THE NEW HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL: EMBRACING A NEW REVISED EDITION OF THE AMERICAN WOMAN'S HOME; OR, PRINCIPLES OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE. BEING A GUIDE TO ECONOMICAL, HEALTHFUL, HOMES. BEAUTIFUL, AND CHRISTIAN BY CATHERINE E. BEECHER AND HARRIET BEECHER STOWE. TOGETHER WITH THE H A N D Y COOK-BOOK: A COMPLETE CONDENSED GUIDE TO WHOLESOME, ECONOMICAL, AND DELICIOUS COOKING. GIVING NEARLY 500 CHOICE AND WELL-TESTED RECEIPTS. B Y C A T H E R I N E E. BEECHER. Illustrated NEW YORK: J. B. FORD AND COMPANY. 1873. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1873, BY J. B. F O R D & CO., in t h e Office of t h e Librarian of Congress, at Washington. UNIVERSITY PRESS : WELCH, CAMBRIDGE. BIGELOW, & Co., THE WOMEN OF AMERICA, IN WHOSE HANDS REST THE REAL DESTINIES OF THE REPUBLIC, AS MOULDED BY THE EARLY TRAINING AND PRESERVED AMID THE MATURER INFLUENCES OF HOME, THIS VOLUME IS AFFECTIONATELY INSCRIBED. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PART I. INTRODUCTION. THE chief cause of woman's disabilities and sufferings, that women are not trained, as men are, for their peculiar duties—Aim of this volume to elevate the honor and remuneration of domestic employment—Woman's duties, and her utter lack of training for them—Qualifications of the writers of this volume to teach the matters proposed—Experience and study of woman's work—Conviction of the dignity and importance of it—The great social and moral power in her keeping—The principles and teachings of Jesus Christ the true basis of woman's rights and duties.—Pages 13-16. I. TEE CHRISTIAN FAMILY. Object of the Family State—Duty of the elder and stronger to raise the younger, weaker, and more ignorant to an equality of advantages—Discipline of the family—The example of Christ one of self-sacrifice as man's elder brother—His assumption of a low estate—His manual labor —His trade—Woman the chief minister of the family estate—Man the out-door laborer and provider—Labor and self-denial in the mutual relations of home-life, honorable, healthful, economical, enjoyable, and Christian.—Pages 17-22. n. A CHRISTIAN HOUSE. True wisdom in building a home—Necessity of economizing time, labor, and expense, by the close packing of conveniences—Plan of a model cottage—Proportions—Piazzas—Entry—Stairs and landings—Large room —Movable Screen—Convenient bedsteads—A good mattress—A cheap and convenient ottoman—Kitchen and stove-room—The stove-room and its arrangements—Second or attic story—Closets, corner dressing-tables, windows, balconies, water and earth^closets, shoe-bag, piece-bag—Basement, closets, refrigerator, washtubs, etc.—Laundry—General woodwork—Conservatories—Average estimate of cost.—Pages 23-42. ii CONTENTS, iii. A HEALTHFUL HOME. leasehold murder—Poisoning and starvation the inevitable result of bad air in public halls and private homes—Good-air as needful as good food—Structure and operations of the lungs and their capillaries and air-cells—How people in a confined room will deprive the air of oxygen and overload it with refuse carbonic acid—Starvation of the living body deprived of oxygen—The skin and its twenty-eight miles of perspiratory tubes—Reciprocal action of plants and animals—Historical examples of foul-air poisoning—Outward effects of habitual breathing of bad air—Quotations from scientific authorities.—Pages 43-58. IV. SCIENTIFIC DOMESTIC VENTILATION, AJI open fireplace secures due ventilation—Evils of substituting air-tight stoves and furnace heating—Tendency of warm air to rise and of cool air to sink—Ventilation of mines—Ignorance of architects—Poor ventilation in most houses—Mode of ventilating laboratories—Creation of a current of warm air in a flue open at top and bottom of the room—Flue to be built into chimney : method of utilizing it.—Pages 59-65. v. STOVES, FURNACES, AND CHIMNEYS. The general properties of heat, conduction, convection, radiation, reflection—Cooking done by radiation the simplest but most wasteful mode: by convection (as in stoves and furnaces) the cheapest—The range—The model cooking-stove—Interior arrangements and principles—Contrivances for economizing heat, labor, time, fuel, trouble, and expense—Its durability, simplicity, etc.—Chimneys: why they smoke and how to cure them—Furnaces : the dryness of their heat—Necessity of moisture in warm air—How to obtain and regulate it.—Pages 66-83. VI. HOME DECORATION Significance of beauty in making home attractive and useful in educatiop —Exemplification of economical and tasteful furniture—The carpet lounge, lambrequins, curtains, ottomans, easy-chair, centre-table— Money left for pictures—Chromos—Pretty frames—Engravings—Statu ettes—Educatory influence of works of art—Natural adornments—Mate rials in the woods and fields—Parlor-gardens—Hanging baskets—Fern shields—Ivy, its beauty and tractableness—Window, with flowers, vine? CONTENTS. iii and pretty plants—Rustic stand for flowers—Ward's case—How to make it economically—Bowls and vases of rustic work for growing plants— Ferns, how and when to gather them—General remarks.—Pages 84r-103. VII. THE CARE OF HEALTH. Importance of some knowledge of the body and its needs—Fearful re sponsibility of entering upon domestic duties in ignorance—The fundamental vital principle—Cell-life—Wonders of the microscope — Cellmultiplication—Constant interplay of decay and growth necessary to life—The red and white cells of the blood—Secreting and converting power—The nervous system—The brain and the nerves—Structural arrangement and functions—The ganglionic system—The nervous fluid —Necessity of properly apportioned exercise to nerves of sensation and of motion—Evils of excessive or insufficient exercise—Equal development of the whole.—Pages 104-112. VIII. D0MESTIC EXERCISE. Connection of muscles and nerves—Microscopic cellular muscular fibreIts mode of action—Dependence on the nerves of voluntary and involuntary motion—How exercise of muscles quickens circulation of the blood which maintains all the processes of life—Dependence of equilibrium upon proper muscular activity—Importance of securing exercise that will interest the mind.—Pages 113-118. IX. HEALTHFUL FOOD. apportionment of elements in food : carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, iron, silicon, etc.—Large proportion of water in the human body— Dr. Holmes on the interchange of death and life—Constituent parts of a kernel of wheat—Comparison of different kinds of food—General directions for diet—Hunger the proper guide and guard of appetite—Evils of over-eating—Structure and operations of the stomach—Times and quantity for eating—Stimulating and nourishing food—Americans eat too much meat—Wholesome effects of Lenten fasting--Matter and manner of eating—Causes of debilitation from misuse of food.—Pages 119-137. iv CONTENTS. HEALTHFUL DRINKS. Stimulating drinks not necessary—Their immediate evil effects upon the human body and tendency to grow into habitual desires—The arguments for and against stimulus—Microscopic revelations of the effects of alcohol on the cellular tissue of the brain—Opinions of high scientific authorities against its use—No need of resorting to stimulants either for refreshment, nourishment, or pleasure—Tea and coffee an extensive cause of much nervous debility and suffering—Tend to wasteful use in the kitchen—Are seldom agreeable at first to children —Are dangerous to sensitive, nervous organizations, and should be at least regulated—Hot drinks unwholesome, debilitating, and destructive to teeth, throat, and stomach—Warm drinks agreeable and not unhealthful—Cold drinks not to be too freely used during meals—Drinking while eating always injurious to digestion.—Pages 138-149. XI. CLEANLINESS. Health and comfort depend on cleanliness—Scientific treatment of the skin, the most complicated organ of the body—Structure and arrangement of the skin, its layers, cells, nerves, capillaries, absorbents, oiltubes, perspiration-tubes, etc.—The mucous membrane—Phlegm—The secreting organs—The liver, kidney, pancreas, salivary and lachrymal glands—Sympathetic connection of all the bodily organs—Intimate connection of the skin with all the other organs—Proper mode of treating the skin—Experiment showing happy effects of good treatment.— Pages 150-157. XII. GLOTHING. Fashion attacks the very foundation of the body, the bones—Bones com posed of animal and mineral elements—General construction and arrangement—Health of bones dependent on nourishment and exercise of body—Spine—Distortions produced by tight dressing—Pressure of interior organs upon each other and upon the bones—Displacement of stomach, diaphragm, heart, intestines, and pelvic or lower organs—Women liable to peculiar distresses—A well-fitted jacket to replace stiff corsets, supporting the bust above and the under skirts below—Dress ing of young children—Safe for a healthy child to wear as little clothing as will make it thoroughly comfortable—Nature the guide—The very young and the very old need the most clothing.—Pages 158-166 CONTENTS. V XIII. GOOD COOKING. Bad cooking prevalent in America—Abundance of excellent materia] —General management of food here very wasteful and extravagant —Five great departments of Cookery—Bread—What it should be, how to spoil and how to make it—Different modes of aeration—Baking —Evils of hot bread.—Butter—Contrast between the butter of America and of European countries—How to make good butter.—Meat—Generally used too newly killed—Lack of nicety in butcher's work—Economy of French butchery, carving, and trimming—Modes of cooking meats— The frying-pan—True way of using it—The French art of making delicious soups and stews—Vegetables—Their number and variety in America—The potato—How to cook it, a simple yet difficult operation —Roasted, boiled, fried.—Tea—Warm table drinks generally—Coffee —Tea—Chocolate.—Confectionery—Ornamental cookery—Pastry, ices, iellies.—Pages 167-190. XIV. EARLY RISING. A virtue peculiarly American and democratic—In aristocratic countries, labor considered degrading—The hours of sunlight generally devoted to labor by the working classes and to sleep by the indolent and wealthy— Sunlight necessary to health and growth whether of vegetables or animals—Particularly needful for the sick—Substitution of artificial light and heat, by night, a great waste of money—Eight hours' sleep enough—Excessive sleep debilitating—Early rising necessary to a well-regulated family, to the amount of work to be done, to the community, to schools, and to all classes in American society.—Pages 191-196. xv. DOMESTIC MANNERS. Good manners the expression of benevolence in personal intercourse— Serious defects in manners of the Americans—Causes of abrupt manners to be found in American life—Want of clear discrimination between men —Necessity for distinctions of superiority: and subordination—Importance that young mothers should seriously endeavor to remedy this defect, while educating their children—Democratic principle of equal rights to be applied, not to our own interests but to those of others— The same courtesy to be extended to all classes—Necessary distinctions arising from mutual relations to be observed—The strong to defer to the weak—Precedence yielded by men to women in America—Good manners must be cultivated in early life—Mutual relations of husband and wife—Parents and children—The rearing of children to courtesy— De Tocqueville on American manners.—Pages 197-211. vi CONTENTS* XVI. GOOD TEMPER IN THE HOUSEKEEPER, Easier for a household under the guidance of an equable temper in the mistress—Dissatisfied looks and sharp tones destroy the comfort of system, neatness, and economy—Considerations to aid the housekeeper —Importance and dignity of her duties—Difficulties to be overcome— Good policy to calculate beforehand upon the derangement of wellarranged plans—Object of housekeeping, the comfort and well-being of the family—The end should not be sacrificed to secure the means— Possible to refrain from angry tones—Mild speech most effective—Ex emplification—Allowances to be made for servants and children—Power of religion to impart dignity and importance to the ordinary and petty details of domestic life.—Pages 212-219. XVII. HABITS OF SYSTEM AND ORDER. Relative importance and difficulty of the duties a woman is called to perform—Her duties not trivial—A habit of system and order necessary— Right apportionment of time—General principles—Christianity to be the foundation—Intellectual and social interests to be preferred to gratification of taste or appetite—Neglect of health a sin in the sight of God— Regular season of rest appointed by the Creator—Divisions of time— Systematic arrangement of house articles and other conveniences— Regular employment for each member of a family—Children—Family work—Forming habits of system—Early rising a very great aid— Due apportionment of time to the several duties.—Pages 220-232. XVIII. GIVING IN CHARITY. No point of duty more difficult to fix by rule than charity—First consideration—Object for which we are placed in this world—Self-denying Benevolence.—Second consideration—Natural principles not to be exterminated, but regulated and controlled.—Third consideration—Superfluities sometimes proper, and sometimes not.—Fourth consideration —No rule of duty right for one and not for all—The opposite of this principle tested—Some use of superfluities necessary—Plan for keeping an account of necessities and superfluities—Untoward results of our actions do not always prove that we deserve blame—General principles to guide in deciding upon objects of charity—Who are our neighbors—The most in need to be first relieved—Not much need of charity for physical wants in this country—Associated charities—Indiscriminate charity—Impropriety of judging the charities of others —Pages 233-246. vft CONTENTS. XIX. ECONOMY OF TIME AND EXPENSES. EconoiiiVj value, and right apportionment of time — Laws appointed by God lor the Jews—Christianity removes the restrictions laid on the Jews, but demands all our time to be devoted to our own best interests and tho good of our fellow-men—Enjoyment connected with every duty—Various modes of economizing time-—System and order—Uniting several objects in one employment—Odd intervals of time—Aiding others in economizing time—Economy in expenses—Contradictory notions—General principles in which all agree—Knowledge of income and expenses—Evils of want of system and forethought—Young ladies should early learn to be systematic and economical.—Pages 247-254. xx. HEALTH OF MIND. Intimate connection between the body and mind—Brain excited by improper stimulants taken into the stomach—Mental faculties then affected—Causes of mental disease—Want of oxygenized blood—Fresh air absolutely necessary—Excessive exercise of the intellect or feelings— Such attention to religion as prevents the performance of other duties, wrong—Unusual precocity in children usually the result of a diseased brain—Idiocy often the result, or the precocious child sinks below the average of mankind—This evil yet prevalent in colleges and other seminaries—A medical man necessary in every seminary—Some pupils always needing restraint in regard to study—A third cause of mental disease, the want of appropriate exercise of the various faculties of the mind—Extract from Dr. Combe—Beneficial results of active intellectual employments—Indications of a diseased mind.—Pages 255-262. XXI. THE CARE OF INFANTS. Herbert Spencer on the treatment of offspring—Absurdity of undertaking to rear children without any knowledge of how to do it—Foolish management of parents generally the cause of evils ascribed to Providence—Errors of management during the first two years—Food of child and of mother—Warning as to use of too much medicine—Fresh air— Care of the skin—Dress—Sleep—Bathing—Change of air—Habits— Dangers of the teething period—Constipation—Diarrhea—TeethingHow to relieve its dangers—Feverishness—Use of water.—Pages 263274. viii CONTENTS. xxii. THE MANAGEMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN. Physical education of children—Animal diet to be avoided for the very young—Result of treatment at Albany Orphan Asylum—Good ventilation of nurseries and schools—Moral training to consist in forming habits of submission, self-denial, and benevolence—General suggestions —Extremes of sternness and laxity to be avoided—Appreciation of childish desires and feelings—Sympathy—Partaking in games and employments—Inculcation of principles preferable to multiplication of commands—Rewards rather than penalties—Severe tones of voiceChildren to be kept happy—Sensitive children—Self-denial—Deceit and honesty—Immodesty and delicacy—Dreadful penalties consequent upon youthful impurities—Religious training.—Pages 275-286. xxiii. DOMESTIC AMUSEMENTS AND SOCIAL DUTIES Children need more amusement than older persons—Its object, to afford rest and recreation to the mind and body—Example of Christ—No amusements to be introduced that will tempt the weak or over-excite the young—Puritan customs—Work followed by play—Dramatic exercises, dancing, and festivity wholesomely enjoyed—The nine o'clock bell—The drama and the dance—Card-playing—Novel-reading—Taste for solid reading—Cultivation of fruits and flowers—Music—Collecting of shells, plants, and minerals—Games—Exercise of mechanical skill for boys— Sewing, cutting, and fitting—General suggestions—Social and domestic duties—Family attachments—Hospitality.—Pages 287-302. xxiv. CARE OF THE AGED. Preservation of the aged, designed to give opportunity for self-denial ana loving oare—Patience, sympathy, and labor for them to be regarded as privileges in a family—The young should respect and minister unto the aged—Treating them as valued members of the family—Engaging them in domestic games and sports—Reading aloud—Courteous attention to their opinions—Assistance in retarding decay of faculties by helping them to exercise—Keeping up interest of the infirm in domestic affairs—Great care to preserve animal heat—Ingratitude to the aged its baseness—Chinese regard for old age.—Pages 303-306- ix CONTENTS. xxv. THE CARE OF SERVANTS. Origin of the Yankee term "help"—Days of good health and intelligent house-keeping-—Growth of wealth tends to multiply hired service —American young women should be trained in housekeeping for the guidance of ignorant and shiftless servants—Difficulty of teaching servants—Reaction of society in favor of women's intellectuality, in danger of causing a new reaction—American girls should do more work—Social estimate of domestic service—Dearth of intelligent do mestic help—Proper mode of treating servants—General rules ana special suggestions — Hints from experience—Woman's first " right/* liberty to do what she can—Domestic duties not to be neglected for operations in other spheres—Servants to be treated with respect—Errors of heartless and of too indulgent employers—Mistresses of American families necessarily missionaries and instructors.—Pages 307-334 xxvi. CARE OF THE SICK PrDminence given to care and cure of the sick by our Saviour—Every woman should know what to do in the case of illness—Simple remedies best—Fasting and perspiration — Evils of constipation—Modes of relieving it—Remedies for colds—Unwise to tempt the appetite of the sick —Suggestion for the sick-room—Ventilation—Needful articles—The room, bed, and person of the patient to be kept neat—Care to preserve animal warmth—The sick, the delicate, the aged—Food always to be carefully prepared and neatly served—Little modes of refreshment—Implicit obedience to the physician—Care in purchasing medicines—Exhibition of cheerfulness, gentleness, and sympathy—Knowledge and experience of mind—Lack of competent nurses — Failings of nurses — Sensitiveness of the sick—" Sisters of Charity," the reason why they are such excellent nurses—Illness in the family a providential opportunity of training children to love and usefulness.—Pages 335-347. XXVII. ACCIDENTS AND ANTIDOTES. Mode of treating cuts, wounds, severed arteries—Bad bruises to be bathed in hot water—Sprains treated with hot fomentation and rest—Burns cured by creosote, wood-soot, or flour—Drowning ; most approved mode of treatment—Poisons and their antidotes—Soda, saleratus, potash, sulphuric or oxalic acid, lime or baryta, iodine or iodide of potassium, prussic acid, antimony, arsenic, lead, nitrate of silver, phosphorus, alcohol, tobacco, opium, strychnia—Bleeding at the lungs, stomach, throat, nose—Accidents from lightning — Stupefaction, from coal-gas or foul air—-Fire—Fainting—Coolness and presence of mind.—Pages 348-352' CONTENTS. X XXVIII. SEWING, CUTTING, AND MENDING. Different kinds of Stitch—Overstitch—Hems—Tucks—Fells—GoresButtonholes—Whipping—Gathering—Darning-r- Basting — Sewing — Work-baskets—To make a frock—Patterns—Fitting—Lining—Thin Silks—Figured and plain silks—Plaids—Stripes—Linen and Cotton— How to buy—Shirts—Chemises—Night-gowns—Under-skirts—Mending—Silk dresses—Broadcloth—Hose—Shoes, etc.—Bedding—Mattresses—Sheeting—Bed-linen.—Pages 353-359. XXIX. FIRES AND LIGHTS. Woodfires—Shallow fireplaces—Utensils—The best wood for fires—How to measure a load—Splitting a.nd piling—Ashes—Cleaning up—Stoves and grates—Ventilation—Moisture—Stove-pipe thimbles—Anthracite coal—Bituminous coal—Care to be used in erecting stoves and pipes— Lights—Poor economy to use bad light—Gas—Oil—Kerosene—Points to be considered: Steadiness, Color, Heat—Argand burners—Dangers of kerosene—Tests of its safety and light-giving qualities—Care of lamps —Utensils needed—Shades—Night-lamps—How to make candles— Moulded—Dipped—Rush-lights.—Pages 360-366. XXX. THE GAME OF ROOMS. Parlors—Cleansing—Furniture—Pictures—Hearths and jambs—Stains in marble—Carpets—Chambers and bedrooms—Ventilation—How to make a bed properly—Servants should have single beds and comfortable rooms—Kitchens—Light—Air—Cleanliness—How to make a cheap oilcloth—The sink—Washing dishes—Kitchen furniture—Crockery— Ironware—Tinware—Basketware—Other articles—Closets — CellarsDryness and cleanliness imperative necessities—Store-rooms—Modes ol destroying insects and vermin.—Pages 367-378. XXXI. THE C A R E OF YARDS AND GARDENS. Preparation of soil for pot-plants—For hot-beds—For planting flower seeds—For garden seeds—Transplanting—To re-pot house plants—The laying out of yards and gardens—Transplanting trees—The care of house plants.—Pages 379-383. CONTENTS. xi XXXII. THE PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. Propagation of bulbous roots—Propagation of plants by shoots—By layers—Budding and grafting—The outer and inner bark—Detailed description of operations—Seed-fruit—Stone-fruit—Rose bushes—Ingrafting—Stock grafting—Pruning—Perpendicular shoots to be taken out, horizontal or curved shoots retained—All fruit-buds coming out after midsummer to be rubbed off—Suckers—Pruning to be done after sap is in circulation—Thinning—Leaves to be removed when they shade fruit near maturity—Fruit to be removed when too abundant for good quality—How to judge.—Pages 384-388. XXXIII. THE CULTIVATION OF FRUIT. A pleasant, easy, and profitable occupation—Soil for a nursery—Planting of seeds—Transplanting—Pruning—Filberts—Pigs—Currants— Gooseberries—Raspberries—Strawberries—Grapes—Modes of preserving fruit trees—The yellows—Moths—Caterpillars—Brulure— Curculio— Canker-worm.—Pages 389-392. XXXIV. THE CARE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. Interesting association of animals with man, from childhood to age— Domestic animals apt to catch the spirit of their masters—Important necessities—Good feeding—Shelter—Cleanliness—Destruction of parasitic vermin—Salt and water—Light—Exercise—Rule for breeding — Care of Horses : feeding, grooming, special treatment—Cows : stabling, feed, calving, milking, tethering— Swine: naturally cleanly, breeding, fresh water, charcoal, feeding—Sheep: winter treatment— Diet—Sorting—Use of sheep in clearing land—Pasture—Hedges and fences—Poultry—Turkeys—Geese—Ducks—Fowls—Dairy work generally—Bees—Care of domestic animals, occupation for women.— Pages 393-402. XXXV. EARTH-CLOSETS. Deodorization and preservation of excrementitious matter—The earthcloset—Waring's pamphlet—The agricultural argument—Necessity of returning to the soil the elements taken from it—Earth-closet based on power of clay and inorganic matter to absorb and retain odors and fertilizing matter—Its construction—Mode of use—The ordinary privy— The commode or portable house-privy—Especial directions : things to be observed—Repeated use of earth—Other advantages—Sick-rooms —House-labor— Cleanliness—Economy.—Pages 403-418. xii CONTENTS. XXXVI. WARMING AND VENTILATION. Open fireplace nearest to natural mode by which earth is warmed and ventilated—Origin of diseases—Necessity of pure air to life— Statistics —General principles of ventilation—Mode of Lewis Leeds—Ventilation of "buildings planned in this work—The pure-air conductor—The foulair exhausting-flue—Stoves—Detailed arrangements—Warming—Economy of time, labor, and expense in the cottage plan—After all schemes, the open fireplace the best.—Pages 419-432. PART II. HEALTH, ECONOMY, AND PLEASURE IN FOOD. Special advantages of Part II.—Rules of health in regard to food and drink—Measures used in cooking.—Pages 433-435. II. MARKETING AND THE CARE OF MEATS. Marketing—Beef—Different " cuts," etc.—Veal—Mutton—Pork—Poultry —Fish—Shell-fish—Care of meats—To salt down beef—To cleanse calf's head and feet—To prepare rennet—To salt down fish—To try out lard —Molasses-cured hams—Brine for corning hams, beef, pork, etc.—Another—Brine by measure—To salt down pork—To prepare cases for sausages—Sausage meat—Another recipe—Bologna sausages—To smoke hams.—Pages 436-445. in. STEWS AND SOUPS. New soup- and stew-kettle—General directions—Stews: of Beef and potato ; Mutton and turnip, (French ;) Simple mutton ; Beef, with vegetable flavors ; Fowl, with celery or tomatoes—Irish stew—-Veal stew— Another—Pilaff (Turkish)—Rice or hominy stew—English beef s t e w Pot au Feu (French)—Olla Podrida (Spanish)—French mutton stew— French modes of cooking—Flavors—Soup powder.—Pages 446-452. xiii CONTENTS. IV. SOUPS. General directions—Soup stock—Soup of potato—Plain beef—Rich beef —Green pea—Dried bean or pea—Clam—Vegetable and meat for summer—Dried pea, with salt pork—Dried bean or pea, with meat stock— Mutton—Vegetable (French)—Plain calfs head—Simple mutton.— Pages 453-456. v. HASHES. Four ways of spoiling hashes—Hashes: of Fresh meats, seasoned ; Cold fresh meats and potatoes; Meat, with eggs; Meat, with tomatoes; Beef; Veal; Rice and cold meats; Bread-crumbs and cold m e a t s ; Another ; Cold beefsteak ; Same, with potatoes and turnips; Cold mutton or venison ; Corned beef; Cold ham—Meats warmed over—To cook cold meats—Cold meat hash—Souse—Tripe.—Pages 457-460. VI. BOILED MEATS. To cook tough beef—Boiled ham—Beef—Fowls—Fricasseed fowls—To boil leg or shoulder of veal, mutton, or lamb—Calfs feet—Calfs liver and sweet-breads—Kidneys—Pillau—Smoked tongue—Corned beef— Partridges or pigeons—Ducks—Turkey.—Pages 461-463. VII. BOAST AND BAKED MEATS. The best beef—Brown flour for gravies—Roast beef—To roast in a cookstove—Roast pork; Mutton ; Veal; Poultry—Pot-pie of beef, veal, or chicken—Mutton and beef-pie—Chicken-pie—Rice chicken-pie—Potatopie—Calf s head.—Pages 464-467. VIII. BROILED AND FRIED MEATS AND RELISHES. Boiled mutton or lamb chops; Beefsteak; Fresh pork ; Ham ; Sweetbreads ; Veal—Pork relish—Frying—Calfs or pig's liver—Beef liver— E g g omelet—Frizzled beef—Veal chase—Codfish relish-—Another— Salt herrings.—Pages 468-469. IX. PICKLES. General directions—Sweet pickles—To pickle Tomatoes ; Peaches ; Peppers ; Nasturtions ; Onions ; Gherkins; Mushrooms; Cucumbers; WaL CONTENTS. XIV nuts ; Mangoes; Cabbage—To prepare tomatoes for eating—Martinoes —Spiced cucumber pickles—Indiana pickles—Cauliflower-or broccoli.— Pages 470-473. x. SAUCES AND SALADS. Milk and egg sauce—Drawn butter—Mint sauce—Cranberry sauce—Apple sauce—Walnut or butternut catsup—Mock capers—Salad dressing —Turkey or chicken salad—Lettuce salad—Tomato catsup.—Pages 474-475. XI. FISH. Oysters, stewed ; Fried ; Scalloped ; Broiled—Oyster fritters—Oyster omelet—Pickled oysters—Roast oysters—Scallops—Clams—Clam chowder —Fish, boiled; Broiled ; Baked—Pickle for cold fish—Pages 476-477. XII. VEGETABLES. General remarks—Potatoes—Old potatoes—Potato puffs—Sweet-potatoes —Green corn—Succotash—Oyster-plant or salsify—Egg-plant—Carrots —Beets—Parsnips—Pumpkin and squash—Celery—Radishes—Onions —Tomatoes—Cucumbers—Cabbage and cauliflower—Aspaiagus—Macaroni.—Pages 478-481. XIII. FAMILY BREAD. General remarks—Fine and unbolted flour—Middlings—Kneading— Yeast: Hop and potato; Potato ; Hard—Bread: of fine flour ; Of middling or unbolted flour ; Raised with water ; Rye and Indian ; Third ; Rye ; Oat-meal, Pumpkin; Apple ; Corn-meal—Sweet rolls of cornmeal—Soda biscuit—Yeast biscuit—Potato biscuit—Buns.—Pages 482487. XIV. BREAKFAST AND SUPPER. General supplies—Receipts for corn-meal—Hominy—Rice—Economical breakfast dish—Biscuits of sour milk and flour—Pearl or cracked wheat —Rye and corn meal—Oat-meal—Wheat muffins—Sally Lunn improved —Cream griddle-cakes—Royal crumpets—Muffins—Waffles—Drop-cakes— Sachem's head corn-cake—Rice waffles—A rice dish—To use cold rice— Buckwheat cakes—Cottage cheese—Eggs.—Pages 488-492. XV CONTENTS. XV. PUDDINGS AND PIES. Sweet food, remarks—Queen of all puddings—Flour pudding—Flour and fruit pudding—Rusk and milk—Rusk pudding—Meat and rusk pudding—A good pudding—Pan dowdy—Corn-meal pop-over—Best applepie—Puddings: of rice ; Bread and fruit; Boiled fruit; Curds (English) —Common apple-pie—Plain custard—Another—Mush or hasty pudding—Stale bread pudding—Rennet wine—Rennet custard—Bird's nest pudding—Minute pudding of potato starch—Tapioca pudding— Cocoa-nut pudding—New-England squash or pumpkin-pie—Ripe fruit pies, Peach, Cherry, Plum, Currants, and Strawberry—Mock cream— Pudding of bread-crumbs and fruit—Bread and apple dumplings—Indian pudding without eggs—Boiled Indian and suet pudding—Dessert of rice and fruit—Another—Cold rice and stewed or grated apple— Rich flour pudding—Apple-pie—Spiced apple-tarts—Baked Indian pudding—Apple custard—Macaroni or vermicelli pudding—Green-corn pudding—Bread pudding for invalids or young children—A good pudding—Loaf pudding—Lemoa pudding—Green-corn patties—Cracker plum-pudding—Sauces for puddings, liquid—Hard—Another—A healthful sauce—Universal sauce—Paste for puddings and pies—Piecrusts, without fats; Made with butter, very rich.