a foot.

Cups are principally made of
metal, but also
of crystal or porcelain.
Those
given as prizes
in certain comp e t i t i o n s are
often works of art and are richly ornamented.
Cupboard. A piece of furniture which
in olden times served the purpose of a
sideboard. It frequently took the form
of a recess in the wall, fitted with shelves,
upon which plate, &c., was set out.
Cupid. T h e god of love, the son of
Aphrodite or Venus. Cupid (or Eros as
h e was known to the Greeks) was a
favourite subject with ancient sculptors,
Praxiteles being especially famous for
his statues of the god of love. H e is generally represented winged and holding a
bow and arrows. In works of decorative
art, belonging to all ages, cupids or amorini are frequently found.
Cupola. (Arch.) A concave roof, generally circular in form. T h e term is applied
indifferently to the dome and its interior.
But for this there is no authority. Properly speaking the cupola is only the
interior vaulting, and it is frequently on
a different plane from the dome which
surrounds it outside. Between the two

a considerable vacant space sometimes
intervenes. T h e cupolas of St. Peter's
at Rome and of the church of St. Sophia
at Constantinople are built on this plan.
A cupola does not necessarily presuppose a dome, while the latter is often
found surmounting flat surfaces. T h e
best example of a cupola in England is
to be seen at St. Paul's Cathedral.
Curator. A functionary charged with

u6

CUS

the care of museums and of public collections of works of art.
Curiosities are ancient, rare, precious,
or curious objects, which it is the delight
and passion of amateurs and collectors
to gather together. T h e term is a very
comprehensive one, and includes all
those objects in which the antiquary
takes an interest.
Curtain, (i) (Fort.) As a military term
this word denotes the parapet extending
between and uniting two towers. T h e

word is occasionally applied in a similar
sense in civil architecture to a façade
terminated by two turrets.
Curtain. (2) A term applied in the language of theatrical decoration to a large
hanging which separates the stage from
the auditorium between the acts of a
drama. Upon its large surface a piece

of mock drapery is often painted. But
more ambitious designs are frequently
placed upon it, and the curtain of one
of the London theatres represents a
scene from the School for Scandal.
Curvilinear. Formed of curved lines.
Cushion. A square block of wood
with a slip of parchment running round
its edge, so as to form a kind of saucer.
It is used by goldsmiths to put gold leaf
in upon a ground of wadding.
An
engraver's cushion is a flat cushion of

eus

ART

DICTIONARY.

CYP

leather filled with sand. Upon it the gives us an idea of resistance and power
line engraver rests
his plate. It allows the steel or
c o p p e r to be
easily
moved
about or set at
any angle, and
forms a support with a certain springimay be termed cyclopean.
ness while the work is going on.
Cylinder. A solid figure obtained by
Cusp. (Arch.) The point of intersection
the revolution of a rectangle
of two similar curves having a common
round one of its sides.
tangent at that point, as, for example,
Stones of this shape which
the points of a trefoil. In architecture
serve as amulets or seals
the end of the cusp is frequently carved
are called cylinders. T h u s
into foliage or other decorative patterns.
we speak of Assyrian or
Cut. (Engrav.) The process of engraving a design upon wood for the purpose Babylonian cylinders.
Cylindrical Vault. [Barrel Vault.]
of reproduction is called cutting.
A
Cylix. A name given to a Greek winedrawing printed from a wood-block is
bowl of peculiar form. It was wide and
termed a cut.
Cutlass. A thick heavy sword slightly very shallow ; it was mounted on a foot,
Curved and with only one edge. It was
originally called a coutle-axe or cuttleaxe, and was introduced into England
about the 15th century.
Cyathus. A name given to a Greek
drinking cup, which had one handle, and
and furnished with two small handles.
Its large and almost flat surface provided
an excellent opportunity for decoration.
Cyma. (Arch.) A moulding employed
in cornices and wainscotings. It is undulating in outline, and consists of a hollow

was chiefly used to ladle out wine from
the crater (q.v.) or large vessel in which
the wine was mixed.
Cyclopean. A style of architecture
belonging to a very remote period. Its
characteristic feature is the employment
of enormous blocks of stone. Cyclopean
monuments are also called Pelasgic. By
analogy any gigantic masonry which

and a round. When the upper part is
hollow it is called cyma recta, when it is
full or round it is called cyma reversa.
T h e cyma resembles the ogee (q.v.).
Cymatium. (Arch.) A term used in
classical architecture to signify any
moulding which caps a division of the
entablature and so separates it from the
next.
Cyprian, St., Bishop of Carthage,
suffered martyrdom at the hands of
117

DAB

ART

DICTIONARY.

Valerian T h e story of St. Cyprian is not
mere legend, but an authentic record of
fact. It has, however, suggested few
subjects to artists. In the few representations of St. Cyprian which exist, the
saint has the palm and mitre at his feet
or carries a book and the sword of martyrdom.

D.
Dabber. (Engr.) An instrument shaped
something like a pestle, consisting of a
mass of wool covered with leather and
having a wooden handle. It is used by
engravers for inking the surface of a
block or plate, and by etchers for putting
the etching ground on the copper.
Dado. (Arch.) A cube of stone forming
the principal part of a pedestal. A stone
cut in the form of a cube or of a truncated
pyramid placed on the ground to receive
vertical supports in iron or wood. This
term is also applied to the plinth space

which runs round the wall of a room to
the height of three or four feet from the
bottom. It should be decorated with
paper or distemper different in colour
and design from the paper-hanging which
covers the upper part of the wall.
Daedala. I n e most primitive works
of sculpture known in Greece were
called Daedala, and were said to be the
works of the &f;mi-mythical sculptor
Daedalus T h e majority of them were
rudely carved in wood, and generally
roughly decorated with colour. They
represented deities, and were held in
great honour. By the superstitious they
were believed to have fallen from the sky.

u8

DAG

Dag. A pistol which differed from the
ordinary pistol in having a butt like that

of a musket. Frequent mention is made
of dags in the literature of the i6th and
17th centuries.
Dagger. T h e earliest and most universal of offensive weapons. Under some
name or other it has existed in almost
every country, and examples are found
in it dating from the stone and bronze
periods. From the 14th century onward

knights invariably carried the dagger as
well as civilians, who wore it stuck in
their pouch. T h e three-edged dagger,
with which the coup de grâce was given,
was used in England and France from
the 13th century, and was known as a
miséricorde.
Daguerreotype. A picture produced
by a process invented between 1813 and
1829 by Neipce and Daguerre. In this
process the image in the camera obscura

DAI

ART

DICTIONARY.

is received on silver plates sensitised by
m e a n s of iodine fumes. T h e plates are
developed [Develop] in mercury fumes,
and fixed with hyposulphite of sodium.
By means of the daguerreotype the
positive is obtained directly, but it is
necessary to repeat the whole operation
for each picture required. In delicacy
this method is superior to photography,
but the glistening of the metal makes it
difficult to see the picture. The general
effect produced by a daguerreotype can
best be compared to the effect produced
by the reflector of partially illuminated
objects seen in a mirror.
Daïs. A lofty seat for one or more
persons. It was covered by a canopy,
from which it got its name. T h e term
has now been extended to include the
whole of the raised platform which is
usually found at the upper end of
ancient or collegiate halls.
Dalmatic. A garment worn by deacons
and sub-deaconé in the Roman Catholic
Church when assisting the officiating

priest. T h e garment, which is worn
above the alb, is sleeveless, but covers
the shoulder and the upper part of the
arms.
Damask. A stuff of wool or silk,

DEB

usually decorated with bold designs
covering the whole breadth of the cloth.
Damaskene. To apply decorative metallic designs to a surface of iron or steel.
T h e design is first engraved on the steel
by means of acid, a glue is then applied,
and the whole is covered with sheets of
gold or silver foil. When the glue has
dried a sharp blade is passed over the
surface, and this removes the gold-leaf
except where it has sunk into the pattern.
Damaskening can also be done by dulling metal surfaces so as to imitate the
watering of damask, by rendering a
steel surface blue except where a design
has been traced with the brush, or by
tracing designs in gold or silver on a
ground of blue steel.

Dance of Death, or Danse Macabre.
This subject was very popular with
painters and sculptors from the 4th to
the 16th century. It is frequently found
in bas-relief and decorative paintings,
as well as in the margins of printed
books. T h e most celebrated Dance of
Death was that painted in fresco at
Basle by Holbein. T h e original has
long since been destroyed, but etchings
have survived, which give us an idea of
its design. A similar fresco ran round
the cloister of old St. Paul's.
Dancetté. (Her.) This is one of the
fancy lines employed instead of straight line to
divide a shield. T h e difference between dancetté
and indented (q.v.)lies solely
in the size of the teeth, and
it is probable that the two
lines were originally identical.
Dart. [Egg and Dart.]
Daub. (Paint.) A careless and unequal
mixture of incongruous tones. T h u s we
call a picture a frightful daub when it is
crude in colouring and discordant in
effect.
Deambulatory. (Arch.) An old name
for aisle (q.v.).
Debruised. (Her.) A term applied to
charges passing one above the other.
119

DEC

ART

DIC TIONARY.

Decadence. Art is said to be in decadence at a particular period when the
works produced at that period are not
equal to those of the time immediately
preceding. T h e expression is also applied, but often incorrectly, to certain
works designed and executed without
sufficient regard to the laws and traditions of classical art.
Decastyle. (Arch.) In Grecian architecture a temple was termed decastyle
when it had ten pillars in its façade.
Décentre. T o remove the centre, or
temporary structure of wood upon which
arches are built, after the masonry has
consolidated. [Centre.]
Decimetre. T h e tenth part of a metre.
A metre is 39*37 inches, and consequently
a decimetre is 3-9 inches, or very nearly
equal to a hand.
Decorated Style. T h e culmination of
the Gothic style in England is generally
termed decorated. It was introduced in
the reign of Edward I., and the crosses
raised in honour of Queen Eleanor are
among the earliest specimens of it. It
flourished
throughout the reigns of
Edward II. and Edward III., and then
gave way to the Perpendicular style,
which marked the decline of Gothic
architecture. T h e windows in buildings
of this style are divided into lights by
mullions. T h e largest known decorated
windows have nine lights, as for instance
the east window in Carlisle Cathedral,
but in smaller churches two or three is
the usual number. T h e tracery in the
windows is either geometric, consisting
of circles, trefoils, quatrefoils, & c , or
flowing in wavy lines. Circular windows
are common and the arch generally
used in decorated buildings is equilateral.
T h e doorways of this style are chiefly
noticeable on account of their ornament
In form they differ but little from those of
the previous style. T h e pillars are often
diamond-shaped with shafts engaged, the
capitals generally plain or ornamented
with well-carved foliage. T h e ball-flower
ornament is almost peculiar to the de120

DED

corated style, while its mouldings consist of rounds and hollows separated by
fillets.
Decoration. By the decoration of a
façade we mean the system of ornament
which is placed upon it. This may consist of designs either sculptured in relief
or painted.
One branch of the art of
decoration is the adornment of rooms
with tapestries, works of art, tropical
plants, &c. Under the term theatrical
decoration are included all the curtains,
painted scenes and furniture, which help
to give an air of reality and splendour
to a scene on the stage.
Decorative. A work of art is said to
be decorative when it is applied to the
decoration of a particular space, and
when it is designed with a view to the
shape and character of the space which
it fills. A painting may be said to be
decorative when, quite apart from the
subject it portrays, it produces upon
the spectator the impression of a piece
of decoration, either from the harmony
of its colouring or the beauty of its lines.
Decorative Art is that branch of art,
which is applied to the decoration of
objects of luxury or use, and to the
adornment of houses and other buildings. T h u s the object of decorative art is
not the creation of a separate work, such
as a picture or statue, but the production of sculptures, paintings, or fabrics
which are intended to fulfil a definite
purpose, and to decorate a room or
wall space.
Decorator. An artist who devotes
himself to decorative painting or sculpture, and executes his work with due
regard to the space which it is intended
to occupy.
Dedicated. Works offered to distinguished persons or submitted to their
patronage by a written, printed, or engraved dedication are said to be dedicated
to them.
Dedication. An inscription engraved
on plates principally of the 17th and 18th
centuries. T h e inscription sometimes

DEL

ART

DICTIONARY.

embodied armorial bearings, and described the respect of the engraver for
the possessor of the picture or his
gratitude towards some person of high
rank.
Del. Abbreviation of the word delineavit.
It follows the name of the
original author of a drawing which has
been reproduced by engraving or lithography.
Delft. (Pot.) Earthenware painted and
glazed is called delft, from the town
Delft, where it was first made. It is
generally of rude workmanship, and
more quaint than beautiful in colour
and design.
Delineation. T h e outline of a figure
or landscape.
Delta. A triangle surrounded by rays
and containing inscribed within it the
name of Jehovah in Hebrew characters.
Demeter. Demeter, the daughter of
Cronus and Rhea, was the goddess who
watched over agriculture and the production of the fruits of the earth. When her
daughter Persephone was carried off by
Hades, she sought for her in every land,
conferring wherever she went the blessings of agricultural prosperity. She was
especially revered in Attica, to an inhabitant of which, Triptolemus by name, she
is said to have taught the use of t h e
plough. Her worship is in some measure
connected with the belief in a future
state, and the Eleusinian mysteries held
in her honour are said to have had an
ennobling effect on all those who were
admitted to them. Her n a m e is generally mentioned with that of her daughter
Persephone (q.v.), the goddess of the
lower world, in whose charge was the
seed committed to the earth. Among
the known statues of Demeter, the finest
is that found at Cnidus and now in the
British Museum. T h e goddess is represented draped and with a veil, and there
is much religious dignity in the figure.
In representations of Demeter on vases,
allusion is generally made to her sojourn

DEN

in Attica and her teaching Triptolemus
the use of the plough.
Demi-brassards. Half armour for the
arm
[Brassards.]
Demi-column.
A column so built
against a vertical wall that only half
of the column is seen, the rest being
built into the wall. [Column.]
Demi-dolmen. When one of the vertical supports of a dolmen are non-existent so that the table of the dolmen
rests with one end on the ground it
is called a demi-dolmen, or an imperfect

dolmen. When such dolmens were of
large dimensions they were employed
for the massacre of victims, who were
marched up the sloping surface and
precipitated from the top. [Dolmen.]

Demi-lion Rampant.
(Her.) A lion, of which the
upper half only is represented on a chief or fess,
the animal thus appearing at the top of the
shield.
Demi-vol. (Her.) Used to describe
a single wing of a bird with
the features turned towards
the sinister side of the
shield.
Several
shields
present three demi-vols on
the same surface.
Demolition. T h e destruction of an
edifice.
Denis, St. St. Denis of France is confounded in the legend with St. Dionysius.
This connection is not supported by historical criticism, but in art they are
always represented as one. Dionysius
(or St. Denis as he was called when he
went to Paris) was a Grecian philosopher,
who was converted to Christianity by
St. Paul. He became bishop of Athens
121

DEN

ART

DICTIONARY.

and afterwards of Paris. While at Paris
he was persecuted and finally beheaded
by the Roman pro-consul
St. Denis or
Dionysius is represented in art as carry­
ing a head in his hand.
Dentels. (Arch.) A system of orna­
ment, which breaks the horizontal
moulding of an entablature, and throws
shadows below the projection caused by
the cornice in the Ionic and Corinthian

DEV

for a machine, or by an artist for a paper
or stuff, are called the design for the
building, machine, &c. The art of de­
sign is the adaptation of forms to
spaces, objects, and materials.
The
business of the designer is to fill space ι
or panels with designs which at once
fit the space in which they are placed
and are harmonious in themselves.
Designer. An artist who executes
decorative designs for industrial pur­
poses—wall-papers, carpets, & c , &c.—is
called a designer.
Desk. Desks sloped at various angles
are used for various purposes : (i) for
painting miniatures upon ivory ; (2) for
painting on porcelain ; (3) for retouching
photographs ; (4) for executing tracings.
Detached. (Arch.) Isolated, standing
orders. Dentels are formed by punching by itself. A column
out rectangular pieces from a large fillet is said to be de­
(q.v.) Their height is generally double t a c h e d w h e n i t
their breadth, and they are separated stands apart from
from one another by a space half as the building to which
broad as the dentei itself.
it belongs. It may be connected with
the rest of the building either by a plinth
Depict. [Paint.]
Depth. (Paint.) T h e distance mea­ or an entablature. A house is said to
sured from the bottom of a picture to the be detached when it does not join
horizon. We sometimes say of a land­ another house on either side, but has
a free space all round it. In a painting
scape that it wants depth.
Derby China. T h e factory of porcelain figures are said to be detached, when
at Derby was established by Duesbury they stand out naturally from the back­
in 1750. T h e china made at Derby in ground.
the last century was of great beauty, and
Detail. This word is used to describe
the blue and gold pieces were especially the secondary or accessory parts in a
admirable. At one period china thimbles picture or a group. In certain kinds of
formed an important part of the industry. work, as in easel-pictures for example,
At the beginning of the present century the detail should be carefully executed,
the Derby factory passed into other because the work will be subject to close
hands, and was finally closed in 1848.
inspection. But in wall pictures on the
Descent from the Cross. A picture other hand an over-scrupulous execution
representing Joseph of Arimathea and of the details would spoil the general
the disciples of Christ lowering the body effect.
In architecture the detail is
from the cross.
the smaller ornamental work. It is
Design. (Paint ) T h e preliminary executed from the architect's designs,
sketch of a picture. A collection of lines, and from it the building gets much of
which serves as the base of a composition its character.
and marks the more important points
Develop. (Photo.) After the sensitive
in it. T h e plans prepared by an archi­ plate has been exposed in the camera to
tect for a building, or by an engineer receive the image it is removed into a
122

DEV

ART

DICTIONARY.

partially darkened room, where it is subject to the action of certain chemical
reagents. By this means the image on
the plate is developed.
Device. An emblem or motto, which
was borne by mediaeval Knights upon
their shields and banners, and served to
distinguish them in battle or at tourna-

merits. It was from devices that armorial bearings (q.v.) were in all probability derived. Our cut represents
the device on the shield of the Prince of
Condé.
Dexter. (Her.) T h e dexter side of a shield is the
r i g h t - h a n d s i d e of t h e
shield itself, and it is thus
opposite to the left hand
of a person facing the
shield.
Dextrochère. (Her ) A French heraldic
term used to describe a charge repre-

senting a right arm, either draped or
bare.

DIA

Diaconicum. (Arch.) One of the lateral
absides of Christian basilicae in which
the treasure was kept. It was sometimes called secretarium.
Diadem. A circlet worn round the
heads of kings in ancient times. It was
of silk or wool and was tied at the back

with strings. It was the emblem of
power, and among the deities of ancient
Greece Zeus and Hera are represented
as wearing it.
Diadumenos. T h i s name is given to
statues which represent a youth binding
a wreath or diadem round his head. T h e
most celebrated work of art bearing this
name in ancient times was a statue by
Polycletus. A picture or statue representing a girl in a similar attitude is
termed a diadumene
Diagonal. T h e diagonal of a parallelogram or of any four-sided figure is
the line joining two non-adjacent angles.
Diagonal Joining. (Arch.) A decoration found in Gothic houses, which con-

sists of small beams, bricks, or tiles, set
obliquely and symmetrically with respect
to a vertical or horizontal axis.
123

DIA

ART

DIC TIONARY.

Diagram. A geometrical drawing representing the outline of an object, or
some fact or series of facts. T h e diagram of a vase, for instance, gives the
outline of the vase, as well as the outline
of all the objects which decorate its surface. Diagrams are also used for scientific purposes. T h u s by means of curves
we can represent on paper the varying
rates of mortality in a country, and such
curves would form a diagram of mortality.
Diagraph. An optical instrument by
means of which pictures and other objects can be traced on a scale proportional to the distance of the diagraph
from the object. T h e instrument was
invented by the architect Cigosi in the
16th century and perfected by Gavard in
1830. T h e apparatus consists of a glass
to which is attached a contrivance for
holding a pencil. T h e operator looking
through the glass follows the lines of the
picture. As he moves the glass the
pencil also moves and so reproduces
the picture.
Dial. T h e decorated disc of a clock,
upon which the hours
are marked. T h e circular form of the dial
suggested to artists
many ingenious methods of ornamentation.
Dials vary in
style according to the
period to which they
belong, and many of
them are full of interest as works of art.
Diameter. T h e diameter of a circle or
of any central curve is a straight line
passing through the centre and terminated at each end by the curve.
Diamond. A colourless gem of the
greatest brilliancy more highly esteemed
by the moderns than any other precious
stone. On account of its extraordinary
hardness it is of great service in some of
the industrial arts. A glazier's diamond
is a small tool for cutting glass. It consists of a short handle, at one end of
124

DIA

which is fixed a speck of diamond.
W h e n the diamond is drawn firmly
across a sheet of glass it makes a
scratch, and the glass can then be easily
broken along the line of the scratch. In
architecture and the decorative arts,
bricks, stones, and pieces of wood or
glass are said to be diamond-shaped
when they assume the form of the
rectangular figure known as the lozenge
(q.v ).
Diamond Dust. T h e powdered dust of
diamonds used for cutting and shaping
precious stones. T h e value of diamond
dust for this purpose was discovered by
Louis de Berquem in 1476.
Diamond Fret. (Arch.) An ornamental
moulding employed in Romanesque
architecture.
Diamond Powder. A powder used by
gem engravers.
When their cutting
tools are covered with a slight coating
of oil the diamond powder easily adheres to them and prevents them from
blunting.
Diaper. A fine linen cloth manufactured at Ypres and decorated with
ornamental devices, such as geometric
patterns, scroll or lattice work, &c. From
this system of ornament diaper came to
be used to denote an architectural deco-

ration. This decoration consists of the
continued repetition of a small flower,
carved in low relief and sunk below the
level of the surface which it decorates.
T h e sculptured diaper pattern is extensively used in buildings of the Early

DIA

ART

DICTIONARY.

DIO

English and Decorated styles. In Per- from one another. T h u s the eldest son
pendicular buildings it is painted not wears his father's arms with the addition
sculptured, and mural paintings being of a charge called the label (q.v.), the
perishable few examples of the diaper second son adds to his father's arms a
pattern belonging to the Perpendicular crescent ; the third, a mullet; the fourth,
period have come down to us. In he- a mascle, and so on. T h e best known
raldry a shield is said to be case of a difference or mark of cadency
diapered with a certain is the baton which is superadded by a
colour when it is covered bastard to the arms borne by his father.
with ornaments or ara- T h e baton is a diminutive of the bendssques of that colour. sinister, and is couped at its extremities
Sometimes the diaper takes so that it does not extend to the edges
the form of garlands of of the shield. It is not uncommon to
flowers. Examples are frequently found hear this mark of bastardy loosely dein German coats of arms.
scribed as the "bar-sinister," a term
Diaphanograph. An instrument by which is heraldically absurd, for a bar
means of which an object can be drawn being a horizontal belt right across the
by looking at it across a sheet of glass. shield cannot obviously be either sinister
Also a photograph printed on glass, so or dexter. T h e special name for a differthat when hung against the light it pre- ence which denotes dishonour of any sort
sents the appearance of a monochrome. is abatement.
These photographs are generally preDiglyph. An ornament consisting of
pared by first printing from the usual two grooves, as the triglyph (q v.) does
glass negative on a sheet of gelatine. of three. It is often met with on the
This is afterwards covered with a special side faces of corbels.
ink, and the greater or less depressions
Dimidiated. (Her.) A term applied to
of the gelatine produce when the gelatine a shield which is made up
is pressed against a sheet of glass the of portions of two coats of
effects of light and shade.
arms, so arranged that
Diaphragm. A thin sheet of metal each portion represents
with a circular opening in it, which is one half of the coat of
placed in a camera between the object arms to which it belongs.
glass and the image so as to give more T h u s we say in blazonclearness to the image by cutting off ing, " D i m i d i a t e d : first azure, second
gules."
oblique rays of light from the object.
Diastyle. (Arch.) A temple is called
Diminutive. (Her.) A diminutive of
diastyle when the distance between the an heraldic ordinary occupies the same
columns is equal to three times the dia- position on the shield as the ordinary
meter of the column.
itself but is of smaller dimensions, and
Didactic. A work of art, whether a has a name of its own. T h u s the
poem, a picture, or a sculptured group, diminutive of the chief is called the
is said to be didactic when it is obvious fillet, and that of the pale is called the
that the author intended to convey some pallet.
moral lesson by means of his work.
Dionysus. T h e son of Zeus and Semele,
Die. (Numis.) A metal block cut in called also Bacchus, was the god of the
vintage, and the mirth and jollity conintaglio from which a coin is struck.
Difference. (Her.) A difference or bri- nected with it. In Greek art he is somesure in heraldry is the mark by which times represented as a child, carried
the various individuals who are entitled by Hermes, as in the famous statue
to wear the same arms are distinguished of Praxiteles. H e often assumes the
125

ART

DIO

DICTIONARY.

DIP

form of a youthful deity crowned with at the waist and fell in picturesque folds.
ivy or vine leaves and carrying a
thyrsus and cantharus, or drinkingcup. Over his shoulder he wears the
skin of a stag, and he rides in a chariot
drawn by tigers or panthers. T h e Indian Bacchus is represented as bearded
and draped, with none of the jollity
which we are wont to associate with the
wine god.
Diorama. This is a method of producing pictorial effects invented by Daguerre and Bouton in 1822. A picture
which is not intended to be all seen at
one time is painted on a large cotton
sheet and additional figures and objects
are painted on the back of the sheet.
T h e spectator sits in a dark room at
some distance from the painted sheet,
which is illuminated from the front and
also when required from the back. T h e
lighting is so arranged that it can be
varied in direction and intensity and
colour at will, and thus different portions
of the canvas are successively brought It also denoted a kind of double cloak,
into view, and the same can be made to as in our cut.
assume the appearance of daylight, dusk,
Dipteral. A term used to describe
or moonlight as required. By throwing a temple surrounded by a double row of
a light from behind on to the back of the columns.
screen, the objects , there painted are
Diptych. A painted or carved panel
rendered visible to the spectators in
front, and thus new figures can be introduced into the scene painted on
the front side.
Diota. An ancient two-handled
vase,
a
s m a l l amphora. Its
body was
o v o i d a l in
shape and
was
surmounted by
a narrow
neck.

Diplois.
(Cost.) The
name given by
the Greeks to the part of the chiton
which was drawn up over the girdle
126

folding in half by means of hinges. A
beautiful ivory diptych representing the
triumoh of Bacchus is to be seen in the

DIR

ART

DICTIONARY.

Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris, where

it is used to protect a valuable manuscript
Dirk. A term given to the dagger
(q ν ) in Scotland.
Disciple. An artist who adopts the
general method of some noted master,
and is inspired by his teaching or ex­
ample, is often said to be the disciple
ot that master.
Discobolus. A quoit-player T h e disco­
bolus was a favourite subject with Greek
sculptors, and several admirable statues
of discoboli have come down to us. By

far the most celebrated is that of Myron,
who represented the athlete in the dis­
torted attitude assumed just before the
discus or quoit was thrown.
Discord. An inharmonious or incon­
gruous arrangement of colours is often
called a discord
Discus. A quoit. As used in Greece

DIS

the discus resembled a shield without a
handle. T h e quoit-thrower grasped it
in his hand, letting it rest in his palm
and fore arm. Some quoits are works
of art, representations of athletes and
athletic contests being engraved on
them.
Dish. (Pot ) A broad flat vessel, some­
times with a rim, sometimes without,
upon which food is brought on to the
table.
Disk. A flat circular sheet of metal or
any other substance.

Dismembered. (Her.)
to describe figures of
birds without claws or
legs.
A dismembered
eagle is frequently em­
ployed in German coats
of arms.
Disperse. To divide and spread over
the whole surface the interest of a work
of art. T o place in different parts of
the canvas the lights of a picture. It is
a term of reproach, for when the interest
is dispersed the eye, attracted here and
there, is unable to concentrate itself on
any one point.
Displayed. (Her ) An eagle or other
bird is said to be displayed
when its wings are spread
and turned towards the
upper part of the shield.
In this case the feathers
of the wings have the ap­
pearance of rays.
Disposition. (Paint.) T h e arrange­
ment of the various parts of a work of
art
T h e disposition of a picture is
eccentric when the drapery and acces­
sories are not naturally arranged.
Disproportion. T h e absence of correct
subordination of one part of a picture to
another
Distaff. T h e distaff of the ancients
was of very simple construction. It was
simply made out of a cane, which, when
split at the top, formed a kind of bas­
ket, in which the flax was placed. A
ring was then put round it so as to hold
127

ART

DIS

DICTIONARY.

the whole mass together. In representations of the Fates, who
spin the thread of life, a
distaff is always to be seen.
Modern Italians make distaffs of the same material
and in the same manner to
the present day.
Distance. (Paint.) T h e
furthest point of sight in
a picture. T h e point of
distance is in perspective
the point where the visual
rays meet; the middle distance is the middle portion
of a picture between the
foreground and the extreme distance.
Distemper. A method of colouring
surfaces. In this method the colours
are prepared with a solution of water
and size, or for small surfaces of water
and gum. T h e method is mostly employed for colouring walls, and the distemper then consists of whiting, water,
size, and the colour required.
Divergent. Rays of light, or straight
lines generally, are said to be divergent
when they proceed from a point and are
inclined at an angle to one another, so
that they separate further and further
from one another.
Dodecagon. A plane figure having
twelve sides.
Dodecahedron. A solid figure having
twelve faces.
Dodecastyle. (Arch.) In Grecian architecture a temple was termed dodecastyle
when it had twelve pillars in its façade.
Dog. T h e dog in classical as well as
in mediaeval art was the symbol of
fidelity. In classical times it was customary to paint a dog with the inscription cave canem at the threshold of
dwelling-houses. An example of this
device is to be seen at Pompeii. In
tombs in Christian churches a dog,
emblematic of conjugal fidelity, is frequently to be seen at the feet of effigies
of married women.
128

DOL

Dog-tooth Ornament. [Tooth Ornament ]
Dolabra. A cutting instrument used
for various purposes, just as the modern
axe or hatchet is. It was employed by
husbandmen for chopping wood, & c ,

and in the columns of Trajan and
Antoninus soldiers are represented as
breaking through fortifications
and
stockades with the dolabra.
Dolium. An earthenware vessel of almost spherical form used
by the Romans to hold
wine and other liquids.
These vessels were often
of very large dimensions,
sometimes large enough to contain a
man. In India to the present day
earthenware vessels of this shape and of
various sizes are used everywhere to
carry and hold water. T h e vessel is
called a ghurra in India.
Dolmen. A Celtic monument consisting of unhewn stones arranged in
parallel and vertical lines. Upon these

other stones are placed horizontally.
Some dolmens are divided into compartments and closed at one end.
Dolphin. A conventional figure of a

large-headed cetaceous mammal.

Dol-

DOM

ART

DOO

DICTIONARY.

phins are especially used to decorate
fountains. They are also used in heraldry, and are then generally represented
in profile with their bodies bent into a
semicircle.
Dome. (Arch.) A roof formed by a
series of arches springing from consecutive points on a circular or polygonal
plane base and crossing one another at
the summit. T h e
solid figure thus
formed may be
roughly described
as hemispherical,
a n d if, for e x ample, the plane
base were a true
circle, and the
arches true semicircles, the dome would then be a true
hemisphere
—, P o l y g o n a l . Domes are sometimes built with
a polygon as
their base. T h e
Louvre in Paris
presents several
examples of the
polygonal dome,
as well as of the
dome erected upon a square base
—, Surbased A dome, the surface of
which above the roof is less than a
hemisphere.
—, Surmounted or Stilted. A dome
which consists of a hemisphere standing
upon a solid rectangular figure. [Arch,
Stilted ]
Dominant. A term used to describe
the principal colour or tone in a picture.
Donjon. A strongly fortified building

placed either in the interior of a castle
or at one angle of the outer wall. Within

the donjon were preserved the archives
and treasure. In the case of siege, the
donjon was the last resort of the besieged.
In early times donjons were
constructed, according to the Norman
custom, on a square or rectangular plan.
In the n t h century they assumed the
form of quatrefoils and afterwards were
cylindrical in shape. In the 12th century particular attention was paid to
their fortifications and means of defence.
But after a time splendour rather than
strength was aimed at, and in the 14th
and 15th centuries donjons became
nothing more than magnificent dwellinghouses.
Donor. In former times the donors of
pictures or windows to churches were
frequently portrayed kneeling before
the figure of the saint whose portrait they
had presented.
Door. (Arch ) An opening or bay, which
serves the purpose of entrance or exit.
Gothic churches are generally provided
with doors of great beauty, which vary
in style according to their period. In
Norman churches the archivolt is a semicircle and is supported by small columns.
At a later date vertical supports deco-

rated by niches placed one above the
other replaced these columns. T h e space
between the lintel and the arch was called
the tympanum (q.v.). In Gothic buildings this tympanum was sometimes decorated with bas-reliefs, often comprising
hundreds of small figures disposed irt
friezes one above the other. Sometime»
too tympana were occupied by a repre129

ART

DOO

DICTIONARY.

sentation of the genealogy of the Virgin

DOR

Doorway, Egyptian. (Arch.) A doorway in the form
of a trapesium.
Its jambs are
generally inclined
as in the cut, but
sometimes they
are
vertical.
Egyptian door- .
ways are generally ornamented with sculptured or
painted hieroglyphics. A central ornament in the form of a winged globe
sometimes surmounts them.
Doric. An order of ancient architecture
specially characterised by sobriety of
ornament. In Greece this order combines both strength and elegance, but
Roman Doric is rather heavy. In Doric
buildings the columns have no base. Towards the middle they show a swelling
or entasis. Their capital is of extreme

in the form of a tree, termed Jesse's tree.
Door, Folding. A door consisting of
two leaves, which
close one upon the
other. French windows or doors opening on to a balcony
are generally constructed upon this
plan.
T h e leaves
are sometimes carried up the whole
length of the bay, while sometimes the
upper part of the doorway is occupied by
a fixed sash.
Door-frame. T h e fixed frame to which
simplicity. [Capital, D o i i c ] T h e frieze
a door is hung.
was not continuous but was made up of
A door-frame
alternate triglyphs (q.v.) and metopes
consists of two
(q.v.). T h e elements of the Doric order
vertical posts
undoubtedly came from the East. It
whose upper exappeared in all the Dorian cities about
tremities are tethe 7th century B.c., and its prevailing
noned in a head
characteristics are those of severity and
or l i n t e l , and
power.
whose lower exDormer. A term denoting the upper
tremities are fitted into a side of hard
wood or stone. story in the roof of a house.
— à fronton triangulaire. In buildT h e f r a m e is
ings of stone this form
either built in
of dormer was frequently
as the masonry
employed. Of this kind
p r o g r e s s e s , or
were many large dorrecesses are left
mers belonging both to
into which it is
the Gothic and classical
a f t e r w a r d s fitstyle. In the latter style
ted.
In cases
their summit was frewhere the vertical pieces pro- quently richly decorated.
—, Bull's Eye. A dorme* with a circuject they are termed responds.
130

DOR

ART

DICTIONARY.

lar opening. Dormers of this kind are
generally connected to a base of consider-

able size by ornamental scrolls, as in the
cut.
Dormer, Decorated. T h e tympanum
of a decorated dormer
is ornamented with
sculptures, and its
summit is cut into
, arcades or terminated with pinnacles.
This form of dormer
is frequently to be
seen in buildings of
the 15th and 16th
centuries. In the triangular space above
the window coats of arms or bas-reliefs
are frequently carved.
—, Flemish. A dormer constructed
in stone or brick
masonry, surmounted by a pediment à
redans.
These redans vary in number according to the
height of the pediment.
—, Gabled. A dormer placed at the
upper part of a roof and terminated by
a gable.
—, Rampant. A dormer without a
pediment set in the
middle of the roof.
It is sloped, but at
a different angle to
the inclination of the
roof. T h e term is
also applied to a
dormer when its sill
and lintel are not
placed horizontally.

DOR

Dormer, Square. A dormer with
h o r i z o n t a l roof.
Architecturally this
dormer is quite un- ^ ^
a m b i t i o u s . I t is
g e n e r a l l y seen in
private dwellings or country houses.
—, Surbased. A dormer the roof of
which is in the
form of a segment
of a circle. Zinc
dormers of modern
construction generally assume this
ΞΞΙ form.
They are
sometimes so or­
namented as to break the lines of the
concentric mouldings.
—, Window. (Arch.) A vertical win­
dow projecting from the slope of the
roof. In the 15th and 16th centuries
dormer windows played a great part in

the decoration of façades. Above the
great tiled roofs of this period gigantic
dormer windows of carved stone surrounded with bell-turrets and balustrades were built.
Dormitory. (Arch ) A sleeping apartment, especially the sleeping-room in
monasteries and other religious houses.
Dorothea, St., virgin and martyr, was
born at Caesarea in Cappadocia She was
put to death by Fabricius, the Roman
governor of the province. On her way
to execution she was taunted by a youth
of the city named Theophilus, who
131

ART

DOR

DICTIONARY.

mockingly asked her to send him of the
fruits and flowers of the garden to which
she said she was going. At the place of
execution she was met by an angel,
whom she sent with flowers and fruits to
Theophilus. T h e latter was at once
converted by this miracle and soon after
suffered martyrdom himself. St. Dorothea's attributes are fruits in a basket
and bunches of roses. She is more often
represented by German and Flemish
artists than by Italian.
Dorsal. A piece of embroidered material or a piece of tapestry hung against
the wall behind a seat or to cover the
back of a chair. T h e practice of employ-

ing drapery in this way was frequent in
the Middle Ages, and in the time of the
Renaissance. In some churches the
stalls are ornamented with carving in
imitation of dorsals.
Dosser. A term applied like dorsal to
hangings of tapestry placed at the east
end of a church or against the walls of a
hall. T h e name is derived from the fact
that the hangings were placed at the
back of the officiating clergy or behind
the chairs in a hall. T h e covering at the
back of a seat is also called a dosser.
Double-handed Swords. These huge
weapons were used in the 15th and 16th
centuries in warfare, and were retained
in public ceremonies until a later date
They were of great length, and wielded
with both hands.
Dove. In Christian art the dove is the
symbol of the Holy Ghost, as well as the
emblem of love, innocence, purity, and
132

peace.

DRA

A pyx in the form of a dove was

often hung above the altar of a church,
and such a one is shown in our cut.
Dovetail. A method of joining employed both in wood and stone work. A
tenon, shaped like a dove's tail, fits into

a notch similar to it in shape and size.
Dovetails form a weak joint in carpentry,
as wood shrinks more across the grain
than along it.
Dowel. (Arch.) A dowel is a slightly
tapering pin of iron fixed in a stone so
as to fit into a hole made in a stone opposite to it. T h e joint thus formed is called
a dowel-joint.
Dragon. A mythical animal with lion's
claws, eagle's wings, and a serpent's tail.

In Byzantine monuments a dragon is
often used to symbolise some public

DRA

ART

DICTIONARY.

calamity. Owing to its fictitious character the dragon is peculiarly adaptable
to the imagination of the artist, and
hence is a favourite subject for works of
art. Chinese and Japanese artists, are
especially fond of the dragon, and have
produced some wonderful works in which
the dragon is the central idea.
Dragon's Blood. A resin of a dark
blood-red colour, obtained from an
Indian tree, and used for colouring varnishes.
Dramatic. In painting, this word is
used to characterise a scene expressing
lively action or keen emotion.
Drape. To arrange the drapery on the
model or on a lay-figure; and also to
paint or model drapery.
Draped. Covered with drapery.
Drapery. Material or clothing of such
—s,
fulness as to
hang in folds.
In
ancient
statues part of
the body was
always left uncovered, and the
drapery over the
rest m o d e l l e d
from very fine
and
flexible
stuffs
hung
close to the
b o d y in t i n y
folds.
In the
12th century artists adopted a uniform
practice of making stiff and regular folds
symmetrically placed. T h e draperies of
the 13th and 14th centuries hang almost
straight down, meeting the feet a t a right
angle. Later, in the 15th century, a good
deal of mannerism was introduced, but at
the same time the lines of the body are
followed more truly.
T h e fulness of
drapery was very much increased in the
16th century, and in the 17th and 18th
centuries it was much relied upon for
producing artistic effects.
T h u s the
drapery is frequently torn or flying about,
and by strong shades accentuates the

DRA

outline of the figure. In the present
century our universally inartistic dress
compels sculptors as a rule to seek their
types of drapery in the fuller robes of
preceding generations.
Drapery, Mock. A method of painting
walls to represent drapery hanging in vertical and regular folds.
These draperies generally appear as though
they were fixed to the
wall by round-headed
nails. Though they
are generally modelled with great care,
they are sometimes painted quite flat,
and their folds only indicated by a
simple line.
Draught-board Moulding. (Arch.) A
method of decorating
the surface of walls
adopted in the Romanesque period. It consists of black and white
materials alternated, or else of projecting courses of stone intersecting at right
angles so as to form squares, and by
throwing shadows to break the monotony
of the surface. T h e term draught-board
is also used of pavements where tiles of
different colours alternate.
Drawing. A method of representing
objects by lines made with pen or pencil.
In geometrical or architectural drawing
rulers and compasses are employed to
aid the hand ; while in freehand drawing only pen or pencil may be used.
—, Architectural. A drawing which
portrays building either in elevation or
section by geometrical processes.
— Board. A flat board, upon which
drawing paper is strained T h e paper
is moistened and secured to the board
round its under edge by paste or glue.
It becomes flat, when dry, and can be
removed from the board by cutting inside the paste line.
—, Freehand. A drawing done without
the aid of ruler or compass.

m

DRA

ART

DICTIONARY.

Drawing from Nature. A drawing
made from the living model, from a
landscape, or from natural objects.
— from the Cast. A drawing made
from a plaster cast, either of a bas-relief
or a sculpture in the round.
— from the Flat. A drawing copied
from a subject drawn, lithographed or
engraved.
—, Machine A term applied to outline or washed drawing, representing
machines, pieces of mechanism, &c.
— Pin. A short sharp-pointed steel
pin with a large head.
It is used for
fixing sheets of paper upon drawingboards, &c.
Dresden China. T h e first hard-paste
porcelain made in Europe
was produced at Dresden by
Bottcher
This celebrated
chemist succeeded in making white porcelain in 1710.
A factory was then established at Meissen, and Bôttcher was appointed director. This factory is still in existence,
but the pieces which are sent out from
it have little artistic merit. T h e picturesque figures which were modelled
under Kundler's management (1731—63)
are of great value
Dresser. A piece of furniture standing
or fixed against a
wall. It c o n s i s t s
generally of two front
legs and an upright

back, carrying shelves on which are
arranged and displayed the service of
plate.
About the 16th century sideboards or buffets began to take the
place of dressers, and the dresser was
relegated to the kitchen.
Dressings. (Arch.) A term applied to
J

34

DRU

any kind of moulding, projecting beyond

a door, window, or any other opening,
and so forming a frame.
Drill. A steel tool to which a rotary
motion is imparted by means of a bow.
This tool is employed by sculptors to
perforate holes in blocks of marble with
a view to removing the superfluous portions of the block. [Bow-drill.]
Dripstone. (Arch.). A moulding over
the heads of doorways and windows in
Gothic architecture. It corresponds to
the corona (q.v.) of the classical style. It
got its name from an idea that it was intended for the rain to drip off, but that
this idea is mistaken is shown by the
fact that the moulding is used inside as
well as outside a building.
Drops. (Arch.) Small cylinders attached by their upper end to a flat horizontal surface in a vertical position.
They are found under the architrave
in the Doric order [GuttseJ.
Druidic. A term applied to the monu-

ments raised by the Druids or British

DRY

ART

priests. Under the head of Druidic remains, which are Celtic in origin, come
dolmens, cromlechs, &c, which are described under their proper headings
Dryad. A nymph of the woods frequently represented in works of ancient
art.
Dryness
A quality attributed to
paintings, in which the outlines are hard
and formal, the modelling stiff, and the
colour harsh and inharmonious.
Dry Point. (Engrav.) A sharp steel
needle with which an engraver draws
directly upon a copper plate. In proportion to the pressure used, the dry
point sinks more or less deeply into the
metal. It does not, however, cut the
plate, but as it were makes a furrow and
throws up slight projections on each side.
The rough edges thus caused are removed
by the scraper (q.v.) if it is desired to
give a grey tone to the print. If, on the
other hand, the engraver aims at obtaining velvety blacks, the rough edges are
not scraped away. When the plate is
inked they naturally print black. A
limited number of proofs only can be
struck off in this case, as the process
of wiping soon destroys the rough edges
The dry point is used to give to a plate
which has already been bitten a delicacy
of tone, which it would be impossible to
obtain by mere biting. It is thus of
value in retouching a plate, and it was
for this purpose that Rembrandt employed it. In more recent times artists
have executed works of considerable
size—portraits as a rule—exclusively in
dry point. T h e beauty of these prints
depends to a great extent on the skill of
the printer.
(Her.) This bird sometimes
appears on a shield as a common charge, but is usually
shown without feet or beak,
and in this case should be
properly called a cannet.
Dungeon. (Arch.) T h e term dungeon
has come to mean a place of close confinement, because in the vault oelow that

DICTIONARY.

ÊAG

part of the mediaeval castle called the
donjon (q.v.) prisoners were shut u p .
It is of course the same word as donjon,
and originally conveyed no idea of imprisonment.

E.
Eagle. In ancient art the eagle is the
attribute of Zeus, and it is often figured
on medals and coins carrying the thunderbolt of the King of Olympus. It also
symbolises victory, authority, and power,
and in Christian art is the attribute of

St. John, who indeed is often represented
under the form of an eagle. T h e form
of eagle most frequently employed in
heraldry is the eagle displayed.
The
wings are shown open, and turn upwards
towards the top of the shield. In the
eagle displayed the feet are also set apart,
but if the eagle is blazoned an eagle with

Duck.

wings displayed, this implies that the bird
is perched. Another less common form
of eagle is the eagle with wings abaisé ;
this differs from the eagle displayed only
in having the feathers drooping downwards as shown in the right-hand cut.
T35

EAG

ART

Eaglet. (Her.) A small eagle. In heraldry it is always reK M + ^Ê^m/Sx presented
displayed,

DICTIONARY.

EAS

century, and were quite common in
Elizabeth's reign, the Queen herself
wearing pearls in her ears. They were
an<
enerau
^ t f iSiPy' ^ g
y its beak most popular in the 17th century, for
YS?*
" r
and claws are of a at that period not only were they
Λ
*
different tincture to universally worn by women, but men
the rest of the body.
placed either rings or pieces of silk in
Early English. (Arch.) A term applied their ears. At different periods they
to the first period of Gothic architecture, have assumed an infinite variety of
as it was developed in England. It took shapes and have generally been of a
the place of the Norman style towards the precious metal and set with jewels.
end of the 12th century, and flourished Our illustrations represent the one an
for about a century, giving way in its Egyptian, and the other a Syracusan
turn to the Decorated style (q.v.). T h e earring.
following are its main features.
Its
Ears. Small protuberances on a
windows are generally long and narrow, pitcher or other earthenware vessel,
of that form which is called lancet (q.v.). which serve the purpose of handles.
T h e y sometimes occur singly, sometimes
Easel. (Paint.) A stand upon which a
in groups of twos, threes, and fives. picture is placed
Round windows, and also trefoils and while in course of
quatrefoils, are found in Early English e x e c u t i o n .
The
buildings, especially over a group of simple easel con­
lancets. Arches are generally lancet or sists of two laths
equilateral, while small trefoils and connected together
cinquefoils are common. T h e doorways top and bottom by
are always pointed and deeply recessed. cross-pieces,
and
T h e piers generally consist of small thus presents the
circular pillars ranged round a larger appearance of a
one. T h e ornaments characteristic of triangle with a nar­
the Early English style are few in num­ row base. Another
b e r ; foliage is r,arely used, the tooth piece of wood is
ornament (q.v.) being the most common. placed behind, and
T h e mouldings are generally plain this forms a tripod. By means of a
rounds, separated by very deeply cut screw this piece may be extended be­
hollows. T h e most complete example hind, and so alter the inclination of the
of the style, which is also called First easel. A small tablet which can be
Pointed, is Salisbury Cathedral.
moved up and down at will is attached
Earrings. Ornaments have been worn to the two uprights, and it is this which
in the ear from supports the picture. This form of
the very earliest easel has been in use for centuries, as
times.
A m o n g our cut of an artist at work, taken from
Eastern
nations an illuminated Romance of the Rose of
VII men as well as the 15th century, will show. Nowadays,
women
t h u s another kind of easel is generally used.
adorned themselves. In Greece and This consists of a vertical construction
Rome, however, the fashion was only resting solidly on two cross-pieces at
adopted by women.
Earrings were right angles to a third piece. T h e crossworn by the Saxons, but their use pieces are furnished with casters, and
seems to have died out about the 10th the easel can thus be easily shifted from
century. They reappear in the 14th one corner of the studio to the other.
136

E AS

ART

DIC NONARY.

ECH

solid and massive, as they have to support heavy weights.
Easel-picture. (Paint.) A picture of
small dimensions and generally so minutely and delicately executed, that it
may be placed close to the eye of the
spectator.
Easing. (Arch ) When an arch is built
upon a centre (q.v.) it is always necessary to provide for easing the centre, i e.
for lowering it, so that the support may
gradually be withdrawn from the arch.
This easing is performed by the partial
removal of two wedges placed between
the strut and rib. T h e operation of easing
is described more fully under Centre.
Eau-forte. This term, borrowed from
the French, is frequently used as a synonym for etching (q.v.) or print produced
by a chemical process. A metal plate is
covered with wax, and the drawing is then
crank. The name sketching - easel is made on the wax with a needle. T h e
given to the light easels, which fold up whole plate is then submerged in a soluso as to occupy as little room as possible, tion of nitric acid and water, which eats
and can easily be carried about by the into the plate wherever the wax has been
artist. Sculptors make use of an easel removed. With the plate thus obtained
prints can be struck in the ordinary way.
Eaves. T h e lower edges of the slopes
of a roof, which rest upon the walls or
project over them.
Eaves-course. (Arch.) A moulding
running round a building and carrying
the eaves.
Ebony. A wood found in the forests of
Asia and in the islands of Ceylon and
Madagascar. T h e sap-wood, which is of
purest white, forms a striking contrast to
the heart, which is quite black. It is this
latter part of the tree which is most used,
the black, hard, heavy wood forming an
excellent material for artistic furniture,
for picture frames, and for door panels.
T h e word ebony is also frequently used
as an adjective to denote
the deep black characteristic of the wood.
Echinus. (Arch.) A proin modelling bas-reliefs. In form they
resemble the simpler form of painter's jecting moulding placed
easel which we have described. They under the abacus of the
differ from this, however, in being more Doric capital. It is delicately convex
On this framework a tablet on which the
picture rests moves vertically by means
of an endless screw. This tablet can be
raised or lowered at will by a simple

10

137

ECL

ART

DICTIONARY.

in outline, describing a slightly swelling
curve. T h e echinus in many buildings
is decorated with the egg and dart
moulding (q.v.).
Eclectic. This word is used to describe
a taste in art which is not confined to
one particular style or one particular
period, but which is able to admire the
masterpieces of every school and of every
time.
Ecorché. À flayed figure. A statue or
picture representing a body from which
the skin has been removed in order
better to display the muscles and veins
Michael Angelo produced two écorchés

EGY

represented on a coin or m e d a l ; a
sculptured figure on a sepulchral stone.
In a more general sense effigy denotes
any portrait of a person, especially one
which is more literal than artistic.
Efflorescence. This term is used to
describe extravagant and fanciful ornamentation, or the over-development of
any style.
Effrayé. (Her.) A term
applied to a bare-backed
horse reared up on its hind
legs, or salient. This attitude is supposed to suggest
fright.
E g g and Dart. A decorative moulding
consisting of a pointed
arrow separating two
eggs.
Sometimes
these darts are slightly
ornamented, but in
Λ* every case a sharp out­
line and straight edge
are necessary to make the moulding
effective. T h e moulding is also called
egg and anchor or egg and tongue.
Egg-shell. A kind of porcelain which
was once manufactured in China. Its
characteristic is its extraordinary thin­
ness. On account of its frangibility, as
of great excellence, while the écorché of well as the difficulty which attended its
a m a n in repose by Houdon, and of a manufacture—for it was ground thin on
gladiator by Salveyre are very justly a wheel—it is very rarely met with, and
celebrated. T h e r e is also a fine écorché consequently highly prized. T h e ear­
liest specimens of it were of pure
of a horse modelled by Géricault.
Ectypography. (Engrav.) A method white ; the later were decorated with
of etching the reverse of the ordinary blue flowers.
process, in which the lines intended to
Egyptian Architecture. T h e archi­
print dark are not bitten in but left in tecture of the Egyptians takes us back
relief, while the lights are bitten in.
to the very remote past. T h e domestic
Ectypum. A cast in relief obtained buildings of Egypt were of the most
from a hollow mould. Ancient inscrip- primitive description.
T h e poorer
tions as well as coins and medals are classes had to be content with what
reproduced by this method.
wrere nothing more than huts made of
Edifice. A general term applied to a bricks with no windows or means of
lighting. T h e more ambitious houses
house or building of any kind.
Effect. T h e impression produced in a were built round a courtyard and some­
picture by the arrangement of light and what resembled the Roman atrium (q.v )
in form. T h e religious buildings of the
shade.
Effigy. T h e head or bust of a person Egyptians were on a very large scale.
138

EGY

ART

DICTIONARY.

ELI

Among them were the pyramids, which
Electrum An alloy of gold and silver
date from the 4th dynasty. Egyptian which was used instead of gold by the
temples have some resemblance in style Greeks and Romans in making coins.
to the Doric temples of Greece. T h e In colour it resembled amber, to which
mouldings which ornament them' are substance the term electrum was originvery simple, and more often painted than ally applied.
carved.
Elephant Paper. A term applied to
Egyptian Brown. (Paint.) A rich drawing paper of a large size, its dimenbrown pigment composed of white pitch, sions being twenty-eight inches by twentymyrrh, and animal matter. In spite of two. T h e dimensions of double elephant
its brilliance and transparency it can- paper for printing purposes are forty by
not be recommended, as it is not per- twenty-seven. Drawing boards of similar
dimensions are also termed elephant and
manent.
Elbow. (Arch.) A name given to the double elephant.
Elgin Marbles. At the beginning of
arms of stalls in
the present century Lord Elgin carried
churches. Peroff from Athens a very important collecsons seated on
tion of works of sculpture. It included
the misericordiae
nearly all the monumental decorations
could rest their
of the Parthenon which had escaped
arms ' upon the
destruction. In addition to the splendid
elbows. T h e surfragments of the pedimental figures and
face of the elbow
many metopes, Lord Elgin brought to
was sometimes
England more than two hundred feet of
quite flat, somethe beautiful frieze which ran round the
times broken by
cella of the temple of Athene. T o this
a border. It was
collection the name Elgin Marbles was
supported either
by a colonnette or clusters of foliage. given, and their value, as giving us an
In many cases it consisted of a group of idea of the magnificent achievement of
the great sculptors in the golden age of
figurines.
Electrotype. A method of obtaining Greek art, cannot be over-estimated.
a reproduction of a bas-relief or en- T h e question whether Lord Elgin was
graved plate by placing a mould of it in justified in spoiling Athens cannot here
a bath, in which, by means of electricity, be discussed.
a thick coating of metal is deposited on
Elizabethan. T h e style of architecthe mould. T h e mould is then removed ture which prevailed in England in the
and there remains a reproduction in reign of Elizabeth and for some years
metal of the bas-relief or plate. This after her death has been called Elizaprocess is of great service in art, but bethan. It was Gothic in some of its
perhaps its widest application is in the main features, but the influence of t«ie
art of engraving. Wood-cuts are seldom classical Renaissance is clearly discernprinted from now, electrotypes of them ible in it. It may therefore be said to
being generally employed. T h e result be a sort of transition between the two
of this is that a far larger number of im- great styles. T h e finest specimens of
pressions may be obtained than for- Elizabethan architecture are great counmerly, and the wood-block may be try mansions, such as Knowle, Hatfield,
indefinitely repeated. At the same time and Penshurst.
it cannot be denied that the practice of
Elizabethan Ware. A name incorelectrotyping has detracted very much rectly given to a kind of earthenware,
from the beauty of wood-engraving.
of the decoration which was said to
139

ELL

ART

DICTIONARY.

have been copied from the chasings upon
the silver plate of Queen Elizabeth's
time.
Ellipse. A plane curve traced out by a
point which moves so
that the sum of its distances from two fixed
p o i n t s is c o n s t a n t .
Each of these fixed
points is called a focus
of the ellipse. An ellipse may also be
defined as the section of a right circular
cone made by a plane inclined to the
axis of the cone at an angle greater than
the cone's semi-vertical angle.
Ellipsograph. An instrument for tracing ellipses. It consists of two grooved
rods fixed at right angles and a movable
rod sliding between them so that one end
of it glides in each groove. A pencil is
attached to the movable rod, and as
this rod passes from one extreme position
to the other extreme position, the pencil
traces out the quadrant of an ellipse.
If the pencil is attached in the middle of
the movable rod, the curve traced out
will be the quadrant of a circle.
Ellipsoid. A solid figure such that its
section through each principal plane is
an ellipse.
Eloy, St. T h e son of obscure parents,
was born at Charetas.
H e was employed by Clotaire II. first as gqldsmith
and afterwards in various positions of
trust. H e was consecrated Bishop of
Noyon in the reign of Clovis II. H e
was famous as much for the holiness of
his life as for his skill as a worker in
metal. Many are the legends that have
gathered round his name.
On one
occasion he was shoeing a horse which
was possessed by a devil. St. Eloy cut his
leg off, put on the shoe, and then replaced
the leg by making the sign of a cross.
W h e n plagued by Satan himself, the
saint is said to have seized the evil one
by the nose. These two incidents of his
life are generally treated in pictures of
St. Eloy, who is usually represented
with an anvil, on which a horse's leg lies
140

EMB

beside him.
T h e r e are numerous
statues and pictures of him in existence,
one being the work of Botticelli.
Elzevir. T h e Elzevir family, who have
given their name to a particular class of
books, were printers and booksellers in
Liège from 1540 to 1712. T h e books
known as Elzevirs are small volumes
of great beauty and rarity.
Embattled. (Her.) This term, borrowed from the battlements
of a castle, is applied to one
of the dividing lines of the
shield. T h u s the accompanying cuts represent respectively a chief embattled
and a fess embattled When
the projections are shown on both sides
of the ordinary so that a projection on

one side is opposite a space on the other,
the ordinary is said to be embattled
counter-embattled.
Embellishment. T h e decoration or
ornament applied to anything ; also the
act of ornamenting or decorating.
Emblem. A symbolic figure or attribute serving to characterise allegorical
figures.
It differs from a symbol or
attribute in that it conceals a moral or
historical allegory. Emblems were very
common throughout the Middle Ages,
and were frequently introduced into
church decoration.
Many books of
emblems were printed during the 16th
century, in which types of virtues and
vices were taken from the animal kingdom. T h e most celebrated were those
by Alciati, Paradin, and Sambuco.
Embossing.
T h e art of working
patterns in relief on metal by means of
a punch. It is an expensive process, and
is only used at the present day in the
production of delicate and costly objects.

EMB

ART

DICTIONARY.

There are in existence mechanical pro­
cesses for embossing metal, wood, and
even paper, but they scarcely belong to
the domain of art.
Embowed. (Her.) When a charge on
a shield is bent or curved
it is blazoned embowed.
The term is now usually
applied to living charges
such as a fish, especially a
dolphin; or to the human
arm, which is frequently represented in
this position. It may however be em­
ployed for any other charge as a/ess or
bend.
Embrasure. An aperture in a wall.
In modern times the apertures required
in walls are chiefly those for doors and
windows. But the term embrasure is
better known in connection with the
apertures in the walls of a mediaeval
castle, from whence projectiles were
thrown at an attacking enemy. These
embrasures had splayed sides widening
outwards so as to give a wide range of
fire to a musketeer standing on the inner
side of the narrow slit forming the
embrasure.
Embroidery. A decoration in needle­
work, executed by hand on a stuff already
woven. T h e work is sometimes in relief,
sometimes open.
Embroideries are
known to us of silk, gold, and precious
stones, of every kind of thread in fact,
and of every colour. T h e art of embroi­
dery has been practised in all ages and
by all nations. Hebrew and Egyptian
women were well skilled in it. Aaron's
coat and girdle, the latter of "fine
turned linen, and blue, and purple, and
scarlet, of needlework," is mentioned in
Exodus. T h e Greeks especially excelled
in embroidery. Homer mentions both
Helen and Penelope as engaged in
needlework. T h e web of the latter is
universally famous. Coming to rather a
later period we read of the vestments of
the priesthood of the Anglo-Saxon
Church being richly embroidered. T h e
so-called Β ay eux Tapestry (q.v.) is re­

ΕΝΑ

puted to have been the work of Queen
Matilda, wife of William the Conqueror.
T h e value of the embroideries in exist­
ence in England at the Reformation
can scarcely be estimated. At that
most disastrous period in the history of
art, hundreds of pieces were wantonly
destroyed. Embroidery is but little
cultivated now, and belongs rather to
industry than to art. T h e speedier
methods of machinery have driven the
delicate handwork of former times out
of the field. Fragments of ancient em­
broidery, however, are still highly prized
and regarded as among the most curious
relics of the art of the past.
Emerald. A precious stone, semitransparent, and of a greenish tint.
Emerald Green. (Paint.) A vivid green
pigment prepared from arseniate of cop­
per. In spite of its permanence, it
should be used with caution as it con­
tains arsenic.
Emery. A fine powder of granular
adamantine spar. It is used for cutting
down and polishing glass work, and for
polishing fine-grained stone. Sheets of
paper covered with emery powder, and
known as emery paper, are used for
giving a smooth surface to woodwork,
and also used by draughtsmen and
engravers for sharpening their pencils
and steel points.
Emmanche. (Her.) An heraldic term
applied to the angular divi­
sion of the shield, whether
placed on the dexter or
sinister side. It is a figure ,
which is very rarely em­
ployed.
Enamel. A semi-opaque vitrified ma­
terial, which is melted and applied to
various metals, such as gold, silver, and
copper. It is capable of receiving dif­
ferent colours by the introduction of
various oxides.
T h u s oxide of tin
colours enamel white, oxide of cobalt
blue, and copper green. T h e term
enamel is also applied to the opaque
glaze on pottery.
141

ΕΝΑ

ART

DIC: NONARY.

Enamel, Basse-taille. A process of
enamelling on precious metals, which
consists in chasing the metal plate and
then covering it with powdered enamel
of slightly different shades.
—, Brown. (Pot.) Brown enamel is
composed of minium and manganese
mixed up with brick-dust.
—, Champlevé. Enamel deposited
in the cavities of a metal plate, hollowed out to receive it. This method
of
enamelling succeeded
cloisonne
enamelling in the 13th century, as it
required less labour and skill.
In
German enamels of this class the
colours green and yellow predominate,
while lapis lazuli is the prevailing tint
in the enamels of Limoges.
[Champlevé.]
—, Cloisonné. [Cloisonné.]
—, Goldsmith's. Enamel deposited
on a plate incised with a cutting tool,
generally a graver.
—, Painter's. Paintings on plaques of
metal, usually of small dimensions.
—, Relief. An enamel resulting from
fusion, the irregular surface of which
has either been left unpolished or so
worn by friction as to be quite rough.
—, White. (Pot.) White enamel or
white glazing is composed of the oxides
of tin and lead mixed with sand containing quartz, and with sea salt and
soda. Painters work on a ground of
white enamel, which they leave untouched to obtain their lights.
Enamels, French. These enamels, consisting mainly of brooches and buckles,
date from the 4th to the 8th centuries.
A few specimens are to be found in the
Louvre. T h e r e are also some enamelled
jewels of the 9th and 10th centuries.
—, Fusible. Used as a ground-work
in the manufacture of porcelain.
It
contains a large proportion of oxide of
lead.
—, Limoges. T h e special characteristic of early Limoges enamels is that
they have a dominant tone of blue
lapis lazuli, accompanied with sea-green
142

ΕΝΑ

and with pink for flesh tints. Hair is
represented by means of incisions made
with the graving tool and filled with red
enamel. Such is the character of Li­
moges enamels before the year 1151.
At the end of the n t h and in the 12th
century, flesh is tinted and the metal is
gilt. At the end of the 12th century
the figures are partly enamelled and
partly left in relief and flesh is tinted
white. In the next century the outline
of the figures is left in relief and the
details are sunk.
Both in this cen­
tury and in the 14th century enamels
are coloured uniformly, the tint being
either a greenish blue, or a blue and yel­
low, or an azure. These are the prevail­
ing characteristics of Limoges enamels,
but up to the 15th century it is difficult
to assign a precise date to a particular
specimen because workmen were con­
stantly influenced by the desire to
imitate older work.
—, Niello. Sheets of metal engraved
with sunk lines, which are filled with
black enamel.
—, Painted, belong to the begin­
ning of the 16th century.
A coat of
dark enamel is first laid on the metal,
then a coat of white enamel through
which the black undercoat appears as a
grey. T h e design is traced on this white
coating, masses being indicated by
hatchings. All the white enamel beyond
the outline of the figures is removed,
leaving the black beneath. T h e vessel
is then baked and the design becomes
fixed.
—, Translucent, are small enamels
on gold or silver.
T h e tabernacle
of Orvieto is said to be the finest ex­
ample of a translucent enamel.
At
Cologne is preserved a crosier of the
14th century ornamented with trans­
lucent enamels T h e same ornamenta­
tion was applied by Benvenuto Cellini to
his gold work
Only six colours are
found in translucent enamels, blue,
green, grey, tan-colour, purple, and black.
White and yellow are excluded because

ΕΝΑ

ART

DIC NONARY.

they can only be obtained by means of
stannic acid, which is opaque.
Enamellers. T h e artists to whom we
owe the most celebrated enamels in the
world are Elbertus of Cologne and Jean
Bartholus in the 13th century ; Ugolino
da Siena, Franucci and Andrea d'Ardilo
in the 14th century ; Pierre Verrier in
the 15th ; Jean and Hardan Penicaud,
Maso Finiguerra, and Joseph Limosin in
the 17th; Dinglinger, Rode, and Bouillet
in the 18th ; and Augustin, de Courcy
and Claudius Popelin in the 19th.
Enameller's Needle. Painters in en­
amel spread their tint by means of pointed
needles, and also use a flat needle shaped
like a spatula to deposit the masses of
colour on the place where they want it.
T h e pieces of boxwood with which they
efface irregularities in their work are
also called needles.
Encarpa. (Arch.) A festoon of fruit or

ENC

print cut in relief. T h e hollows thus
produced, which were not very deep,
were filled up with a white clay. T h e
whole was then glazed and fired. T h e
encaustic tiles which are preserved

present an extraordinary variety of de­
signs. Some represent foliage, geomet­
rical patterns, heraldic devices, and even
h u m a n heads or figures. Many are
found bearing quaint inscriptions in
English or Latin. Of the two cuts we

flowers, frequently used to decorate
friezes and other flat spaces.
Encaustic. A method of painting used
by the ancients especially in architec­
tural decoration and in the painting of
statues. [Polychromy.]
It consists in
employing colours mixed in melted wax
which is kept hot during the whole pro­
cess of the painting. T h e term encaustic
is also sometimes applied to a prepara­
tion laid on marble or plaster to protect
it from moisture.
give here, the former represents an
Encaustic Tiles. T h e floors of many encaustic tile in a church at Malvern, as
mediaeval churches in England are deco­ the latter a portion of an ornamental
rated with encaustic tiles, some of which border from the Chapter House at West­
are of exquisite beauty of design. Their minster.
manufacture was very simple. Square
Enceinte. (Fort.) T h e continuous wall
blocks of red clay were stamped with a with its towers and gateways surrounding
Hi

ART

ENC

DICTIONARY.

a city or fortified piare is called the
enceinte.
Enclavé. (Her.) This term is used
when one part of a shield
is as it were keyed into
another by a square projecting piece. This method of
dividing a shield is found
mainly in German coats of
arms.
Encoignure. A small table, triangular
in shape, which is made to fit in to the

angle formed by two walls in the corner
of a room.
Encomboma. (Cost.) A garment fas-

tened round the waist by a large bow,
144

END

which is seen in front. It served the
purpose of an apron and was worn by
slaves and others to keep the tunic clean.
It also formed part of the costume of the
comic actor. Our cut, which represents
a girl wearing an encomboma, playing
the pipes, is from a bas-relief.
E n d - o r n a m e n t . (Arch.) An ornament

sometimes plain,
sometimes richly
decorated, which
terminates a pinnacle, pediment,
or spire.
Endornaments may
be spherical or pointed, and often consist of bunches of foliage.
Endromis. (Cost.) A heavy, warm kind

of garment, which athletes loosely wrapt
round their bodies after becoming heated

ENE

ART

DICTIONARY.

ENG

in the gymnasium. It therefore served
the same purpose as the modern garment called a " sweater." Representations of athletes clothed in the endromis
are of frequent occurrence in classical
art.
Energetic. An epithet applied to a
work painted with vigour, or to a drawing
with a firm, solid, and strongly accentuated outline.

E n g r a v i n g . T h e art of engraving may
be defined as the art of representing
objects by incised lines on wood, metal,
or stone. In the broad sense of the
term engraving has been practised by all
nations and in all ages. Many hundreds
of years, however, passed before the
method of multiplying copies by printing
from one original plate was discovered.
It is to this multiplication of copies that
Engineer's Cartridge. A drawing the term engraving is now generally appaper of a certain size, its dimensions plied, though indeed it is no essential part
of engraving. Engraving as it is underbeing thirty inches by twenty-two.
stood to-day dates only from the 15th
Englanté. (Her.) In blazoncentury, in the early part of which the
ing a shield, this term would
first rude wood-blocks were produced.
be used to describe a twig of
T h e more important methods of enoak bearing acorns of a difgraving will be found described under
ferent tincture to that of the
their separate titles [Wood-cutting,
leaves.
Engobe. (Pot.) A white paste applied Line-engraving, Etching, Stipple, Mezto the surface of some kinds of pottery ; zotint, Lithography, &c.]. T h e term
an earthy substance used in the decora- engraving is also applied to the art of
tion of coloured pottery.
Artificial cutting designs upon or chasing metal
engobe is formed of colourless earths plates, such as sepulchral brasses, as
mixed with metallic oxides, while natu- well as to the art of cutting precious
ral engobe is a natural mixture of earthy stones, either in cameo or intaglio. T h e
print struck off from a wood block
matter with colouring oxides.
Engouled. (Her.) Said of a charge or engraved plate is called an engravwhich is being swallowed by ing.
some animal ; thus the cut
—, Colour. In colour engraving severepresents a bend argent ral plates are employed to produce one
engouled by two lions' proof. Each of the plates prints a
heads. T h e word is also different colour, and by their superapplied from the other point position intermediate tones are proof view to a person or animal pierced by duced. T h e plates are engraved as in
a weapon through the mouth.
mezzotint (q v.), and the great difficulty
Engrailed. (Her.) A dividing line in a is to observe the guiding points, so that
in the successive printings the colours
shield is said to be enare applied exactly in the place which
grailed when it is broken
they ought to occupy, without over-runup into a series of small
ning the outlines.
projecting teeth having a
cusp-like form.
It thus
—, Crayon. A method of engraving
differs from an indented line
popular during the last century, by
(q.v.), where the sides of the
means of which exact fac-similes of
teeth are straight.
crayon drawings were produced.
A
Engraver. An artist who cuts designs varnished copper plate was used as in
on wood blocks or ploughs them out on etching, but instead of working with an
a copper plate with the graver, or in ordinary needle the engraver used a
fact executes any of the processes which toothed needle, a roulette, and several
other tools, which enabled him to imitate
come under the term engraving.
145

ENG

ART

DIC TIONARY.

exactly the broad strokes of the crayon
or chalk. T h e earliest specimens of this
kind of engraving were produced by
François and Demarteau in France.
T h e latter's reproductions of the drawings of Boucher and his school are justly
celebrated.

Engraving en taille d'épargne. A
term applied to that process of engraving,
in which the part intended to be reproduced in the print is left in relief, while
the rest is cut away. T o this class of
engraving wood-cutting belongs.
— en taille douce. In this method
of engraving the lines which are to be
reproduced in the print are hollowed
out or depressed beneath the surface of
the plate. T h a t is, it is the reverse of
engraving en taille d'épargne.
Lineengraving and etching are. among the
examples of engraving en taille douce.
— in Camaieu. A method of engraving
practised in the 16th century, the object
of which was to imitate sepia drawings.
As it was necessary to reproduce several
distinct tones of brown as well as white,
several wood blocks were used and applied to the paper one after another, a
separate block being used to print each
tone. Engravings in camaieu are sometimes printed all in one colour, and the
differences of tone are obtained by hatchings.
— in the Dot Manner. One of the
earliest methods of engraving on metal.
Instead of drawing lines on the metal or
scraping it away, the engraver simply
covered those parts of his plate which
he wished to print light with small dots
or holes. Two engravings in this manner
dating from the year 1406 have been
recently discovered.
Enneapylae. (Arch.) A fortified enclosure surrounding the Acropolis at Athens.
It was so called because it had nine gates.
Enrich. T o enrich is to decorate, to
adorn with various and sumptuous ornaments. T h u s we say that a book is
enriched with cuts when it is illustrated
with vignettes.
I
146

ENT

Enrockment. (Arch.) A base formed
of enormous rocks or massive blocks of
stone immersed in water, and serving as
the foundation of a fountain or as the
piles of a bridge.
Ensemble. A term applied to the
whole group of figures or all the objects
in a landscape, which unite to make up
a picture or artistic composition.
Ensign. A military standard, consisting of an unright staff surmounted by
a device, peculiar to the nation or monarch to whom the ensign belongs. T h e
standard of Rome, for instance, generally

bore an eagle upon it, as will be seen in
two of our cuts. Another cut represents
a Roman standard subsequent to the
time of Constantine, and instead of the
traditional eagle an emblem of Christ is
attached to it.

Entablature.
\

^ j ^ r (Arch.) A horizon -

•
%ίΕ^ΛΓ

consists in
the
ancient orders of
an architrave, a
frieze, and a cornice. It is supported by

ENT

ART

DICTIONARY.

columns, and its height varies from four
to five times the diameter of the shaft of
the column of the order to which it
belongs. When several ancient orders
are placed one above the other, the
entablature of the intermediate orders
has no cornice. This is reserved for the
top story of the building. In modern
buildings columns and pilasters are
generally surmounted by an entablature,
the height of which varies according to
the space at the disposal of the architect,
due regard being kept of course to harmony of proportion. Sometimes too a
false entablature is placed at the summit of a façade, although there are no
pilasters to justify its existence. Entablatures surmounted by projecting cornices are sometimes mere opportunities
for decoration, and are taken advantage
of to hide the slope of a roof, gutters, &c.
T h e mouldings which cap pieces of furniture are' also termed entablatures.
Entasis. (Arch.) T h e swelling in the
, | t
middle of a shaft of a
column. It is one of the
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e
Doric order, in which the
swelling of the columns
gives an effect of lightness to a structure which
otherwise might appear
1
ι
too heavy.
Enté. (Her.) This is a French term
applied to parts of the shield which are
fitted into one another by means of
curved indentations which may take

t

various forms. T h e first cut here given
would be described as enté en rond, or
indented round ; the second enté en pointe;
and the third enté-onde.
Entre-coupe. (Arch.) T h e vacant space

EPI

between two vaults which spring from
the same point.
Çntre-deux. A French term applied
to a piece of furniture, often richly deco-

rated, in the shape of a console or small
cupboard, which stands against a panel
between two doors or other openings.
Entre-sol. (Arch.) An intermediate
story in a house, in which the rooms
are of a low pitch. It is generally situated between the ground floor and the
first floor, but sometimes it is found
between some other two floors.
Epaulets. Shoulder-pieces of metal,
which were introduced about the 14th
century to serve as a protection to the
upper part of the arm. With this the
epaulet worn by officers has nothing to
do. T h e latter, which is a kind of
shoulder knot, was first worn in the
latter half of the 18th century by men of
fashion.
Epaulment. (Arch.) A wall built to
uphold earth.
Epi. (Arch.) An ornament of glazed
earth or lead surmounting pointed roofs
Epis of earthenware were employed from
the 13th to the 14th century, at which
time they were replaced by épis of
enamelled faïence. T h e finest specimens of this class consist of a small
square pedestal, sometimes decorated
with human masks. Above this pedestal
is placed a fir cone, a basket of flowers,
foliage of varied hue, or a bird poised on
a small globe. Leaden épis are either
cast or beaten with a hammer.
To-

H7

ART

EPI

DICTIONARY.

ERE

wards the end of the 15th century excel­ stone, or metal upon which a funeral in­
lent results were scription is engraved. T h e term is also
obtained by com­ applied to the inscription itself.
Équerre. (Her.) French heralds use
bining these two
kinds of epis. T h e this term to describe a
Renaissance pro­ small square piece cut out
duced some admi­ of the corner of a shield
rable
specimens, by means of an elbow of
consisting of capi­ a different tincture. This
tals decorated with device is common in Gerfoliage and sur­ man coats of arms. T h e term escarre
mounted by vases is also sometimes used.
of graceful form.
Equestrian. A term applied to statues
In the 17th century which represent a personage mounted
they assumed the upon a horse. T h e r e were many celef o r m of c o l o n - brated equestrian statues executed by
' " Λ * nettes, vases, or Greek and Roman sculptors. Lysippus,
chimaeras. Some are made to-day in for instance, was the author of equestrian
lead and after the best designs, but for statues of Alexander and his generals.
the sake of economy zinc is too often In modern times too the equestrian
used instead of lead, and this material statue has been a favourite form of
robs them of all chance of durability.
portraiture.
Equilibrium. A term applied to a
Epichysis. (Pot.) A jug from which
figure in its natural and stable position
wine was poured into a
and also to the arrangement of a compocup. It was a form of the
sition, in which the groups, masses, and
Greek oenochoe (q.v.),
blacks and whites are well distributed
and had a lip, through
and balanced.
which the liquid ran, and
a light delicately-shaped
Equipollé. (Her.) A French heraldic
handle. In our cut an
term used to describe a
epichysis is represented
shield divided into nine
with a drinking-cup
small squares so as to form
placed over its mouth.
a chequer board. T h e usual
arrangement is to have the
Epigraph. An inscription placed upon
four corner squares and the
a building to preserve the memory of its
centre one of the same tincconstruction.
Episode. A scene or group of figures ture, and the remaining four of some
represented in some part of a picture, other tincture.
bearing little relation to the principal
Erased. (Her.) Used to describe a
subject T h e term is also applied to head or limb torn off roughly
subjects which represent one particular so as to leave a ragged edge.
incident in a long chain of events. T h u s It is opposed to couped, which
we speak of a picture representing an means cut off clean.
" Episode in the Crimean War."
Erechtheon. (Arch.) One of the buildEpistyle. (Arch.) An architrave or ings at Athens due to the genius of
It
horizontal beam placed on the capitals of Pheidias and his contemporaries.
columns, so as to hold them together and stood on the north side of the Acropolis,
to act as a support to the upper part of a and was dedicated tp Erechtheus.
Above all it was celebrated for the
building.
Epitaph. (Arch.) A tablet of marble, caryatides (q.v.) which supported the
148

ERM

ART

ESS

DICTIONARY.

entablature in that portion of it called
the Pandroseum.
Ermine, (i) (Her.) This is
one of the heraldic furs. It
consists of a white ground
decorated with black spots,
I JL
Ï I or ώ technical language a
VlX^A^X-y field argent, powdered with
*
spots sable.
Ermine. (2) (Cost.) T h e winter skin of
a species of pole cat, which is white with
black spots. It was valued very highly in
the Middle Ages, and in the 13th century
it was enacted that only royal personages
and those of the nobility who had more
than ;£i,ooo a year should wear it.
Ermines. (Her.) This fur, called in
French contre-hermine, is the opposite
of Ermine, the field being black and the
spots white.
Erminois. (Her.) In this fur the field
is gold and the spots sable. Its reverse
is peau (q.v.).
Eros. [Cupid.]
Escallop. (Her.) A shell which is often
found in coats of arms and is
a very honourable bearing.
It was assumed by the pil­
grims on their return from the
Holy Land, and the two kinds of escallops
shown on shields are dignified by the
names of saints. T h e one with ears is
called the escallop of St. James, and the
one without ears the escallop of St.
Michael. T h e escallop was particularly
the emblem of St. James, and represen­
tations of it are frequently to be met
with in churches dedicated to this saint.
Escarpment. An abrupt, precipitous
slope. [Scarp.]
E s c l a t t é . (Her.) This
term is employed when the
dividing line in a shield, instead of being straight, is
rough and jagged as if it
had been violently broken.
E s c o n i s o n . (Arch.) A triangular
space formed by two straight lines and
curve, often found in a window j a m b
or arch. It is enclosed by the curve

of an arch or rose window and the two
sides of the rectangle, in which the
curve, be it circle or
ellipse, is inscribed.
Esconisons
a r e |\
s o m e t i m e s decorated with foliage
and other ornaments, at other times the triangular
spaces are filled
with decorative
paintings representing allegorical figures. In
buildings of the
Gothic style we
find pierced esconisons in the
angles of round windows.
Escutcheon. A cartouche or tablet
upon
which
coats of arms
are emblazoned
or
inscriptions
and ornaments
set forth.
The
name is also
given to metal
plates which assume this form, such as those used for
key-holes upon doors.
Espagnolette. (Arch.) A French term
denoting an arrangement for closing a
window, which consists of a rod of iron
with a hook at each
end. It is moved by a
handle from the inside of a room. When
the window is closed
these hooks are held
fast in staples, and
when, by turning the
handle, the window is opened, the hooks
are released from the staples.
Essorant. (Her.) A French term applied to a bird standing on the ground
and holding its wings up so as to dry
149

ART

EST

DICTIONARY.

itself.
T h e cut repre­
sents a goose, collared and
crowned, essorant.
Estete. (Her.) A term
used in heraldry to de­
note animals represented
without heads. For ex­
ample, the cut repre­
sents an eagle estete sable.
I n s t a n c e s of h e a d l e s s
animals are frequently
found in Polish and Silesian coats of arms.
Estimate. A detailed description of
any work or undertaking, including a
minute account of the expense neces­
sary to construct a building or execute a
work.
Estrade. (Arch.) A raised portion of
the floor of a room, on which a bed or
seat may be placed.
Etalon. (Arch.) T h e tracing of the
plan of a building on the very spot where
it is to be constructed and on the exact
scale on which it is to be built.
Etching. (Engrav.) T h e word etching
is derived from the Dutch word etsen,
to eat, and denotes a process of engrav­
ing in which the incised lines are
obtained not laboriously by working with
the graver but by the action of acid.
T h e plate to be etched upon is covered
with an etching ground (q.v.), great care
being taken to lay this ground equally
all over the plate. T h e drawing or pic­
ture to be reproduced is then traced
with an etching needle, which removes
the ground wherever it is applied, and
so exposes the plate. T h e plate is then
put in acid and the exposed parts are
bitten in. T h e acid used is diluted nitric
acid. If a plate is to be re-bitten it is
covered with a ground once more, but
this time the ground is only passed lightly
over the plate with a roller (q.v.), so as to
cover the portions upon which the ground
was formerly, but to leave the lines ex­
posed. T h e ground is then removed
altogether, and the plate may at once be
inked and impressions struck from it.
τ

5θ

ΕΤΗ

Etching Ball. T h e etching-ground
when formed into a com­
pact mass and enclosed
in a piece of silk is called
an etching-ball. It is in
this form that it is laid
upon the plate. It is generally spherical
in form as in the cut, but sometimes the
ground is obtained in small sticks, re­
sembling sticks of Indian ink.
— Ground. T h e ground used in
etching is the substance which covers
the plate and resists the action of the
acid. One ground frequently used is
composed of white wax, gum mastic,
and bitumen. It is formed into balls
and enclosed in a piece of silk; it is

then laid on the plate and made level
with a dabber (q.v.). When the ground
is to be laid, the plate must be heated
to a proper temperature, so that the
substance composing the ground may
melt through the silk.
Another
method of laying the ground is to
mix it with oil of lavender and lay
it directly with a roller.
— Needle. T h e sharp-pointed
instrument which etchers use for
drawing upon the copper plate. It
is not intended to cut into the
plate itself, but only to scrape away
the ground and so expose it to the
action of the acid.
Etchings. The impressions
struck off on to paper from an
etched plate. T h e early impres­
sions or proof-etchings are printed
on Japanese paper (q.v.), and are
often very costly.
Ethnographic. A term applied
to all that relates to our knowledge
of various races from the point of
view of their distinctive characteristics.

ETO

ART

Hence artistic works which reproduce
the types of foreign races are termed
ethnographic. Scenes of the East and
Algeria, such as those of Decamps and
Gerôme, may be called ethnographic
paintings.
Etoile. (Her.) A synonym for star.
T h e heraldic star consists of five rays
issuing from a centre.
Etruscan Vases. The first painted
Greek vases which were
brought to light in modern times were discovered in E t r u r i a
about the end of the
17th c e n t u r y .
The
learned men of that
time at once concluded
that they were the work of Etruscan
potters, and they were long known as
Etruscan vases. This appellation was
proved to be erroneous by Winckelmann and others, and has now been
discarded. T h e majority of the socalled Etruscan vases were indeed of
Greek workmanship, and were imported
into Italy in very early times. At the
same time many vases were dug up in
Italy which had no doubt been made in
Etruria in imitation of the productions of
the Greek potters.
Etui. A case of gold or silver, richly
chased, which was worn by ladies at
their girdles in the 16th and 17th centuries. It was the forerunner of the
modern chatelaine.
Eurythmia. In architecture eurythmia
refers to beauty of proportion, in painting and sculpture to grace of composition
and to the harmonious balancing of the
lines in a figure or of the groups in a
large composition.
Eustace, St. A legendary saint, frequently represented in Christian art.
He was a Roman soldier, and before he
assumed the n a m e of Eustace, which he
did on his conversion, he was called
Placidus. Like St. H u b e r t (q.v.) he
became a Christian on seeing a white
stag with a cross between its horns. He

DICTIONARY.

EVA

endured many tribulations, losing for a
while his wife and children, and finally
being burnt alive in a brazen bull, but
he remained steadfast in the faith. In
pictures he appears in the costume of a
Roman soldier and holds a palm branch ;
near him stands the white stag to which
he owed his conversion.
Eustyle. (Arch.) A eustyle temple is
one in which the intercolumniation or
distance between the columns surrounding it is equal to two and a quarter
diameters of the column measured near
the base.
Evangelists, The Four. T h e earliest
representations of the four evangelists
are purely symbolic. They are figured
as four scrolls or books in the angles of
a Greek cross, then as four rivers flowing
from a rock, upon which stands a lamb,
the symbol of Christ. They then appear
as the four beasts mentioned in Ezekiel

as supporting the throne—a cherub, a
lion, a bull, and eagle. They were next
represented as monsters, half men and
half beasts, holding books or scrolls.
St. Matthew alone had a h u m a n face,
the others had the head and feet of a
lion, bull, and eagle respectively. For
their individual attributes, see under
their separate headings.
!5i

EWE

ART

DIC: NONARY.

Ewer. (Pot.) A vase of graceful shape,
with a handle and gullet
and mounted on a foot.
T h e purpose to which the
ewer was originally put was
to contain water at table.
Benvenuto Cellini produced
ewers which were masterpieces of art, and one, in
which is represented the
combat between the Centaurs and Lapiths, is particularly celebrated. In modern times
ewers have been made of gold and silver
and even more precious materials, while
gems have been lavishly employed in
their decoration. T h e ewer is above all
a decorative vase, and lends itself admirably to richness both of material
and design.
E x c a v a t i o n . Excavation denotes the
hollowing out of the ground to make
space for foundations, which precedes
the construction of every building. T h e
term is also applied to the digging up
and bringing to light of long-hidden and
forgotten works of art. It is to the work
of industrious excavators that almost all
our knowledge of the monuments of
ancient art is due. Of the great results
of which scientific excavation is capable,
the best evidence is afforded by the important discoveries made in the plain of
Olympia by the German Government.
This enterprise was undertaken with a
full knowledge of what might be found
there, and the expectations of the savants
who carried it out were accurately fulfilled.
Excudit. We often find upon prints
an inscription such as the following:
Marc Antonio sculfisit, Antonio
Salamanca excudit. This means that the impression before us was printed from a
plate engraved by Marc Antonio and
published by Antonio Salamanca. T h e
part played by the publisher was of some
importance, for he frequently retouched
the plates which he issued.
Execution. T h e technical part of an
152

EXE

art, including skill of hand and profound
knowledge of technique. A badly composed picture may show immense skill
in execution. T h e qualities of execution
differ absolutely from those of composition, and many artists who have never
displayed any fertility in the choice of
subjects or knowledge of composition are
sometimes in the very front rank as far
as execution is concerned. Mr. Ruskin's
definition of execution is " the right
mechanical use of the means of art to
produce a given end."
E x e d r a . (Arch.) A semicircular bench,
resembling in form those on which the
philosophers and rhetoricians sat in
ancient times. In Christian basilicae
an exedra is placed on each side of the

episcopal throne in the centre of the
apse and raised some steps above the
general level of the floor. Some authors
term these exedrae subsellyx.
It was
upon them that the priests took their
seats at official meetings.
Exercise. A model given to a pupil
to copy to familiarise him with certain
difficulties. A composition on a given
subject set for the purpose of accustoming students to compose pictures and
arrange groups.
Exergue. T h e space on the field of
a coin or medal
outside the m a m
design, upon
w h i c h an inscription, device, or date is
inscribed. T h e
term is also applied to the inscription itself.
Some medals have a different exergue

EXH

ART

DIC TIONARY.

on each face. Sometimes there are two
exergues on the same face of a medal
or coin, arranged symmetrically with
regard to its diameter.
Exhibition. A temporary collection of
works of art got together sometimes for
the purpose of sale, sometimes for the
illustration of the work of some particular artist or period. The first public
exhibition of English art was held in
April, 1760, since which year an exhibition
has been held annually. From the time
of the establishment of the Royal Academy in 1768 this exhibition has been
under the auspices of that body. During
the last ten years many exhibitions have
been established in rivalry with those
held by the Academy.
Exomis. (Cost.) A short sleeveless
tunic, which left the right arm and
shoulder quite free and unimpeded. It

was worn by both Greeks and Romans,
especially by those who were engaged
in active physical toil.
Expert. A term applied to those who
are, or believe themselves to be, connoisseurs in works of art and make a profes11

EXV

sion of their real or supposed knowledge.
T h e catalogues of public auction sales
afford us proofs of the frequent ignorance
of experts even of modern pictures. In
certain legal cases, experts generally
chosen from the body of artists of repute,
are called upon to give evidence.
Expression. A figure is said to have
expression when in its interpretation
the character of the subject is well
represented. It is in the treatment of
the face and especially of the eye that
artists display their power of setting
forth expression.
Exterior. T h e outside of a building,
as opposed to the interior or inside.
Extrados. (Arch) T h e upper convex
surface of a vault or arch ; the curve

formed by the upper side of the voussoirs
(q.v.).
Extradossed. (Arch.) A term applied
to arches, the extrados of which is formed
of stones regularly squared and not left
in their natural condition.
Extremities. A term used in artistic
language for the arms and legs and more
especially for the hands and feet of the
h u m a n figure. Thus we speak of " extremities badly drawn," or of " extremities painted with consummate knowledge
and skill."
Ex-voto. A tablet of marble bearing
an inscription, or an inscription upon
the walls of a religious edifice setting
forth the accomplishment of a vow, or
intended to keep green the memory of
some favour obtained. In Catholic countries, in chapels in the neighbourhood of
the sea, we often find pictures of ships in
distress with the Virgin appearing
through the clouds. T h e connections of

!53

ART

EYE

DICTIONARY.

these rude paintings with art is, however, very slight.
Eye. (Arch.) A term used to denote
the centre of an Ionic capital, as well as
the circular opening in the summit of a
dome and the small circle in the centre
of a rose window. F r o m within the eye
of a volute, following the sides and
diagonals of a square inscribed within a

circle we can determine with a compass
the contour of a volute, as is shown in our
second cut. In symbolic art the eye has
always been the emblem of watchfulness
and so of the divine power. Among the
Egyptians Osiris was typified by an eye,
and in early Christian art the eye stands
for the Providence which sees all things.
Eye-shade. A piece of green card
which engravers wear on their foreheads.
It projects like a visor, shields the eyes
from the rays of light, and so renders the
sight more distinct.

