FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

A

FRENCH GRAMMAR,
BASED ON

BY

HERMANN BREYMANN, Ph.D.,
Lecturer on French Language and Literature at the Owens College,
Manchester.

THIRD

EDITION.

MACMILLAN

AND

CO,

1880,

[The Right of Translation

and Reproduction is reserved.]

445
B75f
1880

LONDON :
R.

C L A Y , S O N S , AND T A Y L O R ,
BREAD S T R E E T HILL, E. C.

TO

PROFESSOR DIEZ,
THE

FOUNDER

OF

ROMANCE

PHILOLOGY,

THIS BOOK IS

IN

THE
SINCERE

TESTIMONY

OF

AUTHOR'S

RESPECT

AND

ADMIRATION.

PREFACE,
WHOEVER ventures on offering a new French Grammar
to a public already provided with a considerable number
of "Aids," "Grammars," and "Manuals" for learning
French, is doubtless under the obligation of stating the
reasons why he has undertaken what may at first sight
seem so superfluous a task.
Before doing so, I may be allowed to premise a few
general remarks on the object at which, in my judgment,
all instruction ought to aim. Every kind of instruction
must tend to bestow on the student—and here I will
make use of terms easily intelligible by a consideration
of their primary significance—
i. " Formal Culture ; " i.e. it must awaken and intensify his powers of reasoning ; it must tend to impart
to his mind promptitude, precision, and clearness of
judgment.
2. " R e a l Culture;" i.e. it must assure to him the
acquisition of positive knowledge admitting of being
used in practical life, whether this knowledge be of a
general or special kind, as designed for a particular
profession or calling.
Any teaching which fails to form or educate the mind
must remain barren ; for of infinitely higher importance
than mere knowledge without the Dower of applying it

vin

PREFACE.

is that power itself. A well-trained and clear-sighted
intelligence is at all times capable not only of acquiring
new stores of positive knowledge, but also of applying
it easily and immediately to the various demands of life.
On the other hand, he who has acquired positive knowledge only, without that critical faculty which combines
with vigour of decision keenness of judgment, has gained
the letter only, but not the spirit. Experience teaches
that it is the man whose intellectual powers have been
formed by theoretical instruction—who easily applies
what he has laboriously learned. For to him and to no
other are known those general laws which determine and
cover every special case, whether foreseen or unforeseen.
What, then, has been, up to the present time, the
method generally followed in teaching French ? It has
been, and still is, as far as I know, that system of instruction of which the Ollendorff Grammars are popularly
regarded as the type. Now, it is quite true, as the distinguished Professor of Sanskrit in Yale College, Mr.
William Whitney, remarks, that " such a system has its
unquestionable advantages where learning to speak is
the main object directly aimed at, and where the smallness of the classes and the time spent with the instructor
render it possible for the latter to give each pupil that
amount of personal attention and drilling which is needed
in order to make the system yield its best results." Yet,
there are two serious objections to it. " Firstly, it i s " —
to quote Mr. Whitney once more—" for the most part
impracticable in schools and colleges. Their circumstances and methods of instruction render translation
and construction the means by which the most useful
knowledge and the best discipline can be gained. To

PREFACE.

IX

the very great majority of those who learn German"—
and I must be allowed to add French—" ability to speak
is an object inferior in importance to ability to understand those languages accurately and readily: and the
attainment of the former is properly to be made posterior
to that of the latter. One who has mastered the principles of grammar, and acquired by reading a fair
vocabulary and a feeling for the light use of it, will
learn to speak and write rapidly and well when circumstances require of him that ability."
The second objection I have to urge against this
system is, that it fails fully to satisfy the first of the
objects at which every kind of instruction ought to aim ;
it addresses itself rather to the memory of the learner
than to his faculty of judgment ; it gives rule after rule,
with as many exceptions for each, without making the
least attempt to explain them or to give a reason for
them. Yet, sharing the view of a recent writer,1 that
the " study of modern languages must be placed on a
higher and more scientific foundation7' than is at
present the case, and that these languages must be
taught " according to the more logical method 2 which
is applied to the teaching of the dead languages," I
hold, firstly, that such a system is not the most practicable, especially for schools and colleges, and, secondly,
that instruction in the French language ought to be at
once historical and comparative,
" The study of the history of the changes which have
taken place in a language ought not to be stigmatized
as unpractical erudition, for erudition is in this instance
1
See the Educational Review of French Language and Literature\ p . 21
2
The Annual Report of the Delegacy uncbr Statute : " D e Examinatione qui
non sunt de corpore Universitatis." See the Educational Review, p. 9.

PREFACE.

X

the means and not the end ; " * it awakens, as has been
said, and intensifies the powers of reasoning and the
faculty of judgment. If we follow the historical and
comparative method, most of the grammatical forms
which used to be considered irregular appear in quite
a different light; as apparent exceptions to the rule,
they only serve to confirm i t And;: in a book recently
published by one who speaks with authority on these
matters, 2 I read : " There is no longer an excuse why,
even in the most elementary lessons—nay, I should say
why more particularly in these elementary lessons—the
dark and dreary passages of Greek and Latin, of French
and German grammar, should not be brightened up by
the electric light of Comparative Philology."
This method, far from making the work more difficult
for the student, on the contrary, will render it easier and,
let us hope, more interesting ; because, being based on
historical foundations, it is more true than any other,
and because it leads the student to see that the different
forms of this language have obeyed a substantially uniform action of certain definite laws. If it be true, on
the one hand, that * the better we understand a thing, the
better we are able to learn and to retain it, and, on the
other hand, that nothing renders both teaching and
learning more cheerful than a clear insight into the
living organism of a language, it is certainly not unreasonable to hope that these studies may become more
and more domesticated among us. I am the more
hopeful that, sooner or later, such a result will be
brought about, because it is in accordance with the
1
2

Educational Review, Sec, p. 19.
Max Miiller, " Lectures on the Science of Religion," p 3.

PREFACE.

xi

labours and wishes of men whom all teachers of French
have to acknowledge as their masters, viz. Diez, Littré,
Mâtzner, Paris, and Brachet. Whatever there may be
good and useful in the present book, it is to them that
I owe it.T Yet, it will be admitted, I hope, that I have
not carried the "jurare in verba magistriv too far.
Refusing to look upon modern languages from a
merely practical point of view, or to consider them only
as so-called social accomplishments which, in many circumstances of life, may be very useful and agreeable,
but which are incompetent as means of education, I
firmly believe that, taught in the right way, they are
entitled to share with the ancient languages the task
and mission of promoting a true and sound studlum
humanitatis. As it seems to be a quality inherent in
man to oppose at first whatever is new to him—be it
in the world of ideas or in that of facts—I am prepared
to meet with strong opposition from many quarters. , Yet,
as I shall never be brought to believe that the training
of the mind to think is valueless, I am not only determined to learn myself more and more the right way of
teaching in the spirit of the scholars mentioned above,
but I have also set before myself, as the object of my
life, to try whether or not young minds will derive from
this new system the benefit I confidently expect from it.
It will be seen that the present Grammar is intended
to occupy an intermediate position between the elaborate
works ofMatzner, Stadler, the Grammaire des Grammaires,
&c, and the more or less elementary treatises which still
1
It seems almost unnecessary to say that, besides having studied the works of
these scholars, I have, to a certain extent, used other valuable grammars, as those
of Boniface, Meissner, Schmitz, Noël et Chapsal, Poitevin, Ploetz,
Kôrting,
Eugène, Havet, Tarver, Delille, &c. I am happy to say that, as to matters
of detail, I have learnt at least something from each of them.

XII

PREFACE.

continue to be used even in the higher forms of schools,
or in colleges. It is not meant for beginners, 1 unless they
are of a certain age—say sixteen or seventeen—but for
those who, having mastered the very elements of the
language, wish for a more systematic and scientific study.
They must, therefore, be prepared to find a fuller set of
rules than is generally met with in ordinary grammars.
The object I have constantly kept in view in drawing up
the Accidence has been practical utility ; the rules, therefore, are given in as fewtwords as possible; all superfluous matter has been left o u t ; 2 and, by the use of
different forms of type, the learner is enabled to see
what is of immediate importance for him, and what he
may leave for a second reading. The Phonology ought
to be studied au fur et à mesure, i.e. as occasion arises,
and according to the special want of the learner. As
to the Morphology, it will be found to differ from that
of other grammars in more than one respect. To the
Verb has been assigned the first place, since it is the
most important part of speech, and one without which
it is impossible to form a sentence. Owing to a careful
distinction between the root of the Verb and its various
terminations, and an altogether new arrangement of the
principal and the derived tenses, the Conjugations are,
I think, exhibited more conspicuously than in any other
grammar with which I am acquainted. A Course of
Exercises on the Rules of the Accidence, gradually
1
T o those who begin to study French, I may recommend, as the best book
of the kind with which I am acquainted, Eugene's Elementary
Lessons in
French.
I t is only after having fully mastered this small manual and exercisebook,' that they ought to begin the more systematic* study of French as set
forth in my Grammar.
. 2 For instance, all definitions of what a Substantive, an Adjective, a Verb is,
since the student is supposed to have learned this part, i.e. the logic of grammar,
in studying his mother-tongue.

PREFACE,

nu

increasing in difficulty, is now preparing, and will be
shortly published.
I have also endeavoured to prove, for each of the
various parts of speech, the close connection of French
with its parent language, i.e. to explain how such a great
number of forms which seem irregular at first sight only
exhibit the regularity with whicri the gradual change
from Latin through Old into Modern French has been
brought about, and to show that most of the grammatical
forms of the present language are capable of being really
understood, only when regarded as a development of
forms of the past. Now, if I were to give such explanations as soon as a rule is laid down, they would stand
very much in the way of a perspicuous arrangement of
the matter which the learner has to impress on his
memory. Following the plan adopted by Curtius in his
Greek Grammar, I have kept the two parts entirely
separate : whilst the Morphology, or Accide7ice proper,
contains simply the various rules, the Reasons and Illustrations add their (if I may use the word) scientific
explanation, which appeals not to the memory of the
learner, but to his understanding. This Second Part,
then, is designed to make him acquainted both with
some of the results of Comparative Philology, and with
the more important linguistic discoveries of modern
philologists. There will be no difficulty for a competent
teacher to know how much of the matter contained in
the Second Part of the Grammar ought to be explained
to the students, if he bears in mind their capacity aud
their previous training.1
1
I think that, in some cases, the teacher ma}' go even f u r t h e r - t h a t i? to say,
if he h2S to deal with learners who have a classical training. When he has, for

PREFACE.

XIV

In conclusion, I wish to give my cordial thanks to
Dr. Ernest Adams and to Mr. E. B. England (of this
College) for their kindness in aiding me in the revision
of the text of this book.
It is for judges more competent than I am in Modern
Philology to say how far I have succeeded in making
this Grammar a useful book for more advanced students.
If it should prove acceptable, I shall anxiously look for
any criticisms which may come from my fellow-workers,
and enable me to amend its shortcomings and to render
it as perfect as possible; I would then also feel more
confident in completing this Grammar by the addition
of the Syntax.
Thus I venture to send forth a little work begun in
enthusiasm, though finished in a less hopeful spirit. May
it bear good fruit !
HERM. BREYMANN.
OWENS COLLEGE,

December 31^, 1873.
instance, to explain the various person-endings of the Verb (§§ 300—308), not
content with telling the learner that Fr. ns or mes represent Lat. mus, and that
Fr. z or tis represent Lat. tis, & c , he might add that Lat. mus was originally
ma-si = / and thou, i e. we ; and Lat. tis was ta-si = thou and thou, i.e. you.
The student will thus be made to understand that the addition of these endings
to the root of the Verb is not a mere matter of chance or of arbitrary choice,
but that they are the remnants, full of significance, of the old Personal'Pronouns
common to all the Aryan languages.
To take another example. When the student is told (in § 318, Note 2) that
the Verb aller forms its Present tense from vadere, and its Future and Conditional from ire, it would not be out of place to add the further remark that ire
and vadere, although wholly different in form, are originally the same Verb.
For ire seems to have been only a corrupted form of baetere (compare it-er,
init-ium, and the Verbs familiar in Plautus : per-hit-ere, inter-bit-ere) ; the root
of this Verb is bât (as the root of cadere is câd), which is only a variety of vâd =
go, whence vadere. Yet, as such explanations, which go beyond Latin, can only
be given exceptionally and where the capacity of the learner is rather higher
than the average, I have thought it advisable to exclude them altogether from
the Grammar.

CONTENTS.

P A R T I,—PHONOLOGY.
PAGE
I.
II.
III.

THE

CONSONANTS

V.
VII.

The
The
The
The
The
The

GENERAL

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
VI.

AND VOWELS

ORTHOGRAPHICAL

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
IV.

1

ALPHABET

2

SIGNS

2

Accents
Apostrophe
Diaeresis
Cedilla
Hyphen
Signs of Punctuation

2
3
4
5
5
5

REMARKS

ON P R O N U N C I A T I O N

.

.

.

.

Simple Vowels
Combined Vowels .
Nasal Sounds
Liquid Sounds . . . .
Consonants

DIVISION
JUNCTION

OF W O R D S
OF W O R D S

U S E OF CAPITAL

INTO
.

.

LETTERS

SYLLABLES
.

6

.

.

.

.

.

.

6
6
7
7
8
12
12
14

C0NTENTS.

PART II.—MORPHOLOGY.

A.

ACCIDENCE PROPER.
CHAPTER

I.—VERBS.
PAGE

I.

DIVISION

OF T H E

II.

MOODS

IV.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

15

INFINITIVES

V.

.

VOICES

III.

VERBS

PARTICIPLES

VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.

15
.

.

.

16
16

.

16

.

17

.

20

1. Weak or Regular Verbs
A. Division of the W e a k Verbs
B. Derivation of Tenses
.
C. Terminations of the W e a k and Strong Conjugations
D. T h e Three W e a k Conjugations
. . . .
E. Peculiarities of the Weak Verbs . . . .
F. Verbs used interrogatively and negatively .
G. Passive Voice
H. Reflective Verbs
. . .
/ . Reciprocal Verbs
K, Intransitive Verbs .
Z . Impersonal Verbs
2. Strong or so-called Irregular Verbs
a. Verbs in er
b. Verbs having i in the Preterite Definite . .
c. Verbs having u ,,
,,
,,
. .
d. Impersonal and Defective Verbs . . . .

20
20
20

PERSONS

AND N U M B E R S .

17

TENSES
AUXILIARY VERBS
CONJUGATIONS OF W E A K

.
AND

STRONG

VERBS

.

.
.

17

22
23
30
36
40
42
46
46
48
49
51
53
73
95

CONTENTS.

xvii

CHÀPTER II—ARTICLES.
PAGE

I. T H E DEFINITE ARTICLE
II. T H E INDEFINITE ARTICLE
HT. T H E PARTITIVE ARTICLE . . .

99
100
101

CHAPTER III.—NOUNS.
I. PLURAL OF NOUNS
II. GENDER OF NOUNS

103
109

CHAPTER IV.—ADJECTIVES.
I. FORMATION OF THE FEMININE
II. FORMATION OF THE PLURAL
l i t . COMPARISON

121
126
128

CHAPTER V.—PRONOUNS.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS . . . . . . . . . . .
POSSESSIVE
„
DEMONSTRATIVE , ,
INTERROGATIVE
„
RELATIVE
„
T H E ADVERBS en, y, où, dont, USED AS PRONOUNS
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

.

130
134
136
139
141
143
145

CHAPTER VI.—NUMERALS.
I. CARDINAL NUMBERS
II. ORDINAL
„
III. COLLECTIVE
„
IV. FRACTIONAL
,,
V. MULTIPLICATIVE , .

156
158
160
163
160

b

cvîii

CONTENTS.
CHAPTER VII.—ADVERBS.
' PAGE

I.
IL
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.

PLACE OF THE ADVERB
ADVERBS DERIVED FROM ADJECTIVES . .
ADVERBS OF QUANTITY
ADVERBS OF PLACE
ADVERBS OF T I M E
ADVERBS OF MANNER AND QUALITY
ADVERBS OF AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION
ADJECTIVES USED AS ADVERBS

.

.

.

.

.

.

161
161
163
164
165
165
166
166

CHAPTER VIII.—PREPOSITIONS.
I.
II.

SIMPLE PREPOSITIONS
COMPOUND PREPOSITIONS

167
167

CHAPTER IX.—CONJUNCTIONS.
I.
II.

COORDINATIVE
SUBORDINATIVE

171
171

CHAPTER X.—INTERJECTIONS.
INTERJECTIONS

B.

REASONS

.

AND

.

172

ILLUSTRATIONS.

INTRODUCTION.
I. CLASSIFICATION
II. ELEMENTS OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE
III. OLD FRENCH AND
PROVENCAL
IV. MODERN FRENCH

173
173
177
178

CONTENTS.

xix

I.—VERBS.
PAGE
I.
IL

D I V I S I O N OF T H E V E R B S

183

W E A K VERBS

185

III.

VOICES AND MOODS GENERALLY

,

.

187

IV.

T A B L E OF L A T I N A N D F R E N C H T E R M I N A T I O N S

t

.

192

V.

R E M A R K S O N T H E T A B L E O F T E R M I N A T I O N S A N D ON
T H E FORMATION OF T H E TENSES GENERALLY

VI.
VII.

STRONG VERBS

.

.

.

195
207

AUXILIARY VERBS

2JO

II.—ARTICLES.
ARTICLES

.211

III.—NOUNS.
I.
II.
III.

PRELIMINARY REMARK

212

CASES AND INFLECTIONS

.213

GENDER OF NOUNS

214

IV.—ADJECTIVES.
I.
II.
III.

FORMATION OF T H E F E M I N I N E

216

FORMATION OF T H E PLURAL

219

COMPARISON

221

V.—PRONOUNS.
I.
II.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS

222

POSSESSIVE P R O N O U N S

223

III.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

IV.

& V.

VI.

RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS

INDEFINITE

PRONOUNS

225
.

225
226

xx

CONTENTS.
PAGE

VI.—NUMERALS

VII.—ADVERBS

228

.

230

VIII.—PREPOSITIONS

234

IX.—CONJUNCTIONS

236

X.—INTERJECTIONS

237

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

PART FIRST.—PHONOLOGY.
I. The Alphabet.
i.—The French Alphabet consists of 25 letters, viz.—
Pronounced.

A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
T

!
i
1

k
L
M

ah
bay
say
day
a
eff
zhay
ash
e
zhee
kah
ell
emm

N a m e d in
French. 1

a
bé
ci
dé
é
effe
gé
ache
i

Pronounced.

N

1 °
P
1
i

P
ka
elle
i
emme

Q
R
S
T
U
V
X
Y
Z

Named in
French.

enn

enne

O

pay
kùh
air
ess
tay
ù
vay
eeks
eegrec
zed

0

pé '
ku
erre
esse
té
te
vé
iks
i grec
zède

2.-—Q, U. These two letters have no similar sound in English.
1
T h e modern way of naming the letters in French is : a, bé, ce, dé, ê, fé, gé,
(ov gué), hé, i,jé, ké, lé, mê, né^ o,fié, kê, ré, se, té, -u, vé, ksé, igrec, zé

B

FRENCH

2

GRAMMAR.

3.—W(doubles) occurs only in foreign words, and is then pronounced like V.
4.—The names of the letters are masculine, except^ k, /, m, n,
rt s ; thus : un d, le c, une l, une s.

I I . C o n s o n a n t s and V o w e l s .
5.—There are six Vowels : a, e, z, 0, u, y ; all the other
letters are Consonants, which, according to the organs of
speech used in pronouncing them, are divided into—
A. Mutes.
a. Labials : / , b, f(pa), v (w).
b. Dentals : t (th), d.
c. Gutturals : c, k, a, ch, g, h.
B. Sibilants : s, z, j .
C. Liquids ; /, m, n, r.
Rem. To these letters must be added x ( = gs or cs).

I I I . Orthographical S i g n s .
A.

The Accents.

6.—The Accents, in French, are not emphatic, but
phonetic; i.e. they serve—
a. To denote the peculiar sound of the* vowels : bonté,
père;

b. To recall the etymology of a word : âpre [asper),
maître {magister) \

c. To distinguish words spelt alike but of different
signification (see below, c).
(1) The acute accent, F accent aigu ('), is placed over
the vowel e when it has the sound of a in pate :
bontés été.

(2) The grave accent, Vaccent grave ( v ), is placed—

PHONOLOGY.

3

a. Over the e when it has the sound of a in dare:
très-, père ;

b. Over the a in ^VJ, deçà, au-delà, voilà;
c. Over the vowel in the following words, to distinguish
them from their homonyms :—
à to
çà here
là there

a

has

1

où

where

ça /^z>

1

dès

Jg'ftfl

la the

|

1

o u <?r
d e s <?/*/^<?

(3) The circumflex accent, Paccent circonflexe (A), is
placed over any vowel except y, in order to mark an open
or broad sound, which may be long either naturally {grace,
from Lat. gratia; manes, from mânes), or from the suppression of a letter (côte, Lat. costa ; sûr, Old Fr. seur).
This accent is put—
a. Over the / of verbs in aitre and ottre, whenever this
l e t t e r is f o l l o w e d b y t:

il paraît,

il naît, il croît(but:

je crois,

tu crois) ;

b. Over the vowel of the second syllable but one of
the 1 st and 2nd Pers, Plur. of the Prêt. Def. Ind. and
on the vowel preceding the t in the 3rd Pers. Sing, of
t h e P r ê t . D e f . S u b j . of all v e r b s : turns donnâmes, vous donnâtes, quHI donnât, qu'il

jinît.

c. It serves to distinguish the following homonymous
words :—
tâche
task
pêcher to fish
mûr
ripe
sûr
sure

tache
stain
pécher to sin
mur
wall
sur
011

! crû {p.p. of croître) | cru {p.p. of
j
l croire)
I dû {p.p. of devoir)
du {dej. art.)
,1 tû {p.p. of taire)
\ tu, thou

B. The Apostrophe.
7.— The Apostrophe ( ' ) marks the elision of one of
the final vowels a, e, or i before a word beginning with
a vowel or an h mute.
B 2

FRENCH

4

GRAMMAR.

a is elided only in la (article or pronoun) :
Pâme {for la âme), je l'aide {for je la aide).

i is elided only in si before // or Us :
s'il vient ; s'ils ont (but : si elle vient).

€ is elided in :
(i) je9 me, te, se; ne, que, de, ce, except when following
the verb :
f admire ; il n'aura pas ; à est vrai (but : est-<f£ une plaisanterie ? donne-/*? au frère de ton ami).

(2) Quelque before un and une :
quclqtt'un
autre).

est venu ; quelqu'une de vos amies (but : quelque

(3) lorsque, puisque, quoique before //, ils, elle, elles, on,
un, une.
puisqu'ils ont écrit (but: quoiqtie amis nous nous querellons
quelquefois).

(4) jusque before à, au, aux, ici.
jusqu'à

Paris ; jusqu'au

bout du monde.

(5) Certain compound words : entracte, presqu'île,
tfentr'aider.
(But : entre eux ; c'est presqtte achevé. )

(6) The word grande when it stands before chose, envie,
faim, merci, mere, peine, peur, route, tante.
Ce n'est pas grand'''chose; sa grand'mère.
Obs. N o elision takes place before oui, huit, huitième, huitaine,
onze, onzième, ouates uhlan ; le onze mai ; la ouate ; le oui et le non.
(Pronounce also mais oui without sounding the s.)

C. The Diœresis.
8.—The Diseresis, le tréma ("), marks that the vowel
over which it is placed is to be pronounced distinctly
from that which precedes it.
Saul, hair, Moïse = Sa-ul, ha-ir, Mo-ise.

5

PHONOLOGY.

Obs. I n words ending in gue\ the Diaeresis indicates that the u
is pronounced, but not the e ; in words ending in gue, without the
Diaeresis, the ue is mute : ambiguë, longue.

D. The Cedilla.
9.—La cédille (ç) is placed under the letter c before
a, 0, u, in order to give it the sound of s : reçu, garçon,
français.

E. The Hyphen.
10.—Le tiret, or le trait d'union (-), marks the connection of two or more words. It is used :
a. In interrogative sentences between the verb and
the pronouns used as subjects : Ont-Us pleuré ? A-t-ileu?
• b. Between the Imperative of a verb and the pronouns
1

u s e d a s o b j e c t s : gardez-le, donnez-lui-en,
frappez-la.
N . B . T h e hyphen is not used when the pronouns are governed
by a verb which follows them : Ose le dire, va lui parler.

c. Between même and the personal pronouns : moi-même,
lui-même,

eux-mêmes.

d. Between ci, là, and the words with which they are
i n t i m a t e l y c o n n e c t e d : celui-ci, cethomme-lâ,

ci-après.

e. Between the numerals from seventeen to ninety-nine
inclusively, except when et is used: dix-sept, soixante-dix ;
quatre-vingt-dix-neuf"(but
f.

: vingt et un, quarante et un).

I n c o m p o u n d w o r d s : chef-lieu, Tite-Live,

arc-en-ael.

11.—F. The Signs of Punctuation.
( . ) le point
full stop
( , ) la virgule
comma
( ; ) le point et virgule
semicolon
( : ) les deux points
colon
( ? ) le point d'interrogation
point of interrogation

6

FRENCH

( ! )
(...)
(
)
( u ")
>

GRAMMAR.

le point d'exclamation
les points suspensifs
ia parenthèse
les guillemets

point of exclamation
points of suspension
parenthesis
inverted commas

1'accolade

brackets

I V . General R e m a r k s on Pronunciation. 1
12.—A. Simple Vowels.
A is mute in août, aoriste, curaçao, St. Lao?i, Saône,
taon, toast, saoul (often spelt soûl).
E is mute in Caen, in the Past Part., and in the Prêt.
Def. of avoir, feus, tu eus, &c.
K sounds like a in femme, hennir, indemnité, solennel,
solennité, and in all adverbs ending in emment : prudemment, nêgligemmeîit.
I is mute in moigfion, oignon, poignard, poignée.
O is mute in faon, faonner, Laon, paon, paonne.
U (generally mute in the syllables gue, gui, que; guise,
figues) is sounded in aiguille, aiguiser, inexti7iguible, lingtiiste, arguer, linguistique, ambiguïté, de Guise.—In the word
lingual, the u is pronounced ou.
13.—B. Combined Vowels.
A i , ei (generally — a in dare; mais, peine) sounds
é in j'ai, je sais, tu sais, il sait, nous faisons, je
faisais (and in all forms derived from faisais), je donnai,
tlike

1
T h e object of this paragraph is not to give a complete treatise on French
Pronunciation, but only to point out special cases which deviate from the general
-ule.'

PHONOLOGY.

7

je donnerai (ai = e in all the ist Pers. Sing, of the Prêt
Def. and of the Fut.).
A y sounds like aï in Bayo?ine, Cayenne, Lafayette,
Mayence.
E u is pronounced like French u in the Past Part, and
the Prêt. Def. of avoir: eu, feus, &c, and in the word
gageure (wager).
O e is sounded like oi (Eng. oa) in moelle, moelleux;
moellon, poêle.
Oi is sounded like ais in roide, roidement, roideurf
roidir.
14.—C. Nasal Sounds.
E n , E m , 1 as prefixes retain the nasal sound : enivrer
(ang-ne-vray), emmener (angm-nay), encore, ennoblir.
E n in proper names is pronounced like in : Européen,
Vendkn, Mentor, Marengo.
l e n sounds like ian in the middle of words : oriental,
patienter, audience.
l e n sounds like iain at the end of words and in the
tenses oî venir and tenir ; bien; il vient (but Le duc cPEnghiens=- angain).

U r n is pronounced omme : album, pensum.
M is mute before n : automne, condamner.
Except in amnistie, automnal, calomnie, gymnase, hymne, insomnie.

N is mute in monsieur.
15.—D. Liquid Sounds.
L is mute in proper names before d and t:

Arnault,

1
There is no nasal sound in words taken from other languages : A braham,
Jerusalem), requiem, Sent, septemvir, amen, Eden, hymen ; except quidam and
Adam.

8

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

Larochefoucauld; and in baril, chenil, coutil, fils ( = fisse),
fusil, gentil, gentilshommes, gril, outil, persil, pouls, soûl,
sourcil (the / of Soult is heard).
Li preceded by / has generally the liquid sound : péril,
fille.1
Exc. L has the sound of Engl. / in Achille, civil, distiller, il, Us,
Lille, mil, mille, osciller, poil, pupille, pusillanime, scintiller, subtil,
tranquille, vaciller, village, ville,1 viril.
N. B. Avril and cil are pronounced either with the liquid sound
(Acad.) or = avrile, cile.

, G n has generally the liquid sound : gagner (ga-nyay) ;
yet the g and n are pronounced separately in ag-nat,
i°-né, inexpug-nable, stag-nant, stag-nation.
x6.—E. Consonants.
B is mute in Doubs and plomb, but sounded in proper
names : Jacob, Joab, Job, Oreb, and in nabob,
C final is mute whenever it is preceded by a consonant : clerc, banc, franc, marc (but sounded in the
proper name Marc), and in the following words : almanac,
broc, caoutchouc, les échecs (but sounded in échec = check,
repulse), escroc, estomac, lacs (when it means string, snare;
in lac, lacs — lake, the c is heard), tabac.
C takes the sound of g in drachme, second, seconder,
and their derivatives.
C h sounds like k whenever it is followed by a consonant : Christ, and in Achab, Anacharsis, archange,
catéchumène, Cham, Chanaan, Chersonese, chœur, choléra,
choriste, écho, Machiavel, Machabée, M.ichel-Ange, orchestre.
— Yacht is pronounced iaque.
D is heard in Alfred, Cid, David, Joad, Madrid, Sud.
1
The reason for the difference of pronunciation in such words ^.s fille and ville
is to be found in the Latin : fil-i-a and vill~a.

PHONOLOGY,

9

F is mute in cerf, clef êteuf un œuf dur, un œuf frais,
les œufs, les bœufs, les nerfs, chef-d'œuvre, un nerf de
bœuf
F is pronounced in un bœuf, œuf chef nerf serf, les
serfs.
O n neuf: see § 244, Note.

G fma] is generally not heard {foing, faubourg), yet it
is sounded in bourgmestre, joitg, zigzag, and in proper
names : Canning, Guttenberg (in Wurtemberg, g is not
heard).
G is also mute in Regnard, Regnaud, doigt, legs, signet,
vingt.
Ongn:

see § 15.

H is aspirated in a small number of words, of which
the following are those most in use : habler, hâbleur, hache,
hagard, haie, haine, haineux, haïr, haire^ hâler, haleter, halle, halo,
halte, hamac, hameau, hanche, hangar, hanneton, Hanovre, hanter,
haquet, harangue, haranguer, harasser, harceler, hardes,
hardi,
hareng, hargneuxy
haricot, haridelle, harnais, harpagon,
harpe,
harpie, hart, hasard, hâter, haubergeon, haubert, hausse, haut,
hautam, hautbois, haute-contre, hautesse, hauteur, heaume, hennir,
Henri,1 héraut, hère, hérisser, héron, héros,2 herse, hêtre, heurter,
hibou, hideux, hiérarchie, hisser, hobereau, hocher, hochet, Hollande,1
homard, Hongrie?- honte, hoquet, horde, hors, hors-d'œuvre,
houblon,
houe, houille, houlette, hourra, houssard, houx, huguenot,
huit,
huitaine, huppe, hure, huiler, hutte.

P final is mute except in cap, ci'oup, hanap.
P is mute also in baptême, baptiser, Baptiste, compte,
compter, dompter, exempt, prompt, sculpter, sculpteur, sculp
ture, sept, septième, temps.
Q u is generally pronounced like k : quand.
1
T h e h of Henri, Hollande, and Hongrie, is generally mute in conversational
language {de la toile d'Hollande ; du vin d'Hongrie) : h is always mute in
Henriette.
2
All the derivatives of 'héros begin with an k mute : Y heroine,
Vhéroïsmet
kérofyue, &c.

IO

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

Q u has the sound of cu when the u is followed by e
or / .• équestre, equitation.
Q u is sounded like cou when the u is followed by a :
quaker, équateur.
Q is mute in coq d'Inde.
On cinq : see § 244, Note.

R is mute in Angers, monsieur, messieurs (it is sounded
in sieur), Poitiers, volontiers, and in all verbs terminating
in er : se fier, parler.
Exe. amer, cancer, cher, cuiller, enfer, êther, fer, fier
(adj.), frater, gaster, hier, hiver, magister, mer, pater, ver,
Lucifer, Abner, Jupiter, and other proper names.
S is pronounced like z in Alsace, Asdrubal, balsamique,
intransitif transaction, transiger, transit, transitif and
whenever it stands between two vowels {maison, rose),
except desuetude, monosyllabe, parasol, polysyllabe, préséance, présupposer, vraisemblable, gésir, gisons, gisez, gisent,
gisais, &c. (in gisant, s is pronounced like z).
S is mute at the end of words : bois, bras, les os,
except aloes, as, atlas, blocus, bis, chorus, fils, hélas, jadis,
iris, laps, maïs, mars, mœurs, Pos, ours, prospectus, rébus,
vasistas, vis ; Clovis, Ge?ilis, Rubens, and other proper
names (in Judas and Thomas, s is mute).
Although s is sounded in lis, se7is, and le Christ, it is
mute in fleur de lis, sens commwi, Jésus- Christ, and Antéchrist.
S is mute in Duguesclin, Dumesnil, Descartes, Despréaux, Dufresne.
S is mute in tous when this word is used adjectively
{tous les élèves sont venus), but s is sounded when tous is
used substantively {tous ne sont pas venus).
T final (generally mute) is pronounced in accessit,

PHONOLOGY.

il

alphabet, apt, Brest, brut, but, chut, deficit, dot, knout, mat,
Nazareth, net, Pouest, preterit, subit, toast, vivat, entre le
zist et le zest.
Ct are both sounded in abject, co?itact, correct, direct,
exact, infect, strict, tact, verdict.
C t are both mute (or c alone is pronounced) in aspect,
circonspect, distinct, indistinct, instinct, respect, suspect.
T h is mute in asthme (pronounced asm).
T i is pronounced like si:
(i) in balbutier (nous balbutions = sions), differentia,
minutie, initier, insatiable, patient, satiété, Spartiate;
(2) in Nouns and Adjectives ending in tial, tiel, tieux,
tion,1 tins, tium; atie, étie, eptie, ertie; martial, essentiel,
prophétie, Grotius, action.
On the pronunciation of t in sept, huit, and vingt, see § 244, Note.

X is generally pronounced like ks : Alexandre, axe.
X is pronounced like k in words beginning with exec,
exci : exciter, exception.
X is sounded like gs :
(1) in the syllables ex or inex when they are followed
by a vowel or an h mute : exact, examen, inexorable ;
(2) when it is the first letter of a foreign word : Xénophon.
X has the sound of ss in soixante, Bruxelles,
Auxerre.
X has the sound of z in deuxième, dixième, sixième,
sixain, dix-huit, dix-neuf.
X final (generally mute : voix, paix) is heard in index,
larynx, phénix, prefix, sphinx.
On the pronunciation of six and dix, see § 244, Note.
1
Ti retainsits natural sound (1) in verbs (except those mentioned above), .twin
portions ; (2) in words the t of which is preceded by s, t, or x : bestial^ Attius*

12

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

Z final (generally mute : nez) is sounded in gaz} Cortez,
Metz (pronounced Mêee), Retz, Suez.

17.—V. Division of W o r d s into Syllables.
A. When a consonant stands between two vowels, it
generally begins a syllable : gê-nê-ro-si~tê ; i-nu-ti-le; appel-le.
B. A vowel may begin a syllable when it is preceded
by another vowel : fac-ti-on ; re-mu-er.
C. When two consonants stand between two vowels,
they belong to different syllables : fer-mer, gar-der, es-fi'eran-ce: as-su-rer.
Exc. The following combinations of consonants are
never separated, even when they are preceded by one
or several consonants :—
(1) gn, ch, ph, th : a-gneau,1 mou-che, pro-phe-te.
(2) (b-, c-, g-, p-,) I' ' sa-ble, dê-das-ser, ag-glo-mk-rer.
(3) (^-5 c-i d-> £S f~i £'•> t~9 v-) r •' mar-bre, en-cre, a-dresser, a-gro-no-me) of-frir, cons-trui-re, d'e-trom-per, ou-vra-ble.
18.—-VI. J u n c t i o n of W o r d s .
General Rule.—In order to prevent an hiatus•, the final
(and generally mute) consonant of a word is sounded
with the initial vowel of the following word, when these
two words are intimately connected, as in the case of
Articles, Adjectives, and Pronouns followed by their
Substantives, or Adverbs followed by the Verb or the
1
When gv has not the liquid sound, the two letters are separated :
ig-nê.

ag-nat,

PHONOLOGY.

13

Adjective which they qualify : lesjenfants, de vains ^ornements, très intéressant, ils sontjxrriv'es.
19.—Special Rides.
(1) At the end of the first word—
s and x are sounded like z : deuxjtmis;
c and g are sounded like k : longjsnnui ;
dis pronounced like t: grandJiornme;
/ ( i n neuf) is pronounced like v : neuf\jnfants.
(2) Final n loses its nasal sound generally in bien, en,
and in Adjectives and Pronouns, but only when they are
intimately connected, by the sense, with the following
word : en^Angleterre, mo?ijami, bienjblevê, onjentend. But
such combinations as the following would be read without any junction ; son Men \ est considerable ; parlez-en \ à
votre pere ; Fa-t-on \ avertit
(3) F i n a l / is heard only in trop and beaucoup: à est trop
aimable (but un coup \ inattendu).
(4) Final r of words in ier and of Infinitives in ery
is not always sounded in familiar conversation : le premier I homme ; aller \ au théâtre.
(5) Final s or t after r are generally mute : F univers
I entier ; vous avez tort \ aussi ; les cerfs \ et les daims.
N. B. T h e plural arcs-en-ciel
arc-en-ciel.

is pronounced like the singular :

(6) The t of the Conjunction et is never sounded : un
vieillard et | un mfant.
Rem. One calls cuir the mistake made especially by children and
uneducated people in connecting two words by s or t where there
should be no connection at all, if e.g. il a été ici is pronounced :
il a-z-êtêici, ox peu a peu, peu-t-a peu.
For the sake of euphony, the cuir has, in one expression, become
the rule : entre quatre, yeux, which must be pronounced entre quatrez-yeiix.

H

FRENCH

GRAMMAR,

V I I . U s e of Capital L e t t e r s .
20.—-Contrary to English usage, Capital Beginning
Letters are not used in French :
(1) in the names of the Months : mai, juin, en mars ;
(2) in the names of the Days of the Week : lundi,
mardi;
(3) in Adjectives derived from the names of Nations or
Sects : tin livre français ; un livre catholique;
(4) in the word Dieu when used as a common noun
and speaking of the ancient heathen divinities : Les dieux
des Grecs et des Romains ;
(5) in the word je, I.
Rem. Distinguish between VEtat, VÉglise, and l'état
des choses : être en Hat de,.. ; une église.

PART SECOND.—MORPHOLOGY.
A. ACCIDENCE

CHAPTER

PROPER.

I.—VERBS /VERBES).

I . D i v i s i o n of V e r b s . 1
2i.—Each verb consists of two parts, viz. the Root
(pari-), and the Termination (-er), which implies a difference of person, number, and tense.
22.—To conjugate means to change the terminations
of the Infinitive of a verb in its various tenses whilst the
root, which contains the real meaning, remains i?wariable;
thus : je parl-e ; jeparl-ai ; je parl-er-ai.
23.—As regards their form, all French verbs may be
divided into two great classes :
A. The Weak, or regular Verbs.
B. The Strong, or so-called irregular Verbs.
1

See Reasons, & c , § 279

16

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

II. Voices.
24.—There are two Voices :
A. The Active Voice
B. The Passive Voice

je loue, I praise.
je suis loué, I am praised.

III. Moods.
25.—There are four Moods :
A.
B.
C.
D.

The Indicative
The Subjunctive
The Imperative
The Conditional .

je loue, /praise.
que je loue, may I praise.
loue, praise (thou).
je louerais, I would praise,

IV. Infinitives.
26.—We distinguish :
A. The Infinitive Prese?it
B. The Infinitive Past

louer, to praise.
avoir loué, to have praised.

V. Participles.
27.'—There are two Participles :
A. Part. Present (or Active) :
B. Part. Past (or Passive) :

louant, praising.
loué, praised.

VERBS.

17

VI. Persons and Numbers.
28.—We have to distinguish—
A. The Singular with three persons :

/

(1) je
(2) tu
(3) il, elle

thou
he, she, it

B. The Plural with three persons :
(1) nous
(2) vous
(3) ils, elles

VII.

you
they

Tenses.

29.—The various Tenses of a verb are either siniple
or compound :—
Simple Tenses;
1. Present
2. Preterite
3. Imperfect
4. Future
5. Conditional

Présent
Passé Défini
Imparfait
Future Simple
Conditionnel Présent

_/V /0^-e
y<? lou-ài
/ * lou-ais
je lou-er-ai
je lou-er-ais

Passé Indéfini
Passé Antérieur x
Plusqueparfait
Future Antérieur
Conditionnel Passé

fai lou-é

Compound Tenses ;
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Preterite Indefinite
Preterite Anterior
Pluperfect
Future Perfect
Conditional Past

feus lou-é
j'avais lou-é
j'aurai lou-é
f aurais lou-é

V I I I . Auxiliary Verbs.1
30.—As the whole Passive Voice and several of the
past tenses of the Active of French verbs are formed by
means of a v o i r to have, and ê t r e to be, these two verbs
are called Auxiliary Verbs.
1

See Reasons, &c , § 321

c

18

FRENCH GRAMMAR.
31.—

A. Avoir, to have.
j

I. Infinitive.

/ shall have.
j ' aurai
tu auras
il aura
n. aurons
v. aurez
ils auront

2. Conditional.

1. Future.

to have.
avoir

1

j

1

1

that I
que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

may have.
j ' aie
tu aies
il ait
n. ayons
v. ayez
ils aient

J

have (thou)

\

aie
qu'il ait
ayons
ayez
qu'ils aient

I I I . Prêt. Def. i. Prêt. Def. Subj.
Ind.
!

j

That I might have.
que g' eusse
que tu eusses
qu? il eût
que n. eussions
que v. eussiez
qu' ils eussent

I V . P r è s . Part.

j
i

/ had.
j ' eus
tu eus
il eut
n. eûmes
v. eûtes
ils eurent

i. Imperfect.
I had.
j ' avais
tu avais
il avait
n. avions
v. aviez
ils avaient

having.
ayant

j V . P a s t Part. T. Comp. Tenses.
j

/ have had, etc.
j ' ai
)
j ' eus > eu
j ' avais }

had.
eu, ^eue

1

!

2. Imperative.

I I . P r è s . I n d . 1 i. Près. Subj.
7" have.
j ' ai
tu as
il a
n avons
v. avez
ils o n t 1

I should have.
j ' aurais
tu aurais
il aurait
n. aurions
v. auriez
ils auraient

See Reasons, § 318

i

VERBS.
32.—

19

B. Être, to be.

I. Infinitive.
to be.1
être1

I L P r è s . Ind.
I
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

am.
suis
es
est
sommes
êtes 2
sont 3

1. Future.
1
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

shall be.
serai
seras
sera
serons
serez
seront

1. Près. Subj.
that I may be.
que je sois
que tu sois
qu' il soit
que n. soyons
que v. soyez
qu'ils soient

2. Conditional.
/ should be.
je serais
tu serais
il serait
n. serions
v. seriez
ils seraient

2. Imperative.
be, let us be.
sois
soit
soyons
soyez
qu'ils soient
qu'il

I I I . Prêt. Def. 1. Prêt Def. Subj.
Ind.
/was.
je fus
tu fus
il fut
n. fûmes
v. fûtes
ils furent

that I might be.
que je fusse
que tu fusses
qu* il fût
que n. fussions
que v. fussiez
qu'ils fussent

I V . P r è s . Part.

1. Imperfect.

being.
étant

3'
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

I was.
étais
étais
était
étions
étiez
étaient

V . P a s t Part. 1. Comp. Tenses.
been

été

1

See Reasons, § 331.

I have been, etc.
j'ai
) , ,
j'eus > ete
j'avais )
z

See ibid., § 305.

3 See ibid., § 306
C 2

FRENCH

20

GRAMMAR.

33.—We now give the first person of all the Compound Tenses of Avoir and Etre,:—
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Prêt. Indef. Indie.
Prêt Indef. Subj. que j'aie
Prêt, An ter. Indie.
eus
Prêt. Anter. Subj. que j : eusse eu
Imperfect
j 'avais \ or
/ a u r a i été
Future Perfect
Conditional Past
j'aurais!
Infinitive Past
avoir I
Participle Past
ayant/

I have had
that I may have had
I had had
that I might have had
I had had
I shall have had
I should have had
to have had
having had

{or been)
(or been)
{ox been)
{ox been)
{ox been)
{ox been)
{ox been)
(or been)
(or/--—'

I X . Conjugations of W e a k and Strong V e r b s .
I. Weak or Regular Verbs.
A. Division of the Weak Verbs.x
34.—These verbs are divided into Three Conjugations, according to the terminations of the Infinitive—
I. - er
parl-ex
( bannAx
II. - ir
\ sentAx
III. - re : vend-xe

to speak
to banish
to feel
to sell

B. Derivation of Tenses.
35.—There are five Tenses of each verb, from which
all the other Tenses may be derived.A The latter, therefore, are called Derived Tenses, whilst the former are
known by the name of Principal or Primitive Tenses,
they are the following :—
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.

The
The
The
The
The

Infinitive
Present Indicative
Preterite Definite
Present Participle
Past Participle

y

pari-ex
jeparl-e
je parl-zX
parl-ant
parl-é

For Tenses derived, see following page.
1

See Reasons, &c , §§279 and 283.

36.—TABLE OF DERIVATION OF THE TENSES.

Derived

Principal
Tenses,
I. Infinitive.

j
1

i.
doun-QT

ii.
bann-it

mvend-re

II. Present Indicative.
i.
je donn-Q
liisdonn-QTot

1
1

H.

je bann i-s 3
tlsbann-iss-Qnt

III. Prêt. Def.
L
"•

je donn-&i
J tu donn-&S

#

je

m.
vends
Usvend-Qnt

Indicative.
. m

je bann-is
tu bann-is

je
tu

vend-is
vend-is

j

i. The Future.
By adding <zz to the Infinitive.
1. m
11. m
m.
donn-er-oX
bann-ir-QÀ.
vend-r-&ix

I. The Present Subjunctive.
By cutting off nt of the 3rd person plural.
1.
n.
# in.
\ que je donn-Q
que je bann-iss-Q3
quejevend-Q

II.

bann-iss-£Mt3

in.
vend-BUt

V. Past Participle.
i.
donn-Q

1
2
3

II. m

bann-\

in.
vend-XL

2. The Conditional.

By adding ais to the Infinitive.
- 1.
11.
in.
| donn-er-^Jis
bann-tr-QÎS
vend-r-aisl

2. The Imperative.

By omitting the pronouns. 2
1.
11.
in.
donn-Q
bann-i-s3
vends
dowi-OTLS
bann-iss-OT&s
vend-OTIS
donn-QZ
bann-iss-QZ
vend-QZ

\
j

I. The Preterite Definitive Subjunctive.
By adding se to the 2nd person singular.
1.
11. ^
in.
que je donn-B,SSQ que je bann-issQ que je vend-isSQ

I. The Imperfect.
1. ^
je donn-ois

2. The Present Indicative.

By changing ant into ais.

IV. Present Participle.
'
i.
I donn-Qjit

Tenses.
1

(1st, 2nd, and 3rd person plural) by changing
ant into ons, ez, ent.
1.
11.
in.
donn-QTiS
bann-iss-ojxs3
vend-OTL&
donn-QZ
bann-iss-QZ
vend-QZ
\
donn-QRt
bann-iss-QJLt
vend-Qnt \

11. ^
je baun-iss-sds3

,

je

in.
vend-sXs

I. All the Compound Tenses.
1.
j'ai
donn-Q
j'eus
,,
/avais
„

11.
baun-i
,,
„

in.
vend-Xi
,,
„

2. The Passive Voice.
1.
11.
je suis donn-Q je suis bann-\
je fus
„
| je fus ^ ,,
j ' étais
„
y étais
„

in.
je suis vend-xù,
jefus
„
j ' étais
,,

T h e eîîd -e of vendre disappears before the beginning vowel of the termination ai and ais (cj>. bnz*?, dovLze, and onzième,
douzième).
T h e s of the 2nd person singular of verbs of the 1st conjugation is dropped.
^
_
In the Près. (Ind. and Subj.), Imperat., Près. P a r t i e , and Imperf., inchoative verbs of the 2nd conjugation insert between the root and
the various terminations
(see ^ 37) iss before a vj/ivel, and only i before a consonant (see § 39).

to
"*
"-

FRENCH

22

GRAMMAR.

37.—C. TERMINATIONS OF THE WEAK AND STRONG CONJUGATIONS.

Principal Tenses.
I. Infinitive.
1.

11. i n .

Derived Tenses.
\
1. Future.
2. Conditional.

ir

re (oir)

II. Près. Ind.
1.

11.

11.

m.

v

er

1.

.

J

m.

s

11.

ai
as
a
ons
ez
ont

m.

ais
ais
ait
ions
iez
aient

1. Près. Subj.
1.
v

e
es
e

1.

Y

x

11.

m.

y

2. Imperative.

'

-

s
s
s
t
—(/)
ons
ez
ent

\

e
es
e
ions
iez
ent

1.

11.
J
—
s
e
ons
ez

e

in.

1

s

\

ent

I

I I I . P r ê t . Def. I n d . 1. Prêt. Def. Subj.
1.
ai
as
a
âmes
âtes
erent

11.
is
is
it
îmes
îtes
irent

m.
is1
is
it
îmes
îtes
irent

IV. P r è s . P a r t .
I.
v.

TI.
_^.

III.
/

-y-

I.
asse
asses
ât
assions
assiez
assent

IL
isse
isses
ît
issions
issiez
issent

1. Imperfect.
1.
v _ —

11.
v

ais
ais
ait
ions
iez
aient

ant

V. Past Part.
1.

n.

IJJ.

ê

i

u

III.
isse
isses
ît
issions
issiez
issent

ni
/

2. Près. Ind.
1, 2, and 3 p. pi.
I.
11.
in.
V

,

^ „_
"Y

/

ons
ez

\
\

ent

1

1. Comp. Tenses, 2. Pass. Voice.

VERBS.
38.—D> T H E T H R E E W E A K CONJUGATIONS.

1, Model of the First Conjugation— Parler, to speak.
Principal Tenses.
Derived Tenses.
I. Infinitive. 1
1. Future,
2. Conditional.
to speak.

I shall speak.
je parl-er-tfz'
tu parl-er-aj
il parl-er-tf
n. Tparl-er-ons
v. parl-er-<?£
ils parl-er-07^

parl-*r

j I I . P r è s . Ind.
I speak.
je parl-<?
tu parl-£?
il pari-*
(n. parl-0?w)
(v. pari-**)
(ils parl-<?7^)

1

1. Près. Subj.

j
j

that I
que je
que tu
qu' il
que n.
que v.
qu'ils

may speak
pari-*?
parl-6f
parl-<?
parl-«wj
parl-zV#
parl-m/

I
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

should speak
parl-er-tf/r
parl-er-#z>
-p&rl-er-ait
parl-er-wttj
parl-er-zks
parl-er-aient

j
i

2. Imperative.
speak, let us speak*

—

parWx
qu'il p a r W
parl-^w
parl-^sr
qu'ils ip&xl.ent

I I I . P r ê t . Def. î. Prêt. Def. Subj.
Ind.
/ spoke
je parl-#z
tu parl-tfjil parl-<?
n. pavl-âmes
v. pa.i'1-âtes
ils varl-èrent

that I might speak.
que je parl-tfw<?
que tu -p&rl-asses
qu' il parl-#^
que n. parl-assions
que v. pârl-assiez
qu'ils -paxl-assent

IV. Près. Part.

i. Imperfect.

1

speaking.
^zx\-ant

I was speaking.
je p&r\-ais
N
tu parl-ais
il pari ait
n. p?xl~io?/s
v. paxl-iez
ils paxl-aient

V . P a s t P a r t . T. Comp. Tenses.
j

spoken

ï>arl-4 êe

I have, had, etc., spoken.
j'ai
j'eus
> pari-/
j'avais )

2. Près. Ind.
we speak, etc.

—
—
—

n. -pavl-ons
v. parl-<?z
ils parl-ent

2I Pass. Voice,
It
il
il
il

is, was spoken.
est )
fut
> pari-/
était )

,
'

FRENCH

24

GRAMMAR.