—Pages 493-503. XVI. C A K E. General directions—Cake raised with powders—One, two, three, four cake —Chocolate ; Jelly; Orange ; Almond and cocoa-nut—Cake raised with eggs—Pound cake ; Plain; F r u i t ; Huckleberry; Gold and silver; Rich sponge ; Plain sponge—Gingerbread, etc.—Aunt Esther's gingerbread—Sponge gingerbread—Ginger snaps—Seed cookies—Fried cakes—Cakes raised with yeast—Plain loaf-cake—Rich loaf-cake— Dough-cake—Icing for cake.—Pages 504-508. m PRESERVES xvii. AND JELLIES. General directions—Canned fruit—To clarify syrups for sweetmeats— Brandy peaches—Peaches (not very rich)—Peaches (elegant)—To preserve quinces whole—Quince jelly—Calf-foot jelly—To preserve apples—Pears—Pine-apples—Purple plums, No. 1 and No. 2—White or green plums—Citron melons—Strawberries—Blackberry jam—Currants to eat with meat—Cherries—Currants—Raspberry jam, No. 1 and No. 2—Currant jelly—Quince marmalade—Water-melon rinds—Preserved pumpkin.—Pages 509-514. xvi CONTENTS. XVIII. DESSERTS AND EVENING PARTIES. Ice-cream—Strawberry ice-cream—Ice-cream without cream—Fruit icecream—A cream for stewed fruit—Currant, raspberry, or strawberry whisk—Lemonade—Ice and other ices—Charlotte Russe—Flummery —Chicken salad—Wine jelly—Apple-lemon pudding—Wheat-flour blanc-mange—Orange marmalade—Simple lemon jelly—Cranberry— Apple ice—Whip syllabub—Apple-snow—Iced fruit—Ornamental froth —To clarify isinglass—Blanc-mange—Apple jelly—Orange jelly— Floating island—A dish of snow—To clarify sugar—Candied fruits— Another way—Ornamental pyramid.—Pages 515-519. XIX. DRINKS AND ARTICLES FOR THE CHILDREN SICK AND YOUNG Tea—Coffee—Fish-skin for coffee—Cocoa—Cream for coffee and tea— Chocolate—Milk lemonade—Strawberry and raspberry vinegar—White tea and Boys' coffee—Dangerous use of milk—Simple drinks—Simple wine whey—Toast and cider—Panada—Water-gruel—Beef-tea—Tomato syrup—Sassafras jelly—Egg-tea, egg-coffee, and egg-milk—Oat-meal gruel—Pearl barley-water—Cream-tartar beverage—Rennet whey—A fever drink—Food, etc., for infants.—Pages 520-523. xx. THE PROVIDING AND CARE OF FAMILY STORES. The art of keeping a good table—Successive variety—Doing every thing in the best manner—Stores and store-rooms—Flour—Unbolted flour— Indian-meal — Rye — Buckwheat — Rice — Hominy — Arrow-root — Tapioca, etc.—Sugars—Butter—Lard and drippings—Salt—Vinegar—Oil —Molasses—Hard Soap—Starch—Indigo—Coffee—Tea—Soda—Raisins —Currants—Lemon and orange peel—Spices—Sweet herbs—Cream-tartar—Acids—Essences, etc.—Preserves and jellies—Hams—Cheese— Bread—Cake—Codfish—Salted provisions.—Pages *524-529. XXI. SETTING TABLES, PREPARATION OF FOOD. Table-cloth—Napkins—Table furniture—Bread—Butter—Dishes—Soiled spots—Plates to be warmed in winter—Certain dishes served together —Strong flavored meats—Boiled poultry—Jelly—Fresh pork—Drawn butter—Pickles—Garnishing dishes—Boiled ham or veal—Greens and asparagus—Hashes—Curled parsley—Mode of setting table.—Pages 530-532. xvii CONTENTS. XXII. WASHING, IRONING, AND CLEANING. Modes of economizing the wash—Good washing depends on conveniences —Articles needed—Common mode of washing—Fine clothes—White articles—Colored articles—Flannels—Bedding—Calicoes—Waters, etc. —To cleanse broadcloth—To make lye—Soft soap—Potash soap—To prepare starch—Beef's gall—To do up laces—Articles needed for ironing—Sprinkling, folding, and ironing—To whiten articles and remove stains—Mildew—Stain-mixture—Another—To remove grease, tar, pitch, turpentine, lamp-oil, oil-paint, ink-stains, stains on varnished articles—To clean silk handkerchiefs and ribbons—To clean silk hose or gloves.—Pages 533-542. XXIII. MISCELLANEOUS ADVICE AND RECIPES. How to keep cool ii* hot weather—Indelible ink—To keep eggs—To prevent earthen, glass, and iron-ware from breaking easily—Cement for broken ware—To keep knives from rust—To cleanse or renovate furniture—To clean silver—To cleanse wall-paper—To purify a well—To take care of roses and other plants—To keep grapes—Snow for eggs— Paper to keep preserves—To cool butter in hot weather—To stop cracks in iron—To stop creaking hinges—To stop creaking doors and make drawers slide easily—To renovate black silk—To clean kid gloves—To remove grease spots—To get rid of rats and mice—Odds and ends for housekeepers.—Pages 543-546. xxiv. THE LAWS OF HEALTH AND HAPPINESS. Laws of health : for the Bones ; Muscles; Lungs ; Digestive organs ; Skin ; Teeth, eyes, and hair ; Brain and nerves.—Pages 547-551. XXV. ADDRESS OF THE SENIOR AUTHOR. To housekeepers, mothers, and teachers—What God made woman for— The author's early training, ruin of health, recovery, experience—Women to train their own children to health and happiness, wholesome labor, and intelligent direction of servants.—Pages 552-553. GLOSSARY OF WORDS AND REFERENCES.—Pages ANALYTICAL INDEX.—Pages 575-591. 555-573. NEW YORK J.B.FORD &C0. 1873. THE HOUSEKEEPERS MANUAL. PART I. THE AMERICAN WOMAN'S HOME. I. T H E DUTIES OF WOMAN'S PROFESSION. THE authors of this volume, while they sympathize with every honest effort to relieve the disabilities and sufferings of their sex, are confident that the chief cause of these evils is the fact that the honor and duties of the family state are not duly appreciated, that women are not trained for these duties as men are trained for their trades and professions, and that, as the consequence, family labor is poorly done, poorly paid, and regarded as menial and disgraceful. To be the nurse of young children, a cook, or a housemaid, is regarded as the lowest and last resort of poverty, and one which no woman of culture and position can assume without loss of caste and respectability. It is the aim of this volume to elevate both the honor and the remuneration of all the employments that sustain the many difficult and sacred duties of the family state, and thus to render each department of woman's true profession as much desired and respected as are the most honored professions of men. The following will show, though very imperfectly, how many branches of science and training are included in woman's profession, and thus what needs to be attempted : First, the department of a housekeeper demands some knowledge of all the arts and sciences connected with the proper construction of a family dwelling. A widow, or a woman whose husband has not time or ability to direct^ 14 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. and in communities destitute of intelligent artisans, on building a house would need the guidance of the leading principles of architecture, pneumatics, hydrostatics, calorification, and several other connected sciences, in order to secure architectural beauty, healthful heating and ventilation, and the economical and convenient arrangements for labor and comfort. A housekeeper properly instructed in these principles would know how to secure chimneys that will not smoke, the most economical furnaces and stoves, and those that will be sure to " draw." She would know how dampers and air-boxes should be placed and regulated, how to prevent or remedy gas escapes, leaking water-pipes, poisonous recession of sewers, slamming shutters, bells that will not ring, blinds that will not fasten, and doors that will not lock or catch. She will understand about ballcocks, and high and low pressure on water-pipes and boilers, and many other mysteries which make a woman the helpless victim of plumbers and other jobbers often as blundering and ignorant as herself. She would know what kind of wood-work saves labor, how to prevent its shrinkage, when to use paint, and wdiat kind is best, and many other details of knowledge needed in circumstances to which any daughter of wealth is liable: knowledge which could be gained with less time and labor than is now given in public schools to geometry and algebra. On supposition of a yard and garden, with young boys and domestic animals under her care, she would need the first principles of landscape gardening, floriculture, horticulture, fruit culture, and agriculture ; also, the fitting and furnishing of accommodations and provision for domestic animals. And to gain this knowledge would demand less time than young girls often give to picking pretty flowers to pieces and saying hard names over them, or storing them in herbariums never used. And yet botany might be so taught as to be practically useful. Next, in selecting furniture, a woman so instructed THE DUTIES OF WOMAN''S PROFESSION, 15 would know when glue and nails are improperly used instead of the needed dovetailing and mortising. She would know when drawers, tables, and chairs were properly made, and when brooms, pots, saucepans, and coal-scuttles would last well and do proper service. She would know the best colors and materials for carpets, curtains, bed and house linen, and numerous other practical details as easily learned as the construction of " bivalves" and " multivalves," and other particulars in natural history now studied, and, being of no practical use, speedily forgotten. Next, in the ornamentation of a house, she will need the general principles that guide in the making or selection of pictures, statuary, in drawing, painting, music, and all the fine arts that render a home so beautiful and attractive. Next comes all involved in the cleansing, neatness, and order of houses filled with sofas, ottomans, curtains, pictures, musical instruments, and all the varied collection of beautiful and frail ornaments or curiosities so common. Every girl should be taught to know the right and the wrong way of protecting or cleansing every article, from the rich picture-frames and frescoes to the humblest crockery and stew-pan. And this would include much scientific knowledge as well as practical training. Next comes the selection of healthful food, the proper care of it, and the most economical and suitable modes of cooking. Here are demanded the first principles of physiology, animal chemistry, and domestic hygiene, with the practical applications. Thus instructed, the housekeeper will know the good or bad condition of meats, milk, bread, butter, and all groceries. And a class could be taken to a market or grocery for illustration as easily as to a museum or the field for illustrations of mineralogy or botany. All this should be done before a young girl has the heavy responsibilities of housekeeper, wife, mother, and nurse. The art of cookery, in all its departments, has received more attention than any other domestic duty in former clays ; but at 16 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. the present time no systematic mode is devised for training a young girl to superintend and instruct servants in this complicated duty, on which the health and comfort of a family so much depend. Next, in providing family clothing and in the care of household stuffs, she will know how to do, and to teach in the best manner plain sewing, hemming, darning, mending, and the use of a sewing-machine, thus cultivating ingenuity, dexterity, and common sense in judging the best way of doing things and deciding what is worth doing and what is not. She will exercise good taste and good judgment in dress for herself and family, in the selection of materials, in the adaptation of colors and fashion to age, shape and employments, and in the avoidance of unhealthful and absurd fashions; and she will have such knowledge of domestic chemistry as is needed in the cleansing, dyeing, and preservation of household clothing and stuffs. Next comes all involved in the care of health. This again involves the first principles of animal and domestic chemistry, hydrostatics, pneumatics, caloric, light, electricity, and especially hygiene and therapeutics. A housekeeper instructed in these will have pure water, pure air, much sunlight, beds and clothes well cleansed, every arrangement for cleanliness and comfort, and all that tends to prevent disease or retard its first approaches. And her knowledge and skill she will transmit to the children and servants under her care, while the dumb animals of' her establishment will share in the blessings secured by her scientific knowledge and trained skill. Next comes the care of family expenses in all departments of economy, and in which science arad training are also demanded : to this add the enforcement of system and order, hospitalities to relatives, friends, and the homeless, the claims of society as to calls, social gatherings, the sick, the poor, benevolent associations, school and religious duties. THE DUTIES OF WOMAN* S PROFESSION. 17 Not the least of the onerous duties of a housekeeper is the training and government of servants of all kinds of dispositions, habits, nationalities, and religions. All these multiplied and diverse duties are demanded of every woman, whether married or single, who becomes mistress of a house. The distinctive duties of wife and mother are such that both science and training are of the greatest consequence5 and a dreadful amount of suffering has resulted from want of such proper instruction. One of the most important of these duties is the care of new-born infants and their mothers. Thousands of young infants perish and young mothers are made sufferers for life for want of science and training in the mothers and monthly nurses. Then the helpers in the nursery have a daily control of the safety, health, temper, and morals of young children; and a conscientious, careful, affectionate woman, instructed in the care of health and remedies for sudden accidents, is a rare treasure. These arduous duties are now extensively given to the inexperienced and the ignorant. It is a mournful fact that more science and care are given by professional trainers to the offspring of horses, cows, sheep, and hogs, than to the larger portion of children of the American people. Thus comes the fact that the mortality of the human offspring greatly exceeds that of the lower animals. The most difficult and important duties of a woman are those of an educator in the family and the school. In the nursery, children are taught the care of their bodies, the use of language, the nature and properties of the world around them, and many social and moral duties, all before books are used. Then it is a mother's duty to select the school-teacher, and so to supervise, that health and intellectual training shall be duly secured. To this add the duties of training and controlling the helpers in the nursery and kitchen, and to a housekeeper and mother the duties of an educator stand first on the roll of responsibilities. 18 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. It is the conceded office of the school-teacher to conduct intellectual and literary training; but a woman in this position has also extensive control of the health, the habits, the opinions, and the moral character of her pupils, and often supplies deficient parental influences to an extent little realized. For this department of woman's profession more has been accomplished in preparing for future duties than in any other. I t is for want of facilities for the proper scientific training of women for these multiform duties that they are so generally not educated to be healthy, nor economical, or industrious, or properly qualified to be happy wives, or to train children and servants, or to preserve health in families and schools, or to practice a wise economy in the various departments of the family state. It is for want of such scientific training that the most important duties of the family, being disgraced and undervalued, are forsaken by the cultivated and refined, and, passing to the unskilled and vulgar, secure neither honorable social position nor liberal rewards. The poorest teacher of music, drawing, or French has higher position and reward than those who perform the most scientific, sacred, and difficult duties of the family state. The true remedy for this state of things is to provide as liberally for the scientific training of woman for her profession as men have provided for theirs. A wide-spread attempt is organizing for the establishment of an institution to cover this very ground of educating woman for the specific duties of her profession. But there are many thousands who are already beyond the reach of such instruction, and thousands of others who could never avail themselves of i t ; and certain it is, that a gathering together, in a compact volume like the present one, of many facts and ideas bearing upon these all-important topics, will be of great advantage to readers, especially in remote districts, far from the conveniences of cities. THE DUTIES OF WOMAN'S PROFESSION. 19 With such motives has this book been made, and it is hoped that its usefulness may be proved in many an American woman's home. Jesus Christ worked with his hands nearly thirty years, and preached less than three. And he taught that his kingdom is exactly opposite to that of the world, where all are striving for the highest positions. " Whoso will be great shall be your minister, and whoso will be chiefest shall be servant of all." The family state is the aptest earthly illustration of the heavenly kingdom, and in it woman is its chief minister. Her great mission is self-denial, in training its members to self-sacrificing labors for the ignorant and weak : if not her own children, then the neglected children of her Father in heaven. She is to rear all under her care to lay up treasures, not on earth, but in heaven. All the pleasures of this life end here; but those who train immortal minds are to reap the fruit of their labor through eternal ages. To man is appointed the outdoor labor—to till the earth, dig the mines, toil in the foundries, traverse the ocean, transport merchandise, labor in manufactories, construct houses, conduct civil, municipal, and state affairs, and all the heavy work, which, most of the day, excludes him from the comforts of a home. But the great stimulus to all these toils, implanted in the heart of every true man, is the desire for a home of his own, and the hopes of paternity. Every man who truly lives for immortality responds to the beatitude, " Children are a heritage from the Lord: blessed is the man that hath his quiver full of them I" The more a father and mother live under the influence of that "immortality which Christ hath brought to light," the more is the blessedness of rearing a family understood and appreciated. % Every child trained aright is to dwell forever in exalted bliss with those that gave it life and trained it for heaven. 20 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. The blessed privileges of the family state are not confined to those who rear children of their own. Any woman who can earn a livelihood, as every woman should be trained to do, can take a properly qualified female associate, and institute a family of her own, receiving to its heavenly influences the orphan, the sick, the homeless, and the sinful, and by motherly devotion train them to follow the self-denying example of Christ, in educating his earthly children for true happiness in this life and for his eternal home. And such is the blessedness of aiding to sustain a truly Christian home, that no one comes so near the pattern of the All-perfect One as those who might hold what men call a higher place, and yet humble themselves to the lowest in order to aid in training the young, " not as men-pleasers, but as servants to Christ, with good-will doing service as to the Lord, and not to men." Such are preparing for high places in the kingdom of heaven. " Whosoever will be chiefest among you, let him be your servant." It is often the case that the true humility of Christ is not understood. I t was not in having a low opinion of his own character and claims, but it was in taking a low place in order to raise others to a higher. The worldling seeks to raise himself and family to an equality with others, or, if possible, a superiority to them. The true follower of Christ comes down in order to elevate others. The maxims and institutions of this world have ever been antagonistic to the teachings and example of Jesus Christ. Men toil for wealth, honor, and power, not as means for raising others to an equality with themselves, but mainly for earthly, selfish advantages. Although the experience of this life shows that children brought up to !abor have the fairest chance for a virtuous and prosperous life, and for hope of future eternal blessedness, yet it is the aim of most parents who can do so, to lay up wealth that their children need not labor with the hands as Christ did. THE CHRISTIAN FAMILY. 21 And although exhorted by our Lord not to lay up treasure on earth, but rather the imperishable riches which are gained in toiling to train the ignorant and reform the sinful, as yet a large portion of the professed followers of Christ, like his first disciples, are "slow of heart to believe." Not less have the sacred ministries of the family state been undervalued and warred upon in other directions; for example, the Romish Church has made celibacy a prime virtue, and given its highest honors to those who forsake the family state as ordained by God. Thus came great communities of monks and nuns, shut out from the love and labors of a Christian home; thus, also, came the monkish systems of education, collecting the young in great establishments away from the watch and care of parents, and the healthful and self-sacrificing labors of a home. Thus both religion and education have conspired to degrade the family state. Still more have civil laws and social customs been opposed to the principles of Jesus Christ. I t has ever been assumed that the learned, the rich, and the powerful are not to labor with the hands, as Christ did, and as Paul did when he would " not eat any man's bread for naught, but wrought with labor, not because we have not power " [to live without hand-work,] " but to make ourselves an example." (2 Thess. 3.) Instead of this, manual labor has been made dishonorable and unrefined by being forced on the ignorant and poor. Especially has the most important of all hand-labor, that which sustains the family, been thus disgraced; so that to nurse young children, and provide the food of a family by labor, is deemed the lowest of all positions in honor and profit, and the last resort of poverty. And so our Lord, who himself took the form of a servant, teaches, " How hardly shall they that have riches enter the kingdom of heaven!"—that kingdom in which all are toiling 22 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. to raise the weak, ignorant, and sinful to such equality with themselves as the children of a loving family enjoy. One mode in which riches have led to antagonism with the true end of the family state is in the style of living, by which the hand-labor, most important to health, com* fort, and beauty, is confined to the most ignorant and neglected members of society, without any effort being made to raise them to equal advantages with the wise and cul tivated. And, the higher civilization has advanced, the morhave children been trained to feel that to labor, as did Christ and Paul, is disgraceful, and to be made the portion of a degraded class. Children of the rich grow up with the feeling that servants are to work for them, and they themselves are not to work. To the minds of most children and servants, " to be a lady," is almost synonymous with " t o be waited on, and do no work." It is the earnest desire of the authors of this volume to make plain the falsity of this growing popular feeling, and to show how much happier and more efficient family life will become when it is strengthened, sustained, and adorned by family work. II A CHRISTIAN HOUSE. IN the Divine Word it is written, " The wise woman buildeth her house." To be "wise," is " t o choose the best means for accomplishing the best end." I t has been shown that the best end for a woman to seek is the training of God's children for their eternal home, by guiding them to intelligence, virtue, and true happiness. When, therefore, the wise woman seeks a home in which to exercise this 24 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. ministry, she will aim to secure a house so planned that is will provide in the best manner for health, industry, and economy, those cardinal requisites of domestic enjoyment and success. To aid in this, is the object of the following drawings and descriptions, which will illustrate a style of living more conformed to the great design for which the family is instituted than that which ordinarily prevails among those classes which take the lead in forming the customs of society. The aim will be to exhibit modes of economizing labor, time, and expenses, so as to secure health, thrift, and domestic happiness to persons of limited means, in a measure rarely attained even by those who possess wealth. At the head of this chapter is a sketch of what may be properly called a Christian house; that is, a house contrived for the express purpose of enabling every member of a family to labor with the hands for the common good, and by modes at once healthful, economical, and tasteful Of course, much of the instruction conveyed in the fol lowing pages is chiefly applicable to the wants and habits of those living either in the country or in such suburban vicinities as give space of ground for healthful outdoor occupation in the family service, although the general principles of house-building and house-keeping are of necessity universal in their application—as true in the busy confines of the city as in the freer and purer quietude of the country. So far as circumstances can be made to yield the opportunity, it will be assumed that the family state demands some outdoor labor for all. The cultivation of flowers to ornament the table and house, of fruits and vegetables for food, of silk and cotton for clothing, and the care of horse, cow, and dairy, can be so divided that each and all of the family, some part of the day, can take exercise in the pure air, under the magnetic and healthful rays of the sun. Every head of a family should seek a soil and climate which will afford such opportuni- A CHRISTIAN HOUSE. 25 ties. Railroads, enabling men toiling in cities to rear families in the country, are on this account a special blessing. So, also, is the opening of the South to free labor, whei-e, in the pure and mild climate of the uplands, openair labor can proceed most of the year, and women and children labor out of doors as well as w: thin. In the following drawings are presented modes of economizing time, labor, and expense by the close packing of conveniences. By such methods, small and economical houses can be made to secure most of the comforts and many of the refinements of large and expensive ones. The cottage at the head of this chapter is projected on a plan which can be adapted to a warm or cold climate with little change. By adding another story, it would serve a large family. Fig. 1 shows the ground-plan of the first floor. On the inside it is forty-three feet long and twenty-five wide, excluding conservatories and front and back projections. Its inside height from floor to ceiling is ten feet. The piazzas each side of the front projection have sliding-windows to the floor, and can, by glazed sashes, be made green-houses in winter. In a warm climate, piazzas can be made at the back side also. In the description and arrangement, the leading aim is to show how time, labor, and expense are saved, not only in the building but in furniture and its arrangement. With this aim, the ground-floor and its furniture will first be shown, then the second story and its furniture, and then the basement and its conveniences. The conservatories are appendages not necessary to housekeeping, but useful in many ways pointed out more at large in other chapters. The entry has arched recesses behind the front doors, (Fig. 2,) furnished with hooks for over-clothes in both—a box for over-shoes in one, and a stand for umbrellas in the other. The roof of the recess is for statuettes, busts, or Fig. 1. 43 X 25 10 FEET INSIDE FROM FLOOR TO CEILINQ DRAWING ROOM 2 5 X 16 < • N • ; N i < ! EN A CHRISTIAN HOUSE. 27 flowers. The stairs tnrn twice with broad steps, making a recess at the lower landing, where a table is set with a Fig. 2. vase of flowers, (Fig. 3.) On one side of the recess is a closet, arched to correspond with the arch over the stairs. A bracket over the first broad stair, with flowers or statuettes, is visible from the entrance, and pictures can be hung as in the illustration. The large room on the left can be made to serve the purpose of several rooms by means of a movable screen. By shifting this rolling screen from one part of the room to another, two apartments are always available, of any desired size within the limits of the large room. One side of the screen fronts what may be used as the parlor or sitting-room; the other side is arranged for Fig. 3. bedroom conveniences. Of this, Fig. 4 shows the front side; covered first with strong canvas, stretched and nailed on. Over this is pasted panel-paper, and the upper part is made to resemble an ornamental cornice by fresco-paper. Pictures can be hung in the panels, or be pasted on and varnished with STAIR CLOSET REGESS white varnish. To LANDING THE HOUSEKEEPER'S 28 MANUAL. prevent the absorption of the varnish, a wash of guM isinglass (fish-glue) must be applied twice. Fig. 4. -CE/LWP,. ROLLERS ROLLERS Fig. 5 shows the back or inside of the movable screen, toward the part of the room used as the bedroom. On one side, and at the top and bottom, it has shelves with shelf-hoxes, which are cheaper and better than drawers, and much preferred by those using them. Handles are cut in the front and back side, as seen in Fig. 6. Half an inch space must be between the box and the shelf over it, and as much each side, so that it can be taken out and put in easily. The central part of the screen's interior is a wardrobe. This screen must be so high as nearly to reach the ceiling, in order to prevent it from overturning. It is to fill the width of the room, except two feet on each side. A projecting cleat or strip, reaching nearly to the top of A CHRISTIAN HOUSE. 