HISTORY OF GERMANY.

A 2

THE

POLITICAL, SOCIAL, AND LITERARY

HISTORY OF GERMANY
FROM THE

COMMENCEMENT TO THE PRESENT DAY.

BY THE

REV. DR. COBHAM BREWER
TRINITY HALL, CAMBRIDGE.
Author of' "The Political, Social, and Literary History of France from the commencement
to the present day," 7th Edition ;
"The Guide to Science," (380,000); "The Dictionary of Phrase and Fable" 14th Edition;
" The Reader's Handbook," 3rd Edition; &c., &c., &c.

LONDON:

THOS. DE LA RUE & CO.
1881
[The right of Translation and Reproduction is reserved.]

943
B758p

PRINTED BY
THOMAS DE LA RUE AND CO., BUNHILL ROW,
LONDON.

PREFACE.
No history can be compared in interest to that of Germany,
and none is so suggestive or dramatic. From the first inroads of
the barbarians to the establishment of the new empire under the
ham s of Prussia, the canvas is filled with moving incidents, and
the persons who occupy attention stand like Miltiades in the
fresco of the porch Pcecile. Look at the great Karl ruling almost
all Europe with a strength and wisdom without parallel. Look
at Henry the Fowler flying his hawks on the Hartz mountains,
but no less skilled in ruling his barons than his falcons. Look
at Barbarossa, the hero of fable, shadowy as the heroes of Ossian,
but loved almost to idolatry. Look at Henry IV. in his life-anddeath struggle with the pope; or at the far-wiser champion of the
true church, Martin Luther, the Michael Angelo of the Reformation. Look at Sigmund, the Balaam of modern history,
knowing what is right and doing what is wrong: giving safe
conduct to Huss and Jerome, and then gazing from his horse's
saddle at the burning pile of the betrayed Bohemians. Look at
the Fifth Karl, wading in blood to win the crown of eternal life,
and then abdicating that he may die in the odour of sanctity;
a discrowned glutton, playing the monk without one thought
beyond the present world. Look at Maria Theresa and Frederick
the Great. The Prussian Hercules would fain have taken from
her the girdle of her empire; but the modern Hippolyte bravely
stood out to the last, and left her State stronger and more
prosperous than ever. Then turn the picture to Germany in the
dust, and see Napoleon clipping and paring its states, dealing
them to his kinsmen like a pack of cards, and striding over the

VI

PREFACE.

Holy Empire like a Colossus, till the blasts of Moscow an 1 the
field of Waterloo robbed him of "all his hangings,—yea, his
leaves,—and left him bare to weather." Where has the struggle
with papacy been more bravely fought ? Where has the struggle
of the burgher class, where that with the Corsican Sesostris been
so graphically played out? For my own part I have been
intensely interested, and hope that I have infused some portion
of the interest I have felt in the pages I have written.
The object I have kept in view has been to give bold b-oad
outlines of German history, and to supply in smaller typ , the
fullest detail. Those who wish to gain at a glance a general
idea may read the larger type; those who would pick up the
crumbs may consult the smaller under the heading of " Chief
Events."
Much labour has been given to the literature of Germany,
and although many names have of necessity been relegated to
Table XIII., the authors best known to Englishmen, and those who
have exercised the greatest influence on the nation, have been
pretty freely selected. The great difficulty has been what to do
with such giants as Leibnitz, Kant, Fichte, and Hegel, so as to
give a general idea of their writings in a few lines, and to steer
clear of shoals and quicksands unsuited to a book like this.
Numerous dynastic tables, with a table of the imperial wives,
and another of men of mark from the earliest period to the
present, have been added. Many plots of dramas and stories,
many schemes of books, and many little details of history, have
been woven into the text in smaller type; and it is earnestly
hoped that the book will be found neither dry nor uninteresting.
In regard to the spelling of proper names, the rule has been to prefer the German spelling
whenever it can be accepted so as not to jar upon the ear of an English reader. Charles is
always spelt Karl to distinguish the German of that name from those of other nations, but the
gutturals Heinrich, Friedrich, &c, would not be in harmony with our language. In some
few cases where ah would not express the sound of a in "father," ar has been used, and, as
r is never burred after a vowel, no better exponent of this very un-English vowel could be
employed.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.
DIVISION I.—PART I.
ANCIENT

HISTORY

OP

T H E ROMANO-GERMAN

GERMANY.
PERIOD.

FROM THE MIGRATIONS OF THE CIMBRI, B.C. 113, TO THE
CONQUEST OF FRANCE BY CLOVIS, A.D. 486.
PAGK

Migration and overthrow of the Cimbri and Teutoni
(B.C. 113-101)

...

...

Ethnical Stock of the German race
...
...
Ariovistus (B.C. 58)
...
...
...
...
Germans enrolled in the German Army (to B.C. 48)
Wars with the Romans (B.C. 12 to A.D. 486) ...
Goths and Huns (250-480)
...
...
...
Conversion of the Germans (250-755) ...
...

1

...
...
...
...
...
...

6
9
10
11
15
16

DIVISION I.—PART II.
FROM CHARLEMAGNE TO HENRY THE FOWLER.

THE

KARLOVINGIAN

Charlemagne or Karl the Great (768-8 14)
Map of Europe at the period
...
Successors of Charlemagne (814-911) ...
Ludwig the Debonair
...
Ludwig the German
...
Karl the Fat
Arnulf
Ludwig the Child

...

PERIOD.
...
...
...

..

18
19
25

25
25
25
25
25

...
...

T h e feudal s y s t e m , p . 27.
Literature of Germany, p. 28.

Konrad I. count of Franconia (911 -91038)

...

...

30

viii

CONTENTS.

DIVISION II.—PART I.
M E D I E V A L HISTORY OF GERMANS.
FROM T H E ACCESSION O F HENRY I. T H E FOWLER, A.D. 918,
TO T H E GREAT INTERREGNUM A.D. 1256.
PAGE

T h e SAXON DYNASTY (918-1024)

31

Henry I. the Fowler (918-936)
The nation organised

PAGE

...

31
...

...

35

Otto I. the Great, surnamed " T h e Lion"
(936-973)
Otto I I . the Red King (973-983)
...
Otto I I I . the Wonder of the World

37
42

(983-1002)

Henry

43

I I . the Saint, " T h e L a m e "

(1002-1024)
...
...
...
Table of Henry I. the Fowler, and his descendants,/. 46.

45

Social and political state of Germany
The Church
...
...

47
49

...
...

H O U S E OF FRANCONIA (1024-1125)

...

Konrad I I . the Salic (1024-1039)
...
Henry I I I . the Black King (1039-1056)
Henry IV. the Great (1056-1106)
...
Second recognised advancement in the status of
the people
...
...
...
...

63

Henry V. the Parricide (1098-1125) ...
Lothar I I . duke of Saxony (1125-1137)

64
65

The First Crusade ...
...
...
Political and social state of Germany...

50

50
53
56

65
68

...
...

H O U S E O F H O H E N S T A U F E N O R SUABIA (1132-1254)

...

Table of the Hohenstaufen line of kings, p. 70.

Konrad I I I . duke of Suabia (1138-1152)
Frederick I. Barbarossa (1152-1190) ...
Henry VI. the Cruel (1190-1197)
...
Philipp of Suabia (1198-1208)
Otto IV. of Brunswick (1209-1215) ...

71
74
82
84
84

70

IX

CONTENTS.
H O U S E OF HOHENSTAUFEN OR SUABIA (1132-1254)—continued,
Frederick I I . the Wonder of the World
(1215-1250)
K o n r a d I V . (1250-1254)
...
...
Minne-singers

...

...

...

...

H E N R Y O F VELDIG / . 91 ; his Duke

p. 9 1 ; Trojan
Gervais, p. 91.

PAGE
85
90
91

Ernest,

War, 91 ; Legend of St.

W A L T E R OF VOGEL-WEIDE, p. 91.
H E N R Y OF OFTERDINGEN, p. 92.
HARTMANN VON DER A U E , p. 92.

His Poor

Henry, p. 92 ; Erick, p. 93 ; Knight of the
Lion, p. 93.
WOLFRAM OF E S C H E N B A C H , / . 93; his Parzival,

p.93.
GOTTFRIED OF S T R A S B U R G , / . 9 4 ; his

Tristan,

p.94
The Alexander-lied, p. 95
The Nibelungen-lied, p. 95
The Kudrun, p. 9 6 ; The Hagen, p. 9 6 ; The
Hilde, p. 9 6 ; The Hedel, p. 97
The Heldenbuch or Book of Heroes, p. 97.
Ecclesiastical architecture ...
...
...
97
The grand dukes of Germany...
...
...
98
Chivalry ...
...
...
...
...
100
Towns
...
...
...
...
...
100
Trade Unions
...
...
...
...
101
Liberation of the Serfs
...
...
...
101
Administration of justice (The Vehmgericht) ...
102
Intellectual state of Germany
...
...
104

DIVISION II.—PART I I .
FROM THE GREAT INTERREGNUM, A.D. 1256, TO THE
REFORMATION.
PAGE

Interregnum (1256-1273)
DIVERS HOUSES (1273-1437)

106
107

Rudolf I. of Habsburg (1273-1291)

...

Men of letters

...

...

...

Adolf of Nassau (1292-1298)

...

107
113
115

CONTENTS.

X

(1273-1437)—continued.
Albert I. of Austria (1298-1308)

DIVERS HOUSES

PAGE

...

115

Henry VII. of Luxemburg (1309-1313)
Two simultaneous kaisers, viz.:—•
[Frederick the Handsome, 1314-1338]...
Ludwig V., duke of Bavaria (1314-1347)

117

Tale of William Tell,/. 116.

118
118

Battle of Morgarten,/. 120; Ulrich Boner,/. 123; Berthold Schwarz,/. 123; Walter Lollard,/. 123.

[Karl Gunther of Schwarzburg (nominally)
1347-1349]
Karl IV. of Luxemburg, the Pope's kaiser
(1347-1378)

124

The Black Death ...
Persecution of the Jews

...
...

127
129

Wenceslaus the Worthless (i378-1400)

130

...
...

...
...

124

Johann von Pomuk, / . 133.

Rupert, surnamed Klemm (1400-1410)...
Sigmund of Brandenburg (1410-1437)...

133
134

John H u s s , / . 136; Jerome of P r a g u e , / . 138; Hussite
War,/. 141; Literature,/. 144.

H O U S E OF AUSTRIA (1437-1740)

144

Albert I I . the Illustrious (1438-1439) . . .
Frederick I I I . the Pacific(1440-1493) ...

144
146

Charles the Bold of Burgundy
Prussia and Brandenburg
...
Electors of Brandenburg
...
Invention of Printing
...
Literature ...
...
...

...
...
...
...
...

148
149
153
154
155

Maximilian I. the Pennyless (1493-1519)

156

The Master-singers ...

164

...

...
...
...
...
...
...

...

Hans Sach,/. 166 ; his Children of Eve, / . 166. Skip of
Fools, by Brandt, / . 167. Thyl Oivlglass the Jester,
/ . 168. Reynard the Fox, by Alkmar, / , 169, Battle
cf the Frogs and Mice, 169.

Social and Commercial state of Germany

...

17a

Fugger,/. 171.
Domestic habits, dress, & c , ...
Gypsies,/, 172; the Jesuits,/. 172.

...

171

...

CONTENTS.

DIVISION III.—PART I.

MODERN

HISTORY.

FROM T H E REFORMATION AND REIGN O F KARL V., I
TO T H E END O F T H E HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE, 1806.
PAGE

Karl V. (1519-1556)

173

Luther and the Reformation...
Literature of the period

i75
188

Ferdinand I. (1556-1564)
Maximilian I I . (1564-1576)
Rudolf I I . (1576-1612)
Mathias (1612-1619)

192
192

i93
i93

Tycho Brahe, j>. 193; Kepler, / . 193; Galileo, #. 193;
Copernicus,/. 194; Mercator,/. 194.

F e r d i n a n d I I . (1619-1637)

...

...

194

Thirty-Years' War

...

...

198

Danish intervention, / . 198; Swedish intervention, p. 199;
French intervention, / . 202.

F e r d i n a n d I I I . (1637-1657)

...

...

203

Literature of the Reformation

...

...

205

Sebastian Munster, $. 205; Konrad von Gesner, £. 206;
John Kepler, p. 206.

Leopold I. (1658-1705)

206

Frederick-William the Great Elector

208

Joseph I. (1705-17 n )
Karl VI. (1711-1740)

216
216

Prussia (Frederick William I.)
Manners and Customs (1700-1750)
Persecution of Witches

...

218
219
221

Maria Theresa (1740-1780)

223

First Silesian War ...
Second Silesian War
Years of peace improved
Seven-years' War ...
Partition of Poland...

225
227
229
232
239

CONTENTS.
PAG2

Joseph II. till 1790

...

...

...

241

Literature of the seventeenth century...
The Silesian poets...
...
...

...
...

24I
242

Martin Opitz, / . 242; P a u l Flemming,j>. 242; Andrew
Gryph, / . 242; &c.

Authors, not poets or romancers

...

...

243

Leibnitz, / . 243; Spinoza, p. 244; Stahl, 245; &c.

Literature in the German language

First Half of the Eighteenth

...

...

246

Century ...

246

Wolf, p. 246; Thomasius, / . 246; Spener, / . 246; Gellert,
J>. 247; Gottsched, 247.

Second Half of the Eighteenth Century ...
Klopstock, / . 247; his Messiah, £. 247.
his Nathan the Wise%£. 248.

Golden Age of German Literature

247

Lessing, f, 248;

...

248

H e r d e r , £. 249; Wieland £. 249; Goethe, p. 249; his
Faust, £. 250; Schiller, ^5. 2 5 1 ; Voss, p. 2 5 1 ; Kotz e b u e , / . 2 5 1 ; R i c h t e r , / . 252; &c.

Philosophers

...

...

...

...

2$$

K a n t , p. 256; Fichte, / . 256; Schelling, / . 257; H e g e l ,
/ . 257, &c.

Musicians

...

...

...

...

260

H a n d e l / . 260; B a c h , / . 260; Gluck, p. 260; H a y d n ,
J>. 261; Mozart, p. 261, &c.

Francis II. (as kaiser 1792-1806)

...

262

Bonaparte's campaigns

...

267

...

...

DIVISION III.—PART II.
FROM THE END OF THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE, 1806, TO
THE CURRENT YEAR.
Francis I. emperor of Austria (late kaiser
Francis II.) 1806-1835

274

Fourth coalition against France
Fifth coalition against France

275
277

...
...

...
...

xiii

CONTENTS.

Napoleon's

Downfall.
PAGE

Frederick-William I I I . king of Prussia
(1797-1840)

280

Sixth coalition against France

Frederick - William IV. of
(1840-1861)
William I. of Prussia (1861-

...

...

282

Prussia
)

...

289
293

The Seven-weeks'War
...
...
The Franco-Prussian war
...
...
William I. created emperor of Germany
Literature of the Nineteenth Century...
The Romantic School
...
...
Second half of the Nineteenth Century

...
...
...
...
...
...

295
297
300
301
301
303

TABLES.
PAGE

Table 1. Charlemagne and his descendants
1.
2. The Saxon kings
3- House of Franconia
4. House of Hohenstaufen or Suabia ...
5- House of Guelf or D'Este
6. Divers Houses
7. House of Austria
8. House of Brandenburg (Hohenzollern)
9. Kings of Prussia and their wives
10. Dynastic Table of the Kaisers
11. Kings of Prussia
12. Table of the Imperial Wives ...
13. Men of Note in Literature

xiv
xiv
xv
XV

xvi
xvi
xvii
xviii
xix
xx
xxi
xxii
xxiv

xiv

PEDIGREE OF HOUSES.
TABLE

I.]

CHARLEMAGNE.
Emperor of the West 800-814,
Pepin, king of Italy 781-810.
Bernard
Carloman.
K i n g of Bavaria
876-880.

ditto

1. L U D W I G , the Debonair.
Emperor 814-840.

810-817.

L U D W I G , the German.
K i n g of Germany
840-876.

3. K A R L , the F a t .
Gisela.
K i n g of Germany 876-888.
I
King of Italy
880-888.

4. A N U L F .
K i n g of Germany 888-899.

Berengar I .
K i n g of I t a l y 888-924.

5. L U D W I G , the Child.
K i n g of Germany 899-911.

Gisela.
Berengar I I .
K i n g of I t a l y 924-966.
Dethroned by Otto.

TABLE

2.]

SAXON
(Descended

from

LINE

Ludwig,

the

German).
1. K O N R A D , of Franconia.
K i n g of Germany 911-919.

2. H E N R Y I., the Fowler.
K i n g of Germany 919-936.
TT
(Tankmar.)
OTT O I., the Great.
King of Germany 936-973.
Emperor
961-973.

Henry,
Bruno,
a b p . of Cologne. dk. of Bavaria.

3

daughters.

O T T O I I . , the R e d K i n g .
King and emp.
973-983.
. O T T O I I I . , the Wonder of the World.
K i n g of Germany 983-1002.
Emperor
996-1002

H e n r y , t h e Quarrelsome.
Died 995.
6. H E N R Y I I . , S a i n t ; Lame.
D u k e of Bavaria, 995.
King of Germany 1002-1024.
Emperor
1014-1024.

PEDIGREE OF HOUSES.—TABLES 3, .4.
TABLE

XV

;.)

HOUSE OF

FRANCONIA.

1. K O N R A D I I . , the Salic, d u k e of Franconia.
King of Germany 1024-1039.
Emperor
1027-1039.
2. H E N R Y I I I . , the Black King.
J o i n t king of Germany 1026-1039.
Sole
,,
,,
1039-1056.
Emperor
1046-1056.
3. H E N R Y IV., the Great.
K i n g of Germany 1056-1106.
Emperor
1084-1106.

j

r

Konrad.
4. H E N R Y V., the Parricide.
Rebels and dies 1101.
J o i n t king of Germany 1099-1106.
Sole
,,
„
1106-1125.
Emperor
1111-1125.

Agnes,
&c.
marries
Frederick duke of Suabia.

5. L O T H A R I I . K i n g of Germany 1125-1137.
H i s daughter, Richenza, marries H e n r y , t h e P r o u d (see Table 5).
(Last descendants 0/ Henry% the Fowler.)

TABLE

4.]

HOUSE OF H O H E N S T A U F E N

OR SUABIA.

Frederick, of Hohenstaufen, d u k e of Suabia, married Agnes, d. of H e n r y I V . (v. Table 3).
, KONRAD III.
K i n g of Germany 1138-1152.
(Never
emperor.)

Frederick, duke of Suabia.
2. F R E D E R I C K I., Barbarossa (nephew of Konrad).
King of Germany 1152-1190.
Emperor
1155-1190.

I

3 . H E N R Y V I . , the Cruel.
K i n g of Germany 1190-1197.
Emperor
1191-1197.
*|
'
6. F R E D E R I C K I I . , the W o n d e r of the World.
K i n g of the T w o Sicilies 1198-1250.
K i n g of Germany
1215-1250.
Emperor
X220-1250.
7. K O N R A D I V .
King of Germany 1250-1254.
(Never emperor.)

I

4. P H I L I P P , duke of Suabia.
King of Germany 1198-1208
(Never emperor.)
N . B . — T h e next king of
Germany
was Otto IV, (Table 5).

XVI

PEDIGREE OF HOUSES.—TABLES 5 , 6.

TABLES]

HOUSE OF GUELF OR

D'ESTE.

(This table is contemporary ivith Table 4..)
Guelf I., duke of Bavaria 1071-1101.
H e n r y , the Black.
H e n r y , the Proud,
married Richenza,
daughter of Lothar II,
(See Table 3.)
H e n r y , the Lion.

I

Guelf I I .
(root of the Guelf faction).

Agnes,
married Frederick,
duke of Suabia.
(The mother of Barbarossa.)
See Table 4.

5. O T T O IV. (See Table 4.)
King of Germany 1209-1215.
Abdicated. Died
1218,
(Our reigning family

TABLE

is descended from

this

DIVERS

6.]

1. R U D O L F I., of H a b s b u r g .
King of Germany 1273-1291.
(Never emperor.)

line.)

HOUSES.
Count Waleran of Luxemburg
*
(12th cent.).

A D O L F , of Nassau.
King of Germany
1292-1298.

3. A L B E R T I., duke of Austria.
K i n g of Germany 1298-1308.

4. H E N R Y V I I . , of Luxemburg.
King of Germany 1309-1313.
Emperor
1312-1313.
J o h n , married the queendowager of Bohemia.

[ F R E D E R I C K , the H a n d some].
Nominal king of Germany
I3H-I338.

J o h n , slain at Crecy 1346.
T h e blind king of Bohemia.
. L U D W I G , dk. of Bavaria
(descended from Matilda,
daughter of Rudolf).*
King of Germany 1314-1347.

* * * *
. GUNTHER,ofSchwarzburg,
King of Germany 1347-1349.
7. K A R L IV., the Pope's Kaiser
( D u k e of Luxemburg).
K i n g of Germany 1349-1378.
Emperor
1355-1378.

I

SIGMUND
8. W E N C E S L A U S ,
K . of Germany
the Worthless.
1414-1437.
K i n g of Bohemia
E m p . 1433-1439.
1367-1419.
K i n g of Germany
& emp. 1378-1400.
(See Rupert)
. RUPERT, "Klemm"
Elizabeth,
(descended from Matilda,
who married
d. of Rudolf.) *
Albert I I .
(See Table 7.)
K i n g of Germany 1400-1410.
(Never emperor.)
( * Not Rudolf the king and kaiser, t>ut his second son, who had six daughters.)

PEDIGREE

TABLK

OF

HOUSES.—TABLE

7.

XVU

7.3

HOUSE OF

AUSTRIA.

Albert I I I . , d u k e of Austria.
Albert I V . , duke of Austria.

Ernest, duke of Carinthia.

1. A L B E R T I I . ,
married Elizabeth, d a u g h t e r of Sigmund (see Table 6).
Emperor 1438-1439.

Ernest (cousin of Albert I I . )

Albert, the Prodigal.
T h e first archduke of Austria,

2. F R E D E R I C K I I I .
Emperor 1440-1493.
3. M A X I M I L I A N , t h e P e n n y l e s s .
Emperor 1493-1519.
Philipp, the H a n d s o m e ,
archduke of Austria.

I
K A R L V. Born 1500.
K i n g of Spain 1516.
K i n g of Germany 1519.
Emperor 1530.
Abdicates 1556. Dies 1558.

5. F E R D I N A N D I .
Emperor 1556-1564.

Philip^
who marries
queen M a r y of England
in 1554Charles duke of Styria.

MAXIMILIAN II.
Emperor 1564-1576.
7. R U D O L F I I .
E m p . 1576-1612.

9. F E R D I N A N D I I .
Emperor 1619-1637.

MATHIAS.
Emp. 1612-1619.

to. F E R D I N A N D I I I .
Emperor 1637-1657.
11. L E O P O L D I .
Emperor 1657-1705.
Marie Antoinette,
marries the elector of Bavaria.
14. K A R L , elector of Bavaria,

12. J O S E P H I .
Emp. 1705-1711.
Maria Amelia,

calls himself Karl V I I .

w h o marries Karl,

E m p . 1742-1743.

elector of Bavaria.

13. K A R L V I . (king of Spain).
Emp. 1711-1740.
MARIA THERESA,
heiress of the Estates of Austria.
Kaiserin 1740-1780.
. marries Francis, duke
of Lorraine, 1736, who is
15. F R A N C I S I .
Emperor 1745-1765.

b 2

XVlii

PEDIGREE

OF

HOUSES.

TABLES

7,

8.

HOUSE OF AUSTRIA—continued.
MARIA T H E R E S A AND F R A N C I S .

I
16. J O S E P H I I .
17. L E O P O L D I I .
M a r y Caroline, Ferdinand.
Marie Antoinette,
E m p . 1765-1790.
E m p . 1790-1792. mar. Ferdinand
I
marries Louis X V I .
I
IV. of Sicily.
|
of France.
18. F R A N C I S I I .
Francis.
Emperor 1792-1804.
I
Called Francis I . E m p . of Austria,
1804-1835.
I
#
Maria Theresa,

I

marries the comte de Chambord.

i

i

Marie Louise,
marries Napoleon I., 1810.

Giselda, born 1856.

TABLE

i

1

19. F E R D I N A N D .
Francis.
3 daughters,
E m p . of Austria 1835.
Abdicates 1848. Dies 1850.
20. F R A N C I S J O S E P H .
Emperor of Austria 1848.
Rudolf, born 1858.
married in 1881,
Stephanie of Belgium.

Valerie, born 1868.

8.]

HOHENZOLLERN.

H O U S E OF

BRANDENBURG.

F R E D E R I C K I.
Elector of Brandenburg 1417-1440.

I

I

J o h n , the Alchemist.
D i e d 1464.

FREDERICK II.
Elector 1440-1470.

I
A L B E R T , the Achilles a n d Ulysses.
Elector 1470-1487.

J O H N , the Cicero.
Elector 1487-1499.

Frederick,
&c.

J O A C H I M I., the Nestor.
Elector 1499-1534.
JOACHIM II.
Elector 1534-1571.
J O H N GEORGE.
Elector 1571-1598.
JOACHIM FREDERICK.
Elector 1598-1608.
JOHN SIGISMUND.
Elector 1608.
D u k e of Prussia 1618-1619.
GEORGE WILLIAM.
D u k e of Prussia and elector 1610-1640.

I
I

F R E D E R I C K W I L L I A M , the Great Elector.
His son F R E D E R I C K , the first king of Prussia.
(See Table 9.)

1640-1688.

PEDIGREE OF HOUSES.—TABLE 9.
TABLK

XIX

0.1

KINGS

OF

PRUSSIA.

1. F R E D E R I C K I .
Son of Frederick-William, the Great Elector of Brandenburg, and
Louisa Henrietta, princess of O r a n g e .
Born 1657.
Elector of Brandenburg 1688-1701.
King of Prussia
1701-1713.
Wives, (1) Elizabeth Henrietta, of Hessen-Cassel, m. 1679, d. 1683.
(2) Sophia Charlotte of Hanover, m . 1684, mother of Frederick-William.
2. F R E D E R I C K - W I L L I A M I.
Born 1688.
King of Prussia 1713-1740.
Wife, Sophia Dorothea, of Hanover, m. 1706.

1

F R E D E R I C K I I . , the Great.
Born 1712.
King of Prussia 1740-1786.
(No
offspring.)

Augustus William,
marries Louisa Amelia
of Brunswick.

4. F R E D E R I C K - W I L L I A M I I . (nephew).
Born 1744.
King of Prussia 1786-1797.
Wives, (1) Elizabeth Christina, of Brunswick Wolfenbuttel,
married 1765, divorced 1769.
(2) Frederica Louisa, of Hessen Darmstadt, m . 1760.

Frederica
Sophia,
married William V .
of Holland.

5. F R E D E R I C K - W I L L I A M I I I .
Born 1770.
K i n g of Prussia 1797-1840.
Wives, (1) Louisa Augusta, of Mecklenburg Strelitz,
married 1793, died 1810. (2nd wife, A u g u s t a of Liegnitz.)
7. W I L L I A M I.
And 5 others.*
6. F R E D E R I C K - W I L L I A M I V .
Born 1795.
Born 1797.
King of Prussia 1840-1861.
Regent 1858-1861.
King of Prussia 1861.
(Regencyfrom
1858.)
E m p . of Germany 1871.
Wife, Princess Elizabeth Louisa, of Bavaria,
Wife, Maria Louisa Augusta
married 1823.
Caroline, d. of K a r l Frederick,
grand-duke of Saxe Weimar.
Frederick William Nicholas.
Born 1831.
Wife, Victoria, princess royal, d. of
queen Victoria of Gt. Britain, m. 18

Louisa Maria Elizabeth, born 1838,
married Sept. 20, 1856, to
the grand-duke of Baden.

• Charlotte, born 1798, married the czar Nicholas I. of Russia.
Frederick Karl Alexander, bora 1801, married Louisa Alexandrina of Saxe Weimar. Issue, Frederick Karl
Nicholas, born 1820 ; Mary Louisa Ann, born 1829 ; Mary Anne Fredreca, born 1836.
Alexandrina, born 1803.
Louisa, born 1808, married prince Frederick of Holland.
Albert, born 1809, married Wilhelmina Frederica, daughter of William I. of Holland.

XX

T A B L E TO.]

DYNASTIC
AGE

DATE

TABLES.

OF REIGN,

D A Y OF D E A T H .
c

Born.

NAME.

Reigned.

bO
J

tf

bO
J

<

D a t e of
I D a y of death. Month.

lYRS. YRS.I
KONRAD

I..

Wednesday

7

Dec. 23

Saturday . .

July 2
Aug. *
Dec. 7
J a n . 23
J u l y 14

SAXON DYNASTY.
H E N R Y I . , the Fowler

..

O T T O I . , the G r e a t ; the Lion . .
O T T O I I . , the R e d K i n g

IO

60
6l
28

19

22

22

52

Friday
Friday
Tuesday . .

15
*7
49
19

55
39
56
44

Tuesday . .
Saturday..

June 4
Sept. *
Ug 7
£ra y*23
M

12

62
59
69

Dec. 4
Feb. 15
J u n e 10
Sept. 28
J u n e 23
M a y 19]
Dec. 10
M a y 27

918- 936
936- 973
973- 983
983-1002
1002-1024

18
37

984
1017
1050
1081

1024-1039
1039-1056
1056-1106
1106-1125

1075
1093
1121
1165
1178
1172

1125-1137
1138-1152
1152-1190
1190-1197
1197-1208
1209-1215
(died 1218)
1215-1250
1250-1254

876
912
955

O T T O I I I . , Wonder of the World
H E N R Y I I . , the Saint; the L a m e

HOUSE OF FRANCONIA.
K O N R A D I I . , t h e Salic

..

H E N R Y I I I . , the Black King . .
H E N R Y I V . , the G r e a t
H E N R Y V., the Parricide

Monday . .

HOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN,
or SUABIA.
L O T H A R I I . , duke of Saxony
K O N R A D I I I . , duke of Suabia
F R E D E R I C K I . , Barbarossa
H E N R Y V I . , t h e Cruel . .
PHILIPP
..
..
..
[ O T T O I V . , of Brunswick

F R E D E R I C K I I . , Wonder of the World
KONRAD IV

11

32
30

6

43

Saturday
Sunday
Sunday
Sunday
Monday
Saturday

35
4

44
26

Tuesday . .
Wednesday

1273-1291
129:

18
6

74
46

-1308
1309- -1313
* 1314- -133°
1314- -1347
1287
1347' -1349
i3°4
1347- -1378
1316
1378- -1400
1357
(died 1419)
1352
1400- -1410
1368
1410 -1437

10

60 j

1194
1228

14
33
7

INTERREGNUM.
DIVERS HOUSES.
R U D O L F I . , of H a b s b u r g
A D O L F , of N a s s a u
A L B E R T L , of Austria . .
H E N R Y V I I . , of L u x e m b u r g
[ F R E D E R I C K , of Austria . .
L U D W I G V., of Bavaria . .
[ G U N T H E R , of Schwarzburg
K A R L I V . , of L u x e m b u r g
W E N C E S L A U S , of Bohemia

R U P E R T , called Klemm, palatine
S I G M U N D , margraf of Brandenburg

1252
1248
1263

4
33
2

3i
22
10

27

Sunday . .
Wednesday
Wednesday
So F r i d a y
Saturday . .
60 j T h u r s d a y . .
45 Sunday . .
62 j Monday . .
62 Wednesday

*

58
69

Sunday . .
Monday . .

J u l y 15
July 2
May 1
Aug. 24
J a n . 13]
Oct. 11
J u n e 14}
Nov. 29
A u g . \6
M a y 18
Dec. 9

DYNASTIC

AGE,

TABLES.—10,

II.

DATE OF R E I G N , DAY OF DEATW-continued
c

Born.

NAME.

Reigned.

bO
J

C<

HOUSE OF AUSTRIA (Habsburgers).

D a y of death. D a t e of
Month.

YRS. YRS.

A L B E R T I L , of A u s t r i a
F R E D E R I C K I I I . , of Austria
..
M A X I M I L I A N I . , the Pennyless
KARL V

1394
H*5
1459

FERDINAND I
MAXIMILIAN II. . .
RUDOLF II.
MATHIAS
FERDINAND II.
..
FERDINAND III
LEOPOLD I.
JOSEPH I
K A R L VI

1503
1525
1552
1556
1578
1608
1640
1676
1683

K A R L V I I . , of Bavaria.
in name.

W
>

<

1500

1438-1439
1440-1493
I493-I5I9
1519-1556
(died 1558)
1556-1564
1564-1576
1576-1612
1612-1619
1619-1637
1637-1657
1658-1705
1705-1711
1711-1740

Tuesday . .
Monday . .
Wednesday
Wednesday

Oct. 27
Aug. 19
J a n . 12
Sept. 21

57

Saturday .
Friday
Thursday.
Sunday .
Sunday .
Monday .
Wednesday
Friday
Wednesday

J u l y 15
Oct. 12
J a n . 30
Mar. 10
Feb. 15
April 2
May 6
April 17
Oct. 26

63

Sunday

.

O c t . 29

49
45

Saturday .
Friday

Feb. 20
March

67

Monday
Tuesday

March
Nov. 5

1+ 45

53

78

26

60

37
8
12

36
7
18
12

47
6
29

58
61

^I

60

63
59
49
65
35

Kaiser only

M A R I A - T H E R E S A , kaiserin
JOSEPH II

1717
1741
alone

LEOPOLD I I .
( FRANCIS II

1747
1768

(.as F R A N C I S I . , emperor of Austria . .
F E R D I N A N D , emperor of Austria

1781

F R A N C I S J O S E P H , emperor of A u s t r i a . .

1830
1858

Heir apparent R U D O L F .

1740-1780)
1763-17805 4 0
1780-1790
Total . . 3 7
1790-1792
2
1792-1804
1804-1835
Total . . 4 3
1835-1848 13
(died 1850)
1848-

09

NAME.

FREDERICK. I . , Elector of Brandenburg
King of Prussia

Born.

1657

Reigned.

1688-1701
1701-1713

Total
F R E D E R I C K - W I L L I A M I . , K g . of Prussia

F R E D E R I C K I I . , t h e Great, K g . of Prussia
F R E D E R I C K - W I L L I A M I I . , K g . of Prussia
F R E D E R I C K - W I L L I A M I I I . , K . of Prussia
F R E D E R I C K - W I L L I A M I V . , K. of P r u s s i a

W I L L I A M I . , King of Prussia . .
H e i r apparent F R E D E R I C K - W I L L I A M .

1688
1712
1744
1770
1795
1797
1831

..

1713-1740
1740-1786
1786-1797
1797-1840
1840-1861
1861-

Reign.

KINGS OF PRUSSIA.

TABLE H . ]

<

D a y of death. D a t e of
Month.

YRS. YRS.
25
27

56

46
11

74
53

43
21

66

52

70

Saturday . .
Tuesday . .
Thursday..
Thursday..
Sunday . .
Monday . .

Feb. 25
M a y 31
Aug. 17
Nov. 16
June 7
J a n . 21

Henry
in German Heinrich = Hine-rik.
Frederick
Friedrich = Freed-rik.
Rupert
Ruprecht.
Albert
Albrecht.
Francis
Franz.
T h e German word Karl is retained because it adapts itself very well t o our language, a n d
forms a distinction between the German monarchs a n d those of England, France, Spain,
Sweden, Italy, &c. 'rich is pronounced something between -rik a n d -reesh.

M.]

TABLE OF THE IMPERIAL WIVES.
HENRY I
OTTO I

OTTO II

Matilda, mother of kaiser O t t o I . , a n d grandmother of kaiser
Henry I I .
i . E a d g y t h , daughter of E d w a r d the Elder, grand-daughter of Alfred
the Great, and mother of kaiser O t t o I I . Died 947.
2. Adelaide of Lombardy, 952
Theophania, daughter of the emperor of the East.
Otto I I I .

OTTO III

M a r y of Aragon.

HENRY II

Cunegunda.

KONRAD II
HENRY III
H E N R Y IV
H E N R Y V.

LOTHAR II

Mother of kaiser

N o offspring.

N o offspring.

Gisela, heiress of Burgundy, and mother of kaiser H e n r y I I I .
1. Gunhilda, d a u g h t e r of Canute the Great. Died 1038.
2. Agnes of Poitou, 1043. Mother of kaiser H e n r y I V .
1. Bertha, mother of kaiser H e n r y V., and of Frederick of Hohenstaufen,
from whom comes kaiser Konrad I I I . She died 1088.
2. Princess P r a x e d e (Adelaide) of Russia, 1089.
M a u d or Matilda, daughter of H e n r y I . of E n g l a n d . B y her second
husband she becomes mother of H e n r y I I . (Plantagenet of
England). I t was this M a u d who was called the " L a d y of
E n g l a n d , " a n d who made war on Stephen. N o child b y kaiser
H e n r y V.
Richenza, heiress of Heinrich the F a t of Saxony, last descendant
of kaiser H e n r y I., called T h e Fowler.

KONRAD III

FREDERICK 1

1. Adelaide, repudiated 1153.
2. Beatrice, heiress of Burgundy, T156, mother of kaiser H e n r y V I .
and of kaiser Philipp. Died 1185.

H E N R Y VI

Constance, heiress of Sicily, mother of kaiser Frederick I I .

PHILIPP

Irene Angela, widow of Roger of Sicily, mother of Beatrice.

O T T O IV
Beatrice, daughter of kaiser Philipp.
F R E D E R I C K I I . . . 1 . Constance of Aragon. married 1209, died 1212.
2. Yolande or Iolanthe, daughter of the king of Jerusalem, married
1225, died 1228.
3. Isabella, daughter of H e n r y I I I . of England, married 1235, died
1241.
K O N R A D IV

RUDOLF 1

ADOLF
ALBERT I
HENRY VII
LUDWIG V

1. Gertrude of Hohenberg, married 1245, died 1281. M o t h e r of kaiser
Albert I .
2. Elizabeth of Burgundy, 1284.
I m a g i n a of Limburg.
Elizabeth of Carinthia.
M a r g a r e t of Brabant, mother of J o h n king of Bohemia.
M a r g a r e t of Holland.

GUNTHER

K A R L IV

1. Anne, heiress of the U p p e r Palatinate.
2. Anne^ heiress of Silesia, mother of kaiser Wenceslaus a n d kaiser
Sigmund.

IMPERIAL

WIVES.—TABLE

12.

xxiii

W E N C E S L A U S . . . . I . J o a n of Holland, murdered b y his dog 1388.
2. Sophia of Bavaria, married 1389.
RUPERT
SIGMUND

Elizabeth of Niirnberg.
1. Mary, heiress of H u n g a r y , mother of Elizabeth, who married kaiser
Albert I I . Married 1386, died 1392.
2. Barbara of Cilley, the " Messalina of G e r m a n y . "
ALBERT II.
Elizabeth, daughter of Sigmund.
FREDERICK I I I . . .
Eleanora of Portugal, married 1452, died 1467. M o t h e r of kaiser
Maximilian I .
M A X I M I L I A N I . . . 1 . Marie, heiress of Burgundy, married 1477, died 1482. Mother of
Philipp, and grandmother of kaiser Karl V. a n d kaiser Ferdinand I .
2. Bianca Maria, widow of the duke of Savoy, and niece of Ludovico
Maria Sforza, " the More." Married 1494.
K A R L V.
Infanta Isabella of Portugal, mother of Phillip (who married M a r y
queen of England, and afterwards was Phillip I I . of Spain), a n d
of Mary, who married kaiser Maximilian I I .
FERDINAND I. ..
MAXIMILIAN I I . . .

Anne Jagellon of Bohemia.
Mary, daughter of kaiser Karl V. Mother of Anne, who married
Phillip I I . of Spain, the widower ; and of Elizabeth, who married
Charles I X . of France.

RUDOLF II

MATHIAS
FERDINAND II.

Anne of Austria, married 1611, died 1618. N o offspring.
..

F E R D I N A N D I I I . . . 1. M a r y Anne of Spain. Married 1631, died 1646. M o t h e r of kaiser
Leopold.
2. M a r y Leopoldina of Austria, married 1648, died 1649.
3. Eleanora of Mantua, 1651, survived him.
LEOPOLD 1
1. Margaret-Theresa of Spain, married 1666, died 1673.
2. Claude Felicite of Innspriick, married 1673, died 1676.
3. Eleonore Anne of N e u b u r g , 1676. Mother of the kaisers Joseph I .
and Karl V I .
JOSEPH I
Wilhelmina Amelia of Hanover.
Mother of Maria Amelia, w h o
married Karl Albert, afterwards kaiser Albert V I . , and of Marie
Antoinette, who married the elector of Bavaria, whose son was
kaiser Karl V I I .
KARL VI
Elizabeth Christina. Mother of kaiserin Maria-Theresa.
KARL VII
Maria Amelia, daughter of kaiser Joseph I .
/ " M A R I A - T H E R E S A , kaiserin, her husband (duke of Lorraine) was called kaiser F R A N C I S I .
J
She was the mother of kaiser Joseph I I . , kaiser Leopold I I . , and
f
Marie Antoinette, t h e unhappy wife of Louis X V I . of France.
VJOSEPH I I
1. Maria Isabella of P a r m a , married 1760, died 1763.
2. Maria Josephine of Bavaria, 1765.
LEOPOLD II
T h e infanta Maria Louisa. Mother of kaiser Francis I I . (afterwards
Francis I., emperor of Austria), and of Ferdinand I . , emperor of
Austria.
F R A N C I S I I . of Germany (afterwards Francis I . , emperor of Austria), married—
1. Elizabeth ofWurtemberg, married 1788, died 1790.
2. Maria Theresa of the two Sicilies, married 1790, died 1807. M o t h e r
of Maria Louisa, who married Napoleon I .
3. Maria Louisa of Austria, married 1808, died 1816.
4. Charlotte Augusta of Bavaria, 1816.
(Maria Louisa, daughter of Francis II. and his second ,wifel was born l7QTt
married Napoleon j8iot and died 1S47.)
F E R D I N A N D , emperor of Austria.
F R A N C I S - J O S E P H , emperor of Austria, married Elizabeth of Bavaria.
[For the kings of Prussia

see Table <?.]

xxiv

TABLE 13.]

MEN OF NOTE IN LITERATURE.
GERMAN LITERATURE.
I first arranged this table in strict chronological order, century by century\ butfound the
difficulty of finding any name required so tedious that I ultimately adopted the alphabetical
order. The former, no doubt, has its advantages, but those who require them can easily
rearrange any century for themselves.
A.D. 4OO.

ULFILAS, p. 29, apostle of the Goths. Translated the Gospels into McesoGothic, using for the purpose the Greek characters. His book is called
the Silver Code.
A.D. 500.

JORDAN us, bishop of Ravenna, historian. Wrote in Latin a History of the
Goths, and Creation; both are extant; died about 580.
A.D. 700.
The Hymn of Hildebrand, p. 29. It is alliterative.
The Wessobrunn Prayer, p. 29. It is alliterative.
The Volsungasage, a legend about Volsunga who loved Sigurd,—was deceived by him, slew
him, and then killed herself.
Walther of Aquitaine. Walther and Hildegonda flee to the camp of Attila, where they are
held as hostages, but being afterwards liberated, they marry. The tale is full of adventures met with on the way, combats, quarrels, misunderstandings, and such like.
A.D. 800.
The Muspelheim, p. 29.
The Heliand, p. 29.
The Ludwig-Lay, or triumphal song of Louis III., p. 29.
Charlemagne causes the bardic songs, the homilies, and the laws to be compiled.

ALCUIN, pp. 23, 24, an Anglo-Saxon, invited over to the Court of Charle-

magne; 737-804.
EGINHARD, p. 18, secretary of the great king. Wrote in Latin the Life of
Charlemagne, one of the best biographies ever written. He married
Imma, the king's daughter; 771-839.
NITGARD, Charlemagne's grandson.

Wrote in Latin a History of the

dissensions of the sons of Louis le Debonnaire ; 790-858.
OTFRIED, p. 29, an Alsatian monk.

Wrote in German the Evangelists'

Book, and a rhyming metrical Life of Christ. This is one of the most
precious relics of the middle ages, being the earliest German poem in
rhyme; died 870.
PAUL WARNEFRIED (called Paulus Diaconus), secretary of Didier, king of

Lombardy, and invited to the court of Charlemagne. Wrote in Latin
the famous hymn Ut queant laxis, p. 53 ; a History of the Lombards, in
six books ; and a History of the Goths; 740-799.

MEN OF NOTE IN LITERATURE.—TABLE 13.

XXV

RABAN MAUR, abbot of Fulda, and afterwards archbishop of Mainz. Wrote
in Latin the famous hymn Veni Creator, sung in the Anglican church in
" the Ordering of Priests "-—
" Come, H o l y Ghost, our souls inspire,
And lighten with celestial fire."

He wrote several other works, as The Origin of Languages; Etymology,
&c; 776-856.
A.D.

90O.

L I T E R A T U R E I N C L I N E S T O T H E CLASSIC MODELS.

HROSVITA, p . 43, a nun. Wrote in Latin comedies, poems, & c ; died 980.
LUITPRAND of Lombardy. Wrote in Latin a History of Germany, from 862
to 964; 920-972.
NOTKER, the Stammerer, monk of St. Gall, in Switzerland. Translated The
Psalms into German; 830-912.
REGINON, abbot of Prum, in Prussia, historian. Wrote in Latin a Chronicle
to the year 907 ; 892-915.
TUTILO, a monk of St. Gall, in Switzerland; painter, statuary, poet, and
musician; died 909.
W I T I K I N D of Westphalia, historian. Wrote in Latin Annals of Otto, the
Great; 963.
A.D. 1 0 0 0 .
The Ruod-lieb, p . 47, a poem b y Tegern. A Bavarian monk, Guido d'Arezzo, p . 53, invents
the musical scale. See PAUL. W A R N E F R I E D , under A . D . 800.

ABBAT of Stade, in Hanover, historian. Wrote in Latin Chronicles.
ADAM of Bremen, p. 56, historian. Wrote in Latin a History of the
churches of Bremen and Hamburg; died 1076.
BURCHARD, p. 47, tutor of kaiser Konrad, the Salic; compiled a volume of
canons of such authority, that any sentence it gave was beyond appeal.
Hence to burchardise meant to speak ex cathedra, to speak dictatorially ;
died 1026.

DITHMAR, p. 47, of Merseburg, historian. Wrote in Latin a History of the
Saxon emperors of Germany, in eight books ; died 1018.
HERBERT, bishop of Eichstadt, in Bavaria; poet and theologian.
HERMANN the Cripple, p. 56. Wrote in Latin a Chronicle of the Six Ages
of the World to the year 1053, it was continued to 1100 by Bertholde;
1013-1054.
LAMBERT of Aschaffenburg, p. 64, historian. Wrote in Latin a Universa1
History from Creation to the year 1050, and a History of Germany from
IOJO to Joj7;

1020-1100.

NOTKER, bishop of Liege, historian. Wrote in Latin a History of the
Bishops of Liege ; died 1008.
WETIKNIG, monk of Westphalia, historian. Wrote a History of the times.
WILLERAM of Bavaria. Wrote in the Frankic dialect a Paraphrase of
Solomon's Song.
WiPPON, p. 50, almoner of kaiser Henry III., historian.

XXVI

MEN OF NOTE IN

LITERATURE.—TABLE 13.
A.D.

IIOO.

T h e Minnesingers, p p . 91-97, from 1150 to 1250.
Miracle plays. T h e Feudal Laws compiled.
T h e First Crusade, pp. 65, 67. Blazonry by heralds.
King Rother^ a legendary poem both in Latin and German. King Rother of Apulia demands
in marriage the daughter of Constantine. T h e emperor throws the envoys into prison,
and Rother, under the name of Dietrich, steals away the lady and liberates his envoys.
A minstrel carries back the lady to Constantinople, but Rother with an army of giants
again carries her off a n d kills the emperor.

ANONYMOUS.—The Anno-lied, a poetical legend so called from Anno, archbishop of Cologne. It is as strange a jumble of chronology as the
Orlando Furioso of Ariosto. It begins with Creation and the Fall of
Man, runs off to the battle of Pharsalia between Pompey and Cassar, then
to the introduction of Christianity among the Franks (called the descendants of the Trojan race), the foundation of Cologne cathedral, the
civil wars in the reign of kaiser Henry IV., and ends with a eulogy of
Anno, the thirty-second archbishop of Cologne.
ANSELM (St.), philosopher and theologian; 1033-1109.
BRUNO (St.) of Cologne, p. 63, founder of the Carthusian order of monks.
Wrote in Latin Commentaries on the Psalms and on the Pauline Epistles;
1030-1101.

GODFREY of Viterbo, p. 84, secretary of Konrad III., Frederick Barbarossa,
and Henry IV.; historian. Wrote in Latin the Pantheon, a chronicle
from creation to the year 1186; 1105-1191.
HELMOLDE of Butzow, Mecklenburg, historian. Wrote in Latin a History of
the Slavs, continued to the year 1209 by Arnold of Liibeck; died 1170.
HENRY of Veldig, p. 91, a Minnesinger.
HILDEGARDA (St.), abbess of Rupert, Mainz; famous for her visions, an
account of which she wrote by order of the pope; 1098-1178.
KONRAD, a monk in the service of Henry the Lion, wrote a legendary poem
called Rolands-lied, the most ancient of all the stories of the great
paladin. The poet says that an angel appeared to Charlemagne commanding him to lead an army into Spain, to convert the Moors to
Christianity. After many battles and sieges, the pagans craved peace,
and Charlemagne sent Ganelon to arrange the terms thereof. Ganelon,
the Judas of the twelve paladins, betrayed his master for filthy lucre,
professed to have made terms, and persuaded Charlemagne to return, as
his mission was accomplished. Charlemagne accordingly returns at the
head of the main army, leaving his nephew Roland to bring up the rear.
Roland was attacked in the Pyrenees by an army of Moors, and was
slain with his friend Oliver. Charlemagne heard the blast of his ivory
horn and hastened to the rescue, cut to pieces the Moors, but was too late
to save his paladins and the army under them. Marching in his fury to
Spain, he took Saragossa, the capital, and put the king to the sword.
The poem ends with the funeral rites, like the Iliad of Homer. As for
Ganelon, when he got back to Aix-la-Chapelle he was torn to pieces by
wild horses.
T h e r e is another Rolands-lied b y Strieker (13th cent.), and of course the French
tale by the hypothetical Turpin bishop of Rheims, probably by a canon of Barcelona.

KOSMOS of Prague, historian.

Wrote in Latin a History of Bohemia; 1045-

1126.

NORBERT (St.) of Westphalia, p. 64.
order of monks.

Founder of the Premonstretensian

MEN OF NOTE IN LITERATURE.

TABLE 13.

XXvii

OTTO, bishop of Freisengen, p. 74, historian. Wrote in Latin a Chronicle
from Creation to the year 1146, in seven books. The last three, being
contemporary history, are very valuable. He also wrote a Life of
Frederick (Barbarossa), which was continued by Radevic; died 1158.
SIGEBERT, a Belgian monk, historian. Wrote in Latin Chronicles from 381
to 1112; 1030-1112.

SOLTH, p. 56, historian. Wrote a History of kaiser Henry IV.
WERNHER of Niederheim, poet. Wrote a poetical legend about the healing
of Titus by St. Veronica. Veronica is supposed to possess a handkerchief with which Jesus wiped his face on his way to Calvary, and in so
doing left on the handkerchief his photograph. Veronica displayed this
handkerchief in the sight of the emperor Titus, who was suffering from
some incurable disease, and instantly he was "made whole."
WERNHER of Tegern-See, in Bavaria, poet. Wrote an Elegy on the Virgin
Mary.
A.D. 1200.
GOLDEN PERIOD OF THE MINNESINGERS.
The
The
The
The

Nibelungen-lied, called the " German Iliad." Author unknown; p. 05.
Kudrun, in three parts, called the " German Odyssey." Author unknown; p. 96.
Alexander-lied, p. 95. The Book of Heroes, p. 97.
Saxon Mirror^ p. 102; a digest of the Saxon laws compiled by Epko of Repgow, in
1240.
The Suabian Mirror, p. 102 n.; a digest of the Suabian laws compiled by the counts of
Grunmenstein; about 1260.
N.B.—Public records were first kept in German in this century.