39.—2. Model of t> Second Conjugation—A. Inchoative.,
he
Foi-m—Bannir,1/# banish.
\
Principal Tenses.
Derived Tenses.
I. Infinitive. (
i. Future.
2. Conditional.
to banish.
bann-z>

II. P r è s . Ind.
je
tu
il
(n.
(v.
(ils

/ banish
bann-z'-j
bann-i-j
bann-i-tf
bann-iss-<?^j)
bann-iss-£z)
bann-iss-é?«£

/
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

shall banish.
bann-ir-#z
bann-ir-atf
bann-ir-tf
bann-ir-0?2.?
bann-ir.-fie
bann-ir-<?w/

1. Près. Subj.
that I
q. je
q. tu
qu'il
q. n.
q.v.
qu'ils

I should banish.
je bann-ir-flw
tu bann-ir-aw
il bann-ir-<?#
n. bami-ir-ions
v. bann-ir-M2
ils ba.nn-ir-aient

|
1

2. Imperative.

may banish banish, let us banish.
bgnn-iss-*
—
bann-i-j
bann-iss es
qu'il bann-iss-<?
bann-iss-^
bann-iss-<?//.?
barm-iss-ions
bann-iss-^
bann-iss-^z
qu'ils bann-iss-<f^/
bann-iss-^

I I I . Prêt. Def. 1. Prêt. Def. Subj.
Ind.
/ banished.
bann-w
bann-w
bann-#
bami-ùnes
bïmn-Ùes
bann-zmz^

that I might banish.
q. je baxm-ùse
q. tu b&rm-isses
qu'il bann-#
q. n. bann-issions
q. v. b&rm-issiez
qu'ils bann-issent

I V . P r è s . Part.

1. Imperfect.

2. Près. Ind.

banishing
bann-iss-tfw*

Iwas
banishing
je bann-iss-tfW"
tu bann-iss-a&r
il bann-iss-W/
n. bann-iss-z'tfTW
v. bann-iss-z>#
ils bann-iss aient

we banish, etc.

je
tu
! il
n.
v.
ils

•

V . P a s t Part. 1. Comp. Tenses.
1

banished
bann-/, ie

I have,
j'ai
j'eus
j'avais

!

—
—
—

I n. bann-iss-0«j"
v. bann-iss-^
ils bann-iss-^?/ ,

2. Pass. Voice.

I am, was, etc, b.
had, etc., b.
)
je suis J
i je fus > bann-/, te
> bann-z
)
j'étais )

VERBS.

25

40.—B. Simple Form—Sentir,1 to feel.
Principal Tenses.
Derived Tenses.
I. Infinitive. |
1. Future.
1 2. Conditional.
to feel.
sent-zr

|

|

1

!

II. P r è s . Ind.
I feel.

1
1
1

je sen-s
tu sen-j
il sent(n. sent-^^j")
(v. sentes)
(ils sent-ent)

I shall feel.
je sent-ir-tf*
tu sent-ir-«jil sent-ir-a
n. sent-ir-ons
v. sent-ir-^
ils sent-ir-tfTZj*

i. Près. Subj.
that I
que j e
que tu
qu' il
que n.
que v.
qu' ils

I should feel.
je sent-ir-^z>
tu sent-ir-ais
il sent-ir-ait
n. sent-ir-z'^;zj
v. sent-ir-z<?0
ils sent-ir-^z'^

J

| 2. Imperative.

may feel.
sent-£
sent-£f
sent-£
sent-ions
sent-iez
sent-ent

feel (thou).
sen-j*
qu'il sent-<?
sent-ons
sent-ez
qu'ils sent-m/

I I I . Prêt. Déf. i. Prêt. Def. Subj.
Ind.
that I might feel.
I m I felt.
j
]
J
|

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

sent-z'jsent-zjsent-zV
sent-zWr
sent-ftes
sent-irent

1IV. P r è s . Part.
1

que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

sent-isse
sent-z>JW
sent-z?
sent-issions
sent-issiez
sent-issent

i. Imperfect.
I was feeling.
je sent-ais
tu sent-tfz'.?
il sent-tfzV
n. sent-ions
v. sent-z^
ils sent-aient

feeling,
sent-ant

! V . P a s t Part. 1. Comp. Tenses.
j.
felt
I have, had, etc., felt.
\

sent-z, te

!
1
1

ai

j'
)
j eus
> sent-z
j'avais )

2. Près. Ind.
we feel, you feel. etc.

n . sent-0/z.f
v. sent-^z
i]s s e n t - ^

2. Pass. Voice.
It is, was, etc., felt.
il est )
il fut > sent-z
il était )

On sentir, see Reasons and Illustrations,

§ 314.

26

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

41.—Conjugate in the same manner not only m e n t i r ,
to lie, and s e repentir, to repent, but also—
Près, Ind

.

Prêt.
Près.
Past

De/...
Part..
Part...

Près.

Ind...

Prêt.
Près.
Past

Ind...
Pari..
Part..

dorm-zr, to sleep
je dor- s, tu dor-s, il dor-/ je
n. dorm-ons, -ez, -ent
n.
j e dornw>
je
dorm-#?z/
dorm- i
serv-zV,2 to serve
je ser-j, tu ser-j-, il ser-/
n. sçrv-ons, -ez, -ent
j e serv-is
SQW-ant

serv-/

pari-z>, z to set out
par-J, tu-par-j, il part
-paxt-ons, -ez, -ent
part-Âr
part-ant
part-/

sort-/r, 3 to go out
je sors, tu sor-j-, il sortn. sort-<?#.f, -ez, -ent
j e sort-/?
sort-ant
sort-/

42.—Anomalous Verbs. The following Verbs are also
conjugated like sentir, but they have in one or moie
tenses an anomalous form.
43.—(1) Ouvrir, couvrir, souffrir, offrir, deviate
from the conjugation of sentir
(a) in the Past Participle : ouvert, couvert, souffert,
of,
(b) in the Present Indicative and the tenses derived
from it (Près. Subj. and Imperat.)
j5
tu
A
n.
v,
ils
1

ouvr-<?4
owvr-es
ouvr-^
oixvr-ons
ouvr-ez
ouvr-ent

que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

j'
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

ouvr-^
ouvr-^r
ouvr-^
ouyr-ons
ouvrez
ouvr-ent

ouvr-<?
ouvr-<?
ouvr-ons
ouvr-ez
qu'ils ovLvr-ent
qu'il

R e p a r t i r = (1) to set out again, (2) to reply, is conjugated like partir.
R é p a r t i r = to distribute, to divide, like bannir : je répartis, nous répartissons ; je répartissais ; répartissant.
(See also Reasons, & c , § 285.)
2
A s s e r v i r = to enslave, is conjugated like bannir.
3
R e s s o r t i r = to go out again, is conjugated like sortir; but when it means
to be in the jurisdiction of, it is conjugated like bannir.
4 See Reasons and Illustrations, § 300.

VERBS.

27

Similarly/*? couvre, n. couvrons; je souffre, n. souffrons;
poffre, n. offrons.
44.—(2) Assaillir, to assail, and tressaillir, 1 to
tremble, deviate in the Present and in the tenses derived
from it :—
assaill-zV
Près. Ind... j ' assaill-^,
t u assaill-^s-, il assailW
n. assaill-^j-, v. assaill-^, ils assaill-m^
Prêt. Def.. j ' assaill-zj . Prêt. Def. Subj. q u e j ' assaill-m<?
tu assaill-/j
que tu asssLili-ùses
il assaill-#
qu' il assail-^
n. assaill-£w<?j
que n» assaill-issions
v. 3LssaUl-?t6s
que v. Bssaill-isszez
ils SissaMl-irent
qu' ils assailW.5\r<?/z/
Près. Part..
assaill-tfTz/. Imfierf. j'assaill-d^
Past Part..
assaill-z

45.— (3) Cueillir, to gather, is anomalous in the same
tenses and in the Future and Conditional : —
Infin
Près.

cueill-zV.

Ind...

Prêt. Def...

Près.
Past.

Part..
Part.

Fut. je cueill-<?r-<2z.

Condit. je cueillez'-#z>
j e cueilW, tu cueill-£r, il cueilW
n. cueill-onst v. cueill-«?, ils cueilW;^
je cueill-zj. Prêt. Def. Subj. que je cueill-ww
tu cueill-w
que tu cueill-m^r
il cueill-zV
qu' il cueill-#
n. cueill-éWj
que n. cueill-isswns
v. ci\eill-$tes
que v. cueiU-zssùz
ils ciiQill-irent
qu* ils cxxeill-zssent
cueill-ant
cueilW

46.—(4) Bouillir, to boil,2 is anomalous in the Present
Indicative and the tenses derived from it : —
1 S a i l l i r is conjugated like bannir when it means to gusli forth.
T h e only
forms in general use are the 3rd Pers Sing Près, il saillit, Prêt. Def il saillit,
Imperf il saillissait ; Int. il saillira, Cond. il saillirait, Près. Part,
saillissant,
Past Part, sailli.
If saillir is used in the sense of to project, it has only the
following forms : ilsaille, ils saillent ; il aillait ; il saillera; qu'il saille.
2
Used as a transitive verb, i.e followed by a direct object, b o u i l l i r must
be preceded by the various tenses of faire : ye ferai bouillir quelqttes pommes
de terre, I shall boil some potatoes; Il fit bouillir la viande, H e boiled the
meat.

23

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

Infin

bouill-zV. Fut. bouill-ir-<22. Condit. bouilï-ir-#*j
je bou-j, tu bou-j, il boiW.
n. houill-ons, v. bouilWz, ils bouill-<?^
Près. Subj. que je bouill-<?.
Imperat. bou-i
que tu bouill-^r
qu' il bouilW
que n. bouill-/<?7w
que v. homS\.-iez
qu' ils bouill-<?/z2?
Fret. De/.. je bouill-zV. Prêt. De/. Subj. que je bouill-zVjv?.
tu bouill-w
que tu bouill-m^f
il bouill-#
qu* il bouill-#
n. bouill-eW.f
que n. hoxxW-issions
v. bouilWter
que v. boxfAl-issiez
ils bo\\\\\-ireiît
qu' ils hoxnM-issent
Près, Part.
homW.-ant
Past Part.
bouilW

Près.

Ind..

47.—(5) On the change of / into y in Fuir, to flee,1
see below ; vêtir, to clothe, is anomalous only in the
Past Participle :—
Près.

Ind...

îu-ir
je fui-s, tu fui-j, il fui-/
n. iuy-onsy v. fuy-ezf ils

vët-ir

je vël-s, tu vët-s, il vêtn. vët-ons, v. vët-ez, ils
fui-<?/z/
vët-enl
Près. Subj. que je îm-e
que je \ët-e
que tuftd-dr
que tu vët-es
qu' il fui-^,&c.
qu' il vët-e, &c.

Imp.

—

"fui-j
fuy-ons
fuy-é^
Prêt.
De/.. je fu-w, tu fu-îr, il fu-zï
n. fxxrtmeS) v. f u - f e , ils
îxi-irent
Prêt. De/ Subj. q. je fuzsse, -uses, -ît> &c.
Près. Part.. îvcy-ant
Past Pari... fu-z

—

vët-s
vët-ons
vët-ez
je vët-ù, tuvët-ù, il vêt-/V
n. vët-imeSf v. vêt-&f/,
ils vët-zrent
que je vët-isse, -uses, -ît,
&c.
vët-ant

1 vët-u

1
Like f u i r is conjugated the verb s'enfuir» to run away.
The en is never
separated from fuir, as it is the case in s'en aller, thus : je m'enfuis, tu t'enfuis^
H s'eitfuii ; je me suis enfui ; je m'étais enfui, &c.

VERBS.

4 8 . - 3 . Model of the Third

29

Conjugation—Vendre,

/tf ^<f//.

Derived Tenses.
1. Future.
2. Conditional.

Principal Tenses.
I. Infinitive.
to sell.
vend-re

II. P r è s . Ind.
je
tu
il
(n.
(v.
(ils

I sell.
vend-J
vend-j
vend
vend-ons)
vend-<?£)
vend-ent)

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

/ shall sell.
vend-r-iW
vend-r-<zj
vend-r-#
vend-x-ons
vend-r-<?#
vend-x-ont

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

/ should sell.
vend-r-tfz'.?
vend-r-#z>
vend-r-ait
yend-r-ions
vend-r-z£?
vend-x-aient

i. Près. Subj.

2. Imperative.

that I
que je
que tu
qu' il
que n.
que v.
qu' ils

sell, let us sell.
vend- s
qu'il vend-*?
vend-ons
vend-<?#
qu'ils vend-ent

may sell.
vend-^
vend-£f
vend-*?
vend-ions
vend-zV^
vend-ent

\
|
i

I I I . Prêt. Def. i. Prêt. Def. Subj.
Ind.
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

I sold.
vend-is
vend-z>
vend-//
vend-îmes
vend-ites
vend-irent

I V . P r è s . Part.
^//m^.
vend-tf?z/

that I might sell.
que je vend-m*
que tu vend-zjjvfj"
qu' il vend-#
que n. vend-issions
que v. vend-istiez
qu' ils vend-issent

i. Imperfect.
I was selling.
j e vend-ais
tu vend-ais
il vend-tfzV
n. vend-ions
v. vend-iez
ils vend-aient

V . P a s t Part. i. Comp. Tenses.
sold.
vend-u, -#*

/have, had, etc., sold.
j'ai
J
j'eus
V vend-^
j'avais }

j

2. Près. Ind.

'

we sell, etc.

—
__
n. vend-ons
v. vend-tfz
ils vend-ent

|
j
j

2. Pass. Voice.
I am, was, etc., sold,
je suis )
je fus > vend-u, -ue\
j ' étais )

FRENCH

30

GRAMMAR.

49.—The Compound Tenses of parler, bannir, sentir,
and vendre:—
i.

Prêt. Indef. Indie.

2. Prêt. Indef. Subj.

3 Prêt. Ant. Indie.
4- Prêt. Ant. Subj.
56.
7.
8.
9-

Pluperfect
Future Perfect
Conditional Past
Infinitive Past
Participle Past

j'ai
que f aie
feus
que j'eusse
j'avais
j'aurai
f aurais
avoir
ayant

parl-é
bann-i
' sent-i
vend-M

/ have spoken, &c.
That I may have spoken
I had spoken, &c.
That I might
have
spoken
I had spoken, &c.
/ shall have spoken
I should have spoken
To have spoken
Having spoken

Note.—For the three English forms of the Present Indicative and
of the Imperfect I speak, I am speaking, I do speak ; and I spoke, I
was speaking, 1 did speak, there is only one form in French : je
parte and je parlais.

E. Peculiarities of the Weak Verbs.
FIRST CONJUGATION.

50.—Verbs in - g e r insert e before a and 0, Verbs in
-cer take a cedilla under the c before a and 0x :—
Present

Indie.

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

mang-<?
mang-£r
mang-£
mange-ons
mang-(?£
mzng-ent

Prêt. Def Ind.
je mange -ai
tu mange-as
il m a n g e a
n. mange -âmes
v. m&nge-âtes
ils maxig-èrent

Imperfect.

Imperative.

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

mange-ais
mange-ais
mange-ait
m&ng-ions
m&ng-iez
m&nge-aienl

que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

Prêt. Def. Subj.
je mange-asse
tu mange -asses
il mange-ât
n. mange -assions
v. mange-assiez
ils mange-assent
Present Part.
mange -ant

mang-<?
mang-e
mange-0/z.?
maiig-ez
qu'ils mang-ent
qu'il

The g and the c thus retain the soft sound they have in the Infinitive.

VERBS.

3*

Thus : je commenc-e, but nous commenç-ons.
51.-—Verbs having e mute in the penultimate (mener)
take a grave accent whenever the e of the following
syllable becomes mute :—
Près, Ind.
je mèn-<?
tu mhn-es
il mèn-<?
n. men-ons
v. men-£3
ils mkvL-ent

Près. Stibj.
que je men-e
que tu mkn-es

Future.
je mèn-er-#z
tu mèn-er-#.y
il mèn-er-tf, etc,

Conditional.
je mèn-er-aw
t u mèn-er-awil mèn-er-aâ?, *&•.

qu' il mèn-^
que n. men-ions
que v. men-iez
qu' ils men-ent

Imperat.

—

mèn-<?
qu'il mèn-<?
men-^j*
men-£2
qu'ils mhxL-ent

52.—Verbs having ê in the penultimate p o s s é d e r take
a grave accent in the Present {Lid. and Subj.) and 7 ^ ^ rative, but retain the < in the Future and Conditional :—
?
Près. Ind.
je p o s s è d e
tu p o s s è d e
il possède
n. p'osséd-<?^j
v. p o s s é d a
ils possjbd-<?^
Future.
je posséd-er-#z
tu posséd-er-dtf
il posséd-er-#, etc.

Près. Subj.
que je possède
que tu p o s s è d e
qu' il possède
que n. posséd-z'^w
que v. posséd-z>2
qu' ils possèd-<?/^

Imperat.
possèd-e
qu'il possède
posséd-<?;z<r
posséda
qu'ils p o s s è d - ^

Conditional.
je posséd-er-^j"
tu posséd-er-tfz>
il posséd-er-^V, etc.

53.—Verbs in eler and eter (appeler, jeter) double
the / or the t whenever the e .of the following syllable
becomes mute :—

3*

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

Près. Ind.
j ' appelle
tu a p p e l l e
il a p p e l l e
n. appel-^j"
v appela
ils a p p e l l - ^

Près. Subj.
quej' appelle
que tu a p p e l l e
qu' il appelW
que n. appeW<?;w
que v. appel -iez
qu'ils a p p e l l - ^

Future.
j ' appell-er-<7z
tu appell-er-tf.?
il appell-er-#, etc.

Conditional.
j ' appell-er-az>
tu appell-er-az.5
il appell-er-tf#

Près. Ind.
je jett-<?
tu jett-£?
il jett-<?
n. jet-ons
v. jet-^z
ïlsjett-ent

que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

Future.
je jett-erww
tu jett-er-#.r
il jett-er-tf, etc.

Conditional.
je jett-er-*wj
tu jett-er-a»'
il jett-ex-ait, etc.

Près. Subj.
je jett-£
tu jett-tfj
il jett-^
n. jet-ions
v. jet-iez
ils jett-ent

Imperative.
appelle
qu'il a p p e l l e
appel-<??zj

appel-^
qu'ils a p p e l l - ^

Imperative,
jett-tf
qu'il jett-<?
jet-ons
jet-ez
qu'ils jett-ent

54.—Exception I. Peler,1 celer, geler, dégeler, bourreler,
harceler ; acheter, étiqueter, colleter (and their compounds)
never double / or /, but take the grave accent on the
penultimate e.
55.—Exception II. Crocheter,9' dépaqueter, empaqueter,
ipousseter, feuilleter, take the grave accent only in the
Present (Ind, and Subj.) and in the Imperative, but retain
the e mute in the Future and Conditional :—
Peel, hide, freeze, thaw, torment, annoy ; buy, label, take by the collar
' Pick a lock, unpack, pack tip, dust, turn over the leaves.

VERBS,
56.— Près. Ind.
je pèl-*?
tu pèl-£y
il pèl-*?
n. pel-û7is
v. pel-*?£
ils <ph\-ent
Future.
je pèl-eiww
tu pèl-er-#.r, etc.

57.— Près. Ind.
j ' achète
tu a c h è t e
il achèt-*?
n. ach&t-ons
v. achet-^0
ils achèt-*??**'
Future.
3' achèt-er-^'
tu achèt-eiww, etc.

58.— Près. Ind.
je feuillet-*?
tu feuillet-^
il feuillet-*?
n. feuillet-*?;z.y
v. feuillet-^
ils feuillet-*?^
Future.
je feuillet-er-#z
tu feuillet-er-tf.j, etc.

Près. Subj.
que je pèl-*?
que tu pèl-^J
qu' il pèl-*?
que n. pel-ions
que v. ipél-iez
qu' ils phl-ent

33
Imperative.

—

pèW
qu'il pèl-f?
pel-ans
pel-ez
qu'ils phl-enl

Conditional.
j e pèl-er-#/j
tu pèl-er-tfz>, etc.

. Près. Subj.
• que j ' a c h è t e
que tu a c h è t e
qu' il achèt-*?
que n. achet-ions
que v. achet-iez
qu' ils a.chet-ent

Imperative.

—

achète
qu'il achèt-*?
achet-*w.r
achet-*?2
qu'ils Sichet-ent

Conditional.
j 5 achèt-er-*m
tu achet-er-ais, etc.

Près. Subj.
que je feuillet-*?
que tu feuillet-*?.?
qu' il feuillet-*?
que n. feuillet-*?^
que v. feuillet-*?.?
qu' ils feuillet-*?^

Imperative.

—

feuillet-*?
qu'il feuillet-*?
feuillet-<?/w
feuillet-*?^
quil's feuillet -ent

Conditional.
je feuillet-ex-ais
tu feuillet-er-tfÂy, etc.

59.—Verbs in é g e r retain the è fermé throughout:
j'abrège, tu abrèges ; f abrégeai; j'abrégerai, &c.

FRENCH

34

GRAMMAR.

60.—Verbs in ayer, oyer, uyer, change y into /
before an e mute.
Note.—Those in ayer may retain the y : payer ; je paie and je paye;
je paierai and je payerai.
T h e Future and Conditional have sometimes the contracted forms je pair ai, je paîrais.
6 1 . — Près. Ind.
j ' emploi-*
tu emploi-*.?
il emploi-*
n. emp\oy-ons
v. employ-ez
ils emploiera*
Future,
y emploi-er-<zz
tu emploi-er-^
il emploi-er-tf, etc.

Près. Subj.
que j ' emploi-*
que tu emploi-*j
qu' il emploi-*
que n. employ-/<??z.r
que v. e m p l o y - ^
qu' ils emploi-*;?/

Imperative.
emploi-*
qu'il emploi-*
employ-^^j
employ-*;?
qu'ils emploi-*?^

Conditional.
j ' emploi-er-arw1
tu emploi-er-fl/j
il emploi-er-ait

62.—Envoyer and r e n v o y e r have in the Future
j 1 enverrai, je renverrai, &c. ; in the other tenses they are
conjugated like employer.
63.—A trema is placed over the i after u in verbs
ending in ouer, tier .-1 nous tuions ; vous jouiez.
64.—The following forms must be specially noticed,
although they are quite regular : —
a. The i after y in the 1st Pers. Plur. of the Imperfect
and of the Près. Subj. of Verbs in ayer, oyer, uyer ;
nous essuy-ions
que nous employ-ions

we wiped off
that we may employ

b. The i after i in the 1st Pers. Plur. of the Imperfect
and of the Près. Subj. :
nous cri-io77s
que n. étndi-ions
1

we cried
that we may study

Except those in gtier : narguer,

110ns narg7iions.

VERBS.

35

e. The two k fermés in the Past Part, of Verbs in éer,
agré-er :
Infin. agré-er ; Past Part, agri-t ; Fern, agrê-ée.
Infin. crê-er ; Past Part, crê-ê; Fern, cré-ëe.
SECOND CONJUGATION.

65.—Haïr, to hate, is written without the diseresis
(and pronounced accordingly) in the Sing, of the Près.
Ind. and in the 2nd person of the Imperative : je hais,
tu hais, il hait;'hais;
but haïssons, haïssez, haïssent,
haïssais, &c ; haïssant; there is no Prêt. Def.
66.—Bénir 1 has in the Past Part., besides its regular
form, béni, Fern, bénie (blessed), another bénit, Fern, bénite,
in the sense of consecrated (de Veau bénite).
67.—Fleurir has a second form in the Imperfl and
in the Près. Part. : florissais, &c. ; florissant, when it, is
used in & figurative sense : to prosper, to flourish.
68.—Férir is used only in the phrase sans coup férir,
without striking a blow.
THIRD CONJUGATION.

6 9 . — B a t t r e , to beat,2 has only one / in all forms
where there is only one syllable : je bats, tu bats, il bat ;
but : nous battons.
70.—Rompre,3 to break, has rompt in the 3rd Pers.
Sing, of the Près. Indie.
F. Verbs used interrogatively and negatively.
71.—(1 ) Literrogatively. The Personal Pronoun, used
as the Subject, is placed after the Verb (in compound
s

1
See Reasons, & c , § 282.
3
See Reasons, & c , § 311.
See Reasons, & c , § 299 (d).

D 2

FRENCH

36

GRAMMAR.

tenses, after the Auxiliary), and connected with it by a
hyphen.
When the 3rd Pers. Sing, ends in a vowel, a t is
inserted between the Verb and the Pronoun 1 {a-t-il;
aura-t-il; donne-t-il ?
When the 1st Pers. Sing, of the Près. Ind. ends in e
mute, this e takes the acute accent, and is pronounced
accordingly : je donne; but : donné-je ?
Neither in interrogative nor in negative sentences is
the English dû, does, did, & c , ever expressed.
72.Ai-je
as-tu
a-t-il
avons-nous
avez-vous
ont-ils
Suis-je
es-tu
est-il
sommes-nous
êtes-vous
sont-ils

have 1
hast thou
has he
have we
have you
have they

ai-je eu
as-tu eu
a-t-il eu
avons-nous eu
avez-vous eu
ont-ils eu

have I had
hast thou had
has he had
have we had
have you had
have they had

am I
art thou
is he
are we
are you
are they

ai-je été

have I been
hast thou been
has he beejt
have we bee?i
have you been
have they been

as-tu été
a-t-il été
avons-nous été
avez-vous été
ont-ils été

Thus, in the other tenses : eus-je, had I ; eus-je eu, had
I had ; aurai-je, shall I have ; aurai-je eu, shall I have
had, &c. :—
donné-je
donnes-tu
donne-t-il
donnons nous
donnez-vous
donnent-ils

do I give
dost thou give
does he give
do we give
do you give
do they give
1

donnai-je
donnas-tu
donna-t-il
donnâmes-nous
donnâtes-vous
donnèrent-ils

See Reasons, &c. § 299.

did I give
didst thou give
did he give
did we give
did you give
did they give

VERBS.

37

Similarly : ai-je donné, have I given ; donnerai-je, shall
I give ; aurai-je donné, shall I have given, & a
73.—If the subject of a Verb be a noun, the noun
comes first, then the Verb (and in compound tenses the
Auxiliary) with the pronoun corresponding to the subject :—
L'enfant crie-t-il ?
Les soldats marchent-ils ?
Cette dame a-t-elle chanté ?

Does the child cry ?
Do the soldiers march ?
Has this lady sung ?

74.—Periphrastic Interrogation.'1—Questions may also
be asked by est-ce que (literally : is it that ?) ; est-ce que
F enfant finit ? est-ce que cette dame a chante ?
75.— (2) Negatively. Ne is placed immediately after
the subject, and pas'2 after the Verb (or, in compound
tenses, after the Auxiliary) :—
Près. Ind.
Prêt, Indef.
j e n'ai pas donné I have not given
je ne donne pas I do not give
tu ne donnes pas thou dost not tu n'as pas donné thou hast not
give
given
il ne donne pas he does not give il n'a pas donné he has not given
&c.
Prêt.
n'eus pas
donné
tu ne donnas pas thou didst not tu n'eus pas
give
donné
il ne donna pas he did not give il n'eut pas donné
&c. &c.
&c. &c.

Prêt. Def.
je ne donnai pas I did not give

je

Anter.
1had not given
thou hadst not
given
he had not given

1
This mode of interrogation ii> especially used with verbs of only one syllable
in the ist Pers. Sing, of the Près. I n d i e , eg : Est-ce que je perds ; est-ce qzie
je rends ?
Except. Ai-je, dû je, dois-je,jaisje,
puis-je, sais-je, suis-je„vais-je,
vois-je?
2
The same rule applies to ne. . . . point, ne...
. jamais^ . . . ne rien, tu

. . . . plus.

FRENCH GRAMMAR.

38

76.—Before an Infinitive, ne . . . . pas, ne... . plus,
ne . . . . poi?it, ne... . jamais, are generally not separated :—
/ / a tort de ne pas écrire ; elle se tut pour ne plus Virriter ; fcûî
also : je regrette de VL avoir pas écrit.

77.—When the Negative no or not any is followed by
a noun, the noun must be preceded by the preposition
de:—
Il n'a pas ^argent
Elle n'a pas de parents
Ils n'ont jamais eu de courage

He has no money
She has no parents
They never had any courage

78.—Inte7-rogatively and Negatively. We have to form
first an interrogation (see § § 7 1 and 72), and then place
ne before the Verb, and pas, point, &c, after the
pronoun :—
Ai-je
As-tu-été

N'ai-j e pas
Have I?
Hast thou been ? N'as-tu pas été

Pleure-t-il

Does he weep ?

Avons-nous ou- Have we forgotblié
ten ?

Ne pleure-t-il
pas
N'avons-nous
pas oublié

Have I not ?
Hast thou not
been ?
Does he not
Have we not
forgotten ?

79.—Periphrastic fnterrogation :Est-ce que je n ai pas ?
Est-ce qu'il ite vend pas ?

Est-ce que tu n'as pas été?
Est-ce que vous n'aviez pas fair ?

VERBS.

80.—•

39

G, Passive Voice,
E t r e l o u é , to be praised.

Indicative.

Subjunctive.

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

/ am praised.
suis loué 1
es loué
est loué
sommes loués
êtes loués
sont loués

je
tu
il
n.

I was praised.
fus loué
fus loué
fut loué
fûmes loués, &c,

That
que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'
PRETER.

PRETER.

/ have been praised.
j ' ai été loué
tu as été loué
il a été loué
n. avons été loués, &c.
PRETER.

/ had been praised.
j ' eus été loué
tu eus été loué
il eut été loué
n. eûmes été- loués, &c.

I may be praised.
je sois loué
lu sois loué
il soit loué
n. soyons loués
v. soyez loués
ils soient loués

DEF1N.

That I might be praised.
que je fusse loué
que tu fusses loué
qu 'il fût loué
que n. fussions loués, &z
INDEF.

That I may have been praised.
que j ' aie été loué
que tu aies été loué
qu' il ait été loué
que n. ayons été loués, &c.
ANTER.

That I
que
que
qu'
que

might have been praised.
j ' eusse été loué
tu eusses été loué
il eût été loué
n. eussions été loués, &c.

x
All Past Participles conjugated with être agree in number and gender with
the subject of the sentence ; thus : tu es louée. If the person addressed be a
lady; elle est louée; elles étaietit louées: she is being praised; they were
praised.

FRENCH

40

GRAMMAR.

PLUPERFECT.
/ had been praised.
j ' avais été loué
tu avais été loué
il avait été loué, &c.
FUTURE.

Simple.
I
je
tu
il
n.
v.

Perfect.
/ shall have been praised.
j ' aurai été loué
tu auras été loué
il aura été loué
n. aurons été loués
v. aurez été loués, &c

shall be praised.
serai loué
seras loué
sera loué
serons loués
serez loués, &c.

CONDITIONAL.

Present.

Past.

/ should be praised.
je serais loué
tu serais loué
il serait loué
n. serions loués
v. serez loués, &c.

I should have been praised.
f aurais été loué
tu aurais été loué
il aurait été loué
n. aurions été loués
v. auriez été loués, &c.

Imperfect.

Imperative.

j'
tu
il
n.
v.

I was praised.
étais loué
étais loué
était loué
étions loués
étiez loués, &c.

Be praised.
sois loué
qu'il soit loué
soyons loués
soyez loués
qu'ils soient loués
INFINITIVE.

Present,
être loué

to be praised

Past,
avoir été loué

to have bct
praised

VERBS.

4*

PARTICIPLE.

Present,
étant loué

Past,

being praised

ayant été loué

having been
praised

H. Reflective Verbs.
81.—The Reflective Verbs are conjugated with être in
their Compound Tenses, whilst in English, to have is
used—
A. Affirmatively 1
PRESENT.

Indicative.

Subjunctive.

/ deceive myself.
je me trompe
tu te trompes
il se trompe
n. nous trompons
V. vous trompez
ils se trompent

That I may deceive myself.
que je me trompe
que tu te trompes
qu' il se trompe
que n. nous trompions
que v. vous trompiez
qu' ils se trompent

PRETER. DEFIN.
/ deceived myself.
je me trompai
tu te trompas
il se trompa
n. nous trompâmes
v. vous trompâtes
ils se trompèrent

That I might deceive myself.
que je me trompasse
que tu te trompasses
qu' il se trompât
que n, nous trompassions
que v. vous trompassiez
qu' ils se trompassent

FRENCH

42

GRAMMAR.

Imperfect.

Imperative.

I ivas deceiving myself.
je me trompais
tu te trompais
il se trompait
n. nous trompions
v. vous trompiez
ils se trompaient

Deceive thyself.
trompe-toi
qu'il se trompe
trompons-nous
trompez-vous
qu'ils se trompent ,

Future.

Conditional.

7" shall deceive myself.
je me tromperai
tu te tromperas, &c.

1 should deceive myself
je me tromperais
tu te tromperais, &c.

PRETER. INDE F.

Indicative.
/
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

Subjunctive.

have deceived myself.
me suis trompé
t' es trompé
s' est trompé
nous sommes trompés
vous êtes trompés
se sont trompés

That I may have deceived myself
que je me sois trompé
que tu te sois trompé
qu J il se soit trompé
que n. nous soyons trompés
que v. vous soyez trompés
qu' ils se soient trompés

PRETER. ANTER.

Indicative.

Subjunctive.

I had deceived myself
je me fus trompé
tu te fus trompé
il se fut trompé, &c.

That I might have deceived myself
que je me fusse trompé
que tu te fusses trompé
qu' il se fût trompé, &c,

PLUPERFECT.
je m'étais trompé
tu t' étais trompé
il s' était trompé

/ had deceived myself.
Thou hadst deceived thyself.
He had deceived himself

VERBS.
Future Anter.
/ shall have deceived myself
je me serai trompé
tu te seras trompé, &c.

43

Condit. Part.
I should have deceived myself
je me serais trompé
tu te serais trompé, &c.

INFINITIVE.

se tromper

Present,
to deceive one self

Past.
s'être trompé
to have deceived
one self

PARTICIPLE.

Present,
Past.
se trompant
deceiving one self. s'étant trompé having deceived
one self
B.

Negatively;

Près. Ind.
I do not deceive myself
je ne me trompe pas
tu ne te trompes pas, &c.
Prêt. Indef.
/ have not deceived myself.
je ne me suis pas trompé
tu ne t' es pas trompé
il ne s'est pas trompé
n. ne nous sommes pas trompés
v. ne vous êtes pas trompés
ils ne se sont pas trompés

P r ê t Def. Ind.
I did not deceive myself
je ne me trompai pas
tu ne te trompas pas, &c.
Pluperfect.
/ had not deceived myself
je ne m'étais pas trompé
tu ne t'étais pas trompé
il ne s'était pas trompé
n. ne nous étions pas trompés
v. ne vous étiez pas trompés
ils ne s'étaient pas trompés

Condit. Part.
Future Anter.
I shall not have deceived myself, / should not have deceived myself
je ne me serais pas trompé
je ne me serai pas trompé
tu ne te serais pas trompé, &c.
tu ne te seras pas trompé, &c.

44

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

C. Interrogatively ;
Prêt. Def. Ind.

Près. Ind.
Do I deceive myself?
me trompé-je ?
te trompes-tu ?
se trompe-t-il ?
nous trompons-nous ?
vous trompez-vous?
se trompent-ils ?

Did I deceive myself?
me trompai-je ?
te trompas-tu ?
se trompa-t-il ?
nous trompâmes-nous ?
vous trompâtes-vous ?
se trompèrent-ils ?

Prêt. Indef. Ind.

Pluperfect.

Have I deceived myself?
me suis-je trompé ?
t'es-tu trompé?
s'est-il trompé?
nous sommes-nous trompés ?
vous êtes-vous trompés ?
se sont-ils trompés ?

Did I deceive myself?
m' étais-je trompé ?
t' étais-tu trompé ?
s' était-il trompé ?
nous étions-nous trompés ?
vous étiez-vous trompes ?
s' étaient-ils trompés ?

D. Negatively and Interrogatively ;
Près. Ind.

Prêt. Def. Ind.

Do I not deceive myself?
ne me trompé-je pas ?
ne te trompes-tu pas ?
ne se trompe-t-il pas ?
ne nous trompons-nous pas ?
ne vous trompez-vous pas ?
ne se trompent-ils pas ?

Did I not deceive myself?
ne me trompai-je pas ?
ne te trompas-tu pas ?
ne se trompa-t-il pas ?
ne nous trompâmes-nous pas ?
ne vous trompâtes-vous pas ?
ne se trompèrent-ils pas ?

Prêt. Indef. Ind.
Have I not deceived tnyself?
ne me suis-je pas trompé ?
ne t'es-tu pas trompé ?
ne s'est-il pas trompé ?
ne nous sommes-nous pas trompés?]
ne vous êtes-vous pas trompés ?
ne se sont-ils pas trompés?

Pluperfect.
Had I not deceived myself?
ne m'étais-je pas trompé ?
ne t'étais-tu pas trompé ?
ne s'était-il pas trompé ?
ne nous étions-nous pas trompés '
ne vous étiez-vous pas trompés ?
ne s'étaient-ils pas trompes ?

And so on in the other tenses.

VERBS.

45

82.—Ob s. A certain number of verbs are reflective in French,
whilst they are not so in English ; the following are the moie
important ones :—•
s'apercevoir
s'arrêter
s'attendre à
se baigner
se défier
se douter de
s'échapper
s'écouler
s'écrier
s'écrouler
s'en aller
s'endormir
s'enfuir
s'ennuyer
s'ensuivre
s'envoler
s'épouvanter
s'éteindre
s'évanouir
s'éveiller

to perceive
to stop
to expect
to bathe
to distrust
to suspect
to escape
to pass away
to exclaim
to fall down
to leave
to fall asleep
to run away
to be weary
to follow
to fly away
to frighten
to extinguish

to faint

to wither
se faner
se fier
to trust
s'impatienter to become impatient
to get tired
se lasser de
to rise
se lever
se méfier
to distrust
se moquer
to laugh at
s'opiniâtrer
to remain obstinate
se passer
to happen
se passer de to dispense with
se plaindre
to complain
se promener to ivalk about
se raviser
to alter one's mind
se repentir
to repent
se reposer
to repose
se réveiller
to awake
to be silent
se taire

to awake

I. Reciprocal Verbs.
83.—From the Reflective Verbs we have to distinguish
the Reciprocal Verbs, which express that two or more
subjects act not on themselves, but each on the other,
e.g. Us Jentre-aident, they help each other.
. Intransitive Verbs.
84.—This class of Verbs are generally conjugated with
avoir in their compound tenses.
85.—As an exception to this rule, we have to notice
the following, which all mark a movement or a transition
from one state into a?wther; they take être;—

46

FRENCH
aller
arriver
décéder
déchoir
descendre
échoir
éclore
entrer

to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to

GRAMMAR.

go
arrive
die
decay
descend
become due
be hatched
enter

monter
mourir
naître
partir
îetourner
sortir
tomber
venir

Il est mort
Elle était déjà partie
Nous sommes arrivés
Pourquoi n'y êtes - vous pas
encore allés ?

to ascend
to die
to be born
to set out
to return
to go out

to fall
to come

He has died
She had already left
We have arrived
Why have you not yet gone
there ?

86.—The Compounds of these Verbs—devenir, parvenir,
repartir,
& c , must also be conjugated with être, except contravenir, to
contravene, and s u b v e n i r a, to relieve : il a subvenu à son ami, he
has relieved his friend.
87.—When c o n v e n i r means to suit, it is conjugated with avoir ;
when it means to agree, it takes être.
88.—Some of the Verbs named in § 85 may be used transitively,
i.e. they may be followed by a direct object, and in this case they are
conjugated with avoir .*—
I l est monté
I l a monté l'horloge
Elle est sortie
Il a sorti tous ses habits

He has gone upstairs
He has wound up the clock
She has gone out
He has taken cut all his clothes

89.:—The following Intransitive Verbs are conjugated with avoir
when the action is to be expressed, and with être when the result of
the action—i.e. the actual state or condition—is to be marked : —
aborder
accourir
accroître !
apparaître
baisser
cesser
changer
coucher
croître
déborder

to land
to run
to increase
to appear
to sink
to cease
to change
to lie down
to grow
to overflozv

décroître
dégénérer
demeurer
descendre
disparaître
échapper
échouer
embellir
empirer
grandir

to decrease
to degenerate
to remain
to descend
to disappear
to escape
to fail, founder
to embellish
to grow worse
to grow

VERBS.
monter
passer
rajeunir

to go up, ascend
to pass
to grow
young
again

La rivière a débordé hier à dix
heures
Vous ne pouvez passer; ne voyezvous pas que la rivière est débordée
Elle a bien changé pendant son
séjour à Paris
E n la revoyant, il me semblait
qu'elle était tout-à-fait changée

47
remonter
rester
vieillir

to go up again
to remain
to prow old

The river overflowed yesterday
at ten à clock
You cannot pass ; don't you see
that the river has overflowed?
She has altered much during
her stay in Paris
In seeing her again, it seemed to
me that she was completely
changed

90.—Rester and demeurer = to remain, when conjugated with être.
Ditto
= to live
ditto
avoir.
Ils sont restés plus de trois heures
Ils ont demeuré
Rome

longtemps

à

They have remained more thaw
three hours
They have lived for a long time
at Rome

91.—When expirer means to die, it always takes avoir ; when it is
used in the sense of to expire (speaking of things) it takes avoir or
être according to Rule 89 :—
Le terme a expiré hier
Le bail est expiré depuis longtemps

The ter?n expired yestei'day
The lease has been out for
long time

a

9 2 . — É c h a p p e r , to escape :Ce mot m'est échappé
Ce mot m'a échappé

This word slipped from me
I did not hear that word.

L. Impersonal Verbs.
93.—Impersonal or Uni-personal Verbs are used only in
the 3rd Pers Sing, of their various tenses. Of frequent
occurrence are the following :—

FRENCH GRAMMAR.
il
il
il
il
il
il
il
il
il

arrive
convient
éclaire
s'ensuit
faut
gèle
y a
)
est
)
sied

it
it
it
it
it
it

il
il
il
il
il
il
il
il

happens
becomes
lightens
follows
is necessary
freezes

there is, are
it is becoming

dégèle
grêle
importe
neige
paraît
pleut
tonne
semblé

it
it
it
it
it
it
it
it

thaws
hails
matters
snows
appears
rains
thunders
seems

94.—Uni-personal Verbs ending in e mute are conjugated \\kt parler (see above, § 38) ; for // convient, il sied,
il s'ensuit, il faut, il paraît, il pleut, see venir (§ 116), asseoir (§ 114), suivre (§ 110), falloir (§ 140), paraître
(§ 120), pleuvoir (§ 141).
95.—Some tenses of il y a:—
A.

Affirmatively:
il
il
il
il
il

y
y
y
y
y

a
eut
avait
aura
aurait

il y a eu
il y eut eu
&c. &c.
C. Interrogatively
y
y
y
y
y
y

a-t-il ?
eut-il ?
avait-il ?
aura-t-il ?
aurait-il ?
a-t-il eu ?

B.
there is, or are
there was, or were
there will be
thei-e would be
there has, ox have
been
had been

:

is (are) there ?
was (were) there ?
was (were) there ?
will there be ?
would there be ?
has (have) there
been ?
y eut-il eu? had there been ?
&c.

D.

Negatively:
il n'y a pas
there is (are) not
il n'y eut pas ) there was (were)
il n'y avait pas / not
il n'y aura pas there will not be
il n'y am ait pas there would not be
il n'y a pas eu there has not been
il n'y eutpas eu there hadnotbeen

Interrogatively

n'y a-t-il pas ?
n'y eut-il pas ?
n'y avait il pas ?
n'y aura-t-il pas?
n'y aurait-il pas ?
n'y a-t-il pas eu ?

and Negatively :

is (are) there not ?
was (were) there not?
was (zvere) there not ?
will there not be ?
would there not be ?
has (have) there not
been ?
n'y eut-il pas eu ? had the?'e not been ?

VERBS.

49

IL Strong or so-called Irregular Verbs. 1
96.—Preliminary

Remark.

For

the

Strong

Verbs,

notice the following deviations from the Rules given on
the Derivation of the Tenses (see § 36).
(1) Exceptions to the Rule that the Picture a?id Conditional are formed by adding to the Infinitive ai and a i s
respectively .•— 2
acquér-ir
all-er
s'asse-oir
cour-ir
cueill-ir
déch-oir
dev-oir
éch-oir
fai-re
fall-oir
mourr-ir
pouv-oir
recev-oir
sav-oir
sé-oir
ten-ir
ven-ir
val-oir
v-oir
voul-oir

to acquire
to go
to sit down
to run
to gather
to decline
to owe
to expire
to do
to be necessary
to die
to be able
to receive
to know
to become
to hold
to come
to be worth
to see
to desire

acquerr-ai) au
ir-ai, ais
assiér-ai, ais
courr-ai, ais
cueiller-ai, ais
décherr-ai, ais
devr-ai, ais
écherr-a, ait
fer-ai, ais
faudr-a, ait
mourr-ai, ais
fiotirr-ai) ais
recevr-ai, ais
saur-ai, ais
siér-a, ait
tiendr-ai, ais
viendr-ai, ais
vaudr-ai, ais
ve7'r-ai> ais
voudr-ai, ais

(2) Exceptions to the Rule that the 1st, 2nd, and $rd
Pers. Plur. of the Près. Indie, are formed from

the Près,

Part. .—
Infin.

Près. Part.

Present Indicative.
1 st Pers.

av-oir
déch-oir
1

ay-ant
—

See Reasons, & c , § 319.

avjgjmdéchoyons

2nd Pers.

avez,
déchoyez
2

3rd Pers.

ont
^ ^déchoient

See Reasons, & c , § 313.

E

5o

FRENCH GRAMMAR.

di-re
et-re
fai-re
redi-re
sav-oir

dis-ant
êt-ant
fais-ant
redis-ant
sach-ant

sommes

—
—
savons

dites*
êtes
faites*
redites
savez

sont
font
savei

(3) Exceptions to the Rule that the 1st. Pers. Sing, of
the Près. Subj. is formed from the 3rd Pers. Plur. of the
Près. Ind. :—
all-er
fai-re
pouv-oir
sav-oir
val-oir
voul-oir

vont2
font
peuvent
savent
valent
veulent

q. faille
q. je
q. je
q. je
q. je
q. je

fasse
puisse
sache
vaille
veuille

General Rule for the derivation of the 1st and 2nd
Pers. Plur. of the Près. Subj. of the Strong Verbs :
these two Persons are derived from the 1st and 2nd
Pers. Plur. of the Près. Indie, by changing - o n s aitd - e z
into -ions and -iez. Four Verbs only are exceptions to
this rule :—
Près. Ind.
disons
dites

Infin.
di-re

Près. Su
disiez

fai-re

faisons
faites

fassions
fassiez

pouv-oir

pouvons
pouvez

puissions
puissiez

sav-oir

savons
savez

.sachions
sachiez

1
8

See Reasons, & c , § 305, and note to § 307»
See Reasons, & c , § 318.

VERBS.

5r

97.—a. Verbs in er : (1) Aller, 1 to go.
Derived Tenses.
1. Future.
2. Conditional.

Principal Tenses.
Infinitive.
all-er

II. Près. Ind.
je
tu
il
11.
v.
ils

1

vai-j"
va-j
vaaVt-ons
all-^s
v-ont 3

j'
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

ix-ai2
ix-as
ix-a
ix-ons
ix-ez
ix-ont

i. Près. Subj.
quej'
que tu
qu' il
que n.
que v.
qu' ils

ailW
aill-^r
aill-^
all-ions
all-iez
aill-ent

j'
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

ir-tf/r
ix-ais
ir-«#
ix-ions
ir-zVs
ix-aient

2. Imperative.
—
va
qu'il aill-^
all-ons
all-ez
qu'ils, aill-ent

I I I . P r ê t . Def. i. Prêt. Def. Subj.
Ind.
j'
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

all-ai
all-as
all-#
ail-âmes
all-âtes
all-èrent

V . P r è s . Part.
all-ant

que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

j'
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

all-asse
all-assez
all-a/
all-assions
all-assiez
sll-assent

i. Imperfect.
j ' all-0&
tu all-aw
il all-ait
n. a l l - ^ ^ j
v. all-iez
ils all-#z>;z/

2. P r è s . I n d .

—
—

all-ons
alW;s

j

—

V . P a s t Part. i. Comp. Tenses.
all-/, êe

je suis all-/, /<?
i

Note.—Followed by en ox y, the Imperative va takes an s. vas-y,
1

See Reasons, & c , § 318.

z

See tôid., § 303.

3 See ibid., § 306.

E 2

52

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

98.—(2) S'en aller, to go away.
Principal Tenses.
Derived Tenses.
I. Infinitive.
1. Future.
1 2. Conditional.
s'en all-er
je m'en ix-ai
je m'en \x-ais
tu t' en \x-as
1 tu t' en ix-ais
il s' en \x-a
il s' en ix-ait
n. n. en ir-ons
n. n. en xx-ions
v. v. en ix-ez
v. v. en ix-iez
ils s' en \x-ont
ils s' en ix-aient
I I . Près. Ind.
1. Près. Subj.
2. Imperative.
1 je m'en vaW
que je m'en aill-<?
—
tu t' en va-j*
que tu t* en aill-^y
va
qu' il s' ^n aill-<?
il s' en vaqu'il s'en aill-^
que n. n. en ail-ions
n. n. en aSl-ons
alltf/w-nous-en
v. v. en all-^z
que v. v. eh all-iez
all^-vous-en
ils s' en v-ont
qu' ils s' en aSSl-ent qu'ils s'en aill-ent
I I I . P r ê t . Def.
' Ind.
je m'en ail-ai
tu t' en all-tf.?
il s' en all-#
n. n. en all-^^r
v. v. en all-âtes
ils s' en all-èrent

1. Prêt. Def. Subj.
que je m'en all-asse
que tu t' en all-asses
qu' il s' en ail -ât
que n. n. en all-assions
que v. v. en alVassiez
qu' ils s' en aSl*assent

I V . P r è s . P a r t . 1 1. Imperfect.
s'en all-ant
je m'en all-<m
tu t' en aH-ais
il s' en all-ait
n. n. en ail-ions
v. v. en all-iez
ils s' en all-aient
V . P a s t Part.

1. Comp. Tenses,
je m'en suis alW, êe

2. Près. Ind.
—
.
n. n. en all-ons
v. v. en aXl-ez
—

_J

99.—As the conjugation of this Verb presents some
difficulty to the learner, the following tenses may find a
place here :—

VERBS.
A.

Affirmatively:
Prêt. Indef. Ind.

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

I have gone away.
m' en suis allé
t'en es allé
s'en est allé
nous en sommes allés
vous en êtes allés
s'en sont allés

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

I had gone away.
m'en étais allé
t'en étais allé
s'en était allé
nous en étions allés
vous en étiez allés
s'en étaient allés

Prêt. Ind. Subj.
That I may have gone away.
que je m'en sois allé
que tu t'en soies allé
qu' il s'en soit allé
que n. nous en soyons allés
que v. vous en soyez allés
qu' ils s'en soient allés

Future.

Imperfect.

B.

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

/ shall have-gone away,
m'en serai allé
t'en seras allé
s'en sera allé
nous en serons allés
vous en serez allés
s'en seront allés

Negatively:
Prêt. Def. Ind.

Près. Iridic.
I do not go away.
j e ne m'en vais pas
tu ne t'en vas pas
il ne s'en va pas, &c.

/ did not go away.
je ne m'en allai pas
tu ne t'en allas pas
il ne s'en alla pas, &c.

Pluperfect.

Prêt. Indef.
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

53

I have not gone away.
ne m'en suis pas allé
ne t'en es pas allé
ne s'en est pas allé
ne nous en sommes pas allé
ne vous en êtes pas allé
ne s'en sont pas allé

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

I had not gone away.
ne m'en étais pas allé
ne t'en étais pas allé
ne s'en était pas allé
ne nous en étions pas allés
ne vous en étiez pas allés
ne s'en étaient pas allés

Future Anter.

Condit. Past.

/ shall not have gone away.
je ne m'en serai pas allé
tu ne t' en seras pas allé
&c. &c.

/ should not have gone away.
je ne m'en serais pas allé
tu ne t' en serais pas allé
&c. &c.

54

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

C. Interrogatively;
Près. Indie.

Prêt. Def. Ind.

Do I go away ?
m'en vais-je ?
t' en vas-tu ?
s' en va-t-il ?
n. en allons-nous ?
v. en allez-vous ?
s' en vont-ils ?

Did I go away ?
m'en allai-jë ?
t' en allas-tu ?
s' en alla-t-il ?
n. en allâmes-nous ?
v. en allâtes-vous ?
s' en allèrent-ils ?

Prêt. Indef. Ind.

Pluperfect.

Have I gone away ?
m'en suis-je allé?
t' en es-tu allé ?
s' en est-il allé ?
n. en sommes-nous allés ?
v. en êtes-vous allés ?
s' en sont-ils allés ?

Had I gone away ?
m'en étais-je allé ?
t' en étais-tu allé ?
s' en était-il allé ?
n. en étions-nous allés ?
v. en étiez-vous allés ?
s' eii étaient-ils allés ?

D. Negatively and Interrcgatively :
Prêt Def. Indic.

Près. Ind.
Do I not go away ?'
ne m'en vais-je pas?
ne t' en vas-tu pas ?
ne s' en va-t-il pas ?
ne n. en allons-nous pas ?
ne v. en allez-vous pas ?
ne s' en vont-ils pas ?

Did I not go away ?
ne m'en allai-je pas?
ne t' en allas-tu pas ?
ne s' en alla-t-il pas ?
ne n. en allâmes-nous pas ?
ne v. en allâtes-vous pas ?
ne s' en allèrent-ils pas ?

Pluperfect.

Prêt. Indef. Ind.
Have I not gone away ?
ne m'en suis-je pas allé ?
ne t'1 en es-tu pas allé ?
ne s' en est-il pas allé ?
ne n. en sommes-nous pas allés ?
ne v. en êtes-vous pas ailes ?
ne s' en sont-ils pas allés ?

ne
ne
ne
ne
ne
ne

Had I not gone away ?
m'en étais-je pas allé ?
t' en étais-tu pas allé ?
s' en était-il pas allé ?
n. en étions-nous pas allés ?
v. en étiez-vous pas allés?
s' en étaient-ils pas allés ?