29 the screen, three inches wide, is to be screwed to the front sides, on which light frame doors are to be hung, covered with canvas and panel-paper like the front of the screen. The inside of these doors is furnished with hooks for clothing, for which the projection makes room. The whole screen is to be eighteen inches deep at the top and two feet deep at the base, giving a Fig. 6. solid foundation. It is moved on four wooden rollers, one foot long and four inches in diameter. The pivots of the rollers and the parts where there is friction must be rubbed with hard soap, and then a child can move the whole easily. A curtain is to be hung across the whole interior of the 30 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. screen by rings, on a strong wire. The curtail should be in three parts, with lead or large nails in the hems to keep it in place. The wood-work must be put together with screws, as the screen is too large to pass through a door. At the end of the room, behind the screen, are two couches, to be run one under the other, as in Fig. 7. The upper one is made with four posts, each three feet high and three inches square, set on casters two inches high. The frame is to be fourteen inches from the floor, seven feet long, two feet four inches wide, and three inches in thickness. At the head, and at the foot, is to be screwed a notched two-inch board, three inches wide, as in Fig. 8. The mortises are to be one inch lg ' " wide and deep, and one inch apart, I — I—I I—I | ^o r e c e i v e s l a ts made of ash, oak, or spruce, one inch square, placed lengthwise of the couch. The slats being small, and so near together, and running lengthwise, make a better spring frame than wire coils. If they warp, they can be turned. They must not be fastened at the ends, except by insertion in the notches. Across the posts, and of equal height with them, are to be screwed head and foot-boards. A CHRISTIAN HOUSE. 31 The under couch is like the upper, except these dimensions : posts, nine inches high, including castors; frame, six feet two inches long, two feet four inches wide. The frame should be as near the floor as possible, resting on the casters. The most healthful and comfortable mattress is made by a case, open in lg ' the centre and ^ ^ ^ _ _ ^1\lf fastened together / _ * r^^^^^ with buttons, as lllli ,i1 11, li1 % ^ in Fig. 9 ; to be filled with oat straw, which is softer than wheat or rye. This can be adjusted to the figure, and often renewed. Fig. 10 represents the upper couch when covered, with the under couch put beneath it. The coverlid should match the curtain of the screen; and the pillows, by day, should have a case of the same. Fig. 10. Fig. 11. Fig. 11 is an ottoman, made as a box, with a lid on hinges. A cushion is fastened to this lid by strings at each corner, passing through holes in the box lid and tied inside. The cushion to be cut square, with side pieces; stuffed with hair, and stitched through like a mattress. Side handles are made by cords fastened inside with knots. The box must be two inches larger at the bottom than at the top, and the lid and cushion the same size as the bottom, to give it a tasteful shape. This ottoman is set on casters, and is a great convenience for holding articles, while serving also as a seat. 32 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. The expense of the screen, where lumber averages $4 a hundred, and carpenter labor $3 a day, would be about $30, and the two couches about $6. The material for covering might be cheap and yet pretty. A woman w ; th these directions, and a son or husband who would use plane and saw, could thus secure much additional room, and also what amounts to two bureaus, two large trunks, one large wardrobe, and a wash-stand, for less than $20—the mere cost of materials. The screen and couches can be so arranged as to have one room serve first as a large and airy sleeping-room ; then, in the morning, it may be used as sitting-room one side of the screen, and breakfast-room the other; and lastly, through the day it can be made a large parlor on the front side, and a sewing or retiringroom the other side. The needless spaces usually devoted to kitchen, entries, halls, back-stairs, pantries, store-rooms, and closets, by this method would be used in adding to the size of the large room, so variously used by day and by night. Fig. 12 is an enlarged plan of the kitchen and stoveroom. The chimney and stove-room are contrived to ventilate the whole house, by a mode exhibited in another chapter. Between the two rooms glazed sliding-doors, passing each other, serve to shut out heat and smells from the kitchen. The sides of the stove-room must be lined with shelves; those on the side by the cellar stairs, to be one foot wide, and eighteen inches apart; on the other side, shelves may be narrower, eight inches wide and nine inches apart. Boxes with lids, to receive stove utensils, must be placed near the stove. On these shelves, and in the closet and boxes, can be placed every material used for cooking, all the table and cooking utensils, and all the articles used in house work, and yet much spare room will be left. The cook's galley in a steamship has every article and utensil used in cook- Fig. 12. T^rmm I /FLOUR) COOK DRAIN SINK -oi | |0 2| 0 II 1 L 5U 5- KITCHEN 9X9 W>. LANDING 34 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. ing for two hundred persons, in a space not larger than this stove-room, and so arranged that with one or two steps the cook can reach all he uses. In contrast to this, in most large houses, the table furniture, the cooking materials and utensils, the sink, and the eating-room, are at such distances apart, that half the time and strength is employed in walking back and forth to collect and return the articles used. Fig. 13. CE/L ING p Fig. 13 is an enlarged plan of the sink and cookingform. Two windows make a better circulation of air in warm weather, by haying one open at top and the other A CHRISTIAN HOUSE. 35 at the bottom, while the light is better adjusted for working, in case of weak eyes. The flour-barrel just fills the closet, which has a door for admission, and a lid to raise when used. Beside it, is the form for cooking, with a moulding-board laid on i t ; one side used for preparing vegetables and meat, and the other for moulding bread. The sink has two pumps, for well and for rain-water—one having a forcing power to throw water into the reservoir in the garret, which supplies the water-closet and bath-room. On the other side of the sink is the dish-drainer, with a ledge on the edge next the sink, to hold the dishes, and grooves cut to let the water drain into the sink. It has hinges, so that it can either rest on the cook-form or be turned over and cover the sink. Under the sink are shelf-boxes placed on two shelves run into grooves, with other grooves above and below, so that one may move the shelves and increase or diminish the spaces between. The shelf-boxes can be used for scouring-materials, dish-towels, and dish-cloths; also to hold bowls for bits of butter, fats, etc. Under these two shelves is room for two pails, and a jar for soap-grease. Under the cook-form are shelves and shelf-boxes for unbolted wheat, corn-meal, rye, etc. Beneath these, for white and brown sugar, are wooden can-pails, which are the best articles in which to keep these constant necessities. Beside them is the tin molasses-can with a tight, movable cover, and a cork in the spout. This is much better than a jug for molasses, and also for vinegar and oil, being easier to. clean and to handle. Other articles and implements for cooking can be arranged on or under the shelves at the side and front. A small cooking-tray, holding pepper, salt, dredging-box, knife and spoon, should stand close at hand by the stove, (Fig. 14.) 36 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. The articles used for setting Fig. 15. tables are to be placed on the shelves at the front and side of the sink. Two tumbler-trays, made of pasteboard, covered with varnished fancy papers and divided by wires, (as shown in Fig. 15,) save many steps in setting and clearing table. Similar trays, (Fig. 16,) for knives and forks and spoons, serve Fig. 16. the same purpose. The sink should be three feet long and three inches deep, its width matching the cook-form. Fig. IT is the second or attic story. The main objection to attic rooms is their warmth in summer, owing to the heated roof. This is prevented by so enlarging the closets each side that their walls meet the ceiling under the garret floor, thus excluding all the roof. In the bed-chambers, corner dressing-tables, as Fig. 18, instead of projecting bureaus, save much space for use, and a handsome form and finish to the room. In the bath-room must be the opening to the garret, and a step-ladder to reach it. A 111 ° 1 ° |]f 1 reservoir in the garret, supI ° ° lli o • H jo plied by a forcing-pump in III o o the cellar or at the sink, must be well supported by timbers, and the plumbing must be well done, or much annoyance will ensue. The large chambers are to be lighted by large windows or glazed sliding-doors, opening upon the balcony. A roof can be put over the balcony and its sides inclosed by win- Fig. 17. 38 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. dows, and the chamber extend into it, and be thus much enlarged. The water-closets must have the latest improvements for safe discharge, and there will be no trouble. They cost no more than an out-door building, and save from the most disagreeable house-labor. A great improvement, called earth-closets, will probably take the place of water-closets to some extent; though at present the water is the more convenient. A description of the earth-closet will be given in another chapter relating to tenement-houses for the poor in large cities. The method of ventilating all the chambers, and also the cellar, will be described in another chapter. Fig. 19 represents a shoe-bag, that can be fastened to the side of a closet or closet-door. Fig. 20 represents a piece-bag, and is a very great labor and spacesaving invention. It is made of calico, and fastened to the side of a closet or a door, to hold all the bundles that are usually stowed in trunks and drawers. Indiarubber or elastic tape drawn into hems to hold the contents of the bag is better than tape-strings. Each bag should be labeled with the name of its contents, written with indelible ink on white tape sewed on to the bag. Such systematic arrangement saves much time and annoyance. Drawers or trunks to hold these articles can not be kept so easily in good order, and moreover, occupy spaces saved by this contrivance. Fig. 21 is the basement. It has the floor and sides plastered, and is lighted with glazed doors. A form is raised close by the cellar stairs, for baskets, pails, and tubs. A CHRISTIAN HOUSE. 39 Here, also, the refrigerator can be placed, or, what is better, an ice-closet can be made, as designated in the illustration. The floor of the basement must be an inclined plane toward a drain, and be plastered with waterlime. The wash-tnbs have pings in the bottom to let off water, and cocks and pipes over them bringing cold water from the reservoir in the garret and hot water from the laundry stove. This saves much heavy labor of emptying tubs and carrying water. The laundry closet has a stove for heating irons, and also a kettle on top for heating water. Slides or clothesFig. 20. Fig. 21. I (Rl u o CO l ] GLAZED DDL LAUNDRY o O TUBS LAUNDRY SLIDES A CHRISTIAN MOUSE. 41 frames are made to draw out to receive wet clothes, and then run into the closet to dry. This saves health as well as time and money, and the clothes are as white as when dried outdoors. The wood-work of the house, for doors, windows, etc., should be oiled chestnut, butternut, whitewood, and pine. This is cheaper, handsomer, and more easy to keep clean than painted wood. In Fig. 1 are planned two conservatories, and few understand their value in the training of the young. They provide soil, in which children, through the winter months, can be starting seeds and plants for their gardens and raising valuable, tender plants. Every child should cultivate flowers and fruits to sell and to give away, and thus be taught to learn the value of money and to practice both economy and benevolence. According to the calculation of a house-carpenter, in a place where the average price of lumber is $4 a hundred, and carpenter work $3 a day, such a house can be built for $1600. For those practicing the closest economy, two small families could occupy it, by dividing the kitchen, and yet have room enough. Or one large room and the chamber over it can be left till increase of family and means require enlargement. A strong horse and carryall, with a cow, garden, vineyard, and orchard, on a few acres, would secure all the substantial comforts found in great establishments, without the trouble of ill-qualified servants. And if the parents and children were united in the daily labors of the house, garden, and fruit culture, such thrift, health, and happiness would be secured as is but rarely found among the rich. Let us suppose a colony of cultivated and Christian people, having abundant wealth, who now are living as the wealthy usually do, emigrating to some of the beautiful Southern uplands, where are rocks, hills, valleys, and 42 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. mountains as picturesque as those of New-England, where the thermometer but rarely reaches 90° in summer, and in winter as rarely sinks below freezing-point, so that out door labor goes on all the year, where the fertile soil is easily worked, where rich tropical fruits and flowers abound, where cotton and silk can be raised by children around their home, where the produce of vineyards and orchards finds steady markets by railroads ready made; suppose such a colony, with a central church and schoolroom, library, hall for sports, and a common laundry, (taking the most trying part of domestic labor from each house,)—suppose each family to train the children to labor with the hands as a healthful and honorable duty; suppose all this, which is perfectly practicable, would not the enjoyment of this life be increased, and also abundant treasures be laid up in heaven, by using the wealth thus economized in diffusing similar enjoyments and culture among the poor, ignorant, and neglected ones in desolated sections where many now are perishing for want of such Christian example and influences ? in A HEALTHFUL HOME. W H E N " the wise woman buildeth her house," the first consideration will be the health of the inmates. The first and most indispensable requisite for health is pure air, both by day and night. If the parents of a family should daily withhold from their children a large portion of food needful to growth and health, and every night should administer to each a small dose of poison, it would be called murder of the most hideous character. But it is probable that more than one half of this nation are doing that very thing. The murderous operation is perpetrated daily and nightly, in our parlors, our bed-rooms, our kitchens, our schoolrooms; and even our churches are no asylum from the barbarity. Nor can we escape by our railroads, for even there the same dreadful work is going on. The only palliating circumstance is the ignorance of those who commit these wholesale murders. As saith the Scripture, " The people do perish for lack of knowledge." And it is this lack of knowledge which it is woman's special business to supply, in first training her household to intelligence as the indispensable road to virtue and happiness. The above statements will be illustrated by some account of the manner in which the body is supplied with healthful nutriment. There are two modes of nourishing the body, one is by food and the other by air. In the 44 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. stomach the food is dissolved, and the nutritious portion is absorbed by the blood, and then is carried by bloodvessels to the lungs, where it receives oxygen from the air we breathe. This oxygen is as necessary to the nourishment of the body as the food for the stomach. In a fullgrown man weighing one hundred and fifty-four pounds, one hundred and eleven pounds consists of oxygen, obtained chiefly from the air we breathe. Thus the lungs feed the body with oxygen, as really as the stomach supplies the other food required. The lungs occupy the upper Fig. 22. portion of the body from the collar-bone to the lower ribs, and between their two lobes is placed the heart. Fig. 22 shows the position of the lungs, though not the exact shape. On the right hand is the exterior of one of the lobes, and on the left hand are seen the branching tubes of the interior, through which the air we breathe passes to the exceedingly minute air-cells of which the lungs chiefly consist. Fig. 23 shows the outside of a cluster of these air-cells, and Fig. 23. Fig. 24. Fig. 24 is the inside view. The lining membrane of each air-cell is covered by a network of minute blood-vessels called cajpil laries, which, magnified A HEALTHFUL HOME. 45 several hundred times, appear in the microscope as at Fig. 25. Every air-cell has a blood-vessel that brings blood from the heart, Flg 26, Fig. 25. which meanders * through its capillaries till it reaches another bloodvessel that carries it back to the heart, as seen in Fig. 26. In this passage of the blood through these capillaries, the air in the air-cell imparts its oxygen to the blood, and receives in exchange carbonic acid and watery vapor. These latter are expired at every breath into the atmosphere. By calculating the number of air cells in a small portion of the lungs, under a miscroscope, it is ascertained that there are no less than eighteen million of these wonderful little purifiers and feeders of the body. By their ceaseless ministries, every grown person receives, each day, thirty-three hogsheads of air into the lungs to nourish and vitalize every part of the body, and also to carry off its impurities. But the heart has a most important agency in this operation. Fig. 27 is a diagram of the heart, which is placed between the two lobes of the lungs. The right side of the heart receives the dark and impure blood, which is loaded with carbonic acid. It is brought from every point of the body by branching veins that unite in the upper and the lower vena cava, which discharge into the right side of the heart. This impure blood passes to the caj)illaries of the air-cells in the lungs, where it gives off carbonic acid, and, taking oxygen from the air, then 46 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. returns to the left side of the heart, from whence it is sent out through the aorta and its myriad branching arteries to every part of the body. AORTA When the up- lungs on one side, and also on the other side forces the purified blood through the aorta and arteries to all parts of the body. As before stated, the lungs consist chiefly of air-cells, the walls of which are lined with minute blood-vessels; and we know that in every man these air-cells number eighteen millions. Now every beat of the heart sends two ounces of blood into the minute, hair-like blood-vessels, called capillaries, that line these air-cells, where the air in the air-cells gives its oxygen to the blood, and in its place receives carbonic acid. This gas is then expired by the lungs into the surrounding atmosphere. Thus, by this powerful little organ, the heart, no less than twenty-eiglit pounds of blood, in a common-sized man, is sent three times every hour through the lungs, A HEALTHFUL HOME. 47 giving out carbonic acid and watery vapor, and receiving the life-inspiring oxygen. Whether all this blood shall convey the nourishing and invigorating oxygen to every part of the body, or return unrelieved of carbonic acid, depends entirely on the pureness of the atmosphere that is breathed. Every time we think or feel, this mental action dissolves some particles of the brain and nerves, which pass into the blood to be thrown out of the body through the lungs and skin. In like manner, whenever we move any muscle, some of its particles decay and pass away. I t is in the capillaries, which are all over the body, that this change takes place. The blood-vessels that convey the pure blood from the heart, divide into myriads of little branches that terminate in capillary vessels like those lining the air-cells of the lungs. The blood meanders through these minute capillaries, depositing the oxygen taken from the lungs and the food of the stomach, and receiving in return the decayed matter, which is chiefly carbonic acid. This carbonic acid is formed by the union of oxygen with carbon or charcoal, which forms a large portion of the body. Watery vapor is also formed in the capillaries by the union of oxygen with the hydrogen contained in the food and drink that nourish the body. During this process in the capillaries, the bright red blood of the arteries changes to the purple blood of the veins, which is carried back to the heart, to be sent to the lungs as before described. A portion of the oxygen received in the lungs unites with the dissolved food sent from the stomach into the blood, and no food can nor rish the body till it has received a proper supply of oxygen in the lungs. At every breath a half-pint of blood receives its needed oxygen in the lungs, and at the same time gives out an equal amount of carbonic acid and water. Now, this carbonic acid, if received into the lungs, undiluted by sufficient air, is a fatal poison, causing 48 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL, certain death. When it is mixed with only a small portion of air, it is a slow poison, which imperceptibly undermines the constitution. We now can understand how it is that all who live in houses where the breathing of inmates has deprived the air of oxygen, and loaded it with carbonic acid, may truly be said to be poisoned and starved; poisoned with carbonic acid, and starved for want of oxygen. Whenever oxygen unites with carbon to form carbonic acid, or with hydrogen to form water, heat is generate^ Thus it is that a kind of combustion is constantly going on in the capillaries all over the body. It is this burning of the decaying portions of the body that causes animal heat. It is a process similar to that which takes place when lamps and candles are burning. The oil and tallow5 which are chiefly carbon and hydrogen, unite with the oxygen of the air and form carbonic acid and watery vapor, producing heat during the process. So in the capillaries all over the body, the carbon and hydrogen supplied to the blood by the stomach, unite with the oxygen gained in the lungs, and cause the heat which is diffused all over the body. The skin also performs an office, similar to that of the lungs. In the skin of every adult there are no less than seven million minute perspirating tubes, each one fourth of an inch long. If all these were united in one length, they would extend twenty-eight miles. These minute tubes are lined with capillary blood-vessels, which are constantly sending out not only carbonic acid, but other gases and particles of decayed matter. The skin and lungs together, in one day and night, throw out three quarters of a pound of charcoal as carbonic acid, beside other gases and water. While the bodies of men and animals are filling the air with the poisonous carbonic acid, and using up the life-giving oxygen, the trees and plants are performing an A HEALTHFUL HOME. 49 exactly contrary process; for they are absorbing carbonic acid and giving out oxygen. Thus, by a wonderful arrangement of the beneficent Creator, a constant equilibrium is preserved. What animals use is provided by vegetables, and what vegetables require is furnished by animals; and all goes on, day and night, without care or thought of man. The human race in its infancy was placed in a mild and genial clime, where each separate family dweJt in tents, and breathed, both day and night, the pure air of heaven. And when they became scattered abroad to colder climes, the open fire-place secured a full supply of pure air. But civilization has increased economies and conveniences far ahead of the knowledge needed by the common people for their healthful use. Tight sleepingrooms, and close, air-tight stoves, are now starving and poisoning more than one half of this nation. I t seems impossible to make people know their danger. And the remedy for this is the light of knowledge and intelligence which it is woman's special mission to bestow, as she controls and regulates the ministries of a home. The poisoning process is thus exhibited in Mrs. Stowe's " House and Home Papers," and can not be recalled too often: " No other gift of God, so precious, so inspiring, is treated with such utter irreverence and contempt in the calculations of us mortals as this same air of heaven. A sermon on oxygen, if we had a preacher who understood the subject, might do more to repress sin than the most orthodox discourse to show when and how and why sin came. A minister gets up in a crowded lecture-room, where the mephitic air almost makes the candles burn blue, and bewails the deadness of the church—the church the while, drugged by the poisoned air, growing sleepier and sleepier, though they feel dreadfully wicked for being so. " Little Jim, who, fresh from his afternoon's ramble in 50 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. the fields, last evening said his prayers dutifully, and lay down to sleep in a most Christian frame, this morning sits up in bed with his hair bristling with crossness, strikes at his nurse, and declares he won't say his prayers—that he don't want to be good. The simple difference is, that the child, having slept in a close box of a room, his brain all night fed by poison, is in a mild state of moral insanity. Delicate women remark that it takes them till eleven or twelve o'clock to get up their strength in the morning. Query, Do they sleep with closed windows and doors, and with heavy bed-curtains ? " The houses built by our ancestors were better ventilated in certain respects than modern ones, with all their improvements. The great central chimney, with its open fire-places in the different rooms, created a constant current which carried off foul and vitiated air. In these days, how common is it to provide rooms with only a flue for a stove ! This flue is kept shut in summer, and in winter opened only to admit a close stove, which burns away the vital portion of the air quite as fast as the occupants breathe it away. The sealing up of fire-places and introduction of air-tight stoves may, doubtless, be a saving of fuel; it saves, too, more than t h a t ; in thousands and thousands of cases it has saved people from all further human wants, and put an end forever to any needs short of the six feet of narrow earth which are man's only inalienable property. In other words, since the invention of air-tight stoves, thousands have died of slow poison. " It is a terrible thing to reflect upon, that our northern winters last from November to May, six long months, in which many families coifine themselves to one room, of which every window-crack has been carefully calked to make it air-tight, where an air-tight stove keeps the atmosphere at a temperature between eighty and ninety; and the inmates, sitting there with all their winter clothes on, become enervated both by the heat and by the poisoned A HEALTHFUL HOME. 51 air, for which there is no escape but the occasional opening of a door. " It is no wonder that the first result of all this is such a delicacy of skin and lungs that about half the inmates are obliged to give up going into the open air during the six cold months, because they invariably catch cold if they do so. I t is no wonder that the cold caught about the first of December has by the first of March become a fixed consumption, and that the opening of the spring, which ought to bring life and health, in so many cases brings death. " We hear of the lean condition in which the poor bears emerge from their six months' wintering, during which they subsist on the fat which they have acquired the previous summer. Even so, in our long winters, multitudes of delicate people subsist on the daily waning strength which they acquired in the season when windows and doors were open, and fresh air was a constant luxury. No wonder we hear of spring fever and spring biliousness, and have thousands of nostrums for clearing the blood in the spring. All these things are the pantings and palpita tions of a system run down under slow poison, unable to get a step further. "Better, far better, the old houses of the olden time, with their great roaring fires, and their bed-rooms where the snow came in and the wintry winds whistled. Then, to be sure, you froze your back while you burned your face, your water froze nightly in your pitcher, your breath congealed in ice-wreaths on the blankets, and you could write your name on the pretty snow-wreath that had sifted in through the window-cracks. But you woke full of life and vigor, you looked out into the whirling snow-storms without a shiver, and thought nothing of plunging through drifts as high as your head on your daily way to school. You jingled in sleighs, you snow-balled, you lived in snow like a snow-bird, and your blood coursed and tingled, in full tide of good, merry, real life, through your vein?