ALBERT the Great (Albertus Magnus), p. 113, abbot of Stade, in Hanover,
naturalist; promotes the study of Aristotle; 1193-1280.
ARNOLD of Liibeck, wrote a continuation of Helmolde's Chronicle of the
Slavs, bringing it down to the year 1209; died about 1212. (See above,
HELMOLDE, A.D. IIOO.)

BENNON a German cardinal. Wrote in Latin a Life of Gregory VII.
CHRISTIAN, archbishop of Mainz. Wrote in Latin a History of Mainz.
D A V I D SCOTUS of Wiirzburg, historian.

FREDERICK I I . , p . 86. Wrote in Latin On tne Art of Hunting, one of the
t best treatises on the subject ever written; 1196-1250.
GONTHIER, p. 82, Ligurian poet. Wrote in Latin a poem called Lugurtnus,
an heroic poem having Frederick Barbarossa for its hero; died 1213.
GOTTFRIED of Strasburg, p. 94, a minnesinger.
HARTMANN VON DER AUE, p. 92, a minnesinger (1170-1218).
HENRY of Ofterdingen, p. 92, a minnesinger (13th cent.)
KONRAD of Lichtenau, historian. Wrote in Latin a History of Ursperg, on
the Danube; died 1241.
KONRAD of Wiirzburg, poet. Wrote a kind of epic on the Trojan War.
This poem is also attributed to Walter von Vogelweide, see p. 9 1 ;
Konrad died 1280.
MARTIN of Poland (Martin Polonus, whose name was Martin Strzebski),
p. 113, historian. Wrote in Latin a History of the Popes and Emperors,
to the year 1277.
This history is noteworthy, in that it is the first to
give a full and particular account of "pope Joan," the female pontiff;
died 1278.

XXviil

MEN OF NOTE IN LITERATURE.

TABLE 1 3 .

RADEVIK, p. 74. Wrote in Latin a continuation of Otto's Life of Frederick
(Barbarossa).

See above, OTTO, A.D. IIOO.

ROBERT of Auxerre, a monk, historian. Wrote in Latin Chronicles from
Creation. It goes down to the year 1212, and is certainly one of the best
of these Chronicles; died 1212.
RUDOLF of Munster, historian.
SCHONHUTH, p. 107, historian. Wrote in Latin a History and Life of Kaiser
Rudolf of Habsburg,
SEMECA (John). Wrote Notes on the Canon Law; died 1248.
STRICKER, poet, author of the Rolands-lied.

See KONRAD, A.D. IIOO.

WALTER of Vogelweide, p. 91, a minnesinger.
WOLFRAM of Eschenbach, p. 93, a minnesinger.
In this century lived Saxo Grammaticus, the Danish historian; 1134-1204, p. 84.
A.D. 1300.
No name of eminence occurs in this century, nor in the first half of the next century. The
literature was of the lowest type, consisting of anecdotes, fables, and historical
incidents torturedinto moral and religious parables.
The lays of the Minnesingers collected by Hugo of Trymberg.
The Mastersingers' Guild founded, 1350, by Heinrich Frauenlob, p. 164.
John Nepomuk murdered by kaiser Wenceslaus for refusing to betray the secrets of the
Confessional, p. 133.
Walter Lollard and Berthold burnt for "heresy," p. 123.
The first Universities of Germany founded.
The first Paper-Mills in Germany set up at Nurnberg in 1390.

ALBERT of Strasburg, p . 124, wrote Chronicles from kaiser Rudolf I. to
Karl IV.
BONER, Ulrich, p. 123, fabulist. Wrote in German the Edelstein (Precious
Stone), a compilation of fables, allegories, tales, and precepts. This was
the first German book put into print; died 1335.
DUNS SCOTUS, born in the British Isles and educated at Oxford, was appointed
professor of divinity at Cologne. He was the founder of the Scotists;
I265-1308.
EBERHARD of Altheim, historian. Wrote in Latin a History of Austria,
ENGELBERT of Styria, p. 113, poet and historian. Wrote in Latin TheJZisc
and Fall of the Roman Empire.
H E N R Y of Hervorden, chronicler.
HENRY of Hessen, nominalist; died 1397.
HENRY of Rebdorf, chronicler.
H U G O of Trymberg, who collected the lays of the. minnesingers, was the
author of a book in the German language called Renner (Runner). He
compares himself or his book to a horse which gallops about carrying
instruction everywhere. The Renner is a compilation similar to that of
Boner's (see above); died 1300.
JAMES of Kbnigshofen, Strasburg. Wrote in German Chronicles,
J O H N of Becka. Wrote a History of Utrecht,
LUDOLF of Saxony. Wrote in Latin a Life of Jesus Christ; 1300-1370.
MUSSATO, Albertin, p. 117, poet and historian. Wrote in Latin a Life of
Kaiser Henry VII., and a History of Events since the Death of Henry;
1261-1329.

MEN OF NOTE IN LITERATURE.—TABLE 13.

XXIX

SiFFRlD of Misnia, Saxon chronicler.
T H I S WAS T H E GOLDEN P E R I O D O F I T A L I A N POETRY

(called Trecentisti.

Dante died 1321; Petrarch, 1374; Boccaccio, 1375).
A.D.

1400.

T h e last century and first half of this were barren of great n a m e s ; b u t literature revived in
the second half, and, strange as it may seem, the subject of interest was Astronomy.
P R I N T I N G invented in Germany, between 1436 and 1466. (See p . 154.)

AGRICOLA, Rudolf, p. 156, teacher of Greek and Latin in Heidelburg; 14421485.
CUSA, Nicholas von, p. 155, astronomer; 1401-1464.
FOLZ, Hans, p. 166, a mastersinger.
GMUNDEN, John von, astronomer; died 1440.
HAMMERLEIN of Zurich, satirist.
MULLER of Konigsberg, p. 155, restorer of the science of astronomy; 14361476.
PEURBACK, George, p. 155, astronomer; 1423-1461.
PERSONA, Gobelin, of Westphalia, p. 144. Wrote in Latin Cosmo-dromium,
a universal history; 1358-1420.
SCHILDBERGER, of Munich, historian. Wrote a History of Timur the Tartar,
STADWEG, historian. Wrote Chronicles in the Saxon dialect.
THIERRY of Westphalia, p. 144, papal secretary. Wrote in Latin a History
of the Schisms of the Popes; died 1416.
WINDECK, p. 144, wrote in German a Life of Kaiser Sigmund.
iEneas Sylvius (afterwards called Pius I I . ) , poet, geographer, historian, and theologian, was
the most learned man of the century, but he was an Italian, p . 146. H e wrote in Latin
a History of the Empire -under Kaiser Frederick I/I., a Description of Germany,
some other historical works, and the romance of Euryalus and Lucretiat
a charming
t a l e ; 1405-1464, p . 137.

THE GOLDEN PERIOD OF PORTUGAL (was from John the Great to John III.)
(Vasco de Gama lived 1469-1525; Camoens, 1524-1575).
A.D. 1500.
THE

GREAT A W A K E N I N G .

(It was not a revival, because such a vitality never existed before in Germany, b u t a n
awakening to life and vigour).
Reformation of religion by Luther, of astronomy b y Copernicus, and engraving by Albert
Durer.
T h e regular theatre established in Germany.
The best period of the Master-singers, p . 164.
T h e Hebrew Bible put into print 1518.

AGRICOLA, George, mineralogist.
AGRICOLA, John, p. 189, a reformer. Wrote in German, Proverbs and their
Explanations; 1492-1566.
AGRIPPA, H . C., p. 162, secretary to kaiser Maximilian I., astrologer and
alchemist; 1486-1535.
ALBER, Erasmus, satirist. Wrote in German The Book of Wisdom and
Virtue, a collection of 49 fables in verse, &c. He declaims against the
papal court and the war " ^ring preachers ; died 1553.

XXX

MEN OF NOTE IN LITERATURE.—TABLE 13.

ALKMAR, Heinrich von., p. 169. Wrote in German Reynard the Fox; died
about 1510.
AVENTIN (whose name was John Thurmaier), p. 190, historian. Wrote in
Latin a History of Bavaria; 1476-1534.
BEBEL, Henry, p. 170, poet. Wrote in German the Triumph of Venus;
1475-1516.
BEHAIM, Martin, of Nurnberg, astronomer and geographer. He was the first
to construct a Map of the World and a Terrestrial Globe, His globe is
still preserved at Nurnberg; 1430-1506.
BRANDT, Sebastian, p. 167, satirist. Wrote in German the Ship of Fools;
1458-1520.
BUCER, Martin, p. 190, a reformer. Wrote in German an Exposition of the
Psalms; 1491-1551.
CALVIN, John, p. 189, a reformer, who settled in Geneva; 1509-1564.
CARLSTADT, Andrew, p. 189, of Franconia, a reformer; 1483-1541.
CARION, historian. Wrote in Latin a Compendium of Universal History;
died 1532.
CELTES, Conrad, p. 170, the first German poet who was crowned. Wrote in
German the Art of Poetry; 1459-1508.
COPERNICUS, p. 191, of Thorn, the Reformer of Astronomy; 1473-1543.
CUSPINIAN, John, p. 190, of Franconia, historian. Wrote in Latin a History
of Austria, and Commentaries', or a history of the emperors from Julius
Caesar to Maximilian I.; 1473-1529.
DUBRAW, John, p. 190, of Bohemia. Wrote in Latin a History of Bohemia,
in 33 books; died 1553.
DURER, Albert, p. 192, of Nurnberg, artist and engraver; 1471-1528.
FiscHART,p.i69,ofMainz, satirist. Translated Rabelais into German; 1545-1589.
FOLZ, Hans, p. 166, a mastersinger; 1479-1542.
FRANK, Sebastian, p. 156, historian. Wrote in German Chronicles to the
year 1581, and a Bible History; 1500-1545.
FRISCHLIN, Nicodemus, dramatic poet. Wrote in Latin comedies and
tragedies, as, Rebecca, & c ; 1547-1590.
GESNER, p. 206, the "Pliny of Germany;" 1516-1565.
GOETZ of Berlichingen (called the Iron-handed). Wrote a History of his own
adventures; 1480-1562.
GRUNBECK, historian. Wrote in German the Life of Frederick III, and
Maximilian I; died 1508.
KRANACH, Lucas, p. 192, artist and engraver; 1472-1553.
KRANTZ, Albert, p. 156, chronicler. Wrote in Latin Chronicles of the Swedes,
of the Norwegians, and of the Danes; 1450-1517.
LINGMAN, Mathias (whose pseudonym was Philesius Vogesigena), of Schelestadt, grammarian and litterateur; 1482-1511.
LUTHER, Martin, pp. 175-182, the great religious reformer. Translated the
Bible into German; 1483-1546.
MANUEL, N., of Berne, satirist and dramatic writer, especially severe on the
catholic church; 1484-15 30.
MELANCHTHON, Philip, p. 180, 189, reformer. He drew up the Confession
of Augsburg; 1497-1560.

MEN OF NOTE IN LITERATURE.—TABLE

13.

XXxi

MERCATOR, p. 194, a geographer. Draws maps with parallel longitudinal
lines, called Mercator's Projection; 1512-1594.
MUNSTER, Sebastian, p. 205, of Ingelheim. Wrote in Latin a Universal
Cosmography ; 1489-1521.
MURNER, p. 168, of Strasburg, satirist. Wrote in German the Owlglass;
1475-1536.
PARACELSUS, p. 191, chemist, & c ; 1493-1541.
PIRKHEIMER, of Niirnberg, historian and first German numismatologist.
Wrote in Latin a Compendium of German History, & c ; 1470-1530.
ROLEWINCK, Werner, p. 156, of Westphalia, historian. Wrote in Latin
Fasculus Temporum, compendium of his own times; 1425-1502.
ROSENBLUT, Hans, p. 166, of Niirnberg, a mastersinger. Wrote in German
Drinking songs, an Elogy on Niirnberg, &c. He declaims severely
against the clergy and nobles; 1450-1562.
RUDOLF, p. 170, of Lange, introduced into Munster the study of Greek;
1440-1519.
SACH, Hans, p. 166, of Niirnberg, prince of the mastersingers; 1494-1574.
SLEIDAN, John, p. 190, of Cologne, " T h e German Livy ; " 1506-1556.
TREIZSURWEIN, p. 156, secretary of kaiser Maximilian I. Wrote a Life of
Maximilian I. from materials furnished by the kaiser himself.
TRITHEIM, John, p. 170, chronicler and theologian; 1462-1516.
TSCHUDI, Egidius, historian. Wrote in German a Swiss Chronicle; 15051572.
WALDIS, Burkhard, p. 243, of Altdorf, fabulist. Rendered the Psalms into
German; died 1553.
ZWINGLIUS, p. 188, Swiss reformer; 1484-1531.
E R A S M U S , of Holland, lived in this c e n t u r y ; 1467-1536.
B R U N O , p . 253, the Italian (Natura naturans);
1550-1600.
T H I S WAS T H E GOLDEN P E R I O D O F E N G L I S H POETRY.

(Spenser was born 1553; Marlowe and Shakespeare, 1564; Ben Jonson,
I574-)
A.D.

l60O.

T H E AGE O F TAWDRY A N D T I N S E L .
This was a sad era of literary affectation and bad taste. All originality was abandoned, a n d
such poets as existed affected the Italian, French, or classic style. Their Italian model
was Marini, their classic model Seneca. T h e schools were called the Silesian, the first
founded by Opitz, all court lacquer and veneering; the second was dramatic, all bombast
and horror.
Several literary guilds were established, as the Order of the Palm, a vile imitation of the
Delia Cruscans (1617). I t was chiefly confined to the exquisites ; each member assumed
the name of some vegetable ; and vied in making the most courtly compliment.
T h e Order of the Flower was of a similar character, only the members were called by the
names of flowers.
T h e Society of pure German, founded by Zesin in 1643, professed to purify the spelling
and language, but was wholly ridiculous for its purism.
T h e Society of the Shepherds of Pegnitz (Bavaria), founded in 1644, was a society for the
cultivation of pastoral poetry, in which Colin and Lubin, Delia and Chloe, dressed in
the style of Watteau's figures, talked of sheep and shepherds in elegant verse fit for
cream-laid princes and princesses.
There was also the Order of the Swan, but the affectation of elegance was the besetting sin
of the day.
Opera was introduced after the Thirty-Years' War, and for a time wholly eclipsed the drama.
Science made an advance, especially astronomy, chemistry, and pneumatics.
C

XXxii

MEN OF NOTE IN LITERATURE.-—TABLE

13.

A B R A H A M VON S T A . C L A I R A , a Suabian m o n k , noted for the originality of his sermons, full of anecdotes, witticisms, drolleries, and quotations from secular
writers. O n e called Judas the Villain is very celebrated ; 1642-1709.
A N D R E W , J . Valentine, of Wiirtemberg, mystic. F o u n d e r of the Rosicrucians ;
1586-1654.
A Y R E R , Jacob, of Nurnberg, dramatic poet, in L a t i n ; 1530-1605.
B A L D E , J . , Latin p o e t ; 1603-1668.
B A Y E R , J o h n , of Augsberg, astronomer. W r o t e t h e Starry Heavens, with
m a p s ; 1603-1669.
B E L L U S , Nicholas, p . 194, historian. W r o t e a History of Germany,
from
1617 to 1 6 4 0 ; died about 1645.
B O E H M E N , J a c o b , of Gorlitz, a mystic. W r o t e in German the Aurora,
a
mystic book on the three principles of the divine essence ; 1575-1624.
B O N G A R S , J o h n , of Hanover, critic. W r o t e i n Latin a History of the
Crusades ; 1546-1642.
B U X T O R F , J o h n , of Westphalia, oriental scholar. Defends the masoretic
points,
(Hebrew and Chaldaic Bible.)
1564-1629.
C A N I T Z , F . R., of Berlin, p o e t ; 1654-1699.
C H R I S T , F . , p . 194, historian. W r o t e in Latin Annals of Ferdinand
II.;
1578-1637.
C H R I S T O P H E R von Grimmelshausen, p . 241 (called Samuel Greifenson von
Hirschfeld). W r o t e in German Simplicius Simplicissimus
; died 1676.
C L U V I E R , Philip, of Danzig, geographer. W r o t e in L a t i n Ancient
Germany,
Ancient Italy, Ancient Sicily, & c ; 1580-1623.
C O N R I N G , H e r m a n n , of Hanover, universal genius.
W r o t e in Latin a n
Introduction to the Universal Art of Medicine; 1606-1681.
D A C H , Simon, of Prussia, poet of the " Order of F r u i t s . " H i s best lyrics
are The Rose, The Eagle, and Anne von Thara,
H i s hymns are still used
in churches ; 1605-1659.
T H E E L Z E V I R S , printers at Leyden ; 1595-1681.
F L E M I N G , Paul, p . 242, poet, of the " O r d e r of the P a l m ; " 1609-1640.
F R E H E R , Marquard, of N u r n b e r g . W r o t e in Latin Noted Authors of Germany, and Noted Authors of Bohemia;
1565-1614.
G E R H A R D , Paul, p . 243, a religious p o e t ; 1606-1676.
G L A S S , S., of Saxony. W r o t e Sacred Philology, in two books ; 1593-1656.
G L A U B E R , chemist. Discovered Glauber's Salt (sulphate of soda); 1604-1668.
G O L D A S T , Melchior, of Heiminsfeld, historian. W r o t e in L a t i n Noted
Suabian
Authors, and a Life of Jeanne dArc;
1576-1635.
G R Y P H , Andrew, p . 242, best dramatic poet of the " Second Silesian School."
W r o t e in G e r m a n tragedies and comedies. H i s model was S e n e c a ;
1616-1664.
G U E R I C K E , O t t o von, p . 210, of Magdeburg.
Invented the air-pump ;
1602-1689.
HELMONT, Baptista von, of Brussels, the greatest chemist preceding Lavoisier.
Pie was the first to use the word gas, and the first to take the meltingpoint of ice and the boiling-point of water as standards of the measure of
temperature. W r o t e in Latin The Rise of Medicine,
H i s crotchets are
that m a n is a dual being, consisting of archi and duwnvirat,
p . 254, and
that the soul is in the s t o m a c h ; 1577-1644.

MEN OF NOTE IN LITERATURE.—TABLE 13.

XXxlii

HEVEL, John, p. 210, of Dantzic, astronomer. Wrote a treatise on Comets;
1602-1686.
HOFMANN, Christopher, p. 302, of Hofmannswaldau, poet of the "Second
Silesian School," elegant but licentious, humorous and gay, but inflated
and full of epithets; 1618-1669.
HURTER, p. 194, historian. Wrote in Latin a History of Austria; died
about 1643.
HUTTER, Elias, of Niirnberg, polyglottist; 1553-1612.
KEPLER, pp. 193, 206, " Father of Modern Astronomy;" 1571-1630.
KHEVENHULLER, F . C. Wrote in Latin Annals of Ferdinand II; 15891650.
LOGAU, Frederick, poet of the "Second Silesian School." Wrote in German
Epigrams; 1604-1653.
LOHENSTEIN, Gaspar, p. 243, dramatic poet of the "Second Silesian
School," proverbial for bombast; 1635-1683.
MORHOF of Weimar. Wrote in Latin Polyhistor, 2 vols.; I639-169U
" Polymaths, and Polyhistors,
Polyglots, and all their sisters."
—MOORE, The Devil among the Scholars,

OLEARIUS of Anhalt, a traveller. Wrote Travels in Muscovia, Travels in
Tartary, and Travels in Persia; 1600-1671.
OPITZ, Martin, p . 242, called the " Restorer of German Poetry." He was
the founder of a school in which tinsel and tawdry were made to supply
the places of breathing thoughts and burning words; 1597-1639.
PHILANDER of Sittewald, p. 242, satirist. Wrote in German prose his
Marvellous and Veracious Visions, in which he scourges the follies of
the day; died 1650.
PUFFENDORF, Samuel, p. 210, of Saxony. Wrote in Latin On the Law of
Nations, in 8 books; 1632-1694.
RACHEL, satirist; 1617-1669.
RIST, John, lyric poet. Instituted the "Order of the Swan." By saying
smooth things he made many patrons, but his poetry lies buried with the
poet; 1607-1667.
RITTERSHUYS, Conrad, of Brunswick, lawyer; 1560-1613.
RITTERSHUYS, Nicholas. Wrote a Genealogy of the Kings, Emperors, and
Princes of the whole World, to the year 1640; 1597-1670.
ROLLENHAGEN, George, p. 169. Wrote in German the Battle of the Frogs
and Mice 1 1542-1609.
SCHUPP, Balthazar, of Hamburg, satirist. Wrote in German prose Instructive
Lessons, in dialogue; 1610-1661.
SCIOPPIUS, Gaspar (called the "Grammatical Cynic"). Wrote in Latin
Elements of the Stoic Philosophy, and a Philosophical Grammar; 15761649.
SECKENDORF, historian. Wrote in Latin a Compendium of Church History;
1626-1692.
SENNERT, Daniel, founder of the first chemical school of medicine; 1572-1637.
TAUBMANN, Frederick, of Franconia, a Latin poet; 1565-1613.
WECKHERLIN, G. R., of Wurtemberg, the best of the lyric poets of the
imitative schools; 1584-1651.
C 2

XXXIV

MEN

OF NOTE

IN

LITERATURE.

TABLE

13.

ZESEN, Philip von, of Hamburg. Tried to purify the German language, but
made himself ridiculous by his purisms; 1619-1643.
ZINKGREF of Heidelberg, poet. Wrote both German and Latin poetry;
1591-1635.
B E Z A , Theodore, of France, lived in this century, 15x9-1609.
D E S C A R T E S , the French philosopher, who said Cogito, ergo sum; 1597-1650.
G A L I L E O , the Italian, natural philosopher, a n d astronomer; 1541-1601.
G R O T I U S of Holland, author of the Truth of the Christian Religion^ and De Jure Belli et
Pacts; 1583-1645.
S P I N O Z A , p . 244, of Holland. W r o t e in Latin Pantheism;
1632-1677.
T Y C H O B R A H E , p . 193, the great Danish astronomer; 1546-1601.
T H E AUGUSTAN AGE O F FRANCE.

It was the age of the French pleiads. Corneille, Racine, Moliere, La
Fontaine, Balzac " t h e Solon of French prose," Pascal, Rochefoucauld,
La Bruyere, L'Angeli the court fool; the artists Poussin, Lesueur, Lebrun;
together with Moreri, Petau, Menage, Voiture, Mad. Sevigne, & c , were all
born and all died in this century.
A.D.

1700.

GERMANY UNDER F R E N C H I N F L U E N C E .
Towards the middle of the century the taste veered, a n d Ossian a n d Shakespeare were the
models of imitation.
For the first three-quarters of this century the language of Germany remained most
deplorable. French was the language of the courts, and of course of all the upper classes.
T h e grimace of Louis X I V . was mistaken for elegance, a n d well-turned compliments or
epigramatic smartness for poetry and eloquence.
I n the universities Latin was adopted, and all high scholars wrote in Latin. H o w could
t h e y employ their own native tongue, which reminds one of Horace's monster, " a beautiful
woman ending ridiculously in an ugly fish.''^ T h e fish in this case being French, Italian, or
Latin incongruously joined to the Teutonic, with which there could not possibly be any unity.
I n this period German philosophy was started by Leibnitz and Wolf; and some men of
genius, as Thomasius, laboured to liberate German from its affectations.

ARNOLD, Godfrey, a mystic. Wrote a History of Religious Heresies; 16651714.
BAHRDT, theologian, maintained that religion consisted of morality, and that
Christ was only a man, the benefactor and teacher of his race; 1741-1792.
BASEDOW of Hamburg, a celebrated pedagogist; 1723-1790.
BAUMGARTEN, p. 257, a disciple of Wolf. Wrote in Latin, Theory of the
Beautiful and General Philosophy; 1714-1762.
BERNOUILLI (two brothers), mathematicians (Integral calculus); 1654-1705 ;
1667-1748.
BERNOUILLI, David, mathematician. Wrote in Latin Hydrodynamics; 17001782.
BILFINGER, philosopher. Wrote in Latin on the anima mundi, p. 254, and
on Threefold Cognition (1. historical, 2. philosophical, 3. mathematical);
I693-I750BODMER of Zurich, poet. Wrote the Noachiad^ an epic in twelve books ; and
translated Homer's Iliad and Milton's Paradise Lost into German. He
also did good service in editing the lays of the Minnesingers, the
Nibelungen-lied, p. 9 5 ; and the Parzival, p. 93; 1698-1783.

MEN OF NOTE IN LITERATURE.

TABLE 1 3 .

XXXV

B R O C K E S of H a m b u r g , poet, opposed t o t h e Silesian school. H e directed
his countrymen t o English literature in preference t o F r e n c h .
Wrote
Terrestrial Pleasures, a didactic poem, far superior t o anything of t h e
period, being more simple, fervid, a n d living. H e also abandoned t h e
long Alexandrine line for shorter m e t r e s ; 1680-1717.
B U D D ^ U S of Pomerania, theologian. W r o t e a History of the Church of the
Old Testament;
1667-1729.
B U N A U , historian. W r o t e a History of the Empire of Germany;
1697-1762.
B U R G E R , Gottfried, p . 2 5 1 , writer of ballads and lyric p o e t r y ; 1748-1794.
B U S C H I N G , o n e of t h e greatest of modern geographers. W r o t e
Universal
Geography; 1724-1793.
C E L L A R I U S , constructed a n atlas of ancient g e o g r a p h y ; 1638-1707.
C O C C E J I of Bremen. W r o t e in Latin a commentary on Grotius's great work,
Dejure belli et pads ; 1644-1719.
C R A M E R of Bohemia, p o e t ; 1723-1788.
C R A N Z , philosopher. W r o t e i n L a t i n on t h e Philosophy of Leibnitz
and
Wolf; 1690-1753.
C R O N E C K , dramatic poet. H i s tragedies are celebrated ; 1731-1758.
C R U S I U S , philosopher opposed t o Wolf; 1712-1775. A u t h o r of a Sketch of
the Essential Truths of Reason, Moral Philosophy, &c.
C U R A S , historian. W r o t e a Universal History; 1722.
D A M M of Saxony, Greek scholar. New Etymological Greek Lexicon ; 1699-1778.
D I P P E L , theologian a n d c h e m i s t ; h e discovered animal oiland Prussian
blue.
W r o t e in L a t i n t h e Christian Democritus ; 1673-1734.
E C K H O F , actor a n d dramatic author ; 1722-1778.
E R N E S T I , J . A . , editor of G r e e k a n d L a t i n Classics; 1707-1781.
E U L E R , mathematician. Elements of Algebra ; 1707-1783.
F A B R I C I U S of Leipzig, critic. W r o t e in Latin Bibliotheca Grceca, Bibliotheca
Latina, a n d Bibliotheca Ecclesiastica;
1668-1738.
F A H R E N H E I T of Danzig, improved t h e Thermometer,
a n d invented t h e
Aerometer ; 1690-17 40.
F O R S T E R , J . C , p h i l o s o p h e r ; 1735-1798.
F O R S T E R , J . R . , voyager a n d naturalist, accompanied Captain Cook.
W r o t e Character of the Australian
Plants, History of the
Northern
Discoveries ; 17 29-1798.
J . G. H i s son accompanied h i m . W r o t e Voyage Round the
World; 17 54-1794.
F R I S C H , naturalist.
W r o t e a Description
of the Insects of Germany,
a
Description of the Birds of Germany, a n d a German~Latin
Dictionary;

1666-1743.
FULDA, grammarian. Wrote German Radicals; 1724-1781.
GELLERT, p. 247, poet and moralist, serious and humble, but feeble and

morbid. The earth was to him a vale of tears, and man a miserable
worm. He took La Fontaine for his model in his Fables; 1715-1769.
GESNER, S., p. 252, idyllic poet Wrote in German the Death of Abel;
1730-1788.
GESNER, J . M., of Gottingen.

A Latin Thesaurus; 1691-1761.

GESNER, J. J., of Zurich. Wrote in Latin on Ancient Coins; 1730-1788.

XXXvi

MEN OF NOTE IN LITERATURE.—TABLE 13.

GLUCK, p. 260, the "Michael Angelo of Music ; " 1714-1787.
GOTTSCHED, p. 247, a man of very moderate talent who raised himself to the
post of literary dictator and arbiter of taste in Germany. He directed
his countrymen to French literature and admired Opitz. "QuiBavium
non odit, amet tua carmina, Mcevi; " 1700-1766.
GOTZ, pastoral poet; 1721-1781.
GROSSMAN of Berlin, dramatic author, called " T h e Shakespeare of Germ a n y ; " 1746-1796.
GUNTHER, tried to improve the literary taste, and no doubt was a better poet
than his contemporary countrymen, but his dissolute life destroyed his
influence; 1695-1723.
HAGEDORN, Frederick von, of Hamburg, poet. La Fontaine was his model;
I708-1754.
HALLER, p. 258, of Berne, "Father of Physiology,'' anatomist, botanist, and
poet; he discovered the force of Irritability independent of sensibility.
Wrote in German the Flora of Switzerland, the Book of Botany, The
Alps, a didactic poem on the English model, and Elements of Physiology
(in Latin); 1708-1777.
HAMANN, p. 258, "Magician of the North." Wrote on everything, and on
nothing well; 1730-1788.
It is of Hamann that John Paul said, "The mighty Hamann bears on his shoulders
all the stars of heaven and all its nebulae."

HANDEL, p. 260, prince of musical composers. Composed The Messiah;
1684-1759.
HEINECCIUS, p. 245, lawyer. Wrote in Latin the Elements of Civil Law;
1681-1741.
HERMANN, J., mathematician. Wrote Phoronomia; 1678-1733.
HEUMANN of Altstadt. Wrote in Latin a Compendium of the Republic of
Letters, and a Dictionary of Anonyms; 1681-1764.
HIPPEL, novelist. Wrote Zigzag Travels; 1741-1796.
HOFFMANN, Frederick. Wrote in Latin the Rational System of Medicine;
1660-1742.
HOLLMAN, philosopher. Wrote to confute Wolfs philosophical system;
1696-1787.
HOLTY, L. H., lyric and idyllic poet. Wrote " Ever True and Honest," and
the popular bacchanalian called The Drinking-song for May ; 1748-1776.
ISELIN of Basle, philosopher. Wrote an Essay on the History of Humanity;
1728-1782.
K^ESTNER, mathematician and epigrammatic poet. Wrote a New Demonstration of the Immortality of the Soul, and a History of Mathematics;
1719-1800.
KXEIST of Prussia, poet. Wrote odes, songs, idylls, fables, and tales. His
chief poem is Spring; 1715-1759.
KLOTZ of Saxony, scholar; 1738-1777.
KNIGGE, Adolphus von, novelist. Wrote the humorous novel of a Journey to
Brunswick; 1732-1796.
KUSTER of Westphalia, scholar; 1670-1716.

MEN OF NOTE IN LITERATURE.

TABLE 13.

XXXvii

LAMBERT of Berlin, natural philosopher. Wrote on the Path of Light, Free
Perspective, and Phitometry. He also invented the Speaking Trumpet;
1728-1777.
LEIBNITZ, p. 243, linguist, historian, philosopher, and mathematician. Wrote
both in Latin and French. {Monads and Pre-established Harmony);
1646-1716.
LESSING, p. 248, poet and prose writer; one of the great reformers of the
German language. Wrote in German Nathan the Wise (a drama), and
Laocoon, which had an immense influence on the literary taste of the
nation; 1721-1781.
LICHTENBERG of Darmstadt, humorist. Wrote the Physiognomy of Tails
in ridicule of Lavater's system and style of writing; 1742-1799.
LlCHTWER of Prussia, poet, fabulist; 1719-1783.
LIEBERKUHN of Berlin, anatomist. Invented Reflecting Concave Mirrors;
1711-1756.
MASCOU, historian. Wrote a History of Germany; 1689-1762.
MENDELSSOHN, Moses, p. 258, a Prussian Jew, the original of the character
called " Nathan " in Lessing's drama of Nathan the Jew\ Wrote on the
Immortality of the Soul; 1729-1786.
MENGS of Bohemia, called the "Prince of Bohemian artists;" 1728-1779.
MICHAELIS, poet; 1746-1772.
MICHAELIS, J. H., p. 245, orientalist. Edited a Hebrew Bible; 1668-1738.
MICHAELIS, J. D., p. 245, orientalist and theologian. Wrote on The Law of
Moses; 1717-1791.
MOSER, called the "Franklin of Germany." Wrote Patriotic Ideas, and a
History of Osnabruck (a capital book); 1720-1794.
MOSHEIM, p. 262, theologian. Wrote in Latin Institutions of Ecclesiastical
History, once a universal text-book, but now superseded by Neander;
I694-I755MOZART, p. 261, the "Raphael of Music." Composed Zauberfldte, Don
Giovanni, the Marriage of Figaro, the Requiem (or Mass in D minor),
& c ; 1756-1791.
MUS^EUS, p. 302. Author of German Popular Legends; 1735-1787.
RABENER, G. G., satirist. He castigated severely the Upper classes for their
pedantry and affectations; 1714-1777.
RAINLER, poet, who contributed to give Germany a national literature by his
songs, cantatas, and odes; 1725-1798.
REIMAR, naturalist. Wrote Sublime Truths of Natural Religion, and on the
Instincts of Animals; 1694-1748.
REINBECK, theologian and philosopher. Wrote on the Confession of Augsburg; 1682-1741.
REINECCIUS of Saxony. Published the Bible in four languages; 1668-1752.
REISKE, J. J., philologist and orientalist. Wrote in Latin Observations on
Medic and Arabian Monuments; 1716-1774.
RHEINEKE, p. 261, musical composer; 1748-1796.
SCHILLER, J. G., father of the poet. Wrote on Agriculture; 1723-1796.
SCHILTER of Saxony, philosopher. Wrote in Latin a Thesaurus of Ancient
Teutonic, in 3 vols.; 1632-1795.

XXXviH

MEN OF NOTE IN LITERATURE.—TABLE 13.

SCHLEGEL J. Elias, of Saxony, dramatic author. Wrote Hermann (a tragedy),
Miss*Sarah Samson (a tragedy), the Dumb Beauty (a comedy), and Henry
the Lion (an historic poem); 1718-1749.
SCHMEITZEL, the father of Statistics in Germany; 1679-1747.
SCHMIDT, historian. Wrote a History of the German People; 1736-1794.
SCHMIEDEL, botanist; discovered the fructification of cryptogamic plants.
Wrote Icones plantdrum ; 1718-1792.
SCHMUCK, father of Galvanism in Germany; 1729-1792.
SCHNEIDER, J. G., naturalist. Wrote a Natural History of Amphibious
Anir?ials; 17 56-1794.
SCHULTENS, Alb., theologian and orientalist. Wrote in Latin Origines
Hebraicce, and Ancient Arabic Monuments; 1686-1750.
SCHULTENS, H. A., orientalist. Wrote in Latin Arabian Anthologyt Median
and Arabian Proverbs ; 1749-1793.
SCHULZE of Prussia. Wrote a History of Medicine; 1687-1741.
SEGNER, mathematician; 1704-1777.
SPANHEIM, p. 2H, numismatist; 1629-1710.
SPENER, p. 246, founder of the Pietists; 1635-1705.
STAHL, p. 245, chemist. His name is associated with Animism and Phlogiston.
Wrote the Organic Theory of Medicine, Rudiments of Chemistry, &c.
1660-1731.
H O F M A N (q. v.), wrote the Mechanic

Theory of

Medicine.

STRUVE, historian. Wrote a History of Literature, 1672-1738.
STURM, J. C., p. 210, of Bavaria, called the " Restorer of Science in
Germany;" 1635-1703.
STURM, p. 252. Wrote Reflections; 1740-1786.
SULZER of Berlin, philosopher. Wrote a Theory of the Fine Arts; 1720-1779.
THOMASIUS, p. 246, founded the first German serial; 1658-1728.
TSCHIRNHAUSEN, natural philosopher. Discovered the Epicycloid Curve,
made a monster Burning Glass, and perfected several optical instruments;
1651-1708.
USTERI, J. Martin, lyric and bacchanalian poet; 1741-1789. He wrote the
famous song:—
" Life enjoy while the torch-light glows,
Ere it has faded pluck the rose."

Uz, poet. Wrote odes, didactic and sacred poems; 1720-1796.
VOGEL, Christopher, p. 261, musical composer; 1756-1788.
WACHTER, philologist. Wrote in Latin a German Glossary; 1673-1756.
WALCH, J. E., naturalist. Wrote Natural History of Petrifactions and The
Naturalist; 1725-1778.
WALCH, C. G., ecclesiastical historian. Wrote the History of Heresies and
Medieval Monuments ; 1726-1784.
W E I S E of the Second Silesian School, writer of comedies and farces; 16421708.
WERNICKE, C., poet. Wrote in German epigrams and elegies. His object
was to extinguish the "Silesian School," and the vile affectations introduced through imitations of Italian, French, and Latin models; 1666-1720.

MEN OF NOTE IN LITERATURE.—TABLE 13.

XXxix

WiLLAMOV, Prussian poet. Wrote Fables* & c ; 1737-1777.
WiNCKELMANN, p. 258, of Brandenburg, antiquary. Wrote a History of Art
among the Ancients; 1717-1768.
WOLF, p. 246, philosopher. He reduced Leibnitz's principles to a system;
1679-1754.
ZACHARI^E, fabulist and comic poet. Wrote The Phaeton, The Handkerchief
and The Four Ages of Woman. He had a host of imitators; 1726-1777.
ZIMMERMANN, p. 252, poet and physician. Wrote in German On Solitude;
I728-1792.
ZOPF, historian. Wrote a Compendium of Universal History; 1691-1776.
THE GOLDEN ERA OF GERMAN LITERATURE BEGUN, p . 248.

It began with Lessing, 1721-1781, and Schiller, 1723-1796, and extends to the
middle of the nineteenth century.
In this century died John Claud Jacob, one of the oldest men that ever lived; 1670-1790.
A.D. l800.
GOLDEN AGE OF GERMAN LITERATURE, 1750-1850.

ADELUNG produced seventy volumes of literature, amongst which were a
German Dictionary and a German Grammar; 1734-1806.
ANCILLON, publicist and historian. As statesman his influence in Prussia was
very great, but always of a pacific character. His works are numerous
and all in French ; 1766-1837.
ARNDT, p. 304, poet. Wrote " W h a t is the German Fatherland?"
"Bliicher," "Gallant Schill," " G o d never meant Man to be a Slave,"
& c ; 1769-1860.
ARNIM, poet, novelist, and dramatic author; 1784-1831.
BACH, J. Sebastian, p. 260, musical composer. Wrote Fugues, Preludes, and
Passion Music; 1685-1750. William Friedemann, 1710-1784; Karl
Philipp, 1714-1788; and John Christian, 1735-1782, were also musical
composers.
BAUR, leader of the Tubingen or Historical School of Theology. Wrote the
Christian Philosophy of Religion ; 1792-1860.
BEETHOVEN, p. 261, musical composer. Wrote Sonatas and Symphonies;
1770-1827.
BECKER, p. 305, poet. Wrote the "German Rhine," which has been set to
music by no less than seventy different composers; and the " Morning
Song in Spring;" also a History of the German Revolution; 1809B1SMARCK, p. 295, statesman, by whose sagacity Prussia was elevated to the
headship of Germany ; 1813BLUMENBACH, ethnologist. Wrote on the Varieties of the Human Species
(five); 1752-1840.
BORNE, of Frankfort, humorist and poet; 1786-1837.
BRENTONO, poet, &c. Wrote Brave Gaspar, a tale ; 1777-1842.
BUNSEN, author of Egypt's Place in History ; 1791-1860.
BURGER, poet. Wrote Ballads and Legends, as Lenore, the Pastor}s Daughter,
the Hunter, Son of the Brave, Old Bacchus (a capital convivial song);
1748-1794.

Xl

MEN OF NOTE IN LITERATURE.—TABLE 13.

CHAMISSO, p. 302, poet and prose writer. Wrote the famous story of Peter
Schlemihl, the man who sold his shadow, and several capital songs, as
" H i s Pigtail hangs behind h i m " (a famous comic song), the "Tailor's
Heroism," & c ; 1781-1838.
CLAUDIUS, a popular poet of great simplicity and sweetness. Wrote the song
of " Urian's Voyage round the World;" 1740-1815.
COLLIN of Vienna, dramatic poet. Wrote Coriolanus, Regulus, & c ; 1779-1823.
CRAMER of Bohemia, one of the best lyric poets; 1723-1783.
DAHLMANN, historian. Wrote a History of Denmark, a History of the
English Revolution, and a History of the French Revolution ; 1785-1860.
DROYSEN, historian. Wrote a History of Danish Politics, and a History of
Alexander the Great; 1808DUNCKER, historian. Wrote a History of Antiquity (a charming book);
1812-

EBERHARD, J. A., philosopher. Wrote the Theory of Thought and Sensation
(excellent); a History of Philosophy ; German Synonyms; 1739-1809.
EBERHARD, A. G., poet, &c. Wrote the "Mason's Hammer S o n g ; "
1769-1845.
EICHENDORFF, lyric poet. Wrote the "Broken Ring," "Consolation," & c ;
1788-1857.
ENGEL, dramatic author and popular philosopher. Wrote Lorenz Starck (a
charming tale); 1741-1802.
FESSLER, historical novelist. Wrote Marcus Aurelius, Aristides and Themistocles, Attila, & c ; 17 56-1839.
FICHTE, p. 256, philosopher; he developed " K a n t i s m " {ego and non-ego);
1762-1814.
FORSTER, Karl, poet; 1784-1828.
FOUQUE, De La Motte, p. 302. Wrote the charming story of Undine; also
the " W a r Song of the Volunteers" ( " U p ! up to the merry hunting");
1777-1843.
GALL, p. 259, founder of Phrenology; 1758-1828.
GENTZ, Prussian statesman. Wrote on the State of Europe at the close of the
Eighteenth Century ; 1760-1832.
GERVINUS, historian. Wrote a History of German Poetry (an excellent book,
the best on the subject) ; 1805-1871.
GESENIUS, orientalist. Compiled a capital Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon;
1780-1842.
GLEIM, chief of the German Anacreonic poets. Wrote the "Song of Victory
after the Battle of Prague," the " W a r Song of the Prussian Grenadier,"
& c ; 1719-1803.
GOETHE, "prince of German poets." Wrote Faust (a dramatic poem). Of
his songs the following are popular—"The Tailor's Fright," " T h e rush
of the Water," " T h e King of Thule," and " T h e Wanderer's S o n g ; "
1749-1812.
GRILLPARZER of Vienna, poet. Wrote Sappho, Radetzky, & c ; 1791-1872.
GRIMM, Baron F. M. Wrote a complete history of French literature from
1753 to 1790, entitled Correspondence, Literary, Philosophical, and
Critical, 16 vols.; 1723-1807.
GRIMM, William, author of Heroic Legends of Germany; 1786-1859.

MEN OF NOTE IN LITERATURE.
G R I M M , Jacob, p . 307, philologist {Grimm's
etymology); 1785-1863.

TABLE 1 3 .

xli

Law for the changes of letters in

Everyone knows Grimm's Goblin Stories, compiled by the two brothers, William and
Jacob.
G R U B E R wrote on the Destination of Man, a Dictionary of Esthetics•, another
on Mythology, &c., and founded the Universal Cyclopedia of Sciences and
Arts; 1774-1851.
G U T Z K O W , Berlin, of the Young Germany School. W r o t e Letters of a Fool,
Maha Guru (a novel) and a History of a God; 1 8 I I H A C U S S E R , L . , historian. W r o t e a History of Germany, from the death of
Frederick t h e Great to the foundation of the Confederation ; 1 8 1 8 H A H N E M A N N , p . 259, originator of Homceopathy.
W r o t e Organon of the
Art of Healing;
1755-1843.
H A L E M , G. A . von, historian. W r o t e a History of Oldenburg, & c , also a
popular drinking song, " Our life is the life of a Flower ; " 1752-1819.
H A R T M A N N , J . M . , orientalist; 1764-1817.
H A R T M A N N , Moritz, of Bohemia, poet, &c. W r o t e a poem called " S p r i n g . "
the " C u p and S w o r d , " & c . ; 1 8 2 1 H A U F F of Stuttgart, writer of tales. W r o t e Extracts from the Memoirs of
Satan (a book of wonderful fancy and full of scenes of real life);
1802-1827.
HAYDN, p . 261, musical composer.
W r o t e Creation and the
Seasons;
1732-1809.
H E B E L , p . 305, popular p o e t ; 1760-1826.
H E E R E N , historian.
W r o t e Ideas on the Politics and Com?nerce of the
Ancients;
1760-1842.
HEGEL, p . 257, philosopher.
Intuition
and Philosophy
of
Contraries;
1770-1831.
HEINE, p . 305, head of the Young Germany School. W r o t e a host of popular
songs, such as " L o r e l e y , " " T h e Fishermaiden," " T h e Grenadiers,"
" T h e Pilgrimage to K e e v l a r , " and many others ; 1800-1856.
H E I N S E of Tubingen, poet of the " F l e s h l y School." W r o t e Ardinghello
or
the Fortunate Isles ; 1749-1803.
H E R B S T , p . 259, of Prussia, naturalist. W r o t e on the Crustacea and Insects;
1743-1807.
H E R D E R , p . 249, called the " F e n e l o n of G e r m a n y , " one of the regenerators
of the language. W r o t e Outlines of the Philosophic History of Man; and
a book of songs called Volks-lieder ; 1744-1813.
H E R M E S of Pomerania, novelist. W r o t e Travels of Sophie from Memel to
Saxe; 1738-1821.
H E R M E S , G., theologian, W r o t e Introduction to Christian-Catholic
Theology;
1775-1831.
HERSCHEL, Sir William, p . 259, astronomer. Discovered the planet Uranus;
I738-1822.
H E Y N E , p . 262, the " king of critics " ; 1729-1812.
H O F F M A N N , p . 302, founder of the N e w School. W r o t e the DeviVs
Elixir;
1776-1822.
H U M B O L D T , K . W . , statesman and philologist; 1767-1835.
HUMBOLDT, p . 303, naturalist. W r o t e Cosmos; 1769-1859.

Xlii

MEN OF NOTE IN LITERATURE.—TABLE 13.

HUMMEL, p. 261, musical composer; 1778-1837.
IFFLAND, actor and dramatic author ; 1759-1814.
IMMERMANN, dramatic author ; 1796-1840.
JACOBI, philosopher opposed to Kantism. Wrote Idealism and Realism^
Editor of the Iris (journal); 1743-1819.
J O H N PAUL, see Richter.

KALKBRENNER, p. 261, musical composer; 1756-1806.
KANT, p. 256, philosopher. Wrote Critique of Pure Reason (Phenomena
and Noumena, Objective and Subjective); 1724-1804.
KLAUBER, p. 260, of Augsburg, engraver; 1753-1817.
KINKEL, poet, &c. Wrote Otto der Schutz, Nature and Man (a song), &c.;
1815KLEIST, a man of great talent, lyric and dramatic poet. Wrote a descriptive
poem called Spring; 1776-1811.
KLINGER, Frankfort, one of the Storm and Strain School. Wrote dramas
and novels. His best novels are Dr. Faust, Raphael of Aquilas, and
Giafer the Barmecide; 1753-1831.
KLOPSTOCK, p. 247, poet. Wrote The Messiah, an epic in fifteen books;
1708-1803.
KOPP. Wrote on Palceography and Ancient Chirography ; 1762-1834.
KORNER, p. 305, " T h e Tyrtseus of Germany," dramatic and lyric poet. Wrote
Lyre and Sword Songs. His "Battle Prayer," "Menand Knaves," "Song,
Love, and Wine," are well known ; 1791-1813.
There is another popular German poet called Kerner, who wrote the Richest Prince, the
Two Coffins, the Wanderer's Song, &c.

KOTZEBUE, p. 251, dramatic poet; 1761-1819.
KRUMMACHER, p. 307, author of Cornelius the Centurion, and Parables;
1768-1845.
KRUMMACHER, F. W., p. 306, author of Elijah the Tishbite;
G. D. Krummacher, author of Daily Manna, p. 307.

KRUPP, discovered the method of manufacturing cast steel in large quantities.
He employed in 1865 as many as 10,000 workmen. Maker of cannons ;
1815KUHNE, of the Young Germany School. Wrote Portraits and Silhouettes,
Characters of Men and Women, & c ; 1807LAFONTAINE, novelist. Wrote the Man of Nature ; 1759-1831.
Lafontaine was the son of a French refugee.
lived 1621-1695.

The great French fabulist, John Lafontaine,

LAVATER, p. 259, conceived a facial exponent called Physiognomy; 1741-1801.
LIEBIG, p. 307, chemist. Wrote on Agricultural Chemistry, the Chemistry of
Food, & c ; 1803-187 3.
MEISSNER, historical novelist. Wrote Alcibiades, Masaniello, Bianca Capello,
& c ; 1703-1807.
MENDELSSOHN, Felix, musical composer. Wrote Elijah; 1809-1847.
MENZEL, Silesia, of the Young Germany School. Wrote Streckverse, A
History of Germany, Travels in Austria, &c.; 1798-1855.
MESMER, p. 258, conceived the existence of a force called Animal Magnetism;
1734-1815.

MEN OF NOTE IN LITERATURE.

TABLE 1 3 .

xliii

METTERNICH, p . 288, diplomatist {Holy Alliance); 1773-1859.
M E Y E R B E E R , p p . 261, 307, musical composer.
W r o t e Les Huguenots,
Le
Prophtie, & c ; 1794-1864.
M O M M S E N , historian.
W r o t e a Roman History', to the death of Caesar ;
1817M O R G E N B L A T T of Stuttgart, poet of great fecundity; 1 8 1 5 M O S E N , poet and dramatic author ; 1 8 0 3 M U L L E R , J . , p . 302, called " T h e Thucydides of G e r m a n y . " W r o t e a History
of the Swiss Confederation;
1752-1809.
M U L L E R , K . O . , classical scholar. W r o t e a History of Greek Literature,
a
Manual of the History of Ancient Art, &c.; 1797-1841.
M U L L E R , W . , poet. Wandering, and the Coming of Spring, are w e l l - k n o w n ;
1794-1827.
N E A N D E R , p p . 303, 396, leader of the Broad Church party. W r o t e Universal
History of the Christian Religion and Church ; 1789-1850.
N E U K O M M , musical composer ; 1778-1858.
N E U M A N N , orientalist and historian. W r o t e a history of the
Anglo-Chinese
Wars, a History of the British Rule in Asia, a History of the United
States of A merica, &c.; 1798-1870.
N I C O L A I of Berlin, editor of the Literary
Correspondent, which had a considerable influence, and was written in excellent G e r m a n ; 1733-1811.
N I E B U H R , historian. W r o t e a Roman History, in which h e maintains that
the stories about Romulus and the other kings of R o m e are either allegories or fables; 1776-1831.
N O V A L I S , p . 301, chief of the Romantic School of Germany. W r o t e Hymns
of Night; 1772-1801.
O L B E R S , p . 260, of Bremen, astronomer. Discovered Pallas and Vesta; 1758-1840.
P A L L A S , p . 259, of Berlin, naturalist. W r o t e on Zoophytes, and Observations
on the form of Mountains ; 1741 -1811.
P A U L U S , p . 306, leader of the Rational School of T h e o l o g y ; 1761-1851.
P E S T A L O Z Z I , p . 259, educationist; 1744-1827.
P L A T N E R , p . 259, of Leipzig, " N e s t o r of G e r m a n Philosophy." W r o t e
Anthropology ; 1744-1818.
P L E Y E L , p . 261, musical c o m p o s e r ; 1757-1831.
P U T T E R of Westphalia, publicist. W r o t e Institutions
of the Laws of Germany, Manual of German History, the Development of the
German
Constitution ; 1725-1807.
R A N K E , p . 303, historian. W r o t e a History of the Popes; 1795-1872.
R A U M E R , p . 303, historian. W r o t e a History of the House of Hohenstaufen ;
1781R E I N I C K of Dantzic, painter and poet. W r o t e The German Artisfs Book of
Songs, the Singer and Artist; the following are p o p u l a r : — " A Curious
H i s t o r y , " " T h e M o o n d i a l , " the " Double-song," " False B l u e , " " U n d e r
the L i n d e n T r e e s , " &c.; 1807.
R I C H T E R , p . 252 (called J o h n Paul). W r o t e Wild Oats, the Titan or Age of
Follies; 1763-1825.
R I T T E R , geographer. H e shows in a masterly way the influence of the
internal forces of the earth on its exterior surface; I779* I ^59»
R O N T G E N , p . 260, ebenist; 1745-1807.

xliv

MEN OF NOTE IN LITERATURE.—TABLE

13.