VERBS.

55

ioo.—b. Verbs having i in the Preterite Definite.
aa. Verbs forming the Future regularly.
( i ) * C o n d u i r e , to lead.
Derived Tenses.

Principal Tenses.
I. Infinitive.
condui-re
II.
je
tu
il
n.

Près. Ind.
conduit
condui-i*
conduit
conduis-^^i", &c.

i. Future,
je condui-iwzz*
tu condui-r-ay, &c.

2. Conditional.
je condui-r-<2z>
tu condui-r-#z>, &c.

2. Imperative.
ï. Près. Subj.
que je conduis-*?
que tu conduis-^
condui-J
qu' il conduis-*?
qu'il conduis-*?
que n. condxùs-ions,
conduis-tf/w, &c,
&c.

I I I . P r ê t . Def. ï. Prêt. Def. Subj.
Ind.
que je conduis-z,M<?
je conduis-is
tu conduis-^, &c. que tu conduis-wjw,
&c.
I V . P r è s . Part.

ï. Imperfect.

conduis-d!;*/

je conduis-^w
tu conduis-aw', &c.

P a s t Part.
cond-uit, e

i. Comp. Tenses.
j'ai cond-uit

2. Près. Ind.
1st, 2nd, &> $rdp.plur.
n. conduis-ons
v. conduis-^
ils conduis-ent
2. Pass. Voice.
je suis cond-uit, e

Nuire, to hurt, is conjugated like conduire, but it has in the Past
Part, nui, of which there is no feminine.
Luire, to shine, has also in the Past Part, lui ; there is no Prêt.
Def. of this verb.
The following Verbs and their Compounds are in all their tenses
conjugated like conduire :—
induire
introduire
produire
réduire
séduire
traduire

to induce
to introduce
to produce
to reduce
to seduce
to translate

i
Com\L Rounds
i( of Lat.
j ducere
\

construire
détruire
instruire
cuire

to construct
to destroy
to instruct

Ç Com1 pounds
i of Lat.
struere
tocoo&(co(\uete)

(

56

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

ioi.—(2) Confire, to preserve.
1 Principal Tenses.
I.

Infinitive.
confi-;r

1 II. Près. Ind.
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

confW
confw
confW
confis-<??w
confis-*^
confis-^/

I I I . P r ê t . Def.
Ind.
je conf-/>
1
tu conf-z>
il conf-zV
n. conf-^^y
v. ç.OYiî-îtes
ils conî-irenl
I V . Près. Part.
confis-^;^

V. Past Part.
conf-z/, e

Derived Tenses.
je
tu
il
n.

1. Future.
confi-r-^z
confi-r-^j
confi-r-#
conû-r-ons, &c.

1. Près. Subj.
que je confis-*?
que t u confis-^
qu' il confis-^
que n. confis-z'0/w
que v. confis-zVz
qu' ils conns-*?;?/

2.
je
tu
il
n.

Conditional.
confi-r-#z.r
cortfi-r-ais
confi-r-<2zV
c o n f i - r - ^ ^ &c.

2. Imperative.

—

confi-i"
qu'il confis-^
confis-ons
confis-^
qu'ils c o n f i s - ^

1. Prêt. Def. Subj.
que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

j e conf-Âw
tu conf-isses
il conf-#
n. conî-issions
v. conî-issiez
ils zonî-issent

1. Imperfect.
je
tu
il
n.

confis-tfzV
confis-^V
confis-#z/
conûs-tons, &c.

1. Comp. Tenses.
j'ai conf-z/

2. Près. Ind.
1st, ind,
&i)rdp.plur.
n. conûs-ons
v. confis-^
ils confis* ent

2. Pass. Voice.
il est conf-zV

Conjugate in the same manner suffire, to suffice, with the exception of the Past Part, suffi, of which there is no feminine.

VERBS.

5?

102.—(3) * C o u d f e , to sew.

Principal Tenses,
I.

II.
je
tu
il
n.

Infinitive.
coud-n?

Près. Ind.
coud -s
coud-j
coudcous-0^1

V. COUS-0Z

ils cous-^^/

Derived Tenses.
je
tu
il
n.

1. Future.
coud-r-tfz'
coùd-r-<z.r
coud-r-<z
coud-r-0/z.r, &c.

1. Près. Subj.
que j e cous-<?
que tu cous-£?
qu' il cous-<?
que n. cous-ions
que v. cous-z<?2
qu' ils zov&-ent

2.
je
tu
il
n.

Conditional.
coud-r-<zz'.f
coud-r-<zz'.r
couà-x-ait
coud-r-ions, &c.

2. Imperative.

—

coud-j*
qu'il cous-/?
COUS-^W.?

z

cous-ez
qu'ils cous-m/

III.

P r ê t . Def. 1. Prêt. Def. Subj.
Ind.
j e COUS-ZJ
que j e cous-zj\stf
tu coug-w, & c
que tu cows-tsseSf &c.

I V . Près. Part.
cous-a;^

1. Imperfect.
je cous-aù
tu cous-ais, &c.

2. Près. Ind.
1st, 2nd, 6 ° 3rdfi.filur.
n. COUS-C;ZJ
V. COUS-é^

ils cous-ent
V. P a s t Part.
cous-^, e

1. Comp. Tenses.
j ' a ï cous-2^, e

2. Pass. Voice.
j e suis COVLS-U, e

N.B.—As a Compound Verb is generally conjugated like the
Simple Verb from which it is derived {découdre like coudre, accourir
like courir, &c), it will not be found in the list of the Strong
Verbs ; but whenever it differs in its conjugation from the Simple
Verb, this will be pointed out.
1

On the J in cousons, cousez, & c , see Reasons,

§ 317

58

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

103.—(4) ^ C r a i n d r e , to fear.
Derived Tenses.

Principal Tenses.
I.

Infinitive.
craind-r<?x

II.
je
tu
il
n.

Près. Ind.
crain-j
crain-j
crain-/
craign-0?w, &c.

T. Future,
je craind-r-tf*
tu cramd-r-dtf, &c.

2. Conditional.
je craind-r-^zj
tu craind-r-^zj-, &c.

2. Imperative.
1. Près. Subj.
que je craign-^
que tu craign-^j
crain-j
qu' il craigne
qu'il craigne
craign-ons
Ique n. craign-ions, &c.

III.

P r ê t . Def. i. P r ê t Def. Subj.
Ind.
que je craign-zj\5tf
je craign-zV
tu cràign-zV, &c. que tu craign-z^j, &c.

I V . P r è s . Part.
cxaign-ant

V. Past Part.
craint,2 e

1. Imperfect.
je craign-tf&
tu craign-a:z>, &c.
Comp. Tenses,
j'ai craint

2. Près. Ind.
I st, 2ndy dr» yd p.plur.
n. craign-ons
v. craign-^z
ils craign-m/
2. Pass. Voice,
je suis craint, e

N.B.—Conjugate in the same manner all Verbs in indre, as
ceindre, joindre^ plaindre, &c.
1

See Reasons, & c , § 318 (c).
2
As to the Preterite and the Past Participle of the Strong Verbs (e.g. j e dis,
j e dus, j e vis ; dit, dû, vu, &c. ), it is impossible to know from the form these
tenses have now, which is the root of the Verb and which the termination;
in
O. Fr. it was in many cases still possible to distinguish them from each other.
di-xi
di-xisti
di-xit
di-ximus
di-xistis
di-xerunt

di-s
de-sis (de-'is)
di-st
de-simes (de-'imes)
de-sistes (de-is tes)
di-streni(di-rent)

|

déb-ui
d-ui
deb-uisti
devils
déb-uit
d-ut
deb-ûimus de-ûmes
deb-uistis de-Ostes
déb-uerunt d-urent

The Past Participles of devoir and voir v/ere : de-iït, de-ii, d-v. ; ve-ilt, ve-%% v~n%

VERBS.

59

104.—(5) D i r e , to say.
1 Principal Tenses.
I.

Derive>d Tenses.

Infinitive.
di-re

1. Future,
je di-x-ai
tu di-x-as, &c.

2. Conditional,
je di-x-aù
tu di-x-aù, &c.

II. P r è s . Ind.
je dis
tu di-.?
il di-t
n. dis-ons
\
v. dit-es 3
ils dis-ent

1. Près. Subj.
que je dis-<?
que tu dis-£?
qu' il dis-*
que n. dis-ions
que v. dis-z>£
qu' ils dis-ent

2. Imperative.
dW
qu'il di-j*
dis-ons
dit-es
qu'ils dis-ent

I I I . P r ê t . Def. 1. P r ê t Def. Subj.
Ind.
je dis
que je disse
tu dis
que tu disses
il dit
qu' il dît
n. dîmes
que n. dissions
v. dîtes
que v. dissiez
ils dirent
qu' ils dissent
IV. Près. Part.
dis-ant

1. Imperfect.
je dis-ais
tu dis-ais
il dis-azt

! V. P a s t P a r t . 1. Com p. Tenses,
j'ai dit
dit, e

,

2. Près. Ind.
ïstâr* yd p. plur.
n. dis-ons
j
ils d i s - ^
/
2. Pass. Voice.
je suis dit, e

1
R e d i r e , to say again, is the only Verb conjugated exactly like dire ; all the
other compounds of dire {contredire, interdire, &c.) form the 2nd Pers. Plur. in
sez (contredisez,
interdisez).
2
M a u d i t e , to injure, differs from dire in so far as it takes w in the Plur. of
the Près. I n d i e : -maudissons, maudissez, maudissent;
in Près. S u b j . : que je
maudisse, &c. ; Près. Part. : maudissent;
Imperat qu'il maudisse,
maudissons^
maudissez.
3
On dites, see Reasons, & c , § 305, and note to § 307.

6o

FRENCH GRAMMAR,

105,—(6) * E c r i r e , to write.
Principal Tenses.

Derived Tenses.
1. Future.
2. Conditional.

I. Infinitive.
ioxi-re

II. P r è s . Ind.
j ' écri-j*
tu écri-j
il écri-/
n. écriv-ons1
v. écriv-^z
ils écriv-ent

j ' écri-r-tfz'
tu écri-r-tf-r, &c.

1. Près. Subj.
quej'
que tu
qu' il
que n.
que v.
qu' ils

écrive
écriv-^j
écrive
èoxiY-ions
écriv-^z
écxiv-ent

j ' écri-r-tfz>,
tu éoxi-x-ais, &c.

2. Imperative.
—

écri-j
qu'il écrive
ècxiv-ons
éox'w-ez
qu'ils écrivez*

III. Prêt. Def. 1. Prêt Def. Subj.
,Ind#

j ' écriv-z>
tu écriv-zj
il écriv-#
n. éoxiw-îmes
v. é c r i v - t o
ils éoxbf'irent

I V . P r è s . Part.
x

êcnv-ant

que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

j'
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

écriv-?^
écnv-zsses
écriv-z/
écnv-ùswns
écriv-ùstez
êoxiv-issent

1. Imperfect.
j'écriv-<2z>
tu écriv-tfz>
il écriv-*«V
n. écriv-^^j, &c.

V . P a s t Part. 1. Comp. Tenses.
écrit, e

2. Près. Ind.
U/, 2nd,
&*3rdp.filur.
n. écrivez,?
v. é c r i v e
ils écrÏY-eizt
\

2. Pass. Voice.

j ' a i écrit

1
On the v in écrivant and écrivons, &c., see Reasons
§ 318 (C).

il est écrit

and

|

Ilhistrations,

VERBS.

61

106.—(7) Mettre, to put.
Principal Tenses.
I. Infinitive.

Derived Tenses.
je mett-x-ai
tu mett-r-ay, &c.

I I . P r è s . Ind.
'

je met-j- 1
tu rn.oX.-s
il met11. mett-ons
v. mett-ez
ils mett-ent

2. Conditional.

1. Future.

mett-re

je mett-r-arw
tu mett-r-aù, &c.

1. Près. Subj.
que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

2. Imperative.
—

je mett-<?
tu mett-^y
il mett-<?
n. mett-wns
v. mett-iez
ils mett-ent

met-s
qu'il mett-é?
mett-0/z.r
mett-^
qu'ils mett-ent

I I I . Prêt. Def. 1. Prêt. Def. Subj.
Ind.
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

mis
mis
mit
mîmes
mîtes
mirent

que je misse
que tu misses
qu' il mît
que n. missions
que v. missiez
qu' ils missent

I V . P r è s . Part.

1. Imperfect.

mett-#;z^

je mett-ais
tu mett-ais
il mett-att
n. mett-ions

2. Près. Ind.
1st, 2nd, dr>
ydp.plur.
n. mett-ons
v. m e t t e s
ils mett-ent

V . P a s t Part. 1. Comp. Tenses.
mis, e

j ' a i mis

1

See Reasons, &c, § 315.

2. Pass. Voice.
je suis mis, e

62

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

107.—(8) * N a î t r e , to be born.

Principal Tenses.

I. Infinitive.
nzdt-rex

II. Près. Ind.
je nai-j
tu nai-j 1
il uaî-t
n. naiss-ons
v. naiss-<?2
ils naiss-ent

III. Prêt. Def.
Ind. 2
1

je naqu-w
tu naqu-zV
il naqu-zV
n. nzqu-imes, &c.

Derived Tenses.
1. Future.
je mat-r-at
tu naît-r-tfj1
il naît-r-tf
n. nsât-r-ons
v. naît-r-£2
ils nsât-ï-ont
i. Près. Subj.
que j e naisse
que tu n a i s s e
qu' il naisse
que n. naiss-ions
que v. naiss-z>0
qu' ils naiss-ent

2. Imperative.
—
nai-j ,
qu'il naiss-<?
naiss-0/w

1. Prêt. Def. Subj.
que je naqu-m*?
que tu naqVL-isses
qu' il naqu-#
q. n. nàqu-mztf^&c.

IV. Près. Part.

1. Imperfect.

nedss-ant

je naiss-<m, &c.

V. Past Part.

1. Comp. Tenses.
je suis né, e

né, e

2. Conditional.
je nsât-r-ais
tu naît-r-tfz.?
il naît-r-<2zV
n. naît-r-z<?^j
v. naît-r-zVz
ils T\2Xt-x-aient

2. P r è s . I n d .
1st, 2nd, ô ° 2>rdp. filur.
n. naiss-0?w, &c. |
:
_

N.B.—Renaître, to be born again, has neitlier a Prêt. Def. nor
a Past Part., and consequently no compound tenses.
1
2

See Reasons and Illustrations,', § 318 (C).
See ibid., § 323 (B) (note to vivre).

VERBS.

63

108.—(9) P r e n d r e , to take.

Principal Tenses.
1 I. Infinitive.
prend-?-*?

II. P r è s . I n d .
je prend-.?
tu prend-j
il prendn. pren-tf/zj
v. prends
ils pxQim-ent

Derived Tenses.
1. Future.
je prend-r-#z
tu prend-r-atf
il prend-r-tf
n. -prenà-i-ons
v. prend-r-<?#
ils prend-r-ont

2. Conditional.
je prend-r-#z>
tu prend-r-tfz>
il prend-r-^zV
n. prend-r-z'^j
v. prend-r-z>#
ils px&ià-Y-aient

1. Près. Subj.
que je prenne
que tu p r e n n e
qu' il prenne
que n. pxen-ions
que v. pven-zez
qu' ils prenn-ent

2. Imperative.
—
prend-.?
qu'il prenne
pren-^w
pren-^
qu'ils pxtim-ent

I I I . P r ê t . Def. 1. Prêt. Def. Subj.
Ipd.
je pris
que je prisse
tu pris
que tu prisses
il prit
qu* il prît
n. prîmes
que 11. prissions
v. prîtes
que v. prissiez
ils prirent
qu' ils prissent
IV. Près. Part.

1. Imperfect.

pren-ant

je pren-^zj"
tu pxen-aù
il pren-ait
n. pren-wns
v. prends
ils pxvci-aient

V . P a s t Part.
pris, e

1. Comp. Tenses.
j'ai pris

2. Près. Ind.
\st êr* 2nd p. plur.
n. pren-0?w
v. pren-ez

2. Pass. Voice.
je suis pris, e

64

FRENCH GRAMMAR.

109.—(10) Rire, to laugh.
Principal Tenses.
1 I. Infinitive.
ri-rex

|

Derived Tenses.
1. Future,
2. Conditional.
je ri-r-ai
tu ri-r-<2.r, &c.

je ri-r-ais
tu ri-r-ais, &c.

II. P r è s . Ind.

1
j

1. Près. Subj.

2. Imperative.

je vis
tu ris
il ri-*
n. n-ons
v. ri-ez
ils ri-^*

que je ri-/?
que tu ri-es
qu' il ri-£
que n. ri-ions
que v. ri-iez
qu' ils ri-^*f

qu'il ri-£
ri-ons
ri-ez
qu' ils ri-ent

ri-j"

I I I . Prêt. Def. 1. Prêt. Def. Subj.
Ind.
je ris
tu ris
il rit
n. rîmes
v. rîtes
ils rirent

que je risse
que tu risses
qu' il rît
que n. rissions
que v. rissiez
qu' ils rissent

I V . P r è s . Part.
xi-ant

1. Imperfect.
je ri-ais
tu ri-ais
il ri-ait
n. ri-ions, &c.

2. Près. Ind.
1 si, 2nd, ô° yd fi.plur.
n. ri-ons
v. ri-ez
ils ri-ent

V . P a s t Part. 1. Comp. Tenses,
j'ai ri

ri

1

See Reasons and Jllustrations,

§321

6S

VERBS.

no.—(n) * Suivre, to follow.
Principal Tenses.
I. Infinitive.
1

Derived Tenses.
i. Future.
2. Conditional.

suiv-^

j e suiv-r-tfz
tu suiv-r-ûtf
il suiv-r-<z
n. suiv-r-0;w
v. suiv-r-^s
ils suiv-r-^7^^

j e suiv-r-^zV
tu suiv-r-aw*
il suiv-v-ait
n. suiv-r-z<?/z.r
v. suiv-r-z>2
ils suiv-x-aient

I L P r è s . Ind.

i. Près. Subj.
que je suiv-<?
que tu suiv-<?j"
qu' il suiv-<?
que n. suiv-^^j
que v. suiv-z>2
qu' ils suvt-ent

2. Imperative.
—

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

•

suw
suis
sui-/
suiv-ons
suiv-ez
suiv-ent

J

suis
qu'il suiv-^

suiv-<7^j

suiv-fô
qu'ils svùv-ent

I I I . Prêt. Def. i. Prêt. Def. Subj.
Ind.
je suiv-z>
tu suiv-zj1
il suiv-zV
n. suiv-^W.?
v. suiv-zzV.?
ils suiv-irent

I V . P r è s . Part.
i

suiv-ant

1

que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

je suiv-tsse
tu suiv-isses
il suiv-zV
n. suiv-usions
v. suw-issiez
ils suiv-issent

i. Imperfect.
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

suiv-aîs
suiv-aîs
suiv-azt
suïv-ions
suiv-z>2
suiv-aient

V . P a s t Part. i. Comp. Tenses.
1

L

suiv-z', -ie

2. P r è s . I n d .
1st, 2nd, ô ° 3rd p.filur.

j ' a i suiv-z

—
—
n . suiv-ons
v. suivez
ils suiv-ent

2. Pass. Voice.
je suis suiv-z, -z>

_

F

66

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

in.—(12) Traire, to milk.
Principal Tenses.
I.

Infinitive.
tx&i-re

Derived Tenses.
1. Future.
je trai-r-az
tu trai-r-atf
il trai-r-tf
n. trai-r-0?w, &c.

2. Conditional.
je trai-r-tfz>
tu trai-x-ais
il ixaX-x-ait
n. txai-x-ions, &c.

i. Près. Subj.
que j e trai-£
que tu trai-£f
qu' il trai-£
que n. t r a y - z ^ j
que v. Xx&y-iez
qu'ils trai-ent

2. Imperative.
—
trai-j
qu'il trai-£
tx&y-ons
tray-ez
qu'ils trai-m*

IV. Près. Part.

1. Imperfect.

tray-fl^if

je tray-<m
tu tray-ais
il tray-ait
n. \x2cy-i0ns
v. t r a y - ^
ils tray-aient

2. P r è s . I n d .
ist}2nd, ô ° yd fi.plur.
—
—
—
n. txay-ons
|
v. txay-ez
ils txai-ent

i. Comp. Tenses.
j ' a i trait

2. Pass. Voice.
elle est traite

II.

|

Près. Ind.
je trai-j
tu trai-j
il trai-if
n. tx&y-ons
v. tray-<?#
ils X.T&i-ent

I I I . P r ê t . Def.
Ind.

V.

P a s t Part.
trait, e

Note.—The original meaning of traire from Lat. trahere (to draw)
is still seen in the following Compound Verbs :—
1. Abstraire, to abstract; instead of this verb we generally use faire abs'
traction.
2. Attraire, to attract ; the verb attirer is used in preference to attraire.
3 Distraire, to distract, to separate.
4. Extraire, to extract.
5. Soustraire, to abstract, take away.
6. Rentraire, to fine draw, to dam.

VERBS.

67

IT2.—(13) ^Vaincre, to conque?-.
Principal Tenses,

Derived Tenses,

I. Infinitive, 1
vainc-r<?

I I . P r è s . Ind.
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

vainc-J*
vainc-j
vaincvainqu-tf/w
vainque
vainqu-mz 1

1. Future.
je
tu
il
n.

1 2. Conditional.

vainc-r-di
vainc-r-atf
vainc-r-éz
vainc-r-^zj-, &c.

i. Près. Subj.
que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

je
tu
il
n.

vainc-r-^zV
vainc-r-«z>
vainc-r-tfz^
vainc-r-zWz.f, &c.

2. Imperative.

je v a i n q u e
—
tu vainqu-^r
—
il v a i n q u e
I qu'il v a i n q u e
n. vamqvi-zons
vainqu-ons
v. vainqu-zVz
vainque
ils vainqu-^^if
qu'ils vainqu-^;z^

I I I . Prêt. Def. i. Prêt. Def. Subj.
Ind. <
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

vainqu-zj
vainqu-z>
vainqu-z'z4
vsànqu-êmes
vainqu-to
vainqu-zV*?/^

1IV. P r è s . Part.
1

vainqu-tf^

que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

vainqu-ùse
vainqu-z<s\f<?j |
vainqu-zV
vamqu-issions
vainqu-zwzV^
vainqu-issent

i. Imperfect.
je vainqu-#z'«f
tu vainqu-<m
il vainqu-aizV
n. v&mqu-ions
v. vainqu-z>2;
ils vainqu-^zV;^

V . P a s t Part.

1. Comp. Tenses.

vainc-fcf, e

j'ai vainc-^

2. Près. Ind. |
ist,2nd, &yd p.plur. j
—

n. vainqu-ons
v. v a i n q u e
ils vainqu-ent

2. Pass. Voice.
je suis v a i n c s , e

Note.—The letter c in this Verb is changed into qu, whenever it
comes to stand before 0, e, i, 0.
F2

68

FRENCH GRAMMAR
bb. Those forming the Future irregularly.
113.—(1) Acquérir, to acquire.

r

Derived Tenses.
\
2. Conditional.

j Principal Tenses.
} I. Infinitive.
\

acquer-zV

l î . Près. Ind.

1

j ' acquiers
tu acquier-j 1
il a c q u i e r t
n. SLcqaér-ons
v. acquér-^
ils acquièr-<?/2zf

1. Future.
j'
tu
il
11.
v.
ils

acquer-r-ai1
acquer-r-<2J
acquer-r-tf
acquer-r-<5W.r
acquer-r-^0
acquer-r-<?^/

1. Près. Subj.
que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

j ' acquière
tu a c q u i è r e
il acquier-*?
n. acquér-^^jv. acquér-zVz
ils acqmhr-ent

j'
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

acquer-r-ais
acquer-r-az>
acquer-r-<2z/
acquer-r-zV/w
acquer-r-z<?£
acquer-r-^zV^z*

2 Imperative.

—.

acquier-J
qu'il acquière
acquér-0/z.r
acquér-^
qu'ils acquièr-£/z/

III. Prêt. Def. 1. Prêt. Def. Subj.
Ind.
j ' acqu-z>
tu acqu-w
il acqu-zV
n. acqu-ïmes
v. a c q u - t o
ils a.cq\i-irmt

IV.Pres. Part.

que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

j ' Sicqw-isse
tu acqu-isses
il acqu-z/
n. acquissions
v. SicqvL-issiez
ils acqu-issenl

1. Imperfect.

2. Près. Ind.
1st &> 2nd p.

acquér-ant

j'
j tu
il
n.
v.
ils

acquér-<m
a.cquér-ais
acquér-<2#
acquér-^^i"
acquér-z>#
acquér-^/mz*

V. Past Part. 1. Comp. Tenses.
acqu-?>, e

j'ai acqu-z>

plur.

—
—
—

n. acquér-<?w
v. acquér-tfï

—
2. Pass. Voice.
je suis acqu-zV, e

See above, § g6, and Reasons and Illustrations,

§ 313.

VERBS.

69

114.—(2) S'asseoir, to seat oneself, to sit down.
Principal Tenses.
I.

Infinitive.
s'asse-tfzV

II. Près. Ind.
je m'assied-^
tu t' assied-^
il s' assied11. n. asseyez.?
v. v. asseye
ils s' assei-éTitf

Derived Tenses,
1. Future.
je m ' a s s i é - r - a i 1
tu t' assié-r-tfj
il s' assié-r-a
n, n. assié-x-ons, &c.

2. Conditional.
je m'assié-r-ais
tu t' assié-r-#z>
il s' assié-r-^zV
n. n. assié-r-ions, &c.

2. Imperative.
1. Près. Subj.
que je m'assei-i
—
que tu t' assei-£$assieds-zW
qu' il s' assei-<?
qu'il s'assei-é?
que n. n. assey-ions
asseyons-zz^zz.?
que v. v. assey-z^
asseyez-wz/j
qu' ils s' assQi-ent qu'ils s'assei-m*'

( I I I . P r ê t . Def. 1. Prêt. Def. Subj.

J

s
!
i:

Ind.

je m'ass-z>
tu t' ass-zjil s'ass-z'z*
n. n. 2,%%-îmes
V. V. SLSS-tteS

ils s' SLSs-irent
I V . P r è s . Part.
s'&ssey-ant

que je m'ass-isse
que tu t' assisses
qu' il s' ass-zY
que n. n. z.ss-issions
que v. v. sss-issiez
qu' ils s' ass-issent
1. Imperfect.
je m'assey-aù
tu t'5 assey-aù
il s assey-tfzV
11. n. assey-zV?^
v. v. assey-z>#
ils s' assey-aient

V . P a s t Part.
ass-w, e

2. Près. I n d .
1st, 2nd, âr* yd p.plur.!
—
—
—
n. n. assey-ons
v. v. asseye 4 1
ils s' assei-^zz

1. Comp. Tenses.
je me suis ass-z>, e

Note.—Asseoir is also used as a Transitive Verb : asseoit
quelqu'un, to put some one down ; asseyez Venfant.
1

See Reasons. & c , $ ^ 1 ^ , N . iii. {a).

7o

FRENCH GRAMMAR.
115.—(3) Faire, to do, to make.
n

Principal Tenses.
I. Infinitive.

Derived Tenses.
2. Conditional.
1. Future.

fai-re

! IL P r è s . Ind.
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

fai-j
fai-j
fai-^
fzâs-ons
fait-es x
f-ont z

je fe-r-ais
tu fe-x-as
il fe-r-#, &c.

1. Près. Subj.
que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

je fass-<?
tu fass-£?
il fass-£
n. fass-tons
v. fass-zVs
ils fass-<?;z/

je f e - r - a i s
tu fe-r-ais
il fe-r-ait, &c.

2. Imperative.
—
fai-j
qu'il fass-é*
fais-^j"
fait-es
qu'ils f&ss-ent

III. Prêt. Def. 1. Prêt. Def. Subj.
Ind.
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

fis
fis
fit
fîmes
fîtes
firent

, IV. Près. Part.
f&is-ant

que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

fisse
fisses
fit
fissions
fisssiez
fissent

1. Imperfect.
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

faisW-y
fais-tfwfais-<2zV
f%\$-ions
fais-iez
fais-aient

n. fais-ons

—

—

V. Past Part. 1. Comp. Tenses.
fait, e

j ' a i fait

Note.—Faisant, faisons, faisais,
fesons, fesais.
1
2
3

2. Près. Ind.
—
—

1

2. Pass. Voice.
j e suis fait, e

&c, are pronounced fesant,

See Reasons and Illustrations,
§ 305, and note to § 307
See ibid., § 306.
See abovs, § 96, and Reasons and Illustrations,
§ 313, N . ii.

VERBS.

7'

116.—(4) Tenir, to hold.
Principal Tenses,
I. Infinitive.

Derived Tenses.
2. Conditional.

1. Future.

je tiend-r-ai1
tu tiend-r-tfj, &c.

ten-zV

I I . P r è s . Ind.
je tien-j
tu tien-j
il tien-/?
n. ten-ons
v. ten-ez
ils tienn-ent

je tiend-r-rais
tu tiend-r-<2z>, &c. ]

2. Imperative.

1. Près. Subj.
que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

tienne
tienn-£f
tienne
ten-ions
ten-iez
tienn-ent

—

tien-j
qu'il tienne
ten-ons
ten-ez
qu'ils tienn-ent

I I I . Prêt. Def. 1. Prêt. Def. Subj.
Ind.
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

tins
tins
tint
tînmes
tîntes
tinrent

I V . P r è s . Part.

que je
que tu
qu' il
que n.
que v.
qu' ils

1

1. Imperfect.
je
tu
il
n.
V.

ten-ant

tinsse
tinsses
tînt
tinssions
tinssiez
tinssent

2. P r è s . I n d .
1
1st &" 2nd p. plur.

ten-^zj
ten-ais
ten-ait
ten-ions
ten-iez, &c.

—
—

n. ten-ons
v. ten-ez

V . P a s t Part. 1. Comp. Tenses.
ten-2/, £

j ' a i ten-u

;

2. Pass. Voice.
je suis ten-u, e

Note,—Venir
is conjugated exactly like tenir, only it takes être
in its compound tenses : je suis venu, I have come. P r é v e n i r (to
inform of) and s u b v e n i r (to relieve) are conjugated with avoir ;
convenir takes ^ r ^ w h e n it means to agree, and avoir when it means
to suit : nous sommes convemis, we have agreed ; cela ne lui a pas
convenu, that did not suit him.
1

See Reasons and Illustrations;

§ 313, N . iv.

72

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

117.—(5) V o i r , to see.

Principal Tenses.
I. Infinitive.
v-oir

1

I I . P r è s . Ind.
je voW
tu voi-j
il voi-t
n. voy-ons
v. voy-ez
ils vo\-ent

Derived Tenses.
1. Future.
2. Conditional.

je ver-r-ai 1
tu ver-r-as, &c.

1. Près. Subj.
que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

voi-<?
vo\-es
voi-<?
voy-ions
voy-iez
vo\-ent

j e ver-r-ais
tu ver-r-ais, &c. !

2. Imperative.
—

voi-j
qu'il voi-<?
voy-ons
voy-ez
qu'ils voi-ent

I I I . Prêt. Def. 1. Prêt.Def. Subj.
Ind.
\

je
tu
il
n.
V.
ils

vw
vis
vit
vîmes
vifef
virent

IV. Près.Part.
voy-ant

que
que
qu5
que
que
qu*

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

visse
visses
vît
vissions
vissiez
vissent

1. Imperfect.
je voy-ais
tu voy-ais
il voy-ait
n. voy-ions
v. voy-iez
ils voy-aient

n. voy-ons
v. voy-ez
ils vo\-ent

V . P a s t Part. 1. Comp. Tenses.
vu, e

j ' a i vu

2. Près. Ind.
1 ,tf, 2 #*/, â^^rd p. plur.
—
—
—

2. Pass. Voice.
je suis vu, e

Note.— Prévoir, to foresee, has in the Future and Conditional
prévoirai and prévoirais. Pourvoir forms the Future and Conditional regularly : pounmrai and pourvoirais ; in the Prêt. Def.
Ind. and Subj. it has pourvus, powvusse. In the other tenses these
two Verbs are conjugated like voir.
1

See Reasons and Illustrations,

§ 313, N . iii. {a).

VERBS.
c. Verbs having u /;/ the Prêt. Def.
aa. Those with a regular Future.
118.—(i) B o i r e , to drink.
-

-

,

Principal Tenses,
I. Infinitive.
boi-re

II. P r è s . Ind.
je boi-j
tu boi-s
il boi-t
n. b\xv-ons
v. b\xv-ez
ils boiv-*»*

•

Derived Tenses.
\
2. Conditional.
i. Future.
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

bo\-x-ai
boi-r-tfj
boi-rwz
bok-x-ons
boi-r-^
boi-r-ont

i. Près. Subj.
que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

boiv-£
bo\v-es
boiv-*?
bxw-ions
buv-/V#
bo\M-ent

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

boi-r-tfw1
boi-r-#z'.y
boi-r-ait
boi-x-ions
boi-r-z'^s
boi-x-aient

2. Imperative.

—

boi-jqu'il boiv-£
buv-ons
buv-<?£
qu'ils boiy-ent

I I I . Prêt. Def. i. Prêt. Def. Subj.
Ind.
je
tu
il
n.

bus
bus
but
bûmes

v. bate

ils burent

I V . P r è s . Part.
b\xv-ant

que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

busse
busses
bût
bussions
bussiez
bussent

i. Imperfect.
j e bxw-ais
tu buv-#z>
il buv-tfzV
n. buy-ions
v. buv-z>£
ils bnv-aient

V. Past Part. i. Comp. Tenses.
1

bu, e

j ' a i bu

2. Près. Ind.

1st dr5 2nd p. plur.

—
—
—

n. bvn-ons
v. buv-<?£

—
2 Pass. Voice.
il est bu

FRENCH GRAMMAR.

119.—(2) Conclure, to conclude.

Derived Tenses.

Principal Tenses.
I. Infinitive.
conclu-r^

I L P r è s . Ind.
je conclu-.?
tu conclu-,?
il conclu-/
n. conclu-*?;/.?
v. conclu-^
1 ils Qonchx-ent

1. Future.
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

2. Conditional.

conclu-r-<»
conclu-r-tf.?
conclu-r-#
conclu-r-0/w
conclu-r-£z
conclu -x-ont

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

1. Près. Subj.
que je
que tu
qu' il
que n.
que v.
qu* ils

conclu-r-<2z'.r
conclu-r-tfw
conclu-ivwV
conclu-x-ions
conclu-r-z>0
coxiclu-x-aient

2. Imperfect.

conclu-^,
—
conclu-^
conclu-.?
conclu-^
qu'il conclue
conclu-âwz,?
conclu-0?w
conclu-^
conclu-^
c o n c l u - ^ / qu'ils coxic\vL-ent

I I I . Prêt. Def. 1. Prêt Def. Subj.

1

je
tu
il
n.
V;
ils

Ind.

conclu.?
concl-^.?
çond-ut
concl-^w^
concl-zte
cond-urent

I V . P r è s . Part.
i

conclu ~ant

que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

je conclu.?.?*?
tu concl-usses
il c o n c l u
n. concl-^.?.?^.?
v. concl-^.?.?z£z
ils concl-ussent

r. Imperfect.
je coxiclu-ats
tu conclu-^'.?
il conclu-^//
n. conclu-&/2J
v. conclu-z^z
ils conchi-atent

V . P a s t Part. 1. Comp. Tenses.
con cl -u, e

j'ai c o n c l u

2. P r è s . I n d .
1st, 2nd, ô ° 2>rdfi.plurJ

—
n. conclu-0^.?
v. conclu -ez
ils c o n c l u - ^ /

2. Pass. Voice. ]
il est concl-^

j

VERBS.

75

120.—(3) Connaître, to know
Derived Tenses.
2. Conditional.

Principal Tenses*
I. Infinitive.
connaît- re

II. P r è s . I n d .
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

connaW
connai-j
connaît
connaiss-^w
connaisse
connaiss-^z*

1. Future.
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

connaît-r-#z
connait-r-dtf
connaît-r-tf
connaît-r-tf7w
connaît-r-<?#
connaît-!--^

1. Près. Subj.
que
que
qu'
que
que
qu*

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

connaisse
connaiss-^r
connaisse
connaiss-z'<sw
connaiss-z>#
connaiss-^

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

connaît-r-tfzV
connaît-r-tfw
connaît-r-tfz'/
connaît-r-^^J 1
connaît-r-z>£
corm&it-T-aient

2. Imperative. !

—

connais
qu'il connaisse
connaiss-0/zj
connaisse
qu'ils connaissez 4

I I I . Prêt. Def. 1. Prêt. Def. Subj.
Ind.
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

corm-us
conn-us
corm-ut
conn-times
corm-ûtes
coim-urent

I V . P r è s . Part.

que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

zovca-usse
conr\-usses
conn-z^
comx-ussions
conn-usszez
coxm-ussent

1. Imperfect.

2. Près. Ind.'
1st, 2nd,

connaiss-^^if

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

connaiss-tfzV
connaiss-tf/jconnaiss-^zV
connaiss-z'<?;z.r
connaisse
connaisse ient

V . P a s t Part. 1. Comp. Ten ses.
corm-u, e
1

j ' a i conn-^

&>3rdp.pJur.

—
—
—

n. connaiss-tfw
v. c o n n a i s s e
ils connaiss-^z 1

2. Pass. Voice.
je suis conn-u, e
:

Note.—Paraître is conjugated like connaître.

_

1

?6

FRENCH GRAMMAR.

121.—(4) Croire, to believe.

Principal Tenses.
I. Infinitive.
croi-r<?

I I . P r è s . Ind.
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

crow
croi-jcroi-/
croy-ons
cxoy-ez
croi-ent

Derived Tenses.
1. Future.
2. Conditional
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

croi-iww
croi-r-«.y
croi-r-tf
croi-r-tf/w
croi-r-^0
cro\-r-ont

1. Près. Subj.
que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

croi-<?
croi-^r
croi-^
croy-ions
croy-iez
croi-ent

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

croi-r-tfzj
croi-r-tf£r
croi-r-tfzV
croi-r-z^j
croi-r-z^z
croi-r-aient

2. Imperative. 1

—

croi-j
qu'il croi-<?
croy-ons
croy-^j
qu'ils croi-ent

1

I I I . Prêt. Def. 1. Prêt. Def. Subj.
Ind.
je crus
tu crus
il crz/z*
n. crûmes
v. crûtes
ils crurent

1 I V . P r è s . Part.

que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

crusse
crusses
crût
crussions
crussiez
crussent

1. Imperfect

2. Près. Ind.
1 j / , 2/z<2?, & ^i'd fi. filurA

cxoy-ant

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

croy-ais
croy-ais
croy-ait
croy-ions
croy-iez
croy-aient

V . P a s t Part. 1. Comp. Tenses.
cru, <
?

j ' a i cru

—
—

—

1

n. croy-ons
v. croy-<?2
ils croi-ent

1

2. Pass Voice. |
je suis cru, e

VERBS.

77

122.—(5) Croître, to grow.
Principal Tenses.
I. Infinitive.
croit-r£

II. P r è s . Ind.
1
1

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

crow
croî-j
croî-t
crohs-ons1
croisse
cioiss-^

Derived Tenses.
1. Future.
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

croît-r-tfz"
croît-r-tf.?
croît-r-tf
crdit-r-ons
croît-r-«sr
croit-r-ont

2. Conditional.
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

cro\\-r-ais
croît-r-tfz'j
croii-x-ait
cro\x.-r-ions
cro\t-r-iez
croît-r-aient

1. Près. Subj.

2. Imperative. I

que
que
quJ
que
que
qu'

croî-jqu'il croisse
croiss-ons
croisse
qu'ils c r o i s s - ^ /

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

croisse
croisse
croiss-<?
croiss-zons
croisse
croiss-^* 1

—

1

1 III. Prêt. Def.1. Prêt. Def. Subj.
Ind.
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

crûs
crûs
crût
crûmes
crûtes
crûrent

I V . P r è s . Part.
1

crohs-ant

.

que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

crûsse
crûsses
crût
crûssions
crûssiez
crûssent

1. Imperfect.
je croiss-flw
tu croiss-tfzj
il croiss-##

1

n . croY3$>~ions

v. croiss-^z
ils cxo\s&-aient

V . P a s t Part. 2 T. Comp. Tenses.
crû, crue

j ' a i crû

2. P r è s . I n d .
1st, 2nd, 6 ° ^rdJ>.J>lur.
—
1

—

!

n. croiss-ons
v. c r o i s s e
ils croiss-m^

2. Pass. Voice.
je suis crû, crue

1
On the ss, see Reasons and Illustrations,
§ 317.
2
The Past Participle of accroître and décroître has no circumflex accent :
accru, décru.

?S

FRENCH GRAMMAR.
123.—(6) Lire, to read.

Principal Tenses.
I. Infinitive.
\\-re

I I . P r è s . Ind.
je X\-s
tu li-j
il 1Ï-*
n. lis-0/z.r1
v. lis-ez
ils lis-eitt

Derived Tenses.
1. Future.
2. Conditional, i
je li-x-ai
tu li-r-<w
il li-x-a
n. li-x-ons
v. Yi-x-ez
ils Yi-x-onû

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

1. Près. Subj.
que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

li-x-ais
li-x-ais
li-x-ait
li-r-w;2.y
li-x-iez
Yi-x-aient

2. Imperative.
—

je lis-£
tu lis-£f
il lis-<;
n. Y\s-ions
v. Yis-iez
ils lis-ent

li-j
qu'il lis-*?
lis-<?/z.y
lis-as
qu'ils lis-ent

I I I . Prêt. Def. 1. Prêt Def. Subj.
Ind.
je
tu
il
n.

l^ilus
1»/
lûmes

v. lzte

ils lurent

I V . Près. Part.
\1s-a71t

que je
que tu
qu' il
que n.
que v.
qu' ils

lusse
lusses
lût #
lussions
lussiez
lussent

1. Imperfect.
je lis-aÂ?
tu lis-<m
il lis-a&
n. lis-w;w
v. lis-&*
ils lis-aient

V . P a s t P a r t . 1. Comp. Tenses.
lu, e

j ' a i lu

2. Près. Ind.
—
—
—
I

n. lis-ons
v. lis-^r
ils lis-ent

2. Pass. Voice.
je suis lu, e

i
1

On the 5 in lisons, lisez, Sec. see Reasons and Illustrations,

§ 323.

VERBS.

79

124.—(7) Moudre, to grind.
Derived Tenses.

Principal Tenses,
I. Infinitive.
moud-?^

II. P r è s . Ind.
je moud-j"
tu moud-jii moudn. moul-ons1v. mouWs
ils moul-ent

1. Future.
, je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

2. Conditional.

moud-r-^'
moud-r-«j
moud-r-tf
moud-r-ons
moud-r-£?
moud-r-ont

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

moud-x-ais
moud-r-tfzV
moud-r-ait
moud-r-aww
moud-x-iez
moud-x-aient

i. Près. Subj.

2. Imperative.

que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

—
moud-j
qu'il rnoul-^
moul-ons
mou\-ez
qu'ils moul-ent

j

je mouW
tu moul-^y
il moul-*?
n. moul-ions
v. moul-iez
ilsmoul-^

1

I I I . Prêt. Def. i. Prêt. Def. Subj.
Ind.
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

moul-us
moul-tis
moul-#/
mouX-ûmes
moul-ûtes
moul-tirent

I V . P r è s . Part.
moul-antx
1

que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

je moul-ztsse
tu moul-usses
il moul-z2/
n. moul-ussions
v. moul-ussiez
Us moul-ussent

i. Imperfect.
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

moxd-aù
moul-aw
moul-aif
moul-ions
moul-iez
moul-aient

V . P a s t Part. i. Comp. Tenses.
rnoul-^

1

On the / in moulant,

j ' a i moul-#

2. Près. Ind.

—
—

!

n. moul-ons
v. moul-(?£
ils m o u l - ^

!

2. Pass. Voice.
je suis moul-^, e

motàons, & c , see Reasons and Illusti jtions,

§ 317

8o

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

125.—(8) Paître, to graze.
Derivt 9.d Tenses.

Principal Tenses.

I. Infinitive.
pa\X,-re

II. Près. Ind.
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

pai-j
pai-j
pzX-t
paiss-0;w
paiss-^z
paiss- ent

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

1. Future.
paît-r-tfz
paît-r-<z.r
paît-r-a:
pait-r-ons
paît-r-<?0
p&it-x-ont

1. Près. Subj.
que je paiss-<?
que tu p a i s s e
qu' il paiss-<?
que n. paiss-ions
que v. paiss-z>£
qu' ils paiss-m^

III. P r ê t . Def.
Ind.

1. Imperfect,
je pa\ss-ais
tu paiss-ais
il paiss-ait
n. paiss-ions
v. paiss-^0
ils paiss- aient

2. Imperative.
pai-j
qu'il paiss-^
paiss-ons
paiss-^
qu'ils paiss-ent

1. Prêt. Def. Subj.

l l V . P r è s . Part.

2. Conditional,
j e -paît-r-ais
tu paît-r-ais
il paît-r-ait
n. paît-r-â?#j
v. paît-r-z>z
|
ils paît-r-aient

•p&iss-ant

V. P a s t P a r t .
pu

(nofem.)

2. Près. Ind.

n. paiss-ons
v. paiss-^z
ils paiss-ent

'

1. Comp. Tenses,
j'ai pu

Note 1.—Repaître, to feed, has a Prêt. Def. Ind. and Subj. : je
repus, que je repusse.
Note 2.—The general meaning of paître is to graze, to feed upon ;
but it is also used in the sense of taking to pasture, taking to graze :
il vient de paître son troupeau; and thirdly, it means to feed (term of
falconry), paître l'oiseau.

VERBS.

Si

126.—(9) Plaire, to please.

Principal Tenses.
I. Infinitive.
pl&i-re

II. P r è s . I n d .
,
1

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

plaw
plai-j
plai-^f
plais-<?ky
plzxs-ez
plais-<?/^

Derived Tenses.
1. Future.
2. Conditional.
je plai-r-tf/
tu plvl-x-as
il plai-r-tf
n. plai-r-ons
v. plai-r-<?#
ils p l a i - r - ^

je plai-r-tfw
tu plok-x-ais
il p\si-x-ait
n. pldi-x-ions
v. plai-r-*>#
ils pl&i-x-aient

1. Près. Subj.

2. Imperative.

que je
que tu
qu' il
que n.
que v.
qu' ils

plai-s
qu'il plais-*?
plais-07«
plais-^
qu'ils phXs-ent

plaise
plais-^r
plaise
plais-z'^j 1
plais-zVs
plais-ent

—

I I I . P r ê t . Def. 1. Prêt. Def. Subj.
Ind.
je plz^r
tu plus
il Tplut
n. plûmes
v. flûtes
ils plurent

I V . P r è s . Part.
plais-#?^

que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

je plusse
tu plusses
il pW
n. plussions
v. -plussiez
ils plussent

1. Imperfect.
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

plais-ais
plais-ais
plais -ait
pl&xs-ions
plais-^
ptàis-aient

2. Près. Ind.

—
—

1

—
n. plais-0/z.y
v. plais-02
ils pl&is-ent

V . P a s t P a r t . 1. Comp. Tenses.
j ' a i plu
plu
G

1
!

S2

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

127.—(10) R é s o u d r e , 1. to decide^ 2. to reduce.
Derived Tenses.
1
1. Future.
2. Conditional. :

Principal Tenses.
Infinitive.

je résoud-r-#z, &c.

résoud-r^

I I . P r è s . Ind.

;

je résou-j
tu résou-J
il r é s o u t
n. résolv-07^ x
v. r é s o l v e
ils résolv-m^

je résoud-r-ais, &c.i

1. Près. Subj.

2. Imperative.
—
1

que
que
qu'
que
que
qu5

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

résolve
résolv-^r
résolve
vésolv-ions
résolve
iéso\v-ent

résou-j
qu'il résolve
résolv-ons
résolve
qu'ils résolv-*?^

1
!

I I I . P r ê t . Def. 1. Prêt. Def. Subj.
Ind.
i

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

résol-us
résol-us
résol-ut
résolûmes
résol-utes
xésol-urent

V. Près. Part.
xèsolv-antx

résol-usse
résol-usses
résol-^
résol-ussions
résol-ussiez
résol-usseni

1. Imperfect.
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

'

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

résoly-a^y 1
résolv-#z>
résolv-ait
résolv-ions
résolv-z>#
résolv-aient

2. Près. Ind. i
—
—
—
n. r é s o l v - c ^
v. résolves
ils résolv-eut

V. P a s t P a r t . 1. Comp. Tenses,
(1) résol-^, e
(2) résous (no fem.)

j ' a i résol-z*

Note 1 . — A b s o u d r e , to absolve, and d i s s o u d r e , to dissolve, are
conjugated like résoudre, only they have no Prêt. Def. ; their Past
Part, is absous, absoute, dissous, dissoute {dissolu is an adjective, and
means profligate, dissolute).
Note 2 . — R é s o l u = determined, decided ; r é s o u s = turned,
changed, reduced: brouillard résous en pluie, fog turned into rain.
1

On the z\ see Reasons* &c., § 317.

VERBS.

83

128.—(11) Taire, to keep secret.
Principal Tenses.
I. Infinitive.
tai-r,?

II. P r è s . Ind.

1

je tai-j
tu tax-s
il \3i-t
n, tais-ons
v. t&is-ez
ils tais-m/

Derived Tenses.
2. Conditional.
1. Future.
je tai-r-ai
tu tai-r-flj
il tai-r-<z
n. tax-x-ons
v. tax-x-ez
ils tai-r-0/z/

1. Près. Subj.
que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

je tais-^
tu tais-£y
il tais--*
n. tais-ions
v. tais-iez
ils tais-iftf

je taX-x-ais
tu tai-x-ais
il tai-x-ait
n. tai-r-âp/w
v. tai-x-iez
ils tai-r-<2^/

1
I

2. Imperative. I

—

tai-j
qu'il

'

tahs>-e

1

tais-0;w
tais-^0
qu'ils tais-m/

III. Prêt. Bef. 1. Prêt. Def. Subj.
Ind.
1

|

je
tu
il
n.

tus
tus
t#£
tûmes

v. tzte

ils turent

IV. Près. Part.
tais-ant

que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

tusse
tusses
tût
tussions
tussiez
tussent

il Imperfect.

2. Près. Ind.

je taXs-ais
tu tais-<m
il taSs-ait
n. tais-^^j
v. tais-2>2
ils tdàs-aient

—

z

n. tais-^^j*
v. taxiez
ils tais-eni

V . P a s t Part. 1. Comp. Tenses.
tû, £

j'ai tû

Note.—Se t a i r e means to be silent : je me tais, tu te tais, il se tait ;
je me taisais, tu te taisais, il se taisait ; je me suis tû, tu fes tû, il
s'est tû, &c.
G 2

§4

FRENCH GRAMMAR.
129.—(12) V i v r e , to live.

1 Principal Tenses.

Derived Tenses.
2. Conditional.

I. Infinitive.

T. Future.

Vw-re

je viv-r-tfz'
tu viv-r-#.r
il viv-r-tf
n. viv-r-0/z.f
v. viv-r-^z
ils MVJ-x-ont

je viv-r-az>
tu viv-r-tfz>
il viv-r-ait
n. viv-r-zi?/w
v. viv-r-zVz
ils viv-x-aient

1. Près. Subj.

2. Imperative.

que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

vi-J
qu'il viv-é?
viv-tf/w
viv-£s
qu'ils ViY-ent

II. P r è s . Ind.
.
j

je vis
tu Y'I-S
il vi-t
n. viv-ons
v. viv-ez
ils \iv-enl

je viv-^
tu Yiv-es
il viv-<?
n. Vw-ions
v. viv-iez
ilsviv-^

^
—

III. Prêt. Def. 1. Prêt. Def. Subj.
Ind. 1
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

véc-us
véc-us
vèc-ut
véc-ûrnes
véc-ûtes
véc-urent

I V . P r è s . Part.
viv-ant

que je
que tu
qu' il
que n.
que v.
qu' ils

véc-usse
vêc-usses
vèa-ût
véc-ussions
\éc-ussiez
véc-ttssent

1. Imperfect.
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

viv-ais
viv-tfz'.?
viv-ait
Yiv-zons
YÏv-iez
Viv-aient

2. Près. Ind.

—
—
—

n. viv-ons
v. viv-<?#
ils viv-ent

V . P a s t Part. 1. Comp. Tenses.
véc-^ (no fem.)

1

j'ai véc-^

See Reasons and Illustrations,

§ 323 (5), (note to vivre).

VERBS.