— 52 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL none of the slow-creeping, black blood which clogs the brain and lies like a weight on the vital wheels!" To illustrate the effects of this poison, the horrors of " t h e Black Hole of Calcutta" are often referred to, where one hundred and forty-six men were crowded into a room only eighteen feet square with but two small windows, and in a hot climate. After a night of such horrible torments as chill the blood to read, the morning showed a pile of one hundred and twenty-three dead men and twenty-three half dead that were finally recovered only to a life of weakness and suffering. In another case, a captain of the steamer Londonderry, in 1848, from sheer ignorance of the consequences, in a storm, shut up his passengers in a tight room without windows. The agonies, groans, curses, and shrieks that followed were horrible. The struggling mass finally burst the door, and the captain found seventy-two of the two hundred already dead; while others, with blood starting from their eyes and ears, and their bodies in convulsions, were restored, many only to a life of sickness and debility. It is ascertained by experiments that breathing bad air tends so to reduce all the processes of the body, that less oxygen is demanded and less carbonic acid sent out. This, of course, lessens the vitality and weakens the constitution ; and it accounts for the fact that a person of full health, accustomed to pure air, suffers from bad air far more than those who are accustomed to it. The body of strong and healthy persons demands more oxygen, and throws off more carbonic acid, and is distressed when the supply fails. But the one reduced by bad air feels little inconvenience, because all the functions of life are so slow that less oxygen is needed, and less carbonic acid thrown out. And the sensibilities being deadened, the evil is not felt. This provision of nature prolongs many lives, though it turns vigorous constitutions into feeble ones. Were it A HEALTHFUL HOME. 53 not for this change in the constitution, thousands in badly ventilated rooms and houses would come to a speedy death. One of the results of unventilated rooms is scrofula. A distinguished French physician, M. Baudeloque, states that: " The repeated respiration of the same atmosphere is the cause of scrofula. If there be entirely pure air, there may be bad food, bad clothing, and want of personal cleanliness, but scrofulous disease can not exist. This disease never attacks persons who pass their lives in the open air, and always manifests itself when they abide in air which is unrenewed. Invariably it will be found that a tru.y scrofulous disease is caused by vitiated air; and it is not necessary that there should be a prolonged stay in such an atmosphere. Often, several hours each day is sufficient. Thus persons may live in the most healthy country, pass most of the day in the open air, and yet become scrofulous by sleeping in a close room where the air is not renewed. This is the case with many shepherds who pass their nights in small huts with no opening but a door closed tight at night." The same writer illustrates this by the history of a French village where the inhabitants all slept in close, unventilated houses. Nearly all were seized with scrofula, and many families became wholly extinct, their last members dying "rotten with scrofula." A fire destroyed a large part of this village. Houses were then built to secure pure air, and scrofula disappeared from the part thus rebuilt. We are informed by medical writers that defective ventilation is one great cause of diseased joints, as well as of diseases of the eyes, ears, and skin. Foul air is the leading cause of tubercular and scrofulous consumption, so very common in our country. Dr. Guy, in his examination before public health commissioners in Great Britain, says: " Deficient ventilation I believe to be more fatal than all other causes put together." He 54 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. states that consumption is twice as common among tradesmen as among the gentry, owing to the bad ventilation of their stores and dwellings. Dr. Griscom, in his work on Uses and Abuses of Air, says: " Food carried from the stomach to the blood can not become nutritive till it is properly oxygenated in the lungs; so that a small quantity of food, even if less wholesome, may be made nutritive by pure air as it passes through the lungs. But the best of food can not be changed into nutritive blood till it is vitalized by pure air in the lungs." And again: " To those who have the care and instruction of the rising generation—the future fathers and mothers of men— this subject of ventilation commends itself with an interest surpassing every other. Nothing can more convincingly establish the belief in the existence of something vitally wrong in the habits and circumstances of civilized life than the appalling fact that one fourth of all who are born die before reaching the fifth year, and one half the deaths of mankind occur under the twentieth year. Let those who have these things in charge answer to their own consciences how they discharge their duty in supplying to the young a pure atmosphere, which is the first requisite for healthy bodies and sound niinds" On the subject of infant mortality the experience of savages should teach the more civilized. Professor Brewer, who traveled extensively among the Indians of our western territories, states: " I have rarely seen a sick boy among the Indians." Oatlin, the painter, who resided and traveled so much among these people, states that infant mortality is very small among them, the reason, of course, being abundant exercise and pure air. Dr. Dio Lewis, whose labors in the cause of health are well known, in his very useful work, Weak Lungs, ana How to Malce them Strong, says: A HEALTHFUL HOME. 55 " As a medical man I have visited thousands of sickrooms, and have not found in one in a hundred of them a pure atmosphere. I have often returned from church doubting whether I had not committed a sin in exposing myself so long to its poisonous air. There are in our great cities churches costing $50,000, in the construction of which not fifty cents were expended in providing means for ventilation. Ten thousand dollars for ornament, but not ten cents for pure air! " Unventilated parlors, with gas-burners, (each consuming as much oxygen as several men,) made as tight as possible, and a party of ladies and gentlemen spending half the night in them! In 1861,1 visited a legislative hall, the legislature being in session. I remained half an hour in the most impure air I ever breathed. Our school-houses are, some of them, so vile in this respect, that I would prefer to have my son remain in utter ignorance of books rather than to breathe, six hours every day, such a poisonous atmosphere. Theatres and concert-rooms are so foul that only reckless people continue to visit them. Twelve hours in a railway-car exhausts one, not by the journeying, but because of the devitalized air. While crossing the ocean in a Cunard steamer, I was amazed that men who knew enough to construct such ships did not know enough to furnish air to the passengers. The distress of sea-sickness is greatly intensified by the sickening air of the ship. Were carbonic acid only Mack, what a contrast there would be between our hotels in their elaborate ornament! " Some time since I visited an establishment where one hundred and fifty girls, in a single room, were engaged in needle-work. Pale-faced, and with low vitality and feeble circulation, they were unconscious that they were breathing air that at once produced in me dizziness and a sense of suffocation. If I had remained a week with them, I should, by reduced vitality, have become unconscious of the vileness of the air!" 56 , THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. There is a prevailing prejudice against night air as unhealthily to be admitted into sleeping-rooms, which is owing wholly to sheer ignorance. In the night every body necessarily breathes night air and no other. When admitted from without into a sleeping-room it is colder, and therefore heavier, than the air within, so it sinks to the bottom of the room and forces out an equal quantity of the impure air, warmed and vitiated by passing through the lungs of inmates. Thus the question is, Shall we shut up a chamber and breathe night air vitiated with carbonic acid or night air that is pure ? The only real difficulty about night air is, that usually it is damper, and therefore colder and more likely to chill. This is easily prevented by sufficient bed-clothing. One other very prevalent mistake is found even in books written by learned men. It is often thought that carbonic acid, being heavier than common air, sinks to the floor of sleeping-rooms, so that the low trundle-beds for children should not be used. This is all a mistake; for, as a fact, in close sleeping-rooms the purest air is below and the most impure above. It is true that carbonic acid is heavier than common air, when pure; but this it rarely is except in chemical experiments. It is the property of all gases, as well as of the two (oxygen and nitrogen) composing the atmosphere, that when brought together they always are entirely mixed, each being equally diffused exactly as it would be if alone. Thus the carbonic acid from the skin and lungs, being warmed in the body, rises as does the common air, with which it mixes, toward the top of a room ; so that usually there is more carbonic acid at the "L/p than at the bottom of a room.* Both common air and carbonic acid expand and become lighter in the same proportions ; that i % for every & * Prof. Brewer, of the Yale Scientific School, says: " A s a fact, often demonstrated by analysis, there is generally more carbonic acid n^a* th* ceiling than near the floor." A HEALTHFUL HOME, 57 degree of added heat they expand at the rate of ^\-Q of their bulk. Here, let it be remembered, that in ill-ventilated rooms the carbonic acid is not the only cause of disease. Experiments seem to prove that other matter thrown out of the body, through the lungs and skin, is as truly excrement and in a state of decay as that ejected from the bowels, and as poisonous to the animal system. Carbonic acid has no odor; but we are warned by the disagreeable effluvia of close sleeping-rooms of the other poison thus thrown into the air from the skin and lungs. There is one provision of nature that is little understood, which saves the lives of thousands living in unventilated houses; and that is, the passage of pure air inward and impure air outward through the pores of bricks, wood, stone, and mortar. Were such dwellings changed to tin, which is not thus porous, in less than a week thousands and tens of thousands would be in danger of perishing by suffocation. These statements give some idea of the evils to be remedied. But the most difficult point is how to secure the remedy. For often the attempt to secure pure air by one class of persons brings chills, colds, and disease on another class, from mere ignorance or mismanagement. To illustrate this, it must be borne in mind that those who live in warm, close, and unventilated rooms are much more liable to take cold from exposure to draughts and cold air than those of vigorous vitality accustomed to breathe pure air. Thus the strong and healthy husband, feeling the want of pure air in the night, and knowing its importance, keeps windows open and makes such draughts that the wife, who lives all day in a close room and thus is low in vitality, can not bear the change, has colds, and sometimes perishes a victim to wrong modes of ventilation. So, even in health-establishments, the patients will pass most of their days and nights in badly-ventilated rooms. o8 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. But at times the physician, or some earnest patient, insists on a mode of ventilation that brings more evil than good to the delicate inmates. The grand art of ventilating houses is by some method that will empty rooms of the vitiated air and bring in a supply of pure air by small and imperceptible currents. But this important duty of a Christian woman is one that demands more science, care, and attention than almost any other; and yet, to prepare her for this duty has never been any part of female education. Young women are taught to draw mathematical diagrams and to solve astronomical problems; but few, if any, of them are taught to solve the problem of a house constructed to secure pure and moist air by day and night for all its inmates. The heating and management of the air we breathe is one of the most complicated problems of domestic economy, as will be farther illustrated in the succeeding chapter; and yet it is one of which most American women are profoundly ignorant. IV. SCIENTIFIC DOMESTIC VEHTTLATION. W E have seen in the preceding pages the process through which the air is rendered unhealthful by close rooms and want of ventilation. Every person inspires air about twenty times each minute, using half a pint each time. At this rate, every pair of lungs vititates one hogshead of air every hour. The membrane that lines the multitudinous air-cells of the lungs in which the capillaries are, should it be united in one sheet, would cover the floor of a room twelve feet square. Every breath brings a surface of air in contact with this extent of capillaries, by which the air inspired gives up most of its oxygen and receives carbonic acid in its stead. These facts furnish a guide for the proper ventilation of rooms. Just in proportion to the number of persons in a room or a house, should be the amount of air brought in and carried out by arrangements for ventilation. But how rarely is this rule regarded in building houses or in the care of families by housekeepers! The evils resulting from the substitution of stoves instead of the open fireplace, have led scientific and benevolent men to contrive various modes of supplying pure air to both public and private houses. But as yet little has been accomplished, except for a few of the more intelligent and wealthy. The great majority of the American people, owing to sheer ignorance, are, for want of pure air, being poisoned and starved; the result being weakened constitutions, frequent disease, and shortened life. 60 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. Whenever a family-room is heated by an open fire, it ia dnly ventilated, as the impure air is constantly passing off through the chimney, while, to supply the vacated space, the pure air presses in through the cracks of doors, windows, and floors. No such supply is gained for rooms warmed by stoves. And yet, from mistaken motives of economy, as well as from ignorance of the resulting evils, multitudes of householders are thus destroying health and shortening life, especially in regard to women and children who spend most of their time within-doors. The most successful modes of making " a healthful home " by a full supply of pure air to every inmate, will now be described and illustrated. It is the common property of both air and water to expand, become lighter and rise, just in proportion as they are heated; and therefore it is the invariable law that cool air sinks, thus replacing the warmer air below. Thus, whenever cool air enters a warm room, it sinks downward and takes the place of an equal amount of the warmer air, which is constantly tending upward and outward. This principle -of all fluids is illustrated by the following experiment: Take a glass jar about a foot high and three inches in diameter, and with a wire to aid in placing it aright, sink a small bit of lighted candle so as to stand in the centre at the bottom. (Fig. 28.) The candle will heat the air of the jar, which will rise a little on one side, while the colder air without will begin falling on the other side. These two currents will so conflict as finally to cease, and then the candle, having no supply of oxygen from fresh air, will begin to go out. Insert a bit of stiff paper so as to divide the mouth of the jar, and instantly the cold and warm air are not in conflict as before, because a current is formed each side of the paper ; the cold air descending on one side and the warm air ascending the other side, as indicated by the arrows. As long as the paper remains, the candle will SCIENTIFIC DOMESTIC VENTILATION. 61 bum, and as soon as it is removed, it will begin to go out, and can be restored by again inserting the paper. This illustrates the mode by which coal-mines are ventiFig. 28. lated when filled with carbonic acid. A shaft divided into two / /r passages, (Fig. 29,) is let down into the mine, where the air is warmer than the outside air. Immediately the colder air outside presses down into the mine, through the passage wliich is highest, being admitted by the escape of an equal quantity of the Fig. 29. warmer air, # which rises through the lower passage of the shaft, this being the first available opening for it to rise through., A current is thus created, which continues as long as the inside air is warmer than that without the mine, and no longer. Sometimes a fire is kindled in the mine, in order to continue or increase the warmth, and consequent upward current of its air. This illustrates one ol the cases w^here a " wise woman that buildeth her house" is greatly needed. For, owing to the ignorance of architects, house-builders, and men in general, they have been building schoolhouses, dwelling-houses, churches, 62 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. and colleges, with the most absurd and senseless contrivances for ventilation, and all from not applying this simple principle of science. On this point, Prof. Brewer, of the Scientific School of Yale College, writes thus : " I have been in public buildings, (I have one in mind now, filled with dormitories,) which cost half a million, where they attempted to ventilate every room by a flue, long and narrow, built into partition walls, and extending up into the capacious garret of the fifth story. Every room in the building had one such flue, with an opening into it at the floor and at the ceiling. It is needless to say that the whole concern was entirely useless. Had these flues been of proper proportions, and properly divided, the desired ventilation would have been secured." And this piece of ignorant folly was perpetrated in the midst of learned professors, teaching the laws of fluids and the laws of health. A learned physician also thus wrote to the author of this chapter: " The subject of the ventilation of our dwelling-houses is one of the most important questions of our times. How many thousands are victims to a slow suicide and murder, the chief instrument of which is want of ventilation ! How few are aware of the fact that every person, every day, vitiates thirty-three hogsheads of the air, and that each inspiration takes one fifth of the oxygen, and returns as much carbonic acid, from every pair of lungs in a room! How few understand that after air has received ten per cent of this fatal gas, if drawn into the lungs, it can no longer take carbonic acid from the capillaries! No wonder there is so much impaired nervous and muscular energy, so much scrofula, tubercles, catarrhs, dyspepsia, and typhoid diseases. I hope you can do r^uch to remedy the poisonous air of thousands and thousands of stoveheated rooms." In a cold climate and wintry weather, the grand impediment to ventilating rooms by opening doors or wir SCIENTIFIC DOMESTIC VENTILATION. S3 dows is the dangerous currents thus produced, which are so injurious to the delicate ones that for their sake it can not be done. Then, also, as a matter of economy, the poor can not afford to practice a method which carries off the heat generated by their stinted store of fuel. Even in a warm season and climate, there are frequent periods when the air without is damp and chilly, and yet at nearly the same temperature as that in the house. At such times, the opening of windows often has little effect in emptying a room of vitiated air. The ventilating-flues, such as are used in mines, have, in such cases, but little influence; for it is only when outside air is colder that a current can be produced within by this method. The most successful mode of ventilating a house is by creating a current of warm air in a flue, into which an opening is made at both the top and the bottom of a room, while a similar opening for outside air is made at the opposite side of the room. This is the mode employed in chemical laboratories for removing smells and injurious gases. The laboratory-closet is closed with glazed doors, and has an opening to receive pure air through a conductor from without. The stove or furnace within has a pipe which joins a larger cast-iron chimney-pipe, which is warmed by the smoke it receives from this and other fires. This cast-iron pipe is surrounded by a brick flue, through which air passes from below to be warmed by the pipe, and thus an upward current of warm air is created. Openings are then made at the top and bottom of the laboratory-closet into the warmair flue, and the gases and smells are pressed by the colder air into this flue, and are carried off in the current of warm air. The same method is employed in the dwelling-house shown in a preceding chapter. A cast-iron pipe is made in sections, which are to be united, and the whole fastened at top and bottom in the centre of the warm-air flue by ears extending to the bricks, and fastened when the flue is in process of building. Projecting openings to receive the 64 TEE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. pipes of the furnace, the laundry stove, and two stoves in each story, should be provided, which must be closed when not in use. A large opening is to be made into the warmair flue, and through this the kitchen stove-pipe is to pass, and be joined to the cast-iron chimney-pipe. Thus the smoke of the kitchen stove will warm the iron chimneypipe, and this will warm the air of the flue, causing a current upward, and this current will draw the heat and smells of cooking out of the kitchen Fig. 30. into the opening of the warmair flue. Every room surrounding the chimney has an opening at the top and bottom into the warm-air flue for ventilation, as also have the bathroom and water-closets. The writer has examined the methods most employed at the present time, which are all modifications of the two modes here described. One is that of Robinson, patented by a Boston company, which is a modification of the mining mode. It consists of the two ventilating tubes, such as are employed in mines, united in one shaft with a roof to keep out rain, and a valve to regulate the entrance and exit of air, as illustrated in Fig. 30. This method works well in certain circumstances, but fails so often as to prove very unreliable. Another mode is that of Ruttan, which is effected by heating air. This also has certain advantages and disadvantages. But the SCIENTIFIC DOMESTIC VENTILATION, 65 mode adopted for the preceding cottage plan is free from the difficulties of both the above methods, while it will surely ventilate every room in the house, both by day and night, and at all seasons, without any risk to health, and requiring no attention or care from the family. By means of a very small amount of fuel in the kitchen stove, to be described hereafter, the whole house can be ventilated, and all the cooking done both in warm and cold weather. This stove will also warm the whole house, in the Northern States, eight or nine months in the year. Two Franklin stoves, in addition, wTill warm the whole house during the three or four remaining coldest months. In a warm climate or season, by means of the non-conducting castings, the stove will ventilate the house and do all the cooking, without imparting heat or smells to any part of the house except the stove-closet. At the close of this volume, drawings, prepared by Mr. Lewis Leeds, are given, more fully to illustrate this mode of warming and ventilation, and in so plain and simple a form that any intelligent woman who has read this work can see that the plan is properly executed, even with workmen so entirely ignorant on this important subject as are most house-builders, especially in the newer territories. In the same article, directions are given as to the best modes of ventilating houses that are already built without any arrangements for ventilation. V. THE OONSTRUOTION AND OABE OF STOVES, FURNA.OE8, USB CHIMNEYS. I F all American housekeepers could be taught how to select and manage the most economical and convenient apparatus for cooking and &r warming a house, many millions now wasted by ignorance and neglect would be saved. Every woman should be taught the scientific principles in regard to heat, and then their application to practical purposes, for her own benefit, and also to enable her to train her children and servants in this important duty of home life on which health and comfort so much depend. The laws that regulate the generation, diffusion, and preservation of heat as yet are a sealed mystery to thousands of young women who imagine they are completing a suitable education in courses of instruction from which most that is practical in future domestic life is wholly excluded. We therefore give a brief outline of some of the leading scientific principles which every housekeeper should understand and employ, in order to perform successfully one of her most important duties. Concerning the essential nature of heat, and its intimate relations with the other great natural forces, light, electricity, etc., we shall not attempt to treat, but shall, for practical purposes, assume it to be a separate and independent force. Heat or caloric, then, has certain powers or principles. Let us consider them : STOVES, FURNACES, AND CHIMNEYS. 65 First, we find Conduction, by which heat passes from one particle to another next to i t ; as when one end of a poker is warmed by placing the other end in the fire. The bodies which allow this power free course are called conductors, and those which do not are named non-conductors. Metals are good conductors; feathers, wool, and furs are poor conductors ; and water, air, and gases are non-conductors. Another principle of heat is Convection, by which water, air, and gases are warmed. This is, literally, the process of conveying heat from one portion of a fluid body to another by currents resulting from changes of temperature. I t is secured by bringing one portion of a liquid or gas into contact with a heated surface, whereby it becomes lighter and expanded in volume. In consequence, the cooler and heavier particles above pressing downward, the lighter ones rise upward, when the former, being heated, rise in their turn, and give place to others again descending from above. Thus a constant motion of currents and interchange of particles is produced until, as in a vessel of water, the whole body comes to an equal temperature. Air is heated in the same way. In case of a hot stove, the air that touches it is heated, becomes lighter, and rises, giving place to cooler and heavier particles, which, when heated, also ascend. It is owing to this process that the air of a room is warmest at the top and coolest at the bottom. It is owing to this principle, also, that water and air can not be heated by fire from above. For the particles of these bodies, being non-conductors, do not impart heat to each other; and when the warmest are at the top, they can not take the place of cooler and heavier ones below. Another principle of heat (which it shares with light) is Radiation, by which all things send out heat to surrounding cooler bodies. Some bodies will absorb radiated heat, others will reflect it, and others allow it to pass through them without either absorbing or reflecting Thus, black 68 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. and rough substances absorb heat, (or light,) colored and smooth articles reflect it, while air allows it to pass through without either absorbing or reflecting. It is owing to this, that rough and black vessels boil water sooner than smooth and light-colored ones. Another principle is Reflection, by which heat radiated to a surface is turned back from it when not absorbed or allowed to pass through; just as a ball rebounds from a wall; just as sound is thrown back from a hill, making echo; just as rays of light are reflected from a mirror. And, as with light, the Fig. 31. rays of heat are always reflected from a surface in an angle exactly corresponding to the direction in which it strikes that surface. Thus, if — _ heated air comes to an object perpendicularly— that is, at right angles, it will be reflected back in the same line. If it strikes obliquely, it is reflected obliquely, at an angle with the surFig face precisely the same * ^ as the angle with which it first struck. And, of course, if it moves toward the surface and comes upon it in a line having so small an angle with it as to be almost parallel with it, the heated air is spread wide and diffused through a larger space mg _^ -^ ^^^, than when the angles are — ^—-^ greater and the width of reflection less. The simplest mode of warming a house and cooking food STOVES, FURNACES, AND CHIMNEYS. 69 is by radiated heat from fires; but this is the most wasteful method, as respects time, labor, and expense. The most convenient, economical, and labor-saving mode of employing heat is by convection, as applied in stoves and furnaces. But for want of proper care and scientific knowledge this method has proved very destructive to health. When warming and cooking were done by open fires, houses were well supplied with pure air, as is rarely the case in rooms heated by stoves. For such is the prevailing ignorance on this subject that, as long as stoves save labor and warm the air, the great majority of people, especially among the poor, will use them in ways that involve debilitated constitutions and frequent disease. The most common modes of cooking, where open fires are relinquished, are by the range and the cooking-stove. The range is inferior to the stove in these respects: it is less economical, demanding much more fuel; it endangers the dress of the cook while standing near for various operations; it requires more stooping than the stove while cooking; it will not keep a fire all night, as do the best stoves; it will not burn wood and coal equally well; and lastly, if it warms the kitchen sufficiently in winter, it is too warm for summer. Some prefer it because the fumes of cooking can be carried off; but stoves properly arranged accomplish this equally well. After extensive inquiry and many personal experiments, the author has found a cooking-stove constructed on true scientific principles, which unites convenience, comfort, and economy in a remarkable manner. Of this stove, drawings and descriptions will now be given, as the best mode of illustrating the practical applications of these principles to the art of cooking, and to show how much American womer have suffered and how much they have been imposed upon for want of proper knowledge in this branch of theii profession. And every woman can understand what follows with much less effort than young girls at high-schools 70 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. give to the first problems of Geometry—for which they will never have any practical use, while attention to this problem of home affairs will cultivate the intellect quite as much as the abstract reasonings of Algebra and Geometry. Fig. 34. Fig. 34 represents a portion of the interior of this cooking-stove. First, notice the fire-box, which has corrugated (literally, wrinkled) sides, by which space is economized, so that as much heating surface is secured as if they were one third larger; as the heat radiates from every part of the undulating surface, which is one third greater in superficial extent than if it were plane. The shape of the firebox also secures more heat by having oblique sides— which radiate more effectively into the oven beneath than if they were perpendicular, as illustrated below—while also it is sunk into the oven, so as to radiate from three instead of from two sides, as in most other stoves, the STOVES, FURNACES^ AND CHIMNEYS. 