ROSENMULLER, J . G., theologian.
W r o t e in Latin a History of
Biblical
Exegesis;
1736-1815.
ROSENMULLER, anatomist; 1771-1820.
R O T T E C K , historian. W r o t e a Universal History;
1775-1840.
R U C K E R T , F . , poet. Many of his songs have become n a t i o n a l ; for example,
his " E v e n i n g - s o n g , " " B a r b a r o s s a , " " T r u t h ' s Table-song," " T h e Artist
and the Public " (a comic song about a harper who had no h a n d s ) ; 1788-1866.
R U C K E R T , L . J . , theologian. W r o t e Christian
several commentaries; 1797-1871.
S A L L E T , Frederick von.

W r o t e epigrams,

SCHELLING, p . 257, philosopher.

Philosophy,

satires, and tales;

W r o t e Philosophy

Theology,

and

1812-1843.

of Identity;

1770-1854.

S C H E N K E N D O R F , one of the best lyric poets of the nineteenth century.
W r o t e the Soldiers Morning Song (capital); 1783-1817.
SCHILLER, p . 251, poet, dramatist, and historian. W r o t e William Tell, &c. ;
" T h e Song of the Bell," (quite unrivalled), " C o u n t E b e r h a r d " (a warsong), the " T r o o p e r ' s S o n g , " " P u n c h " (the drink so called), " T o
S p r i n g , " " H o p e , " " T h e D i v e r , " all well k n o w n and p o p u l a r ; also a
History of the Thirty-Years*
Warm excellent German p r o s e ; 1759-1805.
S C H L E G E L , A . W . , p . 252, poet. Translated Shakespeare, and has done it
w e l l ; 1767-1845.
S C H L E I E R M A C H E R , p . 306, head of the Evangelical School. W r o t e Brief
Outlines of Theology; 1768-1834.
S C H L O S S E R , p . 303, historian. W r o t e a History of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries; 1776-1861.
S C H N E C K E N B U R G E R , p . 305, author of the well-known song, " W h o ' l l Guard
the R h i n e ? " 1815-1851.
S C H O Z E R , historian. W r o t e a Universal History, a History of the North, and
Russian Annals ; 1737-1809.
S C H U B E R T , musical c o m p o s e r ; 1797-1828.
S C H U M A N N , musical composer; 1810-1856.
S E N E F E L D E R , p. 260, of Prague, inventor of lithography. W r o t e the Art of
Lithography ; 1771 -1832.
S E U M E , p o e t ; 1763-1810.
S I M R O C K , poet. W r o t e Poems; the following are p o p u l a r : — " T h e Nibelungen
H o a r d , " " Beware of the R h i n e ; " 1802S P I N D L E R , novelist, once very p o p u l a r ; 1795-1855.
S P O H N , philologist; 1792-1824.
S P O H R , p . 261, musical composer. W r o t e Faust, The Crucifixion, & c ; 17S41859.
S P U R Z H E I M , p . 259, disciple of Gall, whose system of phrenology he popularised. Wrote Anatomy of the Brain;
1766-1833.
S T E F F E N S , historic novelist. W r o t e his own Biography, in 10 vols.; 17731845.
STRAUSS, p . 306, leader of the Mythical School of Theology. W r o t e a Life
of Jesus, the Christian
Doctrines of Faith (no better G e r m a n prose
exists); 1808T H I E R S C H , a disciple of Schelling; 1784-1860.

MEN OF NOTE IN LITERATURE.—TABLE 13.

xlv

THUMMEL, Leipzig, novelist. Wrote Wanderings in the South Provinces of
France; 1738-1817.
TIECK, p. 302. Wrote Phantasus and Popular Stories; 1773-1853.
UHLAND, p. 304, head of the Suabian School of poets. He may be called
the "Genre poet of Germany.'' Wrote the " L a d o' the Mountain/'
" E r g o bibamus" (a capital drinking song), " T h e Hostess's Daughter,'
" T h e Peasant's Rule,'* " T h e Sunken Crown," " T h e White Hart,"
" Entertainment," " T h e Chapel," all well known; 1787-1862.
VAN DER VELDE, historical novelist. Wrote Conquest of Mexico, Queen
Christina and her Courts Lichtenstein (one of the very best of German
novels); 1779-1824.
VOGEL, Dr. Edward, p. 260, African explorer; 1829-1856.
VOGLER, p. 261, musician; 1749-1814.
Voss, p. 251, poet and philologist. Translated into German verse Homer,
Hesiod, and Virgil; 1751 -1826.
WAGNER, p. 307, musical composer, 1813WAGNER, novelist. Wrote Opinions of Wilibaldon Human Life; 1767-1812.
WAITZ, anthropologist. Wrote Rudiments of Physiology, and a History of
Schleswig Holstein ; 1821 -1864.
WALDAU, novelist. Wrote After Nature, Cordula, & c ; 1822-1855.
WEBER, pp. 261, 307, musical composer. Author of Der Freischiitz; 17861826.
WEISSE, dramatic author of the Second Silesian School. Wrote tragedies
and comedies, operas and odes. "After the Harvest" is one of his
poems; 1726-1804.
WEZEL, novelist. Wrote the History of Tobias Knaut; 1747-1819.
WIELAND, p. 249, poet. Wrote Oberon, and Agathon (a prose romance),
I733-I8I3ZELLER, p. 306, professor of theology at Tubingen. Wrote a History of the
Christian Church; 1814ZsCHOKKA, historian, poet, and novelist. Wrote a History of the Bavarian
People, a History of the Swiss People, a Glance at Myself, Hours of Prayer,
& c ; 1774-1848.

H I S T O R Y OF GERMANY.
DIVISION I.—PART I.
THE ROMANO-GERMAN PERIOD,
FROM THE CIMBRIAN WAR, B.C. 113, TO THE CONQUEST
OF FRANCE BY CLOVIS, A.D. 486.

THE OVERTHROW OF THE CIMBRI AND
TEUTONI.
B.C. II3-IOI.

I N the year B.C. 113, a people unknown to the Romans
appeared in the passes of the Alps, and demanded a friendly
alliance. They were the Cimbri, some three hundred thousand
of whom, with their wives and children, had moved southwards,
and were 'joined in their route by the Teutons, a tribe from the
borders of the Baltic.
They took their way through Bohemia, Bavaria, and Switzerland; and at length the Italian Gauls implored the Romans to
resist their further progress, "for they covered the face of the
whole land, and did eat up every herb of the field, and all the
fruit of the trees, so that there remained not any green thing
throughout all the land on account of them."
The Romans, accordingly, sent Cneius Papirius Carbo, the
consul, to drive them back or stamp them out. H e tried, at
first, to overreach them by treachery; but at the battle of
Noreia,* in the mountains of Styria, he was slain, and his
whole army would have been cut to pieces had not a storm
arisen to cover the fugitives (B.C. 113).
After this victory the combined hordes marched without
resistance to the south of Gaul (France), and were joined by
a multitude of Helvetians (Swiss) from the foot of the Alps.
They then sent to Rome demanding sufficient territory to form
a colony, and promising, in return, to aid the Romans in their
wars. This request was, of course, refused, and they resolved to
win by the sword what they could not otherwise obtain.
* Noreia (pronounced No-re-i'-ah), now called Neumarkt, is in Styria. Styria is just below Vienna, and
has Hungary to the east.

B

ROMANO-GERMAN PERIOD.

2

[D. i ; Pt. i.

Army after army was sent against them, but army after army
perished. All who resisted " were as the grass of the field, as the
green herb, as the grass on the house-tops, as corn blasted before
it be grown up."
T H E SECOND GENERAL sent to oppose the barbarians was
Junius Silanus, the consul; and a battle was fought in Transalpine Gaul; but the Romans were again discomfited (B.C. 109).
CASSIUS LONGI'NUS, whose province lay in Gallia Narbonensis,* next marched against them, but was totally routed at
the lake Lemanus,t in Geneva. Longinus was slain, and the
remnant of his army was sent under the yokef (B.C. 108).
AURELIUS SCAURUS, a consular legate, was the fourth opponent, but met with no better success. Being made prisoner, he
was taken before the council of war, and questioned about the
Romans, but would only answer that they were invincible.
" H o w s o ? " cried Bajorix, the Cimbrian leader; " h o w can
that b e ? " and, so saying, he cleft the legate's head in twain
with his sword (B.C. 107).
THE

FIFTH

DEFEAT

( B . C 105).—The

conquerors

of

the

world were now seriously alarmed. They thought themselves
invincible, but had been checked by a people whose very names,
a few months ago, had been almost unknown to them. Resolved
to retrieve their fame, they placed a large army under Marcus
Mallius, and sent him to join Caepio, the consul, whose legate,
Scaurus, had been lately defeated and slain. A battle was fought
in Gallia Narbonensis, but with the same result. In this disaster
we are told that 80,000 Roman soldiers and 40,000 camp followers
perished in the field. Mallius and his two sons were amongst the
slain, but Csepio escaped.
T h i s battle was fought on Friday, Oct. 5th, B.C. 105. I t was so disastrous to the R o m a n s
that it was marked in their calendar nefastus (unlucky). N o law proceeding could be carried
on, no popular assembly held, no important enterprise could be undertaken, on such a d a y .
I t is said that Caepio, on his march, stole from the temple of Tolosa {Toulouse) the gold
and silver deposited there, part of it being the booty taken b y the Brennus of the Gauls from
R o m e . T h e subsequent defeat of# the consul was regarded as a Divine punishment of this
sacrilegious act, a n d hence arose the proverbial phrase, Aurunt Tolosdnum habet ( H e has got
the gold of Tolosa% meaning that " his ill-gains will never prosper."
Ten years after his defeat Caepio was brought to trial by the tribune for his conduct in this
battle, a n d was thrown into prison. Some say h e died there ; b u t others affirm that he m a d e
his escape, a n d lived in exile a t Smyrna.

The conquerors, instead of marching at once to Italy, and
availing themselves of the Cimbrian panic, made their way
* GALLIA NARBONENSIS contains Languedoc, Provence, Dauphin^, and Savoy,
t LAKE LEMANUS, now called " T h e Lake of Geneva" or " Lausanne."
% The yoke consisted of an arch made with three spears. A conquered army was made to lay down their
arms and march through this arch in token of subjugation (subjugd, under the yoke).

B.C. II3-IOI.]

THE CIMBRI AND TEUTONI.

3

along the south of France, and penetrated into Spain, leaving
the Romans to repair their losses and recover their selfconfidence.
MARIUS (B.C. 104-101).—But one man now remained in
whom the Romans could confide, and that was Caius Marius,
the conqueror of Jugurtha. He was a plain, bluff soldier, of
mean birth, and very unpopular with the " upper ten." He set
at defiance their conventional ways, paid no respect to timehonoured customs, and was little practised in " the soft phrase of
peace;" but he was a good soldier, and the senate knew it.
He it was who was now charged to make preparations to meet
these locusts from the north, which covered the face of southern
France, and licked up those who were sent against them, " as the
ox licketh up the grass of the field." Accordingly he crossed the
Alps, reached the borders of the Rhone, and encamped there to
drill his men, accustom them to the harsh gutturals of the foe,
and make them familiar with their rude habits and uncivilised
ways. He taught them to meet stragglers and foraging parties;
and by frequent encounters they soon learned that their rivals
were not gods, but men—and men far inferior to themselves in
all the arts of civilisation.
The impetuous Teutons, who thought Marius would attack
them at once, set down his delay to fear. One day a giant of
a fellow, coming to the Roman ramparts, challenged the General
to single combat; but the witty Roman sent him a halter, with
this message:—" If the barbarian is tired of life, Marius sends
him a rope by which he can hang himself."
U Soon as the forces returned from Spain, the barbarians
divided themselves into two parts. The Cimbri advanced along
the Rhine as far as the Tyrol, and the Teutons remained behind
to oppose Marius.
It was six days ere the Cimbrians had all defiled past the
Roman encampment, and as they passed they jeeringly asked the
sentinels if they could take for them any message to their wives
or sweethearts in Rome.
Time rolled on. It was eleven years since the overthrow of
Carbo, and three since Marius had received his commission from
the senate. A squabble now brought things to a head. Some
camp followers, who had gone to the Rhone to fetch water,
encountered a party of bathers in the river. A contest arose.
The noise of the brawl soon spread, and a serious melee ensued.
The Teutons were driven to their chariots, and there the fighting
was renewed; but what added to the hubbub was a furious onB

2

4

ROMANO-GERMAN PERIOD.

[ D . i : Pt.

T.

slaught of the Teuton women, who had armed themselves with
swords and axes. Night put an end to the fray; but it was a
night of terror to the Romans, who every moment expected their
camp would be stormed. The uproar in the Teuton quarters was
something frightful. There were howlings for the dead, groans
from the wounded and dying, the bellowing of oxen, the bleating
of sheep, and the fierce snortings of terrified horses, reverberated
by the river on one side and the forest on the other. It was a
night to be remembered by the Roman encampment.
T h e T e u t o n s O v e r t h r o w n (July, B.C. I O I ) . — D a y broke,
and no attack had been m a d e ; but Marius, convinced he
could no longer defer the struggle, gave orders to prepare for
battle. His infantry was drawn up before the camp, his cavalry
was dispatched to the plain; Marcellus, the second in command,
with 3000 men, was sent to occupy a hill in the enemy's rear,
where he was to lie in ambush till the fight had begun.
When the Teutons saw the Romans arrayed for battle, they
were wild with delight. They thought of Carbo and Silanus,
of Longinus and Scaurus, of Csepio and Mallius, and felt sure
that Marius and his army would add to their triumphs. Without
waiting to be attacked, they rushed on the foe, who occupied the
higher ground. The Romans received them without flinching.
The Teutons fell back, and at this moment Marcellus, having
burst from ambush, attacked them in the rear. Pressed on all
sides, the barbarians were panic-struck, and betook themselves to
flight.
The game was over. The flight became a rout; the rout, a
run for life. The Romans followed. No quarter was given, no
mercy shown. " Then were the horsehoofs broken by means of
the pransings, the pransings of the mighty ones." Death was the
reaper; and his harvest, man. It is said that 100,000 Teutons
fell by the sword in this field.
It was a terrible carnage, a
butchery, the carnival of vengeance, a hecatomb to the spirits of
the dead. Teutobod, the general of the Teutons, escaped to the
mountains, but, being taken captive, was reserved to grace the
triumph of the conqueror.
This great battle was fought at Aix, in Provence, in the year
B.C. 102, just eleven years after the defeat of Corbo at Norela
\No-re-i'-ati\.
It is said that the people of Marseilles employed the bones of the slain to make fences for their vineyards,
and called the field where the battle was fought " T h e Putrid
Plain."
§ The joy of Marius at this most splendid victory was dashed

B.C. 113-101.]

T H E CIMBRI OVERTHROWN.

5

by a message from the consul Catulus, announcing his retreat
before the Cimbri in the north of Italy, and praying Marius to
come to his relief with as little delay as possible.
Again the Cimbri lost their opportunity; for, instead of
marching direct to Rome after the repulse of Catulus, they
remained in the pleasant land, enjoying its novelty, and indulging
in its luxuries. As Capua was the downfall of Hannibal, the
Adige was the Capua of the Cimbri.
*
Having made good his retreat to the river Po, Catulus awaited
the coming of Marius with his victorious army; and then both
consuls prepared to meet the invaders.
T h e C i m b r i O v e r t h r o w n (Aug., B.C. I O I ) . — T h e Cimbri,
who had not heard of the annihilation of the Teutons, now made
overtures of peace, only stipulating that land should be assigned
them in Italy. " B y all means," replied Marius, in the same
bantering spirit with which he had answered the Teuton; "just
land enough to bury you all."
The Cimbrian delegates, indignant at this insolence, threatened
to make him rue it as soon as the Teutons had crossed the Alps.
" Cross the Alps !" cried Marius ; " why, they crossed the Styx a
month ago, and are waiting for you to join them." So saying, he
brought forth Teutobod and other captives in chains, to assure
the deputation of the total overthrow of their allies.
Bajorix, the Cimbrian leader, now went in person to the Roman
prsetorium to ask Marius about the coming battle, leaving to
him the choice of position. " Very good !" said Marius; " we
Romans are not wont to announce beforehand our plan and place
of attack, but for once I'll break a custom. Look out for us
three days hence on the plain between Vercelli and Varesa."*
§ At dawn on the third day the Cimbrian apny was drawn u p ;
the infantry in a solid square, and the 15,000 horsemen on the
right wing. It was the intention of Bajorix to entrap the Romans,
if possible, between this Scylla and Charybdis of horse and foot.
In the meantime the two consuls, having vowed a sacrifice to
the gods if they prevailed, awaited the announcement of the
augurs. " The entrails are favourable," said the priests. " Well,
then," cried Marius, in a voice of thunder, to be heard by the
soldiers, " the victory is our own !"
It was August. The hot sun of the south was terrible to the
Cimbri, and the dust suffocating.
These wanderers from the
north loved the cold, and could wallow naked in December's
* "Vercelli and Varesa." Vercelli is in Piedmont on the river Sesia, Varesa or Varese is in Lombardy,
south of the Lago Maggiore. The battle took place between Como and Magenta, on a plain then called
the Campi Raudii.

6

ROMANO-GERMAN PERIOD.

[D.i;

Pt.i.

snow with real pleasure; but the hot Italian sun was new to
them/ and the sweat poured from them like water.
The fight soon came to close quarters. Here the short Roman
sword proved of great service, and Marius had armed his men
with a hooked lance with which to pull away the leather bucklers
of the foe, leaving their bodies defenceless and exposed. To
make a long story short, the Cimbri were thoroughly defeated,
and the bravest left dead upon the field.
When the victorious Romans reached the baggage wagons of
the foe the scene was heart-rending indeed. There were the
women, in their black dresses, beating the fugitives to renewed
resistance. Some were placing their children under chariotwheels, or the hoofs of horses, to be crushed or trampled
to death. Many were killing themselves to escape captivity.
Some were braving the foe that they might meet with death at
their hands. Death in any form was welcomed. Still some
60,000 were made prisoners. This was the Cimbrian war, and
thus are we introduced to the Teutons, or ancient stock of the
great German race.
Marius was received at Rome with unprecedented honours. He was hailed as the
" Saviour of the state." His name was coupled with the gods, and he received the distinctive
appellation of the "Third Founder," or "Third Romulus,"«Camillus being the second.
At a future period the young Cimbrian captives joined Spartacus, who for two years held
the Romans at bay, and laid Italy waste from the foot of the Alps to the southernmost corner
of the peninsula (B.C. 73-71).

THE ANCIENT CERMANS.
ARYAN STOCK.
Eastern Branch.
PERSIANS.
HINDUS.

Western Branch.
CELTIC.
In Greece, Italy, Spain, France,
the British Isles, &c.
{Breton, Welsh, and Irish are
Celtic dialects?)
Second Swarm.
TEUTONIC.
In Germany.
Spreading into Denmark, Sweden, and Norway,
Thence crossing over into England.
Third Swarm.
S LAVO N IC.
In Poland, Russia, and Bohemia.
First Swarm.

The nations of the world belong to three primitive stocks—the
Semitic, Turanian, and Aryan. The Semitic nations are the
Hebrews, Arabians, and Phoenicians. The Turanian the Chinese,
Tartars or Moguls, and Turks. The Aryan the Persians, Hindus,

T H E ANCIENT GERMANS.

7

and Europeans, with the exceptions of the Basques, the Hungarians, and the Finns.
The first flight from the Aryan hive was the Celtic. It settled
in Greece, and spread into Italy, Spain, France, and the British
Isles. Many years afterwards came the Teutonic swarms which
colonised Germany, and, spreading into Spain and France, became
the dominant power. A part of this great colony, settled in
Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, crossing over to England,
drove the Celtic inhabitants into Cornwall and Wales. Welsh
and Irish are remnants of the old Celtic language, but
English is Teutonic. The third swarm from the Aryan hive was
the Slavonic, which settled in Bohemia, Poland, and Russia.
Hungary alone remains to be accounted for. It was peopled by
Celts and Teutons, no doubt, but some of the Turanian stock
contrived to settle themselves there; and, as the Saxons in
England pushed out the Celts, so these Turanians drove out
the Teutons from Hungary, or compelled them to submit. Even
to the present day the best blood of Hungary is derived from the
Turanian and not from the Teutonic or German race.
T H E ETYMOLOGY of the word Germany is uncertain.
Probably it is Ger-man\ meaning war-men. The Germans call
themselves " Deutsch-en" \JDoitch-n\ their language "Deutsch-e,"
and their country " Deutsch-land." We still call a part of the
same great family the " Dutch;" and German clocks, chiefly made
in the Black Forest, we call Dutch clocks*
" Deutsch-en " is manifestly the same as " Teut-on," with the
initial letter flattened into D, and " Teut" means a multitude, t
It was the Romans who called the people " Germans," and their
country " Germany."!
The French call them " Alle-mands" (two syl.) and their
country " Alle-magne," from a confederacy of sundry tribes called
the " Al-e-man-ni," meaning all-men.
*h The Germans are described by the Romaiis as men of
large stature, approaching to six feet in height,' with broad
shoulders, sinewy limbs, and great bodily strength. Their com* As many as 180,000 of these clocks have been exported from the Black Forest in a single year, but the
trade is now almost superseded by the American clocks. Shakespeare speaks of the Dutch clocks, and
calls them German—
"like a German clock,
Still a-repairing; ever out of frame;
And never going right."
"Love's Labour Lost" Act iii., sc. 1.
t Some derive Teuton from "Teut," the German Jupiter, making the people the "offspring of the god
Teut"; and it is somewhat remarkable that the son of Teut was named " Man."
% In 1547 a tablet, dated B.C. 222, was discovered, recording the victories of the consul Marcellus over
Veridomar, "general of the Gauls and Germans." So that the people were known to the Romans, at least
a century before the Cimbrian War.

8

ROMANO-GERMAN PERIOD.

[D. i ; Pt. i.

plexion was fair, their eyes blue, their hair in childhood of a
bright golden colour, but in manhood it was long and red,
frequently dyed with woad, and twisted into a war-knot on the
top of the head.
The children wore no clothing, and the men only a loose frock
or skin of some wild beast, bound at the waist by a belt. Men,
women, and children bathed daily in cold water all the year
round, were remarkably healthy, and free from bodily infirmities.
Their chief defensive weapon was a long iron-pointed spear,
thrust at the enemy in close combat, but hurled at him when at
a distance.
They did not live, or even sleep, in houses, although, without
doubt, they had huts made of rough timber and thatched with
straw. Several of these huts often stood in the same neighbourhood, but, as a rule, they hated the confinement of house and
home, and much preferred the wild lawless liberty of a squatter.
The men found their chief delight in the perils and excitement
of war; in peace their favourite pastime was drinking beer, and
their carousals not unfrequently ended in a fray.
The German women were held in very high honour. Their
chastity was without reproach. They accompanied their husbands
to battle, to cheer them with their presence, and sometimes to
incite them by their example.
Both sexes were equally distinguished for their love of liberty,
and many a woman would kill both herself and her children
rather than fall into the power of a conqueror.
Every ancient German tribe was divided into four classes:
the nobles, the freemen, the vassals, and the slaves. The vassals
were slaves who had obtained their freedom, and either waited
on their lord, or held lands under him for service definitely
prescribed.
They were democratic in their Government. All questions
of peace and war, and all things relating to the general interests
of a tribe were decided in a popular assembly, where every
freeman had a voice. In these assemblies the king of the tribe
was elected from among the nobles, but he acted as chief
magistrate only in times of peace; immediately war broke out
some well tried warrior was raised on the shoulders of his
followers, as leader, amid wild battle cries, and the clash of
spear and shield.
T H E RELIGION of the ancient Germans was extremely simple.
They believed in a single supreme deity, called All-vater or
All-father, too sublime for temples made with hands; but at

B.C. 58.]

ARIOVISTUS.

9

stated times they went to some sacred grove, with feet bound
together, in token of submission. Subsequently this simplicity
of religion was mixed with Celtic and Roman superstitions, when
sun, moon, and stars were held in divine honour, and Woden or
Odin was the omnipotent of Valhalla.
Their other chief deities, after their migration southwards, were
Isis, supposed to be Fried, the wife of Odin; Nerthus or Hertha,
the mother of the gods; Mars or Tue, the god of battles; and
Jupiter, supposed to be Thor, the god of thunder.
Originally they had no priests, but as their gods and goddesses
increased they required both men and women ministers. Some
of these latter, as Veleda, for example, have become famous in
story for " prophetic powers."
Veleda was a prophetess of the Bructeri, a tribe which occupied both sides of the river
now called Ems. She induced Civilis, the Hannibal of Batavia, to revolt from the Romans,
but, notwithstanding the prophetic promise, the struggle was not successful. (Tacitus,
Germania,) 33.)

ARIOVISTUS.
B.C. 58.

About half-a-century after the Cimbrian War we come to the
next passage of arms between the Germans and the Romans.
The former led by Ariovist, and the latter by Julius Csesar.
This contest was not provoked, like the former, by an invasion
of Roman territory, but was the outcome of German and Roman
interference in the affairs of Gaul {France).
In that part of Gaul, afterwards called Burgundy, were two
neighbouring tribes, the Sequani and the Ed'ui, who were for ever
at war with each other. The former, being unable to hold their
own, applied to the Germans for aid, and an army was sent into
" Upper Burgundy," under the conduct of Ariovist. The Edui,
on the other hand, applied to Rome, and the Senate sent Julius
Csesar to their defence. Thus we have, on one side, the Sequani
of Gaul supported by the Germans under Ariovist; and the Edui
of Gaul, on the other, supported by the Romans, under the first
Csesar.
When Csesar reached the Eduan territory, he sent heralds to
the German army-chief demanding a conference, but Ariovist
replied: " If I want Caesar, I will go to Caesar; and if Csesar
wants me he must come to me." To this Csesar sent word back,
as the Romans had taken the Edui under their protection, the
enemy of the one would be accounted the enemy of the other

IO

ROMANO-GERMAN PERIOD.

[D. i ; Pt. r.

also; and, unless the Germans wished to declare war with Rome,
they must withdraw beyond the Rhine, and give hostages not to
cross it again. To this Ariovist made answer : " No one has ever
attacked the Germans with impunity, and if Caesar attempts it,
he will find to his cost that they can endure ' the grappling vigour
and rough frown of war.' They are inured to fatigue from infancy, and never sleep under the cover of a roof."
A quarrel deliberately sought is not likely to be laid by a
war of words, the intention of which is only to find a pretext for
open hostility. Caesar never wished nor intended peace, and at
once put his army in motion. Ariovist did the same, and made
choice of a most excellent position. Caesar tried to force him to
a general engagement, but this for a time he carefully avoided.
At length the die was cast. The baggage and the women were
sent to the rear, and the order of attack was given. For a. time
the fury of both sides was equal. The Roman left wing gave
way, but their right wing drove back the Germans. As the
Romans were under better control they quickly rallied, but the
repulse of the Germans produced confusion, confusion terror,
and terror flight. The Roman cavalry pursued the fugitives. It
was a " save himself who can," and the carnage was dreadful.
Among the German captives was one of the daughters of
Ariovist, the other lay dead among the slain. As for the armychief, his office only continued during actual war, and all we
further know of him is that he and his two wives escaped,
carrying their lives in their hands.
"Ariovist" is probably not a proper name at all. It is evidently compounded of two
German words, heer fiirst (army-chief)-

GERMANS ENROLLED IN THE ROMAN ARMY.
To B.C. 48.

After the overthrow of Ariovist, Caesar occupied himself in the
subjugation of Gaul; but he twice crossed the Rhine with a view
of attacking the Suevi. H e found it impossible to dislodge them
from their fastnesses, but he succeeded in inducing many of them
to join his army; for the excitement of war was their delight. It
was to them, as Shakespeare says, " a sprightly waking, audible,
and full of vent."
In the contest which Caesar afterwards carried on against
Pompey, these red-haired mercenaries formed the sinews of his
strength. The army of Pompey was composed, for the most
part, of Roman cavaliers, proud of their " blue blood," and vain

B.C. 12-9.]

WARS WITH T H E ROMANS.

II

of their personal appearance. Caesar opposed to these trim
soldiers his burly Germans, and at the battle of Pharsalia (B.C. 48)
told them to strike " a t the face of the foe," knowing well that
those Roman dandies dreaded a scarred face more than they
feared death. " A i m at the face, soldiers!" cried Caesar; and
his rough mercenaries played such havoc with the curled and
scented exquisites, that Caesar's victory wras complete.
From that day forth the Germans formed the best part of the
Roman army, and during the empire were selected for the imperial guard.

WARS WITH THE ROMANS.
F R O M B.C. 12 T O A . D .

486.

DRUSUS (B.C. 12-9).—Nothing of any moment is known of
the Germans after the overthrow of Ariovist till we come to the
four expeditions of Drusus, son of Tiberius Claudius Nero, and
younger brother of Tiberius, the future emperor of Rome.
This favourite of Augustus built some forty fortresses on the
banks of the Rhine, and in his four expeditions advanced as far
as the river Elbe, sweeping everything before him.
It is said he was about to cross the river when he was accosted
by an apparition. It was a woman of gigantic stature, who said
to him, in the Latin tongue, "Insatiable Drusus, whither goest
thou? T h e Fates have decreed thus far, but no further shalt
thou go. Thy work is done, and thy life hastens to its close."
Who this woman was nobody knows ; but it is quite certain that
the young soldier, then in the thirty-first year of his age, returned
to the Rhine, fell from his horse, fractured his leg, and died
within a few weeks.
'
TIBERIUS (B.C. 9-8).—The German war was then committed
to Tiberius, the elder brother of Drusus, whose policy was craft.
H e was no hunter, like Nimrod, but a fisher who caught his prey
by guile.
This adopted son of Augustus, who succeeded to the imperial
purple, gave out that he wished to establish an abiding peace;
but when the German magnates arrived he made them all
prisoners, and then marched against the people, who were as
sheep having no shepherd. No resistance was offered, for there
was no one to organize it; so 40,000, being made captives, were
sent in exile to Gaul {France), which at that time was a Roman
province.

12

ROMANO-GERMAN PERIOD.

[D.i;

Pt.i.

VARUS AND HERMANN* (A.D. 6).—For a time all went
smoothly. Several German tribes became voluntary allies of Rome,
and it seemed not unlikely that all Fatherland would ere long become a Roman province; but in A.D. 6, Quintilius Varus was sent
over as the Roman governor. H e had previously been Governor of
Syria. " When he went thither the province was rich, and Varus
poor ; but when he left, the province was poor, and Varus rich."
H e thought to ride rough-shod over the Germans as he had
ridden over the Syrians; and proceeded to plunder them, to treat
them with contumely, to claim the right of life and death even
over the free men, and to abolish their language. All public trials
were carried on in Latin; all edicts were published in the same
tongue. Latin was the language of the governor's court, and the
only one listened to, Lictors were introduced, and evil-doers
were subjected to corporal punishment.
Varus wholly mistook the character of the people he came to
rule. H e had been accustomed to the debased natives of Syria,
where courage in man, and virtue in woman, were unknown, and
never gave it a thought that the sons of Germany were highminded, and her daughters pure in spirit. The Roman soldiery
might with impunity violate the domestic shrines of the Syrians,
but any attempt of the kind in Germany would most certainly be
resented by revolt.
And so it was. The Germans were indignant beyond measure.
When matters come to a climax, a leader is never long wanting.
There was, on each side of the river Weser, a large German tribe
called the Cherusci. The son of their chief was named Hermann,
who had been educated at Rome, and had been made both a
Roman citizen and a Roman knignt.
This young prince saw the yoke put upon his fellow-countrymen,
and resolved to cast it off. H e spoke in secret to the chiefs of
several tribes, and found them more than willing to support him.
The heart of the people was, in fact, as the heart of one m a n ;
but to declare open war against Rome would have been madness.
Varus had three legions under him, iooo Roman horse, and a
large army of allies. A line of forts had been extended all along
the south of Germany and eastward from the Rhine to the Elbe.
It was needful, therefore, to catch the governor by guile in order
to insure success. So the confederates frequented the headquarters of Varus, retained their posts in his army, and continued
to flatter him to the top of his bent.
When Hermann was ready, he gave notice of a revolt in the
* The Latin form of this name is Arminius.

A.D. 6.]

HERMANN AND VARUS.

13

German tribes in what is now called Oldenburg, between the
Weser and the Ems. Varus resolved to stamp it out at once, set
his army in motion, and marched to Lippe.
Turn now to a map of Germany. Lat. 52 0 and Long. 8° will
direct the eye to a range of hills called the Wald, or the Teutoberger Wald, a little to the west of the river. This Wald is a
table-land intersected with deep valleys, surrounded by steep
mountains and rocks. All the valleys are traversed by rapid
streams, and the high grounds are covered with forests of oaks.
This is the district into which Varus was allured, and the names
of several places still bear testimony to the disaster which awaited
him. One is named " T h e Field of Victory;" another, " B o n e
Lane ; " a third, " Bone B r o o k ; " and a fourth, " The Cauldron
of Slaughter."
It was the middle of September, and the season had been an
unusually wet one, so that the ground was sodden and slippery;
but Varus, little dreaming of danger, led his legions into the very
midst of the wood. The thunder roared, the lightning flashed,
down came the rain in torrents. The forest oaks howled with the
most weird noises. No order was preserved, nor indeed could be.
Here struggled the heavy baggage-wagons as best they might;
there trudged the weary soldiers, regardless of rank or discipline;
the women were faint with fatigue, draggled with mire, and not a
little alarmed at the strange noises. Evidently " they fought from
heaven : " the stars in their courses fought against Varus. Night
came on. T h e worn-out soldiers had still to throw up fortifications
for the night. With a wild, unearthly yell, echoed from every part
of the forest, the Germans rushed upon the foe, and all the Germans
in the Roman army deserted. So sudden the attack, so unearthly
the noises, so lurid the heavens above, so dismal the ground beneath, so numerous the deserters, that no spirit was left in the
legions, who fell like sheep. Varus threw himself on his sword.
Most of his high officers did the same. Resistance was in
vain ; down dropped their idle weapons. " Exhausted, spiritless,
afflicted," fell the foe. It was not a victory, it was a massacre—a
destruction root and branch. Not that every man was put to the
sword, but that what remained was only as " the shaking of an
olive-tree, as the gleaning of grapes when the vintage is done."
Some of the survivors were reserved for sacrifice, more for
menials and slaves ; so that here and there long after might be
seen amidst the German tribes some Roman senator guiding a
yoke of oxen, or some of the bluest blood of Rome tending the
swine or watching the sheep of a German peasant.

14

ROMANO-GERMAN PERIOD.

[D.i; Pt.i.

To this victory in the Teutoberg forest the Germans owe their
liberty and even their separate existence. If Varus had subjugated the Germans, the whole history of Europe would have been
changed, and even England itself would not have been the Saxon
England it now is. Never was battle more important. Never
was victory more pregnant with events. From that moment
Germany had a separate existence. The Roman garrisons were
cut off, and the German soil was freed from the oppressor.
When Augustus heard of the disaster he was like a man beside
himself. For many a day he neither shaved his beard nor
trimmed his hair, but was for ever pacing up and down exclaiming, " O Varus, Varus, give me back my legions ! O Varus,
Varus, my legions, my legions ! Who will restore my legions ? "
He seemed to expect a general revolt. In his frenzy he banished
from the empire every German, for perhaps Hermann was
marching to Rome with his victorious army; but, most wisely,
the young prince made no attempt to pursue his conquests
beyond the fatherland.
The blow was never forgotten. The Romans abandoned
Germany for ever, and the Rhine was the acknowledged
boundary of the two nations. It was so, at any rate, till the
fifth century, when the Germans became the assailants, and
carved old Rome, with its numerous provinces, into the kingdoms of modern Europe.
I n this very same spot, in 1568, Prince Louis of Nassau overthrew the Spanish a r m y
commanded by Aremberg, who had been sent thither by the D u k e of Alva. Aremberg fell
covered with wounds, and all his a r m y perished. Motley says, " T h e wrath of the duke was
even greater than his surprise. Like Augustus, he called in vain on the dead commander for
his legions, but prepared himself to inflict a terrible r e t r i b u t i o n . " — " D u t c h Republic,"
P t . i n . , p . 2.

GERMANICUS AND HERMANN (A.D. 14-16).—After the overthrow of Varus the Romans made no further effort, during the
lifetime of Augustus, to reduce the Germans to subjection; but
at the death of that emperor (A.D. 14) a general revolt in the
Roman army took place. The young soldiers struck for an
increase of pay, and the veterans demanded their discharge.
Germanicus, the son of Drusus, had at the time the command
of the legions, and, as much to divert their minds as anything
else, led them into Germany.
He made three expeditions into that country, in which invasions
he was opposed by Hermann; and although, without doubt, he
achieved a certain degree of success, he was compelled after each
campaign to withdraw to the banks of the Rhine.
These victories are greatly lauded by Roman historians; but as

A.D. 250-480.]

GOTHS AND HUNS.

,

15

they were wholly without any influence on the history of the
people, they need no further mention.
F o r some unknown reason the Emperor Tiberius recalled his nephew from Germany, a n d
three years afterwards he died, probably from poison, in the thirty-fourth year of his a g e
( A . D . 19).

MARBOD

AND HERMANN

(A.D. 19-21).—Hermann

being

delivered from all fear of the Romans, grew jealous of a native
chief, named Marbod, who had established a large and flourishing
kingdom in Bohemia.
This Marbod had been sent in boyhood to Rome with other
hostages, and by his muscular limbs, his noble bearing, and proud
spirit, had attracted the attention of Augustus. On his return to
Germany, he gathered round him a large number of restless spirits,
and formed a settlement in the mountainous districts of Bohemia.
T i i s settlement he organized on the Roman model, called his
< iinur Marcomania, or "border-land," and had for his capital a
- vn lere now stands the city of Prague. His army consisted
c 70,000 foot and 4000 horse, which he kept in good training by
constant inroads on neighbouring tribes.
Marbod had taken no part in the late struggle, and Hermann
resolved to attach the new kingdom to his own dominions. Accordingly, he made war on Marbod, and so utterly defeated him
that his kingdom was broken up, and he himself sought refuge in
Rome (A.D. 19).*
Hermann did not long survive, being murdered, at the age of
thirty-seven, probably by his uncle and father-in-law, out of
jealousy of his renown (A.D. 21). This German Cidf was undoubtedly the greatest hero of the period, and, as the liberator
of his country, long lived in the national ballads and historic
lays.

T H E GOTHS AND HUNS.
A.D. 250-480.

It' would be tedious and profitless to dwell on the other
struggles of the Germans and Romans; suffice it to say the
former from year to year grew stronger and stronger, and the
latter weaker and more weak, till at length the Goths broke up
their empire, and changed the whole face of Europe.
T h e G o t h s were a part of the great Teutonic swarm, at one
* He passed the rest of his life an exile in Ravenna, and died at the age of fifty-three (A.D. 35).
t The Cid was the King Arthur of Spanish romance—half historic and half legendary. Poets and
romancers chose these names for their heroes, to give an air of probability to the achievements related in
their books.

16

ROMANO-GERMAN PERIOD.

[D. i ; Pt. i.

time dispersed about the southern and eastern shores of the
Baltic, but afterwards settled on the coast of the Black Sea,
where, in the middle of the third century, they split into two
parts. Those who remained in the eastern parts of Europe were
called the Eastern, or Ostro, Goths; and those that journeyed
westwards, the Western, or Visi, Goths.
Some of the latter, in A.D. 250, invaded Gaul, and made
themselves masters of that Roman province.*
T h e Huns.—Scarcely had the Goths separated, when a
new element of disturbance was introduced by an inroad of
Huns. They had overrun China, but, being driven from the
Celestial Empire by Vou-ti,f many left the steppes of Tartary and
made their way to the Caspian Sea. A part crossing the Caucasus
came into collision with the Eastern Goths (A.D. 375).
They are described by Greek and Roman authors as hideom v
ugly—more like gorillas than men. With broad shoulder ., sh( :
thick necks, flat noses, small black eyes deeply sunk in tJ.e hec .,
no beard, and very little hair. They were filthy in person, repulsive in habits, and savage to the last degree; but they were
undoubtedly warlike, admirable horsemen, and capable of enduring
almost any amount of privation and fatigue.
Under Attila these Huns devastated Italy; but soon after the
death of that chief they gradually fade away, being probably
absorbed in other races possessed of more force of character
(A.D. 453)-

THE CONVERSION OF THE GERMANS.
A.D. 250-755.

From the time of Tiberius to that of Charlemagne the political
history of the Germans is almost a blank; but during this period
many petty states were formed, each governed by its own chief,
and, what is of far more importance, Christianity was introduced
into the country.
By the middle of the third century the doctrine of the Cross
had made considerable way in France, and in those parts of
Germany which lay nearest to France and Rome.
Cologne,
Treves, and Mentz J were the first places in Germany which had
Christian Churches.
* These Visi-Goths were called "Franks," from the franciska, or battle-axe, which they used. It
resembled the lochaber-axe, and consisted of a handle three feet long- with a small axe-head and a spur
behind. The Frankish confederation contained these seven tribes:—The Chauci, Sicambri, Attuari,
Bructeri, Chamavi, Catti, and Salii or Cherusci.
t Called, in their own tongue, " Hiong-nu."
% Cologne, the French form of Coin, or Koln.
Treves, the English form of Trier, in Prussia ; in French Trhves; Lat. Treviri.
Mentz, the English form of Mainz \Mynce\\ in French Mayence.

A.D. 250-755-1

CONVERSION OF T H E GERMANS.

17

About the same time the Goths who had settled in Thrace
became converts. In some of their incursions into Asia Minor
christian captives had fallen into their hands, and these captives
taught them " t h e power and the wisdom of God."
Not long after, Ulfilas, called the " Apostle of the Goths," was
appointed their first bishop (348-388). H e was a man of great
talent, and succeeded in civilising these barbarians, insomuch that
they became the most polished and enlightened of all the Teuton
tribes. H e even translated the Scriptures into the Gothic tongue,
and one copy at least of his four Gospels is still extant.
Somewhat later the doctrine of the Cross was introduced into
other parts of Germany, chiefly by English and Irish missionaries.
Columban, an Irish monk, in the sixth century evangelized the
Bavarians (then called Boii) and other German nations..
Gall, one of his companions, laboured with equal zeal in the
parts about Zurich and Constance. A monastery near the latter
lake still exists called by his name.
Kilian, another Irishman, carried to Wurtzburg the tidings of
salvation, and was murdered (689) by Geilana, a woman living with
duke Gosbert. She was his brother's wife; and as John the
Baptist reproved Herod for living with Herodias, so Kilian
reproved Gosbert for living with Geilana, and the vengeance of
a wicked woman was the death of both.
Willibrod, of Northumberland, towards the close of the same
century, preached in Holland the christian faith, and was created
the first bishop of Utrecht (A.D. 693).
Disen, an Irish monk, about the same time laboured in the
neighbourhood of Mentz with extraordinary success.
In the same century Rupert, or Robert, was invited over by the
duke of Bavaria to come and instruct his subjects more perfectly.
His preaching was with great power, and he was made the first
bishop of Salzburg. This zealous prelate was succeeded by an
Irishman, who took the name of Virgil, a prelate of wonderful
modesty and humbleness of mind. H e died A.D. 781.
But by far the foremost man of all was Winfrid, a native of
Crediton, in Devonshire, a monk of the Benedictine order. At an
early age he went to Utrecht " to water where Willibrod had
planted." Afterwards he passed into Bavaria; then carried the
glad tidings into what is now called Saxony; then, returning to
Holland, met Willibrod, the aged missionary, in co-operation with
whom he built several churches, schools, and religious houses.
In 723, Pope Gregory II. consecrated the English monk " Bishop
of the New German Churches," changing his name, to Boniface,

c

18

KARLOVINGIAN

PERIOD.

[D.i;Pt.n.

the "Well-doer;" and, ten years later, Gregory I I I . made him
Archbishop of Mentz.
It was Boniface who established the
bishoprics of Ratisbon, Passau, and Wurtzburg in Bavaria, Erfurt
in Saxony, and two or three other sees.
After labouring for above forty years in the conversion of the
Germans, he was murdered near Utrecht, in Holland, in the
seventy-fifth year of his age, and was buried in Hessen-Cassel, in
the abbey of Fulda, which he had founded. Unquestionably he
was one of the greatest missionaries that ever lived, and well
deserves to be called the " Apostle of the Germans " (680-755).
It was an age of missionary enterprise, and the self-devotion,
piety, and zeal, of these heroic Christians is the only gleam of
sunshine in the dark picture of the times.* Sad is it to think how
soon their successors dishonoured the holy work and word by
their riotous living, gross worldliness, and utter ignorance of the
very first principles of Gospel truth.

DIVISION L— P A R T II.

C H A R L E M A G N E , OR K A R L T H E
BORN A.D.

K i n g of the Franks 46 Years, A . D . 768-814.
Contemporary

GREAT.

742.

Emperor of the West 14 Years, A . D . 800-814.

with the

Heptarchy.

Father, Pepin le Bref. Mother, Bertrada or Bertha. Sister, Gisla. Brothers, Karloman
and Grifon.
Wives,
(1) Desiderata, daughter of Desiderius king of L o m b a r d y ; divorced. (2) Hildegarde, daughter of Godfrey duke of Suabia, and the mother of six children. (3) Fastrade,
the cause of all the few acts of cruelty which disfigure this reign. She was the daughter
of Rodolf the Saxon, and mother of two daughters. T h e following six are also called
wives :—Hamiltrude, a poor F r a n k who bore him m a n y children ; Luitgarde, a German ;
Maltegarde ; Gersuinde, the Saxon ; Reglna ; and Adalinda.
Issue, by Hildegarde : Karl, Pepin, and Ludwig : Rotrude, Bertha, and Gisla. By Fastrade :
two daughters. By other women : four sons and two daughters. In all, seven sons and
seven daughters.
Palaces, Aix-la-Chapelle ; Ingelheim in H e s s e n - D a r m s t a d t ; and N i m e g u e n on the W a a l .
Buried in the great church of Aix-la-Chapelle.
Language of the Court, German.
Biographers,
Eginhard, his secretary; Acciajuoli, who died 1478; Petruccio Ubaldini,
I
599 > G. H . Gaillard {French), 1782 ; G. P . R. J a m e s {English), 1847.
Learned Men of the period,, Alcuin, an Englishman ; Leutrad, a German ; Peter, a Pisan ;
Agobard, a Spaniard; Theodrilph, an Italian Goth. All of the king's court and
household.

A . D . 768-814.]

CHARLEMAGNE.

19

Empire at death, All France (except Brittany); Spain, from the Pyrenees to the river
E b r o ; almost all Germany and _ Austria; all Italy (except N a p l e s ) ; part of Turkey in
E u r o p e ; the islands Majorca, Minorca, Ivica, and Corsica.
H i s sword was called La Joyeuse; his peers, Paladins.

The long reign of Charlemagne has always been regarded as
the most important epoch of early European history. As a man
and a monarch he never had an equal. Alexander the Great was
infinitely inferior to him except as a warrior; Julius Caesar and
Napoleon I. came nearer the high mark; but our own Alfred
approached nearest to him in benevolence, judgment, and legislative wisdom.
%
The great Karl is generally included in French history; but he
no more belongs to France than Edward I I I . did. Both were
" Kings of France," but both had other dominions which they
preferred. As for Charlemagne, he was essentially German. H e
spoke German ; the language of his court was German; he lived
in Germany; his three favourite palaces were all in Germany; he
died in Germany; and there, too, he was buried.
c 2

20

KARLOVINGIAN PERIOD.

[D. i; Pt. II.

H e was a man of gigantic stature, rising over seven feet in
height, and somewhat corpulent, but so well proportioned that his
great size was scarcely noticed except when others stood beside
him. His head was round; the expression of his face, open,
benevolent, and cheerful; his neck, short and thick; his eyes,
large, quick, and lustrous; his nose was what is called " t h e
conqueror's nose"—that is, prominent, straight, and rising at the
bridge; his hair was of a brownish hue, fine, thick, and flowing;
his step, firm; his hand, so strong it could straighten three horseshoes at once; his voice, clear, but somewhat shrill; his deportment, dignified and manly; his health, excellent.
H e was mild in temper, courteous and sociable; most just and
liberal, vigilant and industrious, magnanimous and self-denying.
Abstemious in diet, simple in dress, hating luxury, a despiser of
flattery, and without a tinge of vanity. Extremely charitable, a
great cultivator and most liberal promoter of the arts, a noble
patron of learning, easy of access, delighting in strangers of
eminence, and patient in hearing suitors.
Like all really great men, he had an untiring vigour of mind,
which seemed to grasp everything, from universal empire to the
rotation of farm crops. No amount of labour wearied h i m ;
nothing was too great, nothing too little, to engage his attention.
H e felt an interest in mending a broken toy or soothing a fretful
child, as well as in the hurly-burly of a battle-field.
In dress he was most simple. His clothes were made in the
plainest fashion, differing very little from those worn by the
common people. His under-garments were linen; his waistcoat
and tunic were edged with silk; his trousers reached to his
ankles, and fitted tight to the legs. His feet were covered with
boots, and his ankles bound with linen sandal-straps, somewhat
like those of a Scotch costume.
In winter he wore over his chest an ermine or otter's skin, and
a loose cloak fastened at the right shoulder with a gold or silver
clasp. Only on two occasions could he be induced to put on
robes of state: they were in compliment to Pope Adrian, and
his successor Pope Leo I I I .
In eating he was most abstemious, and still more so in drinking.
Drunkenness he abhorred, and banquets were his abomination.
His table was rarely served with more than four dishes. H e
preferred roast meat to boiled; and at his noon-day meal his
attendant brought him up his favourite roast on a spit, hot from
the fire. After dinner he took a little fruit, and then a nap for
about two hours.

A.D. 800-814.]

CHARLEMAGNE.