F.
Façade. (Arch.) T h e outside surface
of a building ; especially the principal
front, which is the most exposed to view
and is more richly decorated than the
rest of the edifice. T h e chief entrance
to a building is generally to be found in
the façade.
—, Composite. A façade ornamented
with entablatures of different orders.
T h e west front of St. Paul's is an example of a composite façade.
Face. (Paint.) T h e front part of the
head from the forehead to the chin. Expression and individuality are to be
154

FA E

looked for in the face, and the importance attached to the proper representation of the face in portrait-painting
may be gauged by the fact that in the
i 6 t h a n d 17th centuries portrait-painters
were called face-painters. In architecture a flat moulding or a broad smooth
surface is termed a face. T h u s we speak
of the face of an architrave.
Face-painter. An old term which
was applied in the 15th and 16th centuries to a portrait painter, the accurate
representation of the features being
regarded then as the end of and aim of
portrait-painting.
Facet. A small smooth surface, especially that surface between the angles of
diamonds or crystals which is sometimes
natural, sometimes obtained artificially
by cutting.
Facing. (Arch.) When a rough wall of
brick or stone is covered with a thin
coat of a better material, such as marble
or plaster, this outer coating is called a
facing.
Facsimile. An exact reproduction,
obtained sometimes by artistic means,
but more often by purely mechanical
processes, such as photography, heliogravure, &c. In the last century facsimiles of the drawings of the old masters
were produced by means of line engraving. In these facsimiles not only the
touch of the artist but even the tone of
old paper was reproduced. To-day the
processes of engraving which depend
upon photography have rendered easy
the production of extraordinarily accurate facsimiles. T h e term is also ap
plied to reproductions of hand-writing,
signatures, marks, and monograms, with
which books are sometimes illustrated.
Faded. A term applied to colours
which have lost their freshness or
brilliance.
Some shades of colours
when faded produce an excellent effect.
Faenza Ware. A name given to
majolica from, the little town near
Bologna where majolica was once made.
Faience. (Pot.) Just as faenza became

FAI

ART

FAN

DICTIONARY.

in Italy the general name for majolica,
so faïence, said by some to be derived
from faenza, became in France a general name for a kind of pottery composed of glazed or enamelled earth. T h e
secret of making it was known in very
early times to the Chinese, Arabians,
Persians, and Assyrians. There are some
very fine specimens of Moorish faïence
dating from the 12th and 13th centuries
at the Alhambra at Grenada. But many
pieces are known of far greater antiquity
than this. In the museum at Sèvres, for
instance, there are examples dating
from the 9th century. In a convent
at Leipzig, built in 1207, were found
some enamelled bricks, while the tomb
of one of the Dukes of Silesia, who died
in 1290, consists entirely of enamelled
terra-cotta. T h e potteries of Nuremberg are celebrated. In the 15th century
German potters imported faïence to
Delft, and in 1650 there were in existence
no less than fifty factories of faïence in
England, France, Sweden, and Denmark.
Their prosperity, however^ declined in
the 18th century, but a revival of the
art has taken place in our own days.
—, Common. A faience generally porous, of a red or yellow tint, with an
opaque white or varnish coloured glaze.
—, Fine. A faience consisting of silica,
alumina, and sometimes lime. Its paste
is porous, white, absorbent, and opaque,
and its glaze is transparent and has
protoxide of lead as its base.
— of Henri II. A very rare faïence
of the Renaissance period, composed of
plastic, clay, and flint, or quartz ground
very fine. Lead enters in the composition of its glaze. T h e r e are only fiftysix specimens of it in existence, twentyeight in France, twenty-six in England,
and a solitary one in Russia. All these
pieces were found either in the Vendée
or Touraine. They are cups, ewers, &c,
emblazoned with the arms of Francis I.,
Diana of Poicters, and Henri II. They
were manufactured at Oiron by the
potters F. Charpentier and Jean Ber-

nard, from about the year 1525 to the
end of the reign of Henri II.
Failli (Her.) This term is used by
French heralds to denote a
failure or break in an ordinary. It is specially applied to a chevron divided
into several pieces
as
shown in the accompanyr
ing cut.
Falchion. A sword of uncertain form
used in the Middle Ages.
In all
probability it resembled the German
sabre, and was used as being lighter than
the broadsword.
Falcon. (Her ) T h e bird of prey used
by sovereigns and nobles for
hawking is a irequent charge
in heraldry. It is sometimes
represented on a perch. In
some coats of arms the falcon
wears a mantle embroidered
with fleur-de-lis attached to its neck by
a ribbon. In symbolic art the falcon is
the emblem of royalty or nobility, for
the sport of hawking was restricted by
law to kings and nobles.
False. (Arch.) A term applied to pretended mouldings or openings, produced
either in relief or by means of painting,
which decorate a façade or contribute to
its symmetry.
Fan. Fans were known to the Greeks
as well as to Eastern nations, and representations of them
o c c u r in m o n u m e n t s of c l a s s i c
art. Our first cut
represents
Cupid
fanning his mother,
and is taken from
an ancient sculpture.
During the
Middle Ages fans do not seem to have
been used in Europe, but they reappeared about the fifteenth century. T h e
fans made to fold up, which are generally
used in the present day, were introduced
in the 17th century. T h e artistic portion of them generally consists of a

*5S

ART

PAN

DICTIONARY.

painting, drawing, or engraving on parch­
ment, vellum, or silk. T h e majority of
fans, it is true, are vulgar in design, and
owe their commercial value simply to
their mounting.
Some few, however,
are thought worthy to be placed in col­

lections and kept under glass without
ever being mounted at all. Many modern
artists have made designs for fans of
the highest merit. Perhaps the finest
specimens have been produced by the
Japanese, who excel in this branch of
decorative art.
Fancy. A work of pure imagination
may be said to be full of fancy. T h e
word is also used in a bad sense. Thus
we may term a work not sufficiently
studied from nature but painted out of
the artist's head a " mere fancy."
Fanfreluche. A French term denot­
ing brilliant and excessive ornaments.
In some of Boucher's portraits of ladies,
for instance, the fanfreluches are ren­
dered with much skill.
Fantastic. A work is said to be fan­
tastic when it is fanciful and extravagant,
displaying curious effects of light and
representing supernatural scenes, phan­
toms, and apparitions.
Fan-tracery. (Arch.) This term is
applied to a kind of vaulting found in
late Perpendicular buildings. All the
ribs, of which the vaulting is composed,
rise from the springing of the vault and
diverge as they go upwards, so as to
produce the effect of a fan spread out.
T h e best examples of fan-tracery are to
be seen in Henry VH.'s Chapel, West­
minster, and King's College Chapel,
Cambridge.
Farnese Bull. A celebrated sculp­
tured group, the work of Apollonius and ι
Tauriscus, sculptors of the school of !
156

FAT

Tralles.
Fragments of it were dis­
covered in Rome in the 16th century,
and it was restored with more courage
than knowledge by Giovan-Battista della
Porta. As it exists now only the torsos
of the two male figures and a portion of
the female figure are original.
The
group represented the
punishment
inflicted on Dirce by Zethus and
Amphion, in consequence of Dirce's
treatment of their mother Antiope.
Farthingale. A kind of cage worn by
women in the 16th century under their
dress. It was not at all unlike the hoop
or crinoline, and served the same purpose
of spreading out the dress, till it had the
appearance of a bell.
Fasces. A bundle of twigs or rods,
with an axe in their midst, which was
in ancient times carried before Roman
magistrates. Soon after the expulsion

of the kings, however, the axe was
removed, and was only carried in front
of a dictator or a quaestor in time of
active service. Our cut represents the
fasces with the axe.
Fascia. (Arch.) A flat moulding, like a
fillet, used in classical architecture. In
architraves of the Ionic or Corinthian
orders two or even three fasciae are
found, each one receding from the one
above it.
Fates, The. T h r e e sisters, the daugh­
ters of Night, who spun the thread of
human life. They were named Clotho,
Lachesis, and Atropus, and it is said
that Clotho put the wool on the spindle,
Lachesis spun it, while Atropus cut it.

FAU

ART

FER

DICTIONARY.

T h e Fates are frequently represented in
art, mediaeval as well as classical, as
three maidens of sober aspect.
The
marvellous group in the eastern pediment of the Parthenon, now among the
Elgin marbles, is held by some critics to
represent the Fates.
Faun. T h e fauns were silvan deities
frequently represented in Greek and
Graeco-Roman art. They should more
properly be called Satyrs. In ancient
times a faun from the hand of Praxiteles
was particularly famous. In art fauns
generally assume the form of youths,
with shaggy hair and horns sprouted
from their forehead. There is a wellknown statue of a laughing faun in the
British Museum dating from the GraecoRoman period.
Feathering. (Arch.) A series of foils
or small arcs with cusps between them,
which decorates the inner surface of a
Gothic arch. Feathering is also termed
foliation. [Foils.]
Feeling. T h e feeling of a picture
may be defined as that quality by which
expression is given to the emotions
actuating the painter in the conception
and execution of his design.
This
" f e e l i n g " is only possible in the work
of a painter who has attained a perfect
mastery over his material ; for where the
technique is imperfect, expression of
emotion or feeling is out of the question.
Félicitas, St. A Roman widow who
suffered martyrdom in the time of
Marcus Aurelius. H e r seven sons were
put to death before her eyes because
they would not renounce the Christian
faith, and she herself was afterwards
cruelly slain, according to one account,
by being put in a cauldron of boiling oil.
She is represented in art as amply
draped and holding a palm branch.
Sometimes she appears standing in a
cauldron, as in Raphael's " Martyrdom
of St. Félicitas," which is the most
celebrated rendering of this subject. T h e
date of her martyrdom was November
23rd, A.D. 173.

Feminalia. Short breeches worn by the
Romans, which fitted closely and reached
to the knee, resembling our knickerbockers.
They did not come into

general use in Rome until after the toga
had gone out of fashion, and then they
were principally worn by soldiers on
service in cold climates.
Fenestella. (Arch.) In ecclesiastical
architecture the fenestella is the niche
in which the piscina (q.v.) is placed.
Fenestration. T h e general arrangement of windows in a building.
Feretory. A shrine resembling a

small coffin in form, in which the relics

*57

ART

FES

DICTIONARY.

of saints were carried in ecclesiastical
processions.
T h e feretory was frequently richly decorated with chasing
and enamel, if of metal, and with carvings in relief, if of wood or ivory. Our
cut, representing four monks bearing a
feretory, is take from a MS. by Matthew
Paris.
Fess. (Her.) T h e fess is one of the
principal ordinaries in heraldry.
It
crosses the shield horizontally and occupies one third of its width. T h e bar is
a diminutive of the fess, occupying only
one-fifth of the shield. T h e closet or
barrulet are diminutives of the bar.
Fess-point. (Her.) T h e centre point
in a shield.
Festoon. (Arch.) An architectural
ornament of great beauty and variety.
It generally consists of foliage, flowers,
or branches intertwined or bound together. It is peculiarly appropriate for
the adornment of friezes. In the pointed
style of architecture festoons consist of
a series of lobes or indents. Festoons
were employed with excellent effect by
the architects of the Renaissance style.
A representation of a festoon will be
found under the heading Encarpa.
Fibula. A kind of 'brooch or clasp.
Ancient fibulae, as well as
those of the Middle Ages,
were made of gold, silver,
or ivory, and sometimes
ornamented with precious
stones and chased with
care. In museums and
art collections many ancient fibulae of beautiful
workmanship are to be
seen. In ancient times the term fibula
was a p p l i e d to
girdle-clasps,
which very closely
resemble
the
buckles which are
used to-day for the same purpose, and
were provided with a movable tongue.
[Brooch.]
Ficelles. A slang term applied in

158

FIG

Paris to the thousand and one tricks
of the artist's trade—to the painter's
happy thoughts, due sometimes to
chance, sometimes to patient research.
At first sight, for instance, the foreground of a picture may appear to be
executed by impossible methods. A
closer inspection shows us that, thanks
t o a " ficelle," it is quite simply painted.
It is a " ficelle " again when a sculptor
sprinkles a mixture of acidulated water
on the folds of his draperies, and by
means of this colour accentuates the
relief. Nor are "ficelles" unknown in
the engraver's art. T h e highest form of
art, it is true, knows not " ficelles," but
it cannot be denied that these dodges
play an important part in the art of
modern times.
Fictile. (Pot.) The term fictile was
applied by the Romans to
pottery of every kind. Architectural ornaments and
pottery of the highest artistic merit were known as
fictile, as well as the earthenware pots and pans in everyday use. T h e moulds and
stamps employed in the
potter's art were placed in
the same category. Of our
cuts the upper one represents a stamp used by the
ancient potter to make the
pattern which ran round the
neck of a vessel, and the
lower cut shows the pattern
thus produced. [Pottery and Vases.]
Field. (Her.) In heraldry the field of
a shield is the groundwork or basis upon
which the different charges are laid.
T h e tincture of the field must always be
specified first in blazoning a shield.
Figure. A representation of a man,
woman, or animal, drawn, painted, or
sculptured. A life-size figure is a representation of a m a n or woman of natural
size; a half-figure represents a person
as far as the waist only; a figure half
life-size represents a man or woman half

FIG

ART

DICTIONARY.

FIL

the ordinary height. An academy figure I skill in filigree. T h e Italians introduced
is a figure of which the dimensions are the art into Europe.
Fillet. (1) (Arch.) A square moulding
those of the studies generally painted or
modelled in schools of art, i.e a little less which is also termed a list or listel.
than half-life size. The following pro- Fillets serve to separate convex or conportions are generally observed in the cave mouldings, and their number and
drawing of figures. They have been
arrived at from the observation of centuries and the careful examination of
the human structure. The height of a
male figure ought to be eight times the
height of the head, of a female figure
seven times the height of the head, of
the figure of a child six times the height
of the head.
F i g u r e , C o l o s s a l . A painted or I
sculptured figure, the proportions of j proportions vary in the case of classical
which are far beyond life-size. A monu- I buildings according to the order to
mental figure may be from eight to which they belong, in the case of Gothic
eighteen feet high or more according j buildings according to their style or
to the space which it is to occupy in period.
a building or the size of the square in i Fillet. (2) (Her.) T h e fillet is the
which it is to stand. T h e largest figure j diminutive of the chief, and is generally
of this kind in the world is Bartholdi's I represented as one-fourth the size of this
statue of Liberty, which measures up- j ordinary.
wards of 150 feet from the base to the I Fillet. (3) (Cost.) A band worn upon
summit of the torch.
!j the head by the Greeks, both men and
j women, and tied at the back with a bow.
Figurine. A small figure or statuette,
generally in terra-cotta or some material
less durable than marble. Greek figurines, though exquisitely graceful and
artistic, often lack the restraint observable in classical statues of larger dimensions. This in reality adds to their
interest, for it shows us of what Greek ! It was not, as was the case of the diaart was capable when not devoted to dem, a sign of distinction or dignity, but
civic or religious purposes. T h e finest simply a personal adornment.
figurines known to us are those found at
Filomena, St. A purely legendary
Tanagra. [Tanagra
figures.]
! saint, whose worship has become popular
Filigree. Goldsmith's work consisting in the present century in Italy. In 1802
of threads of metal intertwined and a skeleton of a girl was discovered, the
soldered. T h e ornaments of the n t h , sepulchre bearing a fragmentary in12th, and 13th centuries are decorated scription, which was elaborated by a
with filigree of exquisite workmanship. zealous priest into a memorial inscripFiligree lent itself especially to the tion in honour of an imaginary saint
representation of the crockets and fes- called Filomena. She was said to have
toons which decorate those architectural suffered martyrdom in the reign of
monuments in miniature, the mediaeval ; Diocletian or Maximian ; and though
reliquaries. [Reliquary.] Eastern na- there is absolutely no reason to believe
tions have always been famed for their \ that such a person ever existed, she was

!59

FIM

ART

DIC TIONARY.

FIR

at once honoured as a saint. There are, 14th century they are extraordinarily
as is naturally to be expected, few bold in design, but in the 15th they
artistic representations of St. Filomena, begin to lose their character. They are
but images of her are to be seen in
various Italian churches.
Fimbria. [Fringe.]
F i m b r i a t e d . (Her.) W h e n a charge, as
for example a cross, is surrounded by a
narrow border of a different tincture to
itself, it is said to be fimbriated.
Fine-grinding. An operation by which
the materials used in certain arts, such
as potter's clay and painter's colours,
are reduced to a fine powder.
Finial. (Arch.) In all styles of architecture a finial denotes a sculptured
ornament, which represents a leaf or a stripped of their leaves, and finally in
flower, and which is employed (especially the 16th century they are replaced by
a stem which springs from between the
crockets on the slope of a roof.
Finish. (Paint.) T h e term finish is
applied to the final touches in t h e execution of a picture. In a highly finished
picture no detail is carelessly carried
out. As a fine example of finish Gerard
Dow's " W a t e r Doctor" may be quoted.
In pictures of small size finish is necessary to success. In large pictures, on
the other hand, finish, if carried too far,
produces only an impression of dryness.
in Gothic buildings) as a termination to
Fire. (Her.) A natural figure in
gables, pinnacles, and canopies. Finials heraldry. It is represented on coats of
first made their appearance in the 12th arms by a flame, a torch, a brand, or
century. At the beginning of the 13th burning coals. In early Christian art
century their section is square, and they fire is the attribute of many saints and
consist of four bunches of leaves with martyrs who suffered death at the stake.
Firebrick. (Constr.) An inflammable
brick which contains neither iron, or
oxide of iron. Firebricks are used in
the construction of
furnaces in which
^fï
porcelain,
faïence,
%i?
and
enamels
are
0&

a bud above. In the middle of the 13th
century they are composed of two rows
of leaves, and at the end of the century
they are still more elaborate. In the
160

Firedog. An andIpill
iron (q.v.) of large
ifÊlÎmiS0^k
dimensions.
Fire- (^SeT^^^^
? i
dogs were often mag- ^ P * " "
\S^^^
nificent specimens of
ironwork. Those placed in halls and

FIR

ART

t h e w o r d s Ίησοΰς

FLA

DICTIONARY.

dwelling rooms were richly decorated,
while those placed in kitchens were
stronger and plainer in design, and gene­
rally terminated in a kind of tray, upon
which dishes were placed. In collections
there are still to be seen many exquisite
firedogs of wrought iron decorated with
coats of arms.
Firelock. A kind of firearm discharged
by means of flint and steel. It was in­
vented in the early part of the 17th cen­
tury.
Fireplace. In early times, in the 12th
century for instance, fireplaces were
deeply recessed and surmounted by a
chimney-hood (q.v.) In the Early Eng­
lish period the fireplace was very plain
and but little recessed. It was not until
the 15th century that much decoration
was lavished on fireplaces. At that time
the hearth was set far back, and it was
no longer necessary to use a hood.
Firing. The operation of fixing the
colour in glass or enamel, by submitting
the painted objects to the action of fire.
First Proof. (Engrav.) A proof printed
from a plate before the inscription and
author's name has been cut on it.
First State. (Engrav.) An engraving
is said to be a first state when it is struck
from a plate which has only been bitten
once and has not received its final
touches. T h e term is also applied to a
print, either finished or not, which
differs from the proof of the second
printing.
Fish. A curious symbol frequently
found on early Christian monuments
and tiles. It is the emblem of our Lord,
and the usual explanation of it is, that it
is taken from ΙΧΘΥ2, the Greek for fish,
the letters of which are the initials of
Χριστό? ©eov Υίος %ωτηρ,

i.e. Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the
Saviour. Another explanation is that it
contains a reference to the text, " I will
make you fishers of men," but the one
first stated is the more probable.
Fish-tail. (Engrav.) A term applied
to a broad flat brush, which is used to

lay the ground upon plates, which are to
be bitten by acid.
Fitché.
(Her.) An heraldic term
which means tapering or pointed. For
instance, a cross fitché (q.v.) is a cross
the lower limb of which tapers downwards to a point.
Flabellum. A large circular fan formed
of peacock's feathers.
It was used as a brush
in Asia, in Roman
houses, and in the
churches of the East.
It was employed in
the Latin Church until
the 14th century, and
it is still retained in
certain ceremonies in
which the Pope takes part. [Fan.]
Flag. A stone used in the making of
pavements.
Flagellation. A term applied to pictures or bas-reliefs representing the
scourging of Christ.
Flagon. A long-necked vessel with a
spout and a lid, used for holding liquids.
At the time of the Reformation the
flagon was ordered to be used instead
of the cruet in the services of the Church.
It has now been replaced by a vessel of
a different shape.
Flail. A weapon made on the model of
the agricultural implement of the same
name. It was made of wood, and its
arm was sheathed in iron and often
rendered more dangerous with spikes.
Flake White. (Paint.) A pigment
composed of oxidised carbonate of lead.
It owes its name to the fact that it is
sold in flakes or plates. It has a good
body, and under certain conditions is
permanent. Oil and varnish dissolve it,
and it is apt to turn grey in an impure
atmosphere, while it, in its turn, is
destructive to lakes and orange leads
when mixed with these pigments.
Flamboyant. (Arch.) A name given
to the French Gothic architecture of the
15th and 16th centuries, which corresponded in point of time with the Per161

FLA

ART

DICTIONARY.

pendicular (q.v.) style in England. T h e
flamboyant style is characterised by

balustrades and traceries, resembling
flames in their contours.
Flammeum. (Cost.) A long thick veil
of a brilliant yellow or flame colour,
which was worn by Roman women on

their wedding day. During the ceremony it covered the head of the bride,
who was unveiled by her husband on
reaching home.
Flanches. (Her.) A flanch consists of
a segment of a circle cut out as it were
from the side or flank of the field.
Flanches are always "borne in pairs
and are reckoned as a
subordinacy
(q.v.). They are rather rare in English
heraldry, but a good example is to be
found in the arms of Sir Bartle Frere :
Gules, between two flanches or, two
leopards' faces in pale or.
162

FLE

Flanks. (Arch.) T h e flanks of an arch
are those portions of an arch between
the spring-line and the vertex.
Flask. A vessel to contain liquids, used
in Italy and elsewhere. It is a kind of
flagon, long and narrow, and generally
of a graceful form. Flasks were carried
by pilgrims, and so we often find a flask
suspended to a pilgrim's staff in works
of art.
Flasques. (Her.) A diminutive of
flanches, a smaller piece being cut out
of the field of the shield.
Flemish Bond. (Arch.) That method
of laying bricks in a wall so that in each
course headers (q.v.) and stretchers
(q.v.) appear alternately.
Flemish White. [White Lead.]
Flesh-tints. (Paint.) A term applied
to those tints or colours observed in the
nude human body. T h e representation
of the nude is one of the most important
branches of painting, and therefore too
much stress can scarcely be laid upon
the study of
flesh-tints.
T h e best
colours with which to represent flesh
are pink madder, brown madder (for the
darkest touches), Indian red (as a
shadow colour), Venetian red and vermilion for the carnations of flesh. In
painting flesh the colours should be laid
on thickly, as a good effect cannot be
obtained by thin layers of colour over a
large surface. T h e term " flesh-tints "
in a general sense denotes the power
displayed by a particular artist in the
rendering of the nude ; thus we speak
of the flesh-tints of Rubens, of Titian,
&c.
Fleur-de-lis. A flower which is found
in many coats of
arms as the symbol
of nobility or sovereignty. It is preeminently the royal
insignia of France. It assumes different forms at different epochs.
The
two most strongly marked types are
those of the reigns of St. Louis and
Louis XIV. T h e former was slender

FLE

ART

and graceful in design ; the latter squat
and heavy. In early times the banner
of France was covered with fleur-de-lis,
as in our cut, but from the time of
Charles VI. it showed only three fleur-

de-lis on a blue ground. For many
centuries the fleur-de-lis were quartered
on the royal arms of England in assertion of the claim of the English royal
family to the throne of France. They
were expunged from the shield by George
IV.

Fleur-de-lis flory.

FLO

DICTIONARY.

A fleur-de-lis

Fleuron. (Arch.) A name given to the
small rose-like flower, surrounded by
leaves, which is employed as an ornament
in the classical style of
architecture. It is most
frequently found in the
centre of the abacus of
Corinthian capitals. It was the same
ornament as that generally known as
the honeysuckle pattern.
Flint-ware. (Pot) A kind of fine
faïence, which takes its name from the
flint which enters into its composition.
Floral. Floral ornament is the system
of ornament borrowed from the vegetable kingdom. T h e floral ornament of
the Greeks is almost confined to the
acanthus ; that of the Gothic style, however, is of considerable variety. At the
beginning of the 13th century the leaves
generally sculptured were those of the ivy,
vine, holly, marsh-mallow, and eglantine,
By the end of the 13th century the leaves
of the oak, wild plum, fig, and pear had
been added to those already mentioned.
In the 14th century the leaves of the
black hellebore, chrysanthemum, sage,
pomegranate, geranium and fern were
the favourites, while in the decorative art
of the 15th century we most often meet
with the thistle, thorn, and mugwort.
Flooring. (Arch.) An arrangement of

thin planks of wood placed upon
timbers called bridging joists. Floorings
adorned with buds between the flowers
or enriched with foliage and scrolls, so
as to be transformed into
an elaborate floral decoration
Fleur-de-lis flory are
frequently found as a system
of ornament on hangings.
They are also worked into
the design of mosaic pavements.

receive different names according to the
arrangement of the planks and the

163

FLO

ART

DICTIONARY.

method of joining employed, such as
plain jointed, rebated, fillistered, &c.
These technicalities, however, scarcely
belong to the domain of art.
Some
floors are composed of marquetry, and
have different coloured woods inlaid in
them, which sometimes produce an admirable decorative effect.
Florentine Fresco. A method of
fresco-painting differing from the ordinary method in that the lime may be
kept wet and fit for painting on for a
considerable time. By this means the
greatest difficulty of fresco-painting is
obviated. [Fresco.]
Florentine Mosaic. T h e inlaying of
tables and other small surfaces with precious stones, such as lapis lazuli and
chalcedony, is termed Florentine mosaic.
By this process very beautiful effects
may be obtained.
Florid. (Arch.) A term applied to the
Gothic architecture of the latest period
just before the Renaissance, when the
ornamentation was wonderfully exuberant, and crockets developed from
simple leaves into large bunches of
foliage.
Flourishes. Embellishments or scrolls
disposed round a system of ornament or
adding richness to a cartouche, vignette,
or initial letter.
Flower-painting. T h e representation
of flowers is the object of special and
exclusive study on the part of certain
artists.
Flowers have always been
prized in the Netherlands, and it is there
that the finest pictures of flowers have
been produced. T h e flower-paintings
of Daniel Seghers of Antwerp (1590—
1660), David de Heem, Van Huysum,
and J. B. Monnoyer are justly celebrated.
Flowers. In classical art flowers are
the attribute of Aphrodite and the
Hours ; in Christian art of many legendary saints, such as St. Dorothea and
St. Elizabeth of Hungary.
Flowers of Sulphur. Flowers of sulphur are used by engravers to slightly
164

FLU

bite in an engraved plate. Sometimes a
mixture of flowers of sulphur and oil is
used. This affects the surface of the
plate and produces the impression of a
washed drawing, which varies in energy
according to the length of the exposure
of the plate to the biting in.
Flush. (Arch.) Two walls are said to
be flush when their facings are on the
same level. One surface is said to be
flush with another when they are on the
same level.
Flutings. (Arch.) Hollow mouldings
of uniform depth and equi-distant,
introduced in the shaft of a column or
the front of a pilaster.
—, Cabled. Flutings of which the
indent is filled with a cable (q.v.).
—, Decorated. Flutings in
which ornaments consisting
of flowers and foliage are introduced.
Buildings of the
12th century present many
examples of decorated flutings, while on the columns
of porticos of the Renaissance style flutings are found
decorated with laurel leaves
and foliage of great richness.
— en gaine. Flutings the edges of
which, instead of
being parallel, converge towards a
base narrower than
their summit. Flutings of this character are used to
decorate pedestals
in order to make
the light play on
their surface and
so to give them an
appearance
of
greater height.
—, Ribbed. Flutings which are sepa-

rated by listels (q.v.).

FLU

ART

DICTIONARY.

Flutings, Sharp. Flutings the curves

of which terminate at their point of contact in an acute angle.
—, Twisted. Flutings encircling a
column in spirals.

— with Astragals.
Flutings filled with flat
or convex astragals
These astragals
are
sometimes
simple,
sometimes cut in the
form of a cord or
cane, round which foliage is turned
in
spirals.
—, Zigzag. Flutings
drawn in a zigzag line.
Flux. A substance used in painting in
enamel. It consists of glass, as clear
and transparent as possible. It is
spread over the plate which is to be
enamelled and serves as a ground,
importing to the plate a brilliant surface
and serving to fix the colours. During
the process of enamelling every colour
is mixed with a certain quantity of
flux.
The term is also applied to a
colourless enamel, employed by potters,
which is blended with colours and serves
as their vehicle.
Focus. (Photo.) T o put an object in
focus is to make either it or the glass to
retire or advance until the image on the
glass is absolutely clear.
Foils. (Arch). T h e divisions or compartments of an
arch or spandril
formed by arcs of
circles in Moorish
and Gothic architecture.
Arabian
arches are divided
into foils, which
are always of an
uneven number. Sometimes in arches
inscribed in rectangular openings the

FOL

division and outline of the foils a r e
carried on to the
extrados of the
vault.
In the
pointed
style
many examples of
windows are found
divided vertically
by ribs or mullions, which cross
and interlace at
the spring of the arch, leaving foils
between them in the form of convex or
concave portions of arcs of circles, their
intersections being formed by projecting
I crockets often ornamented by foliage.
i Foil Arch. (Arch.) A foil arch is an
| arch made of our several smaller arches
| or foils.
Fold. A term applied to the angles
and broken masses formed by draperies
which fall loose. T h e proper treatment
of the folds of draperies is an important
part of the work of both sculptor and
painter.
Folding Doors. [Doors, Folding.]
Foldingstool, or Faldstool. A movable
chair or stool, which folds up in very
much the same manner as the modern
campstool. It was made of wood or
metal, and sometimes covered with
some rich material, such as silk. In
olden times bishops carried foldingstools

about with them, and used them if they
had to officiate in any but their own
church, and so an ecclesiastical significance was attached to foldingstools, the
term sometimes even denoting the
cathedra or bishop's throne itself. Our
two cuts are taken from MSS. of the
Saxon period.
165

FOL

ART

DIC TIONARY.

Foliage.
The
reproduction
and
arrangement of leaves, either real or
fantastic, is one of the most frequent
systems of ornament employed in architecture. In the ancient styles of architecture foliage is as a rule borrowed
from the flora of the country. Thus on
the monuments of Egypt we find the

palm-leaf and lotus, while on the buildings of Greece and Rome the leaves of
the acanthus, bay, and olive predominate.
In Romano-Byzantine monuments the
foliage is generally nothing more than a
barbarous and clumsy imitation of the
antique. T h e sculptors of the Gothic
period, however, took as their models
the plants which grew in the neighbour-

hood of the church they were decorating.
In the 12th century the foliage, though
of considerable variety, is still somewhat
fantastic.
In the 13th century it is
modelled from nature with conscientious
accuracy and arranged with consummate
grace. T h e leaves most generally used at
this period are those of the ivy, vine, oak,
strawberry-plant, apple-tree, chestnut,

fig-tree, parsley, marsh-mallow, liverwort, celery, chicory, cabbage, holly, and
thistle. At the Renaissance garlands of
flowers and fruit were employed for
decorating purposes as well as foliage.
In the 17th and 18th centuries garlands
of leaves, either of the oak or olive,
occur as ornaments and sometimes
166

FON

completely cover considerable portions
of a façade. T h e acanthus of classical
tradition, which was restored to favour
in the 16th century, is held in honour
by the architects of to-day.
But at
the present time new forms are rarely
introduced.
T h e reproduction of the
foliage of classical antiquity is more
popular than ever.
Foliated. (Arch ) Decorated with
foliations or featherings (q v.).
Foliation. (Arch ) A term applied to
the cusps or foils which separate the
small arcs within a larger arch or spandril in Gothic architecture. Trefoil or
cinquefoil arches afford us examples of
foliation.
Font, Baptismal. A basin in which
the holy water used in the ceremony of
baptism is kept. T h e fonts of the

Romano-Byzantine and Gothic periods
were of stone, copper, or lead. T h e
majority of them were covered with a

lid. In early times this lid was flat and
unornamented, as in our second cut,
which represents a font of Norman

FOO

ART

DICTIONARY.

workmanship in Hunstanton Church.
At a later period, however, the lids were
elaborately carved and architectural in
design, representing spires, pinnacles,
&c. Among fonts which are interesting
from an artistic point of view we may
mention those in the cathedrals of
Hildesheim (13th century) and Strasbourg.
Foot. A term applied to the lower
part of a vase which serves as a support
and generally consists of a moulding
resting on a small square plinth.
Foot-board. (Arch.) The base of Gothic
stalls resembling a step raised some
height from the ground.
Footing. (Arch.) A continuous projection forming the
base of a wall.
T h e base of a
column is also
called a footing,
as is the base of
a pedestal
or
pil aster.
Foot-lights. (Arch ) Rows of gas jets
or lamps placed on a level with the
stage, which serve to throw a strong light
on the actors.
Foot-pace. (Arch.) A term which
denotes the da'is of a hall, or that part of
it in which the floor is raised above the
general level.
Foot-stall. (Arch.) A now obsolete
term for pedestal, to which word it bears
an etymological resemblance.
Forced. A painted or sculptured
figure is said to be forced when it
presents a distorted attitude or exaggerated movement, which the artist has
been unable to render efficiently.
Foreground. (Paint.) T h a t portion of
a picture on which the objects nearest
to the spectator's eye are represented.
In a portrait the foreground is the space,
which is so rendered as to appear in
front of the figure. T h e objects depicted in the foreground, being those
most clearly seen, should be painted
with some care and minuteness.

FOR

Foreshortening. A method of drawing or colouring
used to produce
a certain effect
in the representation of objects
and figures, the
perspective of
which makes
them appear
smaller to the
eye than they
really are. All
objects
which
project perpendicularly to the plane of the picture
must be foreshortened. T h e arms of a
figure, for instance, are seen foreshortened if they are extended directly towards
the spectator. Foreshortening is one of
the difficulties of draughtsmanship, and
many artists, such as Michael Angelo
and Rubens, have been properly celebrated for their skilful management of
it. Foreshortening, which is difficult to
comprehend or is disagreeable to the
eye should be rigorously avoided.
Sculptors, as well as painters, have foreshortening to reckon with, not only
in the execution of bas-reliefs, but in
the composition of any statue which is
intended to occupy a particular place.
In this case the sculptor has to take
into account the effect which his work
will have in the position which it is to
occupy.
Forge. T o forge metals is to work
them by exposing them to the
action of the fire and by
striking them with a hammer.
There are in existence pieces of forged
iron, which take a high rank among
the masterpieces of decorative art.
[Bickern.]
Form. A term used in painting and
sculpture to denote the qualities of line
as opposed to colour. An artist who devotes himself especially to line may be
said to prefer form to colour.
Format. T h e dimensions of volumes.
167

ART

FOR

DICTIONARY.

Books are generally made of a certain
format, such as quarto, octavo, &c.
Formative Arts, The. T h e formative
arts are those arts, called by the Germans
die bildenden kunste, which deal with the
forms and materials of the external
world.
They are three in number,
architecture, sculpture, and painting,
and are at the opposite pole from the
arts of music and poetry.
Formeret. (Arch.) An arch which
adheres to the wall in a groined compartment. T h e term wall-rib is also applied
to it. An example of a formeret will be
found in the cut to transverse rib [Rib,
Transverse], where the arches marked
A A are formerets.
Fortification. (Arch.) Fortification
may be defined as the science of protecting any place against hostile attack.
T h e principles of construction enter
largely into it, but its connection with
art is of the slightest.
Fortress. (Arch.) A name given to
any artificially strengthened building
or to a building the natural strength of
which has been taken advantage of by
human ingenuity. T h e Tower of London is an admirable example of a fortress.
Fortuna. A goddess worshipped by
the Greeks and Romans, and called by
the former Tyche. In art she is represented as a draped female figure, holding a horn of plenty in one hand and a
rudder in the other. Sometimes a ball
lies beside her, emblematic of the sudden
revolutions of fortune.
Forum. (Arch ) An open space in ancient Rome, in which the assemblies of
the people, elections, and other public
business took place. It occupied a piece
of ground between the Capitol and the
Palatine Hill. It was surrounded by
temples and filled with interesting monuments. It has long been covered by the
strata of successive civilisations, but of
late years an extensive excavation has
been carried on on its site and many valuable monuments brought to light. T h e
168

FOU

term was extended in the time of the
Empire to public places in all towns
brought under the sway of Rome.
Foundations. A term which denotes
the trench dug
out to receive
the walls which
support a building from below
as well as the
subterranean
portion of the walls of an edifice. Foundations vary according to the nature
of the soil on which they are constructed.
Founding. (Sculp.) T h e following is,
briefly stated, the method employed in
the founding of a statue. A pit is dug
in a dry place, and sometimes lined with
brick. A rude model of the work to be
cast in the foundry is then made. This,
which is called the core, only reproduces the attitude and outlines of the statue,
but is by no means an exact facsimile of
it. It is generally composed of a mixture
of plaster of Paris and brickdust, and is
raised on bars of iron, which serve to
support it. T h e core, when complete, is
covered with wax of the intended thickness of the metal, which accurately represented the statue and is obtained from
a piece-mould (q.v.), and finished by the
sculptor. T h e wax is then thickly coated
with a porous clay. When the clay is
dry the whole mass is baked, and during
this operation the outer coating of clay
which forms the mould is hardened, while
the wax melts and is allowed to run off
through tubes or vent-holes inserted for
this purpose. These holes also allow a
free passage to the air, which would otherwise play havoc when the metal was
poured in. T h e molten metal is run in
through another hole left for the purpose,
and as soon as the mould is filled the
metal is allowed to cool slowly. T h e
clay coating which forms the mould is
then removed, and finally the core taken
out, a hole being left in the statue for
this purpose and soldered up afterwards.

ART

FOU

The founding of the statue is then
complete.
Foundry. An establishment where the
operation of founding or casting statues
in bronze is carried on.
Fountain. (Arch.) A construction from
which an assemblage of jets of water
issues. In the Gothic period fountains
were constructed which resembled small
pyramidal buildings. At the time of the
Renaissance and in the centuries which
followed it fountains were placed in the
midst of a portico and were surmounted
by a frame-work or cartouche of large

dimensions. They sometimes consist
of a large flat cup of circular form or of
several such cups placed one above the
other. T h e Italians and French have
produced the finest specimens of fountains, and in both Rome and Paris the
masterpieces of this kind of art are to
be seen. English people have as yet
produced nothing in this direction
worthy of note.
Foyer. (Arch.) A large saloon in a
theatre, which serves as a promenade
and place of meeting between the acts.
It is only lately that the foyer has become a prominent feature in English
theatres.
Fraise. (Cost.) A large pleated collarette, such as was introduced into
France by Catherine de Médicis and
was worn until the reign of Louis XIII.

12

DICTIONARY.

FRA

Fraises. (Her.) T h e heraldic name
for strawberry leaves.
Frame. (Arch.) A projecting border,
either square or circular, which surrounds a plain panel or a painted or

sculptured mural decoration. T h e term
is especially applied to the ornamental
mouldings of wood, sometimes gilded,
sometimes painted, which surround pictures, drawings, or engravings. Pictureframes have varied considerably at
different
periods. In early times
they were carved out of
solid blocks of wood and
then belonged entirely
to the domain of art
Each frame was designed to suit the picture which was to be placed in it, that it
might add to rather than detract from its
effect. But nowadays, when pictures or
prints form a part of the decoration of
every room, frames are manufactured by
the dozen, and nothing is required of
them but that they should fit the picture.
They are produced by purely mechanical
means, and generally consist of a flat
moulding of wood, to which flutings,
foliage, garlands, and other plastic
ornaments are applied. T h e whole is
then gilt or coloured by the ordinary
processes. T h e rules of the Royal
Academy, which forbid any but gilt
frames to be hung on their walls, has
checked variety in the manufacture of
frames in England. However, a tendency is now observable to employ
bronze, stamped leather, plush, and even
sacking in frame-making. T h e frames
169

ART

FRA

DICTIONARY.

which surround drawings and engravings
under glass generally consist of flat slips
of wood, a margin being left between the
frame and the print or drawing to
heighten its tone.
For water-colour
drawing a white mount is best, while
for drawings in monochrome a mount
of a bluish tint is to be preferred. In
this kind of framing there is considerable
scope for taste, which is particularly
shown in choosing a mount best suited
in colour and dimensions to set off the
drawing it surrounds.

Frame-wall. A wall which consists of
beams, arranged as
in the cut, with
the spaces between
filled with bricks,
plaster, or blocks
of terra-cotta. T h e
brick or plaster is
always of the same
thickness as the
frame-work made
by the beams.
François Vase. One of the most
celebrated of the ancient Greek vases
which have come down to us. It is
archaic in style and dates from the sixth
century, being the work of the potter
Ergotimus. Its ground is red, and it is
decorated with black figures in zones.
Among the subjects represented are the
procession of the deities at the marriage
of Thetis and Peleus, the battle between
the Lapithse and Centaurs, several incidents in the life of Achilles, &c.
Frankfurt Black. (Paint.) A bluishblack pigment of great service in oil
painting, as it dries well and is permanent. It is prepared from calcined vine
twigs or cocoa-nut shells.
Freestone. (Arch.) Stone which is
cut in square blocks and worked with a
chisel.
French Blue. (Paint.) An artificial
blue pigment chemically obtained.
It
is injured by heat but is otherwise permanent.
F r e n c h W h i t e . (Paint.) A pure white
170

PRE

pigment obtained from lead, possessing
the qualities, good and bad, of white
lead. On account of its destructive
influence on other pigments its use
cannot be recommended.
Fresco. A mural painting executed on
a fresh ground—in Italian al fresco—of
lime and gypsum. T h e brushes used
are long and pointed or square and flat,
but in either case have very long hairs.
T h e colours are diluted in earthenware
vessels. T h e colours, when applied to
the surface, lose their strength and
brightness, as they combine with the
lime ; in order therefore to double
or treble the value of the tints each
piece must be gone over two or three
times, but care must be taken to do this
immediately.
T h e ground soon becomes unfit to paint on, and therefore
in fresco painting retouching is impossible. This is its chief difficulty.
On the other hand, as the colour combines with the lime in the ground it is
of great durability. Fresco painting is
chiefly used for the decoration of walls
and ceilings. A good example of it is to
be seen at South Kensington Museum,
one room in which is decorated by two
designs illustrating the arts of War and
Peace and painted in fresco by Sir
Frederick Leighton. T h e ar L was known
to the ancients, but not revived until
the 16th century, when it began to be
successfully practised by the Italians.
It should be remembered that the term
fresco refers exclusively to the process
by means of which this class of wallpaintings are carried out, and must not
be applied loosely to any mural decoration.
Fret. (Arch.) A flat or semicircular

moulding applied to a flat surface and
consisting of broken lines or interlace-

FRE

ART

DICTIONARY.

ments. T h e meander pattern, for instance, is an example of the fret, as is

also the ornament known as the broken
batoon shown in our second cut. There

are also crenelated, triangular, and undulating frets.
Fret. (Her ) A fret is a subordinary
formed by interlacing two narrow
bands, crossing
one another in
saltire, with a
mascle ; or to use
less technical
terms, it may be
described as a
thin St. Andrew's
cross interlaced with a hollow lozenge.
Fretty. (Her.) This is the name of a
varied field, formed by the
alternation and interlacing
of narrow bands crossing
the shield in directions of
the bend and of the bendsinister, as shown in the
accompanying cut.
Frieze. (Arch.) T h e part of the entablature situated between the architrave
and cornice in
the ancient orders.
In the
Doric order the
frieze is decorated with metopes and triglyphs; in the Ionic and
Corinthian orders it is ornamented with
bas-reliefs forming a continuous design.
The finest example of an ancient frieze
in existence is the frieze of the Parthe-

FRI

non to be seen among the Elgin marbles
at the British Museum. T h e term frieze
is applied to the j
broad border which
sometimes runs
round a room between the top of the
wall paper and the cornice. By an analogy frieze may also denote a drawing,
painting, or sculptured bas-relief, the
length of which is considerably greater
than its height.
Fringe. Fringes have been employed
to decorate the borders of garments and
cloths in every age and in every country.
They are frequently mentioned in the
Bible, and many representations of them
occur in Assyrian monuments.
The
Egyptians, too, added rich heavy fringes
to their garments, and we are told that

Julius Cassar wore them on the sleeves
of his tunic. They may be obtained by
leaving the threads of the warp in the
cloth after it is woven ; these threads
are then knotted and so prevent the
cloth from unravelling. On the other
hand the richest and costliest fringes
are made separately and sewn on to the
cloth which they adorn.
Frisquet. (Engrav ) A name given to
the piece of paper laid by woodengravers on that portion of the block
which they have not yet cut when they
take a proof of their work. A proof is
171

FRI

ART

DIC ΊΟΝΑΒΥ.

thus obtained of only those lines already
cut by the engraver.
Frithstool. (Arch.) T h e meaning of
this curious old term is the stool of
peace, and the chair denoted by it was
in ancient times the last resting-place
of those who sought sanctuary within
the walls of a sacred building.
The
frithstool was made of stone and stood
close to the altar in minster churches. A
specimen is still to be seen at Beverley.
Frontal. T h e cloth, frequently of
embroidered silk, which was hung over
t h e front of an altar.
Frontispiece. A term applied to a
reproduction of a drawing or painting
obtained either by engraving or some
mechanical process, and placed as an
illustration facing the first page of a
book or magazine.
Fruit. (Her.) Fruits are occasionally
employed in heraldry as charges.
Those of most frequent occurrence are
acorns, nuts, apples, and grapes.
Fruits. Representations of fruits com­
bined with foliage often appear as forms
of sculptured ornaments. [Garland.]
Fulham Pottery. In the 17th century
John Dwight established a manufactory
of porcelain and earthenware at Fulham.
H e took out a patent for the manufacture
of porcelain, but not satisfied with his
progress he burned his moulds and
receipts and devoted himself to the
making of earthenware. Some interest­
ing figures and statuettes made at the
Fulham potteries are to be seen in the
British Museum.
Funeral Banquet. A funeral banquet
very often forms the subject of Greek
stelae or sculptured tomb-stones. T h e
dead man is represented as reclining on
a couch and receiving from his relatives
the food necessary, according to the
Greek idea of death, to support his life
in the tomb.
Funeral Chariot. A carriage of no
definite form, but built after the special
design of a painter or architect, on
which the body of a hero is carried to
172

FUR

his last resting-place. Such is the cha­
riot now in the crypt of St. Paul's upon
which the great Duke of Wellington
was borne to his last resting-place.
Funicular Ornament.
(Arch.) A
round convex mould^^^^^^β^^^^
ing in the form of a < ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ S ^
Fur. (Her.) Eight furs are employed
in heraldry: Ermine, E r m i n e s ; Erminois, Pean ; Vair, Counter-vair ; Potent,
Counter-potent. Descriptions of these
different furs will be found under the
name of each of them.
Furies. T h e daughters of earth and
darkness, whose duty it was to pursue
the guilty who had left their sins
unatoned. Their proper abode was in
Hades, but, as in the story of Orestes,
they were sometimes sent to persecute
the guilty on earth.
In the Greek
tragedy which bears their name they
appear as women of hideous mien,
clothed in black, with snakes for hair.
T h e sculptor Calamis is said to have
fashioned some statues of the furies and
to have invested them with none of the
hideous features which were ascribed to
them by Aeschylus. In later times they
were regarded as maidens of a dignified
beauty.

Furnace, Enameller's. A furnace of
fire-proof earthenware covered with a
lid and placed on a tripod or solid block

three or four feet high. Into this fur­
nace the plates covered with powdered
enamel are placed, until they become of
a white heat.

FUR

ART

Furniture. T h e furniture of a room
includes all that contributes to its decoration. Considerations of expediency as
well as the varying taste and fashion
of the time assign to furniture a very
important place among the decorative
arts.
Furrings. (Arch.) A small piece of
wood placed on a roof
at the base of the rafters and
projecting
some distance : its
purpose is to carry
the rain water off from
the vertical wall.
Fusil. (Her.) The fusil is an elongated
form of the lozenge, and like the lozenge
is reckoned as a subordinary.
It is
usual for several fusils to be borne
together on a shield.
Fusilly. (Her.) This is the name given
to the varied field formed by covering
the surface of the shield with alternating
fusils.
Fylfot. A mystic cross of very ancient origin, which is said
to have been introduced into
Europe from India. It occurs
as a decoration in Celtic
pottery and also on early
monumental brasses.

G.
Gabardine. (Cost.) A cloak of uncertain shape, in all probability reaching to
the feet and fastened round the waist by
a girdle. It was worn by shepherds, and
from the passage in Shakspere's Merchant of Venice, " H e spat upon my Jewish gabardine," it has been thought to
have been the dress affected by the
Jews.
Gable. (Arch.) A kind of triangular
pediment, always very high in proportion to its width, frequently employed
in Romanesque and Gothic architecture. In buildings of the Romanesque

DICTIONARY.

GAB

period gables serve to mask roofs and
then only present
a flat surface terminated
by
a
cross. In Gothic
architect ure,
gables surmounted by crockets
and finials, not
only mask
the
slope of a roof
but also terminate the pointed
arches above doorways. Sometimes
several gables rise on different planes,
the one above the other, each one projecting beyond the one beneath it. This
method of decoration was particularly

adopted in domestic buildings of the
Gothic period. In modern times gables
are rarely seen. There is one peculiar
kind of gable, the sides of which, instead
of being straight lines, present a series of projections,
which resemble the steps
of a staircase. These projections are called corbie- j
steps (q.v.) in Scotland.
Many old houses in Belgium as well as
in Scotland are found with gables built
upon this plan. Properly speaking a
gable only denotes the pediment we
have described, whereas a gable-end
denotes the gable and the whole wall
which it surmounts.
Gablet. (Arch.) A small gable used
in Gothic buildings to surmount a niche
in which a statue was placed, or to terminate small pointed arches.
Gabriel, St. T h e angel who under173

GAD

ART

DICTIONARY.

took the duty of a messenger
H e it
was who announced the birth of Christ,
and it is in relation to his event that he
is generally represented in art.
He
always appears as fully draped and
carries a sceptre or lily. Sometimes
he is in a kneeling posture, sometimes
he floats through the air, his arms folded
on his breast.
Gadlyngs. Small spikes placed upon
the knuckles of gauntlets in the four­
teenth century.. They were more for

ornament than use, but they suggest the
bosses of metal which made the 'ίμας
οζνς, the boxing-glove of the Greeks, such
a formidable weapon.
Gaku. A Japanese term denoting a
picture stretched and held in a metal or
wooden frame. It is thus quite distinct
in character from the kakémono (q v.).
Galea. A Latin term denoting any
kind of helmet. Of the two galeae engraved here, the one has a ridge and a

plume and somewhat resembles that
worn by centurions. The other, which
is smaller in size and less pretentious in
style, is of the pattern worn by the
ordinary Roman soldier.
174

GAL

Galeated. A word used of an ancient
statue of deity or hero when it wears
upon its head a galea or helmet.
Galgal. Celtic monuments which present the appearance of artificial hillocks
of conical or pyramidal form.
Their
Latin name is tumulus (q.v.).
Galilee. (Arch.) T h e name Galilee
was given to a large porch or small
chapel placed at the entrance of a church.
It seems to have been the part of a
church which women were allowed to
enter. T h e following is said to be the
origin of the term. A woman having
applied to see a monk, was told, " H e
goeth before thee into Galilee, there
thou shalt see him," the western porch
at the same time being pointed out to
her. At Ely and Durham the Galilee is
at the west of the nave, and that at the
latter cathedral is perhaps the most
beautiful specimen of late or transitional
Norman in existence.
Gall. A bitter fluid secreted in the
gall-bladder of animals. Ox-gall after
being clarified is mixed with the pigments used in water-colour painting and
makes them flow readily on the paper.
Ox-gall is also used to set or render
ineffaceable pencil and crayon drawings.
Gallery. (Arch.) A hall of large dimensions, the length of which is always at

least twice its width. T h e term was
originally only applied to the long corri-

GAL

ART

DICTIONARY.

dors which united two portions of a
building. Such corridors in large houses
were often decorated with pictures, and
so any room in which pictures were
hung came to be termed a gallery.
Hence public buildings which are devoted entirely to the display of works
of art are called galleries. In theatrical
architecture the balconies which run
round the top of the auditorium are
called galleries. In Gothic architecture
the term gallery has a special signification. It denotes the division into stories
of the interior or exterior façade of a
church. These divisions are marked by
balustrades or arcades. Some Gothic
galleries are as wide as the aisles. In
the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries they
are sometimes nothing more than passages in the interior of the walls.

Gallery, Whispering. (Arch.) A
vaulted gallery which is so contrived
acoustically that the faintest whisper
can be heard from one end of it to the
other, being at the same time imperceptible in the middle.
Galley. A long ship with a single

deck, propelled either with oars or sails.
T h e galley was the form of ship universally used in ancient times, and representations of it are often found on basreliefs, &c. T h e galley survived in
Southern Europe until the eighteenth
century, but is obsolete now. It occurs
as a charge in heraldry under the name
lymphad.
Gallo - Roman. A term applied in
archaeology to objects belonging to that

GAM

period of history, during which
were placed under the Roman
Galoon. (Arch.) A system
ment consisting of a row

the Gauls
yoke
of ornaof pearls

iMiimimiiiHimiMinintmiiiHHimn.

OOOOOOOO
applied to a band, or of a band pierced
and covered with striae. In either case,
as a rule, it projects but little.
G a l v a n o g r a p h y . Under the term
galvanography or galvanoplastie art are
included all those processes by which
statues, bas-reliefs, and engraved blocks
or plates may be exactly reproduced.
A hollow mould in wax is taken of the
object to be copied; the wax mould is
then placed in a bath, and an electric
current passing through it, a metal deposit is formed upon the wax. T h u s
a facsimile is obtained, the thickness
and solidity of which are proportional
to the length of time the object is
permitted to remain in the bath. T h e
process of covering metal objects with
a thin coat of another metal is an important branch of galvanography.
It is thus that copper-plates, from
which an engraving is to be printed,
are covered with a film of steel.
On the art of engraving indeed
galvanography has exerted a most
powerful influence. [Electrotype.]
Gambeson. A tight-fitting bodygarment worn in the 13 th and 14th
century either
underneath
the hauberk
(q.v.) or without it.
It was of considerable thickness, being padded
and
quilted as shown
in our cut, which
is taken from a
picture by Memling.

Gamboge.
(Paint )

A solid

resinous green pro-

175

GAN

ART

DICTIONARY.

duced from the tree known to botanists
as the Hebrddendron
cambgoides.
It
readily dissolves in water and forms a
beautiful gold yellow pigment. It is
very useful in water-colour, especially
in obtaining greens, which vary in tone
according as the gamboge is mixed with
Indian ink, Prussian blue, or indigo.
Mixed with carmine, gamboge yields an
orange green.
Ganymede.
In Greek mythology
Ganymede was the son of King Tros and
Callirrhoë. H e was carried off by Zeus
and appointed his cup-bearer in Olympus.
H e is generally represented in
works of art as a handsome youth,
while an eagle, the bird of Zeus, stands
at his side, as a symbol that he holds
office in Olympus. In modern and
popular pictures it has become the
fashion to represent Ganymede as
carried off to Olympus by an eagle,
but this is a late development of the
myth, and is justified neither by the art
nor poetry of the ancients.
Garden. T h e proper arrangement
and disposition of gardens is closely
allied to architecture, and therefore a few
words must be said with regard to it
here. One of two contrary methods
may be followed in this art. In the one
method rigid symmetry and dignified
regularity are aimed at. All inequalities
of surface are either rigorously levelled
or advantage is taken of them to form
terraces, while avenues, labyrinths, and
flower beds are formed of combinations
of straight lines and portions of circles.
Moreover trees are cut into artificial
shapes, such as cones, pyramids, or even
grotesque animal forms. This kind of
garden was popular in the 17th and 18th
centuries and many of its characteristics may be observed at Hampton
Court Palace. In the other method of
garden architecture an attempt is made
to conceal design by giving a studied air
of naturalness to the whole, so that it
may resemble a landscape as much as
possible.
17Ò

GAR

Gargoyle. (Arch ) A term applied to
the spouts placed at the base of roofs
in Gothic buildings for the purpose of
carrying the rain water far from the
walls. Gargoyles came into use about
the end of the 12th century.
They
then consisted of two layers, one of
which formed the gutter or trench, the
other the lid. Even at this early period
they were decorated with ornaments
and grotesque sculptures. They most
frequently represented animals or fantastic creatures, from the throat of which
the rain water was discharged. Some-

times they assumed the form of stooping
figures projecting beyond the roof and
holding a horn, from which the water
flowed out. In the 15th and 16th centuries gargoyles were made of beaten
lead, and represented chimasras, sirens,
and other mythical animals, not only on
the façades of castles but even on gables
overlooking the street. Gargoyles are
primarily a necessity, but they serve a
distinct purpose from an artistic point
of view, for by their horizontal projection they add distinction to the great
vertical line of buildings.
Garland. (Arch.) A kind of architec-

tural ornament representing
flowers, and fruits
together with rib-

foliage,

M^^te^^^S^ffll

generally appear
*·
in the form of a long cylindrical band,

GAR

ART

DICTIONARY.

which is flexible and swells slightly in
the middle. They are sculptured on
certain projecting surfaces, placed round
the shafts of columns and employed in
decorating panels, pediments, &c.
Garnet. A gem generally of a red
colour, useful for decorative purposes,
but little esteemed on account of the
abundance in which it is found. It is of
little service to the gem engraver, as it
easily splinters.
Garret. (Arch.) T h e top story of a
house, generally formed within the roof.
It is thus of necessity low-pitched and
has a sloping ceiling.
— Window. (Arch.) A window which
admits daylight
into a garret. It
fits into the roof
and moves up
and down, being
fixed on one side like a hinge.
Garter. (Cost.) A strap or tie, the
purpose of which is to hold up the stocking. In Saxon and Norman times it was
fastened transversely across the leg and
was then called a " cross-garter." T h a t
this fashion was revived in Shakspere's
time we gather from Twelfth Night, in
which play it will be remembered
Malvolio wears " cross-garters." Generally speaking, however, the garter was a
simple tie just below the knee, sometimes with a bow, sometimes without.
The celebrated " Order of the Garter "
was established by Edward III. in 1350.
Its badge is a garter and its motto
" Honi soit qui mal y p e n s e . "
Gateway. (Arch.) A covered opening,
large enough to admit carriages. A
smaller opening through which foot
passengers may pass is generally found
by the side of it. In the Middle Ages
gateways were important structures, and
a house, called a gatehouse, is frequently
found above them. T h e r e the porter or
gate-keeper dwelt. In the 17th and 18th
centuries they were very lofty, their
height being often equal to two stories.
In this case the upper part which

GEL

formed the impost, was decorated with a
pediment, richly ornamented. Gateways
and gatehouses are still to be seen in
large numbers on the Continent, but
they are rarely found in England. St.
John's Gate in Clerkenwell, for so many
years the meeting place of the Urban
Club, is the best and most easily accessible example.
Gauntlets.
Gauntlets of leather,
sometimes covered with metal plates,
sometimes studded with nails called
gadlyngs (q.v.), became a part of the

ornament of the knight towards the
end of the 13th century, and were worn
in some form or other, until armour
was finally relinquished in the 17th
century.
Gelatine. A colourless substance extracted from bones and membranous
tissues, insoluble in water but liquefying
under the action of heat. Gelatine plays
a most important part in the modern processes, by means of which a photograph
is transformed to a plate or cliche, from
which engravings may be printed. Gelatine is also used by sculptors to obtain
a large number of proofs from the same
model or to obtain the imprint of a
bust, bas-relief, or other object. Gelatine
mouldings possess the advantage of
being easily detachable, on account of
the elasticity of the material.
Gelatino-bromide. (Phot.) A process
by means of which sensitive glass plates
may be prepared in advance and kept
in the dark for an indefinite period,
177

GEM

ART DIC TIONARY.

both before and after being exposed in
the camera.
Plates prepared by the
gelatino-bromide process are more sensitive than collodion plates ; they are
more rapidly affected by the light, and,
more than this, they do not require, as
collodion plates do, to be developed immediately in order to bring to light the
image obtained.
Gem. A generic term for all kinds of
precious stones. It is especially used in
the sense of an engraved gem.
Gem E n g r a v i n g [Glyptics.]

Genealogical Tree. (Her ) This is a
conventional
tree
carrying at the intersection of its
branches shields on
which are blazoned
the arms of the
various members of
a family, starting
from the trunk and
working
upwards
with the branches.
Geneviève, St. St. Geneviève was a
peasant girl who was born at Nanterre
in 421, and from her early childhood
dedicated herself to Christ. Many fabulous stories are related of her.
Her
vigils were frequently disturbed by demons, who extinguished the tapers which
she piously kept burning, and which
were immediately relit at her prayer.
When Attila, the Hun, lay siege to Paris,
Geneviève entreated the people not to
flee and so saved the city. Henceforth
she was held in great honour, and when
she died at an advanced age she was
buried by the side of Clovis and Clotilde.
She is most frequently represented as
the peasant girl of Nanterre, with her
flock of sheep round her, but sometimes
she appears as the patroness of Paris,
wearing a veil and holding a book and a
taper, while a demon with the bellows
looks impishly over her shoulder. Representations of her are only found in
French art.
Genius. A kind of guardian angel or

178

GEN

good spirit called a genius was supposed
by the Romans to be called into being
at the birth of every mortal. In artistic
representations the genius appears as a winged
boy wearing a chlamys.
Not only mortals but
places too had their
guardian angel.
This
was called a genius loci,
and was represented by a serpent, as
in our cut.
Genouillères. Knee-pieces of leather
or metal, first worn in the 13th century. They formed a sort of connection
between the thigh-piece and the greave.
Genre-painting. Under this term may
be classed all those pictures, the subjects
of which are taken from real life, domestic history, or the field of fanciful
anecdote, in opposition to grand historical and religious scenes. Genre always
implies a faithful imitation of nature
and the reproductions of actual types.
At the same time it does not exclude
either poetry or imagination. Genrepainting has been practised from the
very earliest times. T h e finest genre
pictures in existence are those painted
by the artists of Holland and the Netherlands. This branch of painting, however,
has been cultivated by artists of every
school, and British painters have shown
a distinct preference for it ever since
the time of Hogarth.
Genre-sculpture. Genre-sculpture is
far more rare than genre-painting.
Bronze and marble do not easily lend
themselves to the treatment of familiar
subjects. T h e r e are, it is true, some
specimens in existence of Greek sculpture which may be said to belong to the
branch of art called genre. Such are the
group of boys playing the knuckle-bones
called the A stragalizontes
[AstragolusJ,
and the figure of a boy holding a goose,
which we so often see in museums. But
for the most part works of genre-sculpture are of small dimensions and in a
less durable material than marble or

GEO

ART

bronze, such as terra-cotta. T h e genresculpture of modern times is for the
most part vulgar and devoid of interest.

Geometrical Drawing. The science
of drawing geometrical figures with the
help of certain instruments, such as
compasses, squares, and protractors. A
course of geometrical drawing is a
preliminary step in the education of the
artist.
— Tracery. (Arch.) A term applied
by Rickman to tracery belonging to the
decorated period, in which the figures
composing it—circles, trefoils, quatrefoils, &c.—do not regularly join each
other but touch only at points. It is
opposed to flowing tracery (q.v.).
George, St. T h e story of St. George,
the patron saint of England, is purely
mythical. H e is generally represented
on horseback bending over a dragon,
whom he has pierced with a sword.
Sometimes a maiden appears at his side

in accordance with the legend that he
rescued the daughter of the king of Egypt
from a dragon. It is thus the subject of
St. George is treated in a well-known
picture by Raphael. T h e banner of St.
George, a red cross on a silver ground,
is the banner of England.
Gesture. A term applied to the attitude of a painted or sculptured figure,
to the pose of the body, or the set of the

DICTIONARY.

GIL

limbs. When we say that the gesture
of a figure is bad, we mean that the
figure is clumsily drawn, that the limbs
are not properly proportioned, that the
prevailing lines are unpleasing to the
eye, or that the attitude does not
sufficiently suggest the action, which
the artist proposed to himself to represent.
Giallolino. (Paint.) A name given by
the Italians to what is generally known
as Naples yellow (q.v.). It is an opaque
pigment of good body, and is composed
of antimony and oxide of lead.
Giants, The. In Greek mythology the
giants were a race of monsters who
sprang from the blood of Uranus.
They made war upon the gods for a
long time with success. Athene and
Zeus were unable to destroy them until
they called in the aid of Heracles.
[Gigantomachia ]
Gigantomachia. T h e war of the gods
with the giants was a favourite subject
with Greek sculptors. It was represented on many famous reliefs.
It
formed the subject of the metopes on
the eastern façade of the Parthenon, as
well as of the great frieze which decorated the altar dedicated to Zeus at Pergamum.
Gilding. T h e art of applying gold
either in leaf or dust to surfaces of
metal, stone, or wood. T h e gold thus
applied is itself termed gilding. T h e art
is one of great antiquity, but it is only in
modern times that the method of applying a thin coating of gold has been discovered.
—, Electro. In this process the objects
which are to be gilded are plunged into
spcially prepared baths of chloride of
gold and submitted to the action of an
electric current. A fine film of gold is
thus deposited upon the objects.
—, Glass. A process which consists
in applying to glass a layer of chloride
of platinum mixed with essence of
terebinth and plunging the object in a
gold bath after it has been fired.
179

GIL

ART

DICTIONARY.

Gilding, Matt. A process in which
gilt objects are dulled by means of mercury, or have a similar aspect given to
them by means of acids or are covered
with a coating of silver and copper
before being plunged in the gold bath.
—, Japanner's. In this process the
pattern to be gilded is drawn upon a
flat surface and covered with glue or
some adhesive varnish. Powdered gold
dust is then sprinkled upon it.
—, Leaf. A process which consists in
covering the surface to be gilded with
glue or size, and then laying on thin
gold leaf.
—, Oil. In this process the objects to
be gilded are covered with a preparation
of thick oil before the gold colour is laid
on. T h e n leaves of gold are applied
and finally a coating of varnish, which
preserves the gold from the action of
the air.
—, Water. In water gilding the gold
is reduced to a fluid state by solution in
mercury and then laid on.
Giles, St. St. Giles the hermit was by
birth an Athenian, but having discovered
in himself early in life the gift of
working miracles h e left Greece and
became a hermit. H e lived for many
years in a cave near Nîmes, and here
happened the event with which he is
always associated in art. One day the
King of France was out hunting, and the
stag, which he had wounded with an
arrow took refuge in the cave of St.
Giles. T h e King on tracking the stag
was astonished to find the wounded
animal crouching at the foot of the holy
man, and at once implored his forgiveness. St. Giles, then, is always represented as an aged hermit, with a stag
pierced by an arrow at his side. H e is
a popular saint in England and Scotland.
Gillotage. Under the term gillotage,
which is derived from the name of its
inventor, Gillot, are included all those
processes which consist in producing
upon zinc by means of acids the relief
180

GIR

of a drawing traced upon it in printer's
ink. A plate thus results, from which
proofs may be struck by the ordinary
processes of typography.
Gimp. A trimming of thread or silk
with large meshes. T h e word is used,
as is dentei, to denote a kind of ornament employed in Gothic architecture.
Gipciere. (Cost.) A bag suspended
at the waist and worn as a purse by men
and women in the Middle Ages.
Its
etymological meaning is a game bag,
but it soon lost this signification, and
generally denotes, as we have said, a
purse or pouch.
Girandole. A chandelier with several
branches, sometimes constructed to resemble a bunch of flowers. It is used
to illuminate large halls.
Girder. (Arch.) A piece of timber or
iron placed horizontally either on a
continuous wall or on pillars set at a distance from one another, and serving as

the base of a roof, floor, &c. Girders, as
they often have to support considerable
weights, should not be left without support along their whole length.
Girouette. (Arch.) A movable sheet
of metal placed on
the summit of a
roof and fixed to a
vertical shank. It
indicates the direction of the wind. In
the Middle Ages
square
girouettes
were only placed
on the castles of
knights banneret ;
simple knights had only the right to
set up a pointed girouette. T h e r e are
still in existence some curious girouettes
decorated with armorial bearings, such
as fleur-de-lis, &c.

GLA

ART

DICTIONARY.

GLA

Glacis of the Cornice. (Arch.) A appealing for mercy. T h e one is from
term denoting an
inclined surface
above a projecting moulding or
cornice.
The
object of it is to
prevent the rain
from
staying
projecting portion of a

upon the
building.
Gladiators. Among the Romans, men
called gladiators were trained to fight to
the death for the amusement of the pub-

a Pompeian bas-relief, the other from a
vase. T h e well-known statue called the
" D y i n g Gladiator" has long since been
proved to be not a gladiator at all, but
the statue of a dying Gaul. It is the
work of a Pergamene artist, and belonged
to a group presented by King Attalus to
Athens and afterwards removed to Rome.
Gladius. T h e weapon of the ancients,
which corresponded to our sword, and
assumed various forms and shapes. It
had no guard, and the hand was only

lic assembled in the amphitheatre. These
displays were enormously popular under
the Empire, and it is not surprising that

they suggested subjects to many Roman
artists. We give here two cuts, each of
which represents a vanquished gladiator

protected by a cross bar. T h e sword of
the Greeks was leaf-shaped, that of the
Romans straight and only tapering at
the point. A specimen of each is here
represented.
Glaive. A broad-bladed sword fixed
on a long staff like a guisarine (q.v.) or
partisan (q.v.J.
It was used throughout the Middle Ages, and until the end
181

GLA

ART

DICTIONARY.

of the 15th century was the national
weapon of the Welsh.
Glass. A solid and transparent body
obtained by the fusion of siliceous sand
with certain alkaline earths or salts and
metallic oxides. Small vases and drinking vessels were made out of this material
in the earliest times. T h e manufacture of
glass was understood by the Egyptians
nearly two thousand years before Christ.
It was practised by the Greeks and Romans, and many specimens of ancient
glass have been dug up in tombs. T o
what a point of excellence glass-making
was carried by the ancients, the Portland
vase (q.v.), now in the British Museum,
will testify. In the Middle Ages the art
of glass-making seems to have been
neglected, and cups were then made of
horn or wood instead of glass. About
the 15th century, however, the art was
revived by the Venetians, who were long
without rivals in the making of glass.
Cups, bowls, and bottles of Venetian
manufacture are to-day of the greatest
value. T h e finest modern glass comes
from Venice or Germany.
— Case. A small glass cupboard in
which works of art
are placed, either in
private
collections
or in exhibitions and
museums.
Glass
cases are sometimes
vertical and rise to a
considerable height,
shelves being placed
one above the other
so as to render it possible to exhibit a large
number of objects in one case. Sometimes they are horizontal, in the form of
a table covered with glass, and about
breast high.
—, Cut. A term applied to objects
made of glass, the facets of which are
cut on a grindstone.
—, Filigree. Glass vessels decorated
with fillets variously coloured and interlaced.
— Painting. There are two prin182

GLA

cipal systems of glass-painting.
The
more ancient is termed mosaic glasspainting, in which every colour was on
a separate piece of glass, and the pictorial effect was produced by combining
variously coloured pieces. This method
disappeared from use about the 16th
century. T h e later system, which took
the place of mosaic glass-painting in the
16th century, may be termed the enamel
method. Colours are laid on to the glass
with a brush and fixed by the processes
ordinarily employed in enamel-painting.
This system of glass-painting has survived until modern times.
Glass Window.
Churches
Gothic style have in every
period been decorated with
windows, consisting of painted
glass, held together by strips
of lead and kept in their place
by bars of iron fixed to the
mullions of the windows. T h e
glass windows of the 12th century had a ground of colourless
glass for the picture they represented,
and a border of coloured glass. In the
13th century glass windows were of a
brightness, which was positively dazzling.
In the 14th century the drawing was more
correct, and an attempt was made to
introduce picturesque effects, light and
shade, & c , into stained glass. In the
15th and 16th centuries, the tendency to
regard glass windows as pictures became still more marked. Much of the
coloured glass which decorates the
churches and palaces of the 17th century
is of great splendour. Among the finest
specimens of the glass of this period are
the windows of Gouda in Holland and
Liège in Belgium, and in King's College
Chapel, Cambridge. In the 18th century
little fine-coloured glass was manufactured, and the present century has been
able to do little more than make an ingenious pastiche on the productions of
all preceding centuries.
Glaze. (Pot ) A vitreous coating, with
which pieces of pottery are covered, and

GLA

ART

GOD

DICTIONARY.

which renders them impermeable. In
addition to serving this useful end, the
glaze gives a brilliance to the pottery,
on which it is placed. T h e glaze may
be applied in several ways, either as
powder or in a volatile state; in any
case it is vitrified in the baking.
Glazing, (i.) (Arch.) T h e covering of
any surface, vertical
or horizontal, oblique
or curved, with panes
of glass. T h e pieces
of glass used for glazing in old houses were
dark green in colour,
and presented a wrinkled projecting disk
in their centre T h e panes of glass used
to-day are colourless.
Glazing. (2 ) In oil-painting glazing
consists in the application of a thin layer
of colour over a solid pigment. T h e thin
layer of colour is always darker than the
pigment over which it is laid. T h e tints
used in glazing are generally transparent,
but opaque pigments mixed with a large
proportion of colourless oil are sometimes
employed. By this means an effect of
transparency is produced, the tonality of
a picture is softened, and the modelling
is rendered more harmonious.
Globe. A sphere, a spherical body.
In heraldry the term is applied to a figure which represents the world in the form
of a ball. A golden globe
surmounted by a cross is regarded as part of the insignia
of royalty.
Glory. An allegorical figure, a woman
draped and winged, holding in her hand
a trumpet, a branch of laurel, or the tablets of immortality. T h e rays of light
placed round the heads of saints. [Aureole.] T h e term is also applied to rays of
gilded wood surrounding a triangle or
delta, in which the word God is inscribed
in Hebrew characters, and which decorates the altar in some churches belonging to the 17th and 18th centuries.

Glyph. (Arch.) Channels or flutings
which break level surfaces.
Such are the
channels which ornament the frieze in Doric
temples. When there
are three glyphs or two
glyphs and two halfglyphs this ornament is
termed a triglyph (q.v ), when there are
two glyphs a diglyph (q.v.).
Glyptics. T h e art of cutting designs
upon precious stones, either incised or
in relief. T h e masterpieces of this art
were produced by the Greeks, and fine
specimens of gem-engraving are among
the most valuable relics of ancient art
that have come down to us. T h e art
was revived by the Italians of the 16th
century, but it can scarcely be said to be
practised with any measure of success
at the present time.
Glyptotheea. T h e gallery in which a
collection of works of sculpture is placed ;
also the collection itself. T h e most
celebrated collection which in modern
times goes by this name is the Glyptothek at Munich.
Gobelins. T h e great national factory
of tapestries established in Paris in the
reign of Louis XIV., and the tapestries
manufactured there.
Formerly both
high-warp and low-warp tapestries were
made at the Gobelins, but since 1825
the low-warp process has been almost
entirely abandoned. T h e reproductions
in tapestry which we owe to the Gobelins have won for themselves a worldwide celebrity. T h e productions of this
famous factory are distinguished by the
perfection of the process employed, the
beauty and finish of the work, and the
excellence of colouring. Every shade
and tone necessary for the interpretation
of picture or painted designs can be accurately rendered in hanging or carpet.
Gobony. (Her.) [Compony.]
Godroon. A system of ornament in
form of oval mouldings or flutings in
relief, which is employed to decorate
183

ART

GOF

DICTIONARY.

the round body of a vase or any convex
surface. T h e n a m e is also applied to

certain projecting ornaments which are
generally found in the decoration of
roofs.
Goffering. T h e impressing by means
of hot irons systems of ornament either
sunk or in relief upon stuff, leather,
paper, cardboard, &c.
Gold. A precious metal used in the
plastic and decorative arts. T h e costliest
ornaments and vessels have been made
of gold in all ages and in all nations ;
and gold has been especially used as
the material for ecclesiastical chalices
and decorations. In symbolic art gold
signifies purity, dignity, and glory, and
in Christian paintings the nimbi on the
heads of saints are always represented
as of gold.
Gombron Ware. (Pot.) T h e first Oriental ware brought to England in the
17th century was shipped at Gombron,
and hence was called Gombron or
Gombroon ware.
When the importation of pottery from Persia came to
an end on the opening up of communication between China and England, the
term Gombron ware disappeared from
use.
Gonfannon. A special kind of banner
or flag borne at the
head of a lance and
ending in one or more
points. Such banners
are now frequently
carried in processions
of the Roman Catholic
church.
Goniometer. An instrument employed
to measure angles.
184

GOT

Gore. (Her.) This is an abatement or
difference sometimes borne on shields.
It consists of two curved pieces cut o u t
of the sinister side of the field so as to
form a cusp pointing towards t h e dexter.
Gorge. (Arch.) T h e upper part of a
column below the
echinus in the Do'
rie order.
The
term is also applied to a moulding
of concave outline
as well as to a kind
of ogee (q.v.) of
strongly-marked profile, which is employed in buildings of the Gothic style.
Gorget. A piece of armour used in
the 15th and 16th centuries to protect
the junction of the helmet and cuirass.
Gorgoneion. An ornament representing the head of a woman seen in full
face, with serpents coiled round it and
lips parted, which resembled the head of

Medusa which Pallas carried on her
shield. On account of its adaptability
for filling up a certain space on a wall or
shield it was very widely used for decorative purposes.
Gothic. A term applied to mediaeval
paintings and sculptures, distinguished
by lank figures, the attitudes and movements of which display a certain stiffness. This deficiency, however, is fully
atoned for by an extraordinary skill in
execution and perfection of detail.
Works of sculpture belonging to the
Gothic period, being executed with the
place they were to occupy in view,
always fit into a moulding or niche,
without exceeding their proper limit.

ART

GOT

GOT

DICTIONARY.

Under the term Gothic are included all
buildings of the pointed style which succeeded the Romanesque. T h e most
beautiful and refined buildings of this

style belong to the 13th century. T h e
development and periods of the Gothic
style may be stated in a few words.
From the 4th to the n t h century the
Latin style of architecture prevailed.

This was succeeded in the n t h century by what we call the Norman, but
which on the continent is termed the
Romanesque style. Out of this grew
Gothic architecture. In the 13th cen-

the Decorated style, which gave way in
the 15th and 16th centuries to the Perpendicular style, or Gothic of the Decadence. These are the three main
periods of Gothic architecture.
The
names we have given them are those

generally adopted in England, but they
are by no means universal. T h e three
styles are sometimes termed Primary,
Secondary, Tertiary, and the style which
we have called Perpendicular is frequently known as Flamboyant. Gothic
mouldings and ornament vary according
to the style to which they belong, and
information on these points are to be
found under the headings Decorated,
Early English, &c. We give some cuts
of Gothic bases, belonging to the 10th,
12th, 13th, and 14th centuries respectively.
T h e term Gothic is also applied to
characters of angular form, which were
in general use in the Middle Ages, and
are still retained in Germany. Mediae-

val manuscripts are executed in Gothic
characters of extraordinary beauty, and
their splendour is enhanced by initial
letters sometimes painted and sometimes

tury the Early English or Lancet style
was cultivated ; of this the best example is Salisbury Cathedral.
This
was followed in the 14th century by

13

even worked in gold. Manuscripts are
generally executed in characters of a
graceful outline and absolute regularity.
•8S

GOU

ART

DIC NONARY.

In legal documents and accounts, on
the other hand, a kind of cursive was
adopted which could be rapidly written.
Gothic characters differed in different
periods, those of the 16th century resembling but little those of the 13th century.
Gouache. (Paint.) A method of watercolour painting, in which opaque colours,
diluted in a mixture of water, gum, and
honey are used. T h e effect of gouache
is an opacity of tone. In this method of
painting the white of the paper plays no
part.
T h e paper is covered just as
thickly as the canvas is in oil-painting ;
the lights are laid on afterwards and
not left blank on the paper. T h e miniatures in mediaeval missals were painted
in gouache, and nowadays the method
is employed in the execution of fans and
hand-screens.
T h e disadvantage of
gouache is that it cracks and scales and
speedily loses its brilliance when exposed to the air.
Gouge. A tool used by engravers of
precious stones to pierce holes and to

hollow out large surfaces. T h e term is
also applied to a kind of chisel hollowed
out in the form of a demi-cylinder, with a
very sharp bevelled edge. It is used by

sculptors in wood. Gouges differ very
much in size and shape.
Grace Cup. (Pot.) A loving-cup handed
round the table in the Middle Ages after
grace was said. T h e name is said to
have originated in a device adopted by
Margaret, wife of Malcolm Canmore, in
the n t h century, to prevent the Scottish nobles leaving the table before
grace was said. T o every man who
remained at the table a draught of wine
from a gold cup was given, and this cup
was henceforth called the Grace-cup.
Graces, The. T h e Graces, which were
186

GRA

three in number, were regarded by the
Greeks as the goddesses of beauty,
innocent jollity, and amusement. They
have been a favourite subject with the
painters and sculptors of all ages. T h e y
are generally represented as youthful
maidens, dancing and singing, and
crowned with roses. Sometimes they
are draped, sometimes they are quite
nude. Their attributes are the rose, the
myrtle, and dice.
Gradation. In decorative art gradation consists in placing next to one
system of ornament another which most
closely resembles it both in form and
colour, following a certain ascending or
descending scale.
Gradine. (Sculp.) A toothed chisel
used by sculptors.
With the
gradine large pieces are removed
from the marble, or certain
parts, such as the beard and
hair, are modelled, the teeth
producing a series of ridges,
which serve as the basis of the
work.
Graduate. T o divide in degree.
T o split up into divisions, the measure
of which increase or decrease according
to a fixed proportion.
Graeco-Pelasgic. T h e earliest period
of Greek art is generally termed GraecoPelasgic. It carries us back to an almost
mythical age. T o it belong the colossal
structures known as Pelasgic walls,
which are composed of huge polygonal
blocks of stone fitted together with the
utmost regularity. An example of the
Graeco-Pelasgic style is to be found in
the walls of Mycenae ; in fact the famous
Lion Gate at Mycenae is its most
finished production. T h e sculptured
bas-relief over this gate represents two
lions facing each other with a column
between them. T h e heads were of brass,
but are now lost.
Much that Dr.
Schleimann excavated at Mycenae may
be termed Graeco-Pelasgic, and gives us
an excellent idea of the condition of art
at this remote period.

GRA

ART

DICTIONARY.

Graeco-Roman. A term applied to
buildings constructed by the Romans in
accordance with the principles of the
Greek orders of architecture, with certain
modifications of detail.
Graffiti. Drawings executed by hand
and cut with a scraper in stone or plaster.
T h e term is only used in this sense in
archaeology. It also denotes a method
of decoration which consists of black
drawings on a white ground, or vice
versa, obtained by outlines accentuated
by hatchings. By this method pictures
or arabesques are executed in stucco,
and employed to decorate pilasters,
archivolts, or friezes.
Grain. (Paint ) A term applied to the
more or less wrinkled surface of a canvas, a panel, or a piece of board or paper.
Paper of fine or coarse grain is used in
water-colour according to the subject.
In engraving the grain is the effect produced by lines which cross one another.
Granite. A hard stone composed of
mica, quartz, and felspar. T h e Egyptians executed colossal statues in red
granite. In Brittany calvaries are frequently to be seen of grey granite.
Granite is used for sculptured monuments and even for statues. For the
latter purpose it is totally unfitted.
Granitel. A term applied to a kind of
grey granite which the Romans employed in building, and also to marble
which presents the appearance of
granite
Granular. A canvas or panel used in
oil-painting is said to be granular when
it is covered with wrinkles or roughnesses.
Granulation. A kind of decoration
employed in jewellery, which consists in
covering the surface of gold leaf with
minute and almost invisible bosses of
gold. It is found in Etrusco-Greek
jewels, but hitherto modern artists have
failed to reproduce it.
Graphite. A very fine plumbago.
From the graphite of Siberia mixed with
sulphur of antimony and gum or size are

GRA

manufactured crayons in the form of
small cylinders, which are placed in a
shank of cedar, juniper, or cypress wood.
Graphometer. A mathematical instrument used to measure angles or distances. It consists
of a semi-circle of
copper divided into
degrees and a fixed
and a movable alidade, through which the operator can
observe all directions included within
the same horizontal plane.
Grating. A kind of fence formed of
bars of iron or
wood, some!/
iJ
l·^
times richly orj / /r^ÉjQ ϊφ
namented.
In
7? ft/v~i<xJB Iri\
the 12th cen­
tury iron grat­
ings were most
elaborate. T h e
ornament con­
sisted chiefly of
foliage, the twigs of which were soldered
to the base and fastened to the uprights
with clasps. In
the 14th century
ornaments cut
out of sheet iron
and twisted were
added to the fo­
liage.
At the
end of the 15th
century riveted
sheet iron was generally used and
gratings became of considerable im­
portance from a decorative point of
view, and were surmounted with orna­
ments of great splendour.
Graver. (Engrav ) A steel instrument
with a sharp point at one end. Some

gravers have a square, others a lozengeshaped, point. T h e furrows cut with the
187

GRE

ART

DIC 70NARY.

square-pointed graver are broad and not
very deep, and they print grey, because
they do not take much of the ink. T h e
handle of the graver is cut off flat on one
side so that it can be held close tò the
copper-plate.
Greaves. Greaves, or armour for the
front of the legs, were worn both by the
ancients and in the Middle Ages. They

were generally made of metal, often
richly chased, or (in the Middle Ages
at least) of cuir-bouilli (q.v.).
Our
cut represents a fine specimen from
Pompeii.
Greek. A name given to a system of
ornament consisting of broken lines at

right angles to one another, describing
portions of squares or rectangles.
Greek Architecture. Of Greek architecture before the development of the
188

GRE

orders little is known. T h e three purely
Greek orders are the Doric, Ionic, and
Corinthian. T h e first named appeared
in the 7th century B.C., the second a
hundred years later, and the last in the
fifth century B.C.
[Corinthian ; Doric ;
Ionic]
Green. Green is a colour formed by a
mixture of yellow and blue. Green pigments are, generally speaking, oxides of
copper. Malachite or mountain green
is a hydrated bicarbonate of copper.
Scheele's green is a cupric arsenite.
Sap green, or verde vessie, on the contrary, is obtained from the juice of buckthorn berries; but this is not a useful
pigment, being fugitive, and it is only
employed in water-colour.
— Bice. A pigment composed of a
carbonate of copper mixed with oxide of
iron. It is generally permanent, being
only destroyed by acids.
—, Brunswick. (Paint.) A pigment
used in oil-painting, obtained from sulphate of copper, white oxide of arsenic,
potash, and acetous acid.
Ordinary
Brunswick green is nothing more than a
mixture of chromate of lead and Prussian blue, and is by no means permanent.
—, Chrome. [Chrome Green.]
Grees. Steps rising gradually one
above the other. T h e term is generally

applied to stories, galleries, or constructions of any kind which retreat one
behind the other.
Gregory, St. St. Gregory was born at
Rome in 540 ; in 590 he was made Pope,
and fourteen years later he died.
He
is the last of the Popes who was canon-

GRE

ART

GRO

DIG TIONARY.

ised. Artistic representations of him
are frequently met with. He appears
as a tall, dignified man, with little or no
beard ; he wears the tiara and carries
a crosier, and his attribute is the dove,
in allusion to the legend that the Holy
Ghost in the form of a dove inspired
him while he was writing his homilies.
Many legends have gathered round the
name of St. Gregory and have suggested
subjects to religious painters, but space
does not allow us to refer to them in
detail here.
Grès Cérame. [Stoneware.]
Grey. A term applied to the shades
obtained by the mixture of white with
black or some other dark colour. Thus,
when we speak of a grey brown, a grey
blue, or a grey green we refer to greys
of a different tone, their dominant tint
being brown, blue, or green respectively.
Grey-beard. (Pot.) A term applied to
the brown stone pots, with a bearded
head or mask on the neck, which were
imported in large numbers from the Low
Countries to England during the 16th
and 17th centuries.
Griffe. (Arch.) A decorative leaf slightly

curled at the edges, which connects the
convex circular moulding at the base
of Romanesque columns and the clus-

square pedestal beneath it
Sometimes
the griffe starts from the torus (q.v ) and
fills the small triangle formed by the
angle of the plinth. This is the position most frequently occupied by it.
In buildings belonging to the 13th century we find griffes cut out of the solid
plinth and presenting no point of contact
with the torus.
Griffin. (Arch, and Her.) An imaginary
animal with the head and wings of an
eagle, and the body and feet of a lion.
In the heraldic griffin the front feet as

well as the head and wings are often
those of an eagle, only the back half
of the creature being in the form of a
lion.
Grillage. A grating of iron or wood,
with which openings may be closed without shutting out the light.
Grisaille. (Paint.) A painting in imitation of bas-reliefs, in which only black
and white and the greys obtained by
mixing them are employed.
Groin. (Arch.) A curved line formed
by the meeting of the surfaces of
two intersecting vaults or portions of
vaults.
Groined Vault. (Arch.) A vault formed
by the intersection of two demi-cylinders.

Two barrel vaults (q.v.) laced perpendicularly to one another will form a
groined vault.
tered columns of the Gothic style to the j Grolier Scroll. A system of ornament
189

ART

GRÒ

DICTIONARY.

consisting of curves and angles combined. It obtained its n a m e from the
Chevalier Grolier, who in the 15th century adopted this scroll for the decoration
of the bindings of books.
Groove. (Arch.) A hollow cut lengthways in a plank or block of stone and

intended to receive a projection of precisely the same dimensions.
Grotesques. Systems of ornament
painted, drawn, or sculptured, representing fantastic subjects or forming
arabesques, in which extravagant figures
and fanciful animals are interlaced.
Mediaeval sculptors executed grotesques
with extraordinary skill. T h e taste for
this method of decoration continued
during the period of the Renaissance.
T h e r e are in existence grotesque figures
designed by Leonardo da Vinci and
Raphael. In the 17th century Teniers
and Callot painted fantastic scenes in
which grotesque figures play an important part.
Grotto. An artificial cavern made of
rocks and often adorned with statues.
Grottoes were much employed during
the 18th century in the decoration of
gardens.
Ground. In the language of art the
word ground has several significations.
Laying a ground in engraving is an
operation the object of which is to
cover with a uniform grain a plate of
metal, which is to be engraved in mezzotint. T o perform this operation a rocker
(q.v.) is employed, an instrument said
to have been invented by Abraham
Blooteling (1634-1695). T h e rocker is
run up and down over the plate, first in
one direction and then in the other.
A proof of the plate is then struck off,
that a judgment may be arrived at as to
the grain. This, if the plate is to be a
success, should yield a velvety black,
IQO

GUB

uniform in tone in every part of the
plate. For the meaning of the term in
etching see Etching-ground. In painting, the ground is the first layer of
colour which is applied to the canvas
before the artist begins to paint his
picture.
Ground Floor. (Arch.) T h a t part of
a house which is on a level with the

ground or is raised above it only by a
few steps.
Group. A collection of several figures
or objects forming one whole. T h e
groups in a picture should present wellbalanced masses. In sculpture a group
is a collection of several figures, each of
which is necessary to the action of the
whole. T h e outline and arrangement of
such a group should present an harmonious effect.
Grouping. A term applied to the
fashion in which figures are arranged
in a painting, drawing, or piece of sculpture
Guard. T h e part of a sword, poniard,
or sabre the object of which is to cover
and protect the hand.
It is richly
decorated with niello, damascene, sculpture, or chasing in the more splendid
weapons of every age. T h e guards of
Japanese sabres are above all marvellous
examples of decorative invention. They
consist generally of iron or steel inlaid
with precious metals.
Gubbio Ware. ( P o t ) A factory of
majolica was established at Gubbio in
1498 by Giorgio Andreoli, of Pavia. T h e
pieces of this ware now extant are distinguished by vigorous modelling and
admirable colour. They are not commonly met with, and are of great value.

GUE

ART
Giorgio carried on his work
for upwards of thirty years,
and pieces dated 1531 bear
his name.
G u e r i d o n . A French
term applied to a decorative stand, designed in
imitation of an ancient
candelabrum, used either
to hold flowers or as a
stand for a lamp.

Guilloche,

Guillochis.

A system of ornament
formed
of
symmetrical
lines, undulating and crossed, yet parallel

to one another, as shown in the cut
given above.
Guisarme. A destructive weapon con-

sisting of a scythe and bill, which was

DICTIONARY.

GUT

fixed on a long pole and was employed
by infantry against cavalry. It is of great
antiquity, a weapon closely resembling
it being spoken of in the 6th century,
while from the n t h until the 16th century it was in constant use.
Gules. (Her.) T h e heraldic name for
red. It is shown on a shield
by parallel vertical lines, as
in the accompanying cut, in
which the white half of the
shield represents argent or
silver. This shield would
be blazoned party per bend
gules and argent.
Gum Arabic. A gum obtained from
acacias in Africa and Australia. When
dissolved in water it yields a size, which
is a valuable vehicle in water-colour. A
little honey or white sugar-candy is
generally added to it, to prevent its
scaling when dry. A light coating of
gum arabic laid over water-colours produces the effect of a brilliant varnish,
but has the disadvantage of too often
scaling or cracking when the paint is
dry.
Gurgoyle. (Arch ) A term having the
same meaning as gargoyle and denoting

a spout or gutter, generally carved in a
grotesque form, which carries off rain
water from a roof. [Gargoyle.]
Gusset. (Her.) This name is sometimes
g i v e n to a n o n d e s c r i p t
charge such as that shown
in the cut. From its meaningless irregularity such a
charge would not be considered honourable, and
would be assigned as a
mark of abatement to a man who had
in some way disgraced himself.
191

GUT

ART

DICTIONARY.

G u t t a e . (Arch) An architectural ornament consisting of a
series of small truncated cones, placed underneath the corona of a
cornice or at the base
of the triglyphs in the Doric order.
Gutter. (Arch.) A reservoir at the
base of a roof which
receives
rain-water
and directs it to a
waste pipe. In ancient
buildings we find gutters hollowed out of
blocks of marble or
stone. In some mediaeval churches the
gutter projects beyond the façade and is
surmounted by an arcade. From the

GYR

which the drop is supposed to be composed is suggested by the tincture of the
gouttes. T h u s gouttes 'de sang are blazoned gules, gouttes de larmes azure.
Guze. (Her ) A small round disc or
roundel (q.v ) of sanguine or blood colour
is called by English heralds a guze.
Gymnasium. A collection of buildings
and porticoes in which the youth of
antiquity indulged in exercises and
games. T h e training of the physical
powers was a very important element in
Greek education, and the gymnasia of
Greece were very elaborate institutions,
including colonnades, shady walks,
baths, &c. T h e influence of the gymnasium and the physical types developed
there upon art was considerable. [Athletes.] T h e gymnasium of modern times
is generally a simple unpretentious building, in which physical exercises may be
practised. It possesses, it need scarcely
be said, none of the importance, civic or
artistic, which belonged to the gymnasia
of ancient times.
Gypsum. A sulphate of lime, the comend of the 13th century gutters are pro- monest form of which is plaster of Paris.
vided with projecting gargoyles (q.v.). Owing to its plasticity it is useful in
taking casts of works of sculpture or
and some carry off the
other objects. It has been used for this
water in conduits made
purpose from the very earliest times
in flying buttresses. In
and in this connection is mentioned by
ambitious buildings of
Pliny.
the 13th and 14th centuries grooves, which
Gyron. (Her.) This subordinary is a deserve as gutters, are
vice in the form of a rightsometimes cut in solid
angled triangle cut off from
blocks of stone. At a
one corner of the shield—
later period gutters
the dexter chief—by lines
were made of terradrawn bar-wise and bandcotta or of wood covered
wise intersecting at the f esswith lead or bronze. T h e surface of the point. A gyron is, however,
gutter is often enriched with ornament. seldom borne alone, but the device is
In some modern buildings there are
utilised to form the varied
gutters of some pretensions, formed of
field called gyronny.
tubes, decorated with
flutings,
Gyronny. (Her.) This is
rosettes, &c.
the n a m e given to the
varied field found by an
Gutts, or Gouttes. (Her.) This
alternation oigyrons.
The
is the heraldic n a m e given to drops
usual number is eight, but
of water or other liquid when represented on a shield. T h e liquid of the number should always be specified
192

ART

HAI

in blazoning. Thus the accompanying
cut would be blazoned Gyronny of eight
argent and gules.

H.
Hair-pencils. (Paint.) Hair-pencils
are generally made of the hairs of the
martin or badger. The hairs are mounted

in a quill if the pencil or brush is to be
used for painting in water-colour, and
in a tube of tin or copper if it is to be
used in oil-painting.
Halbert, or Halbard. A weapon much
used in England during the
Tudor and early Stuart period. It consisted of a long
wooden handle with an axe
and a spike at the end.
It
was frequently ornamented
with gilding and perforated
in various shapes. Of the two
cuts given below one represents a halbert of the time of
Henry VII., the other a halbert of the time of Henri II.
France. T h e halbert subsequently

became merely a weapon displayed by

DICTIONARY.