71 front of whose fire-boxes with their grates are built so as to be the front of the stove itself. The oven is the space under and around the back and front sides of the fire-box. Fig. 36. Fig. 35 The oven-bottom is not tor BOX ^^/'-• introduced in the diagram, but it is a norrzonOVEN ' / / • \ \\Vtal plate between the firebox and what is represen0rdinary st0Ye Model stove. flue-plate," ' t e d a s the « which separates the oven from the bottom of the stove. The top of the oven is the horizontal corrugated plate passing from the rear edge of the fire-box to the back flues. These are three in number—the back centre-flue, which is closed to the heat and smoke coming over the oven from the fire-box by a damper—and the two back corner-flues. Down these two corner-flues passes the current of hot air and smoke, having first drawn across the corrugated oventop. The arrows show its descent through these flues, from which it obliquely strikes and passes over the flueplate, then under it, and then out through the centre backflue, which is open at the bottom, up into the smoke-pipe. The flue-plate is placed obliquely, to accumulate heat by forcing and compression; for the back space where the smoke enters from the corner-flues is largest, and decreases toward the front, so that the hot current is compressed in a narrow space, between the oven-bottom and the flue-plate at the place where the bent arrows are seen. Here again it enters a wider space, under the flue-plate, and proceeds to another narrow one, between the flue-plate and the bottom of the stove, and thus is compressed and retained longer than if not impeded by these various contrivances. The heat and smoke also strike the plate obliquely, and thus, by reflection from its surface, impart more heat than if the passage was a horizontal one. The external radiation is regulated by the use of non- 72 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. conducting plaster applied to the flue-plate and to the sides of the corner-flues, so that the heat is prevented from radiating in any direction except toward the oven. The doors, sides, and bottom of the stove are lined with tin casings, which hold a stratum of air, also a non-conductor. These are so arranged as to be removed whenever the weather becomes cold, so that the heat may then radiate into the kitchen. The outer edges of the oven are also similarly protected from loss of heat by tin casings and air-spaces, and the oven-doors opening at the front of the store are provided with the same economical savers of heat. High tin covers placed on the top prevent the heat from radiating above the stove. These are exceedingly useful, as the space under them is well heated and arranged for baking, for heating irons, and many other incidental necessities. Cake and pies can be baked on the top, while the oven is used for bread or for meats. When all the casings and covers are on, almost all the heat is confined within the stove, and whenever heat for the room is wanted, opening the front oven-doors turns it out into the kitchen. Another contrivance is that of ventilating-holes in the front doors, through which fresh air is brought into the oven. This secures several purposes: it carries off the fumes of cooking meats, and prevents the mixing of flavors when different articles are cooked in the oven; it drives the heat that accumulates between the fire-box and front doors down around the oven, and equalizes its heat, so that articles need not be moved while baking; and lastly, as the air passes through the holes of the fire-box, it causes the burning of gases in the smoke, and thus increases heat. When wood or bituminous coal is used, perforated metal linings are put in the fire-box, and the result is the burning of smoke and gases that otherwise would pass into the chimney. This is a great discovery in the economy of fuel, which can be applied in many ways. Heretofore, most cooking-stoves have had dumping-grates, STOVES, FURNACES, AND CHIMNEYS. 73 which are inconvenient from the dust produced, are uneconomical in the use of fuel, and disadvantageous from too many or too loose joints. But recently this stove has been provided with a dumping-grate which also will sift ashes, and can be cleaned without dust and the other objectionable features of dumping-grates. A further account of this Btove, and the mode of purchasing and using it, will be given at the close of the book. Those who are taught to manage the stove properly keep the fire going all night, and equally well with wood or coal, thus saving the expense of kindling and the trouble of starting a new fire. When the fuel is of good quality, all that is needed in the morning is to draw the backdamper, shake the grate, and add more fuel. Another remarkable feature of this stove is the extensiontop, on which is placed a water reservoir, constantly heated by the smoke as it passes from the stove, through one or two uniting passages, to the smoke-pipe. Under this is placed a closet for warming and keeping hot the dishes, vegetables, meats, etc., while preparing for dinner. I t is also very useful in drying fruit; and wThen large baking is required, a small appended pot for charcoal turns it into a fine large oven, that bakes as nicely as a brick oven. Another useful appendage is a common tin oven, in which roasting can be done in front of the stove, the ovendoors being removed for the purpose. The roast will be done as perfectly as by an open fire. This stove is furnished with pipes for heating water, like the water-back of ranges, and these can be taken or left out at pleasure. So also the top covers, the baking-stool and pot, and the summer-back, bottom, and side-casings can be used or omitted as preferred. Fig. 37 exhibits the stove completed, with all its appendages, as they might be employed in cooking for a large number. Its capacity, convenience, and economy as a stove may 74 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. be estimated by the following fact: With proper manage* ment of dampers, one ordinary-sized coal-hod of anthracite coal will, for twenty-four hours, keep the stove running, keep seventeen gallons of water hot at all hours, bake pies Fig. 37. and puddings in the warm closet, heat flat-irons under the back cover, boil tea-kettle and one pot under the" front cover, bake bread in the oven, and cook a turkey in the tin roaster in front. The author has numerous friends, who, after trying the best ranges, have dismissed them for this stove, and in two or three years cleared the whole expense by the saving of fuel. The remarkable durability of this stove is another economic feature. For in addition to its fine castings and STOVES, FURNACES^ AND CHIMNEYS. 75 nice-fitting workmanship, all the parts liable to burn out are so protected by linings, and other contrivances easily renewed, that the stove itself may pass from one generation to another, as do ordinary chimneys. The writer has visited in families where this stove had been in constant use for eighteen and twenty years, and was still as good as new. In most other families the stoves are broken, burntout, or thrown aside for improved patterns every four, five, or six years, and sometimes, to the knowledge of the writer, still oftener. Another excellent point is that, although it is so complicated in its various contrivances as to demand intelligent management in order to secure all its advantages, it also can be used satisfactorily even when the mistress and maid, are equally careless and ignorant of its distinctive merits. To such it offers all the advantages of ordinary good stoves, and is extensively used by those who take no pains to understand and apply its peculiar advantages. But the writer has managed the stove herself in all the details of cooking, and is confident that any housekeeper of common sense, who is instructed properly, and who also aims to have her kitchen affairs managed with strict economy, can easily train any servant who is willing to learn, BO as to gain the full advantages offered. And even without any instructions at all, except the printed directions sent with the stove, an intelligent woman can, by due attention, though not without, both manage it, and teach her children and servants to do likewise. And whenever this stove has failed to give the highest satisfaction, it has been, either because the housekeeper was not apprized of its peculiarities, or because she did not give sufficient attention to the matter, or was not able or willing to superintend and direct its management. The consequence has been that, in families where this stove has been understood and managed aright, it has saved nearly one half of the fuel that would be used in ordi- 76 TEE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL, nary stoves, constructed with the usual disregard of scientific and economic laws. And it is because we know this particular stove to be convenient, reliable, and economically efficient beyond ordinary experience, in the important housekeeping element of kitchen labor, that we devote to it so much space and pains to describe its advantageous points. CHIMNEYS. One of the most serious evils in domestic life is often found in chimneys that will not properly draw the smoke of a fire or stove. Although chimneys have been building for a thousand years, the artisans of the present day seem strangely ignorant of the true method of constructing them so as always to carry smoke upward instead of downward. It is rarely the case that a large house is built in which there is not some flue or chimney which " will not draw." One of the reasons why the stove described as excelling all others is sometimes cast aside for a poorer one is, that it requires a properly constructed chimney, and multitudes of women do not know how to secure it. The writer in early life shed many a bitter tear, drawn forth by smoke from an ill-constructed kitchen-chimney, and thousands all over the land can report the same experience. The following are some of the causes and the remedies for this evil. The most common cause of poor chimney draughts is too large an opening for the fireplace, either too wide or too high in front, or having too large a throat for the smoke. In a lower story, the fireplace should not be larger than thirty inches wide, twenty-five inches high, and fifteen deep. In the story above, it should be eighteen inches square and fifteen inches deep. Another cause is too short a flue, and the remedy is to lengthen it. As a general rule, the longer the flue the stronger the draught. But in calculating the length of a STOVES, FURNACES, AND CHIMNEYS. 77 flue, reference must be had to side-flues, if any open into it. Where this is the case, the length of the main flue is to be considered as extending only from the bottom to the point where the upper flue joins it, and where the lower will receive air from the upper flue. If a smoky flue can not be increased in length, either by closing an upper flue or lengthening the chimney, the fireplace must be contracted so that all the air near the fire will be heated and thus pressed upward. If a flue has more than one opening, in some cases it is impossible to secure a good draught. Sometimes it will work well and sometimes it will not. The only safe rule is to have a separate flue to each fire. Another cause of poor draughts is too tight a room, so that the cold air from without can not enter to press the warm air up the chimney. The remedy is to admit a small current of air from without. Another cause is two chimneys in one room, or in rooms opening together, in which the draught in one is much stronger than in the other. In this case, the stronger draught will draw away from the weaker. The remedy is, for each room to have a proper supply of outside air; or, in a single room, to stop one of the chimneys. Another cause is the too close vicinity of a hill or buildings higher than the top of the chimney, and the remedy for this is to raise the chimney. Another cause is the descent, into unused fireplaces, of smoke from other chimneys near. The remedy is to close the throat of the unused chimney. Another cause is a door opening toward the fireplace, on the same side of the room, so that its draught passes along the wall and makes a current that draws out the smoke. The remedy is to change the hanging of the door so as to open another way. Another cause is strong winds. The remedy is a turncap on top of the chimney. 78 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. Another cause is the roughness of the inside of a chimney, or projections which impede the passage of the smoke. Every chimney should be built of equal dimensions from bottom to top, with no projections into it, with as few bends as possible, and with the surface of the inside as smooth as possible. Another cause of poor draughts is openings into the chimney of chambers for stove-pipes. The remedy is to ulose them, or insert stove-pipes that are in use. Another cause is the falling out of brick in some part of the chimney so that outer air is admitted. The remedy is to close the opening. The draught of a stove may be affected by most of these causes. It also demands that the fireplace have a tight fire-board, or that the throat be carefully filled. For neglecting this, many a good stove has been thrown aside and a poor one taken in its place. If all young women had committed to memory these causes of evil and their remedies, many a badly-built chimney might have been cured, and many smoke-drawn tears, sighs, ill-tempers, and irritating words avoided. But there are dangers in this direction which demand special attention. Where one flue has two stoves or fireplaces, in rooms one above the other, in certain states of the atmosphere, the lower room, being the warmer, the colder air and carbonic acid in the room above will pass down into the lower room through the opening for the stove or the fireplace. This occurred not long since in a boarding-school, when the gas in a room above flowed into a lower one, and suffocated several to death. This room had no mode of ventilation, and several persons slept in it, and were thus stifled. Professor Brewer states a similar case in the family of a relative. An anthracite stove was used in the upper room; and on one still, dose night, the gas from this stove descended through the flue and the opening into a room below STOVES\ FURNACES, AND CHIMNEYS. 79 and stifled two persons to insensibility, though, by proper efforts, their lives were saved. Many such cases have occurred where rooms have been thus filled with poisonous gases, and servants and children destroyed, or their constitutions injured, simply because housekeepers are not properly instructed in this important branch of their profession. FURNACES. There is no improved mechanism in the economy of domestic life requiring more intelligent management than furnaces. Let us then consider some of the principles involved. The earth is heated by radiation from the sun. The air is not warmed by the passage of the sun's heat through it, but by convection from the earth, in the same way that it is warmed by the surfaces of stoves. The lower stratum of air is warmed by the earth and by objects which have been warmed by radiated heat from the sun. The particles of air thus heated expand, become lighter, and rise, being replaced by the descent of the cooler and heavier particles from above, which, on being warmed also rise, and give place to others. Owing to this process, the air is warmest nearest the earth, and grows cooler as height increases. The air has a strong attraction for water, and always holds a certain quantity as invisible vapor. The warmer the air, the more moisture it demands, and it will draw it from all objects within reach. The air holds water according to its temperature. Thus, at fifty-two legrees, Fahrenheit's thermometer, it holds half the moisture it can sustain; but at thirty-six degrees, it will hold only one eighty-sixth part. The earth and all plants and trees are constantly sending out moisture; and when the air has received all it can hold, without depositing it as dew, it is said to be saturated, and the point of temperature at which 80 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. dew begins to form, by condensation, upon the surface of the earth and its vegetation, is called the dew-point. When air, at a given temperature, has only forty per cent of the moisture it requires for saturation, it is said to be dry. In a hot summer day, the air will hold far more moisture than in cool days. In summer, out-door air rarely holds less than half its volume of water. In 1838, at Cambridge, Massachusetts, and New-Haven, Connecticut, at seventy degrees, Fahrenheit, the air held eighty per cent of moisture. In New-Orleans, the air often retains ninety per cent of the moisture it is capable of holding; and in cool days at the North, in foggy weather, the air is sometimes wholly saturated. "When air holds all the moisture it can, without depositing dew, its moisture is called 100. When it holds three fourths of this, it is said to be at seventy-five per cent. When it holds only one half, it is at fifty per cent. When it holds only one fourth, it is at twenty-five per cent, etc. Sanitary observers teach that the proper amount of moisture in the air ranges from forty to seventy per cent of .saturation. Now, furnaces, which are of course used only in winter, receive outside air at a low temperature, holding little moisture; and heating it greatly increases its demand for moisture. This it sucks up, like a sponge, from the walls and furniture of a house. If it is taken into the human lungs, it draws much of its required moisture from the body, often causing dryness of lips and throat, and painfully affecting the lungs. Prof. Brewer, of the Scientific School of New-Haven, who has experimented extensively on this subject, states that, while forty per cent of moisture is needed in air to make it healthful, most stoves and furnaces do not, by any contrivances, supply one half of this, or not twenty per cent. H e says most furnace-heated air is STOVES, FURNACES, AND CHIMNEYS. 81 dryer than is ever breathed in the hottest deserts of Sahara. Thus, for want of proper instruction, most American housekeepers not only poison their families with carbonic acid and starve them for want of oxygen, but also diminish health and comfort for want of a due supply of moisture in the air. And often when a remedy is sought, by evaporating water in the furnace, it is without knowing that the amount evaporated depends, not on the quantity of water in the vessel, but on the extent of evaporating surface exposed to the air. A quart of water in a wide shallow pan will give more moisture than two gallons with a small surface exposed to heat. There is also no little wise economy in expense attained by keeping a proper supply of moisture in the air. For it is found that the body radiates its heat less in moist than in dry air, so that a person feels as warm at a lower temperature when the air has a proper supply of moisture, as in a much higher temperature of dry air. Of course, less fuel is needed to warm a house when water is evaporated in stove and furnace-heated rooms. It is said by those who have experimented, that the saving in fuel is twenty per cent when the air is duly supplied with moisture. There is a very ingenious instrument, called the hygrodeik, which indicates the exact amount of moisture in the air. It consists of two thermometers side by side, one of which has its bulb surrounded by floss-silk wrapping, which is kept constantly wet by communication with a cup of water near it. The water around the bulb evaporates just in proportion to the heat of the air around it. The changing of water to vapor draws heat from the nearest object, and this being the bulb of the thermometer, the mercury is cooled and sinks. Then the difference between the two thermometers shows the amount of moisture in the air by a pointer on a dial-plate constructed by simple mechanism for this purpose. 82 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. There is one very important matter in regard to the use of furnaces, which is thus stated by Professor Brewer: " I think it is a well-established fact that carbonic oxide will pass through iron. It is always formed in great abundance in any anthracite fire, but especially in anthracite stoves and furnaces. Moreover, furnaces always leak, more or less; how much they leak depending on the care and skill with which they are managed. Carbonic oxide is much more poisonous than carbonic acid. Doubtless some carbonic oxide finds its way into all furnace-heated houses, especially where anthracite is used; the amount varying with the kind of furnace and its management. As to how much escapes into a room, and its specific effect upon the health of its occupants, we have no accurate data, no analysis to show the quantity, and no observati ns to show the relation between the quantity inhaled and the health of those exposed ; all is mere conjecture upon this point; but the inference is very strong that it has a very injurious effect, producing headaches, weariness, and other similar symptoms. " Recent pamphlets lay the blame of all the bad effects of anthracite furnaces and stoves to the carbonic oxide mingled in the air. I think these pamphlets have a bad influence. Excessive dryness also has bad effects. So also the excessive heat in the evenings and coolness in the mornings has a share in these evils. But how much in addition is owing to carbonic oxide, we can not know, until we know something of the actual amount of this gas in rooms, and as yet we know absolutely nothing definite. In fact, it will be a difficult thing to prove." There are other difficulties connected with furnaces which should be considered. It is necessary to perfect health that an. equal circulation of the blood be preserved. The greatest impediment to this is keeping the head warmer than the feet. This is especially to be avoided in a nation where the brain is by constant activity drawing the blood from the STOVES, FURNACES, AND CHIMNEYS. 83 extremities. And nowhere is this more important than in schools, churches, colleges, lecture and recitation-rooms, where the brain is called into active exercise. And yet, furnace-heated rooms always keep the feet in the coldest air, on cool floors, while the head is in the warmest air. Another difficulty is the fact that all bodies tend to radiate their heat to each other, till an. equal temperature exists. Thus, the human body is constantly radiating its heat to the walls, floors, and cooler bodies around. At the same time, a thermometer is affected in the same way, radiating its heat to cooler bodies around, so that it always marks a lower degree of heat than actually exists in the warm air around it. Owing to these facts, the injected air of a furnace is always warmer than is good for the lungs, and much warmer than is ever needed in rooms warmed by radiation from fires or heated surfaces. The cooler the air we inspire, the more oxygen is received, the faster the blood circulates, and the greater is the vigor imparted to brain, nerves, and muscles. Scientific men have been contriving various modes of meeting these difficulties, and at the close of this volume some results will be given to aid a woman in selecting and managing the most healthful and economical furnace, or in providing some better method of warming a house. Some account will also be given of the danger involved in gasstoves, and some other recent inventions for cooking and heating. VI. HOME DECORATION. HAYING duly arranged for the physical necessities of a healthful and comfortable home, we next approach the important subject of beauty in reference to the decoration of houses. For while the aesthetic element must be subordinate to the requirements of physical existence, and, as a matter of expense, should be held of inferior consequence to means of higher moral growth; it yet holds a place of great significance among the influences which make home happy and attractive, which give it a constant and wholesome power over the young, and contributes much to the education of the entire household in refinement, intellectual development, and moral sensibility. Here we are met by those who tell us that of course they want their houses handsome, and that, when they get money enough, they intend to have them so, but at present they are too poor, and because they are poor they dismiss the subject altogether, and live without any regard to it. We have often seen people who said that they could not afford to make their houses beautiful, who had spent upon them, outside or in, an amount of money which did not produce either beauty or comfort, and which, if judiciously applied, might have made the house quite charming. For example, a man-, in building his house, takes a plan of an architect. This plan includes, on the outside, a number of what Andrew Fairservice called " curlywur- HOME DECORATION. 85 lies" and " whigmaliries," which make the house neither prettier nor more comfortable, and which take up a good deal of money. We would venture to say that we could buy the chromo of Bierstadt's " Sunset in the Yo Semite Valley," and four others like it, for half the sum that we have sometimes seen laid out on a very ugly, narrow, awkward porch on the outside of a house. The only use of this porch was to cost money, and to cause every body who looked at it to exclaim as they went by, " W h a t ever induced that man to put a thing like that on the outside of his house ?" Then, again, in the inside of houses, we have seen a dwelling looking very bald and bare, when a suflicient sum of money had been expended on one article to have made the whole very pretty: and it has come about in this way. We will suppose the couple who own the house to be in the condition in which people generally are after they have built a house—having spent more than they could afford on the building itself, and yet feeling themselves under the necessity of getting some furniture. " N o w , " says the housewife, " I must at least have a parlor-carpet. We must get that to begin with, and other things as we go on." She goes to a store to look at carpets. The clerks are smiling and obliging, and sweetly complacent. The storekeeper, perhaps, is a neighbor or a friend, and after exhibiting various patterns, he tells her of a Brussels carpet he is selling wonderfully cheap—actually a dollar and a quarter less a yard than the usual price 01 Brussels, and the reason is that it is an unfashionable pattern, and he has a good deal of it, and wishes to close it off. She looks at it and thinks it is not at all the kind of carpet she meant to buy, but then it is Brussels, and so cheap ' And as she hesitates, her friend tells her that she will find it " cheapest in the end—that one Brussels carpet will outlast three or four ingrains," etc., etc. 86 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. The result of all this is, that she buys the Brussels carpet, which, with all its reduction in price, is one third dearer than the ingrain would have been, and not half so pretty. When she comes home, she will find that she has spent, we will say eighty dollars, for a very homely carpet whose greatest merit it is an affliction to remember—namely, that it will outlast three ordinary carpets. And because she has bought this carpet she can not afford to paper the walls or put up any window-curtains, and can not even begin to think of buying any pictures. Now let us see what eighty dollars could have done for that room. We will suppose, in the first place, she invests in thirteen rolls of wall-paper of a lovely shade of buff, which will make the room look sunshiny in the day-time, and light up brilliantly in the evening. Thirteen rolls of good satin paper, at thirty-seven cents a roll, expends four dollars and eighty-one cents. A maroon bordering, made in imitation of the choicest French style, which can not at a distance be told from it, can be bought for six cents a yard. This will bring the paper to about five dollars and a half; and our friends will give a day of their time to putting it on. The room already begins to look furnished. Then, let us cover the floor with, say, thirty yards of good matting, at fifty cents a yard. This gives us a carpet for fifteen dollars. We are here stopped by the prejudice that matting is not good economy, because it wears out so soon. We humbly submit that it is precisely the thing for a parlor, which is reserved for the reception-room of friends, and for our own dressed leisure hours. Matting is not good economy in a dining-room or a hard-worn sittingroom ; but such a parlor as we are describing is precisely the place where it answers to the very best advantage. We have in mind one very attractive parlor which has been, both for summer and winter, the daily sitting-room for the leisure hours of a husband and wife, and family of children, where a plain straw matting has done ser* HOME DECORATION. 