21

While dining, his reader read to him. His favourite books
were St. Augustine's De Civitate Dei, and the Wars of the Jews,
by Josephus.
H e liked to have learned men about him, and made some
progress himself in several branches of literature. H e spoke
Latin as fluently as his own German; had a fair knowledge of
Greek; studied theology, astronomy, grammar, rhetoric, and
logic; was a great collector of national ballads; but found his
fingers too stiff and awkward to make much progress in copying
manuscripts, an art in which his beautiful daughters greatly
excelled.
His chief delight was horsemanship. H e was passionately
fond of hunting, and, next to hunting, swimming, in which he
was wholly unrivalled. H e loved the German spas, and freely
used the hot mineral waters.
During his long reign of forty-six years, Charlemagne made
fifty-six great expeditions, and many of less note. Of these,
eighteen were against his neighbours, the Saxons; but only two
of the Saxon campaigns resulted in a battle; the rest were mere
military demonstrations, in which forts were built, unruly natives
captured and " made Christians " at the point of the sword, forests
traversed, rivers crossed, and submission exacted; after which he
returned home, till another rising called for a fresh expedition.
This tedious opposition went on for three-and-thirty years, when
patience was fairly worn out, and the Saxons, being subjugated,
consented to be baptized.
His other wars were against the Aquitanians (a people of Gaul
between the Loire and the Gironde), the Bretons, the Avars in
Hungary, and the Spanish Moors. All of which we shall here
pass by.

Charlemagne made Kaiser (800).—The father of
Charlemagne was Pepin, surnamed " l e Bref," who usurped the
crown and called himself " King of the Franks." But, to give
his title colour, he induced the pope's legate to anoint him,
after the manner of the Jews.
It so happened at this juncture that the pope had a contention
with the Lombards about image-worship. The pope insisted that
images and pictures were aids to devotion, especially with the
illiterate and ignorant; but the Lombards maintained that they
savoured of idolatry; and because these reformers destroyed
them in their churches, they were nicknamed "image-breakers."
The quarrel was so fierce that it led to war, and the pope fled
to Pepin for aid. The usurper seized this opportunity to get

[D.i; P t . n .

KARLOVINGIAN PERIOD.

22

himself crowned by His Holiness, and the pope conferred on him
the title of " Patrician of Rome," which made him the representative of the imperial power of the West.
The ceremony over, Pepin marched against the Lombards,
defeated them, and gave to the pope " t h e exarchate of Ravenna"
(A.D. 755). This is called " T h e Donation of Pepin," and is
especially noteworthy, as thereon rested the whole fabric of the
temporal sovereignty of the pope. Up to that time the popes
were only spiritual lords; the exarchate gave them a temporal
dominion also.
Charlemagne continued the title of "Patrician of R o m e "
which had been conferred on his father by Adrian I., and
another petition of the pope for aid helped him to other
honours.
On the death of Adrian, Leo I I I . was elected pope; but
two rival candidates conspired to murder him, and he fled to
Charlemagne for protection. The great king threw his segis
over the fugitive, and restored him to the papal chair, for which
service Leo conferred on his benefactor the title of Impera'tor
Augustus, and crowned him in solemn pomp as " K a r l , King
of the Franks, Kaiser Augustus of the Romans."*
Thus was revived, in name at least, the Western empire. A
christian priest, who had no right to the empire even if it
had existed, gave it to a German as a thank-offering. It was
altogether a piece of mummery; yet it involved a question of
vast importance in the future history of Germany—viz., whether
the monarch was "Kaiser" or "Emperor of the Romans,"
in virtue of his kingly office, or was it essential for him to go
to Rome for the title ? In other words, was he " kaiser" ex officio, or
must the title be conferred on him by the pope ? For 200 years
the emperors went to Rome for the title; but Henry II. of
Germany broke through the custom, and assumed it ex officio.
In the next century the heir elect to the throne was called " King
of the Romans," till his coronation as " King of Germany."
CHARLEMAGNE

AS

A

LEGISLATOR.—The

conquests

of

the

great Karl are by no means his only title to admiration and
respect. That which raises him above all the monarchs of his
age is the wisdom of his laws, whereby he replaced anarchy by
order, and bound together in one a multitude of races differing
in origin, language, manners, laws, and religion.
* Keyser is Low German for imperator, or Caesar, and therefore the Emperor of Germany styles himself
Keyser; . . . and " Carolus Caesar Augustus," or "Carolus Imperator Augustus," rendered into Low
German is " Karl keyser Wehzen desr Reichs."—SELDEN, Titles of Honour, ch. v., p. 47 (1673).

A.D. 800-814.]

CHARLEMAGNE.

23

Twice a year he convoked a kind of parliament, consisting
of bishops, abbots, and chieftains, to remedy abuses, and to
deliberate on his laws, called capitularies*
In order to make these laws respected, he divided his whole
empire into districts, confiding the authority of each district to
three or four magistrates who were expected to report to him
everything of moment. And such was his diligence, that he
made it his business to become acquainted with every political
movement of his vast empire.
A curious kind of ordeal w a s instituted in this reign called " T h e judgment of the cross,"
which was this :—The plaintiff and defendant of a suit were required to cross their arms upon
their breast, and he who could hold them thus the longest gained the suit.
I n this reign, also, was introduced the plan of telling fortunes by opening a book containing
the Jour Evangelists and the Psalms. ^ T h e book was opened a t random, and the finger
laid promiscuously upon a passage, which was supposed to be prophetic. I n the age of
Clovis, the book of the Acts of the Apostles was similarly employed. T h e Greeks used the
epic poems of Homer, and the Latins the JEneid of Virgil, for a similar purpose.

CHARLEMAGNE A PROMOTER OF EDUCATION.—Charlemagne,

fully aware that education is the best method of civilising a
people, used all his endeavours to introduce among his subjects
a taste for literature and the fine arts, in which commendable
labour he was greatly aided by Alcuin, a native of York, and
disciple of the Venerable Bede. As example is better than
precept, the monarch established in his own household a Schola
Palatina, which accompanied the court wherever it went, and
was attended by himself, his sons and daughters, and the high
officers of the realm.
Other schools were planted in various parts of his dominions.
That in St. Martin's Abbey, at Tours, was on the model of the
great school of York. This was Alcuin's favourite foundation,
and it was here he delivered his lectures after his retirement from
court.
Besides his attention to schools, Alcuin spent no little of his
time in correcting manuscripts. The Greek and Latin manuscripts had become greatly debased and mutilated; but Alcuin
undertook to correct the spelling and bad grammar, arrange what
was misplaced, and restore what was missing. As soon as a
manuscript was fully corrected, it was copied out by good writers,
and the copies were sent to the different schools and monasteries
of the empire. Transcribing manuscripts was the most fashionable occupation of the day, in which the royal princesses took an
active part, and greatly excelled.
• Capitulary, from the Latin capitZla (chapters), so called because the code was divided into chapters.

24

KARLOVINGIAN PERIOD.

[D.i; P t . n .

Many new subjects of study were introduced in this reign.
Hitherto almost the only literature of the empire consisted of
sermons, legends, and morals. Alcuin introduced rhetoric,
grammar, jurisprudence, astronomy, natural history, chronology,
mathematics, poetry, and scripture comments. His elementary
treatises on philosophy, rhetoric, philology, grammar, and mathematics are still extant.
Alcuin also took a deep interest in the great religious question
of the day,—images and pictures as aids to devotion. He
advised the king to submit it to a general council of the bishops
of the West, and the result of this advice was the Carolin Books,
in which the practice is condemned.
Enriched by many abbeys and princely favours, Alcuin died
about ten years before his royal patron (726-804).
T h e custom of dating from the christian era was generally adopted in the empire of
Charlemagne in 808. An alteration in the calendar was also introduced at the same time.
T h e Franks had previously begun the year on M a r c h 1, the day of the Champ de Mars, or
National Assembly; but Christmas D a y was now made N e w Year's Day, and continued to
be so reckoned till the sixteenth century, when N e w Year's D a y was shifted to the i s t of
January.
N.B.—When the year began with March, it was made to consist of only three s e a s o n s ;
hence we ourselves, like other Teutons, have no word for autumn.
Spring, summer, winter,
a r e native w o r d s ; but " a u t u m n " is the Latin
autumn[us].

Death of Charlemagne (A.D. 814).—Domestic griefs
saddened the last days of this splendid reign. The great Karl
had to blush for the misconduct of some of his daughters, and to
weep for the death of his two elder and favourite sons, one of
whom died in 810, and the other in the year following.
He had made his eldest son regent of France and Germany,
and his second son regent of Italy. He intended, at death, to
leave them independent sovereigns; but his design was brought
to naught by their untimely death within a few months of each
other.
Grief made great inroads on the old king's health. Falling
into a state of melancholy, he spent his time in devotion and acts
of charity. At length his debility was so great he was unable to
take any nourishment but water; and he died uttering the words,
" Lord, into Thy hands I commend my spirit."
He was seventy-two years of age when he died, and had
reigned forty-six years. He had founded a church called St.
Mary's, at Aix-la-Chapelle, his favourite place of residence, and
there was he interred in his imperial robe, his sword and shield,
his sceptre and crown, his Bible and pilgrim's scrip; but all these
things were stolen when the body was exhumed by Otto III. in

A.D. 8i4-9".]

SUCCESSORS OF CHARLEMAGNE.

25

1001, and all that now marks the spot of his remains are the two
words CAROLO MAGNO on the pavement which covers his vault.
R E F L E C T I O N S O N T H E R E I G N O F C H A R L E M A G N E . — T h e great scheme projected b y
Charlemagne was to make his kingdom a second Roman empire ; and had he been succeeded
by men equal to himself, this might have been effected. As it was, he blazed awhile as a
comet, and passed away, leaving behind him very little more than the memory of his glorious
career.
A host of half savages may be kept in subjection b y a strong hand, and the prestige of a
great name ; but it requires many ages to change their general ignorance into knowledge, t o
cement them into a peaceful society and to convert their roving, warlike propensities into a
love of domestic life, commerce, and the arts.
_ T h e utmost that Charlemagne effected was to give one man here and there a taste for
civilised life: the^great mass of the people remained pretty much as he found them. H e
himself foresaw with grief the threatened decline of his vast empire. Towards the close of
his reign a new race of invaders from Scandinavia* appeared ; and though they were held a t
bay for a time, h e felt convinced that the cloud would break when he was gathered to his
fathers. And so it did. T h u s Charlemagne stands forth in the dark ages of E u r o p e a n
history not as the Morning Star which ushers in the day, but as a solitary hero between two
long periods of turbulence and ignorance. I t was not the light of dawn, which goes on
increasing, spreading gradually a n d surely; but the bright ray of a candle, throwing a welldefined beam of light through the outer darkness,—seen of all so long as the candle shines,
but when the candle is withdrawn the beam vanishes, and the darkness is not lessened.

SUCCESSORS OF CHARLEMAGNE.
F R O M A . D . 814

Contemporary
with
Ethelbert, Ethelred,

TO A D .

911.

Egbert (first sole king of England),
827-836; Ethelwulf,
837-871; Alfred the Great, 871-901; and Edward the Elder,

L U D W I G the Debonair
L U D W I G the G e r m a n .
K A R L the F a t
ARNULF
L U D W I G the Child ...

(778,
(806,
(832,
(—
(893,

814-840),
840-876),
876-888),
888-899),
899-911),

Ethelbald,
901-925.

sole surviving son of Charlemagne.
second son of Ludwig the Pious.t
youngest son of Ludwig the German.^
nephew of Karl the Fat.§
son of Arnulf.

Territory,
by the T r e a t y of Verdun:—From Switzerland to the North Sea, and from t h e
Rhine to the E l b e ; Saal and the Bohemian forest; together with the towns of Mentz,
Spire, and Worms.

The rest of the Karlings make no mark on history. The two
Ludwigs were amiable and well disposed enough, but were wholly
unfit to cope with the difficulties of those times, when an iron
will and a strong hand were more needful than a love for the fine
arts and an amiable disposition.
The family quarrels of Ludwig the Debonair led to the Treaty
of Verdun (in 843), by which the vast empire of Charlemagne
was divided into three parts amongst the three surviving brothers:
* Scandinavia—i.e., Norway, Sweden, and Denmark.
t LUDWIG the Pious had four sons—Lothair, Pepin, Ludwig, and Charles. Pepin died; Ludwig had
Germany as his portion, and Lothair and Charles the rest of the empire.
% KARL the Fat survived his two brothers, and thus became monarch of Germany, Italy, and France.
i ARNULF was son of Karlman, the eldest brother of Karl the Fat; but Karlman died while Karl was
joint sovereign with him and his brother, called " Ludwig the Saxon." who died in 882.

26

KARLOVINGIAN PERIOD.

[D. i; Pt. II.

Ludwig received Germany as his lot; Charles, France; and
Lothair, the rest of the empire. This arrangement was broken
up some thirty-three years later, from failure of heirs; and the
three kingdoms were for a short time held by Karl the Fat. This
king, called by the French " Charles le Gros," is wholly unworthy of
mention \ but his nephew, Arnulf, who succeeded him, was a
brave and vigorous young man, who cleared Germany of the
Northmen that had recently infested the country. This Arnulf,
by far the best of the descendants of Charlemagne, was poisoned,
and died a young man at Ratisbon, where his tomb may still be
seen.
U The dynasty ended in a child only five years old at the
death of his father, and not eighteen when he himself died. His
unhappy reign verified the truth of the wise Solomon's remark,
" W o e to thee, O land, when thy king is a child."
11 It was now almost a century since the death of the Great
King. In Germany his race had died out; but in France it
dragged on a little longer, losing ground year after year, till the
" k i n g d o m " had dwindled down to the three districts of Laon,
Rheims, and Compiegne \Kone-pe-enn\
U The great troubles of this century were the incursions of the
Northmen and Hungarians, with occasionally an irruption by the
Slavs.
§ The Northmen came from Scandinavia. They used to enter
the larger rivers in their shallow skiffs, attack the towns which they
passed, seize everything they could lay hands on, and then make
off. Sometimes they carried their skiffs into an inland stream,
and appeared suddenly where least expected. The terror of
their name spread panic everywhere; and it was difficult to resist
them, because they shifted from place to place so rapidly, that
they were off before an army could be moved against them.
Karl the Fat bribed them to peace; but Arnulf attacked them
boldly, and routed them with such great slaughter that Germany
was not much troubled with them afterwards.
§ The Hungarians * were great horsemen, and almost lived on
horseback. Their mode of attack was in this wise:—A certain
number of them watched their opportunity of plunder.
If
opposed, they fled on their swift horses, shooting behind them in
* The Hungarians were a horde from the Asiatic side of the Caspian Sea, led by Almos, in 889, round by
the north into "Russia." They took possession of the territory east of the Carpathian mountains (the present
Gallicia, Moldavia, and Wallachia). What is now called Hungary lies to the south-west of those mountains.
The word Hungarian seems to be a contraction of Hungavarian—that is, " Huns and Avars." The Huns
disappear from history soon after the death of Attila, in 453; and the Avars (a part of the same horde) were
extirpated by Charlemagne in 796. The swarm led by Almos were of the same stock, and so like the Huns
and Avars in feature aud habits, that they were called Hungavarians, as if they had beea the Huns and
Avars resuscitated.

T H E FEUDAL SYSTEM.

27

their flight, like the ancient Parthians. When the pursuit
slackened, or the pursuers were scattered, they suddenly turned
round and attacked again.
These savages were below the average height, but were sturdy
and very powerful; hideously ugly; with little bead-like eyes
deeply sunk in the head. Their voice was harsh, and their
habits most repulsive.
They first appear in Europe during the reign of Arnulf, and
for 150 years were a constant trouble to the Germans. Henry I.,
Otto L, and Henry II. had to do battle with them. This period
corresponds to that in English history between the latter part of
King Alfred's reign and the invasion of England by William the
Conqueror.

FEUDAL SYSTEM IN GERMANY.
Before the Germans became acquainted with the Romans their
population was divided into freemen and slaves, the latter being captives
in war ; but after their migration southwards, they adopted the Roman
fold division of freemen, serfs, and slaves, the state of serfdom
intermediate between the other two.

whole
taken
threebeing

SLAVES were not looked on as human beings at all, but simply as
chattels, and, of course, had no civil rights. They could inherit no property,
purchase no goods that they could call their own, and leave nothing to their
wives or children. As the fruit belongs to the owner of a tree, so the
earnings, the wife, and the children of a slave, belonged to his master. A
slave was, however, in many cases allowed a little plot of ground, called a
peculium, the produce of which helped to supply him and his family with
food ; and when this fieculium was more than he could cultivate, he might
employ a drudge, who was called the slave's slave (or servus servi)%
N.B.—The^ pope, since the time of ^ Gregory the Great., has styled himself "servus
servorum Dei" (the drudge of Gods ministers).

SERFS OR VILLEINS.—The Romans had domestics and farm labourers,
not exactly slaves nor yet exactly freemen, but something between the two,
and called "Villeins." Domestic servants were called "Villeins in Gross,"
and farm labourers "Villeins Regardant." The former could be moved
about, as the master chose to shift his place of residence; but the latter
could not. Like the huts and trees of a manor, the farm labourers were
fixtures, and if it changed hands the Villeins Regardant remained behind with
the new tenant.
VASSALS.—The Goths enlarged the system of serfdom by carrying it into
the higher ranks of society, and exacting similar but more honourable service.
Thus kings had their men, who were "pueri regis;" and these king's-men
had theirs, from a lower social grade. The service required of a " m a n "
was help in time of war. For example: The king made certain dukes the
tenants of large estates on condition of their supplying him in war with a

23

KARLOVINGIAN PERIOD.

D. i; Pt. ii.

given number of soldiers, armed with {{ a shield, a spear, a bow, twelve
arrows, and a breast-plate;" dukes underlet their estates on similar conditions. The duke who held his lands under a king, was called *' the king's
m a n ; " and the graf who held his lands under a duke, was called " t h e
duke's man." The king was the " l o r d " of his vassal dukes, and the duke
was " l o r d " of his vassal grafs.
Estates thus held for military service were called fiefs, and those granted
by kings were called "immediate fiefs," because they were granted immediately by the king, and held immediately under him; any fief, however,
could be converted into an "immediate fief," if the king chose, without
changing its title; thus, a graf could be made a "king's m a n " simply by
placing his fief under the king's protection.
ALLODIA.—Lands not rented for military service were called allodial or
freehold; but in times of anarchy and war, it was not unusual for a freeholder
to convert his allodial into a fief to prevent spoliation ; for every "lord " would
protect his "man," and a wrong done to a vassal was resented by his lord
as a personal affront.
HOMAGE.—The Latin word for " m a n " is homo, the French homme.
When any one received a fief he was required to say to his lord " I become
your man {homo)," and this ceremony was called hom-age, A lord could at any
time demand "homage," to remind a rebellious spirit that he owed his lord
obedience and fidelity for the estates lent him.
In some cases lords greatly annoyed their vassals by constantly calling on
them for homage, which often involved long and expensive journeys : as when
a king of Wales or Scotland had to come to London to pay homage ; or a king
of England had to go to Paris; or a duke of Germany had to travel from
one end of the empire to the other. This annoyance was sometimes given to
drive a vassal into a refusal, in which case he forfeited his fief. Thus when
our king John refused to go to Paris to do homage for his French fiefs, they
were declared forfeit to the king of France.
Such briefly was the feudal system. It was never formally repealed, but it
died out gradually of itself, as standing armies took the place of vassals, and
rents were paid in money instead of military service.

LITERATURE OF GERMANY.
A T THE CLOSE OF THE KARLOVINGIAN DYNASTY

The Goths brought with them from the north their legends and national
songs; but soon after their arrival in the south their great heroes were
Hermann and Dietrich \De-trik\
As they sat on the ground about their
tents, (for they hated to be under cover) some young warrior would rollick out
how Hermann entrapped the Roman legions on the defiles of Teutoburg, or
how he was poisoned by his countrymen because he wanted to make himself
a king. At another time some harper would sing the wonderful deeds of
Dietrich or Theodoric, his wars with the Romans, his marriage with the
daughter of King Clovis, his laws, and so on.
The more northern tribes would prefer to listen to the legends about
Siegfried [Seeg-freed], the enormous treasures which he won from the king
of Norway, the giants that he slew, and his other wonderful works. These lays
were ultimately compiled into a united story, called the Nibelungen-lied \-leed\
or the " German Iliad." (For the story of this grand poem seep, 95.)

Cent. 8,9-1

LITERATURE OF T H E PERIOD.

29

IT HYMN OF HILDEBRAND (8th cent.).—Another popular subject with the
early Germans was the Hymn of Hildebrand, which has furnished Germany
with many a proverb and national phrase. This fragment, which is still
extant, consists of alliteration and metre without rhymes. The subject is not
unlike an adventure of one of King Arthur's knights and may be thus
condensed : Hildebrand's son thought his father was dead ; but one day as he
was riding in full armour, another knight met him. " S i r Knight," quoth
the younger man, "tell me thy name and country, but an ye refuse to do so, ye
shall not pass this way." " W i t you well," said the elder knight, " I am
Sir Hildebrand of Lombardy." "Knave, thou lyest!" thundered out the
younger horseman, and so saying he let drive at him with such fury that he
knocked him over his horse's croup to the ground. Then going to unlace the
helm, he discovered that it was his father whom he had slain.
IT ULFILAS, a Gothic bishop of the 4th century, translated a part of the
Old and New Testament into Gothic. This translation is called The Silver
Code, A copy of it is preserved in the public library of Upsa'la in Sweden,
and is the the oldest muniment of the kind in Europe. Ulfilas also wrote
Lives of the Saints, and invented the Gothic alphabet.
IF T H E WESSOBRUNN

PRAYER

AND T H E M U S P E L H E I M . — I n the 8th

century we find two poems of considerable merit, The Wessobrunn Prayer
and the Muspelheim \_-hime\ The former, which was discovered in a convent
at Wessobrunn, in Bavaria, is a poem on creation; and the "prayer" is that
of the author for holiness and wisdom.
The other poem is a mythological legend spiritualised. Muspelheim is
the Scandinavian hell \muspel-heim, home of fire], and the subject of the
poem is the last judgment. Thor is Elijah, and the giant Surtur, the keeper
of hell, is Antichrist. At the end of the world Surtur will destroy all created
things with fire. Then shall the "heavens pass away with a great noise,
and the elements shall melt with fervent heat, the earth also and the works
that are therein shall be burned up." This poem is in alliterative verse, and
shows poetic talent and imagination.
IT T H E EVANGEL AND T H E H E L I A N D . — A century later (A.D. 868),

Otfried [Ot-freed], bishop of Wissemburg, in France, produced in German
his famous Evangelist Book * or Gospel Story in lyric verse. This is no mere
doggerel, but a work of real genius, with several descriptive passages and
lyrical flights of great merit.
At the desire of Ludwig the Pious the Gospel Story had been already turned
into verse in what is called The Heliand^ but these two productions differ in
many respects: the Evangel is lyrical, the Heliand epic ; the Evangel is in
rhyme, the Heliand in alliterative verse; the Evangel is diversified with
reflections and illustrations, the Heliand is only narrative.
IT T H E LUDWIG LAY (870).—Only one more work needs to be mentioned,
and that is The Ludwig Lay, a ballad celebrating the victory of Ludwig I I I .
over the Northmen. The poet makes the pious king chant the Kyrie eleison
[e-li-zon] before the battle, and celebrate his victory with a Te Deum, This
* The Evangelienbuch has often been published. In 1831 an edition of it was brought out.
+ Several editions and translations of the Heliand exist. (See Notes and Queries, Feb. 2, 1878).

3o

MEDIEVAL HISTORY OF GERMANY.

[D.ijPt.ii.

" s o n g " is generally ascribed to Hugbald, a monk, who was a witness of
the fight. (Hugbald lived 840-930.)
IT AMUSEMENTS.—The great amusements of the period were hunting
and hawking. A party for such a purpose was a red-letter day with the
gentry of both sexes.
After the day's sport the ladies and gentlemen
adjourned to the tents, and spent the night in dancing and social intercourse.
Tournaments did not come into vogue till the Middle Age, when chivalry
was in its pride.

KONRAD I,
COUNT OF FRANCONIA AND K I N G OF GERMANY.
R E I G N E D 7 Y E A R S , A . D . 911-918.

Died of his wounds from the H u n s , Wednesday, December 23, 918.
Contemporary with Edward the Elder, A . D . 901-925.

The boy king being dead, the eight great princes of Germany
unanimously agreed to offer the crown to Otto the Illustrious,
duke of Upper and Lower Saxony, but the compliment was
rejected by him, in consequence of his great age, and he advised
the electors to give the crown to Konrad, count of Franconia.
This was truly noble, as the heads of Saxony and Franconia were
not on friendly terms.*
K o n r a d , without doubt was a prince of great merit, in every
way qualified to rule. H e was brave and prudent, generous and
wise, but had fallen on evil times; and his short reign of six years
and a few months was one of ceaseless war with his unruly vassals.
His worst enemy and most formidable opponent being Henry of
Saxony, son of Otto the Illustrious.
It is not a little remarkable that Henry's father being offered
the crown forgot his hostility to the counts of Franconia, and
pointed out Konrad as the best choice that could be made,—and
Konrad, dying of his wounds, bore no resentment to his worst
enemy, but sent the spear, the sword, and the jewels, to Henry
the Saxon, although at the time he had a brother whom, if he had
thought fit, he might have chosen for his successor.
H A T T O ; ARCHBISHOP O F M A I N Z \Mynce\—The
legend of H a t t o being devoured by mice
is placed in this reign. T h e tale is, that in 914 there w a s a great famine, and the archbishop, to
make the corn go further, assembled the poorer sort of his neighbourhood, in a barn at K a u b ,
and. setting fire to the barn, burnt them all to death. In dreadful retribution a plague of mice
was sent against him. H e lived in what was called the Mouse-Tower, a kind of castle, built
for greater security on a little green island in the Rhine, near the town of Bingen. B u t
neither river nor castle was any defence against his tormentors. On they came by hundreds and
thousands ; in at the windows, in at the doors. T h e tower was filled with them, and making
to the archbishop they nibbled him up alive. (N.B.—Mouse-tower means only custom-house.)
* Henry I, surnamed the " Fowler" (son of Otto the Illustrious) succeeded Konrad, and was the founder
of the » Saxon Dynasty."
*

A . D . 918-936.]

MEDIAEVAL

HISTORY

OF

GERMANY.

31

DIVISION II.—PART I.

THE

SAXON

DYNASTY

G I V E S 5 K I N G S . — H E N R Y I.,

O T T O I.,

O T T O II.,

(918-1024).

O T T O III.,

AND H E N R Y

II.

HENRY I. THE FOWLER. (HEINRICH I.)*
Surnamed " T h e Father of his Country."
B O R N 876.

D u k e of Saxony and K i n g of Germany.

R E I G N E D 18 Y E A R S , A . D 918-936.

Died a t Memleben, in Thuringia, Saturday, J u l y 2, 936.
Contemporary

with

Edward

the Elder,

Aged 60.

901-925 ; and Atheist an, 925-941.

Father, Otto the Illustrious, whom he succeeded in the duchy of Saxony 912.
Wife, Mechtildis (Matilda), who was a model wife.
Children, Otto the Great (his successor); Hedwig who married H u g h e s the Great, count
of Paris, 938 ; Gerberga who married Louis D'Outremer king of" France, 939 ; Bruno
archbishop of Cologne ; H a r d u i n ; Henry, father of H e n r y I I ; and two natural children,
H a t h b u r g a and T a n k m a n .
Died, J u l y 2, 936, of apoplexy, at Memleben, in Thuringia, aged 60, in the 18th year of his
reign. Buried at St. Peter's, Quedlinburg (Prussia), having founded both the town
and the church.
The Empire embraced Holland, Flanders, and Switzerland, as well as Germany.
Territory^ added, 925 Lotharingia (Lorraine); 928 B r a n d e n b u r g ; 930 Holstein (held in fief of
the king of Denmark.)
CHIEF EVENTS.
923-5. Invades and annexes Lotharingia (Lorraine).
926. Makes a truce with the Hungarians for nine years. Vanquishes the Slavs.
928. M a k e s Brandenburg a margraviate, or frontier to Saxony, with a military government.
930. H i s son Otto being 18, marries Edith, daughter of E d w a r d the Elder, a n d granddaughter of Alfred the Great of England.
P r a g u e besieged, and Wenceslas king of Bohemia is made to pay tribute to the king
of Germany.
934. Great victory over the Hungarians a t Merseburg, in Saxony.
H e n r y the Fowler has
an interview with the King of France and King of Burgundy. While a t Gottingen,
in Hanover, he institutes tournaments.
*** I n this reign begins the House of Habsburg. Its founder was Gontram the Rich, count
of Alsace (917-954), whose grandson Radebot built the chateau of H a b s b u r g in 1020,
and Radebot's son, Werner, assumed the title of " C o u n t of H a b s b u r g . "

We now come to the epoch from which the true history of
Germany may be said to begin. All that preceded the advent of
the great Saxon was but a prelude to the drama about to follow.
As the history of England begins anew with William the Conqueror,
and that of France with Hugues Capet \UCap-pay\ so the history
of Germany begins anew with Henry I. the "Fowler," the
"Saxon," and the "Father of his Country."
Henry the Saxon was called the "Fowler" because he was
flying his hawks on the slopes of the Hartz mountains, when the
messengers came to tell him he had been chosen king. This
honour was no sinecure, and he knew it; there was dreadful work
before him, but the brave bold duke made up his mind at once to
* Henry, in German " Heinrich " \Hine-rik\.

SAXON DYNASTY.

32

[D.n;

Pt.i.

do or die. There was anarchy within, there were enemies without,
but he set his face as a flint to bring order out of chaos, and to
stamp out the marauders who had hitherto made Germany the
hunting-ground of their incursions. The great Saxon stands a noble
figure in history, full in the fore-front, as Milti'ades in the battlepiece of Marathon,* a very giant in the grey dawn of the dark ages.
WARS OF HENRY I.—When it is said that the princes of Germany
agreed to offer the crown to the Saxon duke, it must not be
supposed that they were unanimous in this choice. How could
they be so, when "self was the god of their idolatry?" T h e
dukes of Suabia and Bavaria stood out from the first, but the
" iron duke " soon brought them to submission, by the terror of his
arms, or the power of his will.
Lorraine also was a thorn in his side. It always was in see-saw
between France and Germany; but after some strong fighting, the
Fowler made an alliance with the duke of Lorraine, and gave him
his daughter Gerberga in marriage (923-5).
U His great task was now before him : to clear the country of
invaders, and prevent future inroads. The Suabians, Hungarians,
and Northmen had long been a trouble to Germany. Arnulf had
taught the Northmen a lesson, and the others had been occasionally
repulsed, but they saw nothing to fear in the new king and were
soon in arms. The Hungarians met at first with some advantages,
and pushed their way into the very core of Saxony; but their chief
falling into the hands of the Fowler, brought matters to a crisis,
and peace was patched up on these conditions: the captive chief
was to be set free, and the Hungarians pledged themselves not to
cross the borders again for nine years (926).
§ Henry next made an expedition into Bohemia, laid siege to
Prague (the capital), and forced it to submit.
Bohemia was now
made a fief of Germany, and the duke of Bohemia had to pay
homage to the emperor, whenever a new ruler in either of the
states succeeded, and at such other times as the king of Germany
might think fit to demand it of him (930).
§ The Suabians were next subdued, and had so severe a lesson
that ever after they quietly submitted to the Saxon king.
THE

BATTLE

O F MERSEBURG,

I N SAXONY

(934).—The

nine

years truce being ended, the Hungarians sent to the Fowler for
black-mail. Black-mail indeed! T h e only tribute Henry would
give them was a mangy cur, cropped of its ears and tail. T h e
Hungarians were furious; they vowed vengeance, death without
* Miltiades. The only reward he had for the great victory of Marathon was this:—when the battle-piece
was painted for the porch Pcecile at Athens, he was placed in the foreground exhorting the Greeks to make
the attack.

918-936.]

HENRY I., T H E

FOWLER.

33

mercy, battle without quarter; but vengeance had gone over to
the other side. A battle was fought at Merseburg, in Saxony,
and the Hungarians were defeated. The massacre was dreadful:
the number of prisoners we are told was 200,000, and although,
without doubt, this is a gross exaggeration, we may readily believe
that the victory was complete. That Henry thought it so is certain,
for he fell on his knees in the battle-field, and thanked God that
he had given him the victory. The conqueror was hailed as
the " Father of his Country," and to this day the anniversary of
the battle of Merseburg is held in Fatherland as the day of its
deliverance from the Hungarians.
§ One more foe remained,—that old, old enemy, the Danes.
They had once more made head and crossed the borders. The
Fowler was not to be tampered with thus; "The lion and the
adder he had trodden under foot," and these Danes would he
"tread down as the mire of the streets." He boldly marched
into the very heart of Denmark, forced its king to sue for peace,
built a fortress at Sleswig, and placed there a margraf or borderreeve to keep watch and ward over the sea-kings for the
future (930).
INSTITUTIONS OF HENRY I.—With all this military activity the
Fowler forgot not his duty to the church. He founded abbeys and
other religious houses, proving himself a wise ruler as well as a
brave soldier. He introduced more orderly methods of fighting
than the Germans had hitherto known; and, that they might match
the Hungarians, instituted a cavalry force, for hitherto the Germans
had fought only on foot, and were ill-prepared to cope with skilled
horsemen. He also built several fortresses along the borders of
his empire, into which the people might flee for refuge when unexpectedly attacked. These fortresses were placed under the
charge of marquises or margrafs—that is, reeves with a military
government—to defend the marches or border-lands from incursions and invasions.
Altogether he established six of these margraviates: one at
Sleswig to keep a look out against the Danes; one in Brandenburg ; * one in Misnia and another in Lusatia to watch over the
Wends or Vandals; a fifth in Austriaf to keep the Hungarians
at bay; and a sixth in Antwerp to keep an eye upon the French.
Those of Sleswig and Antwerp soon fell through, and that of
Lusatia was changed into the margraviate of Saxony. Henry the
Fowler is also called the founder of chivalry, and was the first to
• The first margraf of Brandenburg was Siegfried count of Rhingelheim (925).
t The first margraf of Austria was Leopold duke of Suabia (928}.
D

34

SAXON DYNASTY.

[D. n ; Pt. i.

introduce those popular military sports called "tournaments"
(934).
BURGHER CLASS.—Though great in war, and wise in defence,
the Saxon king was still more famous as the founder of the
burgher or commercial class of Germany. This he effected by
creating a place of commerce where merchants might carry
on their trade with safety. With this object he built several
towns, encouraged his subjects to live in them, and walled them
for defence. In order to form garrisons he compelled every
ninth man to act as a soldier in the nearest town; and the other
eight had to maintain him, and furnish his equipments.
He furthermore enacted that all public meetings should be held
in walled towns, that all fairs should be kept within the walls, and
that no religious processions should take place in the exposed
country. He, provided also halls of justice, and a civic magistracy;
so that towns soon grew into places of resort, and the tradesman
or burgher class became both rich and powerful. We shall
see in the sequel that they also proved the best friends of the
crown in the struggles which ensued between the kings and the
barons.
DEATH OF HENRY I.—This noble king died of apoplexy July 2,
A.D. 936, as he was starting on an expedition into Italy, in the
18th year of his reign, and the 60th of his age. He was a born
statesman, and a right earnest man; by far the wisest and strongest
since the time of Charlemagne. He did good work in his day
and generation, and what is more, it was abiding work, so that his
reign is a veritable epoch in mediaeval history. Before he died
he summoned a diet at Erfurt, and obtained a promise from
the nobles that they would choose his eldest son, Otto, as his
successor.
§ In private life the first Henry was a good husband and a kind
father; fortunately he had a most excellent wife, who aided him in
all civil and religious reforms. As a foe he was stern and terrible,
as a magistrate patient and just, as a friend both true and affable.
His manners were agreeable, his deportment dignified—he moved
and looked a king. Hunting was his favourite amusement;
he excelled in athletic sports; and was a born commander of
men.
§ His eyes were blue and piercing, his brows beetling, his nose
(like that of Charlemagne) was the " conqueror's nose," somewhat
prominent and rising at the bridge. His beard was short and
square, his moustache thick and mingling with his beard, his
hair flowing to his shoulders, and of a red-brown colour.

918-936.]

HENRY I., THE FOWLER.

35

He wore a short toga reaching to his knees and girded about
the waist with a leather belt. His shoes were sandalled both over
the instep and up the leg as high as the knee; his spurs were a
single goad. Over his toga he wore on state occasions the royal
mantle, which was fastened at the neck with a gold and jewelled
clasp; but he went to battle on horseback, and in mail armour.

THE NATION ORGANISED.
Hitherto the people had been little organised: they were like
the children of Israel in the wilderness, homeless, restless, and
rebellious. The first elements of civilised life are a fixed home
and legitimate employment. The Fowler provided roughly for
both these. He employed the people, and gave them fixed
habitations. Those who delighted in war and plunder, he
employed in defending the frontiers; so that instead of disturbing the peace and robbing one another, they were set to
watch the French, the Danes, the Vandals, and the Huns; if
they wanted excitement, they might find it in incursions; if
plunder, they might filch it from their foes. Those who had a
taste for mechanical employments and domestic life, he induced
to abide within walled towns, where they were under the presiding care of the local bishop. By these wise regulations he
not only restrained turbulence and robbery, but he directed the
energies of his subjects to useful ends, gave life a purpose, and
made the welfare of each contribute to the welfare of the whole.
THE MILITIA.—In such turbulent times as those now referred
to, when every man's hand was against his brother, opportunity
is an invitation to wrong doing. It was absolutely necessary,
therefore, for every man to be capable of self-defence; so all
were drilled and trained to arms—some for the militia, and others
for the regular army.
The militia* resembled the present land-wehr or land defence.
They were the industrial class, such as tradesmen, mechanics,
labourers, and so on, drilled for home defence in times of riot,
insurrection, and disorder. The eldest son of every family was
the king's man, and in time of war was expected to be sent
forth equipped for the emperor's service. The military were
soldiers by trade.
Hitherto, the Jews had been the only merchants — trade,
• * In German heer-bannt i.e. army-band.
D 2

36

SAXON DYNASTY.

CD.n; P t . i .

with all arts and industries, being considered a degrading
employment. In fact, commerce and freebooting are like cat
and dog, each hates and despises the other; but once give men
houses and homes, with the protection needful to secure for
themselves wealth, and they become at once lovers of order and
peace.
It is not to be supposed that the people were reduced to order
and brought to live in houses all at once. Barons still carried
on their private wars, and looked on this right as their prerogative; but as a town grew in strength and wealth it became
more formidable, and the most headstrong of the barons would
pause before he attempted to disturb such a hornet's nest.
The houses, too, at first were rude, and the walls weak, but they
were a good beginning, and the tide of civilisation never ebbs.
It may advance and recede like the breakers of the sea, but
the general wave moves on. With home life, walled towns, the
creation of an industrial class which had its bread to earn, and
might acquire luxuries, the foundation of civilised life was
securely laid; the masses were recognised as an estate; not a
mere class, but an integral estate; a living limb of the body
corporate; though the balance, no doubt, would be some time
in adjusting itself.
T H E SOLDIERS.—The soldiery, at this period, consisted of
horse and foot
The mounted soldiers were the gentry, the
infantry the lower orders. Every horseman chose for himself
one or more of the foot soldiers, and these associates mixed with
their riders. A common danger drew them closely together,
and each felt bound to defend the other, even with life itself.
The usual form of battle was the wedge. The instruments of
music employed were brazen trumpets, bulls' horns, and huge
timbrels. The whole army sang and clashed their shields, both
on march, and when moving to attack. Such martial music may
not, perhaps, be melodious, but it is certainly inspiriting. On
march, the footfall was distinctly marked, but when moving
to attack, the sounds grew faster and more furious as the distance lessened. The chant became a shout, the shout a yell,
the yell a whoop, made ten times more hideous by the resonance of the voices from the shields which the men held before
their mouths. The bray of trumpets, the blast of bulls' horns,
the clang of the timbrels, the clash of shields struck by the
spears, the whoop and the yell of a whole army rushing forward
with mad fury, made a pandemonium of sounds enough to rend
the heavens and make the brute earth tremble.

MEDIAEVAL

935-973-1

PERIOD.

37

OTTO I. T H E GREAT, SURNAMED T H E
"LION."
K i n g of Germany, 936 , D u k e of Franconia, 943 ; K i n g of Italy, 9 6 1 ;
*
Kaiser or Emperor of t h e Holy R o m a n E m p i r e , F e b r u a r y 2, 962.
B O R N , 912.

K I N G , 936-973.

E M P E R O R , 961-973.

Died, August, 973. Aged 61 years. Reigned 42 years.
with Athelstan,
925-941; Edmund
the Magnificent,
Edred,
Edivy,
and Edgar the Peaceful,
959-975.
Father, H e n r y t h e Fowler, while duke of Saxony. Mother, Mechtildis (Matilda).
Wife, (1) E a d g y t h (Edith), daughter of E d w a r d t h e Elder, a n d granddaughter of Alfred
the Great, 930-947. (2) Adelheid (Adelaide), widow of Lothaire king of Lombardy, 951.
Children,
Ludolf—-who married t h e daughter of H e r m a n n d u k e of Suabia—died 957 ;
William, archbishop of M a i n z ; Otto, his successor; a n d one daughter, Luitgard, w h o
married count Konrad.
Empire,
Kingdom of Germany, 936; Duchy of Franconia, since 943 ; Kingdom of Lombardy, or Italy, 951 ; Empire of the Romans, February 2, 962. Bohemia, 950,
H u n g a r y , 955, Poland, 957, Denmark, 965, fiefs of t h e crown.
T h e three chief duchies were held b y the king's relatives—that of Bavaria b y H e n r y t h e
Quarrelsome, the king's brother, 945 ; that of Lorraine or Lotharingia, first b y Konrad,
the king's son-in-law, a n d then b y Bruno, his brother, t h e archbishop of Cologne; a n d
that of Suabia, first b y Ludolf his eldest son, a n d then by H e n r y his youngest brother.
Contemporary

CHIEF
936.
938.
939.

947.
950.
951.

952.
955.
957.
961.
963.
964.
965.
967.
968.

EVENTS.

Wenceslas, king of Bohemia, murdered by his mother a n d brother Boleslas, w h o
restore idolatry.
W a r with Boleslas king of Bohemia, the great persecutor of t h e Christians.
Louis D'Outremer, king of France, marries Gerberga, t h e king's sister. T h e
year previous another of his sisters, named Hedwig, h a d married H u g h e s t h e
Great, count of Paris a n d fatherof H u g h e s Capet. Victory of Andernach, near
Coblenz, over the dukes of Lorraine and Franconia.
Otto gets his son Ludolf elected his successor.
Otto gives Ludolf t h e duchy of Suabia. Boleslas I . , king^ of Bohemia, vanquished
by Otto, a n d compelled to become a Christian. Bohemia a fief of Germany.
Otto marches into Lombardy to succour Adelheid, widow of Lothaire king of
L o m b a r d y ; conquers t h e c o u n t r y ; is proclaimed " K i n g of Italy " a t P a v i a ; a n d
marries Adelheid.
Otto restores to Berengar the crown of Lombardy, a s a fief of t h e German Crown.
T h e Hungarians utterly routed in the battle of Lech, a n d H u n g a r y made a fief of t h e
German crown.
D e a t h of Ludolf, the king's eldest son, in Italy.
Otto, a t t h e request of pope J o h n X I I . , deposes Berengar king of L o m b a r d y
Crowned a t Milan " King of I t a l y . "
Otto causes J o h n X I I . to b e deposed, a n d procures t h e election of pope L e o V I I I .
T h e Romans swear never to elect a pope without having first obtained the approval
of the king of Germany.
Otto besieges a n d takes Rome, because his prot4gi\Jzo
V I I I . h a d been set aside for
Benedict V. H e takes Benedict captive into Germany.
W a r with Denmark.
T h e Danes pursued even to J u t l a n d .
Harold, king of
Denmark, compelled to become a Christian, a n d D e n m a r k made a fief of t h e
crown of Germany.
Otto returns t o R o m e t o suppress a revolt. Causes pope J o h n X I I I . to crown O t t o
(the king's son) successor to the crown of Germany.
O t t o sends t o Constantinople to negotiate a marriage between his son Otto, a n d
Theophania daughter of Romanus I I . emperor of t h e E a s t .

No better successor to the vacant throne of Henry the Fowler
could have been chosen than his son Otto, surnamed the " Lion,"

38

SAXON DYNASTY.

[D.n; Pt.i.

and the " Great." He carried on the work of his father in the
same spirit and the same vigour, so that Germany, which had
been before a chaos of anarchy, rose by their energy and
prudence into unity and power.
CORONATION.—Otto I. was crowned by the archbishop of
Mainz (Mynce), in the cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle, which was
filled to overflowing. The prelate took the young king by the
hand, and, addressing the people, said aloud: " Here I present
to you Otto, the king elected by God, and nominated by
Henry of blessed memory. If he is your choice, signify the
same by holding up your hands." Immediately every hand was
held up, and a shout was raised of "God save the king! God
save king Otto !" The archbishop then advanced with him
to the altar, where he was arrayed in the royal mantle, and
presented with the sword, belt, and bracelets, sceptre, staff, and
crown. As he girded on the sword the prelate said to him:
"Receive this sword, to use it against the enemies of Christ,
and to increase the peace of his true disciples." Being then
enthroned, high mass was performed with all possible solemnity
and pomp.
Dukes, at the beginning of this reign, were appointed for the
first time to nominal offices in the king's household. The
duke of Lorraine, the king's brother-in-law, was made lord
chamberlain; the duke of Franconia, carver; the duke of
Suabia, cupbearer; and the duke of Bavaria, grand marshal and
master of the horse. These appointments, however, did not
assure their loyalty and fidelity.
BATTLE OF ANDERNACH (939).—Tankmar the half-brother
of the king, and Henry, the king's youngest brother, were
both ill pleased that Otto had been chosen king instead of
themselves. Tankmar said he was the elder, being born before
the marriage of the Fowler with Matilda, and Henry pleaded
that he was higher in rank, because Otto was born when his
father was only duke, but he himself after his father had been
crowned king. Worthless as these pleas undoubtedly were,
they were quite enough to form a rallying cry for the disaffected,
among whom were the duke of Lorraine the lord chamberlain,
and the duke of Franconia the king's carver.
Otto was fully prepared for the disaffection of these nobles,
and won over them the famous battle of Andernach, near
Coblenz, in which Tankmar and the two dukes perished. Henry
was pardoned, and the duchy of Bavaria was given to him, after
the death of the grand marshal (945).

936-973-1

OTTO I., T H E GREAT.

39

WARS OF OTTO.—This intestine trouble being over, Otto had
leisure to attend to his foreign enemies. He had long and
bloody wars with the Slavs, his neighbours in the north;
but at last he made them his tributaries, and compelled them
to become Christians. In 968 he made Magdeburg an archbishopric, and placed the Slavs in the jurisdiction of this
diocese.
Next, the dukes of Bohemia and Poland were made to do
him homage, and for the benefit of these duchies he founded
the bishopric of Posen.
Lastly, he drove back the Danes as far as Jutland, because
they had made inroads upon Sleswig; compelled Harold BlueTooth their king, with his wife and son, to be baptised, and
made Denmark a fief of the German crown (965).
OTTO I. KING OF ITALY (951).—Lothaire king of Lombardy,
being dead, Berengar duke of Lombardy tried to make the
widow marry his son, but she obstinately refused to do so, and
fled. Being captured in her flight she was brought to Lombardy,
and placed under the hands of the duke's wife, a woman of
violent temper and great cruelty, who treated her like a slave,
tore off her ornaments, struck her to the ground, and dragging
her by the hair to the palace dungeon, threatened to leave her
there till she consented to the proposed marriage. The young
widow, being liberated by a monk, named Martin, applied to
Otto for protection, and Otto, who was then a widower, gladly
undertook her cause, married her, and assumed the title of " The
king of Italy." Being subsequently reconciled to Berengar, he
restored him to his dukedom, and Lombardy became a fief of
Germany.
BATTLE OF LECH (955).—This marriage with the widow
Adelaide, gave great offence to Ludolf the king's son, and
Konrad his son-in-law, who conspired to dethrone him, but he
soon brought them to submission, and made them sue for
pardon (954).
The Hungarians witnessed these family feuds with delight, and
thought it a ripe season to push into Bavaria; but it was too late ;
the rebellion was over, and the two chief rebels became arms of
strength to the king against their common enemy.
The king encamped near the river Lech, in Bavaria. Both
Ludolf and Konrad were given companies. The baggage was
placed in the rear, guarded by 1,000 picked horsemen. Contrary
to all expectation the Hungarians made their attack on the baggage,
but Konrad hastened to the rescue, and the foe was driven back.

40

SAXON DYNASTY.

[D.n; Pt. i.

Next day, the Holy Sacrament was administered in Otto's
camp; prayers were offered up by the archbishop of Mainz
[Mynce]; the king's lance was blessed, and the holy banner of
St. Michael was unfurled. The army was drawn up, the call
to battle sounded. Forward! The GodN of Battles be your
strength! On rushed the Germans. All were of one mind.
Konrad was resolved by his deeds this day to wipe out the stain
of his rebellion. The foe gave way. The success was brilliant,
the victory complete. The Hungarians fled on all sides. It
was a stampede, and though many were made prisoners, the
ground was covered with the slain. Three of the Hungarian
chiefs fell into the hands of the victors, and were hung like
dogs upon the nearest trees; seven others had their ears cut off;
but Otto had to mourn for the death of Konrad his son-in-law,
who had been mainly instrumental to this great triumph—slain
after the battle by a random arrow. Being greatly heated by
the fight, the young man had just loosened his armour, when
some Hungarians in their flight discharged their arrows behind
them, one of which struck Konrad in the neck. It was his
death-wound; but he had lived long enough to deserve for
epitaph " his faults lie gently on him !"
After this great battle, all the territory along the Danube, being
added to Germany, was formed into the margraviate of Austria.
The Hungarians ceased from further inroads; and till the thirteenth century their kings were for the most part vassals of the
German crown.
OTTO I. KAISER (2nd February, 962).—We come now to
another epoch in German history. Charlemagne had been
crowned " King of Italy," and had been created by the pope
" Kaiser" or "Emperor of the West." These titles were lost by
his degenerate descendants; but Otto the Lion restored them
in his own person, and they continued for several centuries
appendages of the German crown. Indeed, the kings who
succeeded the Lion cared less for the title of " King of Germany," than for that of " Kaiser" or " Emperor of the West,"
though one was a reality and the other at the best but a royal
fiction, which, like Harmonia's necklace,* was an ill-gain that
never prospered.
* Harmonia, on her marriage with Kadmos, received a necklace made by Vulcan for Venus; both
Harmonia and her husband were converted into serpents. All their children were most unlucky. Her son
Polymers inherited^the necklace, and he and his brother slew each other in single combat. He gave the
necklace to Eriphyle for inducing her husband to join the expedition against Thebes, where he fell.
It next came to her son Alkmeon, who was murdered by his son Phegeus (2 syl.) for the sake of the necklace
which he wanted for his wife KalirroS. Phegeus was murdered by Akarnan, son of Alkmeon, but no sooner
had he got possession of the necklace than he was driven from the city for murder, and pursued as far as
Teg£a. He then got rid of the fatal bauble by placing it in the Temple of Minerva. This might serve for
an allegory of Italy, the fatal possession of Germany.

936-973-1

OTTO I., T H E GREAT.

41

It came about t h u s : Berengar duke of Lombardy, who had
before revolted and been pardoned, took up arms to assert his
independence. T h e Lion of Germany sent his son Ludolf to
quell this revolt, but Berengar's wife poisoned him. Otto now
marched into Italy, put Berengar and his wife to death, and
was crowned at Milan " King of Italy " (961). H e next received
at the hands of pope John X I I . the imperial crown, and was
hailed " Kaiser" or " Emperor of the West," as Charlemagne
had been before him.*
I t should be distinctly borne in mind that Germany itself was never a n empire till king
William made it so, in 1871, during the Franco-German war.