HAL

royal body-guards.
Several of these
weapons may be seen in the armoury
at the Tower of London. T h e halbert
was introduced into France in the 15th
century by the Swiss and German mercenaries. As a charge in heraldry it is
always represented in pale.
Half-binding. A description of bookbinding in which only the back and
corners of the book are covered by
leather, the sides being in paper or cloth.
Half-life size. This term is used to
describe figures in painting or sculpture
standing about two feet nine inches high,
or about half the height of a m a n of
average stature.
Half-primed. (Paint.) A term applied
to a canvas which is only covered with
a thin ground or priming (q.v.).
Half-timbered. A term applied to the
houses built during
the reign of Queen
Elizabeth, the front
of which consisted
of a wooden frame,
filled in with white
plaster. T h e beams
were frequently
elaborately and
quaintly
carved,
and the
plaster
which filled the frame was sometimes
moulded. Half-timbered houses are to
be found in many towns of England,
and are among the most picturesque
specimens of domestic architecture to
be found in our country. An admirable
example is afforded in London by Staple
Inn.
Half-tone. (Paint.) A tone intermediate between two sharply-marked tones
of different values.
Hall. (Arch ) A salon of large dimensions, generally lighted by a glass roof,
which serves as a waiting-room or a place
of meeting for public or private bodies.
In palaces and castles the hall is a very
large saloon in which receptions take
place. In this case it is of the height
of several stories and richly decorated.
r

93

ART

HAM

DICTIONARY.

HAN

Hamades. (Her.) A French heraldic ·< with the point and not the head of the
term applied to a design hammer.
Hammer-beaxu. A transverse beam
consisting of three barrulets, coufied, that is to say, which projects some distance from the
three diminutive bars which wall and serves as a support to a rafter.
are cut off short so as not T h e hammer-beam itself rests upon a
to reach to the edge of the concave rib springing from the wall.
Hammer-beams are always constructed
shield.
Hammer. A tool used in several in pairs, and their ends are often ornabranches of art for striking or beating. mented with grotesque heads and other
T h e h a m m e r used by sculptors in marble curious devices.
Hammer-work. A method of making
consists of a block of iron almost cubical in shape, mounted on a very short ornaments out of metal by striking it
when cold with a hammer. A plaque of
metal is cut into the shape required, and
the relief and modelling are beaten out
with a hammer. T h e term is applied
especially to silversmith's work, which
is beaten with a hammer, and the surface of which is covered with innumerable facets resulting from the operation.
Hanap. A drinking cup of large size
which stands upon a foot.
handle. T h e surfaces of this hammer,
Some hanaps have richly
which is of considerable weight, soon get
chased lids, which are
worn into hollows by constantly striking
masterpieces of decorathe chisel. T h e hollows thus formed are
tive art. In the Middle
sometimes filled up with melted lead,
Ages hanaps were made
of precious metals, assumed various forms,

which in its turn is replaced when it is
worn out.
Chasers of metal use a
hammer with a large round head. It is
by gently striking the graver and moving
it after each blow that the flat spaces

are obtained which accentuate the
modelling of objects in metal. A small
h a m m e r is used by engravers to beat out
the metal at those places where it has
been effaced, so as to keep the surface
perfectly horizontal. T h e plate is struck
194

and were richly ornamented.
Hand. In the symbolism of early Christian art a hand in the attitude of benediction frequently represents the Al-

mighty Father. Our cuts show a hand
in the act of benediction, as it was con-

HAN

ART

ceived in the mystic symbolism of the
Latin and Greek Churches respectively.
Handle. T h e projection placed on the
neck or body of a
vase that it may the
more easily be taken
hold of. T h e handles
of decorative vases
are often of considerable size, and, in addition to their practi-,
cal object, they serve
the purpose of breaking the outline and of affording an
opportunity for decoration.
Handrail. (Arch.) A moulding of
wood or iron convex in outline, some-

times with a sharp edge slightly projecting, which is placed upon stair-rails
or balconies to form a support. Handrails are made of variously-coloured
woods and are varnished and sometimes
inlaid.

HAR

DICTIONARY.

" hanging committee," is charged with
the duty of hanging the pictures selected
on the wall space at their disposal. T h e
hanging committee at the Royal Academy consists of eight academicians—
six painters, one sculptor, and an architect. T h e latest elected academician
is always one of the committee as a
matter of course, and the others are
chosen from the council of the Academy
in turn. T h e duties of a hanging committee are extremely delicate, and it is
not surprising that complaints on the
part of disappointed artists are frequently and loudly expressed.
Hangings. Strips of painted paper
or stuff placed side by side and so arranged as to cover the surface of a
wall. In the Middle Ages and up to the
17th century tapestries and strips of
leather were used as hangings.
Hard. This term, applied to a picture,
denotes stiffness of drawing and harshness of outline. Hardness is characteristic of the earliest masters as well as of
modern painters who adhere slavishly to
the teaching of academies and draw without feeling.
Harp. A musical instrument, which

Hand-screen. A small
provided with a handle.
Hand-screens generally
consist of a light frame
of wood or iron-thread,
on which is stretched a
piece of satin, decorated
with paintings
in
g o u a c h e (q.v.). T h e
Japanese manufacture hand-screens in
large quantities, using for the purpose
bamboo canes, which they split and
stretch out in the shape of a fan and
then cover with drawings admirable in
colour and decorative in effect.
Hanging Committee. In the arrangement of public exhibitions a committee
of artists, which goes by the name of the was known in the most remote ages of
195

ART

HAR

DICTIONARY.

HAU

antiquity. It is the attribute of David black, and a difference is sometimes
and St. Cecilia. Our first cut gives a made in the number of tassels.
Hatchet. (Her.) This is a not unfrerepresentation of an Egyptian harp, and
is taken from a painting in a tomb at quent charge in early heralThebes. T h e heraldic harp dry. Hatchets of all shapes
generally follows closely in are to be found in different
design the ordinary musical coats of arms, including both
instrument of this name, battle-axes and axes for cutbut sometimes it approxi- ting trees. When the handle
mates to the lyre. It is of the axe is shown, the
often represented with two axe is said to be helved.
heads at the extremities, one human,
Hatchings. Lines either parallel or
the other of an animal, as in our second crossed, by means of which the modelcut. T h e arms of Ireland, which oc- ling of objects is indicated in engraving.
cupy the third quarter of the Royal These lines according to their size and
Arms, are azure, a harp or, stringed closeness enable the engraver to suggest
argent.
tones, to render the effect of vibrating
Harpy. (Her.) A harpy is an imaginary lights, and to distinctly mark the form
and even the texture of each object.
being having the head
For instance, it is by means of fine and
and breasts of a wodelicate hatchings that flesh is indicated,
man, and the wings,
while vigorous hatchings represent the
body, legs, and claws
folds of drapery, &c. Sometimes the
of a vulture or eagle.
A good illustration of
the employment of
harpies in heraldry is
to be seen in the arms
of the city of Nuremberg.
Hart. (Her.) A full-grown stag is by
heralds generally called a hart;
the
female, shown without horns, is called a
hind. In Christian art the hart is the attribute of St. Hubert, St. Julian, and St.
Eustace.
Hat. (Her.) A cardinal's hat is a red small spaces between cross-hatchings
broad-brimmed hat with tassels hanging are stippled, in order to tone down the
from it on either side. In heraldry it is too strongly marked whites and to
give depth to the modelling. In maps
and topographical plans hatchings represent the slope of mountains, and
they vary in number and length according to the height and declivity of the
mountain. T h e length of the hatchings
is in inverse ratio to the suddenness of
the declivity, and represents the distance existing between two consecutive
curves.
employed as the crest to a shield as
Hauberk. A kind of cuirass or coat
shown in the cut. For archbishops and of mail in use in the Middle Ages. It
bishops the hat is green and for abbots had wide sleeves and reached to a little
196

HAU

ART

DICTIONARY.

HEI

It

Hawk Bell. (Her.) This is a little

is said to have been introduced about the
12th century.
Haunch, (i.) An anatomical term denoting that part of the os iliacum which
is articulated in the thigh bone, and
generally in popular language the exterior projection of this bone.
Haunch. (2.) (Arch.) T h e haunch of an
arch is the part which lies between the
vertex of the arch and its springing.
Hauriant. (Her.) This term is used
to describe a fish depicted
upright on a shield, or, in
heraldic language, a fish in
pale with the head in chief.
T h e word is derived from
the supposition that the
fish assumes this attitude
when rising to the surface to draw in
air.
Hawk. (Her.) In coats of arms the
h a w k is r e p r e s e n t e d
perched on both feet upon
a horizontal beam. It may
be with or without a hood,
but like the falcon it has
as a rule jesses or ties
attached to its feet.

bell of spherical form that
used to be attached to the
legs of hawks. In heraldry
these bells are sometimes
borne as separate charges on a shield,
but more often appear in connection
with the hawk, which is then blazoned a
hawk belled.
Head. T h e dimension or height of the
human head is employed as a measure in
painting and sculpture. T h u s we speak
of a figure measuring seven heads and a
half, by which we mean its height is
equal to seven and a half times the
height of the face and skull together
measured vertically.
Header. A stone or brick so placed in
a wall that its longer side is in the thickness of the wall. [Bonder.]
Heart. In Christian symbolism the
heart occupies an important place. It is
the symbol of the greatest of the three
Christian virtues, Charity ; the symbols
of Faith and Hope being the Cross and
Anchor respectively. It is the attribute
of St. Theresa and other saints. A figure
of a heart surmounted by a flame, and
known as the flaming heart, frequently
occurs in religious decorative art.
When the flaming heart is placed in the
hands of painted or sculptured figures
representing saints, it symbolises the
Love of God. In the sacred art of the
Jesuits the flaming heart is the image of
the heart of Jesus, who is often represented as parting his garments and
showing in the midst of his breast a
flaming heart.
In architectural decoration an ornament frequently occurs
which presents some resemblance to a
human heart.
It consists of a combination of four curves or portions of a
circle.
Heavy. This term is applied in painting to opaque tones, to over-accentuated
outlines, and to figures without elegance ;
in architecture, to proportions and details which lack grace and lightness.
Heighten. T o heighten a colour is to

below the knee as shown in our cut.

0

197

HEL

ART

DICTIONARY.

HEL

increase its intensity; to heighten the about the j ear 290 B.c. onwards, during
tone of an engraving is to add to the which the Macedonian kings were su­
intensity of the blacks, and so to make preme and art nourished no longer in
the whites stand out as strongly as pos- Greece itself, but under the auspices of
sible.
Greek artists in Alexandria and the cities
Heliochrome. (Phot.) A process of co- of Asia Minor.
loured photography which has as yet been
Helmet. A defensive covering for the
but imperfectly developed. Its object is head, of leather or metal. It varied in
to obtain, after taking the plate from the successive centuries in form, shape, and
camera, a cliché or proof exactly repro- size. Sometimes it was nothing more
ducing the image formed on the polished than a sort of iron skull-cap [Chapelleglass. Unfortunately the colours which de-Fer], at other times it had a high ridge
have hitherto been obtained have been
so fugitive that it has only been possible
to look at them under cover of luminous
rays. T h e heliochrome proofs which
we see to-day are nothing more than
photographs taken by the ordinary method and coloured by some ingenious
process.
Heliography. T h e art of obtaining surmounted with plumes T h e crest or
by means of light ordinary photographic badge of the wearer was frequently dis­
proofs. T h e term is especially applied played above the helmet. In heraldic
to a process of preparing steel plates by devices this very important piece of
photography, so that proofs may be armour is of frequent occurrence.
It
struck from them just as though the may either be employed as an addition
plates had been engraved or etched in
the ordinary way.
Heliogravure. (Engr.) Heliographic
engraving. Among the most celebrated
processes of heliogravure that of Duj ardui must fie mentioned. By this process, with the aid of skilful touches,
facsimiles of drawings or engravings
may be obtained and transferred to
metal plates. When the plates have to the shield or as a common charge.
been subjected to aciérage, thousands In the latter case it is always represented
of proofs may be struck from them.
as an esquire's helmet, that is, as a
Helix. A curve described on the closed helmet, seen in profile.
When
„
.
surface of a cylinder by a employed as an addition to the shield,
|ΓΤΛ
point revolving round the helmets are placed over the coat of
11 l l i l
cylinder in an upward di- ! arms and take different forms and posiΙ Π li'Ji
π
rection. This curve is ap- ; tions according to the rank of the
1
|||LJj|fl
plied in the construction wearers. T h e royal helmet is of bur­
Jjjj j j § 8 ( ^ of spiral staircases within nished gold and stands on the shield
a circular or cylindrical l affronte, showing six bars to protect the
space. T h e term also denotes the vo­ face. T h e helmet of princes and peers
of every degree is of silver, ornamented
lutes of Corinthian capitals.
Hellenistic. T h e term Hellenistic is with gold, while that of knights, esquires
applied to that period of Greek art from and gentlemen is of polished steel. T h e
198

HEM

ART

helmet of dukes, earls, and marquises
ought to appear
in profile on a
shield and to have
ten protecting
bars.
From the
cuts which
are
given here a general idea of the
various forms of the helmet may be
gathered. The helmet of an esquire or
gentleman has already been described.
It appears in profile with the visor down.
Knights and baronets have the same helmet with the visor up and without bars
An example of this is given in one of
the accompanying cuts, surmounted by
an imperial crown.
Hémicycle. (Arch.) A term applied to
a hall, chapel, or apse built upon a semi-

circular plan ; to a mural surface of this
form ; or to steps placed one above the
other in concentric circles.
Hemisphere. T h e half of a sphere.
Cupolas frequently assume the form of a
hemisphere, at the
summit of which a circular opening is sometimes to be seen
Hephaestus. In Greek mythology the
son of Hera and Zeus. H e was deformed at his birth, and according to the
legend was hurled from Olympus by his
mother, for whom in revenge he made
a chair, which held her in its grasp till
he released her. H e was the god of
fire and of the arts of the smith and
potter, which depended on fire. H e was
besides the artificer of the gods and
fashioned the aegis of Zeus and the
armour of Achilles. In art Hephaestus
is represented as a bearded man, wearing
the chiton and pilos, the costume of an

DICTIONARY.

HER

artisan, and working an anvil.
The
principal scenes in which he figures on
painted vases are the fastening of Prometheus to the rock, the making of the
armour of Achilles, and the splitting
open of the head of Zeus at the birth
of Athene.
Heptagon. A polygon of seven sides.
Hera. In Greek mythology Hera is the
queen of the heavens and the consort of
Zeus ; the deity who personified the fertilising properties of the atmosphere.
She was worshipped chiefly in ine spring,
and the peacock and cuckoo were sacred
to her. T h e earliest images set up in her
honour are said to have been simple
pillars with no resemblance to a human
form, and for many centuries this holy
tradition prevailed.
In the gold and
ivory statue of Polycleitus she was seated
on a throne and held in one hand a
pomegranate, the symbol of marriage,
in the other a sceptre surmounted by a
cuckoo. She is generally represented
as veiled, and thus she appears on the
Parthenon frieze.
Heracles. T h e son of Zeus and
Alcmena.
H e was regarded by the
Greeks as the personification of strength
and athleticism, and a statue of him was
set up in Gymnasia as an ideal to
which the athlete might attain. H e is
generally represented in art with a club
and a lion-skin, and the incidents of his
life and the arduous labours which he
performed are favourite subjects with
vase painters.
Heraldic Art. T h e art of blazoning,
i e the art of explaining, describing, and
representing the armorial bearings of a
noble house or province by means of
special terms, conventional figures, and
in conformity with rules generally
adopted. This art took its rise about
the time of William the Conqueror, and
originated in the customs of the knights
of the Middle Ages adopting a distinctive badge or colour when they were
engaged in jousts or warfare. After the
Crusades the knights who had distin199

HER

ART

DICTIONARY.

guished themselves by their prowess
adopted the badge which they had worn
during the war. T h u s in the coat of
arms of the Russell family, as it was
before the Crusades (first cut), the chief
has no charge upon it, but after the

Crusades three escallops, the symbols
of pilgrimage, were emblazoned in the
chief. In the 14th and 15th centuries
t h e art of heraldry was finally developed
and formulated, and after this period it
began to decline.
Heraldic Beasts. [Beasts, H e r a l d i c ]
Hermse. A name given to a particular
kind of statue, which
consisted of a head
or bust
carefully
modelled, set upon
a quadrangular pil­

lar, which as a rule
tapered towards the
base. Sometimes a
single, sometimes a
double head was set
on the pillar. T h e term is derived from
the fact that in early times the god
Hermes was frequently represented in
200

HEX

this guise, but in later times terminal
figures representing bearded gods or
even philosophers were called Hermae.
On account no doubt of the great
antiquity of this form of statue, the
Hermae were held in great honour, and
to desecrate them was regarded as a
serious crime. They were placed at the
corners of streets and served as land­
marks or boundaries. By the Romans
they were employed in the decoration of
gardens or as pillars to break the
monotony of balustrades or walls.
Hermathene. A terminal figure, con­
sisting of a pillar surmounted by the
head of Athene.
Hermes. In Greek mythology was
the son of Zeus and Maia, who, first
honoured as the god of the animal
kingdom, came to be regarded as the
protector of commerce.
H e was the
messenger of the gods and watched over
the welfare of h u m a n travellers. Hence
it was that the pillars placed at cross
roads were surmounted by his head and
were called Hermae. His attributes are
a caduceus (q.v.) and a petasos (q.v.), or
winged cap, and he is represented as
wearing wings on his heels. In ancient
works of sculpture H e r m e s is repre­
sented as bearded and carrying a kid
on his shoulders and is then known as
Hermes Criophorus. [Criophorus.] In
works of the best period he appears some­
times as a youth, sometimes as a child.
Herring-bone. (Arch.) In some walls
the
bricks
ο
stones are at <<r<<<
ranged in what is ^v^v
called a herring-bone pattern, i.e. the
courses are sloped alternately from left to
right and from right
to left.

Hexagon. A polygonhavingsixsides.
Terra-cotta tiles are
frequently hexa­
g o n a l in f o r m .
Mosaic pavements
are often composed of hexagonal tiles of

HEX

ART

DICI ONARY.

the same size, set simply one against the
other without the intervention of other
tiles of different shape or smaller size.
Hexahedron. A solid figure having
six sides. T h e cube and playing dice
are examples of the hexahedron.
Hexastyle. (Arch.) A temple is termed
hexastyle when it has six columns in its
façade.
Hieroglyphic. Painted or engraved
letters used among the Egyptians. They
consist of typical representations of
figures, animals, stars, plants, & c , and

form a distinct pictorial language. As
a general term hieroglyphic is used to
denote any kind of writing which bears
a symbolic meaning.
High Altar. (Arch.) T h e principal
altar in a church which contains more
than one altar is termed the high altar,
in contradistinction to the low or lesser
altars.
High-light. (Paint.) T h e high-light in
a picture is that spot which appears to
the eye to be of the greatest brilliance.
It is always a reflected light and is consequently only found on such surfaces
as reflect and do not absorb the light.
A high-light, for instance, may be upon
a burnished metal plaque or in the eye,
but it is never seen upon dull, heavy
textures.
H i g h l y - c o l o u r e d . (Paint.) Overcoloured ; painted in bright, crude
colours.
High-relief. (Sculp.) A piece of
sculpture executed upon the flat surface
of a block, from which it projects so far
as to resemble a sculpture in the round.
Sometimes indeed a high-relief has only
a few points of contact with the surface
of the block from which it is cut, and
for the rest is entirely detached. T h e
finest high-reliefs in existence are the

14

metopes of

HIM
the Parthenon, some of

which are among the Elgin marbles at
the British Museum.
High-warp. T h a t kind of tapestry in
which the warp is arranged vertically.
Technically speaking high-warp tapestry
is superior to low-warp (q.v.). T h e
tapestry manufactured at the Gobelins
is high-warp.
Himation. A garment worn by the

Greeks, consisting of a square mantle
20I

ART

HIN

DICTIONARY.

which was thrown over the left shoulder
and fastened by a brooch, leaving the
right arm free. T o wear the himation
with grace and ease was a mark of
gentle birth and refinement.
Hinge. Two pieces of metal, or mov^ _ able wings, about a
SfSE^Q^Sr
common axis, which
t^^^^^^r
allows them to deΒ8
&
^ »«8ί *^
scribe
a
rotatory
movement. Our first cut represents a
sample of the commonest pattern.
Sometimes, however, hinges are more
decorative. On cupboards
and other pieces of furniSic
ture belonging to the last P^HBJll
century they are found with I
f®]|
c
their shank terminated by
^JH
a small vase or button or
0 rBS|
even by a more elaborate I c Ί Η Β Ι
ornament. Our second cut ^ ^ J s P * 1
gives an example of this.
Hip-knob. An end ornament or finial
placed on the point of a gable or on the
top of a hip.
Hippocentaur. A monster half horse,
half man. T h e hippocentaur does not

HON

the Roman circus (q.v.), a raised wall
being constructed down the middle,
round which the horses or chariots had
to turn.
Hippogriff. A fabulous animal ; a
winged monster, half horse and half
griffin.
Hippopod. A fabulous monster. T h e
figure of a man with the legs of a "horse
used in the composition of arabesques on
friezes.
Hip-roof. (Arch.) A roof the sides of
which slope in different directions and
meet at the ridge is called a hip-roof.

T h e external angle formed by the two
sides of the roof is termed the hip, and
the timbers in the hip are termed the
hip-rafters.
Historic Painting. T h e painting of
historic scenes, or scenes in which
historical personages are introduced.
T h e first historical painter was Polygnotus, who decorated the Lesene at
Athens with scenes from the Trojan
War. In all probability, however, these
paintings were decorative and symbolic
rather than graphic, and if they were
now in existence they would scarcely
rank high as historic paintings. It is
in modern times that this branch of art
has been cultivated with the greatest
measure of success.
Honeysuckle Pattern. (Arch.) A
pattern frequently used in Greek de­
corative art and termed honeysuckle as
differ from the centaur (q.v.), and the resembling the plant of that name.
term is used in contradistinction to
Honourable. (Her.) This term is
ichthyocentaur, or fish-centaur.
applied to certain ordinaries to distin­
Hippodrome. Among the Greeks a guish them from the sub-ordinaries and
circus of large dimensions and oblong from other charges.
T h e r e are nine
form, terminated at one end by a honourable ordinaries, the Chief, Pale,
circle arranged for chariot and horse Bend, Bend Sinister, Fess, Bar, Cross,
races. In some respects it resembled Saltire, Chevron.
202

HOO

ART

HUB

DICTIONARY.

Hood-moulding. A projecting moulding carried over an arch or other opening which serves the same purpose as
the dripstone (q.v.).
Horizon. T h e horizon in perspective
is always situated at the height of the
eye of the observer, and is represented
by a straight line parallel to the line of
the earth.
Horizontal. A line or plane is said to
be horizontal when it is parallel to the
horizon.
Hors Concours. A term applied to
artists exhibiting in the Salon at Paris
who have received all the highest awards,
and so can only compete for the grandes
médailles d'honneur.
Horse-brey. (Her.) This is an instrument sometimes
used to compress
the nose of a restive horse. It is jointed at the middle
and has pointed teeth. It occasionally
appears as an heraldic bearing, and is
then often described as a pair of breys
or barnacles.
Hospital. (Arch.) A collection of
buildings intended for the shelter and
cure of the sick.
Hotel. (Arch.) A building in which
travellers are housed and fed on payment
of money. Hotels are often, from an
architectural point of view, of great
splendour, and the decoration of their
interior frequently displays admirable
taste.
Hôtel de Ville. A building in which
the municipal authority has its seat.
Many hôtels de ville are distinguished
by the richness of their architecture.
T h e term is employed in France, Belgium, and Holland.
Hourd. (Arch.) T i m b e r galleries placed
on the summit of towers and parapets in
the fortified castles of the Middle Ages.
Some hourds were constructed of masonry and so were permanent, whereas
the timber hourds were movable. In the
hourds of the 13th century the timberwork was at once solid and simple, and

rested on supports of stone. In the 14th
century hourds were in most countries
replaced by machicolations (q.v.) ; but

in Germany and Switzerland they remained in use during the 15th and 16th
centuries. T h e term is French and has
no equivalent in English.
Hour-glass. A double glass, the two
swelling portions of which are connected
with a narrow tube, through which a
certain quantity of sand can run in a
certain time. T h e use of the hour-glass
to measure time was once universal.
Hour-glass Stand. An iron bracket
attached to pulpits, especially about the
time of the Commonwealth, in which
the hour-glass was placed. Hour-glass
stands are still to be seen in some English churches, and are often excellent
specimens of ironwork.
Hours, Book of.
A prayer-book.
There are in existence books of hours in
manuscript, the illuminations of which
are masterpieces by Memling and Jean
Foucquet.
Among the early printed
books of hours are some, the pages of
which are bordered with wood-cuts of
extraordinary delicacy.
These are
keenly sought after by collectors, and
the most highly prized were printed by
Simon Vostre, Hardouin, Kerver, &c.
Housing. (Arch.) A small niche or
recess in a wall, in which a statue was
placed.
Hubert, St. A noble of Aquitaine, who
was converted by seeing a milk-white
stag with a crucifix between its horns,
when he was hunting on a holy day.
203

HUE

ART

DIC:TIONARY.

HYD

For many years h e was a hermit in the myth tells of the manner in which HerArdennes, and afterwards became Bishop
of Liège. H e died in 727. Representations of him by Flemish and German
artists are not infrequent.
T h e St.
Hubert engraved by Durer is perhaps
the best known. H e generally appears
in episcopal vestments and carries a
hunting horn and book.
T h e stag
always appears close to him or upon the cules slew the hydra near Argos, in
book.
Greece.
Hue. Properly speaking the term hue
Hydria. (Pot.) An ancient vase of
denotes a colour which results from the
mixture of a primary with a secondary
colour. It is, however, carelessly applied to any colour, and is very often
used where the term tint would be more
correct.
Humetty. (Her.) Another term for
couped. [Cross, Couped.]
Humorist. An artist who executes variable form used to contain water.
grotesque scenes and fanciful sketches,
and who appeals to the sense of the
ridiculous in those who look at his pictures.
Hunting-horn or Bugle. (Her.) This
is a very well-known
armorial bearing. T h e
horn itself takes the
form shown in the cut,
but it is generally represented with
strings attached and with a band round
the middle, and is then blazoned stringed
and garnished.
Hyaline. Transparent and diaphanous
T h e hydria when made of terra-cotta was
like glass. Rock crystal, for instance, is
hyaline.
Hyalograph. An instrument by means
of which perspective can be mechanically
drawn.
Hyalography. T h e art of engraving
upon glass either with a diamond, emery,
or hydrofluoric acid. T h e term is also
applied to a mechanical process of drawing by means of which objects are
reproduced as they are seen in perspective.
Hydra. (Her.) This is a fabulous
animal represented as a dragon with
seven heads. A celebrated classical often of elegant form and covered with
204

HYD

ART

ornament.
It was generally provided
with three handles, two large and one
small one. Sometimes a small handle
was placed immediately underneath a
larger one, in order to add to its strength,
as is shown in our third cut. T h e term
hydria was sometimes applied to a watercan of bronze or silver, resembling in
shape the modern water-pail, and provided with a semicircular handle reaching
from one side of it to the other. A hydria
of this kind is represented in our fourth
cut.
Hydroceramic. (Pot.) A term applied
to vases of porous earth, which allow
drops of liquid to form beads on their
surface and keep water cool by evaporation.
H y d r o - m e t a l l o p l a s t i c . A term
applied to all those processes of gilding,
silvering, and coppering which consist
in immersing objects in a bath until
they are covered with a metallic deposit
produced by chemical affinity.
Hypaethral. (Arch.) An uncovered
roofless building is said to be hypaethral,
which, literally translated, merely means
under the sky. Ancient temples were
frequently hypaethral, for by adopting
this form of building the difficulty of roofing over a large structure was avoided
Hypaethrum. (Arch.) A term given to
the latticed window which surmounted
the grand entrance of some ancient

temples. T h e hypaethrum not only
admitted air and light into the temple
but added considerable dignity to the
exterior effect of the door.
Hypocaustum. A subterranean fur-

DICTIONARY.

ICO

nace with flues, which heated the
caldarium or hot bath of the Romans.
Hypogeum. (Arch.) A part of a building lying below the level of the ground.
It is particularly applied to the subterranean chambers in which the ancients
placed their dead.
Hyposcenium. (Arch.) T h e orchestra
in ancient theatres.
Hypothenuse. T h e side of a rightangled triangle opposite the right
angle.
Hypotrachelium. (Arch.) T h e upper
part of the shaft of a column, immediately
beneath the last moulding or neck of the
capital.
Hyrmensul. [Cromlech.]

I.
Icebreaker. A projecting angle placed
on the piers of a bridge, facing up
stream, to catch the blocks of ice
which flow down when the frost breaks
up.
Ichnographic. A term applied to a
drawing, sketch or plan executed by the
processes of ichnography.
Ichnography. T h e art of drawing by
means of compass and rule. T h e term
is also applied to the art of tracing plans
and figures.
Iconoclasts. Breakers of images. At
various periods in the history of art
Iconoclasts have wreaked their fury
upon images. T h e name was first given
to the Byzantine emperors of the 8th
century who destroyed the images of the
Christian Church. One of the greatest
Iconoclasts whose name is known to
history was Savonarola, who in two
years gave to the flame many hundred
masterpieces of Florentine art. Those
who carried out the Reformation in our
own country in the reign of Henry VIII.
well earned the title of Iconoclasts, for
they wantonly destroyed or carried off
the marvellous collections of works of
205

ICO

ART

DIC riONARY.

art which had grown up at the shrines of
the saints. Whatever escaped their fury
was reserved only for the Puritans, the
Iconoclasts of the 17th century. In this
age of tolerance and artistic appreciation the spirit of Iconoclasm is happily
almost extinct.
Iconographie. T h a t which relates to
iconography.
Iconography. T h a t science which includes the study and description of the
paintings, sculptures, and engravings of
antiquity and the Middle Ages, and
especially the knowledge of portraits,
images, busts, or statues. T h e iconography of a celebrated person is a
description of all existing portraits of
him.
Iconology. A knowledge of the attributes of mythological personages ; a
study of emblematic figures, as well as the
interpretation and description of works
of art. Sacred iconology deals with the
attributes and artistic representation of
persons mentioned in the holy Scriptures,
the lives of the saints, &c.
Icosahedron. A solid figure presenting
twenty equal plane sides. T h e surface of
a regular icosahedron consists of twenty
equilateral triangles. A large number
of crystals are cut in the form of an
icosahedron.
Ideal. T h e Ideal in art is the supreme
or typical perfection, which only exists
in the imagination of the artist. T h e
ideal is individual. Each artist pursues
his search for the ideal in his own way.
But the ideal implies for the artist the
perfection of the type set before him,
whatever it may be. T o attain the ideal
is to approach as closely as possible to
perfection, relying all the time upon the
study of nature and interpreting it in
an individual manner. T h e ideal of
Michael Angelo is very different from
that of Rembrandt and Velasquez, yet
all three have left behind them masterpieces of very strongly marked charaçtei.
T h e ideal of a human figure cannot represent literally one individual. It must
20Ò

ILL

be, as it were, an epitome of the good
points in many individuals. Lucian in
his description of Panthea gives us an
excellent illustration of what an ideal
figure should be. For he imagines this
paragon of beauty to combine all the
graces which the greatest sculptors of
Greece had expressed in their work. In
the familiar language of every day the
word ideal has a slightly different meaning. Thus when we speak of a portrait
being ideal, we mean that the elements of
coarseness and commonplaceness which
may exist in the sitter's face are eliminated.
Idealise. T o render a scene ideal or
poetical; to interpret it with a refined
sentiment ; to give a figure a noble
attitude and outlines of the utmost
purity; to draw a portrait and at the
same time to ennoble the features of the
model.
Idealist. An artist whose works testify to his search after the ideal.
Ideography. A method of expressing
ideas by signs representing the objects
spoken of. Egyptian hieroglyphics are
a kind of ideographic writing.
Idol. A statue, often painted or gilded,
representing a deity. Some Indian idols
are works of art of extraordinary beauty
and admirable workmanship.
Illegitimacy. (Her.) T h e proper
brisure or difference (q.v.) charged upon
the arms of illegitimate children is the
baton which is a diminutive of the bend
sinister. This mark of difference is
popularly but incorrectly known as the
bar sinister.
Illuminated. Adorned or decorated
with illuminations. Brightly coloured;
clothed in a brilliant and striking
colour.
Illumination. T h e art of illuminating,
i.e. of embellishing manuscripts with
drawings in body colours and gold.
T h e earliest illuminations were executed
in red lead, and later in cinnabar.
The art was practised from the 3rd
century until the 17th, and monks

ILL

ART

DICTIONARY.

were especially skilled in illumination.
Many specimens of illumination are still
in existence dating from the Middle
Ages, and some have been reproduced
by chromolithography.
Illuminator. An artist who executes
illuminations. T h e most skilful illuminators flourished in the 15th, 16th,
and 17th centuries. There were also
illuminators among the Greeks and
Romans. A manuscript of Vergil dating
from the 4th century is preserved in the
Vatican. W e are told that the manuscripts executed by the Byzantine illuminators were marvels of art. T h e
gospel of Charlemagne (8th century)
is to be seen at the Louvre. T h e art-of
the illuminator decayed in the 10th
century, but in the 13th it increased in
variety and richness. Among the most
celebrated illuminators we must mention
Jehan Foucquet (1416—1485), author of
"Les Heures d'Anne de Bretagne" and
later in the 17th century, Robert, who
executed in 1641 the garlands of flowers
which formed a border for a text written
by Jarry, entitled " Guirlande de Julie,"
presented by the Duke de Montausier to
Julie de Rambouillet.
Illustrate, To. T o execute drawings
or engravings intended for the illustration of a book. T o illustrate a volume
is to furnish representations of the
principal scenes in the work and at the
same time to execute designs for
borders, head-pieces, tail-pieces, and
initial letters.
Illustration. A term applied to the
coloured ornaments of ancient manuscripts as well as to the engravings
printed apart or the cuts inserted in the
text which embellish modern books, and
are suggested by the subject of the work
in which they are placed.
From the
" Books of H o u r s , " the " Nuremberg
Chronicle" (15th century), and the
" Dance of Death," down to the modern
editions de luxe, an immense number
of illustrated books have appeared.
Varying with the taste of each epoch,

IMA

illustrations have been executed on
copper, stone, or wood. In addition
to illustrations in black and white we
sometimes find illustrations executed
in colour by the processes of chromolithography and chromotype. A decided
tendency may be observed in the illustrations of to-day to facsimile the sketch
or drawing of the artist by the various
mechanical processes based upon photography.
Illustrator. An artist who executes
drawings or vignettes intended to illustrate books or journals. From the time
of Holbein to the present time, the list
of talented illustrators would be a very
long one. Very many of our great
artists, among whom we may mention
Fred. Walker, Millais, and Holl, first
won distinction in this popular branch of
art.
Image. A statuette or small representation of a living
person. T h e classical nations
made
images of their ancestors, which they
regarded with a kind
of reverential awe
and carried in solemn
processions, such as
funerals and triumphs. These images
held the same place in the estimation of
the ancients as is held to-day by genealogical trees, and many a Roman aristocrat was as proud of having a large array
of images in his house as Englishmen
often are of having ' ' come over with the
Conqueror." Small images of various
materials, representing the Virgin or
some other holy person, and generally
placed in a small niche, are frequently
'found in the churches or even in the
homes of devout Catholics.
Image-maker. A term applied in the
Middle Ages to artists who carved and
illuminated images. T h e thousands of
statues which decorate Gothic churches
are the work of image-makers. From
the 13th to the 16th century image207

IMA

ART

makers generally followed their own
inspiration. We can therefore institute
no comparison between the mediaeval
image-makers and the decorative sculptors of to-day. For the latter only work
to carry out a given design set them
by the architect or the chief of the
works. It is this independence of the
image-maker from control which explains the originality, the audacity even
of much of the decorative work of the
Gothic period. In the 16th and 17th
centuries there were indeed sculptors
but no image-makers, and after this
time the term is only applied to those
who make childish images or carry out
valueless designs. And so it has come
about that the word, which in the Middle
Ages designated a true artist, whose
works, in being naïve, were none the
less meritorious, is nowadays only used
in a bad sense.
Image-making. T h e art of making
images, which was practised with much
success in the Middle Ages, but which
did not until long after rank among the
arts. T h e term is especially applied to
the manufacture of painted or gilded
statuettes generally placed on small
brackets and covered with a canopy.
Sometimes images of this kind are
arranged in the form of a diptytch or
triptych.
They generally represent
Christ, the Virgin, and the saints. In
the 14th and 15th centuries images were
made which opened and shut as reliquaries. In the 16th century figures
painted in enamel at Limoges and elsewhere took the place of representations
of holy personages in relief.
Imaginary Beings. (Her.) There is a
whole class of heraldic
charges consisting of imaginary beings, formed by
piecing together various
parts of different animals,
as for example a cock with
the head and feet of a goat. T h e most
common for heraldic purposes of these
imaginary beings are the dragon and the
208

DICTIONARY.

IMP

griffin, but the wyvern and cockatrice are
often met with, and occasionally but
more rarely the classical centaur, nereid, pegasus, and chimera.
Imagines à Vestir. Wooden images of
the Virgin and the saints set up in Italian
churches. Their heads, feet, and hands
are finished with some care, while the
rest of them is only roughly blocked out
and covered with vestments of costly
material and richly embroidered. These
imagines present a curious parallel to
the rough images of deities which were
treasured in some Greek temples and
richly draped, as the image of Athene in
the Erectheum.
Imbricated. (Arch.) A term applied
to surfaces decorated with imbrications.
Imbrication. (Arch.) A method of
d e c o r a t i o n consisting of thin
plates placed one
upon the other,
either in the form
of fish-scales or
of small pointed jaggings, which partly
overlap, like the tiles on a roof.
Imitate, To. T o copy ; to reproduce
by imitation ; to produce works in the
manner of a master or the style of a
school.
Imitation. Works of painting or
sculpture are said to be executed in
imitation when, although they are really
composed of a worthless material, they
pretend to be precious substances.
T h u s we speak of an imitation of
marble, an imitation of bronze.
Imitative Arts. This term is applied
collectively to painting, sculpture, and
engraving to distinguish them from
architecture on the one hand and from
music and dancing on the other.
Impale. (Her.) T o impale is to conjoin two coats of arms side by side on
one shield. This is frequently done in
the case of husband and wife, while a
bishop's coat of arms is often impaled
with that of his diocese.
Impasto. (Paint.) An abundant appli-

IMP

ART

DICTIONARY.

cation of very thick oil-colour to the
surface of a canvas.
T h e object of
impasto is to give relief, force, and
solidity to the objects represented. We
speak of vigorous impasto, solid impasto,
&c. It is to be noticed that impasto
always strengthens the luminous portions of a picture. The shades ought to
be lightly treated, or there is a danger
of their losing their transparency. By
the use of special impastos, applied to
the canvas by particular processes, some
artists have succeeded in representing
rocky country, rugged walls, &c.
Imperial. (Arch.) A dome is said to
be imperial when its curves unite so as
to form an acute angle.
Impluvium. (Arch.) A square tank
or cistern sunk in the middle of the floor
of the atrium in a Roman house. T h e
rain-water which fell through the compluvium (q.v.) was collected in the impluvium.
Impost. (Arch.) Projecting stones
terminating a pillar upon which the
first voussoirs of an arch rest. A fixed

INA

school is a contemporary school of painting, the adherents of which set themselves to render, not reality in its minuteness, but a rapid aspect of nature, reproducing as nearly as possible the impression made upon their own mind by
any particular scene. It is quite clear
that nature, looked at rapidly, especially
landscape, can be rendered by means
of a few vigorous and forcible touches,
and further, that the value of this general
and summary impression may be spoilt
by excessive toil in the elaboration of
details.
Among the sketches of impressionists are to be found many
charming studies extraordinarily truthful
in tone ; but hitherto this school has not
been able to convince the public, whose
aesthetic education leads them to expect
something more in a picture than is
revealed to them in a rapid impression,
and to look with suspicion or contempt
on any drawing which does not exhibit
what they regard as " finish."

Imprint. A reproduction, either depressed or in relief, obtained directly
from an object. T h e imprint of a medal
for instance is the hollow mould of this
medal.
T h e imprint of an incised
tombstone or of an intaglio is on the
contrary in relief. It is obtained with
wax or plaster, sometimes with clay.
Improvisations.
A rapid sketch
drawn under the impulse of a sudden
slab placed above a door or window and idea. Many etchings may be called imforming part of the frame of a bay. T h e provisations on copper, when they are
term is also applied to the mouldings drawn with a free point and are boldly
bitten in.
which decorate an arch or bay.
Inalterable. A term applied to painted
Impression. (Engr.) A print struck
off from an engraved plate is called an decorations on porcelain, faïence, or
impression. T h u s we speak of an early enamel, the colours of which, after being
impression, a brilliant impression, a passed through the fire, remain unpoor impression, &c. T h e term impres- affected by the action of the air. Photosion is applied in painting to a vivid graphic proofs are said to be inalterable
sketch which represents a scene in when they are struck off with the aid of
nature as it impressed the artist who thick ink, which does not turn yellow or
fade.
drew it. [Impressionist.]
In Antis. (Arch.) A temple in antis,
Impressionism. T h e doctrine affected
in the language of ancient architects,
by impressionists (q.v.).
Impressionist.
The
impressionist was a temple the façade of which is
209

INC

ART

DICTIONARY.

decorated by two columns of the same
thickness as the pilasters or prolongations of the side walls of the cella
which support the roof of the temple.
[Antae.]
Incense-burner. A kind of metal vase
in which perfumes
are burnt on live
coals.
In India,
China, and Japan
the most beautiful
incense-burners
are made.
They
assume a multitude of shapes.
Some of them are
in the form of
chimaeras, dragons,
and other fantastic animals, which exhale odoriferous vapours through their
mouths, while others are simple vases,
pierced with openings arranged in geometrical patterns.
Incise. To cut lines in metal or wood.
An engraver incises lines in the plate
upon which he works. One method of
decorating metal plates is to incise lines
upon them.
I n c i s u r a . A term used by the Roman
painters to denote the hatchings or lines
which were drawn with a brush upon
flat tints to deepen the tone.
Incisura
was chiefly employed in fresco-painting.
In modern oil-painting it has no place,
as the effect is now got by other means.
Incitega. A stand upon which am-

phorae and other jars rounded at the
bottom were placed. They were made

INC

of various materials, earthenware, wood,
metal, &c. T h e one figured in our cut
bears a curious resemblance to the wickerstands now used to hold soda-water bottles.
Incline, To. T o set obliquely or at
an acute or obtuse angle.
Incrust, To. T o decorate a surface
with incrustations ; to cut hollows in the
surface of a stone wall, for instance, and
let in slabs of marble ; to embellish panels of wood with ornaments of metal
or ivory in such a way that the incrustations do not project from the
plane of the surrounding surface. When
wood of one colour is let in upon
another it is said to be veneered (q.v.),
not incrusted.
Incrustation. A method of ornament
which consists in making incisions with
a graver upon a smooth surface, and
filling the hollows thus obtained with
a material different from that upon
which the incisions are made. T h u s
incrustations of marble are made upon
blocks of stone or marble of a different colour, while panels of wood are
sometimes covered with incrustations
of copper, brass, or even of precious
metals.
Incunabula. A term applied to the
volumes printed before the first years
of the 16th century. Xylographie incunabula were printed from engraved
blocks of wood, while typographic incunabula were printed by means of
movable type.
Incuse. (Numis.) An incuse coin is a
coin which bears on its obverse the same
subject in relief as appears incuse on the
reverse. Such are the archaic coins of
Magna Graecia.
— Square. T h e earliest Greek coins
were irregular pieces of metal shaped like
ingots. T h e convex surface bore an emblem, while on the reverse is nothing but
a square indentation called an incuse
square, the impression of the square
head which held the metal when it was
struck.

IND

ART

DICTIONARY.

INF

Indelible. T h a t which cannot be
Indian Yellow. (Paint.) A pigment
effaced. Ordinary photographic proofs used by water-colour painters with much
undergo changes on exposure to the light, effect, as it has greater body than gamget covered with spots, and end by dis- boge, and is transparent.
In waterappearing, but when a certain kind of colour it is permanent even in a strong
thick ink is used in their printing they light, but it speedily disappears in oil.
are indelible.
Indicate. W h e n in a sketch a form is
Indented. (Her.) This is one of the suggested by an outline, but not drawn
ornamental forms taken by with precision, that form is said to be
the dividing lines of a indicated. For instance, the contour of
shield. The difference be- a figure, the execution of which is not
tween indented and en- completed, may be said to be indicated.
grailed (q.v.) is this, that In a picture, all that is not finished is
in the former case each indicated, that is to say, is expressed by
little tooth is a triangle, indefinite lines or vague tonalities, which,
in the latter it is a cusp.
did they occupy an important place in
Index. An analytical or alphabetical t h e composition, would need to be treated
table of names, which is placed at the more seriously. W e say that an artist
end of artistic catalogues and other is content with indications when by
works.
means of refined lines and simple and
India Paper. A paper of a yellowish true colours he indicates exactly and
colour manufactured in India and China without dryness that which he wishes to
In primitive art another
of vegetable fibre, of great value in taking represent.
proofs of engravings. It is an absorbent method of indication is adopted. A part
paper, and receives a clear impression of suggests the whole ; thus a tree is employed to indicate a forest, a ship a fleet,
even the most delicate lines.
— Rubber. An elastic gum of great &c.
service in art, being used to efface pencil
Indigo. (Paint.) A blue pigment used
lines traced upon paper. It is the sap of in water-colour painting, which yields a
a South American tree, and solidifies on tone less close to green than Prussian
being exposed to the air. Its value was blue. Indigo is brighter than the latter,
only discovered in the last century, but and slightly tinged with violet. Under
it is now universally used.
ordinary conditions it is permanent, but
it is adversely affected by white lead
Indian Blue. [Indigo.]
and impure atmosphere.
— Ink. [Ink, Indian.]
— Lake. (Paint.) A red pigment obIndividuality. A term which denotes
tained from the resinous secretion of the the originality of an artist and the percoccus ficus. It is a good colour, though sonal character which he communicates
not so brilliant as madder lake, and is to his works. Thus we speak of a strongly
fairly permanent.
marked individuality, a scene the ren— Ochre. (Paint.) A useful red, com- dering of which lacks individuality, and
posed of sulphur, oxygen, and iron. It is so is commonplace.
permanent and a pleasing colour.
Inescutcheon. (Her.) [Shield of Pre— Red. (Paint.) This pigment is a tence.]
Infringement. An infringement of the
red haematite which is found in the Persian Gulf and also in the Forest of Dean law of artistic copyright (q.v ) is an imiin Gloucestershire. It is of great use to tation or fraudulent reproduction of a
the painter, as it is a rich colour and work of art the copyright of which is
quite permanent. It has been used as a reserved.
pigment from ancient times.
Infulae. A portion of the ecclesiastical
211

ING

ART

DICTIONARY.

costume, consisting of small pendants
hanging from the
mitre and falling
over the shoulders
of the wearer. Our
cut is from a brass
of the 15th century in East Horsley Church.

Ingriste. A
French slang term
which denotes a
pupil of the school of Ingres. It is
not to be found in dictionaries, but is
dignified by having been used by many
authors and critics of repute.
Initial. A letter which begins a
chapter. T h e initial letters of manuscripts were often enriched with paintings, while some formed the subjects of
beautiful miniatures and small pictures
of wonderful perfection of workmanship.
In some printed works the initials form
exquisite vignettes composed with taste
and engraved with care. [Capital.]
Ink. A black liquid more or less
intense, which consists of a mixture of
gall-nut, sulphate of indigo, green copperas, and gum arabic, used both for
writing and printing.
—, Coloured. Mixtures of powdered
colours and varnishes of various kinds,
used in typographic and lithographic
printing.
—, Indian. An ink consisting of a
mixture of lamp-black, gelatine, and
odoriferous substances.
T h e odour
peculiar to Indian ink arises from the
addition of camphor of Borneo and
powdered musk. Lamp-black is used
for the fine ink and burnt cork or grapeskins for the commoner sort. Indian
ink is the most solid colour known to us.
It is the only true indelible ink, for it
has a base of carbon. It was once used
exclusively in architectural sketches,
which are now executed in water-colour.
T h e imitations of real Indian ink are
numerous. T h e dragons and chimeras,
accompanied with gilt characters on a
212

INL

blue ground, are no longer a guarantee
of the authenticity of the manufacture
of the tablets, which are everywhere on
sale. Some Indian inks have a reddish
tone and present a brilliant effect when
they are used as thick as possible.
Others on the contrary are greyish in
tint and approach a purple blue, yielding
tones of much delicacy. T h e latter
tints remain dull on paper whatever be
their degree of intensity, and the inks
from which they are obtained are far
preferable to the inks yielding reddish
tones.
They are besides the nearest
approach to the ink made in China, as a
comparison of the tints they yield with
Chinese and Japanese paintings will
readily convince us. T h e Chinese have
always manufactured the best Indian
ink, which is sometimes termed Chinese
ink, and hitherto have successfully kept
the secret of their manufacture.
Ink, Lithographic. Ink composed of a
mixture of soap, tallow, and lamp-black,
diluted with pure water. It should be
used at once, as it rapidly thickens and
decomposes.
—, To. (Engrav.) T o smear ink by
means of a pad over a copper-plate ;
to pass a roller impregnated with ink
over the surface of an engraving in relief
or over a lithographic stone upon which
a drawing has been executed with pen
and ink or lithographic crayon.
—, Vignette. A mixture of lampblack and oil containing resin in solution
used in printing vignettes engraved on
wood.
Inlaid Pavement. (Arch.) Pavement

which consists of variously coloured
tiles inlaid to form geometrical patterns.
Inlay. A term applied to the piece of
wood, metal, or ivory which is inserted
in panels of wood in the process of inlaying.

INL

ART

DICTIONARY.

INT

Inlaying. A method of decorating
furniture, which consists in incising
patterns on the surface of wood and
filling the spaces thus formed with
pieces of variously coloured wood, ivory,
metal, &c.
Inscribe. To draw a geometrical figure
within another geometrical figure, so
that there are some points of contact
between them.
Inscription. (Arch.) Words engraved
on a tablet of marble or on a surface
reserved for the purpose on an entablature, indicating the purpose of a building,
perpetuating the memory of an event, or
fixing a date.
Instantaneous Photography. [Photography, Instantaneous.]
Instruments. A general term applied
to boxes of compasses, squares, rules,
& c , which are used by artists and architects, as well as to graphometers, levels,
&c, employed in surveying.
Intaglio. A precious stone, decorated
with figures, & c , depressed below the
surface. T h e stones used for seals are
instances of intaglios. T h e intaglio is
the reverse of the cameo (q.v.).
Intercolumniation. T h e space between two columns. T h e intercolumniation is measured from the axis of one
column to the axis of the next, and
varies in the different orders, the unit
of measurement, or module as it is

spective plays an all-important part,
such as Panini's Interior of St. Peter's
at Rome. T h e painters of the Dutch
and Flemish schools have particularly
excelled in the painting of interiors ;
and among the most celebrated of them
may be mentioned Van der Poel, Kalf,
Neef, and Van der Meer.
Inter-joist.
(Arch.)
The
space
between two joists.
Interleave. T o place leaves of white
paper between the pages of a volume, or
between the engravings in an album,
before having them sewn or bound.
Inter-modillion. (Arch.) A vacant
space between two modulions (q.v.).
Interpretation. T h e manner in which
an artist renders or expresses n a t u r e
according to his personal sentiment ; for
nature can never be interpreted with
rigorous accuracy. Art is necessarily
and on all occasions an interpretation
of nature, but an interpretation which
aims at being happy rather than
literal.
Interpreted.
A term used of the
manner in which a figure, subject, scene,
or group is executed, painted, or sculptured. T h u s we say of an artist that he
has interpreted a scene well, of a landscape or effect of light that it is badly
interpreted.
Intersection. T h e point common to
two lines which cut one another ; a line
common to two surfaces which meet one
another.
In architecture the term intersection is particularly applied to that
part of a church where the nave and
transepts cut one another at right ancalled, being half the diameter of the gles. [Crossing.]
column. T h e intercolumniation is less
Interstice. An inin Doric buildings, where an effect of terval of small dimenstrength and dignity is aimed at, than in sions.
buildings of the Ionic or Corinthian style.
Inter-tie. (Arch.) A
[Araeostyle ; Eustyle ; Pycnostyle.]
piece of wood or iron
Interior. A term applied to genre which holds together
pictures (q.v.) representing the inside of crosswise two other
churches or palaces or more generally pieces of wood or iron.
I n t r a d o s . (Arch.)
scenes of cottage life. T h e term also
denotes those pictures in which per- T h e concave surface formed by the
213

INT

ART

DICTIONARY.

voussoirs of an arch from the springing
line to the keystones.
Intransigeant. A name given in Paris
to certain artists of the extreme impressionist school, who under this title have
organised exhibitions of their own.
Invected. (Her.) This name is given
to one of the dividing or
partition lines on a shield.
It consists of a series of
curves terminating in cusps.
They may be small and numerous, or few and large,
as here shown.
Invention. A term applied to the manner in which an artist composes a scene
or imagines a subject. A picture, the
subject of which is feebly composed and
badly realised, is said to lack invention.
When we speak of a charming invention,
we mean an excellent idea, a scene which
is spirituelle and happily treated.
Iodine, Scarlet. (Paint.) A pigment
obtained from iodide of mercury. It is
opaque and of good body, and is the
most brilliant of all the scarlets. It is,
however, useless to the painter, as it is
not permanent even under the most
favourable conditions. Other pigments
decompose it, and air and light speedily
destroy it. Under no circumstances can
its use be recommended.
Ionic. One of the ancient orders of
architecture. T h e
distinguishing feature of the style is
that its capital is
ornamented with
volutes. T h e Ionic
columns of Greece
and Asia Minor
possess unrivalled grace and delicacy of
outline ; the Roman Ionic style, however, is heavy and graceless. In the
17th and 18th centuries architects frequently used columns of the Ionic style
in their façades. As a general rule, it
may be laid down that when Ionic pillars
are used to decorate a neo-classical
façade, it is in the sub-basement or
214

ISI

first story, and they are almost always
surmounted by a Corinthian entablature.
Iron Brown. (Paint.) A rich brown
pigment obtained from calcined Prussian
bhie. It possesses many advantages ; if
pure it is quite permanent, it dries well,
and is transparent
Iron-work. A general term which
includes all objects made of iron. In
the Middle Ages many fine examples
of artistic iron-work were produced. At
the period of the Renaissance, in the
17th and 18th centuries, the iron-work

produced was of great richness. Many
specimens belonging to these different
epochs are preserved in museums, and in
the iron gates and railings of many great
houses we may still see of what the old
workers in iron were capable.
The
iron gates and railings from Hampton
Court, now in the
South
Kensington
Museum, are masterpieces of art. Bands
of iron fixed to doors
and windows, and
bars and bolts with which doors are
fastened, are often fine examples of ironwork. T h e artistic iron-work of to-day,
though it has at its disposal many elaborate mechanical processes, can do nothing more than imitate inefficiently the
masterpieces of previous centuries.
Iron Yellow. (Paint.) An iron ochre
bright in colour and transparent. It is
a useful pigment and is permanent.
Isabel. A colour intermediate between
white and yellow, in which yellow predominates.
Isinglass. Gelatine extracted from
the sturgeon, employed to size canvases
and in certain kinds of size-painting.

ISO

ART

DICTIONARY.

JAC

Ivory. An osseous substance, forming
Isodomus. (Arch.) A term applied by
Greek architects to that style of masonry the teeth and tusks of the elephant, out
in which the courses of brick or stone of which works of art of all sorts are
made. When we speak of ivories we
were of equal height.
Isography. T h e art of reproducing or generally mean objects carved in ivory.
making exact facsimiles of writings, T h e ancients executed statues of ivory
of immense size, and had discovered a
manuscripts, and autographs.
Isokeplialeia. A principle in Greek method of softening the material.
sculpture, according to which the heads [Chryselephantine.] Byzantine ivories
of the figures in a bas-relief were the consist entirely of bas-reliefs, diptychs,
same distance from the base of the reliquaries, crosiers, &c. In the Middle
relief, whether they were riding, stand- Ages and as late as the 15th century
altar-pieces were carved in ivory, while
ing, or sitting.
Isolated. (Arch.) A building or portion there are many crucifixes of ivory
of a building is said belonging to the 16th and 17th centuries.
to be isolated when Ancient ivories of fine workmanship are
it is wholly detached very highly prized by collectors. T h e
from the main body grotesque ivory carvings of the Japanese
of the building. A are well known and of great value.
pillar set against a wall is said to be They generally take the form of netsukés,
isolated when it is not in the same plane or attachments for securing medicine
as the wall, with which it is only con- boxes or tobacco pouches under the
girdle.
nected by its base and capital.
Ivory Black. A pigment obtained
Isometrical Perspective. [Perspecfrom calcined ivory, of great value to the
tive, Isometrical.]
Issuant. (Her.) This term is most painter.
Ivy. A foliage of a particular kind
frequently applied to demi-lions, and
implies that the lion is issuing from the employed in garlands and other systems
bottom of a chief, so that only the upper of decoration. It is one of the attributes
part of the lion is seen. T h e term naissant of Bacchus, and garlands of ivy are
frequently employed in the decoration of
(q.v.) has a slightly different meaning.
Italian Pink. (Paint.) A vegetable rustic buildings.
yellow pigment, the best of which is
obtained from quercitron bark. It is
sometimes called yellow lake. It is
bright and transparent, but its use is
not to be recommended, as its permanency cannot be guaranteed.
Jack. (1.) (Arch.) A machine with
Italian Varnish. A varnish which which weights may be lifted. It is also
consists of white wax and linseed oil, used to hold up, with the aid of stays,
used in oil-painting for glazing (q.v.).
a portion of a building while the work of
Italic. A term applied to the charac- restoration or consolidation is in proters invented by Aldus Manutius, the gress.
printer. Instead of being vertical, they
Jack. (2.) A term applied to the leather
incline slightly to the right.
Italic cups and bottles, sometimes rimmed
characters inclined at the angle at which with silver, which were used as drinking
we generally write are employed in mo- vessels in the 16th century.
dern books to attract the attention of the
Jackfield Pottery. (Pot.) A manureader, and discharge the function of factory was established at Jackfield,
words written and underlined.
near Broseley, in 1713. Stoneware, both

J·

215

ART

JAC

DICTIONARY.

black and white, was produced there.
T h e industry ceased at the beginning of
the present century, and specimens of
Jackfield ware are now hard to come by.
Jack-rafter. (Arch.) A short rafter
used in the construction of hip-roofs.
It is joined at the top with the hip-rafter
(q.v.), at the bottom with the wall plate.
Jade. A mineral varying in colour
from green to yellow and yellowish white.
It is a species of nephrite, and may be
described as a native silicate of calcium
and magnesium. It is found in China,
America, and some islands in the South
Pacific. By the Chinese it is held in
high estimation, and in spite of its toughness carved into all sorts of forms. It is
never found in a natural state in Europe,
yet curiously enough jade celts (q.v.)
have been found in Switzerland and by
Schliemann at Hissarlik. Their presence
in these localities is difficult to explain.
Jamb. (Arch.) T h e vertical uprights
which frame an opening, whether it be a
window or door. T h e
term is also applied
to the uprights which
support a chimneypiece. T h e jambs
of some mediaeval
chimney-pieces consist of clustered
colonettes.
Jambe. (Her.) This is the name usually
given by heralds to the leg or part of the
leg of an animal when shown alone on
the shield. If, however, the foot alone
appears, being cut or
torn off below the second joint, it is called
a paw (q.v.).
Jambs. Pieces of
armour which protected the leg. In the 14th
century they were composed of cuir bouilly
(q.v.), but after the
15th century they were
always made of metal. They ceased to
216

JAN

be worn altogether in the reign of
James I.
James, St., the Greater. Of James
the Greater, the kinsman of Christ, we
know little, except that he followed our
Lord, and that after the crucifixion he
was put to death with the sword. In
art he is generally represented with the
attributes of a pilgrim, the staff, gourd,
and scallop shell. Sometimes he bears
a sword, the emblem of his decapitation. In Spain, where he is particularly
revered, an extraordinary mass of
legends has gathered round his name.
In the year 939 he is said to have
appeared on a milk-white charger to
lead on the troops of King Ramirez to
achieve a brilliant victory over the
Moors. So strong was the belief in the
appearance of St. James on this occasion
that ever since " Santiago " has been
the battle-cry of the Spaniards, and in
the pictures of the Spanish school St.
James is commonly represented as
mounted on a white charger.
James, St., the Less. Like St. James
the Greater, St. James the Less was a
kinsman of Christ, whom he is said to
have closely resembled. H e is said to
have been the first bishop of Jerusalem.
H e suffered martyrdom by being thrown
down the steps of the temple and having
his brains beaten out with a fuller's
club. In art accordingly he is generally
represented as leaning upon a fuller's
club, and he is often to be recognised
on account of the striking resemblance
which his features bear to the accepted
features of Jesus.
Janus. A god much honoured by
the Romans, in whose estimation indeed he rivalled Jupiter himself. H e
was particularly associated with the
beginning and ending of enterprises.
In art he is represented as Bifrons,
i.e. two-faced, and he generally holds
a key as a symbol of the opening and
closing of undertakings. T h e worship
of Janus was an ancient one at Rome,
and it was the custom to open his

JAP

ART

DICTIONARY.

temple in time of war and to close it
in time of peace.
Japanese Paper. Japanese paper,
which is used in expensive printing, is
made from the bark of the tree called bybotanists morus papi/era sativa.
White
Japanese paper is the best and thickest.
It is used for printing proofs of etchings
and engravings upon. It is transparent
and of a satiny texture, and the velvet
tones which result from the deep bitingin of a plate come out admirably upon
it. But it too quickly absorbs the
ink, and when it is to be printed upon
the plate must be more thoroughly
inked than when ordinary laid paper is
used.
Japanning. A process of painting and
varnishing, by means of which a smooth
and brilliant surface is given to such
articles as trays, boxes, &c.
It is
practised especially by the Japanese,
and is of service in decoration as it
dries very hard and is unaffected by
damp.
Japonaiseries. A French term which
includes all objects of art and curiosity
which come from Japan.
Jar. (Pot.) A full-bellied vase of glazed
earthenware, sometimes with
handles, sometimes without.
In ancient times earthenware
jars were, and in the East still
are, hung by their handles or
necks on long poles and thus
carried upon the shoulders.
Jardinière. A vase of porcelain or
metal, sometimes richly decorated, made
to hold plants or flowers.
Jasper. A species of hard and opaque
quartz, out of which decorative vases,
columns, and many other ornaments are
carved.
Jaune. [Yellow.]
Javelin. A short spear, used as a
missile. It has been employed by all
nations, both savage and civilised, and in
all ages, and wherever it is found it is of
the same general form. In the Middle
Ages it was a weapon of war, but
15

JES

gradually disappeared after the introduction of firearms. Its use now is
chiefly ceremonial.
Jazerine. A material used for armour
in the Middle Ages. It consisted of
plates of steel fastened on canvas and
overlapping. Its great advantage was
its lightness.
Jerome, St. St. Jerome was one of the
Fathers of the Church, who died in 420
A.D. In order to quell his fervid spirit
he spent some time in absolute seclusion in the wilderness. By some he is
regarded as one of the founders of monasticism, and he is represented in art
more frequently than almost any other
saint. H e generally appears as an aged
man, with a cardinal's hat (though this
of course is an anachronism), and a lion
by his side. T h e lion no doubt originally symbolised the strong fiery spirit of
St. Jerome, and having been accepted as
a symbol a story was required to explain
it. This story, which resembles the old
fable of Androcles and the lion, ran that
one day St. Jerome was sitting in his
cell when a lion approached with a thorn
in his foot. This thorn St. Jerome
removed, and henceforth the lion was
his constant companion. One of the
most celebrated representations of St.
Jerome is a print by Durer.
Jesse, Tree of. A tree representing
the genealogy of Christ as it is given in
the Gospel of St. Matthew. T h e various
personages who form links in the chain
of descent are placed on branches
stretching out from the tree. At the
bottom Jesse is shown in a recumbent
position, and at the top the Virgin and
our Saviour in an aureole. Representations of the tree of Jesse are frequently
found, sculptured, painted, or embroidered, in the ecclesiastical ornaments of
the Middle Ages. This is not to be
wondered at as the subject is peculiarly adapted to decorative treatment.
Candlesticks also sometimes assumed
the form of a tree with branches, and
hence were called Jesses.
A very
217

ART

JES

DICTIONARY.

JOG

specimen of a Jesse window is | in which each storey projects beyond
η the one below. T h e effect of
* this in some Gothic houses is
J that where the streets are narrow
and the houses high the gable| ends almost touch across the
street.
Jewel. A term applied to gems
set in one or other of the precious
metals, and by a figure of speech
' to objects of art admirable in
! execution and of considerable
worth.
Jeweller. An artisan, some­
times an artist, who sets precious
stones in gold or silver.
Jewellery. T h e art of mount­
ing precious stones in gold or
silver. T h e precious stones thus
mounted and their setting. Per­
sonal adornment being one of the
primary instincts of mankind, it
is not surprising that in all ages
and amongst all nations the
making of jewellery has been one
to be seen at Dorchester in Oxfordshire of the earliest manifestations of art. T h e
jewellery of the Assyrians and Egyptians
(1320).
Jesses. (Her.) These are the little was of great beauty, while the jewels
straps, generally of leather, by which found at Hissarlik by Schliemann and
the bells worn by falcons and hawks at Cyprus by Cesnola were many of them
masterpieces of art. Throughout history
were attached to the birds' legs.
Jet. A species of lignite of a brilliant we find fine specimens of the jeweller's
black, of which all kinds of personal art produced, following the style of each
ornaments are made. Artificial jet is epoch. T h e jewels of the Middle Ages
manufactured in large quantities out of were simple but massive, but at the
Renaissance they became singularly
black glass.
Jettie, or Jutty. (Arch.) A portion of beautiful and elaborate. T h e handi­
a building which projects beyond the craft was introduced into England in all
probability after the Revocation of the
Edict of Nantes, when some foreign
goldsmiths settled in Clerkenwell. It
was first practised at Birmingham, its
present centre, about the middle of last
century. Manifold proce$ses enter into
the production of jewellery—gem-cutting
and engraving, enamelling, repoussé
work, chasing and casting.
Of these
something is said under their separate
rest. T h e best example of a jettie is to headings.
Joggle. (Constr.) In masonry any
be found in half-timbered houses (q.v.),

fine

218

JOH

ART

DICTIONARY.

joint is called a joggle, in which both the
stones which are to be fitted together are
indented. A joggle in masonry resembles
what in carpentry would be termed a
rebate (q v.).
John, St. In the earliest examples of
Christian art St. John with the other
evangelists was symbolised by a scroll,
or by a river flowing from a rock. [Evangelists.] Somewhat later he was represented by an eagle.
Later on he
generally appears as a handsome beardless youth, with brown or golden hair.
An eagle stands by his side, and in his
hand he holds a chalice, from which a
serpent crawls, in allusion to his having
driven poison from a cup. T h u s he is
represented by Raphael. As the exile
of Patmos and the writer of the Revelations he is represented as an old and
bearded man writing upon a tablet.
H e generally wears a blue or green tunic
and a red robe.
Joint. (Arch.) A small space left
between the stones or bricks of a wall or
other construction, which is filled with
mortar or cement, so as to bind the

masonry solidly together T h e thickness
of joints is determined, when the bricks
or stones are laid, by small blocks of
wood, which allow the mortar or cement
to be put in. T h e term
angle-joint is applied to
a joint formed by placing
side by side two pieces
of stone or wood, which are cut at a
certain angle and not square. T h e r e are
many other kinds of joints both in stonework and timber-work. Some of these
are to be found under their separate
headings, such as dovetail, mortise, &c.
Joist. (Arch.) A piece of timber

JUD

placed horizontally to support a plank.
In the Middle Ages and during the
period of the Renaissance the joists of
.litìgi

ceilings remained in view and were
sometimes carved.
In some Gothic
buildings we find joists with the end

engaged in the wall roughly fashioned
into the head of some monster, while
the horizontal part is cut level, so that

nothing may lessen the solidity of the
joist, by seeming to take off from its
thickness.
Joist, Binding. Binding joists are so
contrived that an empty space is left
between them, through which a chimney may pass. Their diameter is generally greater than that of an ordinary
joist.
Jube. (Arch.) A term applied to the
rood-loft (q.v.) or gallery of a church.
It is derived from the fact that the
words jube
domine benedicere were
pronounced from the jube by the officiating priest before the reading of the
lessons in the Catholic service.
Judas Iscariot. Throughout
the
219

JUG

ART

DICTIONARY.

Middle Ages the apostle who betrayed
Christ was regarded with execration, as
the type of infamy and brutality, and
countless legends were invented to
illustrate the infamy of his nature. H e
is never represented alone in art, but
when he occurs in such scenes as the
last supper or the betrayal he is a
person with a scowling expression of
face. H e never wears the aureole like
the other apostles, and he is habited in a
robe of yellow, which colour has in consequence been regarded in some Catholic
countries with disgust.
Jug. (Pot.) An earthenware vessel of
simple form, with one handle and a
beak from which liquids are poured. It
is a noticeable fact that the jug has
retained a uniform shape in all countries

and all ages, this shape no doubt being
suggested by considerations of practical
convenience. T h e first three illustrations we give represent Egyptian jugs,
which as far as their form is concerned

might be modern English. Of the other
two cuts the one is a metal jug of oriental workmanship, the second an earthenware jug of strong outline, such as is in
common use.
Julian, St. St. Julian is a legendary
saint, who is said to have lived in the
3rd century A.D. One day when he was
220

JUR

out hunting, a stag which he was following prophesied that he would kill his
father and mother. This destiny, in
spite of his endeavour to avoid it, he
ultimately fufilled, and to do penance he
retired to the bank of a river and ferried
travellers across it. H e is therefore
represented with a stag or as ferrying
wayfarers across a river. He is the
patron saint of travellers.
Juno. [Hera.]
Jupiter. [Zeus.]
Jupon. A kind of surcoat worn by
knights in the Middle Ages, and reaching down over the
hips. Sometimes it
was
embroidered
with the coat of
a r m s of the wearer,
sometimes it was
plain, but as a rule
it had an ornamental border round its
lower edge.
The
jupon of Edward the
Black Prince is still
to be seen hanging
over his tomb at
Canterbury.
Our
cut, which is from
a sepulchral brass
in Walton Church,
Hertfordshire, represents a knight wear
ing the jupon.
Jury. An artistic jury is a committee
of artists appointed to select from the
pictures sent in to an exhibition those
they think worthy to be hung. T h e jury
appointed every year in the Paris Salon is elected by the exhibitors themselves. But the elective principle has
not hitherto found favour in England.
One small society has adopted it,
it is true, but in the more important
English galleries the pictures are selected and hung not by a jury elected
by the exhibitors, but by a hanging
committee of older artists, who hold
office in rotation.

KAK

ART

DICTIONARY.

K.
Kakemono. A Japanese term denoting a "hanging picture," provided at its
lower end with a roller on which it
may be rolled up. The picture itself is
surrounded with an ornamental border
designed in accordance with certain
decorative principles. T h e Japanese
ornament their houses with Kakemonos,
but never leave one permanently on the
wall, varying them with the season, for
they consider some appropriate to summer, others to winter.
Kaleidoscope. An apparatus invented
in 1817 by Sir David Brewster, which
consists of mirrors arranged in a tube.
In this tube movable fragments of
coloured glass, irregular in shape, are
placed, and from their chance combinations, as reflected in the mirrors, symmetrical figures are obtained, which are
often used as patterns in industrial art,
especially in the manufacture of coloured
stuffs.
Kaoline. (Pot.) A silicate of aluminium, produced from the decomposition of
felspar in the form of a white earthy
matter. From it a fine faience is manufactured, which bears the name of
porcelain. This plastic clay has been
known for countless centuries in China
and Japan, but its discovery in Europe
is due to the English potters of the
middle of the 18th century.
Keep. (Arch ) T h e principal tower in
a mediaeval castle, also termed Donjon
(q.v.)·
Keepsake. A n a m e which was given
to a certain class of album or illustrated
volume which was published in England
in the early decades of the present
century. Thence it has been applied to
sentimental figures or female heads
possessing a charm and beauty tinged
with melancholy, such as were frequently met with in the volumes known
as "keepsakes."

KHA

Kept down. (Paint.) A portion of a
picture is said to be kept down, when it
is painted in a lower tone than the rest,
so as not to divert the spectator's attention from the important part of the composition.
Key. In the Middle Ages keys were
designed with much care and taste, and
were frequently masterpieces of decorative art. Many
VlYOlk
of them indeed
are such fine examples of metalwork as to be
worth preserving
in m u s e u m s .
Key-holes too of
copper or beaten
iron were often

noticeable from an artistic point of view,
being richly ornamented. In ancient art
the key was the symbol of Janus, and in
Christian art St. Peter is always represented with two keys, which are also
borne by religious houses under the patronage of St. Peter, and are the insignia
of the papacy.
Keystone. (Arch.) T h e central stone
of an arch. It is inserted last and
serves to hold together or consolidate
the arch. It is sometimes ornamented
in buildings of the Renaissance school,
and in vaulted ceilings is frequently
termed a boss.
K h â s i . A term applied to a method
of mural decoration in vogue in India
and Persia. It consists in covering the
walls with glazed and painted tiles or
with blocks of mortar, which are formed
of several pieces of mortar of different
221

KHM

ART

DICTIONARY.

KNO

colours, cut into shapes and pieced to­ series of portraits of the members of the
gether, so as to form decorative designs. Kit-cat Club were painted by Kneller of
Khmer. A name given to the archi­ this size to fit the walls of Tonson's villa
tectural monuments of ancient Cam­ at Barn Elms, and canvases and porbodia, which in their profusion of traits of these dimensions have been
decoration and their striking originality called Kit-cat ever since. T h e Kit-cat
have an obvious connection with Hindoo Club was an association of politicians
and litterateurs who favoured the Proart.
Kiln. (Pot.) A cylindrical oven, placed testant succession, and was established
vertically, in which faience and porce­ in 1703. Its meetings took place at the
l l i ' I B dh ^ a * n a r e baked. P i e c e s " C a t and the Fiddle," in Fleet Street,
^PF^Pf^Pr ο ί S r e a t v a m e a r e baked kept by Christopher Kit, from whom it
'Mr I p B I B
separately in cases of took its name.
terra
K n e e - r a f t e r . (Constr.) A rafter the
II IIB
!•
- c o t t a , called segW^llrollêr 8ars' so as to ^e i s °l ate ^ lower end of which is bent or curved, so
^ ^ f i r ^ P i p Î ' from one another.
In that it may fit in more securely with the
baking china three processes are neces- wall below it.
Knocker. (Arch.) A piece of metal
sary : the first that of firing, which
changes the clay into biscuit ; the second fixed on to the door. Ancient knockers
that of glazing ; the third that of fixing vary considerably, according to the
the colours. Great care must be exer- period to which they belong. In the
cised that the pieces of china are not Gothic period they frequently represent
exposed to too great heat. T h e degree a fantastic animal. After the Renaisof heat which any piece can stand sance they were very elaborate both in
depends on the colours employed in its design and execution. In the 17th and
decoration, some colours volatilising at 18th centuries a purely decorative form
a lower temperature than others.
King-post. (Arch.) A vertical piece of
timber placed in the middle of a truss
(q.v.), resting at its lower end on the
cross-beam, so as to support the ridge,
where the principal rafters meet. Kingposts may be seen in gable-ends as well
as in open-timber roofs.
Kiosque.
(Arch.j An ornamental
pavilion placed
in a picturesque
4
situation. A
3?
of knocker became universal, whereas in
small
circular
^^y^^w^
the previous century knockers had represented capricious, and fantastic,
or p o l y g o n a l
DIW^^HB
scenes, in which the figures of both men
construction
ΦτΓ
1ϊ¥
and animals were treated with extrasurmounted by
JJL
>liflt
ordinary skill.
Several
celebrated
a small dome,
ÎSSèi
iSSM
artists have at various epochs produced
such as the pa^S^tfe^î
v i l i o n s fre- Jtijljjjjjpr'
t3ga&Î&^ knockers, which are to-day considered
as works of art and treasured in
quently met
*
museums.
with in Turkey.
Knot, or Knob. (Arch.) A term
K i t - c a t . A term denoting a canvas of
a particular size, used for painting por- applied to any architectural ornament
traits not quite three-quarter length. A which is round in shape, whether it
222

ART

KNO

consist of foliage, flowers or even a

sculptured head. [Cul-de-Lampe.]
Knotted. (Her ) This epithet is
applied in heraldry to rough
branches or trunks of trees
shown on shields, For ex­
ample, the cut would be
blazoned gules, a knotted
staff in bend argent.
Kylin. An animal somewhat resem­
bling a dragon and covered with scales,
frequently depicted on or forming the
subject of pieces of Chinese porcelain.
It is of good omen.

Labarum. A Roman standard bearing
upon it the
sacred seal
of
Christ.
[Chrism ] Be­
fore the time
of Constantine

the

labarum

was decorated
with an eagle, but after the conversion
of that emperor the chrism was adopted.
T h e labarum, which was the banner car­
ried in war before the Roman emperors,
was purple in colour, bordered with gold
and ornamented with a fringe and
precious stones.
Label. (Her.) This is a mark of
difference or cadency borne by an eldest

LAC

DICTIONARY.

son to distinguish his arms from those
of his father.
It
JQgn^pnQ^
consists of a bar "*"**
Λ,
with three pendants or points, and is
placed across the shield in chief. On
the death of the father the son of course
removes the label from his arms. T h e
arms borne by the present Prince of
Wales as heir to the throne are : the Arms
of England differenced with a Label of
three points argent ; over all, on a shield
of pretence, Saxony.
Labyrinth.
(Arch.) An
Egyptian
palace, consisting of a number of build­
ings and courtyards surrounded by
walls, so arranged as to be impenetrable
and to mislead the uninitiated who
ventured within.
Subterranean laby­
rinths were used by the early Christians
as places of worship on account of their
safety. A garden labyrinth consists of
winding walks, bordered on each side
with a close hedge, all of which com­
municate with the centre, but go off in
different directions, so that it is not
easy to keep the correct path.
A system of decoration called laby­
rinth, consisting of variously coloured
marbles forming inter-crossed lines at
right angles to one another, is some­
times used in the pavements of French '
cathedrals. T h e labyrinth on the pave­
ment at Chartres is particularly famous.
Lac. A very solid varnish, frequently
employed in China and Japan for the de­
coration of furniture and other objects.
It is a resin obtained from certain trees,
the A ngia simensis and Thus vernix, and
is applied in a liquid state and in several
layers to the trays, boxes, or furniture
which are to be lacquered.
[Lacquer.]
Lace. An open-work textile fabric,
consisting of very fine meshes, which
are arranged in systems of ornament.
T h e ancient lace of Malines and Alençon
as well as Venetian and English pointlace is much sought after, and may be
classed among artistic objects of the
greatest value and rarity.
Lacerna. A loose garment worn by
223

ART

LAC

the Romans over the toga. It was open
in front and fastened under the neck by
a brooch. It fell behind in ample folds
and had a hood, which could be used to

conceal the face.
It was probably
borrowed from the Gauls, and only came
into use in the later days of the
Republic. In the period of the Empire
it was a common garment both for civil
and military personages.
Lachrymatory. A name given to
certain vases, elongated in form and of
small dimensions, used by the Romans
to hold the sweet-smelling oils with
which they perfumed the funeral pyre.
Their name was given to them because
it was erroneously thought that they
were intended to hold tears.
Lacinia. A term applied to the

excrescences in the neck or throat of
224

DICTIONARY.

LAC

a she-goat. In the works of Roman
sculptors fauns are frequently represented with lacinia and the pointed ears
of a goat, as in the cut engraved here.
La co ni cum. A semicircular chamber
in the baths of the Greeks and Romans,
which was heated by flues, and resembled a modern Turkish bath.
Lacquer. A coloured and opaque
varnish applied to the smooth surface
of boxes, articles of furniture, &c. It is
so called because its base is a resinous
substance called lac. Lacquer work of
the highest excellence has been produced in China and Japan, some pieces
of relief-lacquer taking many years to
finish. T h e process of lacquering is as
follows. T h e wood to be lacquered is
planed smooth and then covered with
a mixture of powdered red sandstone
and ox-gall. This coating is dried and
polished and then covered with a layer
of lacquer. T h e lacquer is dried slowly
in a damp-room and then polished with
slate. A second coating of lacquer is
then laid on and the drying process
repeated, and so on with the third and
fourth coating. A piece of lacquer work
always has more than three coatings,
and some are known to have received
eighteen. When a perfectly hard and
polished surface is obtained, the lacquer
is painted and finally mounted.
—, Aventurine. Aventurine lacquerwork is of a reddish brown colour and is
spangled all over with particles of gold,
which glitter the more the nearer they
are to the surface. It is used for large
cabinets &c.
—, Black. This is the lacquer most
commonly in use, and is seen in pieces
of furniture as well as in small boxes of
exquisite workmanship.
Its value of
course depends on the number of its
coatings and the polish imparted to its
surface.
— on Gold Ground. T h e most costly
lacquer work is on a gold ground. Pieces
of this class are always small and generally in high relief. T h e effect is some-

LAC

ART

DIC FIONARY.

times added to by projecting bosses of
gold and silver.
Lacquer, Red. Red lacquer is peculiar
to Japan and is now very rarely met with.
It was never applied to any but small
objects, such as cups.
Lacunar. (Arch.) A term denoting a
ceiling and also the sunk panels or compartments of a ceiling.
Lacustrine Dwellings. [Lake Dwellings.]
Lady Chapel. (Arch.) A chapel dedicated to the Virgin Mary, called by
Roman Catholics " Our Lady."
Lady
chapels were generally placed at the
extreme east end of churches, and were
in fact a prolongation of the chancel or
choir. They were sometimes termed
' ' retrochoirs. ' ' It was in the 12th century
that the majority of lady chapels were
built, at that period the Virgin being
held in especial honour. We have said
that the lady chapel was generally
placed at the east end of church or
cathedral. But this was not the invariable custom.
For instance, the lady
chapel at Ely is a separate chapel placed
at the north-east corner of the north
transept, while at Durham the " Galilee"
(q.v.), or western porch, is the lady
chapel.
Lagena. (Pot.) An ancient vase in
which wine was kept. Vases
bearing this name are generally of a slightly elongated
spherical form.
Sometimes
they have a swelling belly and
a short neck, and stand upon a foot.
Laggings. A term applied to narrow
battens joining centres (q.v.) horizontally, the centres being constructed
underneath long arches such as tunnels.
[Centre.]
Lake. (Paint.) A term applied to
certain pigments which consist of vegetable or animal matters with a base of
alumina or oxide of iron, such as carmine lake, yellow lake, &c.
—, Carmine. A lake obtained from
the cochineal insect. It is generally

LAM

permanent, as it contains less base and
more colouring matter than most lakes.
It is, however, affected by white lead
and strong light. In water-colour it
yields tones of less value than pure
carmine. In oil painting it possesses
great power, and is easily laid on.
Lake, Mineral. A violet colour which
enters into the composition of a pink
used in colouring porcelain.
—, Venetian. A red pigment obtained
from a mixture of alumina and a
solution of gelatine and alum, in a
decoction of a Brazilian wood.
—, Yellow. A pigment obtained from
the decoction of berries with a base of
alumina. It is not a very useful colour,
as it does not dry easily, and under
certain circumstances changes to orange
or red.
Lake Dwellings.
Dwellings
constructed not on dry land but on piles
driven into the bottom of lakes or
creeks seem to have been universal
among savage races. T h e custom of
living at some distance from the shore»
no doubt adopted in the first instance
for purposes of safety, still prevails in
the creeks of the Amazon and Orinoco,
in New Guinea, and in Central Africa.
Herodotus describes the Paeonians as
dwellers in cities built on lakes. T h e
Celtic races in mediaeval times had their
lake cities, and even as late as the 16th
century Irish chieftains are known to
have taken refuge in fortresses built on
lochs. Dr. Keller has established the
fact that in prehistoric times lake dwellings existed in all the shallow lakes
of Switzerland. Those who inhabited
these curious huts knew the use of
bronze or iron, but had not altogether
discarded implements of stone ; they
practised spinning and weaving, made
canoes and fished. They were acquainted
with agriculture, and lived in the security which comes of social organisation.
Lamb. In very early times Christ was
represented in art as a lamb, in allusion
to many texts in the Old and New Testa22

-5

LAM

ART

ments.
This representation was of
course symbolic, and it varied consider-

"IONARY.

LAM

gested the curious symbol of Christ
given in our first cut. In a Latin relief
of the 4th century engraved here, we see
the lamb raising Lazarus from the dead.
T h e Agnus Dei, or Lamb of God, is
represented with a nimbus on his head
and holding a staff surmounted by a
Greek cross.
Lambeth Ware. (Pot,) Lambeth was
one of the earliest sites of the manufactories of stoneware and Delft in
England. As early as 1640 some Dutch
potters settled in the village of Lambeth and became famous for their glazed
pottery and tiles.
T h e manufactory
flourished until the end of the 18th century, when the rise of the Staffordshire
potteries killed the Lambeth industry.
However, it soon revived, and is still in
existence.
Lamboys. A skirt, consisting of hoops
of steel, worn by warriors in the reigns
of Henry VII. and Henry VIII. It belonged rather to German armour than
English and was never in great vogue

realistic representation of Jesus Christ,
Sometimes the lamb appears on an
eminence from which four rivers flow-

in this country. A fine example of the
lamboys is to be seen in the suit of
armour given to Henry VIII. by the
Emperor Maximilian, and now in the
Tower of London.
Lambrequin. A French term which

[Evangelists.] A passage in the Apocalypse, which speaks of the lamb with
seven horns and seven eyes, has sug226

is primarily applied to the point of a

LAM

ART

label or the mantling of a helmet.
In
architecture, however, and decorative
art it bears several other meanings.
For instance, it denotes the broad

borders of stuff trimmed with fringes
and tassels, which are employed either
to hide the joining of draperies or as a
mere ornament. In the 17th and 18th
centuries lambrequins, cut in the solid
stone, are frequently found on the bases

of pilasters. T h e name is also given to
points of lead-work placed on each side
of the ridge of a roof. For the heraldic
sense of the word, see Mantling.
Lamp. In ancient times the lamp
generally assumed the form
of a flat vessel of terra-cotta
or metal, with a small handle.
It was filled with oil, and
had several small apertures,
in which wicks were placed.
Such were the ancient lamps

of simplest form. Some, however, were
marvellously beautiful works of art, and
were richly ornamented with chasings
or figures in relief. T h e modern lamp
is sometimes of bronze, sometimes of
marble or stone An attempt is always
made to give it an elegant shape, and it
may be decorated with chains and other
ornaments. It stands upon a foot and
supports a vessel, which contains the

DICTIONARY.

LAN

oil, or it is suspended by chains from
the ceiling. In Christian art the lamp
is the sign of watchfulness and piety,

and particularly symbolises the wise
virgins of the parable.
L a m p b l a c k A black pigment obtained
from burning turpentine, resins, or
resinous woods.
It is a solid but
somewhat heavy colour, and on this
account should only be used in small
quantities.
It is permanent, but dries
slowly.
Lance. (1.) A weapon borne
^
in all ages and by soldiers
of all nations. Among the
Greeks and Romans the lance
was sometimes placed in a
rest and sometimes thrown
as a javelin. In the latter
case it was provided with a
strap to give it a rotatory
motion. In the Middle Ages
the lance was pre-eminently
the weapon of the knights of
chivalry, and it was used both
in jousts and in war. It consisted of a shaft about fourteen
feet long, tipped with a
spear-head, and a handle
protected by a small
round plate.

Lance. (2.)
(Her.) A charge
representing
the lance used in jousts
and tournaments.
On
coats of arms it is sometimes shown with a pennon, sometimes without. Several lances
227

ART

LAN

LAN

DICTIONARY.

are generally blazoned, and they may be
in pile, en saltire, accosted, <&c. In the
hand of Pallas the lance signifies strength
and foresight.
In Christian art it is
the symbol of St. Matthew and of St.
Thomas, as well as of many lesser and
later saints.
Lance. (3.) (Arch.) As a system of
ornament the lance is widely
used.
It most frequently
forms the head of the iron
bars, which make up a railing. T h e finest specimens of
lances are to be found in the
iron work of the 17th and
18th centuries.
Lanceolate.
Any ornament, architectural or otherwise, which is shaped like a lance, is
termed lanceolate.
Lance-rest. A contrivance of iron
fixed on the breastplate to support the
lance. In early times it was nothing

from one another. T h e Early English
style is sometimes termed the Lancet
style.
Landscape. (Paint.) A picture representing a view of natural scenery, in
which the interpretation of nature is the
predominant feature, and in which
figures of men or animals are only
introduced as accessories, to give a tone
of reality to the scene or to furnish a
scale of dimensions.
—, Historic. A landscape, the subject
of which is not copied exactly from
nature, but is composed in accordance
with the taste of the artist.
Into
historic landscapes, ruined temples,
statues, and vases are frequently introduced as well as figures, which give the
scene an air of fable or ancient history.
T o this class belong the majority of
Claude's landscape as well as several of
Turner's.
— Painter. An artist who devotes
himself to the interpretation of nature.
Among the great landscape painters of the
world we may mention
Ruysdael,
Hobbema,
Rembrandt, Poussin, and
Claude, and belonging to
a later date, Constable
and Turner of the English
school, and Corot, Rousseau, Daubigny, and Courbet of the French school.

more than a hook, but by the 16th
century it had been elaborated into
the queue-shaped rest seen in our cut.
Lancet. (Arch.) A long
narrow
pointed arch used
in the architecture
of the 13th and
14th centuries. It
is particularly
characteristic of
what is called the
Early English style (q.v.). T h e lancet
arch consists of two arcs of circles the
centres of which are at a great distance

weapon the broad blade
of which was supposed to
resemble an ox's tongue.
It was fixed in a long staff
and was carried by bodyguards. It was rather a
sign of dignity than an
implement of war.
Langued. (Her.) This
term is used to blazon the
tongue of an animal when
this member is shown projecting and is of a different
tincture to the rest of the animal's head.

Langue-de-bœuf.

228

A

LAN

ART

LAO

DICTIONARY.

Lantern. (Arch.) A lantern is a small
cage, consisting of a metal frame filled

in with panes of glass, which protect
from currents of air the flame burning
within them. Many of the
y
lanterns of forged iron belonging to the 17th and 18th centuries are masterpieces of decorative art. As an architectural ornament a lantern is a
kind of finial, in the form of
a glass dome, a pierced campanile, or a belvedere rising
above the top of a building.
T h e term is also applied to
the interior of Gothic towers,
at the intersection of the nave
and transepts, when the tower
is not concealed by a vault.
T h e upper portion of Gothic
spires which are pierced by
windows on all sides are called lanterns.
T h e spire of Rouen Cathedral, for instance, is surmounted by a lantern.
There is yet another sense in which
the term lantern is used. It denotes
the small towers which surmount a

staircase or serve as an end ornament
to a massive buttress. Such lanterns
are generally met with in buildings of
the Renaissance style.

Lanterne des Morts. A small building generally in the form of a hollow
column, terminated by a pierced turret.
Lanternes
des Morts were generally
shrines in honour of the dead, or served

as landmarks to point the way to
religious houses. In the 14th century
they ceased to assume the form of
solitary columns, and were replaced by
chapels, in which a lamp was always
burning.
Laocoon. In Greek mythology Laocoon
was a Trojan priest of Apollo, who when
the famous wooden horse was received
within the walls of Troy, warned his
countrymen not to accept the gift of the
Greeks. It being the will of the gods
that Troy should be taken, serpents
were sent to devour Laocoon and his
two sons while they were sacrificing.
T h e judgment of heaven on the presumption of Laocoon was the subject of a
celebrated group, sculptured by Athenodorus, Agesandrus, and Polydorus, three
artists of the Rhodian school. It was
discovered in 1506 in Rome, and was
perhaps first estimated at its proper
value by Winckelmann. It is now at the
Vatican. In the realistic expression of
physical anguish it reaches the utmost
limit attainable by sculpture. Lessing
made the Laocoon group the text for
his famous essay on the limits of
sculpture and painting.
Laordose. This curious term, which
is in all probability a corruption of La
Reredos, is applied in the Durham manuscript to the altar-screen. [Reredos.]
229

LAP

ART

DICTIONARY.

Lapidary. An artisan who cuts and
engraves precious stones, or who places
them in a setting of gold or silver. In
another sense an inscription engraved
upon a stone may be termed a lapidary
inscription ; hence the concise and
solemn style of memorial inscriptions
engraved on public monuments has
been termed the lapidary style.
Lapis-lazuli. An opaque blue stone,
veined with white, used in the decorative arts, especially in the adornment of
some kinds of expensive furniture.
Lapithae. T h e Lapithae were a
mythical race of Thessaly, the most
celebrated among them being Ixion and
Peirithous.
Ixion, for presuming to
harbour a passion for the goddess Hera,
was punished by being bound to an everrevolving wheel.
T h e most famous
incident in the life of Peirithous was his
marriage with Deidamia. His kinsmen,
the Centaurs, were invited to the
marriage feast, and after the banquet
attempted to carry off the bride. T h e n
followed the battle between the Lapithae
and Centaurs, which was one of the
favourite subjects of Greek sculpture.
We find it represented on the metopes
of the Parthenon, the frieze of the
Theseum at Athens, and on the
western pediment of the temple of Zeus
at Olympia. It also forms the subject
of countless Greek vases.
Lararium. A shrine or chapel in
which the Romans placed images of the
Lares and Penates, or household gods.
Lares. In the religion of Rome Lares
were guardian angels supposed to be
the spirits of deceased persons, one of
which protected every Roman house.
An image of a Lar, in the form of a
youth crowned with laurel, and holding
a horn of plenty and sometimes a patera,
was reverently kept in the lararium (q v.),
where sacrifices were offered in its
honour.
Large. (Paint ) A term used of the
free, ample treatment of a subject in
painting, in opposition to paltry, timid, |
230

LAT

thin. Thus we say of an artist that he
has a large touch ; of draperies, that
they are largely treated.
Larmier. [Corona ]
Larvae. As the Lares (q.v.) were
supposed to be the souls of the good
departed, so the Larvae in the religious
system of the Romans were regarded as
the spirits of those whose crimes on
earth had entitled them to no rest after
death.
They were invested with no
material form and so are not represented in art.
Last Judgment, The. T h e subject of
Christ come to judge the world was
frequently treated by Italian painters.
For some reason or other it was never
attempted in early Christian art Among
the most celebrated representations of
the Last Judgment we may mention
those of Luca Signorelli at Orvieto and
Michael Angelo's great design in the
Sistine Chapel.
Last Supper, The. T h e Last Supper,
or Christ supping with his apostles the
evening before the passion, is a favourite
subject with artists of all schools, and is
constantly represented in frescoes, pictures, and bas-reliefs. T h e Last Supper
by Leonardo da Vinci is perhaps the most
celebrated work with this incident for
its subject. In the majority of pictures
representing the Last Supper Christ
wears a nimbus, as do all the apostles
except Judas, who is never represented
nimbed
Latch, (i.) (Arch.) A small shank of
metal on a door, which by its own weight
falls into a socket placed on the doorpost to receive it, and forms an efficient
means of keeping a door closed.
Latch. (2.) A name given to the crossbow (q v.) in the 16th century.
Lateral. (Arch.) A term applied to
anything situated on the side of a building ; thus we speak of lateral openings—
meaning openings on the side of a
principal opening—lateral chapels, &c
Lath. (Arch.) Long thin slips of oak or
fir used in roofs, wainscoting, &c.