87 vice for seven years. That parlor is in a city, and these friends are in the habit of receiving visits from people who live upon velvet and Brusssls; but they prefer to spend the money which such carpets would cost on other modes of embellishment; and this parlor has often been cited to us 'as a very attractive room. And now our friends, having got thus far, are requested to select some one tint or color which shall be the prevailing one in the furniture of the room. Shall it be green ? Shall it be blue ? Shall it be crimson ? To carry on our illustration, we will choose green, and we proceed with it to create furniture for our room. Let us imagine that on one side of the fireplace there be, as there is often, a recess about six feet long and three feet deep. Fill this recess with a rough frame with four stout legs, one foot high, and upon the top of the frame have an elastic rack of slats. Make a mattress for this, or, if you wish to avoid that trouble, you can get a nice mattress for the sum of two dollars, made of cane-shavings or husks. Cover this with a green English furniture print. The glazed English comes at about twenty-five cents a yard, the glazed French at seventy-five cents a yard, and a nice article of yard-wide French twill (very strong) is from seventy-five to eighty cents a yard. With any of these cover your lounge. Make two large, square pillows of the same substance as the mattress, and set up at the back. If you happen to have one or two feather pillows that you can spare for the purpose, shake them down into a square shape and cover them with the same print, and you will then have four pillows for your lounge—one at each end, and two at the back, and you will find it answers for all the purposes of a sofa. It will be a very pretty thing, now, to cut out of the same material as your lounge, sets of lambrequins (or, as they are called, lamberkins,) a kind of pendent curtain-top, as shown in the illustration, to put over the windows, 88 TEE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. which are to be embellished with white muslin curtains. The cornices to your windows can be simply strips of wood covered with paper to match the bordering of your plain white muslin, or some of the many styles that come for this purpose. If plain muslin is used, you can ornament them with hems an inch in width, in which insert a strip of gingham or chambray of the same color as your chintz. This will wash with the curtains without losing its color, or should it fade, it can easily be drawn out and replaced. The influence of white-muslin curtains in giving an air of grace and elegance to a room is astonishing. White curtains really create a room out of nothing. No matter how coarse the muslin, so it be white and hang in graceful folds, there is a charm in it that supplies the want of multitudes of other things. Very pretty curtain-muslin can be bought at thirtyseven cents a yard. It requires six yards for a window. HOME DECORATION. 89 Let your men-folk knock up for you, out of rough, unplaned boards, some ottoman frames, as described in Chapter I I . ; stuff the tops with just the same material as the lounge, and cover them with the self-same chintz. Now you have, suppose your selected color to be green, a green lounge in the corner and two green ottomans; you have white muslin curtains, with green lambrequins and borders, and your room already looks furnished. If you have in the house any broken-down arm-chair, reposing in the oblivion of the garret, draw it out—drive a nail here and there to . hold it firm—stuff and pad, and stitch the padding through with a long upholsterer's needle, and cover it with the chintz like your other furniture. Presto—you create an easy-chair. Thus can broken and disgraced furniture reappear, and, being put into uniform with the general suit of your room, take a new lease of life. If you want a centre-table, consider this—that any kind of table, well concealed beneath the folds of handsome drapery, of a color corresponding to the general hue of the room, will look well. Instead of going to the cabinet-maker and paying from thirty to forty dollars upon a little, narrow, THE HOUSEKEEPER'S 90 MANUAL. cold, marble-topped stand, that giyes just room enough to hold a lamp and a book or two, reflect within yourself what a centre-table is made for. If you haye in youi house a good, broad, generous-topped table, take it, coyer it with an ample cloth of green broadcloth. Such a coyer, two and a half yards square, of fine green broadcloth, figured wTith black and with a pattern-border of grapeIeayes, has been bought for ten dollars. In a room we wol of, it covers a cheap pine table, such as you may buy foi four or five dollars any day; but you will be astonished to see how handsome an object this table makes under its green drapery. Probably you could make the coyer more cheaply by getting the cloth and trimming its edge with a handsome border, selected for the purpose; but either way, it will be an economical and useful ornament. We set down our centre-table, therefore, as consisting mainly of a nice broadcloth coyer, matching our curtains and lounge. We are sure that any one wTith " a heart that is humble" may command such a centre-table and cloth for fifteen dollars or less, and a family of fiye or six may all sit and work, or read, or write around it, and it is capable of entertaining a generous allowance of books and knickknacks. You have now for your parlor the following figures: Wall-paper and border, Thirty yards matting, Centre-table and cloth, Muslin for three windows, Thirty yards green English chintz, at 25 cents, Six chairs, at $2 each, Total, $5 15 15 6 7 12 50 00 00 75 50 00 $61 75 Subtracted from eighty dollars, which we set down as the price of the cheap, ugly Brussels carpet, we haye our whole room papered, carpeted, curtained, and furnished, and we have nearly twenty dollars remaining for pictures. HOME DECORATION. 91 As a little suggestion in regard to the selection, yon can get Miss Oakley's charming little cabinet picture of " The Little Scrap-Book Maker" for Eastman Johnson's " Barefoot Boy," Newman's "Blue-fringed Gentians," Bierstadt's " Sunset in the Yo Semite Valley," $f (Prang) 5 (Prang) 6 (Prang) 12 50 00 00 00 Here are thirty dollars' worth of really admirable pictures of some of our best American artists, from which you can choose at your leisure. By sending to any leading picture-dealer, lists of pictures and prices will be forwarded to you. These chromos, being all varnished, can wait for frames until you can afford them. Or, what is better, because it is at once cheaper and a means of educating the ingenuity and the taste, you can make for yourselves pretty rustic frames in various modes. Take a very thin board, of the right size and shape, for the foundation or " m a t ; " saw out the inner oval or rectangular form to suit the picture. Nail on the edge a rustic frame made of branches of hard, seasoned wood, and garnish the corners with some pretty device; such, for instance, as a cluster of acorns; or, in place of the branches of trees, fasten on with glue small pine cones, with larger ones for corner ornaments. Fi Or use the mosses of the wood or socean shells for this purpose. It may be more convenient to get the mat or inner moulding from a framer, or have it made by your carpenter, with a groove behind to hold a glass. Here are also pictureframes of pretty effect, and very simply made. The one in Fig. 42 92 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. is made of either light or dark wxood, neat, thin, and not very wide, with the ends simply broken off, or cut so as to resemble a rough break. The other is white pine, sawn into simple form, well smoothed, and marked with a delicate black tracery, as suggested in Fig. 43. This should also be varnished, then it will take a rich, yellow tinge, wxhich harmonizes admirably with chromos, and lightens up engravings to singular advantage. Besides the American and the higher range of German and English chromos, there are very many pretty little French chromos, which can be had at prices from $1 to $5, including black walnut frames. We have been through this calculation merely to show our readers how much beautiful effect may be produced by a wise disposition of color and skill in arrangement. If any of our friends should ever carry it out, they will find that the buff paper, with its dark, narrow border; the green chintz repeated in the lounge, the ottomans, and lambrequins; the flowing, white curtains; the broad, generous centre- HOME DECORATION. 93 table, draped with its ample green cloth, will, when arranged together, produce an effect of grace and beauty far beyond wThat any one piece or even half a dozen pieces of expensive cabinet furniture could. The great, simple principle of beauty illustrated in this room is harmony of color. You can, in the same way, make a red room by using Turkey red for your draperies; or a blue room by using blue chintz. Let your chintz be of a small pattern, and one that is decided in color. We have given the plan of a room with matting on the floor because that is absolutely the cheapest cover. The price of thirty yards plain, good ingrain carpet, at $1.50 per yard, would be forty-five dollars; the difference between forty-five and fifteen dollars would furnish a room with pictures such as we have instanced. However, the same programme can be even better carried out with a green ingrain carpet as the foundation of the color of the room. Our friends, who lived seven years upon matting, contrived to give their parlor in winter an effect of warmth and color by laying down, in front of the fire, a large square of carpeting, say three breadths, four yards long. This covered the gathering-place around the fire where the winter circle generally sits, and gave an appearance of warmth to the room. If we add this piece of carpeting to the estimates for our room, we still leave a margin for a picture, and make the programme equally adapted to summer and winter. Besides the chromos, which, when well selected and of the best class, give the charm of color which belongs to expensive paintings, there are engravings which finely reproduce much of the real spirit and beauty of the celebrated pictures of the world. And even this does not exhaust the resources of economical a r t ; for there are few of the renowned statues, whether of antiquity or of modern times, 94 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. that have not been accurately copied in plaster casts; and a few statuettes, costing perhaps five or six dollars each, will give a really elegant finish to your rooms—providing always that they are selected with discrimination and taste. The educating influence of these works of art can hardly be over-estimated. Surrounded by such suggestions of the beautiful, and such reminders of history and art, children are constantly trained to correctness of taste and refinement of thought, and stimulated—sometimes to efforts at artistic imitation, always to the eager and intelligent inquiry about the scenes, the places, the incidents represented. Just here, perhaps, we are met by some who grant all that we say on the subject of decoration by works of art, and who yet impatiently exclaim, " But I have no money to spare for any thing of this sort. I am condemned to an absolute bareness, and beauty in my case is not to be thought of." Are you sure, my friend ? If you live in the country, or can get into the country, and have your eyes opened and your wits about you, your house need not be condemned to an absolute bareness. Not so long as the woods are full of beautiful ferns and mosses, while every swamp shakes and nods with tremulous grasses, need you feel yourself an utterly disinherited child of nature, and deprived of its artistic use. For example: Take an old tin pan condemned to the retired list by reason of holes in the bottom, get twenty-five cents' worth of green paint for this and other purposes, and paint it. The holes in the bottom are a recommendation for its new service. If there are no holes, you must drill two or three, as drainage is essential. Now put a layer one inch deep of broken charcoal and potsherds ever the bottom, and then soil, in the following proportions : Two fourths wood-soil, such as you find in forests, under trees. HOME DECORATION. 95 One fourth clean sand. One fourth meadow-soil, taken from under fresh turf. Mix with this some charcoal dust. In this soil plant all sorts of ferns, together with some few swamp-grasses; and around the edge put a border of money-plant or periwinkle to hang over. This will need to be watered once or twice a week, and it will grow and thrive all summer long in a corner of your room. Should you prefer, you can suspend it by wires and make a hanging-basket. Ferns and wood-grasses need not have sunshine—they grow well in shadowy places. On this same principle you can convert a salt-box or an old drum of figs into a hanging-basket. Tack bark and pine-cones and moss upon the outside of it, drill holes and pass wires through it, and you have a woodland hangingbasket, which will hang and grow in any corner of your house. We have been into rooms which, by the simple disposition of articles of this kind, have been made to have an air so poetical and attractive that they seemed more like a nymph's cave than any thing in the real world. Another mode of disposing of ferns is this: Take a fiat piece of board sawed out something like a shield, with a hole at the top for hanging it up. Upon the board nail a wire pocket made of an ox-muzzle flattened on one side; or make something of the kind with stiff wire. Line this with a sheet of close moss, which appears green behind the wire 96 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. net-work. Then you fill it with loose, spongy moss, such as you find in swamps, and plant therein great plumes of fern and various swamp-grasses ; they will continue to grow there, and hang gracefully over. When watering, set a pail under for it to drip into. It needs only to keep this moss always damp, and to sprinkle these ferns occasionally with a whisk-broom, to have a most lovely ornament for your room or hall. The use of ivy in decorating a room is beginning to be generally acknowledged. It needs to be planted in the kind of soil we have described, in a well-drained pot or box, and to have its leaves thoroughly washed once or twice a year in strong suds made with soft-soap, to free it from dust and scale-bug; and an ivy will live and thrive and wind about in a room, year in and year out, will grow around pictures, and do almost any thing to oblige you that you can suggest to it. For instance, in a March number of Hearth and Home* there is a picture of the most delightful library-window imaginable, whose chief charm consists in the running vines that start from a longitudinal box at the bottom of the window, and thence clamber up and about the casing and across the rustic frame-work erected for its convenience. On the opposite page we present another plain kind of window, ornamented with a variety of these rural economical adornings. In the centre is a Ward's case. On one side is a pot of Fuchsia. On the other side is a Calla Lily. In the hanging-baskets and on the brackets are the ferns and flowers that flourish in the deep woods, and around the window is the ivy, running from two boxes; and, in case the window has some sun, a Nasturtion may spread its bright blossoms among the leaves. Then, in the winter, when there is less sun, the Striped Spider-wort, the Smilax and the Saxifraga * A beautifully illustrated agricultural and family weekly paper, edited by Donald G. Mitchell (Ik Marvel) and Mrs. H. B. Stowe. Fig. 46. 98 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. Samentosa (or Wandering Jew) may be substituted. Pretty brackets can be made of common pine, ornamented with odd-growing twigs or mosses or roots, scraped and varnished, or in their native state. A beautiful ornament for a room with pictures is German ivy. Slips of this will start without roots in bottles of water. Slide the bottle behind the picture, and the ivy will seem tc come from fairyland, and hang its verdure in all manner of pretty curves around the picture. It may then be trained to travel toward other ivy, and thus aid in forming green cornice along the ceiling. We have seen some rooms that had an ivy cornice around the whole, giving the air of a leafy bower. There are some other odd devices to ornament a room. For example, a sponge, kept wet by daily immersion, can be filled with flax-seed and suspended by a cord, when it will ere long be covered with verdure and afterward with flowers. A sweet potato, laid in a bowl of water on a bracket, or still better, suspended by a knitting-needle, run through or laid across the bowl half in the water, will, in due time, make a beautiful verdant ornament. A large carrot, with the smallest half cut off, scooped out to hold water and then suspended with cords, will send out graceful shoots in rich profusion. Half a cocoa-nut shell, suspended, will hold earth or water for plants and make a pretty hanging-garden. It may be a very proper thing to direct the ingenuity and activity of children into the making of hanging-baskets and vases-of rustic work. The best foundations are the cheap wooden bowls, which are quite easy to get, and the walks of children in the woods can be made interesting by their bringing home material for this rustic work. Different colored twigs and sprays of trees, such as the bright scarlet of the dog-wood, the yellow of the willow, the black of the birch, and the silvery gray of the poplar, may be combined in fanciful net-work For this sort of work, no other in- HOME DECORATION. 99 vestment is needed than a hammer and an assortment of different-sized tacks, and beautiful results will be produced. Fig. 46 is a stand for Fig. 46. flowers, made of roots, scraped and varnished. l3ut the greatest and cheapest and most delightful fountain of beauty is a " Ward case." Now, immediately all our economical friends give up in despair. Ward's cases sell all the way along from eighteen to fifty dollars, and are, like every thing else in this lower world, regarded as the sole perquisites of the rich. Let us not be too sure. Plate-glass, and hot-house plants, and rare patterns, are the especial inheritance of the rich; but any family may command all the requisites of a Ward case for a very small sum. Such a case is a small glass closet over a well-drained box of soil. You make a Ward case on a small scale when you turn a tumbler over a plant. The glass keeps the temperature moist and equable, and preserves the plants from dust, and the soil being well drained, they live and thrive accordingly. The requisites of these are the glass top and the bed of well-drained soil. Suppose you have a common cheap table, four feet long and two wide. Take off the top boards of your table, and with them board the bottom across tight and firm; then line it with zinc, and you will have a sort of box or sink on legs. Now make a top of common window-glass such as 100 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. you would get for a cucumber-frame; let it be two and a half feet high, with a ridge-pole like a house, and a slant- and cheap. Common window-sash and glass are not dear, and any man with moderate ingenuity could fashion such a glass closet for his wife ; or a woman, not having such a husband, can do it herself. The sink or box part must have in the middle of it a hole of good size for drainage. In preparing for the reception of plants, first turn a plant-saucer over this hole, wThich may otherwise become stopped. Then, as directed for the other basket, proceed with a layer of broken charcoal and potsherds for drainage, two inches deep, and prepare the soil as directed above, and add to it some pounded charcoal, or the scrapings of the charcoal-bin. In short, more or less charcoal and charcoal-dust is always in order in the treatment of these moist subjects, as it keeps them from fermenting and growing sour. HOME DECORATION. lOi Now for filling the case. Our own native forest-ferns have a period in the winter months when they cease to grow. They are very particular in asserting their right to this yearly nap, and will not, on any consideration, grow for you out of their appointed season. Nevertheless, we shall tell you what we have tried ourselves, because greenhouse ferns are expensive, and often great cheats when you have bought them, and die on your hands in the most reckless and shameless manner. If you make a Ward case in the spring, your ferns will grow beautifully in it all summer; and in the autumn, though they stop growing, and cease to throw out leaves, yet the old leaves will remain fresh and green till the time for starting the new ones in the spring. But, supposing you wish to start your case in the fall, out of such things as you can find in the forest; by searching carefully the rocks and clefts and recesses of the forest, you can find a quantity of beautiful ferns whose leaves the frost has not yet assailed. Gather them carefully, remembering that the time of the plant's sleep has come, and that you must make the most of the leaves it now has, as you will not have a leaf more from it till its waking-up time in February or March. But we have succeeded, and you will succeed, in making a very charming and picturesque collection. You can make in your Ward case lovely little grottoes with any bits of shells, and minerals, and rocks you may have; you can lay down, here and there, fragments of broken looking-glass for the floor of your grottoes, and the effect of them will be magical. A square of looking-glass introduced into the back side of your case will produce charming effects. The trailing arbutus or May-flower, if cut up carefully in sods, and put into this Ward case, will come into bloom there a month sooner than it otherwise would, and gladden your eyes and heart. 102 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. In the fall, if you can find the tufts of eye-bright or houstonia cerulia, and mingle them in with your mosses, you will find them blooming before winter is well over. But among the most beautiful things for such a case is the partridge-berry, with its red plums. The berries swell and increase in the moist atmosphere, and become intense in color, forming an admirable ornament. Then the ground pine, the princess pine, and various nameless pretty things of the woods, all flourish in these little conservatories. In getting your sod of trailing arbutus, remember that this plant forms its buds in the fall. You must, therefore, examine your sod carefully, and see if the buds are there ; otherwise you will find no blossoms in the spring. There are one or two species of violets, also, that form their buds in the fall, and these too, will blossom early for you. We have never tried the wild anemones, the crowfoot, etc.; but as they all do well in moist, shady places, we recom mend hopefully the experiment of putting some of them in. A Ward case has this recommendation over common house-plants, that it takes so little time and care. If well made in the outset, and thoroughly drenched with water when the plants are first put in, it will after that need only to be watered about once a month, and to be ventilated by occasionally leaving open the door for a half-hour or hour when the moisture obscures the glass and seems in excess. To women embarrassed with the care of little children, yet longing for the refreshment of something growing and beautiful, this indoor garden will be an untold treasure. The glass defends the plant from the inexpedient intermeddling of little fingers; while the little eyes, just on a level with the panes of glass, can look through and learn to enjoy the beautiful, silent miracles of nature. HOME DECORATION. 103 For an invalid's chamber, such a case would be an indescribable comfort. It is, in fact, a fragment of the green woods brought in and silently growing; it will refresh many a weary hour to watch it. VII. THE CARE OF HEALTH. THERE IS no point where a woman is more liable to suffer from a want of knowledge and experience than in reference to the health of a family committed to her care. Many a young lady who never had any charge of the sick; who never took any care of an infant; who never obtained information on these subjects from books, or from the experience of others; in short, with little or no preparation, has found herself the principal attendant in dangerous sickness, the chief nurse of a feeble infant, and the responsible guardian of the health of a whole family. The care, the fear, the perplexity of a woman suddenly called to these unwonted duties, none can realize till they themselves feel it, or till they see some young and anxious uovice first attempting to meet such responsibilities. To a woman of age and experience these duties often involve a measure of trial and difficulty at times deemed almost insupportable ; how hard, then, must they press on the heart of the young and inexperienced! There is no really efficacious mode of preparing a woman to take a rational care of the health of a family, except by communicating that knowledge in regard to the construction of the body and the laws of health which is * the basis of the medical profession. Not that a woman should undertake the minute and extensive investigation requisite for a physician; but she should gain a general knowledge of first principles, as a guide to her judgment in emergencies when she can rely on no other aid. THE CARE OF HEALTH. 105 With this end in view, in the preceding chapters some portions of the organs and functions of the human body have been presented, and others will now follow in connection with the practical duties which result from them. On the general subject of health, one recent discovery of science may here be introduced as having an important relation to every organ and function of the body, and as being one to which frequent reference will be made; and that is, the nature and operation of cell-life. By the aid of the microscope, we can examine the minute construction of plants and animals, in which we discover contrivances and operations, if not so sublime, yet more wonderful and interesting, than the vast systems of worlds revealed by the telescope. By this instrument it is now seen that the first formation, as well as future changes and actions, of all plants and animals are accomplished by means of small cells or bags containing various kinds of liquids. These cells are so minute that, of the smallest, some hundreds would not cover the dot of a printed i on this page. They are of diverse shapes and contents, and perform various different operations. The first formation of every animal is accomplished by the agency of cells, and may be illustrated by the egg of any bird or fowl. The exterior consists of a hard shell for protection, and this is lined with a tough skin, to which is fastened the yelk, (which means the yellow^) by fibrous strings, as seen at a, a, in the diagram. In the yelk floats the germ-cell, 5, which is the point where the formation of the future animal commences. The yelk, being lighter than the white, rises upward, and the germ being still lighter, rises in the yelk. This is to bring both nearer to the vitalizing warmth of the brooding mother. 106 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. New cells are gradually formed from the nourishing yelk around the germ, each being at first roundish in shape, and having a spot near the centre, called the nucleus. The reason why cells increase must remain a mystery, until we can penetrate the secrets of vital force —probably forever.' But the mode in which they multiply is as follows: The first change noticed in a cell, when warmed into vital activity, is the appearance of a second nucleus within it, while the cell gradually becomes oval in form, and then is drawn inward at the middle, like an hour-glass, till the two sides meet. The two portions then divide, and two cells appear, each containing its own germinal nucleus. These both divide again in the same manner, proceeding in the ratio of 2, 4, 8, 16, and so on, until most of the yelk becomes a mass of cells. The central point of this mass, where the animal itself commences to appear, shows, first, a round-shaped f|g nre > which soon assumes form like a pear, and then like a violin. Gradually the busy little cells arrange themselves to build up heart, lungs, brain, stomach, and limbs, for which the yelk and white furnish nutriment. There is a small bag of air fastened to one end inside of the shell; and when the animal is complete, this air is taken into its lungs, life begins, and out walks little chick, all its powers prepared, and ready to run, eat, and enjoy existence. Then, as soon as the animal uses its brain to think and feel, and its muscles to move, the cells which have been made up into these parts begin to decay, while new cells are formed from the blood to take their place. Thus with life commences the constant process of decay and renewal all over the body. The liquid portion of the blood consists of material formed from food, air, and water. From this material the cells of the blood are formed: first, the white cells, which are incomplete in formation; and then the red cells, which are completed by the addition of the oxygen received from THE CARE OF HEALTH. 107 air in the lungs. Fig. 49 represents part of a magnified blood-vessel, $, $, in which the round cells are the white, and the oblong the red cells, floating in the blood. Surrounding the blood-vessels are the cells forming the adjacent membrane, b h, each having a nucleus in its centre. Cells have different powers of selecting and secreting diverse materials from the blood. Thus, some secrete bile to carry to the liver, others secrete saliva for the mouth, others take up the tears, and still others take material for the brain, muscles, and all other organs. Cells also have a converting power, of taking one kind of matter from the blood, and changing it to another kind. They are minute chemical laboratories all over the body, changing materials of one kind to another form in which they can be made useful. Both animal and vegetable substances are formed of cells. But the vegetable cells take up and use unorganized or simple, natural matter; whereas the animal cell only takes substances already organized into vegetable or animal life, and then changes one compound into another of different proportions and nature. These curious facts in regard to cell-life have important relations to the general subject of the care of health, and also to the cure of disease, as will be noticed in following chapters. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. There is another portion of the body, which is so intimately connected with every other that it is placed in this 108 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. chapter as also having reference to every department ii> the general subject of the care of health. The body has no power to move itself, but is a collection of instruments to be used by the mind in securing various kinds of knowledge and enjoyment. The organs through which the mind thus operates are the brain and nerves. The drawing (Fig. 50) represents them. The brain lies in the skull, and is divided into the large or upper brain, marked 1, and the small or lower brain, marked 2. From the brain runs the spinal marrow through the spine or backbone. From each side of the spine the large nerves run out into innumerable smallei branches to every portion of the body. The drawing shows only some of the larger branches. Those marked 3 run to the neck and organs of the chest; those marked 4 go to the arms; those below the arms, marked 3, go to the trunk ; and those marked 5 go to the legs. The brain and nerves consist of two kinds of nervous matter—the gray, which is supposed to be the portion that originates and controls a nervous fluid which imparts power of action; and the white, which seems to conduct this fluid to every part of the body. The brain and nervous system are divided into distinct portions, each having different offices to perform, and each acting independently of the others; as, for example, one THE CARE OF HEALTH. 