Scarcely had he returned to Germany when the pope determined to undo the work that he had done.
H e tried to
establish the son of Berengar in the estates and title of his
late father; but Otto was back without delay, stamped out the
revolt, deposed the pope, and raised Leo V I I I . to the papal
chair. No sooner, however, had he turned his back on Italy
than the ex-pope headed another revolt and drove Leo into exile;
so Otto had to return once more in order to restore him and
establish peace (963).
MARRIAGE OF OTTO'S SON (972).—After quelling a revolt in
Lorraine the kaiser returned to Italy, to get his son Otto
crowned by the pope (967), and next year he sent ambassadors
to Constantinople to demand for him in marriage the daughter
of Romanus I I . , emperor of the East. T h e suit being granted,
the princess was crowned at Rome and married to the ccemperor, who was only 18 years of age.
Next year, the 61st of his age, and the 38th of his reign,
the brave old Lion of Germany died, somewhat suddenly, but
very calmly, in the same place where his father had died. H e
was buried at Magdeburg, which he had lately created an archbishopric, and has justly been called the " Great."
PERSONAL APPEARANCE OF OTTO I.—Otto I. was tall and

stately, his chest broad, his limbs muscular, his eyes large and
flashing, his hair flowing over his shoulders and of a blonde colour.
H e was surnamed the " Lion" for his undaunted courage and
greatness of mind. Like a lion he was brave and generous, and
like a lion he would never harm the prostrate. His usual oath
was " By my beard! " H e was vain of his beard, and well he
might be, for it was very thick and reached to his girdle.
* There was this difference : Charlemagne and his successors were entitled " Emperor of the West or of
the Roman Empire," but Otto and his successors were " Emperors of the West or of the Holy Roman
Empire."

42

SAXON

DYNASTY.

TD.II;

Pt.x.

Though he greatly encouraged letters, and like Charlemagne
had a school in his own palace, he could not himself either write
or read.
In this reign were discovered the H a r t z silver mines, the richest in E u r o p e . T h e tradition is
t h a t a peasant happened to tie his horse to a tree, and the horse pawing the ground kicked u p
some silver ore. T h e emperor hearing of it, worked the mines, and the town of Goslar was
built for the miners.

OTTO II. THE RED KINC.
King of Lorraine, 9 6 1 ; K i n g of Italy, 9 6 2 ;
King of Germany a n d Kaiser of the H o l y Roman E m p i r e , 973.
B O R N , 955.

R E I G N E D 10 Y E A R S , 973-983.

Died at Rome, Friday, December 7, 983. Aged 28.
Contemporary

-with Edgar, 959-975; Edward the Martyr^
Ethelred the Unready^ 978-1016.

and

Father, Otto I . the Great.
Mother, Edith, granddaughter of Alfred the Great.
Wife, Theophania, daughter of Romanus I I . emperor of t h e E a s t .
Children, Otto I I I . , his successor, a n d four daughters.

980.
981.
982.

CHIEF EVENTS.
Lothaire concludes a treaty of peace with Otto, in which h e assures to him Lorraine.
T h e chief nobles and magistrates of Italy being invited by Otto to a friendly banquet,
are all treacherously massacred.
Otto's disastrous expedition against the Greeks of southern Italy.

OTTO II., at his father's death, was barely nineteen years of age.
During his father's lifetime he had been crowned by the pope
"Emperor-elect of the R o m a n s " to ensure his succession; but
the electors, insisting on their rights, assembled in due form to
confirm his election.
Neither his coronation by the pope nor his election by the
German princes availed to secure him a peaceful succession, for
several of the great feudatories rose in revolt against him, especially
his cousin Henry surnamed the "Quarrelsome," son of that
Henry who had risen against the Lion of Germany. As, however, the Red King had much of his father's vigour of character,
the rebellion was soon snuffed out. Henry was taken captive, and
breaking from prison, was stripped of his estates, and banished
(976).
King Harold of Denmark also tried to make himself independent, but failed, and was compelled to pay homage to the
young kaiser (976).
ITALIAN MASSACRE (981).—In the meantime the Romans,
anxious to free themselves from the German yoke, had formed
a conspiracy for the purpose of establishing a republic. This
conspiracy was secretly revealed to Otto, who went to Italy, and

973> 9 8 3-ioo2«l

OTTO

II.;

OTTO

43

III

pretending to know nothing about it, invited the chief conspirators
to a banquet at the Vatican. The invitation was accepted, but
while the guests were at table, Otto suddenly rose from his seat,
and stamping with his foot, the banquet hall was filled with armed
men. The kaiser then deliberately unrolled a paper, from which
he read aloud the names of those concerned in the plot; and, as
the name of each was pronounced, the victim was dragged from
the table and strangled. In consequence of this massacre, the
Italians called him " Otto the Bloody."
Next year he conducted his troops into the south of Italy to
recover Calabria from the Greeks and Saracens. An ambush
sprang upon him at Bassientello, m Naples, cut to pieces his
whole army, and he himself with difficulty escaped to the coast,
where he instantly put to sea.
Not yet, however, were his perils ended, for the vessel was
captured by corsairs, and Otto would undoubtedly have been sold
to slavery, had he not contrived to throw himself into the sea, and
swim for his life.
On reaching Germany he had his son, only three years old at the
time, crowned " Emperor-elect of the Romans," a ceremony which
implied that he would succeed to the crown on the death of his
father. The following year the Red King died at the early age of
28, probably from the effects of poison administered in Italy (983).
D u r i n g t h e reign of Otto I I . , lived Hrosvita, a nun, famous for her
comedies (in Latin). As Sternhold and Hopkins hoped to drive out the
own country by their metrical psalms, so Hrosvita hoped to replace the
and Terence by her religious dramas. H e r poems are entitled : The
Ascension, The Passion of St. Pelagius, The Conversion, Theophilus%
Denis and The Panegyrics of the Othos.

religious poems a n d
profane songs of our
comedies of Plautus
Virgin Mary,
The
The Passion of St»

OTTO III. T H E WONDER OF T H E WORLD.
Crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle king of Germany, 983 ;
Crowned king of Lombardy at Monza, 995, and at Milan, 996;
Crowned kaiser or emperor of the Holy Roman Empire by Gregory V., 996.
B O R N , 980.

R E I G N E D 19 Y E A R S , 983-1002.

Poisoned by Stephania, a t Palermo, in Campania, Friday, J a n u a r y 23, 1002, Aged 22.
Father, Otto I I . the R e d King.
Mother, Theophania, daughter of the emperor of the E a s t .
Wife, Mary, daughter of the king of A r a g o n ; burnt to death a t Modena for adultery.
N o offspring.
CHIEF EVENTS.
984.
996.
997.
999.
1000.

Otto I I I . carried off by H e n r y duke of Bavaria, but rescued a n d restored to his mother.
Otto makes Gregory V. pope. Condemns Crescentius, who is p u t to death in 998.
Reconquers Brandenburg from the Slavs.
Otto I I I . makes his tutor, Sylvester I I . , pope.
Goes on pilgrimage to the tomb of Adalbert bishop of P r a g u e . F o u n d s t h e a r c h bishopric of Gnesen. Opens the tomb of Charlemagne.
1001. Defeats the Saracens in Italy.

44

SAXON DYNASTY.

[D, n; Pt. i.

Otto I I I . was but three years old at the death of his father, but
was recognised by the princes as his successor.
Henry the
Quarrelsome, who had been deprived of his fief by the late king,
now broke from confinement, and carried off the imperial child;
but, being rescued from his hands, he was restored to his mother,
and at her death was placed under the charge of his maternal
grandmother, the empress Adelaida.
From the age of eight years, the young kaiser was the pupil of
Gerbert, afterwards pope Sylvester II., one of the most profound
thinkers and scholars the world has ever produced. H e had
studied under the Arabs of Cordova, in Spain, and was not only
a Greek and Arabic scholar, but an excellent mathematician
and astronomer, a good musician, and a skilled practical
mechanic.
H e invented a balance-clock, and constructed a
speaking head of copper.
Under this learned teacher the
boy made such progress that he was called the " Wonder of the
World."
The regency ceased when he attained his sixteenth year, and
his first independent act was to march into Italy to oppose
Crescentius, a Roman demagogue who wanted to convert Rome
into a republic. This demagogue had been elected consul of
Rome ever since 972, and had opposed several of the popes.
Benedict VI. he had imprisoned and strangled; John XVI. and
Gregory V. he had driven from Rome. As Gregory had been
advanced to the papal chair mainly through the influence of
Otto, the young kaiser fancied himself bound in honour to interfere ; accordingly he made war on Crescentius, got him into his
power, and put him to death (998).
Gregory was restored, but died the year following. Otto then
advanced to the papacy his tutor Gerbert, who designated himself Sylvester II. H e was the first pope of French extraction, and
seems to have borne his faculty with meekness, and to have been
" clear in his great office," but he died the year after his imperial
pupil.
Otto, no doubt, was a good scholar, but, though not without
vigour, was a dreamy young man who thought it would be a
famous thing to become another Romulus.
With this boyish
ambition he set to work to make Rome his capital, and reduce
Germany to a province of the Holy Empire. Happily this hairbrained scheme fell into limbo or brain lumber, from the death
of Otto, by poison, at Palermo. His secret murderer is said to
have been Stephania, the widow of Crescentius.
H e was only
twenty-two years old at the time, nineteen of which he had been

983,1002.1024.]

OTTO I I I . ;

HENRY II.

45

king of Germany, and sixteen kaiser of the Holy Roman
Empire (1002).
In this reign Boleslas, duke of Poland, was created " King" by Otto, but the kingdom was
still a fief of the Holy Roman Empire.

GERBERT (Sylvester II.), was born at Aurillac, in Auvergne, of
obscure parents. He received his education in the abbey of his
birth-town, but completed his studies in Spain. He first attached
himself to Otto L, who entrusted to him the education of his son
(Otto II.), and made him abbot of Bobbio, in Italy. Subsequently he went to Paris, where Hugues Capet made him the
tutor of his son Robert the Pious, and raised him to the archbishopric of Rheims. As this nomination was disapproved of by
the pope (John XV.), Gerbert returned to Germany, and undertook
the education of Otto III.
His imperial pupil made him
archbishop of Ravenna, in Italy (997); and two years afterwards caused him to be elected pope (999). Gerbert introduced
into France and Germany the Arabic figures. {Born 930,

Pope 999-1003).

HENRY I I . , THE SAINT AND THE LAME.
(HEINRICH II.)
Duke of Bavaria, 995 ; King of Germany, 1002; crowned, at Pavia, king of Lombardy, 1004;
Kaiser or Emperor of the Holy P.oman Empire, 1014.
B O R N , 972.

R E I G N E D 22 Y E A R S , 1002-1024.

Died at Grone, in Saxony, Friday, July 14, 1024. Aged 52.
Canonized by pope Eugenius II., in 1152.
Contemporary with Ethelred II., 978-1016; Edmund Ironsides; Canute^ 1016-1036.
Father, Henry duke of Bavaria, late regent.
Wife% Cunegunda, 1003 ; no children.
CHIEF EVENTS.
1006.
1007.
1010.
1014.
1015.

Drives Boleslas, king of Poland, out of Bohemia. War lasts thirteen years.
Hungary and Poland, christianized, erected into a kingdom.
Henry II. founds the see of Bamberg, in Bavaria.
Restores pope Benedict VIII., who had been driven from Rome by a faction.
Defeated by the Poles. In 1018 Poland is declared free from feudal homage to the
empire.
1023. Friendly interview between Robert king of France and the kaiser.
1024. Henry dies at Grone, in Saxony.

Otto III. was succeeded by his cousin, Henry II., surnamed
the " Lame," son of Henry the Quarrelsome, and great-grandson
of the Fowler. He was a pious prince, but, like his contemporary, Robert the Pious of France, was more fit for a cloister
than a throne in those troublous times when " silken dalliance in
wardrobes lay, and men their pastures sold to buy a horse."

46

SAXON DYNASTY.

[D.n; Pt.i.

Kaiser Otto, the wise pupil of the wise Gerbert, had been so
well received by Boleslas, duke of Poland, in a state visit, that
he bestowed on his vassal the title of king. The lowliness of
Boleslas " was young ambition's ladder," by which he intended to
ascend; so, on the death of Otto, he resolved to convert the
name of king into a reality, and to make his fief independent of
the empire. Accordingly, he not only refused tribute and homage
to the new kaiser, but, making himself master of Bohemia, he
attached it to Poland, and, having succeeded thus far, proceeded
to invade Prussia.
The Prussians were, at the time, no more civilised than the tribes
of Central Africa or the North American Indians. They lived in
the deserts between Poland and the Baltic; but were famous for
their trade in amber, which they obtained by diving in the sea,
and which the Romans bought for drinking-cups.
Henry the Lame wrested Bohemia from Boleslas, but Poland he
released from feudal service. Weary of war, and worn out by
rebellions in Germany and Italy, the pious kaiser would fain
have given up the crown and retired to a monastery, but his
prelates persuaded him that he was doing God's service better by
remaining where God had cast his lot.
He was very popular with the ecclesiastics from his zeal and
liberality to the church, and he founded several religious houses.
Strasburg cathedral, founded in 1015, will always make him
remembered; and few kings have better deserved to be called
saints, if religious works, a love for the priesthood, a missionary
spirit, and money freely spent for ecclesiastical purposes, can ever
merit such a title.
With Henry the Lame, who left no children, the Saxon dynasty
ended. It began with Henry the Fowler, passed to the three
descendants of the elder branch, Otto the Great, Otto the Red,
and Otto III.; and ended with the third in descent of his
youngest son, having lasted altogether 106 years.
HENRY I. the Fowler.
OTTO I. the Great.
OTTO II. the Red.
OTTO III. the Wonder.

Tankmar.

Bruno.

3 Daughters.

Henry of Bavaria.
Henry the Quarrelsome.

Henry II. the Lame and
the Saint.
At the close of the Saxon dynasty there were six archbishoprics in Germany—viz., Mainz
[Mynce], Cologne or Koln, Treves or Trier, Bremen, Magdeburg, and Salzburg.
*** Under the Saxon kaisers rose the counts palatine, who were chief magistrates, local
iudges, receivers-general of taxes, governors of provincial land-rents, and presidents of the
diet in the absence of the king. The highest in rank was the Count Palatine of the Rhine.

IOO2-IO24.]

LITERATURE AND SOCIAL STATE.

47

LITERATURE.—Early in the eleventh century was produced a poem called
Ruod-lieb \leeb\ which enjoyed considerable popularity. Ruod was a kind
of Solomon, who lived with the king of Egypt, to whom he rendered valuable
services, in return for which the pharaoh offered him a choice of gifts—wisdom
or wealth. Ruod chose the former, and the Egyptian monarch appointed the
twelve wisest men of Egypt for his instructors. The poem gives several
examples of Ruod's wisdom; and tells us that the Egyptian monarch bestowed
on him great riches by sending him, from time to time, valuable jewels secreted
in cakes and manchets.
LIUTPRAND (920-972), bishop of Cremona, wrote, in excellent Latin, a
history of Germany from 862 to 964. It is concise, energetic, and interesting.
DITHMAR (976-1018), bishop of Merseburg, in Saxony, also wrote in Latin
a Chronicle of Germany in eight books, from the year 876 to 1018. This
chronicle embraces the reigns of the Saxon dynasty, Henry the Fowler, Otto
the Great, Otto the Red, Otto the Wonder, and Henry I I . the Pious.
BURCHARD ( * -1026), Bishop of Worms, compiled a huge volume which
long enjoyed unbounded repute. It was a conipte rendu of edicts and decretals
and obtained such authority that an appeal to his statements was considered
final. This compilation has given the word burchardicum, meaning " dictum
beyond dispute," and its adjective burchardic—beyond dispute.

SOCIAL AND POLITICAL STATE OF GERMANY AT THE
CLOSE OF THE SAXON DYNASTY.
The breaking-up of the Roman power and the inundation of Goths and Huns
led to a civil chaos in continental Europe. There was no common law,
no common interest; but each chief with the men under him formed an independent section, made his own laws, and, except in times of common danger,
was wholly isolated from every other chief.
These chiefs had no one title in common. Some called themselves dukes or
army-leaders; others, counts; others, kings; but the power of all over their
little band of followers was alike arbitrary and supreme.
The chiefs paid the services of their followers by plunder or grants of land,
and the followers were expected to stand by their leaders in times of danger.
This was the nucleus of the feudal system. The chief was substantially a
feudal lord, and the grants which he made to his men for service were substantially "fiefs."
In times of common danger several chiefs joined together, and appointed
one of their number sovereign ; but as soon as the danger was over the union
fell away, and the leader had no longer any authority over the chiefs who had
served under him. In time, however, it was found to be more conducive to
security for several chiefs to league together for mutual protection, like the
cantons of Switzerland or the United States of America; and a permanent
president or overlord was appointed, called in Germany a king.
It will be seen that there were two different sorts of subjection and two
different lordships. There was the lordship of the king over the princes who
voluntarily placed themselves under him, and the lordship of the princes over
their private followers. As the subjection of the princes was voluntary, the
king had no real power over them. When they thought it for their interest to
break loose they did so, and unless the king was popular and a man of vigour,
he had no power to punish a revolting chief. If, however, he was a man of
energy, and could count on the support of other princes, he could, by war,
reduce the revolter to subjection, deprive him of his rank, and confiscate his
estates

43

SAXON DYNASTY.

[D. n ; Pt. i.

Such was the state of things when Henry the Fowler was chosen overlord;
but as he and his successors were men of great ability and energy, they
weakened the princely power and strengthened their own.
This they did in two ways. First, by interfering whenever two princes
quarrelled and disturbed the peace; and next, by creating a third estate out of
the common people gathered together in towns, where their numbers and
common interests gave them a strength too formidable to be trifled with. To
these towns were granted the right of coining money, choosing magistrates from
among themselves, and enrolling a militia in their own defence. As the
towns sided with the kings against the barons, they greatly strengthened the
royal power, and the princes were less and less able to lord it over the land.
We must now go back and look at the rise of another power quite different
to that of kings, princes, and towns—I mean the power of the church. In
the Saxon dynasty Germany was a Christian country. It had its churches and
cathedrals, its priests, its prelates, and its archbishops. These church dignitaries were landed proprietors, vrnd both in wealth and station were princes
and potentates.
The appointment of these church dignitaries was sometimes by the pope,
sometimes by the king, and sometimes missionary zeal won for itself influence
and power. Here, then, was an empire in an empire; and for many years the
church and civil powers were like two wrestlers, each striving for mastery over
the other.
During the Saxon dynasty the popes of Rome were unusually bad, and of
brief duration. While the five Saxon kings ruled in Germany, some thirty-four
or thirty-five popes succeeded to the papacy; and, in order to strengthen themselves, craved the protection or aid of the German kings.
While this was the case, of course the kingly power would be the greater;
but in the line which succeeded the Saxon there was a death-struggle between
these two powers, and Rome, for a time, had it all her own way. However,
she so abused her power that the kings were obliged to resist, and ultimately
nation after nation threw off the yoke; and not only appointed their own
hierarchy, but compelled ecclesiastics to submit to the civil magistrates.
IF By the close of the Saxon dynasty Germany was formed into an organised
state, with magistrates to execute the laws, churches planted throughout the
nation, and walled towns studded over the land growing into wealth and
importance.
The towns were of three sorts—imperial free cities, ducal towns, and church
cities. The first were those built on the royal demesnes; and owed their origin
to Henry the Fowler, who granted them special privileges.
Ducal towns were those built on the domains of dukes and other princes.
These were inhabited by the duke's retainers, who were subject to just such
laws and service as he thought proper to impose. Generally the townsmen
were obliged to ask their lord's permission even to marry or give in marriage;
and the lord expected a fee for his permission. When licence for a marriage
was obtained, a herald announced it in the streets; and at one time the
ceremony could not be performed till that day twelve months.
The church cities were those built on church lands, and in these the bishop
was chief magistrate. Generally speaking these cities were much more free
than ducal towns.
No one could open a shop in any town without permission; and no one but
"free burghers" could obtain permission to do so in imperial towns. Those
who were not town-free could only have their shops beyond the walls.
Experience has shown that the more power is divided the more tyrannical it

ioth Cent.l

T H E CHURCH,

49

becomes, A monarch may be despotic; a plutocracy is sure to be so; but a
mob is the incarnation of despotism. With lords many the sword is sure to
be the sceptre; or if priests be the lords, the cross is only another name
for a war-mace. Such shepherds fleece the sheep,—such watchmen are the
worst burglars; and the people are alternately the prey of duke and prelate—
now shorn by the shearer, now slaughtered by the butcher, till at last they are
glad to find respite beneath the castle-wall of some wolf, who will allow
no other wolf to enter the fold. Here they build hovels, which they surround
in time with mud walls, and here in time the population increases: commerce
brings wealth; wealth, independence; independence, liberty; and liberty,
manhood.
§ And how, it may be asked, did the great men live ? How did they rake
up money, when their rents were paid in service? They were crownappointed " publicans," who collected the revenues of the sovereign, each in
his own district. Full a third of the revenue slipped into their own coffers;
and ere long they became independent, and kept the whole.
IF The four chief sources of revenue were crown-lands, tolls and imposts,
direct taxes, and voluntary gifts called benevolences. A "benevolence" was
very like drinking medicine rather than having it forced down your throat.
In addition to these levies was a fifth—the commutation of punishment by
fine. Almost every offence could be atoned for according to a certain tariff
called a "money-bote." Murder, larceny, arson, private wrongs, and public
misdeeds, all had their price. There were a few exceptions, such as parricide,
sacrilege, and the murder of a master by a slave; but it must be pretty obvious
that, so long as misdemeanour was the source of wealth, princes would not be
too vigilant to spoil their harvest. Still, even this check on sin was better
than no check at all; and, as the people grew wiser, the worst parts of the
system toned down, and law became the executive power, with one hand on
the ruler and the other on the ruled.

THE CHURCH.
Few periods have had so large a number of pious kings as the tenth century,
and none have been disgraced by a worse succession of popes, many of whom
were more like monsters than men. At Rome two women of infamous reputation, Theodora and Marosia, were the fountains of honour, and conferred on
their children or gallants the highest church dignities. Thus Sergius III., one
of the gallants of Marosia, was made pope in 905; John X., who was created
pope in 914, was an unwedded husband of Theodora; John XL, made pope in
931, was a son of Marosia; and John XII. was her grandson (956). John X I I .
was a man of singular profligacy. The Romans were by no means strict
moralists, but even the Romans were shocked at the conduct of their pontiff.
Boniface VII., called anti-pope, murdered his rivals Benedict VI. and John
X I V . ; and John XVII., another anti-pope, was the mere tool of Crescentius,
a Roman demagogue.
In the Greek Church Theophylactus, a son of Romanus, Emperor of the
East, was made patriarch in 933. He was a mere lad, but it would be hard
to find a more infamous character.
Still, the influence of the church increased, partly by force and partly by
usurpation; and in this scandalous age the dogma was first maintained that
" t h e authority of the bishops, though Divine in its origin, was conveyed to
them by St. Peter, the Prince of the Apostles."
£

[D. n ; P t . i .

MEDLEVAL HISTORY.

5°

HOUSE OF

FRANCONIA

GIVES 4 KINGS: KONRAD II., HENRY III.,

(1024^1125.)

HENRY IV., AND HENRY V.

KONRAD II, THE SALIC.
Crowned a t Mainz King of Germany, 1024; a t Milan, K i n g of Italy, 1026; a t R o m e ,
Kaiser or Emperor of the West {i.e. of the H o l y R o m a n Empire), 1027 ; became K i n g
of Burgundy, 1033.
B O R N , 984.

R E I G N E D 15 Y E A R S , 1024-1039.

Died at Utrecht, Monday, J u n e 4, 1039.
Contemporary

with Canute,

1014-1035, and Harold

Aged 55.
Harefoot\

1035-1040.

Father, H e n r y duke of Franconia, a descendant of K o n r a d the Wise, son-in-law of Otto I .
the Great.
Wife, Gisela, a widow^ niece of Rudolf king of Burgundy, and mother by her first husband
of E r n e s t of Bavaria.
Children, H e n r y I I I . , his successor. H i s daughter died, 1034.
Biographer, Wippon, almoner of H e n r y I I I .
Territory
added, Aries, 1024; Burgundy, 1033, in right of his wife, resigned to his son in
1038. ( N . B . - B u r g u n d y included Franche-Comte, D a u p h i n e , Lyonnaise, West Switzerland,
Provenc^, and Savoy.)

As Henry II. died childless, there were many who hoped to
be elected to the vacant throne. When, therefore, the diet met
on the banks of the Rhine, all the dukes, counts, and margrafs of
the empire repaired thither, each at the head of a train of armed
vassals who encamped on the plains, presenting the appearance of
an army summoned to battle, rather than of a comitia assembled
to choose a king.
There were so many claimants on this occasion, that it took
six weeks before the moot point could be settled; but when
at last the archbishop of Mainz \Mynce\ made known to the
people that the choice of the electors had fallen on Konrad,
duke of Franconia, the announcement was received with shouts
of applause, and all the nobles came forward without delay to do
homage and take the oath of allegiance. The new sovereign was
forty years old, and proved a wise and energetic ruler.
He began his reign by a tour of his kingdom, the object of
which was to administer justice, rectify abuses, establish order,
and punish robbers with severity. By this wise administration
commerce flourished, cities increased in population and wealth,
and the burgher class rose rapidly in importance. This was the
class that Konrad most favoured; while he used every effort to
reduce the power of the nobles, well knowing that " no man can

1024-1039.I

K0NRAD II. THE SALIC

51

serve two masters: for either he will hate the one and love the
other, or he will hold to the. one and despise the other." So
long, therefore, as the barons rivalled the king in power, Germany could not prosper. There could be no unity. At the very
best, the kingdom would be " a house divided against itself."
Having set in order the affairs of Fatherland, Konrad the
Salic went to Mil'an to be crowned " K i n g of Italy" (1026), and
then to Rome to receive from the Pope the crown of the Holy
Roman Empire (1027).
KONRAD

II., K I N G

OF BURGUNDY (1033).—Towards

the

close of his reign a new kingdom fell into his hands. It happened thus : Rudolf, king of Burgundy, dying without issue,
his kingdom came to Konrad in right of his wife, Rudolfs niece.
This greatly displeased Ernest, duke of Suabia, who thought
he himself should be the heir, seeing he was the son of Konrad's
wife by her first husband. Failing in his attempt to oust his
father-in-law, he was deprived of his duchy, and imprisoned for
three years. Konrad then promised to restore to him his estates,
if he would tell where count Werner lay concealed. This count
was Ernest's great friend, the man who had urged him to
rebellion, and had aided him with money and men. Ernest
indignantly refused to betray his friend, and fled with him to
the Black Forest, where they collected a band of malcontents,
and lived as brigands. Konrad sent an army against them, and
both Ernest and Werner fell fighting, till from " their bones their
flesh was hacked."
The adventures of this young prince exactly suited the taste
of the age. His youth, his bravery, his high birth, his wrongs,
his bold resistance of authority, and his death, made him the
hero of many a ballad, and for years afterwards the exploits of
Ernest were celebrated by poets, who freely " brought in wonder
to wait on treason."
PEACE OF G O D (1035).—About this time a great famine
occurred, which more or less affected all Christendom. I t was
caused in some measure by a general belief that the end of the
world would take place 1000 years after the crucifixion. I n
consequence of this belief, many lands were left uncultivated,
and many laymen turned monks. It will be remembered that
king Robert of France, who lived during this religious panic,
was surnamed the " P i o u s ; " king Henry I I . of Germany was
called the " Saint"; Canute of England was a deeply religious
man, and Edward the Confessor was thirty years old at the
time.
Olaus I I . of Norway was another saint; Knut IV.
E 2

52

HOUSE OF FRANCONIA.

[D.n; Pt.i.

of Denmark, king Stephen of Hungary, Boniface I I . duke of
Tuscany, were " Saints;" and Nicephorus I I . emperor of the East
united the hero to the saint. No period of history can furnish
such a cluster of saintly kings. *
The clergy availed themselves of this deep religious feeling to
mitigate the warlike tendencies of the a g e ; and commanded all
men to lay down their arms under pain of excommunication.
The second advent of the "Prince of Peace" was expected,
and the millenium was about to dawn when wars would cease
throughout the land. This cessation of hostilities was termed
The Peace of God,
The command and malediction attached to the violation of
this " bull" were read from the pulpit daily by the officiating
priest after the proper gospel: " May they who refuse to obey be
accursed, and have their portion with Cain the first murderer,
with Judas the arch-traitor, and with Dathan and Abiram who
went down alive into the pit. May they be accursed in the* life
which now i s ; and may their hope of salvation, like the light
of these candles, be put out." So saying, the tapers were
extinguished; and the people responded : " So may God put out
our light if we violate this peace. Amen."
T H E T R U C E O F G O D (1040).—Some five years later it was found expedient to modify this
prohibition. T h e panic h a d subsided. T h e world h a d not come to an end, nor h a d t h e
millennium dawned. T h e " P e a c e of G o d " was therefore repealed, a n d t h e " T r u c e of
God " substituted in its stead.
By the " Truce of God " war was not wholly forbidden; b u t no military attack was in a n y
case to be made from sun-down on Wednesday till sun-rise the following Monday, nor on a n y
fast or feast d a y . I t also provided that no m a n should molest a labourer working in t h e
fields; a n d if a n y one laid hands upon his implements of husbandry, h e was to be anathema.
These regulations, a n d even the religious mania h a d , no doubt, a beneficial influence ; for
although some despised the power of t h e church, a n d the selfish passions of others were n o t
to b e awed by a n y fear of God, y e t t h e mass of t h e people venerated t h e priesthood, a n d
believed it to possess some undefined power which extended to the world of spirits, a n d might
affect themselves a n d their relatives both in this life a n d in that which was to come.

F I E F S MADE HEREDITARY (1037).—Konrad visited

Italy a

second time in 1037. It was during this visit that he made the
famous edict " that freeholders should not have their lands taken
from them except by the judgment of their peers." By this
decree fiefs were made hereditary. Its real intention was to
rescue the inferior vassals from the arbitrary power of their
lords.
It was the axiom of the Salic that the power of
kings should be unlimited, but that of nobles limited. This
edict gained for Konrad the good will of the inferior vassals; so
that he secured for the crown both the burgher and the vassal
* Robert the Pious (971, 996-1031); Henry II. the Saint (972, 1002-1024), Canute the Great (995, 1014-1035)
Edward the Confessor (1004, 1042-1066); Olaus II. the Saint (992, 1000-1030); Knut IV. the Saint (1017,
1080-1086); Stephen I. the Saint (979, 997-1038); Boniface II. the Saint; Nicephorus II. (912, 963-969).

1024-1056.3

KONRAD

II. j

HENRY

III.

53

classes. He furthermore reduced the baronial power by giving
to his son Henry three of the vacant duchies.
DEATH OF KONRAD II. (1039).—Two years later Konrad II.
died, and was buried in the cathedral of Speyer [Spire] which
he had founded. He was firm and intrepid, severe to evildoers,
merciless to foes, considerate to his subjects, and strictly just
His activity was indefatigable, and he seemed to be acquainted
with every event of importance which occurred in his vast empire.
Many sovereigns have been more brilliant and dazzling, but few
have equalled him in all the sterling qualities of a good and
useful king.
# About 1020 Guido d'Arezzo [da-re t'-zo] invented the musical scale, and the five musical
lines called the staff. T h e tradition is, that while chanting a hymn in honour of St. John, h e
was _ struck with the gradual and regularly ascending tones of the opening syllables of each
hemistich in the three first ? verses, and discerned a t once their fitness for a system of
solfeggio. On introducing his new theory to the choir it proved eminently successful, a n d
was gladly adopted. T h e words of the hymn in Latin a r e : —

Ut queant laxis ^
Ut-tered be thy wondrous story
i?£-sonare
fibris
i?^-prehensive though I be,
Mi-ra, gestorum
Me make mindful of thy glory,
./fa-muli tuorum,
Fa-mous son of Zebedee ;
Sol-xe polluti
Sol-a.ce to my spirit bring,
JLa-bii reatum,
Ztf-bouring thy praise to sing.
Sancte Johannes.
The English version is not given as a translation
of the Latin, but it preserves
and the initial
syllables.
*#* Guido was not a German but an Italian
monk.

the idea

HENRY III. THE BLACK KING (HEINRICH III).
King of Germany, 1026, but he succeeded his father in 1039. Patrician of Rome a n d Kaiser
Augustus of the West, or of the H o l y R o m a n Empire, 1046.
B O R N , 1017.

R E I G N E D 17 Y E A R S , 1039-1056.

Died a t Botfield, September, 1056.
Contemporary

with

Hardicanute

and Edward

Aged 39.

the Confessor,

1041-1065.

Father, Konrad I I . Mother, Gisela of Burgundy.
Wives, (1) Kunihild or Gunhild, daughter of Canute of England, married 1036, died 1038;
(2) Agnes, daughter of William duke of Aquitaine, 1043, the mother of H e n r y I V .
his successor.
Territory added, Bohemia 1045.
CHIEF
1056.

EVENTS.

Creation of the title " K i n g of the R o m a n s , " to be borne b y the heir presumptive of
the German Empire.
T h e investiture of prelates with ring and crosier, on their election to a diocese.

Henry, called the " Black King " from the colour of his hair,
was barely twenty-two years old at the death of his father. He
had been already elected to the crown (1026), and the choice was
readily confirmed by the great nobles and their vassals. A
better one could not have been made, for since the days of

HOUSE OF FRANCONIA.

54

[D. II ; Pt. i.

Charlemagne no king had more genius for command, and none
have kept the people in better order and subjection.
As prince he possessed three duchies; but when he came to
the crown he resigned these fiefs, and bestowed them on men
likely to strengthen his hands, and not resist his authority as their
king and lord.
HENRY III. AND THE POPES.—Henry III. remained at home
for the first six years of his reign. As Augustus closed the gates
of Janus, to signify that Rome was at peace with all the world
(a boast which none could have made since the reign of Numa);
so Henry the Black King, in 1043, proclaimed that Germany
enjoyed a Universal Peace, which no other ruler could have said
since the foundation of the kingdom.
Three years after this he was obliged to go into Italy to
settle the affairs of the church. So great was the disorder
there, that three rival popes claimed " the cap" * at the same
time: Benedict IX., Sylvester III., and Gregory VI. Henry
made no attempt to decide between these rival claimants, all
of whom were equally infamous, but simply set them all aside,
and gave the chair to a German. The new pope took the name
and title of Clement II., but died the following year. Henry
then chose another German, but he also survived only one
year. The next two popes were likewise Germans, but their
united span of office was only seven years, so that we are
constrained to think the Italians, who hated the Germans and
had little scruple in poisoning their kings, had some hand in the
deaths of their popes also.
It was Clement II. who crowned the Black King " Kaiser," but
he refused to accept the title of " King of Italy," preferring to be
called " Patrician of Rome" after the example of Charlemagne.
Though the four popes chosen by the son of Konrad had but
brief tenures of office, they all did credit to his choice, being alike
distinguished for their learning, piety, and judgment.
HENRY III. AND THE HUNGARIANS.—The chief wars of Henry
III. were those carried on against the Hungarians. He defeated them in 1044, and compelled them to receive back Peter
their king, whom they had deposed. Peter being restored to his
throne received from Henry the gilt lance, to denote that he
acknowledged himself to be his "man."
Henry III. was the last king that held the popes subject to his authority.
DEATH OF HENRY

III. (1056).—This truly great monarch died

• The tiara was not adopted till 1048, five years later.

1039-1056.J

HENRY III. T H E BLACK KING.

55

suddenly in the highlands of Saxony, whither he had gone for a
little hunting. He was still in the prime of manhood, being only
thirty-nine years old when " death lay on him, like an untimely
frost upon the sweetest flower of the field." With all his force
of character he was extremely pious; and although he decreed
that no pope should in future be elected without the consent
of the king of Germany, few monarchs have shown themselves
more submissive to the church. He was a man of genius and
education, greatly encouraged schools, was a bountiful patron of
literature, and very fond of learned men. It was his firm conviction that vice and turbulence were chiefly due to ignorance,
and that the best way to civilise a people is to educate them.
KING OF THE ROMANS (1056).—A little before his death he
assembled the princes of the empire to recognise his son Henry
heir-elect to the empire, and he then called him " King of the
Romans." This was a new title created by the Black King, and
first borne by his son Henry. Several of the kings of Germany
had been crowned at Rome "Emperors of the Romans," or
" Emperors of the Holy Roman empire," and several had been
crowned at Milan " Kings of Italy," but none had hitherto borne
the title of " King of the Romans."
From this time forth every king elect of Germany was ex
officio king of the Romans, whether associated or not with the
reigning emperor; even the kaiser was no more until after his
coronation at Aix-la-Chapelle.
The title, it will be perceived, differed from that of dauphin or
prince of Wales, inasmuch as it was no birth-right, but was taken
up by any one whom the electors chose to appoint successor to
the crown. Like dauphin and prince of Wales, however, it was
dropped immediately the bearer was duly crowned.
INVESTITURE.—Henry the Black King was also the first to give
prelates a ring and crozier on their elevation to a diocese. This
was a symbol of investiture, or grant of the episcopal temporalities.
No question ever caused so much ill-blood as this did for seventy
years. All Europe was agog, and day after day, month after
month, year after year, the vexed question was mooted, whether
kings or the pope ought to invest. The ring and crozier were small
matters, but their gift involved a very serious point—Did the gift
of these symbols confer the office or not ? If the pope invested,
then the pope would be giving temporalities which did not belong
to him; if kings invested, and investment conferred the sacred
office, then kings would be encroaching on the pope's prerogative.
No pope can give away lands and edifices in another man's

56

HOUSE OF FRANCONIA.

[D.njPt.x.

dominion, and no temporal king can confer office in a "kingdom
not of this world." A king may recommend, but cannot consecrate;
and a pope can recommend, but cannot endow. It was not till
1122, that this knotty point was settled. It was then agreed that
the pope should consecrate and confer all spiritual rights, and the
king should confer the temporalities. So the prelates were first
consecrated by the pope, and then did homage to the king for
their temporal fiefs.
It was an important political question also : for if the pope had
all the church patronage of a nation, he might fill it with his own
partisans, and thus create a power independent of the civil
magistrates, and most dangerous to the state. If, on the other
hand, kings made bishops, the church would be secularised and
the reigning pope would lose the right of choosing his own
apostles. The solution is so simple, it seems marvellous how it
could have wanted seventy years for its solution.
H E R M A N N T H E C R I P P L E (1013-1054).—In this reign lived H e r m a n n the Cripple, one of t h e
most extraordinary men that ever lived. H i s body was wholly paralyzed, so that he could not
move without assistance. H e could scarcely guide a pen or speak so as to be understood, yet
was he so learned and honoured that his society was eagerly sought, and men came from all
parts of Europe to listen to his words of wisdom. H e has left a book of great merit behind
him, entitled A Chronicle of the Six Ages of the World, especially valuable as it contains a
history of Germany during the tenth and eleventh centuries. H e has also given to posterity a
treatise on Music, and another on the Astrolabe, an instrument for taking the heights
and distances of the stars.*
A D A M O F B R E M E N , called ADAMUS M A G I S T E R (flourished 1067), wrote a History of the
Churches of Hamburg and Bremen, (from 778 to 1072), very valuable from its records of the
propagation of Christianity. H e also wrote a Geography of
Scandinavia.

HENRY IV. T H E GREAT.

(HEINRICH

IV.)

King of the Romans (i.e. king elect) 1053 ; King of Germany 1056 ;
Patrician of Rome 1061; Kaiser Augustus of the H o l y Roman Empire 1084.
B O R N , 1050;

R E I G N E D 49 Y E A R S , 1056-1106.

Died a t Liege of starvation, Tuesday, August 7, 1106.
Contemporary

with Edward

the Confessor, 1041-1065 ; William
1087-1100 ; Henry I., 1100-1135.

Aged 56.

I., 1066-1087 ; William

II.,

Father, H e n r y I I I . the Black King. Mother, Agnes of Aquitaine.
Wives, (1) Bertha, daughter of O t t o margraf of Suza, married 1066, died 1088; (2) Adelaide
of Russia 1089.
Children, Konrad who died 1101; H e n r y V., his successor; Agnes, who marries Frederick of
Hohenstaufen; and Adelaide.
Court, fixed at Goslar, in Hanover.
Biographer, Solth, Heinrich IV. Kaiser nnd Kdnig^
&c.
• Hermann the Cripple cannot fail calling to remembrance the French cripple Scarron (1610-1660), poet and
wit, whose house was the centre of all the talent, fashion, rank, and beauty of Paris in its palmiest days. The
little cripple was wheeled about his crowded saloons, scratching himself with an ivory wand.

X056-II06.3

HENRY IV. THE GREAT.

57

CHIEF EVENTS.
1062.
1070.
1073.
1076.
1077.
1078.
1080.
1081.
1084.
1088.
1089.
1093.
1096.
1098.
1101.
1104.
1105.
1106.

H a n n o archbishop of Cologne a n d Adalbert archbishop of Bremen usurp the regency.
Guelf or Welf made by the king " duke of Bavaria."
Insurrection of the Saxons and Thuringians. Quarrel with pope Gregory V I I . begins.
H e n r y holds a diet a t Worms and deposes Gregory. Gregory holds a council at R o m e
and deposes the king.
H e n r y submits to the pope, is absolved, breaks his oath, and Rudolf of Suabia is elected
king in his stead. D e a t h of Agnes the queen dowager.
Rudolf defeated. T h e king excommunicated.
H e n r y procures the deposition of the pope, and the election of Clement I I I .
Defeats
Rudolf at Wolksheim, in Thuringia, (October 15). Rudolf dies of his wounds.
H e n r y invades Italy. I s again excommunicated. H e r m a n n of Luxemburg is elected
king of Germany.
H e n r y crowned " E m p e r o r of the Romans " b y Clement I I I . Returns to Germany, a n d
defeats H e r m a n n of Luxemburg, Guelf of Bavaria, and E c b e r t of Thuringia.
D e a t h of H e r m a n n .
H e n r y again excommunicated by U r b a n I V .
Revolt of his son Konrad. H e n r y imprisons his wife Adelaide.
T h e first crusade starts under Peter the Hermit.
Konrad p u t under the ban of the empire. Henry's second son, named H e n r y , is
declared his successor at the diet of Aix-la-Chapelle.
D e a t h of Konrad.
Revolt of prince H e n r y .
Prince H e n r y arrests his father a n d confines him in a castle.
H e n r y makes his escape, and dies at Liege, August 7.

Henry IV. was only five years old when his father died, and
the care of the kingdom was entrusted to his mother Agnes, an
amiable lady, but wholly unable to govern the wilful and unruly
barons who were ever ready to rebel. When the boy was twelve,
Hanno archbishop of Cologne compelled his mother to resign
the regency, so she retired to Rome, and died there in a convent
(1077).

The boy king was then placed under the charge of Hanno,
who acted as regent, and subsequently under Adalbert archbishop of Bremen. Hanno was a stern churchman; Adalbert,
a gay libertine: Hanno was proud, imperious, and overbearing;
Adalbert, good-humoured and jovial: Hanno lived abstemiously
and strictly; Adalbert, in luxury and ease: Hanno was thrifty
and frugal; Adalbert, reckless and extravagant. The great
expenses of the court under the regency of Adalbert soon involved the young king in money difficulties, and the people
showed symptoms of discontent
In 1065 Henry was fifteen years of age, and was no longer
under governors and tutors. He fixed his court at Goslar, in
Hanover, where his father had usually lived; and began his reign
like a spoilt child who thought if he fancied the moon it ought to
be given him. He looked on every one who opposed his whims
as his enemy, and Adalbert, his chief adviser, encouraged the

58

HOUSE OF FRANCONIA.

[D.njPt.i.

notion. It was very foolish, and soon brought him into trouble—
trouble which followed him through life, and even in death, as
will be seen in the sequel.
THE

SAXONS

REBEL

(1073-1075).—As

his

court was

in

Saxony, the Saxons were the first to remonstrate. They insisted
on the dismissal of Adalbert. Adalbert persuaded the young
king that Hanno the archbishop of Cologne was at the bottom
of this plot, and had stirred up Otto the Saxon to this insolent
demand. T h e boy was angry. Some absurd charge of treason
was vamped up against Otto, who was deprived of his duchy of
Bavaria, and the fief given to Guelf,* his son-in-law (1070).
Of course Otto would not bear this injustice, and he formed a
league with duke Magnus, a brave young Saxon, to revenge the
insult; but before their plans were ripe the young king broke up
the conspiracy, and cast both Otto and Magnus into prison.
Otto was released at the end of a year, but Magnus was left in
durance still.
In 1073 a deputation of Saxons waited on the king with a
petition of grievances. T h e petition demanded the liberation of
duke Magnus, the demolition of fortresses erected to overawe
the Saxons, the dismissal of Adalbert from the counsels of the
king, and the removal of the court from Goslar. T h e king
laughed the deputation to scorn; but an army of 60,000 men
was at hand, and the logic of the sword was not to be resisted.
The boy king was thoroughly frightened, and fled for his life.
For three days he skulked amidst the forests of the Hartz mountains, fearing each bush a soldier come to take him prisoner; but,
hungry and weary, he reached Worms, on the banks of the Rhine,
and once more breathed again.
In the mean time the Saxon revolters were like an army of
locusts.
" T h e y ran to-and-fro in the city, they ran upon the
walls, they climbed up upon the houses, they entered in at the
windows like a thief." They pulled to the ground the fortresses,
set fire to the churches, overturned the sepulchres of the royal
family, and dragged from their graves the infant son and brother
of the king.
At length the boy king was enabled to muster an army together ; and in a bloody battle the Saxons were defeated, though
both sides suffered severely. Henry now came to terms with
the insurgents; but no sooner were they dispersed, than he broke
the covenant, and deprived the ringleaders of their titles and
estates (1075).
* From this Guelf our present reigning family, called the Hanoverian or Brunswick line, is descended.

HENRY IV. T H E GREAT.

1056-1106.]

HENRY

IV.

AND T H E P O P E

(1074-1084).—Henry

59
in

his

troubles applied to the pope, and this gave his Holiness the very
opportunity he wanted of putting his hand on the church in
Germany. I t so happened that the pope at the time was a man
of great vigour, with a purpose. His purpose was threefold: to
reform the lives of his clergy, to put an end to all traffic in
spiritual matters, and to free the church from the state. " My
kingdom," said the founder of the christian church, " i s not of
- this w o r l d ; " then the powers and ministers of it should not be
carnally minded, but spiritual. " Not of this world;" then its
offices and sacraments should not be bartered by this world's
money. " Not of this w o r l d ; " then kings should not be its
nursing fathers, nor queens its nursing mothers. The temporal
powers should have no lot in its inheritance: but its powers
should be spiritual; its ministers, spiritual; its appointments, in
the hands of the church; its laws, special; and though " in the
world, it should not be of the world."
So argued pope Gregory VII., whose name was Hildebrand;
and when he compared the church with this standard, he was
shocked to see " the whole head sick and the whole heart faint.
From the sole of the foot even to the head there was no soundness in i t ; but wounds, and bruises, and putrifying sores." T h e
lives of the clergy were profligate and abandoned; the offices
were sold to the highest bidder ; the sacraments could be bought
like houses and lands; the king of Germany looked on the
church as he looked on his metal-mines in the Hartz country, as
so much property for carnal indulgences or the rapid supply of
the sinews of war. H e felt, and felt deeply, that " the kingdom "
was far too worldly for " t h e kingdom of God."
Italy was bad, England was bad, France was bad, but Germany
out-Heroded them a l l ; Germany was the worst "stone of stumbling" and greatest "rock of offence." I t had gradually arrogated
the right of appointing even the popes, and had made it a law of
the land that no man should fill the chair of St. Peter without the
consent of the reigning kaiser. Germany alone had dared to set
up and pull down the spiritual heads of God's church. T h e
church was not God's church at all, but a fief of a German king.
Well, Germany was now weak; it was divided against itself;
the bundle of sticks was untied by civil dissensions, and stick by
stick might be broken. T h e king was too busy with his wars to
resist; the people, too disunited for concerted action. Now,
then, was the time to strike. Of all sinners, Germany was the
worst; and of all Germans, Henry IV. the worst sinner. H e was

6o

HOUSE OF FRANCONIA.

[D.II;

Pt.i.

so extravagant, he was always in need of money; and, to supply
" t h e needful," sold openly the sees and benefices of his empire
to those who paid him the best price in ready money.
Gregory VII. had not only a strong will, but a keen judgment.
Like a wise fisher, he knew full well that men must be "caught
by guile," and not driven like sheep by loud barking. H e first
sent a letter of gentle remonstrance to the king, then another, and
a third. These being of no avail, he sent legate after legate to
remonstrate personally; and when these also were unheeded by
the scape-grace king, he issued a " bull" by which any priest who
paid money for a benefice was excommunicated.
The matter had now come to a head, and an opportunity soon
occurred for the two combatants to try their strength. The see
of Milan fell vacant, and both Henry and Gregory appointed a
successor.
The pope summoned the young king to Rome to
answer for his sins (1075). Henry was furious; but his hands
were tied, for he was then at war with the rebellious Saxons. All
he could do was to summon a diet at Worms, and declare Gregory
to be deposed. The pope was prepared for the move, and,
calling together a synod, excommunicated the king and absolved
his subjects from their oath of allegiance. The dukes and
tributary nations were but too glad at this licence for rebellion.
Henry was no longer king, rebels were no longer traitors; and
even those who took the life of the outlaw were not guilty of
murder. Henry felt that a mark was set upon him, and " that his
punishment was greater than he could bear." With the first
murderer he might have said, " Behold, thou hast driven me out this
day from the face of the earth . . . and I shall be a fugitive and
a vagabond in the earth; and it shall come to pass, that every one
that findeth me shall slay me." The nation was panic-struck;
the eyes of all Christendom were upon i t ; all foreign powers had
liberty to invade it. The throne, the life, the salvation of its
king, his very future state in the land of spirits were imperilled.
It was too much. H e was frantic. What was to be done ? H e
was told that the princes had already chosen Rudolf in his place.
Resistance was no longer possible; and, although it was dead
winter, he hastened to Rome to see Gregory and make peace with
him.
The winter of 1076-7 was unusually severe; but king Henry,
with his wife and infant son, started for Italy. In crossing the
Alps they met with the greatest difficulties—the cold was intense;
the way, wearisome in the extreme; the danger from wild beasts
and brigands, not a little; but the journey was surmounted, and

1056-1106.]

HENRY IV. T H E GREAT.

6l

they reached Lombardy. Where was the pope ? H e was gone
to Naples—was at Canosa, a name memorable in history; for it
was at Cannae, a few miles distant, that Hannibal defeated the
Romans. Now Gregory was the Hannibal, and Germany (in the
person of its king) was at his mercy. Humbled in spirit, the king
reached the town of Canosa, dressed as a suppliant with a single
garment of coarse woollen, bare-headed and bare-footed.
He
must wait; his Holiness was not at leisure to receive h i m ; and he
waited in the open court, hour after hour, day and night, night
and day, for three days and nights amidst the snow, the wind, and
the frost; that luxurious king waited in the open court almost
without clothing; that man, born in a palace and who lived in a
palace, waited in the dead winter with only a wooden bench to
rest o n ; that hasty temper, which could brook no contradiction,
waited for an audience of the pope whom he had deposed. The
triumph was complete. Canosa was the Cannae of this Hannibal.
The royal penitent was at length admitted, and the sentence of
excommunication removed.
Stung to madness by this treatment, the young king, then only
twenty-six years old, hastened back to Germany, breathing fire and
slaughter. H e defeated his rebellious subjects in several battles.
H e would have grappled in his present mood with " t h e Russian
bear, the armed rhinoceros, or the Hyrcan tiger, and his firm
nerves would not have trembled." Rudolf, the king appointed
to fill his throne, he conquered and slew; and having restored his
fortunes at home, he hastened, while the fit was on him, to take
vengeance on the priest who had so insulted him.
In 1081 he entered Italy with a powerful army, declared
Gregory VII. deposed, and elected Clement I I I . in his stead.
H e would then have marched direct to Rome and occupied that
city; but hearing that Robert Guiscard, with an allied army of
Italians, Normans, and Saracens, was waiting to do him battle,
was obliged to retreat. For two years he hung about watching
his opportunity, and in 1084 Rome fell into his hands. Clement
I I I . now presented his patron with the imperial crown, and,
thinking his work done, the kaiser king returned to Germany.
Scarcely was his back turned when he found " t h a t he had
scotched the snake, not killed it." Pope Gregory returned in his
strength, deposed and excommunicated his rival pope, and also
the kaiser king.
The beginning of the end was now at hand. The sun of
Gregory was hastening to its set, and the clouds of night were
fast gathering around them both. Hildebrand had fought hard

62

HOUSE OF FRANCONIA.