LAT

ART

DR riONARY.

L a t t e n . A metal resembling brass,
which was much used in the Middle
Ages for making monumental brasses,
crosses, candlesticks, &c
Its exact
composition is uncertain and the ancient
authorities are contradictory. Modern
latten resembles the orichalcum of the
ancients, being a mixture of copper and
calamine.
L a t t i c e . (Arch.) An open space, crossed
by thin slips of wood or bars of metal,
meeting each other diagonally.
L a u r e l . (Arch.) Foliage of a certain
kind arranged in garlands and frequently
used as a decorative motive. In heraldry
the laurel is represented

ΐ4λί ftR

as

a

snru

fr

w

LAY

which piscinae and small reservoirs
were arranged under richly ornamented
arcades. In religious houses the monks
washed their hands in the lavatories
before and after dinner, and they were

*th i° n s

P o m t e d leaves and a therefore situated near the refectory.
smooth trunk
without T h e lavabo in some abbeys consists of
knots. T h e laurel is the a basin placed round a central column
s m )0
y t l of success, victory, which supports the springing of the
and triumph. In classical vault.
art the laurel was sacred
L a v a t o r i u m . (Arch.) A kind of lavabo
to Apollo, and the victors consisting of a large basin, in which the
in the Pythian games were crowned with bodies of the religious dead were washed
laurel. It is figured as an emblem of before burial.
peace on Christian sarcophagi. In decoLay-figure. An artificial figure, the
rative panels bunches of laurel are often frame of which is of wood or metal. Its
represented, the leaves of which are joints are articulated by means of
dark green and the flowers of a beautiful spherical pieces set side by side, so that
rose tint.
its limbs are movable. T h e r e are lay
L a u r e n c e . St. St. Laurence was
deacon to Sixtus II., Bishop of Rome,
and was by him appointed keeper of
the treasures of the Church. Sixtus
having been persecuted and put to
death by the prefect of Rome, Laurence
was arrested and suffered martyrdom by
being roasted alive on a kind of gridiron.
Representations of St. Laurence are
frequently met with in art.
He is
represented as a youth in the dress of a
deacon, carrying the palm of martyrdom.
T h e attribute by which he is most easily
recognisable is the gridiron, but sometimes instead of this he bears a censer figures of animals, principally horses, as
or the treasures of the Church in a well as of men. In size they vary from
bowl.
life-size to a few inches in height. They
Lavabo, or L a v a t o r y .
(Arch.) A may best be described as articulated
special room in mediaeval buildings in dolls, constructed in accordance with
iwf WKWII
WpH^dllf
VAIÌÌÌIIÌ
ilMIifillw
(f|y|f/ji\ji
* \ j j . ' I'ji

231

ART

LAY

DICTIONARY.

the laws of anatomy and bearing the
structure of the h u m a n skeleton. T h e
articulated joints allow them to assume
every attitude. T h e lay-figure is chiefly
used for hanging draperies upon, for
thus the artist is enabled to study the
folds at greater leisure than he could
from the living model. At the same
time it is dangerous to copy too slavishly
the attitudes of the lay-figure, for its
outlines must always be harder and
cruder than those of the living model.
Lay t h e Ground, To (Engrav.) T o
cover a copper plate with a grain or
file-like ground by the use of the cradle
«or rocker (q.v.). This instrument is
held firmly in the hand and then rocked
to and fro, by which process an indented
furrow is made across the plate. This
is repeated until the plate is covered
with parallel paths or ways and a grain
of the proper texture is obtained.
Lazurline, or Lazurstein. A brilliant
blue pigment obtained from lapis lazuli,
generally known as ultramarine (q.v.).
Lead. A heavy malleable metal which
has been employed for a variety of architectural and artistic purposes. It has
been especially used in roofing buildings
and in making épis (q.v.) and girouettes
(q.v.).
Statues intended to serve as
garden decorations have been successfully cast in it. Some pigments, such
as white lead and chrome yellow, have
lead as a base. They are, however, of
little service to the painter, for not only
do they easily tarnish themselves, but
they adversely affect other pigments
with which they come in contact.
L e a d i n g . (Arch.) Thin strips of lead

inclosing small panes of glass.
232

The

LEA

most simple leading assumes the lozenge
pattern. Sometimes leadings present
patterns consisting of complicated polygonal combinations.
Lead-pencils. Ordinary lead pencils,
used for drawing or jotting down hasty
sketches, consist of a small rod of plumbago enclosed within a piece of cedarwood. They are cut sharp with a knife,
and the lead may have a fine point put to
it by rubbing it on emery paper. Lead
pencils of a very fine grain are made
from the graphite of Siberia.
Lead-plate. A thin plate of lead is
often placed in the joints of a wall or at
the base of statues set on pedestals, in
order to fill up the inequalities of the
stone and so to render the adherence
and therefore the stability more complete.
Leaf. (1.) (Arch.) T h e leaves of a table
are the separate pieces of
timber of which its surface is composed.
A
table may be increased
or decreased in length by
the addition or removal
of a leaf. T h e rectangular
piece of timber which forms a door is
termed a leaf. T h e leaves of a folding
door are t h e two portions which meet
together when the door is closed.
Leaf. (2.) A system of ornament representing a leaf,
treate
IMffViSlliP'1!'
d sometimes
ÎijWinll //TroÎ!
realistically, sometimes in a conventional spirit.
It
may be applied to
a moulding and repeated along its whole length, or may
decorate the bell of a capital. Decorative leaves sometimes project considerably from the ground upon which they
are worked, sometimes they are only
sketched in outline. [Foliage.]
—, Acanthus. T h e leaf of the acanthus is constantly used in decorative
sculpture. It is generally represented
turned back, so as to form a kind of

LEA

ART

volute, and it is especially characteristic
of the Corinthian and Composite orders
of architecture. [Acanthus.]
Leaf, Angle. A leaf placed at the angle
formed by two
mouldings,
such
as the angle of a
ceiling
cornice
The centre nerve
of the leaf generally coincides
with the angle of the moulding, and the
two portions of the leaf are arranged
symmetrically one on each face of the
moulding.
—, Cabbage. This leaf was employed
as an architectural ornament in the 15th
and 16th centuries. T h e crockets which
decorate gable-ends are often formed of
cabbage leaves, in the execution of which
with the chisel the artists of the Middle
Ages displayed extraordinary skill.
—, Fig. T h e leaf usually employed
to cover the nudity of statues. Where
this has to be done it is far better that the
sculptor should do it himself with flying
draperies or other accessories, if indeed
he can do it without making his purpose
painfully evident. T h e use of the figleaf is in all cases a clumsy expedient,
dictated by a spirit of ignorant prudery.
—, Laurel. An ornament consisting
of the leaves of the laurel, generally
arranged three together.
— of a Fan. A piece of paper, parchment, or satin,
cut in the form
of two portions
of concentric
circles
and
b o u n d e d by
two radii. Upon the leaves of fans
water-colour drawings or gouaches are
often executed.
— of a n En|||i\' tablature. A term
applied to rows of
leaves which decorate an entablature or separate two mouldings. In
16

DICTIONARY.

LEA

Gothic architecture their tips curve over
so as to form crockets, as in our cut.
Leaf, Olive. An ornament consisting
of the leaves of the olive-tree, usually
arranged in bunches of five leaves.
—, Parsley. Small thin leaves, which,
like the acanthus leaf, enter into the
decoration of the Corinthian capital.
—, Thistle. An ornament sometimes
found on capitals of the 15th century.
—, Water. A leaf of undulating form
and unbroken border, which is employed
to decorate mouldings or surfaces of a
considerable size. It is also frequently
employed in iron-work, especially to en-

KlAUAl^^
rich the front of balconies, in which case,
however, leaves of a more strongly
marked outline are used to relieve the
dryness of the usual spirals and scrolls.
Leaning-place. (Arch.) T h e portion
of a wall included between the ground and
the window-sill, together
with the sill which surmounts it. In buildings
ï1*
of the Gothic style leaning-places are called alleges (q.v.).
Lean-to. (Arch.) A shed or roof with

a single slope fixed to the wall of a
building by its upper edge. T h e term
2

33

LEA

ART

DICTIONARY.

is also applied to buildings which have
a roof arranged on this plan.
Leather. T h e skins of animals tanned
and hardened have been used extensively for decorative purposes In the
Middle Ages a specially prepared leather
under the name
of
cuir-bouilly
(q.v.) was used in
making portions
of armour, caskets, &c.
This
was stamped when in a soft state and
richly ornamented. In the 16th century
leather was used as hangings for rooms.
These hangings were stamped with ornament and their beauty enhanced by
gold and silver leaf. Leather cut and
twisted into volutes was used from the
16th century onwards as a frame for
cartouches, &c. Stamping is not the
only process by which leather is ornamented. Figures in relief were sometimes chased upon it, and pieces of
leather thus decorated are often very
beautiful and costly.
—, Cordova. Strips of leather ornamented with figures cut in low relief
and either painted or gilt. In modern
times many imitations of Cordova leather
are produced by stamping, and used, as
were the genuine materials, as hangings
or chair-covers.
Lebes. A large vessel of swelling form

generally made of bronze.
234

It was used

LEC

either to catch the water which was
poured from a jug over the feet and
hands after meals, or as a caldron, in

which to boil meat. T h e cuts we give
here represent specimens of the lebes
used for the latter purpose.
Lectern. A portion of church furniture placed in the choir and forming a
single or double reading-desk. It gene-

rally revolves on a pivot and very frequently assumes the form of an eagle
with outspread wings. T h e gospel was

LEC

ART

DICTIONARY.

originally chaunted from the lectern and
the books of the clergy
were placed upon it. Now
only the lessons are read
from the lectern and nothing but the Bible rests
upon it. There are many
beautiful lecterns in existence of sculptured wood,
while others are made of stone, marble,
beaten iron, or copper.
Lecythus. (Pot.) A Greek vase in the
form of a cylindrical cruet, with
a narrow neck and
a lip which widens out considerably. From this
lip a
handle
r e a c h e s to t h e
body of the vase.
T h e lecythus was
intended to contain oils or perfumes.
Athenian
lecythi were often
of exquisite beauty
of workmanship,
and were adorned
with
painted
figures of great beauty.
Leeds. (Pot.) T h e first potteries were
established at Leeds in the 18th century.
Dresden china was accepted as a model,
and perforated or reticulated pieces
were made in considerable numbers.
Leeds china was of a dullish white, and
was distinguished by its glaze, one of
the ingredients in which was arsenic.
Artistic pottery has long ceased to be
made at Leeds.
Legend. T h e title or explanation of a
picture or engraving ; the inscription on
a coin or medal. T h e term also denotes
the inscriptions placed in certain parts
of pictures or frescoes.
Lemniscus. A fillet worn by the
Greeks.
It consisted of ribbons of
various colours, and was suspended to
crowns at the back of the head or, as

LES

I was more usually the case, attached to

wreaths or fillets.
Lemon Yellow. (Paint.) A pigment
composed of chromic acid and barium.
It is said to be entirely permanent and
unaffected by damp, foul air, light, or
admixture with white lead and other
dangerous pigments.
Leonard, St. St. Leonard, who died
in 559, was a native of France, and until
he retired to live the life of a hermit was
in high favour at the French court. H e
devoted himself to ministering to
prisoners and captives, and hence has
always been regarded as the patron
saint of prisoners. H e is generally
represented with chains hanging round
his waist, and wears the tunic of the
Benedictines. T h e principal events of
his life are set forth in mosaic in St.
Mark's, at Venice.
Leopard. (Her.) In heraldry the
leopard is always represented walking, and with
his head turned so as to be
full face towards the spectator ; in other words a
leopard is always passant
guardant.
Hence it is supposed that in early heraldry the term
leopard was merely used as an abbreviation for lion passant guardant, and
that it did not imply a distinct animal ;
at any rate we find that the arms of
England were formerly always blazoned
gules, three leopards or.
Lesene. (Arch.) A building among the
Greeks consisting of covered courts with
porticoes. T h e walls were generally
covered with paintings, often by the
greatest artists, as was the case at
2

35

ART

LET

DICTIONARY.

LIE

Delphi, where the lesche was decorated glass bottle filled with coloured water is
with pictures representing the sacking placed at each end. A line drawn from
of Troy and the visit of Odysseus to the the eye of the observer over the surface
Shades by the great Polygnotus himself. of the water in the bottles, serves to deLetter, Before. [Proof before letter.] termine a horizontal line.
Letter, Ornamental. A decorated or
Library. (Arch.) A term applied to a
illuminated letter. Ornamental letters, room in which books are arranged in
most frequently used as initials to chap- shelves, or to a public building which
ters, are often painted in mediaeval serves the purpose of a storehouse for
manuscripts. In printed books orna- books and provides accommodation for
mental letters are used, and are either readers.
drawn and engraved on wood or reproLichaven. A dolmen which has only
duced by some chemical process. These t w o s u p p o r t i n g
afford great scope to the talent of the stones. T h e name
artist. In their simplest form they are of trilith is also
only initials of a large size surrounded given to these dolby ornaments.
T h e more elaborate mens because they
among them, however, are vignettes, in are formed of three
which the letter is ingeniously woven out stones, two being
of the attributes or figures in the design. placed vertically
Lettered. [Proof, lettered.]
and buried in the ground, the third
Level. A right-angled triangle of wood forming a table and being placed horior iron, two sides of zontally.
which are accurately adLich-gate. (Arch.) This term, which
justed. A plummet is is derived from the Anglo-Saxon lie, a
suspended from the apex body, denotes a shed or roof placed over
of the triangle, and if the a churchyard gate. T h e bearers of a
ine which is to be verified is perfectly coffin sometimes deposited it here on
horizontal, the thread ought to divide the their way to the interment. It is also
cross-bar which forms the hypotenuse of called corpse-gate.
the triangle into two equal parts. T h e
Licked up. (Paint.) In studio slang,
level is used by workmen of every class a picture is said to be licked up when it
—masons, carpenters, and cabinet- is precisely and minutely painted, and
makers. It is the symbol of equality, when the artist has set himself to conceal
and is thus figured in emblematic tro- the marks of the brush as well as the
phies.
effect of the colour freshly laid on. In
—, Spirit. A level consisting of a tube fact, the surface of a picture thus licked
filled with spirit and
up is actually polished with a flat brush.
slightly curved. A
T h e term is only used in a bad sense ; at
bubble of air is left
the same time licked-up pictures conin it, which occupies
stantly delude the public by their apthe exact centre of the tube when the parent finish.
level is placed on a perfectly horizontal
Lierne. (Arch.) A Heme in a vaulted
surface.
compartment is the rib
running along the apex
—, Water. A
of the vault from boss to
^ tube of iron the exboss. Liernes are found
tremities of which
in pointed vaults, and
are bent so as to be
were used principally
at right angles to
the main body of the tube. A small about the middle of the 15th century.
236

LIF

ART

DICI i t ? ^ £ 7 .

LIM

Life-size. A term applied to any work resembled a huge funeral pyre, and
of imitative art which represents its c o n s i s t e d of s e v e r a l
A
subject in its actual dimensions.
truncated pyramids
jB
Light. (Paint.) The quality which is placed in retreat one
Jjj$
possessed by the most luminous part of above the other. ColosJJBL
a picture, drawing, or engraving in con­ sal figures have someφ3Ε
tradistinction to those parts which are times taken the place of
j IJ
relatively obscure and so said to be in a lighthouse. Such was
J4a
shade (q.v.). T h e term is also applied the famous Colossus of
I ||
to the way in which the luminous por­ Rhodes, and such is the
Ι Μ
tions of a picture are rendered. T h u s great statue of IndefienH'l"*%
we say of a picture that it lacks light or dence, executed by BarΐΪΓ|
that its light is well distributed. Light tholdi, which stands at
/ ΏΛ
r
also denotes the way in which pictures the entrance to New
^^S3MM^k
themselves should be lighted in a studio York Harbour. In such
**^
or exhibition gallery, so as to appear to cases as these a lantern or beacon must
best advantage. Thus we may describe surmount the figure.
a picture as being in a good or bad light.
L i g h t s , (i.) (Paint.) T h e lights in a
As a general rule a top light is best for picture are those parts where the light
pictures, as this produces the smallest falls with the most brilliance. A strong
number of reflections on the surface of effect is obtained by making those parts
the canvas. For seeing sculpture, the to which it is desired to give promi­
angle formed with the horizon by the nence the lights of the picture.
luminous rays ought not to be more
L i g h t s . (2.) (Arch.) T h e architectural
than forty-five degrees.
term for thé divisions of a window be—, Red. (Paint.) A pigment produced tween the mullions. T h u s a window
from sulphate of iron or from yellow may consist of three, five, seven, or
oxides of iron burnt. It is permanent more lights.
but should not be mixed with colours,
Lily. T h e symbol of purity and innowhich are adversely affected by iron.
cence. In representations of the Annun—, Secondary. (Paint.) A term ciation (q.v.) it is always to be seen,
applied to a glimmer of light which is either in the hand of the angel Gabriel
only accessory in the lighting of a or placed in a vase.
painted scene. T h u s if in a moonlit
Limbus. A border worn on the garpasture a shepherd is seen advancing ments of both men and women among
lantern in hand, this lantern, which the Greeks and in a less degree the
throws a light over a part of the canvas,
bears the n a m e of a secondary light, as
opposed to the rays of the moon,
which is the principal light of the pic­
ture.
Lighthouse. (Arch.) A tower, turret,
or other lofty construction, built upon
the sea-coast or on the bank of a large
river, and carrying a powerful lamp at
the top, which serves as a guide to
sailors. At the entrance of the harbours
constructed by the Romans a lighthouse Romans.
It assumed a variety of
was generally built in imitation of the patterns, many of which resembled
great lighthouse of Alexandria. This architectural mouldings.
Représenta*37

LIM

ART

DU TIONARY.

tions of the limbus are frequently found
on Greek vases, from which our cuts
have been taken.
Limestone. A hard
finely-grained
stone used in building.
Limoges
Enamels.
[Enamels,
Limoges.]
— Faïence. T h e manufactory of faience at Limoges was founded in the year
1773 by Massié. Early pieces of this
ware are rarely met with and are consequently very valuable. After passing
through many hands the manufacture
languished, until in the present century it received fresh impetus from
American enterprise.
Line. (1.) (Paint.) T h e great ambition

that he is on the line, or that he is hung
above it. It is the privilege of Academicians to have a certain number of
pictures on the line every year.
Line (2.) T h e contour of a figure. T h u s
we speak of a figure which possesses
great purity of line. If we say of an
artist that he has sacrificed line to
colour, we mean that he has allowed his
colour to predominate over his design.
—, Dotted. A line formed of a series
of round points or small strokes regularly spaced, which are used on a plan
to indicate axes, invisible lines, or directions.
—, Horizontal. T h e line of intersection between a horizontal and a vertical
plane.
In perspective the term is
applied to all lines parallel to the
horizon.
— Engraving. That branch of engraving in which the design to be copied is
reproduced on copper by incised lines
T h e process is as follows. T h e drawing
to be reproduced is traced and trans-

238

LIN

ferred to a copper plate ; it is then cut
in with a sharp tool called the dry-point.
T h e lines thus slightly cut in are emphasised with the graver (q.v.), and when the
work of the graver is finished the plate
may be printed from. T h e resources
at the disposal of the line engraver are
few.
H e has only lines of different
lengths and at different distances from
one another, aided by dots and crosshatching, with which to reproduce the
tones and values of his original. Many
line engravers to lessen their work
have used etching (q.v.), not only to
get the first sketch of the original on
their plate, but also in the later stages
of their work. T h e labour involved in
the process is very considerable, and it
is not surprising that in modern times
the art has considerably declined.
Samuel Cousins, the last great line
engraver of England, is recently dead,
and has scarcely left any one to take his
place.
— of Beauty. A term applied, in
accordance with a certain artistic theory,
to a graceful, curved, or undulating Ime
—sometimes quite mannered—outside
which, it is said, there is no line really
beautiful and worthy of admiration.

Hogarth was the first to formulate the
theory of the serpentine line or line of
beauty, which he did in two large volumes. H e placed his line of beauty on
a palette underneath his own portrait
and it is here engraved.
— of Level. T h e line which determines
the horizontal position of two points' at
some distance from one another.

LIN

ART

DICTIONARY.

Line of Shadow. T h e line which in a
lighted body separates the luminous part
from the part in shadow.
— of Slope T h e line which determines the difference in level between
two points.
—, Plumb A line perpendicular to the
surface of smooth water. This line indicates the direction of the plummet.
Lineal. T h a t which relates to the lines
of a drawing or painting.
T h u s we
speak of the lineal harmony of a painting.
Linear. A term applied to plans executed by means of regular lines, geometrical curves, and to drawings made
with the rule and compass.
Linen Scroll. A decorative pattern
_
found in panels of
carved wood and
so called from its
resemblance to a
linen napkin folded up. It is characteristic of the
ornamental woodwork of the 15th
""" and 16th centuries.
Linstock. A pike with two branches
which terminated in a snake's head, as
is shown in the cut. It was carried by
cannoniers in the 16th century, and a

LIO

Lintel. (Arch.) T h e horizontal beam,
sometimes plain, sometimes ornamental,
which unites the
uprights of a dooi
or window. T h e
lintel may be of
timber, iron, or
• i &* '
stone. In the
latter case, if it is a monolith, it is generally of little width. More often, how-

ever, it is composed of stones, narrowed
towards their base, which form a secure
plat-band. Lintels
of iron can hardly
J 1 L·*.
w be treated in a decorative spirit, yet
they have the advantage of rendering a very wide bearing possible.
Lion. (Her.) T h e lion is the most
common of heraldic charges, having
been always highly esteemed by heralds.
T h e several positions in which lions are
represented are each denoted by special
words of French origin, to which it is
customary, however, to give an Anglicised
pronunciation. Lions are said to be
armed when their claws are of a different tincture, langued when their tongue
shows, and disarmed when they have
neither claws nor tongue. Unless otherwise specified, lions, like other heraldic
charges, are always represented looking t o w a r d s t h e
dexter side of the
shield.
— Couchant. T h e
lighted fuse being placed in one of the lion couchant is rebranches, it enabled him to fire the presented as lying
cannon and at the same time to have a down, its front paws
weapon with which he could defend stretched out straight on the ground and
its head raised up.
himself.
239

LIO

ART

DICTIONARY.

Lion Dormant. A
lion dormant is represented in heraldry
as lying down in an
attitude of sleep, with
its head laid upon its
front paws.
— P a s s a n t . A lion in this
attitude is shewn walking
with the right fore paw
raised, as represented in
the accompanying cut.

LIT

Lion, Statant. A

lion in this position is
shown in profile, his feet
planted firmly on the
ground and his face
turned towards the spectator.
Lioncel. (Her.) A lioncel is a lion's
whelp. In heraldry a
lion is r e p r e s e n t e d
alone on a shield, but
lioncels appear two together. Our cut repre— Passant Gardant. In
sents two lioncels adthis position t h e lion differs
from t h e lion passant in that his head is dorsed.
turned towards the spectator instead of
L-iron. (Arch.) A
being seen in profile. An illustration of bent piece of metal
this is given under the word Leopard used to strengthen
(q.v.) T h e arms of England are : Gules, a n g l e s f o r m e d b y
three lions passant gardant in pale or.
pieces of wood or iron
— P a s s a n t Regardant. Here the lion placed perpendicularly
resembles the lion passant except that to one another.
he is looking backwards towards his
Listel. (Arch.) A plane moulding,
tail, that is to the sinister side of the semi-rectangular in profile, which sepashield.
rates a concave or convex moulding.
— Rampant. In this well-known posi- [Fillet.] T h e term is also applied to
tion the lion is reared u p that part of the shaft of a column
on his hind legs, with his which occupies the interval between t h e
weight on the left ; the two flutings.
fore legs are elevated, t h e
Lithochrome. A process t h e object
right above the left. T h e of which is to produce imitations of
arms of Scotland are : Or, pictures.
T o attain this end lithowithin
a tressure
fleury graphic proofs are struck off on paper
rendered transparent by thick varnish ;
counter-fleury, a lion rampant gules.
— Salient. T h e lion salient is reared oil-colour is then applied in thick coatings to the wrong side of these proofs,
up as the lion ramwhich are finally sized down upon
but with this
canvas and varnished in the ordinary
difference, that both
way.
the hind paws and
Lithochromography. A term applied
the fore paws are
to colour-printing on stone.
It is geneplaced together as they
rally called chromolithography (q.v.).
would be for a leap.
Lithochrysography.
T h e art of
— Sejant. A lion sejant is represented sitting down printing in gold and colour on stone.
Lithocolla. A cement by means of
on the haunches with
its fore legs firmly which lapidaries fix down the gems
planted on the ground which they are cutting to the grindstone.
Lithoglyph. An engraved gem.
and looking" toward
Lithoglyphy. T h e art of engraving
the dexter side of the
upon precious stones.
shield.
240

LIT

ART

DICTIONARY.

Lithograph. A print struck off from a
lithographic stone.
Lithographic Stone. The stone used
by lithographers comes for the most part
from Solenhofen in Bavaria and from
various places on the Danube. It is of
a yellowish grey colour, and it is essential that it should have a uniform surface and be entirely free from veins and
spots.
Lithography. A branch of the art of
engraving in which the drawing to be
reproduced is traced upon a stone in
an oily ink or crayon. T h e stone is
damped, and the printer's ink only adheres to those portions of the stone
where the design is drawn. Prints are
then struck off in the usual manner.
T h e process was invented in 1796 by a
German named Senefelder. In the present day it must chiefly be regarded as a
branch of industrial art, for it is used
principally in the production of cheap
illustrations. But it has been adopted by
many brilliant artists.
T h e French
draughtsmen, Prudhon, Géricault, Delacroix, Vernet, and Gavarni, all executed
lithographs, which can really be regarded
as proofs of orignal drawings. Unfortunately only a limited n u m b e r of copies can
be printed from the stone without destroying the delicacy of the drawing. Some
engravings have been executed on stone
in the ordinary way, i.e. the graver
has been employed to incise lines on
stone. This process, however, cannot
be recommended, as it entails considerable labour and is inferior in its results
to ordinary line engraving.
Lithophany. A process by means of
which designs are modelling on plaques
of porcelain or biscuit, which are transparent, and when held up to the light
display lights and shades.
Difference
of tone is obtained by increasing or decreasing the thickness of the porcelain
or biscuit. T h e porcelain is cast in
moulds which are produced mechanically or by hand, and the whole skill
of the artist in making these moulds

LIT

consists in properly graduating the
thickness of the plaque. T h e thick portions give the blacks, while the whites,
which are also transparent, are yielded
by the thin portions.
Lithophotography. A process of lithographic printing in which the drawing
on the stone is not executed by the
artist himself, but is obtained from a
photographic cliché, which leaves a
proof upon the stone similar to a proof
taken on sensitised paper.
Lithophotographic proofs have the appearance of
photographs, and sometimes are a little
blurred, but they have the advantage
of being permanent if they are printed
in a certain kind of ink.
Lithostereotype. A chemical process
of engraving upon stone, invented by
Tissier in 1841, which also goes by the
barbarous name of Tissierography. It
consists in hollowing out by means of
azotic acid those portions of the stone
which are not covered with ink or
crayon. T h e part in relief then stands
out just like printer's type. T h e cliché
t h u s obtained can be printed from by
the ordinary typographic process.
Lithostrotum. A mosaic pavement,
composed of small pieces of coloured
marble.
Lithotypography. A process by which
facsimiles of printed pages are traced
upon stone either by moistening the
pages of the old volume with a special
chemical compound and pressing it upon
the stone or by tracing proofs freshly
struck from printers' types. T h e stone
is then eaten with acid as in the lithostereotype process and printed from.
T h e advantage of lithotypography is that
by it old printed books can be exactly
facsimiled.
Little Masters. A term applied to a
group of artists who executed small
designs either on wood or copper for
illustrative and other purposes. They
flourished in the 16th and 17th centuries,
and included Jost Amman, Aldegrever,
Hans Schatifling, Baldung Griin, H a n s
241

LIT

ART

DICTIONARY.

Sebald Beham, Burgmair, and Altdorfer
T h e majority of them worked under
Dtirer's influence, and their prints,
though small in size, are admirable in
execution.
Litre. (Arch.) A French term which
denotes the band which ran round some
churches of the Middle Ages and Renaissance period, upon which the coats

LOO

Locker. [ C r e d e n t i a l
Loft. (Arch ) A term applied to a
garret or small room in the roof of a
building or to a gallery in a church or
hall, such as a rood-loft, a music-loft, &c
Loge. (Arch.) A French term which
denotes in theatrical architecture
what
is
called in English
a box—a small
room closed on
three sides and
open only in the
direction of the
stage.
Loggia. (Arch.) A gallery or portico
projecting from a
building and sometimes decorated with
paintings. T h e term
is also applied to the
paintings themselves.
Thus we speak of the
loggias of Raphael at
the Vatican.

of arms of the pious founders were
painted. It is also applied to the large
ornamental bands painted upon the flat
surface of a wall, and especially to the
vertical bands which separate panels
Lituus. T h e ancient counterpart of
the bishop's crosier.
It
was a twisted wand carried
by augurs, and was used
Lombard Style.
for purposes of divination. (Arch.) A term applied by some writers
VH
When represented in works to the Romanesque style of architecture,
""*' Tj
°f a r t it i s generally in the from the fact that many examples of it
are to be seen in the north of Italy.
form of a spiral.
Liverpool In the 17th and 18th cenLonginus, St. T h e name given in the
turies Liverpool was an important centre legends of the early Church, upon no
of the ceramic art. Many potteries were authority, to the centurion who pierced
established there, in the majority of the side of our Lord and who spoke the
which Delft ware was taken as a model. words, " T r u l y this man is the Son of
Loaded (Paint.) A canvas is said to God." H e is frequently represented in
be loaded when the paint is laid thickly pictures of the crucifixion wearing the
upon it. By loading a canvas in certain dress of a Roman soldier and carrying
parts strong shadows may be obtained, a spear in his hand.
which add to the effect of the picture.
Loophole. (Arch.) A long
[Impasto.]
narrow opening in the walls
Lobe. [Foils ]
of fortified castles, through
Local Colour. [Colour, Local ]
which archers discharged
Lock. A contrivance for making fast their arrows. When they
a door. It consists of a metal bolt were cruciform, so that misturned by a key. T h e works of the siles could be discharged
lock are generally hidden in the thick- from them in every direcness of the wall and only a plate shows, tion, they were called balliswhich is frequently ornamented.
traria (q.v.).
242

LOS

ART

DICTIONARY.

Lost W a x Process. A process of
bronze founding in which the core is
covered with an accurate representation
of the object to be cast in wax, the wax
being of the intended thickness of the
metal. T h e wax is then coated with a
porous clay and the whole mass is put
in a pit and baked. During the process
of baking the wax melts and runs off
through apertures left for the purpose.
T h e space left after the wax is melted
is occupied by the metal. This, the
oldest method of bronze founding, is probably the best, and in the present day it
is being pretty generally adopted. In
the method, which for some time has
been in vogue, the core was made of
the exact size of the object to be cast
and afterwards pared down, so as to
leave space for the metal to run in between the core and the mould.
[Founding.]
Lottinoplastic. A method of moulding
invented in 1833 by the littérateur and traveller, Lottin de Laval. It consists in taking an impression of an object by means
of damp sheets of paper placed one over
the other upon the object and successively plugged with a brush. When the
sheets of paper have acquired the consistency of cardboard they can be withdrawn, and when they are dry may be
rolled up. Lottinoplastic is of service in
the reproduction of statues of bas-reliefs,
and it has the great advantage, for travellers at least, of furnishing moulds easy
to carry and of trifling weight.
Lotus. T h e leaves and flowers of the
lotus plant are frequently employed for
decorative purposes in the buildings of
India and Egypt, and are considered

LOW

bell, have frequently been reproduced
by the Egyptians. In fact the greater
number of Egyptian capitals are in the
form of a lotus-flower with the upper

part cut off, swelling at the base and
contracted towards the top, or of a calix,
the circumference of which is decorated
with convex lobes representing the petals
of the lotus.
Louvre. (1.) A name given to the
palace of the Louvre in Paris, and more
especially to the collection of works of
art made in the reign of Francis I. and
considerably increased by Louis XIV.
and Napoleon I. T h e galleries of the
Louvre include collections of pictures,
drawings, objects of art belonging to the
Middle Age and Renaissance, ancient
and modern sculpture, as well as examples of Assyrian, Egyptian, and
Etruscan art. T o these we must add
the print-room and the galleries, in
which special bequests of pictures and
other artistic objects are placed.
Louvre. (2.) (Arch.) A small lantern
or turret placed on the roof of halls in
ancient houses, in order to carry away
the smoke which rose from the open
hearth.
Louvre or Luffer Boarding. [Abatson.]
Lovers' Knots. (Her.) A cord intertwined and terminated in a knot at each
end.
Lowestoft Ware. From a fine clay
found near Lowestoft some
excellent
pottery has been made. T h e manufacture dates from the middle of the 18th
century. T h e earliest pieces were blue
as the symbol of fecundity and life. and white, the later were generally deThe open flower of the lotus, as well as corated with variously-coloured floral
the buds and the leaves shaped like a designs of great excellence.
243

LOW

ART

DICTIONARY.

Low-relief. An expression synonomous with bas-relief, denoting sculptured
ornaments which have but a slight projection. [Bas-relief.]
Low-side Window. (Arch.) A small
window which is frequently to be seen
at the west end of the chancel in Gothic
churches. It was low down in the wall
near the ground and had no glass in
it, being closed either with bars or
shutters.
It is said to have served
some ecclesiastical purpose in the time
before the Reformation, but if it did
so this purpose has long been forgotten.
Low-warp. A process of weaving
tapestries in wool or silk, in which the
warp is horizontal, the warp being vertical only in high-warp tapestries. T h e
principal advantage in the process consists in the relative speed in the work
and consequently in its cheapness compared with the high-warp process. On the
other hand, low-warp is inferior to highwarp tapestry from the point of view of
style. But this inferiority does not strike
the untrained eye, and it is only by minute
details that it is possible to distinguish
the two methods of manufacture. T h e
low-warp process is exclusively employed at Beauvais and Aubusson,
while the high-warp has always been
regarded as the privileged process of the
Gobelins.

LU K

met with in the Romanesque style. T h e
term is also applied to plates of metal
cut out in lozenge patterns, which cover
the roofs of spires, domes, cupolas, &c.
Lozenge. (3.) (Her.) T h e lozenge is a
diamond-shaped
quadrilateral figure,
and is one of the heraldic
subordinaries.
It must be
distinguished from the fusil,
which is much more tapering in form, and also from
the mascle and rustre, which
are always pierced. When
^
the whole field of an escutcheon is
covered with lozenges, as in the cut, it
is said to be lozengy.
Lucarne. [Arch.] A window which
projects vertically from the
slope of a roof. It assumes
different forms, which are
described under the varieties of Dormer (q.v.).
Lucia, St. A Syracusan
saint who suffered m a r t y r - ;
dom in A.D. 303. She determined at
an early age to dedicate herself to the
Lord, and suffered terrible persecution
at the hands of the Roman governor,
being stabbed to death with a poniard.
T h e commonest legend concerning her
is, that, not wishing to marry the youth
to whom she was betrothed, she plucked
out her eyes and sent them to him on a
salver. Whereon he is said to have been
Lozenge, (i.) A geometri- at once converted to Christianity and she
cal figure having four equal to have recovered her sight. Most represides. Its opposite angles are sentations of St. Lucia are suggested by
equal, two being obtuse and this legend, for in pictorial art she
generally holds her eyes on a salver.
two acute.
Lozenge. (2.) (Arch.) A name given Her other attributes are the palm of
to certain sculptured mouldings which martyrdom and a poniard, with which
she was put to death. She is the patron
saint of the blind.
Luke, St. T h e disciple and companion
of St. Paul. Tradition says that he was
a physician and also a painter. In very
early times portraits of the Virgin were
—«Hiiim^i^cmn^wnwflfttowoiv^'W"
ascribed to him.
H e has therefore
consist of lozenges placed side by side. always been regarded as the patron
Lozenge mouldings are most frequently saint of artists. In pictorial art he is

244

LUK

ART

DICTIONARY.

represented either as an evangelist holding his gospel and with an ox at his side,
or as a youthful painter with a portrait
of the Virgin in his hand. In pictures
of the Byzantine school and the schools
derived from it he assumes the latter
character.

Luke, St., Academy of. St Luke being
regarded as a painter himself and a
patron of painters, the earliest guilds
of artists were established under his
name. A guild of St. Luke was established at Florence in 1345, in Paris in
1391, and at Rome in 1593. T h a t at
Rome is still in existence.
Luminous. A term applied to brilliant
and striking tones, bright canvases,
and pictures in which the lights predominate over the shades.
Lunette. (Arch.) A small vault constructed in a barrel vault of larger dimensions than itself, its purpose being
to admit light to a dark place, or to

throw a part of the weight of a construction upon other points of support.
T h e term lunette also denotes a window or space (often semicircular) about
a square-headed window or door. This

space is frequently filled with decorative paintings, which are themselves
called lunettes.
Lustre. (1) (Pot.) T h e glazing, varnish,

MAC

or enamel which applied to porcelain
in a very thin layer gives it a smooth
and glistening surface.
Lustre. (2) An arrangement of lights
hanging from a ceiling, a vault, or the
nave of a church. Ecclesiastical lustres
are frequently in the form of crowns and
are hung from the roof by chains.
[Corona.] T h e lustres which light the
auditorium of a theatre are of immense
size. T h e fittings and decorative portions are generally of gilded bronze and
are enriched with crystal balls and
drops arranged in festoons:
Luxembourg. A gallery of pictures in
Paris, inaugurated in 1818, including a
large number of works by living artists.
In accordance with a law, which, however, is very little respected, works
ought not to receive a definite place in
the Louvre until the artists who painted
t h e m have been dead at least five
years.
Lyceum.
A building among the
ancients in which learned men met to
discuss and the youths of Athens received
instruction.
Lyre. A stringed musical instrument
frequently represented in ancient works
of art. In form it resembled the cithara.
It was the attribute of Apollo and St.
Cecilia.

M.
Macabre. A term applied to subjects,
either painted, sculptured, or engraved,
in which figures a representation of
Death, either under the form of a
skeleton or of an écorchê.
Mace. T h e mace was originally <&fo
a spiked metal club for use in JT-i
actual fighting, but it is now <g
confined entirely to ornamental
j\
purposes. Many corporate
\
bodies, especially the universi(J
ties, have maces of their own,
^m
which are carried before the
4à
chief officers of the university
&•
on important occasions.
T h e most

245

MAC

ART

DIC: 10NARY.

MAG

Madder. (Paint.) From the root of
the rubia tinctorum a series of pigments
are obtained called madder lakes.
They vary in colour from a light pink to
a dark purple. They are useful both in
oil and water-colour painting, and when
free from adulteration are permanent.
Madonna. A painted or sculptured
representation of the Virgin. A statuette
of the Virgin generally placed in a niche
upon the public way, often at the angle
of a building.
Maenades. [Bacchantes.]
Magdalene, Mary. From the 13th
century onwards Mary Magdalene was
perhaps more eagerly worshipped than
any saint in the calendar. To the
scanty facts that can be gathered with
regard to her from the New Testament,
the Middle Ages added many interesting
legends.
It was said that after the
death of Christ Mary with Martha and
Lazarus, whose sister she is assumed
to be, came to France and landed near
H e r e Mary lived the
tion of which was necessarily rapid. Marseilles.
Machiolations
were substituted for retired life of a penitent, spending years
hourds from about the 12th century. in complete solitude in a cave. It is
In the 14th century they were so this legend which has suggested the
constructed
that
projectiles
might subject we so often meet with in picture
ricochet, or describe curves, or strike galleries of the repentant Magdalene.
the besiegers even when at a certain Of these the best known is that by
distance from the walls. In the 15th Correggio at Dresden. In other artistic
century machiolations were sometimes representations Mary Magdalene appears thin and haggard with a wealth
of golden hair. Her invariable attiibute
is the box or cup of ointment with
which she anointed Christ.
Magot. Chinese or Japanese grotesque figures, painted, designed, sculptured, and sometimes illuminated, in
which the dimensions of the head are
considerably exaggerated.
There are
ornamented with trefoils ; but they dis- magots in porcelain, in faïence, in bronze,
appeared finally when artillery came in wood, or in ivory, which are someinto general use. In certain Gothic times miracles of clever execution. T h e
houses timber machiolations were oc- term magot was contemptuously applied
casionally erected on the upper stories by Louis XIV. to the subjects painted by
to sustain the cornice angles, but with- Teniers, and hence it has generally been
out being of any utility, and simply for employed to mean genre pictures, such
the purposes of decoration.
as were painted by the Flemish master.

noted mace is that belonging to the
House of Commons. It always rests
on the table of the House when the
Speaker is present, and when the
Speaker leaves the chair and the House
resolves itself into committee the mace
is placed under the table.
Machiolation. (Arch.) A projecting
and continuous gallery built into the
fortified castles of the Middle Ages at
the summit of the curtains and the
towers, with openings whence the foot
of the buildings might be seen from
above.
Machiolations
in stone replaced timber hourds, the deteriora-

246

MAI

ART

DIC

Maître. ( H e r ) This is the French
name for a peculiar charge that is more
often met with in Germany
r
~
1 than elsewhere. It is a sort
I of wedge with curved outL I line rising from the base
k I of the shield and occupyjmjitjjJ ing a large portion of the
Λ·
field.
Thus the annexed
^
cut would be blazoned :
Argent, a maître gules.
Mail. A general term applied to all
armour which consists of chains, rings,
or scales. It is opposed to plate armour,
(q.v.). It was worn by the ancients and
was universal in the Middle Ages until
the reign of Edward I., when it began to
be superseded by plate.
Majesty. (Paint.) A term denoting
pictures of our Lord seated upon a
throne and surrounded by angels, with
the symbols of the Evangelists (q.v.)
and the A and Ω.
Majolica. (Ceramics.) A term applied
to certain Italian faïences of the Renaissance as well as to faïences of modern
manufacture, made in the style of

RY.

WKL

Gubbio (1425—1480).
They consist
chiefly of large plates painted in various
colours and sometimes having a metallic
lustre. At the end of 1520 we find

pieces of majolica ornamented with
yellow or red arabesques of very delicate
workmanship, but they attained their
zenith in 1530; their decadence dates
from 1560.
Malachite. A green carbonate of
copper used in jeweller's work and in
decorating furniture.
Α
..ΤΊ^Λ*
green pigment is obtained
feSSfaESfia
from it, to which the name
xfjsÈÊÈSB
" mountain green " is also
" S
the pottery introduced into Italy by
the Arabs or the Spaniards of the
Balearic Isles. T h e first specimens of
majolica were made at Faenza and at

Mallet. (Sculp.) T h e
mallet generally used by
sculptors consists of a

JI
V^
cylindrical
247

MAM

ART

DICTIONARY.

block of wood slightly curved so as to
form the arc of a circle, and fitted on
to a wooden handle that passes through
it. In heraldry the mallet sometimes
appears as a common charge.
Mameliere. A round plate or boss
fastened to the breastplate, as indicated
in our cut, which is from a brass in

MAN

with contempt by the Romans of the
republican ages (cut i) ; secondly, it
denotes a protection for the arm worn

by gladiators (cut 2) ; and thirdly, a
covering reaching from the elbow to
the wrist worn by Roman archers
(cut 3).
Maniple. A piece of linen, frequently
richly embroidered, which was worn by
priests across their left hand or arm.
In its origin it was no doubt a handkerchief, but it soon became a mere orna-

Minster Church, Isle of Sheppy. A
chain attached to it held the helmet or
sword in its place.
Manche. (Her.) A long hanging sleeve
which is used as a charge in heraldry.
Manduchile. A grotesquely ugly mask
with open gaping mouth which was worn
by the actors in
Roman rustic plays.
Our cut is taken
from an engraved
gem, and beside the
manduchus there is
another attribute of
the pastoral player,
the pedum or shepherd's crook.
Maned. (Her.) When the manes of
horses, unicorns, & c , are of a different
tincture from their bodies they are said
to be maned.
Manganese, Brown. (Paint.) A native
brown pigment of considerable value in
painting. Its advantages are that it dries
very rapidly and is permanent.
Manica. The term manica is used in
several senses. First of all, it denotes
the long sleeve reaching to the wrist
worn by Eastern nations, and regarded
248

ment. One of our cuts represents the
maniple held in the hand of Stigand,
Archbishop of Canterbury, in the Baveux tapestry. It was also borne as a
charge in heraldry.
Manner. T h e method of composition
and the process of execution adopted by
a particular artist. For instance, when
we say that a picture is painted in the
manner of Corot, we mean that, at the
first glance, it reminds us of the work
of that artist.
W e may say too that
an artist has several " m a n n e r s , " meaning that his style or technique have
undergone distinct changes.
In fact
few painters have lived whose pictures
do not display several " manners," corresponding to the growth, development,
and decadence of their talent.
Mannered. T h e style (or work) of
an artist is said to be mannered when.

ART

MAN

instead of being fresh and suggestive
of nature, it exhibits certain stereotyped tricks or dodges of execution.
T h e term is applied indifferently
whether these tricks are caught by
the artist from his own previous
work or copied by a pupil from his
master.
Mannerism. Mannerism may be defined as manner in a bad sense. Qualities of treatment which when moderately displayed mark individuality of
style, when carried to excess and too
often repeated degenerate into mannerism.
Mansard. (Arch.) A window placed
in the slope of
a roof. Mansard brought
this kind of
w i n d o w (to
which he gave
his name) into
fashion in
1650. Pierre
Lescot, however, had used it much earlier in the
Louvre. Rooms with mansards are often
low - pitched,
and have as a
r u l e insufficient light, but
from a decorative point of
view the external
effect
of a mansard
is admirable,
and helps to
soften
the
hard outline of a roof.
Mantelpiece.
(Arch.) A slab of
marble placed
horizontally,
rather
higher than b r e a s t - h i g h , upon the
two vertical uprights of a modern
chimney.
Mantle. (Her.) T h e mantle is a ong
flowing cloak worn in former times by
knights over their armour, and still worn
by peers when in their robes of state.

17

MAR

DICTIONARY.

T h e decoration and fulness of the
mantle varies with
the dignity of the
wearer, and each
order of knighthood has its own
appropriate mantle. In blazonry
it is often shown
as c o v e r i n g a
shield.
Mantling. (Her.) T h e mantling of a
helmet is an accessory formed of cloth or
other material hanging in ornamental
folds.
It was
p r o b a b l y intended originally to protect
the helmet from
the effects of the
weather.
The
mantling of a
peer's
arms
ought to be of crimson velvet, in other
cases its colour should follow the tincture of the field of the escutcheon.
Manuscript. Books written by hand
and sometimes enriched by miniatures.
Some manuscripts of the 12th and 13th
centuries were decorated on each page
by painted illustrations, or with initial
letters in gold. T h e manuscripts of the
14th and 15th centuries are adorned
with equal richness. And even as late
as the 17th and 18th centuries we find
splendid examples of the art, both as
regards colouring and design.
Marble. A carbonated limestone rock
of great hardness and of various colouring.
After being cut, trimmed, and
polished this stone offers very strong
resistance to the attacks of time and
weather.
Architects have very frequently employed coloured marble for
pavements and the like, as also for decorating façades. Statuaries generally
use white, not veined marble.
The
finest antique works have been sculptured in marble from Carrara or
Paros.
240

MAR

ART

DICT lONAttY.

MAR

Marble, Artificial. Imitation of mar- I the bottom of pieces of porcelain fre­
ble executed in stucco.
quently tell us the date as well as the
—, Parian. T h e marble most highly locale of its manufacture. Goldsmiths'
prized among the Greeks was that which work may also be identified by the mark
was quarried in the Island of Paros. It or cypher placed upon it. We give here
was not of a brilliant white, but of a soft
tone.
—, Pentelic. Marble from Mount Pentelicus used by Greek artists for their
statues and sometimes for buildings.
—, Statuary. White, not veined mar­
ble.
the mark adopted by the communautés
Marbled. A description of paper imi­ d'orfèvres at Bar-le-Duc. But it is the
tating the colours or patterns of mar­ engravers who have made the most
Some engravers
ble, used for ornamenting the outsides frequent use of marks.
indeed are only known to us by a rebus
of volumes, cardboard, &c.
Marbling. A description of painting
in imitation of marble ; a chance medley
of colours, reproducing the spots and
veins of marble, with which the sides of
bound books are sometimes covered.
Margaret, St. According to the legend
Such are the " Master of
St. Margaret was born in Antioch, and or cypher.
on her refusal to marry the governor of the Die" and the " Master of the Rat,"
that city she was subjected to the whose mark we give. Lucas Cranach
cruellest tortures. She was confined in signed his works with a dragon holding
a dungeon, where Satan, in the form of a ring in his mouth, Hufnagel with a
a dragon of hideous mien, tried to break
her spirit, but she triumphed over all
her persecutions and gained many con­
verts to the Christian faith. She was
finally beheaded. She has always been
regarded as the type of purity, and she nail surrounded by an E, while H a n s
is the patron saint of women in child­ Schaufelin employed cross shovels. T h e
birth. Artistic representations of her marks of these three artists are given in
are frequent. She is generally standing the cut.
over the prostrate dragon, which she
Marked. (Paint.) Indicated too disovercomes with the cross.
tinctly, accentuated.
In a landscape,
Marine Painter. A painter who de­ for instance, the distances are too
votes himself to the representation of marked when instead of being suggested
sea subjects, and to the various effects with a light touch, they are painfully and
observable on the sea-shore or on the laboriously insisted upon.
Mark of Cadency. (Her.) This is anopen sea under the varying circum­
other name for difference (q.v.) or brisure.
stances of atmosphere and weather.
Mark. T h e works of artists, whether It is a mark added to a shield to distinpainters, engravers, potters, or gold­ guish the individual wearer from other
smiths, are frequently signed with a con­ members of the family who are also
ventional mark, which takes the form entitled to the same coat of arms.
sometimes of a punning device, some­
Marks, Guiding. Fixed points or
times of a monogram. T h e marks on J marks, the object of which is the guid|

3to W

250

Δ,

MAR

ART

DICTIONARY.

ance of artist or workman while his
work is in progress.
T h u s it is by
means of guiding marks that several
colours may be printed by successive
printings on one sheet of paper.
Mark, St. T h e evangelist and friend
of St. Peter is said to have suffered martyrdom in the year 68 A.D. In the gth
century his bones were taken from
Alexandria to Venice, and from that
time he became the patron saint of
Venice.
In art he is represented as
one of the evangelists holding a book
and accompanied by a lion [Evangelists],
or mitred as the Bishop of Alexandria.
Marli. (Pot.) A French term, denoting the inside border of a plate or
dish. Filets of
gold or colour are
frequently drawn
upon this border.
Dishes of Rouen
ware often exhibit
mar lis, decorated
with delicate arabesques and other patterns.
Marmoset. (Arch.) Small figures,
found principally in buildings of the
Gothic style, placed in a squat or
grotesque attitude
on the profile of
mouldings at regular
intervals.
These small figures
frequently
hold a phylactery
in front of them partially concealing
their bodies.
Marquetry. A method of decoration
by placing in juxtaposition pieces of
wood, metal,
or
other materials variously
coloured.
T h e taste for marquetry was introduced in France in
the 16th century,
and the furniture
of Boule (1642-1732) is decorated in

MAR

this style, with great richness of composition and exquisite workmanship.
Marquise. (Arch.) T h e term marquise
is applied to a light roof which projects
from the façade of
^—
a building. It is
"
generally
placed
over a flight of
steps. On the outside of theatres
marquises of considerable
length
are n o t
infrequently to be seen, Almost invariably
they have a glass roof.
Mars. (1.) [Ares.]
Mars. (2) (Paint.) This term is used to
describe a series of artificially prepared
pigments coloured by oxide of iron.
They are called Mars Brown, Mars
Orange, Mars Red, and Mars Yellow.
They are all useful pigments and generally permanent.
Martel-de-fer. A weapon, which was
the development of the hammer. It had
a hammer one side and a pick the other,

and no doubt was a very efficient destroyer of armour Our three cuts represent specimens belonging to the
251

MAR

ART

DICTIONARY.

periods of Edward IV., Henry Vili.,
and Elizabeth respectively.
Martello Tower. (Arch.) A round
tower armed with guns, such as Charles V.
built in Sardinia and Corsica, as a protection against pirates. Similar towers
were built in England, especially on the
South Coast, where specimens are still
to be seen, as a defence against the invasion of Napoleon I., which was so long
expected.
Martlet. (Her.) T h i s is the name for
the conventional swallow
1 employed in heraldry. It
&
is always shown without
AgggL. I legs and beak and in proI w P * J file with the wings closed.
T h e martlet is the special
mark of cadency assigned
to a fourth son.
Martha, St. St. Martha, the sister of
Mary, who " troubled herself about
many things," is regarded not inappropriately as the patron saint of housewives. According to the legend, she
came to France with Mary Magdalene
and Lazarus, and freed the neighbourhood of Aix from a loathsome dragon ;
in allusion to which she is sometimes
represented with a dragon at her feet.
As the patron saint of housewives she
carries a bunch of keys at her girdle and
holds a ladle in her hand.
Martin, S t . St. Martin, though by
birth a pagan, was very early converted
to the Christian faith. For many years
h e followed the calling of a soldier, and
while quartered at Amiens he divided
his cloak with a naked beggar, an incident which is the subject of the majority
of pictures in which St. Martin figures.
From 371 A.D. to his death
in 397 he was bishop of
Tours. H e is the patron
saint of drinking and conviviality.
Mascle. (Her.) T h e mascle is diamond-shaped like
the lozenge, but is voided
or pierced so that the field of the escut252

MAS

cheon is seen through. In the case of the
mascle the part thus voided or cut out
is itself diamond-shaped, whereas in the
rustre the hollow part is circular.
Mascled Armour. A kind of mail
worn by the Norman soldiers, consisting of small lozenge-shaped pieces of

metal, which were sown on a leather
tunic. Our cut is from the Bayeux
tapestry.
Mask. (1.) (Arch.) A system of decoration taking the form of a head, usually
carved whimsically and
surrounded with a garland. It is sometimes
placed in the centre of
a cartouche, serving as
an ornament for a key
stone, for the central
portion of a lintel, of a
panel, or the like. T h e
term is also applied to theatrical
masks, of which the two common types
are the tragic and
the comic masks,
both inspired by
antique
models.
They are generally
used in decorating
the façades of theatres, or are placed
on m o n u m e n t s
erected to the memory of dramatic or lyric authors or
actors.
Mask. (2) (Sculpt.) A mould taken

MAS

ART

MAS

DICTIONARY.

rough, in the Decorated and Perpendicular styles they have a smooth surface.
Masonry, Clyclopean. [Cyclopean.]
—, Herring-bone. Masonry which consists of stones laid in courses inclined alternately from
right to left
and from left
to right. W h e n
the stones are
j&vAJ^Xk\\,^g^>·
squared, as in
the cut, this
form of masonry is termed herring-bone ashlar.
It was used by Roman architects and by
them termed opus spicatum.
—, Greek. T h e following are the
different kinds of masonry employed by
Greek architects : (1) opus isodomum,
in which the
stones are ashιπ
to wnich ma
lar and laid in
of
*»Ì/j*uilullJli1iir|,ÌMti»iiiii|iiiilmii)--·, sonry may be c o u r s e s
divided a r e : (i) equal height ;
that in which the stones are squared and (2)opuspseudilaid in even courses, to which the name sodomum, in which the stones are ashashlar (q.v.) is given ; (2) that in which lar but laid in courses of unequal
the stones are put together without height; (3) opus emplectum (έμπλεκτον),
being squared or cut into any regular in which the
shape ; this is called rubble.
From faces of the
earliest times walls have been composed wall are ashlar
of blocks of stone. Cyclopean masonry and held toge­
[Cyclopean] is referred to by Homer ther by girders
and must neces- called diatoni,
the
sarily be of great w h i l e
antiquity.
T h e space between
Greeks and Ro- the faces is filled with rubble. In Greek
mans had several masonry the stones were laid in mortar.
—, Oblique.
kinds of masonry,
in
of which an ac- Masonry
the
count is given below. T h e masonry w h i c h
of the Norman period was of consider- stones are loz­
able variety, the opus reticulatum of the enge - shaped
Romans and herring-bone masonry both and arranged
regular
being employed. After the 12th century i n
it is difficult to distinguish between the courses.
—, Reticulated. Masonry formed of
masonry of different periods, except in
those buildings in which flints are used. stones cut square or lozenge-shaped and
In the Early English style flints are left so arranged that the joints give the wall
from the face of a corpse. These masks
have often been used as models in in­
struction.
Masoned. (Her.) Towers and other
buildings used as heraldic
charges are said to be
masoned when the joints
of t h e m a s o n r y
are
clearly shown. As a rule
sable would be the colour
used to designate
the
joints.
Masonry. (Arch.) A term which
denotes the preparation and piecing
together of stones in walls or buildings.
When we say that the masonry of a
building is defective, we mean that the
combination of stones in courses and
the superposition of the joints do not
give a sufficient guarantee for its dura­
bility. T h e two
main classes in-

?^^ΐ1^"

-

253

ART

MAS

DICTIONARY.

the appearance of a draughtboard. This
form of masonry under
the
name of
opus reticulatum
was
employed by the Romans.
Masonry, Roman. T h e kinds of masonry in use among the Romans were the
following: (i.) opus incertum, in which
the stones used were not squared ;
this corresponds to the modern rubble ;
(2.) opus reticulatum, in which the stones
formed a draughtboard pattern ; (3.) opus
spicatum, in which the stones are so
placed as to form a herring-bone pattern.
—, Romanesque. In the Romanesque
period the walls were formed of stones
laid in regular courses of unequal height,
or else herring-bone or reticulated masonry was employed.
—, Rustic. Masonry in which the
surface of each stone instead of being
flat was cut away so as to come to a
point. When the stones thus prepared
are set side by side, their projecting
surface causes a space to be left between them.
Massicot. A yellow or reddish pigment consisting of protoxide of lead.
Like all lead pigments it is affected by
damp and bad air, and on account of
its non-permanence should be banished
from the palette.
Master. A term applied to a painter,
sculptor, engraver, or architect who
founds a school, and whose works are
generally admitted to possess high
merits. [Little Masters.]
Mastic. (Paint ) A resin which when
dissolved in alcohol or turpentine forms
the varnish generally used by painters
upon their pictures. It is obtained from
a tree which grows in the Levant.
Masterpiece. A work of art which is
great both in intention and accomplishment ; or in another sense the most
masterly and finished work of a particular artist.
Mater Dolorosa. T h e mother of
sorrows, a name given to the Virgin,
254

MAT

when sorrowing for her crucified Son.
In art, the Mater Dolorosa is generally
represented alone, sometimes with one
sword in her breast, sometimes with
seven, in allusion to the seven sorrows
she endured. When she holds the body
of the dead Christ on her lap, the picture
is called a pietà.
Matrix. A steel die, from which impressions in relief are obtained upon
coins and medals by striking. Matrices
are obtained in the first
instance from punches
(q.v.) cut in relief. T h e
common method now
is to make one punch
from a steel matrix,
and then to obtain from
this punch as many
matrices as are required.
Engravers
fix the matrix in a metal case, of cylin-

drical form, with a screw, and place the
whole upon a cushion, as shown in our
second cut.
Matt. Dull, lustreless, applying to a
surface having neither brilliancy nor
polish. Used also in reference to unvarnished colours in distemper and to
unburnished gold.
Matter. (Engrav.) A kind of punch,
used by engravers in mezzotint, consisting of a shaft of metal with a kind
of round die on the end. This
die is covered with small projecting points placed at irregular intervals. It is used to lay
a light ground or to matt, i.e.
to render darker the parts of
the work that are too transparent or clear.
Some matters are

MAT

ART

DICTIONARY.

m a d e with a wooden handle and are
used like roulettes (q v.).
Matthew, St. St. Matthew, the apostle
and evangelist, is seldom represented
in art. In the few pictures of him in
existence he appears as a bearded man
writing his gospel, while an angel stands
at his side. Sometimes he holds a bag,
in allusion to the calling of tax-gatherer,
which he followed before his conversion.
[Evangelists.]
M a t t h i a s , St.· T h e attribute of St.
Matthias, the successor of Judas among
the apostles, is the, lance or axe, with
which he is said to have been put to
death.
Maulstick. (Paint.) A light wand of
wood, generally rather more than a
yard in length. On the top of it is
placed a small sphere of wood, which is
covered with a piece of cloth or skin.
T h e painter holds the maulstick in his
left hand with his palette and brushes,
and lets it rest gently on the edge of
the picture or on the canvas itself, if
it is of large size. T h e maulstick thus
serves as a support for the wrist of the
painter's right hand.
Maurice, St.
St. Maurice, one of
the great military saints and the patron
saint of foot soldiers, is generally represented in armour, holding the palm
of martyrdom in one hand and the
standard in the other.
Mausoleum. (Arch.) A term first applied to the tomb erected in 351 B.c. in
honour of Mausolus, King of Caria, by
Artemisia, his wife.
A large portion
of the sculptures which decorated this
tomb were discovered in 1855 by Sir
Charles (then Mr.) Newton, and are
now in the British Museum. They were
the work of Scopas, Leochares, and
other distinguished sculptors of the 4th
century B.C. T h e term mausoleum is
now applied to any funeral monument of
large proportions and ambitious design.
Mediaeval. [Middle Ages.]
Meander. A system of ornament consisting of fragments of lines broken up

MED

in different directions, or twisted, or
crossed. Some authors also give this
title to interlaced
straight lines cutting each other at
right angles. T h e
latter
decoration,
however, is generally
termed
Greek or Guillochis (q.v.).
Medal. (Numis.) A disk of metal
with the effigy of a person struck upon
upon it, or engraved with a figure, scene,
or allegorical group.
Medium. (Paint.) T h e liquid vehicle
in which pigments are ground.
The
usual medium is linseed oil, and though
generations of painters have attempted
to find a new medium which should give
the mellow tone of age to their pictures,
they have not hitherto been able to improve on the old-fashioned linseed oil.
Medallion. A medal of large dimensions. T h e term is applied to subjects
painted, drawn, engraved, or sculptured,
and set in a circular or elliptic frame.

Architectural ornaments inscribed in a
circular cartouche or decorating an entablature or façade are termed medallions.
Medusa. T h e youngest of the mythical beings called Gorgons. Her hair
was turned into snakes by Athene and
her face rendered so terrible, that all
who looked upon it became stone. She
was destroyed by Perseus, and her head
worn henceforth upon the aegis of
Athene. Medusa was frequently r e p r e sented in Greek art. One of the metopes
of the temple of Selinus in Sicily, which
dates from the 7th century B.C., has for
its subject Perseus cutting off Medusa's
head.
Small representations of her

255

ART

MEL

head 'were used as charms, and many
such have been found. [Gorgoneion.]
Meissen. [Dresden China.]
Mellow. (Paint.) An old picture is
said to be mellow when its tones have
been softened down by time, the influence to which the old masters are said
to owe so much. A modern picture may
be called mellow when its tones, so far
from being harsh and crude, have something of the softness and quietness of an
old master.
Members. (Her.) This term is applied
by heralds to the legs and feet of birds
so far as they are free
from feathers. When the
members of a bird are of
a different tincture to the
rest of the body, this fact
is expressed by the use
of the word membered
followed by the n a m e of the tincture.
Menhir. A Celtic monument consisting
of an enormous stone driven into the
ground and standing vertically,
Mentoniere. A piece of armour which
was worn as a protection for the chin

and throat. It was generally provided
with an aperture to breathe through, as
is shown in our cut.
Mercury. [Hermes.]
Merlon. (Arch.) T h e part of a parapet between the intervals formed by the
loopholes or crenelles (q.v.). Merlons
256

DICTIONARY.

MET

assume different forms according to their
style and period. Sometimes they are

terminated by small pyramids, sometimes they are pierced with long vertical
loopholes.
Mermaid. (Her.) A mermaid is one of
the mythical beings whose existence is
due to the fertile imagination of the
ancients. This being is
half woman and half
fish, and is generally
represented
combing
her hair while she holds
a mirror in the other
hand.
T h e mermaid
has always been extremely popular with
heralds either as a charge or as a supporter of a shield.
Metal. (Her.) T h e r e are two metals
employed in heraldry, gold and silver,
which are always described by their
French names, or and argent. See Tincture.
Metal-work. T h e arts of beating and
casting not only iron and bronze, but
also the more precious metals, have

been practised from the earliest ages
and among all nations. Among the

MET

ART

specimens of the most ancient Greek
art found by Dr. Schliemann at Mycenae
are many interesting objects in gold and
silver. Throughout the supremacy of
Greece and Rome cups and other objects
of great beauty were made of metal. We
engrave here two cups of classical work-

manship. In the Middle Ages the most
noticeable examples of m e t a l - w o r k
were the monumental brasses (q.v.)
iron railings, locks, hinges, and other
architectural decorations. [Iron-work]
Of late years the art of working in metal
has been revived with considerable
success.
Metoche. (Arch.) In Greek architecture a metoche is the space existing
between two dentels.
Metope. (Arch.) T h e space between
the triglyphs in the frieze of the Doric
order (q.v.). Metopes were decorated
either with paintings or bas-reliefs.
T h e term is also
applied to the
bas-reliefs found
on metopes. For
instance,
when
we speak of the
metopes of the
Parthenon,
we
mean the series of reliefs representing
the combat between the Lapiths and
Centaurs, some of which are now among
the Elgin marbles.
Mèzza-majolica. (Pot.) A kind of
glazed pottery made in Tuscany before
the stanniferous glaze was known.
It

DICTIONARY.

MEZ

is easily recognisable by the following
strongly-marked characteristics : the outlines of the figures drawn upon it are
traced in blue or black, the flesh is
white, while the draperies are tinted
blue.
Mezzanine. (Arch.) A small story
placed midway be- — <
-,. •
tween two larger
stories. A mezzanine floor is generally found between
the first and second
story of a building.
T h e term is also
applied to the small windows, generally
of greater length than height, which

light an entresol or intermediate story.
Mezzo-relievo. A term applied to
sculptured works in relief, which project
half their proper proportion from the
ground on which they are carved.
Mezzotint. A process of engraving
which may be described as the reverse
of line engraving and etching. In these
two processes the engraver sets to work
on a polished plate, whereas in mezzotint he has first of all to give his plate
a roughened surface, which if inked
would print a deep uniform black.
Technically speaking, the process is as
follows. T h e preliminary operation of
laying the ground is performed with an
instrument called the rocker (q.v.) or
cradle. This somewhat resembles a
cheese-cutter in shape, its edge being
deeply notched or serrated. It is rocked
to and fro and so driven across the
plate, leaving behind it an indented
path or way. A close series of parallel
ways is thus made across the

257

MIC

ART

DIC VIONARY.

MIL

Other ways are then made at a certain with sword and shield in his hand. He
angle over the previous ones, until a is always winged, and often poises his
sufficiently close velvety texture is spear before killing the dragon.
In
obtained. T h e ground being laid, the pictures of the Judgment St. Michael is
whole plate would, as we have said, clothed in armour and is winged, and
print black
T h e lights of the picture holds in his hand the balance in which
which is being engraved in mezzotint souls are weighed.
are obtained by scraping away the
Middle Ages, The. All works of art
ground, the high lights being got by are said to belong to the Middle Ages
the use of the burnisher.
T h e advan­ which were produced between the 12th
tages of mezzotint are manifold.
It and 16th centuries. This, however, is
does not involve the labour entailed by by no means the historical meaning of
line engraving, in which the lines have the term Middle Ages, which extend
to be ploughed into the copper, and it is from the fall of the Roman Empire in
therefore capable of greater freedom 475 A D. to the taking of Constantinople
than some methods. T h e n again by by Mahomet II. in 1453
its range of tone it is admirably adapted
Middle Distance. (Paint ) T h a t part
for the representation of the various of a picture which lies between the back­
textures in a portrait or the planes of a ground and foreground.
landscape. Its invention has generally
Middle-tint. (Paint) A colour inter­
been ascribed to Prince Rupert, who is mediate between the brightly lighted
said to have hit upon it from seeing a sol­ part of a picture and the part placed in
dier scraping the rust off his musket. This shadow. Middle-tints help to give har­
story has, however, been proved to be mony to a picture, and to render the
false. T h e real inventor of mezzotint transition from light to shade less
was Lieutenant-Colonel Ludvig von abrupt.
Siegen, who in 1642 published a print of
Milky. A term applied in painting
Princess Amelia Elizabeth of Hesse. to slightly opaque tones of white.
Some ten years later he explained his Precious stones are said to be milky
invention to Prince Rupert, who intro­ when they are sprinkled with spots or
duced it into England
It is in England covered with a light tint of white.
that mezzotint has been practised with the
Millefiori. (Pot.) A kind of mosaic
greatest success ; in fact, nearly all the glass, consisting of several rods of glass,
engravers who have attained celebrity of various tints, melted together. It was
in this branch of their art have been made in Venice centuries ago, and its
Englishmen.
manufacture has been revived within the
Michaelangelesque. A term applied last sixty years.
Milling. A term applied to the regular
to works of art in which the method of
Michael Angelo is imitated. Figures, notches incised on the edge of a coin.
Mill-rine. ( H e r . )
The
for instance, are said to be Michael­
^^^p
angelesque when a their pose is bold, their mill-rine or mill-rind is the
E S
movement rapid, or their anatomy iron clamp fixed to the
centre of a millstone. It
M 1%L
strongly accentuated.
Michael, St. T h e archangel Michael appears in heraldry as an
bearing,
either Mm^gm^
when represented in pictorial art is armorial
·
young and of a smooth countenance. alone or shown on the mill- » W
β
His face wears an expression of severity, stone, but more often alone.
indicative of his perpetual contest with T h e same instrument gives ^%pP^f^
the powers of evil. Sometimes he is also the idea for a special
robed in white, sometimes in armour kind of cross, the cross moline (q.v.).
258

MIN

ART

DICTIONARY.

French heralds make a distinction
between different kinds of mill-rines.
T h u s in the accompanying cuts they
would call the first a fer de moulin or
mill-rine, and the second an anile.
M i n a r e t . (Arch ) A lofty tower set by
the side of a mosque, with a
projecting balcony at its summit and a roof in the shape
of a bulb. Thence the term
is applied to a tower or bellturret which is at once lofty
and of slender proportions.
| T h e towers of St. Mark's
at Venice and of La Giralda
r ..—
j?$|I
at Seville have the characterî^tî^iljH istics of minarets. In the
j S J j g P day a turrets are t e r m e
architecture of the present

â
I

"SB
f.WIBP

^

d

minarets which suggest even
in a remote way the Mussulman style.
M i n e r a l Blue. (Paint.) This pigment
is described as a ferro-prussiate of
alumina. It is a good colour, but its
permanence cannot be relied upon.
— Grey. (Paint.) A neutral tint
obtained from lapis lazuli, of great
service in oil-painting, as it admirably
represents effects of cloud and mist.
— Yellow. (Paint.) A pigment
obtained from proto-chloride of lead.
Like all lead pigments it is destroyed
by time and exposure.
M i n e r v a . [ Athene.]
M i n i a t u r e . (Paint.) T h e term miniature, derived from minium (q.v.), was
first applied to the small water-colour
drawings which adorn manuscripts.
It was afterwards extended to all
works of art, whether paintings, drawings, or engravings, of small dimensions and delicate workmanship. Small
portraits on ivory or vellum, executed
with such care and minuteness that
the smallest detail will bear inspection, are more particularly known
as miniatures. T h e art of miniaturepainting in this sense was brought
to great perfection in England during !

MIS

the last two centuries, but has had to
encounter a serious rival in photography.
Minium. (Paint.) Minium, which is
also known as red lead, is a peroxide of
lead. It is a brilliant red pigment, with
just a suspicion of yellow in it. It was
used extensively by the illuminators of
manuscripts and in earlier times by
painters in oil. However, as it contains
lead, it proves destructive to other pigments, and its use cannot be recommended. In architecture it is of considerable service, being employed to
cover iron rails and planks of wood,
the former of which it preserves from
rust, the latter from damp.
M i n s t e r . (Arch.) A church which
belongs to a monastery or religious
house. Several of the English cathedrals are termed minsters, but this is
to be accounted for by the fact, that
they were originally the houses of
prayer attached to a monastery, and
became cathedral churches after they
were built.
Mirror. An ornament consisting of a
looking-glass placed in a frame, generally gilded and sometimes enriched
with carvings.
T h e most esteemed
mirrors at the present day are those
which have a convex surface and
present a diminished image of whatever
they reflect.
T h e mirrors of the
ancients consisted of a circular piece
of metal with a highly polished surface.
T h e metal employed was either a
mixture of copper and tin or silver.
T h e back of the mirror was often
decorated with designs of great beauty
and interest, incised upon the metal,
which fact places Greek and Roman
mirrors among the most valuable relics
of ancient art.
Misere-corde. A small dagger, which
was used by the warriors of the Middle
Ages for giving the death stroke to a
wounded antagonist. It was generally
damascened, engraved, or otherwise
richly decorated. T h e three specimens
259

ART

MIS

in our cut belong respectively to the

reigns of Heary VI., Edward IV., and
Henry VIII.
Miserere. (Arch.) A small seat placed
within the stalls in Gothic churches.
In that part of the service during which
the occupants of the stalls were supposed to stand, these seats were turned
back and afforded a considerable amount

of support to the person who to all
appearance was standing upright in his
stall. Misereres generally assumed the
form of brackets, and were ornamented
with bas-reliefs and symbolic or grotesque figures.
Missal. A term applied to the manuscripts or printed volumes of large
dimensions which are used in the
services of the Catholic Church and
260

DICTIONARY.

MOD

contain the prayers of the mass. They
are generally enriched with colour, and
their ornamental letters are designed
in imitation of those found in mediaeval
manuscripts.
Mitis Green. [Emerald Green.]
Mitre, (i.) A term applied to the
joining of planks or mouldings at an
angle, generally at an
angle of forty-five de\
grees. Frames and
panels are formed by

mouldings cut in mitre and joined by
means of a mortise or tenon or simple
nailed.
Mitre. (2.) T h e head-covering worn
by bishops. In the n t h and 12th centuries it was a simple
round bonnet with two
strings at the side, as in
our second cut. It assumed the pointed <
shape, which it still retains, in the 15th century. In coats of
arms of ecclesiastical dignitaries the

mitre takes the place of coat and helmet
and rests upon the top of the shield.
Mitred. (Arch.) A term applied to
towers and bell-turrets, the crowning of
which has the form of a mitre.
Mixtion. A term applied to the mordant which is used in fixing gold leaf
upon wood in the operation of gilding.
Model. Any object which an artist

MOD

ART

DICTIONARY.

MOD

undertakes to reproduce is called a
Modelling. (Sculp.) That part of the
model. Thus we speak of a drawing sculptor's art which consists in conmodel. In the language of sculptors the structing in clay or wax the model, which
term model is applied to the first repre- is to be reproduced in plaster, terrasentation of his subject modelled in clay, cotta, bronze, marble, stone, or wood. T h e
as well as to the plaster cast taken from term has another meaning. In a painted
the clay. These two stages on the way portrait we say that the modelling is good,
towards a statue in marble or bronze are when the painter has succeeded in indicalled the clay model and plaster model cating the various planes of the figure
respectively. Model is used absolutely to which he has represented. T h e term is
denote the living model. [Model, Living.] also applied to painting. T h e modelling
Model, Living. One whose profession of a figure is admirable, when its proit is to pose to an artist. Many female jection is so strongly and withal so subtly
models, possessed of great beauty of indicated that you can see all round.
face and form, have gained considerable
Modelling Tools. T h e tools used by
celebrity from sitting to distinguished the sculptor for modelling clay are made
artists. Male models are of various of wood, ivory, or metal, and vary connationalities, frequently Italians. Young siderably in shape and size. Our first
children and white-bearded old men, cut represents that one generally used ;
with strongly marked features, were in the second and third tools have serrated
great request when religious painting
was still fashionable, and artists wanted
models for the infant Christ, the saints,
and the prophets. Nowadays, however,
the artist devotes himself to the reproduction of less conventional types, to
modern or even realistic portraiture, and
so the classical type of the model is fast
disappearing. T h e living models of tradition—the men with slouched hats and
torn and patched cloaks, the women with
curious costumes, so very much the
worse for wear—only pose now in academies or schools of art. In these institutions the model stands upon a pedestal
or table in the midst of a semicircle.
T h e students sit round in tiers, the
draughtsmen in the front row, the painters
in the second, and the sculptors behind.
i.
2
3.
4·
5·
A good deal of nonsense has been talked
ends for removing masses of clay, which
of late years by ignorant but well-meanpurpose is also served by that repreing persons about the temptations to
sented in Fig. 4, which, it will be noticed,
which models are exposed. They are as
has a loop. T h e last, Fig. 5, is a metal
a rule a hardworking and deserving class,
tool used for cutting plaster.
who devote themselves with intelligence
Modelling Wax. (Sculp.) A yellow
and energy to the profession, to which,
wax, with which black resin, terebinth,
in most cases, they have been brought
and oil are mixed. It is used by sculpup from their earliest childhood.
The
tors for modelling works of small dimenbusiness of a model, like so many of the
sions, and especially for making preliliberal professions, runs in families.
minary sketches for statues which are
2ÓI

MOD

ART

DICTIONARY.

afterwards modelled in clay. It is slightly
tinted with vermilion or red brown. T h e
facility with which modelling wax is
moulded varies according to the quantity
of oil which enters into its composition,
and it is harder in summer than in
winter.
Modillion. (Arch.) A term applied to
brackets placed at regular intervals
under a pro­
j e c t i n g cor­
nice or bal­
cony.
The
name is also
given to small
b r a c k e t s
placed against
a wall and sup­
porting vases
or busts. T h e
volutes of mo­
dulions are placed horizontally or ver­
tically ac­
cording to
the
pur­
pose which
they serve,
and
the
height and
projection
of the cornice they support.

MON

Monogram. A cypher used as a signa­
ture to works of art. It consists of initial
letters, interlaced or juxtaposed, or some­
times of an emblem, which serves to
denote the artist, such as
^ * ^ * v £L
the master of the die, m I • -^"*
the master of the bird.
[Mark.] Potters as well
as painters used mono•
grams, and pieces of poicelain may
often be identified by the monogram,
found upon them. T h e name
of Christ and the Virgin writ­
ten as monograms are fre­
quently found as ecclesiastical
decorations. Monarchs and potentates
too have
had
their
mono­
grams, and our
third
cut,
in
which the letters
ΚA R Ο LV S
are juxtaposed,
represents
the
signature
of
Charlemagne.

Β

Monograph. A biographical study or
a collection of documents bearing upon
the life of one artist is termed a mono­
graph, as is also an essay on a special
branch of art, such as enamels, faïences,
Modulus. A measure by which the bronzes, &c
intercolumniation (q.v.) and other pro­
Monopteral.
(Arch.)
portions of Greek buildings are measured. An antique temple, cirT h e modulus generally taken as the cular in form, which
standard by architects is the diameter was surrounded by a
of the column near its base.
single row of pillars.
Moerae. [Fates, The.]
T h e choragic monument
Mole. (Arch ) A kind of stone jetty (q.v.) of
Lysirunning out into the sea at the entrance crates at Athens
of a harbour, the purpose of which is was a fine specito break the force of the men of a monopwaves.
teral building of
Monde. (Her.) An he­ the
Corinthian
raldic term, denoting the order.
Our seglobe encircled with band, cond cut shows
and surmounted by a cross, a m o n o p t e r a l
which is among the insignia of royalty.
temple represented on a coin of the
It will be
Monochrome. A painting executed in Tullia gens at Rome.
seen that a statue is placed in it, as
one colour.
262

MON

ART

DR • TIONARY.

a receptacle for which the monopteral
temple was frequently employed.
Monopyle. (Arch ) A term applied to
a building which has only one
door. An enclosure with a
portico, which surrounds a
temple, and has only one entrance, is sometimes termed
a peribolus.
Monostyle.
(Arch.)
In
ancient
architecture a temple is said to be
monostyle when it is surrounded by
only one row of columns. T h e term is
also applied to a single column complete in itself, such as the column of
Trajan.
Monotriglyph. (Arch.) A term applied
to a method of intercolumniation, which
only allows a single triglyph (q.v.) to be
placed in a frieze.
Monstrance. A monstrance is a transparent pyx used in the services of the

Π

Catholic Church, to expose the host to
the eyes of the worshippers. [Ostensoir.]
Monument. (Arch.) A term applied to
an architectural construction, or more
especially to a statue placed upon a
pedestal to perpetuate the memory of a
celebrated man or an important event.

MOR

This purpose is fulfilled sometimes by
a single statue, sometimes by a symbolic
group, or elaborate construction such as
the Albert Memorial in Hyde Park.
Monument, Choragic.
[Choragic
Monument ]
—, Celtic. A term applied to the
monoliths or collections of unhewn
stones, set up in those parts of Gaul or
Great Britain which were once inhabited
by Celtic tribes. [Cromlech, Dolmen,
Menhir, & c ]
—, Expiatory. A monument erected
in expiation of crime
—, Funeral. A monument in the form
of a chapel, stele (q v.), or tombstone
erected over a grave or in a cemetery in
memory of the dead.
—, Historic. A term applied to all
those ancient buildings which on account
of their artistic value, their historic importance, or their distinguished associations are of public interest. It is the
duty of a community to see that its
historic monuments are not tampered
with. They should indeed only be restored with the utmost caution, for when
once they are robbed of their antiquity
their interest and sentiment are gone.
Moorish. (Arch.) A style which was
introduced into Spain after the invasion
of that country by the Arabs.
The
mosque at Cordova and the Alhambra
(13th century) may be instanced amongst
the most noteworthy of Moorish buildings. T h e term Moorish is also applied
to a system of ornament consisting of
fantastic foliage which is frequently employed in damascening.
Morbidezza. (Paint.) An Italian term,
which denotes the delicate, subtle, and
vivid rendering of the flesh in painting,
sculpture, or engraving.
Mordant. A mixture of Jew's pitch,
thick oil, and plumbago, to which some
drops of essence are added, used in mat
gilding. T h e term is also applied to a substance obtained from metallic oxides,
and used to fix the colours in dyeing and
calico-printing.
263

ART

MOR

DICTIONARY.

Morion. A helmet of a curious shape,
with a sharp peak in front and behind,

which was adopted by the Spaniards
from the Moors, and reached England
in the 16th century.
Morse.
A brooch or
clasp used by priests to
fasten their cape. It aforded an opportunity for
a good deal of decoration, often of a mystic or
symbolic character,
and
was generally of gold or
silver.
Mortar. In architecture the term
mortar is applied to a mixture of sand,
cement, and lime, tempered in water,
which is employed to bind together the
materials used in a building. In another
sense a mortar is a small vessel in which
certain substances are reduced to powder
or colours ground. [Pestle.]
Mortier. (Her.) A charge in French
heraldry representing the head-dress of
the chancellors of France and of the
presidents of parliament.
T h e chancellor's mortier was of
gold cloth, embroidered and turned up with ermine. T h e
president's mortier was of black velvet
or plush, ornamented
with
large
galoons
(q.v.) of gold.

Mortise.
(Arch.) A notch
cut in a piece of
wood to receive
a projecting piece called a tenon (q.v.).
264

MOS

T h e r e are several methods of carrying
out this method of joining. T h e mortise, for instance, may be straight or
oblique, and more than one tenon may
fit into it.
Mortise Chisel. A tool consisting of a quadrangular piece
of metal with a bevelled edge.
T h e cutting edge forms the
greater part of it. It is used
for making mortises (q.v.).
Mosaic. Under mosaic may b e
classed all works which consist of
pieces of hard coloured substances, such as glass, marble, & c , put
together
and
combined to form various patterns.
Florentine mosaic (q.v.), for instance,
consists of small squares of poUshed
marble and precious stones applied to
pieces of furniture and ornaments.
Pavements and facings, which consist of
plaques of coloured marble, are another
form of mosaic, perhaps the most ancient
of all. [Pavimentum.]
T h e term is

also applied to the designs incised in
ancient buildings. [Graffiti.]
There
yet remains the enamel mosaic which is
employed by the goldsmiths and jewellers of Rome. Finally a few words
must be said of the decorative mosaic,
which consists of small cubes of
coloured enamel applied by means
of cement to a hard surface.
This
last occupies an important place in the
history of decorative art.
Some fine
specimens of it are to be seen at the
mosque of San Sophia in Constantinople and at St. Mark's in Venice. A
part of the South Kensington Museum
is thus decorated, and had Wren's design been carried out the dome of St.
Paul's would have been brilliant with
mosaic.

ART

MOT

DICTIONARY.

Mother-of-pearl. A substance with
which the inside of certain shells is coated.
It is white, hard, and iridescent, takes a
high polish, and is accordingly of considerable value in the decorative arts.
Motive. In painting the motive is the
subject of a picture ; in sculpture it is
the pose of a figure or the arrangement
of a group ; in architecture it is the
general effect of the painted or sculptured
decoration.
Motto. (Her.) A word or sentence
written below an escutcheon.
It is
frequently a punning device suggested
by the name of the bearer of the coat of
arms. T h e motto of the Cavendish
family, for instance, is Cavendo tutus.
Moucharaby. (Arch.) A projecting
balcony on the outside of a building
covered with a lattice of wood. It is
frequently found in buildings of the
oriental style, and produces a picturesque effect.
Mould. (Sculp.) A mould is an imprint of an object in relief, by means of
which a reproduction of this object may
be obtained. T h e mould à creux perdu
can only furnish one copy of an original,

for it must be broken ίο be detached
from the cast. From the mould à bon
creux, however, which consists of movable pieces, an indefinite number of
copies may be obtained
Moulding.
(Arch ) A projection,
square, convex or concave in
profile, ornamenting a wall.
Examples of flat mouldings
will be found under the
headings Fillet, Listel, Dripstone, Fascine, and Plinth; of
convex mouldings under the
headings Baguette, Quarter-round, and

18

MUF

Torus;
and of concave
mouldings
under the headings Cavetto,
Gorge,
and Scotia. Some mouldings, such as
the cyma and ogee, are half convex, half
concave.
Mouldings are frequently
decorated with foliage. Not only are
they used in architecture but they
serve to ornament numerous surfaces
upon which their projection
and

shadows produce effects of light and
shade. In the Greek and Roman orders
the mouldings, to which we have already referred, are employed. In buildings of the Romanesque style these
mouldings are retained, but their outline
is heavy, and very often plat-bands (q.v.)
decorated with frets or chevrons receive
the name of moulding. In the Gothic
period fresh mouldings were introduced
such as the chamfer, and a whole series
of small mouldings, the purpose of which
was to set off the
profile
of
the
curved
mouldings. At the Renaissance the antique mouldings
were revived, with some slight modifications, but without the loss of their
original grace.
Moustiers Faience. (Pot.) A very fine
faïence was made at Moustiers in the
17th and 18th centuries. T h e earlier
specimens were blue and white in colour,
and the decorative designs upon them
were suggested no doubt by the antique.
On the later examples of Moustiers polychrome decorations were introduced.
Muffle. A hollow demi-cylinder of fire-proof earth, closed at one end
265

MUL

ART

DICTIONARY

and open at the other. It is used by
painters in enamel and in porcelain for
firing and vitrifying their colours.
Muller. (Paint ) A small pestle of
crystal, porcelain, or marble, which is
used by painters to grind their colours
either on a piece
of polished glass
or in a porcelain

h yjj&k—TiT
>

— **Tî'

XIV.

saucer

·

muller is generally in
the
form of a truncated cone, the
upper part of which is slightly convex,
so that it can be held in the palm of
the hand.
Mullet. (Her.) T h e rowel of a spur
borne as a charge in heraldry. Unless
otherwise stated it has five points.
Mullion. (Arch.) A term applied to
the stone compartments which divide
the surface of windows in buildings of

XV.

XVI.

the Gothic and Renaissance styles.
Throughout the Middle Ages mullions
had a distinct outline in every century.
In the greater part of the window

mullions are vertical, but in the upper
part they inter-crossed and form complicated curves. During the period of the
Renaissance windows were divided by
266

mullions cutting one another at right
angles.
The
^
space
between
the mullions was
filled with panels
of glass held up
by iron bars.

Multifoil.
(Arch.)

A term
to
an
arch, which consists of more than
five foils or segments of circles.
Mummy Brown. (Paint.) A term
denoting a rich brown pigment, which
is composed of white pitch, myrrh, and
the flesh taken from ancient mummies
For a long time, however, mummy
brown extracted from real Egyptian
mummies has been very rare, as -the
variety which the druggists of the
Levant palm off upon Western Europe
is not genuine, but is obtained from the
bodies embalmed by both Jews and
Christians in the Levant in bitumen
and some aromatic substances.
But
whether genuine or not, it cannot be
recommended
to the painter, as,
although it is a rich colour, it dries
with difficulty, is not permanent, and
may contain ammonia and particles of
fat.
Muntin. A vertical piece of wood or
iron, which forms part of the framework
of a door or bay.
Mural Decoration. Nearly all the
arts have been called into requisition
for the purpose of decorating wall
surfaces. T h e ancient Egyptians and
Assyrians employed low reliefs in
marble for this purpose, and many
specimens of their work are still extant.
Walls have been covered with thin
slabs of marble, brilliantly enamelled
tiles, stucco, mosaic, stamped leather,
and paper. Then they have been painted
in every age and in every country. It is
from the painted walls of Pompeii that
we gain our scanty knowledge of Greek
painting, and this method of mural

The
applied

ii!§SâBflaP

XIII.

—

MUR

MUR

ART

decoration
continued
through
the
Middle Ages, and indeed still survives.
T h e r e are, however, very few pre-Reformation mural paintings in existence
For at the triumph of Protestantism
these interesting examples of art were
ordered to be destroyed, and replaced
by texts and allegories. T h e usual
method at the present time of decorating walls is to cover them with wallpapers. This practice seems to have
been generally adopted in the 18th
century, though it was not unknown
before. T h e design is printed on the
paper from wooden blocks, cut in relief, I
a separate block being used for each '
colour. T h e best kind of papers are
printed by hand, but the cheaper kind
are printed in machines.
Murex. T h e murex is, strictly speak^-.
ing, a shell-fish, but in
IJVK
J^^ji
art it generally denotes
\**r**^Srœ
a twisted shell-shaped
λ > — ^ .γ
trumpet, which was
one
J
°*" ^ e ^ t r i b u t e s ΟΙ>
*
the Tritons. Our illus­
tration is taken from a n antique gem.
Murrey. (Her ) A term used in old
heraldry books for sanguine (q.v.)
Murrhine Vases. Murrhine vases
were first brought to Rome in the time
of Pompey. They were highly valued
by the Romans, who paid fabulous sums
for them.
Pliny describes them as bril­
liant, iridescent, and of various colours.
Many opinions have been set forth as
to the material of which they were
composed.
Some say they were of
jade, others of opal, while others again
hold that they were Chinese porcelain.
Muses. T h e daughters of Zeus and
Mnemosyne, and the patronesses of
music and the fine arts.
They were
nine in number, and each had one
branch of art under her control. In
early Greek works of art the Muses are
represented together as nine maidens
similarly attired, and each holding a
musical instrument or a roll of manu­
script as their attribute. They are led (

"^^

riONARY.

MUS

by Apollo, who is hence called Musagetes. In later art they have each their
separate attributes, suggested by the
branch of art, such as history, tragedy,
comedy, & c , which is regarded as their
own.
Museum. A public building in which
a collection of works of art, belonging
especially to ancient times, is gathered
together and classified for the purpose
of intelligent study. T h e British Museum and the South Kensington Museum
are the most celebrated institutions
of the kind in England.
—, British.
T h e British Museum
was established in 1754, on the site
which it occupies at present. A nucleus
was formed by the collection of Sir
Hans Sloane, the Cottonian library, and
the Harleian manuscripts. T h e collection of Sir William Hamilton, acquired
by purchase in 1772, was the foundation
of the Department of Antiquities. In
1802 a large collection of Egyptian antiquities were acquired, and some years
later were purchased the Townley
Marbles. T h e magnificent sculptures
from the Parthenon, known as the Elgin
Marbles, were obtained in 1816, and
seven years later the library of George
III. became public property. T h e enlargement of the building was then inevitable, and the Museum, as we know
it to-day, was designed by Sir Robert
Smirke. In 1857 Mr. Sidney Smirke
built the Reading-room, the plan of
which was suggested by Sir Anthony
Panizzi. Important additions have been
made every year to the British Museum,
which, besides a vast library, includes a
collection of artistic objects from all
countries, and belonging to all ages ; nor
must the admirable department of
prints and drawings be
forgotten.
Between the years 1880 and 1883, the
Natural History Collections were removed from Bloomsbury, and placed
in a separate building in Cromwell
Road, now known as the Natural History
Museum.
267

ART

MUS

Museum, South Kensington. The
South Kensington Museum was one of
the results of the Exhibition of 1851. It
was intended primarily to include ex­
amples of art applied to industry, as well
as a collection of such works as should
have an interest and value for art stu­
dents. But it has gone far beyond these
limits, and is, in addition, the refuge of
many miscellaneous objects, such as the
Dyce and Forster collections of books,
drawings, & c , and a large number of
pictures, the majority of which belong
to the British School. T h e majority of
the pictures acquired under the terms
of the Chantrey Bequest find a home at
South Kensington.
Muzzle. (Arch.) An architectural
decoration represent­
ing the muzzle of an
animal, whether real
or fabulous.
The
muzzles of lions are
frequently employed
in the decoration of
fountains or gutters,
jets of water issuing
from the openings thus formed.
Mutule. (Aich) A kind of modillion,
of considerable size, peculiar to the

£*S*i3L

, ,Λ|«2

Doric order.
It is sometimes quite
plain and sometimes covered with rows
of guttae (q.v.).
Myology. T h a t branch of anatomy
which includes the study of muscles
T h e living model does not always give
the artist sufficient guidance. As the
model gets tired the muscles relax, and
after a while no longer display the ten­
sion which they should have in action.
T h e artist must then fall back on his
knowledge of anatomy, and by this
268

ΝΑΙ

DICTIONARY.

means imagine what his model can no
longer represent to him.
Mythology. T h e greater number of
subjects affected by ancient sculptors
and painters were suggested by their
mythology, i e , by the fabulous history
of their gods, goddesses, and heroes. An
account of the chief among these deities,
with the attributes by which they may be
recognised, will be found under separate
headings. Mediaeval and modern artists
too have often sought their inspiration in
classical mythology, especially in times
like the present, when there has been a
sort of classical revival.