109 portion is employed by the mind in thinking, and in feeling pleasurable or painful mental emotions ; another in moving the mnscles; while the nerves that run to the nose, ears, eyes, tongue, hands, and surface generally, are employed in seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, and feeling all physical sens&ticns. The tack portion of the spinal marrow and the nerves that run from it are employed in sensation, or the sense of feeling. These nerves extend over the whole body, but are largely developed in the network of nerves in the skin. The front portion of the spinal marrow and its branches are employed in moving those muscles in all parts of the body which are controlled by the will or choice of the mind. These are called the nerves of motion. The nerves of sensation and nerves of motion, although they start from different portions of the spine, are united in the same sheath or cover, till they terminate in the muscles. Thus, every muscle is moved by nerves of motion ; while alongside of this nerve, in the same sheath, is a nerve of sensation. All the nerves of motion and sensation are connected with those portions of the brain used when we think, feel, and choose. By this arrangement the mind knows what is wanted in all parts of the body by means of the nerves of sensation, and then it acts by means of the nerves of motion. For example, when we feel the cold air on the skin, the nerves of sensation report to the brain, and thus to the mind, that the body is growing cold. The mind thus knows that more clothing is needed, and wills to have the eyes look for it, and the hands and feet move to get it. This is done by the nerves of sight and of motion. Next are the nerves of involuntary motion, which move all those parts of the head, face, and body that are used in breathing, and in other operations connected with it. By these we continue to breathe when asleep, and whether we will to do so or not. There are also some of the nerves ol 110 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. voluntary motion that are mixed with these, which enable the mind to stop respiration, or to regulate it to a certain extent. But the mind has no power to stop it for any great length of time. There is another large and important system of nerves called the sympathetic or ganglionic system. It consists of small masses of gray and white nervous matter, that seem to be small brains with nerves running from them. These are called ganglia, and are arranged on each side of the spine, while small nerves from the spinal marrow run into them, thus uniting the sympathetic system with the nerves of the spine. These ganglia are also distributed around in various parts of the interior .of the body, especially in the intestines, and all the different ganglia are connected with each other by nerves, thus making one system. It is the ganglionic system that carries on the circulation of the blood, the action of the capillaries, lymphatics, arteries, and veins, together with the work of secretion, absorption, and most of the internal working of the body, which goes forward without any knowledge or control of the mind. Every portion of the body has nerves of sensation coming from the spine, and also branches of the sympathetic or ganglionic system. The object of this is to form a sympathetic communication between the several parts of the body, and also to enable the mind to receive, through the brain, some general knowledge of the state of the whole system. It is owing to this that, when one portion of the body is affected, other portions sympathize. For example, if one part of the body is diseased, the stomach may so sympathize as to lose all appetite until the disease is removed. All the operations of the nervous system are performed by the influence of the nervous fluid, which is generated in the gray portions of the brain and ganglia. Whenever a nerve is cut off from its connection with these nervous centres, its power is gone, and the part to which it minis tered becomes lifeless and incapable of motion. THE CARE OF HEALTH. Ill The brain and nerves can be overworked, and can also suffer for want of exercise, just as the muscles do. It is necessary for the perfect health of the brain and nerves that the several portions be exercised sufficiently, and that no part be exhausted by over-action. For example, the nerves of sensation may be very much exercised, and the nerves of motion have but little exercise. In this case, one will be weakened by excess of work, and the other by the want of it. It is found by experience that the proper exercise of the nerves of motion tends to reduce any extreme susceptibility of the nerves of sensation. On the contrary, the neglect of such exercise tends to produce an excessive sensibility in the nerves of sensation. Whenever that part of the brain which is employed in thinking, feeling, and willing, is greatly exercised by hard study, or by excessive care or emotion, the blood tends to the brain to supply it with increased nourishment, just as it flows to the muscles when they are exercised. Over-exercise of this portion of the brain causes engorgement of the blood-vessels. This is sometimes indicated by pain, or by a sense of fullness in the head; but oftener the result is a debilitating drain on the nervous system, which depends for its supply on the healthful state of the brain. The brain has, as it were, a fountain of supply for the nervous fluid, which flows to all the nerves, and stimulates them to action. Some brains have a larger, and some a smaller fountain; so that a degree of mental activity that would entirely exhaust one, would make only a small and healthful drain upon another. The excessive use of certain portions of the brain tends to withdraw the nervous energy from other portions; so that when one part is debilitated by excess, another fails by neglect. For example, a person may so exhaust the brain power in the excessive use of the nerves of motion by hard work, as to leave little for any other faculty. On the 112 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. other hand, the nerves of feeling and thinking may be so used as to withdraw the nervous fluid from the nerves of motion, and thus debilitate the muscles. Some animal propensities may be indulged to such ex* cess as to produce a constant tendency of the blood to a certain portion of the brain, and to the organs connected with it, and thus cause a constant and excessive excitement, which finally becomes a disease. Sometimes a paralysis of this portion of the brain results from such an entire exhaustion of the nervous fountain and of the overworked nerves. Thus, also, the thinking portion of the brain may be so overworked as to drain the nervous fluid from other portions, which become debilitated by the loss. And in this way, also, the overworked portion may be diseased or paralyzed by the excess. The necessity for the equal development of all portions of the brain by an appropriate exercise of all the faculties of mind and body, and the influence of this upon happiness, is the most important portion of this subject, and will be more directly exhibited in another chapter. VIIL DOMESTIC EXERCISE, I N a work which aims to influence women to train the young to honor domestic labor and to seek healthful exercise in home pursuits, there is special reason for explaining the construction of the muscles and their connection with the nerves, tliese being the chief organs of motion. The muscles, as seen by the naked eye, consist of very fine fibres or strings, bound up in smootli, silky casings of thin membrane. But each of these visible fibres or strings the microscope shows to be made up of still finer strings, numbering from five to eight hundred in each fibre. And each of tliese microscopic fibres is a series or chain of elastic cells, which are so minute that one hundred thousand would scarcely cover a capital O on this page; The peculiar property of the cells which compose the muscles is their elasticity, no other cells of the body Having this property. At Fig. 51 is a . lg' '. diagram representing a micror y v y y V Y Y SC0 P^ C m u scular fibre, in which V A . A - A A A A».y. the cells are relaxed, as in the natural state of rest. But when the muscle contracts, each of its numberless cells in all its small fibres becomes widened, making Flg 62 _ each fibre of the muscle shorter and f V V YVV ^ c k e r , a s a t Fig. 52. This explains ,1111) the cause of the swelling out of muscles when they act. Every motion in every part of the body has a special 114 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. muscle to produce it, and many have other muscles to restore the part moved to its natural state. The muscles that move or bend any part are called flexors, and those that restore the natural position are called extensors* Fig. 53 represents the muscles of the arm after the skin and flesh are removed. They are all in smooth silky cases, laid over each other, and separated both by the smooth membranes that encase them and by layers of fat, so as to move easily without interfering with each other. They are fastened to the bones by strong tendons and cartilages ; and around the wrist, in the drawing, is shown a band of cartilage to confine them in place. The muscle marked 8 is the extensor that straightens the fingers after they have been closed by a flexor the other side of the arm. In like manner, each motion of the arm and fingers has one muscle to produce it and another to restore to the natural position. The muscles are dependent on the brain and nerves for power to move. I t has been shown that the gray matter of the brain and spinal marrow furnishes the stimulating power that moves the muscles, and causes sensations of touch on the skin, and the other sensations of the several senses. The white part of the brain and spinal marrow consists solely of conducting tubes to transmit this influence. Each of the minute fibrils of the muscles has a small conducting nerve connecting it with the brain or spinal marrow, and in this respect each muscular fibril is separate from every other. When, therefore, the mind wills to move a flexor muscle of the arm, the gray matter sends out the stimulus through DOMESTIC EXERCISE. 115 the nerves to the cells of each individual fibre of that muscle, and they contract. When this is done, the nerve of sensation reports it to the brain and mind. If the mind desires to return the arm to its former position, then follows the willing, and consequent stimulus sent through the nerves to the corresponding muscle; its cells contract, and the limb is restored. "When the motion is a compound one, involving the action of several muscles at the same time, a multitude of impressions are sent back and forth to and from the brain through the nerves. But the person acting thus is unconscious of all this delicate and wonderful mechanism. H e wills the movement, and instantly the requisite nervous power is sent to the required cells and fibres, and they perform the motions required. Many of the muscles are moved by the sympathetic system, over which the mind has but little control. Among the muscles and* nerves so intimately connected, run the minute capillaries of the blood, which furnish nourishment to all. Fig, 54 represents an artery at a, which brings pure blood to a muscle from the heart. After Fig. 54. meandering through the capillaries at c, to distribute oxygen and food from the stomach, the blood enters the vein, 5, loaded with carbonic acid and water taken up in the capillaries, to be carried to the lungs or skin, and thrown out into the air. The manner in which the exercise of the muscles quickens the circulation of the blood will now be explained. The veins abound in every part of every muscle, and the large veins have valves which prevent the blood from flowing backward. If the wrist is grasped tightly, the veins of the hand are immediately swollen. 116 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. This is owing to the fact that the blood is prevented from flowing toward the heart by this pressure, and by the veinvalves from returning into the arteries; while the arteries themselves, being placed deeper down, are not so compressed, and continue to send the blood into the hand, and thus it accumulates. As soon as this pressure is removed, the blood springs onward from the restraint with accelerated motion. This same process takes place when any of the muscles are exercised. The contraction of any muscle presses some of the veins, so that the blood can not flow the natural way, while the valves in the veins prevent its flowing backward. Meantime the arteries continue to press the blood along until the veins become swollen. Then, as soon as the muscle ceases its contraction, the blood flows faster from the previous accumulation. If, then, we use a number of muscles, and use them strongly and quickly, there are so many veins affected in this way as to quicken the whole circulation. The heart receives blood faster, and sends it to the lungs faster. Then the lungs work quicker, to furnish the oxygen required by the greater amount of blood. The blood returns with greater speed to the heart, and the heart sends it out with quicker action through the arteries to the capillaries. In the capillaries, too* the decayed matter is carried off faster, and then the stomach calls for more food to furnish new and pure blood. Thus it is that exercise gives new life and nourishment to every part of the body. It is the universal law of the human frame that exercise is indispensable to the health of the several parts. Thus, if a blood-vessel be tied up, so as not to be used, it shrinks, and becomes a useless string; if a muscle be condemned to inaction, it shrinks in size and diminishes in power; and thus it is also with the bones. Inactivity produces softness, debility, and unfitness for the functions they are designed to perform. Now, the nerves, like all other parts of the body, gain DOMESTIC EXERCISE. 117 and lose strength according as they are exercised. If they have too much or too little exercise, they lose strength; if they are exercised to a proper degree, they gain strength. When the mind is continuously excited, by business, study, or the imagination, the nerves of emotion and sensation are kept in constant action, while the nerves of motion are unemployed. If this is continued for a long time, the nerves of sensation lose their strength from over-action, and the nerves of motion lose their power from inactivity. In consequence, there is a morbid excitability of the nervous, and a debility of the muscular system, which make all exertion irksome and wearisome. The only mode of preserving the health of these systems is to keep up in them an equilibrium of action. For this purpose, occupations must be sought which exercise the muscles and interest the mind; and thus the equal action of both kinds of nerves is secured. This shows why exercise is so much more healthful and invigorating when the mind is interested, than when it is not. As an illustration, let a person go shopping with a friend, and have nothing to do but look on. How soon do the continuous walking and standing weary! But, suppose one, thus wearied, hears of the arrival of a very dear friend: she can instantly walk off a mile or two to meet her, without the least feeling of fatigue. By this is shown the importance of furnishing, for young persons, exercise in which they will take an interest. Long and formal walks, merely for exercise, though they do some good, in securing fresh air, and some exercise of the muscles, would be of triple benefit if changed to amusing sports, or to the cultivation of fruits and flowers, in which it is impossible to engage without acquiring a great interest. I t shows, also, why it is far better to trust to useful domestic exercise at home than to send a young person out to walk for the mere purpose of exercise. Young girls can seldom be made to realize the value of health, and the 118 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. need of exercise to secure it, so as to feel much interest in walking abroad, when they have no other object. But, if they are brought up to minister to the comfort and enjoyment of themselves and others, by performing domestic duties, they will constantly be interested and cheered in their exercise by the feeling of usefulness and the consciousness of having performed their duty. There are few young persons, it is hoped, who are brought up with such miserable habits of selfishness and indolence that they can not be made to feel happier by the consciousness of being usefully employed. And those who have never been accustomed to think or care for any one but themselves, and who seem to feel little pleasure in making themselves useful, by wise and proper influences can often be gradually awakened to the new pleasure of benevolent exertion to promote the comfort and enjoyment of others. And the more this sacred and elevating kind of enjoyment is tasted, the greater is the relish induced. Other enjoyments often cloy; but the heavenly pleasure secured by virtuous industry and benevolence, while it satisfies at the time, awakens fresh desires for the continuance of so ennobling a good. IX. HEALTHFUL FOOD. T H E person who decides what shall be the food and drink of a family, and the modes of its preparation, is the one who decides, to a greater or less extent, what shall be the health of that family. I t is the opinion of most medical men, that intemperance in eating is one of the most fruitful of all causes of disease and death. If this be so, the woman who wisely adapts the food and cooking of her family to the laws of health removes one of the greatest risks which threatens the lives of those under her care. But, unfortunately, there is no other duty that has been involved in more doubt and perplexity. Were one to believe all that is said and written on this subject, the conclusion probably would be, that there is not one solitary article of food on God's earth which it is healthful to eat. Happily, however, there are general principles on this subject which,, if understood and applied, will prove a safe guide to any woman of common sense; and it is the object of the following chapter to set forth these principles. All material things on earth, whether solid, liquid, or gaseous, can be resolved into sixty-two simple substances, only fourteen of which are in the human body; and these, in certain proportions, in all mankind. Thus, in a man weighing 154 lbs. are found, 111 lbs. oxygen gas, and 14 lbs. hydrogen gas, which, united, form water; 21 lbs. carbon; 3 lbs. 8 oz. nitrogen gas; 1 lb. 12 oz. 190 grs. phosphorus; 2 lbs. calcium, the chief ingredient of bones; 2 oz. fluorine ; 2 oz. 219 grs. sulphur; 2 oz 120 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. 47 grs. chlorine; 2 oz. 116 grs. sodium; 100 grs. iron; 290 grs. potassium; 12 grs. magnesium; and 2 grs. silicon. These simple substances are constantly passing out of the body through the lungs, skin, and other excreting organs. It is found that certain of these simple elements are used for one part of the body, and others for other parts, and this in certain regular proportions. Thus, carbon is the chief element of fat, and also supplies the fuel that com bines with oxygen in the capillaries to produce animal heat. The nitrogen which we gain from our food and the air is the chief element of muscle; phosphorus is the chief element of brain and nerves; and calcium or lime is the hard portion of the bones. Iron is an important element of blood, and silicon supplies the hardest parts of the teeth, nails, and hair. Water, which is composed of the two gases, oxygen and hydrogen, is the largest portion of the body, forming its fluids ; there is four times as much of carbon as there is of nitrogen in the body; while there is only two per cent as much phosphorus as carbon. A man weighing one hundred and fifty-four pounds, who leads an active life, takes into his stomach daily from two to three pounds of solid food, and from five to six pounds of liquid. At the same time he takes into his lungs, daily, four or five thousand gallons of air. This amounts to three thousand pounds of nutriment received through stomach and lungs, and then expelled from the body, in one year; or about twenty times the man's own weight. The change goes on in every minute point of the body, though in some parts much faster than in others; as set forth in the piquant and sprightly language of Dr. O. W Holmes,* who, giving a vivid picture of the constant decay and renewal of the body, says: * Atlantic Almanac, 1869, p. 40. HEALTHFUL FOOD. 121 " Every organized "being always lives immersed in a strong solution of its own elements." " Sometimes, as in the case of the air-plant, the solution contains all its elements; but in higher plants, and in animals generally, some of the principal ones only. Take our own bodies, and we find the atmosphere contains the oxygen and the nitrogen, of which we are so largely made up, as its chief constituents ; the hydrogen, also, in its watery vapor ; the carbon, in its carbonic acid. What our air-bath does not furnish us, 've must take in the form of nourishment, supplied through the digestive organs. But the first food we take, after we have set up for ourselves, is air, and the last food we take is air also. ¥ e are all chameleons in our diet, as we are all salamanders in our habitats, inasmuch as we live always in the fire of our own smouldering combustion; a gentle but constant flame, fanned every day by the same forty hogsheads of air which furnish us not with our daily bread, which we can live more than a day without touching, but with our momentary, and oftener than momentary, aliment, without which we can not live five minutes." " We are perishing and being born again at every instant. We do literally enter over and over again into the womb of that great mother, from whom we get our bones, and flesh, and blood, and marrow. ' I die daily ' is true of all that live. If we cease to die, particle by particle, and to be born anew in the same proportion, the whole movement of life comes to an end, and swift, universal, irreparable decay resolves our frames into the parent elements." " The products of the internal fire which consumes us over and over again every year, pass off mainly in smoke and steam from the lungs and the skin. The smoke is only invisible, because the combustion is so perfect. The steam is plain enough in our breaths on a frosty morning; and an over-driven horse will show us, on a larger scale, the cloud that is always arising from own bodies." " Man walks, then, not only in a vain show, but wrapped 122 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. in an nncelestial aureole of his own material exhalations. A great mist of gases and of vapor rises day and night from the whole realm of living nature. The water and the carbonic acid which animals exhale become the food of plants, whose leaves are at once lungs and mouths. The vegetable world reverses the breathing process of the animal creation, restoring the elements which that has combined and rendered effete for its own purposes, to their original condition. The salt-water ocean is a great aquarium. The air ocean in which we live is a ' Wardian case,' of larger dimensions." It is found that the simple elements will not nourish the body in their natural state, but only when organized, either as vegetable or animal food; and, to the dismay of the Grahamite or vegetarian school, it is now established by chemists that animal and vegetable food contain the same elements, and in nearly the same proportions. Thus, in animal food, carbon predominates in fats, while in vegetable food it shows itself in sugar, starch, and vegetable oils. Nitrogen is found in animal food in the albumen, fibrin, and caseine; while in vegetables it is in gluten, albumen, and caseine. It is also a curious fact that, in all articles of food, the elements that nourish diverse parts of the body are divided into separable portions, and also that the proportions correspond in a great degree to the wants of the body. For example, a kernel of wdieat contains all the articles demanded for every part of the body. Fig. 55 represents, upon an enlarged scale, the position and proportions of the chief elements required. The white central part is the largest in quantity, and is chiefly carbon in the form of starch, which supplies fat and fuel for the capillaries. The shaded outer portion is chiefly nitrogen, which nourishes the muscles, and the dark spot at the bottom is principally phosphorus, which nourishes the brain and HEALTHFUL FOOD. 125 nerves. And these elements are in due proportion to the demands of the body. A portion of the outer covering of a wheat-kernel holds lime, silica, and iron, which are needed by the body, and which are found in no other part of the grain. The woody fibre is not digested, but serves by its bulk and stimulating action to facilitate digestion. Tt is therefore evident that bread made of unbolted flour is more healthful than that made of superfine flour. The process of bolting removes all the woody fibre; the lime needed for the bones ; the silica for hair, nails, and teeth; the iron for the blood; and most of the nitrogen and phosphorus needed for muscles, brain, and nerves. Experiments on animals prove that fine flour alone, which is chiefly carbon, will not sustain life more than a month, wdiile unbolted flour furnishes all that is needed for every part of the body. There are cases where persons can not use such coarse bread, on account of its irritating action on inflamed coats of the stomach. For such, a kind of wheaten grit is provided, containing all the kernel of the wheat, except the outside woody fibre. When the body requires a given kind of diet, specially demanded by brain, lungs, or muscles, the appetite will crave food for it until the necessary amount of this article is secured. If, then, the food in which the needed aliment abounds is not supplied, other food will be taken in larger quantities than needed until that amount is gained. For all kinds of food have supplies for every want of the body, though in different proportions. Thus, for example, if the muscles are worked a great deal, food in which nitrogen abounds is required, and the appetite will continue until the requisite amount of nitrogen is secured. If, then, food is taken which has not the requisite quantity, the consequence is, that more is taken than the system can use, while the vital powers are needlessly taxed to throw off the excess. These facts were ascertained by Liebig, a celebrated Ger 124 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. man chemist and physicist, who, assisted by his government, conducted experiment? on a large scale in prisons, in armies, and in hospitals. Among other results, he states that those who use potatoes for their principal food eat them in very much larger quantities than their bodies would demand if they used also other food. The reason is, that the potato has a very large proportion of starch that supplies only fuel for the capillaries and very little nitrogen to feed the muscles. For this reason lean meat is needed with potatoes. In comparing wheat and potatoes we find that in one hundred parts wheat there are fourteen parts nitrogen for muscle, and two parts phosphorus for brain and nerves. But in the potato there is only one part in one hundred for muscle, and nine tenths of one part of phosphorus for brain and nerves. The articles containing most of the three articles needed generally in the body are as follows: for fat and heat-making—butter, lard, sugar, and molasses ; for muscle-making —lean meat, cheese, peas,, beans, and lean fishes; for brain and nerves—shell-fish, lean meats, peas, beans, and very active birds and fishes who live chiefly on food in which phosphorus abounds. In a meat diet, the fat supplies carbon for the capillaries and the lean furnishes nutriment for muscle, brain, and nerves. Green vegetables, fruits, and berries furnish the acid and water needed. In grains used for food, the proportions of useful elements are varied; there is in some more of carbon and in others more of nitrogen and phosphorus. For example, in oats there is more of nitrogen for the muscles, and less carbon for the lungs, than can be found in wheat. In the corn of the North, where cold weather demands fuel for lungs and capillaries, there is much more carbon to supply it than is found in the Southern corn. From these statements it may be seen that -me of the chief mistakes in providing food for families has been in HEALTHFUL FOOD. 12* changing the proportions of the elements nature has fitted for our food. Thus, fine wheat is deprived by bolting of some of the most important of its nourishing elements, leaving carbon chiefly, which, after supplying fuel for the capillaries, must, if in excess, be sent out of the body; thus needlessly taxing all the excreting organs. So milk, which contains all the elements needed by the body, has the cream taken out and used for butter, which again is chiefly carbon. Then, sugar and molasses, cakes and candies, are chiefly carbon^ and supply but very little of other nourishing elements, while to make them safe much exercise in cold and pure air is necessary. And yet it is the children of the rich, housed in chambers and school-rooms most of their time, who are fed with these dangerous dainties, thus weakening their constitutions, and inducing fevers, colds, and many other diseases. The proper digestion of food depends on the wants of the body, and on its power of appropriating the aliment supplied. The best of food can not be properly digested when it is not needed. All that the system requires will be used, and the rest will be