[ D . n ; PL i.

for the church, and had worn the tiara for nineteen years.
Feeling that his life in Rome was not secure, he retired to
Salerno, and died in a few weeks at the age of seventy-one
(1085).
Gregory VII. had set himself a great work, and partly accomplished it, though not wholly. Many great and important reforms
he effected, some of which continued, but others fell gradually
back in the course of time. H e found the papacy almost a fief
of the king of Germany, but left it electoral by a college of
ecclesiastics. H e found the clergy dependents of the crown, but
left them the dependents of the tiara. H e found the patronage of
the church the merchandise of princes, but left it in the gift of
the holy pontiff. H e found the clergy impure, profane, ignorant,
and time-serving; but did much to reform these evils by filling
benefices, as they fell vacant, with a better class of men.
Whether the celibacy of the clergy, which Gregory VII. regarded
of the first importance, is to be commended or not, is not easy to
determine; doubtless it did its work in alienating the clergy from
the state, and making the kingdom of Christ more ecclesiastical,
and this was the great object which Gregory had in view.
DEATH OF HENRY IV. (1106).—Henry IV. was crowned kaiser
by Clement III., the very year that Gregory VII. died. His great
rival went first, and his dying words were, " I have loved righteousness and hated iniquity, though now I die in exile." Could the
kaiser Henry say the same when he came to die ? Gregory was
d e a d ; but Henry now found a worse enemy in his own household. His eldest son, Konrad, lifted up his heel against h i m ;
but he struggled on a little longer, and Konrad died. His wife
Adelaide proved unfaithful, and he divorced her; and still he held
up his head in the troubled waters, and married again. His
second son, his favourite, Henry, whom he had associated with
himself in the government, now pushed him from his throne, and
compelled him to sign his abdication; and the king of Italy and
Germany, the patrician of Rome and emperor of the West, was
driven from house and home a houseless and homeless beggar,
with nowhere to lay his head. Yea, the kaiser and king actually
knocked at the door of a religious house which himself had
founded and endowed, praying he might be made reader for a
morsel of bread; but no man gave unto him. H e was driven
away as a son of Belial, and found next morning dead upon the
door-steps. H e died of hunger; he wanted bread, and there was
none to pity—no kind Samaritan in all Germany to pour oil and
wine into the wounds of this traveller on life's highway who had

1056-1106.]

HENRY IV. THE GREAT.

63

fallen among thieves. He had sinned, no doubt; which of us
has not ? but surely, surely, was never man more sinned against
than he (1106).

Not yet was his cup full. He died under the ban of the
church, and therefore no funeral rites could be performed over
him. His very body could not be decently interred, so it was
put into a stone coffin and stowed in a cave for five years.
At length pope Pascal removed the sentence from the dead
monarch; and " his large kingdom found him a little grave—a
little, little grave."
T H E SECOND RECOGNISED A D V A N C E M E N T IN T H E
STATUS OF THE C O M M O N PEOPLE.
( The right to carry arms.)
When Henry IV. fled to Worms, the people opened their gates to him, and
armed in his defence. This was the first time that merchants and tradesmen
had been permitted in Germany to carry arms. It was an epoch in their
history, as it removed the great distinction between them and the freemen, who
had hitherto considered it their exclusive right, and treated citizens with
contempt because they could not wear swords.
This important privilege was extended by Henry IV. to all imperial cities,
and was a great advantage to him, as he had thus at all times a large body of
armed men at his command.
Henceforth merchants and tradesmen rose
rapidly in honour, and in time the haughtiest nobles thought it no loss of caste
to form matrimonial alliances with their sons and daughters.
A TRADITION.—We are told that in this reign a bandit chieftain, named
count Adalbert, plundered the bishop of Treves and carried off the spoil to his
stronghold. Tycho, one of the prelate's vassals, promised to avenge the affront;
and knocking at the chieftain's door craved a draught of water. The porter
brought him a cup of wine, and Tycho said to the man : "Thank thy lord for
his charity, and tell him he shall meet with his reward." Returning home Tycho
provided thirty large wine butts, and stowed in each an armed retainer, and
weapons for two others. Each cask was carried by two men to the castle
of the robber, and when the door was opened, Tycho said to the porter,
" See, I am come to recompense thy lord and master ; " and the sixty bearers
carried in the thirty casks. When count Adalbert went to look at the present,
at a signal given by Tycho the tops of the casks flew off, and the ninety armed
men slew the count and his brigands, and then burnt his castle to the ground.
Of course the reader will instantly see the resemblance of this tale to that of
AH Baba or the Forty Thieves, in the Arabian Nights' Entertainment*
ST. BRUNO (1030-1101), a native of Cologne, having retired with six of
his companions to the desert of Chartreuse, founded, in 1084, the Carthusian
order. Each monk of the order lives in a separate cell, sleeps on straw, and
can leave but once a week. They eat together only on festival days, and once a
week they fast on bread and water. They observe the most rigid silence, eat no
meat, drink no wine. "Charter-house" is a corruption of Chartreuse-house
or Carthusian monastery. Bruno was canonised by Gregory XV., in 1623.

64

HOUSE OF FRANCONIA.

[D.njPt.i.

ST. NORBERT (1080-1134).—A native of Cleves, in Westphalia (Germany).
He led a very wild life, but one day being overtaken in a storm became a
converted man, and went about Germany preaching the gospel of Christ.
Ultimately he retired to Premonstre, in France ; founded there the Premonstretensian order, which at one time was the most numerous in Germany. The
great object of this order was the practical instruction of the people and choral
services. St. Norbert was created, in 1127, archbishop of Magdeburg, in
Germany. He was canonised by Gregory X I I I . in 1582.
The word Pre-monstrS, means " t h e meadow pointed out," because
St. Norbert affirmed that the spot was pointed out to him by inspiration.
LAMBERT the chronicler (1020-1100) wrote a Universal History'from the
creation to 1050, and a History of Germany from 1050 to 1077.

HENRY V. THE PARRICIDE (HEIIMRICH V.)
(Son-in-law

of Henry

I. of

England.)

Associated with his father 1099 ; K i n g of the Romans {i.e. king elect) 1102 ; sole king
of Germany 1106 ; Kaiser Augustus of the H o l y Roman Empire H I T .
B O R N , 1081. R E I G N E D 27, alone 19 Y E A R S , 1098-1125 (his father died 1106.
Died a t Utrecht, Saturday, M a y 23, 1125. Aged 44.
Contemporary

with Rufus,

1087-1100; Henry

I., 1100-1135

Father, H e n r y I V . Mother, Bertha.
Wife, Matilda or M a u d daughter of H e n r y I . k i n g of England (1114). After the death
of the kaiser she married Godfroi earl of Anjou, b y whom she was the mother of
H e n r y I I . of England (JBeauclerc).
Children, none.

Henry V. disappointed the hopes of the Church, which had
done its utmost to secure his election to the crown. Instead of
playing into the hands of the pope, he asserted, as obstinately
as his father, the royal prerogative of investing bishops.
In 1111 he went to Italy with a powerful army, and took pope
Pascal II. prisoner, compelled him to crown him kaiser, and to
confirm to the king of Germany the right of investiture; but
no sooner had he left Italy, than Pascal thundered his anathema
against him, and annulled the concession which had been
extorted from him.
CONCORDAT OF WORMS (112 2).—At the death of Pascal, the
affairs at Rome were for a time in dreadful confusion. There
were popes and antipopes for twenty years, when Calixtus II., a
man of more conciliatory temper was elected. He wished, if
possible, to settle the moot-point of investiture, and to this end
summoned a council at Worms. An arrangement, called a " concordat," was then entered into between the kaiser and the
pope, the scope of which was that the pope was to' invest the
bishop and confer on him his spiritual powers, and then the

1106-1137]

HENRY

V.j

LOTHAR

II.

65

prelate was to acknowledge, by homage to the reigning king, that
he held his temporalities as fiefs of the crown
The remaining three years of Henry's life were one continual
battle with his nobles. He died in the forty-fourth year of his
age, and the twenty-seventh of his reign. As he had no child
the Franconian dynasty came to an end.
LOTHAR I I . , DUKE OF
B O R N 1075.

SAXONY,

R E I G N E D 12 Y E A R S , 1125-1137.

D i e d in the Tyrol, Saturday, December 4, 1137. Aged 62.

Ten princes met, at the death of Henry V., to choose a
successor, and gave the crown to Lothar duke of Saxony, who;
had joined the rebels against the last kaiser. He showed great
deference to the church, and even confessed himself the pope's
" man."
No event of importance occurred in this reign. Returning
from Italy, Lothar fell sick, was taken to a peasant's hut in the
Tyrol, and there died at the age of sixty-two.
The Pandects

Discovered.

I n this reign (1135) was discovered at Amalfi, in Naples, a unique copy of the R o m a n
pandects or code of laws. These books, in their relation to the history and literature of
ancient Rome, are invaluable, and it would be difficult to overstate their influence on t h e
civilisation of E u r o p e . Their discovery revived the study of law, which soon became so
popular that within five years Lombardy was full of lawyers, on whom Frederick Barbarossa
and Alexander I I I . heaped all sorts of honours and privileges. Before this important
discovery, the profession of arms was the one and only outlet for a g e n t l e m a n ; but from this
period the study of law r a n side by side with it, and greatly outstripped it in numbers a n d
popularity.

THE FIRST CRUSADE (1096-1099).
While Henry IV. and V. were jangling with the popes, 100,000 Europeans
abandoned their country to go to the Holy Land, to take it if possible from
the Saracens, who were then masters of it.
It had long been customary for Christians to go thither as pilgrims, that
they might offer up their prayers in the very places where Christ once trod,
bathe in the river in which he had been baptized, and visit the tomb in
which his body had been laid. They thought that special blessings would
come to them for so doing. The popes encouraged the notion, and made a
pilgrimage to the Holy Land an act of piety which merited forgiveness of sins.
Constantine, the first christian emperor of the East, and his mother
Helena, took great pains to clear away the earth from the tomb, and to group
round the Holy Sepulchre the garden of Gethsemane, the supper room, the
via dolorosa, Mount Calvary, and the site of the Ascension. Over the tomb
they raised a dome on pillars, and decorated the ceiling with gold, silver,
and marble; around the dome and above it they placed oratories, built what
F

66

MEDLEVAL HISTORY.

[D.xi; Pt.i.

is called the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, and enclosed the whole in a
large court. Helena, furthermore, built a church at Bethlehem, the birthplace of Jesus, and another on the Mount of Olives.
When the Holy Land fell into the hands of the Arabs in the seventh
century, pilgrims to these sites were a good deal annoyed by tolls and
exactions; and when in 1073 the Seljuk-Turks took possession of the land,
great complaints were made of their extortions, and their cruel treatment of
pilgrims.
In 1094 Peter the hermit presented himself before pope Urban II. He
had just returned from a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and was brim-full of
grievances. Urban listened to his tale, and sent letters by him to the
christian princes of Europe, exhorting them to aid him in taking the holy
places from these barbarous unbelievers. Now followed one of those
astounding movements which out-marvel romance.
Peter, the apostle of the first crusade, was born at Amiens, in France.
His figure was mean, his body thin and gaunt, his stature short. He had
been a soldier, and had served in Italy, but nothing marked him out for
distinction. He left the army, married, and became the father of a family ;
but his privacy passed, and no one regarded it. At length his wife died, he
turned monk, and finally left his monastery to live in the desert as a hermit.
It was in this solitude that the force of his character developed itself. In
1093 he visited the Holy Sepulchre; and his spirit was stirred within him
when he saw the holy places trodden under foot by infidels, pilgrims treated
as dogs, and the priceless relics of our Redeemer tossed to the winds as
things despised. He thought and thought upon the matter; and on his return
to Europe broached his plan of operation to the pope, who instantly entered
into his scheme, and sent him to preach up the crusade.
Bare-headed and bare-footed, behold him starting on his journey on a mule.
His raiment was a long monkish robe, tied about the waist with a rope, and
a hermit's cloak of the coarsest material. He carried a scrip at his waist
but no money, and in his hand an enormous crucifix.
He traversed Italy; he crossed the Alps and entered France. From
province to province rode he, and from city to city—now addressing the
people from the pulpit, now from the road-side, now from the public marketplace. His fame had gone before him, and wherever he went, throngs
almost exceeding belief crowded to hear him.
His eloquence was that of the heart. He addressed himself to the valour
of the brave, the pity of the gentle, the shame of the coward, the pride of
the mighty, the zeal of the religious, and the ambition of the worldly-minded.
He enlisted on his side hope and fear, love and hate, the prospect of the
world that now is, and the promise of that which is to come. He painted
with the dash of an artist the insulting infidel treading under foot the true
believer ; the Moslem stalking in his pride, and profaning the places where
the babe of Bethlehem lay in the manger, or fainted under the cross, or was
nailed to the tree, or laid in the tomb, or rose into the air. He showed them
the captive in his dungeon, pining in a martyr's death, or dying of famine
before the gates of Jerusalem, or suffering with angel patience the heapedup cruelty of infidelity and malice. He spoke with fervour of the early
Christians, what they did and what they suffered for their Lord and Master.
He denounced with the authority of a master the lack of zeal and piety in
the age in which he lived. He opened the gates of heaven, and showed the
paradise of God reserved for the faithful; or drew back the curtain of the
bottomless pit, and froze the heart of his hearers with the terror of his bold
and graphic words.

I096-I099*

FIRST CRUSADE.

67

He spoke in thunder ; he darted forth his words like lightning; he hurried
on like a hurricane, or rushing mighty wind. His keen grey eye flashed
with living fire, and struck flames of fire from the hearts of his hearers.
He wept, he sobbed, he groaned in spirit, he fixed his eye on heaven, and
there his soul seemed to hover disembodied. His sentences were short, bold,
graphic, and full of figures. He broke from time to time into the most
passionate ejaculations,—then would his voice be choked with the full floodtide of feeling. It was not the man that spoke, but the spirit of the man
within him. The contagion was resistless. It was heart speaking to heart,
spirit to spirit, soul to soul. It was passion striking on passion, zeal on zeal,
strong will on will. It was the master mind leading captivity captive ; it was
the cascade dashing down all opposition; the axe at the root of the tree.
Never was simplicity so sublime, never was eloquence more mighty. Elijah
in the time of Ahab, and John the Baptist in the wilderness, might have so
spoken. He was the Elijah and the John of mediaeval history.
The crusade was the one subject of the christian world, the Hermit the
forefront of the enterprise. The sufferings he described, the exhortations he
gave, the rewards he promised, the torrent of his zeal, the earthquake of his
strong feeling, these were the themes of every mouth. Fathers to their
children, barons to their serfs, priests to their flocks, husbands to their
wives, wooers to their maidens, ladies to their pages, masters to their
servants, caught with the contagion, spoke from overflowing hearts, and
believed they were doing God service in vowing vengeance on the infidel.
It was a furor, a masterless passion, a frenzy, a torrent of public opinion
bursting its banks. The fountains of the heart were broken up, and the
deluge could not be restrained. The windows of undefined hope were
opened, and every worldly consideration was swept away. There was but
one ark, and that was the crusade.
It was just at this crisis of affairs that the pope held a counsel at Clermont,
in France. Urban himself was present, and delivered a most stirring address.
The vast audience could not contain their pent-up hearts; " God wills i t ! "
burst from their lips. " God wills it," cried the council. " God wills it ! " was
shouted by the outside multitude, as the resolve of the council was made
known ; and Urban, crossing his hands, bowed his head almost to the railings
of the altar, and uttered with deep emotion "God wills it ! so be it then ! "
and deus vtilt was the war-cry of the expedition.
The crusade itself forms no part of German history. The Germans as a
nation took no part in the enterprise—their hands were full of blood already ;
quarrels with the pope, rebellion, ambition, and every bad passion had set
"sons at variance with their fathers, the daughter against her mother, and
the daughter-in-law against her mother-in-law ; their foes were they of their
own household;" they had no room in their thoughts for Saracen and
pilgrim, and it was not till the era of the second crusade that Germany took
an interest in these " holy wars." All, therefore that need be added is this :
an enormous undisciplined army, impatient of delay, put themselves under
the guidance of the hermit and one Walter, surnamed " t h e Pennyless."
Above a million of men, women, and children started, but only one here and
there straggled to the Holy Land; thousands died of famine, thousands of
fever, and others by the sword.
In the middle of August 1096, six well-organised armies, officered by men
of rank and renown, started, each on a different route, for Constantinople.
Godfrey of Bouillon, in Belgium, was the army-head, and when the city of
Jerusalem was taken, was made Baron of the Holy Sepulchre. The victorious
army would have created hinf "King of Jerusalem," but he refused " t o
F 2

68

MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

[D.n; Pt.i.

wear a crown of gold, where his Lord and Master wore only a crown of
thorns."
Of the Hermit we know but little after the crusade commenced. He was
one of the few stragglers who reached the Holy Land, and when Jerusalem
was taken, hundreds ran to the Mount of Olives to tell the man of Amiens
that God had given him the victory.

POLITICAL AND SOCIAL STATE OF GERMANY AT T H E
CLOSE OF T H E FRANCONIAN DYNASTY.
(i) PEOPLE.—Nominally Germany was a kingdom, and the king was
supreme; but in reality the kaiser had very little power, for many of his nobles
were quite as powerful, and some were far richer than himself. The great
.nobles considered themselves sovereigns, and obeyed their overlord or not
as they thought proper. The duke of Bavaria was not the only prince of
Germany who had a sword borne before him like a king.
Many of the nobles were no better than highwaymen, and the whole land
was filled with blood. The reason was this : The vassals, by the condition of
their feudal tenures, owed their lords a short military service; when this expired they were free, and let themselves out as freelances to any one who would
hire them. If no one wanted their service, they dispersed themselves about
and lived by plunder.
So there was a king, surrounded by feudatories, each of whom was a lord to
other vassals. There were hosts of serfs just emerging into liberty, of military
adventurers living by rapine, of rebellious spirits made slaves by the chances of
war, and a growing population of tradesmen, despised as inferior clay, yet
heaping up riches, and gradually feeling their way into independence.
(2) HOUSES.—The townsfolk lived in wooden houses, but they had very few
conveniences, and their furniture was of the rudest kind. Some of the most
wealthy covered the walls of their best apartments with tapestry, and others
painted them in imitation ; but there were no firegrates, no glass windows, no
carpets, no beds similar to our own, no chairs and sofas, glasses or pictures,
few knives and no forks, very few books, no paper, no clocks and watches, and
few lamps ; if here and there some of these things were to be found, they were
looked on as luxuries, and had not yet come into any general use.
The great barons lived in huge castles, frequently built on the top of a high
hill, almost inaccessible, and surrounded by high walls. They were dreadfully
gloomy and lonesome, for the master was rarely at home ; and the ladies spent
their time in spinning or embroidery, weaving gold fringe, decorating swordbelts, banners, and surcoats for favourite knights, learning leechcraft, or playing
-on their harps and lutes.
When their lords were at home they were more cheerful, because the Germans
were fond of feast and revelry; but as these feasts generally ended in excess, they
were quite as likely to lead to a brawl as not.
(3) BANQUETS.—When a grand banquet was given, crowds of minstrels,
jugglers, fools, and mimics, assembled to amuse the guests; and a kind of fair
was improvised outside, where pedlars and merchants hawked about their wares.
One would display on a bench his cloth of gold and silver, his silks and velvet,
his ermines, minever, and other furs. Another, his silver cups, gold clasps,
and other ornaments for knights and ladies. A third would exhibit cutlery and
armour, Danish battle-axes, Cologne swords, casques from Poitiers, and
hauberks of Rouen manufacture.

n t h Cent.]

POLITICAL AND SOCIAL STATE.

69

The hubbub without and within would be loud and boisterous. The laugh,
the shout, the "what will you buy" of the merchants, mingled with instruments of music, as the flute, the bagpipe, the rote or hurdy-gurdy, and the
cithern or guitar, was a very Babel but worse confounded.
At the same time pennons, flags, and banners floated from the walls and
pinnacles of the castle, and crowds of gay dresses fluttered about in every
direction.
IF The banquet hour on such occasions was 4 o'clock, and was announced
by a flourish of trumpets.
When the guests had assembled in the castle, pages handed to each a silver
basin and fine napkin, while other pages followed with silver ewers to pour
water on their hands. This ceremony over, another flourish of trumpets
announced that dinner was served, and each knight handed his lady to the
banquet hall.
The tables were covered with fine linen from Damascus, and the benches
with tapestry. The place of every guest was fixed, and the "cover" consisted
of small loaves of bread, dinner napkins, a few silver spoons, and here and
there a knife, but the carving was generally done by the dirks or swords of the
knights.
Wooden platters or pewter trenchers were employed for plates, and the
drinking vessels were of silver, horn, and earthenware. Water, wine, and
beer, were served in silver, glass, or earthen jugs, of sundry shapes, representing dragons, castles, ships, ogres, and other fantastic devices.
The gentleman and the lady assigned to him ate from the same platter, and
drank from the same cup. They had no forks and no knives for private use,
but picked their food with their fingers, and even served it in the same way.
When the feast was over, another flourish of trumpets was made, and the
guests retired to the castle grounds to listen to the minstrels, many of whom
were amongst the most honoured of the guests.
(4) DRESS.—Kings on grand occasions wore rich purple tunics, confined at
the waist by a golden girdle from which hung a sword of state. The neck and
sleeves were fastened with gold bands; and over their shoulders was a robe of
crimson and sendal lined with ermine. Their hair fell in profusion over their
shoulders, and was ornamented with a jewelled cap of crimson velvet. The
toga of Konrad II. came to the knees like a Scotch kilt, but that of his
successors below the knee. The shoes fitted the feet and were not peaked.
§ The costume of the nobles was also magnificent—the borders of their
tunics and their swordbelts being most elaborately decorated. Their longpointed shoes of purple cloth were fringed with gold, their gloves were
embroidered and jewelled, and on their heads they wore a cap or hood with
jewel and plume.
Their hair was long and curled, beards and moustaches were carefully
cultivated, and altogether the age was foppish and splendid.
The common sort wore serge or cloth, generally of a brown colour, but
young children went unclad.
Ladies wore very long robes, the sleeves tight and down to the wrist. The
body fitted close to the waist, which was bound by a rich girdle; and the skirt
fell in drapery all round.
State robes and mantles were splendidly embroidered. The wimple, wrapping
round the head and chin, was in fashion, and was bound on the forehead by a
gold or jewelled fillet.
The boots or shoes of ladies were short, but their robes were so long that
only the tips of their toes were visible. Gloves were in general use, and so
were reticules or pouches.

[D.xi; P t . i .

MEDI/EVAL HISTORY.

7°

(5) INNS AND HOSTELS.—There were no hotels or inns for the accommodation
of travellers, but monasteries supplied the want; and any traveller who applied
at a castle would receive food and sleeping accommodation.
Travelling, however, was of rare occurrence, from the want of roads, the
danger of being abroad, and the absence of any means of conveyance except
by horseback. Sometimes a wandering knight would want shelter from a storm
or a place to sleep in, and sometimes a pilgrim or beggar would crave
temporary hospitality, and sometimes a merchant would be unable to reach
home before sunset; but travelling for pleasure or social gathering was far too
dangerous to be indulged in.
Altogether the age was one of extremes—extreme wealth and extreme poverty,
extreme splendour and extreme squalor ; a knight would plunder his neighbour
of all that he possessed, but throw open his doors to the first beggar and feast
him with the fatted calf. Women were treated like goddesses by the cavaliers
"who would not beteem the winds of heaven to visit their face too roughly,"
yet were they subjected by them to the grossest abuses and often to unheard-of
cruelty ; and nobles, who fretted to pay homage to a king for value received,
made slaves of their neighbours who had fallen into their hands by the caprice of
war. It was a selfish age, with no public spirit; an extravagant age, with no
philanthropy; Christians were satisfied with the name without the spirit;
nobles, who despised the ignoble by birth, blushed not at the most ignoble
conduct; in every rank was straining at gnats and swallowing camels.

HOUSE OF H0HENSTAUFE3ST OR STTABIA,
1132-1254.
GIVES 6 KINGS: KONRAD III., FREDERICK BARBAROSSA, HENRY VI.,
PHILIPP, [OTTO IV.], FREDERICK II., AND KONRAD IV.

Frederick of Hohenstaufen, duke of Suabia, married Agnes, daughter of kaiser Henry IV.
Their Children were
House of
Guelf and Bavaria.
Guelf I., Duke of Bavaria.

KONRAD I I I .
Lord of Ghibelin, duke of Suabia.
Root of the Ghibelin faction.

Frederick of Suabia.
FREDERICK I. Barbarossa.

(nephew of Konrad III.)
Guelf II.

(no issue.)

I

Henry the Black
HENRY VI.
("90-1197).

H e n r y the Proud
Agnes
Duke of Bavaria, Saxony, (mother of
Tuscany and H olland. Barbarossa.}
He married the daughter
of kaiser Lothar.

Guelf III.

Root of the
Guelf faction.

H e n r y the Lion.
Duke of Saxony Tuscany, and Holland.
He married Maud, daughter of
Henry II. of England.
OTTO IV.
(1209-1215).
Abdicated and died 1218.

Otto the Infant, duke of Brunswick.
Whence comes our reigning family.

PHILIPP
(1197-1208).

FREDERICK I I .
(1215-1250).

{See Otto IV.)

KONRAD IV.
(1250-1254).
Dynasty ended.

TI32-I254-1

HOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN.

71

KONRAD 111., DUKE OF SUABIA.
H E WAS A L S O L O R D O F G I B E L I N OR W I B L I N G E N .

K i n g of the Romans {i.e. king elect), 1128 ; King of Germany, 1138 ; never Kaiser or
Emperor of the H o l y R o m a n Empire.
B O R N 1093.

R E I G N E D 14 Y E A R S , 1138-1152.

Died at Bamberg, in Bavaria, Sunday, February 15, 1152. Aged 59.
Contemporary with Henry / . , 1100-1135 ; Stephen, 1135-1154.
Father, Frederick Hohenstaufen, duke of Suabia, nephew of kaiser H e n r y V.
Mother, Agnes, daughter of kaiser H e n r y I V .
Children, H e n r y and Frederick, both passed over.
Biographer, his secretary, Godfrey of Viterbo.

CHIEF EVENTS.
1138. Henry the Proud put to the ban of the empire, and deprived of his fiefs.
1140. Siege of Weinsberg, in Wurtemberg. Guelfs and Ghibelins.
1142. Konrad restores Saxony to Henry the Lion, son of Henry the Proud. Albert the
Bear is compensated by having his margraviate raised to a royal fief.
1146. The second crusade. (1146-1149.)
1147. Konrad starts on a crusade, but before leaving Germany gets his son Henry crowned
king of the Romans ; however the electors passed him over when his father died.
1149. Konrad returns from Palestine.

Kaiser Lothar had a son-in-law, Henry surnamed the " Proud,"
but the electing dukes refused to offer him the crown because of
his arrogance and pride; so passing him by, they chose Konrad
of Hohenstaufen, a nephew of kaiser Henry IV.
Hohenstaufen [stou-jfn], that is the " High-place Staufen," in Wurtemberg. It is more
than 2000 feet above the level of the sea. Frederick of Staufen, Konrad's cousin, lived in
this castle, which was destroyed in 1525. Its ruins still adorn the left bank of the Danube.
Frederick of Staufen married Hildegard, half-sister of kaiser Konrad II. surnamed the
Salic.

Henry the Proud was a much greater man than Konrad. He
was duke of Bavaria and Saxony, and in right of his wife held
Tuscany and Holland. His wife being the daughter of the last
king, he felt certain that the electors would give him their voices,
and so angry was he at being passed over, that he refused to do
homage to the new king. As Bavaria and Saxony were fiefs of
the crown, the king declared them forfeit by this refusal, gave
them to two other nobles,* and put the duke to the ban of the
empire. Henry the Proud was mad with rage, and how he might
have acted had he lived nobody knows; as it was, he fretted and
fumed for a few months, and then died, leaving a brother and a
son to avenge their grievance.
The brother of the proud Henry was named Guelf, and his
son Henry, a lad of sixteen, was surnamed the " Lion." Guelf
• Konrad gave the duchy of Bavaria to the margraf of Austria, a grandson of kaiser Henry IV. Saxony
he gave to Albert the Bear, raargraf of Brandenburg; but in 1142 Albert had to restore it to Henry the Lion,
son of Henry the Proud.

72

HOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN.

[D.njPt.i,

resolved to win back the forfeited estates for his nephew, and
made war upon the new king ; but being defeated at Weinsberg
\vtnes-bairg\ in Wiirtemberg, took refuge in the town, which the
king at once besieged (1140).
A pretty story is connected with this siege. After an obstinate
defence the city surrendered; and Konrad resolved to burn it to
the ground, but before doing so he gave notice that the women
might leave, and carry with them any one thing they liked best.
The day arrived. The gates were thrown open. A long line of
women came up, each carrying on her back a husband, a lover,
or a son. The kaiser was moved to tears by this touching sight,
and not only forgave the rebels, but spared the city.
G U E L F S A N D G H I B E L I N S . * — T h e battle of Weinsburg is still further noted for giving rise t o
t h e paroles (2 syl.) " Guelfs a n d Ghibelins." T h e battle-word of count Guelf was his own
name, and that of Konrad's a r m y was " Ghibelin," or rather Wiblingen, because Frederick
d u k e of Suabia, t h e king's cousin, lived there, a n d was commander of t h e king's forces.
H e n c e t h e cries, " Guelf to t h e rescue ! " or " Ghibelins to t h e r e s c u e ! " a r e much about t h e
same as if, in the W a r of Roses, t h e parole of the White Rose h a d been York ! a n d that of
t h e R e d Rose Windsor! m I n after times, t h e pope's p a r t y was called t h e Guelf, a n d t h e
imperial party opposed to it Ghibelin.

SECOND CRUSADE (1146-1149).—Konrad was starting for Italy
when the news came to Europe that Edessa, in the Holy Land,
had fallen into the hands of the infidels, that 30,000 Christians
had been massacred, and 20,000 more had been reduced to
slavery. All Europe was in consternation, and a cry for
vengeance rose on every side.
Peter the hermit was sent by pope Urban II. to preach up the
first crusade; Bernard abbot of Clairvaux \clair-vo\ was sent by
pope Eugenius III. to preach up the second. Both were men
"of great power, both had the gift of eloquence, both were
zealous in the cause, but in most other respects they were as
unlike each other as they well could be. Peter was bold and
graphic, Bernard mellifluous and full. Peter blazed as a comet,
Bernard shone like the full moon. Peter was a mountain
torrent, Bernard a " river of paradise." Peter was an axe laid
to the root of a tree, Bernard the dew of heaven. Peter
thundered and lightened, but the words of Bernard fell "like
the gentle rain of heaven on the earth beneath." Peter worked
on the sensibilities, Bernard on the conscience. Peter was an
Elijah, a Paul, an ^Eschylus; Bernard an inspired Isaiah, a loving
John, a Sophocles. Both were suasive in their eloquence, but
the power of Peter was over the outer man, that of Bernard
spoke to the soul within.
* Guelf and Ghibelin are the Italian forms of Welf and Wiblingen, but as the words are chiefly connected
with Italian history, the Italian words are better known and need not be altered.

1138-1152.

KONRAD

III.

73

When the abbot addressed himself to Louis of France, the
young king put himself at once at the head of 100,000 volunteers. H e might have had as many more if he had taken all
who wanted to join his standard. Konrad, of Germany, was a
man of another metal. H e refused at first to join the crusade ;
left Frankfort to escape the abbot, and lay for awhile in hiding
at Speyer [Spire]; but Bernard followed him, and Konrad could
not hold out. " I own," he cried, with tears in his eyes, " my
deep, deep debt to G o d ; I am his servant, his unworthy servant,
let him do with me as seemeth him good."
Bernard now raised the standard of the cross upon the altar,
and Frederick Barbarossa, with Guelf and 60,000 men, put
themselves under arms. Misfortune hung over the two armies.
In 1147 Konrad encamped near Constantinople. It was November 21, the feast of the birth of the Virgin. The rain had
fallen in torrents, and the river at midnight overflowing its banks
flooded the whole plain, sweeping in its torrent hundreds of
men and horses. H e next encamped in a country which the
Turks had laid waste, and no food or forage could be obtained.
Here famine ate up both horses and m e n ; and the Turks,
without coming to a battle, kept them in ceaseless alarm all
night and day, leaving them no rest, and no sleep, " that best
of rest," so that when Konrad reached the Holy Land, his
60,000 men had wasted to 6,000. Fighting was out of the
question, so he merely visited the Holy Places, and returned to
Germany to die. And what of Louis VII. ? More than half of
his fine army was lost in the defiles of Laodicea. With the
remainder the young king attempted several enterprises, but
failed in all. At length, he also reached Palestine, not as a
monarch, but a pilgrim; not with an army, but a staff.
He
visited the Holy Sepulchre, and having paid his vows, returned
to France, with the prestige of his name, as a monarch and a
knight, wholly destroyed.
Konrad had been absent for two years. H e had just time to
put his foot upon a rebellion headed by count Guelf, and then
he died, at the age of fifty-nine, having been king of Germany
for fourteen years. H e was never crowned kaiser, but had
been created " King of the Romans" before the death of his
predecessor. Konrad I I I . was undoubtedly a brave man and
an estimable man, but he was not a brilliant one, nor has he set
his mark upon the age. His son was too young to succeed
him, so he left his sceptre to his valiant nephew, Frederick
Barbarossa, who had accompanied him to the Holy Land.

74

HOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN.

[ D . I I ; Pt.i.

Konrad was the first of t h e kings of Germany who was elected b y seven princes, a n d in
1356 Karl I V . h a d this number of electors fixed b y l a w , in what is termed t h e Golden Bull,
or t h e Bull to which a golden seal was suspended.
S T . H I L D E G A R D A (1100-1178), abbess of St. Rupert, near Bingen on t h e Rhine, was famous
for h e r visions. ^ A t t h e advice of St. Bernard, t h e pope authorised her to publish them. H e r
letters a n d religious works on mysticism. & c , were greatly in vogue for many years.
O T T O O F F R E Y S I N G E N , in Bavaria (1108-1158), w a s grandson of H e n r y I V . , a n d m a d e
bishop of Freysingen b y kaiser Konrad I V . H e wrote (in Latin) A History of the Worlds
from Adam t o the year 1146, in seven books. T h e last three, being a history of Germany,
a r e very valuable.

FREDERICK I. BARBAROSSA. (FR1EDR1CH I.)
" T H E FATHER OF HIS COUNTRY."

K i n g of the Romans (i.e., king elect), 1152; crowned a t PavTa K i n g of Lombardy, 1154;
crowned a t Rome, b y Pope Adrian I V . , Kaiser Augustus of t h e H o l y R o m a n E m p i r e ,
1155 ; K i n g of Aries, 1178.
B O R N 1121.

R E I G N E D 38 Y E A R S , 1152-1190.

Drowned in t h e Cydnus, Sunday, J u n e 10, 1190. Aged 69.
Contemporary

with Stephen,

1135-1154; Henry

II.t 1154-1189; Richard

I., 1189-1199.

Father and Mother, Barbarossa w a s a Ghibelin on t h e father's side a n d a Guelf on t h e
mother's, his father
being Frederick t h e One-Eyed, duke of Suabia, a n d his mother
Agnes, a sister of H e n r y t h e P r o u d .
Wives, (1) Adelaide, married 1149, repudiated 1153; (2) Beatrice, daughter a n d heiress of
R e n a u t I I I . of Burgundy, married 1156, died 1185.
Children, H e n r y V I . , his successor, w h o married Constance, daughter a n d heiress of Roger
I I . king of t h e T w o Sicilies; Philipp, successor of H e n r y V I . ; Frederick, slain a t t h e
siege of A c r e ; a n d two others.
Territory added, Holstein a n d Lauenberg.
Biographers,
Cosmo Bartoli (1570). Radevic, a contemporary, wrote t h e continuation of the
life of Barbarossa begun in t h e chronicle of Bishop O t t o .
Godfrey of Viterbo, h i s
secretary.
CHIEF EVENTS.
1153.
Barbarossa gives to h i s maternal uncle, Guelf (brother of H e n r y t h e P r o u d ) t h e
margraviate of Tuscany a n d duchy of Spoleto.
1154. H i s first visit to Italy, with H e n r y t h e Lion, to re-establish t h e pope.
1155.
Arnaldo of Brescia burnt, a n d his ashes cast into t h e Tiber.
Barbarossa erects
Bohemia into a kingdom.
1158.
Second visit to Italy. H e invades Lombardy, a n d takes Milan. D I E T A T R O N C A G L I A
(Nov. 11), which declares I t a l y to pertain to t h e empire of Germany.
1159.
Siege of Crema, in Lombardy. T a k e n in J a n u a r y , 1160, after a siege of seven m o n t h s .
1160. Barbarossa excommunicated b y Alexander I I I .
1164. T h i r d visit to Italy, t o invade L o m b a r d y .
1165.
Recognises Pascal I I I . as pope.
ix66.
Fourth visit to Italy, against t h e Lombard confederacy.
1168.
Barbarossa loses his Italian army b y pestilence, a n d returns to Germany.
1169.
Prince H e n r y (aged four) elected K i n g of t h e R o m a n s , or heir presumptive of
Germany.
1170. D e a t h of Albert the Bear, to whom Brandenburg owes t h e origin of its greatness.
1174. Fifth visit to Italy, against Allessandria. I s deserted b y H e n r y t h e Lion.
1176.
B A T T L E O F L E G N A N O , near Como, in which t h e Lombards utterly defeat Barbarossa.
1180. D i e t a t Wurzburg, b y which H e n r y t h e Lion is banished a n d deprived of his fiefs,
Saxony a n d Bavaria.
Saxony is given to t h e brother of t h e margraf of
Brandenburg.
1184. T R E A T Y O F C O N S T A N C E , b y which the Italian cities a r e confirmed t o t h e crown of
Germany.

1152-1190.]
1186.
1189.

FREDERICK I. BARBAROSSA.

75

Prince H e n r y (aged twenty-one) marries Constance (aged forty), daughter and heiress
of William I I . of the Two Sicilies. William dies in 1189, when H e n r y succeeds
to the two kingdoms.
Third crusade. Barbarossa starts for Palestine.

Frederick, called Barbarossa or Red Beard, was the second
king of the house of Hohenstaufen \stou-fn\, and one of the
greatest monarchs of Germany. Certainly none stands before
him in popular esteem, and no name in history or legend is better
known. H e took Charlemagne for his model, as did Napoleon I.;
but in person, disposition, and character, the kaiser approached
much nearer to the original than did the French imitator.
A magnificent man was Barbarossa, and magnanimous as well;
holding the reins of government with a master's hand, and, like
old Neptune with the tempestuous waves, putting down anarchy
and rebellion with authority which made itself felt. H e was in
very truth a " terror to evil-doers, and a praise to them who did
well." Wherever he went his shield was hoisted on a high pole to
give notice to all concerned that he was there to administer
justice, and make the crooked places straight.
Manly in form was Barbarossa, and strong in thews. His forehead was large and square; his blond-red hair, thick, curly, and
long; his eyes, piercing, "bright as the eagle's, and full of
controlling majesty;" his beard, full and flowing; his carriage,
majestic. Whoever saw that firm-built man, and observed his
mouth and eye, would say, " What, wouldst thou move Olympus ?
then seek not to bend that iron will."
Barbarossa had no easy walk before him—no gravelled path
weeded and rolled, but one as full of dangerous hazard as the
"Valley of Humiliation" where Bunyan's pilgrim fought with
Apollyon. Our kaiser's Apollyon was the pope, and his lion his
cousin Henry, surnamed the " Lion." His " Shadow of Death " was
Italy; and the thousand monsters that threatened to devour him,
the cities of Lombardy. But Barbarossa could say with Pilgrim,
*' I will give thanks to Him that hath delivered me out of the
mouth of the lion, to Him that did help me against Apollyon."
The great axiom of the red-beard king was that Scripture
dogma, " N o man can serve two masters." If, therefore, he was
lord and master, lord and master he would be, and his authority
should be undisputed and over all. This brought him into collision
with the popes, with the Lombards, with his own barons; and
though he came not out of the furnace free from the smell of
fire, yet did he a good work in his day and generation, and won
that most honourable of royal titles, " T h e Father of his Country."

76

HOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN.

[D.n;Pt.i.

T H E BARONS SUBJECTED.—In the first year of his reign he

made the king of Denmark do homage for his crown. T h e king
of Poland and the king of Hungary also became his m e n ; the
duke of Bohemia he rewarded for his fidelity by raising his duchy
to a kingdom; Burgundy fell into his hands by his marriage with
Beatrice; and Henry the Lion, the head of the Guelfs, he reconciled, for a time at least, and made him a friend.
Only Italy remained, and there he had uphill work: the popes
were a constant thorn in his side. Six times he crossed the Alps
(four times at the head of large armies) to chastise the refractory
cities of Lombardy. It is said that on one occasion he sent a
letter to Milan, when the governor tore off the pendent seal, and
stamped the parchment under foot; but the king had his revenge,
if, indeed, the rest of the tale may be believed. T h e governor
was Gebhardo; him Barbarossa arrested, and made him lie,
chained like a dog, for three days under his table. There could
be no doubt he was in earnest, and would not be trifled with.
BARBAROSSA AND T H E P O P E . — I n his first visit to Italy Barbarossa was crowned at Pavia " King of Lombardy," and then went
to Rome to settle matters with the pope. T h e pope was Adrian
IV., the only Englishman who ever sat on the papal chair. His
name was Nicholas Breakspeare. H e was a native of Langley,
near St. Albans, and rose from being a menial in a monastery
to the dignity of abbot, then of cardinal-bishop, and lastly of
pope.
Breakspeare took for his model Gregory VII., but
Barbarossa was not Henry IV. When kings visited the pope it
had hitherto been usual for the temporal monarch to hold the
pope's stirrup, and help him to dismount. Barbarossa refused to
do s o ; and Adrian remonstrated with him, saying that all previous
kings had shown this mark of respect to God's vicar. Next day
the king held the stirrup for his Holiness while he dismounted
from his mule, but did it so awkwardly that the pope refused to
give him the kiss of peace. T h e king remarked he had never
been apprenticed to a groom; but Adrian made answer, " If in
so small a matter you need a teacher, you must be wholly unfit
to rule a great empire." However, peace was made between
them, and Adrian crowned him " Kaiser " in St. Peter's, at Rome,
after which he returned to Germany (1155).
Soon the contention with the pope broke out again. T h e
legate, cardinal Rowland (afterwards Pope Alexander III.), had
the audacity to say, in the Assembly of the princes, " Of whom
does your kaiser hold his empire if not of the pope ? " Otto, the
king's sword-bearer, would have cleft the legate's head in his

1152-1190.]

FREDERICK I. BAREAROSSA.

77

wrath if the king had not interposed; and the legate would have
been torn to pieces when he left the assembly, if Frederick had
not protected him and sent him back to Rome under the escort
of a guard.
Pope Adrian IV. died in 1159, and then the affairs of the
Roman church became entangled. Barbarossa appointed Victor
I I I . pope, and the Italians chose Alexander I I I . ; so there were
again two rival pontiffs, who excommunicated each other and
hurled reckless anathemas at the heads of their opponents.
BARBAROSSA'S

ITALIAN

EXPEDITIONS.—In

1154

Barbarossa

went to Italy and was crowned " King of Lombardy." Next year
he was crowned " Kaiser " by the pope. After this he had to return
four times to Italy with large armies to put down insurrections in
the cities of Lombardy, and once in 1184, that his son might be
crowned with the iron crown of Lombardy.*
(1st, 1158). His first Italian expedition was in 1158, against
Mil'an. H e crossed the Alps at the head of 100,000 foot and
15,000 horse. T h e Milanese were thoroughly alarmed, and went
as suppliants to crave mercy: the priests in sackcloth, bearing
crosses; the people bare-headed, bare-footed, and with ropes
round their neck; the women with their hair loose, and other
signs of woe. All knelt before the great king and implored him to
spare the city. His heart relented, he took hostages, raised the
imperial eagle on the altar of the cathedral, and returned home.
(2nd, 1159-1162). Next year the Milanese so grossly insulted
his officers, they had to flee for their lives. Barbarossa was
furious, put Mil'an to the ban of the empire, and swore vengeance. Another army was transported across the Alps. First
Crema, in Lombardy, was levelled to the ground after a siege of
seven months. Then Mil'an was invested, but held out for two
years, when its fortifications were thrown down and its inhabitants
driven from the city.
(3rd, 1166). In 1166 the red-beard king had to return to Italy
with a third army. This time to put down a confederation of the
Lombard cities. The league was easily broken up, and the king
marched to Rome, where he was again crowned. In this expedition a fatal epidemic broke out in his army. As old Homer
said, " A foul contagion raged in all the camp, and hundreds left
their bodies to devouring dogs and birds of prey." Eight bishops
were among the victims, four dukes, and 1000 others of noble rank.
* '* Iron crown of Lombardy," so called from a narrow band of iron, said to be beaten out of one of
the nails used in the crucifixion. This band is about three-eighths of an inch broad and one-tenth of an inch
in thickness. The outer circlet of the crown is of beaten gold, and set with precious stones. Napoleon I.
was crowned with it.

78

HOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN.

[ D . i i j P t . i.

The Italians looked on this mortality as a judgment. The kaiser fled
to Germany, the Milanese returned to the city from which they had
been banished, and the fortifications were restored (1166-1168).
(4th, 1174). The fourth Italian expedition was in 1174. This
time it was Alessandria which was besieged, a new city, reared in
honour of Pope Alexander I I I . , and the most powerful of the
confederation.
Here, also, was Red Beard held at bay for
seven months, when, being told that the Lombards were coming
against him with a large army, he raised the siege, marched to
Pavia, and entered upon negotiations for peace.
It was at this crisis that his cousin, Henry the Lion, chose to
desert him. The cause of quarrel was a mere pretence. Henry
asked the king to give him the royal city of Goslar, in Hanover,
which he refused. T o give up Goslar would be like one of our
kings giving up Windsor Castle to an English baron, or like a
French king giving up St. Cloud \Cloo\. It was at Goslar that
Henry the Black King held his court; it was there that Henry IV.
usually lived. Goslar Castle was founded by that fine old kaiser
Henry the Fowler in 920, and had been an imperial residence
ever since. It was preposterous to ask for such a gift; but
though Barbarossa refused, he implored his cousin not to abandon
him at this critical juncture [some say he even went on his knees
to him]; but the selfish Guelf had no atom of magnanimity, and
returned to Germany with his large contingent, leaving his cousin
to sink or swim for aught he cared. *
The quarrel being noised abroad, the Lombards broke off the
conference and prepared for battle. They brought out their
Sacred oriflamme—the banner of St. Ambrose, the patron saint of
Mil'an. It was drawn in a red car by red bullocks harnessed
with red trappings. Flag, car, bullocks, and harness were all
consecrated by the p o p e ; and the car never started till the
archbishop had performed mass and pronounced his benediction
over it.
BATTLE OF LEGNANO (May 20, 1176).—The sacred car was

drawn to Legnano, on the river Adije (3 syl.). Legnano is in
Lombardy, and is worth remembering; for what Cannae was to
the old Romans in the time of Hannibal, or Austerlitz to Austria
in the time of Napoleon I., the battle of Legnano was to
Frederick of the red beard.
The Lombards outnumbered the Germans,in this battle. T h e
sacred banner was placed in the centre, under charge of " the
300," sworn to defend it or die in its defence, these " 300 " being
supported by a guard of 900, the elect of Lombardy. T h e battle

1152-1190.]

FREDERIC I. BARBAROSSA,

79

began, the Lombards were driven back, and the kaiser fought his
way to the red car. " The 300 " retreated, the sacred banner was
seized, but the 900 horsemen came to the rescue. The fighting
was desperate. The kaiser's standard-bearer was struck down
and the standard seized. Barbarossa fought like a giant; death
was in every blow; but his horse stumbled, he fell, and the
rumour ran that he was slain. Then were the Germans thrown
into confusion, they gave back, they fled; the flight was a panic,
a stampede, a sauve qui peut^ and night only put an end to the
carnage.
In two days the kaiser reappeared. All thought him d e a d ; but
he was found at Pavia, to the joy of his faithful friends and the
amazement of all. Peace was made, and Frederic Barbarossa
returned to Germany, where another trouble awaited him ( n 79).
BARBAROSSA AND H E N R Y . — H e n r y the Lion was the son

of

Henry the Proud, and was cousin to the king, who took a fancy to
the young man, and wished to promote him to very great honour.
It will be remembered that the Lion Henry was head of the
Guelfs, and Barbarossa of the Ghibelins ( / . 70); but the kaiser
wished, if possible, to heal the family feud. Kaiser Konrad I I I .
had resented the refractory conduct of Henry the Proud by
taking from him the, duchies of Bavaria and Saxony, as he
refused to do homage for them. Subsequently, however, Saxony
was restored to the proud man's son, and Barbarossa gave him
back Bavaria; so that the young Henry, surnamed the " Lion,"
was by far the most powerful lord in all Germany, holding
Tuscany and Holland, besides the fiefs of Saxony and Bavaria.
For a time the young Henry was loyal and true to his royal
cousin, and became more and more powerful. H e founded
Munich, and greatly enlarged Hamburg and Liibeck.
His
greatness turned his head, and like Issachar " he waxed fat and
kicked." The other barons hated him, not alone from jealousy,
but for his overweening pride and offensive arrogance.
Barbarossa would not have interfered, but in n 7 5 , when he
was in conference with the Lombards, the arrogant young noble
deserted him, taking with him all his soldiers; in consequence
of which, the conference was broken up, and Barbarossa was
involved in that fatal war which proved so disastrous to him a t
Legnano.
On his return to Germany, after the battle, kaiser Barbarossa,
smarting with his wounds, and galled in spirits, sent for Henry
the Lion to come and pay him homage at Worms.
Henry
refused, so the kaiser put him to the ban of the empire,

8o

HOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN.