N.
N a g a . Among the Dyaks of Borneo a
ceitain kind of jar, to which the name of
naga (a dragon) is given, is very highly
prized. It is uncertain when and by whom
these jars were made, but all have a figure
of a dragon traced upon their surface.
Naiant. (Her.) This terms mean swim­
ming, and is used in
heraldry of a fish repre­
sented on a shield in a
vertical position. When
a fish is shown in a hori­
zontal position, it is said
to be hauriant (q.v.).
Nail. T h e heads of nails form one of
the simplest methods of ornament in the
world. They are frequently employed
to decorate the panels of doors or of
small pieces of furniture such as coffers,
cabinets, &c. In this case brass-headed
nails are generally used.
Nail Ornament. (Arch ) A system of
ornament frequently used in the Ro­
manesque style.
The
" n a i l s " often present

the appearance of diamond points and
are set side by side Sometimes, how·

ΝΑΙ

ART

DICTIONARY.

ever, they are spaced out and the heads
of monsters are incised upon them. In
this case they are commonly known
under the name of corbels or modulions.
Naissant. (Her.) This term is applied
to demi-lions, or other
charges rising out from
" the middle of a fess or
some other ordinary.
It differs from issuant,
which implies that the
charge rises from the
lower edge of the ordinary, which in
this case is always a chief.
Naked. (Arch.) A term applied to the
surface of a wall, to which projecting
ornaments are applied, or to
the actual surface or vertical
line, beyond which a moulding
or decorative motive projects.
In a cartouche, for instance, the
volutes and foliage project be­
yond the naked of the surface
which they decorate, while the
centre of the cartouche may
project still further from the
naked, may be so depressed as
to coincide with it, or may be so
hollowed out as to recede from it.
The latter is often the case when
the cartouche is incrusted with marble.
Naos. (Arch.) T h e central portion of a
Greek temple, in which stood the statue
of the deity to whom the temple was de­
dicated. In the modern Greek church the
naos is the nave reserved for the faithful.
Napkin Pattern. (Arch.) A name

NAT

carved upon panels of wood in the
Gothic period. It suggests a square
piece of cloth folded sometimes double
with the two ends curved inwards, some­
times in many close folds. T h e com­
moner n a m e for this ornament is linen
scroll (q.v.)
Naples Yellow. (Paint.) A pigment
which was originally composed of the
oxides of lead and antimony, but is now
generally manufactured from zinc. It
derives its name from the fact that it
was once prepared at Naples. It is a
useful pigment, and, though it is affected
by bad air and by pigments, such as the
ochres, which contain iron, it may be
regarded as permanent.
Narthex. (Arch.) T h e interior vesti­
bule of a Christian basilica railed off
from the rest of the building, where the
catechumens and penitents were ad­
mitted.

Nasal.

That

portion of a hel­
met which pro­
tected the nose.
Our cut represents
the head of a
warrior from the
Bayeux tapestry.
National Gal­
lery.
T h e Na­
tional
Gallery,
which is situated
in
Trafalgar
Square, in London, contains about 1,300
examples by English and
foreign
masters. Compared with many foreign
picture galleries it is a very young
institution. It dates its foundation from
1824, in which year a small collection of
38 pictures was purchased from Mr.
Angerstein. This formed the nucleus
of the unrivalled collection now at
Trafalgar Square.
T h e Angerstein
Collection was speedily augmented
by gifts and bequests, and in 1853 the
nation possessed 236 pictures. Shortly
before this time the pictures thus
given to a decorative pattern frequently I acquired had been removed from Pall
209

NAT

ART

DICTIONARY.

Mall, where they had been exhibited
at Mr. Angerstein's house ever since
their purchase, to the building now
known as the National Gallery. Annual
grants from Government, largely supplemented by private munificence, have
enabled us within the short space of
rather more than sixty years to get
together a collection of pictures which in
some respects is unsurpassed in Europe.
W e may particularly congratulate ourselves that our gallery, small though
it be, contains for the most part
picked examples of the great masters
and is singularly free from rubbish.
Of late years the pictures have been
carefully rehung according to schools,
and their value from an educational
point of view has thus been much enhanced.
National Portrait Gallery. [Portrait
Gallery, National.]
Native Green. (Paint.) A pigment
artificially prepared from oxide of
chromium or chrome ochre. It is a
deep opaque sage green, and is very
useful, as it is quite permanent.
Nativity. T h e " nativity" or birth of
Christ was one of the favourite subjects of the old masters. It is represented as taking place in a stable. T h e
child, wrapped in swaddling clothes, lies
in the manger, its mother and Joseph
keeping watch over it. T h e ox and the
ass are never omitted from the scene.
This may be called the realistic representation of the scene.
Sometimes,
however, it is treated symbolically, the
infant lying on the ground and the
mother kneeling over it, while attendant
angels keep guard.
Nature. An artist is said to execute
his work from nature when he paints,
draws, or models from the living model,
or places his easel before the landscape
he wishes to represent and paints in the
open air.
Naturalism. An aesthetic tendency
displayed by a certain school of artists
to keep as close as possible to nature in
270

NEC

the representation of her various phases.
T h e naturalism of the present age too
often lacks loftiness of aim, and is
sometimes little better than brutality.
However, such artists as Albert Durer
and Lucas Cranach have shown that it
is possible to be a naturalist without
losing nobility of sentiment.
Naumachia. (Arch.) This term, which
literally means a sea-fight, was applied
to amphitheatres or circuses in Rome, in
which sham sea-fights took place. T h e
first was built by Julius Caesar, and the
naumachia of the later emperors were
vast structures.
Representations of
them are frequently met with on coins
or medals.
Nave. (Arch.) T h a t part of a Gothic
church which extends from the choir to
the western door. T h e word nave means
a ship, and it was applied to the body
of the church, in accordance with the
simile which compared the church to a
ship.
Nebris. A fawnskin, frequently found
in representations of Bacchantes and
Thyades.
Nebulé. (Her.) This is one of the
varieties of the dividing
lines of a shield. Nebulé
take slightly different forms
on different shields, but
they all resemble pretty
closely the specimen here
shown, consisting of wellmarked double indentations and projections.
Necklace. An ornament worn round
the neck. It has been made of glass

beads and the seeds of plants as well as
of jewels and richly chased gold. T h e r e
is no race, either barbarous or civilised,

NEC

ART

DICTIONARY.

among whom necklaces have not ,been
worn. Our cuts represent two necklaces

discovered in Etruscan tombs, the upper
one being now in the British Museum.
Neck-moulding.
(Arch.) A broad
fillet or astragal, which separates the
shaft of a column from the capital.
Necropolis. A term applied in ancient
times to that portion of a city, sometimes a subterranean vault, in which
the dead were buried. In modern times
it denotes a large cemetery.
Needle. (Arch.) A name given in
Gothic architecture to the pinnacles or
bell - turrets, which are sometimes termed spires, as well as
to steeples in the form of a tapering pyramid. Egyptian monoliths or obelisks of pyramidal
form and of great height in proportion to their breadth are also
called needles.
Such is Cleopatra's Needle, which now stands
upon the T h a m e s Embankment.
Negative. A term applied to a photographic proof, in which the light parts
are represented by black and the parts
in shadow by white spots.
Neo-Greek.
A style of painting
adopted by some artists who attempt
to infuse modern sentiment in the style
and subjects of ancient Greek art. In
architecture the term neo-Greek is
applied to a style inspired by the Greek
orders with these modifications : the
ornamentation projects but little, foliage
for instance, being only incised, while
uniform surfaces of considerable size
and mouldings with a long narrow
outline predominate.
Neptune. [Poseidon.]
Nereids. In Greek mythology the
Nereids were the daughters of Nereus

NET

and were regarded as the spirits of the
sea. They are represented as attending
Aphrodite, when she was born of the
sea. T h e Greeks with the anthropomorphism which was characteristic of
them, imagined the Nereids as maidens
of great beauty and thus they appear on
painted vases and other works of art,
swimming in the sea or riding on dolphins. They suggest an obvious parallel
with the mermaids of Teutonic mythology. Four figures representing Nereids
are among the marbles discovered by
Mr. Fellows at Xanthus, and are now in
the British Museum.
Nereus. One of the sea-gods of Greece,
the father of the Nereids. H e is represented in works of art as an aged man,
with a long beard and a Jove-like head.
Nero Antico. A marble sometimes
used by the ancient sculptors of Egypt
and Greece. It is of a very deep black
in colour and is unknown in its natural
state in the present day.
Nerve. (Arch.) A term applied to the
mouldings which surmount the surface
of a vault. It is synonymous with rib
(q.v.), which is the term more commonly
employed.
Nervous. A painting is said to be
nervous when the colours are firm and
the drawing is vigorous. T h e term is
applied to a piece of sculpture, the
modelling of which is solid without
being heavy, while the various planes
are strongly and clearly marked.
Net. (Her.) Nets are sometimes borne
as charges on coats of armour, and may cover
either the whole or part
of a shield. Or a net may
be supercharged on some
other charge ; thus, for example, we might have a
fess or a bend charged with a net of a
different tincture.
Netsukés. A Japanese word denoting
a small toggle or button, carved in ivory
or wood and attached by the Japanese
to the fasteners of their medicine boxes
271

NEU

ART

DIC

or pipe-cases. In spite of their small
size they are often exquisitely carved, as
a rule into grotesque forms, and as they
have been made continuously from the
15th century they constitute an important branch of Japanese art.
N e u t r a l . A term applied to a vague
colour, which does not present any predominant tone. It particularly denotes
a grey of a bluish violet tint used in
water colours. Neutral tints form excellent grounds for pictures, for they increase the value of striking colours and
make them stand out with peculiar brilliance.
Nevers. (Pot.) From the beginning of
the 17th century Nevers was the centre
of a very important ceramic industry.
T h e earliest pieces of Nivernais pottery
were made under the auspices of a
family named Conrad, and were copied
from oriental models. In the 18th century Italian faïence was imitated at
Nevers. About 1760 the manufacture
lost its artistic interest and became entirely commercial.
Newel. (Arch.) A term applied to the
central part of a spiral staircase.
Niche. (Arch.) A recess either in the
façade or in the interior wall of a
^ ^
building, sometimes en*^d^pT%S^ closed by pilasters and
•J^Jsg-Ljpw intended to contain a
statue, bust, or decorative vase. Examples of niches are
found in every style of architecture.
In the Arabian style the term niche is

NIE
Gothic periods we meet with niches
formed by colonnettes supporting a
small pediment and sheltering a statue.
In the 16th century niches are generally

the 17th and 18th centuries niches play
an important part in the external decoration of buildings.
Nicholas, St. St. Nicholas, one of the
most popular saints in the calendar,
was born at Panthera, in Asia Minor,
was for many years bishop of Myra, and
died in 326 A. D. On one occasion he
threw three purses or balls of gold into
the house of a nobleman, whose three
daughters were penniless and undowered. On another he restored to life three
boys who had been killed and put in a
brine-tub by an innkeeper. These two
episodes in his life have suggested subjects to many artists. ' His attributes are
three balls of gold, an anchor, and a ship,
for he is the protector of seafaring men
and commerce. H e is also the patron
saint of Russia, and in an especial degree
the friend of young children.
Nickelled. A term applied to metal
ornaments, whether of iron, copper, or
bronze, upon which is deposited by an
electro-metallic process a coating of
nickel. This protects the metal from
rust and from the alterations caused by
rust and damp, and at the same time
gives it a brilliant appearance.
Niellatori. T h e artists who practised
applied to the series of alveoli, which that branch of engraving metal plates
support ceilings. In buildings of the II called niello (q v.)
272

NIE

ART

DIC TIONARY.

Niello· A process of decorating metal
plates brought to perfection by the goldsmiths of Italy in the 15th century.
A design was incised upon a plate of
silver or of gold and silver mixed. A
black compound consisting of copper,
lead, borax, sulphur, and sal ammoniac
was then introduced at a high temperature into the incised lines, and when
cool formed an incrustation, leaving the
rest of the metal plate bare. T h e plate
was then polished and presented the
appearance of black incrustation on a
light ground. This method
of engraving metal plates
was practised with success
by Byzantine and German
artists, and many of their
works are executed with
wonderful delicacy.
The
Italians, however, were the
most distinguished niellatovi,
and among them
Tomaso or Maso
Fini,
___ guerra is justly the most
celebrated. H e was in the
habit of testing his half-finished work,
by taking a proof of it in earth or sulphur or even on paper. T h e r e is in
the print-room of t h e Paris Library
a proof on paper of a Pax partially
engraved in niello by Finiguerra in
1452. This proof is of the greatest importance in the history of engraving, for
there is no doubt that intaglio engraving,
the art of multiplying copies of a design
incised on a metal plate, took its rise from
the rough proof taken by the goldsmiths
of the 15th century from their nielli.
Niggling. (Paint.) When such details as the leaves on a tree are treated
separately, and without any regard to
their mass, they are said to be niggled,
and their method of treatment is
called niggling. T h e works of the PreRaphaelites afford m a n y complete instances of niggling, and will illustrate
the confusion and want of dignity insured by this false realism.
Night. T h e Greeks with their cha-

Β

NIO

racteristic anthropomorphism, regarded
Night as the daughter of Chaos, the wife
of Erebos, and the mother of Sleep and
Death. Artistic representations of her are
by no means unknown. A statue of Night
by the sculptor Rhoecus is said to have
existed in Ephesus in the 7th century
B.c. On painted vases she appears as
heavily draped and wearing a veil covered
with stars. She bears two children,
Death and Sleep, in her arms.
Nike. T h e goddess of victory among
the Greeks. She was particularly associated with Athene and Z e u s , and the
golden and ivory statues of Athene at
Athens and of Zeus at Olympia each
held a winged Nike in its hand. Nike
was generally represented as a draped
maiden with wings. She holds a palmbranch and wreath in her hand, and
sometimes stands upon a globe. Coins
struck in commemoration of a victory
frequently have a figure of Nike struck
upon them. One of the most celebrated
statues of Nike in existence is from the
hands of Paeonius. It was ordered by
the Messenians to commemorate the
victory of Sphacteria, and a cast of it is
to be seen at the British Museum. As
we have said, Nike is generally a winged
goddess, but in early art she is represented without wings, and a temple in
honour of Nike Apterus, or Wingless
Victory, existed at Athens.
Nimbed. A saint is said to be nimbed
when his head is surrounded with a
nimbus.
Nimbus. T h e luminous circle placed
by painters and sculptors on the heads
of saints. Some nimbi are cruciform,

others triangular. They assume indeed
a variety of forms, according to the saint
whose head they surround. [Aureole.]
Niobe. In Greek mythology Niobe was

273

NOC

ART

DICI 'IONARY.

OBE

the wife of Amphion, and as a punish- twisted. It is applied to serpents or
ment for her boast that she might rival wyverns or other animals which are
Leto as the mother of beautiful children, represented with their tails twisted or
her children were all slain by the arrows tied in a knot.
of Apollo and Artemis. T h e tragic fate
Nude. A term applied to studies of the
of Niobe and her children has from early figure made from the naked living model.
times been a favourite subject with For instance we speak of a drawing of
artists. T h e most celebrated rendering of the nude and at the same time we term
it in ancient times was a group by Scopas. the drawing itself a nude.
Nocturne. (Paint.) A group of modNumismatics. T h e science which
ern painters have borrowed the termin- treats of the coins and medals of all
ology of music for the description of ages and their artistic and historical
their works, and for some time it has significance. From an artistic point of
been the fashion to call impressions of view the study of ancient Greek coins is
night nocturnes.
of the utmost importance, for not only
Norman Architecture. Norman archi- are they in themselves of great beauty,
tecture is the style which prevailed in but they preserve for us the representaEngland from the Conquest until about tion of many Greek statues in miniature,
the end of the twelfth century.
T h e and so supply links in the chain of artdoorways and windows are round-headed, history which otherwise would be missing.
and are often recessed and enriched with
Numismatist. A term denoting those
several bands of ornaments. T h e arches who collect and study coins and medals.
are always round. T h e piers are geneNuremberg Pottery. (Pot.) Nuremrally massive, and are either circular or berg has been a centre of ceramic
multangular. T h e mouldings princi- industry from early times. Many beaupally used are the zigzag, beakhead, and tiful plaques, tiles, and dishes were
square abacus. T h e capitals are heavy made there in the 16th century, which
and large, and sometimes rudely carved in their decoration display the influence
with grotesque heads or foliage. T h e of the Renaissance. T h e Nuremberg
general effect of a Norman building is potteries were in a flourishing condition
massive and sombre. T h e majority of in the 18th century.
Norman churches were found wanting
by the succeeding ages and modified
or destroyed. T h e nave at Rochester
Obelisk. (Arch.) An Egyptian monuand St. Bartholomew's Church in Smithfield are good examples of the style.
Note. (Paint.) A term applied in painting to the tonality of a work or to some
special quality in its composition. T h u s
we speak of a good note of colour. By
an easy transition a picture itself in
which a certain note of colour is evident
m a y b e called a note. Thus
-V
/^ ^
""} * n t n e catalogues of pic1 i i ^ U ^ w l * u r e s belonging to the
/ iw TiSr \ advanced school we fre[ ^Nir
] quently meet with such
\_
^ y
titles as a note in red.
^
Nowed. (Her.) An heraldic term which means knotted or ment in the form of a monolith of

o.

274

OBL

ART

DIC ΓΙΟ NARY.

pyramidal form. By analogy the term
is applied to any small pyramid which
is high in comparison with its breadth.
Egyptian obelisks were generally mono­
liths of colossal'proportions, such as the
so-called Cleopatra's Needle, which
stands on the Embankment in London.
In some modern buildings obelisks—
which, however, are not monolithic—are
employed either as finials or as lamps.
Oblatorium. (Arch.) A lateral apse
in a Christian basilica in which the
bread and wine were blessed. It is also
known under the name Prothesis.
Oblique. A term applied to any
direction which is neither vertical nor
horizontal.
• Obliterate. T o efface a copper plate
from which engravings have been struck
by covering it with deep and irregular
incisions, which completely destroy the
value of the work. T h e purpose of
obliterating plates is to prevent any
further prints being struck from them,
as a large number of prints diminishes
the value of the earlier impressions.
A purely fictitious value is thus fre­
quently given to engravings. In a re­
cent instance only fifty impressions
were struck from a plate, which was
then broken u p into fifty pieces and
distributed among the fifty subscribers,
although it was in a perfectly good state
and might still have furnished many
hundreds of proofs.
Oblong. A t e r m a p ι plied to any object
the length of which
1 is greater than its
breadth.
Observe. To study a model closely
and so to reproduce it with accuracy.
T h u s in criticising a picture we say t h a t
the figures are well observed, or that the
effect of light and shade is the result of
careful observation.
Obtuse. An angle greater than a right
angle.
Obverse. (Numis ) T h a t side of a coin
or medal upon which the face or the

OCT

main device is struck. It is opposed to
reverse (q.v.), which is especially reserved
for the insciption.
Oceanides. T h e daughters of the
Greek sea-god Oceanus. In Greek art
they are represented, like the mermaids
of Teutonic mythology, as being half
human, half fish. They wear seaweed
wreathed in their hair and ride on dol­
phins.
Oceanus. In Greek mythology Ocea­
nus is said to be the son of Uranus and
Gaia, and the god ot the sea. In artistic
representations he appears as an aged
man with a bull's horn. H e rides upon
a dolphin or in a chariot drawn by seamonsters, and in his hand he holds a
sceptre, symbolic of the power he exer­
cises over the sea.
Ochre. (Paint.) An argillaceous sub­
stance coloured by oxide of iron.
—, Brown. A pigment obtained from
a clay containing oxide of iron and oxide
of manganese.
—, Red. A red pigment obtained from
sulphate of iron or by calcining yellow
ochre. It is of a good colour and per­
manent as a rule, the only objection to
its free use being that it contains iron,
and so is likely to adversely affect some
pigments with which it is mixed.
—, Yellow. A yellow pigment which
is nothing more or less than a peroxide
or hydrate of iron. It is useful both in
oil and water-colour, as it is permanent.
It is somewhat opaque, and should be
avoided when transparency is aimed at.
What has been said about red ochre
applies equally to yellow. T h e iron it
contains renders it dangerous to some
other pigments, and this danger is
greater in chemically prepared than in
native yellow ochre.
Octohedron. A solid body with eight
faces.
Octostyle. (Arch.) A term applied to
ancient temples, the façade of which was
decorated with eight columns.
The
Parthenon, the famous temple of Athene
at Athens, was octostyle.
275

ART

ocu

DICTIONARY.

Oculus. (Arch.) A small opening or
window of circular form which admits
light and air. T h e term is especially
applied to the circular openings made
at the top of
Ij'.i
t h e , pediment
~
in Latin basilicae.
The
oculus is also
found in buildings of
the
Romanesque
and
Gothic
styles. W h e n it plays an important part
in the decorative scheme of a façade it
is called a rose window (q.v.).
Odeon. (Arch.) A Greek building,
differing in its roof and internal architecture from a theatre. It was used
principally for concerts. T h e most celebrated Odeon at Athens was built in the
time of Pericles, and stood not far from
the theatre of Dionysus.
Oenochoe. (Pot.) A vase or
jug which was used in ancient
Greece for pouring the wine
from the crater to the drinking
cup. T h e majority of these
vases, which are often richly
decorated, are graceful and
tapering in form. Sometimes,
however, the oenochoe is ovoidal in

shape, has
276

a veiy ihin neck and

a

OIL

light handle gracefully curved in the
shape of an S. Such is the one represented in our second cut, which is
taken from a bronze oenochoe found at
Volterra.
Offskip. (Paint.) T h a t portion of a
landscape which recedes into distance
is called the offskip.
Ogee. (Arch.) A moulding formed of
two segments of a circle, the concave
segment occupying the
upper part of the moulding and the convex the
lower. T h e ogee, which
is of a gracefully undulating form, is a moulding
frequently employed in the entablature
and projecting crowning of a building.
—, Reverse. An ogee moulding, the
upper part of which is occupied by the
convex segment of a circle. It is employed as a moulding in pedestals and
sub-basements.
Ogive. (Arch.) A term applied by
French architects to the Pointed or
Gothic style which flourished in Western
Europe from the 12th to the 16th century.
In England we call this Pointed (q.v.).
Oil. (Paint.) T h e oils used in oil-painting are linseed oil, nut oil, poppy oil,
spike or lavender oil, and drying oil for
colours, such as lake, ultramarine, and
blacks, which do not dry easily. For
grinding colours a mixture of linseed
oil and mastic is used. Up to the last
century artists ground their colours
themselves, and each had his own receipt for mixing the oil, of which he was
very proud and which he jealously
guarded. Some used linseed oil with a
little copperas, while others added a
certain quantity of litharge to nut oil.
—, Drying. Drying oil is obtained by
adding to warm linseed oil a mixture of
litharge, white lead, and black ochre.
—, Linseed. T h e best linseed oil formerly came from Holland. T h e painters
of the last century, in order to make it as
white as poppy oil, exposed it in leaden
jars to the sun, adding white lead and

OIL

ART

OLP

DICTIONARY.

calcined talc to it. Linseed oil is an used in decorative art. T h e leaf is oval
in shape, its upper surface being of a
excellent siccative,
Oil, Nut. Nut oil, though not so good dark green, while underneath it is of a
a siccative as linseed oil, is much whiter. lightish hue. T h e wood of
It is accordingly used in diluting whites the olive-tree is of a fine
tone,
delicately
and greys, which would be easily tar- yellow
veined with brown. It takes
nished by the colour of linseed oil.
—, Poppy. This oil is clearer than a beautiful polish, and is
linseed oil, has neither iaste nor smell, sometimes used in cabinetand is used for diluting white lead, the making. In symbolic art
brilliance of which it does not in the the olive is the emblem of
peace, and as this it figures in Byzanslightest degree tarnish.
—, Spike. Spike oil is an essential tine art.
Olive Moulding. (Arch.) A decoration
oil of lavender and is used by painters
for oiling out and for cleaning parts of consisting of obthe canvas. It is also found useful by long pearls, which
is employed to enpainters in enamel.
Oiling-out. (Paint) When a picture is rich baguettes and other mouldings
to be retouched, it has first to undergo the which are convex in profile.
process of oiling-out.
For this purpose
Olla. A common
a drying oil is used, which was prepared jar, generally made
in the last century by artists themselves of baked clay, used
according to various recipes. As a rule by the ancients for
it consisted of poppy oil, with certain cooking and other
substances added.
domestic purposes.
Oilettes. (Arch.) Long narrow slits in It generally had a
the walls of a fortified building through wide mouth and
which archers discharged their arrows. was covered by a
Sometimes they were straight, sometimes lid, as is shown
cruciform ; in the latter case they en- in our cut.
abled the besieged to aim their arrows
Olpe. (Pot.) An ancient vase of variin several directions. [Loophole.]
able size, which resembles a leather
Oiron Faïence. [Faïence of Henri
II.]
Okimono. A Japanese word, which
literally means " a thing to be placed."
Hence it is applied to ornaments and
objects which serve a decorative rather
than a practical purpose.
Oleograph. A reproduction of a picture obtained by a process of printing in
which a kind of oil-colour is used instead
of the ordinary printer's ink. T h e term
is especially applied to the proof obtained
by the processes of chromolithography.
The oleographic process has the advantage of cheapness, but its results are
seldom, if ever, artistic.
Olive. T h e foliage of the olive-tree, flask in shape. It has a circular handle
which is a native of Asia, is frequently and a wide flat rim.

277

ART

ONU

DICTIONARY.

Onuphrius, St. St. Onuphrius, according to the legend was a monk of Thebes,
who spent sixty years of his life alone in
a bleak desert. After enduring without
a murmur the pangs of hunger, he was
found dying in the wilderness by another
monk, who buried him. In art he is
represented as an aged man, scantily
clad and with a lean and hungry look.
Onyx. A variety of agate or chalcedony of remarkable beauty and marked
by parallel and concentric rays variously
coloured.
It was much used by the
ancients for cameo-engraving.
Opal. A blueish white variety o f
quartz, which is semi-transparent and
iridescent.
Opalescent. A body is said to be
opalescent when it is semi-transparent
and iridescent like an opal. T h e scientific explanation of the phenomenon of
opalescence is that particles of gas or
solid matter are uniformly intermixed
in a transparent body.
Opaque. (Paint.) A term applied
to pigments which lack transparency.
Chrome green is a good example of an
opaque pigment. Some pigments undergo a curious change when laid on the
canvas; they lose their opacity and so
allow any colour which has been laid
on beneath them to be distinctly seen.
This is especially the case with pigments
containing lead, the use of which can
never be recommended.
Open Air. (Paint.) [Plein Air.]
Opening. (Arch.) A general term applied to the bays, windows, doors, and
other spaces which break a façade, the
nave of a church, &c.
Opisthodomus (Arch.) T h a t part of
the Greek temple behind the cella (q.v.)
in which the treasures of the deity and
other relics are kept. It was at the
western end of the building, the'Greek
temple differing from the Christian
church in having its principal entrance
in its eastern façade.
Opus Alexandrinum
(Arch ) A
simple kind of mosaic pavement much

278

ORB

used in Rome. Its distinguishing feature is that its patterns, which are always geometrical, are composed entirely
of two colours.
Opus Antiquum. (Arch.) A form of
masonry employed by Roman architects
in which the stones were not squared.
This kind of stonework is also called
opus incertuum. Both
the opus
antiquum
and the opus spicatum, or herring-bone
masonry, were used in buildings of
the Latin and Romanesque styles.
— Reticulatum. (Arch.) A term applied by Roman architects to that kind
of brickwork or masonry which we term
diamond pattern.
— Spicatum. (Arch.)
In Roman
architecture the masonry which we call
herring-bone was called opus spicatum.
[Masonry, Herring-bone.]
Or. (Her.) T h e heraldic name fcr gold.
It is indicated on a
shield by tiny dots ^iffi
powdered
over a
plain
field.
The
shield in our cut
would be described
t h u s : Or, a bend
gules.
Orange. A secondary colour produced
by the mixture of two primary colours,
red and yellow.
— Chrome. This pigment, which is a
rich opaque orange, is a chromate of lead.
Like all lead pigments it has a deleterious effect on the pigments with which
it is mixed, but in pure air and unmixed
it is fairly permanent.
— Vermilion. A pigment somewhat
resembling red lead. It is more brilliant
and less opaque than vermilion. It is
also pure and permanent and dries well.
Oratory. (Arch.) A small private chapel
or a room arranged and decorated as a
chapel.
Orb. T h e orb surmounted by a cross
is the symbol of sovereign power. It is

ORG

ART

frequently represented as held in the
left hand in portraits of
royal personages,
who
hold the sceptre in the
right. Queen Elizabeth,
for instance, in the wellknown portrait of her in
the
National
Portrait
Gallery, holds an orb in
her hand.
Orchestra. (Arch). In the theatre of
the Greeks and Romans the orchestra
was the central portion of the building,
and corresponded to the pit of an English
theatre. T h e Greek orchestra was set
apart for the evolutions of the chorus,
but in the Roman theatre the orchestra
was filled with the seats assigned to
senators and other important personages. T h e orchestra in the modern
theatre is a narrow space in front of the
footlights, in which the musicians sit.
It is sometimes sunk below the level of
the stage, and concealed from the sight
of the audience.
Order. (Arch.) T h e term order was
applied to the three main styles of Greek
architecture, which were distinguished
the one from the other by various details
and especially by their proportions and
by the character
of their columns
and entablatures.
They were entitled the Doric,
Ionic, and Corinthian, and under
these heads they
are discussed. In
Roman times another order entitled the Tuscan
was
developed.
Two orders may be combined in the
same building, each retaining its main
features. At the Renaissance the classical orders were revived with certain
modifications.
Ordinary. (Her.) T h e simple forms
which were originally used as heraldic

DICTIONARY.

ORI

| distinctions were called ordinaries. T h e
honourable ordinaries are nine in number, the chief, pale, bend, bend sinister,
fess, bar. chevron, cross, and cross
saltier. In addition to these there are
thirteen subordinate ordinaries. A description of each of the ordinaries, honourable and subordinate, is to be found
under its separate heading.

Oreillettes.
Round bosses of
meta], sometimes
with a projecting
spike, which were
worn in the helmets of the 15th
century to protect
the ear.

Orfrays.

An

embroidered border now only employed
in sacerdotal vestments, executed in
threads of gold, silver, or silk.
Organ Case. A timber construction
enclosing the mechanism and pipes of
an organ. T h e organ cases of the 15th
and 16th centuries were frequently ornamented with paintings. In the 17th and
18th centuries they assumed a decorative character of imposing fulness.
They projected beyond the statues or
columns which formed their support
and were decorated with an extraordinary wealth of sculptured ornament.
Oriel. T h e term oriel is applied to the
small rooms sometimes found at the
end of halls in country houses or colleges, with a bay window projecting
some distance from the wall. This
window is called an oriel window, and
by analogy any window resembling its
shape is known by the same name.
Orientation. (Arch.) T h e arrangement always followed in the building
of Christian churches, which enables
the worshippers to face the east.
Orient Yellow. (Paint.) A rich but
somewhat opaque yellow of a beautiful
golden tint. It is a very serviceable pigment both in oil and water-colour, as it
dries well and is permanent.

279

ORI

ART

DICTIONARY.

ORN

Oriflamme. The oriflamme, which was the decoration of all ages and all counthe standard of the ancient tries. T h e most probable theory is
kings of France, was once that they are developments or degradathe banner of the abbés tions of natural objects.
It is easily
of St. Denis. In former conceivable, for instance, that a h u m a n
times it had three points head drawn over and over again, withterminated by tufts and out reference to the original, might
was hoisted at the end of finally be so conventionalised as to bea lance. Nowadays ori- come a mere pattern or arbitrary arflammes
are hung like rangement of lines. Architectural orbanners and are frequently nament includes mouldings of every
carried in processions.
kind as well as the cartouches, metopes,
Original. A term applied to the per- brackets, & c , which decorate façades,
sonal method of conceiving and inter- friezes,orvaults. [Foliage, Moulding,&c]
preting a work of art which is suggested
Ornament, Arabian. Arabian ornaby nature or by the artist's own imagina- ment is based upon geometrical combition. In another sense the word denotes nations of circles, polygons, trapeziums,
a picture, drawing, or statue, from which triangles, lozenges, and other figures
copies or reproductions have been made. variously coloured and harmonised with
Originality. Originality includes all the utmost ingenuity.
the distinctly personal or individual
—ι Egyptian. T h e principal systems of
qualities which characterise an artist's ornament employed in the Egyptian style
work. T o lack originality is to remain consist of hieroglyphics, winged globes,
in the old bonds. But originality is some- scarabs, symbolic animals, and foliage,
thing different from eccentricity. In- especially that of the lotus and palm.
deed, it is the virtue to which eccentricity
—, Gothic. T h e Gothic ornament of
is the corresponding vice.
the 12th and 13th centuries consisted of
Orle. (Her.) T h e or le is a narrow band a scrupulously exact reproduction of the
extending round the shield at a slight flora of the country or district in which
distance inside the edge, a particular building was situated, to­
so as to form another gether with representations of chimeri­
shield hollowed out.
It cal animals. In the 14th century the
The
thus might properly be taste for ornament decreased.
described as an escut- architects of the 15th century, however,
cheon voided, and was were very lavish in their use of orna­
in fact so blazoned by ment, which soon lost its purity of line and
became meaningless and extravagant.
early heralds.
—, Greek. Greek ornament for the
Ornament. A painted or sculptured
motive enclosed by regular or irregular most part consists of foliage applied
lines and contributing to the richness symmetrically to the various portions
and effect of a work of art. Ornament of the entablature (q.v.). ' Such are the
consists of a succession of purely con- leaves which adorn the curve of capitals
ventional patterns or of a free render- and the roses which are placed on friezes.
ing of foliage and figures. In any case T h e classical architecture of the Re­
they consist of an arbitrary series of naissance adopted Greek ornament with
lines or curves which vary according to some slight modifications,
t h e fancy of the artist. T h e question
—, Polychrome. Ornament in several
as to the origin of conventional or colours. [Polychromy.]
geometrical ornament is wrapt in ob—, Roman. T h e ornament applied to
scurity. Similar patterns are found in Roman architecture differs but little from
280

ORN

ART

DICTIONARY.

that applied to Greek architecture.
However, in the decoration of wall surfaces and pavements the Romans employed mosaics and fresco-paintings on
variously coloured grounds. In these
works the design generally consisted of
a central motive surrounded by foliage,
garlands, and arabesques.
T h e fragments of paintings found at Pompeii
present many examples of wall surfaces
thus decorated with arabesques, figurines,
fanciful buildings, and labyrinths.
Ornament, Romanesque. During the
Romanesque period architectural ornament, which in the Byzantine age had
been of the utmost richness, was confined
to the faulty reproduction of classical motives. T h e ornament which added so
much grace to the Greek orders is scarcely recognisable in the heavy clumsy decoration of Romanesque architecture.
Orpiment. (Paint.) A pigment compounded of sulphide and oxide of arsenic.
It is a rich colour varying from yellow to
orange. It is found in a natural state
and is also manufactured. It was much
used by the ancients, and by them called
auripigmentum, but modern science has
proved that it is not permanent, and
that it is adversely affected by other pigments; its use therefore cannot be recommended.
Orthography. A term applied to geometrical elevations and geometrical
drawings representing a building with its
dimensions reduced to scale, without any
attempt at perspective.
Ostensoir. A transparent vase or pyx
(q.v.), in which the
host is placed, and so
exposed to the sight
of the worshippers.
Many of the ostensoirs
made by goldsmiths
in Catholic countries
during the last century were of great
beauty.
They are
generally in the form of a gloria and
are sometimes enriched with heads of
19

OVA

cherubims, ears of corn, and bunches of
grapes. One of the finest in existence
is that in Notre Dame, at Paris. It is in
the form of a sun and is of solid silver.
It was presented to the church by the
Canon of L a Porte and was executed by
Ballin, goldsmith to the king, after the
design of the architect de Cotte. It measures no less than five feet in height, and
is supported by the figure of an angel
holding the book of Revelations in his
hand.
Osteology. T h e important branch of
anatomy which includes the study of
bones, the osseous system, and the skeleton. It is a study of the utmost importance to artists.
Outremer. [Ultramarine.]
Outline. (Paint.) T h e imaginary line
which surrounds an object, when represented in drawing or painting, is termed
an outline.
How much can be achieved
by a single outline is proved by the exquisite drawings of Holbein. In painting, an emphatic definition of outline
should be avoided, as it is not essential
to good draughtmanship, and it produces
an effect of harshness, which is not seen
in nature.
Oval. An oblong curve. In principle

the oval is a curve which in form approaches as nearly
as possible to half
an egg cut lengthwise. But the term
has a wider application. T h u s an
ellipse is called
an oval. Oblong
curves are often formed by several arcs
281

ART

OVE

DICTIONARY.

of circles meeting one another, and having their several centres placed symmetrically. T h e h u m a n face seen in
front may be inscribed in an oblong
curve of this kind. T h e oval of a face is
a common expression.
Over-all. (Her.) W h e n a figure is
borne over another figure, so as to hide part
of it, it is said to be
over-all.
Ovolo. (Arch.) A continuous ornament in
the form of an egg,
which generally decorates the moulding
called a quarter-round.
T h e eggs are
generally separated from one another
by pointed darts. T h e ovolo is very
widely employed to decorate the mouldings of the ancient Greek orders
as well as Roman
and Renaissance
mouldings. Some
writers on architecture have fallen into the error of
using the term ovolo to denote the
quarter-round mould, instead of the ornament which decorates it.
Owl. In ancient times the owl was the
bird sacred to Athene, and Athenian
coins bore an owl as their type. From
this circumstance arose the famous proverb, " Owls of Athens," of which the
modern form is " Coals to Newcastle.''
Oxgall. [Gall.]
Oxybaphon. An ancient vase of con-

siderable dimensions and of the shape
282

PAI

shown in our cut. It somewhat resembled the crater both in shape and use,
and was sometimes provided with lateral
handles placed not far below its rim.

Pad. (Engr.) A kind of dabber slightly
flattened and covered
with silk, by means of
which the varnish,
while still warm, is
spread over copper
plates which are to
be etched.
Padding. (Paint.) Under this term is
included every figure in a painting which
does not add to the value of the composition, each accessory which, being
superfluous, detracts from the merit of
the work.
Pagoda. (Arch.) A term applied to
the religious buildings of India, China,
and the kingdom of Siam.
Paint. T h e pigments used by artists
are generally known as paints.
Painting. Painting may be defined
as that one of the formative arts, the end
of which is to represent upon a flat surface by means of lines and colours the
phenomena of the natural world, so that
an illusion of reality in outline, modelling, and colour may be obtained. T h e
means by which this end is arrived at
may be summed up in colour, perspective,
light, and shade.
Painting may be
roughly divided into (i) drawing, including water-colour, pastel, pencil, and
chalk drawing, &c. In this class the
work is executed upon paper, parchment, and similar materials ; (2) oilpainting, in which pictures are executed
in oil-colours upon canvas or panel ; (3)
mural painting, in which pictures are
executed on wall-surfaces in dry colours
or in water, tempera, or wax colours.
T o these divisions must be added vasepainting, glass-painting, and painting on
porcelain and enamel. Painting may

PAL

ART

DICTIONARY.

PAL

be subdivided according to the objects
Palette. (Paint.) T h e palette, one of
represented, as follows : (i) historical the principal requirements of the painter,
painting, under which may be included consists of a thin piece of wood, genereligious and mythological works; (2) rally walnut or pear, hollowed out at one
portraiture ; (3) genre, the representation end with a hole
of domestic life and humorous scenes; through which the
(4) animal painting ; (5) still-life ; (6) t h u m b is passed.
landscape and seascape. Painting in Palettes are either
some form or another has been practised oval or square. T o
in almost every age. T h e Greeks were begin with the pathe first to attain any proficiency in the lette is set, that is
art, and though they knew little of to say, it is covered
perspective, yet if we may judge from with colours arthe vase-paintings and mural decorations ranged in a certain
that have come down to us, their order. On its edge a smaP saucer is
work was always distinguished. In the sometimes hung to hold the oil. In
Byzantine period painting was entirely water-colour painting palettes of porceconventionalised, and in the dark ages lain are used, while the palette used in
the art seems to have died out, but it distemper may be described as a large
had a new birth in Italy in the 13th cen- piece of wood surtury through the genius of Cimabue. rounded by holes,
[Schools of Painting.]
in which the colours
Palace. (Arch.) A collection of build- are ground in water
ings, richly adorned and on a large scale, and mixed with size.
which serves as a dwelling for sovereigns T h e palette is often
and princes, or as a place of meeting for regarded as the symbol of painting. T h e
state bodies.
Palaestra. (Arch.) A Greek word gilder's palette is an
denoting the place where athletes were instrument of wood
trained. Structurally speaking, the pal- which the gilder uses to spread his
aestra differed but little from the gymna- gold leaf upon. T h e term palette is
sium (q.v.). T h e Greeks valued physical also applied to the tablet used by
grace and beauty very highly.
T h e workers in stucco,
palaestra, therefore, occupied a very as well as to the
instrument
important place in the life of the an- iron
cient Greeks, and as it afforded the with which binbest opportunity for the study of the ders stamp ornanude, its influence upon art, especially ments on the back
the art of sculpture, was consider- of books.
able.
Palette Knife. (Paint.) T h e palette
Pale. (Her.) T h e pale is one of the knife is a strip of horn or flexible
honourable
ordin- metal, which is used by painters to
aries. It consists of mix their colours on the palette betwo
perpendicular fore laying them on their canvas with
lines drawn from a brush. In former times this was the
the base to
the only purpose to which the palette knife
chief of the shield, was put, but in the present generation
w h i c h e n c l o s e a its importance has considerably inspace equal to one- creased. Some painters of the modern
third of the shield.
school use the palette knife only and
283

PAL

ART

DICTIONARY.

the brush in the execution of
their works. Others lay in
their skies and
foregrounds
with the palette knife. T h e
palette knife has changed its
traditional form, and often assumes a triangular or other
shape, according to the method of work of the artist who
uses it.
Palettes. Small disks or
plates of metal which, when
plate armour was worn, were fixed

at the shoulder, as represented in our
cuts.
Palimpsest. A term applied to ancient manuscripts upon parchment
which has already been written upon
once and then erased or otherwise
washed clean. In modern times certain
chemical reagents have been discovered
which render the original writing more
or less legible, and by this means
many valuable fragments of ancient
literature have been discovered
in
palimpsest.
Palissy Ware. (Pot.) Palissy ware is
the pottery made by the distinguished
French potter, Bernard Palissy (1506—
1596?). This indefatigable artist set
about making enamels, and for nearly
twenty years met with no success. At
length, however, he triumphed, and
made the figures in high relief for which
he is still famous. His most characteristic works were the rustiques
figulines,
which were dishes or vases with a
rough ground, upon which frogs, snakes,
284

PAL

fish, lizards, and other creatures were
figured.
Pall. (Her.) A pall is an ecclesiastical
vestment worn over the shoulders. T h e
mers. 1 ne
part of it shown on a
shield takes the form of
the letter Y. T h e pall
is only worn by archbishops, and is the distinctive mark in heraldry
of these dignitaries of
the Church.
Palla. A robe worn by Greek women
and reaching from the neck to the feet.
It consisted of a rectangular piece of
cloth, a portion of which was folded over

SI

before it was put on, so that the upper
portion fell double over the wearer. It
was secured at the shoulders with a
brooch.
Palladian. A n a m e given to the
classical style of architecture, as it was
revived in the 16th century by the celebrated architect Andrea Palladio. At
a time when architecture was losing its
grace and simplicity, Palladio insisted
on an observance of proportion and
restraint. T h e buildings which give

PAL

ART

DICTIONARY.

us the best idea of the Palladian
style are to be seen at Vicenza and
Venice.
Pallas Athene. [Athene.]
P a l l e t . (Her.) A diminutive of the pale
(q.v.).
Pallium. A garment
which may best be described as a large cloak.
It
c o m p l e t e l y enveloped the wearer, and was much
worn by the Greeks, among whom it
took the place occupied at Rome by the

PAL

palm-leaf is given to a different ornament. This is a leaf curved at the end
and covered with foliage and arabesques, often
very
complicated in design
and rich in colour. A
system of ornament
consisting of
small
palm-leaves is used in
various styles of architecture.
Sometimes
the leaf is inscribed in a curve, or it
consists of several stems, five in number or even more, held together by a
kind of clasp. Their lower portion

often ends in a scroll. In classical
art the palm is the emblem of Victory, and figures of Victory frequently
hold a palm-branch in their hand, as
in our cut, which is a copy of a Rom a n gem. In Christian art the palm

toga. It could be worn in an infinite
variety of ways according to the taste
of the wearer.
Palm. T h e leaf of the palm-tree forms
a frequent motive in decorative art. It

is particularly appropriate in the construction of trophies, as it is the symbol
of victory. In Indian fabrics the name

is the emblem of martyrdom, and
in mediaeval pictures martyrs are invariably represented holding a palm.
Palstave. A curious weapon, consisting of a piece of metal, such as is
represented in our cut, which could be

28S

PAL

ART

DICTIONARY.

fixed upon a staff and used with con­
siderable effect. It is pre-eminently a

PAN

nately metal and tincture. T h e shield
in our cut is described thus : Paly of
four, argent and gules.
Pan. Pan was regarded by the Greeks
as the god of flocks and herds, hunting
and fishing. H e was said to have been
the inventor of the shepherd's pipe,
which after him was called Pan's pipe.
H e is represented in art as a shortbearded man, with the ears, horns, and
Scandinavian weapon, but it was used legs of a goat, and his attributes are a
pipe and a crook.
as well by all the Celtic nations.
Panathenaic Amphorae. (Pot.) These
Paludamentum. A cloak generally
of fine texture and rich colour, which vases were given as prizes to the victors
was worn by Roman officers over their in the Panathenaic festival, which took
place every year at Athens in honour of
Athene. T h e vases are in the form of
amphorae with lids. On the body of
the vases is a representation of Athene
in her panoply. On each side of the
goddess stands a column surmounted
by an owl, cock, or h u m a n figure. T h e
inscription Ύών Άθήνηθεν 'Άθλων runs
down the side of the vases, which are
always purposely archaic in style. On
the Parthenon frieze, now among the
Elgin marbles in the British Museum
may be seen a representation of the
Panathenaic procession.
Pandroseum. (Arch.) A name given
to a portion of the Erechtheum, which
stood on the Acropolis at Athens, con­
sisting of a porch, the entablature of
which was supported by caryatides (q.v.).
Pane. (Arch.) A sheet of glass placed
within the frame of a window.
Panel. In architecture a panel is a flat
or convex surface surrounded with a
armour. It was fastened on the shoulder frame or decorated with mouldings.
by a brooch, and in shape, though not Sunk compartments in walls, for in­
in size—for it was considerably larger— stance, are panels. T h e term panel
it resembled the Greek also denotes a piece of wood which is
used instead of canvas for painting
S
HUM IIIiliUr chlamys.
P a l y . (Her.) In pictures on. English panels are to be
heraldry a field is preferred to any others, as they do not
said to be paly when spoil under the influence of atmospheric
it is divided
into changes, ι
several equal parts
Panel-picture. A name given to a
b y p e r p e n d i c u l a r picture painted not upon canvas but
lines. These equal parts are alter­ a piece of wood or p a n e l
Panel286

PAN

ART

pictures were painted by the earliest
artists, and many specimens are to be
seen in every picture gallery. T h e cut
we give here is from a manuscript of

DICTIONARY.

PAN

the 14th century, and represents an
artist painting a panel-portrait of herself, scanning her own features in a
mirror.

Pannel. (Her.) A common charge of that time exhibitions of this kind have
occasional occurrence in heraldry, re- enjoyed unbroken popularity in Paris.
presenting a poplar-leaf. Pan- One of the most recent was a picture of
nels generally appear in num- the battle of Champigny, and was the
ber on a shield. Thus, for work of Détaille and de Neuville.
example, we might have the
Pantheon. (Arch.) An ancient temple
following c h a r g e : Ten fian- consecrated to the worship of all the gods.
nels argent placed three, three, Athens and Rome, for instance, had each
three, and one.
its Pantheon. T h e name Pantheon has
Panorama. A picture painted on can- also been given to buildings raised in
vas without any break in its continuity honour of the illustrious men of a nation.
Pantile. (Arch.) A curved tile used in
and fixed against a circular wall. T h e
spectators stand in the centre of the roofing.
Pantograph. An instrument by means
panorama upon a platform considerably
raised and in half darkness. A strong
light falling on the foreground, whether
it is painted or real, adds to the depth
and greatly increases the illusion. T h e
panorama was invented by Richard
Barker, an artist of Edinburgh, who in
the year 1788 exhibited a panorama of
that city. T h e exhibition was continued
in London, where views of London and
pictures representing the wars of Napoleon were shown. T h e first panorama
was seen in France in 1799, and since of which drawings may be either enlarged
287

PAN

ART

or reduced in exact mathematical proportion.
Pantographs are worked on
different systems. T h e one in most
general use is based on the principle of
similar triangles and enables us to obtain
reproductions of an original, larger,
smaller, or of the same size, according
to the position of the pivot, on which
the apparatus moves, of the point which
follows the outline of the drawing, and
the pencil with which the image is traced
upon the paper.
Pantometer. An instrument with
which angles are measured and perpendiculars dropped ; and also an instrument invented in 1752 by the Abbé
Louvrier, with which portraits of persons in profile are executed mechanically.
Papelonné. (Her.) This term is applied
to a shield covered with semicircular
scales ranged in rows
like tiles on the roof of
a house. T h e body of
the scale represents the
field of the escutcheon
and the edge of the
scale is shown of a different tincture.
Paper. A material manufactured from
vegetable substances reduced to a paste
and pressed into thin leaves, available
for drawing, writing, painting, or printing.
It is made in certain sizes, each of which
has its technical name, and these are
given below :
WRITING AND DRAWING PAPERS.
Dimensions
in.
in.
Emperor
. 66 by 47
Antiquarian .
• 53 .. 3i
Double Elephant
, 4o ,, 26!
Atlas
• 34 » 26
Colombier .
. 34i .. 23Ì
Imperial
. 30 ,, 22
Elephant
. 28 „ 23
Super Royal .
. 27 „ 19
Royal .
• 24 „ 19
Medium
• 22 „ 17Ì
Demy .
• 20 „ 15e
288

DICTIONARY.

PAP

Dimensions.
in.
in.
Large Post .
. 2 o | by 16J
Post
. 18Ï „ 15ε
Foolscap
. 17 » i 3 i
Pott
. 15 » 12Ì
Copy
. 20 ,, 16
PRINTING PAPERS.
Dimensions.
in.
in.
Demy .
. 22a by 17I
Royal .
. 25 „ 20
Super Royal (about) . 28 , , 2 0
Imperial
. 30 „ 22
Double Foolscap
• 27 „ 17
Double Crown
- 30 ,, 20
Double Demy
. 35à » 22e
CARTRIDGE PAPERS.
Dimensions.
in.
in.
Copy
. 20 by l6J
Demy .
. 22è „ 17I
Royal .
• 25 „ 20
Cartridge
. 26 ,, 2i£
Elephant
. 28 „ 23
Double Crown
. 30 ,, 20
Double Demy
. 354 » 22e
Imperial
. 30 », 22
Paper, Creswick. A particular kind
of paper used for water-colour drawings.
—, Chinese. A paper of a yellowish
tinti manufactured from the bark of the
bamboo, upon which proofs of woodcuts
or line engravings are printed.
Some
Chinese papers are clear in tint, while
the tint of others is almost bistred.
Chinese paper furnishes excellent proofs
of woodcuts and fairly good proofs of
line engravings. Proofs of the latter,
however, on Chinese paper are somewhat too dry and spiritless, and are
not to be compared for a moment
with the magnificent proofs taken on
parchment or Japanese paper. Chinese
paper is also called India paper.
—, Glass. Canvas or paper upon which
glass reduced to a very fine powder is
sized. In the execution of picturesque
etchings it isf used to dull the surface
of the copper, so that the plate, when
inked, may yield a series of irregular

PAP

ART

spots which help to mark the planes and
give strength to the rendering of certain
passages. Glass paper or emery paper
is used to sharpen the point of gravers.
Paper, Emery. Paper covered with
emery powder is used by artists to
sharpen pencils or steel points, and by
cabinet-makers to give a smooth surface
to wood.
—, India. [India Paper.]
—, Japanese. [Japanese Paper.]
—, Laid. A term applied to paper in
which the wiremarks, watermarks, or
imprint of metal threads, which rested
on the damp paste during the process of
manufacture, are still to be seen. Laid
paper is solid, of great resisting power;
it lends itself admirably to the printing
of line engravings, but its use in taking
proofs of vignettes in relief should be
discountenanced.
—, Parchment. Paper immersed in
a solution of sulphuric acid, which gives
it the appearance of parchment.
This
kind of paper is used as a covering for
books.
—, Tissue. A transparent paper which
is used for laying over engravings for
tracing and other purposes. It is
generally made from the refuse of flaxmills.
—, Tracing. Tracing paper, such as
is used by artists, is obtained by soaking
ordinary tissue paper in turpentine or
varnish. T h e process gives it a glazed
surface, and enables it to be drawn on
without tearing or cracking.
—, Transfer. A paper coated with a
special preparation from which tracings
may be obtained on a lithographic stone
or a plate of zinc. A drawing is made
upon the paper, which is then slightly
damped, laid upon the stone or plate,
and submitted to pressure. A perfectly
accurate tracing is the result.
—, Vellum. Vellum paper is a strong
paper without any grain, as uniform
and satiny as possible. When of a good
quality it is excellent for taking proofs
of engravings in relief, as it reproduces

DICTIONARY.

PAR

the most delicate qualities of the cut.
Unfortunately vellum paper is far less
solid than laid paper, and it easily gets
spotted with d a m p .
Paper, Whatman. A very solid kind
of paper, the grain of which varies from
fine to coarse. Whatman paper of a
coarse grain is used by water colourists.
T h a t with a fine grain is used in printing editions de luxe, after having been
submitted to a heavy pressure, so as to
soften the asperities of its grain. A thick
kind of Whatman forms an excellent
mount for prints or drawings.
Paper Hangings. From the 18th century paper printed with variously coloured designs has entirely taken the
place of tapestry, leather, and other
costly materials which were previously
used as hangings. T h e earliest wallpapers were obtained by a process of
stencilling, the later have been printed
from wooden blocks upon which the
design has been cut. A separate block
is used for each colour, and the more
costly papers are printed by hand, the
cheaper ones being printed rapidly in a
machine.
Papier Mâché. A material composed
of paper pulp sometimes mixed with size,
which is reduced to a plastic mass and
then pressed in moulds into various
shapes. It is then dried, varnished, and
painted, and various small ornaments
may be made from it. It seems to have
been first made in Paris about 1740.
Parabola. A para-w^
boia is a curve which
^V
I
results from the sec3 Λ* ι
tion of a cone by a
J
plane parallel to one
/
J
of its sides.
*
I
Paraboloid. A surface produced by
the revolution of a parabola.
Parallel. Two lines in the same plane
are said to be parallel
if, when produced ever
m
i
so far both ways, they never meet.
T h e term is also applied to similar things
placed symmetrically, to subjects of
289

PAR

ART

DIC riONARY.

similar outline which form pendants to
one another, or to parts of a building of
the same proportion.
Parallelipiped. A solid figure bounded
by six rectangles or six squares. In the
latter case it is termed a right parallelipiped. T h e cube is a parallelipiped.
Parallelogram. A four-sided figure,
the opposite sides of
\
\
which are equal
and
parallel. T h e
lozenge
(q.v.) is a parallelogram, the four sides
of which are equal.
Parapet. A wall or barrier about breast
high, which runs along the edge of a
balcony, a platform, or bridge, or protects the top of a house or church.
Parallel-ruler. A contrivance consisting of two rulers, connected by metal
hinges, which enable the rulers to be

PAR

and outside houses of the 16th and 17th
centuries. In many English towns fine
specimens of pargetting are to be found,
often in very high relief.
Parian Marble. [Marble, Parian.]
Parody. A burlesque imitation or reproduction. To parody the manner of
an artist is to reproduce sketches of his
works, in which his style and touch are
so exaggerated as to produce a grotesque
and ridiculous effect.
Parthenon. T h e great temple built in
honour of Pallas Athene, which stood on
the Acropolis at Athens. It was built in
the 5th century B.C. by Ictinus ; in its cella
or shrine stood the famous gold and ivory
statue of the goddess, while its exterior
was adorned by the magnificent sculptures designed by Pheidias himself, some
of which are now to be seen among the
Elgin marbles in the British Museum.
Parti pris. A French term for which
there is no exact equivalent in English.
It denotes the method in which an artist
has chosen to distribute the light of a
picture, to conceive a scene, to compose
or treat a subject. Thus we may say of
a picture that it lacks parti pris.
Partizan. A long staff surmounted by
a broad blade, somewhat resembling a
spear-head, but with an ornamental pro-

placed at various distances from one
another. By the use of the parallel-ruler
parallel lines may be drawn without the
aid of the square.
Parastate. (Arch.) A term applied
indifferently to pilasters, pillars, and
pied-droits (q.v.).
Parcae. [Fates, The.]
Parchment. T h e skin of a sheep or
goat, which is prepared and polished
with pumice stone and used for several
artistic purposes. Old manuscripts, for
instance, were executed on parchment,
as well as gouaches and miniatures.
Expensive works are sometimes printed
on it, while it is admirably adapted for
taking proofs of line engravings. A painting is said to have a parchment tone
when it is a yellowish white, suggesting
new parchment, or a yellowish grey, suggesting old parchment.
Parclose. (Arch.) T h e circumference
of a church stall.
Pargetting. A term applied to the
decorative figures, foliage, and garlands jection on each side of it. It was in its
of plaster, which are found both inside origin a weapon of war, but like the
290

PAR

ART

DICTIONARY.

halberd and some other weapons, it
early degenerated into a mere mark of
dignity.
P a r t y per. (Her.) These words are
used to denote that the shield is divided,
and are followed by a word explaining
how the division is made. T h u s the

three cuts here given represent respectively divisions denoted by the phrases,
party per f ess, party per bend sinister, and
party per pale.
Party per Fess. (Her.) When a horizontal line is drawn
through the centre of
a shield, the shield is
termed party per fess,
because the line passes
through t h e fess point.
T h e proper description of our cut is party per fess, engrailed,
argent and gules.
Party per Pale. (Her.) W h e n a perpendicular line is drawn
down the centre of a
shield from chief to base,
the shield is termed party
per pale. We give an example of a shield, party
per pale, gules and argent.
Party per Saltire. (Her.) When a
shield is divided by partition lines in the
direction of the bend and
the bend sinister, it is
said to be party per saltire, for the two partition
lines crossing one another
make that form of cross
a saltire.
, (Arch.) An enclosed piece of
ground situated in front of a Christian
basilica or church.
In early times
the parvise was called the atrium, and

PAS

was set apart for catechumens and penitents. In the Middle Ages the term
parvise was reserved for a space shut in
with low walls or railings in front of the

principal door of a church. T h u s we
speak of the parvise of a church or of a
cathedral.
Passage, (i.) (Arch.) A corridor which
serves as an exit or adit from one wing
of a building to another. T h e term is
also applied to a vast covered gallery
and to a narrow street reserved for footpassengers.
Passage. (2.) (Paint.) T h e method of
transition from one tone to another, or
from light to shade. When the transition
from the luminous part of a picture to the
portion plunged in shade is not gradual,
the passage is said to be abrupt. In the
language of art criticism we are frequently
told that a " picture contains charming
passages." This is of course a metaphor
taken from literature or music.
Passe-partout. (Engrav.) A passepartout is an engraving either in relief
or line, formed of two movable parts.
T h e term may be applied, for instance,
to ornamental letters engraved on wood,
the frame of which always remains the
same, while the centre is movable.
Some etchings too, used to illustrate
books in the last century, may be called
passe-partout.
These consisted of a
richly decorated border, in the midst of
which vignettes with various legends
were placed; these vignettes could be
changed from time to time, the frame
meanwhile remaining the same. A
double mount in which a drawing or
engraving may be easily slipped is also
called a passe-partout.
291

PAS

ART

DICTIONARY.

Paste. (Pot.) A mixture of various
substances ground and blended from
which porcelain is made.
T h e term
Paste is also applied to glass, coloured
by rock crystal, so as to imitate gems.
From this paste facsimiles of ancient
engraved gems have been obtained both
in ancient and modern times, and the
copies are often so accurate that they
even deceive connoisseurs, From an
artistic point of view they are often not
a whit inferior to the originals from
which they are copied.
Pasteboard. A material composed of
several sheets of paper pasted together
and compressed, so as to form a close,
compact body. It is used for several
artistic purposes, such as drawing
u p and mounting prints or watercolours.
Pastel. (Paint.) A process of drawing
in colour, in which variously coloured
crayons are used. T h e pastel is drawn
upon paper with a rough surface or upon
a canvas covered with a kind of distemper. T h e colours are laid on with
hard crayons, while the lights, masses,
and planes are indicated with soft
crayons, which can be crushed and
spread with the finger or stump. Drawings in pastel are easily effaced. Their
whole surface may be destroyed with
one stroke of the brush. They therefore should be set with a special fixative
and be carefully shielded from air or
damp, and even placed under glass, if it
is desired to preserve them.
The
crayons used in pastel drawing have a
basis of pipeclay or gum arabic, according as the colours to be mixed are soft
or dry. A box of pastels generally
includes thirty crayons, hard, medium,
and soft, giving for each colour the
gradation of tints from white to the
natural tone.

Pastiche, Pasticcio. The imitation of
a work of art, in which the reproduction
either of the work of a particular master
is aimed at or of the details and characteristics of a school. Many modern
292

PAT

pictures may best be described as
pleasant pastiches
of the ancient
masters.
Pastoral. T h e term pastoral is applied
to pictures in which conventional shepherds and shepherdesses play a part.
T h e works of Watteau and Boucher are
among the most celebrated pastoral pictures.
— Staff. (Her.) This term is applied
to the staff which priors and abbots
often employed as a crest
f!
to their shields. In earlier
times it was surmounted
f~" '"
\
with a cross-piece, so as
to form a Tau ; later on
a globe was substituted
for the cross-piece. In
processions the pastoral
staff was carried behind
the shield of the prior of the convent.
Paten. A vessel used in the services
of the Catholic Church. It is on the
paten that the host is laid before the
communion. Considering the purpose
which it serves, it is not surprising that

the paten was in olden times frequently
engraved or enamelled, and sometimes
brilliant with jewels. Our cut represents a paten, now in Cliffe Church,
Kent.
Patenôtre. (Arch.) A system of ornament consisting of rows of chaplets or

PAT

ART

DICTIONARY.

garlands made up of small round or
oval seeds.
Patera. An open shallow dish or
saucer, which was used by the Romans

for holding liquids. The special purpose
to which the patera was put was to
contain the wine which was to be

PAU

in bronze we find a green blue patina
or rust, which allows the masses of
brown metal, as well as the brilliant
spots which reflect the light, to be seen
through it. This patina is obtained
artificially by the forgers of ancient
works of art, by plunging metal objects
in a bath of acetic acid, chloride of
sodium, and hydrosulphate of ammonia.
T h e term is applied in painting to the
tone assumed by the varnish which
covers a picture after several years'
exposure to the light. Time gives to
some pictures a patina of an exquisitely
delicate tone. By an extension of meaning, the soft, mellow appearance which
works of art gain under the influence of
various atmospheric conditions or under
the influence of particles of dust is
called patina.
For instance, marble
statues or buildings may be covered
with a patina, which gives them a harmonious appearance.
Patina. (2) A vessel, generally of
earthenware, considerably deeper than

rzx
poured over the head of a victim in a
sacrifice.
In architecture the term patera is
applied to an ornament which consists

of a circular rosette, the outline of
which suggests the form of the ancient
patera.
Patina, (i.) A green crust, formed of
carbonate of copper, or verdigris, which
appears on the surface of bronzes
exposed to the air. On ancient works

7

the patera (q.v.). It was used by the
Romans for a variety of domestic purposes.
Patte. (Paint.) In the slang of the
French studio avoir la patte is to combine a ready skill of hand with spirit
and energy. An artist is said to have
une patte de diable, when he paints pictures with an astonishing cleverness,
which is great enough to cover a thousand faults of drawing or composition.
Paul, St. St. Paul is frequently represented in art. His invariable attribute
is the sword, and he appears as a man
of short stature and bearded. Among
the incidents in his career which have
suggested subjects to painters may be
mentioned his persecution of St. Stephen,
his conversion, and his martyrdom. His
conversion has been treated by Raphael,
293

PAV

ART

Michael Angelo, and Rubens. St. Paul
too, is often represented in conjunction
with St. Peter
Pavilion. (Arch.) A term applied to
small shelters of picturesque design, to
little houses
standing apart
in gardens, or
to large spaces
covered and
glazed,
and
symmetrical in
form, which protect a square or market.
Pavimentum Sectile. (Arch.) A name
given by archaeologists to mosaic pave­
ments, composed of fragments of
coloured marbles of various shapes, but
always arranged so as to form geometri­
cal combinations.
— Sculpturatum.
A pavement
covered with designs, the outlines of
which are obtained by engraving and
by filling the hollows made by the graver
with black mastic. This method of
ornamenting floors was practised by
the Romans, and carried to perfection
by the Italians. A fine specimen of the
pavimentum sculpturatum is to be seen
in the Duomo of Siena.
— Tesselatum. A mosaic floor com­
posed of uniform and regular cubes of
variously coloured marble, arranged in
geometrical patterns.
— Vermiculatum.
A mosaic floor­
ing, in which subjects drawn from the
natural world are represented by means
of small pieces of coloured marble of
different shapes and sizes, so arranged
as to follow the outline of the figures or
ornaments represented.
Paving. (Arch.) T h e covering of the
horizontal surface of the ground with
slabs of stone or marble, squares of
terra-cotta, or cubes of
wood laid in a bed of as­
phalte.
Paw. (Her.) T h e lower
part of the leg of the lion
or any other animal is
called a paw. In the language of her­
294

DICTIONARY.

PED

aldry the word is confined to the case
when the limb is cut off below the
middle joint, and if more of the leg than
this is shown it is called a. jambe (q v.).
Pax. A plaque of metal, sometimes
circular in form, sometimes square,
which in the services of the Church was
first kissed by
the
officiating
priest and then
carried
round
for the worship­
pers to kiss. It
was damascen­
ed,
engraved,
or ornamented
with nielli, and
the subjects
generally repre­
sented on the pax were the crucifixion,
the head of Christ, or the Lamb. From
the pax of Maso Finiguerra were struck
the first line engravings known to us
[Niello.]
Payne's Grey. (Paint.) A compound
colour of a lilac grey tint.
Peacock. In classical art the peacock
is the attribute of Hera (q.v.) or Juno.
In the Christian art of the Byzantine
period it symbolizes the resurrection.
Peau. (Her.) This fur differs only
from ermine in the tinctures of its field
and spots, which are sable and or respec­
tively. It is thus the reverse of erminois
(q.v.).

Pe d e s t a i .
(Arch.) A support, upon which
a statue is placed.
It is generally

«ψ;
<^r

square, and is provided with mouldings,

PED

ART

DICTIONARY.

a base, and a cornice. T h e square part
is termed the dado. Pedestals upon
which statues stand in gardens are
sometimes cylindrical or cut cantwise.
Pédicule. (Arch.) An isolated pillar
serving as a support; for instance, the
pédicule of a baptismal font ; also the
crowning of a pointed arch upon which a
statuette is placed.
Pediment. (Arch.) A crowning of a
building formed of two portions of oblique
cornices or a circular portion which meets
the cornice of the entablature at its ends.
T h e façade of ancient temples was always
terminated by a pediment, the two sides
of the pediment marking the slope of the
roof. Mediaeval buildings, too, were
frequently surmounted by a pediment,
which, however, was
generally known as
a gable (q.v.). T h e
pediments
of the
Renaissance period are as a rule circular
or broken. T h e pediments of ancient
temples were generally filled with groups
of statues, which together represented
some subject drawn from classical mythology
For instance, on one of the
pediments of the Parthenon was represented the birth of Athene from the head
of Zeus. Pediments were surmounted
with Acroteria (q.v.).
—, Angular. A pediment, the outline
of which is formed by two oblique
cornices and a
horizontal c o r nice. Pediments
of this form are
generally decorated with finials placed
on their summit.
—, Broken. A pediment, the lateral
c o r n i c e s of
which termin«ate in volutes
or are cut off
from the centre of the pediment, so as to
leave an empty space, in which a ped-

estai i:
statue.

placed

PED
supporting a bust or

Pediment, Circular. A pediment, the
cornice of which describes an arc of a
circle. In the 17th
and 18th centuries
this form of pediment was in frequent use.
—, Couped. A pediment is said to be
couped when its
summit is broken, so as to give
room for a vase,
statue, bust, or
other ornament.
—, Double. When one pediment is
inscribed in another, the two are said to
form a doub 1 e ρ e d iment. T h e
g r eater
serves to
crown
the
entablature, the lesser to crown an open­
ing or ornament set within the greater.
—, Open. A
ρ e d im eη t
pierced by an
opening
which
is
moulding encircling a bull's-eye.
—, Surbased. A flat pediment, the
angle of which is larger than a right
angle. T h e majority
of ancient temples,
the façades of which
were of considerable
breadth, had surbased pediments.
—, Surmounted. A pediment, the
angle of which is less than a right angle.
—, Triangular. A pediment in the form
of an equilateral triangle. This kind of
pediment as well as
the surmounted pediment were frequently employed by the
architects of
the
Renaissance.
Many
chateaux of this period have dormers
295

PEL

ART

DICTIONARY.

with triangular or surmounted pediments.
Felasgic. (Arch.) T h e term Pelasgic
is applied to the earliest remains of
architecture known in Greece, to which
the name Cyclopean (q.v.) is also given.
Pelice. (Pot.) A form of Greek vase,
more tapering than the amphora, which

it resembles in other respects. It has
two handles connecting the neck with
the body of the vasç.
Pelta. A light shield of wicker or
wood, covered with leather, but never

strengthened with metal.
296

It was either

PEN

round or semicircular, in which latter
case it was termed lunata.
It was carried by Asiatics, and Amazons are frequently represented peltatae, or bearing
the pelta.
Pen and Ink Drawing. T h e universal
adoption of the various processes of
engraving has done much to encourage
pen and ink drawing, simple drawings
in black and white being easily reproduced. Steel pens, the fineness of which
varies with the kind of drawing which is
to be executed, have now generally replaced the old-fashioned quill. Some
artists use reeds sharpened to a point,
goosequills,or even hair brushes charged
with ink, to add a few vigorous touches
to pen and ink drawings.
Penates. T h e household gods of the
Romans were called Penates. With the
Lares (q.v.) they resembled the patron
saints of Catholic times. They were kept
in the lavavium, and sacrifices were
offered in their honour. They are represented in art sometimes as old men
fully draped, sometimes as youths holding a patera and a horn of plenty.
Pencil. A pencil consists of a thin strip
of graphite or plumbago inserted in a
cylinder of cedar-wood. T h e best are
manufactured from Cumberland lead.
They are used by artists for making
rapid sketches upon paper. T h e term
pencil is sometimes applied to the small
hair-brushes, set in metal ferrules, which
are used by watercolourists.
Pendant. In Gothic
architecture the term
pendant is applied to
a boss or other ornament which hangs
downwards from a ceiling or roof. Pendants
are most frequently
found at the intersection of vaults. In another sense a picture or
piece of sculpture may
be said to be a pendant to another, when

PEN

ART

DICTIONARY.

it is similar in size and subject and
designed to fill a similar space.
Pendant, Post. In Gothic architecture a pendant post is a post set against
the wall, its upper end being connected
with the tie-beam while a corbel or
capital supports its under side.
Pennon. A small narrow flag either in
the shape of a tapering triangle or of a
swallow's tail. In the
Middle Ages it was
usually fastened to the
end of a lance, and if
arms were blazoned on
it they were so depicted
as to be upright, when
the lance was carried horizontally.
P e n t a d e . A mystical figure consisting

of two triangles, the one superposed on
the other as in our cut.
Pentadecagon. A geometrical figure
which has fifteen sides, and therefore fifteen angles.
Pentagon. A polygon with fifteen sides
and fifteen angles.
Pentaptych. A painted or sculptured
panel, which consists of five leaves folded
one over the other. Some authors give
the name of pentaptych to a triptych,
when the two leaves which fold over the
centre leaf are each formed of two
panels.
Pentathlon. T h e pentathlon was the
most highly esteemed of all the athletic
contests of the Greeks. As its name implies, it consisted of five "events"—running, jumping, discus and spear throwing, and wrestling. Whether the prize
was given to the man who won the
" odd event," or was reserved for the victor in them all, is a matter of doubt. T h e

20

PEP

competitors in the pentathlon are frequently represented on painted vases.
Penthouse. (Arch.) A shed or roof
with a single slope fixed to the wall of a

building by its upper edge. T h e term
pent-roof is applied to any roof arranged
on this plan.
Penumbra. T h e penumbra is that part
of a shade in which
there is a spot of light
due to divergent rays.
At the point at which
the light blends with
the shade the lines become less hard and less dry.
Peperino. A conglomerate of ashes
and small stones, of volcanic origin, much
used under the name of lapis albanus by
the Romans for building purposes. It is
grey in colour, somewhat tinged with
green, and it is quarried at the present
day at Marino.
Peplum. (Cost.) A long robe worn by

Greek women, very similar in construction and arrangement to the palla (q.v.)
297

PER

ART

DICTIONARY.

of the Romans, which has already been
described.
Peribole. (Arch.) T h e exterior circumference of a building, also the space
surrounding an ancient temple, which
was decorated with statues, altars, and
votive offerings.
Peridrome. (Arch.) A covered gallery
running round a building.
Peripteral.
(Arch.)
An
ancient
temple is said to be peripteral when it
is surrounded on all sides by free
columns. T h e colonnade thus formed
is termed the peripteros.
Peristyle. (Arch.) A colonnade running round the interior of a courtyard.
An ancient temple is called peristyle
when its interior is adorned with a row
of columns. In Roman domestic architecture the peristyle was the central
courtyard, surrounded with a colonnade,
through which entrance was gained to
the private apartments.
Perpendicular, (i) T h e perpendicular
direction is that given by the force of
gravity. A figure is said to be out of
the perpendicular when the vertical line
which marks the centre of gravity falls
outside the middle of the base of this
figure. Such is the case with certain
antique statues, the Venus of Milo for
instance. A monument is said to be
out of the perpendicular when its vertical
lines do not coincide with those given by
the plumb-line. T h e most celebrated
example of this is the Leaning Tower
of Pisa.
Perpendicular. (2.) (Arch.)
This
term denotes the style of Gothic architecture which was in vogue in England
from the end of the 14th century until
the middle of the 16th. T h e following are some of its main characteristics. Its arches are depressed and
belong to the varieties of arches known
as obtuse pointed
and
four-centred.
Mouldings are angular, and windows
are crossed by transomes. A square
label is generally found over arched
doorways, and the spandrils thus
298

PER

formed present an opportunity for decoration. T h e roofs are generally somewhat flat, and the general impression
given by a building of this style is one of
horizontal and perpendicular lines.
P e r p e n t . (Arch.) A course of stones,
the thickness of which is equal to the
thickness of the wall ; thus t h e two

opposite faces of the stones form the
two vertical sides of the wall.
Perron. (Arch.) An outside staircase,
a series of
steps
projecting from
a façade or
connecting
the terraces ·
of a garden,
which are situated on different levels.
Persienne. (Arch.) A shutter
which lets in the
daylight. A kind
of pierced frame,
made up of slips
of wood inclined
at an angle like
louvre-boarding.
Persephone. Persephone, the daughter
of Zeus and Demeter, was carried off to
the lower world by Hades, whose bride
she became.
Her mother, Demeter
(q.v.), sought for her over the whole
earth, but found her not. At last
Hermes went to the lower world to look
for her, but she had then eaten half the
pomegranate which Hades had given
her, and so she could only return to the

PER

ART

DIC "IONARV.

upper world for half of each year. She
is represented in Art as somewhat
resembling Demeter, but younger. Her
attributes are a pomegranate and ears
of corn and poppies.
Perseus. Perseus, the slayer of the
Gorgon, Medusa, and the rescuer of
Andromeda from a sea-monster, has
suggested many subjects to artists both
ancient and modern.
T h e earliest
known representation of Perseus is on
one of the metopes of a temple at
Selinus, which belongs to the 7th century B.c. H e is there shown as cutting
off Medusa's head. Among the latest
works of art which deal with Perseus
are a series of designs by Mr. BurneJones. Perseus is easily recognisable
in artistic representations as he carries
the Gorgon's head and a curved sword,
and wears wings on his heels and head,
Perspective. Perspective is the art of
representing upon a plane surface
objects as they appear to the eye of
the spectator from one fixed point.
—, iErial. T h e art of indicating the
relative distances of objects by means of
a gradation of tone. T h u s due diminution should be given to the strength of
the light, shade, and colour of objects
according to their distances, the quantity of light received by them, and the
medium through which they are seen.
—, Isometrical. A perspective drawing, the purpose of which is to indicate in
the representation the relation which
the dimension of the actual object bears
to the dimension of the object as represented.
—, Linear. A branch of science which
enables us to represent upon a plane
surface, by means of a geometrical
drawing only, solid bodies as they
appear to the eye, their proportions and
dimensions being determined by their
relative distance from the spectator and
the position in which they stand with
regard to him.
— of Shadows. A branch of perspective by the aid of which after put-

PET

ting the objects represented in perspective, the position and outline of the
shadows is represented.
Perspective, Parallel. When an object presents a face or side towards the
spectator, its representation is determined by the rules of parallel perspective.
—, Visual. When we speak of visual
perspective in a picture, we mean that
the artist has got very near to an appearance of reality, without having recourse
to any theoretical rules, and without
the strict application of the laws of
geometry.
Pestle. (Paint.) A piece of crystal,
marble, or porphyry, which resembles a
truncated cone in form. It has a plane
surface, with which colours placed on

a block of marble are ground. Pestles
are made in all sorts of shapes. Some
are large enough to be held in both
h a n d s ; these are used for grinding
colour to be used in oil-painting. On
the other hand the pestles used by

painters in enamel and on porcelain are
very small ; they are provided with a
handle, and grind the colours in small
saucers of marble or agate.
Pétard. (Paint.) In the language of
the studios of Paris, tirer in petard is
to produce a work which is purposely
eccentric and is designed to attract the
attention of the public to its author.
Similarly a picture is said to be too
299

PET

ART DICI 'ONARY.

PHE

petard when it is painted in extravagantly
Phalerse. Round bosses of metal, to
brilliant tones, which take it out of the which pendants were sometimes atrealm of truth.
tached, worn at Rome by those who
Petasus.
A low-crowned, broad- had distinguished themselves in military
brimmed hat, worn in Greece by travellers It was an attribute of Hermes,
and Greek artists when they wished to
make it clear that a personage represented by them was on a journey,
adopted the simple expedient of slinging a petasus over his back.
Peter, St. T h e attributes of St. Peter
are the keys, the cross, and the book.
As this apostle was regarded as the first
bishop, he is often represented as wearing a mitre.
Representations of t h e
following incidents in his career a r e
frequently found : H i s call with St.
Andrew; his attempt t o walk on t h e
sea ; the striking off of Malchus's ear ;
the denial of Christ ; the delivery of the service or elsewhere. They corresponded
keys of the Church t o Peter by Christ ; to modern medals. Our cut represents
and his death by crucifixion head down- M. Caelius (from whose cenotaph it is
wards. T h e legend of Simon Magus, his taken) decorated with phalerae.
attempt to bribe Peter and his subsePhantoscope. An optical instrument
quent fall, have also suggested many which is used to throw images upon a
subjects.
screen or upon vaporous clouds.
Petite Nature. A French term apPharos. (Arch.) A term applied by
plied to figures in painting or sculpture, the Greeks and Romans to a lighthouse
the dimensions of which are intermediate (q.v.). It was derived from the structure
between life size and half life size.
on the island of Pharos, near Alexandria,
Petimtse. (Pot.) A Chinese word which was regarded as typical.
denoting a kind of felspar, which is
Phelloplastic. T h e art of reproducing
mixe,d with kaolin (q.v.) used in t h e celebrated buildings or bird's-eye views
manufacture of porcelain. I t vitrifies of towns in cork.
By employing a
while the kaolin remains infusible.
reduced scale the exact dimensions of a
Pew. (Arch.) This term is applied t o building or city may b e given. This
the parallel rows of seats placed in the process, which was invented by Agostino
nave and aisles of churches. T h e pews Rosa in 1780, has been found useful in
which belong to a n early period a r e making models of harbours, docks, &c.
often exquisite specimens of wood
Pheon. (Her.)
A
carving, and add to t h e dignity and This heraldic
/Ì\\
beauty of the churches in which they are charge represents
/Jv\
found. I n the first half of the present a broad arrow
/ fm \ \
century pews were constructed in the head, such as was
g 1 Si \ W \
shape of square wooden boxes, which discharged from a
/
ΓJ O J \
were disfigurements to the church, and crossbow. I t was & » « J jfj \ •
'
possessed the sole advantage of conceal- a mark of royalty,
fflLJ
ing their occupants from t h e gaze of and as such still
<^g^J
their neighbours.
survives in the well-known broad arrow.
300

PHI

ART

DICI ÏONARY.

Phigaleian Marbles. (Sculp.) T h e
sculptured frieze from the temple of
Apollo Epicurius, at Phigaleia, is now at
the British Museum, and is generally
described as the Phigaleian Marbles. It
represents the battle between the
Centaurs and Amazons, and belongs to
the best period of Greek Art. But it is
restless and violent in composition, and
lacks the restraint characteristic of the
style of Phidias.
Philatory.
A reliquary containing
the bones or relics of a saint. T h a t

represented in our cut is at Aix-laChapelle, and is said to contain the arm
of St. Simon the Just.
Philip, St. T h e first of the Apostles
who was called upon to follow Christ.
In art he is represented as wearing a
short beard and carrying in his hand a
staff surmounted by a small cross. T h e
principal scenes in his life which have
suggested subjects to painters are his
exorcising a dragon at Hieropolis and
his martyrdom. In some pictures of his
martyrdom he is represented as crucified with his head downwards,
Phocas, St. In the Greek Church St.
Phocas is the patron saint of gardens
and gardeners. T h e legend runs that
he lived near the city of Sinope, where
he cultivated his garden and distributed
gifts among the poor. One night some
strangers came to his door, and after
they had supped they told him they had
been commanded to seek out Phocas

PHO

and to put him to death. Phocas dug a
grave in his garden and then revealed
himself. H e was put to death and
buried among his flowers. In Byzantine pictures and mosaics representations of St. Phocas, spade in hand, are
common, but they do not occur in later
art.
Photocalque. A kind of camera
obscura, in which by a combination of
mirrors an image may be obtained upon
a piece of polished glass, placed horizontally, and a tracing taken of it without
difficulty.
Photochromatic. A term applied to
all those processes the object of which
is to reproduce colours by photographic
methods.
Photogalvanography. A process of
heliographic engraving, by means of
which drawings either in relief or incised
may be obtained and clichés made from
them.
Photogenic. A term applied to colours
which act upon sensitised photographic
plates.
Photoglyptic. A process of engraving
in which photographic cliches are used.
A cliché in gelatine is obtained from a
cliché on glass. T h e gelatine cliché
having been covered with a special
kind of ink, prints white or black, according as it represents the light or
shadowed portions of the picture reproduced.
Photographic Camera. A rectangular
case, the sides of which are of leather
and allow the distance between the two
vertical faces to be increased or dimin-

ished at will. T h e object glass is placed
on one vertical face, while the other is
covered by a piece of dull glass. By expanding the camera and regulating its
301

ART

PHO

DICTIONARY.

PIC

distance from the object which is to I
Phototypography. A process by
be reproduced, an image of extra- means of which photographic clichés
ordinary clearness may be obtained. It may be transformed to engravings in
is thus that the proper " f o c u s " of an relief, which may be printed from in a
object is found. T o obtain a photo- typographic press.
graphic image, a frame containing a
Phylactery. A phylactery is a band
sensitive plate is placed at the back of which was worn by the ancients, the
the camera.
Jews especially. In artistic re^ ^
^ S |
Photograph. A faithful representa- | presentations of the Gothic
tion of an object obtained by the action I period figures often hold phy- j S | [ S |
B.Br
of the sun's rays upon a chemically lacteries, the ends of which
are curled u p in their hands.
f§V
prepared plate.
^A
Photography. A process of obtaining Legends, mottoes, verses of
)]?1
images of natural objects by means of the Psalms, & c , are frequently
inscribed on these phylacteries.
ιβΕ$
chemical agents and special apparatus.
—, Instantaneous. T h e process of In manuscripts of the same
obtaining photographic proofs instan- period phylacteries are em­
taneously, or in a scarcely appreciable ployed as borders to pages and are
space of time, by opening and shutting wound round bunches of flowers and
the object glass as rapidly as possible. foliage.
Instantaneous photography has yielded
Picture. A representation of any ob­
valuable information on the move- j ject in the natural world painted upon
ments of horses and other questions, i canvas or panel is termed a picture. In
which without its aid were well-nigh 1 ancient times the majority of pictures
insoluble.
j were painted on mural surfaces, but
— on Enamel. Photographic proofs
transferred to enamel and rendered
inalterable by baking.
—, Polychrome. A term including all
the processes . by which photographic
proofs in colour are obtained.
Photogravure. A process by which
photographic clichés are transformed to
plates in relief, from which prints may
be obtained. T h e term is also applied
to the prints thus obtained.
Photolithography. A process which
consists in transforming a photographic
cliché to a drawing upon stone.
j
Photosculpture. A process which con- j
sists in photographing a model from ;
several points of view, and making a j
rough sketch in clay by following with a j pictures hung upon a wall as decora­
pantograph the outline of the photo- I tions were known to the Greeks and
graphs, each of which gives a different Romans, as may be seen by our cut,
aspect of the model. A rough sketch of which is taken from a wall-painting at
a figure is thus obtained, and only a few Pompeii.
touches are necessary to get rid of the
Picture Frame. T h e object of a pic­
edges and impart individuality to the ture frame is to isolate a picture from
subject.
I the surrounding wall-surface.
Every
302

PIC

ART

PIE

DICTIONARY.

frame should be designed to suit the
picture which it is intended to fit, if the
picture is to have its proper effect, but
unfortunately the general practice is to
make all picture frames uniform in substance and design. The picture frames
of the Renaissance and the periods of
Louis XIV., XV., and
XVI. were of carved
wood and of considerable artistic merit.
Modern frames are
usually made of wood
or pasteboard, sometimes gilded and decorated with mouldings. T h e majority of them, however, are manufactured wholesale, and lack character. During the last few years a new
system of framing has been introduced,
in which plush, velvet, satin, sackcloth, Japanese stamped
leathers,
and other materials, have
played an important part.
In F r a n c e
frames covered with these
materials have
long been popular. T h e hard and fast
rule which the Royal Academy imposes on exhibitors of framing their
pictures in gilt frames has checked the
ingenuity and taste of English artists in
this direction.
Picture, To make a. A scene or
group which composes well and hangs
together is said to make a picture. A
composition fails to make a picture when
it is unhappily conceived and badly
arranged.
Picturesque. All manifestations of
nature which have effect, relief, and
colour, or indeed are worthy to inspire a
work of art, are said to be picturesque.
" Design, relief, and colour make up
the picturesque Trinity," says a famous
art critic. All that charms us by its
aspect and arrangement, as well as by

the absence of the commonplace, may
be called picturesque.
Thus there is
picturesqueness in a limited sense of
the word in ruins, cottages, &c. In the
broadest application of the term it may
be said that everything that is paintable is picturesque.
Piece-mould. In taking a cast of a
statue or model in plaster of Paris, the
wet plaster of Paris is put on and removed
in pieces. T h e mould thus formed is
called a piece-mould, the pieces being
fitted together before the mould is used
for obtaining a cast.
Pied-droit. (Arch.) A term applied to
the vertical part of a
wall supporting
an
a r c h ; also to the vertical sides of an opening of a bay. In this
sense the term does not
differ from jamb.
In
the Romanesque style
jamb-stones are sometimes found in the form
of pilasters or square
or prismatic pillars without any colonnette at their angles.
Piedouche. (Arch.) A pedestal of small
dimensions and of a peculiar shape
used for supporting a bust. Piedouches
generally consist of a large hollow moulding, enriched above and below with projecting mouldings. Of late years, how-

ever, many sculptors have adopted the
fashion of cutting off busts abruptly and
setting them upon a square piedouche
without any moulding or decoration,
save a cartouche bearing an inscription.
Pier. (Arch.) T h e term pier may be

303

PIL

ART

DICTIONARY.

applied to any vertical support, such as
a pillar or column,
or the wall between
two windows. In architecture the term
is now seldom used,
but in the language
of construction it is
frequently and widely
employed.
Pietà. A term applied to pictures representing the Dead
Christ. T h e Virgin and sorrowing women stand near, and sometimes the
Virgin holds the head of Christ in her
lap.
Pilaster. (Arch.) A square support
terminated by a base and a capital. In
Greek architecture
the capital of a
pilaster always differed from that of. a
column.
In build-

PIL

T h e proper description of the second
cut is Argent, three swords in pile, their
points towards the base.
Piles. (Arch.) A series of stakes driven
into the ground and held together at the
top by a frame work of timber. They
serve as a foundation for masonry
when the ground is damp or un-

stable. Works constructed in water are
also built upon piles.
Pileus. A round felt cap, generally
brimless, which was worn by the ancients. T h e Phrygian cap which Paris
is represented
as

er
ings of the Roman
and Renaissance
periods, on the other
hand, the capitals
of pilasters were
actual capitals of
columns drawn upon a square plane.
wearing in the Aeginetan marbles is a
Pile. (Her.) T h e pile, which is classified I form of the pileus.
in heraldry as a subordinary, is a long
Pillar. (Arch.) Vertical supports with
pointed stake extending from the top of or without decoration. They are espethe shield to the base. It is supposed
to represent the stakes of wood driven

into the ground to form foundations for
castles. When charges are so arranged
on a shield as to suggest the shape of a cially used in Gothic architecture, somepile, they are described as borne in-pile. times singly, sometimes in clusters. Pil304

PIL

ART

DICTIONARY.

lars are frequently square and sometimes
surrounded with columns. In the Early
English period they are round or cruciform. In the 14th century they are supported on pedestals equal in number to
the colonnettes which cluster round
them.
In the 15th century they lose
their capitals.
Pily. (Her.) A term applied to a shield
covered with piles.
Pinacotheca. A name given at Athens
to the hall of the Propylaea, in which
pictures were displayed. In the time of
the Roman empire, when Greek art had
influenced the Romans, picture galleries
in private houses were called pinacotheca.
T h e term has survived in modern times
to denote a museum of paintings, such,
for instance, as the Pinakothek at
Munich.
Pinchbeck. An alloy of copper, zinc,
and tin, of a fine yellow colour which
readily adapts itself to gilding processes,
and is much used in the manufacture of
cheap jewellery.
This alloy got its
name from Christopher Pinchbeck, a
musical-clock maker, who plied his trade
in Fleet Street in the last century. He
invented the cheap imitation of gold by
which he will always be remembered.
Pink. A pale rose colour. T h e term
is also applied to a series of pigments of
a greenish yellow colour, obtained by
precipitating upon a base of chalk or
alumina the juice of a
plant known to botanists
as rhamnus
fvangula.
[Italian Pink.]
Pinnacle. (Arch.) A
small bell turret in the
form of a pyramid upon
a polygonal base.
In
buildings of the Romanesque style instead
' of pinnacles we find
very simple finials. T h e
pinnacles of the n t h
and 12th centuries are
sometimes
terminated
with a sort of cone. In the 13th cen-

PIT

tury they are richly decorated and terminated with pyramids, the edges of
which are ornamented with crockets,
while their bases are flanked with smaller
pyramids. In the 14th century they are
of extraordinary lightness, and in the
15th they consist of clusters of prisms
and are terminated with pyramids intersecting one another. Finally in the
16th century pinnacles are richly decorated with sculptured figures, but
they are not executed with the skill
which is characteristic of the preceding
period.
Pinx. An abbreviation of the Latin
word fiinxit. It often follows the name
of the painter of a picture which is
reproduced by the process of engraving,
lithography, or photogravure.
Piscina. (Arch.) A reservoir or cistern
placed in the open air, and used by the
Romans as a swimming bath. In Gothic
churches the piscina was a basin in
which the priest washed the chalice

after administering the sacrament. It
was either set against a pillar or placed
under an arcade, in which case it was
generally richly ornamented.
Pitch. (Arch ) T h e pitch of a roof
is its slope or inclination to the horizon.
Pitcher. A vessel for holding liquids
similar in shape and size to a jug.

305

PIT

ART

P i t h o s . A large earthenware jar
somewhat
resembling an amphora
in form, but deeper
and rounder. Sometimes it had a narrow neck. Sometimes it was widemouthed. T h e pithos was frequently
of such huge dimensions that it could
easily hold a man. T h e tub in which
Diogenes was said to have dwelt, was

perhaps a broken, useless pithos ; at any
rate, it is represented as such in our
illustration, which is from a bas-relief
in the Villa Albani.
Pix. A box or
casket in which
the consecrated
wafer was kept
in the Catholic
Church. It is generally of metal,
and often richly
decorated and enamelled.
Plan. (Arch.) A
term which includes geometrical drawings in
general, and in particular drawings
which represent the projection of the
walls of a building upon a horizontal
plane or the outline of the walls upon
the ground
306

DICTIONARY.