85

130.—bb. Those with an irregular Future.
(1) Courir, to run.
Principal Tenses.
I. Infinitive.
cowx-ir

I I . P r è s . Ind.
je cour-s
tu COUY-S

!

il
n.
V.
ils

cour-zf
com-ons
COVLY-âZ
couv-ent

Dej'ived Tenses.
2. Conditional.
1. Future.
je
tu
il
n.
V,
ils

cour-r-ai 1
cour-r-tfj
com-r-a
œuY-Y-ons
COUY-Y-eZ
com-Y-ont

1. Près. Subj.
que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

com-e
cour-^r
couY-e
couY-wns
com-tez
co\XY-ent

je cour-r-ais
tu com-Y-ais
il coviY-Y-ait

n. cour-r-^^j"
V. COVLY-Y-teZ
ils com-Y-aient

2. Imperative.
—

cour-j
qu'il cour-*?
cour-tf/w
cour-<?#
qu'ils couY-ent

I I I . Prêt. Def. 1. Prêt. Def. Subj.
Ind.
je COVLY-US

i

tu
il
n.
v.
ils

cour-^f
cour-z^
çour-dmes
coux-ûtes
com-urent

que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

com-usse
couY-usses
couY-ût
com-ussions
com-ussiez
QOMY-ussent

I V . P r è s . Part.

1. Imperfect.

coux-ant

je com-àis
tu com-ats
il cour-tfzV
n. couY-ions
v. coviY-iez
ils couY-aient

2. Près. Ind.
—
—

11. couY-ons
v. cour-<?0
ils cowc-ent

V . P a s t Part. 1. Comp. Tenses.
COUY-U
1

j ' a i COVLY-U

See above, § 96, and Reasons, &c, § 313, N. iii. (a).

86

FRENCH GRAMMAR.
131.—(2) D é c h o i r , to decay.

Principal Tenses.
j I. Infinitive.
j

déch-oir

I I . P r è s . Ind.
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

déchoW
déchoi-jdéchoi-/
déchoy-ons
déchoy-ez
déchoi-mzf

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

Derived Tenses.
1. Future.
2. Conditional.
1
décher-r-ai
décher-r-^j
décher-r-<3
décher-r-<?^j
décher-r-é^
décher-r-<?;zif

1. Près. Subj.
que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

déchoie
déchoi-6f
déchoie
déchoy-ions
déchoy-iez
déchoi ent

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

décher-r-ais
décher-r-«z.r
déch&c-x-ait
déchex-x-ioits
décher-r-^
décher-r-tf/<f7z/

2. Imperative.
—

déchoie
qu'il déchoie
déchoy-ons
déchoy-^
qu'ils d é c h o i - ^ /

I I I . Prêt. Def. 1. Prêt. Def. Subj.
Ind.
!

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

déch-us
déch-^.?
déch-uû
dêch-ûmes
déch-ûtes
déch-urent

I V . P r è s . Part.

que je
que tu
qu' il
que n.
que v.
qu' ils

déch-usse
déch-usses
déclw2/
déch-ussions
déchaussiez
déch-ussent

1. Imperfect,
je
tu
il
n,
v.
ils

déchoy-ais
déchoy-ais
déchoy-ait
déchoy-ions
déchoy-z'<?0
déchoy-aient

V . P a s t Part. 1. Comp. Tenses.
je suis déch-^, e
déch-u
1

See above, § 96, and Reasons, & c , § 313, N . iii. (a).

,

VERBS.

87

132.--(3) Devoir, to owe, to be forced.

r
j Principal Tenses.
I. Infinitive.

Derived Tenses.
1. Future.
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

dey-oir

II. P r è s . Ind.
je dois
tu doi-s
il doi-2f
n. dey-ons
y. dey-ez
ils doiy-ent

dev-r-ai 1
dey-x-as
dev-r-#
dev-r-<??z.r
dey-x-ez
dey-x-ont

2. Conditional.
j e dev-r-ais
tu dey-x-ais
il dey-x-ait
n. dev-r-^^j
v. dev-r-zVz
ils dey-x-aient

1. Près. Subj.

2. Imperative. 1

que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

doi-J1
qu'il doiv-<?
dey-ons
dey-ez
qu'ils doiy-ent

je doiv-<?
tu do\y-es
il doiv-<?
n. dey-ions
v. dev-z>#
ils doiy-ent

—

I I I . Prêt. Def. 1. Prêt. Def. Subj.
Ind.
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

dus
dus
d^/
dûmes
dz^j"
durent

que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

dusse
dusses
dût
dussions
dussiez
dussent

I V . P r è s . Part.

1. Imperfect.

dev-#^

je dev-tfz'.?
tu dev-âtz>
il dey-ait
n. dey-ions
v. dev-z<?#
ils dey-aient

Hv\ P a s t Part. T. Comp. Tenses.
j'ai dû
dû; f. due
1

2. Près. Ind.

—
^
n. dey-ons
v. dey-ez

—
2. Pass. Voice.
il est dû
elle est due

See above, § 96, and Reasons, & c , § 313, N. ii.

(

88

FRENCH GRAMMAR.
133.—(4) Mourir, to die.

Principal Tenses.
I. Infinitive.
1

mour-z>

I I . P r è s . Ind.

'

je meur-j 1
tu meur-j*
il meur-/
n. mom-ons
v. mour-02:
ils mem-ent

Derived Tenses.
2. Conditional.
1. future.

je mour-r-aix
tu mour-r-tf.?
il mour-r-a:
n. mour-r-tf^
v. mour-r-<?£
ils mour-r-<?;z/

je mour-r-ais
tu mouv-r-aù
il mour-r-##
n. mouY-Y-zons
v. mouY-Y-zez
ils mouY-Y-aient

1. Près. Subj.

2. Imperative.
—

que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

meur-^
meur-^j
meur-<?
mom-zons
mouT-tez
mern-mt

meur-.?
qu'il meur-^
moxar-ons
mowx-ez
qu'ils mQUY-ent

I I I . Prêt. Def. 1. Prêt. Def. Subj.
Ind.
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

mowx-ns
mour-^r
mour-z^
moxar-ûmes
moMi-ûfes
moux-urent

I V . P r è s . Part.
mom-ant

que je
que tu
qu' il
que n.
quev.
qu' ils

mom-usse
mom-usses
mour-^/
mom-ussions
mour-ussiez
mom-ussent

1. Imperfect.
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

mom-azs
mour-ais
mom-ait
mour-wns
mouY-tez
mom-aunt

V . P a s t Part.

—

n. moMv-ons
v. mour-^

—

1. Comp. Tenses.

mort, e

2. Près. Ind.
—
—

je suis mort, e

1

See above, § 96, and Reasons, Sec, § 313, N . iv.

1
1

89

VERBS.

134.—(5) Mouvoir, to move.
Principal Tenses.
I. Infinitive.
mouv-oir

Derived Tenses.
1. Future.
je mouv-r-ai x
tu mouv-r-tfj
il mouv-r-tf
ri. mouw-Y-ons
v. mouv-r-<?0
ils mouv-Y-ont

II. P r è s . I n d .
je meu-s
tu meus
1
il meu-/
n. mouv-ons
v. mouv-fô
ils meuv-^/z/

2. Conditional.
je mouv-r-ais
tu mouv-r-ais
il mouv-r-ait
n. mouv-r-zVw.9
v. mouv-r-^2
ils mouv-r-aient

1. Près. Subj.
que je meuv-^
que tu meuv-£f
qu' il meuv-<?
que n. mouv-ions
que v. mouv-iez
qu' ils meuv-ent

2. Imperative.
—
meu-j"
qu'il meuv-e
mouv-ons
mouv-^
qu'ils m e u v - ^

I I I . P r ê t . Def. 1. Prêt. Def. Subj.
Ind.
je mus
que je musse
tu mus
que tu musses
il mz<tf
qu' il mût
n. mûmes
que n. mussions
v. mzto
que v mussiez
ils murent
qu' ils mussent
I V . P r è s . Part.
mouv-tf/^

V . P a s t Part.
mû, mue
1

1. Imperfect.
je mouv-tfi.r
tu mouv-tf/j*
il mouv-ait
n. mouv-îw
v. mouv-z>2
ils mouv-fl/^^

2, Près. Ind.
—
—
—
n. mouv-ons
v. mouv-ez
—

1. Comp. Tenses.
j'ai mû

2. Pass. Voice,
je suis mû, e

See Reasons, &c , § 313, N. ii.

1

I

9o

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

135.—(6) Pouvoir, to be able.
Principal Tenses.
I. Infinitive.

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

poKY-oir

II. P r è s . Ind.
je
tu
il
n.

Derived Tenses.
1. Future.

V. pOUV-<?2

ils peuY-ent

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

pour-r-ais
pour-r-#z>
poux-x-ait
pour-r-z^j"
pour-r-zVs
poux-x-aient

1. Près. Subj.
que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

peu-# (puis)
peu-#
peu-/
powY-ons

1 2. Conditional,

pour-r-ai x
pour-r-^
pour-r-tf
poux-x-ons
poux^x-ez
poux-x-ont

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

puisse
puisse
puiss-<?
puiss-z^^j"
puiss-zez
pu\ss-ent

I I I . Prêt. Def. 1. Prêt. Def.Subj.
Ind.
je
tu
il
n.
Y.
ils

pus
pus
put
pûmes
pûtes
purent

que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

je
tu
il
ri.
v.
ils

pusse
pusses
pût
pussions
pussiez
pussent

I V . P r è s . Part. I 1. Imperfect,
je pouY-ais
tu pouv-ats
il pouv-^V
n. pouY-ions
v. pouY-zez
ils pouv-aient

pou.Y-ant

V . P a s t Part.

pu

2. Près. Ind.

n. pouv-0;z.r
v. poMY-ez
\

1. Comp. Tenses.

1

j'ai,pu

Note.—For the interrogative form, only fiuis-je is used.
1

See above, § 96, and Reasons^ & c , § 313.

VERBS

9î

136.—(7) R e c e v o i r , to receive.
Derived Tenses.

Principal Tenses.
I . Infinitive.
recev-tfzr

II. P r è s . Ind.
je reçoi-j
tu reçoi-i*
il r e ç o i s
n. recev-ons
v. recev-ez
ils reçoiv-ent

1. Future.

1

2. Conditional.

je recev-r-ai1
tu recev-r-ûy
il recev-r-#
n. recev-r-0/^
v. recev-r-<?#
ils recev-r-ont

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

1. Près. Subj.

2. Imperative.
—

que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

reçoive
reçoiv-^
reçoive
recev-ions
recev-iez
reçoiv-ent

recev-r-ais
recev-r-ais
recev-r-ait
recev-r-ions
recev-r-z>2
recev-r-aient

|

reçoi-j
qu'il reçoiv-<?
recev-ons
recev-ez
qu'ils reçoive?;/

I I I . Prêt. Def. 1. Prêt. Def. Subj.
Ind.
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

rec-us
reç-us
reç-ut
rec-ûmes
reç-ûtes
reçurent

I V . P r è s . Part.
recev-ant

que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

reç-usse
reç-usses
reç-ût
reç-ussions
reç-ussiez
reç-ussent

1. Imperfect
je
tu
il ;
n.
v.
ils

recev-ais
recev-ais
recev-ait
recev-ions
iecev-iez
recev-aient

\ V . P a s t Part. 1. Comp. Tenses.
reç-u, e

j'ai reç-&5

2. Près. Ind.

|

—

1

n. recev-ons
v. recev-ez

I

—

i

—
—

2. Pass. Voice.
je suis reç-u, e

.
Note.—Conjugate like recevoir all Verbs in -cevoir [apercevoir^
concevoir).
See above, § 96, and Reasotts, & c , § 313, N . ii.

92

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

l

37-—(8) Savoir, to know.

Principal Tenses.
I . Infinitive.
sav-oir

I L P r è s . Ind.

1

j e sai-j
tu sai-jil sai-^
n. sav-ons
v. sav-<?#
ils s&v-ent

Derived Tenses.
i. Future.
2. Conditional.

je sau-r-aix
tu sau-r-a^
il sau-r-tf
n. sau-r-ons
v. sau-r-<?£
ils sau-r-0?^

je sau-r-ais
tu sau-r-<m
il sau-r-tfz/
n. sau-r-ions
v. sau-r-2tf£
ils s&w-x-aient

i. Près. Subj.

2. Imperative.
—

que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

sach-^
sach-^
sach-<?
sach-tons
sach-2>^
S3.ch.-ent

sach-£
qu'il sach-<?
s&ch-ons
sach-ez
qu'ils sa.ch.-ent

I I I . Prêt. Def. i. Prêt. Def. Subj.
Ind.
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

sus
sus
sz^
sûmes
s^to
surent

I V . P r è s . Part.
sach-tf/^

que je
que tu
qu' il
que n.
que v.
qu' ils

susse
susses
sût
sussions
sussiez
sussent

i. Imperfect.
je say-aïs
tu sav-ais
il sav-ait
n. sav-ions
v. s&v-iez
ils s&v-aient

1 V . P a s t Part. i. Comp. Tenses.
su, e
1

j'ai su

2. Pass. Voice. 1
il est su
elle est sue

See above, § 96, and Reasons, Sec, § 313, N. iii. (à).

VERBS.

93

138.—(9) V a l o i r , to be worth.
Principal Tenses.
1 I.

II.

Infinitive.
vdl-oir

Près. Ind.
je vau-#
tu vau-#
il vau-/
n. val-ons
v. val-ez
ils val-ent

Derived Tenses.
1. Future.
j e vaud-r-ai x
tu vaud-r-^jil vaud-r-#
n. va,ud-r-ons
v. vaud-r-^s"
ils vaud-r-0/^
1.
que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

2. Conditional.
j e vaud-r-ais
tu vaud-r-#i>
il vaud-r-^V
n. vaud-v-ions
v. vaud-r-z>#
ils vaud-r-#z>;z/

Près. Subj.
j e vaille
tu vaill-^r
il vaille
n. val-ions
v. val-iez
ils vaill-^zf

2. Imperative.
—
vau-.#
qu'il vaille
val-ons
val-ez
qu'ils vaill-ent

III.
1

P r ê t . Def. 1. Prêt. Def. Subj.
Ind.
j e val-^i"
que j e val-usse
tu val-us
que tu val-usses
il val-ut
qu' il Yal-ét
n. vsl-émes
que n. val-ussions
v. val-^to
que v. val-ussiez
ils val-urent
qu' ils val-ussent

I V . P r è s . Part.
•val-ant

V . P a s t Part.
val-u

1. Imperfect.
je val-azs
tu val-ais
il val-ait
n. val-ions
v. val-iez
ils val-aient

2. Près. Ind.

n. val-ons
v. val-ez
ils v a l - ^

1. Comp. Tenses.
j ' a i val-u
1

Note.—Prévaloir, to prevail, is conjugated in the same manner,
except in the Subj. Près., which is : que je prévale, prévales, prévale,
prévalions, &c.
1
See Reasons, &c, § 313, and above, § 96.

94

FRENCH GRAMMAR.
139.—(10) Vouloir, to wish, to be willing.

Principal Tenses.
I. Infinitive.
vovl-oi?

II. P r è s . Ind.

n. YOMI-OHS

I

jevoud-r-ai1
tu voud-r-tf J
il voud-r-<2
n. YovA-x-ons
v. YovA-x-ez
ils Youd-r-ont

î. Près. Subj.
que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

je veu-.#
tu Yeu-x
il veu-^
j

Derived Tenses.
1. Future.

v. Yovl-ez
ils Y&A-ent

je veuill-<?
tu veuill-£?
il veuill-<?
n. Yovl-ions
v. Youl-iez
ils v e u i l l - ^

1 2. Gonditional.
je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

voud-r-ais
YOvA-x-ais
Youà-x-ait
YOvA-x-ions
vouà-r-ùz
Yowà-x-aient

2. Imperative.
i

veuille

I I I . Prêt. Def. 1. Prêt. Def. Subj.
Ind.
je voul-fctf
tu voul-^j
il voul-z^
n. YO\A-ûmes
v. YO\\\-ûtes
ils Youl-urenf

IV. Près. Part.

que
que
qu'
que
que
qu'

je
tu
il
n.
v.
ils

1. Imperfect,
je
tu
il
n.
Y.
ils

voul-tf^

Youl-usse
Youl-usses
voul-^
Youl-usszons
YQvl-ussiez
Youl-ussent

voul-<m
voul-<m
YOiû-aù
Youl-ions
Youl-zez
Yovl-ate7tt

2. Près. Ind.

n. Youl-ons
Y. YOlÛ-eZ

V . P a s t P a r t . 1. Comp. Tenses,
j'ai voul-z*

VOul-2^

1

See above, § 96, and Reasons, Sec, § 313.

95

Principal

Derive */ Tenses.

Tenses.

I. Infinitive.

i . Future,
il faud-r-a x

faXL-oir

IL Près. Ind.
il faut

2.

Conditional.
il faud-r-ait
|

i . P r è s . Subj.
qu'il faille

III. Prêt. Def.
Ind.

i . P r ê t Def. Subj.

il fa\l-ut

qu'il fall-#7

IV. Près. Part.
V. Past Part.
fall-»

i.

Imperfect.
il fall-ait

i. Comp. Tenses,
il a fall-» 2

iVfà?.—There are two w.ays of expressing the English I must, thou
must, he must, &c. :—
I must finish : il faut que je finisse, or il me faut finir
Thou must write : il faut que tu écrives, or il te faut écrire
H e must go : il faut qu'il aille, or il lui faut aller
W e must leave : il faut que nous partions t or il nous faut partir
You must come : il faut que vous veniez, or il vous faut venir
They must sell : il faut qu'ils vendent, or il leur faut vendre
1

See Reasons, & c , § 313.
T h e Compound Tenses of falloir are : Infin. avoir fallu, to have been necessary ; Fut. il aura fallu, it will have been necessary ; Condit. il aurait fallu, it
would have been necessary ; Prêt. Def. Ind il a fallu, it has been necessary ;
Prêt. Indef Subj. qu'il ait fallu, that it -may have been necessary ; Past Ant.
il eut fallu, it had been necessary ; Prêt. Ant. Subj. qu'il eût fallu, that it might
have been necessary; Pluperf. il avait fallu, it had been, necessary;
Partie.
ayant fallu, having been necessary.
2

96

FRENCH GRAMMAR.
141.—Pleuvoir, to rain.
Derived Tenses.

Principal Tenses.
I, Infinitive.

1. Future.

1 2. Conditional. 1

ylewf-oir

il pleuv-r-a

il pleuv-r-ait

1 II. Près. Ind.

1. Près. Subj.

il pleut *

qu'il pléuv-*

III. Prêt. Def. i. Prêt.Def. Subj.
Ind.
il plut

qu'il plut

IV. Près. Part.

i. Imperfect,

•plevLv-ant

il pleuv-tfzV

V. Past Part. i. Comp. Tenses,
plu

il a plu

142.—The following Verbs have no Prêter. Defin. :
paître (§ 125), traire (§ i n ) , luire (§ 100), absoudre
(§ 127), dissoudre (§ 127).
143.—Several Verbs are used only in the Infinitive
and Participle: o u ï r * and ouï (to hear), quérir (to
fetch)? forfaire (forfait), méfaire (to do evil), m'alfaire
(to do mischief), t i s s u , issu, derived from the old Infinitives tistre 3 (to weave) and i s s i r * (to issue).
Of the Verbs mentioned in §§ 144—157, the following
tenses only are in use :—
1
Figuratively speaking, pleuvoir is also used in the 3rd Pers. Plur., e g. les
ballespleuvent, pleuvaient de toutes parts.
2
This Verb is especially used after the Infinitives aller, envoyer, venir : envoyez quérir le médecin, send for the doctor.
% T h e synonvm of tistre is tisser, which is conjugated l i k e / a ^ / e n

VERBS.

97

144.—Apparoir (law) to be apparent : il appert.
145.—Braire (to bray) : // brait, ils braient ; il braira,
ils brairont ; il brairait, ils brairaient; quHl braie; quHls
braient; brayant.
146.—Bruire, to roar, to rustle; Imperf., il bruyait,
ils bruyaient;x Près. Part., bruyant.
147.—Choir, 2 to fall: Past. Part, chu, chue (only used
in Poetry).
148.—Clore, to close : je clos, tu clos, il clôt ; je clorai,
& c ; je clorais; Imper., clos ; Past. Part, clos, close.
149.—De'ce voir, to deceive, is used only in the Past
Part, déçu, déçue.
150.—Défaillir,* to faint, to fail; notes défaillons, vous
défaillez, ils défaillent ; je défaillis ; je défaillais, tu défaillais, &c. ; défailli.
151.—Echoir, to be due, to fall to, is conjugated like
déchoir (§ 131), but has no Imperative nor a Present of
the Subjunctive; in the Près. Indie, the 3rd Person
Sing, and Plur. only is in use : // échet or il échoit (pronounced like échei), ils échéent or ils échoient ; Près. Part.,
échéant.
152,—Eclore, (1) to be hatched, (2)Jo blow (flowers) :
// éclôt, ils éclosent; quHl èclose, qu'ils éclosent; il éclôra,
ils éclôront; il éclôrait, ils éclôt'aient; Past Part., éclos, éclose.
153.—Faillir,* to fail:*
Prêt. Def., je faillis, tu
faillis, &c. ; f aillant ; failli. The forms je faux, tu faux,
il faut, nous f aillons, vous f aillez, ils f aillent ; je f aillais,
&c. ; je faudrai or je faillirai are very seldom used, and
only in familiar language.
1

We also find brtiissetit, hruissaient (Chateaubr.)
See Reasons, & c , §§ 313 and 323 (C).
Followed by an Infinitive, this Verb means nearlyi
elle a failli tomber, she nearly'fell.
2

3

to he on the fioint of:

H

FRENCH

98

GRAMMAR.

154.—Frire, to fry: Près. Ind., je fris, he fis, il
frit ; je frirai, tu finiras, &c. ; je frirais, &c. ; Imperat.,
fris ; Past Part., frit, frite.
The tenses which are
wanting are supplied by the Infinitive preceded by faire:
nous faisons frire, je faisais frire, &c.
155.—Gésir, to lie:, Près. Ind. 3rd Pers. Sing., gît,
Plur. n. gisons,1 gisez, gisent; Imperf., gisais, &c. ; Près.
Part, gisant: ci-gît, here lies.
156.—a. Seoir, (1) to become, to fit: il sied, ils siéent;
il seyait, ils seyaient ; il siéra, ils siéront ; il siérait, ils
siéraient; seyant : (2) to sit, to be situated: séant (sitting),
sis, sise (situated).
(b) S u r s e o i r , to suspend: je sursois, tu sursois, il
sursoit, n. sursoyons, v. sursoyez, ils sursoient; je sursis*
&c. :' que je sursisse, &c. ; Imperf., je sursoyais ; Imper.,
sursois, sursoyons, sursoyez; F u t , surseoirai, & c ; Cond.,
surseoirais, &c.
157.—Sourdre, to spring out : Près. 3rd Pers. Sing.,
sourd, PL sourdent (F eau sourd de la terre).
E

On the pronunciation of the s in gisons, &c , see § té.

CHAPTER î l . — A R T I C L E S (ARTICLES.^ 1

158.—There are three Articles in French: the Definite,
the Indefinite, and the Partitive.

159.—I. T h e Definite Article.
Sing.

Masc. le,
Fern, la,

Plur.

Y \ before a
r J *£t°;[a

les
les

the
the

160.—As there is no Declension proper,2 the Norm.
native 3 of a noun is indicated by its place before, the
Accusative by its place after, the verb. As to the other
cases, the want of inflections is supplied by Prepositions.
De (of front) serves to form the Genitive, à (to, at) the
Dative.
Nom.
Gen. de
Dat. à
Ace.

Jean
Jean
Jean
Jean

Jdhn
John's4*
to John
John

mon père
my
de mon père of my
à mon père to my
mon père
my

father
father
father
father

161.—-With the two Prepositions de and à, the Def.
1

See Reasons, Sec, § 332.
See Introduction to Reasons, & c , § 278.
It is for the sake of convenience only that we retain the names of
native, Genitive, &c.
4
Or of, from
John,
2
3

H

2

Nomi-

FRENCH

IOO

GRAMMAR.

Art. forms the following contractions : de le = du ; de
les = des ; à le — au ; à les = aux. Thus we get
Singular.
Masc.

Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.

le
du
au
le

Fem.

Plural.

Masc. & Fem.

la
de la
à la
la

r

del'

àr

Y

Masc & Fem.

les
des
aux
les

the
of the
to the
the

162.—Le and la are used before words beginning 1vith
a consonant or an h aspirate; l\ de l\ à 1% before words
beginning with a vowel or an h miite.
Singular.

Nom. Le livre
la femme
Gen. du livre de la femme
Dat. au livre à la femme
Ace. le livre
la femme

Plural

/'oncle
de /'oncle
à /'oncle
/'oncle

les plumes
des plumes
aux plumes
les plumes

163.—The words Monsieur, Madame, Monseigneur (followed by
a title), and the pronoun tout always separate the Def. Art. from the
Prep, de and à, and consequently do not allow these words to form
any contractions : La filus belle fleur de tout le jardin; Voici la lettre
de Monsieur le comte.
164.—II. T h e I n d e f i n i t e A r t i c l e .
Nom.
Gen.
Dat
Ace.

Masc.
un
dPun
à un
un

a
of a
to a
a

Fem.
une
•f'une
à une
une

a
of a
to a
a

The Part. Art. des may be used to supply the plural
of un :
Un habit—r!es habits ; une poire—des poires.

ARTICLES.

101

i«5- — I I I . T h e P a r t i t i v e Article.
Singular.
Masc.

Nom. du
Gen. , de
Dat. ài du
Ace. du

Fern.

de la
de
à de la
de la

d e

I

\

0.

1 a vowel

& de 1

1

Plural.
Masc. & Fern*

Masc. & Fem.

before
Minute

del' )

des
de (d')
à des
des

166.—This Article represents the English some or any
(expressed or understood), and must be employed before
Nouns which designate not the wlwle, but only a part
of the persons or things named.
N . lyu vin vaut mieux que du
cidre
G. Une tasse de lait
D . Ce métal ressemble à du fer
A. Donne-moi de /'encre et
des plumes

Wine is better than cider
A cup of milk
This metal resembles iron
Give me {some) ink and (some)
J>ens

167.—The Genitive o^ the Part. Art. de must be used
after—
(1) All Substantives (k,/<f, douzaine, &c.) and Adverbs
expressing Quantity and Measure :—
Peu, 1 moins, plus, trop, t a n t ;
beaucoup, combien, assez, autant,

(2) All Adverbs of Negation .
ne...pas
ne... point
ne... guère

no
no
scarcely any

I l a assez ^/'argent
Combien de livres avez-vous
ï l a autant de maisons que son
frère
ï l n'a point de dettes

ne... jamais
n e . . . rien
ne...plus

never
nothing
' no more

He has enough money
How many books have you ?
He has as many houses as his
brother
He has no debts.

1
Little, less, more, too muck (many), so much ; much, ho%v much,
as much [many)

enough,

102

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

Except.—Bien and la plupart are always followed by de and the
Def. Art. : bien des personnes (or beaucoup de personnes) ; la plupart
des hommes. N . B. Many others is : bien Vautres.

168.—When the Noun taken in a partitive sense is
preceded by an Adj., de alone serves to express the
Norn. Gen. Ace, and à de the Dative.
Singular.
N.
de bon vin
G.
de bon vin
13. à de bon vin
A.
de bon vin

Plural.
de bons enfants
de bons enfants
à de bons enfants
de bons enfants

Except.—The Definite Article is used instead of de before some
Nouns preceded by an Adjective, especially when the Adjective
and the Noun form only one word :—
du petit-lait
des petits-enfants
des petites-maisons
des grands-maîtres
du bon sens
des jeunes gens
des jeunes personnes
de la bonne volonté

whey
grand-children
madhouses
grand-masters
common sense
young men
young ladies
willingness

N . B . — D e petits enfants means little children ; <& grands maîtres,
great masters.

CHAPTER

III.—NOUNS (SUBSTANTIFS).

I. Plural of Nouns. 1
169.-— General Rule.

The plural of a Noun is formed

b y a d d i n g S t o t h e s i n g u l a r : 2 le frère, les frères ; la sœur, les
sœurs.

170.—Special Rides.
formed—

The plural of Nouns is also

(1) By adding x to the singular— z
a. Of all Nouns in au 3 and eu.
b. Of seven Nouns in oils:
bijou, caillou, chou ;
genou, hibou, joujou, p o u : 4
e.g. le château, les châhaux ; le feu, les feux ; le bijou, les bijoux.
All the other Nouns in ou take s : le fou, les fous ; le sou,
les sous.

(2) By changing into aux the termination al :J le cheval,
les chevaux.
1

See Introduction to Reasons, & c , § 278
Nouns in ant and ent of more than one syllable are by some writers spelt
without the final t in the Plural : les en/ans, les prêsens.
3
Landau takes s in the Plural : les landaus.
4 Jewel, pebble, cabbage, knee, owl, toy, louse.
2

IO4

FRENCH GRAMMAR,

Except, bal, bocal, cal ;
carnaval, chacal, régal : x les bals, les chacals, &c.
and : aval, caracal, narval ;
nopal, pal, serval.2

(3) By changing into aux the termination ail of the
following Nouns :—
bail, corail, émail ;
plumail, soupirail, vantail, vitrail : 3
e.g. les baux, les vantaux.
éventails.

The other Nouns in ail take s: les

(4) By leaving unchanged the singular—
A. Of Nouns ending in s, x, z: le fils, les fils.
B. Of foreign Nouns : 4
des Te-Deum, des post-scnfitum, des ex-voto,
des ecce-hoîno, des fac-similé.^

C. Of all the indeclinable Parts of Speech : les si, les
car ; des a bien formés.

D. Of Proper Names of individuals : les deux Corneille ;
les deux Pitt ; les ouvrages des Tindal, des Shaftesbury, des Bolingbroke (Villemain).
1

Ball, glass-bowl, wart ; carnival, jackal,
treat.
Gitaranty, sea-cat, sea-unicorn ; nopal-tree, pale, serval.
Lease, coral, enamel ; feather-brush,
air-hole, folding-door,
stained-glass
window.
4 There is much diversity of opinion on this rule both among authors and
grammarians.
5 T h e following Nouns, having become quite French, take .? :—
(a) English Nouns: Bifteck, bill, budget, constable, jury, lady, schelling,
toast, whig, tory, verdict, yacht.
(o) Latin Nottns: Accessit, agenda, album, alinéa, amen, aparté, avé, compendium, critérium, débet, déficit, dictum, duo, duplicata, errata, factum, factotum, finale, folio, forum, impromptu, mémento, muséum, palladium, pensum,
quatuor, quiproquo, quolibet, specimen, ultimatum, visa.
(c) Spanish Nouns : Alguazil, hidalgo, embargo, paroli.
(d) Italian Nouns:
Alto, bravo, concerto, domino, finale, numéro, opéra,
oratorio, piano, soprano, trio, ténor, zéro.
N.B.—The following Nouns keep the Italian form of the Plural : Carbonaro,
carbonari ; concetto, concetti ; dilettante, dilettanti ; lazzarone, lazzaroni ; lazzo,
lazzi ; quintetto, quintetti.
2

3

XOUNS.
Except

">5

Proper Names take the mark of the Plural—

(a) When they become Common Nouns, i.e. when they
designate individuals resembling in mind or body those
whose n a m e has been employed : La France a eu ses Césars
et ses Pompées ; Le. such geneials as Csesar and Pompey. Ces deux
avocats sont les Cicérons de leur pays, i.e. great orators.
(b) When the names of persons serve to designate only
their works (writings, engravings, pictures) : des Ovidsf
editions of Ovid ; des Raphaels, pictures of Raphael.
(c) In the case of some illustrious families and
dynasties : les Bourbons, Césars, Napoléons, Tudors ;
and les Abassides, Condés, Curiàces, Gracques, Guises, Heraclides,
Horaces, Macchabées, Pélides, Pélopides, Pépins, Plantagenets,
Ptolomées, Scipions, Séleucidesj Stuarts.
(5) A double plural form is found in the following
Nouns :—
ails, the g. plant (botanical term),
aulx, the g. legumen (the vegetable).

1. ail

garlic

.. t
2. aieul

jj. ., ( aïeuls, grandfathers
grandfather j a ï e u x ; %ncJors

3. ciel

( ciels, (1) skies in pictures ; (2) bed-testers;
sky, heaven < (3) climate
( cieux, (1) skies ; (2) heavens

4. ceil

eye

5. travail work

I ceils-de-bceuf, oval windows ; ceils-deX chat, precious stones
[ yeux, eyes
( travails, (1) official reports ; (2) shoeing< machine
( travaux, works

171.—(6) Plural of Compound Nouns.
General Rule. Only Nouns and Adjectives are able
to take the mark of the plural.

io6

FRENCH GRAMMAR.

172.—Special Rules.
The mark of the plural is
given—
A. To both words, if the Compound be formed of
t w o Nouns

: le chou-fleur, les choux-fleurs ; le loup-garou, les loups-

garous.
Exe.

bain-marie
colin-maillard
Hôtel-Dieu
timbre-poste

des
des
des
des

bains-marie
colin-maillard
Hôtels-Dieu
timbres-poste

water-bath
blind-mart's-bujf
hospital
post-?7iark

B. To both words, if the Compound be formed of a
Noun
a n d of a n Adjective;x
père, grands-pères ; garde-forestier,
Exe.

grand'mère
grand'messe
grand'tante
terre-plein

,

beau-frère, beaux-frères;
gardes-forestiers.

grand'mères 2
grand'messes
grand'tantes
terre-pleins

grand-

) grand without the apos!
> trophe always takes
)
the s

C. To the first word, if the Compound be formed of
two Nouns joined by a Preposition : chef-d'œuvre, chefsd^ œuvres : arc-en-ciel,
Exe.

un tête-à-tête
un coq-à-1'âne
un pied-à-terre

arcs-en-ciel.
des tête-à-tête
des coq-à-l'âne
des pied-à-terre

private interview
cock-and-bull story
restingplace

D. To the second word, 3 if it be preceded by & Preposition or by an indeclinable Prefix : avant-coureur, avantcoureurs ; co-propriêtaire, co-propriêtaires ; vice-roi^ vice-rois.
1
£>emi, although an Adjective, never takes the 5 in the plural of Compound
Nouns : un demi-dieu ; des demi-dietix.—Notice
the following forms : Sing, tin
cent-suisse, tin cent-suisses : Plur. des cent-suisses : Sing un chevau-lêger, tin
chevaux-léger;
Plur. des chevau-légers, des chevaux-légers:
Sing un blancseing; Plur. des blancs-seings, des blanc-seings.
2
On the apostrophe in these words, see Reasons, & c , § 349.
3
There is much diversity of opinion among authors respecting this rule : some
write—
un arrière-ban
des arrière-ban
arrière-ban
une après-midi
des après-midi
afternoon
un contre-jour
des contre-jour
false light
un sous-piecl
des sous-pied
strap
un entre-sol
des entre-sol
mezzanine

NOUNS.

E. To the second word, when the first is a Verb and
the second a Noun :—
un tire-botte
un porte-manteau
un porte-feuille
un garde-fou *
un passe-port
une garde-robe
un bouche-trou
Exe.—Both

des
des
des
des
des
des
des

tire-bottes
porte-manteaux
porte-feuilles
garde-fous
passe-ports
garde-robes
bouche-trous

boot-jack
fi07'tfolio
rail
passport
wardrobe

words remain invariable—

(a) When the Noun is an abstract Noun :
un rabat-joie
un gâte-métier

des rabat-joie
des gâte-métier

spoil-trade

{b) W h e n the Noun is a name of matter *
un brise-glace
un gagne-pain
un caille-lait

des brise-glace
des gagne-pain
des caille-lait

starling
livelihood
cheese-rennet

c) WThen the Noun expresses unity :2
un
un
un
un
un
un

casse-tête
abat-vent
crève-cœur
réveil-matin
ayant-droit
coupe-gorge

des
des
des
des
des
des

casse-tête
abat-vent
crève-cœur
réveil-matin
ayant-droit
coupe-gorge

tomahawk
weather-board
heai't-sore
alarum-clock
claimant
den of thieves

1
When garde is a Substantive and represents a person, it takes s, whilst the
Noun following it generally takes s, but remains invariable when it represents
•unity :—
(a) un garde-magasin
des gardes-magazins
warehouse-man
une garde-malade
des gardes-malades
sick-nurse
(<5) un garde-vaisselle
des gardes-vaisselle
silverplate-kee
un garde-marine
des gardes marine
midshipman
2
When the Noun expresses
Numbers :—
un essuie-mams
un cure-dents
un gobe-mouches

phcrality,

it takes the sign of the plural in both

des essuie-mains
des cure-dents
des gobe-mouches

towel
tooth-pick
fly-catcher

FRENCH

io8

GRAMMAR.

R e m a r k . — N o sign of the plural is added to Substantives formed of any indeclinable parts of speech :—
un passe-partout
un pour-boire

des passe-partout
des pour-boire

master-key
gratuity

173.—(7) The following Nouns have only a plural
form :—
ancêtres
annales
confins
dépens
entrailles
environs
frais

aborigènes
alentours
archives
armoiries
arrhes
broussailles
décombres
fiançailles
fonts
litanies

ancestors
annals
confines
cost, charge
bowels
environs
expenses

aboriginals
neighbourhood
archives
coat of arms
earnest-money
briars
rubbish
betrothing
font
litanies

funérailles
légumes
lunettes
mœurs
pleurs
ténèbres
vivres

funeral
vegetables
spectacles
manners
tears
darkness
victuals

mânes
manes
mathématiques mathematics
mouchettes
snuffers
pénates
household gods
pincettes
tongs
first-fruits
prémices
représailles
reprisals
tenailles
pincers
baths
thermes
vespers
vêpres

174.—(8) Many Substantives vary in meaning when
they are used in the Singular or in the Plural :—
Singular.
aboi
arme
arrêt
ciseau
épingle
fer
gage
lettre
lunette
neveu

bark
weapon
judgment
chisel
pin
iron
pledge
letter
telescope
nephew

Plura 1.
abois (aux abois) at bay
armes
coat of arms
arrêts
arrest
ciseaux
scissors
épingles
pin-money
fers
fetters
gages
wages
lettres
literature
spectacles
lunettes
neveux
descendants

NOUNS.

defence
être
faste

Singuh IT.
defence
being
po?np

franchise

herd

heure

hour

honneur
lumière
menotte
troupe
vacance
veille

honour
sight
little hand
band
vacancy
watch

II.

G e n d e r of N o u n s . 1

175.'—General Rule.
nines

Plural.
tusks
parts
annals
liberties
franchises
! immunity
hardes
clothes
j heures cano- ) canonical hours
/ niales
\
dignities
honneurs
knowledge
lumières
menottes
hand-cuffs
troupes
troops
vacances
vacations
night labours
veilles
defences
êtres
fastes

sincerity

harde

IOC

French

coincide with Latin

masculines

masculines

and

and

fémi-

féminines

respectively; the Latin neuter gender has disappeared,
most neuters becoming masculines.
176.—Special Rules.

The gender of French

Nouns

may be known by the meaning or by the termination»

1. Gender determined by the Meaning.
177,—Masculine are—
(1) The Names of Male Persons and Animals :,
oncle, roi ; lion, cheval.

Exe, Dupe,2 recrue, sentinelle,
victime, connaissance, flûte,
bête, pratique.

(2) The Names of Trees,
Shrubs, and Metals :
bouleau ; églantier ; fer. 3

Exe. Aubépine,4 ronce, épine,
vigne, ébène, viorne, yeuse.

1
T h e principal Rules only will be given here, as this part of the Grammar has
already been treated at some length in my "Rules
on French Genders." See
also Reasons, & c , § 342.
2
Dupe, recrtiit, sentry, victim, acquaintance, Jlute-piayerxfool,
customer.
3
Birch-tree ; sweet briar ; iron
4 Hawthorn, briar, thorn, vine, ebony, viburn, holly.

no

FRENCH

(3) The Names of Days,
Months, and Seasons :
mardi ; juin ; été.

(4) The Names of W i n d s and
Parts of the Heavens :
le zéphir, le sud.
(5) The Names of Mountains :
le Vésuve, le Mont-Blanc
(6) All Infinitives, Adjectives, and uninflected
parts of speech taken
substantively :
le manger, le blanc, le non.
(7) The Names of Countries, 2
To wns, and Rivers 3 ending in a consonant or in
a vowel, except e mute.
Portugal, Dauphiné ; Paris ;
Rhin.

GRAMMAR.
Exe. 1. La Saint-Jean (se. la fête
de St. J.), la Saint-Martin, la
Saint-Michel, la Noël {No'ël
without the article is considered as masculine).
Exe. 2. La mi-août, la mi-juin,
&c. ; the i$th of August, of
June, &c.
Exe. Mousson,1 brise, bise, tramontane.
Exe. The names of mountains
used in the plural are fern. :
les Alpes, les Andes.
Exe. L'écarlate, scarlet.

Exe. I. Albion, Franche-Comte.
2. Athènes, Babel, Ilion,
Jérusalem,
Naples,
Tyr, Treves.
3. Lahn, Lys, Neiss, Theiss?
Tweed.

178.—Feminine are—
(1) T h e Names of Female
Persons and Animals :
femme, tante 5 poule, lionne.
(2) T h e Names of Arts and
Sciences, Virtues and
Vices :
Peinture ; chimie ; modestie.

Exe. le vice, égoisme, courage

1
Monsoon, breeze, north-wind, trawtontane
{north-wind).
2
On the Names of Countries, & c , ending in e mute, see No. 3 of the Fera.
Genders.
3 Names of Rivers ending in a are feminine : la Duna, la Neva, &c. {except
e Volga, le Parana, le Xamara.)

NOUNS.
(3) T h e N a m e s of C o u n t r i e s ,
T o w n s , 1 and Rivers endi n g in e m u t e :
F r a n c e ; R o m e ; 2 Marne.
{On the Names of Countries,
&>c., ending in a consonant,
see above, No. 7.)

ni

Exc. 1. Le Bengale, Maine,
Mexique, Hanovre, Péloponnèse, and all names in shire
(Yorkshire, &c.)
Exc. 2. L e Caire, le Havre.
Exc, 3. Le Borysthène, Danube,
Ebre, Euphrate, Gange, Rhône,
Tage, Tibre, Tigre.

2. Gender determined by the Termination.
17 9.—General Rule.

Fren ch Nouns are—

a. M a s c u l i n e w h e n tliey e n d in a C o n s o n a n t , in a D i p h t h o n g , or in a V o w e l , e x c e p t m u t e e ;
b. F e m i n i n e w h e n t h e y e n d in e m u t e .

180.—Special Rules.

Masculine are—

(1) All N o u n s e n d i n g i n B,3
c, D , G ; H , K , L , P ; Q, Y ,
a n d z.
(2) A l l N o u n s i n x . ,

Exc. chaux, 4 faux, perdrix, croix,
paix, poix, toux, noix, voix.

(3) N o u n s in -AGE w h e n t h i s
Suffix i s d e r i v e d from
Lat< -aiicum or Low Lat.

Fem. are therefore—
cage, s rage, image,
page, nage, plage, ambages.
as their Latin types are : caveam,
rabiem, imaginem, &c.

le voyage {viaticum), le courage
{com

1
Authors not unfrequently give the Fem Gender to the names of towns ending
in a consonant or in a full vowel sound ; ville must then be supplied. Moscow
and Smolensk, for instance, are used as Fem. Nouns by Ségur.
2
When the name of a town is used figuratively for its population, it takes the
Masc. Gender : Tout Rome le sait.
3
Why are Nouns ending in b, c, d, & c , Masculine ? See my treatise, " Rules
of1 French Genders."
4
Lime, scythe, partridge, cross, peace, pitch, cough, nut, voice.
5 Cage, rage, image, page, swimming, beach,
circumlocution.

FRENCH

112

GRAMMAR,

(4) Names in -ÊGE,Z^A -egium:
le collège, le piège.
(5) All Nouns in -È {not -té) :
le clergé, le négligé.
(6) The following Nouns in
-TE :
comité,1 comté, traité, pâté,
thé, côte, été, aparté, arrêté.
(7) Nouns in -LE and -RE preceded by a consonant
and Nouns in -CLE, Lat.
-cuius, -culum :
verre, chiffre, sable, seigle,
trouble; article, miracle.

Exe. A small number of names
ofpersons in é : Danaé, Niobé,
Psyché, &c.
N.B.—All other Nouns in -té are
Fern. : la bonté, la vicomte.—
See below, No. 1.
Exe. la terre, earth; la serre,
green-house ; l'huître, oyster.

(8) All N o u n s in -ASME (-ÂME)
and

-ISME

(-ÎME),

Lai.

-asmus, -ismus: Gr. -iff/uos:
enthousiasme, patriotisme.
(9) Nouns in -IME and -UME,
when they are derived
from Latin neuters in
•imen, -umen :
crime (cri7nen), volume (volumen).
,

Nouns in -ume are Fern, when
they are formed from Latin
-udinem : amertume {amaritudinem), coutume [consuetudinem), enclume {incudinem\
écume {Old H. Germ, scum).,

(10) Nouns in -ISTE, Lat. -ista,

N.B.—This termination is sometimes applied also toFern. Nouns.

Gr. -ICTTTJS :

annaliste, artiste.
(11) Nouns in -OME (-OME),
-ÊME, -ÈME :

fantôme, atome, baptême.
1

Committee,

county, treaty, fristry, iea% side, summer,

aside,

resolution.

NOUNS.

113

(12) All N o u n s inA

.

.

.

O

.

.

.

.

u or -EAU
F
M

N (for those in çon, &c.,
see below)
. . . .
R (for those in eur, see
below)
*
s

Exe. sépia, véranda, villa, camarilla.
Exe. merci,2 fourmi, paroi,
loi, après-midi, foi.
Exe. virago.
Exe. vertu,3 bru, peau, tribu,
glu, eau.
Exe. clef, nef, soif.4
Exe. faim, hunger.
Exe. main, hand; fin, end.
Exe. cour, tour, mer, s
chair and cuiller.
Exe. pampas,6 oasis, brebis,
cortès, fois, vis, souris.
Exe. mort, 7 part, plupart, jument,
nuit, forêt, dot, dent, gent.

Feminine are—
(1) Abstract Nouns in -té,
Lat. -tas :
piété, bonté, cité.

Exe. see p. 112, No. 6.

(2) Nouns in -EUR, Lat. or, os :
douleur, fleur, vapeur.

Exe. heur,8 bonheur, malheur, 9
honneur, déshonneur.
chœur,10 cœur, équateur,
labeur,
pleurs, moteur, vapeur.

1
W h y are Nouns ending in i, u, eau, &c.j Masculine? See my treatise,
"Rules on French Genders.
2
Mercy, ant, wall (side), law, afternoon,
faith.
3
Virtue, daughter-in-law,
skin, tribe, glue, water.
4 Key, nave, thirst.
5 Yard, tower, sea, flesh, spoon.
6
Pampas, oasis, sheep, Cortes, time, screw, motise.
7 Death, share, the majority, mare, night, forest, dowry, tooth, people.
' 8 Good fortune, happiness, misforttme, honour, disgrace.
9 Properly speaking, heur (Lat. augurium), bonheur, malheur (bonum, malum,
augurium), not being derived from Latin words in or, do not belong to this
class.
l
° Choirt heart, equator, labour tears, mover, steam-boat.

FRENCH

114

GRAMMAR.

(3) The greater part of Nouns
in -CON, -SON, -ION; Lat.
io, sio :
façon, maison, nation, réunion.

Exe.
bastion, 1 champion,
blason, oison,
poisson, 2 soupçon,
poinçon, hameçon,

(4) The greater part of Nouns
terminating in e mute,
especially when the e
is preceded by another
vowel or by a diphthong :
armée, haie, pluie.

Exe.
amphibie,3
incendie,
parapluie,4
musée,

million,
poison,
tison,
gabion,

génie,
foie,
lycée,
trophée,

pion,
camion,
scorpion,
lampion.

apogée,
élysée,
coryphée,
colisée.

181.—Nouns in e mute, including those mentioned
in §180 (1—12), amount to almost 10,000, of which
about 7,000 are feminine. Long practice and constant
attention alone will enable the student to know the
right gender of this class of Substantives.
III.

A d d i t i o n a l R e m a r k s on t h e
of N o u n s .

Gender

182.—A. Nouns of Two Genders.
(1) A i g l e , Eagle,
Masculine.
(1) In the sense of male eagle.
(2) When it is used figuratively,
e.g. a man of genius.
(3) When it stands for the Order
of the Eagle.

Feminine.
( I ) When it means a fe?nale eagle.
(2) When it is used in the sense
of.

Examples. L'aigle est courageux; l'aigle blanc de Pologne; les
aigles romaines.
1

Bastion, champion, -million, pawn, coat-of-arms, gosling, poison, dray.
Fish, suspicion, fire-brand, scorpion, bodkin, fish-hook, gabion, lamp
3 Amphibious animal, genius, highest pitch, fire, liver,
Elysium.
4 Umbrella, lyceum, corypheus {leader), museum, trophy, Coliseum.

2

NOUNS.

US

(2) Amour, délice, 1 orgue, 2 Love, delight, organ,
Masculine.
Feminine.
When they are used in the Sin- ! When they are used in the
gular.
I
Plural.
Examples. Son amour paternel ; il n'est point &éternelles amours;
c'est un grand délice ; toutes les délices du Paradis ; un orgue puissant ; des orgues puissantes.
N.B.—Délice and orgue are Masculine in the Plural after the
expression un de : un de mes plus grands délices {Rousseau) ; un des
plus beaux orgues de l'Italie.

(3) Automne, Autumn,
Masculine.
In ordinary style.

|

Feminine.
In poetic language.

Examples. Un bel automne ; un automne triste ; un automne
fort sec.

(4) Chose, Thing,
Masculine.
When it means something in the
expression quelque chose ;3

Feminine.
When it means a thing, or whatever thing, (quelque chose;
in this case the Verb following it must be in the
Subjunctive).

Examples. C'est une bonne chose ; quelque chose est changé ici ;
s'il t'en reste quelque chose cache-le; quelque chose que je lui ai
dite, je n'ai pas réussi à le convaincre.
1
T h e Latin Neuter delictum, which occurs in some Latin writers, has probablygiven rise to the French Masc. le délice, whilst the Fem. les délices is regularly
derived from the Fem. Plur. delicice
2
Orgue is Masc in the Sing , because it is derived from the Neuter organum ;
the Plural orgues is Fem., because orgcma, the Plural of organum, was wrongly
taken to be a Noun of the Fem Gender
3
If an Adjective accompanies something, it is placed after quelque chose and
connected with it by de : something good = quelque chose de bon.
I Z

u6

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

(5) Couple, Couple,
Masculine.
(1) When it means husband and
wife, or the male and female of animals.
(2) When we speak of two persons united by a similarity
of temper and sentiment.

Feminine.
When it is used in the sense of
a brace, two of a sort.

Examples. Ce fut un heureux couple ; un couple de fripons, d'amis,
d'amants ; un couple de pigeons ; une couple d'oeufs ; une couple de
pigeons.

, (6) Enfant, Child,
Masculine.
When it refers to a boy.
N.B.—In the Plural, enfant is
always Masc.

Feminine.
When it refers to a ghl.

Examples. Cet enfant n'est pas heureux ; c'est une jolie enfant ;
Marie et Louise viennent d'étudier avec leurs amies, tous ces enfants
sont très attentifs.

(7) Foudre, Lightning,
Masculine.
In a figurative sense.

Feminine.
I In its proper sense of lightning,
I
thunderbolt.

Examples. Un foudre de guerre, a great warrior ; un foudre
d'éloquence, a great orator ; les vains foudres de Rome [excommunications) ; il fut frappé de la foudre.

(8) Gens, People,
Is a Substantive Masc. Plur. ;T yet any Adjective of two terminations takes the Fern, form when it immediately precedes gens : if
such an Adjective be immediately preceded by another Adjective,
1

The Singular of les gens is la gent (nation, tribe).

NOUNS.

117

the Indefinite Article, or by tout, these words also take the Fern.
Gender.
N.B.—Any compound forms, as gens de lettres, gens d'affaires, &c,
are always Masculine.
Examples. Ces gens sont soupçonneux ; instruits par l'expérience
toutes les vieilles gens sont soupçonneux, ils ne croient plus personne ;
certaines heureuses gens ; quelles sottes gens ! quels sont ces gens ?
tous les honnêtes gens ; tous les gens de bien ; certains honnêtes gens»

(9) Πu v r e ,

Work?

Masculine.
Feminine.
In the sense of the work of a I In its general meaning work,
musician or of an engraver. \
action, deed.
Examples. J'ai le premier œuvre de Handel ; il a acheté tout
l'œuvre de Durer ; l'œuvre de la création fut achevée en six jours ;
les œuvres complètes de Racine.

(10) Orge, Barley,
Masculine.
In the two expressions orge
perlé, pearl barley, and orge
mondé, hulled barley.

Feminine
In ail cases except orge perle'and
orge mondé.

Examples. De belles orges ; les orges sont levées.

(11) P â q u e s , 2 Easter,
Masculiue.
In ordinary style.

Feminine.
I In a small number of expressions : Faire de bonnes
Pâques, to receive the Sacrament ; Pâques fleuries ;
Palm-Sunday.

Examples. J'irai le voir à Pâques prochain ; quand Pâques sera
venu.
1
T h e great work of Alehimy, i.e. the philosopher's stone, is called le grand
œuvre.
* La " Pâque " is the festival of the Jews : les Juifs célèbrent la Pâque.

FRENCH GRAMMAR.

n8

(12) P é r i o d e , Period,
Masculine.

Feminine.

When it means the highest point,

When it means period (whether

pitch, or length of time.

in astronomy, chronology,

Examples. Au plus haut période de la gloire ; il porta l'éloquence
à son plus haut période ; dans le dernier période de sa vie.—La
période solaire, the solar period ; la période Julienne, the

yulian

cette période est trop longue, this phrase, or period, is too

3.—B.
183.