[D.n;

Pt.i.

and again took from him the duchies of Saxony and Bavaria.
Bavaria he gave to Otto, his sword-bearer, who had shown
himself a true friend; and Saxony he divided between Bernard
of Anhalt and the archbishop of Cologne.
Henry the Lion roared and struggled as a lion in a n e t ;
he chafed and threatened, vowed vengeance and tried to kick
against the goads; but finding all in vain, he came to his senses,
and craved pardon. The noble heart of the kaiser was touched
by this humiliation,—something of the old friendship returned,
and the duke was treated like a spoilt child. The kaiser could
not restore to him his duchies, for they had been given to others;
but he suffered him to retain Brunswick and Luneburg, provided
he left Germany; so he went to England for three years, to the
court of Henry II., his father-in-law ; and while there his wife
presented him with a second son, named William, from whom
our present royal family is descended.
T H I R D CRUSADE (1189).—The fine old king was sixty-eight
years old when the third crusade was set on foot.
His
beard was not red then, but grey; and his head was frosted,
yet " h i s eye was not dim, nor was his natural force abated."
H e started with a large army, but never reached the Holy Land.
In one respect this was the greatest of the crusades. On one
©&e side were Richard the Lion's Heart, Philippe surnamed
"Augustus" of France, and Frederick Barbarossa of Germany;
a cluster of crowned heads rarely equalled in one generation;
on the other side was the noble Saladin, the great Moslem hero,
and model of eastern chivalry, undoubtedly one of the finest
and most captivating characters in all history. Such were the
actors, but the effects ill-corresponded with the general expectation. Barbarossa was drowned in Cilicia; Philippe marched
back again to France; and Richard, left alone, after winning glory
by his deeds of fight, was glad to conclude a treaty of peace
with Saladin, simply stipulating that pilgrims should be allowed
to visit the holy places without tax or toll.
Barbarossa was drowned.
H e had started from Germany
with his two sons, Henry and Frederick, at the head of 150,000
men, a magnificent army, fully equipped and admirably organised.
H e cut his way through the Greeks and Turks, and came to
the frontiers of Syria. His huge army had to cross a bridge
over the river Cydnus, where Alexander nearly caught his deathchill by bathing in the stream. It was slow work crossing this
narrow bridge, and Henry, the kaiser's son, was commanding
the advance guard. The fond old father wished to be near his

II52-IIOO.]

FREDERICK

I.

BARBAROSSA.

Si

son to aid him in case of danger. He could not wait to cross
the bridge; so throwing himself into the river, to swim to the
other side, he was carried away by the tide and chilled to death.
Many went to his rescue, but he was quite dead; and the grief
of the army was great indeed at the loss they had sustained
(1191).

It is hard to explain why Frederick Barbarossa has taken such
deep hold of the heart; other warriors have performed more
brilliant exploits, other lawgivers have made wiser laws, other
patrons of learning have won a greater name; but, like our
Arthur and the model Charlemagne, Frederick " Red Beard "
is the admired of kings. His bravery, his activity, his chivalry,
his generosity, his kind forgiving nature, his strong will in every
righteous cause, and his great muscular strength, were exactly
adapted to the age; there was nothing selfish and mean in him,
nothing arrogant and supercilious; he could forget and forgive,
but would hold his own, and would be obeyed. It was
characteristic of him that he would never allow vines or fruit
trees to be injured in times of war, for though a warrior every
inch of him, he respected property and encouraged both agriculture and commerce.
It is said that his body was buried at Tarsus ; some, however,
maintain that he is not dead at all, but only sleeps in a cavern
near Salzburg.* Six favourite knights sit with him at a stone
table, waiting for the fulness of time. His red beard has grown
through the slab, but must wind itself thrice round the table
before the ravens will quit the mountain and the sleeper awake.
A peasant declares he actually saw the Red King sitting at the
table leaning on his elbows. He looked up and asked, " Is it
time ? " " Not yet, not yet!" was the mysterious reply of some
unknown voice, and the venerable kaiser closed his eyes, till the
world required his aid to set it right. Peace to his ashes ! Even
fable shows how highly he was honoured, how intensely he was
loved.
ARNALDO OF BRESCIA (1100-1155).—Arnold or Arnaldo was burnt to death in this reign.
H e was a native of Brescia \bresh'-ya\ in Lombardy, b u t was educated in France under t h e
famous Abelarde. H e was a man of great force of character, a republican in politics, a n d a n
Arian in doctrine. H i s craze was t o restore t h e old Roman republican form of government,
with consuls, tribunes, a n d knights. H e was banished from I t a l y and retired t o F r a n c e ; b u t
h e r e St. Bernard hunted a n d hounded him as a dangerous heretic, so that h e fled for safety
to Zurich, in Switzerland. I n t h e meantime, t h e leaven of his republican notions spread
throughout Lombardy, a n d Arnaldo repaired thither t o direct t h e movement. F o r ten years
t h e cities of Lombardy were controlled b y him, a n d t h e property of t h e clergy became a
lawful spoil. O n t h e arrival of Barbarossa, in 1155, Arnaldo was arrested a n d sent to Rome

to be tried. He was condemned to be burnt alive, and so bitter was the rancour of the
• The cavern is called the Kyffhauser-berg.
G

HOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN.

82

[ D . I I ; P t . i.

clergy against him, that his very ashes were cast into the Tiber, that they might not be
collected as relics a n d used to keep alive the spirit of heresy and sedition.
% Frederick Barbarossa was the first king t o set pendent seals to diplomas. I n this
reign the archbishop of Mainz [My fice] took t h e title of arch-chancellor of Germany, while
t h e archbishop of Cologne was called t h e arch-chancellor of Italy. T h e three Italian
bishops of Turin, Taranto, and Moriana were made princes of t h e German empire (1164).
1 T h e Teutonic order of knighthood was created in this reign b y H e n r y king of Jerusalem,
T
in compliment to the volunteers who accompanied Barbarossa to t h e H o l y Land. These
knights were first called " Knights of St. George." Soon after its institution, t h e order was
placed under t h e tutelage of t h e Virgin, and its members were then called " Knights of t h e
Virgin M a r y . " I n 1191, pope Celestine I I I . confirmed the privileges of the order, a n d
changed the name into the " Teutonic Knights of the Hospital of St. M a r y the Virgin." T h e
order was abolished in 1809 b y Napoleon I., emperor of France.
G O N T H I E R ( * -1223), poet and historian.
H i s chief poem is an epic in Latin called
Lugurinus,
or the Exploits of Frederick [Barbarossa],
H i s great prose work, also in
Latin, is The History of
Constantinople.
%* Reference has been made already to the two chroniclers, Otto a n d Radevic, to whom
we are indebted for The Life of
Barbarossa.

HENRY VI. THE CRUEL (HEINRICH VI.)
K i n g of the Romans {i.e., king elect), 1169; regent of Germany, 1189; King of Germany,
1190; crowned, b y Celestine I I I . , Kaiser, or Emperor, of the H o l y R o m a n Empire,
1191; crowned a t Palermo King of the T w o Sicilies, 1194.
B O R N 1163.

R E I G N E D 7 Y E A R S , 1190-1197.

Poisoned b y his wife a t Messina, Sunday, Sept. 21, 1197, aged 32.
Contemporary

with Richard

Cceur-de-Lion,

1189-1199.

Father, Frederick Barbarossa. Mother, Beatrice of Burgundy.
Wife% Constance, heiress of William the Good of the T w o Sicilies, married 1186. (Constance
was forty and H e n r y twenty-one on the d a y of espousals.)
Child, Frederick I I . , born 1194. H e was king after his uncle Philipp a n d Otto of Brunswick.
Biographer, his secretary, Godefrey of Viterbo; a n d J a e g e r (1790).

CHIEF EVENTS.
1190.
1192.
1193.
1x97,

H e n r y V I . invades Italy.
Imprisons Richard I . of England. Releases him, 1194.
Excommunicated b y Celestine I I I .
Gives the duchy of Suabia to his brother Philipp, to whom (in 1195) h e h a d given t h e
margraviate of Tuscany.

With Barbarossa the glory of the House of Hohenstaufen
[stou-f}ti\ hastened to its set; for although his grandson was a
brilliant scholar, he did very little for the empire, and at death he
bequeathed a long civil war, not unlike that of the White and Red
Roses in our own history.
KAISER HENRY VI., surnamed the " Cruel," was the eldest son

of Barbarossa, but no more like his father than Pan to Hercules.
He was mean-spirited and revengeful, a money-grasper, without
one generous impulse in his whole composition, cruel and contemptible. He married Constance, heiress of the Two Sicilies ;
and at the death of her father, William the Good, laid claim to
the heritage; but the Sicilians themselves chose Tancred for their

H90-II97-]

HENRY VI. T H E CRUEL.

83

king. This brought Henry into Sicily, where he behaved more
like a wild beast than a human being. Tancred died, and the
tyrant could not reach him, but he put out the eyes of his son,
shut up his wife and daughters in a convent, and put to death his
chief adherents with barbarous torture. It is said that he forced
them down on red-hot iron chairs, and then placed on their heads
crowns of burning iron.*
Only one more incident remains to be told of this most hateful
tyrant, and that is of a piece with his meanness, avarice, and
spite. Richard Cceur-de-Lion, returning from Palestine, was driven
by stress of weather up the Adriatic. His ship being tempesttossed, he landed on the Dalmatian coast, intending to cross
Germany on his way home. H e was dressed like a pilgrim, but,
being recognised, was seized by Leopold, duke of Austria, a
vassal of the German crown. This contemptible hound, in sheer
spite,f sent the royal pilgrim prisoner to the kaiser; and Henry
VI., mean-spirited as his vassal, instead of helping him on his
way, as his father would have done, shut him in a dungeon
as a malefactor, determined to make blood money of his
prize. For a year and more he kept him in bonds. The pope
was applied to over and over again by queen Berengaria and
others, but he shuffled and prevaricated J till all Christendom
cried shame, then he commanded the kaiser to release his
prisoner without money and without price. This Henry refused
to do, and the English sent him the enormous sum of a million
crowns § for the ransom of their king. A more base and contemptible business it would be hard to find in the whole range
of history.
With this price of blood the kaiser raised an army for another
expedition into Sicily, where he repeated his acts of cruelty, and
was poisoned by his own wife. She was a Sicilian by birth, and
her hot blood boiled to see the treatment which those with whom
* This method of punishing traitors was not unusual in the middle ages. Thus, in the Hungarian "war of
the peasants " (1513-1514), George Dozsa, the leader, being taken, was put to death in the same way. Seated
naked on a burning throne and crowned with a red-hot iron crown, his flesh was torn piecemeal from his
bones. Goldsmith alludes to him at the end of " The Traveller," but erroneously calls him " Luke."
t The offence given by king Richard was this:—When a certain fort was taken in the Holy Land, Leopold,
who was only a vassal, had the audacity to plant his own flag thereon, although the king of England and the
king of France had both taken part in the siege The fiery Richard, indignant at this insolence, pulled
down the duke's flag and planted in its place the royal banner of England.
Richard's friendship for Tancred, and the betrothal of his nephew Arthur to Tancred's daughter was the
real root of bitterness to the kaiser.
Leopold's death is thus given by Mentzel:—Falling from his horse, the duke broke his leg so badly that the
leeches could not set it. "Cutit off", then,"said Leopold, but no one would run the risk; whereupon the
duke summoned to him a couple of his squires, put his leg on a block, and bade one of the young men hold a
sharp axe under the broken leg, while the other with a sledge-hammer struck it a heavy blow. The leg, of
course, flew off; but inflammation set in, and the duke died.
X The letters of queen Berengaria to the pope, and the pope's shuffling answers, are given at length in
Rymer's Fcedera. No protest can be too strong in condemnation of the conduct of pope, kaiser, ar.d
duke.
§ A million ecus, equal to about six millions sterling, according to the present value of money.

G 2

04
n

M

MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

[D.n;

Pt. 1.

she once lived, and moved, and had her being, received at the
hand of the husband she despised.
Godefrey of Viterbo (1105-1199), was secretary to Konrad I I I . , Frederick Barbarossa, a n d
H e n r y V I . H e wrote a Chronicle beginning from Adam and ending with the year 1186.
These tedious chronicles are worthless except for the modern portions, especially the contemporaneous period

PHILIPP OF SUABIA AND OTTO IV. OF BRUNSWICK.
B O R N 1178.

R E I G N E D 10 Y E A R S , 1198-1208.

Territory

added(1205),

Livonia.

P H I L I P P (1178, 1198-1208).—Kaiser Henry the Cruel left a
son named Frederick, only two years old; but the barons thought
him too young to reign, so the Guelfs and Ghibelins each chose a
representative of their own faction to be the new king. The
Guelfs selected Otto, the second son of Henry the Lion; and the
Ghibelins chose Philipp, brother of the last king. For ten years
Germany was kept in a ferment by these rivals to the crown, when
Philipp died, being murdered in his bed by Otto of Wittelsbach
for refusing to give him his daughter in marriage.
OTTO IV. (1177, 1209-1215).—After the death of Philipp,
Otto IV. was crowned king; but the only event of his life of any
interest was his alliance with John Lackland of England against
Philippe Augustus of France. King John was Otto's uncle,
for Henry the Lion, Otto's father, had married John's sister
Maud. The nephew was with his uncle in the disastrous battle
of Bouvines (2 syl.), won by the French (1214); and this alliance
put him in bad odour with the pope, who used all his influence to
get Frederick, the young son of kaiser Henry VI., appointed king.
Otto, finding it hopeless to resist popular feeling backed with the
support of the sovereign pontiff, abdicated, passed into private
life, and died in 1218.
At the death of H e n r y V I . , in 1198, his infant son was really kaiser, because h e h a d Been
already acknowledged King of the Romans. So there were for a time three contemporary
kaisers (Frederick, Philipp, and Otto), and three simultaneous popes, for each kaiser elected a
pope.
[In 1204 died Saxo, a Danish chronicler, at the age of seventy. H e is usually called Saxo
Grammaticus, and he wrote a History of the Danish Kings and Heroes.
This history (in
Latin) begins from the foundation of the Danish monarchy in B.C. 1038. I t is based on the
Scaldic lays, the Icelandic sagas, and local traditions. M u c h of it, for its historical value, is
about equal to the British
History
of Geoffrey of Monmouth. H e was no German, and
therefore the introduction of his name is rather out of place.]
*** Richard I . and J o h n were kings of E n g l a n d ; William was king of Scotland; Celestine
I I I . and Innocent I I I . were the popes; Philippe I I . was king of F r a n c e ; Alfonso I X . , king
of Spain; Sancho I., king of P o r t u g a l ; Sverken I I . , king of Sweden; K n u t V I . a n d
Waldemar I I . were kings of D e n m a r k ; and Lech V. was king of Poland.

I2IJ-I250-1

FREDERICK

HOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN.

85

II. THE WONDER OF THE WORLD
(FRIEDRICH II.)

K i n g of the Romans {i.e., king elect), 1196. H i s seven crowns: (1) crowned, a t Palermo,
King of t h e T w o Sicilies, 1198; (2) crowned, a t Aix-la-Chapelle, King of Germany,
1215; (3) crowned, b y Honorius I I I . , Kaiser, or Emperor of the H o l y Roman Empire,
1220; (4) crowns himself King of Jerusalem, in the Church of the H o l y Sepulchre, 1229 ;
(5) crowned King of B u r g u n d y ; (6) crowned, a t Milan, King of L o m b a r d y ; a n d (7)
Lord Protector of H u n g a r y , 1241.
B O R N 1194.

R E I G N E D 35 Y E A R S , 1215-1250.

Died a t Fiorentino, probably poisoned by his son Manfred, Tuesday, Dec. 13, 1250. Aged 56.
Contemporary with John, 1199-1216; and Henry III., 1216-1272.
Father, kaiser H e n r y V I . the Cruel. Mother, Constance, heiress of the Two Sicilies.
Wives (1) Constance of Aragon, married 1209, died 1212
(2) Yolande, or Jolanthe, daughter of J o h n d e Brienne king of Jerusalem, married
1225, died 1228.
(3) Isabella, daughter of H e n r y I I I . of England, 1235, died 1241.
He was 15 when he married his first wife, 31 when he married his second, and 41
when he married his third.
Children (1) H e n r y , born 1212, elected king of t h e Romans 1220; regent of Germany
1220-1235; revolts 1229 and again 1234; the rebellion suppressed and H e n r y both
deposed and imprisoned 1235 ; died in prison 1246.
(2) Konrad I V . , born 1214, elected king of t h e Romans 1237; regent of Germany
1235, kaiser 1250 ; poisoned by Manfred 1254.
(3) Enzio, born 1224, made king of Sardinia 1238, vicar imperial of I t a l y 1239,
excommunicated b y Innocent IV. 1245, wounded and captured b y the Bolognese
1249, died in prison 1272.
(4) Manfred, or Manfroi, born 1231, made prince of T a r e n t u m 1248, regent of Sicily
1250, king of Palermo 1258, excommunicated b y Alexander I V . 1259 a n d b y
U r b a n I V . in 1261, poisons his half-brother Enzio 1272, poisons his father 1250,
is defeated b y Charles of Anjou and dies in battle 1266.
% * Several other sons% all of whom died before 1272, either b y t h e executioner, the
sword, or by poison.
Excommunicated,
1222, b y Honorius I I I . ; twice in 1227 b y Gregory I I I . , again in 1228,
1229, and 1239; b y Innocent IV. 1245. Crusades published against h i m 1228 and 1240;
deposed b y the council of Lyons 1245.
Territory added, 1230, Posen (Prussia), the two Sicilies b y marriage.
Biographers,
J o h n Funck, Anecdotes of kaiser Frederick II. (16th c e n t . ) ; M . HuillardBreholles, Histoire diplomatique de Frederic II.; Knighton (1864).

CHIEF EVENTS.
1224.

Founds the University of Naples.

1226.

L O M B A R D L E A G U E r e n e w e d ; p u t to t h e b a n 1226, reconciled 1227.

3237.
1241.

Victory of CORTENUOVA over the Milanese N o v . 27.
Capture b y prince Enzio of the Genoese fleet with cardinals, abbots, bishops^ & c ,
coming t o Rome to support the pope against the kaiser. T h e captive ecclesiastics
liberated 1243.
1246. T h e pope gets H e n r y Raspon, landgraf of Thuringia, elected king of the Romans or
heir presumptive of Germany. Raspon dies 1247.
1247. T h e pope then gets William count of Holland elected king of the Romans.
1249. Defeat and capture of prince Enzio b y the Bolognese. H e dies in prison 1272.

Frederick II., son of kaiser Henry VI., and grandson of
Barbarossa, was only two years old at the death of his father, and
only four when his mother died, leaving him under the guardian

86

HOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN.

[D. n ; P t . i .

care of pope Innocent I I I . H e was brought up in Sicily, and
always preferred the mild Italian sky to that of Germany; so that
although he was nominally king of Germany for thirty-five years,
he spent only two of them in that country after he was crowned
kaiser (1220); and those two were occupied in punishing his son
Henry for treason, or in festivities on his marriage with Isabella,
the daughter of Henry I I I . of England.
For fifteen years he left his son Henry regent of Germany,
although he was only eight years old when first appointed. H e
was a mean-spirited headstrong lad, more like his grandfather
Henry the Cruel, than like his father or great-grandfather
the noble " Red B e a r d " ; no wonder then he proved a traitor,
tried to dethrone his father and usurp the crown. When kaiser
Frederick came to Germany to put down this rebellion, Henry
tried to poison him, but not succeeding in this was imprisoned for
life. H e remained in durance for six years, and then died (1246).
The kaiser having removed Henry, appointed his second son
Konrad regent, married Isabella, returned to Sicily, and never
set foot in Germany again.
It could not be expected that a kingdom so neglected would
be well ordered, nor was it. T h e barons, always turbulent at
the best of times, grew more unruly; their castles became the
strongholds of brigands who robbed and plundered whatever they
could lay hands o n ; no family was safe, no life no property
secure. A father and mother might retire to rest, and find next
morning their daughter carried off to some baron's castle a captive
for life. A farmer, folding his sheep or driving his cattle to market,
might be set upon by some noble with his retainers, who would
drive off without recompense his flocks or herds for the use of the
lord's household; and if resistance were offered he was cut down
without mercy. Baron with baron held endless feud, and no
language can exaggerate the lawlessness, the misery, the horrors
of the time.
CHARACTER OF FREDERICK II.—Frederick II., the possessor

of seven crowns, was only a king Log after all, yet was he the
most accomplished and learned sovereign of the middle ages,
insomuch that he was called the "Wonder of the World." Perfect master of six languages, he wrote and spoke German, Italian,
French, Greek, Latin, and Arabic, with faultless accuracy. All
nature had its charms for him, and in natural history he was a
second Aristotle. H e knew the anatomy, structure, and habits of
birds and beasts. In falconry he was wiser than Sir Tristram of
Arthurian romance and wrote a treatise which proved him a

X2IS-I25Q.]

FREDERICK

II. T H E W O N D E R .

87

thorough master of the subject. This treatise is full of profound
research, but is thoroughly practical withal; it enters fully on the
habits and treatment of falcons, the foods to be given them, their
maladies and remedies, their internal organisation and their outward forms, their plumage, their variety, and so on. H e was an
excellent leech and practical surgeon, an unrivalled musician and
minne-singer, and with all this literary taste and fine genius was so
active and manly that no one could beat him in athletic feats or
knightly exercise. H e was the admirable Crichton \Cri-ton\ of
Germany, and deserved to be called the "Wonder of the World."
Not only was Frederick himself a scholar—he also loved
scholars, patronised learning and art, surrounded himself with
men of thought, founded the University of Naples (1224),
greatly improved that of Salerno, and made two excellent
museums which unhappily were destroyed in the lawless times
which followed.
As Haroun al Raschid sent Charlemagne a curious clock, so Al Kamel the sultan of E g y p t
.sent Frederick I I . a clock-tent. T h e tent was made of silk; a n d by artful contrivances it acted
as a sun-dial and moon-dial, recording accurately the exact hour of t h e d a y a n d night, t h e
d a y of the month, the age of t h e moon, and other useful observations.

In person kaiser Frederick I I . resembled his grandfather, but
was more refined and not so large. His hair was blonde inclining
to red, his forehead square, his nose and mouth Grecian, his eye
serene except under excitement, when it flashed like lightning;
his figure was well made, his constitution good, and his health
excellent.
CONTENTIONS WITH T H E POPES.—This

fine genius was un-

happily pestered almost all his life with insurrections in Lombardy,
and quarrels with the popes. H e was brought up by pope
Innocent I I I . , and the Romish church expected to find in him a
nursing father and willing vassal, but he was neither the one nor
the other.
At his coronation in 1215 he made a vow to head a new
crusade. These absurd expeditions were the craze of the
period, especially promoted by the pope and his clergy.
Just
three years before kaiser Frederick I I . came to the crown,
90,000 children left their mothers and schoolmasters to rescue the
Holy Land from the infidels. Seven ships were placed at their
service, but those who reached Alexandria were sold as slaves.
Nothing could be a stronger proof of the pervading spirit of the
time,—the general notion that God would interpose, and might
choose an instrument of weakness to show to the world it is not fry
wisdom nor by strength that success is achieved " but bv the spirit

88

HOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN.

[D.n;Pt.i.

of the Lord of hosts;" and it took many centuries, and enormous
suffering before the christian world could be taught that God is
/iot man's vassal to do his bidding and settle his disputes, catering
to his tyranny and indolence, and supplementing his ignorance
and weakness. The sword and the spear are not the instruments
of the spirit of God, as Jesus has told us when he said to Pilate,
" If my kingdom were of this world, then would my servants fight."
The Jewish kingdom is no model for other governments : it was a
theocracy or government by priests, but other governments are
ruled by civil powers. It is true that the papal sovereignty was
under the rule of a pope and his clergy, but this was a usurpation,
an unrighteous aggression, established in the very teeth of that
fundamental axiom of Christ " My kingdom is not of this world,"
but " The kingdom of God is within you,"—its laws are to rule
the heart, its powers act on the heart, its influence is over the
heart, and if God interposes at any time it is to change the spirit
of the mind. Hence the folly of ordeals, appeals to God, crusades,
and persecutions by fire and torture, which act only on the flesh
and speak only to the carnal man. It took, however, many
hundred years to teach this elemental lesson, " though we walk
[or live] in the flesh, we do not war after the flesh: for the weapons
of our warfare are not carnal, but mighty . . . casting down
imaginations . . . and bringing into captivity every thought to
the obedience of Christ." (2 Cor. x. 3-5.)
At his coronation, as has been said, Frederick II. promised his
guardian, pope Innocent III., to head a crusade; next year the
pope died (1216), and the king deferred the hateful task. H e was
far too fond of arts and sciences, literary ease and princely luxury,
for a pilgrim king; besides, he had a crusade of his own, no wiser
than the one he had vowed to undertake, but nearer home,—his
crusade was to bring the cities of Lombardy into subjection, and
to unify his several kingdoms into a sort of " happy family," or
Utopia. Honorius I I I . succeeded Innocent III., a more indulgent
pontiff, during whose life the vow of the crusade was allowed to
d r o p ; but Honorius died in 1227, and Gregory IX. insisted on its
fulfilment without further delay. When the kaiser still tarried and
loitered, unwilling to move, the new pope excommunicated him,
and Frederick was obliged to go. On reaching the Holy Land
he found that the Christians there regarded him as " a tainted
wether of the fold," and avoided him as a thing unclean; so
instead of warring with the sultan he tried the golden spears which
Philip of Macedon had pronounced to be resistless, bought the
titular honours of " King of Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nazareth and

1215-1250.]

FREDERICK II. T H E WONDER.

89

Sidon," and then returned home. Gregory was obliged to remove
the b a n ; but the kaiser lived to see that golden weapons were no
more to be relied on than those of steel, for Jerusalem fell back in
1244; and in a few more years the Christians were driven out from
Palestine, and the Holy Sepulchre was destroyed.
The kaiser having returned to Italy, carried on war with the
cities of Lombardy, and pope Gregory IX. alarmed at his successes,
vamped up a pretext for excommunicating him again, on the absurd
charge of infidelity or blasphemy, because his soldiers during the
wars in Lombardy had devastated some of the churches. Kaiser
Frederick losing all patience now carried his wars into the papal
states, and Gregory not only hurled anathemas upon him, but
actually preached a crusade against him, urging the German
barons to depose him. This they refused to do, so the pope
called a general council to pronounce his deposition and elect a
successor. Frederick was prepared for the move, and intercepted
the ships which were conveying the prelates to Rome. Gregory
was furious, and "his ungoverned rage dissolved the life that
wanted means to lead i t ; " he died of apoplexy, and the kaiser
breathed again (1241).
The next pope was Innocent IV., a private friend of the
kaiser, who now expected to have his own way; but Innocent
I V , though he loved Frederick much, loved the papacy
more. Instead of leaving the kaiser to follow his own bent,
Innocent IV. peremptorily commanded him to restore at once all
his conquests, and submit himself wholly to the papal will. The
kaiser refused, and war broke out anew (1245). Innocent fled to
Lyons, declared the kingdoms of Germany forfeit, and the kaiser
outlawed. H e even appointed a new kaiser, and when this puppet
of Rome was slain, gave the kingdom to William of Holland
(1247). This brought the regent Konrad (son of Frederick)
upon the scene, to resist the coronation of the papal nominee.
Kaiser Frederick II., the king of seven crowns, and the
Wonder of the World, was unable to bear up under this
persistent persecution. Wherever he went he was compassed
with spies; each bush was an ambush; every hand was against
h i m ; every man might slay him.
H e was an anathemamaranatha; his friends stood aloof, his companions fell off;
alone he lived, alone in the crowded court, alone in the wide
world; the king of seven crowns could not gather as many guests
around his board; the admired of all scholars, " t h e glass of
fashion and the mould of form," sneaked about his kingdom like
an " unminded outlaw," footed as one " spurns a stranger cur over

90

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[D.n;Pt.i.

the threshold." No wonder he died suddenly; some say he was
poisoned by his son Manfred, but it needed no drug to kill him.
H e died at the age of fifty-six, and of all his numerous family
not one of them died a natural death.
Only one of them,
indeed, survived him, and he was a captive when his father died,
and remained a captive for three-and-twenty years, when he died
also. J Tis very strange, but some vessels are by the potter set
apart for honour and others to dishonour, though both are
moulded by the same hand, and out of the same clay.
KONRAD IV. (i250-1254).—On the death of Frederick,
Konrad was recognised as king of Germany, but he died in
1254, the last kaiser of the house of Hohenstaufen \_stou-f'ri\.
*** William of Holland, the pope's protege, died in 1256. H e was marching against the
Frisons, and as he was crossing a marsh, the ice broke, and while both he and his horse were
ice-bound, some Frisons came u p and slew him.
T h e lord chancellor of Frederick I I . was Petrus a Vineis, better known as Pierre Desvignes.
H e was born of peasants, but raised himself b y his learning and talents. H i s influence over
t h e kaiser was very g r e a t : h e ameliorated his laws, tempered with mildness his administration,
a n d urged him strongly to render himself independent of the popes. Towards the close of
his reign Frederick became suspicious of him, accused him of an intention to poison him,
and condemned him to lose his eyes. Desvignes broke his head against his prison walls, and
most persons think h e was innocent (1190-1246).
I t was during the reign of kaiser Frederick I I . that the Teutonic knights took possession of
Prussia, with a view of reducing the heathen savages to Christianity, and what is called
" civil order." I t was afterwards associated with Brandenburg, and the graft overmastering
the stock, became at last the kingdom of Prussia and its king the emperor of Germany.

The age of the Hohenstaufen kings is, doubtless, the most
fascinating period of the mediaeval history of Germany. It was
the period of strong dramatic contrasts—heroic devotion, and
almost incredible selfishness; a joyousness of spirit, exuberant,
and earthly, with a monkish severity neither of earth nor heaven.
Then chivalry was in its hey-day, crammed with the seemings of
courtesy, manliness, and generosity, but after all a cage of very
unclean birds. Women were exalted to angels with professions
of reverence, but never was the sanctity of home more grossly
dishonoured.
It was then that the Crusades were in full
favour.
It was then that travellers, warriors, and pilgrims,
told their tales of adventure, or startled their hearers with the
strange doings of strange lands. It was then that the German
love-poets warbled their native wood notes, or sang of chivalry,
or drew on imagination for stories of romance. It was then that
Gothic churches were planned and built. It was then that
towns rose into real importance. It was then that commerce
began to feel its strength. Germany never before or since has
seen a period so fascinating, so full of life, so instinct with
movement, so rich in colour. It lived as if life were a new
thing to it, a thing of beauty and a joy for ever.

1x50-1250.]

HOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN.

91

M I N N E S I N G E R S (1150-1250).
"With the House of Hohenstaufen rose and set the love-poets, called the
Minne-singers* (4 sjyl.), the heralds of the revival of European literature.
They were contemporary with the house of Hohenstaufen, because these
sovereigns spoke Suabian, the richest, smoothest, and most musical dialect in
Germany. Although called love-minstrels their subjects are by no means
limited to love-songs,—some of their lays extend to the grandeur and length of
epic poems, some are national ballads, and others are records of heroic deeds
or wonderful exploits.
The father of German minstrelsy is Henry of Veldig [Waldeck] and the chief
of his brother singers are, Walter of Vogel-weide [-vi-de], Henry of Ofterdingen
[-ding-n\, Hartmann, Wolfram, and Gottfried. A brief sketch of their different
poems will render their names familiar. Of these six, Walter is by far the best
as a lyrist, Henry of Veldig the most naive and ingenious, Hartmann the most
classical, Wolfram the most sublime, and Gottfried the most licentious.
I. H E N R Y OF VELDIG (or Waldeck) contemporary with Frederick

Barbarossa wrote several sustained poems resembling epics in
length and dignity. His chief ones a r e : Duke Ernest; Hie
Trojan War; and The Legend of St Gervais.
{1) Duke Ernest is son-in-law of kaiser Konrad I I . Having murdered his
feudal lord he went on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land to expiate his crime.
The poem describes his adventures on the way; and is a mixture of Homeric
legends, oriental myths, and pilgrims' tales of adventure. We have pigmies
and cyclops, genii and enchanters, fairies and dwarfs, monks and devotees.
After a world of hair-breadth escapes duke Ernest reached the Holy Sepulchre,
paid his vows, returned to Germany, and obtained absolution.
(2) The Trojan War.—This is no translation of Virgil's epic, but the Latin
tale in German dress. The heroes bear the old familiar names, but speak and
act like German knights. The incidents therefore are not the same, nor are
the characters, speeches, and sentiments the same. The most celebrated
passage of this " German yEneid " is where Lavinia tells her tale of love to her
mother. This part of the poem is charming. The freshness, the artlessness, the
simplicity of Lavinia's love-tale is beyond all praise. The language glows with
warmth and tenderness, and is always graceful and delicate.
(3) The Legend of St. Gervais is not equal to the other minne-songs, and yet
each of the four cantos has its beauties. St. Gervais and his brother were two
martyrs of the first century, who appeared to St. Ambrose bishop of Milan in
the fourth century to inform him where their bodies were buried. St. Ambrose
found the relics in the place indicated, removed them to Milan, and enshrined
them in the cathedral there.
%* The poetry of Henry of Veldig is marked by vivid imagination, profound
thought, wonderful simplicity, a charming freshness, and shows great observation and discernment.
II. WALTER

OF V O G E L - W E I D E |

(1168-1230).—The

great

patrons of the minne-singers were the sovereigns of the House of
Hohenstaufen, Henry the Lion, the dukes of Austria, and
* Minne {2 syl.) means love.

t Vogel-weide £ vi-de], is in Thuringia.

92

HOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN.

D. n : Pt. i.

Hermann margraf of Thuringia. This margraf lived at Wartburg*
near Gotha, and instituted a yearly prize for the best poem. It
was given in honour of his wife Sophia, and all the best
minstrels attended. These annual festivities went by the name
of The Contests of Wartburg or The Battles of the Minstrels;
and about one hundred and fifty specimens of these poems are still
extant. Walter is without doubt the best of the lyrists. H e had
real genius, and his poetry has the true ring of inspiration. Bold
in language, lofty in thought, patriotic in sentiment, he carries us
away with "thoughts that breathe, and words that burn." If love
is his subject it is pure and chaste, yet warm from the heart and
without affectation. H e was deeply pious and devout, yet he
lashes the clergy for their luxurious living, and is especially hard
upon the court of Rome.
III.

H E N R Y OF OFTERDINGEN

(13th century) lived in

the

court of Leopold VII. of Austria, and was one of the renowned
competitors in the poetic contests of Wartburg. Very little of his
poetry is extant, but it is thought that he was one of the authors
of the Helden-buch (or Book of Heroes), and that he assisted in reducing the " German Iliad," called the Nibelungen-lied \-leed\ into
its present form.
The Contest of Wartburg.—The poem so called was by Wolfram, a minnesinger. It records the contest of the two great German schools of poetry in the
thirteenth century : the Thuringian and the Suabian. The former, called the
northern school, was famous for lyric poetry, and the latter for its romances.
As a rule, the Thuringian poets possessed more sentiment and elegance of
diction, but failed in loftiness, vigour, and novelty: while the Suabian or
southern school had more originality and a greater range of subjects.
Henry
of Vogel-weide [vi-de] and Henry of Ofterdingen represented the two schools,
and the palm was given to the former. At a future period Ofterdingen contended against Wolfram, and won the prize.
IV. HARTMANN VON DER A U E [Our].—Hartmann,

one of the

best of the minne-singers, combined soundness of thought with
elegance of diction. His Poor Henry is a touching tale, simple,
natural, and poetic.
It has been made familiar to us by
Longfellow, who has taken it as the subject of his Golden
Legend. Besides Poor Henry two romances of chivalry remain
to us of this poet: Ereck and The Knight of the Lion. .
(1) Poor Henry.—Henry lord of Hoheneck, in Bavaria, being struck by
leprosy, was told by a wise man of Salerno that he would never be healed, till
some maiden of spotless purity volunteered to die on his behalf. As lord
• Wartburg is in Saxe Weimer. Wiirtzburg is in Bavaria on the Main.
Bavaria.

Wiirtemburg is in Suabia, west of

1150-1250.]

THE

MINNE-SINGERS.

93

Henry neither expected to find such a victim, nor even desired it, he gave the
main part of his goods to the poor, and went to live in the cottage of a small
tenant farmer, one of his vassals. Here Elsie, the farmer's daughter, waited
on him ; and hearing by accident the condition of his cure, offered herself, and
after great resistance the prince accompanied her to Salerno to complete the
sacrifice. When he arrived at the city, either the exercise, the excitement, or
the charm of some relic, no matter what, had effected an entire cure; and when
he took Elsie into the cathedral, the only sacrifice she had to make was that of
her maiden name for the lady Alicia wife of prince Henry of Hoheneck.
(2) Ereck.—Ereck was a knight of the Round Table. After his marriage
with Enit, the daughter of a poor knight, he lived in idleness, till roused by
Enit to activity. He now renewed his adventures as a knight-errant, and went
about fighting with brigands, giants, and dwarfs. At the feast of Pentecost he
returned to the court of Prince Arthur, where he remained till the death of his
father, when he retired from public life, and lived on his estates.
(3) The Knight of the Lion.—Iwein [JE-vine] " the knight of the Lion," was
also a knight of the Round Table. He married the widow Laudine. When
he started on his adventures he told his bride he would return at the expiration
of a year; and as he failed to keep his promise, his wife forsook him. On
hearing this, Iwein went mad, and lived in the woods as a savage. One day
he rendered aid to a lion attacked by a dragon, and the grateful brute became
his constant attendant and guardian. At the enchanted fountain he released
Lunete who was in bondage, and Lunete returned the favour, when the knight
attempted to disenchant the fountain. After overthrowing giants and releasing
three hundred virgins, Iwein returned to the court of Prince Arthur, and
married Lunete, in place of the faithless Laudine.
%* The poem of Poor Henry is as superior to the other two, as the ballad
of Old Robin Gray to that of Alonzo the Brave and the Fair Imogine,
V. WOLFRAM OF ESCHENBACH (died after 1227)—Wolfram the

minne-singer, was a poor knight of Franconia. H e resided for
the most part in the court of Hermann of Thuringia. His contest
with Ofterdingen for the poetic prize has been referred to already.
His chief poems are Parzival and Titurel, both allegorical. There
is a dash of humour in this ancient poet which reminds us of our
own Chaucer.
(1) Parzival (close of the 12th century).—The object of this lay is to
show how a man must live in order to render himself worthy of admission into paradise. Of course the Roman Catholic notion of self-denial,
penance, and a total abnegation of the world, " a r e the means which duty urges
agents of God's will to use." Parzival is the son of a widow, who retired from
the world, and brought up her son in solitude; but one day two knights
encounter him, and propose to take him to the court of King Arthur. His
mother greatly objects—but at length gives a reluctant consent, provided he
will go thither dressed in the motley of a Fool. She thought his pride would
revolt at such indignity,—but no, dressed as a fool he accompanies the two
knights. On the journey he achieves so many exploits that he is readily
enrolled among the knights of the Round Table, starts on his adventures, and
comes to Graalburg, or the city of the Holy Graal, built by the priest-king
Titural, on Mont-Salvage, in Spain ; but in consequence of some informality,
he is not allowed to enter. On his return to court, the report of his failure

94

HOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN

[D.njPt.i.

having preceded him, he is very coldly received; and ere long the priestess of
Graalburg entering, insists not only on his expulsion from the society, but even
on his degradation from knighthood. Dishonoured and disgraced Parzival
resolves in good earnest to qualify himself for admission into Graal Castle, and
a holy hermit undertakes to instruct him in the right way. By prayer, abstinence, self-mortification, and humility, he renders himself so saintly, that
the priestess of Graalburg comes to him again, and says he is now worthy to
enter the Holy Gates, and to reign as king and priest for ever in the Celestial
city of Graalburg.
This of course is an allegory of man " made perfect through suffering"—See
Rev. Vii. 14.
%* The poem of Titural, the priest-king and founder of Graalburg, is only a
fragment.
VI. GOTTFRIED OF STRASBURG (12th century). — Gottfried
Got-freed\ the minne-singer, is the author of Tristan and Yseult
E-soili\, This poem forms a complete contrast to that of Parzival.
Parzival was brought up in solitude, Tristan in a court; Parzival
knew nothing of the world, Tristan was initiated into all its vices :
Parzival was a religious man, Tristan a worldly o n e ; Parzival lived
for the life to come, Tristan for the life that now is. So also the
two poets are in strong contrast: Wolfram is religious, Gottfried
secular; Wolfram is grand and often mystic, Gottfried airy and
simple; Wolfram is solemn and moral, Gottfried sensuous and
lawless. As a poem the latter is the more artistic, and in a literary
point of view is decidedly the superior.
Tristan was the nephew of king Mark of Cornwall. Being severely wounded
while fighting for his uncle, he went to Ireland to be cured, and the princess
Yseult was his leech. On his return to Cornwall, he gave such a glowing
description of his fair nurse, that Mark sent him to crave her hand in marriage,
and to conduct her to Cornwall. On embarking, the queen-mother entrusted
her daughter with a love-philtre to be given to king Mark on the day of
espousals; but the young couple, wholly ignorant of its nature, drank it
themselves, and from that moment their attachment to each other was a
charmed passion. True, Yseult married Mark, but her love for Tristan knew
no abatement. Mark could not shut his eyes to the guilty love of his nephew,
and banished him from Cornwall; but Yseult eloped with him, and they lived
in concealment in a cavern. Mark tracked them to their hiding-place, and
brought them back ; but as Tristan still continued his attentions to his aunt,
king Mark again banished him, and he went to Normandy. Here he married
a lady of the same name, who for distinction sake is called Yseult with
the White Hand.
[Here the poem breaks off, but sequels have been added by other hands.
One sequel says, that Tristan returned to Cornwall, and as he fastened on a
necklace and was kissing his aunt's neck, Mark stabbed him in the back and
he died. This is the story which Tennyson follows in his Idylls of the King,
and is the most ancient.
Another sequel is, that Tristan, being wounded in Normandy, sent for his
aunt, and told the messenger, if she consented to come, to fasten a white
streamer to the mast-head. The ship hove in sight, and " White-hand " told

1150-1:250.]

T H E MINNE-SINGERS.

95

her husband a black flag was displayed ; on hearing which, he bowed his'Tiead
and died. When his aunt heard of his death she kissed the corpse and died
also. Mark buried them both in one grave, and planted over it a rose-bush
and a vine. This ending is wholly inconsistent with the character of the
cowardly, mean-spirited, and jealous Mark.
Other minnesingers of less note were: Conrad of Wiirtzbtirg ; Ulrich of Lick'
tenstein ; and Hadlub,

U At the same period were produced four other poems of
considerable importance, the Alexander-lied \-leed\ the Nibelungen-lied, the Kudrun, and the Ifelden-buch or Book of Heroes,
all of which must be noticed somewhat in detail.
I. Alexander-lied,—The Alexander-lied by Lambrecht, a monk, is one of
the best poems of the middle age. It is divided into two parts, one historic,
and the other mythical. In the first part we are told of the education of
Alexander and his wars. The Persian expedition is very graphicly written :
the fate of Darius is related with pathos and good taste.
In the second part we see the Macedonian among the Scythians, admiring
their poverty, their independence of spirit, and their simple manner of life.
He then goes to the extreme limits of the world, when a resistless desire comes
over him of seeing Macedon once more. He sends a letter to his mother, and
in this letter he describes his adventures, the marvels he has seen, and the
enchanted regions he has visited. Having gone down to the infernal regions,
he purposes to visit paradise, but is told that before he can do so he must cease
from war, purify his soul, and crucify his body with its affections and lusts.
II. The Nibelungen-lied [-leed] is the most important poem of the middle
ages. It is called the " German Iliad," and the thirty-nine books or lays run to
about the length of Milton's Paradise Lost, Nibelung was a mythical king of
Norway, whose subjects were called Nibelungers, and his kingdom Nibelungenland. As Nebal means "darkness," the Nibelungers were the "children of
the land of mists."
This grand poem, like the Alexander-lied, is divided into two parts. The first
part contains the marriage of Siegfried and Kremhild, and ends with the
death of the bridegroom. The second part contains the marriage of Kremhild
with Etzel, and ends with the death of the bride.
The hero of the first part is Siegfried of Xanton, youngest son of the king
and queen of the Netherlands. After having conquered the Nibelungers and
carried off their "hoard," he goes to Worms to solicit in marriage Kremhild,
the sister of Gunther, king of Burgundy. This journey gives an opportunity of
informing the king who Siegfried is, of recounting his exploits, and of making
us acquainted with the previous history of the hero. It is in this narrative
we are informed of the conquest of the Nibelungers, of the cloak of invisibility,
of the enormous strength of Siegfried equal to that of twelve men, of his slaying
a dragon, and of his having anointed his body with its blood, whereby he had
rendered himself invulnerable.
Siegfried, on his arrival, was entertained with princely hospitality, and it
was during his stay at Worms, that Gunther started for Issland, to ask the
hand of queen Brunhild in marriage. As the conditions were that he must first
surpass her in hurling a lance, throwing a huge stone, and in leaping, Gunther
induced Siegfried to accompany him with his cloak, and to assist him in these
feats. Siegfried readily consented, and enabled Gunther to win, in consequence
of which Brunhild became his wife. The proud queen was still so imperious

g6

HOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN.

[D.njPt.fc

that Giinther again applied to his friend for aid; and Siegfried, invisible from
his cloak, took from the bride her talisman, a magic ring and a girdle, after
which she was perfectly submissive ; and Giinther, in return for these services,
allowed Siegfried to marry the lady Kremhild.
Some years having passed over, Siegfried and his wife paid a visit to
Giinther, at Worms. During this visit the two ladies fell out respecting the
superior merits of their husbands; and Kremhild, in order to carry her point,
told Brunhild it was by Siegfried's aid that Giinther had won the contests,
and that it was Siegfried who had carried off her talismans on the wedding
night. Brunhild was furious, vowed vengeance, and employed Hagan to
murder Siegfried. Hagan had learnt from Kremhild that Siegfried's vulnerable point was between the shoulders, so one day on his return from a hunting
expedition, as he stooped down to drink from a spring, Hagan stabbed him in
the back, and killed him. Thus ends the first part.
The second part shows that a total change had come over the character of
Kremhild since the murder of her husband. She, who before was modest,
artless, simple, and confiding, became arrogant, dark, plotting, and revengeful.
Her one thought was vengeance,—this was the end and aim of her existence.
The better to accomplish her object, she married Etzel or Attila, king of the
Huns, and after a time invited Giinther, Brunhild, and Hagan to visit
Hungary. The king accepted the invitation, and went in royal state, with a
host of followers. Scarcely had the party arrived, when Kremhild accused
Hagan of murdering her husband, and Hagan confessed the deed. The -old
animosity being thus kindled Hagan murdered Etzel's young son. Kremhild was
mad with rage and grief: she was like a bear robbed of her whelps, or a tigress
of her cubs. She vowed vengeance on Hagan, Brunhild, and all the Burgundians. Slaughter followed slaughter; and after many a fray, Hagan and
Giinther were taken prisoners. Kremhild gloated over her victims, she
chuckled with joy, she was beside herself, and seizing a sword, cut off both
their heads. Hildebrand, an officer of the Hunnish army, horrified at this
inhuman conduct, slew the queen as he would have killed a serpent or wild
beast, and so ends the second part of this grand epic*
I I I . The Kitdrun.—The Kudrun is called the "German Odyssey," because
it is the second best epic of the Hohenstaufen school. It is divided into
three parts, called " T h e Hagen," " T h e Hilde," and " T h e Hedel," from
the chief characters.
(i) The Hagen.—Hagen, the son of Siegeband, king of Ireland, was
carried off by a griffon to a desert isle ; but it so happened that three sisters,
princesses, had been banished to the same island, and they took the boy under
their charge. By constant encounters with wild beasts, young Hagen grew
up manly, strong, and brave, while the influence of the three princesses
developed in him the element of chivalry. After a time, a ship happened to
touch upon the island, and carried them all to Ireland, when Hagen married
Hilde, the youngest of the three sisters.
(2) The Hilde. — Hilde in due time had a daughter, called Hilde,
after her mother. The father doted on his daughter, and could not bear
the thought of losing her; so when any messenger arrived with proposals of marriage, he was put to death. At length Hedel, King of
Friesland, sent three messengers with proposals of marriage, but instead of
* The story of the Nibelnngen-lied is borrowed from the second part of Snorro Sturleson's Edda, in
Norse. The author is unknown. Probably the work is simply a compilation of independent lays, dating
back from the days of Charlemagne, and brought together by the minne-singers. Some think that Homer's
Iliad was a similar compilation. In modern times we have Ossian, which Macpherson asserts he picked
up from traditions and pieced together into connected stories.

1150-1250.]

MINNE-SINGERS, ARCHITECTURE.

97

addressing the father, they addressed the daughter, and induced her to elope ;
Hagan pursued and overtook the fugitives, but finally consented to give his
daughter in marriage to the suitor.
(3) The Hedel.—Hedel and Hilde had two children ; a son, named
Otwin, and a daughter, Kudrun, of most extraordinary beauty, A crowd of
suitors sought her in marriage, amongst others, Hartmut of Normandy, but
none of them found favour with King Hedel. At length came Herwig of
Friesland. He came as an invader with a large army, and to prevent bloodshed the king allowed him to address his daughter. Kudrun willingly
accepted him, but while preparations for her marriage were going on, Hartmut
came secretly and carried her off. Chase being given, Hedel overtook the
ravishers; but as he boarded their ship he was cut down by Ludwig, the
father of Hartmut. The party at length reached Normandy, but Kudrun
resolutely refused to marry Hartmut; whereupon Ludwig, in his wroth, flung
her from the castle into the sea, from which she was rescued by Hartmut.
Ludwig and his son being called to the wars, Kudrun was left under the
charge of Queen Gerlinde (3 syl.)f a woman of savage disposition and most
violent temper. She insisted that Kudrun should consent to accept her son,
and when she proved restive, knocked her down, dragged her by the hair,
and shut her in a dungeon. When released from this durance, Gerlinde
employed her as a slave in the most menial of work. At length her brother
Otwin and Herwig came to Normandy, and saw Kudrun washing in a river
the queen's linen. A very touching scene ensues, most beautifully described.
In order to hoodwink the queen Kudrun promises to marry her son, but
Otwin and Herwig attack the castle. Ludwig, who has returned, is slain, and
as Gerlinde is rushing forward to stab Kudrun, she is arrested by Watt
Long-beard, and laid dead at his feet. Kudrun now returns home, marries
Herwig, and the poem ends.
IV. The Heldenbuch or Book of Heroes (13th cent.)—The literary value of
the Heldenbuch is very small. It consists of several tales, the best compilation
being that by Gaspar Vander Roen [ruhn]. The exploits are the usual
encounters with giants and dragons, and the perpetual recurrence of the same
adventures, varied like the changes of a chime of bells, is most tedious.
Those who can read with pleasure The Seven Champions of Christendom may
enjoy a similar treat over the German Book of Heroes,

ECCLESIASTICAL

ARCHITECTURE.

At the same period were conceived and put in hand some of the finest
cathedrals of the world ; as, for example, that of Strasburg,* begun in 1015,
the spire of which (466 ft.) is one of the highest in Europe, and is wholly
unequalled in grace and symmetry.' Cologne cathedral was founded in 1248,
but was not finished.till the year 1880, when its completion was celebrated with
great pomp, the emperor of Germany being present on the occasion. Its spire
(525 ft.) is the highest in the world. This sublime conception in stone, with
its numberless and exquisite carvings, shows a ripeness of art which could
belong only to a people far advanced in civilisation. The superb spires of
Vienna and Ulm, and the cathedrals of Magdeburg, Spire, and Friburg,
belong to the same period.
* Strasburg Cathedral, begun 1015, completed 1276. The spire was begun 1277, and finished 1439.

H

98

HOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN.
THE GREAT DUKES OF

[D. 11; Pt. 1.

GERMANY.

1 SAXONY, 2 BAVARIA, 3 SUABIA, 4 FRANCONIA, 5

LOTHARINGIA.