PLA

Planchette. A tablet mounted upon a

tripod used by surveyors. [Alidade.]
Plane. (Paint.) A term applied in art
to the different vertical surfaces parallel
to the surface of a canvas, which, with
the aid of perspective, represents the
distances existing between a series of
objects and the eye of the spectator. If
a figure, for instance, is represented as
too near or too far, it is said to be out of
its proper plane. Of an ill-constructed
picture we say that its planes are not
sufficiently indicated.
—, Ground. T h e ground plane may
be defined as the floor of a drawing or
picture. It extends from the lower edge
of the picture to the horizon.
—, Horizontal. In a picture or drawing a plane is said to be horizontal when
it is parallel to the lower edge of the
picture.
—, Picture. T h e vertical plane upon
which a picture or drawing is made. It
is parallel to the spectators, and is represented by the whole paper or canvas
upon which the drawing is executed.
—, Vertical. In a picture or drawing
a plane is said to be vertical when it is
at right angles to the ground plane of the
picture.
Planisher. A workman whose business it is to prepare copper plates for
engravers. H e also aids the engraver
in effacing, if necessary, any part of the
plate after it has been engraved. H e
lowers the tone of those portions of the
plate which have been too deeply bitten
in by striking it with a wooden hammer
so as to beat down the metal and lessen
the breadth of the hatchings. H e may
also efface p a r t i of a copper plate, sparing the rest of the work, and then beat
out the plate wherever the engraver
wishes to engrave it afresh. When this

PLA

ART

has to be done the plate is held in a vice
and beaten on the reverse side to that
which has been effaced.
Plaque. A fiat piece of metal, terracotta, or china, upon which designs are
executed by processes peculiar to the
material. Plaques of various kinds are
and have been from earliest times a
popular form of decoration.
Plaster-cast. A copy of a work of
sculpture, produced in plaster by mechanical processes. Thus we speak of
a plaster-cast of the antique. [Cast.]
Plastic Art. Plastic art is the art of
reproducing the relief or form of an
object ; the art of modelling figures. In
plastic art such malleable materials as
terra-cotta, clay, wax, and plaster are
used, while the creations of the plastic
artist may be afterwards translated into
marble or bronze. T h e term plastic art
is used in opposition to graphic or pictorial art. Bas-reliefs may be said to occupy an intermediate position between
plastic and graphic art.
., o - ^ ^
Platband. The
^^f ni l»5 :::Ss >»*» 1 .
upper part of a rectfj—fw~^-^ijS
angular opening or
*p-|-1
fSilfr*
bay constructed of
1
PI '
ashlared stones.
Plate. (Engrav.)
A piece of copper upon which an engraver works is called a plate. Hence
the impression obtained from an engraved plate is itself termed a plate.
T h u s we describe an engraving as
an excellent plate, or we speak of a
book illustrated with plates. T h e term
is only applicable to impressions struck
from steel or copper, and should never
be used of wood-cuts. A plate is said to
be worn when so many impressions have
been taken from it that it prints pale
and indistinct. When a wood block is
worn out a precisely opposite effect is
produced, for it prints black. T h e pieces
of glass upon which photographic proofs
are obtained are also called plates.
Plate Armour. Plate armour, which
consisted of solid plates of metal, came

DICTIONARY.

PLI

into use in the 14th century. It was
extremely heavy and unwieldy, but in
some form or other it continued in fashion
until its uselessness was generally recognised, and it was finally abandoned in
the 17th century.
Platinotype. ( P h o t ) A process of
printing photographic proofs by means
of the salts of platinum. T h e proofs
thus obtained are generally of a cold
black or sepia tone. Prints obtained
by this process have many advantages.
They have not the glossy surface of the
ordinary photograph, and they are
quite permanent.
Plein Air. (Paint.) T h e plein air
school is a school of modern French painters, whose creed it is to paint their pictures in the open air. In a studio lighted
by a single light, which falls at a given
angle, strongly-marked arrangements of
light and shade are always obtained ;
when, however, the model poses in the
open air, the modelling of the planes is
less positive on account of the wealth
of light, reflections, and luminous rays
which envelop it on all sides. Under
these conditions, the modelling is only
obtained by accurately observing the
value of the tones, and a projection,
which, in the studio, would throw a
decided shadow, is only indicated in a
plein-air picture, by a tone-value helping to detach it. Lastly, it must be
added that the expression of plein-air
is not always used in a good sense.
Some impressionists wishing to simplify
things as far as possible, abuse the
effects of plein-air : they dispense altogether with modelling, which, in this
case — as many contemporary works
show—demands a skilful rendering, and
an extensive knowledge of the value of
tones.
Plinth. In architecture a plinth is a
square block at the base of a column, the
purpose of which is to set off the circular
mouldings above it. In all the ancient
orders except the Doric the bases of
columns are provided with a plinth. In

307

PLU

ART

sculpture the plinth is the rectangular
or circular base
upon
which
a
statue is placed.
T h e t i t l e s of
statues or other
inscriptions
are
frequently placed
upon
plinths.
Their chief purpose is to set the statue
at a proper elevation, so that the lower
limbs of the figure are not concealed,
and that the foreshortening does not
alter its proportions.
Plumb. T h e direction of the plumbline is found by letting a weight attached
to a string fall freely to the ground. A
figure is said to be out of plumb when
the vertical line indicating the centre of
gravity falls outside the middle of the
base of this figure. Many ancient statues
are out of plumb—the Venus of Milo,
for instance. A building is said to be out
of plumb when its vertical lines do not
coincide with the direction given by the
plumb-line. T h e most celebrated instance
of such a building is the Tower of Pisa.
Plumbago. A substance also known
as black lead, which is in reality a sulphuret of iron. It is used in the manu­
facture of lead pencils.
Pochade. A rough sketch, which may
be easily and rapidly rubbed out.
Podium. (Arch.) A low projecting wall,
which was placed in Roman buildings
both outside and inside. A podium run­
ning round the interior of a building was
often used as a shelf for wine casks, &c.
Point, (i) (Engrav.) Steel instruments
with a sharp tip are used by engravers
and called points.
In past times en­
gravers used
simple sewing
n e e d l e s as
points,
but
nowadays
small steel vergettes fitted into a han­
dle of wood are frequently employed.
In crayon engraving double and even
triple points are used, so as to make
308

DICTIONARY.

POI

two or three dots or points at once.
These points are fixed in wooden
handles and are frequently blunted, in
order that the marks they make on the
plate may be the bigger. Engravers on

wood use a point which consists of a
thin blade of steel. This is inserted into
a haft of wood, cut in two, and bound
together again with a twisted cord. T h e
wood engraver uses the point as a kind

of knife for cutting away the block, so as
to increase the white, which in a wood
engraving ought to be deep enough not
to be touched by the roller, with which
the parts in relief are inked.
Point. (2) (Her.) T h e name sometimes
given to a charge in the
form of a wedge with I
A
1
broad end downwards,
β ^
I
occupying about a third
JT \ I
of the whole field. It is I /
V I
not essential that the point
V^BBs/
should rise to the top of
v~
the shield.
Point. (3) (Arch.) T o point is to mark
the joints and courses of the bricks or
stones of a wall
by means of
.
*
—
lines drawn up­
on the wall.
Sometimes the
pointings
are
painted
in
several colours
and a flower
is placed in the centre of each stone.
Pointed. T h e style of architecture
generally called Gothic is also known
as Pointed or Christian Pointed.
As
one of its characteristics is the pointed
arch and window, this designation is a
correct and convenient one.
The
Pointed style may be divided into three

DE3C.

POI

ART

DICTIONARY.

great periods : (ι) the primitive period,
in which the pointed arch assumed the
lancet shape ;
(2) the second­
ary
period,
which
lasted
through the
13th and 14th
centuries, and
coincides
in
point of time
with what we generally term the Deco­
rated style ; (3) the tertiary period, which
occupied the 15th and part of the 16th
centuries, when what we call the Per­
pendicular style
flourished.
The
following are the
principal varieties
of the
pointed
arch : (a) the lan­
cet, o r a c u t e ,
which
was
in
vogue in the 12th and 13th centuries.
This form of pointed arch was frequently
employed in the military architecture of
the Middle Ages, but its chief interest
for us is that
it is the dis­
ti n g u i s h i n g
characteristic
of the Early
English style,
of which Salis­
bury Cathedral
is the
most
convenient example ; (b) the equilateral,
which consists of two arcs of circles, the
radius of which is equal to the breadth
of the arch at its springing line. This
form of pointed
arch was fre­
quently
em­
ployed in the
14th century ;
(c) the lanceolated,
which
consists of two
arcs of circles, which are continued below
the line, in which the centres lie. T h e

POI

Moorish and Saracenic arch sometimes
assumes this form ; (d) the obtuse, which
consists of two arcs of circles, the radius
of which is less than the breadth of the
arch. This form of arch is character­
istic of the buildings of the 15th century.
Pointing. (Sculp.) An operation, the
aim of which is to reproduce a plaster
cast in a block of stone or marble.
T h e model and the block of marble are
set side by side. Above each of them a
square of wood is placed, the sides of
which are marked off into equal spaces,
and from which a plumb-line is sus­
pended . This plumb-line may be moved
and describes an imaginary parallelopiped, within which are enclosed the
roughed-in block and the model of the
statue. T h e distance between the plumbline and one of the most projecting points
of the model is then measured, and this

distance is marked on the block. The
block is then cut away with a chisel as
far as the point marked, so as to obtain
the necessary depth. By repeating this
operation for all the projecting points
taken in one plane a silhouette of the
model is obtained, the exactitude of
which depends upon the nearness of the
points taken to one another. Continuing
the process for the other planes, an
exact mathematical reproduction of the
lines of the original is obtained, T h e r e
is then nothing left for the sculptor but
to give the marble its finishing touches
before handing it over to the polisher.
Point of Sight. If a line is drawn from
the spectator's eye at right angles to it,
it will meet the horizontal line of a pic­
ture in a point called the point of sight or

3°9

POI

ART

DICTIONARY.

centre of vision. This is t h e vanishing
point of horizontal lines which are at
right angles to the spectator.
Point, Station. T h e position selected
by the painter in front of the object
which h e wishes to represent. If
his picture is to be a consistent
whole, the station ppint must not be
changed.
Point, Vanishing. [Vanishing Point.]
Points of the Shield. (Her.) In order
to determine accurately the position of
a charge or a shield, heralds have
assigned names to certain points, and
by mentioning these points the position
of a charge can be described with suffi­
cient accuracy. T h e r e are altogether
nine points thus distinguished by special
names. We must first explain that t h e
upper part of the shield is called the
chief, the middle the fess, and the lower
the base. Again t h e side of the shield
which would be on the right hand of any
A, the dexter chief.
B, t h e precise
miuuie ciiiei.
C, t h e sinister
chief.
D, the honour
point.
E, the fess
point.
F, the nombril
point.
G, the dexter
base.
H, he precise middle base.
I, the sinister base.

VT Β

C

s

ρ

D
E
F
BiJ

one standing behind it is called the dexter
side, and t h e other side is called t h e
sinister.
W e have then the following
three points specified in the upper por­
tion of t h e shield : dexter chief, chief,
sinister chief. Similarly in the lower
portion we have dexter base, base, sinister
base. T h e central point of the shield is
called the fess point, and the points im­
mediately above and immediately below
are called respectively the honour point
310

POL

'< and the nombril point, making in all nine
specified points.
Polishing. T h e polishing of marble
statues is generally entrusted to work­
men, but the sculptor should watch the
process with care. Fine touches may
easily disappear under the action of
pumice-stone. T h e sculptors of anti­
quity sometimes polished their works
with wax. Statues which are required to
keep their polish are often covered with
a light coat of varnish. Copper plates
which are to be engraved are polished
first with the scraper, then with sand­
stone, pumice-stone, and powdered
chalk.
Polychrome. T h a t which is of several
colours.
Greek sculpture was poly­
chrome, that is to say, was painted in
a variety of tints. This was of course
done in a conventional spirit and with­
out any attempt at realistic colouring.
In modern times polychrome sculpture
has not been held in honour, yet several
attempts have been made to resuscitate
this branch of art, especially by French
sculptors, not only by colouring white
marble statues as in former times, but
also by employing materials of various
colours. In ancient Egypt and Greece
buildings too were polychrome, and no
doubt richness of colour added much to
the effect of temples such as the Parthe­
non. Some portions of Byzantine and
Gothic buildings were painted, and their
mouldings and other details heightened
with colour and gilding,
Nowadays
there is a distinct prejudice against
the polychrome decoration of churches
and houses, and the effect formerly
got by colour is now obtained by
the use of variously coloured mate­
rials, such as bronze, marble, tiles,
pottery, &c.
Polychromy. This term includes all
the processes of printing, decoration,
and colouring in which several colours
are used.
Polygon. A geometrical figure which
has several sides and several angle

POL

ART

DICTIONARY.

Polygonal. That which has the form
of a polygon.
Polyhedron. A solid figure presenting
many plane sides.
Polyptych. Under this term were
included, particularly in the Middle
Ages and during the period of the
Renaissance, altar-pieces and panels

closed by means of
folded one over the
cient times the term
writing tablets of more
or sheets

seveial leaves
other. In anwas applied to
than two leaves

Poppy, Poppy-head.
(Arch.) This term is applied to ornaments, sometimes consisting of fleursde-lis, sometimes of other
flowers or foliage, which
terminate the ends of seats
and benches in churches.
They are most frequently
found in buildings of the
Perpendicular style.
Porcelain. A hard, compact, and
impermeable
kind of pottery, formed from a fine and
translucent paste, the principal base of
which is kaoline.
^—, Hybrid. A term applied to a kind
of Italian porcelain in which the kaoline
of Vicenza plays but a small part, the
base being formed of quartz and vitreous
grit, and glazed with a mixture of lead,
quartz, and flux.
—, Opaque. A name incorrectly given
to fine faïences, which are sometimes
known as demi-porcelain.
Porch. (Arch.) T h e vestibule outside
a Christian church, corresponding to
that portion of an ancient temple which
was called the pronaos. Some mediaeval
churches possess porches of extra-

POR

ordinary magnificence. From the period

of the Renaissance there have come
down to us many
beautiful specimens
of porches of carved
wood,
while
the
entrance to many
country churches is
covered with a rustic porch of a picturesque appearance.
Porphyry. A hard stone, red or green
in colour, covered with small white spots
and capable of receiving a very high polish.
Portcullis, (i.) (Arch.) An iron grating
hung on chains and placed in a vertical
groove. When it was
let down it served to
close the entrance to
the castles and strong- , υ
holds of the Middle
^
Ages. Under the name Jfi_
of cataracta the port- t ·«$
cullis was in use
among the Romans.
Portcullis. (2.) (Her.) A portculllis

ΠΠ

•π

©7777®
with nail heads visible upon its trans311

ART

POR

DICTIONARY.

verse bars frequently occurs as a charge
in heraldry. It was one of the badges
of the house of Tudor, and is frequently
found as an architectural decoration in
churches which were built under the
auspices of the Tudors.
Porte-cartons. A small piece of furniture which generally resembles the
letter X or Y in
shape. It stands
about breast-high,
and is used to hold
mounted
drawings or portfolios,
which can be thus more easily turned
over.
Porte-Cochère. (Arch.) A gateway
through which a carriage and horses
may pass. [Gateway.]
Porte - crayon.
An instrument of
copper or brass, which consists of two
branches soldered together. Its ends
open out wide, so that in each of them
a crayon or piece of chalk may be
inserted, which is held tightly in its

place by a ring pressing together the
branches of metal. It is chiefly used
for holding a black crayon, which is thus
prevented from soiling the fingers, and
may be used when it is too short to be
held by itself.
Portfolio. A term applied to a case
in which drawings and engravings are
preserved. It consists of two leaves of
cardboard bound at the back in linen or
canvas; it is sometimes provided with
pieces of linen at the sides to keep the
dust out and is fastened together with
ribands. Portfolios are made of every
shape and size.
Portico. (Arch.) A covered gallery or
colonnade open to the air on one side,
the vault or ceiling of which is supported
by columns, pillars, or arches.
The
Greeks built porticoes of extraordinary
312

POR

magnificence, which served as meetingplaces or lounges, and were frequently

decorated with paintings and statues.
T h e Romans adopted the portico from

the Greeks, and in the time of the
Empire it was an invariable adjunct to
the villa.
Portière. A curtain fixed on the lintel
of a bay, draped and caught up or allowed to fall vertically. Its purpose
is the decoration
or concealment of
an opening. Tapestries and costly
textures are some
times used as por-

tières.

"7/77

Portland Vase. A vase now in the
British Museum, so-called because it
was brought to England by a Duke of
Portland. Its body is of dark blue glass ;
this is covered with a thick layer of
glass of a lighter colour, which is then
cut away, and the result is a design of
great beauty.
Portrait.
A representation of a
person, feature for feature ; the image of
a living model, drawn, painted, or sculptured, in which the artist endeavours to
reproduce with accuracy the appearance,

ART

POR

DICTIONARY.

attitude, and expression characteristic of
his model.
Portrait, Bust. A representation,
painted or sculptured, of the head and
upper part of the body of the sitter.
—, Full-length. A portrait representing t h e whole figure of the sitter from
head to foot.
—, Medallion. < A portrait, in the form
of a medallion, representing only the
head of the sitter, and this generally in
profile.

Portrait Gallery, National. A gallery

POT

vertically, which answers the same purpose in a wooden
house or building as
a pillar does in a stone
construction.

Post-scenium.
(Arch.) T h a t portion
of an ancient theatre
that is situated behind
the scenes.
Postern. (Arch.) A
small gate by which
foot- passengers were
admitted to a town
or fortified castle. It was so narrow that
only one person could enter it at a time.
In our cut, which represents the gateway of a mediaeval stronghold, further

founded in 1857, for the preservation
of the portraits of distinguished English
men and women. T h e collection includes
painted and sculptured portraits, as
well as drawings, and provides a valuable commentary upon history. It has
not been treated with the respect it
deserves : it was for long housed in a
series of wooden sheds at South Kensington, and then banished to Bethnal
Green, but the generosity of an anonymous donor has provided money for a
new building, and the collection is to be
worthily placed in Trafalgar Square.
Pose. T h e attitude assumed by a
painted or sculptured figure is termed
the pose. Gracefulness of pose is one
of the necessary conditions of artistic
success.
Poseidon. Poseidon was worshipped
by the Greeks as the god who controlled
the element of water. H e is represented strengthened by a drawbridge, the posin art as a god closely resembling Zeus, tern is the small opening on the left-hand
except that his long hair is matted with side. When a building had but one gate
the salt sea. T h e horse is sacred to him, a small wicket which opened by itself
and his attributes are the dolphin and took the place of the postern.
trident. His contest with Athene for
Potboiler. A so-called work of art, prothe sovereignty of Attica, on which duced, not because there is any artistic
occasion Poseidon called forth a spring fitness about it, but merely because it
of water while Athene made an olive- answers a popular demand, and so serves
tree to grow, was a favourite subject to keep its author's pot boiling, is not
with Greek artists, and was represented inappropriately termed a.potboiler. How
in one of the great pedimental groups of great is the excess of potboilers over
the Parthenon. T h e god of the Romans works of art among the thousands of
which corresponds to Poseidon is pictures annually exhibited, a visit to any
Neptune.
modern exhibition will convince the most
Post. (Arch.) A piece of timber, set optimistic visitor.
21

POT

ART

DICTIONARY.

Potent. (Her.) This is one of the eight
furs employed in heraldry. It consists
of a series of crutch-heads, upright and
inverted, and arranged
|Jpjglb| jib] I m ^ e same way as the
Ι ΐ | Α J C l J l l upright and inverted
Γ ί 1 Γ ^ £ ~ ^ 0 bells in Vair (q.v.). T h e
p V f ^ Î j p ^ I term is derived from an
^l=yj^^
old English word ,pottent,
meaning a crutch. For
an illustration of an heraldic crutchhead see Cross Potent.
Potiche. (Pot.) A Chinese or Japanese
vase, generally of porcelain, with narrow
neck and slightly swelling body. Potiches were
made of every possible
size, and were covered
with rich ornamentation.
Ρ T h e Chinese use large
| ft full-bellied potiches with
F \ lids, which suggest the
roofs of temples, to hold
their crops of tea.
Pottery. T h e term pottery, strictly
speaking, only denotes that branch of
the ceramic art which is devoted to the
production of opaque ware, the term
porcelain being reserved for translucent
objects. However, in a general sense
we speak of all manifestations of the
ceramic art as pottery, and in the historic
summaries which follow porcelain is
treated of as well as pottery proper,
Further information on particular wares
may be looked for under separate head­
ings. T h e potter's art is perhaps the
oldest and simplest of all arts. It needs
but few materials and no elaborate ma­
chinery besides the potter's wheel, which
has retained very much the same form
in all ages and in all countries.
—, Arabian. Pottery was manufac­
tured by the Arabians from the 8th to
the 14th centuries. It included tiles, with
which walls and floors were covered,
mosaics and vases, and other vessels of a
blue or green glaze picked out with black.
T h e patterns mostly in vogue among the
Arabians are geometrical, but on decora- j

§

3H

POT

J tive vases figures of animals are someI times found.
Pottery, Assyrian. T h e principal spe­
cimens of Assyrian pottery known to us
are bricks and tiles found among the ruins
of Babylonian temples. They are richly
j coloured and covered with a glass glaze.
Some curious coffins of baked clay, with
I a green glaze, and figures of warriors
embossed upon them, were found at
Warka in Mesopotamia, and remain our
most interesting evidence of the skill of
the Assyrian potter.
—, Celtic. Celtic pottery generally
consists of grey or blackish earthenware
vases, very roughly made, and decorated
with ornaments incised with a stiletto,
which was used upon the paste while it
was still soft.
—, Chinese. Chinese pottery takes us
very far back into the past. In very
early times the Chinese made both stone­
ware and porcelain, and to them belongs
the credit of having invented crackle.
T h e most ancient decoration employed
by the Chinese was blue upon a white
ground. Their polychrome pottery is
distinguished by a profusion of ornament
and by the introduction of dragons and
grotesque animals. It has been classed

by some authors in several families.
Although this classification is purely
conventional and has been upset by
recent discoveries, it presents the advan­
tage from a decorative point of view of
setting before us the colours and patterns
adopted by the Chinese. It may therefore
be useful to give the classification here :
(1.) Chrysanthemo-Paeonian family : vases
decorated with chrysanthemums and

POT

ART

DIC "IONARY.

peacocks. (2.) Green family : vases of a
copper green colour covered with historical subjects, rustic decorations, rocks,
daisies, butterflies, insects, &c, all of
which have a hieratic signification. (3.)
Rose family : vases of a pale carmine
red decorated with arabesques, bunches
of flowers and figures of a familiar
character.
These are the principal
classes of Chinese pottery and porcelain.
T h e r e still exist one or two which should
be mentioned, such as " reticulated "
ware, in which the outer side is cut out
in lace-like patterns and superposed on
jan inner vase, and the very delicate
transparent China known as egg-shell.
Pottery, Dutcn. T h e earliest Dutch
pottery was made at the Hague, but it was
at Delft that the finest specimens were
produced. At the latter town the manufactory was established about the middle
of the 17th century " at the sign of the
Metal Pot." T h e majority of the pieces
were inspired by oriental models. T h e
colours are bright and clean, and the
outline of the figures does not mix with
the glaze. Blue decorations on a white
ground are common, while many pieces
are brilliant with blue, white, and gold.
—, Egyptian. T h e Egyptians manufactured pottery in very early times.

POT

decoration
employed was for the
most part geometrical, supplemented
sometimes with such rude devices as
animals' heads and hieratic symbols.
Besides cups, lamps, & c , statuettes of
the gods were made of earthenware by
the Egyptians. Our two cuts, which will
give an idea of the decoration employed
by the Egyptians, are taken from wallpaintings at Thebes.
Pottery, English. T h e earliest pottery
made in England was Staffordshire stoneware. In the middle of the 17th century
the art of making pottery which resembled
that made at Delft was introduced into
England. Drug pots, tiles decorated with
blue landscapes were made at Fulham
and Lambeth, as well as jugs, cups, and
other vessels. Factories were established
at Derby in 1750, and at Worcester a little
later, while in 1769 the celebrated Josiah
Wedgwood opened his works, where
he made vases, cameos, and medallions
in the Greek style. Among his most
finished productions was a copy of the
ancient vase known as the Portland vase
(q.v.), which was decorated with white
figures on a green ground. H e also imitated Egyptian pottery in black biscuit,
with red and white bas-reliefs upon it,
while his bas-reliefs and cameos of a bluish
grey ground decorated with designs by
Flaxman in white are justly celebrated.
—, Etruscan.

A great many vases

For the most part it was of a soft paste
and decorated with black zigzag orna-

ments and

dull

blue enamel.

The

have been found in Etruria and hence
3TS

ART

POT

designated Etruscan. It has, however,
been established beyond doubt that these
vases were not the work of Etruscan
potters but were manufactured in Greece
and exported thence into Etruria. T h e
term Etruscan pottery cannot therefore
be applied to them with propriety.
—, French. T h e earliest French pottery was derived from the Italy of the
Renaissance. T h e first productions of
French potters were of simple earthenware with a lead glaze. T h e n came the
products of Beauvais, which were of

earthenware, with a pale green glaze
and a uniform tint ; the pottery of Saintes
and la Chapelle-des-Pots was green in
colour and marbled. Green pottery was
also made a t S a d i r a c in the 16th century,
while the early factories of Paris produced a bluish grey enamel brilliantly
marbled. T o the same century belongs
Bernard Palissy, whose rustic pottery is
so celebrated. It included mythological
subjects, popular figures, dishes decorated with fishes, lizards, snakes, and
foliage in relief
modelled from nature and coloured
with warm tints,
browns,
whites,
blues, greens, and
yellows. T h e épis
(q.v.) placed on
gable roofs in Normandy were made by the methods invented by Palissy. A little later in point
of date are the fine faïences of Henri
II. (q.v.), which were made at Oison.
316

DICTIONARY.

POT

They were of a fine hard paste, decorated
with designs of brown and black upon
an ivory ground. Their ornamentation
consisted of figures in relief or in the
round, masks, and heraldic devices ; the
pieces were small and slight, and assumed
the forms of cups, ewers, &c. Pottery
has also been made at Nevers, Rouen,
Moustiers, Marseilles, Paris, and Sceaux,
among other places, while the chief centres of the manufacture of porcelain in
France are St. Cloud, Sèvres, Chantilly,
and Vincennes. Our cut represents a
tea-cup ornamented with
bleu-de-roi
manufactured at St. Cloud.
Pottery, Gallo-Roman. T h e vases
made in the Gallo-Roman period are
more careful in execution than those
of the Celtic period ; their outline is
more graceful and they are decorated
with ornaments in relief.
—, German. T h e following are the most
important centres of the manufacture of
pottery m G e r m a n y : (i.) N u r e m b e r g ;

the pottery made here was antique in
style and of very finished workmanship.
T h e decoration was generally borrowed
from the animals of the country, which
sometimes suggested the shape of a vase
or cups. Drinking cups, too, assumed

POT

ART

DICTIONARY.

various curious forms, jack-boots or
reversed helmets, as in our cut, being
frequently taken as patterns. (2.) Bayreuth, where pottery was made of a bluish
enamel, decorated with delicate designs
in a dull blue grey. It was fine in substance and well-worked. (3.) Saxony
where the famous Dresden china (q.v.)
was made. From the time that Bottcher
discovered his white clay very fine por-

POT

still soft clay. In black-figured vases
the red of the clay served as a ground,
the figures being filled in with black.

In red-figured vases the figures were first
drawn in outline ; the whole body of the
vase was then coloured black, and finally
the details of the figures which stood at
red on a black ground were drawn with

celain has been made in Saxony, while
Bôttcher's workmen established factories
both at Berlin and Vienna. We engrave
here a coffee-cup, richly ornamented,
which was made at Berlin by workmen
carried off from Dresden, and which is
an excellent specimen of the polychrome
pottery at Prussia.
Pottery, Greek. Greek vases are as a
rule simple and graceful in form, and are
decorated with palm-leaves, meanders,
inscriptions, and subjects taken from the
mythology of the Greeks. They are our
best evidence as to the style of the Greek
painters. A very fine clay was used in
their manufacture. T h e vase was made
on the wheel, and the neck and handles
were attached afterwards. T h e vase was
then baked, and after the baking the
vase-painter drew his design upon the

a pencil. Black-figured vases were made
from 540 B.C. to 460 B.C., and are some-

V7

POT

ART

DIC TIONARY.

POT

what archaic in style ; after 460 B.C. vases
were generally red-figured and less conventional in style and execution. T h e
various forms assumed by Greek vases
are given under their separate headings.
Pottery, Hispano-Moorish. This pottery is characterised by its grace of form
and the metallic lustre of its tones. T h a t
made at Malaga is, distinguished by its
blue ornament and copper lustre;
that of Valencia by its still more brilliant
metallic lustre, heightened with yellow
and reddish gold. T h e faïence of Majorca
gave its n a m e to Italian majolica.
—, Indian. T h e art of making pottery was derived by the Indians from
Persia. Among specimens of Indian
pottery may be enumerated large pieces
of enamel, monumental in size, and executed in brilliant and varied tones ; blue
porcelain, decorated with arabesques,
flowers, and birds ; and polychrome porcelain, which resembles the choicest
cloisonné enamels, incrusted with gold
and precious stones.
—, Italian. From the n t h to the 13th

enamel.
In the next century it was
characterised by metallic lustres. This
was succeeded by the pottery of Lucca
della Robbia, which was modelled in
terra-cotta and ornamented with religious
subjects in blue and white. T h e n came
the enamelled ware known by the name
of majolica, with its wonderful colours
and lustres. T h e most celebrated centres
of the industry were Siena, in Tuscany,
Faenza, Forlì, Rimini, Ravenna, Bologna,
Castel-Durante, Gubbio, Ferrara, &c.
Pottery, Japanese. There are three distinct kinds of Japanese pottery : faïence,
soft paste stoneware, and porcelain. T h e
most highly prized faïence is Satsuma,
which is decorated with figures, flowers,
birds in gold and silver, on a creamy
white ground, covered with a very fine
crackle stoneware, sometimes glazed
and sometimes not. We find cups, teapots, statuettes, grotesque figures, and
pieces of a violet brown incrusted with
designs executed in white.
Japanese
porcelain is of the same character as
Chinese, but is easily distinguished from
the latter by the character of its decoration, which is never absolutely symmetrical, but which is remarkable for the
excellence of its design and the brilliance
of its colour.
—, Persian. Persian pottery consists
for the most part of enamelled faïence,
of a white, yellow, green, or pale blue
ground, covered with designs of turquoise
or cobalt blue. Its ornamentation includes geometrical figures, flowers, birds,
butterflies, hares, gazelles, antelopes,
and cavaliers with falcon on wrist. Persian faïence is characterised by unrivalled
harmony of tones.
—, Roman. T h e domestic pottery of

century Italian pottery was covered with

the Romans was red in colour, about the

318

POU

ART

DU TIONARY.

PRE

tint of sealing wax. It had a brilliant
lustre and was of a very fine grain.
Many specimens of it have come down
to us in an admirable state of preserva­
tion. Architectural ornaments, such as

small bag containing a coloured pow­
der is passed over
the sheet of paper, ..·;:·*·:,'!!!'.!;;;.^·.'.ν:::
and the powder set- '·'/;· ( "· :':.;.\ '·· : : ; : tling in the small '.]-•'. :;·.,'"": / ·:
apertures indicates
' · -/.:!j- *"V \ %( "';.··;
the outline which
·*•/ ; V '*·.. ' : · ; . .·
it is desired to re''·:·.': : ' ' ; * · · · ^
produce. This pro­
cess is used to transfer to canvas sketches
made upon paper, or to obtain an exact
repetition of a system of ornament.
Poussinesque. (Paint.) A term used
antefixes, metopes, bas-reliefs, & c , were in French art criticism to describe a
made of earthenware by the Romans, and landscape painted in the manner of
may be classed among the products of Poussin, that is with the dignity of the
the potter.
classic convention.
Pounced Pattern. A well-defined out­
Précieux. A work of art may be said
line of a design executed on a sheet of to be précieux which unites a searching
paper of sufficient resisting power. T h e execution with delicate handling and a
process is as follows : the paper is pierced touch of exquisite fineness.
with a series of punctures placed as close
Prefericulum. A shallow open vase,
together as possible. T o obtain a tracing in the form of a basin, generally of
of this outline, a pad in the shape of a metal, in which the utensils used in

some religious rites of the ancients were revival of the aims and practice of the
pre-Raphaelite school about the year
carried.
Predella. T h e predella is the step 1850. They formed themselves into a
which projects beneath an altar-piece. band, which they termed the preOn it were generally represented either Raphaelite brotherhood, and pictures
three or five scenes from the life of the exhibited by them at the Academy were
saint who figured in the large canvas catalogued under the name of the artist
followed by the letters P.R.B. Their
above it.
aims no doubt were sincere, and their
Premier Coup. [Alia Prima.]
Preparation. T h e method in which a attempt at realism as falsely interpreted
picture is sketched on or a new canvas by the early Italians was earnest.
got ready by being covered with tones, Though the sum of their own achievewhich are intended to give a value to the ment is not great, yet in bringing about
a reaction against the ignorance and
complete work.
Pre-Raphaelites.
T h e name Pre- vulgarity of the English school in the
Raphaelites was given to a small band fifties they did good work. Among their
of English artists who attempted a number were Rossetti, Millais, Holman
319

PRE

ART

DIC riONARY.

Hunt, F. G. Stephens, J. Collinson, and
Woolner.
P r e s b y t e r y . (Arch.) T h a t portion of
a church in which the high altar is
placed and where the officiating clergy
stand. Properly speaking it is east of
the choir, and is raised slightly above
it.
Présentoir. An ornament in vogue in
the 16th century, which consisted of a

PRI

little white and nut oil. In the present
day some painters prefer to work on a
canvas covered with a grey priming,
consisting of a mixture of white lead and
black, with a little linseed or nut oil
added, while others leave the grain of
the canvas visible in some places. Oil
priming has the disadvantage of robbing
the colouring of the picture of its vivacity, but on the other hand it prevents
the canvas from cracking when taken off
the stretcher. At the same time it
should be remembered that Titian and
Veronese executed many of their oil
paintings without any priming at all.
Panels which are to be painted upon are
first of all sized and then covered with
several layers of white, so as to fill up
the pores of the wood. If pictures are
painted upon copper plates, the copper
is covered with a priming similar to that
used in preparing canvas, but a kind of
grain, to hold the colours, must then be
made upon it, either with the palm of
the hand or with a dabber covered with
taffetas.
Mural surfaces are primed for oilpainting by being impregnated with
dish set upon a tall slender stem, as boiling oil and siccative colours, with
represented in the accompanying cut.
linseed oil and varnish added. SomeP r e s s . A machine by means of which times a coating of lime and powdered
the leaves of a book are printed or im- marble is laid on first. Plaster walls
pressions struck from an engraved plate. before being painted upon are covered
Special presses are used for typographic with a mixture of pounded brick and
and lithographic printing, as well as for resin.
the printing of line engravings, &c.
Print. (Engrav.) A general term for
Press View. Before an exhibition is any proof printed from an engraved plate
thrown open to the public the gallery in or lithographic stone.
which it is held is given up for one
Printing. (Engrav.) T h e process of
day to newspaper critics. This oppor- striking off copies from an engraved
tunity of seeing the pictures undisturbed block or plate. Proofs are printed from a
by the public is called the press view.
wood block or from a metal plate in relief
Primary Colours.
[Colours, Pri- by the ordinary methods of typography.
Line engravings, however, on steel or
mary.]
Priming. (Paint.) A uniform layer of copper are printed in presses made
colour with which a canvas, panel, or especially for the purpose.
—, Lithographic. In striking off proofs
other painting surface is covered, so as
to form a ground. In the last century of a drawing executed on a lithographic
painters generally primed their canvas stone, the printing ink only adheres to
with a layer of brown red, mixed with a those portions of the stone which have
320

PRI

ART

DIC TIONARY.

been touched by the lithographic crayon
or thick ink. A pressure being exerted
on a sheet of damp paper, the printer's
ink leaves the stone and adheres to the
paper.
Printing of Line Engravings. To obtain proofs of a plate engraved in line, the
plate is slightly warmed and thoroughly
inked with a dabber. The surface of the
plate is then wiped so that the ink only
remains in the hollows. T h e plate thus
prepared is placed in a press between
two cylinders, a sheet of damp paper and
a thick flannel being laid upon it. In
passing between the two cylinders under
considerable pressure the paper takes
up all the ink, and thus a proof of the
engraving is obtained.
— of Mezzotints. T h e printing of
mezzotints presents considerable difficulties. As the portions of the plate
which print white are more hollow than
those which print black, before printing
the hollows must be wiped perfectly dry
by hand or with a small dabber covered
with linen and fixed on a little stick.
Mezzotint plates only yield a small
number of proofs, and are easily worn
out.
— of Woodcuts. Proofs are printed
from woodcuts, from clichés of woodcuts,
or from any relief engravings obtained
by mechanical processes, in the ordinary
method employed in printing books. T h e
blocks are carefully adjusted, placed on
the marble, and inked with a roller. In
order to produce strong differences of
tone, small pieces of paper cut out are
put in the places where decided blacks
are wanted. T h e object of these pieces
of paper is to increase the pressure,
while the delicate parts, being only
covered by a single sheet of paper, only
yield light grey tones.
Priory. (Arch.) A monastery which is
presided over by a prior.
Prism. A solid geometrical figure, the
bases of which are equal and parallel
and the sides formed of parallelograms.
A prism is said to be triangular, hexa-

PRO

gonal, & c , according as its base is
a triangle or a hexagon. A prism
is said to be a right prism when
its sides are perpendicular to the plane
<ζ^\.
of the base and its W^î^ïfeJS,
lateral faces are rect- |l|j ψfflfflf
angles.
In
optical Jll. V f | | | f f l A
experiments a prism |'Λ .'^ΜαΙβΗτ
of glass or crystal is ^ ^ ^ O - H r
used, which refracts a
^<<r
beam of white light falling upon it and
decomposes it into the seven colours
which form the spectrum.
Prismatic. T h a t which has the form
of a prism.
Private View. It is customary for
the directors of exhibitions to ask the
exhibitors and their friends to a private
view of the pictures, before the public are
admitted. Of late years invitations have
been sent out so indiscriminately that the
day on which it is impossible to look at
works of art is that on which the private
view is held. Private views have, indeed,
degenerated into crushes, in which
women are stared at and costumes chat­
tered about.
Proboscis. (Her.) T h e trunk of an ele­
phant generally represented
/-w^
as twisted in the shape of an ^ - O j
S and placed in pale. This
<η&
heraldic charge is very rarely f jLfa
met with, and only in German
^fe^Iyf
coats of arms.
·*Process. A mechanical method by
which something is produced or exe­
cuted. T h e innumerable methods of
producing plates, from which impres­
sions may be struck, by the use of pho­
tography, are termed processes.
The
cheap reproductions of pictures which
illustrate so many modern books and
journals are often produced by mechani­
cal processes, and are called process
blocks.
P r o c h o u s . (Pot.) A Greek vase
somewhat resembling the oenochoe
(q.v.) in shape. It had a very grace­
ful handle rising considerably above
321

ART

PRO

DICTIONARY.

the neck, while the lip if looked at from
above formed a trefoil. These characteristics will at once
be recognised in our
cut. T h e prochous
was used to hold
wine, and was frequently enriched with
paintings.
Profile.
A term
which
in
general
denotes the representation of an object seen from one
of its sides. In drawing and painting a
profile is a portrait
of a person looked
at sideways. In architecture a profile is
a section so made
as to show clearly
the projections of a
moulding or system of ornament, the
drawing of which in face does not enable
us to appreciate its relief. The design of
profiles in buildings of the Gothic style
was always subordinated to the line
of the masonry and
the mouldings were
always
combined,
so that the joints
were hidden and
did not break the
convex or concave
surface of
these
mouldings. T h e section of Gothic piers
display profiles of extraordinarily learned
design. In the 13th century the piers

PRO

tion was made up of a very large number

of mouldings. Finally when mouldings
are executed in plaster, the term counter-

profile is applied to the pattern cut out
so as to show the profile.
Profile, Back. A term applied to a
portrait representing a person seen
sideways, so that the back of the head
is in the foreground, and the features
are partially hidden by the projection of
the forehead and cheek.
Progression. A system of ornament
in which the details assume greater
importance according to the extent of
the surface to be covered. In the decoration of a pediment, for instance, the
ornament should be conceived in progression, since a larger surface has to be
filled in the middle than at the extremities, which terminate in a point.
Projection. T h e representations of
bodies upon a plane surface, vertical or
horizontal; also the figure obtained by
joining the foot of perpendiculars drawn
from every point of an object on to
the plane. T h e
drawing of projections belongs
to the
sphere
^k
of
geometrical
drawing and presumes an extenconsisted of clustered columns, but in sive knowledge
the 14th their profile or horizontal sec- of geome.try. T h e architect, however,

•A*
322

PRO

ART

DICTIONARY.

must be familiarised with this branch
of drawing, for it enables him to
judge of the
effect of the
details of a
building, and
also to indicate
the outline of
the
shadows
projected
by
an imaginary focus of light conventionally placed above and in the left hand
of the drawings, and directing its rays
at an angle of 45 degrees. Anything
which stands out from the line of a
wall or other flat surface is said to be
a projection. T h e body of mouldings,
entablatures, and balconies, for instance, project from a
façade.
In a washed
drawing showing the
elevation of a building,
lit by an imaginary ray
of light directed at an
angle of 45 degrees, the
dimension of the shadow
cast by a moulding is
determined by the projection of this moulding.
In painting, the relief
given to the objects represented is called the projection. Of
a badly modelled figure, for instance, i t
may be said that it lacks projection.
Pronaos. (Arch.) A term applied in
ancient temples to the porticoes or
porches placed in front of the cella.
Proof. (Engrav.) A tentative impression taken from an engraved plate or a
lithographic stone, which enables the
artist to judge how far his work is complete and what retouches are necessary.
It must be observed, in passing, that
after a lithographic stone has been prepared for printing, any alteration in it
is a matter of extreme difficulty. T h e
term proof is also applied to an engraving printed from a plate, block, or stone.
T h e proofs of engravers of medals,
which serve the same purpose as proofs

PRO

of engravings, are obtained in wax or
plaster.
Proof, Artist's. A proof of a line
engraving pulled with or without the
signature of the artist.
Sometimes
artists' proofs are further distinguished
either by an irregular margin, the engraving not being exactly in the centre
of the plate, or by square lines surrounding the subject, but drawn somewhat irregularly, or by sketches or tentative strokes in the margin.
— before Letter. A proof of a line
engraving or lithograph before its title
together with the names of the painter
and engraver have been cut or written
in lithographic ink in the place reserved
for that purpose.
—, Lettered. A proof of an engraving
which bears engraved upon its margin
either in printer's type or in regular
handwriting the title of the engraving,
together with names of designer, engraver, and printer of the plate.
—, Natural. A proof which reproduces the actual lines of an engraving
without any " d o d g e s " or retroussage.
Such a proof is obtained by carefully
wiping the whole surface of a plate after
having inked the furrows.
—, Negative.
(Photo.)
A cliché
obtained by exposing sensitive plates in
a dark room. In a negative the lights
and darks of the object reproduced are
transposed.
—, Positive. (Photo.) A proof obtained from a cliché, either upon paper
or upon glass, in which the whites and
blacks correspond to the lights and
shades of the original. .
—, Remarque. A proof of a line engraving which represents a particular
state of the plate. The remarque proof is
distinguished by a sketch drawn by the
engraver on the margin or on the white
portion of the proof, or by the absence
of certain lines in various parts of the
plate. Thus the proof of a plate bitten
by aqua fortis, before it has been retouched with the dry point or rebitten,

323

PRO

ART

DICTIONARY.

is a remarque proof. These remarque
proofs give us the various states of a
plate from first to last.
Proof, Wax. A tentative proof obtained
by the engraver to give him an indication of what retouching is necessary.
It is obtained by filling in the lines with
lampblack, and applying to it a sheet of
paper coated with white waxand exerting upon it a gentle pressure with a
burnisher.
— w i t h Grey Letter. A term applied

to proofs in which the characters of the
legend are grilled with hatchings.
— with White Letter. A proof in
which the characters of the legend or
inscription are only indicated by outlines.
Proper. (Her.) When charges on a
shield are represented in their own
natural colours
they are
usually
blazoned proper.
Properties. In the language of the
theatre this term denotes all objects
accessory to the mise en scène.
Proportion. A term applied to the
dimensions of a painted or sculptured
figure, and also to the relation which
exists between the dimensions of the
various parts of the body. In painting
and sculpture the proportion of the
human body is indicated by the head,
a well-proportioned human body being
equal to seven or eight times the height
of the head. In architecture the proportion of the entablature is furnished
by the radius of the shaft of the column
at its base.
Proportioned. A figure is said to be
well-proportioned when its proportions
are accurately observed and when the
dimensions of its various parts are
properly harmonised,
Propylaea. (Arch.) This term denotes
in ancient architecture the vestibule of
a temple decorated with columns, and

324

PSEU

particularly the building which was
placed at the entrance of the Acropolis
at Athens and foimed a magnificent
approach to the Parthenon.
Proscenium.
(Arch.)
In modern
theatres the proscenium is that portion
of the stage which extends in front of

the curtain as far as the footlights. In an
ancient theatre it was that part which
was situated in front of the scene.
Prostyle. (Arch.) An ancient temple
was said to be prostyle when its front
alone, was adorned with a row of
columns.
Prothesis. [Oblatorium.]
Protractor. A semicircle of horn or
metal, divided into 180 degrees, which is
used to measure
angles or to draw
them upon paper.
The
commonest
form of protractor
is a pierced demidisk, as shown in our cut.
Prow. T h e prow of an ancient galley,
pointed with iron
or steel, is frequently
employed as a system of ornament.
The prow has
sometimes only
one metal point,
sometimes several. [Rostrum.]
Prussian Blue. [Blue, Prussian.]
Prussian Brown. (Paint.) A useful
and permanent brown pigment, obtained
by calcining Prussian blue. It is a good
transparent colour, dries quickly, and
is suited generally to oil and water
colour.
Pseudisodomos. (Arch.) A kind of
masonry employed by ancient architects in which two courses of small and

PSEU

ART

large stones alternated with regularity.
Masonry which consisted of stones all of
the same height was called by the
Greeks Ισόδομος. [Masonry, Greek.]
PseudOdipteral. (Arch.) A temple is
said to be pseudo-dipteral when it is
apparently built upon the dipteral (q.v.)
plan, but is in reality only surrounded
by one free row of columns, another row
of columns being attached to the walls
of the cella.
Psyche. T h e story of Psyche, who
was beloved of Eros or Cupid, has always
been a favourite one with artists. Eros
and Psyche are generally represented
together, and Psyche frequently has the
wings of a butterfly.
Pteroma. (Arch.) In classical archi­
tecture pteroma signifies the portico
which surrounds the cella of a temple.
Pulpit. A tribune with a seat, raised
at a considerable height above the
ground, from which sermons were
delivered. In Italian churches many
pulpits are to be seen of marble or
bronze, supported by colonnettes. In
mediaeval churches the pulpits were
nearly always of wood and perfectly
simple in construction.
In the 15th

century pulpits were set against the
pillars of the church or against the
wall, and were fixed. At a little later

DICTIONARY.

PUN

period they were surmounted by sound­
ing boards in the form of a canopy or
tapering pyramid. In the 16th, 17th, and
18th centuries pulpits were designed in
accordance with the architectural style
of each epoch and some were marvels of
allegorical and theatrical fancy. Belgian
pulpits particularly exhibit a quaintness
of execution and design. T h e pulpits
of the present day are generally nothing
but an ingenious pastiche on the produc­
tions of former times. Our cut repre­
sents the pulpit of carved wood in the
church at Wenden, in Essex.
Punch. (Engrav.) A steel instrument
called a punch, which gene­
rally has two large blunt points,
is used in crayon engraving to
add masses of black when the
work has already been bitten.
T h e punch is held perpendicu­
lar to the plate and subjected
to a series of sharp taps, being
moved a little at each tap.
A hollow of considerable width
and depth is thus obtained,
which is represented in print­
ing by a mass of intense black, Many
plates were executed by this method in
the last century and
were printed in red. In
die-engraving a punch
is a steel
instrument
upon which a figure
is engraved, and from
which imprints may be
obtained by striking the
punch at the end the
farthest removed from
the figure. Engravers often keep a collec­
tion of punches, upon which the
commonest charges in heraldry
are engraved. T h e term punch
is also applied to the imprint of
an initial, device, sign, or sym­
bol placed upon goldsmith's
work, or on gold and silver or­
naments. In the present day
the application of these sym­
bols to gold and silver plate is under the

ff
i

325

ART

PUN

DICTIONARY.

permanent control of the State and is
regulated by especial laws.
Puncheon. (Arch.) A piece of wood
which serves as a vertical support.
Punching Compass. A compass, the
branches of which curve inwards, the
one being armed with a blunt point, the

other with a sharp. It is used to mark
exactly where a copper plate which
has been planed down is to be beaten
out.
Pupil. An artist who adopts the traditions and produces works in the style of
a painter or sculptor is said to be a pupil
of such a master. T h u s we speak of a
pupil of Raphael or of Rubens.
Purity. A term which denotes correctness and precision of drawing. For
instance we speak of the purity of outline in the figures of Raphael or in the
Source of Ingres.
Purlin. (Arch.) A piece of wood placed
horizontally and forming part of a roof,
its purpose being to support the rafters.
Purple. A secondary colour obtained
from the mixture of the two primary
colours red and blue.
Purpure. (Her.) T h e heraldic colour
purple shown on a shield by diagonal
lines from sinister to dexter.
Purree. (Paint.) A name given to the
pigment more generally known as Indian
yellow (q.v.).
P u t i n . In a painting or drawing, when
a figure is set upon the canvas or paper
with a few strokes so as to vividly suggest its movement and attitude, it is said
to be well put in.
Puzzolana. A reddish earth which is
mixed with lime to form a cement used
by builders.
Pycnostyle. (Arch.) An ancient temple
was said to be pycnostyle when its intercolumniation measures one and a half
times the diameter of the shaft of the
column at the base.
326

PYR

Pylon. In Egyptian architecture apylon
is a mass of masonry in the form of a
truncated pyramid with a door in the
middle, terminated
in a platform as is
shown in the cut.
Sometimes
poles
with waving banneroles were set
against the pylon.
The
pylons
at
Thebes were approached by an avenue
of sphinxes and obelisks.
Pyramid. A solid figure with a triangular or polygonal base, the lateral faces
of which meet in a point
at the summit. Under
this name are generally
designated the three
Egyptian monuments of
the IVth dynasty, the
loftiest of which, the pyramid of Cheops,
is 146 metres high, and is built upon a
square base. It consists of a solid block

of calcareous stone faced with solid
flags, accurately set in their places.
Pyramidion. (Arch.) A term applied
to pyramids the height of which is very
small in proportion to their base. T h e

summit of an obelisk is often in the form
of a pyramidion. Many sepulchral monuments designed in the Neo-Greek style
are thus terminated.

ART

QUA

DICTIONARY.

QUA

terings, but it must be understood that

Q.
Quadrangle. A quadrangle is a figure
which has four sides, and consequently
four angles. Colleges and similar institutions are frequently arranged in the
form of a series of quadrangles or
square open spaces surrounded with
buildings.
Quadrilateral. A quadrilateral figure
is a figure which is bounded by four
sides.
Quarrel. (Arch.) A small pane of glass,
either diamond-shaped or square, set
diagonally.
Quarter. (Her.) Each of the equal parts
into which a shield may be divided by
a cross is termed a quarter. T h e quarter
which occupies the dexter
chief is termed the first
quarter, that which occupies the sinister chief
the second quarter, while
those occupying the dexter
and sinister base are known
as the third and fourth quarter respectively. A shield divided into four quarters is said to be quartered.

Quartered per Saltier.
(Her.) A shield is said to
be quartered per saltier
when it is divided by
diagonal
lines,
which
cross in the centre of the
shield.
Quarter-foil. (Her.) A flower with
four leaves, which
occurs as a charge
in heraldry. T h e term
double quarterfoil is
applied to a flower
with eight leaves.
Quarterings. (Her.)
When a shield is divided up into a number of squares, in each of which is a
coat-of-arms, these squares are known
as quarterings. Our cut, which represents the shield of the Seymour family,
clearly illustrates the meaning of quar-

more than four quarterings may appear
on one shield.
Quarterly. (Her.) A shield divided
by a horizontal line and a
vertical line crossing one
another in the middle is
said to be parted quarterly.
If divided into
eight parts by a horizontal cutting three vertical
lines it would be blazoned
quarterly of eight.
Quarternary. T h e quaternary hues
are compounds of the primaries, with
two primaries or one secondary predominating.
Such as auburn, where
orange predominates, puce, where violet
predominates, olive, where green predominates.
Quarter-round. (Arch.) A quarterround is a convex moulding consisting

mMlMJ,
of a quarter of a circle. It is frequently
decorated with the egg and dart ornament, as is shown in our cut.
Quatrefoil. (Arch.) A system of ornament employed in Gothic architecture,
which consists of four arcs of a circle
drawn from the angles of a square taken
327

QUA

ART

as centres.

DICTIONARY.

Sometimes the four arcs of
circles are tan­
gents or secants.
At some periods
their extremities
are separated byangles, as in
our second and
smaller cut. In
the 12th century
the inner sur­
face of the curve is decorated by a torus.
In the 14th century each
foil, instead of consisting
of a portion of a circle,
consists of a portion of a
pointed arc.
Quattro-cento. (Paint.)
A n a m e applied to the style of the
painters who practised their art in Italy
during the 15th century. T h e quattro­
centisti may be said to include all the
artists who are more generally known
as Pre-Raphaelites.
Quattro-Coronati. According to the
legend of the Church the " four crowned
brothers " were architects, who refused to
build a pagan temple in the reign of Dio­
cletian. For this refusal they suffered
martyrdom. In art they are represented
crowned and with palms in their hands,
while mallets and other tools lie at their
feet. There is a church in their honour
at Rome.
Quartz. A siliceous stone, the com­
monest of the minerals ; it is generally
transparent and crystalline. It is found
in nearly every part of the world.
T h e most beautiful varieties of quartz
are used for cameos, intaglios, while
the commoner kinds are employed
in the manufacture of glass and porce­
lain.
Queen-post. (Arch.) A post which
springs from a tie-beam and helps to
support a timber roof It is not placed
like the king-post in the centre of the
tie-beam, but between the centre of the
tie-beam and its extremity, and, there­
fore, queen-posts are always found in
328

RAD

couples, and are connected at their upper
end by a beam called a collar beam.
Quincunx. An arrangement in squares
like a chess-board. T h e most frequent
instance of the quincunx is a plantation
of trees, so laid out as to present straight
lines, from what_
ever point of
1 ;^C ΐ * ' ^ " " 1 ' ~ * ~
view it is looked
*&.'..; λ$(...;..Λ* - \at. T o obtain
. . j . ^ ^ . * ' . ;..s.tf.' . L a ­
this result the
„ ·' / : X J , ' ' \ s^ : ' ' ;S
ground is di^ \ Y , ; \ [ '*v\ \,
vided into a cer'•• ν^·'*'Γ'•&·"" • ''·τ-"
tain number of
&>'. 4 • • ^ • • ^ • • X - - i equal
squares
and the centre of the square is ascer­
tained by drawing diagonals.
Trees
are then planted at the four corners
and at the centre of each square.
Quirk. (Arch.) A channel or groove
separating a convex moulding from the
fillet which surmounts it.
Quoif. [Coif.]
Quoin. (Arch.) T h e external corner of
a building. It is generally decorated,
sometimes with pilasters, sometimes
with a belting-course [Course, belting] of
projecting stones, which gives a decora­
tive character to the building, if the rest
of it is of brick.

R.
Radegund, St. St. Radegund was the
wife of Clothaire, King of France, and
lived towards the end of the 6th century.
She became a Christian, and, in conse­
quence, was obliged to retire from the
court. She was early canonized as a
saint, and in artistic representations she
appears wearing a crown or with a crown
at her feet. Sometimes wolves are at
her side and the legend tells us that
she had power over wild beasts.
Radiated. A term applied to decora­
tive motives, which consist of rays.
Radiation. A method of decorating
a circular surface by means of radii
diverging from its centre. T h e term is

ART

RAD

DICTIONARY.

also applied to a system of ornament,
which consists in the arrangement upon
a surface of any form whatsoever of radii
of a circle.
Radient. (Her.) In
heraldry a charge is
said to be
radient
which has rays round
it. Our cut, for instance, - is described
as azure, a pale, or,
radient.
Radius. A constant distance between
the centre and any point on the circumference of a circle or on the surface of a
sphere is termed a radius.
Raffaelle-ware. (Pot.) A kind of majolica, upon which mythological and
other scenes were painted. It was made
at Urbino in the 16th century under the
patronage of the Dukes of Urbino.
There is no reason to believe that
Raphael ever designed any specimens
of this ware, though it is quite possible
that some of his school furnished the
Urbino potters with design.
Perhaps
the fact that Raphael was born at Urbino
is sufficient to account for the name
which this pottery received.
Rafter. (Arch.) A piece of timber,
supporting the laths or battens, upon

which a roof of tiles, slates, or zinc rests.

—,

Principal.

(Arch.) A piece of wood
or iron, which plays an
important part in the frame of a roof.

Rais de Cœur. (Arch.) A system of
ornament in the form
of a heart. It consists
of fleurons and waterleaves placed alternately, and decorates
J|i||I^Si(||i|^
the surface of some
mouldings which have a convex profile.
Rampant. (Her.) An animal rearing
up on its hind legs in a fighting attitude
is said to be rampant. [Lion Rampant.]
Rampart. (Arch.) A fortified wall
which forms a defensive enclosure for a

The principal rafters give the angle of I town or castle.
22

RAM

the roof and support the purlins (q.v.)
on which the rafters are laid.
R a g g e d . (Paint.) A painting is said
to be ragged in style when the objects or
figures represented, instead of being
evenly joined to the background, terminate in rough edges.
Ragstone. (Arch.) Stones of small
size, sometimes squared, sometimes just
as they came from the quarry, used in
building.
Raguly. (Her.) A charge is said to be
raguly, when it i
__
ragged or rough like
the trunk of a tree,
Our cut, which represents a cross raguly will render the
term quite plain.
Rail. (Arch.) T h e upper part of a balustrade about breast high, upon which
the hand may be rested. In domestic
staircases the rail is generally of wood,
but in stone balustrades it is frequently
of marble. T h e term rail is also applied to the horizontal pieces of wood
separating the panels in doors or wainscoting.

In the Middle Ages
3*9

ART

RAN

ramparts connected fortified gates, and
were bordered by fosses.
Ranieri, St. St. Ranieri is the patron
saint of Pisa, and representations of him
are not found outside that town.
He
was born in n o o , and after a youth
spent in dissipation he was converted,
travelled to Palestine, and lived for many
years i n a desert. On his return to Pisa,
his native city, he was much reverenced,
and when he died he was buried in the
Duomo.
Ranseur. A ranseur is a weapon, consisting of a long, cutting
blade, from the base of
which two smaller blades
project.
It underwent
several modifications of
form; that shewn in our
cut being its earliest.
Rapier. A light, narrow
sword, worn by gentlemen
from the 16th century onwards. It was a weapon
of personal
adornment
rather than of warfare.
Raphaelesque. A picture is said to be Raphaelesque when it suggests
the work of Raphael, or
is in the style of that
master. We speak of a
Raphaelesque
drawing,
Raphaelesque beauty, &c.
Raphael, St. St Raphael
is one of the archangels.
His special mission is to
guard mankind, and especially to protect travellers. His attributes are a
casket or wallet and a pilgrim's staff,
and he is generally represented winged
and wearing sandals. T h e legend of
Tobit and the Archangel Raphael has
suggested subjects to many painters, and
it is in allusion to this legend that
Raphael sometimes carries a fish.
Rapin. A word of constant occurrence
in French artistic slang, of which many
etymologies have been suggested, all of
330

DICTIONARY.

RAY

them unfortunately inadmissible.
For
instance it has been derived from rape,
" shabby," a derivation which is not altogether unlikely, for the rapins of old
were not generally millionaires. Then,
again, some say it comes from rapiner,
" to steal," a purely gratuitous calumny.
Other etymologists see in the word
the pun, rat qui peint, but this is too
far-fetched to be entertained for a moment. Whatever is the derivation of the
word the rapin of fifty years ago was a
jovial student of art, always on the watch
to play tricks and practical jokes on the
terrified "Philistines." For this engaging pursuit he too often neglected the
study of his art. In the present day the
race of rapins of the ancient school has
entirely disappeared. It has gone the
way of the old-fashioned students and of
the school of Bohemians, who advertised
their ideas and affected eccentric costumes. T h e modern student of art is
too often a Philistine himself and avoids
any suspicion of eccentricity. His costumes and manners are conventional,
and whatever else he may be he is
seldom a rapin.
Rasp. (Sculp.) An iron tool used by
sculptors in working on their marble.

Our cuts will give an idea of its shape
and character.
Ray. (Her.) A ray or beam of light is
sometimes found as a
charge in heraldry.
T h e following is a
description of our
c u t ; Azure, a ray of
the sun issuing out
of the dexter corner
of the escutcheon.
Rayère. (Arch.) A French term denoting a long, narrow opening in the thickness of a wall of a mediaeval castle,
through which light was admitted.

REA

ART

DIC TIONARY.

Re-acierage. T h e process of aciérage
may b e described as the covering of a
copper-plate with a thin film of steel.
W h e n this steel film is worn the plate
may be re-covered ; this second process
is termed re-acierage.
Reagent. Chemical substances which
are used to develop photographs and to
fix the images obtained on a photographic plate are termed reagents.
Realgar. [Red Orpiment.]
Realism. This word is susceptible of
two meanings. In its strict sense realism
is the representation of real objects, such
as actually exist, as opposed to idealism,
which may be defined as the construction of the perfect type of these same
things, as the mind attempts to conceive
it. In historical painting the realistic
school devotes itself to representing
events, persons, costumes, and places
as accurately as possible, and will have
nothing to do with conventional types and
draperies. There is, however, another
school of realists. These, pushing to its
extreme limit the doctrine of reality in
the representations of scenes and objects,
forbid the reproduction of aught that
requires interpretation or the exercise
of the intelligence. They limit themselves
strictly to the reproduction of that which
is seen and do not always concern themselves with seeing the beautiful side of
things. And so it happens that as often
as not they incline by choice to what is
ngly.
Rear-vault. (Arch.) A vault placed

behind a bay, which terminates in a

REB

round or pointed arch or in a straight
lintel. T h e purpose of the rear-vault is
to strengthen the building or to increase its effect. Gothic architecture
presents many examples of rear-vaults
richly decorated.
Rebaking. An operation, the purpose
of which is to fix the colours of painted
pieces of glass or enamel by submitting
them to the action of the fire.
Rebate. (Arch.) A notch or recess cut
in a piece of timber so as to fit another
piece of timber. T h e commonest instance of a rebate is the notch cut in a
door-post to receive the door.
Rebiting. (Engrav.) When some of
the lines on an etched plate are not
sufficiently accentuated, or if the plate
has been worn from too many copies
having been struck from it, it undergoes
the operation of rebiting. This requires
the utmost care, as the etching ground
has to be laid so as not to cover any of
the lines which are to b e ' r e b i t t e n and
must not be dabbed all over, as at the
first biting. When a worn plate has
been rebitten it can scarcely deceive the
practised eye, as the proper relations of
its tones is lost and the lighter lines
become weaker.
Rebus. (Her.) A rebus is a charge in
heraldry, which has a punning allusion
to the bearer's name. A popular definition of it is " a word represented by a
picture." Such devices were very common in the Middle Ages. In West-

minster Abbey there is a very good
example of a rebus in Bishop Islip's
chapel. T h e device consists of a h u m a n
eye, and a slip of a tree. Many other
examples might be quoted. We will
content ourselves with two, of which we
give cuts. T h e first is the rebus qf

33*

REC

ART

Thomas Compton, Abbot of Cirencester.
It is taken from a window in the Lady
Chapel in Gloucester Cathedral and its

DICTIONARY.

RED

Red Lead. (Paint.) This pigment is
an oxide of lead. As, when mixed with
most other pigments, it decomposes it is
of little use to the artist. It is of a
scarlet colour, and when it is pure and
unmixed it is not affected by light.
— Ochre. (Paint.) There are several
kinds of red ochre, such as Indian red,
scarlet ochre, and Indian ochre. This
pigment is generally a sulphate of iron.
In colour it is less strident than vermi­
lion, and when pure it is permanent.
— Orpiment. (Paint.) This pigment,
which is a compound of arsenic and sul­
phur and is of an orange colour, should
never be employed by the painter, as it
destroys other pigments and absorbs the
colour of the ground. It is also known
as realgar.
Redan. (Arch.) A pierced or indented
system of ornament used in Gothic

significance will b e plain to all. Our
second cut is the coat of arms of a
Devonshire family named Arches.
Re-canvassing. An operation which
consists in replacing a worn-out canvas
or worm-eaten panel upon which paint­
ings have been executed by new and
sound materials.
Rectangle. A rectangle is a figure
enclosed by four straight
lines, in which the opposite sides are equal and all
the angles right angles.
Rectangled. A term applied to geo­
metrical figures which contain a right
angle. Thus we speak of a rectangled
triangle, a rectangled parallelogram.
Rectangular. A figure or solid body
in which the angles are right angles is
termed rectangular.
Recuse (Numis.) A term applied to upper surface of which, instead of being
coins struck with two different types, the horizontal, is cut off so as to resemble
the steps of a staircase.
one superposed upon the other.
Redorte. (Her.) This n a m e is applied
Red. Red pigments are formed of
ochre or clay coloured by oxides of iron,
which have been calcined and pulverised.
These pigments, when they have a base
Λ
of iron, are always deep in colour.
Reds obtained from oxide of lead or from
mercury are bright and intense Among
the latter may be mentioned red lead
(protoxide of lead), cinnabar, and ver­ by heralds to a figure formed by inter­
milion.
twining the branches of a tree, with or

332

RED

ART

DR rIONARY,

without their leaves on, so as to make a
succession of loops.
Reduct. (Arch.) A term applied in
military architecture to fortified works,
the purpose of which is to prolong the
defence of a castle.
Reduction. A term applied in art to a
copy of a sketch or picture on a smaller
scale than the original ; and also to engraved reproductions obtained by mechanical processes, and designed on a
smaller scale than the drawings from
which they are made. It also denotes
small copies of a statue ; we speak of a
reduction, for instance, of the Venus of
Milo. There is a special method of reducing statues, which is based upon the
application of the pantograph, or by
which mathematically exact copies may
be obtained. This method goes by the
name of Collas, its inventor.
Re-enter. (Engrav ) When a line on
an engraved plate, which has been
worn in printing or is not bitten
deeply enough, is cut with a graver to
its proper depth, it is said to be reentered.
Refectory. (Arch.) T h e dining-room
in a monastery or convent.
Reflection. A term applied to the portions of a body illuminated not by rays
of direct light but by reflected rays. In
an illuminated body there are three
distinct parts, the light, the shade, and
the reflection. T h e last is the part of
an object plunged in a penumbra
lighted by the rays proceeding from
other bodies at some distance from
the object and receiving the light
directly.
Refraction. A change of direction
taken by luminous rays in certain transparent bodies. It is in consequence of
this phenomenon that a rod half plunged
in water appears broken, that the disc
of the sun on the horizon appears larger
than at its zenith.
R é g a l s . A music instrument used in
the Middle Ages, which combined the
characteristics of an organ and accordion.

REL

In mediaeval pictures saints are frequently represented as playing upon

régals. T h e cut given here is from a
picture by Memling.
Regardant. (Her.) A term applied in
heraldry to animals which have their
head turned towards the sinister side of
the shield.
Reglet. (Arch.) A small flat moulding,
which is also known by
t
the names of fillet and Γ ν
1
listel. When it is very * ' ^ ^ w w · "
large it becomes a plat­
band, and some writers then describe
it as a taenia.
R e g r a t i n g . (Arch.) An operation
which consists in cutting away the orna­
ments and projecting mouldings from
the surface of a building, so as to render
the whole surface uniform.
By this
process of levelling many ancient build­
ings have been destroyed or restored, as
the modern iconoclast prefers to style it.
R e g u l a r . (Arch.) A plan or façade is
said to be regular when it is arranged
symmetrically.
Relief. In painting the relief is the
apparent projection of objects obtained
by modelling or a gradation of tints.
Thus the reliefs of a picture may be
well rendered, or a portrait may be said
to lack relief. In sculpture a relief is a
figure or series of figures executed on

333

REL

ART

DICTIONARY.

a flat ground, from which it projects
in a greater or less degree, according as
it is a high or low relief. In architecture the mouldings and systems of ornament which project from the surface of
a wall or of a façade are termed reliefs.
Relieving Arch. [Arch, Relieving.]
Reliquary. A coffer or box, of very
variable form, in which relics are kept.
In the Middle
Ages there were
reliquaries large
enough to be reverenced as shrines,
while some were
small enough to
be carried in the
hand. Sometimes
they assumed the
form of an arm
or a skull, according as the relic
within was a bone of the arm or a fragment of the skull. As a general rule they

were very richly decorated, especially
those made from the 13th to the 15th
century, some of which were formed of
blocks of rock crystal supported upon

i&fflffismfëSSJ
pierced columns. Others were vases
of jasper or porphyry with enamelled

334

REP

mouldings, and many were resplendent
with precious stones.
Remark. [Proof, Remark.]
Rembrandtesque. (Paint.) In the
manner of Rembrandt. A painting is
said to be Rembrandtesque when the
combination of effects, especially of
light and shade, recall those adopted by
Rembrandt. Thus the effect of light in
a picture may be said to be Rembrandtesque or the picture itself may be so
termed.
Renaissance.
T h e period during
which there was a general revival of art
throughout Europe. This movement
began in Italy in the 15th century, and
continued with little abatement of vigour
throughout the 16th. It reached England
and Germany somewhat late.
The
architecture of the Renaissance was
characterised by a return to the ancient orders, which were interpreted,
however, with a certain amount of
freedom.
Render. T o render is to represent,
express, or interpret by the means
proper to any particular art.
Rendering. A term denoting the
manner in which a work of art or figure
is painted, drawn, or executed. Thus
we speak of an inadequate rendering, or
say that the rendering of a certain subject is admirable.
Repaint. Those portions of a picture
upon which fresh colour has been laid
after the completion of the picture are
said to be repainted. Of all the processes of restoration repainting is the
most dangerous, and the most hopelessly
prejudicial to the value of a picture.
Reparata, St. St. Reparata was from
the 7th to the 13th century the patron
saint of Florence and representations of
her are to be found in early Florentine
pictures. T h e tradition was that she
suffered martyrdom in Cesarea at the
age of twelve.
Repetition. A method of ornament,
which consists in decorating a surface
by representing the same motive a large

REP

ART

DICTIONARY.

n u m b e r of times in a geometrical arrangement.
Replica. An original work of art of
the same dimensions as an earlier production by the same artist, and representing identically the same subject
as that treated in a former work.
Repose. A work of art is said to have
repose when its parts are balanced and
harmonious, when no spots within it
unduly attract the eye, and when there
is a quietness and dignity over the whole
composition.
Repoussé. A term applied to the art
of fashioning ornamental objects in metal
by beating it behind with a hammer, as
well as to the ornaments executed by
means of this process. T h e forms of
the decoration are only roughly indicated by the hammer, and the work
has to be finished by chasing (q.v.).
Reproduction. A term applied to the
copying of works of art and especially to
the interpretation of pictures by means
of engraving, photogravure, and photography. T h e right of reproducing a
work of art belongs to the artist and is
distinct from the possession of the work,
if the artist takes care at the time of
sale to reserve this right to himself. If
he neglects to take this precaution the
right of reproduction ceases to belong
exclusively to any one.
[Copyright,
Artistic]
Reredos. (Arch.) T h e screen at the
back of an altar, which is frequently
richly carved, is called the reredos,
T h e term also denotes an open firehearth.
Respond. (Arch.) A term applied to
the two vertical parts of a bay or open-

\
ing, which are united
by the horizontal part
or lintel. T h e surface of the respond

RES

either is plane or varies according to
the style, epoch,.
or character
of
the building
to
which it belongs.
Ressault. (Arch.) T h e projection of
a moulding or entablature, which is

advanced beyond the surface of a building. T h e term is also applied to the
projection of one part of a building
beyond another. For instance, pilasters
may be said to form a ressault.
Ressenti. An Italian term denoting
the forcible expression of a form in a
drawing. For instance, Michael Angelo's
manner may be called ressenti.
Restoration. T h e restoration of pictures is a task which necessitates the
utmost prudence. If pictures are " repainted," i.e., retouched on a considerable scale, they at once lose their value.
Even if the portions repainted are of the
smallest importance, and if the restorer
takes the greatest care in laying on tones
exactly similar to the earlier ones, the
retouches are enough to clash violently
with the old portion of the picture, as
the desiccation of the oil leads infallibly to a modification of tone.
When
paintings on canvas scale off, the gaps
should be stopped with a mastic composed of whiting and strong size. T h e
joins may be hidden with the utmost
care by means of a brush, and the picture
may then be covered with a layer of siccative varnish.
T h e restoration of sculpture, especially
of ancient statues in marble, presents
still greater difficulties than the restoration of pictures, and it should be carried
out with still greater reserve. T h e less
important parts of a figure, if missing,
may be restored or replaced easily
enough, either by means of plaster
coloured so as to closely reproduce
the tone of the original, or by pieces
of marble fixed in their place by

335

RES

ART

DIC IONARY.

tenons or attached by copper.
But,
as a general rule, the restoration of
statues should be restricted to carrying
out whatever is necessary to hold them
together. It will never occur again to
any sculptor to attempt to restore the
arms of the Venus of Milo. During the
last two centuries, and even in the early
part of the present century, ancient
statues were restored with the most
surprising boldness. An absent head
was too often replaced by another differing from it both in period and province.
T h e Glyptothek at Munich, for instance,
is a monument to the misplaced energy
of restorers. It is now found necessary
to catalogue those portions of each work
exhibited in that gallery which have
been added by later hands.
In architecture the object of restoration is the reproduction of a building,
wholly ruined or partially destroyed, in
accordance with the original plans and
designs. There can be no doubt that
of late years the work of restoring
churches has been carried a good deal
further in England than it should be.
Architects have been too ready to
destroy buildings which were perfectly
safe, in order to provide themselves with
an opportunity of putting something of
an earlier style in their place. Lord
Beaconsfield once said, that no church
would be properly restored until we had
hung an architect. We are not likely
to take this extreme measure, and perhaps the safest maxim to follow is :
" Restoration should not be reconstruction but only the arrest of decay."
R e s t o r e . T o restore is to repair works
of painting or sculpture, buildings and
historic monuments, with a view of
bringing them back as nearly as possible
to the condition in which they were
when they left the hand of the artist, and
before they had suffered the defacement of time.
R e t a b l e . [Altar-piece.]
R e t a i n i n g Wall. (Arch.) A support,
stay, or mass of masonry, which serves

336

RET

to strengthen a building. T h e object of
a retaining wall is to counteract the

thrust of earth or to sustain an embankment.
R e t i c u l a t e d . (Pot.) A name given to
certain pieces of porcelain which are
bounded by a double surface, the inner
surface being solid, the outer being in
the form of a pierced
_
network. In some
fê&péjF
pieces of reticulated
^^^t^^rV
porcelain of Chinese
Î^^*vTi*ÎV*à
manufacture the outer
\V#fei£**»$lr
surface is pierced with
^^?5ft&P^
arabesques, and is
JSJBI^SBLX·
placed over a vase of
* ***""" ~~, \&
the same form or
merely cylindrical, but of a different
colour. Vases which are only apparently reticulated are contrived by making
an impression with a hollow stamp upon
the porcelain.
Retouch. A modification or correction
carried out in a picture, drawing, or
engraving ; an alteration made in a
photographic cliché to soften the modelling or, in too many cases, to render it
insipid. In line-engraving the object of
retouching is to strengthen or weaken
the tone obtained by hatchings already
drawn. In wood-engraving retouching
is limited to weakening or lessening the
lines and contours, which appear too
hard or too strongly marked. T h e process of retouching in wood-engraving
only allows the work to be modified by
the suppression, not by the addition of
lines, whereas in line engraving a second
series of hatchings may be laid over a
previous one, and even skies may be
added if necessary. This kind of re-

RET

ART

DIC: UONARY.

RHY

touching is absolutely impossible in ations upon it, as necessitate a rewood-cutting, where the surface of the biting.
ι )lock is cut away and a fresh surface, fit
Reveal. (Arch.) A term applied to the
to engrave upon, can only be obtained interior surface formed by the opening
by fitting fresh pieces of wood to the
original block.
Retrait. (Her.) This is a French
KHi]|im|w
1 term used to describe a
1^1 i l k
S charge which is disconI
Λκ
1 n e c i : e d in the middle so
I ^tlilK I ^ a t o n e P a r t *s * n r e ~
I
>fj jyM treat as compared with
^sjr*^
the other.
Retreat. (Arch.) A term applied in
the Middle Agee to small vaulted rooms
or private chambers lighted by arcades.
R e t r e a t , In. (Arch.) That part of a
building which lies behind the line of

of a bay. Reveals may be either rect­
angular or oblique.
Reverse. (Numis.) T h e side of a coin
or medal opposite to the face or obverse.
Reversed. In the process of engraving
pictures are sometimes reversed, that is
to say, they are reproduced in the oppo­
the principal façade is said to be in site way to the original. A head, for
retreat. Niches, pavilions, for instance, instance, which looked towards the
right, looks towards the left when re­
may be in retreat.
R e t u r n . (Arch.) A term applied to a versed
Revolution. A term applied in geo­
îl H
tel
corner, the angle of a
Γ|||Ι^^^
building, the angle of metry to the rotatory movement by
|1 ' p B S S B l i
an entablature, a cor- means of which a solid may be deduced
1 "·
'
j , nice or a projecting from a plane figure.
moulding. A mould­
Rez-de-Chaussée. [Ground-floor.]
ing itself, too, may be said to return.
R h y p a r o g r a p h y . A term applied in
T h e term may also denote a building, ancient times to that branch of art
which was concerned with the representation of common every-day subjects.
T h e name rhyparographus
was given
by Pliny to a painter named Pirseicus,
whose " subjects were barbers' shops,
cobblers' stalls, jackasses, eatables, and
which forms a right angle with another the like." Pliny adds that, in spite of
building.
the meanness of their subjects, these
Revarnishing". (Engrav.) There are pictures were very pleasing and sold at
two methods of revarnishing an etched higher prices than the works of many
plate. T h e one is by heating the plate masters. From the above extract from
and using a dabber, the other is by laying the Roman critic it will be seen at once
on a mixture of varnish and smoke-black that rhyparography includes both genre
with a hair brush. T h e object of both and still life, and that Piragicus, as far as
these methods is to allow the engraver to subject is concerned, differed little from
retouch the plate, which has already the Dutch school.
been bitten and to make such alterRhyton. An ancient vase in the shape

337

RIB

ART

DIC. 70NARY.

of a horn used for drinking. It was
curved in shape and provided with a
^.
handle and suggested
/tlm^^
the hollow horns which,

(iffiBff^h

no

^ou^>t' *n ^ e

earlv

RID

termed wall-ribs. An example of the
wall-rib may be seen in the cut given to
transverse rib.
Riband. (Her.) One of the diminu­
tives of bend. T h e riband is generally
one-fourth the width of the bend, but is
couped or cut short so that its ends do
not reach to the edge of the shield.
Ridge. (Arch.) A term applied in
buildings of the Ro_ / u.
_
manesque or Gothic
dim ÊSÊm
style to a moulding
^SETMMESL
at the intersection
j S P ^ WMaBB
of surfaces, espe1ÊBI9ÈËBP
cially on spires and
3Bf iaBÊBÊSt

CT^L^È^*
stages of Greek civilisai s=
^ ^^r^
tion,were used as drinking-vessels. T h e sharp end frequently assumed the form of the head of an animal,
while the wide portion was decorated
with paintings.
Bib. (Arch.) T h e side or projecting
edge of a pointed arch or vault. In the
^
early times of Gothic
»Jç$**E architecture ribs are
ver
$Êjfc#®&
Y simple in profile,
*
w/jfàÊr
being generally in the word is also used in
j Y/wJEF
form of a torus. At a building to denote the bands of metal,
^llSrη W
later period their pro­ generally zinc or lead, placed at the
file assumed delicate
curves, and in the 15th century they
were sometimes ornamented with bosses
and garlands.
—, Diagonal. A diagonal rib is a rib
which, in a groined compartment, passes
from angle to angle and so intersects
angle of roofs, and also to the semicircuanother diagonal rib in the centre.
—, Transverse. (Arch.) In a groined lar tiles, covering the top of a roof.
Ridge-piece. (Arch.) A piece of timcompartment the transverse rib is the
main rib stretching from wall to wall. ber forming the upper part of a roof.
Transverse ribs were very slightly or­
Ridge-plate. (Arch.) Plates of lead or
zinc covering the top of a roof. Ridge
plates are sometimes surmounted by
pierced crests (q.v.) and by vanes. In
some Gothic buildings there are fine
specimens of ridge-plates, the lower
edges of which are cut in the form of
flames, while the roofs of buildings of
the Renaissance period present magnificent examples of this method of decoration.
Ridge-tile. (Arch.) A semi-cylindrical
namented in the n t h century, but their
decoration became more and more rich
and complicated the nearer they came
in date to the 14th century.
—, Wall. T h e ribs which, in a groined
compartment, adhere to the wall are

338

tile used to cover the ridge or line of

RIF

ART

junction of the two slopes of a roof.

DICTIONARY.
It

sometimes projects beyond the edge of
the roof, as is seen in our first cut.
Rifler. An instrument used by en­
gravers of
coins.
It
&> consists of a rounded
piece of metal, the
end of which is
covered with interlacing striae, like a
file.
E i g h t of Reproduction. T h e right of
reproducing a work of art, whether
drawn, painted, or sculptured by engrav­
ing or photographing, or of publishing a
copy of a statue in plaster, marble, terra
cotta, or bronze, can be assigned by the
artist. T h e acquisition of a work of art
only confers upon the purchaser the
right of reproduction when it is a portrait
or when at the time of sale the artist has
made no restrictions. Apart from these
circumstances the artist may sell the
right of reproducing his work to one and
the work itself to another. [Copyright,
Artistic]
Rinceau. A French term denoting an
ornament consisting of sprigs of foliage
arranged in scrolls. Rinceaux are em­
ployed as a decorative motive in all
styles of architecture. T h e borders of

mural paintings sometimes consist of
rinceaux with palm leaves and other
foliage. In the neo-Greek style car­
touches and other decorations in relief
are surrounded with incised rinceaux.

RIS

In the Romanesque style examples of
this form of decoration are also found,
but it is in Roman architecture, espe­

cially in the friezes of buildings of t h e
Corinthian order, that the finest speci­
mens are to be seen,
rnxm^jmrn
formed
generally of
^®Μψ
acanthus leaves. At the time of the
Renaissance rinceaux were treated with

peculiar delicacy, and so arranged that
the portions on each side of a vertical
line drawn down the centre, corre­
sponded with one another, as far a s

their main outlines were concerned, but
differed considerably in their details and
accessories.
Vases, mascarons, and
small figures frequently break the lines
of the rinceaux.
Rissolé. A term used in French artcriticism to describe a picture of a
golden tint. Some painters of the Ro-

339

ART

RIV

mantic school have attempted to reproduce the tones rissolés of Rembrandt,
but have too often merely succeeded in
getting red, heavy tones.
Rivet. (Constr.) A nail with a round
II
head, the extremity of which
il
has been flattened so as to
«Kp
form a second head.
Iron
| |
plates are often joined with
i|
rivets, made red hot and
β 8 Β | ρ ρ & hammered. In small works
Hi
riveting is done without
^
heating the rivets.
Rocaille. A term applied to the art in
vogue at the time of Louis XV. Scrolls
and foliage, which are a feature of this
style, are characteristic, both in form
and outline.
Roche, St. St. Roche is the patron
saint of those afflicted with plague or
disease. H e was born at Montpellier at
the end of the 13th century, and devoted
his life to ministering to the sick and
plague-stricken, and he is said to have
died in prison in his native town in 1327.
His worship began in the 15th century,
and he has been particularly reverenced
at Venice. H e is generally represented
in the guise of a pilgrim, with staff and
shell, and he shows the plague spot on his
left thigh. Representations of him are
frequently met with in art galleries, es­
pecially in the pictures of Italian masters.
R o c k e r . (Engrav.) A tool used by the
engraver in mezzotint. It is a kind of
chisel with a sharp bevelled edge, which
grsm
is set on the surface of the
I B
copper and rocked too
r9
and fro so as to obtain
«il
a series of points forming
I SI
a rough grain. This grain
» ni
retains the ink and enables
pi
the engraver to get a proof
Sf! 3 ^
of a velvety black, which,
y ^ ^ ^ .
if the rocker has been
L· ί|||§|& handled evenly, is of an
ec
ÉST" ; B 3 |
iual tint. After this ope{|jraj|mKJlmp ration, which, after all, is
only mechanical and may
be simplified, the engraver cuts away
340

DICTIONARY.

ROM

the lights with a cutting tool, just as
he would were he working with bread
crumbs on paper covered with black chalk.
R o c k w o r k . A decoration in the rustic
style generally made up of masses of
natural or artificial rock. It is used
principally to ornament fountains and to
form grottoes.
Rococo. A decorative style which was
an exaggerated development of the rocaille style (q.v ). It was characterised
by a profusion of meaningless ornament,
consisting of scrolls, foliage, and animal
forms hopelessly confused and intermingled. As a general term rococo denotes anything that is heavy, ugly, and
tasteless.
Roller. (Engrav.) A wooden cylinder
furnished with handles and covered with
leather, upon which a peculiar varnish
is smeared. When the roller is skilfully
passed over a plate, which has already
been bitten, the varnish does not touch
the furrows, but only covers the plane
surface, so that the plate may be rebitten.
Roll-moulding. (Arch.) A term applied to many mouldings, varying a good
deal from one another, but all presenting some resemblance to a roll.
R o m a i n , St. St. Romain was bishop
of Rouen in the 7th century. T h e exploit for which he is famous was the
destruction of a noisome dragon, which
in representations of him is generally
shown at his feet.
R o m a n e s q u e . (Arch.) T h e Romanesque style of architecture grew up in
northern Italy and is the link between
Classical and Gothic architecture. It is
called by some writers round-headed
Gothic. Its distinguishing characteristics are an extraordinary severity and
simplicity of style. Its arches are generally semicircular, and its vaults barrel
vaults. Its walls are thick and massive ;
in it the classical ideas of proportion
with regard to columns, & c , are renounced; and the classical mouldings
and ornaments, though they still occur,
are much modified.

ROM

ART

R o m a n t i c i s m . A movement in art
which took place in 1830, parallel to the
literary movement initiated by Victor
Hugo and others. It was characterised
by an emancipation from the so-called
classical conventions and traditions.
T h e Romantic school has left behind
it works that are remarkable for their
colour, their movement, their expression of the passions, and their interpretation of great poetical sentiments.
It produced both great painters and
skilful decorators and nourished particularly in Paris, where Eugène Delacroix
may be regarded as its earliest apostle.
Ronde-bosse. A French term denoting
a sculptured work in the round, in contradistinction to works in high or low relief.
Rond-point. (Arch ) A French term
denoting the semicircular or apsidal
termination of
a
church. It is also
applied to any circular space at the
4 ^

ROO

DICTIONARY.

over the altar screen, is termed a rood.
T h e accompanying cut, which is from a
drawing in Queen Mary's Psalter, will
give the reader an idea of the orthodox
form of the rood. T h e screen which
supported it was called the rood-screen,
and when it rested on a simple beam
this beam was known as the rood-beam.
Rood-loft. (Arch.) A screen separating the choir from the nave of a church ;
originally a tribune or gallery, which
served as a pulpit. There are many
rood-lofts to be seen in churches of both
the Gothic and Renaissance periods.
Roof. (Arch.) T h e coping or upper

part of a building, which serves as a
covering and protection against wind
*"^-J**
the intersection of and weather. T h e height
• I··
avenues, in the cen- of roofs varies considertre of which a monument, statue, or ably ; sometimes, indeed, they are quite
fountain is set up.
Rood. A representation of the Trinity, flat. T h e average height
of a roof is between a
third and fourth of the
breadth of the building,
but in the Gothic style
it sometimes exceeds the
height of the façade. It is surrounded
by gutters, which carry off the damp,
and so preserve the
«—«^a
walls of the building
W~~==5*
from damp. Above

*""\\

slf%%

en(

* °^

a walk> or

which in Catholic churches is placed

it rise chimneys, which afford the archi34'

ROO

ART

DICTIONARY.

tect plenty of scope for design. In
mediaeval and renaissance houses beau­
tiful specimens of chimneys are found ;
some of them entirely of brick, with or
without mouldings, others of stone, en­
riched with pilasters and varied orna­
ments. In later times they were of
larger dimensions, and even more richly
decorated.
Roof, Broken.
A roof with two
slopes, conducting the water to the
same pipe.
—, Mansard. A roof, in which are

saddle. Some Romanesque
present
examples
of
clock - towers,
with roof in this
form,
the gable
ends being pierced
with openings.

ROS
churches

Roof, Truncated.
A roof which has
scarcely any slope, its surface being as
nearly as possible horizontal.
Roofing. (Arch.) T h e covering of a
building ; the materials used in making
this covering.
Rook. (Her.) The rook or castle of the
game of chess is sometimes
used as an heraldic device,
and then takes the conven­
tional form here shown.
Λ,
Rose. (Arch.) In the Romanesque and
Gothic styles church windows of circular
form are called rose windows.
The
small rosettes
which decorate
Corinthian
capitals are
known as roses,
while the same
term is applied
to the circular
ornaments
placed in the centre of a pavement, made
up of various coloured substances.

placed vertical windows or lucarnes,
known as mansards.
—, Pectine. A conical roof with a
toothed edge, somewhat resembling the
teeth of a comb. In
Gothic buildings the
roof of turrets, when
they are of small dia­
meter, are covered
with small tiles, cut
into semi-circles, and
edged with sharp teeth.
Rose Madder. (Paint ) This pigment
Were square tiles ap­ is a lake obtained from the root of the
plied to a convex sur­ " Rubia Tinctorum." It yields exquisite
face, the right angles would not only tints, and although it dries slowly is a
project in clumsy fashion, but would be useful pigment.
very fragile.
Rose Rubiate. (Paint.) A useful and
—, Philibert Delorme. A roof without transparent pigment of a rose colour.
ribs.
It may be used with advantage both in
—, Pointed. A roof, such as was in water-colour and oil.
vogue in the 15th and 16th centuries, of
Rosette.
(Arch.)
considerable height and very abrupt A painted or sculp­
slopes.
tured ornament of
—, Pyramidal. A roof in the shape circular form. Ceil­
of a pyramid.
ings
and
coffers
—, Span. A term applied to roofs are sometimes de­
which consist of two oblique surfaces, c o r a t e d w i t h r o ­
inclined one to the other like a pack settes, consisting of several rows of
342

ROS

ART

DICTIONARY.

leaves arranged in a circle round a
bud.
Rosso Antico. A deep red marble
with white spots and veins. It was used
by the sculptors of Egypt as well as
by those of Greece and Rome.
Rostrata. (Arch.) An epithet applied
to columns at Rome, which were
decorated with rostra or beaks of
ships.
Rostrum. (Arch.) An ornament consisting of the prow of an ancient ship.
T h e name, rostrum,
was also
given in ancient
times to the tribune set up in the
Forum Romanum,
because this tribune was decorated with the beaks of ships.
Rotunda. (Arch.) A building of circular form, generally surmounted by a
cupola.
Roucou. A red paste, dry and of a
disagreeable odour, which is obtained
by the maceration of the berries of the
arnotto-tree, and is used in gilding to
obtain vermilions. ·
Rough-cast. T o rpugh-cast a wall is
to cover its suface with a coating of
plaster.
Rough in, To. (Sculp.) T o remove,
by means of the chisel and hammer,
and in the case of large surfaces with a
saw, those parts of a block of stone or

ROY

Roulette. (Engrav.) A small disc
of tempered steel, furnished with sharp
teeth. Some roulettes are fixed perpendicularly, others parallel to the
handle. T h e roulette is passed several
times over the plate, covered with the
etching ground, so
as to trace upon it

a series of points which may be crossed
at will in every direction. T h e grain
thus obtained varies -in strength according to the size of the teeth of
the instrument and the force with
which it is driven over the etchingground.
Roundels. (Her.) These are small
circular discs which are frequently met
with in coats-of-arms. It is usual that not
fewer than three together should appear
on a shield, and the roundels may themselves be
charged, that is to say,
they may have another
charge placed upon them.
They are distinguished by
special names according
to their tinctures ; thus the roundel or
is called a bezant, probably from a gold
coin of Byzantium; the roundel vert a
pomme, and so on.
Rowel. (Her.) T h e little spiked wheel
that forms the penetrating part of a spur. It has
five or six projecting points
or rays like a star, and is
not an unfrequent charge
in heraldry.
Royal Academy. [Academy, Royal.]
Royal Blue. (Paint.) A blue pigmarble which protrude beyond the outline of a figure or the profile of a ment composed of glass, which has been
moulding, these outlines or profiles made blue by fusion and then powdered.
being approximately traced upon the It is of much service in fresco and porcelain painting, and was first used at
stone or marble.

343

RUB

ART

DICTIONARY.

RUS

Sèvres. In oil and water-colour it is to Louis XIV. transformed into reception
be avoided.
rooms. T h e full form of the expression
Rubble-work. (Arch.) A coarse kind was ruelle de lit.
of masonry, which consists of plaster
R u i n s . A term applied to the debris
and stories mixed.
of a building and to pictures, which reR u b e n s Brown. (Paint.) This pig- present such debris laid out in a conment is a native earth, richer and ventional landscape.
warmer than Vandyke brown. It is
Rule. A flat piece of wood, metal, or
fairly permanent, but is adversely glass, with which straight lines are
affected by strong light.
drawn.
R u b e n s M a d d e r . (Paint.) This pig—, Lesbian. An instrument used by
ment is of a rich purple colour, with ancient architects, and consisting of a
just a suggestion of yellow. Although plate of lead, by means of which convex
it does not dry easily, it is useful to the surfaces might be measured.
painter, as it is quite permanent and is
R u n d l e . A small disc of
not affected by light or other pigments.
leather or metal pierced
Rubric. A term applied to mediaeval with a circular opening.
manuscripts, in which the initial letters
R u s t i c . (Arch.) A style
were illuminated in red. T h e drawing of ornament in which surfaces are deof these letters was the work of an corated with vermiculations and stones
artist, called a rubricator, who devoted are left with their faces unhewn.
himself exclusively to this small branch
R u s t i c - w o r k . (Arch.) A kind of maof art.
sonry in which the surface of the
Rub out. Useless strokes in a crayon stones is purposely left rough, or cut in
drawing are rubbed out either with quaint shapes, so as to suggest that
indiarubber or bread crumbs.
they have not been hewn or squared.
Ruby. A precious stone, of a rich This rough surface is covered with many
transparent red. It is second in value different sorts of ornament.
only to the diamond.
—, C a v e t t o . Masonry in which the
R u d d e r . In ancient symbolic art the projecting surface of the stones is
rudder suggested good fortune, and is terminated by a moulding of concave
outline, like that known as cavetto
(q.v.).
—, Chamfered. Rustic-work masonry,
in which the projecting portions of the
stones are cut at an angle of 45 degrees.
—, Continuous.
Rustic-work continued round the façade of a building.
—, Diamond. Rustic-work masonry,
in which the stones
are cut into facets,
so that only one
sharp point
projects. T h e stones
frequently associated with a cornucopia, thus terminating in
point
as it is in the accompanying cut, which a diamond
may be e i t h e r
is copied from a gem.
Ruelle. (Arch.) A term applied to s q u a r e s o r r e c the bedrooms which certain ladies of tangles.
—, V e r m i c u l a t e d . Rustic-work,
quality and précieuses of the time of

344

RUS

ART

or covered with threads depressed below
the surface, not unlike twisted worms.
Rustre. (Her.) T h e rustre is a small
diamond or lozenge pierced or voided
with a circular opening,
thus distinguishing
it
from the muscle, which
is pierced with a diamond - shaped opening.
Rustres are
generally
borne in number.
Rutilant. T h a t which shines with a
vivid brilliance. Stuffs, for instance,
may be said to be of a rutilant tone.

s.