Nouns which change their Gender when th
Meaning changes.1

aide
*aune
cornette
crêpe
enseigne
exemple
fourbe
garde
greffe
guide
hymne
*livre
manche
manœuvre
mémoire

Masc.
assistant
alder-tree
cornet [officer)
, crape
midshipman
example
deceiver
keeper
record office
guide
song
book
handle
workman
bill

Fern.
assistance
ell
standard
pancake
standard
writing-copy
deception
gard
graft
bridle
church h y m n
pound
sleeve
working
memory

1
I n many cases t h e distinctions which have been made between these words
purely rest on custom, or, what is worse, on the whims of grammarians. Yet the
difference in gender and meaning of a great number of these Nouns is to be
found in the fact that they are derived from two quite different etyma, which,
by gradual changes, have come to take the same form in French. T h e following
are the original forms of the Nouns marked thus ( * ) in the list :—

Masc. or Neut.
alnus
liber
modulus
mozzo (It.)
•nmb'tov (?)
palmus
parallelon

Fern,
alena
libra
musculo,
mos {OldH. Germ.)
pagina
palma
parallela (sc. tinea)

Masc. or N e u t .
Fern,
pensile
patella
posto
posita (sc. static^
somnus
summa
subrid-ere
sorex
torn-are
turris
vagus (Adj.) ivoge {Germ.)
vasum*
vase ( A. -Sax. )

NOUNS.

merci
mode
*moule
*mousse
office
*page
paillasse
*palme
pantomime
^parallèle
pendule
personne
pique
*poele
*postë
relâche
remise
solde
«somme
*souris
*tour
triomphe
*vague
*vase
voile

1x9

Masc.
thanks
mood
•mould
midshipman
office, duty
page
down
handbreadth
actor
comparison
pendulum
nobody
spade {cards)
stone
post
respite
carriage
\
balance of accounts
slumber
smile
turn, trick
triumph
uncertainty
vase
veil

Fern.
mercy ,
fashion
mussel
moss
pantry
page (in a book)
mattress
palm
pantomimic art
parallel line
time-piece
a person
pike
frying-pan
post (letters)
harbour
remittance
coach-house
pay of soldiers
sum
mouse
tower
trump (cards)
wave
mud
sail

184.—C. Nouns of Common Gender.
Artiste, camarade, élève, esclave, patriote, pupille,
adversaire, pensionnaire, auteur, guide, peintre, poëte,
témoin, écrivain, &c.
Examples. Cet élève a obtenu tous les prix; les élèves ont été
attentives aujourd'hui; cette femme est un dangereux adversaire;
elle est un bon témoin.
185.—D. Masculine Nouns become Feminine when they
take a Feminine termination.
(1) e is added to the Masculine form :—
marchand

marchande

|

ami

amie

FRENCH

I20

GRAMMAR.

(2) e or é is changed into esse :— J
abbé
âne
chanoine
comte
druide
hôte

abbesse
ânesse
chanoinesse
comtesse
druidesse
hôtesse

maître
nègre
prince
prophète
tigre
traître

maîtresse
négresse
princesse
prophétesse
tigresse
traîtresse

(3) at, et, ot, on, ien, yen, éen, double the end
consonant and add e :— 2
chat
minet
linot
baron

chatte
minette
linotte
baronne

chrétien
Troyen
Européen

Troyenne
Européenne

(4) ine marks the Fem. Gender of the following
Nouns :—
héros, heroine; czar, czarine; Philippe, Philippine.

(5) Notice the following forms :—
bailli
canard
compagnon

baillive
cane
compagne

dindon
loup
mulet

dinde
louve
mule, &c.

Remark.—Most Substantives form their Feminine like the Adjectives : for those ending in f and x, see § 187, No. I ; in eur and
teur, see § 187, Nos. 7 and 8.
1

T h e following Nouns also form their Feminine in esse :Dieu
déesse
|
doge
devin
larron
devineresse *
duc
duchesse
pair

dogaresse
larronesse
pairesse

2
Most Nouns in an simply add e in order to form their Feminine :_ anglican,
anglicane ; persan, persane ; only a few double the n before the addition of e :
paysan, paysanne ; Jean, Jeanne.

* Devineresse means conjtirer,
devineur) means guezser.

whilst devineztse

(which is the Feminine

of

C H A P T E R IV.—-ADJECTIVES

(ADJECTIFS.)

I. Formation of the Feminine. 1
186.—General Rule, Adjectives form their Feminine
by adding e mute to the Masculine termination, but they
do not change if they end in an e mute :—
grand, grande; joli, jolie; sensé, sensée.
un homme habile, une femme habile.

187.—Special Rules. Adjectives ending
(1) In f and x,2 change these letters into ve and se
respectively :—
actif, active; heureux, heureuse.
Except, doux
faux 3
prefix
roux
vieux
brief
bref
1
2

See Reasons andIllustrations,
See ibid., § 351 (A).

douce
fausse
préfixe
rousse
vieille
brieve
brève

sweet
false
appointed
red {of hair)
old
short
short

\ on the grave ac) cent, see No. 4

§§348—353.
3 See ibid., § 351 (note).

122

FRENCH

GRAMMAR,

(2) In g and c, change these letters into gue and
que * respectively :—
long, longue;2 public,publique.
t. grec 3
sec 4 4
blanc 4
franc

grecque
sèche
blanche
franche

Greek
dry
white
free

Obs. 1. Franc has franque in the Fern, when it means
Frank or Frankish : la langue franque.
(3) In as,s ais ;s eil, el, es,s et ; 6 ien ; on, os,s
ot ; 6 ul, 5 double their final consonant and add e:—
gras,grasse; muet, muette; sot, sotte.
Except, ras
frais
mauvais
niais
complet6
concret
discret
inquiet
prêt
replet
secret
cagot
dévot
idiot

rase
fraîche
mauvaise
niaise
complète
concrète
discrète
inquiète
prête
replète
secrète
cagote
dévote
idiote

fresh
bad
silly
complete
concrete
discreet
anxious
ready
stout
secret
devout
idiotic

Obs. Adjectives in es lose their accent in the Fem.
Gender : prof es $ professe ; exprès $ expresse.
1

See Reasons and Illustrations,
§ 352 (note
Adjectives in gu take ë in the Feminine
changed) :—
aigu, aiguë; ambigu,
3
See Reasons and Illustrations,
§ 352 (note
5 See ibid., § 351 (B).
2

1).
(the pronunciation remains unambiguë.
4
2).
See ibid., § 352.
6 See ibid., § 353 (A).

ADJECTIVES.

123

(4) In er, and, generally speaking, all Adjectives the
final consonant of which is preceded by an unaccented e
(see the Except, in No. 3), take the grave accent on the
e and add e mute :— x
am^r, amhre ; Her,fiere; discret, discrète.

(5) Notice the Fern, of the following Adjectives :— 2
COl

favori
bénin
malin
absous
dissous
tiers
gentil

coite
favorite
bénigne
maligne
absoute
dissoute
tierce
gentille

quiet
favourite
benign
malicious
acquitted
dissolved
third
pretty

(6) Five Adjectives have a second form of the Masc
which is used before Nouns beginning with a vowel or
an h mute :— 3
Masc.
beau
bel
nouveau
nouvel
fou
fol
mou
mol
vieux
vieil

Fem.
belle
nouvelle
folle
molle
vieille

fine

new
foolish
soft
old

Obs. 1. Jumeau, twin, has jumelle in the Fem.
Obs. 2. Plusieurs is both^Masc. and Fem.
Obs. 3. We may say vieux ami and vieil ami ; vieux
homme and vieil homme ; this latter form in the Scriptural
sense, sinner.
Obs. 4. Dû and crû, Past Participles of devoir and
croître, lose the circumflex accent in the Feminine :
due, crue.
(7) Adjectives ending in eur (and Substantives in
1
See Reasons and Illustrations, § 353 (B).
3
* See ibid., § 351 (D).
See ibid., § 351 (C).

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

eur used adjectively) form their Fern, in four different
ways :—
a, By adding e : all Adjectives in é rieur and those
derived from Latin Comparatives in eur :—
antérieur
majeur

antérieure
majeure

anterior
most important

b. By changing eur into e u s e : all those Adjectives
which can be formed from a Present Participle by
changing ant into eur :—
Masc.
flatt-eur
dans-eur

Près. Part.
flatt-ant
dans-ant
Except, i. inventeur
exécuteur
inspecteur
persécuteur
gouverneur
débiteur
procureur
chanteur
Except. 2. bailleur 1
chasseur
défendeur
demandeur
enchanteur
pécheur 2
vendeur
vengeur

i
i[

î

Î

î
i

inventrice
exécutrice
inspectrice
persécutrice
gouvernante
débiteuse
débitrice
procureuse
procuratrice
chanteuse
cantatrice
bailleresse
chasseuse
chasseresse
défenderesse
demandeuse
demanderesse
enchanteresse
pécheresse
vendeuse
venderesse
vengeresse

Fem.
flatt-euse
dans-euse
inventor
executor
inspector
persecutor
governor
spreader, retailer
debtor
attorney

proxy
singer
[ high-class profes~
\
sional singer
lessor
hunter
(in poetry)
defendant
asker

plaintiff
enchanter
sinner
seller
vendor (law)
avenger

c. By changing eur into e r e s s e : all those Adjectives
which form the second exception to Rule b.
1
2

Bailleur, yawner, has in the Fern, bâilleuse.
Pêcheur, fisherman, has pêcheuse in the Fein.

ADJECTIVES.

125

d. By changing teur into trice : the Adjectives belonging to this class are derived from Latin words in
tor, Fem. trix—
actrice
créatrice
bienfaitrice

acteur
créateur
bienfaiteur

actor
creator
benefactor

(8) The following Adjectives have an irregular form :—
ambassadeur
empereur
serviteur

ambassadrice
impératrice
servante

ambassador
emperor
servant

(9) Adjectives and Substantives expressing trades, professions, &c, generally followed by men, do not change
even when they are applied to women :—
Graveur {engraver), docteur {doctor), auteur {author), traducteur
{translator), peintre {painter), Sec. : e.g. une femme auteur, a female
author ; elle était un poète admirable.
Obs. Poétesse, a female poet, is seldom used.

(10) Defective Adjectives.
a. Adjectives used with Masc. Nouns only :
châtain
fat
résous

nutbrown
coxcomb
solved

dispos
. aquilin
vélin

nimble
aquiline
vellum

b. Adjectives used with Fem. Nouns only :
crasse
romane

gross
romance

cursive
plénière

cursive
full

Obs. I. Châtain is sometimes used in the Fem. châtaine; hébreu
has generally hébreue; hébraïque is used only in grammaire hébraïque,
la langue hébraïque, le culte hébraïque, les mœurs hébraïques.
Obs. 2. Grognon, grumbling, and témoin, witness, are used both
for the Masc. and the Fem.

FRENCH

126

GRAMMAR.

II. Formation of t h e Plural.
188.—General Rule. Adjectives form their plural like
Substantives by adding s to the singular : joli, jolis ; jolie,
jolies ; grand, grands ; grande, grandes.

Except.
toutes,

Tout, Fem. toute, has in the Plural tous, Fem.

189.—Special Rules.
formed—

The Plural of Adjectives is also

(1) By adding x to those ending in au and eu: beau,
beaux, hébreu, hébreux.
Except.

Bleu, blue, and feu, lately deceased, take s.

(2) By changing into aux the termination al:1 égal,
égaux ; brutal, brutaux.

Except.

Some Adjectives in al take s :—

amical 2
final
matinal

colossal
frugal
nasal

ducal
glacial
natal

fatal
initial
naval

théâtral 3

And
austral
jovial
oval

boréal
labial
paschal

bancal
lingual
pénal

doctoral
medial
virginal

Obs. Adjectives in ant and ent better keep the end -/ in the
Plural : charmants instead of charmans.
1
See Reasons, & c , §§ 354—356
2
Many writers rise even these Adjectives in aux, as : frugaux,
dticaux,
nataztx,
atistraux.
3
The following Adjectives are generally used with Fem. Nouns only :—
bénéficiai
canonial
collégial
crucial
diagonal
diamétral
expérimental
médicinal
mental
patronal
transversal
vocal

ADJECTIVES.

127

(3) Plural of Compound Adjectives.
A, General Rules*
a. When one of the Adjectives serves to qualify the other,
the second Adjective only takes the mark of the
plural :— *
Sing.
clair-semé
court-vêtu
demi-mort

Plur.
clair-semés
court-vêtus
demi-morts

thin-sown
short-coaled
half-dead

b. When both Adjectives serve to qualify the Noun, both
take the mark of the plural :— 2
Masc. Sing.
aigre-doux

Masc. Plur.
aigres-doux

frais-cueilli
ivre-mort

frais-cueillis
ivres-morts

Fern. Plur.
aigres-douces

between sweet and
sour
fraîches-cueillies freshly gathered
ivres-mortes

B. Special Rules.—Compound Adjectives of Colour.
a. When one of the Adjectives serves to qualify the other,
both remain unchanged : des cheveux châtain-clair
f brown) ; des robes bleu-foncé {dark blue).
b. When both Adjectives serve to qualify the Noun, both
agree with the Noun in Number and Gender : des
étoffes bleues claires, i.e. fabrics blue in colour and
light in texture.
Obs. Adjectives of Colour remain invariable when they are derived
from Substantives :—
des gants paille
des robes ponceau

straw-coloured gloves
fame-coloured dresses

1
If nouveau be one of the terms of the Compound Adjective, it sometimes
changes and sometimes remains invariable ; thus : Sing, nouveau^né,
nowueaunêe; Plur. nouveau-nés:
Sing nouveàu-marié,
nouvelle-mariée
Plur. nouveaux-mariés,
nottvelles-mariées.
- All-powerful'has
in the Sing, tout-finissant,
Fern, iotde-fiuissante;
in the
Plur tout-fiuissants,
totites-fitrissantes.

FRENCH

128

III.

GRAMMAR.

C o m p a r i s o n of A d j e c t i v e s . 1

190.—(T) The Comparative of an Adjective is formed
by placing p l u s , more, or m o i n s , less, before the Positive, and the Superlative 2 by putting the Definite Article
before the Comparative :—
Positive.
Masc. grand
Fern. grande

Comparative,
plus grand
plus grande

Superlative,
le plus grand
la plus grande

moins sage
moins sage

le moins sage
la moins sage

Masc. sage
Fern. sage

191.—(2) The following Adjectives have two different
forms for the Comparative and Superlative :— 3

bon

!

mauvais

•1

petit

1

Positive.
Comparative,
good
meilleur
simple-minded
plus bon

Superlative,
le meilleur
le plus bon

wicked
bad

pire
plus mauvais

le pire
le plus mauvais

small
small [in size)

moindre
plus petit

le moindre
le plus petit

192.—(3) The Adverbs of the preceding Adjectives
form their Comparatives and Superlatives in the following manner :—
Positive.
Comparative,
bien
well
mieux
mal
badly j ^ m a l j
peu
little
moins
and: beaucoup much
plus
1

Superlative,
le mieux
le pis
le plus mal
le moins
le plus

See Reasons, & c , § 357.
Some Superlatives in issime (from Lat. issimus) are still used as titles:
sêrénissime,
éminentissime,
rêvêrendissime ; or, in colloquial and familiar
language, savaniissime,
rarissime ; quelques richissimes bourgeois (Ed. About;.
3
See Reasons, & c , § 358.
2

ADJECTIVES,

193.—(4) Additional

129

Remarks.

a. When the Adjective follows the Noun, the Definite
Article must be repeated ; thus, either : le plus heureux
soldat, or le soldat le plus heureitx.

b. After a Comparative, than is expressed by que :—
Il est plus heureux que sage

he is morefortunate than wise.

c. Plus or moins must be repeated before every Adjective :—
II est plus content et plus sage
qu'un roi

he is happier and wiser than a
king

d. Translate as...as by aussi...que', and not so...as by
pas si...que :—
Ce jardin est aussi grand que le vôtre, this garden is as large as
yours ; il n'est pas si heureux que vous, he is not so happy as you.

e. The Definite Article is not used when the Adjective
in the Superlative 1 is preceded by a Possessive Adjective :
mon, ton, son, &c. :—
le plus grand chagrin
mon plus grand chagrin

the greatest sorrow
my greatest sorrow

f. The Superlative Absolute is formed by placing before the Adjective bien, fort, très, extrêmement, infiniment, &c. :—
Il est bien heureux ; c'est extrêmement dangereux.

g. In after the Superlative is to be translated by de-:—
C'est la plus belle maison de Manchester, this is the finest house in
Manchester.
x
Some Adjectives do not admit of a comparison : aîné, fitdné,
de-niier, éternel, firincijbal, immortel,
unique,
itifini,
immense,
divin, &c.

premier,
parfait,

K

CHAPTER V . — P R O N O U N S

(PRONOMS).»

194,—Most Pronouns are either-—
Conjunctive, i.e. immediately preceding or following
t h e V e r b : il donne ; il lui donnait ; donnait-il ; or

Disjunctive, i.e. used independently of a Verb or
separated from it by other words: Qui frappe? moi; il
travaille pour lui.

I. Personal Pronouns (Pronoms Personnels). 2
195. —A. Conjunctive.
Singular.
2nd
ist Person,
tu
Nom. je
/
to me •. te
Dat. me
te
me
Ace. me

Person,
thou
to thee
thee

3 rdPe rson.
Fem.
Masc.
elle she
il he, it
lui
to he*
lui to him, it
la
her
le him, it

Plural.
Nom. nous
Dat. nous
Ace. nous
1

we
to us
us

vous
vous
vous

you
to you
you

See Reasons, &c., § 360.

ils
they
leur to them
les
them

elles they
leur to them
les
them

- See ibid § 361.

PRONOUNS.

131

196.—#. The Genitive Singular and Plural of this Pronoun (of me, of thee, &c. ; of us, of you, &c.) is wanting ;
it is supplied by the Genitive of Personal Disjunctive
Pronouns (see § 200) :—
I l parlait de moi et de lui

he was speaking of me and of him

b. As to the 3rd Person Singular and Plural of this
Pronoun, its Genitive may be expressed by en ( = of him,
her, it, them), its Dative by y ( = to him, her, it, them).
Like the other Personal Pronouns, they are placed before
the Verb, but after any other Pronouns, y always preceding en :—
Tl en parla
J e vous y en donnerai
Il m.y mena

he spoke of it (him, her, them)
I shall give you there of it (them)
he took me there

197.—The a of la and the e of je, me, te, se, /<?,,must
be elided before any Verb beginning with a vowel or a
silent h ;—
J e t'entends (te), je l'admire ( = le and la).

198.—The Reflective Pronoun is—
Sing,

1st Person.
me
myself

Plur.

nous

ourselves

J e me défends
Il se loue
Elles se trompent

te

2nd Person.
thyself

' vous

yourselves

3rd Person.
himself herself, itself
se themselves

se

/ defend myself
he praises himself
they deceive themselves

199.—Place of the Personal Pronouns.
a. The Nominatives are placed before the Verb, except
in questions and in parenthetical sentences :—
/ / croit ; vous ne voyez pas ; croit-il ; ' m e voilà,' dit-il.
K 2

132

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

b. The Datives and Accusatives also precede the Verb,
and in compound tenses its auxiliary, but they follow the
negative ne if the Verb be used negatively :—
Il lui écrit
Elle /'a frappé
Vous ne lui avez pas répondu
Nous les voyons

he writes to him
she has beaten him
you have not answered him
we see them

Note.—If the interrogative form were to be given to these sentences, the only change to be made would be to place the subject
after the Verb : lui écrit-il ? Pa-t-olle frappé ? ne lui avez-Mov& pas
répondu?
Les voyons-nous?
(See § 71)»

c. The Datives and Accusatives are placed before the
Imperative used negatively, and after this mood when it
is used affirmatively :—x
N e le (les) punis pas
Punis-/*?,2 or punis-/*?
N e lui prêtez pas ce crayon
Prêtez-/»? ce couteau
JLcris-moi bientôt

do not punish him (them)
.punish him (them)
do not lend him this pencil
lend him this pencil
write to me soon

d. If the Verb be preceded by two Personal Pronouns,
the one being in a Dative, the other in an Acacsative
case, their order is as follows :—
The
Datives

me
te
se

to me
to thee
to him

nous

to us

vous

stand before

|

the
' Accusatives

le
la
les

him, it
they, it
them

to you
but

The
Accusatives

le

him,

la

her, it

it

les

them

stand

before

(

the
Datives

/

lui

<
leur

to him, to her
and
to them

1
In this case me and te are changed into moi and toi, except when the}' are
followed by en : ne me trompez pas, do not deceive me ; donnez-moi ce canif,
give me this pen-knife ; donnez-m'en assez, give me enough of it.
2
T h e Pronoun or Pronouns which follow the Imperative immediately must be
connected with this mood by a hyphen : donnez-lui ; prêtez-le-lui.

PRONOUNS.
I l me le donne
Il le lui donne
Nous vous les donnerons
Nous les lui donnerons
N e me le dis pas

*33
he gives it me
he gives it him
we shall give them to you
we shall give them to him
do not tell it (to) me

e. If the Imperative be used affirmatively, the Pronouns must, according to No. c, be placed after it, and,
in this case, the Accusatives le, la, les always precede
not only the Datives lui and leur, but also the Datives
moi, toi, nous, vous ;— *
"Ecris-le-lui
Ecris-le-nous
Frêtez-la-moi
Trëtez-la-leur
Dis-le-moi

write it to him
write it to us
lendit (to) me
lend it (to) them
tell it (to) me

200.—B. Disjunctive.
Singular.
xst Person.
2nd Person.
Nom.
moi /
1
toi thou
Gen. de moi of me
de toi of thee
Dat.
à moi to me
à toi to thee
Ace.
moi me
|
toi thee

3rd Person.
elle
she
lui
de lui (en) of him d'elle (en) of her
à lui
to him à elle
to her
lui
him
elle
her

Plural.
Nom. nous we
vous you
j eux
they
Gen. de nous of us de vous of you d'eux (en) of them
Dat. à nous to us à vous to you I à eux
to them
A.cc.
nous us
vous you
j eux
them

elles
they
d'elles(en) of them
à elles
to them
elles
them

-Reflective Pronoun of the 3rd Person.
Singular and Plural.
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.

soi
de soi
à soi
soi

himself, herself, itself oneself

themselves

of
to

1
Y and en follow any other Pronoun, except y-moi, y-toi, y-le : donne-m'en,
give me of it; conduisez-nous-y, take us there ; menez-y-le, take him thither.

FRENCH GRAMMAR.

*34

202.—The Disjunctive Personal Pronouns must be
employed—
(1) When they are neither the Subject nor the Object
of the Verb :—
Qui est venu ? lui, eux elles
Qui a fait ce poème ? moi et lui

who came ? he, they
who made this poem ?

I and he

(2) After any Preposition except to :—
Nous parlions de toi, de lui
Il viendra avec eux
Ils l'ont fait/<?^r moi
But
Il te parle, il lui parle, il leur
parle

we were speaking of thee, of him
he will come with them
they did it for me
he speaks to thee, to him, to them

(3) After c'est, it is ;—
c'est
c'est
c'est
c'est

it
it
it
it

moi
toi
lui
elle

is
is
is
is

I
thou
he
she

1

c'est nous
c'est vous
c e s o n t eux
c e s o n t elles

it
it
it
it

is
is
is
is

we
you
they
they

(4) When they are followe d by même:—
/ myself

moi-même
toi-même
lui-même
soi-même
elle-même

we ourselves
you yourselves
they themselves
they themselves

nous-mêmes
vous-mêmes
eux-mêmes
elles-mêmes

thou thyself
he himself
oneself
she herself

II. P o s s e s s i v e P r o n o u n s (Pronoms P o s s e s s i f s ) .
203.—A. Conjunctive.
2nd Pers.

Masc. Fern,

mon ma
mes mes
b.

notre
nos

I
|
1

Masc. Fern,

ton ta
tes tes

my
my
our
our

3rd Pers.

Masc. Fern,

a. 1st Pers.

votre
vos

thy
thy
your
your

See Reasons and Illustrations,

son sa
ses ses
leur
leurs
§ 362.

his, hers, ifç
his, hers, its
their
their

PRONOUNS.

135

204.—The Possessive Pronouns must be repeated
before every Noun : — l
Mon oncle et ma tante sont
arrivés

my uncle and aunt have arrived

205.—The French Possessive Pronouns always agree
in number and gender with the object possessed, not with
the possessor, as in English:—
Elle aime son père et sa mère
ïl voit son frère, sa sœur et ses
amis
Nous avons perdu notre chapeau
et nos gants

she loves her father and her
mother
he sees his brother, his sister, and
his friends
we have lost our hat and our
gloves

206.—For the sake of Euphony mon, ton, son, are
used instead of ma, ta, sa, before feminine nouns beginning with a vowel or silent h : — 2
Son attention cessa bientôt
207.—B.

his attention soon flagged

Disjunctive—3

a. le mien, la mienne, mine ; le tien, la tienne, thine ; le sien, la
sienne, his, hers, its
les miens, les miennes, mine; les tiens, les tiennes, thine ; les
siens, les siennes, his, hers, its
è. le, la nôtre, ours; le, la vôtre, yours ; le, la leur, theirs
les nôtres, ours ; les vôtres, yours ; les leurs, theirs
1
I n speaking to other people of their relatives, it is customary to use
Monsieur, Messieurs, Madame, Mademoiselle,
before the Possessive Adjective :—
Monsieur votre père est-il arrive ?
has yourfather
come?
Mademoiselle
(or Mdlle ) votre
has your sister come with you?
sœur est-elle venue avec vous ?
3

See Reasons and Illustrations,

§ 363.

3

See ibid.y § 364.

136

FRENCH GRAMMAR.

208.—The Disjunctive Pronouns, referring to a Noun
mentioned before, must agree with it in number and
gender :—
Prenez mon livre et le sien
Voici sa plume et la mienne
Notre jardin est plus grand que
le vôtre

take my book and his {or hers)
here is his pen and mine
our garden is larger than yours

209.—If the Definitive Article, which stands before
these Pronouns, be preceded by de or à, it becomes in
the Sing, du, au, and in the Plur. des, aux (see § 161) :—
Voulez-vous du mien? Non,
merci, j'aime mieux prendre du sien que du vôtre

III.

will you take from mine? No,
thank you, I prefer taking
from his than from yours

D e m o n s t r a t i v e Pronouns.
Démonstratifs) 1 .

(Pronoms

21 o.—A. Conjunctive.
Masc.

Sing,
', Plur.

ce
ces

Fern.
(h

0Wel0r

cette

Voyez vous ce soldat ?
Donnez-moi cet argent

this

ces

cet fZte)

these

do you see this soldier ?
give me this money

211.—If a distinction is to be made between a nearer
and a more remote object, the latter is pointed out by
affixing -ci, the former by affixing -là :—
Ce lïve-ci et ce livre- là
Cet enfant-/^, ces hommes-/^

this book and that book
that child, those men

* See Reasons, & c , § 367.

PRONOUNS,

137

212.—Contrary to English usage, these Pronouns
must be repeated before every Substantive :—
Ces garçons et cesfillesvont à
l'école
213.- -B.

these boys and girls are going
to school

Disjunctive.

Masc.
Sing, celui
Plur. ceux

Fem.
celle
celles

ceci
ce

cela

this, that
these, those
this, that,
it

214.—Neither celui, celle, &c., nor ceci, cela, are ever
followed by a Noun ; there is this difference between
them, that the former Pronoun refers to a Noun expressed before, while the latter denotes something
not already mentioned, but to which we point at the
moment of speaking :—
Rendez-moi mon livre et celui
{ceux) de mon neveu
Il a vendu sa voiture et celle
{celles) de son ami

give me back my book and that
(those) of my nephew
he sold his carriage and that
(those) of his friend

Croyez-vous cela ?
Laissez-moi ceci et donnez-moi
cela *

do you believe that ?
leave this tç me and give tne
that

215,—The Disjunctive or Neuter Pronoun ce (not to
be confounded with the Conjunctive Demonstrative
Pronoun, see § 210) never stands before a Noun nor
in reference to a Noun mentioned before. It means :—
a. He, she, it, they, those, when it is placed before or
after être.
~Est-ce toi ? Oui, c'est moi
Ce sont mes amis
C'est une excellente femme

is it you ? Yes, it is I
they are my friends
she is an excellent woman

FRENCH

*j8

GRAMMAR,

b. that which (— what) when followed by qui, or que;
that of which) when followed by dont (see § 226).
Ce qui me plaît c'est sa prudence
Retenez ce que je vous dis
Ce dont vous m'avez parlé hier
me contrarie beaucoup

what pleases me, is his prudence
remember what I tell you
that of which you spoke to me
yesterday annoys me very
much

216.—With the addition of -ci, -là, the Pronouns
celui-ci, celle-ci, &c. are used with reference to the nearest
object (=: 1. this, 2. the latter), celui-là, celle-là, & c ,
with reference to the first-mentioned object ( = 1. that,
2. the former).
Voici deux poires; prendrez-vous
celle-ci ou celle-là ?
Cicéron et Démosthènes étaient
deux grands orateurs ; celuilà vivait en Italie, celui-ci
en Grèce

here are two pears ; will you take
this (one) or that (one) ?
Cicero and Demosthenes were two
great orators ; the former
lived in Italy', the latter in
Greece

217.—Followed by Relative Pronouns, celui, celle, &c.
have the sense of he who, she who, that which :—
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.

celui, celle qui
celui, celle dont
celui, celle de qui
1 à qui
celui \ auquel
ceiie

Ace.

j à laquelle
celui, celle qui

he, she who
he, she of whom
he, she of whom
he, to whom
he, to whom
she, to whom
she, to whom
he, she whom

that which
that of which
that to which
that to which
that which

Similarly for the plural : ceux qui, celles qui, they
Who, &c.
U n monsieur est venu pendant
votre absence, mais ce
n'était pas celui dont vous
avez parlé hier
N'ave^-vous pas vu celle à qtti
j'avais donné la lettre ?

a gentleman called during your
absence, but it was not he
of whom you spoke yesterday
did you not see her to whom 1
luid given the letter ?

PRONOUNS,
IV.

139

Interrogative P r o n o u n s .
Interrogatifs. 1 )

(Pronoms

218. A. Conjunctive.
Singular.
Masc.
quel
Nom.
Gen. de quel
Dat.
à quel
quel
Ace.

Fern.
quelle
quelle
quelle
quelle

Plural.
Masc.
quels
de quels
à quels
quels

De quelle femme parlez-vous ?
Quel homme voulez-vous dire ?

Fern.
quelles
quelles
quelles
quelles

which,
of which,
to which,
which,

what?
what?
what?
what?

of which woman do you speak ?
which man do you mean ?

219.—Quel may be separated from its Substantive,
but it must nevertheless agree with it in gender and
number :—
Quelle est la capitale de la France ? which is the capital of France ?

220.—Translate what a simply by quel, quelle, &c.
Quel homme ! quelle surprise !

what a man ! what a s-urprise I

221. — B . Disjunctive.
a. Persons.
N.
n
G.
D.
A.

b. Persons and Things.

Masc. & Fem.
Masc.
Fern,
qui who ?
lequel
laquelle
A~ „.,; de<im\ ?
I whose
o/lw/lom? \\ duquel de laquelle
à qui to whom Ï
auquel
à laquelle
qui whom ?
lequel
laquelle

which ?
of which?
to which

c. Things.
que, quoi
whatf
de quoi of what?
à quoi
to what?
que, quoi
what?

222.—Lequel, in the plural lesquels, lesquelles, &c. is
used when we are asking which amoftg several persons or
things. It is therefore always followed by a genitive or
a genitive has to be supplied.
Lequel de ces temps faut-il employer ici ?
Vous me dites que vous avez
rencontré mon frère, lequel ?

which of these tenses must be
used here ?
you tell me that you met my
brother—which ?

See Reasons, & c , § 369.

I40

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

223. Whose (see also §§ 229 and 230) is de qui or à
qui ; the latter is used when it stands before être, and
means to whom belongs ?—
De qui Charlemagne était-il lefils? whose son was Charlemagne ?
A qui est cette maison ?
whose house is this ?
224.—The periphrastic interrogation, qui est-ce qui,
may be used instead of quL &c. : —
( qui a chanté ici ?
Nom. \ qui est-ce qui a chanté
(
ici?
de qui parlez-vous ?

Î
Î

de qui est-ce que vous
parlez ?
à qui écrivez-vous ?

who sang here ?

of whom do you speak f

to whom are you writing?

à qui est-ce que vous
écrivez ?
( ^///voyez-vous?
whom do you see?
Ace. < qui est-ce que vous
(
voyez ?
225.—Similarly we may say qu'est-ce qui and qu'est-ce
que instead of que :— *
( ^'est-il arrivé ?
what 2 has happened ?
Nom. < ^'est-ce qui est ar(
rivé?
( de quoi parle-t-il ?
of what is he speaking ?
Gen. < de quoi est-ce quHl
>
(
parle ?
1
Que is also used in the sense of an Adverb or a Conjunction ( = combien,
pourquoi?).
Que de services il vous a rendus !
how many services he has ren~
dered you I
Que ne se plaint-il auprès du roi ?
w h y does he not complain to the
king?
2
T h e nominative what can be rendered b y que only before Impersonal or
Intransitive Verbs (que deviendrai-je ? que se Passe-t-il ?) ; before all other Verbs
qu'est-ce qui must be employed (qu est-ce qui vous afflige ? = what).

PRONOUNS.

5

S

à quoi visez-vous ?
à quoi est-ce que vous
visez ?

at what are you aiming ?

que désirez-vous ?
^ ' e s t - c e que vous désirez ?

what do you wish ?

(Pronoms

Relative Pronouns.
Relatifs) -1

226—V.

Masc. and Fern.
Sing. & Plur,

Nom,
qui
Gen. de qui, d o n t 2
Dat.
à qui
Ace.

que

(qui only after Prepositions and in speaking
of persons)

Masc.
Fern.
b. lequel
laquelle
duquel de laquelle
auquel à laquelle
lequel
laquelle
c.

Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.

who,
of whom,
to whom,

which
which
which

whom,

which

Masc.
Fem.
lesquels lesquelles
desquels desquelles
auxquels auxquelles
lesquels lesquelles

ce qui
ce dont
ce à quoi
ce que

L'homme qui fut tué
Le mot dont vous parlez
L a dame à qui vous avez écrit
1 L'enfant qui vous voyez
L'ami avec qui j ' a i fait ce
(
voyage

that
that
that
that

who,
of whom,
to whom,
whom,

which
which
which
which

which, what
of which
to which
which, what

the man who was killed
the word of which you speak
the lady to whom you wrote
( the child whom you see
< the friend with whom / made
(
this voyage

227.—The final e of que is elided before a Vowel or
nient h; qui never changes :—
La maison qu'il a achetée (for que il) ; l'ami avec qui il est venu.
1

See Reasons, & c , § 369.

:

See ibid, § 370.

142

FRENCH GRAMMAR.

228.—-The Relative Pronouns who, which, may be
omitted in English : they must always be expressed in
French :—•
Le livre que vous avez acheté est
excellent

the book you bought is excellent

229. — Whose is generally rendered by dont which must
immediately be followed by the subject of the .Relative
Clause :—
Le soldat dont vous connaissez
les enfants
But:—
Le soldat dont les enfants vous
connaissent

the soldier whose children you
know
the soldier whose children know
you

230.—Instead of dont we must use de qui, or duquel,
desquels, & c , if whose depends on a Noun governed
by a Preposition :—
Le prince sur la protection duquel (or de qui) vous comptez
Le journal dans les colonnes
duquel j'ai trouvé cette nouvelle
Les généraux à la bienveillance
desquels (or de qui) vous devez tout

the prince on whose protection
you count
the journal in the columns of
which I found this news
the generals to whose kindness
you owe everything

231.—Qui is used in speaking of persons.
232.—Lequel, &c. which always agrees in gender and
number with the Noun to which it refers, is used instead
of qui.
a. When, referring to animals or things, it is governed
by a preposition :—
Voici le livre dans lequel j'ai
trouvé tant de fautes
Le cheval sur leqtiel il est monté

here is the book in which I found
so many mistakes
the horse on which he 7?iounted

PRONOUNS.

143

b. When there would be an ambigidty in the phrase : —
Le frère de la jeune captive lequel a écrit cette lettre, est
très habile

the brother of the young captive
girl who wrote this letter is
very clever

N.B. It qui were used heie instead of lequel, it would, as it always
does, refer to the Noun which immediately precedes it, and the sense
of this sentence would altogether be changed.
VI.

T h e A d v e r b s EN, Y, où, DONT, u s e d a s
Pronouns.

233.—(1) E n originally an Adverb (Lat. inde
there) is used :—

—from

a. As a Personal Pronoun of both genders and numbers in reference to persons and chiefly to animals and
things ; it corresponds to the Genitive case, and stands
instead of de lui, d'elle, d'eux, d'elles {of him, of it, of her,
of them) : —
Parlez-vous de ces livres?
Oui, nous en parlons.
Cette maladie est dangereuse ;
il en mourra

do you speak of these hooks?
Yes, we speak of them
this ilhiess is dangerous ; he will
die of it

b. As a Possessive Pronoun, instead of his, her, its,
their :—
Je viens de voir Londres ; les
palais en sont magnifiques
J'aime les.fleurs; 'fen admire la
beauté

/ have just seen London ; its
palaces are beautiful
/ like flowers ; I admire their
beauty

c. In the sense of some, any, none of it, of them : —
Si vous avez des roses, donnez
m'en quelques unes
Voici des plumes; en voulezvous ?

if you have any roses, give me
some
here are pens ; do y ou want any?

U4

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

Obs. I n French, en must be used in the answer :—
a. W h e n the Noun or the Pronoun in the question is preceded
by de.—
Ont-ils parlé de lui ? Oui, ils en
ont parlé

have they spoken of him ?
they have

Yes,

b. W h e n the Noun in the question is used in a partitive sense :—
A-t-il des protecteurs ? Oui, il
en a de très-puissants
Avez-vous du papier ? Oui, y eu
ai

has he any protectors ? Yes, he
has very powerful ones
have you any paper ? Yes, I
have

c. W h e n the Noun in the question is preceded by un or une ; in
this case un or une must be repeated in the answer, except when
the answer is negative :-—
A-t-il tin cheval ? Oui, il en a
un
Avez-vous perdu une plumé ?
Oui, j ' e n ai perdu une
A-t-il un piano ? Non, il n'en a
pas

has he got a horse ? Yes, he
has
have you lost a pen ?
yes, I have
has he a piano ? No, he has
not

d. W h e n the Noun in the question or in thé first part of the
sentence is preceded by a numeral or an adverb of quantity :—
Vous avez deux frères, et moi,
y67t ai quatre
Puisque vous avez tant de fleurs,
donnez m'en une (or quelques unes)

you

have two brothers and 1
have four
as you have so many flowers,
give me one (or some)

234.—(2) Y is used not only as an Ad\xrb (Lat.
ibi, there) but also as a demonstrative pronoun of both
genders and numbers; it is mostly employed with reference to animals; things, and places, rarely with reference
to persons ; it stands for the Dative, and corresponds to
the English to it, at it, upon it, in it, him, her, them.

PRONOUNS.
Avez-vous été à Londres ? Oui,
y y ai été *
Voici sa lettre, répondez-^
J e vous rendrai vos thèmes si
j'y trouve trop de fautes

145

have you been in London ? Yes,
I have {been there)
here is his letter ; answer (to) it
/ shall give you back your exercises if I find in them too
many mistakes

Obs. Generally speaking, y = there, is used instead of là — there,
when it points to a place which has been named before :—
N'allez pas là, ce serait dangereux
J'aime Manchester, y y ai passé
plusieurs années

don't go there, it would be dan~
gerous
/ like Manchester ; I have been
there for several years

235.—(3) The Adverb Où, where {Lat. ubi), becomes a
Relative Pronoun when it is used for lequel, laquelle, &c.
preceded by à, dans, par, &c. ; it is of both numbers and
genders, and refers only to things :—
La maison oh (or dans laquelle)
il demeure est mal bâtie
Les pays par où (or par lesquels)
j ' a i passé, étaient malsains

the house m which he lives is
badly built
the countries through which /
passed were unhealthy

(4) D o n t was originally an Adverb, whence, out of
which {Lat. de wide) ; it is now scarcely ever used but
as a Pronoun. (See §§229 and 230.)
VII.

Indefinite Pronouns.
Indéfinis). 2

(Pronoms

236.—A. Indefinite Pronouns used Substantively.
1
When the Noun in the question is preceded by à, dans, en, sur, & c , y must
be added in the answer, although it does not appear in English :—
Avez-vous été à Paris ? Non, je n'y
have you been in Paris ? No, I have
ai pas été
not {been there)
L a lettre est-elle sur la table ? Oui
is the letter on the table ? Yes, it is
elle y est
(there)
* See Reasons, & c , § 371.

146

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

(i) Chacun fem. c h a c u n e x every one, each, has no
plural (as for chaque, see § 237) :—
Chacun pense à soi
Chacune de ses dames

every one thinks of himself
each of these ladies

(2) Quelqu'un 2 fem. quelqu'une; filur. q u e l q u e s
vxi'&fem. q u e l q u e s u n e s , some, somebody (in questions,
any, anybody) some one (as for quelque, see § 237) :—
J'attends quelqu'un ici
Quelqu'un de ces messieurs
Connaissez-vous quelques unes de
ces dames ?

I wait for somebody here
some one of these gentlemen
do you know any of these ladies ?

(3) Quiconque 3 whoever (lie who), whosoever, has no
plural, and refers only to persons ; the Adjective takes
the feminine gender when it refers to a lady :—
Quiconque n'observera pas cette
loi, sera puni
Il hait quiconque blâme son ami
Quiconque de vous, mesdemoiselles, se montrera envieuse,
sera grondée

whoever does not observe this law
will I
he hates the man (him) who
blames his friend
ladies, whoever of you proves
envious will be scolded

(4) O n 4 (for which form Ton is generally, but not
necessarily, used after et, si, ou, qui, que, quoi, except
when on is followed by a word beginning with / ; et on
lui donna, not et Von lui donna s), is of the masculine
gender and always requires the Verb to be in the Singular : it means one, they, we, people :—
On dit qu'il viendra
Si Von n'était pas venu me surprendre
Et Von se trompe si facilement

they (people) say that he will
come
if they had not taken me by
surprise
And we deceive ourselves so easily

1
2
See Reasons, &c , § 371, No. 5.
See ibid., § 371, N o . 16.
4
See ibid, § 371, No 17
See ibid., § 371, No 10.
5 When qu'on is followed by a word beginning with the syllable con, it is
preferable to use que Von : Je vetix que l'on continue instead of je veztx qu'on
continue.
3

PRONOUNS.

Ï47

This pronoun is often used in order to avoid the
passive voice.
On les laissa seuls
On m'a raconté
On dit que

they were left alone
/have been told
it is said that

(5) a. Personne x nobody', no one is always masculine
and singular and requires the negative ne* before the
verb :— 3
Personne /z'est tué
Je /z'ai rencontré personne

nobody has been killed
I met no one

b. Personne, rien, and aitcun must be followed by de
before an Adjective. See also § 167 (2) :—
11 n'y a rien de grand comme
l'homme vertueux succombant au malheur
Il n'y a parmi eux personne de
plus juste que lui

there is nothing so great as the
virtuous man sinking under
the weight of misfortune
there is among them no one more
just than he

1
Personne in the sense of a person
Feminine :—
Remarquez-vous cette personne ?
Des personnes bien intentionnées

{man or woman),

2

people, is a Noun

do you notice this person ?
well-intentioned people

T h e Pronouns personne, aucun, rien, and nul, are used without ne—

a. When they are not accompanied by a Verb :—
Qui est venu ? Personne
who came ? N o one
Qu'a-t-il fait ? Rien
what did he do ? Nothing
b. When the interrogative form is employed only in order to affirm with so
much greater emphasis, personne and aucun then mean anybody, and rien anything :—
Y-a-t-il rien de plus beau que ce
is there anything finer than this
tableau ?
picture ?
Personne oserait-il nier cela?
would any one dare to deny this?
This form of expression only serves to affirm energetically that there is nothing
more beautiful than this picture, and that no one would dare to deny such a
statement.
If, in these two examples, we were to use qtielque chose or quelqu'un instead
of rien^ and personne, the sense of the phrase would no longer be the same. For
in saying : Y a-t-il quelque chose de plus beau que ce tableau ?
Quelqu'un
oserait-il nier cela ? we ask a real question to which we expect an answer. T h e
translation of the ordinary question, Has any one dared to deny this? would
be : Personne n'a-t-il osé nier cela ?
3
See Reasons, & c , § 384.
L 2

148

FRENCH GRAMMAR.

c. Personne and aucun are used without tie (see also
p. 147, Note 2), when they follow a Verb which expresses doubt :—Il doute que personne le trouve

he doubts whether any one will
find it

(6) Autrui, 1 others, other people, only refers to persons,
has no Singular, and is generally preceded by a Preposition :—
Ne faites pas à autrui ce que
vous ne voudriez pas qu'on
vout fît

do not to others what you would
not wish others to do to you

(7) Quelque c h o s e , something, is of the masculine
gender, see §182 (4) :—
On lui dit que quelque chose de
désagréable était arrivé

he was told that something disagreeable had happened

(8) Rien, 2 nothing, is an indefinite Pronoun masculine
singular, and requires ne before the Verb :—
Je ne vois rien
Rien ne l'intéresse

I see nothing
nothing interests him

Rem. I. On rien used without ne, see aucun, p. 147, Note 2.
Rem. 2. Rien may be employed as a Noun in the sense of thing
of no importance ;—
Dire des riens

to talk nothings

(9) Qui que, whosoever, whomsoever ; quoi que,
whatsoever, howsoever, to be followed by the Subjunctive :—
Qui que ce soit
Qui que vous blâmiez
Quoi qu'il en soit
x

J

See Reasons, &c , § 371, N o . 3.

whoever he may be
whomsoever you blame
however that may be
2

See ibid, § 384.

PRONOUNS.

149

2 3 7. -—.Z?. Indefinite Pronouns used A djectively.
(i) C h a q u e , 1 every, each, is of both genders and has
no plural ; it is always followed by a Noun, whilst chacun
is always used without a Noun. See §236 (1) :—
Chaque homme a sa passion
Chaque fille aime à jouer

every man has his passion
every girl likes playing

(2) a. Q u e l q u e , 2 pL q u e l q u e s , some, is of both genders, and is always followed by a Noun. See §236 (2) :—
Donnez-moi quelque argent
Il y a quelques fautes

give me some money
there are some mistakes

0. Q u e l q u e , $lur. q u e l q u e s , with q u e before the
succeeding Verb, which must be in the Subjunctive
mood, means whatever, whatsoever :— 3
Quelque soin qu'on prenne
Quelques efforts que tu fasses
Quelques grandes richesses
qu'ils aient

whatever care one may take
whatever efforts you may make
what great riches soever they
may have

c. Q u e l q u e , followed by an Adverb or by an Adjective without a Noun, is an Adverb and as such remains
invariable ; it means however, howsoever :—
Quelque bien jouées que soient
ces tragédies . . .
Quelque modestes qu'ils soient
je ne les aime pas

however well these tragedies may
be played . . .
however modest they may be% I
do not like them

1
See Reasons, &c v § 371, N o . 6.
* See ibid., § 371, No. 15
3
If whatever should govern the Verb To Be (e.g. whatever his excuse ma} r
be), it is rendered in French by quel que, which agrees with the subject of the
claiase in Number and Gender, and must immediately be followed by the Subjunctive of être :—

Quelle que soit son excuse
Quels que soient mes desseins

whatever his excuse may be
whatever my J>lans may be

ISO

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

(3) Quelconque, 1 plur. q u e l c o n q u e s , is of both
genders, and always follows the Noun :—
Un prétexte quelconque
Deux points quelconques étant
donnés . . .

any pretext whatever
any two points being given . . .

(4) Maint, 2 mainte;plur, m a i n t s , m a i n t e s , many
a; this Pronoun is scarcely ever used but in the familiar
style :—
Maint homme se conduit en
enfant

many a man behaves like a child

(5) Certain^ certaine; plur. certains, c e r t a i n e s ,
some, certain ;* this Pronoun is sometimes preceded by
un :—
Certaines gens se plaignent toujours
Un certain loup aperçut un
agneau

some people are always com"
plaining
a wolf saw a lamb

(6) Différents, différentes,
> different, various.
divers, d i v e r s e s ,
Les différentes parties de ce discours

the different parts of this speech

238.—C. Indefinite Pronouns used both Substantively
and Adjeciively.
1

See Reasons, & c , § 371, No. 14.
See ibid., § 371, No. 7.
See ibid., § 371, No. 4.
* Placed after the Noun, certain has the sense of sure, indubitable :—
2

3

C'est une marque certaine

it is a sure sign

PRONOUNS.

151

(i) A u c u n , 1 a u c u n e , 1
no one
(2) N u l , nulle,
f/lûne>
> not one> no'
they are seldom used in the plural, and always require ne
before the Verb :—
Aucun homme ?z'est parfaitement heureux
Aucun n'est prophète chez soi

no one is perfectly happy
no one ds a prophet in his own
count7y
no one is immo7'tal

Nul n'est immortel

Aucun, e, is sometimes placed after its Substantive,
especially in the feminine gender :—
Sans exception aucune

without any exception
2

(3) P a s un, p a s une, no one, not a single one, requires the Verb with ne :—
Pas un n'est venu

not a single one came

(4) Plusieurs,3 several, many is invariable and of
both genders :—
Plusieurs amis m'ont écrit
Il paya bien cher plusieurs de ses
victoires

sevemlfriends have wi itten to me
he paid dearly for several of his
victories

(5) T e l , telle,* t e l s , t e l l e s : s such, is preceded by
un, une, whilst, in English, such is followed by the Indefinite Article :—
Une telle amie
1

Such a friend

2
See Reasons, Sec, § 371, N o . 1.
See Hid., § 384.
See ibid., § 371, No. 12.
4 See ibid.) § 371, N o . 19.
5 Notice the following meanings of tel :—
(1) tel qui, many a one
(2) tel quelj such as it is, was ; of small value
(3) Mr. un tel, Mr. so and so
Tel qui rit le matin pleure le soir \
many a one laughs in the morning
Tel rit le matin qui pleure le soir 1
who weej>s in the evening
J e lui rendis son chapeau tel quel
I gave him back his hat, such as it
was
Ce vin est t?I quel
this wine is only middling, so so
3

i52

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

In the Plural, tels, telles, may be used with de or without de :—
De tels soldats
such soldiers
Je ferai telles conditions
/ shall make such conditions
(6) A u t r e , 1 other, remains the same both for the
Masculine and the Feminine : — 2
Un autre ami ; une autre fin
Donnez-moi d''attires exemples
D'autres vous diront le contraire
(7) L ' u n l ' a u t r e
Li'une l ' a u t r e

another friend ; another end
give me other examples
others will tell you the contrary
\each other with reference to
Ç two persons or things.

Les uns les autres feach other w i t h r e f e r e n c e t 0
,
,
•
< more than two v
persons or
T
Les unes les autres \ , , .
^ things.
Ils se naissent Vun Vautre
they hate each other
Ils se battent les uns les autres
they beat each other
(8) L ' u n e t l ' a u t r e 3
L'une et l'autre

\both in speaking of two
j persons or things.

et les autres f both i n s P e a k i n S o f more
.«
,
-\ than two persons OÎ
T
r
Les unes et les autres \ . , .
^ thmgs.
Vun et Vautre cheval sont tombés both horses fell
Vun et Vautre sont venus
both have come
Les uns

1
2

See Reasons, Bec, § 371, N o 2.
Autres is often added to notes and vous in order to mark opposition :—
Notts autres Anglais, nous ne
we English don't believe that
croyons pas cela

Autre

is sometimes used in the sense of second:—

C'est un autre Demosthenes
he is a second Demosthenes
U n autre moi-même
my second self
3
If there be any Preposition, it must be put before l'un and before
Vmitre :—
Il parle à l'un et à l'autre
he is speaking to both

PRONOUNS.