thrown out by the several excreting organs, which thus are frequently over-taxed, and vital forces are wasted. Even food of poor quality may digest well if the demands of the system are urgent. The way to increase digestive power is to increase the demand for food by pure air and exercise of the muscles, quickening the blood, and arousing the whole system to a more rapid and vigorous rate of life. Rules for persons in full health, who enjoy pure air and exercise, are not suitable for those whose digestive powers are feeble, or who are diseased. On the other hand, many rules for invalids are not needed by the healthful, while rules for one class of invalids will not avail for other classes. Every weak stomach has its peculiar wants, and can not furnish guidance for others. We are now ready to consider intelligently the following 126 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. general principles in regard to the proper selection oi food: Vegetable and animal food are equally healthful if apportioned to the given circumstances. In cold weather, carbonaceous food, such as butter, fats, sugar, molasses, etc., can be used more safely than in warm weather. And they can be used more safely by those who exercise in the open air than by those of confined and sedentary habits. Students who need food with little carbon, and women who live in the house, should always seek coarse bread, fruits, and lean meats, and avoid butter, oils, sugar, and molasses, and articles containing them. Many students and women using little exercise in the open air, grow thin and weak, because the vital powers are exhausted in throwing off excess of food, especially of the carbonaceous. The liver is especially taxed in such cases, being unable to remove all the excess of carbonaceous matter from the blood, and thus "biliousness" ensues, particularly on the approach of warm weather, when the air brings less oxygen than in cold. It is found, by experiment, that the supply of gastric juice, furnished from the blood by the arteries of the stomach, is proportioned, not to the amount of food put into the stomach, but to the wants of the body; so that it is possible to put much more into the stomach than can be digested. To guide and regulate in this matter, the sensation called hunger is provided. In a healthy state oi the body, as soon as the blood has lost its nutritive supplies, the craving of hunger is felt, and then, if the food is suitable, and is taken in the proper manner, this sensation ceases as soon as the stomach has received enough to supply the wants of the system. But our benevolent Creator, in this, as in our other duties, has connected enjoyment with the operation needful to sustain our bodies. In addition to the allaying of hunger, the gratification of the palate is HEALTHFUL FOOD. \21 secured by the immense variety of food, some articles of which are far more agreeable than others. This arrangement of Providence, designed for our happiness, has become, either through ignorance, or want of self-control, the chief cause of the many diseases and sufferings which afflict those classes who have the means of seeking a variety to gratify the palate. If mankind had on]y one article of food, and only water to drink, though they would have less enjoyment in eating, they would never be tempted to put any more into the stomach than the calls of hunger require. But the customs of society, which present an incessant change, and a great variety of food, with those various condiments which stimulate appetite, lead almost every person very frequently to eat merely to gratify the palate, after the stomach has been abundantly supplied, so that hunger has ceased. When too great a supply of food is put into the stomach, the gastric juice dissolves only that portion which the wants of the system demand. Most of the remainder is ejected, in an unprepared state; the absorbents take portions of it into the system; and all the various functions of the body, which depend on the ministries of the blood, are thus gradually and imperceptibly injured. Very often, intemperance in eating produces immediate results, such as colic, headaches, pains of indigestion, and vertigo. But the more general result is a gradual undermining of all parts of the human frame; thus imperceptibly shortening life, by so weakening the constitution, that it is ready to yield, at every point, to any uncommon risk or exposure. Thousands and thousands are passing out of the world, from diseases occasioned by exposures which a healthy constitution could meet without any danger. It is owing to these considerations, that it becomes the duty of every woman, who has the responsibility of providing food for a family, to avoid a variety of tempting dishes. I t is a much safei rule, to have only one kind of healthy food, for each meal, 128 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. than the too abundant variety which is often met at the tables of almost all classes in this country. When there is to be any variety of dishes, they ought not to be successive, but so arranged as to give the opportunity of selection. How often is it the case, that persons, by the appearance of a favorite article, are tempted to eat merely to gratify the palate, when the stomach is already adequately supplied. All such intemperance wears on the constitution, and shortens life. It not unfrequently happens that excess in eating produces a morbid appetite, which must constantly be denied. But the organization of the digestive organs demands, not only that food should be taken in proper quantities, but that it be taken at proper times. Fig. 56 shows one important feature of the digestive organs relating to this point. The part marked L M shows the muscles of the inner coat of the stomach, which run in one direction, and C M shows the muscles of the outer coat, running in another direction. As soon as the food enters the stomach, the muscles are excited by the nerves, and the peristaltic motion commences, This is a powerful and constant exercise of the muscles of the stomach, which continues until the process of digestion is complete. During this time the blood is withdrawn from other parts of the system, to supply the demands of the stomach, which is laboring hard with all its muscles. When this motion ceases, and the digested food has gradually passed out, nature requires that the stomach should HEALTHFUL FOOD. 129 have a period of repose. And if another meal be eaten immediately after one is digested, the stomach is get to work again before it has had time to rest, and before a sufficient supply of gastric juice is provided. The general rule, then, is, that three hours be given to the stomach for labor, and two for rest; and in obedience to this, five hours, at least, ought to elapse between every two regular meals. In cases where exercise produces a flow of perspiration, more food is needed to supply the loss; and strong laboring men may safely eat as often as they feel the want of food. So, young and healthy children, who gambol and exercise much and whose bodies grow fast, may have a more frequent supply of food. But, as a general rule, meals should be five hours apart, and eating between meals avoided. There is nothing more unsafe, and wearing to the constitution, than a habit of eating at any time merely to gratify the palate. When a tempting article 15 presented, every person should exercise sufficient self-denial to wait till the proper time for eating arrives. Children, as well as grown persons, are often injured by eating between their regular meals, thus weakening the stomach by not affording it any time for rest. In deciding as to quantity of food, there is one great difficulty to be met by a large portion of the community. The exercise of every part of the body is necessary to its health and j^erfection. The bones, the muscles, the nerves, the organs of digestion and respiration, and the skin, all demand exercise, in order properly to perform their functions. When the muscles of the body are called into action, all the blood-vessels entwined among them are frequently compressed. As the veins have valves so contrived that the blood can not run back, this compression hastens it forward toward the heart; which is immediately put in quicker motion, to send it into the lungs; and they, also, are thus stimulated to more rapid action, which is the cause of that panting which active exercise always occasions. The 130 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. blood thus courses with greater celerity through the body, and sooner loses its nourishing properties. Then the stomach issues its mandate of hunger, and a new supply of food must be furnished. Thus it appears, as a general rule, that the quantity of food actually needed by the body depends on the amount of muscular exercise taken. A laboring man, in the open fields, probably throws off from his skin and lungs a much larger amount than a person of sedentary pursuits. In consequence of this, he demands a greater amount of food and drink. Those persons who keep their bodies in a state of health by sufficient exercise can always be guided by the calls of hunger. They can eat when they feel hungry, and stop when hunger ceases; and thus they will calculate exactly right. But the difficulty is, that a large part of the community, especially women, are so inactive in their habits that they seldom feel the calls of hunger. They habitually eat, merely to gratify the palate. This produces such a state of the system that they lose the guide which Nature has provided. They are not called to eat by hunger, nor admonished, by its cessation, when to stop. In consequence of this, such persons eat what pleases the palate, till they feel no more inclination for the article. It is probable that three fourths of the women in the wealthier circles sit down to each meal without any feeling of hunger, and eat merely on account of the gratification thus afforded them. Such persons find their appetite to depend almost solely upon the kind of food on the table. This is not the case with those who take the exercise which Nature demands. They approach their meals in such a state that almost any kind of food is acceptable. The question then arises, How are persons, who have lost the guide which Nature has provided, to determine as to the proper amount of food they shall take ? The best method is for several days to take their HEALTHFUL FOOD, 131 ordinary exercise and eat only one or two articles of simple food, such as bread and milk, or bread and butter with cooked fruit, or lean meat with bread and vegetables, and at the same time eat less than the appetite demands. Then on the following two days, take just enough to satisfy the appetite, and on the third day notice the quantity which satisfies. After this, decide before eating that only this amount of simple food shall be taken. Persons who have a strong constitution, and take much exercise, may eat almost any thing with apparent impunity ; but young children who are forming their constitutions, ami persons who are delicate, and who take but little exercise, are very dependent for health on a proper selection of food. It is found that there are some kinds of food which afford nutriment to the blood, and do not produce any other effect on the system. There are other kinds, which are not only nourishing, but stimulating, so that they quicken the functions of the organs on which they operate. The condiments used in cookery, such as pepper, mustard, and spices, are of this nature. There are certain states of the system when these stimulants may be beneficial; such cases can only be pointed out by medical men. Persons in perfect health, and especially young children, never receive any benefit from such kind of food; and just in proportion as condiments operate to quicken the labors of the internal organs, they tend to wear down their powers. A person who thus keeps the body working under an unnatural excitement, live faster than Nature designed, and the constitution is worn out just so much the sooner. A woman, therefore, should provide dishes for her family which are free from these stimulating condiments. It is also found, by experience, that the lean part of animal food is more stimulating than vegetable. This is the reason why, in cases of fevers or inflammations, medical men forbid the use of meat. A person who lives chiefly on animal food is under a higher degree of stimulus than if his 132 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. food was chiefly composed of vegetable substances. His blood will flow faster, and all the functions of his body will be quickened. This makes it important to secure a proper proportion of animal and vegetable diet. Some medical men suppose that an exclusively vegetable diet is proved, by the experience of many individuals, to be fully sufficient to nou rish the body; and bring, as evidence, the fact that some of the strongest and most robust men in the world are those who are trained, from infancy, exclusively on vegetable food. From this they infer that life will be shortened just in proportion as the diet is changed to more stimulating articles; and that, all other things being equal, children will have a better chance of health and long life if they are brought up solely on vegetable food. But, though this is not the common opinion of medical men, they all agree that, in America, far too large a portion of the diet consists of animal food. As a nation, the Americans are proverbial for the gross and luxurious diet with which they load their tables; and there can be no doubt that the general health of the nation would be increased by a change in our customs in this respect. To take meat but once a day, and this in small quantities, compared with the common practice, is a rule, the observance of which would probably greatly reduce the amount of fevers, eruptions, headaches, bilious attacks, and the many other ailments which are produced or aggravated by too gross a diet. The celebrated Roman physician, Baglivi, (who, from practicing extensively among Izloman Catholics, had ample opportunities to observe,) mentions that, in Italy, an unusual number of people recover their health in the forty days of Lent, in consequence of the lower diet which is required as a religious duty. An American physician remarks, " Foi every reeling drunkard that disgraces our country, it contains one hundred gluttons—persons, I mean, who eat to excess, and suffer in consequence." Another distinguished physician says, " I believe that every stomach, not actually HEALTHFUL FOOD. 133 impaired by organic disease, will perform its functions, if it receives reasonable attention; and when we perceive the manner in which diet is generally conducted, both in regard to quantity and variety of articles of food and drink, which are mixed up in one heterogeneous mass—instead of being astonished at the prevalence of indigestion, our wonder must rather be that, in such circumstances, any stomach is capable of digesting at all." In regard to articles which are the most easily digested, only general rules can be given. Tender meats are digested more readily than those which are tough, or than many kinds of vegetable food. The farinaceous articles, such as rice, flour, corn, potatoes, and the like, are the most nutritious, and most easily digested. The popular notion, that meat is more nourishing than bread, is a great mistake. Good bread contains more nourishment than butcher's meat. The meat is more stimulating, and for this reason is more readily digested. A perfectly healthy stomach can digest almost any healthful food; but when the digestive powers are weak, every stomach has its peculiarities, and what is good for one is hurtful to another. In such cases, experiment alone can decide which are the most digestible articles of food. A person whose food troubles him must deduct one article after another, till he learns, by experience, which is the best for digestion. Much evil has been done, by assuming that the powers of one stomach are to be made the rule in regulating every other. The most unhealthful kinds of food are those which are made so by bad cooking; such as sour and heavy bread, cakes, pie-crust, and other dishes consisting of fat mixed and cooked with flour. Rancid butter and high-seasoned food are equally unwholesome. The fewer mixtures there are in cooking, the more healthful is the food likely to be. There is one caution as to the mode of eating which seems peculiarly needful to Americans. It is indispensable to good 134 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. digestion, that food be well chewed and taken slowly. It needs to be thoroughly chewed and mixed with saliva, in order to prepare it for the action of the gastric juice, which, by the peristaltic motion, will be thus brought into contact with every one of the minute portions. It has been found that a solid lump of food requires much more time and labor of the stomach for digestion than divided substances. It has also been found, that as each bolus, or mouthful, enters the stomach, the latter closes, until the portion received has had some time to move around and combine with the gastric juice, and that the orifice of the stomach resists the entrance of any more till this is accomplished. But, if the eater persists in swallowing fast, the stomach yields; the food is then poured in more rapidly than the organ can perform its duty of preparative digestion; and evil results are sooner or later developed. This exhibits the folly of those hasty meals, so common to travelers and to men of business, and shows why children should be taught to eat slowly. After taking a full meal, it is very important to health that no great bodily or mental exertion be made till the labor of the stomach is over. Intense mental effort draws the blood to the head, and muscular exertions draw it to the muscles; and in consequence of this, the stomach loses the supply which it requires when performing its office. When the blood with its stimulating effects is thus withdrawn from the stomach, the adequate supply of gastric juice is not afforded, and indigestion is the result. The heaviness which follows a full meal is the indication which Nature gives of the need of quiet. When the meal is moderate, a sufficient quantity of gastric juice is exuded in an hour, or an hour and a half; after which, labor of body and mind may safely be resumed. When undigested food remains in the stomach, and is at last thrown out into the bowels, it proves an irritating substance, producing an inflamed state in the lining of the stomach and other organs. HEALTHFUL FOOD, 135 It is found that the stomach has the power of gradually accommodating its digestive powers to the food it habitually receives. Thus, animals which live on vegetables can gradually become accustomed to animal food; and the reverse is equally true. Thus, too, the human stomach can eventually accomplish the digestion of some kinds of food, which, at first, were indigestible. But any changes of this sort should be gradual; as those which are sudden are trying to the powers of the stomach, by furnishing matter for which its gastric juice is not prepared. Extremes of heat or cold are injurious to the process of digestion. Taking hot food or drink, habitually, tends to debilitate all the organs thus needlessly excited. In using cold substances, it is found that a certain degree of warmth in the stomach is indispensable to their digestion; so that, when the gastric juice is cooled below this temperature, it ceases to act. Indulging in large quantities of cold drinks, or eating ice-creams, after a meal, tends to reduce the temperature of the stomach, and thus to stop digestion. This shows the folly of those refreshments, in convivial meetings, where the guests are tempted to load the stomach with a variety such as would require the stomach of a stout farmer to digest; and then to wind up with ice-creams, thus lessening whatever ability might otherwise have existed to digest the heavy load. The fittest temperature for drinks, if taken when the food is in the digesting process, is blood heat. Cool drinks, and even ice, can be safely taken at other times, if not in excessive quantity. When the thirst is excessive, or the body weakened by fatigue, or when in a state of perspiration, large quantities of cold drinks are injurious. Fluids taken into the stomach are not subject to the slow process of digestion, but are immediately absorbed and carried into the blood. This is the reason why liquid nourishment, more speedily than solid foodr restores from exhaustion. 136 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. The minute vessels of the stomach absorb its fluids, which are carried into the blood, just as the minute extremities of the arteries open upon the inner surface of the stomach, and there exude the gastric juice from the blood. When food is chiefly liquid, (soup, for example,) the fluid part is rapidly absorbed. The solid parts remain, to be acted on by the gastric juice. In the case of St. Martin,* in fifty minutes after taking soup, the fluids were absorbed, and the remainder was even thicker than is usual after eating solid food. This is the reason why soups are deemed bad for weak stomachs; as this residuum is more difficult of digestion than ordinary food. Highly-concentrated food, having much nourishment in a small bulk, is not favorable to digestion, because it can not be properly acted on by the muscular contractions of the stomach, and is not so minutely divided as to enable the gastric juice to act properly. This is the reason why a certain bulk of food is needful to good digestion ; and why those people who live on whale-oil and other highly nourishing food, in cold climates, mix vegetables and even sawdust with it to make it more acceptable and digestible. So in civilized lands, fruits and vegetables are mixed with more highly concentrated nourishment. For this reason also, soups, jellies, and arrow-root should have bread or crackers mixed with them. This affords another reason why coarse bread, of unbolted wheat, so often proves beneficial. Wliere, from inactive habits or other causes, the bowels become con- * The individual here referred to—Alexis St. Martin—was a young Canadian, eighteen years of age, of a good constitution and robust healtn, who, in 1822, was accidentally wounded by the discharge of a musket which carried away a part of the ribs, lacerated one of the lobes of the lungs, and perforated the stomach, making a large aperture, which never closed ; and which enabled Dr. Beaumont (a surgeon of the American army, stationed at Michilimackinac, under whose care the patient was placed) to witness all the processes of digestion and other functions of the bodv for several years. HEALTHFUL FOOD. 137 stipated and sluggish, this kind of food proves the appropriate remedy. One fact on this subject is worthy of notice. In England, under the administration of William Pitt, for two years or more there was such a scarcity of wheat that, to make it hold out longer, Parliament passed a law that the army should have all tneir bread made of unbolted flour. The result was, that the health of the soldiers improved so much as to be a subject of surprise to themselves, the officers, and the physicians. These last came out publicly and declared that the soldiers never before were so robust and healthy; and that disease had nearly disappeared from the army. The civic physicians joined and pronounced it the healthiest bread; and for a time schools, families, and public institutions used it almost exclusively. Even the nobility, convinced by these facts, adopted it for their common diet, and the fashion continued a long time after the scarcity ceased, until more luxurious habits resumed their sway. We thus see why children should not have cakes and candies allowed them between meals. Besides being largely carbonaceous, these are highly concentrated nourishments, and should be eaten with more bulky and less nourishing substances. The most indigestible of all kinds of food are fatty and oily substances, if heated. It is on this account that pie-crust and articles boiled and fried in fat or butter are deemed not so healthful as other food. The following, then, may be put down as the causes of a debilitated constitution from the misuse of food. Eating too much, eating too often, eating too fast, eating food and condiments that are too stimulating, eating food that is too warm or too cold, eating food that is highly concentrated, without a proper admixture of less nourishing matter, and eating hot food that is difficult of digestion. JL. HEALTHFUL DRINKS. THERE is no direction in which a woman more needs both scientific knowledge and moral force than in using her influence to control her family in regard to stimulating beverages. It is a point fully established by experience that the full development of the human body and the vigorous exercise of all its functions can be secured without the use of stimulating drinks. It is, therefore, perfectly safe to bring up children never to use them, no hazard being incurred by such a course. It is also found by experience that there are two evils incurred by the use of stimulating drinks. The first is, their positive effect on the human system. Their peculiarity consists in so exciting the nervous system that all the functions of the body are accelerated, and the fluids are caused to move quicker than at their natural speed. This increased motion of the animal fluids always produces an agreeable effect on the mind. The intellect is invigorated, the imagination is excited, the spirits are enlivened; and these effects are so agreeable that all mankind, after having once experienced them, feel a great desire for their repetition. But this temporary invigoration of the system is always followed by a diminution of the powers of the stimulated organs ; so that, though in all cases this reaction may not be perceptible, it is invariably the result. It may be set down as the unchangeable rule of physiology, that stimulating drinks deduct from the powers of the constitution in exact- HEALTHFUL DRINKS, 139 ly the proportion in which they operate to produce temporary invigoration. The second evil is the temptation which always attends the use of stimulants. Their effect on the system is so agreeable, and the evils resulting are so imperceptible and distant, that there is a constant tendency to increase such excitement both in frequency and power. And the more the system is thus reduced in strength, the more craving is the desire for that which imparts a temporary invigoration. This process of increasing debility and increasing craving for the stimulus that removes it, often goes to such an extreme that the passion is perfectly uncontrollable, and mind and body perish under this baleful habit. In this country there are three forms in which the use of such stimulants is common; namely, alcoholic drinks, opium mixtures, and tobacco. These are all alike in the main peculiarity of imparting that extra stimulus to the system which tends to exhaust its powers. Multitudes in this nation are in the habitual use of some one of these stimulants ; and each person defends the indulgence by certain arguments: First, that the desire for stimulants is a natural propensity implanted in man's nature, as is manifest from the universal tendency to such indulgences in every nation. From this, it is inferred that it is an innocent desire, which ought to be gratified to some extent, and that the aim should be to keep it within the limits of temperance, instead of attempting to exterminate a natural propensity. This is an argument which, if true, makes it equally proper for not only men, but women and children, to use opium, brandy, or tobacco as stimulating principles, provided they are used temperately. But if it be granted that perfect health and strength can be gained and secured without these stimulants, and that their peculiar effect is to diminish the power of the system in exactly the same proportion as they stimulate it, then there is no such thing as a temperate use, 140 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S MANUAL. unless they are so diluted as to destroy any stimulating power; and in this form they are seldom desired. The other argument for their use is, that they are among the good things provided by the Creator for our gratiiication ; that, like all other blessings, they are exposed to abuse and excess ; and that we should rather seek to regulate their use than to banish them entirely. This argument is based on the assumption that they are, like healthful foods and drinks, necessary to life and health, and injurious only by excess. But this is not true; for whenever they are used in any such strength as to be a gratification, they operate to a greater or less extent as stimulants; and to just such extent they wear out the powers of the constitution ; and it is abundantly proved that they are not, like food and drink, necessary to health. Such articles are designed for medicine and not for common use. There can be no argument framed to defend the use of one of them which will not justify women and children in most dangerous indulgences. There are some facts recently revealed by the microscope in regard to alcoholic drinks, whicb every woman should understand and regard. It has been shown in a previous chapter that every act of mind, either by thought, feeling, or choice, causes the destruction of certain cells in the brain ^nd nerves. It now is proved by microscopic science* that the kind of nutrition furnished to the brain by the blood to a certain extent decides future feelings, thoughts, and volitions. The cells of the brain not only abstract from the blood the healthful nutrition, but also are affected in shape, size, color, and action by unsuitable elements in the blood. This is especially the case when alcohol is taken into the stomach, from whence it is always carried to the brain. The consequence is, that it affects the nature and action of the * For these statements the writer is indebted to Maudsley, a recent writer on Microscopic Physiology. HEALTHFUL BRINKS, 141 brain-cells, until a habit is formed which is automatic; that is, the mind loses the power of controlling the brain in its development of thoughts, feelings, and choices as it would in the natural state, and is itself controlled by the brain. In this condition a real disease of the brain is created, called