SAG

DICTIONARY.

the surface of which is cut into
irregular figures resembling stalactites,

Sacristy. A building attached to a
church, or a small room arranged for
the purpose, in which the sacred vessels
and the sacerdotal vestments are kept.
T h e treasures of the church are also
kept in the sacristy. Sometimes sacris-

ties are vaulted chambers and are attached to the exterior of the church like
lateral chapels.
On the other hand,
sacristies often consist of one or two
bays, which are lost in the general
arrangement of the building.
Saddle-back. (Arch.) A term applied
to two surfaces inclined at an angle so
as to form an inverted V, thus, A, especially when the surfaces are slightly
convex.
Saffron. (Gild.) A powder obtained
from saffron flowers and used to
produce vermilions.

Sable. (Her.) In heraldry black is
always blazoned sable. It is shown on a
shield by means of vertical and horiSagum. (Cost.)
zontal lines crossing one another so as
A garment, conto make a dark shading.
Sablière. (Arch.) A piece of timber sisting of a rectplaced horizontally, the purpose of which angular piece of
rough cloth,
is to support other pieces of timber.
Sacellum. (Arch.) A name given, in which was fastancient architecture, to small temples ened by a brooch
upon the
left
or shrines, roofless and open to the air.
Sacrarium. (Arch ) T h a t part of shoulder. It was
the ancient temple in which were kept worn in ancient
Rome by lictors
the sacred utensils and vases.
Sacrifice. (Paint.) To sacrifice is to and soldiers. T h e
neglect certain details in a picture so as word is Celtic in
to increase the value of the principal origin and means
motive. T o sacrifice artistically is to cloth of coarse
know exactly what parts to neglect in wool. It is conorder to make the other parts stand out nected etymological with our word shaggy.
with due effect.

23

345

SAL
Salade.

ART

DIC "IONARY.

A helmet worn by infantry

SAP

S a m i a n Ware. (Pot.) T h e r e is a
red kind of pottery to which the n a m e
Samian Ware has been given, because
there is a tradition that it was first made
at Samos. It was manufactured in all
parts of the civilised world, everywhere,
at least, that the Roman legionaries penetrated, and much Samian ware (of a
kind) has been discovered in England.
in the 15th century. It was sometimes
Sancte-bell.
A bell, generally of
made with a movable visor, sometimes silver, carried in the services of the
Roman Catholic Church and rung to
call attention to certain solemn parts of
the service.
In England before the
Reformation a sancte-bell was sometimes hung in a small bell-turret.
Sandal. (Cost.) T h e simplest kind
of footgear, consisting only of a sole and
it covered the head and upper part of leather-thongs. Among the Greeks and
Romans sandals were sometimes richly
the face.
Salient. (Her.) An animal is termed decorated and their thongs ornamented
salient when it is represented as leaping with jewels.
Sandbag. (Engrav.) A bag covered
forward. [Lion Salient.]
Salle des p a s perdus. (Arch.) A with leather and stuffed with sand is
French term applied to a long public used by engravers to rest their block or
gallery, such as the large hall in front of
the audience chamber of a palace, or the
waiting-room in a railway station.
Salon. T h e exhibition of the works
of living artists which takes place every
year in Paris, at the Palais des Champs
Ely sees, remaining open from the 1st plate upon. It enables them to get their
May to the 20th June.
T h e exhibi- work at whatever angle they like.
tion obtained the name of Salon from [Cushion.] *
Sandvent. An earthy matter, which
the Salon Carrée of the Louvre,
where an exhibition of the " S a l o n des covers the surface of blocks of stone
Arts " took place as early as 1737. when they come out of the quarry. This
Faire le Salon is to write a critical sandvent must be removed before the
account of it in a public journal. Simi- stones are cut and laid in courses or
larly we say in England, " t o do the decorated, as it would not offer sufficient
resistance to time and weather.
Academy," " t o do the Grosvenor."
Sanguine. A deep red resembling
Saltire. (Her.) The saltire is really
blood colour. T h e term also denotes a
y a
s
Γ VllWIIHlliy I
P e c ^ * o r m °*
blood-coloured crayon and a drawing
executed with this crayon. For instance, we speak of a portrait in sanguine; a sanguine by Watteau.
•
Santiago. [James, St., the Greater.]
L ^mfr J
the cross, formed
by
Sap green. (Paint.) A pigment
JM
combining the bend and
mÈ
the bend sinister, and is obtained from buckthorn berries or the
>fw ^
often described as a St.
V^iWihs J
Andrew's Cross. T h e r e
346
* **
is no diminutive of the

saltire.

SAP

ART

DIC rIONARY.

flowers of the blue iris. It is useful and
permanent in water-colour.
Sapphire. A brilliant and transparent
precious stone of a rich blue colour.
Saracenic. (Arch.) A term applied to
the Moorish style of architecture, such
as was employed at the Alhambra Palace
at Granada. Richness of colour and
elaboration of design are its distinguish­
ing characteristics. All animal forms
are excluded from its decorative scheme,
and flowers and plants are treated in an
emphatically conventional manner.
Sarcophagus. (Arch.) A tomb, in
which in ancient times bodies were
placed without being burnt. Sarcophagi
were made of a special stone which was
believed to have the curious property of

eating away flesh. This stone was a
kind of pumice stone, found in Troas,
and it was said to complete the destruc­
tion of a whole body, except the teeth,
in the brief space of forty days. Ancient
sarcophagi are often decorated with
reliefs, and may be ranked among the

most interesting relics of ancient art.
In the Middle Ages, the term sarco­
phagus was applied to tombs in the
form of altars, decorated with flutings
and sometimes surmounted with statues,
either lying or kneeling.
S a r d . An agate of a reddish colour.
Sardonyx
A hard siliceous stone,

SAT

which was of a dark tint, such as black
or purple, or was made up of strata of
white and red. T h e last-named variety
was highly prized by ancient gemengravers, as it could be so cut that its
strata produced the effect of a white
cameo on a red ground.
Sash frame. (Arch.) A window frame
which opens or shuts by
r
being moved up or down I II
.11
in vertical grooves. Wing
M
dows in English houses
1 > h
have long been constructed
| j l | } | I lill
upon this principle.
J"ί|2§Γ^0
Satiny. T h a t which has ( Π ^ ]
the brilliance or lustre of
III]
satin. Thus we may say
1 UÀ*.
of a proof of a woodcut,
Sï^^>J
that it is of a satiny tex^ % ^ '
ture, or of a picture that
the rendering of its flesh tints is satiny.
Satiric. A term applied to the
draughtsmen of caricatures and humorous sketches. T h e artists on the staff
of Punch, for instance, would doubtless
describe themselves as satiric.
Satsuma. (Pot.) A fine stoneware
produced in Japan in factories belonging
to the princes of Satsuma. It was
decorated with flowers, arabesques, & c ,
worked in gold as well as in enamels.
T h e older the pieces of Satsuma ware
are, the more refined and simple is their
style of ornament.
Saturnus.
A deity worshipped at
Rome. H e was believed at a very remote
period to have reigned over the city, and
the age of Saturn (like the age of Cronos
in Greece, to which deity Saturn presents some resemblance) was remembered as a golden age. Saturn is said
to have instructed his people in agriculture and gardening, and he is represented
holding a sickle in his hand. A festival
was held in his honour at Rome in
December, and the Saturnalia always
afforded an opportunity for merriment
and riot.
Satyr. A mythological figure. A
demi-god of the Greeks and Romans,

347

SAU

ART

DICTIONARY.

whose characteristics were a brutal,
sensual face, the feet of a goat and a
hairy body. His head was covered
with unkempt hair, from underneath
which horns sprouted.
Statues and
masks of satyrs were frequently used as
a decoration.
Saucer. (Paint.) Small vessels of zinc,
fixed to a plate of metal folded over so

as to fit on the edge of a palette, are
used by painters in oil to hold either oil
or varnish. Painters in water-colour
used small concave
<^jMMijug^jSjjji _
disks of porcelain
f '
"^nnntWjBJP"* of a s p h e r i c a l
shape. They also
use rectangular saucers, which are set
side by side upon porcelain. In these
colours can
be mixed,
ind several
colours used
at the same
time.
Some saucers, hollowed out
of a block of crystal, intended particularly for Indian ink, may be co-

vered with a piece of glass, so as to
preserve the tints from dust or evaporation.
Saunders Blue. (Paint.) A corruption
of cendres bleues ; the name is sometimes
given to ultramarine (q.v.).
Savonnerie. A term applied to the
carpets made at the royal factory which
was established in Paris in the 17th

348

SCA

century, and merged in 1728 in the
Gobelins manufactory.
Saxon a r c h i t e c t u r e .
[Anglo-Saxon
architecture.]
Saxony. (1) (Pot.) Dresden or Meissen
china is frequently described as Saxony.
[Dresden.]
Saxony. (2) (Her.) T h e arms of Saxony,
borne on a shield of pretence by the
Prince of Wales in virtue of his title oi
Duke of Saxony, are Barry of ten, or and
sable, a coronet extended in bend, vert.
This coronet extended in bend is by
French heralds called a cancerlin.
Scabbard. T h e sheath of a sword,
which was generally decorated with
much elaboration. Many artists have
provided the goldsmiths with designs for
scabbards, and at the British Museum
may be seen some exquisite designs for
scabbards by Holbein.
Scabellum. (Arch.) In the ancient
languages the term
scabellum denoted
a kind of square
footstool, with a
pedestal of a considerable size, and
about the height
of a step, as well
as a movable footstool which was
placed under the
feet of statues, representing a god
s e a t e d on h i s
throne. In modern
architecture
the
term is applied to square pedestals with
or without a capital, of
no great height, the
purpose of which is
to support a bust. In
this case it is placed
over a grave or behind
a sarcophagus,
or
simply set up as a
kind of commemorative monument.
Scaffold. (Arch.) When a building is

SCA

ART

DIC: 10NARY.

in course of construction, or a large
mural surface is being painted, the upper
part of the wall or building is reached
by means of a scaffold, which is a tem­
porary construction, made up of poles
and planks.
Scagliola. A spurious marble, com­
posed of gypsum and glue. A varie­
gated surface is obtained by sprinkling
finely powdered spar, marble, &c, over
it. It was first made in the 17th cen­
tury by Guido del Conte, but its use
cannot be recommended as it is not
durable.
Scale. (1) (Paint.) Pictures, whether
on canvas or panel, are said to scale,
when their surface cracks and the
paint comes off in flakes. T h e scal­
ing of pictures is due to the varnish
used, to bad mixtures of colour, and
also to want of care in the rolling of
the canvas.
Scale. (2) (Arch.) A system of ornament
consisting of tiles cut obliquely, or
notched so as to form arcs of circles.
Scales are used to cover the surface of
inclined walls, so that they may re­
semble a roof. They were first used

when they were either square or semi­
circular.
In the 13th century they
varied very much in form, and in build­
ings of the Renaissance fine specimens
the found pierced with all kinds of
patterns.
Scale. (3) A proportion adopted in
executing a reduction or enlargement of
any work. A scale is a graduated line,

upon which are marked the multiples of
the unit of length. This unit is greater

SCA

or less, according as the objects to be
reproduced are to be reduced or en­
larged.
Scale, Dotted. (Arch.) An indication
of the length, altitude, and dimensions of

a building written in figures on a sketch
or plan drawn to a known scale.
Scale-stone. (Sculp.) When a clay
model is to be reproduced in marble,
the marble block which is to be
carved and the clay model are set
upon similar blocks, called scalestones. Before the work of pointing
(q.v.) begins, the scale blocks are
covered, each with a series of similar
marks.
Scantlings. (Sculp.) T h e pieces of
stone or marble removed from a block
by means of a hammer and chisel in the
process of roughing in (q.v.) are called
scantlings.
Scapulary. (Cost.) A narrow band of
stuff which reaches from the shoulders to
the feet. It forms part of the costume
of some monastic orders.
Scarab. A carved stone representing a
beetle. Scarabs were prized among the
Egyptians as amulets, and large collec­
tions of them have been made in modern
times accurately dated by means of the
hieroglyphics engraved up^
^
on them.
ΡΡΙΠίΐΓ^Λ
Scarf. A piece of wood
^'llf P ^ f i l
placed diagonally across
|i||l!fêji] If
a series of planks, which
jl|ri^CI||l
it serves to strengthen and
|C._Ji£~-il
hold together.
^
S c a r l e t . (Paint.) A bright red
colour of great brilliance obtained
from the action of chloride of zinc
and cream of tartar upon cochineal.

349

ART

SCA

Scarp. (Arch.) T h e exterior surface
of a wall inclined in talus (q.v.). In fortification the scarp is the back of the fosse

placed at the side of the rampart facing
' he besieging party.
Scarpe. (Her.) A
scarpe in heraldry is
a diminutive of the
bend sinister (q.v.).
T h e shield in our cut
may be blazoned,
Argent,
a
scarpe,
gules.
Scarpellino. An Italian word denoting
a workman employed by a sculptor to
carve his work in marble. T h e work of
the scarpellino is checked by the use of
a pointing machine, but the scarpellino,
who puts the finishing touches to the
marble, must possess skill both of eye
and hand.
Scauper. (Engrav.) A tool used by

woodcutters to cut away the spaces between the lines of a block.
In line engraving an instrument of the same name is
used to draw broad strong
lines.
Scene-painting. Scene-painting was
hardly practised at all in England until
after the Restoration. As everyone knows
in Shakespeare's time the scenic arrangements were of the simplest kind, and the
drama seems to have flourished very well
without elaborate mounting. T h e first
attempt at stage adornment was made by
Inigo Jones, who, however, relied upon
350

DICTIONARY.

sen

machinery and heavy sets rather than
upon painted scenes. His experiment
does not seem to have met with encouragement, and no more trials were
made in this direction until the time of
Betterton. Even then heavy sets were
for some time popular, but better taste
intervened at last, and during Garrick's
management de Loutherbourg did much
to advance the scenic art. Among the
artists who have also been scene-painters
we may mention
Nasymth, David
Roberts, and Stanfield, while the name
of Beverley is indissolubly connected
with the theatre. In the present age the
legitimate art of scene-painting is less
encouraged than that (if art it may be
called) of stage-carpentry, and the
machinist is a more dignified person than
the artist.
Scheele's Green. (Paint.) Scheele's
green is a compound of copper and
arsenic. It is a pigment of useful colour
and more permanent than other greens
obtained from copper.
School of Painting. In the most rigid
application of the term,school of painting denotes the painters or pupils who
worked in the bottega or studio of one
master. Hence it was extended to include the painters of a city or province,
who learnt their art from one master.
A picture is said to belong to the school
of a master when it is executed in the
style of that master. W e may also
speak of the English school, the French
school, meaning thereby the painters of
England or France, of every date and
every style.
—, Bolognese. T h e Bolognese School
flourished in the 16th and 17th centuries.
It was characterised by learning and a
sense of decorative effect, but was
marred by academical precision.
Its
chief masters were the Caracci, Guido,
Albano, Domenichino and Guercino.
Of the earlier Bolognese School of the
15th century Francia was the best representative.
—, Brescian. The greatest artists of

sen

ART

DICTIONARY.

SCH

the Brescian School (16th century) are I about in English art by the efforts of the
Moretto and Moroni, both distinguished Pre-Raphaelites (q.v.), of whom the most
painters of portraits. Moroni's master- I striking representative is perhaps D. G.
piece, Il Taglioni, is to be seen in the Rossetti. T h e last ten or twenty years
National Gallery.
have been distinguished by a great outSchool of Painting, Dutch. The burst of artistic energy, a good deal of the
Dutch School is distinguished for the best work being produced under the
realism of its portraits and genre pic- direct influence of the French School.
tures, and for the excellence of its T h e English School in one branch, that
landscape. T h e greatest master of the of water-colour, has always claimed to
school in the 16th century was Lucas take precedence of all other schools.
van Leyden. In the 17th century flour- From the 18th century onwards the list
ished Rembrandt, the greatest master of of English water-colour draughtsmen is
light and shade the world had seen, a long one, including Girtin, de Wint,
Gerard Dow.de Hooghe, Terburg, Metzu, David Cox, Prout, William Hunt, TurVan Ostade, Teniers, and Wouverman, ner, &c. But it should be remembered
all of whom were distinguished by the that their methods are not those of the
careful finish and accurate drawing of painter, and in spite of our oft-repeated
their works, Ruysdael, Cuyp, Van der boast, we have none who can handle
Velde, Hobbema, and Van der Meer, pain- water-colour with the skill and artistic
ters of landscape and sea-pieces, and Paul feeling of the modern French and Dutch
aquarellistes.
Potter, famous as a painter of animals.
School of Painting, Ferrarese. T h e
—, English. T h e English painters of
flourished
the 16th and 17th centuries were, with school of Ferrara, which
the exception of Dobson, an excellent in the 15th and 16th centuries, was
portrait painter and pupil of Vandyck, closely connected with that of Bologna
chiefly miniaturists. Vandyck, Sir Peter (q.v.). Like the Bolognese, the Ferrarese
Lely and Kneller, all spent many years painters were for the most part academic
in England, but can hardly be said to and uninspired. Among the artists of
belong to the English school. In the 18th Ferrara the chief were Lorenzo Costa
century the English School first became and Dosso Dossi.
of real importance. Hogarth, the carica—, Flemish. T h e peculiar glory of the
turist, is by some regarded as the father Flemish School is the richness of colour
of English painting. T o the same period affected by its masters. For three
belong Reynolds, Gainsborough, Romney, centuries this School held an unRichard Wilson, and Morland. In the rivalled position in European art. In
early part of the 19th century the land- the 15th century flourished the Van
scape painters of England were justly Eycks. T h e portrait of Arnolfini and
celebrated. Among them are Con- his wife by Jan van Eyck, which is now
stable, Crome, Cotman, Turner, Bon- in the National Gallery, is one of the
ington, De Wint, and Copley Fielding. finest pictures ever painted. T h e Van
In portraiture and genre the most dis- Eycks were followed by their pupils Van
tinguished painters of
this period der Weyden and Memling. In the 16th
were the Scotchmen Raeburn and century the Flemish School fell under
Wilkie. T h e Englishmen Lawrence, the influence of Raphael and suffered
West, Barry, 'Northcote, Mulready, Mac- considerably from the " Italianisers."
lise, and the rest are as a rule feeble in Among the Flemish painters of this
drawing and colour, and too often trivial century may be mentioned Van Orley,
in sentiment. About the middle of the Mabuse, Pourbus, and Antonio Moro.
present century a revolution was brought 1 In the 17th century there was a distinct

35*

SCH

ART

DIC: IONARY.

revival of the glory of Flemish art,
brought about by the genius of Rubens,
Vandyck, Snyders, and others.
School of Painting, Florentine. Flor­
ence was the cradle of the Renaissance
of art, and the Florentine School oc­
cupies the most important position
of all the Italian schools of painting.
T o the 13th century belongs Cimabue;
to the 14th Giotto, the father of
modern painting, and Orcagna; to the
15th Masaccio, Filippo Lippi, Sandro
Botticelli, Ghirlandaio, Poliamolo and
Verrocchio ; to the 16th Luca Signorelli,
Leonarda da Vinci, Lorenzo di Credi,
Michael Angelo, Andrea del Sarto, Sod­
oma and Bronzino.
—, French. T h e French School took its
rise in the 15th century. Its earliest
manifestations were the miniatures of
Jean Foucquet, and in the portraits in
oil by Clouet. T h e s e early works were
produced under the influence of da Vinci,
del Sarto, and Cellini, and were mere
pastiches of the Italian style. Then
came Jean Cousin, who was painter,
sculptor, and architect ; he was followed
by Quentin Varin (the master of Poussin),
Vouet, Callot, L e Nain, Lesueur, Ν.
Poussin, Claude Lorrain, Lebrun, Jouvenet and Monnoyer. These artists
conferred distinction on the 17th century.
In the 18th century lived Le Moyne,
Vanloo, Oudry, Watteau, Lancret, Bou­
cher, Fragonard, Greuze, Chardin, and
Vernet. Towards the end of the 18th
century Louis David attempted a re­
vival of classicism with some success.
T h e school of the early 19th century
included Prud'hon, Gros, C. Vernet, Géricault, Ingres, Delaroche, Ary Scheffer,
Delacroix, Charlet and H . Vernet. T h e
great revolt against classicism took
place about 1830, and Géricault and
Delacroix prepared the way for the
Romantic movement, out of which
came Corot, Diaz, T h . Rousseau, Troyon,
Couture, Courbet, Fromentin, J . - F .
Millet. T h e French school of to-day
undoubtedly takes the lead in Europe

352

SCH

as far as technical skill is concerned,
and the schools of Paris afford the
most efficient education. At the same
time it must be acknowledged that
much of the most modern French art
suffers somewhat from a love of morbid
sensationalism.

School of Painting, German. The
German School of painting dates from the
14th century, William of Cologne, whose
St. Veronica is in the National Gallery,
being its earliest master. In the 15th century the most important German painters
were Martin Schongauer, Lucas Cranach,
and Albert Durer, all of them perhaps
more famous as wood engravers than as
painters. T h e greatest German master
of the 16th century was Holbein. Since
his period the German School has produced very few great painters, although
at the present day the schools in Munich
and some German towns are admirably
conducted and much frequented.
—, Lombard. T h e Lombard School of
painting includes the schools of Mantua,
Modena, Parma, Cremona, and Milan.
T h e period of its highest development
was in the 15th and 16th centuries. It
numbers among its members Andrea
Solario, Bernardino Luini, Correggio,
Caravaggio, &c.
—, Luccan. It was at Lucca that the
earliest painters of Italy worked. In the
12th and 13th centuries a kind of rude
traditional art was practised by Giunta,
Pisano, and others at Lucca. This was
before the re-discovery of the art of painting by Cimabue and Giotto, and the
examples of the Luccan School have
little else than an archaeological interest.
—, Milanese. In the 16th century the
chief master of the School of Milan was
Vincenzo Foppa. In the 16th century the
school was dominated by the influence
of da Vinci, and during this period it
numbered among its masters Luini,
Beltrafno, Gundenzio, Ferrari, and Andrea Solario.

—, Modenese. The School of Modena

SCH

ART

DIC FIONA RY.

is a subdivision of the Lombard School.
In the 16th century Correggio and Parmigiano were its most
distinguished
masters.
School of Painting, Neapolitan.
T h e Neapolitan School has no distinct
character of its own, and only consisted of foreign painters up to the
17th century. In the 15th century
works by Van Eyck influenced the
painters of Naples. Antonello da Messina, who was then at Naples, learnt
the method of the Flemish master, but
he soon returned to Messina and finally
settled at Venice. In the 17th century
Aniello Falcona, Salvator Rosa, Luca
Giordano, and the Spaniard Ribera all
worked at Naples.
—, Paduan. T h e one great figure of
the Paduan School is Andrea Mantegna,
who flourished in the 15th century. H e
was influenced by and in turn influenced
the Venetian School, in which he is
generally given a place.
—, Roman.
An offshoot from the
Umbrian School. Nearly all the members of the school came from other
cities and worked under the influence
or carried on the tradition of Raphael.
As we should expect from this fact, the
Roman School is distinguished by a
knowledge of composition and perfection of draughtsmanship. Raphael and
Giulio Romano were the chiefs of the
school in the 16th century, while Sassoferrato and M aratti represent it in the
17th.
—, Sienese. T h e School of Siena is
one of the earliest of the Italian
schools.
In the 13th century its
masters were Guido da Siena and
Duccio; in the 14th century Lippo
Memmi and Ambrogio Lorenzotti, in
the 15th Sano di Pietro and Matteo di
Giovanni.
—, Spanish.
T h e most strongly
marked characteristics of the painters
of the Spanish School are a love of
realism and the lavish use of brilliant
colour. In the 15th century Spanish

SCI

artists merely copied Italian masters.
In the 16th, in which century they
achieved their national style, the most
celebrated masters of the Spanish
School were Alonso Berruguete, Luis
de Morales, Alonzo Sanchez Coello,
Jose Ribera, and Ribalta. T h e n came
F. de Herrera, Diego Velasquez,
Alonzo Cano, Francisco Zurbaran and
Murillo.
In the 18th century the
Spanish School is represented by Goya,
while in the present century the
greatest Spanish painter has been
Fortuny.
School of Painting, Umbrian. In the
15th century the chief painters of the
Umbrian School were Allegretto Nuzi,
Gentile da Fabiano, Piero della Francesca and Fiorenzo di Lorenzo. T h e n
followed Timoteo Viti and Perugino, and
the latter's pupils Raphael, Lo Spagna,
and Pinturrichio.
—, Venetian. T h e characteristic of
the art of the Venetian painters is
brilliant colour. In the 15th century
flourished
Crivelli, Gian and Gentile
Bellini and Carpaccio, in the 16th
century lived Giorgione, Palma Vecchio,
Titian, Tintoretto, Lorenzo Lotto and
Paul Veronese. T h e Venetian School
of the 17th and 18th centuries is represented
by Tiepolo, Canaletti
and
Guardi.
—, Veronese. T h e Veronese School
attained its height in the 16th century,
when Domenico Moroni, Bonsignori
and Cavazzola
flourished.
Pisanello,
the most distinguished member of the
school, belongs to a slightly earlier
date.
Schweinfurt Green. (Paint.) A green
obtained from copper and arsenic. It
is a permanent and serviceable pigment,
and is considerably lighter in colour
than Scheele's green.
Scie d'atelier. This is a piece of
French artistic slang, denoting a mystic
saying, a song, the refrain of which is
purposely monotonous and is endlessly
repeated. T h e object of this repetition

353

SCI

ART

DICTIONARY.

SCR

is to annoy and torment all those who curve. It is also known by the name of
hear it. For a scie to be successful it ' ' hollow round, ' ' while
must not only attain this end, but must s o m e t i m e s i t i s
even go beyond it. In some ateliers the termed a
trochilus.
scie takes the form of a traditional It derives its name
practical joke, unpleasant and even dan­ from
the
strongly
gerous. Such, for instance, is the bucket m a r k e d
shadow l
of water, suspended over the entrance of which it takes (σκότιος, !
the studio, which empties its contents dark.)
on the head of the novice or even the
Scraper, (i) (Engrav.) There are several
master himself.
But there are also tools used by engravers which differ
scies which are spontaneous and im­ slightly from one another, but are all
provised, full of allusion to passing known as scrapers.
T h e mezzotint
events, in which that class of students, engraver uses · the scraper to
already described under the term rapin remove the grain from those
(q.v.), finds material upon which to portions of his plate which he
exercise its wit.
desires to print white, his me­
Seiography. A term applied by the thod of work being to leave the
ancients to the art of representing grain to obtain his shades and
objects, due regard being paid to their to scrape the plate to obtain
H e works in the
light and shade. It also denotes a his lights.
geometrical drawing, showing the sec­ same way as a draughtsman in crayon,
who gets his light portions by rub­
tion and the interior of a building.
Sconce. An ornamental candlestick bing the surface with breadcrumbs.
fixed to the wall by means of a bracket. Another kind of scraper consists of a
Sconces have assumed various forms, quadrangular blade, the edges of which
and have afforded plenty of scope for are very carefully sharpened. It is used
to remove the roughnesses produced
upon transparent paper in making a
tracing and also to get rid of the burs
or ridges, which result
from the use of the dry
point upon a copper­
plate. T h e latter is the
more important use of
this square scraper, and
its management by the
engraver is a matter of
considerable
delicacy.
If it is not handled pro­
perly there is a danger
of its scratching the
plate as well as re­
the decorative artist.
Many of them moving the bur. Then
have plates of brass behind them, which again by scraping away
are sometimes incised, sometimes em­ hatchings different effects
bossed, with admirable designs, and of modelling may be
obtained, and the strength of the tones
serve as reflectors.
Scotia. (Arch.) A moulding of convex may be increased or diminished. Wood
outline, consisting of two portions of a engravers use a scraper to polish their

354

SCR

ART

DICTIONARY.

wood-block before putting in the distances and the luminous parts, as well
as another kind of scraper, the
angles of which are almost
rounded. In water-colour drawing a scraper is used to put in
the lights and
considerable
skill may be displayed in its
handling. Many of Turner's
water-colour
drawings
were
m a d e on paper stained grey; he was
thus enabled to wash or scrape out his
lights.
Scraper. (2) (Constr.) In rough-casting buildings an instrument, called a
scraper, is used. As will be seen from

our cuts it assumes various forms.
T h e triangular scraper is especially
useful to painters, as it enables them to
reach the ground of hollow mouldings.
Scraper. (3) A tool of very variable
form, used to scrape a surface. Stone
cutters use a scraper to efface the
marks of a toothed
hammer.
Sculptors,
on the other
hand, use

scrapers of a particular form to cover
certain portions of their work with irregular strice.
Screen. (1) (Arch.) A pierced enclosure, which separates the nave of a
church from the choir, or shuts off sidechapels from the nave.
Screen. (2.) A piece of furniture, gene-

SCR

rally consisting of a panel of stuff embroidered or decorated with paintings,
which is stretched
on a frame
and
serves to ward off
the light and heat of
afire. Some tapestry
screens are of great
beauty. Screens from China or Japan,
either lacquered or incrusted, are of
great value and are eagerly sought for
by collectors. They sometimes consist of several leaves, placed vertically
and connected with one another by
hinges. Screens of this kind also are
decorated with paintings or richly embroidered stuffs.
Screw-Clamp. A contrivance of wood
or iron, in the shape of a rectangle open
on one of its sides. It is
provided with a screw, as
shown in the cut. Cabinet
makers use a screw-clamp
to hold fast the materials
which they are joining. It is
also employed by photographers to fix their camera to the table.
Scriber. (Engrav.) An instrument used
by wood engravers to hollow out the lines
surrounding a vignette
or to serve as a guide
in the drawing of horizontal or perpendicular lines. T h e point of
the scriber, which indicates the guiding marks, ought to be
slightly blunted so as not to leave any
marks on the wood.
Scrinium. A case or box, generally

circular in form, which was used by the

355

SCR

ART

DICTIONARY.

ancients for holding books, rolls of parch­
ment, &c. Its form will be readily under­
stood from our cut.
Scroll. (Arch.) A system of ornament
consisting of spiral
volutes. Ionic and
Corinthian capi­
tals, as well as
,Τ-^BJ.
consoles at all
g ^ y ^ ^ y epochs, are decor'**
ated with scrolls.
The rococo style is nothing but the result
of carrying to its
utmost limits the
application
of
scrolls to decora­
tion. T h e supports
of old signboards
and various kinds
of ancient
iron
work present ad­
mirable examples of scrolls.
Sculp. (Engrav.) An abbreviation of
the word sculpsit, which often follows
the name of the engraver on engraved
plates ; e.g., Marc Antonio sculp.
Sculpture. T h e art of reproducing
objects in relief or in the round, in a hard
material which can be cut with a chisel.
T o execute a model in clay is the process
of modelling, but to translate the model
into bronze or marble is, properly speak­
ing, the aim of sculpture. However, as
the artistic skill of the sculptor is almost
entirely displayed in the execution of the
clay model, the art of modelling in clay
is generally described as sculpture.
Sculpture, English. T h e 'English
sculpture belonging to Saxon and Nor­
m a n times was very rude and primitive.
An idea of its style may be obtained from
a bas-relief of the n t h century, now pre­
served in Chichester Cathedral. T o the
13th century belong the admirable
statues, which decorate the western
façade of Wells Cathedral, and which
are among the finest specimens of
mediaeval sculpture. In the 14th or
15th centuries many excellent effigies
were produced in England. In the 16th

356

scu

century Torrigiano came to England
from Florence and modelled the figures
on Henry VII.'s tomb. Nicholas Stone
and Grinling Gibbons are the most notable English sculptors of the 17th century, but the latter was better known as
a carver of wood than of marble. T h e
English sculptors of the 18th century
had little merit, they cultivated a pseudoclassic style and not unfrequently clothed
their models in togas and wigs. T h e
best of them were Nollekens, Bacon,
and Flaxman. In the earlier half of the
present century no advance was made in
English sculpture. Little praise can be
given to Baily, Chantrey, Westmacott,
or Wyatt. During the last thirty years,
however, an immense improvement has
taken place. Alfred Stevens, the author
of the Wellington Monument, was a
sculptor of genius, while there are still
among us, besides Sir Frederick Leighton, whose " Athlete struggling with a
Python " is a work of conspicuous merit,
such distinguished sculptors as H a m o
Thorny croft, Alfred Gilbert, and Onslow
Ford.
Sculpture, French. T h e mediaeval
sculpture to be seen on the façades of
French churches is of the greatest interest
and initperhapsGothic sculpture reached
its highest point of excellence. At the
Renaissance, French art fell under Italian
influence, and the most celebrated French
sculptor of the 16th century was Jean
Goujon, who got his inspiration from
Cellini. T h e 17th century seems to have
produced no great sculptor in France.
In the 18th century the most conspicuous
French sculptor was J.-A. Houdon, while
Chaudet and Bosio were his younger
contemporaries. In the early part of the
present century flourished Rude, Duret,
Stuart, and Carpeaux.
Technically
speaking the French sculptors of to-day
are unsurpassed, some modern works of
sculpture, such as those by Rodin, show
a knowledge and power which have rarely
been equalled.
—, German. In the Middle Ages sculp-

SCU

ART

DIC TIONARY.

ture was not practised with the success
with which it was pursued in France.
In the 14th century, however, many fine
works were produced. T h e 15th century
was the golden age of sculpture in Germany. Many admirable specimens of
wood-carving were then produced, some
of which m a y b e ascribed to Wohlgemuth
and his great pupil, Albert Durer. But
the most brilliant name in the history of
German sculpture is undoubtedly Vischer.
T h e family of Vischer were at work in
the 15th and 16th centuries and produced many masterpieces. Their best
work is to be seen at Nuremberg, Augsburg, and Liibeck. Since the 16th century German sculpture has declined.
During the last hundred years many
large works have been executed, in all
of which the influence of the classic
style is obvious, but which are for the
most part without merit. Schadow, Kiss,
and Schwanthaler are perhaps the best
known of the modern German sculptors,
but they have no great claim to consideration.
S c u l p t u r e , Greek. Sculpture is the
peculiar glory of Greece. It flourished
as an art among the Greeks for many
centuries, and at Athens it was carried
to its highest point of excellence. T h e
earliest sculpture of the Greeks, such as
the so-called Niobe at Sipylus. and the
Lion Gates at Mycenae, was produced
under oriental influence, but in very
early time the Greek sculptors developed
a characteristic style. To the 7th and
6th centuries belong the Apollo of
Tenea, and the well-known metopes of
Selinus, but it is not until we approach
the beginning of the 5th century that we
leave the age of experiment behind.
Then flourished Callon and Onatas, the
authors of the Aegina pediment, Myron,
whose Discobolus is familiar to all,
Ageladas, the Master of Phidias, and
others. T h e great Athenian School
was at its zenith in the 5th century, for
then flourished Phidias, the greatest
sculptor of all time, some of whose

SCU

works may be seen at the British
Museum. H e it was who decorated the
Temple of Athene, on the Acropolis at
Athens, and made the gold and ivory
statue of the goddess, which stood in
the cella. H e also worked at Olympia,
where the gold and ivory Zeus wa s from
his hand. T h e most celebrated of his
followers were Paaonius and Alcamenes,
while Polycletus, the chief of the Argive
School, was his contemporary and rival.
In the following century there was a
second outburst of artistic energy, which
was in some measure d ue to the encouragem e n t of Alexander the Great. T h e New
Attic School lacked the severity and
grandeur which were the noblest characteristics of its predecessor, yet Scopas
and Praxiteles both produced works of
great beauty and elegance. T h e head
of the Peloponnesian School at this
period was Lysippus, who is chiefly
remembered as the Court sculptor of
Alexander. Then came the period of
ruin and decay, and at Rhodes and
Pergamum Greek sculpture made its last
effort before Rome won her supremacy.
S c u l p t u r e , I t a l i a n . Before the 13th
century, Italy seems to have had no
school of sculpture. In that and the
following century, however, much excellent work was done in Italy, chiefly
in the decoration of churches and
shrines. It is the 15th century that
is the golden age of Italian sculpture and Florence is the city in
which .the best work was produced.
T h e r e flourished Donatello, Luca della
Robbia, Vittore Pisanello, Verrocchio
(the sculptor of the magnificent Colleoni)
and Ghiberti, to whom we owe the great
baptistery gates. In the 18th century
flourished Michael Angelo, the greatest
sculptor of modern times, whose David,
whose Moses, are yet the wonder of the
world. Then there was Cellini, who was
more renowned as a goldsmith than as
a sculptor, Giovanni da Bologna and
Antonio Begarelli. Bernini is the greatest
Italian sculptor of the 17th, Canova

357

ART

scu

DICTIONARY.

represents the decadence of the 18th
century. T h e Italian sculpture of the
present time is for the most part worthless. Vulgarity and realism of an offensive kind are carried to excess by men
who have ever before them such models
as Donatello and Michael Angelo.
Sculpture, Roman. T h e Romans developed no school of sculpture of their
own. Until, after the Conquest of Greece,
Graeculi esurientes thronged the streets
of Rome, the art of sculpture was not
known in Latium. And when it became
popular, it was only practised by Greeks,
who brought the noble traditions of
their country's art into the strange land.
Some of them contented themselves
with copying well-known masterpieces,
and it is to their copies that we owe
much of our knowledge of Greek sculpture ; others produced original works,
in which the Greek convention was
piously observed. They were not distinguished men, and the names .of
most of them are forgotten. Apollonius,
Kleomenes, Agasias, and Pasiteles are
the best known of the Greeks who
formed a school of sculpture in Rome.
Sculpturesque. Figures, attitudes, or
scenes which, from their style and the
beauty of their lines, lend themselves
easily to reproduction in sculpture, are
said to be sculpturesque.
Scumbling. (Paint.) When the tints
in a picture are too brilliant, they may
be softened by blending them with a
neutral tint, this neutral tint being laid
on with a nearly dry brush. This process is called scumbling. In black and
white drawing the hard outlines may be
scumbled by being
rubbed with the
blunt end of the
chalk
or
the
stump.

SCY

ception of c o a t s - o f - a r m s or of some
decorative design.
Scutum. An oblong shield carried by
Roman foot-soldiers. It was made of
pieces of board covered with hide and
then with cloth. T h e soldiers of each

legion had shields of a distinctive colour
and ornamented with their own device.
Our cut is taken from Trajan's column
and the shield which it represents is
decorated with the thunderbolt.
Scymitar.
A sword with a curved

blade, used by eastern nations.
Scyphus. (Pot.) A vase used by
the Greeks as a drinking-vessel. I t

Scutcheon.
(Her.) This is a
name sometimes
*"
given to a cartouche or tablet prepared for the re-

358

was two-handled and had no foot,
while its diameter decreased towards
the base.

SCY

ART

DICTIONARY.

Scythe. (Her.) A scythe, with or
without a handle, is sometimes borne
as a common charge in
heraldry.
If
the
handle
appears the scythe is then
said to be helved; for example, a scythe gules, helved
sable. This charge is often
found in German coats-ofarms.
Seal. A piece of metal or stone,
circular, square, or oval, in which

SED

failed, and he was finally put to death
with clubs.
Séchiste.
(Engrav)
A barbarous
word employed by some French art
critics to designate engravers who
execute plates entirely with the dry
point (la pointe sèche), without using
any of the materials employed by
etchers.
Secondary
Colours.
[Colours,
Secondary.]
Secrétaire. A piece of furniture,
in which deeds and papers are kept,
and a panel of which draws out horizontally, so as to form a table to write
upon.
Section. A drawing representing the
interior of a building, which is supposed
to be cut through in a vertical plane, so
as to show its length and breadth. T h e

a design is hollowed out, and from which
an impression in relief can be taken
upon melted wax. These
impressions also bear the
name of seal. Sometimes
seals are fixed to wooden
handles, as shown in one
of our cuts, or they are
mounted in gold and hung
from a chain.
thickness of the walls, the roof and the
An outline, interior arrangements may thus be seen.
Searched. (Paint.)
silhouette or effect, which is not com- T h e term section is also applied to a line
monplace or vulgar, but is the result of so drawn as to show the outline of a
accurate observation, and at the same moulding.
time displays a strongly marked characSector. A portion of a circle, included
ter or style, is said to be searched.
between two radii and an arc of the
Seascape.
Pictures or drawings circle. T h e term spherirepresenting maritime scenes or views cal sector is given to
of the sea. T h u s we speak of a seascape the solid figure proby Turner, Van de Velde, or Henry duced by the rotation
of a sector round a diaMoore.
Sebastian, St. St. Sebastian, whose meter as its axis. T h e
martyrdom has proved a favourite sub- different portions of a fortified encloject with artists of all schools, was a sure are known as sectors.
Sedan Chair. [Chair, Sedan.]
soldier in the Roman army. H e was
Sedilia. (Arch.) A term applied to
tied to a tree and shot at with arrows,
and in art he is generally represented the stone seats, set like niches in the
undergoing this torture. This method south wall of the choir of churches.
of destruction, however, seems to have They were used in Catholic times by

359

SEG

ART

the officiating clergy.

DIC rIONARY.

T h e y are gener-

SEP

is said to be séme when it is covered
with small objects, such as hearts,
fleurs-de-lis, &c.

Semi-transparent. A term used to

ally surmounted by arches, which vary
in form according to the style and epoch
to which they belong.
Seggar. (Pot.) A kind of sheath or
box of terra-cotta, in which pieces of

porcelain are placed, to be submitted to
the action of the fire.
Segment.
A portion of a circle
-HH^^
included between an arc
^^^^^^^
and chord of a circle. A
p P P I I I I l i s ^ spherical segment is a
e
V
*
/ portion of a sphere inV
y
eluded between a curved
^ ^
surface
and a plane
cutting it.
Séme. (Her.) In heraldry a shield
360

describe the incomplete transparency of
certain precious stones and fine pottery.
Sendal. A kind of silk from which
banners and rich vestments were made
in the Middle Ages.
S é n e s t r o c h è r e (Her.) A French term
applied to a left hand
and arm shown on a
, \i$?
shield. In blazoning it
^J
,^β?
should always be spe- Λ ΐ ΐ β ^ ^ ^ ^
cified whether the arm 'Mjfflr
is clothed or bare, and
* ^
whether the hand is open or shut.
Sentiment. T h e sentiment of a work
of art is the general effect by which the
artist has expressed his own feeling and
sought to inspire the same feeling in the
spectator. Sentiment is a subtle quality,
and may depend upon colour, drawing,
or any of the means upon which an
artist relies to express himself.
Sepia. (Paint.) T h e sepia used by
water-colour draughtsmen is obtained
from the bladder of a small mollusc.
Its tone varies in warmth according as
it is natural or coloured. Natural sepia
yields a reddish-brown tint ; artificially
coloured sepia gives the same tint, of a
somewhat vinous shade.
Many sepia
drawings—as the monochrome sketches,
in which sepia is used, are called—were
produced about the year 1830. These
sketches, however, which were always
somewhat cold in aspect, have had their
day. T h e majority of them, indeed, are
of a most distressing dryness ; yet many
celebrated artists, such as the French­
men Charlet and Delacroix, have pro­
duced admirable sepias. Some painters
of the present day use sepia or bistre,
which is of nearly the same tone, in the
execution of washed drawings, rapidly
thrown off, in which, by laying on the
sepia in broad masses, effects of light
may be easily obtained. Then, again,
the warm tone of bistre or sepia is used

ART

SER

DICTIONARY.

SHA

in taking proofs of engravings, which, severe when it displays a rigid adherence
if printed in black, would have too to the rules and traditions which govern
violent an effect. Such, for instance, it, when fancy and originality are exare the proofs of Turner's celebrated cluded from it. Greek statues, executed
Liber Studiorum.
In a similar colour in accordance with the archaic tradition,
are printed the facsimiles of ancient are conspicuous examples of severity of
works and the reproduction of pen-and- treatment.
ink drawings, or of old texts, which have
Sfregazzi. (Paint.) An Italian word,
become mellow with age, a r d the which denotes a method of shading
yellowish tone of which is rendered adopted by Titian and the Venetians
exactly with sepia or bistre.
Instead of the brush the finger was used,
Serapeum. (Arch.) A name given and by this means the colour was laid
by the ancient Romans to temples of on more thinly and uniformly than by
Serapis as well as to the Egyptian the brush.
Sfumato. An Italian term, which may
monuments in Memphis and Alexandria.
Serpent. (Her.) T h e serpent not un- be applied to pictures which are soft
frequently appears as a charge and vaporous in execution, and to drawon shields, and is represented ings the outlines of which are vague
erect, as in the accompanying and put in with the stump.
Sgraffito. An Italian method of decut, or nowed, that is, tied into
a knot, or else curved into a coration, a kind of fresco painting, which
circle, when it is said to be consists in applying a white coat upon a
ground of black stucco, or a coat of a
(Arch.) When a moulding is light colour upon a dark ground, but
terminated with an oblique picked out with hatchings, so as to give
section, plain or curved, it it the effect of a drawing. This process
SU· is called a set-off. Gothic can properly only be called sgraffito, but
T h e latter
buildings offer frequent ex- it is often called graffiti.
amples of such mouldings. term, however, should, strictly speaking,
T h e term is also applied to only be applied to drawings upon ancient
--II!! the diminishing of the thick- walls.
ness of a piece of wood or
Shade. T h a t part of a picture, drawpilaster.
ing, or engraving representing objects
Setting, (i.) T h e process of placing a which, not being struck with luminous
precious stone in a bezel and holding it rays, are relatively obscure. T h e term
fixed there with small clamps of metal. also denotes the result of the mixture
All the decorative metal-work in a ring of several colours.
Shaded. (Paint.) A term applied to
or necklace is known as the setting.
Setting. (2.) Drawings in pastels, cray- tones or colours, the tints of which are
on and lead pencil having a tendency to delicately graduated.
Shade Lines. Shade lines are emrub out, a liquid is generally laid over
them with a brush, to set or fix them, and ployed in architectural and topographical
so render them permanent. Ox-gall has drawings, to inbeen used for this purpose, as well as a dicate the outline
solution of gum or size in alcohol. T h e of the shadow.
liquid is either applied directly to the They are put in
surface of the drawing, or if the paper with firm broad
used is sufficiently porous, it is put on strokes, as
is
at the back of the pastel or crayon.
shown in our cut.
Severe. A work of art is said to be
Shadow. If rays of light fall on a n

1

24

361

SHA

ART

DICTIONARY.

opaque body, the outline of the illu­
minated portion of this body is pro­
jected on the nearest surface. This out­
line is called a shadow.
Shadow
Cast. A shadow pro­
jected upon a surface by a lighted
body. T h e lines which bound cast
shadows diverge the more the smaller
the luminous bodies are, and the nearer
the lighted objects approach to one
[^Γΐ|ΐΐΐ;ΐίΐίηιΐίιί'ΐΐιΐιιιιΐιιηιΐί'.ιιι

another. T h e more brilliantly lighted
are the bodies, the more vigorous are
the shadows. T h e cast shadow is always
darker than the shadow, properly so
called, if the body casting the shadow
and the surface receiving it are of the
same tonality.
Shaft. (Arch.) T h a t portion of a
column, cylindrical or prismatic in
form, which lies between
the base and the capital
T h e suface of the shaft is
sometimes smooth, some-

SHE

Shears. (Her.) This pastoral imple­
ment occasionally appears on the coatof-arms of knight or gentleman.
In
blazoning the herald specifies the posi­
tion in which the shears are placed, but
they are generally represented vertical
with the blades uppermost.
Sheathed. (Sculpt.) A term applied
to statues, the lower extremity of which
is enclosed in a sheath,
which generally begins at
the hips and continues
to the base. Many cary­
atides are thus sheathed.
T h e advantage of this
treatment of the figure
is, that the beauty of the
torso is not sacrificed,
while the lower portion,
being conventional in its
arrangement, harmonizes
admirably with the archi­
tectural forms beneath it.
Sheep. In Byzantine art twelve sheep
represented the Twelve Apostles, while
Christ was pictured as the Good Shep­
herd. [Apostles.]
Shell. (Arch.) A vault in the shape
of a quarter of a sphere, sometimes de­

m
times decorated with flutings or foliage
arranged in spirals. Half the diameter
^
of a shaft at its
base is called a

module,

and

serves as the
scale, by which
\ / \
'
the other parts
r
*'
"*
of the column
and the entablature are measured.
Shanks. (Arch.) A term denoting
the plain spaces which separate the
channels of a triglyph in a Doric frieze.
362

corated with flutings, and forming the
upper part of a semicircular niche.
Shellac.
A solid varnish obtained
from certain trees. When it is in a
pounded form, it is called seed-lac ; when
it is in cakes with a smooth uniform sur­
face, it is called shell-lac. [ L a c ]
Shelving Ridge. A surface which

presents

two

sloping

planes,

which

SHE

ART

DICTIONARY.

SHI

join at their upper end, and meet a I shield ornamented with the escutcheon

horizontal plane at their lower end.
Sherraton. A cabinet-maker who
flourished in the 18th century. Everything that left his hand was light and
graceful in form, and far more refined
in taste than the heavy, over-elaborate
productions of Chippendale. His name
is now prefixed as an adjective to the
chairs and tables which he fashioned as
well as to those which are constructed
in accord with his style. Thus we speak
of a Sherraton table, a Sherraton side- of the bearer. [Scutum.]
board.
Shield. (2.) (Her.) T h e heraldic shield
Shield, (i.) As a portion of defensive has taken different forms at different
armour the shield has been used in all periods, and seems to
have been influenced by
the style of architecture
prevailing at the time.
T h e form of an inverted
Gothic arch was the model
for shields from the 13th
to the 15th centuries. During the succeeding two centuries heralds adopted
a much squarer
form, as shown
in the accompanying cut, probably for the sake
of its convenience in inserting quarterings.
The
lozenge-shaped shield has been employed since the 14th
century for the arms
of ladies of noble
family. A lozenge is
also frequently emcountries and in all ages. Its material ployed by the Flemish,
and form have of course changed from whilst the Italians
time to time. It has been made of make use of an oval
wood covered with hide as well as shield. T h e Germans,
of metal. Shields have been round, on the other hand,
semicircular, and oblong. Our first affect shields of a fantwo cuts represent the shield in tastic outline. An exuse in the time of William the ample of such a shield, called a targe,
Conquerer ; our third cut shows a is given in the accompanying cut.

0

36$

SHI

ART

DICTIONARY.

Shield of Pretence. This is a small
shield borne within another shield. It
is also called an inescutcheon, and is said to be
pretended upon the main
shield. By means of this
device the husband of an
^
J heiress blazons his claim
* *"
to his wife's lands, and in
the same way George III. bore the arms
of Hanover on a shield of pretence over
the arms of England.
Shingles. (Arch.) Small squares of
pine, chestnut, or oak
cut like tiles, which
were used to protect
the beams of a building against the dripping of water. T h e
houses of the middle
ages were generally
covered with shingles, which were some?
times painted or cut
into patterns, so as
to form geometrical
combinations.
Small
houses in the country are still to be
seen the façades of
which are decorated
with shingles.
Shore. (Arch.) A transverse stay
placed in the trenches
dug at the foundation
of a building ; a piece
of timber employed
to strengthen empty
spaces during the underpinning of a part
already built.
Windows and other openings are frequently shored.

SHU

13th century, consisted of
simple
boxes of wood, covered with plates of

metal. They were often large enough
to hold the whole body of a saint. Towards the end of the 13th century shrines
were made of gold, silver, or enamelled
copper, and took the form of miniature
churches and chapels. In the 15th cent u m they were surmounted with pierced

spires and enriched with statuettes, and
in the 17th and 18th century they were
characterised by volutes and are of a
swelling outline. Some ancient shrines
are of sculptured and gilded wood ; these
are often placed under a canopy and
above the altar.
Shrinkage. A diminution in the volume of ceramic paste or terra-cotta, which
results from drying or baking. T h e same
Shrine. A box or coffer of a precious phenomenon, though less sensible than
metal and richly carved, in which the in terra-cotta, may be observed in
relics of saints are kept ; the term bronze founding.
Shutter. (Arch.) Pieces of wood or
is also applied to a structure such as
a tomb, in which relics and bones iron fitted together and serving to close
may be deposited ; the shrine of awindow or bay. Some shutters consist
St. Thomas at Canterbury for in- of a single leaf, though this single leaf
stance. Moveable shrines, before the I may consist of two leaves held together

ZH

SIB

ART

SIG

DICTIONARY.

with iron hinges as shown in our first | necessarily be of the same tincture as
L
,
cut ; other shut- the blade of the sickle. T h e cut shows
-tàmïLjL Ί • t e r s a r e c o m P o s e d a sickle with a jagged edge.
Side Aisle. (Arch.) T h e lateral nave
["^^ffÉlJ^Blί"· ·'
°f planks of wood,
'ΪΒΙΜΚΒΓ^
w h i c h fit i n t o of a church, the vault of which is not so
| ι I § l||iBfflu|Ϊ7'\
grooves. In old- high as that of the principal nave. It
! t''l^W|r-<
fashioned
shops is only at the end of the n t h century
l-TliSpi^HP'Wp t n e s e
moveable that the choirs of churches were sur­
" " ^ ^ ^ T p J ^ J n » shutters,
fitting rounded by side aisles. Some churches
^Λ*
into grooves, were consist of a nave and four side aisles ;
invariably us 3d. T h e most modern kind but these are the exception, the gene­
of shutter is a mechanical arrangement ral rule being that churches should
of slips of wood or a sheet of iron, turn­ have two side aisles. Their breadth
is variable.
S i d e r o g r a p h y . T h e art of engrav­
ing on iron or steel, which was much
practised in the 15th and 16th cen­
turies, and was restored to honour early
in the present century by American
artists.
Sienite. (Sculp.) A coloured marble,
which was originally quarried at Syene
in Egypt. It was used by the ancients,
ing round a horizontal cylinder, placed both in sculpture and architecture.
above the opening or window, and put
Sigillography. T h e study, description
into its place by means of a wheel.
and interpretation of historic seals.
Sibyls. In ecclesiastical art, especially
S i g n a t u r e . In old books, and indeed in
in the stained glass of the middle ages, many modern books, too, certain marks,
we find figures called Sibyls, who are called signatures, are put at the bottom
associated with the prophets. They are of the first page of each sheet to facili­
mythical creatures, and it is impossible tate their arrangement.
to explain their origin. In number they
Sign-board. T h e sign-board of the
are twelve, each having her own emblems middle ages and renaissance generally
and attributes. In modern times Mr. consisted of a bracket of iron supporting
Burne-Jones has made many designs of a sheet-iron panel. Some were deco­
the Sibyls and introduced many of them I rated with scrolls of extraordinary pro­
into his glass windows.
I fusion ; of these many specimens are pre­
Siccative. (Paint.) Siccative or drying j served in museums. In addition to sign­
oils are those which form a permanent boards of sheet-iron there are in existence
coat on the surface to which they are curious bas-reliefs and interesting paint­
applied, and prevent it undergoing che­ ings which served the purpose of sign­
mical change. They are used in the boards in the 17th and 18th centuries.
preparation of painters' varnishes and These sometimes represent quite com­
colours. They are obtained by plicated scenes, such as the interior of
/F~
adding litharge, white lead, black shops thronged with a crowd of people,
and are of the utmost importance in the
«i
umber, and talc to linseed oil.
^te
Sickle. (Her.) This well- history of costume, arts and trades.
II known implement for cutting | Some distinguished artists, too, have not
Urjj, corn sometimes appears in I deemed it derogatory to paint sign­
coats-of-arms. T h e handle need not I boards. Watteau, for instance, painted
365

SIL

ART

DICTIONARY.

a sign-board for the picture-dealer Gersaint, Géricault a " White Horse," &c.
Silhouette. A term applied to drawings or portraits, which m a y b e described
as solid masses of black upon a light
ground, their outlines only being indicated. T h e term also denotes the outline of the shadows cast by illuminated
bodies
Sill. (Arch.) T h e surface formed by a
«
course of stones outT?i<//|jlL·
side a window. Some1 (-|ft\
times the stones form-

"%"nrçBEsfei·
} -l|te^f·

*n& ^ e s *·^

a r e co

~

SIT

Sinister. (Her.) T h a t side of the shield
which would be to the left
of a m a n standing behind
it is called the sinister.
T h u s the sinister side of a
shield comes to the right
hand of a person looking
at the shield.
Sinking. (Arch.) A sudden depression of the ground, which causes the
destruction of the superincumbent
masonry.
Sinopie. (Her.) [Vert.]
S-iron. (Arch.) A piece of iron, generally in the shape of an S, sometimes in
the shape of a geometric pattern or of
foliage, which is attached vertically
to a wall, and is connected by a holdfast to horizontal pieces of timberwork.
Sistrum. An instrument used by the
Egyptians
in the
festivals of Isis just
as the bull-roarer
still is among some
tribes of savages to
warn off the uninitiated. In structure it was very
simple, consisting only of some metal
rods inserted (as our cut shows) in a

vered with one long,
flat stone, running the
whole length of the
window, the purpose
of which is to prevent the rain from
penetrating the joints
of the lower course.
Silver-plating. A process consisting of covering metal objects with a
coating of white lead and then with
silver leaf. T h e objects are afterwards
burnished and covered with a spirit
varnish.
Simon Zelotes, St. One of the Apostles.
H e is generally represented with a saw
as his attribute, in allusion to the tradition that h e was sawn asunder. According to one legend St. Simon was a brother
of Jesus, and hence he is sometimes,
though rarely, represented in pictures of
the Trinity.
Simplicity. When the effect of a work
of art is produced by unity of line and
largeness of mass, when the attention of
the spectator is not diverted by restless
detail, it is said to possess simplicity.
T h e magnificent figures from
the
Parthenon,
the finest products of
the sculptor's art, owe much of their
grandeur to their monumental simplicity.
Simpulum. A sort of vase with a long metal frame. It was rattled violently
handle, somewhat resembling a modern to produce a noise.
Sitting. (Paint.) A term applied to
ladle which was used for taking wine
the space of time during which an artist
out of a crater.
366

SIZ

ART

DICTIONARY.

works, either from nature or from a
model. T h u s an artist may be said to
finish a sketch at a sitting. If the matter be looked at from the point of view
of the model who sits to the artist, it
has a slightly different meaning. A
portrait, for instance, may want one or
two more sittings (of the model) to be
finished.
Sizing. (Paint.) T h e purpose of
sizing is to render drawing-paper fit to
receive a wash of any colour whatsoever. T h e paper is smeared with a
sponge soaked in a mixture of white
soap and Flanders size, to which powdered alum and a few drops of alcohol
have been added.
Skeleton, (i.) T h e osseous frame of
a man. Many
artists keep
s k e l e t o n s in
their
studios,
which are arti;
ficially jointed
with brass wire.
Skeletons thus
arranged
will
assume almost
any position at
will, and so are
of the utmost
service to the
artist, for they
enable him in his drawings to set the
limb properly on the trunk, and to verify
the projection of the bones.
Skeleton. (2.) (Sculp.) A series of

bars 01 iron, round which a clay model

SKE

or plaster cast is built up, its purpose
being
to
strengthen
the
!
weak parts of the
cast or model.
Sketch. A rapid
design
executed
from nature, or
the record of a
picturesque idea.
If it is made from
nature, it should
be in as
few
strokes as possible, and should be sober in detail, so
as not to have the effect of a finished
work. T h e first suggestion of a composition is generally set forth in the form
of a sketch, and it often happens that the
transcription of an idea is more brilliant
and charming than the finished work.
Sometimes painters sketch their works
on the canvas, putting in the general
outlines of the drawing before they
begin to paint. T h e lights are not
sketched in the same way as the
shades. Account must be taken of the
effects which the tones applied to the
canvas will produce as the artist advances in his work, and in putting in the
sketch the artist must take care not to
cover those portions of the picture
which must remain transparent, and
should allow the grain of the canvas
to be seen. T h e slighter the sketch the
more likelihood is there of producing a
good result. A sculptor's sketch is the
first suggestion of a statue or basrelief, in which the artist does nothing
more than hint at the attitude and lines
of the figures. Sometimes the sculptor
works up his sketch into a finished
work, carrying out all the details with
accuracy and precision, but more often
he leaves the first sketch as it is,
and starts another on a different scale.
When we say that a work is a mere
sketch, we mean that it is unfinished,
nothing but its main outlines being suggested.

367

SKE

ART

Sketch-book. A note-book of white
or tinted paper, plainly and simply
bound. In his sketch-book the artist
jots down rapid sketches, which he
works up afterwards in his studio.
These memoranda in. line, filled out
sometimes with a written description,
are a valuable aid to the artist.
In
fact sketches taken from nature furnish the painter with the most precious
documents in composing and making
his pictures.
Sky. (Paint.) T h a t portion of a picture in which clouds and the expanse of
the heavens are represented. When we
say that a sky is fine, we mean that it
is painted in delicate and refined tones,
and is modelled with subtlety and firmness. In another sense a picture is said
to be skied when it is hung in an exhibition high up above the line.
Slate. (Arch). A common schist of a
blueish, black grey or violet tone, which
is cut into rectangular plates, generally
with two of its corners broken. Slates
are used for covering the roofs of
buildings.
Slit and Tongue. (Constr.) A method
used by joiners
to u n i t e t w o
pieces of wood,
cut out so as
to fit one in the
other, as shown
in the accompanying cut.
Slope. (Arch.) A term applied to
anything that is inclined or set at an
angle. For instance,
we speak of the slope
of a pediment or the
slope of a roof.
In
the ancient orders
of architecture the
cornice of the entablature serves as
the base of the pediment, while the
upper part of this cornice is repeated
in the slopes of the pediment A piece
of ground the plane of which is inclined

36^

DICTIONARY.
is termed a slope, and

SMO
advantage

is

often taken of it to construct a flight of
; "ps.
Sloppy. (Paint.) A picture which is
loosely composed, and roughly painted,
is said to be sloppy.
Smoke. (Engrav.) When the coloured
varnish which has been smeared over
an engraved plate does not allow the
lines to stand out with sufficient force,
the copper is smoked or blackened. T o
do this while the varnish is still warm,
the plate must be exposed to the flame
of a resinous torch, the black smoke of
which incrusts itself in the varnish and

gives the plate when it is cold a beautiful black tint. In order that the
smoking should be successful it is
necessary that the layer of black should
be very thin, and that there should be
no trace of the passage of the smoke
Furthermore, the operation must be
rapidly performed, so that the varnish is
not burnt and deprived of all power of
resistance to the biting.
Smoke-proof. (Engrav.) A proof of
a relief engraving taken upon unsized
India paper. To obtain smoke-proofs,
the wood or cliché is inked with smoke
black, and a pressure is exerted upon
the damp paper with a burnisher. T o
prevent tearing the paper, a piece of
card is placed between the paper and
the tool. Smoke-proofs are the most
trustworthy impressions of wood-cuts.

SMO

ART

SOM

DICTIONARY.

T h e block is most carefully inked as a
rule with the roller or finger. T h e distances can thus be carefully brought out,
and the foreground may be strongly
marked by vigorous inking. As engravers take these proofs themselves
as a guide in the completion of their
work, or for their private collections,
they are always very limited in number, and eagerly sought after
by
amateurs.
Smoky. Proofs of an engraving are
said to be smoky when the dust and
smoke of many years have given them a
dirty yellow, almost black tone. T h e
term is also applied to pictures which
have been exposed to smoke so as to
give them the appearance of old canvases, the varnish of which has turned
black with dust and age.
Sober. (Paint.) A term applied to a
refined
scheme of colour,
which
produces a calm, tranquil impression
upon the spectator.
Soccus. ê (Cost.) A loose kind of
slipper which in Greeee
was worn both by men
and women. In Rome,
however, it belonged
only to the costume of
women and comic actors.
Socle. (Arch.) T h e term socle is
applied to the square sub-basement of a
building or column, and also
to
the
small
pedestal, with or
without a moulding, which serves
to support a bust
or vase. In the
sense of pedestal,
the use of the
term
is
not
strictly accurate.
What should properly be understood by socle is
the moulding or
projection of the base of a pedestal. In

buildings of the Gothic style we find
examples of socles cut in facets.
Soffit. (Arch.) T h e portion of a ceiling
below the cornice. Soffits are often

decorated with rosettes of extraordinary
richness. T h e term is also applied to
the under surface of a cornice, the
round portion of an arch.
—«->.
T h e terms flat soffit and }
~~*
curved soffit are applied
by builders to the stones
with which they construct the flat part or
the concave surface of an arch.
Soften. (Paint.) When the outlines in
a picture are too strongly indicated' and
drawn with too much dryness, they
should be softened down until they
blend with the tonality of the ground
and no longer strike the spectator disagreeably.
Softener. (Paint.) A large soft flat
hair brush, either cylindrical or of a
special shape, with which two colours
freshly laid on the canvas are blended.
Solarium. (Arch.) In a Roman home
the solarium was the terrace built over
a porch or upon the flat roof of a house.
It was surrounded by a parapet, but
open, as its name implies, to the sun's
rays.
Solid. In geometry bodies are said to
be solid when they are bounded by surfaces.
In architecture full heavy
masses are known as solid, while in
painting the term is applied to strong,
robust workmanship, and to figures
which project violently from
the
canvas.
Sombre. Dark. A term applied to
schemes of colour in which black
predominates.

369

SOP

ART

DICTIONARY.

Sopra Bianco. (Pot.) A name given
to a kind of Italian faïence, which is
decorated with designs of a clear milky
white standing out on a delicate white
ground.
Sounding-board.
(Arch.)
[Abatvoix.]
Space. In a picture a figure is said to
lack space when it is placed in a
frame of too narrow dimensions, so that
it appears cramped and confined.
Span. (Arch). T h e span of an arch is
the width between the imposts.
Spandrel. (Arch). T h e triangular
space included between the convex or
outer surface of an arch and the rect
angular moulding which surmounts the
arch.
T h e spandrels of doorways in
Gothic buildings are frequently richly
decorated with carvings.
Spangle. A small leaf of thin metal,
circular in shape, and with a hole
pierced through its centre, so that it can
be fixed on to a stiff material with thread
or silk. Spangles scintillate brilliantly
in the light. T h e court dresses of
the 18th century were decorated with
garlands and other designs formed of
spangles of gold and silver.
Spar, Fluor. A mineral, which in
fusion dissolves metallic oxides, and thus
produces a kind of crystal, the colour of
which varies with the nature of the metal
dissolved. With this spar candelabra,
vases, and other decorative objects are
made.
Spatula. The spatula used by painters

in enamel is the instrument with which
the powdered enamel is taken hold of
and spread
over the surface of
the
plate.
The
spatula
used
in sculpture is a trowel-shaped tool,

370

SPH

with which moulders take the plaster
from the bowl and spread it in the
mould.
Spectrum. T h e image produced by a
ray of light crossing a crystal prism, the
colours of which, joining one another
by imperceptible shades, are violet,
indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and
red.
Speculum. T h e mirror of the ancients
was made either of a white metal, (a
mixture of copper and tin),or else of silver.
In order that it might give a bright reflection its surface was highly polished.
Its back was often decorated with incised designs of great beauty, and mirrors
form an important class of ancient works
of art.
Sphere. A solid figure produced by a
semicircle turning on its diameter as its
axis. T h e term is also
commonly
applied
to
globes representing the
surface of the earth. By
the term armillary sphere
we denote a celestial globe
formed of circles representing the movement of the stars.
Spheroid. A solid figure having the
form of a
flattened
sphere. It is produced
by half an ellipse turning about on one of
its axes. T h e terrestrial globe may be
described as an oblate spheroid.
Sphinx. A monster having the head
and breasts of a
woman, the body
of a lion and the
wings of an eagle.
T h e term is also
applied to colossi
of granite found
in ancient Egypt,
Near the pyramid
of Cheops there
still exists a huge
sphinx cut in rock, which measures
twenty metres in height and forty

SPH

ART

DICTIONARY.

metres in length.

Some authorities
hold that the
Great Sphinx
is
nothing
more than a
solitary rock,
to which the
ϋ
Egyptians gave
its
present
^
form by means
of blocks of stone skilfully arranged,

SPH

and their pieces were joined together by
nails. T h e surface of these primitive

the head alone having been sculptured.
This Sphinx was the image of the

works of art was often enriched by incised
ornaments. Of our two illustrations the

Egyptian god Hoz-en-Kohn.
S p h y r e l a t a . A n a m e given in Greek
to all kinds of hammered metal-work.
T h e metal was beaten when cold, and
this simple process is the most ancient
that is recorded. Many sphyrelata belong
to a time before soldering was invented, one represents a bronze bust discovered

ART

SPI

DICTIONARY.

at Vulci, which is almost childish in its
simplicity, the other a vase, in which
grace and proportion are by no means
lacking.
Spikes. (Arch.) Ornamental pieces of
iron curved into all sorts of shapes and
always armed
wi t h
sharp
points,
which
are put on the
summit of walls
to prevent them
being
scaled.
They afford an
excellent
opportunity
for
artistic treatment, and they are sometimes admirable specimens of decorative
iron-work.
Spiral. A plane curve describing
several revolutions round a fixed point,
its distance from this point becoming
greater at· each revolution.
Spire. (Arch.)
A pointed pyramidal bell turret, sometimes
of stone, but
more often of
wood covered
w i t h lead or
tiles. Spires are
not found
in
England before
the Norman period, and then
they are neither
lofty nor tapering. I n t h e
Early English
period
they
were carried to
a great elevation, and were
generally octagonal.
The
spires of the
Decorated period did not
differ much from the spires of the

372

SQU

preceding period. They were, however, ornamented with crockets, &c.
In the Perpendicular period spires
retained the same form, and almost
invariably had a gutter and parapet
at their base.
This was not the
case in earlier times, when broach
spires, or spires springing straight from
the tower, without a parapet, were
common.
Splay. (Arch.) T h e term splay is
applied to any sloping surface, but
especially to doorways or windows, the
width of which is increased by their
sides sloping inwards.
Springing. (Arch.) T h e springing of
an arch or vault is the point from which
it rises.
Springing-stone. (Arch.) T h e stone
which supports
the haunch of
an arch or vault
is called the
springing-stone,
and the lowest
line of the arch
is s i m i l a r l y
as the
wknown
springing-line.
Spur-post. (Arch.) A piece of twisted
iron, set against the wall at the entrance of a portecochère, at about the
height of a step.
T h e purpose of it
is to keep off the
wheels of carriages
from the corner, as
well as to protect
the doors when they are open.
Square, (i.) A plane four-sided figure,
axe
»
the four sides of which are iequal, and all the angles
which are right angles.
Square. (2.) T h e square used in drawing is a thin plate of wood, in the shape
of a right-angled triangle, pierced with
a circular opening or eye, so that it
may slip easily on the paper. With
the square and ruler perpendiculars

SQU

ART

may be drawn, while parallelograms
may be traced with two
squares. A square, such
as the one represented
in our cut, is used by
masons to test whether
they have cut
their
blocks of stone evenly.
Square, Double. A square formed of
two flat rules placed at right angles to
one another.
—, G r a p h o m e t r i c . A surveyor's
square, which serves the double purpose
_--^
of a square and graphometer.
"^JM
It consists of a cylinder, the
-__JÌj
lower portion of which is
|^!Jr9S| movable, and works on a
I Vil
screw. Slits made in the
cylinder take the place of the
pinnules of the graphometer,
and allow the operator to
look in all directions perpendicular to,
or at an oblique angle to, any given
line.
—, Octagonal. A surveyor's square in
the form of an octagonal prism.
—, of 45 degrees. A drawing square,
having one right angle and two angles of
45 degrees. It is often used with the Tsquare and planchette, and
with its aid are traced architectural designs, the projections of mouldings, & c , while
in shaded drawings it is used
to trace the direction of luminous rays,
which, by a convention generally adopted
in projections, are directed at an angle
of 45 degrees from left to right.
—, Set. A square in the form of a
right-angled triangle,
resembling in form
half the pediment of
. an ancient temple,
and hence called in
French êquerre à fronton.
—, Sliding. A flat piece of metal, with
divisions measured upon it,
to which two
other pieces of metal are perpen-

f

SQU

DICTIONARY.

dicular. One of these two pieces is
fixed, the other can be moved to and
fro, so as to measure the diameter of
cylindrical bodies.
Square, T. [T-square.]
—, -touch. (Paint ) When a painter
lays his colour on the canvas in square
patches, he is said to employ a squaretouch. This point of style may be best
observed in the works of the group of
painters, who call themselves the Newlyn
School.
Squaring. An operation, the purpose
of which is to enlarge a sketch, to execute a composition on a large scale after
a given model. It will be readily seen
that by the process of squaring a
sketch may also be reduced.
The
method is as follows : T h e model is
divided up into a certain number of
equal squares, and the surface, upon
which the model is to be reproduced, is
also marked out in the same number of
equal squares, less or greater than the

squares on the model, according as it is
the artist's purpose to reduce or enlarge
the original sketch. Large mural paintings, as well as important easel pictures,
are designed in this way. T h e advantage
of the process is considerable, as the
sketch, which enables the artist to see
the general effect of his work, can be
accurately reproduced. In the squaring,
which is a tedious job, and must be
carried out with the most scrupulous
exactitude, painters are often assisted
by their pupils, deeming it enough if
they themselves correct errors of transcription.
Squinch. (Arch.) A truncated vault
of considerable projection. A number
of stones arranged so as to form a shell.

373

ART

STA

DICTIONARY.

STA

In outline it may either be a quarter are frequently enriched with caryatides
round or the arc
of a circle. In
the
17th and
jy^JÊÊ^ÊÊËÊÊàk
18 t h
century
^^ÊffiW^y^^ËËÊ^h
overhanging
~
squinches were a
favourite archil l 4$ffilSP^113S^
tectural decoration. Many large
doorways
and and sculptured ornament.
corners of public buildings present
S t a g ' s head. (Her.) A stag's head
examples of squinches decorated with attired with antlers and tyres sometimes
rustic-work and sculptured ornaments. appears as a common charge
In classical in heraldry. When placed
architecture affronté, which is the usual
the
t e r m position, it is said to be
squinch
is cabossed, and the antlers
applied
to are by heralds frequently termed attires.
the spheriStained Glass. [Glass Painting : Glass
cal triangles Window.]
formed in a
Staircase. (Arch.) A series of steps,
h e m i s p h e r i - serving to connect the storeys of a
cal vault by building which are on a different level.
the penetration of two demi-cylindrical T h e staircases with which the summit
barrel vaults, and also to the curved of the religious buildings of the Middle
triangular surfaces Ages was reached were often in turrets
obtained by the in- pierced with openings to admit the light.
tersection of vaults Sometimes they were set in the thickof different form. ness of a wall. Many staircases in
Other architectural castles of the Renaissance period are
combinations of a marvellous from the point of view both
similar kind, but of art and construction. In the 17th
not identical, give and 18th centuries staircases were built
rise to squinches extraordinarily light and strong. T h e
of various polygonal forms.
staircases of many public buildings of
Stadium. In ancient times this term the present day are no less remarkable
was applied to a course laid out for foot- for their width and proportion than for
racing. T h e name was derived from the beauty and richness of the materials
the celebrated course at Olympia, which employed in their construction.
measured precisely one στάδιο^.
—, Circular. A staircase with a cirStage. (Arch.) T h a t part of a theatre
which is set apart for the actors who
perform in view of the public.
Stage-box. (Arch.) A term applied to
the boxes in a theatre which are situated
on each side of the stage between the
curtain and the orchestra. Stage-boxes
generally give the theatrical architect an
A staircase the
opportunity for decoration, and they cular string-course.

374

STA

ART

DICTIONARY.

steps of which do not follow a straight
line but a curve.

Examples of the latter are very frequent
in staircases on the outside of a building,
which lead to a doorway at some height
above the level of the ground.
Staircase, Spiral. A staircase turn-

STA

Stake. A piece of wood or iron
driven into the earth. At the top of
the stake, as employed by surveyors, a

slit is generally made, in which a piece
of card of a bright colour is placed, so
that it may be seen at a distance. Small
stakes are sometimes set on blocks of
wood accurately squared. Stakes are
used by surveyors to
fix points, to measure
ground, as well as in
making
plans
and

~M
ing round a core, which is generally
cylindrical, or in
the midst
of
which a vacant
space is
left.
This
form of
staircase is also
termed a winding staircase or
a hélicoïdal staircase, and it also
resembles a vyse (q.v.).
Stair-rail. A balustrade of wood or
iron, which is arranged along the edge of

a staircase, and serves as a support.

drawing foundations. In some cases,
especially in the cutting of new roads,
stakes, consisting of long poles with a
flag attached to them, are set up on
the top of houses to serve as guiding
points
Stalactites. (Arch.) A kind of architectural decoration, consisting of projecting rustic-work. It
suggests the appearance of the petrified
concretions
formed
in caves and grottoes
which are known by the name of Stalactites.
Stall. A wooden seat with a high back
Rows of stalls are placed round the choir
in churches. In Christian basilica^ the
stalls were of stone or marble. From
the 13th to the 16th century stalls were
generally of wood and decorated with a
marvellous profusion of carvings. These
carvings were frequently grotesque and

375

STA

ART

DICTIONARY.

free, not only in style but in subject.
T h e r e are few of the English cathedrals

that do not display in their stalls magnificent monuments of wood-carving.
Stamnos. A Greek vase with an
ovoidal body, with two handles attached
to it above its shoulders, and closed by a

slightly arched lid. It was used for
holding liquids, and was frequently
richly decorated with paintings.
Stancheon. (Arch.) A stay, generally
of iron, and of great strength ; especially
the iron bar between the mullions of a
window.
Standard. T h e ensign of war, a flag
of a rich, heavy material, which is displayed as a decoration.

376

STA

Star. (Arch.) An architectural ornament, painted, sculptured, or incised,
consisting of painted rays which vary in
number. In Romanesque
architecture
fleurons
(q.v.),
to
which the term star
is applied, are arranged on surfaces
in various
geometrical patterns, or are
set side by side so as to form a continuous system of ornament.
Starling. (Arch.) An angular projection on the piles
of a stone bridge,
so situated as to
divide the current

W'Wi fflf
of water, and in winter time to break
blocks of ice
State. (Engrav.) T h e condition of an
engraved or etched plate before it is
entirely finished. In the case of some
engravings we have proofs of the first
state, the second state, the third state
and so on as the plate nears completion. When the state is completely
finished and ready to be printed from it
is said to be in its final state.
Station Point. T h e point from which
a building or any object should be looked
at, so that the whole can be seen by the
spectator at one glance.
Stations. T h e term station is applied
to the various stages of Christ's Passion,
representations of which are frequently
hung in the nave of Catholic churches.
Statuary.
An artist who models
statues or figures. In this sense the
word is seldom used. It is more often
employed to denote a collection of
statues, and we sometimes hear people
speak of the " statuary art."

STA

ART

Statue. A work of sculpture in the
round representing the human figure. A
statue in marble, bronze, or wood. A
colossal statue.
—, Equestrian. A statue representing
a person mounted on horseback.
—, Monumental. A term applied in the
Middle Ages to statues representing recumbent figures and covering a tomb,

above which they are only raised by a
slab, which is often of inconsiderable
thickness.
—. Persian. A term which is sometimes, though rarely, applied to architectural figures, which serve as caryatids.
Statuette. A statue, the dimensions
of which are very much less than those
of the h u m a n figure. A statuette half
life-size ; a statuette in bronze, or terracotta.
Stay. (Arch.) A piece of timber introduced into a building to form a
support.
Steeple. (Arch.) A tower, in which
church bells are hung. In
the n t h century steeples
were built on a quadrangular base. They consisted of several storeys,
slightly retreated the one
behind the other; they
were pierced by openings, strengthened
at
their angles by buttresses, and were terminated with a pyramid on
a square base. In the
12th and 13th centuries
steeples were quadrangular in base alone ; as
they got higher they became octagonal and were
terminated with a tower,
and sometimes, though rarely, surrounded with a balustrade and had
25

DICTIONARY.

STE

bell-turrets at their corners. In the
14th, 15th, and 16th centuries the same
principles were followed ; the spires or
pyramids terminating steeples became
lighter and were pierced. Steeples are
sometimes included within the general
plan of the building, sometimes they are
built without reference to it.
This
depends on the period to which the
steeple belongs and the vicissitudes
which the church has undergone. Some
churches have two towers or steeples,
generally at the west end. T h e full
complement of towers in a cathedral
church is three, two at the west end
and one over the crossing.
Stele. By this term we denote ancient
monuments in the form of monoliths
placed vertically, the inscriptions upon
which serve to commemorate an historic
event or to preserve the memory
of the dead. Some
of the most interesting relics of
Greek and Roman
art are stelce, upon
which is sculptured the likeness
of a departed man.
In the
British
Museum is to be
seen a most interesting
collection. In modern
times the term is loosely applied to
broken columns, cippi or square stones
which serve as funeral monuments, and
even to the small colonnettes supporting a decorative object, such as a
statuette or vase.
Stencilling. A method of executing
decorative paintings, which was once
very popular, but is now seldom resorted
to. Patterns are cut out of a piece of
card, which is laid upon paper. Colour
is then laid on, and only reaches the
paper, where the card has been cut out.
T h e advantage of this process is its
extreme simplicity.

377

STE

ART

Step.

(Arch.) T h e steps in a stair-

DICTIONARY.

STI

the Christian martyrs, persecuted by Paul
is frequently represented in religious
pictures. T h e Stoning of St. Stephen
was a very favourite subject with paint­
ers of all schools. When represented
alone, St. Stephen always appears as a
youth, wearing the vestments of a deacon.
H e holds a palm in one hand and the
scriptures in the other, and as a rule
case are the horizontal parts upon
stones lie at his feet.
which the foot is placed. T h e steps of
Stereobate. (Arch.) A continuous
a staircase in the interior of a building, base with neither moulding, base, or
£3/»
whether they are of
wood or stone, are
generally bordered with a projecting
,,ιΐ^Ι Α,.,,,
moulding, cal­
led an astragal,
the profile of
which is either
a
quarter
round or an cornice (στερεός, solid). By the term
apophyge.
stylobate we designate pedestals which
—, Corner. have mouldings.
Corner steps are steps situated at the
Stereography. T h e art of drawing
turn of a staircase. They are broader solid bodies upon a plane surface and
than the steps immediately above them. indicating the relief by shading.
—, Moulded. A step is said to be
Stereometry. T h e art of measuring
moulded when it is bordered by a bodies in relief.
moulding.
Stereotype. T o stereotype is to re­
—, Straight. A step which is of the produce by the process described under
same width through- the term cliché (q.v.) printed pages set
out.
T h e s t e p s in moveable type, together with the
which led up to an­ woodcuts with which they are illustrated.
cient temples were After a page has been stereotyped, the
nearly
a l w a y s type may be distributed. T h e invention
straight and very of stereotyping has had a most important
rarely had an astragal or moulding on effect not only on the art of printing but
their edge.
also on the art of engraving.
Sticciato (Sculp.) An Italian term
—, Weathered. A step, the upper
surface of which is inclined at an angle, denoting a work in relief, which hardly
projects from the surface of the marble
instead of being horizontal.
—, Winder. Steps arranged like the or plaster upon which it is carved or
radii of a circle. Modern modelled.
staircases, built either
S t i l d e grain. (Paint.) A term applied
in circular cages or in to certain greenish-yellow pigments
rectangular cages with obtained like lakes by precipitating
rounded corners, present the decoction of buckthorn berries or
many examples of winder steps.
French berries.
Stephen, St. St. Stephen, the first of
Still life.
(Paint.)
A term which

çmm^'·-—

Z7S

STI

ART

STO

DICTIONARY.

includes all pictures having for their
subjects fruit, flowers, vases, and other
inanimate objects which generally form
the accessories and not the main interest
of a picture. T h e Dutch have chiefly
excelled in the painting of still life. A
picture of an inanimate object is itself
called a still life.
Stilus. A pointed instrument with
which the ancients traced letters upon
a tablet covered with wax.
Stippled. A painting, drawing or
engraving is said to be stippled when it
is executed by means of a series of points
and not by flat tints or hatchings.
Stockade. (Arch.) A barrier formed
of stakes, the purpose of which is to
strengthen the base of the piles of a
bridge or to defend the entrance of a
harbour, river or canal.
Stola. (Cost.) A garment worn by
Roman women. It was long and reached
to the feet, being girt round the waist by
a girdle. It had sleeves and was some-

times fastened at the shoulder by a
brooch. It was as characteristic of the
Roman matron as was the toga of the
Roman citizen.
Stone (Arch.) A piece of siliceous
or calcareous rock or quartz used in

building.
Stones are sometimes put
into walls in the rough state in which
they leave the quarry ; sometimes they
are carefully squared on all their surfaces
before being used.
Stone, Druidic. A Celtic monument,
consisting of a stone, considerably
higher
than
its
breadth, planted vertically in the earth.
These stones
are
called Peulvans or
menhirs, and in Celtic
remains are found
variously combined.
[Dolmen.]
—, Engraved. A precious stone engraved in cameo or intaglio, i.e., either
in relief or incised.
—, Gall. (Paint.) Gall stone yields
a tone approaching that of natural earth
of Sienna. It is used by painters of
miniatures and fans, who, by means of
a solution of gall stone, render the vellum
upon which they work less rebellious to
the tints applied to it.
—, Precious. A hard stone employed
in jewellery and works of art.
—, Rocking.
A Celtic monument
consisting
of
two blocks of
stone
placed
one upon another
in
a
p o s i t i o n of
equilibrium,
so that the very slightest movement is
enough to make the upper block oscillate.
—, Tomb. A stone, generally incised,
which covers a grave. It is placed either
on a level with the ground or set in a
vertical wall. T h e r e are many tombstones of the Gothic period and the
Renaissance, which represent historic
personages and are valuable documents
in the history of costume. Some tombstones, too, are very richly ornamented.
T h e figures traced upon them, though
quite hastily drawn, are often remarkable
for their grandeur and vigour.

379

ART

STO

DICTIONARY.

Stone, Toothing. A projecting stone
left in the alternate courses of a wall, so
that if the wall is carried on in the same
line the courses of the new construction
may be easily united with the old.
Stoneware. A kind of pottery which
is opaque, hard and impermeable.

Common stoneware is made oi a paste
which consists of clay, sand and silicates.

T h e paste of fine stoneware does not
differ perceptibly from the paste of fine
380

STO

faïence. T h e vases and statuettes of
stoneware made by the Chinese and
Japanese are very m u c h sought after
by collectors. In Germany stoneware
has been made from the 8th century,
while English stoneware is admirable in
quality.
Stool.
A support of considerable
height, terminated by a circular or
square platform,
which
may be moved
up and down
on a kind of
pivot. A stool
of this sort
is used by
modellers in
clay to place
their
clay
j upon,
while
!
when the clay
is to be translated
into
marble, it is the stool upon which the
block of marble is placed. T h e term
also denotes a
seat of wood,
frequently used
in the Middle
Ages. It had the
form of a short
bench without arms or back.
Stopping out. (Engrav.) When an
etcher desires one portion of his plate to
be more deeply bitten than another, he
removes the plate from the acid, after it
has been for some time exposed to its
action. H e then covers those portions
of the plate which he deems sufficiently
bitten, with lampblack, and replaces the
plate in the bath. This process is termed
stopping out.
Story. (Arch.) A term applied to the
horizontal divisions made in a building
by means of planks.
Stoup. A vase or basin placed at the entrance of a church ; a small shell, which
holds holy water. In the gth and ioth
centuries stoups took the place of

ART

STO

DICTIONARY.

STR

had been placed in some stoups in existence in the shape of
churches for the ab- immense shells, which are made fast to
lutions of the wor- a pillar or placed upon pedestals of varishippers. In the 12th ous forms.
century stoups took
Strainer. A kind of double frame of
the form of simple wood. Round its circumference run
octagonal
vessels ;
in the 13th century
they were set against
the wall, and so gave
an opportunity for a good deal of decoration. In the 14th and 15th centuries
they were either circular or polygonal,
and were supported by a colonette, while grooves, in which the edges of a strip of
during the Renaissance they consisted of damp paper may be fixed. As it dries
a large basin, which the paper stretches, and so gets a pertapering bafectly smooth
surface. Strainers are used to
stretch
paper
on which water-colour drawings or
sketches are to be made.
Strapaese. A piece of French artistic
slang, an epithet which may be applied to
painted or sculptured figures the attitude of which is twisted or exaggerated.
Strap-work. A form of ornament, conluster to support it. Finally there are sisting of bands or fillets interlaced and
piscines,

which

intertwined as in our cut. It is found in I it did not come into common use until
some buildings of the n t h century, but | the end of the Renaissance period.
3«i

ART

STR

DICTIONARY.

Strawberry Leaf. A leaf somewhat
resembling the trefoil, which
occurs in heraldry on the coronets of dukes, earls, &c. ;
it is also used as an architectural ornament in buildings of the Gothic style.
Stretch. T o stretch an engraving or
drawing is to stick it down fast with gum
to a white or tinted mount, the purpose
of which is to increase its effect. T h e
term is more strictly applied to the process of mounting an engraving or drawing by stretching it on a frame. Neither
method of stretching is to be recommended as each is very likely to destroy
the value and beauty of drawing or engraving.
Stretcher, (i.) (Arch.) A stone or
brick so placed in a wall that only its
narrow side is apparent, its longer
sides being lost in the thickness of the
wall.
Stretcher. (2.) (Paint.) A wooden
square or rectangle, upon which a
painter's canvas is
stretched and held
fast by small nails.
When the picture
is
framed,
the
sliiiÈiiiiin'.ì! thickness of the
stretcher is concealed
in
the
frame. In the kind
wÊBÈKm of stretcher represented in our first
cut, which by the way is not used in
England, the pieces of wood of which
the stretcher is composed are held in
their places by
small transverse
slips, one at each
angle.
T h e advantage of the
stretcher with
keys, represented
in our second cut,
is that by driving
in the keys the tension of the canvas
may be increased.

1
uHHHEi
1Ml

382

STR

Striae. (Arch.) A term applied to the
narrow fillets which come between the
flutings upon the shaft of a column.
Striated. Any surface is said to be
striated when it is covered with a series
of parallel fillets, either in straight or
zigzag lines.
Strigli. A bronze instrument, with
which the ancients scraped their limbs
after bathing, and with which the ancient
athletes removed the oil after anointing
themselves.
String. (Arch.) A slightly projecting
moulding, which runs round a room on

the façade of a building, A horizontal
band, marking on the outside of a
building the divisions between the
stories.
String-boards.
T h e point of support of a staircase on the side
farthest from the
wall.
Stringboards may be of
wood or stone, they may be grooved or
twisted, plain or decorated with mould'

ings, and they generally spring from the
first steps.
String-course. (Arch.) A narrow
moulding, which runs horizontally along
the wall. It projects but little from the
surface.
Strip. (Arch.) A small piece of timber
strengthening a rafter or ridge or sup-

STR

ART

porting a beam of wide bearing.

Strips

are nothing more than a kind of strut
b e a m (q.v.).
Struck. Any object which has received
an impression from a die, such as a coin
or medal, is said to be struck.
Structure. T h e manner in which a
building is constructed, also the building
itself. Metaphorically the term is used
to denote the way in which the human
figure, either in painting or sculpture, is
rendered from the anatomical point of
view. T h e structure of a figure may be
said to be perfect or faulty, as the case
may be.
Strut beam. (Arch.) A piece of wood
used to strengthen timber-work, by
diminishing the
bearing of a beam
or upholding a
wall which needs
to be consolidated. T h e strut
beam is almost
always placed obliquely, and
is
sometimes held
in its place by wedges driven in with a
hammer.
Stucco. (Arch.) A coating with which
walls are covered, and which takes the
polish of marble. Stucco consists of a
mixture of slaked lime and pulverised
marble or sometimes alabaster or plaster.
But stucco formed of this last mixture is
less capable of resisting damp.
The
stucco with which the outside of buildings is coated is sometimes composed
of puzzolana and pieces of tiles reduced
to powder. It is the opus albarium of
the Romans.
Studied. A painting or piece of sculpture is said to be studied when it displays profound knowledge and research

DICTIONARY.

STU

on the part of its author. T h u s we
say of a picture, " T h e draperies are
closely studied," or of a landscape that
" i t s foreground is well studied."
Studio. T h e place in which a painter
or sculptor works. All studios should
face north, for then an artist can work
as long as daylight lasts without being
inconvenienced by the rays of the sun ;
moreover, light coming from this quarter
is more equable and fresher than from
any other.
Studio-box. (Paint.) A table with
drawers, the upper part of which forms

a box, in which colours, brushes, & c .
are kept.
Study. A sketch, the execution of
which is precise and searched ; a drawing
or painting from nature or the living
model. It is from studies that a painter
builds up and composes his pictures.
Stump. A piece of leather or paper
rolled in a cylindrical form, and bound
round with thread. At each end it has
a blunted point. T h e stump is used
for blending together the hatchings

of a crayon drawing, and also for laying the black or grey tones of the crayon
directly on the paper. Its use cannot
be recommended, as it gives a drawing
a soft cottony appearance. T h e dis-

383

STU

ART

advantages of the stump have recently
been set iorth in the following terms:—
" T h e stump does not teach drawing, as
it cannot teach painting; in point of
fact the use of the stump is likely to
injure the painter's art, as it may engage his sympathies for darkness rather
than light, for shadow more than for
colour.
Nor does the stump help
drawing, because the use of it is antipathetic to a line. This feeble invention is neither a severe enough instrument for the draughtsman, nor is it
pliable enough for the painter. It is a
kind of middleman whom we with all
our hearts desire to be rid of."
Stumped. A term applied to drawings shaded with the stump.
The
laborious drawings from the antique
produced in schools of art are generally
stumped.
Style. T h e word style denotes in
artistic phraseology the manner peculiar
to an artist or epoch. For instance, the
style of Raphael, the Gothic style, the
Italian style. T h e word is also used in
connection with works of a noble character, in which the figures are drawn or
modelled in a key of lofty sentiment.
T h u s we speak of a work of the grand
style, of figures which lack style.
Stylobate. (Arch.) A pedestal with
moulding, base and cornice running
round a building ;
a projecting subbasement decorated with moulding, following the
ressaults of a façade. T h e word
is
synonymous
with plinth,
at
least when the
plinth is decorated with mouldings. Plain, undecorated
sub-basements are called stereobates
(q.v.).