153

(9) a. T o u t , 1 t o u t e 2 = every, each, when used without any Article.
T o u t , ' t o u t e = whole, when used with the
Singular of the Definite Article.
T o u s , t o u t e s = all, when used with the
Plural of the Definite Article.
Tout homme est mortel
Tout /'homme ne meurt pas
Tous les hommes sont mortels
La plus belle fleur de tout le
jardin

every man is mortal
the whole man does not die
all men are mortal
the most beautiful flower in the
whole garden

Rem. The last example shows that tout always prevents the
contraction of the Preposition de with the Definite Article. (See
§ 163.)
b. L e t o u t is a Substantive^ meaning the whole :—
Divisez le tout en 3 parties
Il donnera le tout à son meilleur
ami

divide the whole in 3 parts
he will give the whole to his
best friend

1

On tout before the name of a town, see p i n . , Note 2.
See Reasons, &c, § 371, N o . 20.
T o u t niay also be used as an Adverb = quite, entirely, and as such, it
remains invariable ; but if it be immediately followed by the Feminine form of
an Adjective or a Participle beginning with a Consonant or an h Aspirate, it agrees
with the Adjective or Participle in Number and Gender:—
2
3

Nous sommes tout prêts
Elle fut tout étonnée, tout heureuse
Elles furent tout affligées
Nous sommes tottt oreilles
But—
Elle fut toute déconcertée toute
honteuse
Elles furent toutes changées

we are quite ready
she was quite astonished,
happy
they were quite sad
we are all ears
she was quite disconcerted
ashamed
they were quite changed

quite

and

Rem. If, in the first example, we were to write, ' Nous sommes tous prêts,
tous would no longer be an Adverb ; it would be the Adjective, and mean : all:
we are all ready. Thus :—
Ces vins sont tout purs
Ces vins sont tous purs

these wines are quite pure
these wines are all pute

154

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

c. Tout used alone means everything :—
Tout est changé ici

everything is changed here

d. Tout le monde generally means every one; the
whole world is rendered by le monde entier.
(io) a. Même, 1 Plur. mêmes = same, self, alike,
of both Genders, follows the Substantive or the Pronoun :—
Le roi même (or le roi lui-même)
La reine même (or la reine ellemême)
C'est la douceur même

the king himself
the queen herself
he is gentleness itself

h. Le même, la même, les mêmes, Masculine
and Feminine = the same ;—
Cela se trouve dans le même livre
Ce sont les mêmes
Il mourut le même jour
But:—
Il mourut le jour même

this is found in the same book
they are the same
he died the same day
he died the very day

c. Même takes an s when it is used :—
(i) between the Article and the Noun in the Plural ;
(2) after one Noun or Pronoun in the Plural ;
{3) substantively (see above, b).
Vous avez fait les mêmes fautes
que lui
Voilà mes amis mimes (or euxmêmes)
Ces garçons seront toujours les
mêmes

you have made the same mistakes as he
there are my friends themselves
these boys will always be the
same

1
On -même preceded by moi, toi, & c , see above, § 202.
see Reasons, & c , § 371, N o . 8.

On its etymology,

PRONOUNS.

155

But même remains invariable when used as an Adverb in the sense
of even, i.e.—
(1) when it precedes the Article ;
(2) when it follows several Substantives ;
(3) when it qualifies another word but the Substantive.
Même les femmes furent tuées
Ses élèves, ses enfants mhne l'ont
abandonné
Il ne voulut pas même m'écouter

even the women were killed
his pupils, even his children, have
left him.
he would not even listen to me

CHAPTER

VI.—NUMERALS
NUMÉRAUX).1

(ADJECTIFS

239.—(I) Cardinal Numbers (Nombres
Cardinaux).
I
2

3
4

5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24

un (m.), une (f.) 1
deux
trois
quatre 2
cinq
six
sept
huit
neuf
dix
onze
douze
treize
quatorze
quinze
seize
dix-sept
dix-huit
dix-neuf
vingt (gt mute) 3
y
vingt et un
^în
vingt-deux
!
vingt-trois
( vingt
sounded
vingt-quatre, &c. J

30
31
32
40
50
60
70
71
72
80
8l
82
90
91
99
100
IOI
102
200
210
1000
2000
100000
1000000

trente
trente et un
trente-deux
quarante
cinquante
soixante
soixante-dix
soixante-onze
soixante-douze, & c
quatre-vingts 2
quatre-vingt-un
quatre-vingt-deux
quatre-vingt-dix 3
quatre-vingt-onze
quatre-vingt-dix-neuf
cent (t mute)
cent un (t mute)
cent deux (t mute)
deux cents
deux cent dix
mille
deux mille
cent mille
un million

Note. —Naught is zéro in French.
1

s

S e e ,Reasons ana11Ihtstrations, § 372.
3 See ibid., § 375.
See ibid., § 374-

NUMERALS.

157

240—The a of the Definite Article la, and the final
e of words preceding huit and onze, are generally not
elided before these two numerals :—
Le huit mars, le onze juin, la onzième partie ; il n'y eut que
onze.
241.— Vingt and ce?it take an s when they are multi
plied by a number and not followed by any other :—
Quatre-vingts hommes ; deux cents enfants ; il y en avait deux
cents.
But :—
Quatre-vingt-trois hommes, cent enfants, deux cent dix soldats.
242.—Quatre-vingt and cent remain unchanged when
they are used as an ordinal number or in dates :—
Page quatre-vingt ; page trois cent ; en mil six cent; l'an quatrevingt.
243.—Neither one nor and are expressed, whether the)/
precede or follow hundred ma thousand :—
cent dix pages
cent livres
mille trois cents exemplaires

one hundred and ten pages
one hundred pounds
one thousand three hundred
copies

244,—Pronunciation. The final consonant of cinq, six,
sept, huit, neuf, and dix, is sounded—<
a. before a Vowel or silent h ; dix^aunes, sept^hommes ;
b. when the Numeral stands alone : nous étions neuf ;
c. when the Cardinal Number is used instead of the Ordinal
(see § 253) : le cinq septembre.
In all other cases the final Consonant of these Numerals is mute ;
cinq (pron. cin) livres ; six (pron. si) héros.

FRENCH GRAMMAR.

158

The final Consonant of words preceding huit and onze is mute :
vers les \ huit heuresy vers les | onze heures. (Similarly : vers les \
une heure).

245.—Mille, thousand, never takes s :x trois milles am.
Mil is used instead of mille in dates of the
Christian era, if it is followed by a Numeral
Adjective :—
Mil deux cent quatorze ; en mil trois cent quarante.
But :—
L'an mille ; l'an deux mille ; l'an quatre mille huit du monde.

246.—Million, billion, trillion, take s in the Plural.
247.—' In the year' is en or Van (the latter more generally used for numbers under hundred : Van 48) :—
En mil huit cent cinquante, in the year 1850.

248.—When two numerals are joined together, the
larger always precedes : trente-deux ; vingt-cinq (not cinq
et vingt, as in English sometimes, five and twenty).
249.—(2) Ordinal N u m b e r s ( N o m b r e s
Ordinaux). 2
ISt.

2nd.

3rd.

Le
La
Le
La
Le
La
Le

premier (m.)
première (f. ) 3
second (m.)
seconde (f. ) 3
deuxième (m.)
deuxième (f.) 4
troisième

4th.
5th.
6th.
7th.
8th.
9th.
ioth.

Le
Le
Le
Le
Le
Le
Le

quatrième
cinquième
sixième
septième
huitième
neuvième
dixième

250.—The other Ordinal Numbers are formed by
adding -ieme to the Cardinal Numbers of which the final
1
2
3

Mille, a mile, takes s in the Plural : deux milles, two miles.
See Reasons and Illustrations,
§ 379 sq.
4
See ibid., § 379.
See ibid., § 3C0.

NUMERALS.

159

e is omitted if they end in this Vowel : onze, onz-ième;
douzey douzième.
251.—First is to be translated by premier when it
stands by itself, and by unième when preceded by another
number :—
I ^e premier livre
l^Q vingt-unième (or vingt et unihné) chapitre

thefirstbook
the twenty-first chapter

252.—Deuxième must be used instead of second (pronounce segon) when there is a third.
253.—The Cardinal instead of the Ordinal Numbers
are used—
a. For the Days of the Month (exe. le premier) : le
quatre mars, le onze juin (see § 240), le premier août.*
N.B. Of before the name of a month and on in dates,
or used with the days of the week, are not expressed :
le quatre mars — on the 4th of March; il arriva lundi
= he arrived on Monday.
b. In Quotations (exe. le premier) : livre trois, chapitre
cinq = book the third, chapter the fifth.
c. After the names of Sovereigns (exe. le premier;
second is used conjointly with deux) : Henri trois, Henry
the Third ; Charles premier, Charles the First; Louis
deux (or Louis second), Louis the Second.
Obs. Pope Sixtus V. and the Emperor Charles V. are :
Sixte-Quint and Charles-Quint (but : Charles V., king of
France = Charles cinq).
x
The names of the month and of the days of the week are written with small
initials :
janvier, février, mars, avril, mai, juin, juillet,
août, septembre, octobre,
novembre, décembre
dimanche, lundi, mardi, mercredi, jeudi, vendredi,
samedi

i6o

254.—(3)
Une huitaine
une dixaine
une douzaine
une quinzaine
une vingtaine
une trentaine

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

Collective N u m e r a l s
Collectifs).
about 8
about 10
a dozen
about 15
a score
about 30

une quarantaine
une cinquantaine
une soixantaine
une centaine
un millier

255.— (4) Fractional N u m e r a l s
Fractionnaires).
La moitié
demi (f. demie)
un tiers
deux tiers
trois tiers

the half
half
a third
two thirds
three thirds. Sec.

(Nombres
about
about
about
about
about

40
50
60
IOO
1000

(Nombres

un quart
deux quarts
un cinquième
deux cinquième
trois sixièmes

a fourth
two fourths
a fifth
two fifths
three sixths

Obs. 1. From five upwards the Ordinal Numbers are
used.
Obs. 2. Demi is variable only when following the
Noun : une demi-heure ; u?ie heure et demit.
256.—(5) Multiplicative N u m e r a l s ( N o m b r e s
Proportionnels).
Simple
double
triple
quadruple
quintuple

simple
double
treble
fourfold

sextuple or six fois autant
septuple or sept fois autant
octuple or huit fois autant
décuple or dix fois autant
centuple or cent fois autant

fivefold
All the others are formed thus :
onze fois autant ; douze fois autant, &c.

Obs. They become Substantives when preceded by the
Article : le double, le triple, &c.

CHAPTER VIL—ADVERBS. 1

(I) Place of the Adverb.
257.—The Adverb is generally placed after the Verb
in Simple Tenses, and between the Auxiliary and the
Participle in Compound Tenses :— 2
Il voyage beaucoup ; il a beaucoup voyagé.

(2) Adverbs derived from Adjectives.
258.—a. Their Formation. Adverbs are derived from
Adjectives in the following way :—
1. The suffix -ment 3 is added to Adjectives ending
in a vowel :—
Sage, sage-ment ; vrai, vrai-ment ; aisé, aisé-ment.
Exc. 1. Traître has traîtreusement, treacherously ; puni forms the
Adverb impunément, with impunity.
x

See Reasons, &e , § 382.
Adverbial expressions are placed after the Past P a r t i c i p a even if the Verb
is in a Compound Tense i—
Il l'avait rencontré par hasard.
3
See Reasons, & c , § 385.
2

M

162

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

Exc, 2. T h e following Adjectives take an acute accent on the final
e mute before adding -ment :—
Aveugle
commode
conforme
énorme
immense
incommode
opiniâtre
uniforme

aveuglement
commodément
conformément
énormément
immensément
incommodément
opiniâtrement
uniformément

blindly
commodiously
conformably
enormously
immensely
incommodiously
obstinately
uniformly

Exc. 3. A circumflex accent is placed on the vowel preceding the
suffix -ment :—
Assidûment
continûment
crûment

continuedly
bluntly

dûment
gaîment
nûment

duly
gaily
plainly

Exc. 4. Beau, fou, mou, nouveau, form their Adverbs according
to the second rule : bellenmtt (gently), follement, mollement, nouvellement.
2. The suffix -ment is added to the Feminine termination of Adjectives ending in a Consonant :—
Franc
vif
long
léger
doux

franche
vive
longue
légère
douce

franche-ment
vive-ment
longue-ment
légère-ment
douce-ment

frankly
lively
a long time
lightly
gently

Fxc. 1. Gentil makes gentiment, prettily.
Exc. 2. Before adding -ment, an acute accent is placed
over the final e of the Feminine of the following Adjectives : —
Commun
confus
diffus
exprès
importun
obscur
précis
profond
profus

commune
confuse
diffuse
expresse
importune
obscure
precise
profonde
profuse

communé-ment
confusé-ment
diffusé-ment
expressé-ment
importuné-ment
obscuré-ment
precisé-ment
profondé-ment
profusé-ment

commonly
confusedly
diffusedly
expressly
importunately
obscurely
precisely
profoundly
profusely

ADVERBS.

163

3. Adjectives in ant and e n t change these terminations into a m m e n t and erament respectively :—
Constant, constamment ; prudent, prudemment.
Except.

Lent
présent
véhément

lentement
présentement
véhémentement

slowly
presently
strongly

259.—^. Their Comparts'on.
i. Adverbs are compared in the same manner as
Adjectives (see above, § 190):— I
Eos. Vivement ; Comp. plus vivement ; Sup. le plus vivement.

2. Than after a Comparative is generally expressed
by que: il écrit mieux que sa sœur. After plus and
moins, followed by a cardinal number or by demi, moitié,
tiers, quart, midi, minuit, we must translate than—
a. By de, when there is no real comparison, but simply
a statement of quantity or number :•—
Il vit plus de six vaisseaux
Il lui donna moins de la moitié
Il était plus de minuit

he saw more than six ships
he gave him less than the half
it was later than 12 o'clock

b. By que, when there is a real comparison :—
Quatre yeux voient plus que deux
Un quart vaut moins qu'un tiers

four eyes see more than two
a fourth is less than a third

(3) A d v e r b s of Quantity.
260.—Both the Adverbs of Negation 2 (ne...pas, ne.,,
point, ne...rien, &c ) and the following Adverbs take the
1
2

On the Irregular Comparison of Adverbs, see above, § 192.
See Reasons, &c , § 384
M 2

164

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

Preposition de after them, if they are followed by a
Noun (see § 166) :—
Peu,1 moins, plus, trop, tant ;
Beaucoup,2 combien, 3 assez, autant.
261.—(4) Adverbs of Place.*
Ailleurs
alentour
auprès
autre part
dedans
dehors
de part et d'autre
de toutes parts
derrière
dessous
dessus

elsewhere
around
near
elsewhere
within
without
on both sides
from every side
behind
below
above

devant
environ
ici
là
loin
nulle part
n'importe où
partout
quelque part
où
y

before
about
here
there

faroff

nowhere
anywhere
everywhere
somewhere
where
here, there

262.—(5) Adverbs of Time.s
Alors
après-demain
aujourd'hui

then6
[autrefois
the day after toj
avant-hier
morrow
bientôt
to-dav

formerly
( the day before
\
yesterday
soon

1
Little, less, more, too muck (jnany), so much ; much, how much, enough,
as mtich.
2
Much before the Adverb better (mietcx) m a y b e beaucoup or Men ; but before
the Adverb worse (pis) it must be bien :—

Il écrit bien (beaucoup) mieux
que son frère
Il est bien pis aujourd'hui

he writes m^tch better than his
brother
he is much worse to-day

3
Que de is used only in exclamations ; combien de both in exclamations and
questions :•—
what a many books !
Que de (combien de) livres î
how many books has he ?
Combien de livres a-t-il ?
4
5 See ibid,f § 383.
See Reasons, See, § 383.
6
Then is translated by—
a. puis = then
b. done = therefore
c. alors = at that time

ADVERBS.
désormais
dorénavant
dernièrement

déjà
demain
encore
enfin
hier
jadis
longtemps
maintenant

£

henceforth
lately
already
to-morrow
still
at last
yesterday
formerly
a long time
now

parfois
à présent
puis
quand
quelquefois
souvent
soudain
tôt
tantôt
toujours
tard

165
sometimes
now
then
when
sofnetimes

often
suddenly
soon
soon
always
late

263.—(6) Adverbs of Manner and Quality.
Bien3
fort
mal
à la hâte
à la mode
à tort
exprès
comment
comme
très
ainsi

well) very
much, very
badly
in haste
in vogue
wrongfully
expressly
how
like
much
thus

si, aussi 3
volontiers
plutôt
à couvert
de nouveau
à genoux
de force
à merveille
à peine
en vain
par conséquent

50

willingly
rather
under covert
anew
kneeling
by force
admirably well
hardly
vainly
consequently

1

See Reasons, Sec, § 383.
a. Very, before Adjectives and Adverbs, is in French très, fort, or bien:
C'est très {bien) facile ; vous savez cette règle fort mal.
b So very before Adjectives is generally si : II est toujours si poli, he is
always so very polite.
c. Very much is never très beaucoup, but simply bien, beaucoup, or fort (this
last word especially before Past Participles) : Ce livre me plaît beaucoup (very
much) ; son père Va fort grondé (very much).
d. Very, standing by itself, may be translated differently, as will be seen from
the following examples :—
2

Est-ce difficile ? Oui, c* es ffort
{bien) difficile
C'est absurde, n'est - ce pas ?
OuL
vraiment
' So is
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

Is it difficult ? Yes, very
Is not this absurd ? Yes, very

to be translated—
by si before Adjectives and Adverbs ;
by ainsi when used with Verbs ;
by de -même when it means : in the same way ;
by aussi when it means : accordingly and begins a sentence.

FRENCH

i6ô

GRAMMAR.

264.—(7) Adverbs of Affirmation and Negation. 1
Oui3
certes
vraiment
sans doute
ne... rien
assurément
certainement
si2

yes
certainly
truly
without doubt
nothing
assuredly
certainly
yes

non3
nullement
ne...pas4
ne... plus
ne...point
ne... jamais
point du tout

no
by no means
not
no...more
not
never
not at all

265.—(8) Adjectives used as Adverbs.
(1)
(2)
(.3)
(4)
(5)
(6)

Haut, bas
bon
bon
cher
court
faux
juste

parler haut, bas
tenir bon
sentir bon
coûter payer cher
couper court
chanter faux
chanter juste

speak loud, low
stand fast
smell nicely
cost imtch, pay dearly
cut short
sing incorrectly
sing correctly

1

See Reasons, & c , § 384.
After a negative question or a negative statement, yes is translated by si oi
sifait, instead of oui :—
have you not yet written to htm ?
N e lui avez-vous pas encore écrit ?
Si fait
Yes, I have
Il ne fait jamais ce qu'on lui dit.
He never does what ke is told.
Si
Yes, he does
3
T h e absolute negation no and not (used without a Verb) is non :—
Avez-vous lu le 2nd livre ? Non, mais j ' a i lu le premier
Faites attention à ce qu'il fait et non (or non pas) à ce qu'il dit
* Pas, point, rien, jamais, and plus, must always be accompanied by ne
unless they are used without a Verb :—
2

Il n'est pas heureux. Elle n'y pense jamais
J'irai le voie, mais pas avec toi.
Plus d'argent = no more money.

Y retournerez-vous ? Jamais

:= never*

CHAPTER VIIL—PREPOSITIONS (PRÉPOSITIONS). 1

266.—(1) Simple Prepositions.
À
après
d'après
avant
avec
chez
concernant
contre
dans
de
depuis
derrière
dès
devant
durant
en
entre
envers
environ
excepté

to, at

except
in spite of
moyennant { by means of, on
\
condition
non obstant notwithstanding
outre
besides
par
by
, parmi
among
pendant
during
pour
for
sans
without
sauf
save, except
selon
according to
sous
under
suivant
according to
sur
upon
touchant
co7tcerning
vers
towards
vu
considering
hormis
malgré

after
according to
before
with
at the house of
concerning
against
in
of from
since
behind
from
before
during
in, whilst, by
between
towards
about
except
3

See Reasons, & c , § 387,

i68

FRENCH GRAMMAR*

(2) C o m p o u n d

Prepositions.

267.—a. Prepositions which govern the Genitive.
À l'aide de with the help of
near
auprès de
round
autour de
near
à côté de
on account of
à cause de
this side
en deçà de
au delà de
au-dessous de below
au-dessus de above
au devant de
en dedans de within
en dépit de in spite of
in consequence of
ensuite de
à l'égard de with regard to
for want of
faute de

en face de
à force de
hors de
loin de
lors de
le long de
au lieu de
au moyen de
à moins de
au milieu de
près de
proche de
a propos de
au travers de
vis à vis de

in face of
by dint of
out of
far from
at the time of
instead of
by means of
under
in the middle of
near to
near to
with regard to
through
opposite

268.—b. Prepositions which govern the Dative.
Jusqu'à
)
jusques à
{
quant à
par rapport à

as far as, until
as for, as to
with regard to

269.—c. Prepositions which govern the Accusative.
À travers
d'après
par-dessous
par-dessus

through
after
underneath, under
over, above

270.—On the Use of some of the Prepositions me7itioned
above.
T. The Preposition must be placed immediately before
its object :—
De quoi se plaignait-il ?

what was he complaining of ?

PREPOSITIONS.

169

2. De, en, and à must be repeated before every word
which they govern :—
Je vais en France et en Ailemagne

I am going to France and Germany

3. All Prepositions governing a Verb require the Verb
to be in the Infinitive;• the only Preposition which is
followed by the Present Participle is e n : —
Il sortit sans rien dire

he went out without saying

Après avoir entendu l'histoire,
il se mit à rire
Il trembla en lui donnant la
main

after having heard the story,
he began laughing
he trembled when he shook
hands with him

CHAPTER

IX.—CONJUNCTIONS.1

271.—(1) Co-ordinative.
A. Connective.
Et
ni
et...et
encore
d'ailleurs
au reste

and
nor
both...and
y ety still
moreover
besides

tantôt... tantôt
ni...ni
non seulement
...mais encore
aussi

sometimes...
sometimes
neither...nor
not only ...but
also
also

£. Disjunctive.
Ou... ou

either...or

soit..*soit

? it...or

néanmoins
toutefois

nevertheless
however

C. Adversative.
Mais
cependant
pourtant

but
however
yet, still

D. Conclusive.
Car
for
or
now (in arguing)
c'est pourquoi I
voila pourquoi )
s
donc
then, therefore

ainsi
thus
partant
therefore
conséquemment )
par conséquant > consequently
en conséquence )

1 See Reasons, &c , § 388.

CONJUNCTIONS,

m

272.—(2) Sub-ordinative.
A.

Governing the Indicative Mood.

A condition que on condition that
de même que )
as well as
ainsi que
)
after
après que
whereas
vu que
seeing that
attendu que
as much as
autant que
aussitôt que
as soon as
dès que
sitôt que
au lieu que
whereas
depuis que
since (time)
durant que
whilst
puisque
since

pendant que )
tandis que
\
parceque
tant que
à mesure que
si
lorsque
quand
,
à proportion que
excepté
)
hors que
(
selon que
)
suivant que |

m
wnusi

lecause
as long as
according as
if whether
*i proportion
,, ,7 .
«*#"&*
-,.
^cording as

B. Governing the Subjunctive Mood.
Pour que
that
afin que
à moins q u e . . . n e unless
avant que
before
bien que
quoique
de peur que
?for fear that
de crainte que
au cas que
en cas que
loin que
far from

non que
not that
non pas que
nohvithstandmalgré que
ing
non obstant que
provided that
pourvu que
without
sans que
soit q u e . . . ou que whether...or
posé que
)
supposé que
\ suppose that
pour peu que
however little
si peu que

C. Governing either the Indicative or the Subjunctive.
Que
de façon que
de manière que
de sorte que
en sorte que

that
• so that

au lieu que
selon que
sinon que
jusqu'à ce que

whereas
according as
except that
until

as

FRENCH

172

D.

GRAMMAR.

Governing the Infinitive Mood.

Afin de
avant de
à moins de
au lieu de
faute de

in order to
before
unless
instead of
for want of

CHAPTER

de crainte de
de peur de
loin de
plutôt que
pour

\ for fear of
far from
rather than
in order to

X.—INTERJECTIONS. 1

273-—
(i) Joy : ah ! bon !
(2) Grief and pain : ah! aïe ! hélas! ouf!
(3) Surprise : ha ! oh ! ô !
(4) Disgust : fi ! fi done ! pouah ! foin !
(5) Silence : st ! chut !
(6) Calling out to some one : hé ! hé là-bas ! holà !
274.— Words or Phrases used as Interjections.
Allons ! alerte ! en avant !
courage !
tiens ! quoi ! vraiment ! par
exemple !
tiens, tiens !
gare !
au voleur ! à l'assassin !
au secours !
au feu !
au loup ! au chien enragé !
la garde !
aux armes !
tout beau !
1

corne, forwards, cheer up
what! indeed I
dear me I
mind I take caret
thieves I murder I
help !
fire !
a wolf! a mad dog I
policeman I
to arms I
softly I

See Reasons; &c, § 390.

B. REASONS

AND

ILLUSTRATIONS.

INTRODUCTION.

I. Classification.
275.—French forms part of the group of Languages
which have sprung from Latin, and which are known
by the common name of the R o m a n c e L a n g u a g e s .
They are the following :—
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)

Italian,
Spanish
Portuguese
French
Provençal
Rouman
Chur-Wàlsch

spoken in Italy.
„
Spain.
„
Portugal.
„
France.
„
South of France.
„
Moldavia and Wallachia.
„
East of Switzerland.

I I . E l e m e n t s of t h e F r e n c h L a n g u a g e .
276.—The fundamental element of French is Popular
Latin (see D), which, on the soil of France, came in
contact with several other languages.

174

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

A. When the Romans under Caesar came to Gaul, they
found the greater part of France occupied by the Gauls or
Kelts, on whom, after a severe struggle, they forced, in a very
short time, their customs, their religion, and their language.
The Keltic Tongue was almost entirely supplanted by
Latin, so that it left in the French language only very
faint traces of its existence—about 200 words.
B. About 600 B.C., Phocean merchants founded a Greek
colony—Massilia, Marseille—and spread the language
and civilization of Greece over the southern part of France.
Partly through them, partly owing to the introduction of
Christianity and to the study of classical antiquity, a certain number of Greek words have found admittance
into French.
C. The influence of German on French is much
greater than that of any of the languages just named.
This is to be accounted for by the fact that Gaul was for
centuries overrun by the various Teutonic tribes. As
early as the third century, Germans settled in northern
Gaul. But it was especially in the fifth century, at the
time of the great Migration of Peoples, that France had to
suffer most from the inroads of the Teutons. The country
was at first occupied—for a short time only—by the
Vandals and Sueves before they crossed the Pyrenees.
The south-western part of France, and the centre as
far as the Loire, were then occupied by the Westgoths ;
the south-eastern part by the Burgundians ; whilst in the
north, Chlodwig founded the powerful kingdom of the
Franks, which extended as far as the Loire.
The consequence of these various occupations of the
land was the introduction into French of a great number

REASONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

175

of words of Teutonic origin, especially such as related
to the new institutions the Franks had brought with
them. Thus, nearly all the expressions connected with
warfare and with the organization of the feudal system
are of German origin. Teutonic words relating to naval
affairs were principally introduced into French by the
Normans, who, like the Franks, soon forgot their own
language and adopted that of the people they had conquered. The number of words derived from the Teutonic
languages is about 500.
D. It is true that all these various elements 1 admitted
into, and assimilated by, the French language have enriched
its vocabulary in many respects, but they have exercised
scarcely any influence on the structure of the French
language itself on the organic development of its syntax.
The foundation of French, i.e. that which really constitutes its individuality as a distinct language, is solely Latin.
Having founded the first colony in the south of Gaul
as early as B.c. 121, the Romans extended their dominion every year, until Caesar (B.C. $8:—49) subjugated
the whole country, and forced upon its inhabitants, as
already mentioned, the language of the Romans, with
their institutions, social, political, and religious. This
language was not the polished idiom of the lettered and
highly educated classes, but the common speech of the
people—-the wTords and expressions used in every-day
life. This popular language, called the lingua vulgaris
(rustica) or lingua Romana, is the fountain from which
French and, generally speaking, all the Romance Ian1
T h e number of Hebrew and Arabic words which have passed into French
is so small, that they have exercised no influence at all on the French language
English, Sjfxznisk, and Italian words have been admitted into French since the
sixteenth century.

176

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

guages have sprung. It soon absorbed all those languages
with which it came in contact. Even in the first century
after the Conquest, it was spoken in the greater part of
Gaul instead of the old Keltic language, which had to
seek a refuge in the province of Armorica. When afterwards, in the fifth century, France was overswept by the
warlike and unruly tribes which Germany unceasingly
poured forth, the common Latin tongue may be said to
have been so firmly established, that it was able not only
successfully to withstand the influences of the Germanspeaking populations, but also to force «even the conquerors and new masters of the land to give up their
own language in order to learn that of the conquered.
After a few centuries, the Franks had forgotten their own
tongue—a fact of which we find a proof in the oath
which, in 842, king Louis the German took to his brother
Charles and his army at Strasburg. This oath was in
French, because the Frankish soldiery no longer understood German :—
French of the Ninth Century.
Pro Deo amur et pro christian
poplo et nostro commun salvament, d'ist di en avant, in quant
deus savir et podir me dunat, si
salvarai eo cist meon fradre Karlo
et in adjudha et in cadhuna cosa
si cum om per dreit son fradra
salvar dist, in o quid il mi altresi
fazet, et âb Ludher nul plaid
numquam prindrai, qui meon vol
cist meon fradre Karle in damno
sit.

Modern French.
Pour l'amour de Dieu et pour le
peuple chrétien et notre commun
salut, de ce jour en avant (à compter de ce jour) autant que Dieu
m'en donne le savoir et le pouvoir,
ainsi défendrai je celui mon frère
Charles et en aide et en chaque
chose, ainsi comme par droit, on
doit défendre son frère, pourvu
qu'il me fasse de même ; et avec
Lothaire je ne prendrai {ferai)
jamais aucun accord qui, par
ma volonté, soit en dommage à
celui-ci, mon frère Charles.

REASONS

AND ILL USTRA TIONS

177

This is, except a short glossary—the Glosses of Rackettait of the year 768, which contain only single words—
the first written document that has been handed down
to us of the French language, as it had during eight
centuries gradually developed itself from the Latin
Popular Idiom,

III. Old French and Provencal.
277.—During the many centuries when Popular Latin
was spreading in Gaul, the northern and southern parts
of that country were, politically speaking, independent of
each other. The South had little in common with the
North, since either had its characteristic peculiarities,
founded on a difference of race ; for the South had
been more thickly peopled by the Romans than the
North.
It was but natural that, in adopting and
pronouncing the same language, each part should have
its own peculiar method.
Thus it came to pass
that Popular Latin produced, on the soil of France,
two distinct idioms : the Langue d'oc or Provençal—
which was spoken in the South of France as far as the
Loire—and the Langue d'oïl or Old French, obtaining
in the provinces north of that river.1
Whilst the Langue d'oc, after having, through the melodious songs of the Troubadours, enjoyed a short but
brilliant period of celebrity, ceased in the fourteenth
century to be used as a written language, the Langue
do'U, or Old Fre?ich, became the language of the country
1
The origin and explanation of'these names is to be found in the circumstance
that these languages were called after their particles of affirmation : the term for
yes was oc in the south and oil in the north. (On the derivation of oil, see
§386.) '

N

i78

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

at large. Since the first written documents we possess
of it, are of the year 842 (or 768 ; see § 276), we may
place its commencement at the beginning of the ninth
century. Accurately to determine when it came to an end
is a matter of great difficulty, or, correctly speaking, impossibility, since the change of Old into Modern French
has been but gradual. We are perhaps not far from the
truth in assuming (for reasons which will be stated in
the following section) that, in the course of the fourteenth century, Old French enters on a new phase of its
history, and that with the fifteenth century, the reign of
Modern French, its offspring, begins.

I V . Modern F r e n c h .
278.—a. French becomes an Analytic Language.
In the preceding section we have seen that the language imported by the Romans into Gaul, and finally
adopted and spoken by its inhabitants, was L a t i n Popular Latin. Although it was spoken by a race of
men so different from the Romans ; although it had
admitted a certain number of words belonging to the
various nations who had been occupying different parts
of Gaul, it nevertheless retained its specific characteristics as a Latin language, so that Modem French
may be said to be its natural continuation and development.
However different from Latin Modern French may be
*:o the eye of a superficial observer, yet Comparative
Philology enables us to see that it is in the main
the same language, and that the transformation, as far

REASONS

AND ILL USTRA TIONS.

179

as it has taken place, has been brought about only in
accordance with certain well-known laws, obtaining not
only in the French, but also in the other Romance
Languages.
One of the principal points of difference between
Latin and French consists in the former being a synthetic,
the latter an analytic language ; i.e. Latin could express
the relation of words to each other by the form of the
words (by the various cases of the Nouns and by the
terminations of the Verbs), French only by their position
or by prepositions. Latin filium- amat pater must be in
French le père aime le fils ; liber discipidi ~ le livre de
V'eîève.
It is obvious that a language cannot suddenly from
being synthetic become analytic. As to French, it is
highly interesting to notice how this change was brought
about gradually, step by step. Of this fact we can have
no better proof than by turning to the history of the
language as regards Declension. The following paradigm
gives a view of these changes :—
rst Per. Synthetic
= Latin
.né Per. Half-Synth. = OU Fr. { $
yd Per. Analytic
= Mod. Fr.

= 5 Declens. & 6 Cases
* ^ % £ £ = 3g ^
| \ gses
14th cent, till now— no Declens.; 1 Case

In explanation of this paradigm, the following remarks
may find a place here.
Already at a very early period there are signs in the
Latin language of a tendency to reduce the number of
cases by frequently using prepositions instead. This
tendency increased after the popular idiom of the Latin
language had been brought by the Romans into Gaul
and adopted by its inhabitants. The result was that
N 2

FRENCH

i So

GRAMMAR.

Popular Latin, when it had, during about eight centuries>
gradually been changed into a new language—or rather,
when it had entered upon a new phase of its history
and taken the name of French and Provençal—showed
that the five Latin Declensions had been reduced to
three and the six Latin cases to two, viz. the Nominative or Subjective Case, and the Accusative or Objective
Case.
Further, the period of transition from Latin to Modern
French, which, very appropriately, has been called the
half-synthetic period of French—since it is an intermediate phase between Synthesis as represented by
Latin, and Analysis as represented by French — is
marked by the Old French Declension itself, and may be
divided into two subdivisions. During the first of these,
which extends from the ninth to the twelfth century,
there are three Declensions, corresponding to the three
first Latin Declensions, and in each of these there are
two Cases in each number :—
Subj. Case.

Object. Case.

J Sing. coron-e
( Plur. coron-es
II.
III.

coron-e
coron-es

f Sing. an-s
( Plur. an

an
an-s

f Sing. volênt-es
( Plur. volent-es

volent-e
volent-es

During the second, which lasts from the twelfth to the
fourteenth century, there are still two Cases in each
number ; but there remains* only one—the second—

REASONS

AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

181

Declension, to the laws of which the words of the two
other Declensions had to submit :—
Subj. Case.

Sing,
Plur.

arm-us
ann~i

ans
an

Object. Case.

ann-um
ann-os

an
ans

But even this last reminiscence of the Latin Declensions had to give way before the powerful tendency of
the language towards simplification. We may say that
about the end of the fourteenth century, the distinction
between the Subjective and Objective cases had perished.
From that time dates Modern French, which has no
Declension, and which possesses only one case for each
number—the Latin Accusative; enfant = . infaxitem ;
faucon = falconem; seigneur = semoremj chanteur
— cantorem. The reason why this case was retained
in preference to the Nominative seems to have been
that, on account of its longer form, it impressed itself
much more easily on the memory of the people, as it
generally showed the crtide form, i.e. the most important
part of a word, and that it was of more frequent occurrence than any other case.1
For the small number of words which are derived from
the Nominative, see § 338.
b. Why French Nouns generally mark their Plural by
the addition of an s.
Intimately connected with the adoption of the Latin
1
Words like femme, homme, pomme, rien, amertume, enclume, mon, ton,
son (feminam, hominem, pomum, rem, amaritudinem, incudinem, meum, tuum,
suum); the Spanish quien (Lat. quern) and forms like corps, temps (which
cannot have been derived from corpor-is, corpor-i, or corpor-e, bat only from
corptis ; the same reasoning applies to tempus) very forcibly tend to confirm
the view that the Accttsative, and not the Genitive or Dative or Allative, was
the case which was taken as the type of French Nouns.

FRENCH

182

GRAMMAR.

Accusative as the type of all those parts of speech which
were declinable in Latin, is the choice of s as the distinctive mark of the Plural. We have seen above (p. 182)
that in Old French—i.e. during the haif-synthetic period
—the s of ans (representing the Latin ann-us) served, in
the Singular, to distinguish the Nominative from the
Accusative a?i (Lat. ann-xxvn) ; and, in the Plural, the
Accusative ans (Lat. ann-os) from the Nominative an
(Lat. ann-i). When afterwards the Nominative cases of
both numbers were dropped (see p. 182), there remained
only—
Sing, an
Plur. ans
Thus it has happened that vs\ French the Plural of
Nouns is formed by adding s to the Singular. This s
was origi7ially the distinctive mark of the C a s e s ; it has
now become the distinguishing sign of the N u m b e r s .
c. Why some Nouns form their Plural in a u x .
From the subjoined paradigm—
S'ubj. Case.

caball-us
caball-i

cheval-s
cheval

Object. Case.

caball-i cheval
caball-os cheval-s (cheval-x)

we see that, after the Subjective Case of both numbers
had perished, there remained for the Singular cheval and
for the Plural cheval-s or cheval-x', because x,1 in prefer1
As orthographic signs, the letters s, x, and z were, generally speaking,
equivalent in Old French. We find, e.g , paix, pais, paiz; voix, vois, votz:
we still have the form, nez (nasus), chez (casa), rez (rasus).
The following distinction, however, used to be made : x was principally
added to words ending in I or in u (thus we have all those forms in aux,
ottx, eux ; maux, bijoux, Jeux), and z was added to words ending in t, or
it served to represent Lat ts, ds : toz ( = tot's, totos), piez ( = ped's, pedes).
These forms in z were preserved till the seventeenth century in Nouns and

REASONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

183

ence to s9 was added to Nouns ending in /. But here
we have to bear in mind the phonetic law, according to
which Latin / is generally changed into u when it comes
to stand before a consonant (p#/ma = pa&me, #/ba =
dw/be, yb/conem = tocon, abs^/vere = abs0&dre). Thus
chzval-x became chevau-x, and this explains the fact that
the formation of the Plural in aux of the greater part of
Nouns in al (see § 170 (2)) is, etymologically speaking,
quite regular.

I. V E R B S .
Ï. D i v i s i o n of t h e V e r b s .
279.—The four Latin Conjugations may be divided
into two classes—the Vowel and the Consonant Conjugation. The latter includes Verbs whose crude form
ends in a consonant or in u (v\ viz. the third conjugation
of Latin grammars (eni-ere) ; the former comprises Verbs
whose crude form ends in one of the vowels a, e, i, viz.
the first, second, and fourth conjugations of ordinary
grammars (ama-re, defe-re, finl-re).
283.—The chief difference of these two classes of
conjugations consists in their way of forming the Perfect :
the first-named class accentuate the root (em-/, carp-j/,
leg-/), the other accentuate only the connecting vowel
(ama-vi, dele-vi, fini-vi).
Participles ending in êt which originally represented Lat. at : verit-ez, clart-ez,
cit-ez = verït-atz, &c. Similarly in V e r b s : c h a n t - ^ { — cant-afs,
cant-aiis),
See § 305.

ï%4

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

281.—If we apply this principle to the French Verbs,
we shall see that all of them may, like the Latin Verbs,
be divided into two classes, according as they form their
Preterite Definite. The one class, which comprehends the
Verbs of the third conjugation of ordinary French grammars and all the so-called Irregular Verbs, in forming
that tense put the accent on the root1 of the Verb : dev-oir^
dus ; sav-oir, s u s ; ten-ir9 tins. 2 The other class, comprising the Verbs of the first, second, and fourth conjugations of ordinary grammars, form the Preterite by
accentuating the termination : fiarl-er, farl-ox ; bann-zrv
bann-is ; vend-re, vend-is. We shall call Weak all the
Verbs belonging to these three conjugations (because
they require for the formation of the Preterite Definite
the help—if we may use the expression—of an additional
syllable), whilst the former will be named Strong Verbs
(because their root alone suffices to form the Preterite).3
282.—We purposely avoid the term " Irregular Verbs"
because they are in their way not less regular than the
others ; they only follow another way of conjugation.
" Irregularity presupposes formations which, for whatever
cause, have deviated from the typical form ; but in the
1
The root or crude form of any Verb is generally found by cutting off the
terminations -er, -ir, -re, -oir of the Infinitive (pari-*??-, fin-z>, vend-n?, dev-oir).
Yet in voir, the vowel of the root has coalesced with that of the termination, so
that it is impossible to distinguish the latter from the former ; in Old French the
two parts of this Verb were still ve-oir (vi-d-ere).
See § 294.
T h e root of Verbs in -eindre, -oindre, -aindre (ceindre, joindre, craindre =
cing-ere, jung-ere, trem-ere [O. Fr crem-er}) ends in -em, -oin, -ain, since the
d of this class of Verbs has been intercalated only for the sake of facilitating
the pronunciation of n followed by r (cein-re, join-re, cram-re). See § 313,
note 8 to voztloir,
2
If, in these Verbs, the termination had been accented in the Preterite Definite instead of the root, we should have forms like the following : dev-U8f sav-U$3
ten-IB.
3 The term " Strong and Weak Verbs" proposed by Diez, has been accepted
by French scholars who are now to be considered as the first authorities in France
as regards everything relating to the history, origin, and formation of the French
language, viz. Liitté, Paris,
Bracket.

REASONS

AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

185

case of the Strong Verbs (hitherto called Irregular) no
such deviation has taken place : they are as regular as
a?iy others, only they obey a different law." The terms
" Regular" and "Irregular'1'' do but state a fact at best ;
but the distinction between Strong and Weak penetrates
deeper, and expresses a theory.

II. Weak Verbs.
283.—First Conjugation. Most Verbs of this conjugation are derived from Latin Verbs in are, which termination is regularly changed into er : port-are, port-er ;
cre-are, ere er.
284.—Second Conjugation. The Verbs of this conjugation must be subdivided into two classes :—
A. Verbs of the simple or primitive form ;
B. Verbs of the enlarged or inchoative form.
285.—These latter are derived from Verbs which, in
Latin, were called inchoative or inceptive, because they
expressed a gradual augmentation of the action implied
by the simple Verb, as nigrescere, to become more and
more dark ; rubescere, to grow more and more red. Their
characteristic syllable esc, became in French iss before
a vowel, and simply / before a consonant ; it was interpolated between the root and the termination (fleur-wtfons, fleur-m-ant) in the following five tenses :—
(1) The Present Indicative (a principal tense)— x
bann-z-s
bann-£w-ons '
bann-/-s
bann-£s\r-ez
bann-/-t
bann-/j\r-ent
1

See the table of the Derivation of the Tenses.

j 86

FRENCH

GRAMMAR,

(2) The Present Subjunctive (a derived tense)—*
baxm-t'ss-e
bann-/jj-es
baxm-iss-Q

bann-m-ions
bann-m-iez
bann-m-ent

(3) The Imperative (a derived tense)— T
—
bann-z-s
bann-wtf-e

bann-m-ons
bann-m-ez
banrwj\r-ent

(4) The Present Participle (a principal tense)— x
bann-tfj\r-ant
(5) The Imperfect (a derived tense)— x
bann-ws-ais
bann-/.w-ais
bann-£s\r-ait

bann-w\f-ions
bann-Z^-iez
bann-/^-aient

The syllable iss was, however, refused to the following
five tenses :—
(1) To the Infinitive bann-ir (not bann-zlw-ir), and consequently
(2) To the Future bann-ir-ai, and
(3) To the Conditional bann-ir-ais, which are both derived from the Infinitive;
(4) To the Preterite Definite Indicative bann-is and
consequently
(5) To the Preterite Definite Subjunctive bann-isse, which
is derived from the Indicative of the same
tense.
1

See the table of the Derivation of the Tenses.

REASONS

AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

187

286.—Bénir is conjugated like bannir, only it has a
double form in the Past Participle béni and b'enit; this
latter, which we are now accustomed to consider as
irregular, is a reminiscence of the original form of the
Past Participle, which in Old French always ended in t
(chantât, florit, partit, venduit).
This Verb is derived from benedicere; as dicere has
produced dire, be?iedicere has gradually been changed into
be?iedir, benëir, and lastly bénir.
* 287.—As to the Verbs of the simple or primitive form,
they correspond to the Latin Verbs of the fourth conjugation, which they exactly follow in all their tenses ; they
are the following : sentir, mentir, repentir ; dormir, partir,
servir, sortir ; ouvrir, couvrir, souffrir, offrir; assaillir,
tressaillir, saillir; cueillir; bouillir; fuir, vêtir. (See
§§ 40—48.)
288.—Third Conjugation. There is only one remark
to make on the Verbs of the third conjugation (the fourth
in other French grammars), viz. that they are derived
partly from Latin Verbs in ere: vendre, vende"re ; pendre,
pendere: partly from a small number of Verbs in e~re\ respondëre, tondêre, viordêre, which, through a misplacement
of the accent, came to be pronounced respb?id<ère, tbndëre,
mbrdere, and consequently produced quite regularly the
French Verbs répondre, tondre, mordre.

III.

Voices and Moods generally.

289.—In comparing the French to the Latin conjugations we cannot help being struck with the close
resemblance existing between them. Yet the following
changes and losses of inflections are to be noticed.

188

FRENCH GRAMMAR.

290.—The Passive Voice, being defective even in
Latin, was, in the Perfect tenses of that language,
formed by means of the Passive Participle, and the
Verb esse {Amahis est, erat, &c).
This method of
conjugation was extended to all tenses and moods, 1 in
French as well as in English and German. Thus the
Latin Passive Voice has been suppressed, and been
replaced in French by the Periphrastic Conjugation
formed by the Past Participle and the Verb être (il est,
était, fut, &c. aime.
291.—The Latin Deponent Veibs, in passing into
French, assumed the active form : imitari, imitare,
imiter; consolari, consolare, consoler. Thus suiventy
naissent have been derived from segtmt, nascunt, and
not from seçuntur, n&scuntur, which would have produced suivont, naissont.
292.—As many Passive Verbs had a purely reflective
meaning in Latin {commoveor, delector, mutor), this close
connection between Passive and Reflective Verbs has
been the cause why the Latin Passive Voice and the
Deponent are often expressed in French by the Reflective Verb. Nihil videbatur, rien ne s'y voyait. Spectaculum dabatur, un spectacle se donnait.
293.—The Supines and Gerunds have disappeared.
294.—In Latin as well as in French, the Definite
T e n s e of a Verb expresses :—
(1) The Action.
(2) The Time in which that action takes place
(3) The Person who does the action.
1
The Past ParticifiL
Voice ; amatus,
aimé

is the only remnant in French of the Latin Passive

REASONS

AND

ILLUSTRATIONS.

TSQ

To these three elements correspond three different
parts of the Verb :—
(i) The Root or Crude form expressing the Action.
(2) Certain Syllables or Letters added to the root and
expressing the Time.
(3) The Person-ending which indicates the Person who
accomplishes the action.
If we take, for instance, the 1st Person Plural of the
Perfect in Latin (canta-vi-mtis), and of the Prêt. Def. in
French (chantâmes) of the Verb cant are, chanter, we
shall find that :—
(1) Canta- (Fr. chant-) is the root expressing the
action of singing ; this root remains the same
throughout all the tenses of the Verb.
(2) Vi- (Fr. â-) indicates the time in which the action
of singing takes place, i.e. in this case in the
Past.
(3) M u s (Fr. mes) tells us the person who causes this
action to take place, i.e. we.
Thus, the whole Perf. Tense would be :—
1.

(1) canta
canta
canta
canta
canta
canta
(2)

vid
vid
vid
vid
vid
vid

Latin.
II.
v
(yi)s
vi
vi
(vi)s
[ (ve)r

III.
i
ti
t
mus
tis
unt

Old French.
II.
1 a
i as
t
a
a(s) mes
tes
ent

I.
chant
chant
chant
chant
chant
chant

— ] 1vi
ve
ti

—

is

—
ï(s)

is
er

t
mus
tis
unt 1

vi
ve
ve

vi

ÏS

ï(s)
r

—
—

t
mes
tes
ent

Modern
I.
chant
chant
chant
chant
chant
chant

French.

vi

is

vi
v

—
Î

V

Î

vi

r

mes
tes
ent

«_
_

V

III.

t
mes
tes
ent

FRENCH

190

3)

fee
fee
fee
fee
fee
fee

is
i
is
er

—
ti

1 fis
fe
t
fis
mus
fe
tis
1 fe
unt i fi

GRAMMAR.

— — i
_
— tmes
ï(s)

"is

i(s)
r

tes
ent

fi

f
fi
f
f

1 ft

—»
is

—
i
î
r

s

—
t
mes
tes
ent

Since in Modern French there are few forms only in
which we are still able clearly to distinguish the three
parts of each Verbal form : the root, the sign of the dense,.
and the person-ending, we have not separated the two
latter in the following Tables of Latin and French terminations (§ 295—298).
Note.—For the formation of the Future and the Conditional, see § 310.
In Latin, all the tenses were formed by terminations ;
in French, the Past Tenses, with the exception of the
Imperfect and the Prêter. Def., must be formed by
avoir and the Past Participle : fai,
f avais, feus
parle, &c.
295.—It is a well-established rule that French words
have faithfully kept the tonic accentI on the same syllable
as in Latin, i.e. that syllable which is accented in Latin,
is also accented in French : amintem, aimint ; p^pulus,
people ; invioMbilis, inviolable ; pietitem, piété.
On the form of French words, on the nature of their
consonants> and especially on that of their vowels, nothing ,has exercised a more profound influence than this
tonic accent, which, very appropriately, has been called the
very soul of the word. Let us, for instance, consider the
Present (Ind. and Subj.) of ienere, tenir.
T
T h e tonic accent must not be confounded with the syllabic accent ; a word
may have more than one syllabic accent, or none at all {peuple, bonté, piété) ;
but each wo'd (whether French, German, English, Latin, &c.) has a tonic accent,
and it has never more than one (piéuO-

REASONS AND
ten
ten
ten
ten
ten
ten

Indicative.
eo
tien
es
tien
et
tien
émus
tea.
étis
ten
ent
tiénn

s
s
t
6ns
éz
ent

ILLUSTRATIONS.
Subjunctive.
earn
tiénn
eas
tiénn
eat
tiénn
eàmus ten
eâtis
ten
eant
tiénn

tén
tén
tén
ten
ten
tén

e
es
e
ions
iéz
ent

296.—The radical vowel e of tenir has been reinforced
in the 3 Persons Sing, and in the 3rd Pers. Plur., because
the tonic accent rests on the first syllable; in the 1st
and 2nd Pers. Plur. the original e reappears because the
accent has passed on the following syllable. Thus we
see that the accent does not only fix and determine the
nature of the vowel on which it is placed, but that its
influence extends even on the vowels of a preceding
syllable. The following Vowel changes (reinforcements
of the Vowel) regularly take place whenever the vowels
e, <, a(l\ ou, a, oi, come to stand in that syllable on
?
which the tonic accent rests, viz. :—
(!) e

ie

(celeste
wnir
tenir

Près. Ind. vims, -s, -t
v<?n-ons, -ez
vz>nn-ent

(2) e, é = è : (chevreau
mmer
Près. Ind. m^n-e, -es, -e 1
mm-ons, -ez
mM-ent

ciel ;
viens ;
tiens ;

séculier
acquérir
asseoir

szMe)
-acqu^rs
asszVds

Subj. vzenn-e, -es, -e
wn-ions, -iez
vz^nn-ent

chèvre ;
màe ;

Bohémien Bohême)
régler
r^gle

Subj. mèn-e, -es, -e
rn?n-ions, -iez
m<?n-ent

1
This explains to us the peculiarities not only of the Verbs mentioned in §§
51 and 52, but also of those cited in § 53, viz. Verbs in eler and eier. For here

FRENCH

192

(3) e, é = oi : (espérer
devoir
Près. Ind. dois, -s, -t
dé?v-ons, -ez
d^zv-ent

(4) al — a u :

(altérer
valoir

Près. Ind. \au-x,2 -x, -t
val-ons, -ez
v#/-ent3

GRAMMAR.

esp#/r ;
dois ;

créance
recevoir

Subj. dozv-e, -es, e
dé?v-ions, -iez
d<?z'v-ent

autre ; ch^/eur
vaux 'y falloir

2. Vé^-X, 4 -X, -t

voul-ons, -ez
Yeul-ent

chaud)
faut

Subj. vmll-e,3 -es, -e
v<z/-ions, -iez
wwll-ent

(5) o u == e u : (lang^wreux l a n g u i r ;
mourir
meurs ;
pouvoir
peux;
Près. Ind. 1. m ^ r - s , -s, -t
mouv-ons, -ez
m^^r-ent

croire)
reel's x

avouer zxeu)
mouvoir meus
vouloir veux

Subj. meur-e, -es, -e
m ^ r - i o n s , -iez
m^r-ent
w^ill-e, 3 -es, -e
V0#l-ions, -iez
wzÂll-ent

also a reinforcement of the unaccented e takes place, as soon as it comes to stand
in a syllable which has the tonic accent :—
appdl-e, -es, -e
j<?tt-e, -es, -e
appelons, -ez
jVt-ons, -ez
app^ll-ent
jétt-ent
It is true that in this case the reinforcement of the e is not visible to the eye,
but the fact that the nature and sound of the e is a different one in appelons
and in appelle, in jetons and jVtte, is sufficiently marked by the reduplication of
the I and the t respectively.
1
Add to this class of Verbs all Verbs in cevoir : apercevoir, concevoir, &c
2
>We have already seen ($ 278, c, note ; see also § 300) that x was generally
added to Nouns ending in /. This has also been the case with the Pies Ind of
val-oir and voul-oir.
Thus val-x (instead of val-s) has become vau-x.—Why is
al in valent not changed into au ? Because the / of the accented syllable al
is changed into au, only when it is followed by a consonant : ch«/-eur, chdu-d.t
3
From the preceding remark it appears that the al of v^/ëam could not be
changed into au on account of the ëa in the following syllable. This ëa was
regularly changed into ie : talea(m), #alea{m) = talie, fialie; then li was
-changed into il: taille, fidille: thus vcUëa{m), valie, vaille, and volëd(m) [not
velim], volie, voille, veuille.
4 See Note 2

REASONS

AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

3. p^-x, -x, -t
p<?^v-ons
p^v-ent

(6) a == a i :

p^'ss-e, -es, -e
p^z'ss-ions, -iez
p^zss-ent

clarté clair;
savoir sais

boire

humanité

humain

Subj. s#ch-e, -es, -e 2
sach-ions, -iez
sach-ent

Près. Ind. sais, -s, -t
s#v-ons, -ez
s#v-ent

(7) oi = u :

193
1

bavons

Près. Ind. bois, -s, -t
b^v-ons, -ez
boiv-ent

Subj. boiv-e, -es, -e
b«v-ions, -iez
boiv-ent

297.—After the foregoing remarks it will be easy to
see that a certain number of Verbal tenses (or moods),
which at first sight seemed remarkable for their irregularity, only tend to show that they are the result of a
phonetic law which acts throughout with wonderful
uniformity. We now detect the greatest harmony where
before we were inclined to see only confusion and arbitrary choice.

IV.

T a b l e of L a t i n and F r e n c h Terminations.

298.—A. First Conjugation.

Cant-are, chan-ter.

1
Lat. possim (or poteam ?) ; O. Fr. poisse; Mod. Fr. puisse. (For the change
of o into ui, compare ostium, post — huis, puis).
2
The ioiia, ie, to, iu, was changed into y or g after a soft consonant {d, b, g),
and into ch after a hard consonant \tibiam, râbiem, pipiânem, prôphim = ttbje,
râbj'e, pipjâti, prôpché). In order to avoid the harshness of sound produced by
the consonants bjy pj, pch, the first of them was regularly elided ; thus we get
iige, rage, pigeon, proche. This explains the gradual changes of sapia{m), sapche,
sache»

o

194

FRENCH
Present

Indicative,

cant-tf
cant-as
cant-<2/
cant-amus
cant-atis
cant-ant

chant-*?
chant-^f
chants
chant-ons
cnant-ez
chant-ent

Preterite
cant-a{v)i
cant-a(vi)sti
cant-a(vi)t
Cant-a(vi)mus
cant-a(vi)stis
cant-a[ve)runt

chant-ai
chant-*w
chant-tf
chant-âmes
chant-<fe
chant-èrent

Indicative.

Imperfect.
cant-abam
chant -ais
chant-ais
cant-abas
chant-ait
cant-abat
cant-abamus
chant-ions
cant-abatis
chant-iez
cant-abant
chant-oient

GRAMMAR.
Present

Subjunctive.
chants
chant-£f
chant-*?
chant-ions
chant-iez
chant-ent

cant~£#?
cant-*r
cant-<?/
cant-emus
cant-etis
cant-ent

Preterite Submnctive.
cant-a(vi)ssem
chant-asse
cant-a(vi)sses
chant-asses
cant-a{vi)sset
chant-^/
cant-<2 (vi)ssemus chant-assions
cant-a(vi)ssetis
chant-axrâf.3:
cant-a{vi)ssent
chant-assent

chant-*?

cant-«
Present
cant-ant{em)
Past
cant-at[us)

Participle.
chant-ant
Participle.
chant-/

B. Second Conjugation.
a. Inchoative : Flor-ere, fleur-ir.
Present
flor-esc-tf
flor-esc-M1
flor-esc-zV
ûoi-esc-imus
ûor-esc-itis
ûor-esc-unt

Indicative.
fleur-i-j
fleur-W
ûeuï-hs-ons
ûeux-iss-ez
ûeur-iss-ent

Imperfect.
ûor-esc-ebam
fienr-iss-ais
ûor-esc-ebas
ûem-iss-ais
ûov-esc-ebat fleur- iss-ait
Ûor-esc-ebamus ûeur-iss-ions
ûor-esc-ebatis
ûeur-iss-iez
ftox-esc-eoant
ûcuv-iss-aient

Present
ftoï-csc-am
flor-esc-^jflor-esc-ûtf
ïlOY-c&c-amus
ûor-esc-atis
ûor-esc-ant

Subjunctive.
fîeur-iss-<?
fleur-iss-Étf
flèur-iss-<?
ûem-iss-ions
fleur-iss-^
ûeur-iss-ent

Imperative.
flor-esc-* fleur-i-jPresent Participle.
ûor-QSc-ent(em) ûeuv-iss-ant

REASONS

AND

ILLUSTRATIONS.

i'95

b. Non-inchoative : Serv-ire, serv-ir.
Present
serv-zo
serv-is
serv-it
sexv-imus
serv-ilis
sexv-iunt

Indicative.

Present

Preterite
serv-i{vt)
sexv-i{vi)sti
serv-i{vi)i
serv4{vi)mus
serv-i[vï)stis
serv-i(ve)runt

Indicative.

sexv-e
serv-^j
serv-£
serv-iojts
serv-iez
serv-ent

Preterite

serv-is
serv-is
sexv-it
serv-îmes
serv-îtes
serv-irent

Subjunctive.

%erv-i(vi)ssem
serv-i(vi{sses
serv-i{vi)sset
serv-i{vi)ssemus
serv-z(vi)ssetis
serv-i\vi)ssent

Imperfect.
serv-iebam
serv-iebas
serv-iebat
serv-iebamus
serv-iebatis
serv-iebant

Subjunctive.

serv-iam
serv-ias
serv-iat
serv-iamiis
§erv-iatis
serv-iant

ser-j
sex-s
sex-t
serv-ons
serv-ez
serv-ent

serv-isse
serv-isses
serv-zt
serv-issions
serv-issiez
serv-issent

Imperative.

sexv-ais
serv-ais
serv-ait
serv-ions
serv-iez
serv-aient

serv-/
Present
serv-ient{em)
Past
serv-it(us)

ser-s
Participle.
serv-ant
Participle.
serv-i

C. Third Conjugation. Dèfend-ere, d'efend-re.
Present
defend-0
defend-zj
defend-zV
defenâ-imus
defend-itis
defend-unt

Indicative.
defends
défend-J
défend
défend-ons
défend-^
défend-ent

r

Present
deîend-am
deîend-as
deiend-at
deiend-amus
deiend-atis
deierxd-ant

Subjunctive.
defend-*
défend-^
défend-*
déîer\d-ions
dèlend-iez
déîend-ent

1
The other Verbs of the third conjugation retain the original t : cred-it -croit ; rump-it = rompt ; deb-et = doit.

O 2

196

FRENCH

Preterite
defend-/
defend-isti
defend-zV
defend-zV?zzAr
defend-&r/&
defend-ér^if

Definite.
défend-zV
défend-zV
défend-zV
défend-zVz£?
défend-te
défend-zmzz*

GRAMMAR.
Preterite Definite
defend-z'.M<?/7z
defend-zj\$w
defend-z>.5V#
defend -issemus
defend-issetis
defend-issent

Imperfect.
defend-ebam
defend-#fo.f
defend-^/
defend-eâamus
defend-e&atis
defeïid-eèant

V.

défend-#z>
défend-^z>
défend-ait
défend-ions
défend-iez
défend-aient

Subjunctive.
défend-z>^
défend-z^«y
déïend-zY
défend-issions
défend-issiez
détend-issent

Imperative.
defend- '.

défend-*

Present Participle.
defend-ent(em)
défend-ant
Past Participle.
defend-zV(z/j)*
défend-^

Remarks on the Table of Terminations,
and on the Formation of the Tenses
generally.

299.—Verbs, in passing from Latin into French,
weaken the unaccented vowels of the personal suffixes
or reject them altogether : anient, vend-unt become
aim-ent, vend-enf; sent-isis is, changed into sent-es;
cant-amus becomes in O. Fr. e/tant-omes, and then, after
the rejection of the unaccented e in M. Fr., chant-ons
instead of chant-oms as m before s is always changed
into n.
A. Person-Endings.
300.—The 1 st Person Sing, of the Present Indicative
in O. Fr. terminated in the final vowel or consonant of
the crude form : faint, je fri, je vien, je croi> je voiJ2
1
This is a supposed form for the classical form defences : the French défendu
has been formed from analogy to vendu, conmi (venditus, cognitus).
2
Forms like these were frequently used by the writers of the seventeenth
century, and are so even now by poets.

REASONS AND ILLUSTRA TIONS.

197

The Lat. final 0 was replaced in M. Fr. by e in verbs of
the 1 st conj. (faim-e), whilst an inorganic s was added
(1) to the 1st Person Sing.1 of verbs of the other conjugations : je sers,2 je vends, je crois.
3 o i . ^ S u c h an inorganic s was added—
(2) To the Près. Subj. of être :—
Lat. sim [stem) ; O. Fr. soi; M. Fr. sois,

(3) To the Imperfect :—
Lat. -abam became -ève, -oie, ois,* ais.

(4) To the Conditional :—
Lat. amare habebam ; Fr. aimei'ais (see § 311).

(5) To the Fret Def. .—
a. Of ttre and avoir.
b. Of the weak Verbs of the 2nd and 3rd conjugation.
c. Of all the strong Verbs.4
Lat. fui, habui ; Fr. fus, eus : Lat. finivi, defendi; Fr. finis,
défendis : Lat. debui, vidi, bevui ;5 Fr. dus, vis, bus (O. Fr.
but),

(6) To the Imperative (2nd Pers. Sing.) of all Verbs.
Lat. fin-i, vend-e, ten-z ; Fr. fin-is, vends,

tiens.

1
From analogy with the 2nd Pers. Sing of the same tense or with the 1st
Pers. Sing, of the Prêt, of those Verbs in which the final ^ is organic (see
§ 321) —Instead of s we find x in je fau-x (O. F r fat), je vati-x (O Fr. val),
je veu-x (O. Fr. vuel), je peux (see § 296 (4))
2
Verbs of the second conjugation whose crude form ends in fr, vr, 11, take e
instead of s : otiw-ir, cowjT-ir, découw-ir, off? ir, souffx-ir, saiW-ir =
j'ouyx-e.
je couTjx-e, &c.—Botdll-ir takes s : je bou-%t
3
Probably from analogy to the 2nd Pers. -abas, -èves, -ois, -ais.
4 Except those Verbs mentioned in § 321, in all of which the j is organic, repre
senting an original 5 (x) or c : mis, fis; Lat. m m , feci.
5 For the classical r orm bibi.

198

FRENCH GRAMMAR.

Exception.

The s is not added to the Imperative:—

a. Of Verbs of the ist conjug. : aim-e, va.
b. Of cueillir, tressaillir, assaillir, offrir, couvrir, ouvrir,
souffrir: ouvr-e, souffr-e, &c.
c. Of savoir and vouloir ; sach-e, veuill-e.
302.—The 2nd Pers. Sing, has s in all Verbs.
Exception,

tu peu-x, vau-x, veu-x,

fau-x.

303.—The original / of the 3rd Pers.
omitted :—

Sing, is

(1) After a mute e* viz, :—
a. In the Près. Ind. of Verbs in er :
il aim-£ (am~at) ; il chant-e (canl-at).
b. In the Près. Ind. of some Verbs in ir, viz. :
II cueill-e, saill-e, tressaill-e, assaill-e;
II couvr-e, ouvr-e, souffr-e, offr-e.
c. In the Près. Subj. of all Verbs :
Qu'il aim-e, sent-e, vend-e [am-et, sent-iat, vend-at).
Except.

Soit and ait keep the t {sit, habeat).

(2) After the vowel, a,1 viz. :—
a. In the Prêt. Def. of Verbs in er :
II aim-a {ama-vif) ; chant-a (canta-vit).
Obsf The t has been retained in this tense till the fourteenth
century.
1
T h e t reappears before il, elle, on used as subjects: Aime-t-il?
Puisse-t-il
avoir raison l Peut-être a-t-il eu tort
Chantera-.t-on ?—According to their
etymology, these forms ought, therefore, be written aimet-il ? Puisset-il ?
At-il? &c.

REASONS

AND ILL USTRA TIONS.

199

b. In the Future of all Verbs :
Il donner-^, finir-a, vendr-a, devr-a.
c. In the Près. Ind. of avoir and aller :
Il a, il va.

(3) After /, d, <? viz. :—
r
a. In z7 sent, ment, se repent, part, sort, vêt, bat, met.
b. In il rend and all other Verbs in nd;
In il perd and all other Verbs in rd ;
In sied, assied, coud% moud.
c. In il vainc.

304.—As to<the ist Person Plur. Lat. -mus, became—
(1) -Mes in the Prêt. Def. of all Verbs, and in the Près.
Ind. of être ; nous chant-âmes, finîmes, dûmes, sommes.
(2) -ns in all the other tenses : notes parlons.
Thus -amus was changed into -ons, and from analogy
to this form, the ist Pers. Plur. of all the Verbs of the
other conjugations also took this termination : sent-ons,
fleuriss-ons, défend-ons (sent-ïmus, flor-esc-imus, defendhnus).
305.—The termination of the 2nd Pers. Plur. -tis
became—
(1) -ts : These two letters were, according to Old
French orthography, generally represented by z (See
§ 278). Thus am-atis became aim-ez, and similarly
serv-Uis and vend-ïtis = serv-ez, vend-ez (See § 307).
(2) -tes, viz. :—
a. In êtes, faites, dites.
b. In the Prêt. Def. of all Verbs : chantâtes.
The letters s or c, which in all these forms preceded
the syllable -tis (estis, fac(i)tis, dic(i)tis, canta%tis), pre-

zoo

FRENCH GRAMMAR.

vented throughout the contraction of -tis into 4s, and
finally into z. (See § 278, Note).
306.—The 3rd Person Plur. whether it ends in -a?tt,
-unt, -ent, becomes -ent in French : am-ant, vend-unt,
cant-ent = aim-ent, vend-ent, chant-ent.
Exception. Font, ont, vont, sont.

B+ Tenses.
307.—Present,

a. Indicative.

From analogy to the 1st and 2nd Pers. Plur. of the
Verbs of the 1st, 2nd, and 4th Latin Conjug., which
always accentuate the last syllable but one {amâmus,
amd4zs ; del'e-nius, defatis ; audi-nius, audi4is), the Verbs
of the 3rd weak Conjug. and all the strong Verbs have
put the tonic accent on the last syllable but one in the
1 st and 2nd Pers. Plur. 1 : ve?idimus, venditis, credimus,
creditis (instead of vêndimus, venditis, &c), which forms
then became in French, vendons, vendez, croyons, croyez.
b. Subjunctive.
The 4th Lat. Conjugation has been the type for
the formation of this Mood. The Lat. a became 111
French—
(1) O in the 1st Pers. Plur.
(2) E in all the other persons.
1
There are only two exceptions to this rule : faites and dites {redites), which
forms are regularly derived from. Lat.fdcitis,
diciiis (cp. § 305).

REASONS

AND

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Fourth Conjugation.
I.

II.

ill.

dorm
dorm
dorm
dorm
dorm
dorm

ia
ia
ia
ia
ia
ia

m
s
t
mus |
tis

1

I.

nt 1

II.

que je dorm
que tu dorm
qu' il dorm
que n. dorm
que v. dorm
qu' ils

e
e
e
io

The Subjunctive of the other conjugations was
from analogy to the 4th, viz. :—
Third Conjugation.
1.

II.

vend
vend
vend
vend
vend
vend

a
a
a
a
a
a

in. 1
m
s
t
mas
tis
nt

1.

II.

vend
vend
vend
vend
vend
vend

e
e
e
io
ie
e

Second Conjugation.
I.

11.

111.

ten
ten
ten
ten
ten
ten

ea
ea
ea
ea
ea
ea

m
s
t
mus
tis
nt

I.

II.

am
am
am
am
am
am

e
e
e
e
e
e

1

L
tienn
tienn
tienn
ten
ten
tienn

il.

e
e
e
io
ie
e

First Conjugation.

1

in.
m
s
t
mus
tis
nt

I.

11.

aim
aim
aim
aim
aim
aim

e
e
e
io
ie
e

In O. Fr. there was still an e : que nous

dorm-ie-ns

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

The Subjunct. of the present of être can only be
explained by the Old Lat. form stem.
Latin.
II.

ie
ie
ie
ie
ie
ie

Old French.
ill.
m
s
t
mus
tis
nt

Modern

L

II.

in.

s
s
s
s
s

oie
oie
oi
oie
oie
oie

—

1s

French.

L

II.

s
s
s
s
s

oi
oi
oi
oyo
oye
oie

1s

s

t
ns
z
nt

ill.
s

The Subjunctive of the Prêt. Def. (or Imperfect)
is derived from the contracted Lat. form in -assem (for
-avissem) :—
Latin.
I.
amass
amass
amass
amass
amass
amass

II.

e
e
e
e
e
e

Old French.
ill. 1 I*
m
' amass
s
amass
t
amas
mus amass
tis
amass
nt ; amass

Modern

il.

in.

e
e

—

—
ie
ie
e

s
t
ns
z
nt

Similarly que je fin-iss-e, vend-iss-e, par-uss-e,

!

i.
aimass
aimass
aima
aimass
aimass
aimass

French.
il.

e
e

—
io
ie
e

nt

&c.

308.—Imperfect.
The Termination of the Imperfect
-abam was gradually changed into -eve, -oie, and, with
the inorganic s (see § 301), -ois: am-abam, am-eve^
am-oie, am-ois. For this last termination Voltaire finally
adopted (for the first time in Zaïre, 1732) that of -aïs
(aim-ais), which, it is true, had already been proposed
hy Nicolas JBêrain in 1675, and taught by Latouche in
his a Art de bien parler Français" 1694.
Similarly kabebam and stabam were in O. Fr. avoie,
estoie, and have now become avais, étais.

REASONS

AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

203

309.—Preterite Definite, a. Probably from analogy
with the 2nd Pers. Plur. {faistes, chantastes, L a t fnistis,
cantastis) or from a corruption of the v {cantavimus,
chantai mes, chantournes) an s was erroneously interpolated in O. Fr. in the 1st Pers. Plur. of the Prêt. Def.
of être and of all the other Verbs : /usines, chantasmes,
dormismes, vendismes. After the 17th century this s was
no longer written, and its elision was marked by the circumflex : fûmes, chantâmes, dormîmes, vendîmes.
b. In some Verbs the 3rd Pers. Plur. of this tense, e.g.
vinrent, tinrent, can only be explained by the fact that
the Latin Perfects venkrunt, tenûèrunt, came to be
wrongly accented : the tonic accent was thrown back
from the second to the first syllable ; thus tknuerunt,
vènerunt, have been the types of vinre?it and tinrent.
310.—Future. The French Future aimer-ai is not
derived from the classical Latin form amabo, but from
amare habeo, a form which, especially in Low Latin, was
used to express Futurity.
The Terminations ai, as, a, &c. {habeo, habes, habet),
were at first separable from the Infinitive, but before long
the two elements coalesced, so that they could no longer
be distinguished.
311.—Similarly, the Conditional is formed from the
Infinitive {amare) to which was added the Imperfect of
habeo; thus amare habebam became aimer-ais, cf. § 308.
312.—Future of the Weak Verbs. Only the Verbs of
the 3rd Con jug. call for'a remark, viz. that the final e is
regularly elided before the syllable ai : defend-re, dêfendre-ai, dèfend-r-ai (see § 36, Note 1).
313.—Future of some of the Strong Verbs. Most
Futures of Strong Verbs which in their derivation deviate

FRENCH GRAMMAR.

^oq.

from the rule given in § 52, are to be explained partly
by the different forms which their Infinitives had in
Q. Fr. partly by other reasons stated below.
Futures are formed by the addition of ai—
1. Directly from a Latin Infinitive :—
(1) All-er.
i-re
i-re-ai

2

i-r-ai

(2) Êt-re*
(es)se-rex
(es)se-re-ai 2
se-r-ai

2. Directly from an 0 . Fr. Infinitive :—
(1) Fai-re.
fe-re
fe-re-ai2
fe-r-ai

(2) Dev-oir.
dev-er
dev-er-ai3
dev-r-ai

(3) Recev-oir. (4) Mouv-oir.
recev-er
mov-er
recev-er-ai3
mov-er-ai 3
mov-r-ai6
recev-r-ai
mouv-r-ai

3. After several phonetic changes from an O. Fr.
Infinitive :—
1) Pouv-oir.
pod-er 4
pod-er-ai 3
pod-r-ai 5
por-r-ai6
pour-r-ai
1

(2) Choir.
ched-er ?
ched-er-ai3
ched-r-ais
cher-r-ai8

(3) Seoir.
sed-er
sed-er-a 3
sed-r-a 9
sied-r-aI0
sie-r-a

(4) Voir.
ved-er
ved-er-ai 3
ved-r-ai5
yer-r-ai "

See the Note to naître^ § 318For the elision of e before ai, see § 36, Note 1.
T h e elision of the unaccented e is of frequent occurrence.
4 Also podir: see § 323, note to pouvoir.
5 T h e assimilation of d and t to r takes place frequently in the transition of
Latin words into French : nuz^-ire = nourrir, pezfra = pierre.
Putrere, Low
Lat. pu^rire, pu^Hre ; O. Fr. -podrir, -porrlr ; M. Fr. pourrir.
6
T h e change of o (Lat. unaccented o) into ou is frequent enough : corona,
locare, moiinus = couronne, loner, moulin.^
7 For cader, Lat. cadëre, instead oîcadëre.
8
Similarly déchoir, échoir = dêcherrai,
écherrai.
9 A diphthongatioh of the accented e into ie has taken place here as in tenir,
terirai, tendrai,
tiendrai.
ÏO Whilst the d of podrai, chedrai, vedrai, is assimilated to the following r,
the d of siedra is elided, and its elision is marked by the acute accent on the
preceding e. T h e Fut. of s'asseoir is formed in the same way : je m'assiérai.
11
Pourvoir and prévoir—two compounds of voir— form their Future from
their M Fr. Infinitive : po,îirvoi?'ai, prévoirai.
2
3

REASONS
(5) Cour-ir.
cor-re
cor-re-ai x
cor-r-ai 2
cour-r-ai

AND

ILLUSTRATIONS.

(6) A c q u é r - i r .
acquer-re
acquer-re-ai x
acquer-r-ai 3

(8) Sav-oir.
sav-er
sav-er-ai sav-r-ai 7
sau-r-ai
. (io) Voul-oir.
vol-eir
vol-eir-ai
vol-r-ai 8
vol-dr-ai
vou-dr-ai

(7) E n v o y - e r .
enve-er 4
enve-er-ai s
enve-r-ai
enve-rr-ai 6
(9) Av-oir.
a^v-er
av-er-ai s
av-r-ai 7
au-r-ai

(11) Val-oir.
val-er
val-er-ai
val-r-ai 8
val-dr-ai 9
vau-dr-ai

(12) Fall-oir.
fal-ir
fal-ir-a I0
fal-r-a 8
fal-dr-a9
fau-dr-a

4. From a Mod. Fr. Infinitive :(1) Ten-ir.
ten-ir-ai
ten-r-ai "
ten-dr-ai "
tien-dr-ai

(2) Ven-ir.
ven-ir-ai
ven-r-ai I 2
ven-dr-ai 1 2
vien-dr-ai

(3) Mour-ir.
mour-ir-ai 3
mour-r-ai

5. Altogether irregular is cueill-ix, which has cueiller-ai.
1

See Note 2 of the preceding page.
See Note 6 of ditto.
Conqtterrai, enquerrai, have been similarly formed from conquerre, enqtterre.
4
A form of the Norman dialect.
5 See Note 3 on the preceding page.
6
Renvoyer forms its Future from analogy to envoyer:
renverrai.
7 V becomes often u before a consonant
8
Whenever l-r or n-r come to stand together, a d is intercalated in order to
avoid this disagreeable collision of consonants : molere, mol're, molàre, moudre ;
cinerem, tin'rem, cenàre ; tenir, tetiirai, terirai, tendrai, &c.
9 Before a consonant, the I of al is changed into u {alba = aube, pahna =
pa\xme).
10
There is an elision of i here as in the case of ven-ir-ai, ten-\r-ai,
mqur-\r-ai
(see above, No. 4).
11
See Note 10 on preceding page.
12
For the diphthongation of the accented e, see Note 9 of p. 11. In this
manner, the Future of tenir could be distinguished from that of tendre, which
is tendrai.
2

3

206

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

C. Additional Remarks.
314.—The root of the following Verbs (see §§ 40 and
41), dorm-ir, ment-ir, part-ir, se repent-ir, sent-ir, serv-ir,
sort-ir, ends in two consonants, the last of v^hich is
rejected before s or t in order to prevent three consonants
from following each other : je dors, tu dors, il dor-t,
instead oije dorms, tu dorms, il dorm-t ; je sers, tu sers,
il ser-t, instead of je servs, tu servs, il serv-t, &c.
315.—In battre and 7nettre one t disappears before the
flexional s : je bats, tu bat-s ; as the root of these Verbs
ends in a t, the flexional / of the 3rd Pers. Sing, is
omitted (see § 303, No. 3).
316.—All Verbs with an interpolated d (ceindre,
i''oindre, craindre = cingere, jungere, tremere) throw out
this d before s and t : je ceins, tu ceins, il cein-t (instead
of je ceinds, tu ceinds, il ceind-t).
Obs. With these Verbs must not be confounded those in which
d is radical in Latin {venà-ere, tonà-eré) ; in such Verbs the d remains before the flexional s : tu vends.

317.—In the conjugation of a great number of Verbs,
original Latin letters reappear : moudre (Lat. molere) has
moulons, moulez, moulant, moulais, &c. ; coudre for
cous-re, from Lat consuere* consre, has cousons, cousant,
cousais, cousis, &c. \ croître (Lat. cresceré) has croissons,
croissant, &c. ; résoudre (Lat. resolvere) lias résolvons,
résolvent, and écrire (Lat. scnbere) has écrivons, écrivais.
318.—In the first part of the Accidence, we have
not very much departed from the ordinary way of
classifying the Strong and the Weak Verbs, in order not
to confuse the learner. In this part, it is necessary to
add that, according to the principle of division laid

REASONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

207

down in § 281, the following Verbs, of which a certain
number are Anomalous, or in some of their tenses
Defective, are all to be considered as weak, because
they form the Preterite Def. by accenting the termination. 1
A. To the first conjugation belong—
Aller,2

ester,3

pUer

(used only in the Infin., Fut., and Imperf.)

B. To the second conjugation belong—
Faillir, issir, ouïr A
C. To the third conjugation belong—
Coudre, écrire,* naître,6 suivre, vaincre ; braire, bruire,
frire; and all Verbs in aindre, eindre^ oindre, and uire
•e, conduire).
1
An asterisk has therefore been placed after each of them, in order to show
that, strictly speaking, they ought to be placed among the Weak Verbs
2
Aller borrowed its various tenses from three different Verbs. (1) From
vadere it forms the 3 Persons Sing, and the 3rd Pers. Plur : vado, "jadis, vadii,
vadunt = vais, vais, va, vont. This form vont is derived from vadtmt, in the
same manner as ont is derived from habent:—
v&d-unt
hab-ent
va.d-ent
av-ent
va.-ent
z.~ent
\o-nt
o-nt
Compare the Germ, han, from kaben. (2) From ire, the Fut. and Condit., by
adding ai (see § 313): j'irai, j'irais.
(3) From aller, all the other tenses. T h e
etymology of aller seems to be : ambulare, amblar, ambler, am'1er, aller.
3
Ester (Lat. stare) is now used in the Infinitive only, and as a term of law :
ester en jugement, to appear in court. It still remains in the compounds rester
(re-starë), arrêter (ad-re-stare), contraster (contra-stare) ; and in constant,
distant, i?istant,
nonobstant.
4
Ouïr is now used only in the Infinitive ; formerly it was conjugated in all
moods and tenses, e.g oi, os, ot, oons, oez, oent, Sec. L a Fontaine still employed
it : Écoutez un bon -mot, oyez une merveiUe
As another form, for the Infinitive oïr, we still find oyer, which occurs in the
English expression " a commission of oyer and terminer" = to hear and to
determine.
5 Écrire, from Lat scribere, O.Fr. escrire, M F r écrire. Forms like écrivons,
écrivais, écrivant, seem irregular, but are etymologically quite correct, since the
v represents the Latin b : scribemus, scribebam, scribentem.
(See § 317.)
6
Naître is not derived from nàsci, but from nascere (see § 291), as paître from
pascere, stiivre from sequere, être from essere (see § 331).
For the Preterite naquis, see the remark on tiivre^ § 323, B.

FRENCH GRAMMAR.

2o8

VI. Strong Verbs.
319.—As the Preterite is the criterion for distinguishing whether a Verb is weak or strong, the Preterite also
serves as a mode of dividing the Strong Verbs, whose
Infinitives all end in -z>, -re, or -oiry into three classes.
320.—First Class. The first class form their Preterite
by changing the radical vowel of the Verb into /.-—
voir,1 vi(s), {vidi) ; tenir, tin(s), (tenui) ;
venir, vin(s), (yeni).
Obs. The final s has been put in brackets in order to
show that it is inorganic (see above, § 301, No. 5).
321.—Second Class. Verbs of this class form their
Preterite in is; the final s represents in this case an
original s or c in the Lat. Perfect :—
mettre, m i s , (mis-i) ; faire, fis, (fec-i).
The following Verbs belong to this class :—
seoir 2
circoncire
clore 4
dire
faire
mettre

{sedere)
{circumcide7'é)
(claudere)
[diceré)
(facere)
{mitterê)

con-quérir3
prendre
rire
sourdre s
traire 6

{quœreré)
{prehendere)
(ridere)
{surgéré)
\trahere)

1
On the Fut. of voir, see § 313 ; on the Past Part, vu, see § 324. The Modern
French forms of the Prêt, je vis, tu vis, & c , no longer show the difference of
accentuation in vidi, vidisti, & c , which is still preserved in Old French vidi =
vit vidisti = vets (see § 294),
On viderunt instead of vidêrunt, see § 309, b.
2
T h e simple Verb seoir, which is no longer in use except in the Participle sis
and séant {bienséant, mal-séant), has served to form several compounds : asseoir (ad-sedere), rasseoir (re-ad-sedere), surseoir (super-sedere). For the Future
of asseoir, see § 313.
3
For the Future of conquérir, acquérir, enquérir, see § 313.
4
Clore has formed the compounds éciore (O. Fr. esclore, Lat. ex-cludere),
exclore, exclure, conchire, reclure (Lat. in-, ex-, con-, re-cludere).
5 Sourdre only survives in the Substantive la source, which, in O. Fr., was the
Past Part, of this Verb.
6
Traire had, in O. Fr., the same meaning as in Latin ; it is now used only in
the sense of milking.

REASONS

AND ILL USTRA TIONS.

209

322.— Third Class. The Verbs which belong to this
class form their Preterite in us, and comprise all those
Latin Verbs in ere which had ui in the Perfect : debere,
debui. This form debui became in O. Fr. did, in M. Fr.
dus (i disappeared before the inorganic s; see § 301).
In the same manner were formed lacère, tacui, O. Fr. tui,
M. Fr. tus ; volere, volui, O. Fr. volui, M. Fr. voulus, &c.
323.—The termination us was subsequently given to
a great number of Verbs which did not form their Latin
Perfect in ui : bus (bibi), crûs (crevi), crus (credidi),
courus (cucurrz). The following Verbs belong to the
third class :—

A, In ir;
courir t
mourir 2

{currere)
{morire*)

gésir

(jacere)

{absolvere)
{bibere)
{cognoscere)

croire
croître 4
lires

{credere)
{crescere)

B. In re:
absoudre 3
boire
connaître

{légère)

1
A certain number of Latin Strong Verbs in ere have produced Strong Infinitives in 0 . Fr , which, however, have become Weak in M. Fr. Cûrrere, /réméré, imprimere, are, in O. Fr., courre, freindre, empreindre ; these Verbs are
now accented on the termination instead of the root : courvc, frémir,
imprimer
Yet courre was often used as late as the eighteenth century {aller courre fortune) ; it still survives as a term of hunting : courre le lièvre ; laisser courre les
chiens.—For the Future of courir; see § 313
2
This Verb, a deponent in Latin, had already taken the active form in Low
Latin : morire ; thus mourus, from morui (instead of mo? tuus sum).
3
Lat. solvere became solvre, solre ; O. Fr. soldre, then soudre.
4
Lat. crescere became gradually crescre, cresre, crestre, croistre, croître ; the
circumflex accent in the two first persons je croîs, tu croîs, serves only to distinguish these forms from je crois, tu crois {credo, credis) ; etymologically this
accent is superfluous, as will be see» from the following table :—

Latin.
ere
ere
ere

II.
SCO

sci
sci

Old
in.

—
s
t

Modern

French.

1.1

11.

croi
croi

s
S

1 croi

s

m.

—
—
t

I#
1 croi
croi
croi

French.

11.

s
s

—

5 The s in lisons, &c , has probably been intercalated through the influence of
the O. Germ, lësan.
P

FRENCH GRAMMAR.

2IO
moudre x
paître
paraître

{moieré)
(pascëre)2
{parescëre)2

plaire
taire
vivre 3

{placëre
{tdcëre) 2
[vivere)

mouvoir
pleuvoir
pouvoir 6
savoir ^
valoir
vouloir

{moveré)
(*pluvêré)
(*potere)
{sapëre)
{rualere)
(volere)

C* In oir;
avoir
chaloir 4
concevoir
déchoir 5
devoir
falloir

{calere)
{coitciperê)
{de-caderë)
{fallere)

324.—The Past Participle of all these Strong Verbs
ends in—
(1) u, representing Participles in itus, utus ; cognitus
=1 connu (Verbs of the first and third class), vu =
vidutus (for visus).
(2) s, representing Latin Participles in s y missus •=.
mis (Verbs of the second class).
(3) /, representing Latin Participles in ctus; dictus =
dit, factus =z fait (Verbs of the second class).
1

On the I in moulons, & c , see § 317
In Classical Latin fiasci, parère, tacëre, placëre.
This last form has produced the French Substantive plaisir.
3
Lat x = ks has, in several French words, been changed into sk. Thus vixi
(i e viksi) has become vesqui in O Fr. and vécus in M. Fr., and similarly benedixi has been changed into benesqui.
Upon this principle has also been formed the singularly anomalous Preterite
of naître : naquis (O F r nasqui, as it were from nascui or nasquivi, instead ot
nattis sunt).
4 T h e only form of this Verb still in use is il chaut, e.g. il ne m!en chaut, it
does not trouble me, it is no affair of mine ; peu m'en chaut, little care :I !
5 Déchoir and échoir are the compounds of choir, which is derived from cadëre
(for Class. Lat cddere)
Of the Simple Verb there were some forms in use even
in the seventeenth century : the Prêt Def il chut (il chut du ciel en terre,
Bossuet), the Past Part, chu, and the Fut. cherrai, cherras, &c. See also
§ 3I3.
6 Potere (Low Lat ) became m O F r poder, podif(see
the oath of the year
842, § 276), then poir, pooir, povoir, lastly in M . Fr. pouvoir.—Y or pourrai, see
§ 3137 Sapëre (for the Class, sapëre) produced n O Fr. saver; thence the F u t .
sattrtii ; see § 313
2

REASONS AND ILL US TRA TIONS.

21 r

VII. Auxiliary Verbs.
325.—It has already been said that the whole Passive
and most of the Past Tenses of the Active are formed
by the Auxiliary Verbs avoir and être (see §§290 and
294, b)—a method of conjugation which was principally
developed through the analytic tendency of all the
Romance languages, but which had its precedent not
only in Popular, but even in Classical Latin : De Cœsare
satis dictum habeo =z dixi (Cicero).
326.—As to habere, it will be seen that the h has
been dropped ; this occurs in several other Latin words :
homo, on; h a n c h o r a m , encore.
327.—The Past Participle habitum has gradually been
changed into avut, aùt, au, eu, eu.
328.—The Future is a compound of aver (O. Fr.) and
ai ( = habere habeo), which has gradually become avrai,
aurai (see § 313).
329.—The Conditional is a compound of the Infinitive aver and ais (— habere habebam).
330.—a. On the final s in f avais, fêtais; je suis, je
sois ; feus, je fus, see §§ 300 and 301.
b. On the final t in ait and soit, see § 303 (No. 1).
c. For the suppression of the t in il a, see § 303
(No. 2).
d. For the circumflex in eûmes, fûmes, see § 309 (a).
e. For the form ont, see § 318 (Note to aller).
331.—Etre, from Lat. essere (instead of the classical
form esse\ ess're, estre; as paître is derived from pascere,
naître from nascere. Etre forms its tenses with the help
of three Verbs : (1) fui gives fus ; (2) stare produces ètê
{status) ; (3) esse serves to form all the other tenses.
p 2

FRENCH

212

GRAMMAR.

II.—ARTICLES.
332.—In French, as in all modern European languages, the want was felt of a mode of particularizing
any common Noun, i.e. of individualizing and distinguishing it from other Nouns of the same class. To
fill this office, no part of speech was better fitted than
the demonstrative Pronoun ille, which already in Latin,
and especially in Popular Latin, had frequently been
used in the same way as we now employ the Article.
Ille, gradually losing its demonstrative force, became in
French the Def. Art. le, which only serves to particularize
any common Noun. Yet a few traces of its original
demonstrative meaning are still found in such phrases
as—
pour le coup — pour cette fois-ci
de la sorte = de cette sorte
à /'instant même = à cet instant même
depuis la huitaine zr depuis cette huitaine
333.—In O. Fr. there were still two cases of the
Definite Article :—
Masculine.
Subj. Case.

Sg. il-le It
PL il-li /*'

Feminine.

Obj. Case.

il-lum
il-los

le
les

I

Subj. Case.

|

il-la la
il-lae li

Obj. Case.

il-lam
il-las

la
les

334-—As the Subjective Case disappeared, there remained for the Masc. le, pi. les; for the Fem. la,
pi. les.

REASONS

AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

213

335.—Combined with the Prepositions de and à, the
Masculine Article in O. Fr, was—
del, which
al
dels
als

has become in Mod. Fr. du x
,,
„
Fr. au*
„
„
Fr, des*
,,
,-,
Fr. auxx

336.—The Latin Numeral unus became in O. Fr.—
Subj. Case.
Masc. unus
uns
Fern, una
une

I
j

Obj. Case.
unum
un
unam
une

After the rejection of the Subjective Case, there remained in M. Fr. un, Fern. une.

III.—NOUNS.

I. Preliminary Remark.
337.—It has been mentioned in the Introduction
(§ 278) that, in the transition from Latin to French,
the following changes took place :—
(1) The Declensions disappeared.
(2) The Six Cases were reduced to one.
1
On the change of I into u, see Introd , § 278
2
Des has been formed diffetently from du, au, aux, since the original / of
dels (de les), contrary to the general rule, has not been changed into tt ; it has
been elided The same process of elision has also taken place in the old pronoun
es (from in illos, enls, els, es), which still survives in some expressions ; according
to its etymology, it can be used only before words employed in the Plural :
bachelier-ès-1 étires, bac/telier-ès-scieuces ; maître-ès-arts,
Hombourg-ès-monts
( = en the mountains).

FRENCH

214

GRAMMAR.

(3) The Accusative was taken as the type of French
Nouns ; the consequence of this was that
(4) The plural of a Noun was marked by the addition
of an s, and that
(5) Words in al regularly formed their plural in a u x .

II. C a s e s and Inflections.
338.—The following Nouns have, contrary to the law
stated above (see § 337, No, 3), retained the Subjective
Case :—
ancêtre
peintre
traître
legs
sœur
lez
queux

antecessor
pictor
traditor
legatus
soror
latus
coquus

fils
fonds
lacs
lis
rets

puits

filius
fundus
laqueus
lilius (for lilium)
retis (for reie)
puteus

339.—A certain number of Latin words have produced
two different words in French, the one formed from the
Subjective, the other from the Objective Case :—

•it!

Subjective Case.
chantre
cantor
senior
sire
major
pastor
minor

Objective Case.
cantôrem
seniorem
majorem
pastorem
minorem

chanteur
seigneur
majeur
pastern*
mineur

340.—In order to supply the want of Case-inflections,
and to express the Genitive and Dative Cases, the
French language chose the two Prepositions de and à
(Lat de and ad), which in Classical Latin had already
been used for that purpose : Themistocles noctu de servis

REASONS

AND

ILLUSTRATIONS.

suis (=1 servorum) queni habuit fidelissimum ad regent
misit (Corn. Nepos).
341.—In O. Fr., an imitation or a reminiscence of the
Latin case-ending is to be found in the frequent omission
of de and à. Thus mors regis ~ la mort li roi (for del) ;
filius imperatoris = li fils Yempereor (for del) ; ne le dirai
fame ne home ( = à fame, &C.).1
Even in M. Fr. there is still a trace of this omission
of de, e.g. de par le roi ( = de par de le [du] roi, de parte
regis) ; Hôtel-Dieu, hospital ; bain-marie, water-bath ; FêteDieu, Corpus-christi day: Faubourg St. Antoine, &c. ;<and
in many names of places : Nogent le Roy, Bar le Duc,
Château Thierry*

III. Gender of Nouns.
342.—General Fuie. French Masculines and Féminines coincide with Latin Masculines and Féminines ;
the Latin Neuter Gender having disappeared, the greater
part of Neuters become Masculines.
343.—For a certain number of changes from the
Masculine to the Feminine, and vice versa, and from the
Neuter to the Feminine, it is most difficult to give a
reason in every particular case. A definite principle has
not yet been discovered. The Latin termination has
certainly exercised a very great influence on the change
of Latin Genders, as will be seen from the following
remarks.
1
T h e same thing has occurred in the English language, as may be seen from
the translation of this very passage.
2
In Neuvy-lez-Bois,
P les sis-lez-Tours, Passy-lez-Paris,
&c , lez is not the
Plural of the Def. Art le, but it is the Latin latus (compare with it nasus = nez,
casa = chez, ts = z; see § 278, c, Note), which, in Low Latin, was used for
juxta = auprès de, près de. It is wrong, therefore, to write in these names les
instead of lez or lèz.

FRENCH

2IÔ

GRAMMAR.

344.—(1) A few Latin Féminines of the Second and
Fourth Declensions were wrongly taken as Masculines
because they ended in us, and consequently took the
Masculine Gender in French :—
abyssus
porticus
vannus
dialectus
atomus
exodus

|

abîme
porche
portique
van
dialecte
atome
exode

dornus
sapphirus
smaragdus
ficus
diametrus
synodus
pharus

figue

pinus
platanus
myrtus

pin
platane
myrte

dôme
saphir
émeraude
diamètre
synode
phare

Barnes of Trees :—
alnus
buxus
cupressus
fraxinus

aune
buis
cyprès
frêne

345.—(2) Neuter Substantives were changed into Féminines, because their plural in a was mistaken for the
singular of a Feminine Noun of the First Declension :—
animalia
arma
cornua
gaudia
idola
opera
folia
labra
tempora
muralia
volatilia

aumaille
arme
come
joie
idole
œuvre
feuille
lèvre
tempe
muraille
volaille

spolia
tormenta
sponsalia
pecora
festa
fila
grana
insignia
vela
mirabilia
paria

dépouille
tourmente
épousailles
pécore

fete
file
graine
enseigne
voile
merveille
paire

346.—(3) Some Nouns seem to have changed their
gender merely from analogy to synonymous words :—
Été Masc. (cetas Fern.) from analogy to printemps, au
tomne, hiver ; sort Masc. (sors Fern.) from analogy to
destin; salut Masc. (salus Fern.) to bonheur.

REASONS

AND ILL USTRA TIONS.

217

347.—(4) As apparent exceptions, we may notice the
following Nouns, which are derived not from Classical,
but from Low Latin Substantives :—
délice
moulin
fumée
ramée
colline

(Masc. ), from delictum, not from deliciœ
(Masc.)
,, molinum
,,
molina
(Fern.)
,, fumata
,,
fumus
(Fern.)
,, ramata
,,
ramus
(Fem.)
„ collina
,,
collis

IV.—ADJECTIVES.
I. Formation of the F e m i n i n e .
348.—The neuter form of Latin Adjectives having
disappeared, French Adjectives, as a general rule, have
for their Feminine a separate form in e, when in Latin
there are two terminations, one for the Masculine and
one for the Feminine (bon~us, bon-a = bon, bonne ; plen-us,
plena — plein, pleine) ; but they have only one termination in French, when in Latin there is only one
termination for both genders (tristis Masc. and Fem. =
triste; fidelis Masc. and Fem. = fidèle).*
349.—This fact gives us the explanation of words like
gratid'mere, grand'messe, grand'route (see § 152, B), since
grand (Lat. grandis, Masc. and Fem.) was still of both
genders in O. Fr. ; it was only in later times that an
1
A great many of these Adjectives, it is true, are now of two terminations:
fortis =• fort, forte ; brevis = bref brève ; dutcis = doux, douce,

2l8

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

apostrophe was wrongly added, because an e was supposed to have been thrown out.
3 50.—Another remnant of the old regular form of
Adjectives of one termination is to be found in M. Fr. :
des lettres royaux ; the Lat. regalis (Masc. and Fem.)
became in French royal (Masc. and Fem.), of which the
Plur. was royals, royaux. (See § 278, c).
All Adjectives in alls have now taken two terminations : talis z=. tel, telle ; natalis =. natal, natale.
351.—The final stem-consonant of Latin Adjectives is
generally altered or altogether dropped in the Masculine
of French Adjectives, yet it reappears in the Feminine;x
thus we are able to explain why the Feminine of—
A.

See § 187,
N o 1.

B.
S e e § 187,
N o 3-

c.
See § 187,
No. 6

1

actif
neuf
glorieux
amoureux

is
activ-e2
„ neuz/-e 2
„ glorieuse2
,, a m o u r e m - e

doux
prefix
roux
brie/
bref

„
„
,,
„
,,

dou<:-e
préfix-e
roim-e
briè^-e
brèz/-e

bas
épais
gros
nu/
ras
exprès
profèi-

,,
,,
„
,,
,,
„
„

bajj-e
épam-e
grcxw-e
nu//-e
ras-e
exprcrj-e
profejj-e

beau
nouveau
fou
mou

„
„
„
„

be//-e
nouve//-e
fo//-e
mo//-e

2

Lat actiw-us
nov-us
5?
glorios-us
J>
amoros-us
J5
dulc-is
firœfix-us
russ-us
J? brev-is
J J
brew-is
5>

5)

„
,,
J)
,,
yy
?t

S5

5 J

J>

bass-us
spiss-us
gross-us
nu\\-US

ras-us
express-us
profess-us
bell-us
nove\\-us
fo\\-is
moW-is

Similar changes take place in the Provençal language : Masc. bos, Fem
bowa ; Masc jauzions, Fem
jauzionda
2
And all the other Adjectives in y and x change these letters inÇo ye and se
respectively.

REASON'S
D.

AND

ILL USTRA

J

„ coi/-e
,, f a v o r i s e
„ béni^-e
„
malign-e
„ absoute
„ dissou^-e

tiers

See § 187,
No. 5.

coi
favori
bénin
malin
absous
dissous

,, tiervr-e

TIONS.

j
\

Lat.
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
j,
0 . Fr.

219
quiet-us
favorit-us
bemgn-us
maligxi-us
absolut-us
dissolut-us
terti-us
tiers-e

Note. The only irregular Adjective of this class is
faux;
for there is no etymological reason for faux
forming its Fem. fausse, since there is only one s in
fals-us.
352.—As Lat. c or cc are regularly changed into ch in
French {campus = champ, planca% =z planche; bucca ~
bouche ; vacca — vache) :—
blamr becomes blsmck-e
franc
„
fran^-e
sec
,,
sè^-e

See § 187,
No. 2.

1

fraif

fraicA-e

Lat. blanc-us
,, franc-us *
,, sicc-us
| O . H . Germ, prise
I Mod. Germ, frisch

Note i. Many Adjectives change the c (and the g)
into qu (or gu), in order to retain the guttural sound
of these letters : public, publique ; long, longue (see § 187,
N o . 2).

Note 2. Grec forms its Feminine quite irregularly
grecque.
353.—The influence of the termination on the root is
seen—
A. In Adjectives ending in t Two cases are to be
distinguished.
a. Adjectives being formed by means of the French
suffixes et, ot, double the final / ;—
See § 18;
No. 3.

mu-e/
bell-o/

mu-e#e
bell-o#e

brun-e/
vieill-o/

bnm-e#e
vieill otto,

FRENCH

220

GRAMMAR.

b. Adjectives being directly derived from Latin—
aa. Double the /, if this letter has its origin in
Lat. ct or Id (dt) :—
See § 187,
No. 3,

suje^f

Lat. subjectus
,, niX.ia.us

suje#e
ne#e

bb* Simply add e, if there is only one t in the
Latin original (Adjectives in et also take
the grave accent on the e) :—

se § 187,
N o . 3.

comple/
concre/
discret
inquiet
replet
secret
dévot
idio/

compl<?t-e
concr^t-e
discr<?t-e
inqui<?t-e
replit-e
secr^t-e
dévoZ-e
idiome

Lat. complet-us
,, concret-us
,, discret-m
„ inquiet-us
,, replet-us
„ secret-us
,, dévot- us
„ idiot-us

Note. Prêt, prête, has the circumflex accent on account
of the elision of the s mprœstus.
B. In Adjectives ending in r (see § 187, No. 4) :
premier, première; amer, amhre; ûer, fibre.

I I . F o r m a t i o n of t h e Plural.
354.—There is some uncertainty in the use of the
Plural of Adjectives in al, both among authors and
grammarians, who show a great dislike to use the Plural
of Adjectives, in which the /, against the general rule/
has not been vocalized : fatals, finals, navals.
355.—Many grammarians recommend avoiding these
Adjectives altogether in the Plural, and using for them
1

See Introduction,

§ 278

REASONS

AND

ILLUSTRATIONS.

22*

synonymous words ; for instance : funestes for fatals,
sobres for frugals ; or, to employ a periphrasis : des
conseils d'ami for des conseils amicals, des combats de mer
for des combats navals.
356.—The fact is that some of the best authors use
these Adjectives both in als and aux.x
1
It is amusing to hear Boztrsault, in his Comédie sans titre (Act iv. Sc. 6),
on this class of Adjectives :—
La Rissole.
Lui mort (i.e. Ruyter), les Hollandais souffrirent bien des mais !
On fit couler à fond les deux vice-amirals.

II faut dire des maux,

Merlin.
vice-amiraux.

C'est l'ordre.

La Rissole.
Les vice-amiraux donc ne pouvant plus nous mordre
Nos coups aux ennemis furent des coups fataux
Nous gagnâmes sur eux quatre combats navattx.

Il faut dire fatals

Merlin.
et navals.
C'est la règle.

La Rissole.
Les Hollandais réduits à du biscuit de seigle
Ayant connu qu'en nombre ils étaient inégals
Firent prendre la fuite aux vaisseaux principals.
Merlin.
Il faut dire inégaux, principaux.

C'est le terme.

La Rissole.
Enfin, après cela nous fûmes à Palerme
Les bourgeois à l'envi nous firent des régaux
Les huit jours qu'on y fut, furent huit carnavaux.

Il faut dire régals et

Merlin.
carnavals.
La

Rissole.

Oh ! dame,
M'interrompre à tous coups c'est me chiffoner l'âme
Franchement.
Merlin.
Parlez bien. On ne dit point navaux
Ni fataux, ni régaux, non plus que carnavaux
Vouloir parler ainsi, c'est faire une sottise.

222

FRENCH

III.

GRAMMAR.

Comparison.

357.—In Latin, the Comparative and Superlative of
Adjectives were formed either by adding to the Positive
the inflections -tor, -lus ; -issimus, a, um, or by prefixing
magzs and maxime. This latter method of comparison
was chosen by the French language ; however, plus was
adopted instead of the synonymous word magi's, and le
plus instead of maxime.
358.—The following Adjectives alone have retained
the Latin synthetic form :—
La Rissole.
E h ! mordié ! Comment donc voulez-vous que j e dise ?
Si vous me reprenez lorsque j e dis des mais
Inégals, principals et des vice-amirals,
Lorsqu'un moment après, pour mieux me faire entendre
J e dis fataux,
navaux, devez-vous me reprendre ?
J'enrage de bon cœur quand j e trouve un trigaud
Qui souffle tout ensemble et le froid et le chaud.
Merlin.
J'ai la raison pour moi que me fait vous reprendre,
E t j e vais clairement vous le faire comprendre
A l est un singulier dont le pluriel fait aux.
On dit " C'est mon é g a l " et " Ce sont mes égaux"
C'est l'usage.
La Rissole.
L'usage. H é bien ! soit.

J e l'accepte.

Merlin.
Fatal, naval, régal sont des mots qu'on excepte
Pour peu qu'on ait de sens et d'érudition
On sait que chaque règle a son exception
P a r conséquent on voit par cette raison seule.
La Rissole.
J'ai des démangeaisons de te casser la gueule,
Ces bras te deviendront on fatals on
fataux.
Merlin
Adieu, guenier fameux par teb combats

navaux.

REASONS

AND

ILLUSTRATIONS.

French.
meilleur
pire
maire
moindre
plusieurs

bon
mauvais
grand
petit
(moult)

223

Latin.
meliorem
fiejor
major
minor
filuriores

359.—A few Superlatives in issime are still found which
point back to the Lat. issimus, but all of which have
broken the law of accent ; rarissimus, clarissimics, ought
to have produced rarisme, darisme (and such they are
found in 0 . Fr.), instead of rarissime, clarissime.