Sub-basement. (Arch.) The lower
part of a construction. A continuous
socle (q.v.) running round the base of a

3S4

DICTIONARY.
façade or a row of columns.

SUB
In build-

ings of the Renaissance period of the
centuries which followed it, sub-base-

ments are generally found running round
entrances and are decoiated with rustic
work. In Gothic
a
buildings sub1.1,
basements are
generally found
running round
entrances, and
are
decorated
with a profusion
of
sculptured
ornament,
representing rich
draperies, blind
arcades or symbolic and grotesque bas-reliefs inscribed in trefoils,
quatrefoils, &c.
Subject.
A term applied to the
motive, historical or conventional, real
or ideal, which an artist chooses for
interpretation in his work.
For instance, a happy subject, an ill-chosen
subject.
Some subjects do not lend
themselves easily to artistic treatment :
others, on the other hand, are an inexhaustible mine of wealth. It is not too
much to say, however, that subject of
itself can never make a picture interesting. A great subject, if not greatly

SUB

ART

DICTIONARY.

treated, is of no avail. Pictorial art is
not a debased species of literature, and
it is nobility of line and colour, treatment, in fact, which alone can make a
picture great.
Sub-ordinaries.
(Her.)
T h e subordinaries, though of less dignity than the
honourable ordinaries, are of frequent
occurrence in heraldry. They are sixteen in number :—the Canton, Gyron,
Inescutcheon,
Orle, Tressure,
Lozenge,
Fusil, Fret, Flanch, Flasque,
Mascle,
Rustre, Label, Billet, Bordure,
Pile.
Descriptions of these sub-ordinaries will
be found under the different headings.
Sudarium. A term applied to the
handkerchief upon which S. Veronica
took an image of the face of Christ.
Suite. A term applied to a collection
of pictures, the subjects of which are
taken in a certain order of ideas or
events. For instance, the suite of pictures painted by Rubens for the gallery
of the Medici.
Sulphur. A sulphur is an impression
taken from an engraved plate upon a
thin layer of sulphur, which was laid
upon the plate in a melted state. Some
" sulphurs " of goldsmiths' work are still
preserved, and they have an artistic
importance, because they form a curious
link in the history of engraving.
Summer. [Bressummer.J
Summit. T h e upper extremity. T h e
summit of a building.
T h e point at
which the sides of an angle or the faces
of a solid meet. T h e summit of a triangle ; the summit of a pyramid.
Sun-blind. (Arch.) A long strip of

stuff, which may be rolled up on a small

SUP

cylinder, to which one of its ends is
attached. It is used to protect a window
from the heat of the sun and the brilliance of the light. Sun-blinds may be
placed either inside or outside a window.
In museums and picture galleries they
are indispensable to diminish the glaring
effect of the sunlight. They are generally of some soft texture, but they may
be made of very thin bamboo canes, as
indeed they generally are in China and

Japan.
Sun-dial. A plaque set either vertically or horizontally, on which the hours
are marked. ,
T h e time of (~''7!r}%'' '
day may be
told from the
depth of the
shadow cast
on the face
of the dial by
the Gnomon.
According to
Viollet-leDuc sun-dials
were set up
on the highways as early
as the 13th century. In the 14th and
15th centuries they were placed against
the walls of churches and other buildings.
Sunk-in. (Paint.) When colours, after
they have dried on the canvas, lose
their brilliance, they are said to have
sunk in.
Sunset. (Paint.) It is a common practice among artists and art critics to
describe a picture by the effect which
the painter wished to produce
Thus
we speak of a sunset by
Claude Lorraine or by
Crome.
Support. A piece of bent
iron, which is driven obliquely into an opening
made for the purpose, and
holds a piece of wood on
a bench. Wood carvers fix the block

385

SUP

ART

DICTIONARY.

on which they are working with a chisel
by means of a support
of this kind.
Supporters. (Her.) T h e
figures which stand upon
each side of a shield.
Only persons of noble
rank are entitled to sup­
porters.
Surbased. (Arch.) An arch or vault is
said to be sur­
based when its
height is less
than half the
length of its
springing line.
Surcoat. (Cost.) A garment worn in
the Middle Ages over armour. T h e coatof-arms of knights was frequently em­
blazoned on their surcoat.
Surface rib. (Arch.) A sharp rib
placed at the angle of a Gothic vault.
Surmounted. (Arch.) An arch or
vault is said to
be
surmounted
when its height
is more than half
"\**""'. the length of its
** springing line.
Sustained. (Paint.) A scheme of
colour, which is at once free and ener­
getic, or solid tones which enhance the
effect of the modelling, are said to be
sustained.
Sword. A sword is a common charge
in heraldry. In religious pictures angels
and archangels are frequently armed
with a sword of undulating blade, called
a flaming sword. At all periods of his­
tory, and in all centuries, the sword,
which is pre.-eminently the weapon of
valiance and noblesse, has been orna­
mented and enriched with all the re­
sources of decorative art.
Sycamore. (Her.) An
heraldic sycamore is a
piece of armour in the
shape of a barrel hoop.
T h e binding that fastens
the hoop and keeps it in a circular

386

SYM

form should be distinctly marked This
charge is, however, of very rare occur­
rence.
Sylvester, St. St. Sylvester was the
Bishop of Rome who is said to have been
instrumental in converting Constantine
to Christianity. In order to convince the
Empress Helena of the truth of the
Christian faith he restored to life a bull
which had been slain by a magician.
Hence a bull is his attribute in ar­
tistic representations, in which he
himself always appears in episcopal
vestments.
Symbol. A conventional representa­
tion of figures or objects, which are the
sign of an idea ; a figure is said to be
symbolic when it embodies certain
attributes and characterises an abstract
idea. For instance, we speak of a
figure symbolic of victory, the soul,
thought, &c. T h e attributes of music,
painting, sculpture, & c , have a sym­
bolic value.
Symbolism. T h e principle applied in
Gothic architecture, by which, in paint­
ing or sculpture, the virtues and vices
are represented under the form of
persons or fantastic animals. By t h e
term " symbolism of art " we under­
stand the conceptions peculiar to each
epoch, to each architectural style, in
which the beliefs of the people are
expressed.
Symmetry. A system of ornament, in
which the motives are reproduced exactly
on each side of an
jy$.
axis real or imagin­
ary passing throught
the centre of the
composition. In the
Gothic style abso­
lute symmetry can
scarcely be said to
exist. At one end
of the building, for
i
instance, there may be a belfry, at the
other a simple gable. Many church
doors are flanked by towers or bell
turrets of different styles, epochs, and

•η

SYS

ART

proportions. During the period of the
Renaissance,
and from that
period down to
the present day,
the
principles
of s y m m e t r y
have, as a rule,
been rigorously
applied to the façades of buildings.
Systyle. (Arch.) In ancient architecture a temple is said to be systyle
when the distance between any two of its
columns is one and a half times the
diameter of the columns.

T.
Tabernacle. (Arch.) A kind of small
compartment occupying the centre of an
altar and resembling a diminutive
chapel or temple.
In it is placed the
chalice with the
consecrated Host,
and it is terminated by a small
platform, on which stands a cross or
ostensoir.
Table. In architecture the term table
is applied to a horizontal moulding,
which marks the division between the
stories of the building. Tables receive
different names according to their position, e.z., bench table, corbel table, &c.
—, Altar. (Arch.) T h e horizontal
part of an altar, upon which are placed
the holy vessels and books, with which
the priest officiates.
—, Devil's.
A popular name for
dolmens (q.v.) and other so-called
Druidical remains.
—, Engraver's.
A table used by
ancient engravers as well as the woodcutters of modern times. Its peculiarity
is that it is hollowed out, as shown in
our cut. T h e engraver stands in the

DICTIONARY.

TAB

hollow, placing his elbows on the projecting
portions, which
serve as supports.
This
table is sometimes
furnished with a
projecting rim, which prevents the
engraver's tools from slipping off.
—, Model's. A kind of platform or
support, set upon short legs. It presents a considerable horizontal surface
raised above the ground and upon it
living models pose, especially for the
benefit of art students, who make studies
from the life.
Tables. (Paint.) In Latin the term
tabula was applied to an easel picture,

and in the Middle Ages painted panels
were often known as tables. Our cut is
from a fresco at Pompeii.
Tablet. A term applied to the square
oblong pigments, of varying thickness,
used in water-colour drawing. It also
denotes the small wax plates, which the
ancients used for writing upon with a
stilus.
—, Memorial. A tablet of stone,
marble or other material, upon which
a commemorative inscription is placed.
Houses in which
illustrious men were
born or lived are
sometimes, though
far too seldom in London marked with
a memorial tablet.

387

ART

TAB

DICTIONARY.

Tablinum. (Arch.) A small room in a
Roman house situated near the atrium,
in which the family archives were kept.
Tachiste. A term used in French art
criticism to denote those impressionists
who see no charm in a picture beyond
taches or strong touches of varying
colour and intensity, which are not
blended with the ground.
Taenia.
In the costume of the
ancients taenicz were the
ribands
which were twisted round the fillet
worn by priests and others. It was the
taenia which served to fasten the fillet.
As an architectural term taenia denotes
the fillet which, in the Doric order, separates the architrave from the frieze.
Tailpiece. (Engrav.) An engraving on
copper or on wood, or a
cliché of a wood block,
used to illustrate a book.
Tailpieces are as a rule
merely ornamental, and
are placed at the ends
of chapters.
Talaria.
A sort of sandal, ornamented with wings
fastened with
thongs to the feet
of Mercury, Perseus and
some
other mythological figures represented as flying through the air.
Talon. (Arch ) A moulding formed of
two arcs of circles, one convex, the
other concave: the first
is placed at the upper
part of the moulding,
the second at the lower
part. If the convex and
concave parts are reversed, it is called a reversed talon.

Talus. A

walls.

sudden slope
or inclination
in the ground ;
an obliquity in
the surface of
T h e talus of 45 degrees offers

38S

TAR

the most resistance, and it is this which
is most frequently employed in military
architecture.
Tan. A reddish brown colour, tinged
slightly with yellow.
Tanagra figures. Terra-cotta figures
made in ancient times at Tanagra in
Basotia.
Tanagra figures are very
delicate in execution and
of inexpressible charm.
Some are gilded, others
painted, and they are
highly prized by collectors. T h e finest of them
date from the 5th century
B.C., and are thus contemporary with the Elgin
marbles. T h e interest they
possess, as showing us of what the more
homely side of Greek sculpture was
capable at this period, can hardly be
overrated.
Tangent. A term applied in geometry
to a straight line, which has only
a point in common with a single
curve.
Tapestry. Tapestry may be defined
as painting in textile fabrics. In tapestry designs are obtained by interlacing
threads on lines stretched vertically or
horizontally so as to form arrangements
of lines and tints. It should be remembered that in tapestry there is no canvas
or other material to form a groundwork.
T h e groundwork is formed by the
coloured threads themselves.
The
purpose of tapestry is to cover wallspaces, and it should always be hung
loosely and not stretched as though
held in a frame. [High Warp ; Low
Warp.]
Targe. (Her.) [Shield].
Tarsia. An Italian word, which denotes a curious art practised in Venice
and some other Italian cities in the 15th
century. It was a kind of wood mosaic.
Landscapes and other scenes were
represented by inlaying woods of various colours upon a foundation of walnut
wood.

TAS

ART

DICTIONARY.

Tassel. An ornament which consists
of a hemispherical head or knob surrounded by a pendent
fringe.
T h e cords with
which curtains are held
back are generally terminated
in tassels, and
architectural
o r n a m e n t s
sometimes
resemble a tassel
in shape.
Tassets. A name given to the plates
of metal which, in a suit of armour, were

fixed on to leather and h u n g from the
waist.
They protected the hips and
thighs and scarcely hampered the movements of the wearer.
Taste. In the artist taste is the
quality which leads to the selection of
material best fitted for artistic expression and to the refined and delicate
treatment of the material selected.
In the amateur taste is the faculty
of distinguishing between true and false
art.
Tau. A sacred instrument used by
the Egyptians in the shape of the Greek
T. T h e term is also applied to an
heraldic charge in the form of a T,
which is really a cross potent, or, as it is
more usually called, St. Anthony's
cross.
Tazza. (Pot.) A cup of the shape

TEL

indicated in our illustration.

It had a

slender foot and two handles.
Technique. In painting and sculpture
the term technique denotes manipulative
skill, mastery of material and all those
qualities of hand and eye which contribute to the executive excellence of a
work of art. It has been the fashion of
late years to decry technique and to
attach too great a value to certain
gifts of literary invention. But as it is
an artist's business to be articulate in
his own medium, whether it be paint or
clay, it is quite certain that technique is
of far greater importance, and is dependent on far higher qualities of mind
than any knack of finding subjects or
portraying sentiment.
Telamones. (Arch.) Figures of men

used to support cornices or entablatures.

389

TEL

ART

DIC: TONARY.

They are also called Atlantes (q.v.), and
served the same purpose as the more
delicate and graceful caryatids.
Teleiconography. A method of reproducing drawings at a distance by
means of a series of currents transmitted
by telegraphic wires.
Tempera.
(Paint.) T e m p e r a is a
method of painting, in which dry colours
are diluted in glue or size.
Template. (Arch.) A piece of sheet
iron cut out to reproduce a moulding
reversed. When drawn along damp
plaster it gives a moulding in relief.

TEN

distance which exists between their
columns. When the distance between
the columns is one and a half times the
diameter of the column, the temple is
called pyenostyle ; when the distance is
two diameters it is called systyle; when
the distance is two and a quarter
diameters the temple is called eustyle ;
when the distance is three diameters,
diastyle; and araeostyle when the distance is more than three diameters,
Finally, it should be mentioned that as
a rule ancient temples were hypaethral,
that is, open to the sky.
Tender.
Light, delicate.
Bright,
fresh colours are called tender.
Tendril. T h e tendril of the vine affords
a charming motive for decoration. It is
used in architecture and frequently found
as an ornament on vases and other works

T h e term is also applied to the outlines
of sheet iron or wood, with the help of
which portions of stones are cut away,
so as to leave a moulding projecting.
Temple. (Arch.) A building consecrated to the worship of the gods
among the Greeks and Romans. Ancient temples, independently of their
dimensions and the purposes to which
they were put, may be subdivided of art. Our cut will give some idea of
according to the number of columns the free treatment of the tendril. It is
which decorated their façade. T h e tem- taken from a painted vase in the museum
ple was called tetrastyle, when it had four at Naples.
columns in its façade, hexastyle when
Tenebrosi. (Paint.) A school of painters
it had six, octastyle when it had eight, who worked principally at Venice, and
decastyle when it had ten, and dodeca- recognised Carravaggio as their leader.
style when it had twelve. A temple is Their effects were produced by strong
said to be in antis when the two ends of lights and shadows, and to this they
its façade are terminated with pilasters. owe their name.
When its façade is the same rear and
Tenières. A name given to pieces of
front it is termed amphiprostyle.
A tapestry, which were made in Brussels
peripteral temple has a colonnade run- in the 17th century, and the subjects of
ning all round its cella, while a dipteral which were suggested by the peasant
temple is characterised by a double scenes of Teniers.
colonnade. Yet another classification
Tenon. (1) (Arch.) A piece of iron, used
of ancient temples is possible. They to bind courses of stone or blocks of
may be classified according to the masonry which have to be held securely
390

TEN

ART

°f ^ β t w o k e "
S replaced by a
Λ
single pillar. Terminal
figures are frequently employed in
the decoration of parks and gardens,
while pillars surmounted by the upper
parts of tritons and naiads ornament
grottos and fountains.
Terra-cotta. (Sculp.) This material,
which is a baked clay, has always been
used by sculptors for their less important
works. Casts of statuettes are made in
clay, which is then baked. T h e process
has the advantage of being simple and
inexpensive, and it is well adapted for
the reproduction of small works. T h e
J— ^s. TSISW
^r^wj^gpr

^
in

TER

DICTIONARY.

together. Also a piece of iron or wood,
cut so as to make a solid joint.
Tenon. (2.) (Sculp.) A piece of stone or
marble which is not detached from a
statue, while it is being carved. It con­
solidates weak places, which the blows
of the hammer upon
the chisel might break.
Tenons are generally
removed by a saw,
when the statue is
finally placed upon
its pedestal. But if
violent movement is
expressed in a statue
it is more prudent to retain the
tenons for the support of the legs or
arms.
Terebinth. A liquid resinous sub­
stance. Essence of terebinth is a hydrocarbonate and is used to dissolve thick
matters, to clean paint brushes, and to
remove the varnish from plates, which
have been etched.
Terminal figures. Terminal figures
are busts placed upon stone pillars.
Sometimes the stone
pillars are terminated
by figures down to the
waist with or without
arms.
Sometimes,
though rarely, two ter­
minal figures are jux­
taposed,
the
lower

most celebrated terra-cottas known are
the Tanagra figures (q.v.).
T e r r a di Sienna. (Paint ) A kind of
earth used both in oil and water-colour
painting. It is of a cold yellowish tone,
when in its natural state, but when burnt
it acquires a warm useful tone. [Burnt
Sienna.]
Terra Verde. (Paint.) A useful and
permanent green pigment, which is found
in the form of an earth in Cyprus and in
Italy. Among its ingredients are silica
and oxide of iron.
Terrace. (Arch.) In the architecture
of gardens a terrace is an elevated walk,
rising by steps
above
the
ground in front
of it, or a plot
of ground laid
out in front of
a building, and
raised upon a
slope above the
general
level.
T h e term also denotes a horizontal roof,
which forms a raised platform above a
building. T h e upper storey of Roman
houses, which was called the solarium,
presents a good example of a terrace
of this sort. A wide space with a rail­
ing running round it is also called a

mits

terrace, and sometimes the term is ap­
plied to a row of uniform villas. In this
last instance the word appears to have
lost its true meaning.
Terre Plen. (Arch.) A French term
applied to a solid mass situated be391

TER

ART

tween the two arches of a bridge.

DICTIONARY.
Our

cut will sufficiently explain its purpose
and construction.
Tertiary colours. (Paint.) Colours are
called tertiary when they are produced
by the mixture of a primary and secondary colour, one of the colours being in
excess of the others. They are olive,
citrine, and russet.
Tesselated pavements. (Arch.) In
Rome pavements were frequently decorated with elaborate mosaics. Patterns
and pictures were made by an artistic
arrangement of variously coloured stones.
These pavements are called tesselated,
and are to be found wherever the Romans
pitched their camp. Fine specimens
exist in England and have from time to
time been unearthed with the villas of
which they formed part. T h e designs
are frequently decorative, but are sometimes pictorial. At Pompeii was found
an admirable representation of the battle
of Issus, a copy of a celebrated picture
by a lady artist named Helena. This,
perhaps the most famous tesselated
pavement, is now in the Naples Museum.
T h e best known examples in England
are at Brading, in the Isle of Wight, and
Bury, in Sussex.
Tessera. (Arch.) A small pebble, or
piece of glass or earthenware, used in
the making of tesselated pavements.
Testoon. (Numis.) A French coin in
circulation in the reign of Louis XII.
T h e term is derived from tête, a head,
and was applied to the coin in question
because it bore the king's head upon it.
From this was derived the English word
tester, meaning a sixpence.
Tetragram. A term denoting the
392

THE

mystic letters, placed in a triangle,
which stand for the name of God
Tetrahedron. A geometrical term,
denoting a solid figure, bounded by four
plane sides.
Tetrastyle. (Arch.) A temple is said
to be tetrastyle when its façade is ornamented with four columns.
Texture. (Paint.) A term applied to
the arrangement of neighbouring tones,
or different shades of the same colour
in alternation or juxtaposition. T h e
secret of the vibration of the greens in
Constable's landscapes results from the
fact that he gets his effect by a texture of
greens of different intensity. In another
sense texture denotes the quality of the
surface of draperies, &c. T h u s we say
that an artist is skilled in rendering
textures, when he clearly marks in his
pictures the varying qualities of the surfaces which he represents.
Thanatos. In Greek art of the best
period, and later, Thanatos, or Death, is
personified by a winged youth or man.
He was regarded as the brother of Hypnos,
or Sleep, and was shorn of all his terrors.
H e was usually represented as a boy,
but sometimes (as, for instance, on a lecythus in the British Museum) he is
bearded.
Theatre. (Arch.) A large building, in
which plays are presented. It is divided
into two portions, the auditorium, reserved for the spectators, and the stage,
reserved for the actors. Ancient the aires
were open to the sky. Modern theatres

are covered buildings, lighted by gas
or electricity.
T h e construction of
the theatre has undergone very slight
modifications. T h e auditorium is with

THE

ART

DIC UONARY.

us as it was with the ancients a semicircular series of seats, and the stage of
to-day, though of course its mechanical
appliances are far more elaborate than

of old, keeps quite close to the ancient
type. At the close of a scene or at the
end of a play a curtain is let down,
which shuts off the stage from the auditorium. T h e background of a scene
consists of a curtain, as shown in our
second cut, upon which the distances
are depicted ; the middle distance and
foreground , being indicated by wings.
T h e framework within which the scene

is set may be increased or diminished
in size by drawing up or letting down a
curtain fixed at the front of the stage.
T h e effect thus produced may be estimated from our third cut.
Theatrical. Painted or sculptured
figures are termed theatrical when their
attitude is unnatural or exaggerated.
For instance, a statue may be theatrical
in pose ; the rendering of a scene is said
to be theatrical when it lacks simplicity.
Thecla, St. St. Thecla was a maiden
of Anconium, and she became a Christian at hearing the preaching of St. Paul,
whom she is said to have followed on
some of his journeys. She was cruelly
persecuted on espousing the new faith,
but the lions, sent to devour her, spared
her life She spent many years in a desert
26

THO

in Seleucia, and she finally disappeared
in a rock, which opened behind her, when
she was being pursued by some " sons of
Belial." In art she is represented as holding a palm ; sometimes lions crouch at
her feet.
Thermse. (Arch.) T h e word thevmce.
originally meant hot springs ; then it
denoted hot baths ; and finally it became
a general word among the Romans for a
collection of baths included within one
building. T h e thevmce comprised numerous rooms, baths, and sweating rooms,
and frequently covered a large tract of
ground. [Baths.]
Thin. (Paint.) A term applied to a too
superficial treament, to a modelling
which lacks consistence, to the rendering of a body in a relief by tones which
lack solidity, or to the application of
colour in too fine layers.
Thistle. (Her.) T h e thistle has always
been the emblem of Scotland. T h e order
of the Thistle, which is
tfifMfr
supposed to be of very
|g|C
ancient origin, was reÂ&KH r<i
vived by James V. of ScotèÈ^fô|ir
land, and its statutes have
^^^^Π»·Λ»
been since several times modified by dif­
ferent sovereigns of the United Kingdom.
Thole. (Arch.) T h e keystone of a cu­
pola ; the cupola or dome itself.
Thomas, St. St. Thomas was that one
of the disciples of Jesus who, when Jesus
reappeared after the Crucifixion, de­
manded some proof that he was the
Lord. This doubting on the part of
Thomas has been the subject of many
pictures. When St. Thomas is repre­
sented alone, his attribute is commonly
a builder's square. This square alludes
to a curious legend, according to which
Thomas was sent to Gondofures, king of
the Indies, who wanted an architect to
build him a palace. Thomas, while the
king was away, did not build his palace,
but gave his money away in alms. On
his return, the king threw Thomas in
prison, but on being told in a vision that
Thomas by giving away his alms had

393

ART

THR

DICTIONARY.

built him a palace in heaven, he at once
released him And in allusion to this
quaint tradition St. Thomas is represented as carrying a square
T h r e e - q u a r t e r . (Paint.) A portrait is
said to be three quarter length when it
only shows the sitter as far as the hips
Technically the term is applied to portraits which measure thirty inches by
twenty-five.
Through-stone. (Arch.) A stone which
goes right through a wall, so that its ends
can be seen on either side.
Throwing. (Pot.) T h e most primitive
method of fashioning pots is what is
known as throwing, that is by shaping
the lump of wet clay with the hands
as it revolves on the wheel before the
potter.
Thrust. (Arch.) T h e force exerted by
an arch or vault upon a pier. T h e purpose of the flying
buttress in Gothic
//"W
architecture is to
r ùw
counteract the thrust
of the vaults of the
nave, and the skill of
the French architects
of the 12th and 13th
centuries consisted in giving a feeling
of decoration to the masses of masonry
indispensable to the stability of a
building.
Thunder-bolt. T h e attribute of Zeus.
It assumes the form of a long kind of
spindle, from which proceed zigzag rays,
pointed like arrow-heads.
Thurible. A
vessel containing
incense,
which is suspended
by
chains
and
swung in the
processions of
the Catholic
Church.

TIE

with vine-branches or ivy and terminated by a pine-cone. It was
the attribute of Bacchus and
his followers, whether priests
or priestesses. According to
some authorities the thyrsus
ending in a javelin point represented the deceit of a combatant, who sought to hide his
arms under flowing ribbons,
while the thyrsus surmounted
by a pine-cone symbolised
peaceful life. T h e Egyptians,
Phoenicians, Greeks, and even the Jews
carried thyrsi in their religious ceremonies.
Tiara. A headdress
worn by the kings of
Persia and also by the
Jews. Our cut shows
a royal tiara as it is
still worn in Persia.
T h e term tiara is also
applied to the triple
crown worn by the Pope.
Tibia. A wind instrument
made
of
reed, wood, or the shin-bone of an
animal. T h e r e were in use among the
ancients several kinds of tibiae, but they

L·

|fc=y

'rf

SZ_

=o<!

all had points of similarity, and were
provided with holes for the fingers.
Tibicen. A Roman word denoting
a player on the flute.
Tie-beam. (Arch.)
A term applied to
the horizontal piece «*S|p
of wood in a roof. *
In Gothic buildings, in which the timber-

Thyrsus. A
kind of staff or javelin,

394

surrounded

work of the roof is apparent- the tie-

TIE

ART

DICTIONARY.

beams are decorated, at the ends set into
the walls, with carvings, which generally
take the forms of the heads of fantastic
animals.
Tierce-point. (Arch.) The point of intersection of two pointed arches.
Tige. (Arch.) In some systems of ornament the term tige is applied to cylindrical branches, from
which foliage emerges.
Sometimes the tige,
slightly swelling at the
end or spreading out
into a bud, is decorated with flutings or striae ; sometimes
its surface is unbroken.
Tight. (Paint.) A painting is said
to be tight, when it is handled without
breadth or freedom, when the outlines
are harshly denned and abruptly cut off
from the background.
Tile. (Arch.) A square of burnt earth
used in roofing houses. Tiles of convex
form are placed at the ridge of a roof !
and known as ridge-tiles (q.v.). Some j
tiles are varnished and coloured, and by
means of these roofs may be decorated

TIN

they are triangular or in the shape of a
lozenge, hexagon, or octagon ; they are
then capable of very varied combinations.
Tile, Gutter. A hollow tile placed at
the angle formed by
the intersection of
two roofs inclined
in opposite directions, and serving
to carry off rain
water.
Sometimes
plates of lead or zinc are used instead
of tiles.
—, Hanging. (Arch.) A tile rounded
or cut to a sharp
point,
principally
used to cover turrets or circular roofs.
In the Middle Ages
ridge tiles were largely used to protect the
beams of
timberbuilt houses from the
effects of rain water.
'"'" *&'fi
They are still sonaetimeb put to this
use.
Tilting lance. A lance with a broad,
blunt point, which was used in tourna-

with geometrical designs. Roman temples were sometimes covered with bronze
tiles laid side by side, while the roofs
of Chinese temples generally consist
of tiles of coarse porcelain painted
green or yellow. T h e term tile is also
applied to plaques of marble, stone,

ments, not to inflict mortal injuries, but
simply to dislodge an opponent from the
saddle.
Tincture. (Her.) In heraldry the term
tincture is used as a general expression
for the colouring of a
shield and includes all the
three terms, colour, metal,
or earthenware, sometimes decorated, and fur. There are five
sometimes with a uniform surface, colours, azure or blue,
which are used to cover walls or pave- shown by lines drawn
ments. As a rule they are either square horizontally across the
or rectangular.
Sometimes, however, shield ; gules or red, shown by verti-

395

TIN

ART

DIC 10NARY.

TOM

cal lines ; vert or green, shown by across the body, then thrown over the
diagonal lines downwards from dexter
to sinister; pur pur e or purple, shown
by diagonal lines downwards from
sinister to dexter ; sable or black, shown
by horizontal vertical lines crossing
each other. T h e r e are two metals, or
and argent, or gold and silver. Argent
is represented by a perfectly plain shield ;
or by a plain field powdered with dots.
T h e r e are eight furs, descriptions of
which will be found under their respective names : ermine, ermines, erminois ; peau ; vair, counter-vair ; potent,
counter-potent. T h e accompanying cut
shows a sable on an argent on an azure
shield.
Tint. (Paint.) A light shade ; also the
colour which results from the mixture
of several colours ; the application of
a particular colour with varying intensity.
Tinted. (Paint.) Covered with a
tint, uniformly covered with a light left shoulder, until it reached the ground
behind.
shade.
Tomb. (Arch.) A monument erected
Tinting Tool. (Engrav.) A tool used
by engravers on copper as well as over the spot where the remains of a dead
on wood to cut lines of different man lie. Tombs vary in form according to their style and epoch. Egyptian
and Roman tombs sometimes cover
a large extent of ground. In the Middle
Ages tombs often assumed the form
breadths. They vary in size according of small buildings; they were then
to the purpose for which they are re- either attached to the outside wall
quired
of a church or placed in a chapel in
T i s s i e r o g r a p h y . A process of relief the interior. During the Renaissance,
engraving invented by Louis Tissier be- tombs were decorated with pilasters,
tween 1831 and 1839, by means of which columns or entablatures and equestrian
drawings with pen or pencil, or tracings statues, and were sometimes important
on autographic paper, may be printed constructions. In the 17th and 18th centuries the tombs of illustrious men were
typographically.
conceived in an exquisite spirit of decoraTo-fall. (Arch.) (Lean-to.)
Toga. (Cost.) T h e characteristic dress tive art. In the beginning of the preof the Roman citizen. It underwent sent century, the neo-Greek style premany changes of form, and, not being a vailed. Tombs were then often pyrarigid garment, was capable of an infinite midal in shape, and were decorated with
They were generally invariety of folds. But generally it was an bas-reliefs.
oblong piece of cloth, which enveloped artistic and almost always ridiculous.
the body. One end of it was then brought T h e revival of sculpture in the present
from behind under theright arm, passed 1 day will no doubt have the effect of im390

TOM

ART

TOR

DICTIONARY.

proving the public taste in monuments
in honour of the dead.
Tombstone. A term applied to blocks
of stone, which
cover or stand at
the end of tombs.
Tombstones in
the Middle Ages
were sometimes
decorated with
incised designs
of much richness, and when
they represented
persons of rank
or
distinction,
the faces, hands,
and armorial bearings were incrusted
with marble.
Tonality. (Paint.) A collection of
tones subordinated to one dominant tone.
A vigorous tonality. A picture painted
in a violet tonality.
Tone. (Paint.) T o n e is denned by
some writers as the variations of a colour
or tint, which are produced by its admixture with white and black. It keeps
the same hue and becomes lighter and
darker. T h e term is also applied to the
brilliance, the intensity of tint, the dominant effect, observable in the colours
of a picture. T h u s we speak of warm
tones, cold tones, energetic tones, &c.
—, Local. A term applied to the general
tone covering a surface, the modelling
which is obtained by means of dark
touches, representing the shades, and
light touches, indicating the light.
—, Neutral. A term applied to a scale
of broken tones, which, precisely on
account of their neutrality, give an additional value to other brighter tones or
colours.
Toned down. (Paint.) Colours are
said to have toned down when with age
they have become lower in tone and
more sombre than they were when freshly
laid on.
Toothing. (Arch ) T h e demolition of a
piece of masonry so as to bind more I

solidly together a portion already constructed with a
portion still in
course of construction. T h e
term
Toothing
stone is applied
to the stones
left uneven or
toothed in or^ H ^ I ^
der to facilitate
the binding of two portions of a wall
built at different dates.
Tooth O r n a m e n t . (Arch.) A system
of ornament in the
sii.**.
form of a series of
pointed teeth. It is
peculiar to the Romanesque and early
Pointed style.
Topaz. A precious stone of a yellow
tone. T h e burnt topaz is somewhat
darker.
Topia. (Paint.) A term applied by
Vitruvius to a landscape of a purely
decorative and conventional character,
many florid specimens of which have
been discovered at Pompeii.
Topographic. A map or plan representing the form of a country with all its
details is termed topographic.
Toque. T h e headdress
worn in former times by
the Doge of Venice. T h e
ducal toque was richly
ornamented and had ear
pieces.
In
France the
term was applied to the black velvet
cap, surmounted by eagles'
feathers, which the imperial
noblesse wore before 1815.
Torchère. An allegorical
figure holding a torch, lamp,
or candle. T h e name is
given to vases of metal
which have a handle and in
the interior of which some
inflammable substance is
put, which on combustion
produces an intense flame. Also to the
397

TOR

ART

DICTIONARY.

TOW

supports of delicate shape, upon which which have an elliptic profile or a profile
candelabra are placed.
made up of two arcs of a circle, cutting
Toreuma. T h e name given by the one another at a right angle. In meancients to bas-reliefs executed in metal diaeval buildings archivolts often consist of one or more tori separated from
and chased.
Toreutic. (Sculp.) Among the Greeks each other by small angular mouldand Romans the term toreutic was ings.
Touch. (Paint.) T h e method in which
applied to the chasing, carving, and
boring of hard substances, such as ivory, the colours are laid on the surface of the
canvas by the painter. We speak of
stone or silver.
Torsade. A French term denoting a a light touch, a want of touch, or a
system of ornament in imitation of a square t o u c h ; it may be said that the
modelling is indicated by a few skilful
touches.
Tourelle. (Arch.) A tower of small
diameter runing up the height of a building, in which a circular staircase is genertwisted cable ; also a twisted fringe, ally placed. [Turret.]
Tourmaline. A hard stone formed of a
used as a border for curtains, draperies,
silicate with a base of limestone or mag&c.
Torso. T h a t portion of a human figure nesia, and containing boric acid and
which includes the shoulders, veins, and fluor. It is sometimes colourless, somebreast. T h e term is times of a dark green or brown red, comgenerally applied to ing very near to black.
Tournure. T h e characteristic asa statue deprived of
head and arms. T h e pect of a drawing ; grace or grandeur of
" torso of the Belve- line.
Tower. (Arch.) A building of great
dere " which was discovered at Rome at height in proportion to its breadth with a
the end of the 15th circular, polygonal, or square base. T h e
/ *?y ILriÉ^" c e n t u r y > a n d is now towers of castles serve as a donjon, to
I , A _ _ J ^ - preserved in the Mu- connect curtains and to protect the angle
seum of the Vatican,
and the " torso Farnese," now at Naples,
are two admirable fragments of ancient
sculpture
Torus. (Arch.) A moulding of convex
profile.
This profile is generally a

of a fortified enclosure. In the 12th
century towers were square ; in the 13th
ijrHl/llliH^ they were circular ; from the 14th to the
16th century they nearly approached the
semicircle. In buildings of the Gothic square, especially when they were donstyle, however, we sometimes find tori jons. T h e clock towers of churches are

398

TOW

ART

DICTIONARY.

called towers, when their base is square,

their

upper

stories

polygonal,

TRA

many objects of domestic use.
The
clock case in our cut is a somewhat florid

and

when they do not terminate in a pyramid.
Tower, Clock. (Arch ) T h e tower of a
castle or church in which a clock is
placed. Its face generally serves as
an opportunity for decoration.
Tracer. An instrument consisting of
two flat pieces of metal, the ends of
which are made to approach
one another by means of a
screw. T h e tracer is dipped
in ink and is used to draw instance of tracery applied to wood
lines of uniform thickness. carving.
Tracing. A mechanical reproduction
Some tracers are used to
draw straight lines; they are of a drawing. Tracings are indispensable
then provided with a handle, to an engraver if he wishes his print to
which can be unscrewed ; or be an exact reproduction of the original
the tracers may be adapted to work. Sometimes also an artist will
a compass, in which case they draw trace a first sketch when he finds in it
certain qualities which he can only recurved lines and arcs of circles.
Tracery. (Arch.) A term applied to a produce by this mechanical means.
kind of ornament found in the upper There are several methods of obtaining
part of Gothic windows. It is geometric tracings. A simple method is to place
in pattern, and it has been applied to the drawing, assuming it to be on paper^
399

ART

TRA

DICTIONARY.

against a window pane, and to set over
it a sheet of thin paper. T h e lines
of the drawing will then appear
through and if they are followed with
a pencil an exact reproduction will
be obtained. A similar, but more
convenient method is by the use of
transparent
paper,
called
tracing
paper. T h e original drawing can then
be laid on the table or on a drawingboard, and the lines followed with pen
or pencil on the tracing paper. Another
method is by the use of blackened
paper, which is laid with its blackened face downwards on a sheet of
white
paper,
the drawing
being
placed above the blackened
paper.
By lightly pressing with a blunted
steel or ivory style on the lines of
the drawing, the black is transferred
to the white paper below, and the
drawing is reproduced. This method,
though extremely easy, has the disadvantage of spoiling the original drawing.
T h e method generally employed by engravers is as follows: A sheet of gelatine'
paper is laid upon the drawing which can
be seen through the gelatine; the engraver follows the lines of the drawing
with a sharp point which cuts into the
gelatine, so that the lines of the drawing j
are represented by little canals in t h e
gelatine paper. T h e whole sheet of
gelatine is then dusted over with
black powder which remains in the I
depressions when the plane surface
is wiped. T h e tracing thus prepared
is laid face downwards on the wood
to be engraved, and either the -hand
or a burnisher passed over it, so as |
to transfer the lines of black powder
to the block. T h e engraver thus has
on his block an inverse of the original drawing, so that consequently the
print will face the same way as the
original.

TRA

given the luminous point in relation

to this body.
Trajan's Column. (Arch.) A column set
up in the Forum by the Emperor Trajan to celebrate his victory over the
Dacians. ^E.sthetically it is not a supremely beautiful object, but it is very
valuable as a record of costume and
weapons, being decorated with reliefs
representing the military life of the
Romans. A cast of it may be seen at the
South Kensington Museum.
Tranquil. A work, which is executed
in a quiet, harmonious tonality, may be
termed tranquil. T o produce a tranquil effect all striking notes in a picture
must be softened, and its brilliant lights
must be extinguished.
Transemaux. This barbarous term
was proposed by M. Salvetat, to denote
transparent faïence enamels, while he
suggested opemaux to mean opaque
enamels.
Transept. (Arch.) T h e smaller arms

Tracing of Shadows. A tracing the
purpose of which is to determine the
precise form of cast shadows and
the luminous parts of a body having | in the crossing of a Gothic church are
400

TRA

ART

DICTIONARY.

called transepts, one of them being to­
wards the south, the
other
towards
the
north. Some churches
have a double set of
transepts.
Transition. (Arch.) T h e term trans­
ition is applied to an architectural style
which possesses the characteristics of two
styles, one of which is gradually giving
way to the other. In English archi­
tecture, for instance, there is a period of
transition, when the Norman style is giv­
ing way to the Early English, another
when the Decorated style is taking the
place of the Early English, and a third
when the Perpendicular is supplanting
the Decorated.
Transom. (Arch.) A horizontal bar or
mullion in a window. Transoms are
sometimes quite plain, sometimes deco­
rated with simple mouldings.
Trap. (Arch.) An opening in a floor or
ceiling, which is closed either by a grat­
ing or by a shutter.
Trapezium. A quadrilateral figure, in
which two sides are parallel and all the
sides unequal. A solid figure is called a
trapezohedron, when each
\
/ of its faces is a trapezium.
^—
'
A particular form of this
solid figure has twenty-four faces present­
ing the appearance of symmetrical
quadrilateral figures.
Travertino. (Arch.) A kind of limestone,
which was used by the Romans for build­
ing purposes and highly prized by them.
It is a very hard stone, is white when
freshly cut, and tones down to a yellow
with age and exposure. It was quarried
by the ancient Romans a t T i b u r , whence
it was called Lapis Tiburtinus,
Traver­
tino being its modern name.
Tread. (Arch.) T h e horizontal part of
a step, upon which the foot rests.
Treasury. (Arch.) A small isolated
building, chapel, or sacristy, belonging
to a Gothic church, in which relics and
sacred vessels made of the precious
metals were kept.

TRE

Treat. (Paint.) T o treat, in painting, is
to express or represent in a certain way.
For instance, we speak of a subject
treated with spirit, a figure badly treated,
a group happily treated.
Trefoil. (Arch.) A system of ornament
in vogue in the Gothic style, which con­
sisted of three foils
"" ,,,,^.ι••>.. ~or portions of a
~
circle. Some tre­
foils are simple,
some are compo­
site, that is to say,
other trefoils are inscribed within them.
It also occurs as a charge in heraldry ;
in this case it may be
described as the threeleaved grass, having a
small stalk.
Our cut
may be thus described:
Argent, three trefoils,
gules, one over two.
Trellis. (Arch.) A garden decoration
consisting of vines or creepers, trailing
over walls or vaults. In the 12th and

following centuries vaults were built in
gardens and covered with trellis-work.
From the 16th century onwards the
principle of trellis was applied to archi­
tecture, and at that period porticoes,

covered with richly decorated lattice­
work, to which the term trellis was
applied, were quite common.
401

ART

TRE

DICTIONARY.

Tresse. (Arch.) A system of ornament,
either flat or convex. It consists of
bandelettes (q.v.)
intertwined.
In
the
romanesque
style tori (q.v.) are
frequently decorated with tresses.
Tressure. (Her.) A French heraldic
term, denoting a narrow orle (q.v.). T h e
tressure is frequently met with in coatsof-arms, and may be either simple or
double, fleuronnée or fleurdelisée.
Triangle. A geometrical figure having
three sides and three angles. A rightangled triangle is a triangle which has
a right angle ; in an equilateral triangle

[Ν,

Α Δ Κ

the three sides and the three angles are
equal ; an isosceles triangle has two
equal sides ; and a scalene triangle has
three unequal sides.
Triangular. T h a t which has three
sides or is in the form of a triangle.
Tribune. (Arch.) A semicircular seat
always found in Roman basilicse ; in all
styles of architecture, a raised gallery,

supported by columns or arches; a
passage made in the thickness of the wall
in Gothic build­
ings and bounded
by pierced balus­
trades. T h e term
is also applied
sometimes to the
platform
in a
rood - loft, from
which discourses
were delivered.
Some authors give the name tribune
402

TRI

to the galleries running round the lan­
tern, which terminates a dome. Gene­
rally any raised place or rostrum, from
which speeches are made, may be de­
scribed as a tribune.
Tricky. A work of art is said to be
tricky when its effect is produced not
by the means proper to the art itself,
but by ficelle (q.v ) or sleight of hand.
Triclinium. (Arch.) T h e dining-room
of a Roman house. It was so-called
from the fact that it contained three
seats arranged round a table, there being
room on each seat for three persons to
recline.
Trident. A three-pronged fork. Nep­
tune is always represented
armed with a trident. It is
also the attribute of the
gods of the sea, such as
Tritons, Nereids, & c , who
are represented in mytho­
logical scenes or as deco­
rative groups on fountains, &c
Triforium. (Arch.) A gallery immedi­
ately above the nave in a basilica or
church. Some­
times the tri­
forium
occu­
pies the whole
breadth of the
aisles ;
some­
times it is only
a narrow gal­
lery, set against
the roof of the
nave. T h e pur­
pose of this vaulted gallery is to serve
as a flying buttress to counterbalance
the thrust of the central vault.
Triglyph. (Arch ) A
system of ornament,
found in the frieze of
the Doric order. It
consists of a project­
ing piece pierced by
three narrow flutings
or glyphs. T h e frieze
of the Doric style
is made up of alternate metopes and

TRI

ART

TRO

DICTIONARY.

triglyphs, and in Greek temples the
angle of the entablature is strengthened
by two triglyphs, one on each face. In
Roman Doric buildings, however, the
angles are formed by two demi-metopes,
and the triglyphs are always placed at
the axis of the column.
Trilith. [Lichaven.]
Trilobé. (Arch.) A system of ornament consisting of three cusps or lobes
It is also called trefoil. It was constantly employed in
buildings
of
the
Gothic style from

schools painted a very large number of

triptychs. T h e doors or leaves were
generally painted on both sides, as well
as the central panel.

Triquetra. A
the 12th to the 16th century. Examples
of mullions and arcades in the form of
trilobés are very common.
Trimmer. (Arch.) A piece of wood,
in which the joists of a plank are held
fast.
Tripod. T h a t which has three feet.
A term applied to table lamps or incense-burners, which stood upon three
feet.
T h e most famous tripod in

ancient times was the seat with three
legs, upon which the priestess of Apollo
sat to declare the oracle at Delphi. In
consequence of this the tripod was the
attribute of Apollo.
Triptych. A picture painted on a
panel and covered by two leaves, which
turn on hinges. Some triptychs are
painted with bas-reliefs painted and
gilded. Some of the finest triptychs in
existence we owe to Rubens, while the
early masters of Italian and German

mystical
ornament, sometimes
found as a motive in architectural decoration.

Triumphal
Arch. [Arch,
Triumphal.]
Trochilus. (Arch.) A moulding with a
concave outline, which generally separates two tori or convex mouldings. T h e
trochilus is a special variety of the
scotia (q.v.).
Trophy. A decoration consisting of a
group of arms, bound together with
ribands and hung from a wall. Mural
surfaces are frequently decorated with
painted or
sculptured
trophies.
The
term

trophy is also applied to a group of
attributes of the chase, thus we speak

403

TRO

ART

DICTIONARY.

of a trophy of the chase. T h e practice
of setting up a trophy in commemoration
of a victory dates from very early times.
After a battle the ancients set up
trophies, which consisted of the arms
and spoils taken from the vanquished.
In modern times trophies, consisting of
flags, &c, are put up in churches.
Trowel. A trowel consists of a triangle with a rounded end fitted on to a
handle. It is used by masons to spread
the plaster between the courses.
A
small trowel is used to mark the joints
^ ± between the stones or
jjËtâ&P bricks in a piece of
^^yfj ^
masonry. Painters use
a
s\^0^
palette knife shaped
t-"""^
like a trowel to spread
the ground over a canvas, and to put in
those parts of a picture, which by their
rough execution are intended to present
a contrast to the more carefully finished
parts.
True. This piece of French artistic
slang is almost synonomous with ficelle
(q.v.), but it refers rather to the method
than to the means of execution. It
does not differ greatly from the English
word, " knack." An artist is said to have
the " true," when h e possesses a special
knowledge of the details of his art, and
can grasp at once the method in which
a thing is to be done.
Truculent. Brutal and lively at the
same time. Thus bright fresh colours,
which do not lack harmony, but are
laid on with a vigorous hand, are termed
truculent.
Truite. (Pot.) A term used by Jacquemart and other French writers on
the Ceramic art to denote a fine
crackle which is found on some pieces
of Chinese porcelain. T h e name is
given to these pieces of porcelain because their surface resembles the scales
of a trout.
Truncated. Any solid figure is said to
be truncated when its upper part is cut
off parallel to its base. Oar cut gives
a n example of a truncated pyramid.
404

T-SQ

| Pedestals are frequently cut into the
shape of truncated
^-—%^
! pyramids, their up/^S$[8?f*V
per part present- /
fflMW^
ing a smooth hori- /
||M\i\l^P^^
ι zontal surface.
^^J^Jn^^^^
Trunk-light. (Arch.) [Abat-jour]
I Truqueur. A truqueur is an artist who
j fraudulently
manufactures
pictures,
j drawings, or the autographs of famous
men, and attempts to entrap amateurs
into buying his forgeries as if they
were genuine. T h e art of trucage has
made immense strides in our own days.
T h e truqueur visits Greece to collect
scraps of Parian marble, which he
converts into bas-reliefs of the 5th
century, and studies the arts of all
nations and ages with an intelligence
worthy of better things than his fraudu­
lent employment.
Truss. (Arch.) A term applied to the
pieces of timber or iron which support
the ridge of a roof,
.
through the intermeJjjk
diation of longituJJLI%
dinal pieces called
>|Ρ1Η^
purlins, placed parfffl i 1|λ
allei to one another.
ml
1 1|V
T h e truss of a man- JSjË
i
m,
sard roof assumes a ^ 4 g a s & z a s ^ ^
particular form.
It ΒΓ
* Λ* ji
may best be de­
scribed as a truss of the usual shape,
inscribed in a triangle, as low as possible,

the whole of which would be raised by
means of strut beams.
T-square. A T-square consists of a
flat rule placed at right angles to a piece
of wood which is grooved, so that it
may be applied to the edge of a drawing
board. If this part of the square be
moved along with the left hand, the flat
rule allows the draughtsman to draw
horizontal lines, which are absolutely

TUB

ART

DICTIONARY.

parallel, provided that the edge of the
drawing-board is perfectly straight. T h e
branches of some T-squares are moveable, so that oblique parallels may be
drawn.
Perpendicular lines may be

TUR

cone or hillock. In the remotest ages of
antiquity, tumuli were raised as tombs

or commemorative monuments. There
are still in existence many Celtic tumuli.
Etruscan tombs generally consist of a
sub-basement of masonry, with a cone of
earth built on the top of it, which is
sometimes of large dimensions, and
planted with trees.
Tunic. (Cost.) A garment, in shape
something like a blouse, worn by the
ancients under the toga. In Greece
travellers, artisans, and the like wore a
tunic without any
garment to cover
it.

obtained by placing a set square on
the horizontal rule. When once the
management of the T-square is mastered
the execution of architectural and
geometrical drawings is much facilitated.
Tube. (Paint.) A small cylinder of tin,
one of the ends of which is closed by a
screw top of the same metal. T h e other
end is folded over when the tube has
Turitulum. A
been filled with pounded moveable censer
colour, reduced to the state into which inof a soft paste. By unscrew- c e n s e
was
ing the top and squeezing thrown by the
the tube, the amount of hand. Sometimes
colour which the artist it was an open
needs may be obtained. grate, as shown
in our cut, somet i m e s it m o r e (
closely resembled ,
the modern thurible.
Turret. (Arch.) A small tower, circuTubes of a considerable size are made
to hold colours used in oil-painting. In lar or polygonal in form, found in Gothic
former times oil colours were kept in
small pigs' bladders folded in the shape
of a purse. T h e colour was pressed
from the bladder on the palette by
pricking the bladder with a pin.
Tufa. A kind of red sandstone which
is soft as a rule, and not very durable.
It was used by the early builders of
Rome, because it could be split off into
square blocks without any cutting, a
wedge only being used.
Tumulus. A term applied to a mass
of earth or stones in the form of a small and Renaissance buildings, in which is a

405

ART

TUS

DICTIONARY.

staircase or small retreat, often elaborately decorated.
Sometimes
they
spring from the surface of the ground,
sometimes they are corbelled out and
project beyond the wall of a building.
Tuscan. (Arch.) An order of architecture of the Etruscan style, called also
the Rustic order. It was employed on
the ground floor of some Roman buildings, such as the theatre of Marcellus.
This order, which is
described by Vitruvius, is nothing but a
degenerate
reproduction of the Greek
Doric order.
The
Tuscan order, according to Vignole,
differs only from the Doric order in
being less elegant, as far as its proportions are concerned.
Tusses. (Arch.) Stones placed one
above the other, so as to form alternate
projections and hollows. Their purpose is to bind together the old and
new portions of a
wall which has been
extended. T h e term
is also applied to
the projecting stones
in a belting-course,
placed at the inside
angle of two walls, in order to increase
their cohesion.
Tympanum. (Arch.) T h e triangular
space included between the cornice and
the sloping sides of a
^
pediment. T h e term
is also applied to the
triangle or kind of es-

É

coinson circumscribed by an archivolt,
an entablature and a pilaster. These
406

ULT

tympana of arches are sometimes decorated with bas-reliefs, paintings, or

mosaics.
It also denotes the field
bounded by the haunches of the arch
and the springing-line of the arch above
the doorways of Gothic churches.
Tynes. (Her.) T h e name given by
heralds to the small branches that project from the antlers of
a stag. It is not generally necessary to specify
the number of tynes.
T h e full antlers attached
to a small portion of the
skull, as here shown, are sometimes
borne as a separate charge.
Type. A term applied in art to a
figure of a precise and strongly marked
character. T h u s we speak of a type of a
beautiful woman, a type of a beggar. In
numismatics an historical or symbolic
figure upon a coin is called a type.
Typical. T h a t which has the character
or distinguishing marks of a type.
Typography. T h e art of printing by
means of characters or types in relief.
Relief engravings, whether in zinc, copper, or wood, may be printed by the typographic process at the same time as
letterpress set up in moveable type.
Typolithography. T h e art of printing
on the same page lithograph drawings
and printer's type.

u
Ultramarine. A pigment of a beautiful
azure blue, which is valuable for its intensity. It was formerly obtained by the
calcination of lapis lazuli, but it is nowadays artificially prepared by mixing
kaolin, sodium, and sulphur.

UMB

ART

DICTIONARY.

UNG

and was employed until the 9th century
and as late as the 12th century for the

Umber. (Paint.) Umber is found in a
native state, and is a mixture of iron and
manganese. T h e pigment derived from
it is of an olive brown colour when in a
raw state, but it acquires a reddish tint
when it is burnt. Umbers, both raw
and burnt, are useful pigments and permanent alike in oil and water.
books of the Church. I n the 9th century
Umbo. T h e point or cone, which pro- uncials were sometimes replaced by
jects from the centre of a shield. In demi-uncials, and in the 10th century,
ancient times umbo some- manuscripts being executed in small
times denoted the whole
shield. Round Italian shields
of the time of the Renais
sance, which were only displayed on parade, were decorated with umbos in the letters, a much less tedious process,
form of Medusa's head. In uncials were no longer employed except
oriental shields round the in titles and the headings of chapters.
central umbo, several smaller ones are
Undé. (Her,) [Wavy.]
found of engraved and damascened
Undercroft.
A chapel or chamber
steel.
below a church. T h e undercroft is
Umbrella. A white linen umbrella is frequently the most ancient part of a
one of the indispensable accessories of church, as it is, for instance, at Ripon
artists who make studies in the open Cathedral.
Undulating Moulding. An ornament
air. T h e umbrella generally has a long
handle, with an iron point at the end consisting of curves alternately concave

SHSN

and convex. This decorative moulding
is frequently met with in buildings of
the Romanesque style.
Unguentarium. (Pot.) A small vase or
bottle, which contained
the oil used by athletes
in the bath, or perfumes
and scents. T h e un-

which may be driven into the ground.
T h e handle is made in pieces, so that it
may be bent in all directions, and always keep the artist, and the canvas
upon which he is at work, in the shade,
whatever be the position of the sun.
Uncial. A term applied in manuscripts
to initials or texts, consisting of capital
letters, sometimes richly ornamented
and gilded. Uncial writing took the
placa of capitals in Greek manuscripts, guentarium

was generally simple in form

407

UNH

ART

DIC ^IONARY.

VAL

and not often provided with a foot, as mented with godroons (q.v.) and mounted
is one of those engraved here.
on a foot, the outline of which recalls an
Unhewn. Blocks of stone, rough and Attic base placed on a square plinth.
rugged as they were when brought from
Ursula, St. According to the very
the quarry, are said to be unhewn.
curious legend St. Ursula was a princess
Unicorn. A fabulous animal, with a of Brittany, who in the company of eleven
horn in its brow, which figures as a thousand virgins visited the shrines of
charge in heraldry the saints at Rome. On their return
^ ^ ^
and sometimes as they were all cruelly put to death at
<^*<j?V
an
architectural Cologne by the Huns, who were at that
y
Jb / ^
ornament. In he- time besieging that town. T h e events
^ 3 ^
^ - - T O W raldry it is gene- of her life have been treated by many
** ^ ^ c ? A ''WWt> r a ^ v
represented artists and she is very often represented
ί^<2ΐ·
passant ; it is said as surrounded with young girls, whom
xfjirjf
to be salient, when she shelters beneath her cloak. She is
it stands on its regarded as the patroness of schoolgirls.
hind legs ; and in defence, when its horn Her own attributes are the crown, the
pilgrim's staff, and the arrow, with which
is lowered in a horizontal position.
Unity. A work of art is said to possess she was slain. T h e most famous pic­
unity when all its parts are so arranged tures dealing with events in the life of
that they produce an harmonious effect, St. Ursula are by Hans Memling, and are
and when the eye of the spectator is not on the shrine at Bruges which contains
her relics.
irritated by meaningless detail.
Urceolate. (Arch.) A term applied to
capitals which are narrow at the bottom
and swell towards the middle, and be­
come still larger at the top.
Urceus. A name given to ancient
Vair. (Her.) One of the furs employed
vases which have handles.
in heraldry. It consists of a series of
Urn. A peculiar form of ancient vase small bells, upright and inverted, ar­
with a narrow neck and swelling body ranged in rows. All the
and generally of large dimensions. T h e r e upright bells are of one g | Ξ ^ g
are cinerary urns, in which the ashes of tincture and so arranged f L J Ì B L J l l
the dead were placed, as well as Bacchic that their bases rest on f^ff^
/^Γ|
urns or craters. T h e body and handles the bases of the inverted I B I
jggj
of the urn were generally decorated with bells which are all of an- * ^ Ρ % ^ = ^
other tincture, whereas in
τ**·
counter-vair (q.v.) inverted and upright
bells of the same tincture are placed
base to base.
.Valley. (Arch.) T h e angle formed by

v.

bas-relief and rich ornamentations. A
special kind of narrow-necked urn was
used in ancient times to receive voting
papers. In the present day the term
urn is applied to vases of earthenware
or metal with a circular body, orna408

the intersection of two roofs inclined in
opposite directions.
Value. (Paint.) Value is the force or

VAN

ART

Dh TIONARY.

importance of any given tint or local hue
in any given condition of distance and
atmosphere. Thus a tint of orange becomes modified in the value of the orange
as it recedes into bluish, greyish, or
yellowish atmosphere, and the value of
the local colour of flesh is always affected by change, as the surface is acted
upon by the light at different angles.
T o put it briefly, value is the modification of colours by the action of light, air,
and distance.
Vandalism. T h e destruction or ruin
of works of art. T h e term was originally
applied to the destruction of works of
art by the Vandals, a German people
who laid waste Rome, Gaul, Spain, and
Africa in the first centuries of the Christian era. T h e expression is now used
generally to denote any action whereby
art suffers. For instance the useless or
clumsy restoration of a picture is an act
of vandalism.
Vanishing point. T h e vanishing point
in a picture is that point in which all the

imaginary lines in the perspective converge.
Vapourous. (Paint.) Enveloped in
vapour, cloudy, undecided. T h u s we
speak of vapourous tones, or say that a
distance is vapourous when it seems
bathed in atmospheric vapour.
Varied fields. (Her.) T h e field of an
escutcheon may be either of one tincture, as gules, argent, & c , or it may be
covered with a pattern by means of a
repetition upon its surface of one of the

27

VAS

ordinaries ; in the latter case it is said
to be a varied field. Thus, for example,
if a shield were divided into a number of
partitions by a succession of gales, the
varied field known as paly would be
formed, and the shield would be blazoned
(say) paly of six argent and azure.
Other frequently recurring examples of
varied fields are : bendy, harry, barrybendy, gyronny, lozengy, compony, fretty
(q.v.).
Varnish. A resinous substance dissolved in alcohol, used by painters. T h e
quality of the varnish and the moment
at which it is put on demand the utmost
care on the part of the painter who is
anxious for his work to be lasting. Before varnishing a picture, the artist should
wait for it to be perfectly dry. However, examples are often quoted of pictures being successfully varnished when
they are only just finished, and when
the paint upon them is still wet. In this
case the canvas is placed in a horizontal
position and a liquid varnish is passed
over it. This method of varnishing,
though in some cases it has preserved
pictures, is dangerous and not to be
recommended.
—, Lac. A solution of gum lac in
alcohol, used as a ground and also to
dilute the oil colours in the process of
gilding.
—, Picture. A varnish consisting
of mastic, camphor, and Venetian
terebinth. A solution of camphor and
copal is also used as a varnish for
pictures.
Varnishingday. A day appointed some
few days previous to the opening of an exhibition of pictures at^the Academy, or
elsewhere, on which artists are admitted
to varnish their pictures. This varnishing is sometimes quite necessary, as pictures often leave the studio too fresh to
be touched with varnish.
Vase. A vessel, generally of earthenware, used among the ancients for holding liquids, and for both domestic and
sacrificial purposes. T h e various forms
409

ART

VAU

DICTIONARY.

assumed by vases among the Greeks have
been described under their various head­
ings in the " Dictionary "
Ornamental
vases of various
materials, and of
all sorts and sizes,

Apses and the east ends of chapels
are sometimes termin­
ated by demi-cupola
vaults.

Vault, Groined.
[Groined Vault.]

— in Calotte. A

{lliiyiiiMii/imm;'»»are used for architectural and deco­
rative purposes. For instance, large
vases of marble or bronze, either carved
or chased, are used in the decora­
tion of gardens. On the summit of a
building, on the ends of a pediment, or
at the angle of a balustrade, a decora­
tive vase of stone is frequently found.
These decorative vases were particularly
popular at the Renaissance and in the
17th and 18th centuries. In some
buildings they are found of consider­
able dimensions and are surrounded
with groups of children, and some­
times they are crowned with flames
and smoke.
Vault. (Arch.) An arrangement of
stones or bricks describing an arc of
a circle of varying breadth and thick­
ness.
—, Annular. A vault built upon a cir­
cular or elliptic plan. In either case the
annular vault has for its point of support
a detached pier and a vertical, circular,
or elliptic face.
—, Barrel. [Barrel-vault.]
—, Conical. A vault of a circular
plan, which is formed by a right-angled
triangle turning round one of the sides
of the right angle as its axis.
—, Demi-cupola. A vault the arched
portion of which is a quarter of a sphere.
410

VAU

*w*t
vault
resembling
a
spherical calotte.
T h e majority of
cupolas, for instance, may be described
as vaults in calotte.
These vaults are also
called spherical vaults.
When the outline of
the vault is an ellipse,
it is called a spheroid vault.
—, Pointed. A vault the curve of
which is bounded
by pointed arches.
Some
authors
give the name of
pointed vault to
vaults composed
of transverse ribs,
wall ribs, and pendentives.
—, Rampant. A vault of which the
two springing points are not in the same
horizontal line.
«,^'^^^τ?*^
To
strengthen
- ^ ^ \ J ~ I \ K
the steps in a "J^X. M
staircase
ram­
pant
arches
are
sometimes
built, resting upon piers of unequal
height.
—, Semicircular. A vault the curve,
of which is determined by a semi­
circle.
—, Skew. A vault the lateral surfaces
of which are not at right angles to its
piers. This vault is rarely employed in
buildings, but is frequently seen in via­
ducts.
When two
roadways,
situated
at different levels do
not meet at a right
angle, to establish
communication be­
tween the two portions of the road
placed at the greatest height, a skew

VAU

ART

VER

DIC TIONARY.

suspended horizontally so as to sift the
light and to intercept the rays of the sun.
T h e velum is sometimes held in its position by being tied with cords to lanceheads ; it then serves as a temporary
shelter or decoration. In studios and
exhibition galleries a velum is frequently
stretched across the ceiling to intercept
the light falling from above.
Veneer. A method of decorating
pieces of furniture, by means of cutting
out slips of variously coloured wood and
by applying the pieces thus cut out to
woods of inferior value. Veneer of mahogany is the characteristic of an epoch
in the history of furniture.
Venetian shutter. (Arch.) A shutter
which consists of a frame, across which
pieces of wood or iron are placed horizontally at some distance from one
another and inclined at such an angle
that those inside a room can observe
what is passing without, but cannot be
seen themselves from outside.
Vent-hole. (Arch.) An opening which

vault must be built. The masonry of
these vaults is very complicated.
Vault, Spherical. A term applied to
a vault or cupola in the form of a hollow hemisphere.
—, Surbased. A vault the height of
which is less than the radius of its curve.
—, Surmounted. A vault the height
of which is greater than the radius of its
curve.
Vaulting shaft. (Arch.) A term applied in Gothic architecture to thin,
delicate pillars.
Vehicle. (Paint.) The liquid with which
pigments are laid on in painting is
termed the vehicle. Different vehicles are
used in different branches of painting.
In water-colour of course the vehicle is
water; in oil-painting oils of various
kinds are used [Oil], while wax is the
vehicle in encaustic painting.
Vein. T h e threads of various shades
which are to be seen in marble, and
which add so much to its decorative
effect; also the defects which exist in
stones that are to be cut, and in the
white marble used by the sculptor.
Velarium. In ancient times the term
velarium was applied to large awnings
which were fixed with ropes to the top
of masts and protected the spectators in
the theatre from the heat of the sun.
Vellum. T h e skin of a calf. Vellum
was used for illuminated books in the admits air into subterranean rooms.
Middle Ages, and at a later age for miniaVenus. [Aphrodite.]
ture painting.
T o this purpose it is
Verandah. (Arch.) A gallery, generally
still put, any inequalities in its surface covered in with glass ; a light building
being first removed by pumice stone. Any open to the air and provided with blinds.
blemishes in the absorption of colour,
which is inevitable in this material, is
thus avoided, and it has the advantage
of being extraordinarily durable and
lasting for centuries. It is also used
for taking proofs of engravings and
etchings.
Velum. A curtain hung over a door
or window was called a velum by the
Romans, but in modern times the word T h e inhabitants of the East build veranhas another signification. It denotes a dahs running the whole length of their
piece of drapery or a strip of stuff which is | houses.
In many modern buildings
411

ART

VER

verandahs take the form of greenhouses
or glazed vestibules and are almost
always built of iron.
Verde Antico. A patina of bronze
of a beautiful clear green tone found
on ancient bronzes.
It is obtained
artificially by applying a mixture of
ammoniac vinegar and sea salt with a
hair brush.
Verditer. (Paint.) A colour used
chiefly in distemper. It is found in a
soft stone in copper mines, and then
reduced to a powder and mixed with
water.
Some verditers, used in the
decoration of theatres, yield bright
colours, while others are grey and
dull.
—, Green. A pigment used in distemper painting. It is obtained from
a kind of copper ochre or rust, but it
has the disadvantage of turning to a
brown.
Verdure. A French term applied to
pieces of tapestry or other hangings representing landscapes, in which green
is the dominant tone both in the central
subjects and in the systems of ornament
which make up the border.
Verge-board. [Barge-board.]
Vermilion. (Paint.) A bright red pigment. It is a sulphide of mercury, and
is found in a natural state or is manufactured artificially. It is a useful pigment, being permanent and having a
good body. It loses its too brilliant
tone with time and becomes a kind of
brown.
—, Chinese. A pigment used in watercolour drawing. It is of a striking red
colour and should be laid on with sufficient lightness to allow the paper to be
seen through it. When the vermilion
is laid on too thickly, or is not sufficiently
diluted, it looks dull and opaque.
Vermiculated. (Arch.) A wall or other
surface is said to be
vermiculated when it
is covered with lines,
>3V
like worms, describing
irregular and sinuous curves.
412

DICTIONARY.

VES

Vernier. An instrument invented in
the 17th century by Vernier, the geometrician. It consists of a small rule, so
graduated as to allow the smallest dimensions to be measured.
It is generally about nine millimetres in length,
each millimetre being divided into ten
equal parts. T h u s fractions of a tenth
of a millimetre may be measured.
Veronica, St. According to an old
legend when Jesus was on the way to the
cross a woman wiped His face with a
napkin, upon which there appeared at
once an image of the face. This image was
called the vera icon, or true image, and
the woman to whose napkin it was transferred has been known as St. Veronica.
One tradition says that St. Veronica was
Berenice, the niece of Herod.
Pictures of St. Veronica holding up the
handkerchief, upon which is an image of
the face of Jesus, are common. In St.
Peter's at Rome is an old picture of
Christ on linen, which is regarded as the
real napkin of St. Veronica.
Vert. (Her.) T h e heraldic colour
green shown on a shield by diagonal
lines from dexter to sinister.
Vertical. T h a t which is perpendicular
to the horizon is said to be vertical.
Vesica Piscis. A term applied to the
elliptical
aureole, w i t h i n
which Christ
is sometimes
represented.
I t s li t e r a l
meaning is the
bladder of a
fish, a n d i t
doubtless was
given
this
name on account of the
t r a d it i o n a l
symbolism in
acco rda nee
with
which
Christ
is
often
represented
b y a fish.

VES

ART

VIG

DIC TIONARY.

globe and holding a palm branch in her
hand.
Vidrecome. A large drinking glass
used in Germany. This ^ ^ . .^^
German glass is gene[S3B
rally cylindrical in form P*-^"^S|
and often of considerable fjjj'· ^vffl
capacity.
Vidrecomes { Jfi+\
>
are frequently decorated
% J**//k >${
with paintings in enamel, fa .MEJ Μ *
generally
representing
A^SMP^»
heraldic devices.
^^^j^st^
View. A picture or drawing repre­
connected with iron girders or arch­ senting a town or site. A view of
ways. Viaducts are built across a river London; a view of the Roman Cam­
or a depression in the ground.
pagna.
Vibrating. (Paint.) A term applied
—, Dioramic. A picture or view
in pictures to a strongly marked, nervous, e x e c u t e d t o b e exhibited as a
living effect of colour, obtained by skil­ diorama.
ful contrasts.
—, Panoramic.
A view presenting
Vice. A vice such as is seen in our the appearance of a panorama. Pano­
cut is used by cabinet-makers ramic views are nowadays drawings
|m
to hold fast pieces of wood, taken from one and the same point of
^Jyf
which have been joined with view. Sometimes in making conven­
\~4&κβ size, as well as in many tional panoramic views, the point of
|| H
other operations of their view is supposed to be shifted parallel
Many panoramic views,
|
craft. Etchers make use of to itself.
I U
a small vice with a wooden drawn, engraved, or photographed, are
? ·|
handle to hold their plates executed on this principle, and the
M|
with when they are heating skill in their production consists in
M * - T | them before laying the etch- hiding the points of junction as skilfully
as possible.
f \/W
*n£ S r o u n d ·
[ WT
Victor, St. In Christian
Vignette. T h e term vignette, which
[ [H
art representations of two means nothing more than a little vine,
^*
martyrs, both bearing the originally denoted an ornament used in
n a m e of St. Victor, are found.
One Gothic architecture. It was also applied
of them is St. Victor of Marseilles, who to the initial letters in manuscripts,
was put to death by being crushed by a which were decorated with the tendrils
millstone, which is therefore his attri­ of a vine. T h e meaning of the word
bute, in the persecution of Diocletian. was then extended to cuts, forming head
St. Victor of Milan suffered in the same and tail pieces in a book, whether they
Here
persecution, but the manner of his were decorative or illustrative.
death was different. H e is said to have the meaning of the word was quite lost,
been put into an oven, which is one and now vignette denotes any cut or
of his attributes.
H e is frequently engraving illustrating a book, which is
represented standing near a broken not enclosed by rigid lines, but is p u t in
the text.
altar.
Victory. A deity or allegorical figure
Vigorous. A work of art is said to be
represented by artists as a girl winged, vigorous when it is largely conceived
crowned with laurel, placed upon a and boldly treated. In painting, the
Vestibule, (xlrch.) A covered space
at the entrance of a building or in front
of a staircase or room.
—, Tetrastyle. A vestibule decorated
with four detached columns.
Viaduct. (Arch.) A bridge built upon
piles, at some distance from one another

413

VIN

ART

DICTIONARY.

term vigorous is especially applied to
brush work.
Vincent, St. St. Vincent is a Spanish
saint, and was born in the 3rd century
at Saragossa.
H e was persecuted by
the proconsul Dacian, by whom his
flesh was torn from his body by hot iron
forks. His attributes are an iron fork
and a crow, which bird is associated
with him on account of the legend that
when Dacian had thrown the body of
St. Vincent to be devoured by wild
beasts it was protected by a crow.
Violet. A secondary colour obtained
by the mixture of red and blue.
Virgin. A picture or statue representing the mother of Christ. A virgin
by Michael Angelo, for instance, or by
Raphael.
Virtu. Such objects as are generally
found in collections of antiquities
and curiosities are termed articles of
virtu.
Virtuosi.
A term applied to connoisseurs and those who are capable of
passing a judgment upon works of art
and articles of virtu.
Visage. T h e h u m a n face. A visage
devoid of character.
Visor. T h e front of a helmet, which
opened and shut, so as to admit light
and air to the unfortunate person condemned to wear it.
Vitalis, St. St. Vitalis was a Roman
soldier, who suffered martyrdom for
burying a Christian martyr, himself
being buried alive. H e is the patron
saint of Ravenna, and is represented in
the armour of a Roman soldier.
Vitrifiable. A term applied to substances which are transformed into glass
by fusion.
Vitrification. T h e method or process
by which substances are converted into
glass.
Vitrine. [Glass case.]
Vitruvian Scroll. (Arch.) An extremely florid architectural decoration,
which consisted of scrolls and volutes,
in which animal forms were sometimes
414

introduced.

VOL
In our cut, which is from

Pompeii, the ornament circles round a
lion.
Volta a padiglione. (Arch.) An Italian
term denoting the intersection of

portions of vaults bounded by pointed
arches.
Volute. (Arch.) In general, a system

of ornament consisting of a spiral scroll,
a n d i n particular the ornament
characteristic of Ionic
and Corinthian à
c a p i t a l s . Volutes are traced j
by means of the
compass. T h e
simplest form
of v o l u t e i s
made up of four quarters of circles,

VOL

iRT

DICTIONARY.

VOU

meeting at one of their extremities, and term is still applied to the exits of large
described from radii, which become public buildings.
small and smaller.
Votive Tablets. In all ages and in all
Generally the cen- countries small tablets have been offered
tres of these portions of circles are
placed at the four
angles of a square,
itself inscribed in
a circle, which is termed the eye of the
volute. A volute is termed angular when
the centre of its thickness
corresponds with the diagonal of an Ionic, Corinthian, or composite capital,
which, in this case, is decorated with scrolls on each
of its four faces. Consoles, to the Deity on recovery from sickness.
seen in profile, are some- They are generally adorned with repretimes d e c o r a t e d w i t h sentations of the part affected. Of our two
volutes. They generally cuts, the former is an ancient Egyptian
project considerably, and tablet evidently offered by one who had
the leaves of the acanthus, or some
other system of ornament, are applied
to the face of the console.
Generally, the
scroll at the top of the
volute is of larger dimensions t h a n
the
scroll at the bottom.
Volutes are sometimes decorated with
foliage or rinceaux. Volutes of this kind
are particularly common in iron work.
T h e contour of the volute is executed in
forged iron, while foliage of sheet iron, suffered from a disease of the ear ; the
cut out, hammered, or repoussée, is second is a Greek tablet offered by one
added to the volute.
Tertia. Similar customs prevail in Italy
Volute, Horn of. (Arch.) An ornament and elsewhere to-day.
_^— _
used in some
Voussoir. (Arch.) A stone cut in the
Corinthian ca- shape of a wedge,
pitals, w h i c h which, in juxtaposia p p a r e n t l y tion with other stones
springs f r o m of similar
shape,
t h e scroll of forms an archway or
the volutes, and projects abruptly from platband. T h e upper
the plane of this scroll.
and lower sides of a
Vomitoria. (Arch.) A term applied to voussoir are termed
the doors, openings, and vast passages the extrados and inwhich gave access to the different por- trados
respectively.
tions of ancient amphitheatres.
T h e Voussoirs are always of an unequal num415

ART

νου

ber, and the centre one is called the
keystone. Some voussoirs are so cut

lTU'llllllUrnir -a

that their upper part is prolonged
to fit in with a horizontal course of
stones.
T h e curve of an
Voussure. (Arch
arch ; the thick­
ness of the in­
trados of an arch.
In buildings of the
Gothic style doors
are crowned with
voussures, which
consist of a num­
ber of rows of
niches, occupied by statuettes placed in
retreat, the one below the other.
Vrilles. A system of ornament, which
suggests the spiral form
of vine tendrils. At certain
epochs, especially in iron
work, scrolls are termi­
nated with vrilles.
The
term is also applied to
the small volutes of
Corinthian capitals, the
scroll of which projects,
T h e distinguishing characteristic of
e v e r y f o r m of
vrille is that it has
the form of a cork­
screw or spiral,
which gets smaller
and smaller, and
finally terminates
in a sharp point.
Vulned. (Her.) A term applied in
heraldry to a creature that is wounded
not by itself, but by another.
416

WAI

DICTIONARY.

Vulning. (Her.) A term applied to a n
animal which is repre­
sented on a shield as
wounding itself. T h e cor­
rect description of our
cut is, argent, a pelican's
head, erased, vulning.
Vyse. (Arch.) A term applied to stair­
cases so plan-*
ned that their
steps, whether
monolithic or
not, have a new­
el (q.v.) for their
point of depar­
ture. When the
steps are mono­
lithic, each one
is supported by the one below it, and
this arrangement is apparent from under­
neath the stair­
case. In another
kind of vyse the
masonry is so
a r r a n g e d that
the shell of the
staircase has the
appearance of a

"*

Λ

*

¥-<Φ**™ΦΖΑ

vault. These staircases are built upon
a square, rectangular, or circular plan,
and offer, especially in the first two
cases, combinations of pointed or ram­
pant vaults, the adjustment of which is
a matter of the utmost difficulty and
requires a mason of the greatest skill.

w.
Wainscot. (Arch.) A plane or covered
surface, cover­
ing a wall
or p a r t i t i o n ,
sometimes de­
corated
with
mould ings,
sometimes not.
It is generally
forme d
of
panels, and
though rarely found in modern buildings,

WAL

ART

was a favourite form of decoration in
old houses, and gave an opportunity for
a good deal of carved ornament.
W a l i n g . (Arch.) A method of joining,
in which the
pieces of wood
are held together by an
iron
bolt.
Pieces of wood
thus j o i n e d
are
often
halved.
Walling-wax.
(Engrav.)
Etchers
sometimes instead of putting their plates
in a bath, build up a wall of wax round
the edge of the plate itself. T h e wax is

fixed in its place while still warm, and
then left to cool before the acid is poured
in. By the
spout, which,
as our cut
^«shows,
is
left, the acid
may be poured off when it is done
with.
Wall painting. [Mural decoration.]
—, Partition. (Arch.) A light wall,
generally made of
lath and plaster,
which divides
the interior
of
a b u i l d i n g up
i n t o rooms or
apartments.
— Tie. (Arch.) A piece of iron
generally in the form of an S, but sometimes in the form of a scroll or cipher.
It is set vertically against the surface of

DICTIONARY.

WAS

a wall, and is united by a tie to the

horizontal timbers. Its purpose is to
counteract the thrust.
W a r m . (Paint.) A colour is said to be
warm when tones of red or yellow predominate in it and produce an effect of
vigour and transparency.
Blues and
violets, on the other hand, are always
very cold colours, though they afford an
opportunity for delicacy and distinction
of tone. Water-colour drawings boldly
coloured with burnt sienna or carmine
are warm in tone. Generally speaking, a
picture is said to be warm in tone when
its scheme of colour is vivid and brilliant.
W a r p . Panels, tables, and furniture,
made of wood, which is not absolutely
dry, have a tendency to lose their shape
or to warp, as it is called. T h e same
happens to picture frames if they are of
unseasoned wood.
Wash.
T o wash is to spread flat
tints of water-colour or Indian ink
evenly upon the surface of a piece of
paper. Architectural and mechanical
designs, for instance, are frequently
washed drawings. In washed drawings
the object is to lay a uniform tint with
perfect regularity upon the paper,
while in water-colour, properly so-called,
and artistic drawing generally, the tints
are laid on freely without any attempt to
attain perfect evenness. T h e r e are, however, in existence many washed drawings,
which are the work of real artists, and as
late as the last century some artists used
washes to indicate their arrangement of
light and shade. Nowadays washes are
only used for plans and machine-drawings. Even architectural façades are now
often executed in water-colour.

417

WAT

ART

DIC rIONARY.

Watch tower. (Arch.) A tower
attached to the fortified castles of the
Middle Ages, in which a m a n was placed
to keep watch.
Water-colour. (Paint.) Water-colour
drawing is, if we may believe some
specialists, a modern invention. It can
be proved indeed that the artists of the
18th century did not use water-colours
except in the form of washes or flat
tints. These washes were used to mass
the shadows or planes already indicated
by hatchings, which did not disappear
when the washes were laid on, but on
the contrary gained additional strength.
Water-colours, properly speaking, are
transparent, and in water-colour draw­
ing advantage is taken of the surface of
the paper. Gouache (q.v.), on the other
hand, is a kind of opaque water-colour
and was used in the 18th century.
Indeed at a far earlier date than this
miniatures and illuminations in manu­
scripts were executed in gouache on
parchment and their effect heightened
by the use of gilding.
Waterfall.
Artificial waterfalls are

WAY

are so arranged as to fall over a suc­
cession of steps, as shown in our first
cut, or they fall from a considerable
height in an unbroken stream, as in our
second cut.
Water-mark. A mark, which is
discernible on laid paper when it is
held up to the light.
Water-marks
generally represent some
common
object, such as a vase, crown, or shield ;
sometimes, however, they represent
coats-of-arms and heraldic beasts, or
they bear the name of the maker, or
the. date of the manufacture of the
paper inscribed upon them. T h e water­
mark on bank notes is often very com­
plicated and consists of all sorts of
combinations, in order to render forgery
impossible.
Wave moulding. (Arch.) An orna­
ment consisting of a succession of curves
in the form of an S, each of the curves

being terminated at one of its ends by a
volute, from which the next curve
springs. This ornament may be de­

signed in several ways, and is capable
of various combinations ; some examples
of it are quite simple, others are pro­
fusely ornamented.
(or were) a favourite device in the
Wavy. (Her.) One of the partition
lines in heraldry is from
its form known as wavy,
Γ
I
or undé. Like other parLrtirm^^^-nmtiii^J
tition lines it may be
| J | | ] pllll|||
applied to any of the
Γ
^Λ
honourable ordinaries, the
V
J
Λ
chief, pale, cross, &c. T h e
cut shows a shield which would be
blazoned argent, a bar wavy gules.
Way. (Engrav.) T h e series of parallel
decoration of gardens. Sometimes they paths hewn out by the rocker (q.v.)
418

WEA

ART

DICTIONARY.

on a mezzotint is technically termed a
way.
Weathercock. (Arch.) A vane or
pirouette in the form of a cock, the bird
of vigilance, placed on the top of church
spires.
Weathering. (Arch.) A slope or in­
cline given to surfaces, which otherwise
would be horizontal, to prevent rain­
water from lodging on them.
Wedge. A small piece of wood placed
under the heel of a living model to keep
the leg foreshortened. When the model
gives an energetic
movement, and the
sole of the foot is
not entirely placed
on the ground, the
wedge serves as a
point of support, and
enables the model to keep his pose
more easily. Sometimes sculptors leave
wedges under the feet of their figures ;
in this case the wedge serves as a
tenon, and adds strength to a fragile
part.
Whatman. A familiar abbreviation
for W h a t m a n paper, which is used for
water-colour drawings, for taking proofs
of line engravings, or for printing edi­
tions de luxe. [Paper, Whatman.]
Whetstone. A hard stone upon which
engravers roughly grind their tools before
finally sharpening them with emery
powder.
White lead. (Paint.) In water-colour
drawings, white lead is used in a powdered
state mixed with cobalt blue and essence
of terebinth, which has been exposed for
some days to the air. By means of white
lead the artist obtains lights upon paper
already covered with a dark tint. In oil
painting, white lead, which is only car­
bonate of lead, has the disadvantage of
turning black under the influence of
sulphurous vapour. White zinc is often
used instead of it.
Whitewash. A mixture of chalk and
size diluted with water, which is used to
give a white coating to walls.

WIN

Wicket. (Arch.) A small gate to
admit foot pas­
sengers, placed
not far from
a much larger
one.
Some­
times a wicket
is
nothing
more than an
opening in a
large gate, which closes a courtyard.
Such is the wicket represented in our
cut.
Window. (Arch.) An opening through
which light and air are admitted into a
building. In the Romanesque period,

windows had semicircular heads, and
were closed by frames of wood, stone, or
marble, in which round, square, or poly­
gonal pieces of glass
were inserted.
In
the 12th century win­
dows are often found
two together with a
round or trefoil open­
ing in the s p a c e
above them. In the
13th century, windows are more graceful,
and their curves of greater delicacy.
T h e mullions then increase in number,
and q u a t r e -,
foils
and
cinque-foils
are met with.
In the 15th and
•^|ί(Ρ«ΐ|Β1Ιΐ'Ρ««"ΜΐιιιΠ|ιι^.
16th centuries,
florid traceries appear. At the Renais­
sance period, windows are surbased
419

ART

WIN

DICTIONARY.

(q.v.) and the ribs in the upper part of
the windows are sometimes carried
beyond the window-head, as indicated
in our fourth cut. In the 17th and 18th
centuries, the subdivision by mullions
disappears, and the window frames are
formed of pilasters and columns.
Window, Attic. A window which con­
tracts towards the top, and the uprights
of which, instead of being vertical, are
inclined obliquely to one another.
—, Casement. A window, the space of
which is divided into four parts by two
,..·
'_.. ,.. uprights crossing one
* « = '· another a t right angles.
Ί Η Ι Ι ^ Β ! * ' In some buildings, we
meet with
windows
which, instead of having
one cross-piece, have
two cross-pieces, and are
so divided into six com­
partments by a vertical mullion and
two horizontal pieces placed one above
the other in the upper part of the
window.
—, Dormant. A window which does
not open.
—, Italian. A window in three arched
compartments supported by colonnettes.
—, Mezzanine. A window which ad­
mits light into an
entresol. T h e dis­
tinctive feature is
that its breadth
j__jl JT is always greater
than its height.
window, the sill of
—, Rampant.
which is not horizontal, or of which
the frame is not
placed in a vertical
line. In the former
case the rampant
wm
f
ΊΒΜ Ι τ *
d o w is fixed, and
does not open ; in
the latter case it
may have shutters,
although its uprights are not vertical.
—, Sham. A window painted on the
surface of a wall, an architectural abomi-

BWJBÌ

V

420

WOO

nation which is rarely seen 'in modern
buildings.
"Windscreen. (Arch.) A term applied
in
Gothic
architecture .
to small, cir­
cular screens
of
wood,
either pierc­
ed or con­
sisting of car­
ved panels,
general 1 y ,
placed in the
a n g l e of a
room or surrounding projecting stair­
cases. In some Gothic buildings wind­
screens of stone are found.
Wing. (Arch.) T h e portions of a
building which are added to the main
body of a building, being constructed in

the same line as the main block or re­
turned from it. In Greek and Roman
temples the lateral porticoes were
termed wings (πτφα or alee).
Wire-brush. A brush generally made
of brass wire, with which gilders spread
their amalgam of gold and
mercury, and with which they
clean gold and silver work.
When the gold is being laid
with the wire upon the surface
of any object, it is of the ut­
most importance that this sur­
face should be kept damp during the
process.
Wood-block. T h e first essential of
the wood-blocks used by wood engra­
vers is that they should not be porous.
T h e wood of the pear, apple, and box
are generally used, and for delicate

WOO

ART

:TIONARY.
DIC.

YEL

work t h e last-named is by far the II pressing approval of an artist's style
we say that we like his work.
best
Wyvern. (Her.) An imaginary heraldic
Wood-cut. A term applied to proofs
animal. It has a ser.
of engravings cut upon wood.
Wood-cutting. (Engrav.) T h e art of pent's head and body,
*^^/ÊL·.
wood-cutting is one of the imitative arts, and the wings and claws fàjìi% * ^
and it consists in drawing (or photo- of a bird, while its tail ^ Ϊ Κ ί Κ » .
graphing) a design on the flat surface of terminates in another
^Ζ^ΚΡ^Α».
a block of wood, generally boxwood, and small serpent's head.
^ ^ **
in cutting away all that portion of the
block upon which the strokes of the
pencil do not appear. The part of the
block which is left in relief is covered
Xoanon.
(Sculp.)
The
earliest
with ink and impressions are then struck.
It will be seen that the process of wood- statues of gods fashioned by the Greeks
cutting is the reverse of that of line- were rude wooden images, resembling a
engraving, in which the lines which are pillar rather than the human form. An
reproduced upon paper are incised. awkward attempt, however, was made
Wood-cutting was invented first of all to trace the features and outlines of a
by t h e Chinese, who employed the pro- human being upon the rough pillar.
cess in the printing of books. It was Legend said that the xoana fell from
independently devised by the Germans heaven, and long after Greek sculptors
in the 14th century for printing playing- had acquired technical skill over their
cards, and soon after applied to the material, the xoana were held in the
reproduction of drawings. T h e earliest greatest reverence.
Xyloglyphy. T h e art of engraving
wood-cut known to us is a St. Christopher
of 1423. Wohlgemuth, Durer, Holbein, I letters upon wood, and of executing
all practised it with success, and in the I ornamental letters to illustrate books.
Xylographer. One who cuts draw­
earlier part of the present century the
English Bewick gave the art a fresh ings upon wood.
Xylographie. T h a t which belongs or
impetus. It has been largely employed
for the illustration of books and news- has reference to the processes of wood
papers, and specimens of the art may be cutting.
Xylography.
T h e art of cutting
seen every week in the pages of Punch.
But mechanical processes have been drawings upon wood.
Xyst. (Arch.) A hall or portico, in
brought to so high a pitch of excellence
of late years, that there is some chance which Greek and Roman athletes
exercised themselves.
of wood-cutting lapsing from fashion.

x.

Woolly. (Paint.) À term applied in
painting to a soft method of execution,
Y.
which lacks firmness and consistence.
Work. T h e word work is used to
Yataghan.
A very long Turkish
designate a picture or statue of an poniard with a curved blade, the hilt
artist. T h u s we say Donatello's St. and scabbard of which are sometimes
George is a dignified work, Raphael's inlaid with precious stones and decorated
Madonna della Sisto is a great work, and with arabesques of great richness.
so on. In a different sense work denotes
Yellow. Yellow is one of the three
the collective productions of an artist or primary colours. T h e yellow pigments,
even his style. Thus we say the work except the earths of Sienna, which are
of Rubens is considerable, and in ex- II ochres or clays coloured with iron oxide,
421

YEL

ART

DIC VIONARY.

have all a base of lead and so easily
tarnish and turn black.
Yellow, Chrome. Chrome yellow, as
used in water-colour drawing, is a very
brilliant colour, but somewhat dusty.
There is also an orange chrome, i.e , a
yellow chrome with a slight admixture
of red. T h e chrome yellow used in oilpainting is nothing more or less than
chromate of lead.
—, I n d i a n . A colour, used in watercolour, of a very striking tone.
—, Naples. A yellow pigment, with
a slight tendency towards green, which
consists of massicot or oxide of lead.
—, T u r n e r . A yellow pigment consisting of litharge and sea salt.
Yellowish. (Paint.) A colour or
tonality is said to be yellowish when it
approaches nearly to yellow.

z.
Zeus. In Greek art Zeus is invariably
represented as a bearded man of majestic
mien. T h e gold and ivory statue at
Olympia showed him seated on a throne,
as became the king of gods and men.
His attributes are the sceptre, thunderbolt and eagle. When he is not represented throned in kingly state, h e is
generally taking part in the war against
the giants, or Athene is being born from
his head. H e is frequently represented
side by side with Hera, who is then veiled.
Zigzag. A broken line forming angles,

which alternately project and

retreat.
THE

422

ZOT

Architectural mouldings are sometimes
decorated with zigzags.
Zinc. A metal of a bluish-white
colour, upon which engravings in relief,
which may be printed by the ordinary
typographic processes, as well as line
engravings, are produced by chemical
processes. In the case of line engravings on zinc the plate is covered with
a ground and bitten with aquafortis in
the ordinary way, but the zinc soon
wears out and only a limited number of
proofs may be struck from it. Nor does
zinc lend itself to the expression of
fine delicate lines ; but to compensate
for this it yields broad and soft outlines.
Zincography. T h e process of engraving upon zinc.
Zinzolin. A violet colour tinged with
red. T h e word comes from the Spanish
cinzolino. Some authors write gingeoUn.
Zodiac. (Arch.) A term applied to
bas-reliefs representing the signs of the
zodiac interpreted with considerable
eccentricity.
Numerous examples of
zodiacs are to be found on the doors of
churches of the Gothic style.
Zone. T h e portion of the surface of a
sphere included within
>^**~îï"l)v
two parallel planes. T h e
i n g f l A
paintings in cupolas gene- Ï M i l l B B H
rally occupy a zone, the ^^'''V-T^jy
upper portion of the cupola
^ssssP1
being pierced with a circular opening.
Zoòphorus. (Arch.) A term applied by
Vitruvius to friezes decorated with
foliage and arabesques, in the midst of
which the figures of animals are introduced.
Zotheca. (Arch.) A recess introduced
in the sleeping room of Roman houses.
T h e bed was placed in it.
END.

(1)

THE ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES·
Edited by W. R. LETHABY.
There is a broad purpose in this series of handbooks on the
Artistic Crafts. It is the intention to provide trustworthy textbooks of work-shop practice from the point of view of experts
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who are prepared to say of what good workmanship consists, and
to establish a standard of equality in the crafts, more especially
associated with design. Workmanship where separated by too
wide a gulf from fresh thought—that is, from design—eventually
decays, and, on the other hand, ornamentation apart from workmanship is apt to be unreal and affected. Furthermore, there is
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those who would gain a livelihood, with a chance of reaching a
distinct measure of success.
Illustrated.

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A Text-Book for Students and Workers in Metal.
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By GEORGE JACK. With Drawings by the Author, and other Illustrations.
Stained-Glass Work.
A Text-Book for Students and Workers in Glass.
By C. W. WHALL. With Diagrams by two of his
Apprentices, and other Illustrations. $1.40 net.
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ARCHITECTURE AND ART·
The Story of Architecture.
An Outline of the Styles in all Countries. By CHARLES THOMPSON
MATHEWS, Fellow of the American Institute of Architects; author of

"The Renaissance under the Valois," etc. Illustrated. i2mo. Cloth, $3.00.
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Mr. Mathews has given us a very worthy book, which adequately accomplishes
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his clear and lucid descriptions."—Brooklyn Eagle.
11
The book shows good workmanship frombeginning to end, and can be honestly
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Schools and Masters of Sculpture.
By A. G. RADCLIFFE.

With 35 full-page illustrations.

i2mo.

Cloth, $3.00.
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A comprehensive and judicious history of the art of sculpture, each chapter
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Schools and Masters of Painting.
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" The volume is one ..of great practical utility, and may be used to advantage as
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