V.—PRONOUNS.
360.—French has, on the one hand, rejected several
Latin Pronouns : is, hie, alius, uter, ullus, quidam, nemo,
omnis; on the other hand, it has created some new ones :
(1) by the composition of Pronouns with Pronouns (or
with Particles) ; (2) by giving the force of Pronouns to
a certain number of words which in Latin were either
Substantives {homo, rem, personam — on, rien, personne),
or Adverbs (ibi, inde =: y, en).
I.

Personal Pronouns.

361.—-The subjoined table shows us the direct relation
of Latin to French Pronouns. The forms in brackets are
found in O. Fr. only :—

224

FRENCH

1st Person.
Singular.
je*
me [moi)2
me (moi)z

GRAMMAR.

2nd Person.

3rd Person.

N . ego
D . mî
A . me

tu
tibi
te

tu
te [toi) 2
te [toi) 3

ille
il
illi
/z«
illum /<?

Plural.
N . nos
nous
A. nos
nous

vos
vos

vous
voies

illi
(#)5 illse <?//*rS
illos {ils) illas (*//«•)

362.—

illa
la
illse
lui
illam la

I I . Possessive P r o n o u n s .

Subjective Case.
Masc. Fem.
Masc. Fem.
Sing. meus
mea
mes ma
tuus
tua
tes
ta
suus
sua
ses
sa

Objective Case.
Masc.
Masc. Fem.
meum meam
mon
tuum tuam
ton
suum
suam
son

Plur.

meos
tuos
suos

mei
tui
sui

(lei)4

mese
tuae
suae

mei
tei
set

mes
tes
ses

meas
tuas
suas

mes
tes
ses

Fem.
ma
ta
sa
mes
tes
ses

1
Ego has become eo after the rejection of the g (as magister, regina have
become maître, reine), then io, jo, je.
2
/ is often changed into oil viam, voie ; fidem, foi'; video, vois. Thus mi
(for mihi) became first moi in O. Fr., then me in Mod. F r
3
T h e Accusative Singular of the 1st and 2nd Person was in O. Fr. vie, te, and
moi, toi. In M. Fr. the former, together -with je and tu, are used as conjunctive,
the latter exclusively as disjunctive Pronouns : moi çui Prie, which, in the first
period of the language, was je qui pri. A reminiscence of this usage still survives in the phrase " Je, soussigné, déclare qtie . . . "
4
It is only since the thirteenth century that the Dative lui, to him, has also
taken the meaning of to her {je lui donne =• I give hiin and / give her), which
atter sense lei used to express originally.
5 T h e Nominative Plural of the 3rd Person was originally il, to which an s
was added in the fourteenth century T h e Nominative Plural of the Feminine
appropriated to itself the form of the Accusative illas = elles.
The Accusative illos has given rise (1) to les {= \\-los), which has become the
Accusative of the Conj. Pers. Pron. je les vois ; (2) to eux ( = ils, els), which
now is only used as the Disj. Pers. Pron. : je viendrai avec eux.
Ran. T h e Genitive Sing of him, of her, is now de lui, d'elle, or sometimes
en, i e. Lat inde. There are many examples to show that the use of this inde,
meaning ex illo, ab illo, in which sense it had already been employed by good
Latin writers, became very common in Low Latin : si potis inde manducare =
si tu peux en manger. During the first period of O. F r , inde was int (see the
oath of A D 842, § 276) This form was afterwards changed into ent, of which
the t was finally dropped, and is still found in the word souv-ent (Lat. sub-inde).

REASONS

AND

ILLUSTRATIONS.

225

As the Objective case was throughout taken as the
typical form of Modern French Nouns and Pronouns,
we get in this case mo?i, ma, ton, ta, &c.
363.—In M. Fr. the rule is that, when ma, ta, sa come
to stand before a feminine Noun wrhich begins with a
Vowel or an h mute, they must be changed, for the sake
of euphony, into mon, ton, son (mon i?7iage, fern.). This
usage dates only from the fourteenth century. For in
O. Fr. the a of ma, ta, sa, was regularly elided in such
cases (just as la âme was changed into Vâmé) and it was
correct to say mHmage, niesfi'ee. In a few modern words
we find a reminiscence of this old form of expression :
nûamoury m'amie. As to this latter word, its etymology
having been forgotten, it is now wrongly divided, and
spelt ma mie.
364.—The Disjunct. Possess. Pron. is derived from
the first syllable of me-us, tu-us, sic-us, by the addition of
the suffix en.
Sing,
Plur.

Subjective Case.
miens, tuens, suens
mien, tuen, suen

Objective Case.
mien, tuen, suen
miens, tuens, suens

Sing,
Plur.

nostres, voJres
nostre, vostre

nostre, vostre
nostresf vostres

A.

B.

M. Fr. retained, with unimportant changes, the forms
of the Object. Case to which the Defin. Article was
prefixed : le mien, le tien, &c.
365.—If now, especially in familiar and facetious language, these Pronouns are used as conjunctive, e.g. un
mien ami\— un de mes amis) une mienne cousine^.— une
de mes cousines), we find the explanation of this fact in
Q

FRENCH

226

GRAMMAR,

O. Fr. where they were used as such : uns miens amis;
le mien sane.
366.—Leur, Plur. leurs, is derived from illorum ; formerly the Plural was written without s, according to its
etymology : illorum reges = leur rois ; illorum reginœ =
leur reines.
III.

Demonstrative

Pronouns.

367.—These Pronouns have their origin in the Latin
ecce, followed by hoc, iste, or Me.
(
<
(
:
\
i
I

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Ecce hoc became in 0. Fr Zf<?j f 0
z«>/, « 5 /
ecce iste
,,
ecce ista
iceste
?,
ecce il le
„
icil) Ace. icelui1ecce ilia
icele ,, zVéV>
?,
za7
, , ZV^/J
ecce il Ias
,,
ecce illas
,,
iceles

M Fr
33
73
33
35
33
33

<T<?

<T^

cette
celui
celle
ceux
celles

368.—From this table we see that ecce joined to hoc
and iste has produced the Conjunctive, and joined to
Me the Disjunctive Demonst. Pron., which, as already
often stated, took as their typical form the Object. Case,
and rejected the Subject. Case.
I V . 8c V .

Relative and
Pronouns.

Interrogative

369.—These two classes of Pronouns identical in
form are, like the other Pronouns, directly derived from
the Latin :—
1
Icelui, icelle, cettui (cestid), are still sometimes used in lega' documents and
in poetry written in imitation of Marot.

REASOA-S AND ILL USTRA TIONS.
(1) From Lat.
(2) „
„
(3) „
„
(4) }>
„

227

gui
French qui.
quant
„ que and quoi,
qualis
„ quel.
de wide „ dont.

370.—Dont, originally an Adverb ~ d'oii, whence, has
gradually taken the meaning of a Relative Pronoun :
whose. In the former sense it was still used by the
writers of the 18th century.
VI.

Indefinite P r o n o u n s .

371.—(1) Aucun, being derived from aliquis unus, had
originally an affirmative meaning : some, some one. Of
this meaning we still find many examples in La Fontaine
or in colloquial language : Aucuns le poursuivirent (La
Font.) ; aucuns croiront que je suis amoureux (Academ,).
When preceded or followed by ne, it becomes the Negative Pron. no one (see § 384).
(2) Autre, L. alter.
(3) Autrui is7 properly speaking, the Object. Case of
autre, as iceluivs, that of icil (see § 367).
(4) Certain, Lat. cert-us ; to the crude form was added
the suffix -anus : cert-anus, certain.
(5) Chacun, Lat. quisque umis, O. Fr. chasqu'un.
(6) Chaque, Lat. quisque, O. Fr. chesque, chasque.
(7) Maint, Goth, manags, O. High Germ, manac,
Mod. Germ, manch.
(8) Même. The contracted form of semet tpsissimus
was met ipsimus; this latter served as the type for the
O. Fr, word medisme and meïsme, which became in
Mod. Fr. mesme9 and finally même since the seventeenth
century,
Q 2

228

FRENCH GRAMMAR.

(g) Nui, Lat. nullus.
(10) On, from Lat. homo (not from homlnem), O. Fr.
o?n, on. In O. Fr. om or on was used both in the sense
of an Indef. Pron. (they, one), and in that of a Substantive (a man; compare with it the Germ. Subst. Der
Mann, and the Ind. Pron. man; Engl, man [me] and
one). This fact explains why the Defin. Article may
be used before it in Mod. Fr. : Port vient (see § 236,
No. 4).
(11) Personne (see § 384).
(12) Plusieurs is, as it were, a comparative of a comparative plusiores, plurlores, from plus (comp. the Germ.
Comparât, mehrere, from mehr). Plusiores, having only
one termination for the two genders, its French derivative, plusieurs, has only one termination for the Masc.
and Fern, (plusieurs hommes; plusieurs femmes). Yet
all other Adject, in eicr, Lat. or, have taken two terminations : majeur, majeure; mineur, mineure,
(13) Quantes, which is derived from Lat. quantus, is
in Mod. Fr. only met with in the familiar phrase toutes et
quantes fois, or toutes fois et quantes, e-.g. je le ferai toutes
fols et quantes il vous plaira, I will do it as often as you
like (or at any time you like).
(14) Quelconque, Lat. quallscunque.
(15) Quelque, Lat. quallsquam.
(16) Quelqu'un, Lat. quallsque unus.
(17) Quiconque, Lat. qulaunque.
(18) Rlen, Lat. rem (see § 236, Nos. 5 and 8).
(19) Tel, Lat. tails.
(20) Tout, Lat. totus.

REASONS

AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

229

VI.—NUMERALS.

372.—1. Cardinals.
The cases for the Nom. and
the Ace. of the first three cardinal numbers were in
O.Fr. :—
Subjective Case.
un-us
tins
duo
dut
très
trei

Objective Case.
un-um
un
duos
deux
très
treis {trois)

373.—As with the Nouns and the Adjectives, the
Subjective Case was rejected here, and the Objective Case
un, deux, trois, adopted in Mod. Fr.
374.—The numbers from 4 to 16 follow the Lat.
numbers; 17, 18, and 19, are expressed by addition : dixsept (transposition of the Latin septemdecim), dix-huit,
dix-neuf (in Latin formed by subtraction : duo-de-viginti,
un-de-viginti).
375.—The forms of the decades in Mod. Fr. will be
better understood if we consider how they were contracted in O. Fr.
Latin.
viginti
triginta
quadraginta
quinquaginta
sexaginta
septuaginta
octoginta
nonaginta

Old French.
ve'mt
trëante
quarëante
cinquante
sexante
setante
octante
nonante

Mod. French
vingt
trente
quarante
cinquante
soixante
{septante)
{octante)
{nonante)

FRENCH GRAMMAR.

230

376.—The last three are replaced in Mod. Fr. by
soixa7ite-dix, quatre-vingt, and quatre-vingt-dix.
Yet
septante and nonante are still occasionally used in some
parts of France, and especially in Belgium.
377.—The manner of counting by scores was much in
use in O. Fr. e.g. treis vinz (3 X 20), treis vinz et dis
(3 X 20 + 10), quatre vinz (4 X 20), six-vinz (6 X 20),
&c. Of this there are still two remnants to be found in
Mod. Fr. quatre-vingt (4 X 20), and quinze-vingt (15 x 20
=: 300). The latter is used only in speaking of the
Hôpital des Quinze-Vingts, founded by St, Louis in
1260 for the reception of 300 blind men ; one of these
is called " un quinze-vingt."
378.—Zero, naught, is derived from the Arabic çifron,
a cypher.
2. Ordinals.
379.—The first and the second are formed directly
fromprimarius, secundus —premier, second.
380.—All the other ordinal numbers (and also the
second} are formed by the addition of -ieme (Lat. -esimus)
to the corresponding cardinal : deux-ieme, trois-ieme, &c.
381.—As remnants in Mod. Fr. of the first ten Latin
Ordinals, we have to notice :—
(1) Primus, prime-abord, at first sight, from the
first moment ; de prime-saut, all at once; primesautier, unpremeditated, impulsive.
(2) Secundus, s e c o n d , co-exists with deuxième (see §
2 2

5 )(3) Tertius, le tiers état, the third estate (French
History) ; le tiers parti, the third order ; la fièvre
tierce, tertian ague; parler en tierce p e r s o n n e ,

REASONS

AND

ILLUSTRATIONS.

231

to speak in the third person; le tiers ordre de St.
F r a n ç o i s , and a few similar expressions.
(4) Quartus—Fièvre quarte, quartan ague. Quart
is often found in the writers of the seventeenth century •
„
Un quart voleur survint (La Fontaine).
(5) Quintus—Charles Quint (to distinguish Charles
the Fifth, Emperor of Germany\ from any other Charles
the Fifth); Sixte-Quint, Pope Sixtus the Fifth; quintefeuille, cinq-foil; quinte, quint (cards) ; quinte, the
fifth (music) ; quinte de toux, fit of coughing.
(6) Sextus—sixte,

sixth (music).

(7). (8) Septimus and octavus (in O. Fr. setme and
octave), have disappeared. The word octave (music) is
derived from the Italian.
(9) Nonus—la none, the gth hour of the day.
(10) Decimus—la d i m e , the tithe.

VII.

ADVERBS.

382,—French Adverbs may be divided into—
A. Simple, i.e. formed without any special suffix.
B. Derived, i.e. formed from Adjectives by means of a
suffix.
C. Compound, i.e. formed from two or more words.
383.—A. There is only a small number of simple
Adverbs derived from Latin :—

FRENCH GRAMMAR.
Ailleurs
bien
certes *
donc
en
fois 2
guères3
hier
là
loin
mal
mieux
moins
ne
non
or

où

fi om aliorsum
, , bene
,,
certe
,,
tune
,,
inde
, , vices
, , little, hardly
,,
heri
,
iliac
,,
longe
,,
male
,,
melius
,,
minus
,,
non
,,
non
,,
hora
, , ubi

peu
fr om paucum
pis
,,
pejus
plus
,
plus
puis 4
,
post
quand
,
quando
si
, sic
soudain 5 } ,
subitaneus
souvent
,,
suhnde
tant
,,
tantum
tard
,
tarde
( tostus (or, accoidtôt
,, < i n g t o Z t e , f i o m
( tot cito)
très
, , tran 9
trop
,,
troppus
volontiers , y
voluntarie
, *o
f"
y1

384.—To these we must add the six Adverbial phrases
which express negation in French : pas (passitm), point
(punctum), mie (micam), goutte (gitltam), personne (personam), rim (rem).
At first all these words were no negatives, because,
by themselves, they did not deny anything. Originally
they expressed a S7nall quantity and thus made the force
of the negative ne so much the more felt,6 e.g. Il ne bouge
pas, he does not move a step ; // ne volt personne, rien,
point, he does not see a person, a thing, a point (a bit) ;
il 11e mange mie, he does not eat a bit ; je ne bois goutte,
I do not drink a drop. They all changed their first
1
Certes is an exemplification of the curious fact that to a great many Adverbs
which are without a final s in. Latin, this letter has been added, because, as
M. Littré s a y s : " t h e y were originally regarded as Adjectives in the Objective
Case P l u r a l ; " compare the Italian Plural form of Adverbs : voloniieri,
lungi,
tardi, &c
2
Vices became in O Fr vetz, pes, pels. Fois serves also to form compound
words by being added to par-, toute-, qtielque^, autre,-, &c.
3
On guères, see naguère, § 386
4
O n puis, see § 296, Note to puisse.
5 Subitaneus became in Provençal sobtan, in O. Fr. soubdain.
6 "Compare the Latin negatives, nihil = ne hilum ; nemo = ne homo. T h e
English naught = ne aught ; the German uiiht = ne wicfot.

REASONS

AND ILL USTRA TIONS.

233

affirmative meaning to a negative one after having long
been used with ne to form negative expressions.
Mie, as negation, has become obsolete ; goutte can
now be used only with the two Verbs entendre and voir :
je ne vois goutte, ilrientend goutte.
385.—B. Instead of the suffixes -e, -ter, by which Latin
Adverbs were derived from Adjectives (doct-e, vehementer), the French language chose for this purpose the suffix
-ment, which is drawn directly from the Substantive mens.
This Noun had come to mean fashion, manner, and had
in Latin already served to form Adverbs ; as it was of
the feminine gender, the feminine form of the Adjective
was added to it : bona mente, devota mente fecit.x These
Ablatives, then, are the types of the French Adverbs in
ment : bonne?nent, dévotement.
386.—a
Ainsi
alentour
alors
amont2
à présent
assez

J œque sic (Diez)
\ in sic (Littré)
à Ven-tour
à Pore {0. F r . )
ad montem
ad prœsenteni
ad satis

aujourd'hui 3
auparavant
aussi4
autant s
aval6
beaucoup ^

ça

atijourcF hui(O.Yx.)
au par avant
aliud sic
aliud
tanium
ad vallem
colpus
ecce hac

1
Compare the English : likewise, otherwise, &c. ; the German : thôrichter
Weise ; nothwendiger
Weise.
2
A m o n t = up the river, had for its opposite a v a l = down the river, and
the Verb avaler originally meant to descend (un bateatc qui avale lejleure), and
then gave rise to the derived meaning to szvallow. Thus one says : pays d'amont
= high country, or, country situated near the source of a river ; amont de la ville
— above the town
3
T h e O. Fr.^ form is more true to the origin of this word, of which the last
part is the Latin hodie, to-day ; atijotird'hui, therefore, properly means on the
day of to-day.
4 A luid sic first became alsi in O. F r . (On the change of / into u, see
§ 278, c.)
5 Aliud tantum was in O Fr. allant. Compound Adverbs of tant aie partant
(per tantum), pourtant (pro tanttim).
6 See the remark on amont.
7 Colaphus, colphus, colpus, a blow, finally produced in French coup, which
word, being added to gra?id or beau, was first used in the sense ofajGue, a happy

234
céans
combien
comment
davantage
dedans
dehors

déjà
demain
depuis
désormais r
dessous
dessus
dont
dorénavant2
encore
enfin

FRENCH
ecce hac intus
comme and bien
comme and ment
davantage
de and dans
de and foras
de jam
de and mane
de zmàpost
des ore mais*
de and subius
de and susum
de and unde
de hora in ab ante
hanc horam
en a n d y ? ^ *

GRAMMAR.
ensemble
environ 3
ici
jadis 4
jamais s
longtemps
lors6
maintenant
naguèie7
oui8
partout
presque
tandis9
toujours

( insimul
\ ensemle ( 0 . F r . )
en viron
ecce hic
jam diu
jam magis
longum tempus
Vore*
manu tenente
zveiger (Germ. )
hoc illud
per totum
près and que *
tam diu
tous jours*

blow or stroke; afterwards it took the meaning of imich, a great deal, and
gradually replaced the old form m o u l t =
multum.
1
T h e O Fr form shows more clearly than the modern spelling, the meaning
of this word : dès = de ipsa ; ore = hora ; mais = magis : thence désormais
means from this hour forwards,
ie. from this very, from this present hoar ;
the same meaning is attached to dorénavant = de hora in ab ante.
2
On the meaning of dorénavant, see Note 8
3 Viron was in O. F r a Substantive, meaning a circle, derived from the Verb
virer (to veer, to turn round) ; environ, therefore, means that which is in a circle,
that which is near. With the same Verb must be connected the Noun aviron
= oar, i e. that which makes a circle, that which turns round.
4 On the final J in jadis, see certes
5 Jam became ja —from
this moment, and màgis, was changed into mais
— more ; thence ne ...jamais
= not from this moment more or again, i e
never.
6
T o ore (Lat hora) an inorganic J was added as in other Adverbs (see certes^,
and the Def Art. prefixed.
7 As Germ w is regularly changed into gn in French (warten — garder,
warnian —garnir) ; weigero (O.H.Germ ) became in Provençal gaigre, in O Fr,
guère, and oiiginally meant much: il ne m'aime guère = il ne m'aime pas
beaucoup ; je l'ai vu n'a guère = / have seen him not much {not a long time)
ago ; thence in Mod F r . rJa guère, written in one word, means lately.
8
Hoc illud became in O . F r . oïl, as non illud became nenil, the Mod.Fr
He uni.
9 Tandis, according to its etymology, was used in the sense of during
this
time till the eighteenth century ; for example :—
" Et tandis, il m'e?ivoie
Faire office vers vous de douleur et de joie "
C O R N E I L L E {Hor.

" Tandis j } achever'ay le voyage

entrepris"
HARDY

(Alceste).

iv. 2).

REASONS

AND ILL US TRA TIONS.

235

VIII.—PREPOSITIONS.
38.7.—French Prepositions are formed in different ways.
They are—
(1) Original Latin Prepositions :—
A
contre
en
entre
outre

ad
contra
in
inter
ultra

per
pro
sine
super
versit s

par
pour
sans
sur
vers

(2) Compounds of Latin Prepositions :—
Avant
devant

ab ante
de ab ante

devers
envers

de versus
in versus

(3) Compounds of Prepositions, with Adverbs, Adjecfives, and Pronouns :—
Après
avec
dansx
deçà
de là
derrière

ad pressum
apud hoc
de intus
de ecce hac
de illac
de retro

dès
dessous
dessus
parmi
selon
à travers

de ipso
de subtus
de susiwi
per medium
sublcngum
ad Iransversïim

(4) Real Participles :—
Durant,12pendant, joignant, moyennant, non-obstant, &c.
1
Tutus became eus, before which the Preposition de was placed : dens, then
dans.
2
Compare the English during, pending,
notwithstanding..

236

FRENCH

GRAMMAR.

(5) Derivatives from Nouns :—
Chez from casa. T h e Latin phrase in c a s a , in the house of, became in O. Fr. en chez (It. in casa, Sp. en cas), of which the chez
alone has remained in Mod. Fr. This explains the expressions : il
demeure près de chez nous ; il vient de chez son tailleur.
Fauteimm. the Substantive jfaw/<?, It. fau'ta.
Malgré from malum gratum, bad will.

(6) Derivatives from Adjectives; Verbs, and Adverbs :—
Hors (foras, O. Fr. fors) ; hormis {foras missum) ; lèz (latus1) ;
rez2 (rasus) ; voici, voilà. 3

(7) Substantives formed of the Article followed by a
Preposition ;—
Au-dedans, au dehors, au delà, au dessous, au dessus, au
auprès, au travers.

devant,

(8) Substantives formed of a Substantive or an Adjective preceded by the Article;—
Au lieu, au milieu, cm bas, le long, du haut, au moyen, &c.
1
On latus, see § 341, Note.
2
Rez in O. Fr meant smooth shorn, and à rez de terre was on the smoothshorn level of the ground ; thence the modem expression rez-de-chaussée, i e.
that fiart of the house which is 071 a level with the road, the ground Jloor.
3
T h e Adverbs ici and là were joined to the Imperative of voir, from which
they could formerly be separated : voi me là.

REASONS

AND

ILLUSTRATIONS.

237

IX.—CONJUNCTIONS.
388.—They may be considered under the following
heads :—
A. As Simple Conjtmctions having the same meaning as
in Latin :—
Et
ni
ou
quand

et
nec
aut
quando

comme
si
que

quomodo
si
quod, quam

B. As Simple Conjunctions with a meaning different
from their Lat. original :—
car
done
mais1
or

quare, with the meaning of nam
tunc
,,
,,
igilur
magis
„
,,
autem and sed
hora
,,
,,
nunc

C. As Compound Conjunctions :—
quoique
tandisque
puisque
aussi
plutôt
tant que
pour que
néanmoins
lorsque
)
alorsque )

quid quant, mste ad of qiianiquam
tant diu
,,
dum
,,
quoniam
postqîiam
,,
quoque
aliud sic
,,
potius
phis tôt *
,
donec, dum
tantum quod
pro quod
,,
ut
néant and moins *
ad illam

horam quod

1
The original meaning of mais —plus is preserved in désormais (see § 386),
and in the expression Je il en puis mais — Je n'en puis pas davantage.

238

FRENCH
sans que
parceque
après que
cependant

GRAMMAR.

sine quod
per ecce quod
ad pi'essum quod
ce and pendant, i.e. while this is pending, tasting.

389.—There are some more Conjunctions as : sitôt,
toutefois, &c. the composition of which is so clear that
they require no further explanation.

X.—INTERJECTIONS.
390.—Only a few Interjections call for a special
remark.
Hélas. In O. Fr. the first part of this word, he, was
an Interjection, the second an Adjective, las, fem. lasse
(from Lat. lassies, laxus) unhappy : He las (or lasse) que
je suis = Unhappy one that I am ! It is only in Mod. Fr.
that the two words were joined to form the Interjection
hélas, alas.
Dame. The Latin Domine Dens was contracted into
Domne Deus, and then became in O. Fr. Dame-Dieu.
Being, originally, a compound Substantive it came to be
used as an Interjection, after the second word had disappeared. The feminine domina has given rise to the
same form dame, which we find in the expression : NotreDame, la Sainte Vierge.
Morbleu, parbleu. It is through a desire to avoid the
name of God that the forms morbleu (O. Fr. morbieu)
and parbleu (O. Fr. parbieu), are employed for mort [de)
Dieu and par Dieu.

INDEX.
*** The Numbers

A.

do not refer to Pages, but to Sections.

j aïeul, 170 (5)

A, pronunciation of, 12 sqabréger, 59
absoudre, 117 (note 1). 127,
141, 323 (£)
absous, 187 (5)
abstraire, n i
Accent, 6, 295
accroître, 122
acheter, 54, 57
acquerrai, go, 313
acquérir, 113
acteur, 187 (7)
Adjectives, 186, 348
formation of plural,
188, 348
formation of feminine,
i86, 187, 354
used as adverbs, 265
derived from names of
nations and sects,
20 (3)
comparison of, 190
Adverbs, 382
place of, 257
formation of, 258
of quantity, 260
of place, 261
offline, 262
of manner and quality,
263
of affirmation and
negation, 264
comparison of, 192,259 I

aide, 183
aigle, 182 (1)
aigre-doux, 189 (3)
ail, 170 (5)
ailleurs, 383
ainsi, 386
ait, 303 (1)
all, 238 (9)
alentour 386
aller, 97, 318 (a)
s'en aller, 98
amont, 386
Alphabet, 1
ambassadeur, 187 (8)
amical, 189 (2)
amour, 182 (3)
l'an, 247
âne, 185
any, 236 (2), 237 (3)
anybody, 236 (2)
anyone, 236 (5)
anything, 236 (5)
any whatever, 237 (3)
apercevoir, 136 (note)
apparoir, 144
appeler, 53, 296, (2, note)
Apostrophe, 7
après, 387
après que, 388
après-midi, 172(2?, note 3)
aquilin, 187 (10)
arrière-ban, 172 (D, note
3)
Articles, 158, 322

Articles, definitive, 159,
. 333
indefinite, 164, 336
partitive, 165
as...as, 193 (d)
assaillir, 44, 287, 301 (6),
303 (1)
s'asseoir, 114,313, {3,a)
asservir, 41 (note)
assez, 386
assidûment, 258 (1)
assied, 303 (note 3)
assiérai, 313 (3, note)
attraire, 111
au ( = à le), 101, 335
aux ( = à les), 162, 335
aucun, 236 (5, 6), 238 (1),
371
aujourd'hui, 386
aune, 183
auparavant, 386
aurai, 313 (3)
aussi, 388
austral, 189 (2)
auteur, 187 (8)
automne, 182 (3)
autre, 238 (6), 371
autrui, 236 (6), 371
Auxiliary verbs, 325 ; see
Verbs
aval, 170 (2)
avant, 387
avec, 387
aveuglément, 258 (1)
avoir, 30, 323 (c), 3_6

INDEX.

2J.0
B.

c'est moi, 202 (3)
ceindre, 103, 3x8 (c)
celer, 54
celles, 367
celui, 367
cent, 241, 242
cent-suisse, 172 (B, note
1)
cependant, 388
certain, 237 (5), 371
certes, 383
ceux, 367
ch, pronunciation of, 16
beau, 18716), 3 5 i ( 0
chacal, 170 (2)
beaucoup, 192, 384
chacun, 236 (1), 371
bellement, 258 (1)
chaloir, 323 (C)
bénéficiai, 189 \2, note)
chanoine, 185
bénin, 187(5), 35* (-#)
chanteur, 187 (9)
bénir, 66, 286
chaque, 237(1), 371
bien, 167, 192, 383
chasseur, 187 (9)
bienfaiteur, 187 (7)
chat, 185
billion, 246
châtain, 187 (10)
bijou, 170 (1)
chaut, 323 (C, note)
blanc, 187 (2), 352
cherrai, 313 (3), 323 (C,
blanc-seing, 172 {B, 1)
note)
bleu, 189 (1)
cheveau-léger, 172 (C)
chez, 387
bocal, 170 (2)
boire, 118, 296 (7), 323 {B) choir, 147
chose, gender of, 182 (4)
bon, comparison of, 191
chou, 170 (1)
bon sens, 168
chrétien, 185
boréal, 189 (2)
ciel, plural of, 170 (5)
both, 238 18)
circoncire, 321
bouillir, 46, 287
clair-semé, 189 (3)
bourreler, 54
clore, 148, 321
braire, 145, 318 (C)
coi, 187 (5), 351 {D)
bref, brief, 187 (1)
colin-maillard, 172 {A)
bruire, 146, 318 {C)
Collective numbers, 254
collégial, 189 (2, note)
colleter, 54
C.
colossal, 189 (2)
C, pronunciation of, 16,19 combien, 384
„
different
from
ça, 384
que de, 260 (3)
caillou, 170 (1)
comment, 384
cagot, 187 (3)
commodément 258 (1)
cal, 170 (2)
communément, 258 (2)
canard, 185
compagnon 185
canonial, 189 (2)
Capital letters, use of, 20 comparison, 190—104, 357
complet, 187 (3), 353
car, 388
comte, 185
caracal, 172 (2)
concevoir, 136 (note), 323
Cardinal numbers, 239
„
,,
instead
(O
of the ordinals, 253
conclure, 119
carnaval, 170 (2)
concret, 187 (3), 353
Cases of nouns, 278 (tf),338 Conditional, 311
ce = this, 210, 367
conduire, 100
ce = it, 215
confire, 101
céans, 384
conformément, 258 (1)
Cedilla, 9
confusément, 258 (1)
B, pronunciation of, 16
bail, 170 (3)
bailleur, 187 (7)
bailli, 185
bain-marie, 172 (A)
bal, 17e 12)
bancal, 189 (2)
baron,185
bas, 351 (B)
bat, 303 (3)
battre, 69, 315

Conjugations, U>* three
weak—
1st conj., 38
2nd conj., 39
3rd conj., 48
Conjunctions—
coordinative, 271
subordinative, 272
connaître, 120, 323 {B)
conquérir, 321
Consonants, division of, 5
„
pronun of, 16
construire, 100
continûment, 258 (1)
contravenir, 86
contre, 387
contredire, 104
contre-jour, 172 [D, note 3)
convenir, 87, 94, 116
coq-à-1'âne, plural of, 172

(O
corail, 170 (3)
cornette, 183
coud, 303 (3)
coudre, 102, 317, 318 (C)
courir, 130, 323 (A )
courrai, 96, 313 (3, a)
court-vêtu, 189 (3)
couvrir, 43, 287, 301 (6),
303 (1)
crasse, 187 (10)
créateur, 187 (7)
crêpe, 183
crocheter, 54
craindre, 103
croire, 121, 323 (B)
croissons, 317
croître, 122, 317, 323 (B)
c r û , 187 <J>)

ciucial, 189 (2, note)
crûment, 258 (1)
et, pionunciation of, 16
cueillir, 45, 287, 301 {b),
303 (1)
cuir, 19 (note)
cuir, 100
cursive, 187 (10)
czar, 185

D.
D , pronunc. of, 16, 19
dame, 390
dans, 386, 387
davantage, 386
Days of the week, 20
débiteur, 187 (7)
deçà, 387
décevoir, 149

INDEX.
décherrai, 96, 313 (3)
déchoir, 131, 323 (C)
décroître, 122
défendeur, 187 (7)
dégeler, 54
dehors, 386
déjà, 386
delà, 387
délice, 182 (2)
demain, 386;
demandeur, 187 (7)
demeurer, 90
demi, 255 {Qbs. 2)
demi-Dieu, 172 (note 1)
demi-mort, 189 (3)
Dentals, 5
dépaqueter, 54
depuis, 386
Derivation, see Tens?i
derrière, 387
des ( = de les), 161, 335
dès, 387
désormais, 386
dessous, 386, 387
dessus, 386, 387
détruire, 100
deuxième, 252
devant, 387
devers, 387
devin, 185
devineur, 185
devoir, 132, 296(3), 323 (C)
dévot, 187 (3), 353
devrai, 96, 313 (2)
Diaeresis, 8
diagonal, 189 (2, note)
diamétral, 189 (2, note)
Dieu, 185
différent, 237 (b)
diffusément, 258 (2)
dîme, 381 (9)
dindon, 185
dire, 104, 321
discret, 187 (3), 353
dispos, 187 (10)
dissoudre, 127 (1), 141
dissous, 187 (5), 351 (D)
distraire, 111
dites, 305 (2), 307 (note)
divers, 237 (6)
Division of words into
syllables, 17
docteur, 187(8)
doctoral, 189 (2)
doge, 185
donc, 383
dont, 230, 235, 386
dorénavant, 386
dormir, 41, 287, 314
doucement, 258 (2)

I doux, 187 (1), 351
druide, 185

I dû, 187 (6)
; du ( = de le), 161, 335

I duc, 185
ducal, 189 (2)
I dûment, 258 (1)

E.
j E, elision of, 7
i e, pronunciation of, 12
each, 236 (1)
each other, 237 (7)
échapper, 92
écherrai, 313 (3, note)
échoir, 151
I éclore, 152
| écrire, 105, 317, 318 (c)
i ei, pronunciation of, 13
Elements of the French
Language, 276 sq.
Keltic, 2 7 6 64)
Greek, 276 (£)
German, 276 (C)
Latin, 276 (Z>)
em, pronunciation of, 14
émail, 170 (3)
empaqueter, 54
empereur, 187 (8)
en, pronunciation of, 12,
en, 196 (£), 233, 383, 387
en ( = in the year), 247
enchanteur, 187 (7)
encore, 386
enfant, 182 (6)
enfin, 386
s'enfuir, 47 (note)
énormément, 258 (1)
enseigne, 183
ensemble, 386
entirely, 238 (9, note)
entre, 7
s'entr'aider, 7, 83
entresol, 172 (Z>, note 3)
! enverrai, 313 (3)
envers, 387
environ, 386
envoyer, 62
épais, 351 (B)
épousseter, 54
es, 335 (note to des)
ester, 318 (A)
et, 19 (6), 388
étiqueter, 54
être, 32, 331
Européen, 185
1 even, 238 (10, c)

2^1

every, each, 237 (1, 9)
every one, 236 (1), 238 (9
everything, 238 (9)
exécuteur, 187 (7)
exemple, 183
expérimental, 189 (2)
expirer, 91
exprès, 187 (3), 351 (B)
expressément, 258 (2)
extraire, 111

F.
Faillir, 153, 318 (B)
faire, 115, 321
faites, 305 (2), 307 (note)
falloir, 140, 296 (4), 323 (C)
fat, 187 (10)
fatal, 189(2)
faudra, 313 (3)
faut, il faut, 94, 140
faute, 387
faux, 187 (1), 300, 302, 351
(note)
favori, ï 8 7 (5), 351 W
ferai, 96, 313 (2)
feu, 189(1)
feuilleter, 54, 58
final, 189 (2)
first, 251
fleurir, 67
fois, 383
follement, 258 (1)
font, 306
forfaire, 141
fou v I 8 7 (6), 351(C)
foudre, 182 (7)
fourbe, 183
Fractional numbers, 255
frais, 187 (3), 352
frais-cueilli, 189 (3)
franc, i87'(2), 35 2
franchement, 258 (2)
French, elements of, 276"
Old French, 277
Modern French, 278
frire, 154, 318 (C)
frugal, 189 (2)
fuire, 47, 287
Future, 310, 313
G.
G, pronunciation of, 16,19
gaîment, 258 (1)
garde, 183
geler, 54
G«i*der, see Nouns

242
genou, 170 (1)
gens, 168, 182 (8)
gentil, 187 (5)
gentiment, 258 (2)
gésir, 155, 3 2 3 (A)
glacial, 189 (2)
goutte, 384
gouverneur, 187 (7)
grand'mère, 172 (£), 349
graveur, 187 (9)
grec, 187 (2), 352 (note 2)
greffe, 183
grognon, 187 (10)
gros, 351 (B)
guères, 383
guide, 183
Gutturals, 5

INDEX.
inquiet, 187 (3), 353
inspecteur, 187 (7)
instruire, 109
interdire, 104
Interjections, 273,274, 390
Interrogation, simple, 71
,,
periphrastic, 74, 79, 224
introduire, 100
inventeur, 187 (7)
irai, 313 (1)
issir, 318 (B)'
issu, 141
ivre-mort, 189 (3)

J.

Jadis, 386
jamais, 386
H.
je, 20
jeter, 53, 296 (note 2)
H , pronunciation of, 16
joindre, 103
haïr, 65
joujou, 170 (1)
harceler, 54.
hébreu, hébraïque, 187 (10) jovial, 189 (2)
jumeau, 187 (6)
hélas, 390
jusque, 7
héros, 185
hibou, 170 (1)
hier, 383
Homonyms, 6
K.
hormis, hors, 387
Keltic language, 278
hôte, 185
hôtel-Dieu, 172(A)
however, 237 (2, c)
howmany=que,225(note)
L.
howsoever, 236 (9), 237 (2,^)
L, pronunciation of, 15
huit, 7
huitaine, 7
là, 383
huitième, 7
labial, 189 (2)
hymne, 183
Labials, 5
Hyphen, 10
larron, 185
légèrement, 258 (2)
lentement, 258 (3)
Letters, 1
I.
lèz, 387
I, elision of, 7
lingual, 189(2)
i, pronunciation of, 12
linot, 185
Liquids, 5, 15
idiot, 187 (3), 353
lire, 323 (B)
immensément, 258 (1)
livre, 183
Imperfect, 308
l'on, on, 236 (4)
importunément, 258 (2)
loin, 383
impunément, 258
in, translated by de, 193 (g) long, 352 (note 1)
longtemps, 386
longuement, 258 (2)
Inchoative verbs/ 4 '
lors, 386
incommodément, 258 (1)
lorsque, 388
Indefinite article, 164
loup, 185
induire, 100
l'un et l'autre, 238 (8)
Infinitive, 26
l'un l'autre, 238 (7)
initial, 189 (2)

M.
M, pronunciation of, 14
madame, 163, 205 (note)
mademoiselle, 205 (note)
maint, 237 (4), 3 7 I
maintenant, 386
mais, 387
mais oui, 7
maître, 185
mal, 192, 383
malfaire, 141
malgré, 387
malin, 187 (5), 351 (Z>)
manche, 183
manger, 50
manœuvre, 183
many a, 237 (4)
many a one, 238 (5, note)
matinal, 189 (2)
maudire, 104
mauvais, 187 (3), 191
médial, 189 (2)
médicinal, 189 (2, note)
méfaire, 141
même, 202 (4), 371, 238
(10)

mémoire, 183
mener, 51, 296 (2)
ment, 303 (3)
mental, 189 (2, note)
mentir, 41, 287, 314
merci, 183
met, 303 (3)
mettre, 106, 315, 321
mie, 363, 384
mien, 365
mieux,
mil. mille, 245
million, 246
minet, 185
mode, 183
mollement, 258
moins, 383'
Months, names of, 20
Moods, 25, 289
morbleu, 390
mou, 187 (6), 351 (C)
moudre, 124, 303 (3), 317,
323 (B)
moule, 183
mourir, 96, 133, 296 (5),
313. ( 2 , 4), 323 (A)
mousse, 183
mouvoir, 134, 296 (5), 313
(2), 323 (f)
,
much, many (^beaucoup,,
bien), 167, 260 (2)
muet, 353
mulet, T85

INDEX.
numbers, ont, 306, 318 (A, note)
onze, onzième, 7, 240, 244
or, 387, 388
Ordinal numbers, 249
N.
orge, 187 (10)
oîgue, 182
N , mute, 14
Orthographical signs, 6
naguère, 386
naître, 107, 318 (r), 323 (B, other, others, 236 (6), 238
note to vivre)
v (6)
narval, 170 (2)
où (used as a pronoun),
Nasal sounds, 14
335
nasal, 189 (2)
ouate, 7
natal, 189 (2)
oui, 7, 386
naval, 189 (2)
ouïr, 141, 318 (B)
ne> 383 ^
outre, 387
néanmoins, 388
ouviir, 43, 301 (6), 303
nearly ( = faillir),i53 (note)
nègre, 185
oval, 189 (2)
net, 353
oyer, 318 (B)
ni, 388
niais, 187 (3)
no ( = ne...pas ; non), 238
P.
(1, 2), 264 (3)
nobody, 236 (5)
no one, 236 (5), 238 (1,2,3) P , pronunciation of, 16
page, 183
none, 238 (1, 2), 383
nopal, 170 (2)
paillasse, 183
not one, 238 (1, 2)
pair, 185
not so...as, 193 (d)
paître, 125, 323 (B)
nothing, 238, 236 (5, 8)
pal, 170 (2)
Nouns, gender of, 175,182 palme, 183
sç., 342
pantomime, 183
Pâques, 182 (11)
„
plural of, 169 sç.
par, 387
„
cases of, 338
nouveau, 187 (6), 351 (B) de par ( = parte), 341
nul, 238 (2), 351 (B), 371 paraître, 94, 120 (note),
Numbers,cardinal,239,372
323 (B)
,,
ordinal, 230, 379 parallèle, 183
nouvellement, 258 (1)
parbleu, 390
nuire, 100
parceque, 388
nûment, 258 (1)
parmi, 387
Participles, 27
partir, 41, 287, 303 (3),
314
O.
Partitive articles, 165
partout, 386
O, pronunciation of, 12
pas (point), 384
obscurément, 258 (2)
pascal, 189 (2)
patronal, 189 (2, note)
oc, langue d'oc, 277
payer, 60 (note)
ce, pronunciation of, 13
pécheur7"îo7 (7)
œil, 170 (5)
pêcheur, 187 (note)
œuvre, 182 (9)
peintre, 187 (9)
office, 183
offrir, 43, 287, 301 (6), 303 peler, 54, 56
pénal, 189 (2)
oi, pronunciation of, 13
oïl, langue d'oïl, 277, 386 pendule, 183
période, 182 (12)
Old French, 277
persécuteur, 187 (7)
on, l'on, 236 (4), 371
one ( = they, people), 236 personne, 28, 183, 236 (5),
(4)
371» 384
Multiplicative
256

243
Person-endings, 300
petit, 191
petit-lait, 168
petites-maisons, 168
petits-enfants, 168
peu, 192, 383
peux, 300, 302
Philippe, 185
pied-à-terre, 172 (C)
pique, 183
Pis, 383
plaindre, 103
plaire, 126, 323 (B)
pleuvoir, 94, 141, 323 (C)
pîumail, 170 (3)
plupart, 167
Plural of nouns, 169, 278
,, of adjectives, 354
sç.
plus, 383
plusieurs, 187 (6), 238 (4),
37 1
plutôt, 388
poêle, 183
poète, 187 (9)
posséder, 52
poste, 183
pou, 170 (1)
pour ; pour que, 387, 388
pourrai, 96, 313 (3)
pourvoir, 117 (note), 313
(3, note)
pouvoir, 135, 296 (5), 323

(O
précisément, 258 (2)
prefix, 108, 187 (1), 351
prendre^ 321
Prepositions, 266 sç
présentement, 258 (3)
presque, 7, 386
prêt, 187 (3), 353
prévaloir, 138 (note)
prévenir, 116
prévoir, 117 (note), 313 (3,
note)
prime-sautier, 381
prince, 185
procureur, 187 (7)
produire, 100
profès, 351 (B), 187 (3)
profondément, 258 (2)
profusément, 258 (2)
Pronouns, 194 sç., 360 sç.
Pronunciation, 12 sç , 244
prophète, 185
Provençal, 277
public, 352 (note 1)
puis. 383
puisque, 7, 388
Punctuation, signs of, r i

INDEX.

244
Q.

S.

Q, pronunciation of, 16
quand, 383
quantes, 371
quart, 381 (4)
quatre yeux, 19 (note)
que ( = how, many, why),
225 (note), 387
,, and combien, 260
(note 3)
quel, quelle, 218
quelconque, 237 (3), 371
quelque, 7, 237 (2), 371
quelque chose, 236 (7)
quelque...que, 237 (2, è)
quelqu'un, 236 (3), 371
quérir, 143
qui and lequel, 231, 232
quiconque, 236 (3), 371
quint, 381 (5)
quinze-vingt, 377
qui que, 236 (9)
quite, 238 (9, note)
quoique, quoi que, 236 (9),
388

S, pronunciation of, 16, 19
s, added to several tenses,
300, 301, 308
s, x, and z, as signs of the
plural, 278 (c)
saillir, 43 (note), 287, 303
same, 238 (10)
sans, sans que, 387, 388
saurai, 96, 313 (3)
savoir, 137, 296 (6), 323 (C)
sec, 187 (2), 352)
secret, 187 (3), 353
séduire, 100
self, 238 (10)
selon, 387
sentir, 40, 287, 303 (3), 314
seoir, 156, 321
serai, 313 (11)
serval, 170 (2)
serviteur, 187 (8)
several, 238 (4)
si, 383
Sibilants, 5
sied, siéra, 94, 114, 303(3)»
313 (3)
Signs of punctuation, 11
so, 263 (3)
solde, 183
some, 236 (2), 237 (2)
something, 238 (8)
somme, 183
s o r t i r a i , 287, 303(3), 314
soudain, 383
souffrir, 43, 287, 301 (6),
303 (note)
soupirail, 170 (3)
sourdre, 157, 321
sourire, 183
sous-pied, 172 (Z>, note 3)
soustraire, 111
souvent, 383
Subjunctive, 307 (b)
Substantive, see Noun
subvenir, 86, 116
such, 238 (5)
suffire, 101
suivre, 110, 318 (C)
sujet, 353
Superlative in zssime, 196
(1, note), 359
sur, 387
surseoir, igô

R
R, pronunciation of, 16
ras, 187.(3), 351 (B)
recevoir, recevrai, 96,136,
296 (3), 3*3 (2)
redire, 104
réduire, 100
régal, 170 (2)
régler, 296 (2)
Reinforcement of vowels,
296
remise, 183
relâche, 183
renaître, 107
rentraire, n i
renvoyer, 62, 313 (note)
repaître, 125
repartir, répartir, 41 (note)
repentir, se, 40, 287, 303
(3), 314 , v
replet, 187 (3), 353
résolu, résous, 127 (2)
résoudre, 127, 317
résous, 187 (10)
ressortir, 41 (note)
rester and demeurer, 90
rien, 236 (5, 8), 371, 384
rire, 109, 321
Romance languages, 275
romane, 187 (10)
rompre, 70
roux, 187 (1), 351

T, the original t omitted,
303

taire, 128, 323 (£)
tandis, tandis que, 386, 388
tant, tant que, 383, 388
tard, 383
tel, 238 (5)
témoin, 187 (10)
tenir, 116, 296 (1), 313 (4),
320
Tenses, 29, 35, 36, 96, 294,
1 erminations, 37, 298 sq
tête-à-tête, 172 (C)
than = que, 193 (b)
than = de, 259 (2)
théâtral, 189 (2)
then, 262
tiers, 187 (5), 351 ( # ) , 3S1
(2)
tigre, 185
timbre-poste, 172 (A)
tiret, 10
tissu, 141
tôt,383
toujours, 386
tour, 183
tout, 163, 188, 238 (g), 371
tout-puissant, 189 (3, note)
traducteur, 187 (9)
traduire, 100
traire, 91, 111, 141, 321
trait d'union, 10
traître, 185
traîtreusement, 258
transversal. 189 (2, note)
travail, 170 (5)
travers, à tr , 387
Tréma, 8
très, 383
tressaillir, 43, 287, 301 (6),
303 (r)
triomphe, 183
trop, 383
Troyen, 185

U.
U , pronunciation of, 7
uniformément, 258 (1)
V.
Va, 303 (2)
vague, 183
vaincre, 112, 318 (C)
valoir, 96,138, 296 (4), 3<<»,
302, 313 (3), 323 (C)
vantail, 170 (3)
vase, 183

INDEX.
véhémentement, 258 (3)
vélin, 187 (10)
vendeur, 187 (7)
vendre, 48
vengeur, 187 (7)
venir, 114, 296 (1), 313 (4),
320
Verbs, division of, 21, 279
voices of, 24
weak, 34, 281, 283
xst conj., 38, 283
2nd conj., 39—47,
284—287
3rd conj., 48, 288
peculiarities of the
three weak conj.,
50—70
strong, 96, 281, 319
auxiliary, 30, 325
anomalous, 42
reflective, 81
reflective in French
and not reflective
in English, 82
reciprocal, 83
intransitive, 84,85,88
89
impersonal, \
unipersonal, j 93,94
in ger, 50
in ier, 50
like mener, 51
like posséder, 51
in eler and eter, 53—
58, 296 (2)
in éger, 59
in ayer, oyer, uyer, 60

Verbs in uer, ouer, 63
whatever, 237 (2, 6)
in gicer, 63 (note)
whatsoever, 236 (9), 237
used interrogatively,
(2, b)
who and which, 228
used negatively, 75 sç. whoever, 236 (2)
used interrogatively whole, 238 (9)
and negatively, 78
,, the whole world,
vers, 387
238 (9, d)
very, 262, 263 (2)
whomsoever, 236 (9)
vêtir, 47, 287, 303 (3)
whose, 223, 229, 230
vieux, 187 (1, 6)
whosoever, 236 (2, 9)
vingt, 241
which, 228
virginal, 189 (2)
why, 225 (note)
vitrail, 170(3)
vivement, 258 (2)
vivre, 129, 323 (B)
X.
vocal, 189 (2, note)
Voices, 80, 289
voici, 387
X , pronunciation, 16, 19
voile, 183
x, s, and z, as signs of the
voilà, 387
plural, 278'fc)
voir, 117, 313 (3), 320
volonté, de la bonne v.,
168
volontiers, 383
vont, 306
vouloir, 96, 139, 296 (5), Y, 234, 383
300, 302, 313 (3), 323 (C) y and là, 234 (Obs.)
Vowels, 5, 12, -13
year, in the year, 247
reinforcement of, 296 yes ( = out and sz), 262 (2)

What, 225
what a, 220

Z, see x

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INDEX.
CLASSICALELEMENTARY CLASSICS .
.
.
.
.
CLASSICAL S E R I E S
C L A S S I C A L L I B R A R Y ( I ) T e x t s , (2) Translations
GRAMMAR, COMPOSITION, AND PHILOLOGY
ANTIQUITIES, ANCIENT HISTORY, AND PHILOSOPHY

MATHEMATICSARITHMETIC
.
.
ALGEBRA
.
.
.
EUCLID AND ELEMENTARY
MENSURATION
.
.
HIGHER MATHEMATICS .

.
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GERMANPROGRESSIVE G E R M A N C O U R S E

MODERN

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September, 1883.

A CATALOGUE
OF

EDUCATIONAL BOOKS
PUBLISHED BY

MACMILLAN & CO.,
BEDFORD S T R E E T , STRAND, LONDON.

CLASSICSELEMENTARY

CLASSICS.

i8mo, eighteerçpence each.
T H I S S E R I E S FALLS I N T O TWO

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(i) First Reading Books for Beginners, provided not only
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and the harder parts of Cicero, Horace, Virgil, and
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These are provided with Introductions and Notes, but
n o V o c a b u l a r y . The Publishers have been led to provide the more strictly Elementary Books with Vocabularies
by the representations of many teachers, who, hold that beginners do not understand the use of a Dictionary, and of
others who, in the case of the very large class of middleclass schools where the cost of books is a serious consideration, advocate the Vocabulary system on grounds of economy.
It is hoped that the two parts of the Series, fitting into
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The following Elementary Books, with Introductions,
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C a e s a r — T H E GALLIC WAR. BOOK I.

Edited by A. S.

WALPOLE, M.A.

[Ready.

T H E GALLIC WAR. BOOKS II. AND I I I . Edited by W. G.
RUTHERFORD, M. A., Head-Master of Westminster School.
[Ready.
THE GALLIC WAR. SCENES FROM BOOKS V. AND VL
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formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
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C i c e r o . — D E SENECTUTE. Edited by E. S. SHUCKBURGH,
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DE AMICITIA. By the same Editor.
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Eutropii Historia Romana.—SELECTIONS. Edited by
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Greek Testament—SELECTIONS FROM T H E

GOSPELS.
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H o m e r . — I L I A D . BOOK I. Edited by Rev. JOHN BOND, M.A.,
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ELEMENTARY CLASSICS.

5

L i v y . — B O O K I. Edited by H . M. STEPHENSON, M.A., Head
Master of St. Peter's School, York.
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Edited by E. S. SHUCKBURGH, M. A.
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Edited by A. S. WALPOLE,
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John's College, Cambridge ; Assistant-Master at Clifton College.
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Virgil.—^SNEID.

Edited by A. S. WALPOLE, M.A.
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of St. John's College, Cambridge.
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Xenophon.—ANABASIS.
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WALPOLE, M.A.

BOOK I.

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The following more advanced Books, with Introductions
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Herodotus.—SELECTIONS FROM BOOKS VII. AND VIII.
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