After the death of Konrad IV. and William of Holland, the crown of
Germany went begging; none of the great dukes would accept it. They
preferred the solid advantages of their own duchies to the ungracious honour
of being called kaiser. While the monarchy is lying shipwrecked, it will be
a favourable moment for taking a glance at the great feudatories of Germany.
They were five in number : the duke of Saxony, the duke of Bavaria, the
duke of Suabia, the duke of Franconia, and the duke of Lotharingia or
Lorraine.
I. The duke of Saxony at one time held more than half Germany. His
possessions included Holstein in Denmark, and (taking the river Elbe as an
eastern boundary) ran southward till they embraced the duchy of Bavaria.
East and west they extended along the sea-board of the Baltic, from Russia
to the Zuyder Zee. This was a monstrous overgrown dependency, which
happily did not long exist, and was in some measure due to accident, thus :—
Lothar, duke of Saxony, being chosen kaiser, gave his duchy to his son-in-law
Henry the Proud, who was, at the time, duke of Bavaria, and held Holland
and Tuscany in right of his wife. This haughty magnate refusing to pay
homage to Konrad III., was at once deprived of all his possessions held
under the crown. One stroke of the pen reduced his duchy to Holland and
Tuscany, over which Germany had no lordship. Bavaria was again made a
separate duchy; the principal bishops of Northern Germany took Westphalia and Oldenburg ; Mecklenburg and Holstein became independent; and
Thuringia was given to the landgraf Ludwig. Frederick Barbarossa did
something for Henry the Lion, son of Henry the Proud, by giving him
Brunswick and Luneburg, but the unwieldly duchy was hopelessly anatomised,
and at the death of kaiser Konrad IV. consisted of what is now called
Prussian Saxony, with some small portions of Brandenburg and Pomerania.
The chief city was Wittenberg.
In 1211 the duchy of Saxony was again reduced by the separation of Anhalt
as a separate principality.
In j226 Lubeck, once the capital of the duchy, was declared free by kaiser
Frederick II.
In 1260 the duchy was divided into two portions, one called Saxe-Lauenburg,
and the other Saxe-Wittenberg.
To the latter was attached the electorial
dignity. Part of Saxony now belongs to the kingdom of Russia.
II. The duke of Bavaria.—Bavaria, a corrupt form of the Latin Boi-aria,
the country of the Boii, a Celtic race, was colonised some 600 years before the
birth of Christ. The country was conquered by Charlemagne, and at the
partition of his kingdom was settled, by the treaty of Verdun, on Ludwig
surnamed the "German."* In 1070 it passed to the Guelfs, and continued in
that family 110 years, when (shorn of Carinthia, Austria, and Styria) it was
transferred by imperial grant to Otto, count of Wittlesbach. In 180*5 Napoleon I. erected the duchy into a kingdom, and a descendant of Wittlesbach still
occupies the throne. The original capital was Ratisbon; but in 1183
Ratisbon was made a free city, and Munich became the Bavarian capital,
%* In the Franco-German war Bavaria sided with Prussia ; but Saxony,
which refused to join, lost its individuality and was added to the kingdom of
Prussia. (1870-71.)
* It then contained (besides Bavaria proper) Carinthia, Carniola, Istria, Friuli, Pannonia, Moravia,
Bohemia, Austria, and Styria.

i 3 thcent.]

GREAT DUKES OF GERMANY.

99

I I I . The duke ofSuabia.—Suabia,
a corruption of Suevia, the country of
the Suevi, lay between the R h i n e and t h e Lech, reaching north to the Black
forest, and including Zurich in the south. I n fact, it was what is now called
"Wiirtemberg, with parts of Bavaria and Switzerland. T h e following towns
were in the old duchy of Suabia : (beginning north) Essenlingen and Nordlinger ;
Tubingen and U l m (all in W i i r t e m b e r g ) ; Augsburg in modern S u a b i a ;
Alsace ; Constance and Zurich (in Switzerland).
I n 918 Suabia was acknowledged as a duchy of the empire, and after
changing hands several times, was (in 1080) bestowed on count Frederick of
Hohenstaufen [stou-f'n].
U n d e r this illustrious house, it became the most
wealthy, polished, and civilised portion of Germany, and was especially
famous for being the ducal court of the minne-singers.
W i t h the House of Hohenstaufen it rapidly declined, and gradually the
n a m e of Wiirtemberg overrode that of Suabia.
Dissensions between the
lordships of W u r t e m b u r g and Baden led (in 1376) to the first Suabian
League,
opposed to the league of Marbach formed between Wiirtemberg, Baden, and
seventeen towns. T h e Suabians took the side of the Swiss in the war of
independence, and the other league that of the Austrians ; but ultimately the
count of Wiirtemberg joined the Suabians, and thus formed (in 1449) the
Great Suabian
League,
1512.
Suabia became one of the ten circles of
Germany.
*"#* Now no remains of its former greatness exist, and what is termed
Suabia is an insignificant portion of the German empire.
I V . The duke of Franconia.—The
name of Franconia was given to a large
district of Germany lying north and south of the river Main, originally
peopled by the F r a n k s .
I n the early part of the empire, this province
enjoyed the privilege of electing the king of Germany within its own territories, and of crowning him by the hands of its archbishop, primate of the
empire.*
I n 912 K o n r a d I . count or duke of Franconia, succeeded the Carlovingians. T h e house gave at that time only one sovereign, but on the
extinction of the Saxon dynasty, it was re-elected in the person of K o n r a d
I I . , and supplied H e n r y I I I . , H e n r y I V . , and H e n r y V . T h e house of H o h e n staufen was also a branch of the same powerful line.
I n this period, Franconia greatly increased in extent and importance ; and
its spiritual principalities of Mainz [Mynce], W o r m s , and Spire (west of the
Rhine), with Wiirzburg (east of that river), acquired both wealth and political
influence. I t s other chief towns were F u l d a (in Hessen-Cassel), Bamburg,
and Nurnburg.
A t the close of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, Franconia, like Suabia, rapidly
declined. I t now forms part of the kingdom of Bavaria.
V . The duke of Lotharingia or Lorraine.—Lotharingia,
or the kingdom of
Lothar, included the south of Holland, all Belgium, and the north-east corner
of F r a n c e t cut off by the river Meuse. I n 1044 this vast district was divided
into Lower and U p p e r Lorraine, the former being the part which now belongs
to Holland, and the U p p e r all the rest. T h e dukes of Lower Lotharingia
were generally called the dukes of
Brabant.
IT The German empire at this period contained six archbishops,
thirty-seven
bishops, seventy abbots, abbesses, &>c. altogether 113 ecclesiastical magnates.
Of lay princes it had one king, six dukes, thirty counts, aad sixty imperial
towns.
Altogether ninety-seven lay estates.
* That is, the archbishop of Mainz or Mentr.

t Before the Franco-German war (1870-71).

H 2

._--

IOO

HOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN,

[D.n;Pt.i.

CHIVALRY.
It would be quite impossible, without a recognition of the institution of
chivalry, to form any correct notion of the state of society in the middle ages.
Knighthood was the one ambition of the gentry, and its requirements formed
the education, gave the bias, and directed the moral and social tone of society.
The crusades gave to chivalry a peculiar importance, because those who
embarked in these wars fancied they were doing God service, and flattered
themselves that they were the soldiers and champions of God and of his Christ.
This gave to the profession of arms an enthusiasm, a fanaticism, a halo of
living martyrdom easily won and readily conceded.
Every youth of gentle blood was regularly trained to knighthood by being
domesticated from the age of seven in the castle of some knight, to serve in the
capacity of page. His duty at this tender age was chiefly to wait upon the
ladies of the family. He was taughj:, from the first, to honour God, to reverence
women, to obey promptly, and to respect the christian religion.
At the age of fourteen the page was advanced to the rank of squire, and his
duty then was to attend on the knight at all times, whether at home or abroad,
in the chase or the banquet, in the tournament or the battle-field. To cover
him with a buckler and defend him with a sword. Every squire was accounted
a gentleman, and as such was privileged to bear arms on his shield. In his
escutcheon, the helmet which surmounted the shield was always placed sideways
with the vizor down. Squires had swords, but no belt; and their spurs were
of silver.
At the age of twenty-one the squire became a belted knight, and changed his
silver spurs for gilt or golden ones. He was called Sir and his wife Madam.
He was allowed to carry a spear, to wear mail armour, to hoist a flag on his
castle-keep, to take part in any tournament, to be attended by a squire, and to
confer the honour of knighthood upon others.
This was the education of the period. Book-learning was for the most part
relegated to ecclesiastics; and not a few churchmen were wholly unable to write or
read. Pages and squires were taught to dance and sing, to play on the lute and
harp, to hawk and hunt, to ride and fish, but their great delight was the tiltyard, where they strove with each other in knightly exercises.
It was an advance, no doubt, on the barbarism of the preceding period, but
:n time the knights became arrogant and exclusive, tyrannical and overbearing,
money*grasping and self-indulgent, most dogmatical and most intolerant.

TOWNS.
At one time the entire population of Germany was divided into two classes—
the gentry and the common people; but with the rise of chivalry arose a
middle class, that of merchants and tradesmen. Knights and nobles lived in
isolated castles, but merchants and tradesmen in towns.
Ere the dynasty of the Hohenstaufens [stou-fns] had come to a close, there
were many towns of Germany of great political importance from their wealth
and numerical strength.
The crusades, which gave glory to the order of
knighthood, gave wealth and influence to the merchant class. War with all its
evils is good for trade: large armies have to be equipped, enormous stores to be
provided, and many wants are created which must be supplied. Besides all
these sources of trade, the crusades opened up new countries, introduced new

articles of barter, and new marts; so that these Holy Wars, which failed to

i3thcent.]

TOWNS, TRADE-UNIONS, SERFS.

101

effect the object for which they were set on foot, nevertheless helped to civilise
the nation, and to raise the great towns to political and social influence.
According to feudal law, towns (like all the rest of the soil) pertained to the
feudal lords; and the inhabitants, together with their shops and houses, were
the property of these lords ; but when a town increased in wealth and population it was generally chartered, and forthwith had its own magistrates, its
own guilds, its own police, its own militia, and its own bye-laws. The bailiff
or steward previously appointed to look after the interest of the feudal lord,
and to collect his dues, was superseded by crown or civic officers; and the people
who were vassals to some duke or baron, became subjects of the crown, recognising the supremacy of the monarch, but ruling themselves by their own
magistrates.
Both towns and kings had one common enemy in the barons, and therefore
sided together in all baronial contests. The towns strengthened the hands of
monarchs, and kings elevated towns by grants and royal charters. Having
thus become a third power of the state, the time could not be far off when they
would be admitted as a third college in the great national Diet or Assembly.
TRADE-UNIONS.
The crusades, as was stated above, gave a great impulse to trade, but the
police arrangements of Germany were still so defective that the country
swarmed with pirates and highwaymen; while the extortions and rapacity of
the barons acted like a blight upon commercial enterprise.
As far back as the eleventh century, Hamburg, Bremen, and Liibeck, had
combined together in mutual defence ; but in 1241 was set on foot the famous
Hanseatic League.* It began with the three cities of Hamburg, Brunswick,
and Liibeck, but rapidly increased, and ultimately contained all the chief commercial cities between Holland and Livonia to the number of eighty-five. These
cities were divided into four circles, the head centres of which were Liibeck,
Cologne, Brunswick, and Dantzig. A Diet was held every three years for
general purposes, and an extraordinary one every tenth year for renewing the
unions. The edicts passed at these Diets were communicated to the head
centres, and were by them transmitted to the several guilds within their
jurisdiction.
This league was the first systematic trade-union in Europe. It attained
enormous political power, and its good influence on trade, agriculture, and
civilisation, can hardly be over-rated. For many years it was the undisputed
mistress of the Baltic Sea and German Ocean ; the greatest powers dreaded its
hostility, and every commercial nation sought its alliance.
In the fifteenth century it reached its culminating point, and then gradually
declined, because it failed to keep pace with the times. In 1598 it came into
collision with England; in 1630 the majority of its cities formally renounced
their alliance.
LIBERATION OF THE SERFS.
The crusades had another beneficial effect—the liberation of the serfs.
At
one time the large mass of the people were serfs, who worked without hire,
and were looked upon as human cattle: some might be sold from hand to hand,
but others were attached to the soil like its trees and buildings.
* " Hansa " a bond for mutual aid, a trade-union.

102

HOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN.

[D. II ; Pt. r.

By a brief of the pope, every slave who took part in a crusade was free, and
thousands upon thousands of them obtained their liberty by this means. In
some cases, a lord, when he started for the Holy Land, voluntarily set his serfs
free ; in others, they deserted during the long absence of their lords ; and in
not a few the master never returned.
If serfs sought refuge in a large city, no bailiff or baron would dare to lay
hands on them. They were under the protection of the city, and any attempt
at force would have been resented not only by the city itself, but by the whole
league of which it was a part.
It was not absolutely needful to dwell within the walls to be accounted a denizen
thereof; there were the extra-mural, as well as the intra-mural, burghers. It was
requisite for those who tilled the soil to be extra-mural, but it made no difference to their right of protection whether one lived within or without the gates,
so long as he was within the jurisdiction of the town.
Thus serfdom was broken-in upon, and many toilers of the soil became a
free peasantry. Experience soon showed that free labour was the more profitable,
and before the close of the thirteenth century the great mass of German peasants
had become free and independent.
A D M I N I S T R A T I O N OF J U S T I C E .
There was no one system of law in use over all Germany in the Middle Ages.
The princes administered justice, each in his own district, according to local
customs and traditions.
SACHSEN-SPIEGEL.—Between 1215 and 1218, a Saxon noble compiled the
local laws of Saxony into a digest, which he called the Saxon Mirror
{Sachsen-spiegel); and in the fifteenth century, this digest had the same
authority in Germany as the Common Law has in our own country.*
VEHM-GERICHT.—In Westphalia there was a very remarkable tribunal,
called the Vehm-Gericht or " Secret Tribunal." Its judges and officers were
all muffled, its summonses were delivered in secret, and every one connected
with the tribunal was sworn to secrecy. This mysterious institution exerted a
wholesome restraint on the lawless barons, for an offender might at any
moment be dragged blindfold before the judges, and hung on the first tree
in obedience to their sentence.
The Holy Vehm, like the Holy Inquisition, was no single court, but a
society which could hold a court in any place within the Red Land. It
was at the summit of its power in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, but
towards the close of the latter period it rapidly declined; and in its decline
it was disgraced by many deeds of private malice, personal envy, or the mere
lust of greed.
Originally its courts were held in open day under some tree, but in its
degenerate days it had midnight sessions in secret chambers or caverns
underground. The district over which it held jurisdiction was called the
" Red Land," the place where a court was convened a "Free-bench" {freistukl), the court itself a " F r e e Session" (frei-ding), the judges were " Freegrafs " (if of noble rank), and " F r e e Burghers " (if otherwise). The inferior
officers, such as the crier, ushers, sergeants, doorkeepers, and so on, were
called "officials" {schb'ppen). The emperor was ex officio "Grand Master,"
and the archbishop of Cologne, as lord of the land, was president. None but
freemen and those born in wedlock could hold any office in the Vehm, and
every member was sworn to secrecy: what was done in the tribunal, who
* Somewhat later another compilation called the Suabian Mirror (Schivaben-spiegel) was compiled
This was a similar digest of the Common Law of Suabia.

i 3 thcent.]

ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE.

103

belonged to it, and who was brought before it, were profound secrets, "not
to be divulged to wife or child, father or mother, friend or confessor—not to
be told in words, or expressed in writing, or signified by symbols, or dressed
in parable, or hinted at by sign, or communicated by look," if the person
sworn to secrecy " would sleep in an unbloody grave."
A court being assembled, a coil of rope and a naked sword were placed on
the altar before the president. The rope signified the mode of death which
awaited the accused ; and the sword, which formed a cross with its handle,
symbolised the christian faith of the tribunal.
The president sat on a black stool just behind the altar, the Free-grafs
occupied a black bench immediately behind the president, and the Free
Burghers another behind the nobles. The usher having cried " Silence ! "
three times, the president, with his hand upon the rope and sword, pronounced the following form of words, which the judges and officials repeated
after him : " I swear by the Holy Trinity and the Four Evangelists to uphold
the Sacred Vehm, and to defend its judgments against father and mother,
wife and children, brother and sister, fire and water, earth and air, all that the
sun shines on, all that the dew moistens, all who dwell on the earth, and all
who occupy the great deep. I swear to give the Sacred Vehm information of
all that I know, all that I believe to be true, and all that I hear repeated by
credible witnesses which affect its interest or may aid its judgments. I swear
to conceal nothing, to extenuate nothing, to exaggerate nothing, out of love,
affection, or friendship, or for any consideration whatsover of houses or
lands, gold, silver, or precious stones. I swear never to associate with
any one under the sentence of this court; never to hint to a culprit his danger
of arrest, never to advise him to flight, nor to aid him directly or indirectly
to evade the summons or sentence of the court. I swear never to succour
any one accused or convicted with fire or water, food or clothing, shelter or
concealment; never to give him a cup of water to allay his thirst, nor invite
him to a fire in the cold, nor give him shelter from the storm. So help me
God and the Holy Evangelists."
After this oath had been duly repeated, the president commanded " the
child of the cord " to be brought forth, and six of the officials dragged him,
"bound and helpless," to the foot of the altar. Instantly every member of
the court unsheathed his dagger, and the accused was unbound to stand his
trial.
"Speak, accuser," said the president; "speak to the four quarters of
heaven, to the free judges here assembled, and make good the charge brought
against the prisoner." If, after the charge, the accused could justify himself,
he was bound to secrecy and acquitted ; if not, the president said to him :
"Prisoner, I now deprive you of liberty, divest you of all honours, and put
you to the ban of the empire. I forbid you the four elements, and pronounce
you outlawed. I devote your neck to the rope, your body to the birds of
prey, and may God have mercy on your soul. Officers, do your duty."
Whereupon the prisoner was taken from the court, and hanged on the first tree.
If any one refused to obey a summons, or resisted an arrest, or escaped
from the hands of the officials, he was at once given over to death, and it was
the bounden duty of every member of the tribunal to seek his death; but
whoever killed him had to leave a knife with the corpse, to show passers-by
that the man had met with his death by judicial sentence, and not by murder.
Every accusation had to be made in the Red Land, and the accused could be
tried nowhere else.*
* Sir Walter Scott has given a pretty full description of the Vehm-gericht ia kis " Anne of Geierstein,"
Chap. xx.

104

HOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN.

[D.n;Pt.i.

I N T E L L E C T U A L S T A T E OF G E R M A N Y IN THE
THIRTEENTH CENTURY.
The mind of a new people seems to grow in knowledge like the mind of
children in civilised states. In infancy very little intelligence is displayed ; in
early youth the imagination outruns the judgment ; then is it that the body
requires constant activity, imagination is rampant, and the dawning mind
delights in the marvellous : ghosts and spirits, giants and dwarfs, miracles and
wonders, nothing is incredible, no inconsistency is too extravagant. This is
the age of muscular activity, of selfishness, of cruelty and mischief, heedlessness and boisterous animal spirits, yet is it also the age of credulity and
religious fervour, charity and giving. The literary taste is not for historic
facts, moral teaching, or logical exactitude, but for tales of wonder, romance,
and daring ; quips and cranks are preferred to sober argument, and the surprise
of a riddle is preferred to the slow and gradual process of demonstration.
Such was the intellectual period of Germany in the thirteenth century.
The mind of the people was just opening, the people were beginning to
rejoice in their strength, and to long for adventure. It was the age of
romance, the age of daring, the restless, careless age of young life. Hence the
crusades ; hence the love of brigandage ; hence the heedless cruelty, the overweening selfishness, the reckless liberality ; hence too the credulity and love of
the marvellous. Nothing was too extravagant, too inconsistent, too absurd; and
the literature consisted of tales of romance, quibbling on words, metaphysical
fancies, and illogical imaginings, more than of sober facts and logical truths.
Take, for example, the great question of the day, which gave rise to the two
theological parties called the Realists and Nominalists. Plato, the Greek
philosopher, had said that when God created the world, he must have formed
an idea of what he intended to create, before he called it into being. This
idea he compared to a mould which models what is put into it according to
its shape, or to a seal which impresses soft wax with its own intaglio. The
idea of deity, according to Plato, was a real something; it was a mould, a seal;
it was that which stereotyped airy nothingness with its form and fashion; it was
the matrix of the divine will. Such was Plato's notion, and this fancy
transferred to christian divinity, gave rise to the party called Realists, that is,
the party who believed the idea of creation was a real something which
moulded all things into their present shapes. Aristotle, another Greek
philosopher, disagreed with Plato, and thought the divine idea was simply a
thought, a vision of the mind, and when God said let there be this or that, it
was not the idea which was photographed, but each article sprang into form
and fashion in obedience to the creative word. God named the article, and it
was—he spoke, and it was done—he commanded, and it stood forth. This
party, therefore, called themselves Nominalists in opposition to the Realists. The former were the disciples of Aristotle, the latter of Plato, and
more volumes—huge ponderous folio volumes—were written on this subject,
than on any other which ever provoked a war of words before or since. Of
all divinity the scholastic was the most puerile and most profitless; it was
mud-pie divinity, as worthless and as fragile as the architectural labours of
children on the sea-shore. Of all literature the juggling with words is the
most tedious. Of all books this school divinity is the most profitless.
Concurrent with this knight-errantry of the schoolmen, were the wonderworkers and theological romancers. It was customary for the monks to be
r
ead to at meals, just as Charlemagne was, but instead of some standard book,
the reader preferred novelty, and not unfrequently amused his audience with
some heathen tale or scripture incident adapted to christian times. It was

I3thcent.]

INTELLECTUAL STATE OF GERMANY.

105

especially amusing to these children of manly growth to place some saint in
a predicament from which there seemed no escape, and then to deliver him by
a miracle.
I t was thought that the greater the difficulty and the more
astounding the miracle, the more it redounded to the glory of God. T h e y
magnified God by making him the machine to extricate their heroes when
there was none else to deliver them. H e n c e the miracles ascribed to saints,
their lives of wonder, their marvellous adventures.
St. Paul tells us that " G o d h a t h chosen the foolish things of the world to
confound the wise ; and . . . . the weak things of the world to confound the things which are mighty ; and base things of the world, and things
which are despised . . . .
and things which are not, to bring to nought
things that a r e ; that no flesh should glory in his presence."
This was a
favourite t e x t : it gave colour to all sorts of miracles, and m a n y an adventure
was undertaken in a false reliance on this scripture. W e need here only
mention the crusade of Peter the Penniless, or that of the children, which
perhaps was more foolish still. If God chose the weak things of the world
to confound the mighty, then might he choose an army of children to bring
to naught the great Saracenic p o w e r ; if he chose things despised as his
instruments " t h a t no flesh might glory," then might he choose women and
vagrants to deliver Jerusalem from the hands of the infidel.
Divinity was all in all in the thirteenth century. N o t the divinity of the
Bible, but the divinity of the Bible interpreted by the ecclesiastics of the
period. T h e divinity which magnified the church by multiplying the interferences of deity with the laws of nature, and m a d e the ministers of religion
fellow-workers with God—not fellow-workers to do his bidding, but commissioners and plenipotentaries, with superhuman wisdom, and miraculous powers,
if needs be, to carry into effect what they considered would add to the glory
of the church.
I n schools, divinity was the one study—that is, every branch of learning was
dipped in that vat. L a w was legal divinity; leech-craft, medical divinity'; the
arts were scientific d i v i n i t y ; mathematics, magical d i v i n i t y ; astronomy was
astrological divinity; and without divinity there was no learning.
L a w was not trying offenders by evidence but b y appeals to God. T h e
plaintiff and defendant were pitted together, and judged guilty or not
according to their success in a combat or trial of endurance. God was asked
to defend the right, and h e w h o prevailed was proclaimed by God to be
innocent. O r the accused was subjected to some o r d e a l ; to walk blindfold
and bare-foot amongst red-hot ploughshares, or to thrust his naked arm up to
the shoulder in scalding hot water, or bound hand and foot to be tossed into
a river ; if he escaped unharmed, it was manifestly by miracle, and no one
could do such miracles except God were with him.
So in medicine, it was not so much by the administration of drugs, as by
the miraculous effects of charms and amulets, pilgrimages, visiting the tombs
of saints, touching some holy relics, intercession or penance, that the sick
were to be restored. God was expected to give health when he was appealed
to, for the " L o r d killeth and m a k e t h a l i v e ; he bringeth down to the grave
and bringeth u p . . . he will keep the feet of his saints . . a n d by
strength shall no man prevail."
N o r was it otherwise in science, where magic and astrology were mainly
relied on. Such is a picture of the intellectual state of Germany in the
thirteenth century. I t was a progress, no doubt, from the previous period,
but it was at present the purposeless activity and crude wisdom of a child, not
the steady industry and sober matter-of-fact wisdom of experienced m a n h o o d .

ic6

THREE SIMULTANEOUS KAISERS.

DIVISION I I — P A R T

[D. n; Pt. n.

II.

FROM T H E GREAT INTERREGNUM, 1256, TO T H E
REFORMATION.

THE

INTERREGNUM.
17 Y E A R S , 1256-1273.

Contemporary 'with Henry III. of England.

The Hohenstaufen line had gone out miserably. The boy
Konradin, a bright brave lad of sixteen, the last representative of
the line, became the pope's captive and perished on the scaffold,
"throwing down his glove in protest or defiance" (1268). The
poet Dante was present at the execution : he was a little boy then,
not above three years old. It was a sad affair, and brought about
the " Sicilian Vespers," for the pope took it upon himself to appoint
a Frenchman, Charles d'Anjou, to the kingdom of Sicily.
Germans, Sicilians, pope, and empire, being all at loggerheads
with one another, no kaiser was appointed, but three nominal kaisers
were elected at the same time, and this period of anarchy is called
the interregnum.
The three nominal kaisers were William of Holland, Alfonso of
Castile, and Richard duke of Cornwall. William, a rough fellow,
was the pope's protege, the pope even supplying him with money,
till the Hollander perished in the Dutch bogs, horse and man too.
Alfonso king of Castile, was surnamed the " Wise," from his
knowledge of astronomy. H e said of Ptolemy's system, that " the
world seemed but a crank machine, and it was a great pity Ptolemy
had not been consulted before it was turned off." H e was wise
enough to stay at h o m e ; and, except that he wore the title of
kaiser, concerned himself very little with the Holy Roman Empire. A
clerk or two at Toledo did all the official writing that was required.
The third nominal kaiser was Richard duke of Cornwall,
brother of Henry I I I . king of England, and cousin of Otto duke
of Brunswick.
Richard was a younger son of John Lackland,
and not much wiser than his foolish father and foolish brother.
H e had however plenty of money from his Cornish mines, and
was liberal with it. The tales told of his prodigality and pomp are
fit for the fabulous princes of the Arabian Nights Entertainments,
We are told that he entered Aix-la-Chapelle at his coronation in
thirty-two state carriages, each drawn by eight horses, and that he
distributed in gifts " three hogsheads of gold and silver pieces." *
* T h i s prodigal prince s q u a n d e r e d in this coronation above 20 millions sterling', a c c o r d i n g to t h e p r e s e n t
value of money. T h e suiti set down is 700,000 p o u n d s of silver. "Wages for labourers b e i n g xd. a day, a n d for
skilled w o r k m e n 30?. or $d. N. B.—1 lb. of silver = 66s.

1273-1291.]

RUDOLF I. OF HABSBURG.

I07

In 1263, he quitted Germany, and returned to Berkhampsted,
in Hertfordshire. H e still called himself kaiser, but the title was
ignored in the English court, and he died in 1271.
This period of the interregnum was one of the darkest in the
annals of Germany. There were keepers enough of the sheep, but
none to keep the keepers, so robbery and outrage were the order
of the day. Princes with barons, barons with knights, and knights
with burghers, were at daggers drawn. Each was an Ishmael,
whose " hand was against every man, and every man's hand against
him." Robber barons robbed all who had anything worth stealing,
and snatched up everything they could lay hands on, houses or lands,
no matter,—principalities or powers, sheep or oxen, merchandise
or money. " The heart of the people was but for covetousness,
and for oppression, and for violence, to do it. T h e princes of
the land were rebellious, and the companions of thieves."
Happily this midnight darkness was broken into by one of the
greatest of the German kaisers. One well worthy to take his place
with Henry the Fowler, Otto the Great, and Frederick of the Red
Beard.
================

DIVERS

HOUSES.

F R O M 1273 T O 1437.

Gives 11 kings.
R U D O L F I . of H a b s b u r g ; A D O L F of N a s s a u ; A L B E R T I . of Austria ;

H E N R Y V I I . of Luxemburg ; F R E D E R I C K I I I . t h e Handsome of Austria with
L U D W I G V . of Bavaria ; G U N T H E R of Schwarzburg ; K A R L I V . of L u x e m b u r g ;

W E N C E S L A U S t h e Worthless of Luxemburg ; R U P E R T , surnamed " Klemm," palatine of the
Rhine ; a n d SIGMUND margraf of Brandenburg.

RUDOLF I. OF HABSBURG.
King of the Romans (i.e. king elect) 1273 ; king of Germany 1273 ; king of Italy 1274
H e never went to Rome to be crowned kaiser b y the pope.
B O R N 1218

R E I G N E D 18 Y E A R S , 1273-1291.

Died a t Germersheim, Sunday, J u l y 15, 1291, aged 74.
Contemporary with Edward I. 1272-1307.
Father, Albert the Wise, count of Habsburg, in Switzerland, and landgraf of Alsace. H e
died in Palestine 1240.
Wives (1) Gertrude, countess of Hohenberg, daughter of Meinhard of the Tyrol, married
1245, died 1281. (2) Elizabeth of Burgundy, married 1284.
Children (1) Albert, who came to t h e crown a t t h e death of Adolf. H e married Elizabeth,
daughter of Meinhard count of Tyrol, 1282, a n d his father gave him Austria, which h e
detached from Bohemia. (2) Rudolf, to whom his father gave Styria, which he detached
also from Bohemia. H e had six daughters : Mathilde, married the count palatine of t h e
R h i n e ; Agnes, the duke of S a x o n y ; Hederig, t h e margraf of Brandenburg (all before
1277); J u d i t h married Wenceslas I V . king of Bohemia in 1289 ; Clementina married
Karl MartelJ, afterwards king of H u n g a r y ; and Katharine married Ludwig duke of
Bavaria. (Six daughters married six crowns.)
Biographers:
Schonhuth, History of Rudolf of Habsburg; Gerbert, Letters of Rudolf, 1772 ;
Bodmann, Letters of Rudolf, 1806 ; Gothofredus of Ensningen, Life of Rudolf
Albert
of Strasburg, a contemporary, wrote a biography of Rudolf a n d his successors down to
Karl I V . (inclusive). N.B.—-Habs-burg is from habicht-burg, hawk-castie.

ioS

DIVERS HOUSES.

[D.

II

; P t . ii.

CHIEF EVENTS.
1276.
1278.
1282.
1290.
%*

Ottokar, king of Bohemia, compelled to do homage. Austria, Styria, and Carniola,
taken from him.
B A T T L E O F M A R K F E L D , near Vienna, in which Ottokar was defeated and slain.
Austria given to prince Albert eldest son of Rudolf.
T h e electors refuse to create Albert " king of the Romans " or heir presumptive of the
empire.
I n 1280 died Albert the Great, aged 87, a Dominican monk, of such prodigious learning
that he was looked on as a magician. H i s works on philosophy and scholastic
theology are still extant.

The anarchy in the central parts of Germany reached its height.
The people, alive to the deplorable state of affairs, attributed it to
the want of a ruler to keep the nobles in check and maintain
obedience to the laws. The barons were by no means desirous
of giving up their brigandage; and probably would have made no
change, if the pope had not interfered. H e insisted on the
appointment of a king, and gave out that he would himself appoint
one, if the electors refused to do so.
At last Werner, archbishop of Mainz \Mynce\ induced the
seven electors* to make choice of Rudolf of Habsburg. Rudolf
was too poor to excite the jealousy of the nobles, but being heir
of one of the oldest lordships in Suabia and of the gray Hawkcastle called Habsburg, he commanded their respect.
Rudolf is first seen in history in the train of Ottokar, king of
Bohemia, whom (in 1254) he followed in a crusade against the
pagans of northern Germany. The Bohemian thought him
" hardy and modest, stout of heart, and fairly wise."
Born on May-day, 1218, Rudolf had reached the fifty-sixth year of
his age when he was called to the throne of Germany. H e had
long cast off the wildness of youth, and had shown the stability
and judgment of mature manhood.
CHARACTER AND LIKENESS.—Rudolf is described as a tough
steel-gray warrior, of strong character and firm grasp of hand.
Honest, vigorous in intellect, God-fearing, and of the simplest
habits. H e had been much tried, and, as he had a thorough
knowledge of man and was wise in the ways of the world, he was
much respected, and had the confidence of all who knew him,
from the highest to the lowest.
In person he was above six
feet high. His nose was large and arched; his figure slender; his
head bald, on the scalp, but at the sides the long hair fell straight
to his shoulders and then curled.
H e had neither beard, moustaches, nor whiskers. His complexion was pale, his countenance
grave and thoughtful, his temper cheerful, his manners urbane,
and his deportment dignified.
• The seven ele ors were the archbishops of Mainz or Mentz, Treves, and Cologne ; the dukes of Bavaria
and Saxony; the margraf of Brandenburg; and (Ottokar) king of Bohemia.

1273-1291.]

RUDOLF I. OF HABSBURG.

I09

RUDOLF AND T H E CHURCH.—Rudolf was always supported by

the church, to which he was profoundly submissive. There is a
tradition, that one day a poor priest was taking the holy elements
to a dying man, and came to a brook swollen by recent rains.
Rudolf happened to come up at the time, and dismounting, placed
his horse at the disposal of the priest to carry him across the
brook. When the man of God had reached the other side, and
was about to return the steed to its owner, Rudolf begged him
to accept it as a gift: " F a t h e r " s a i d he, "take it. I am not
worthy to use it now, seeing it has been consecrated to the service
of God."
This priest was subsequently chaplain to Werner, the archbishop,
whom he determined to win over to the interests of Rudolf. This,
however, was not needful, for Werner was his friend already. I n
1260, the prelate being on his way to Rome to receive the pallium
on his appointment to the see of Mainz \Mynce\ Rudolf gave him a
night's lodging, and accompanied him with a sufficient escort from
Strasburg to Rome, and back again, across the Alps, which were at
the time infested with robbers.
RUDOLF'S CORONATION.—It was Michaelmas day, 1273, when

Rudolf was chosen king by the electors. H e was laying siege to
Basel when his brother-in-law, Frederick, brought him the news.
H e at once raised the siege, and concluded peace with the townsmen. It is said that the bishop of Basel, when he heard of the
appointment, exclaimed, " Sit firm, O Lord of Hosts, or Rudolf
will push Thee from Thy throne!" Whether true or not, this
half profane remark shows the character of the new king. It
shows him to have been a man of iron will and iron grasp, and
therefore well fitted for those unsettled times.
Without delay the kaiser elect went to Frankfort to meet the
electors, and thence to Aix-la-Chapelle for his coronation. T h e
anointing over, the investment followed, the coronation oaths, the
homage, and the enfeoffments of the nobles. By some mischance
there was no sceptre prepared. I t had been lost in the time of
anarchy. No matter. Rudolf took a cross from the hand of a priest
standing by. " This is the sceptre of the world; the symbol of the
King of kings," said he. " Be this my sceptre. And may H e by
whom kings rule and princes decree justice make the sceptre of
righteousness the sceptre of my kingdom." These words delighted the bystanders, and confirmed the goodwill of the clergy.
Rudolf began his rule as a christian king should do—with even
justice, firmness, and benevolence. T h e new honour made no
difference in his character and habits. H e still dressed with the

no

DIVERS HOUSES.

[D.

II

; Pt. II.

same simplicity, and in camp was not ashamed to wTear a gray
doublet patched and mended by his own hand. Though king
and kaiser, he remained poor to the last.
Resolved from the very first to put down brigandage, he sent a
circular letter to his vassals stating his intention, and calling on
them for their co-operation. At the same time he requested them
to come without delay to render homage for their lands.
OTTOKAR

OF BOHEMIA.—By far

the most powerful

of

the

crown vassals wras Ottokar, king of Bohemia and Austria—a
proud, overbearing prince, who fully expected to have been made
kaiser. H e was disgusted that he was passed over. Here was
he, the most opulent and mightiest noble of all Germany, set
aside for one of his own ritters—a poor, threadbare Swiss gentleman-at-arms, once domesticated in his own court. It was too
insulting, and Ottokar refused to acknowledge the upstart. So he
replied to those who summoned him, " What does Rudolf want
with me? I have paid him his wages."
Rudolf, though an upstart, knew how to hold his own. Though
"poor and threadbare," he was not to be browbeaten. H e summoned Ottokar to Niirnberg (1274) to render homage; but the
summons was disregarded. A few months later he cited him to
Wiirtsburg, but with no better result. Next year he commanded
him to appear at Augsburg, and, as he still neglected to obey,
declared him an outlaw, and put him to the ban of the empire.
War could no longer be avoided.
Rudolf at once invaded
Austria, and smote the rebellious vassal both hip and thigh with
such great slaughter that he demanded peace. " Peace !" cried
Rudolf; "there can be no peace between us till you have done
homage for those lands of yours." Ottokar was loath, but there
was no remedy, and he was obliged to submit (1276).
The proud Bohemian hoped to be allowed to pay homage in
private. H e hoped to be received in a tent on an island in the
Danube; and, in order to strike awe and command respect, he
arrayed himself in all his bravery. Rudolf, clad in buff leather
and iron, sat on a camp-stool to receive him. H e sat as a soldier
among his comrades, not as a monarch amidst his vassals. " T h e
Bohemian," he said, " has often laughed at my leather doublet,
but now shall my buff jerkin laugh at his purple and fine linen."
The prelates, the princes, the dukes, the common soldiers of both
armies, beheld the gorgeous Bohemian, ungirt and bare-headed,
kneel on both his knees before the leather and the iron. They
saw him place his two hands between those of his lord, and heard
him say, in humble suit, " I confess myself your man, life and

1273-1291.]

RUDOLF I. OF HABSBURG.

Ill

limb; and to you will I be true and leal for the lands that I hold
of you." T h e proud master who " had paid the wages " was the
submissive vassal of his late domestic.
MARKFELD (1278).—Ottokar had rendered homage. H e had
humbled himself by his lips, but his masterful spirit was not bent.
On his return home his queen upbraided him roundly for his
cowardice and want of spirit. Nettled and stung with pismires,
he prepared to renew the war; and Rudolf met him in the
August of 1278 in Markfeld, on the very spot since noted for
the famous battle of Wagram.*
The Bohemian divided his army into three parts; Rudolf did
the same. T h e Bohemian's war-cry was " P r a g a ; " Rudolf chose
the word "Christ." T h e Bohemian standard was a lion; Rudolfs
was a black spread-eagle. Early on the morning of August 26th
the battle began. It raged with unabated fury till mid-day.
Neither side gave way; neither could claim the advantage. At
length Rudolfs horse was shot under him, and Rudolf, thrown to
the ground, covered himself with his shield till another horse was
brought him. H e mounted. His guard rallied round him.
" Charge!" T h e Bohemians fell back, unable to resist the attack.
" They flee !" cried Rudolf. T h e confusion spread. The retreat
became a rout; the rout, a flight; the flight, a panic. T h e
victory was certain. Many Bohemians were taken prisoners;
more were left dead upon the road, or driven into the marshes.
And where was Ottokar ? In the vanguard, which was the last to
turn. Ottokar refused to flee. H e resolved to stand his ground
to the very last. One of his own nobles gave him his death
wound, and, when he fell, twenty others pierced him with their
long spears. His own soldiers stripped him of his costly armour,
robbed him of everything he had about him, and left him naked,
gashed with wounds, and weltering in his blood.
Rudolf rode up and saw the naked body on the ground. H e
could not but rejoice at the unexpected victory, but his joy was
dashed with grief at the sad spectacle before him. " How are
the mighty fallen, and the weapons of war perished !" " H e that
is mighty hath done great things, and holy is his name. His
mercy is on them that fear him. H e hath showed strength with
his a r m ; he hath scattered the proud in the imagination of their
hearts. H e hath put down the mighty from their seats, and hath
holpen his servant" that trusted in him.
The victorious kaiser commanded the bleeding body to be
* The battle of Wag-ram, in which the French, led by Napoleon I., conquered the Austrians, July 5, 1809
In this fight 20,000 Austrians were made prisoners.

112

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HOUSES.

[D.

II

; P t . if.

cleaned and carried to Vienna. There it was embalmed and laid
in state. In due time it was conveyed to Prague in grand procession, and buried with the burial of a king.
As for Austria, it was divided between the two sons of Rudolf,
while Carinthia was given to the graf of the Tyrol, whose daughter
had married Albert, the kaiser's eldest son. Thus triumphed
Rudolf over Ottokar, and thus was it that Habsburg became the
most powerful family of Austria.
RUDOLF'S R A I D ON T H E ROBBERS (1281-1291).—Being now

the undisputed master of the empire, Rudolf applied himself
to the establishment of good order. H e revived the police
system set on foot by kaiser Frederick I I . , and rode yearly
through his kingdom to put down private feuds and rid the
country of robbers. T h e nobles themselves were the chief
aggressors. They used to send forth their retainers for plunder,
and give them shelter and protection in their strong fortresses.
Rudolf felt assured that nothing could be done while these nests of
unclean birds were suffered to remain, so he destroyed the castle
when he put to death the lord who made it a den of thieves. I n
Thuringia,* which perhaps was the worst of the haunts, he levelled
to the ground as many as sixty-six castles, and put to death
twenty-nine of the robber-nobles. Some were tied to the tails of
their own horses and trampled to death; others were hung on the
nearest tree.
By this vigorous administration a wholesome fear of doing
wrong soon spread, and, with increased security, commerce
rapidly increased. T h e name of Rudolf became the terror of
evil-doers and .the praise of them who did well. I n 1290 he
wished his son Albert to be appointed his successor; but the
electors refused to nominate any one during the lifetime of the
kaiser. Next year Rudolf died, in the seventy-fourth year of his
age and the eighteenth of his reign.
H e was undoubtedly the right man in the right place. H e was
brave and well favoured by fortune—a prudent man, who took his
tide at the flood. For many years his reign was accounted the
standard of perfection, and to come up to the fulness of the
measure of king Rudolf was the German beau ideal of kingly
excellence.
Few men could have held their own in these
turbulent times, and fewer still have done so, and yet bought
"golden opinions of all sorts of men."
Rudolf was contemporary with E d w a r d I . , one of the greatest a n d best of our British
monarchs : great in war, and greater still in peace—an Alexander and Justinian, a Mars and
Mercury. An anecdote is told of Rudolf not unlike that of our own Alfred in the cottage of
* " Thuringia "—that is, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Saxe-Meiningen, and Saxe-Weimar.

1273-1291.I

R U D O L F I. O F H A B S B U R G .

113

Denewulf, when he was commanded b y the swineherd's wife to mind the cakes. W e are told
t h a t Rudolf once strayed into a baker's shop, and, as the morning was chill, went to the fire
to warm himself. T h e baker's wife said sharply to him, " Soldiers have no business in poor
folks' houses." " D o n ' t be a n g r y , " said the king, " f o r I a m an old soldier who have spent
all my life in the service of that rascal Rudolf." " If you serve that fellow," replied the
woman, " you deserve no p i t y ; " and then she inveighed against the kaiser in good set terms.
As the stranger did not move, she threw water on the fire to drive him out of the house. O n
sitting down to dinner, the king sent a boar's head and a bottle of wine to the virago, who was
in dreadful fear when she found out that her guest was the kaiser himself, and sent her
husband without delay to crave pardon. Rudolf, to carry on the joke, said gravely he would
forgive her i f s h e would tell the company about their morning interview. This she did, to
the infinite diversion of the guests, and returned home not a little pleased that she h a d
escaped so lightly.

MEN OF LETTERS.
ENGELBERT ( I 259-1331), abbot of Admont, in Styria, poet and historian,
lived in the reign of Rudolf. His prose work is a History of the Rise and
Fall of the Roman Empire, His poem is on the Election of Rudolph,
MARTIN, of Poland ( * -1278), who wrote a Chronicle of the Popes and
Emperors to 1277, is especially noteworthy for his very minute account of
the scandal respecting Joan, the female pope, whom he places between Leo IV.
and Benedict I I I . (853-855). The tale is that she was an English girl
educated at Cologne, who assumed man's clothes in order to elope with her
lover, the monk Folda. While at Rome she earned such high praise for her
great wisdom that she was elected to succeed Leo IV., and assumed the name
of John VIII. Her sex was discovered by the birth of a child on her way to
the Lateran basilica, and, being put to death, she was smuggled into the grave,
and the time of her pontificate was added to her predecessor. The first to
mention this scandal was Anastasius, in &86, only thirty years after the
supposed death of Joan, when many contemporaries must have been living.
In the Augustan Annals (1135) we are told that this "female" was the
pope who consecrated Louis II. of France (855)' Lenfant, who died in the
reign of our George II., gives a History of the Female Pope, Though
Gibbon {Decline, &c, ch. xlix.,) calls the tale "fabulous," it was accepted
as genuine history till quite recent times; and it would be well indeed if the
worst thing that could be said against the popes of Rome is, that once a
woman was mistaken for a man.
ALBERT THE GREAT, or Albertus Magnus (1193-1280), bishop of Ratisbon,
was a marvellous man, whose works cover twenty-one folio volumes. Thomas
Aquinas was his pupil. His knowledge of chemistry brought on him the reputation of being a sorcerer. In the winter of 1240 he gave a banquet at Cologne
to William of Holland, king of the Romans (see p. 106), when instantaneously
the bleak, bare, wintry scene was transformed into the verdure and bloom
of summer. If Albert had a hothouse screened from sight, by drawing a
curtain on one side he might easily have shown his guest plants in full flower,
and fruits in full ripeness, even in December. He also made a speaking head,
an automaton of brass, which uttered articulate sounds. This in the thirteenth
century was looked on as Satanic inspiration; but Maskelyne and Cooke had
not then exhibited, "every evening at eight o'clock, in the Egyptian Hall,
London, their mechanical wonders.1'
IT The name, however, of Albertus Magnus has a much greater historical
importance than that of a clever gardener or mechanical genius. He was the
founder of the Second Age of SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY, in which the
metaphysics and logic of Aristotle were brought to bear on natural and
revealed religion.
For a century or more this worthless "battle of frogs and mice" had been
I

H4

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

[ D . n ; Pt.ii.

going on. For a century or more the wise ones of Christendom had spent
their thought in dreaming the dreams of Alnaschar,* rather than on building on
the solid foundations of real facts. For example, the word "person," applied
to God, does it mean person or something else ? Or when it is said that the
Son of God was made flesh, does it mean His divine nature was incorporated
or something else ? Questions of this sort were preached from the pulpit and
taught in the schools, far rather than pure and undefiled religion, based on
simple faith and manifested by good works. Albert tried to botch up a
religious compound of Aristotle, St. Paul, and the christian fathers; and all
Europe ran mad after his theological minotaur. Never was there religious
folly more utterly worthless than this everlasting disputation "about goats'
wool." Never was blindness more dangerous than when the half-enlightened
" saw men as trees walking," and thought they saw aright. Never were huge
folio volumes more broadcast over the world than by the doctors of the middle
ages. Like spiders, they drew forth materials from within themselves, and
produced cobwebs of learning; but their only effect was to entangle. Wonderful they might be for the fineness of the threads and the delicacy of the
workmanship; but they were only cobwebs after all, to be swept away by the
besom of common sense. Melanchthon tells us that Aristotle's ethics were
read in churches by these schoolmen instead of the New Testament; and that
man was deemed the wisest, not who could explain the best, but who could
puzzle most. (Apolog. A.C., p. 62.)
To give one example:—Are the bread and wine, in the eucharist, really
bread and wine ? or are they converted into the humanity and divinity of Jesus
Christ ? or are the humanity and divinity of Christ compounded with them ?
or do those who partake of them receive bread and wine into their mouths, and
Christ Himself into their hearts by an act of faith ? Libraries of books have
been written on these speculations, and the ill-blood they have stirred up has
produced a whole " Iliad of evils."
This " philosophy, falsely so called," not only degraded religion, it also
debased the language by the introduction of a host of new and barbarous
words. It was necessary to invent terms to show the supposed difference
between tweedledum and tweedledee; and as no existing words could do so, a
new coinage was necessary, and hence the language of the schoolmen was
barbarous and wordy in the extreme. It is a jargon as difficult to read as
heraldry or botany, and good scholars are lost in the shoals and quicksands,
unless they have made a special study of the technicalities of the system.
Vives tells us it was by no means unusual, when disputants had exhausted
their stock of arguments, to find them slanging each other like Billingsgate
fish-fags, and afterwards coming to blows with fists, clubs, or swords. And it
was not uncommon to see men wounded, or even killed, in a quarrel about
some word. Take, for example, the word "matter," meaning the element or
material of things created. Is it a mass of atoms, or only divine thought ? Is
it an emanation from the Creator, like light and heat from the sun, or only
latent power energized ? Is it the impress of the divine will stamped into
form, like the impression of a seal on soft wax, or is Deity all in all, both
creator and creation ? Be it what it may, one thing is certain: not all the
schoolmen, from Albertus Magnus to Duns Scotus, could explain what it is;
and, in the words of Martial, freely translated, it may be said,—
'Tis folly to moil o'er a profitless trifle,
Or on what none can know your invention to rifle, t
* Alnaschar, see The Barber's Fifth Brother in The Arabian Nights
Entertainments.
t Turpe est difficiles habere nugas,
Et stultus labor est ineptiarum.

DIVERS HOUSES.

1292-1308.3

"5

ADOLF OF NASSAU.
B O R N 1252.

R E I G N E D 6 Y E A R S , 1292-1298.

Wifei Imagina, daughter of Gerlach lord of Limburg.

On the death of Rudolf it was generally thought that his son
Albert would be chosen king; but Gerhard, archbishop of Mainz
[Mynce\ had sufficient influence with the electors to get his
cousin, Adolf of Nassau, nominated instead.
Adolf was a stalwart, but necessitous, prince, much concerned
in the French wars of Edward I. of England, whose stipendiary
he was. As he did not answer the expectations of the electors,
they deposed him and set Albert, the eldest son of Rudolf, on the
throne. Adolf, of course, resisted, but was slain in a battle, near
Worms, after a feeble reign of six years.

ALBERT I OF AUSTRIA (ALBRECHT I )
.
.
B O R N 1248.

R E I G N E D 10 Y E A R S , 1298-1308.

Wife, Elizabeth, daughter of Meinhard count of Tyrol, and niece of Frederick of Baden.
Father) kaiser Rudolf I. of Habsburg.

Albert was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle. H e was not a prepossessing man either in personal appearance or in manners.
H e "looked like a clown and behaved like a loon." H e was
big-nosed, loose-lipped, blind of one eye, rude in manners,
grasping, selfish, and overbearing.
When pope Boniface VIII. was told of his election he exclaimed, "Why, how in the world can such a one-eyed lout be
emperor of the Romans ? " I n addition to his ugliness, the pope
objected to him both because his wife Elizabeth was nearly related
to the excommunicated Frederick of Baden, and also because he
was the " assassin of Adolf," for so the pope insisted on calling
him, although Adolf was slain in fair fight in the battle of Worms.
The angry pontiff summoned Albert to Rome, but Albert sent
a representative. When the ambassador presented his credentials,
the pope, in a towering rage, exclaimed, " T i s I, 'tis I who am
kaiser ! 'Tis I, I say, who am emperor!" The ambassador was
dismissed, Albert excommunicated, and his subjects absolved from
their oath of allegiance. Albert at once prepared for war, and
the pope in alarm withdrew his opposition and became reconciled
to the "one-eyed loon."
The great defect of Albert's reign was that he considered the
kingdom made for the king, and not the king for the kingdom.
Thus he cared very little about the well-being of his subjects, but
directed all his efforts to enrich his family by new principalities,
1 2

n6

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

[D.n;

Pt.ii.

bishoprics, abbacies, and free cities. His acts of spoliation and
injustice estranged many and raised up a host of enemies.
WILLIAM T E L L (1307).—Switzerland was divided at the time
into several cantons, each ruled by its own laws; but the forestcantons, for greater security, had placed themselves under the
protection of Rudolf, before he was made kaiser, and Rudolf had
governed them wisely and well. On the death of Rudolf, his son
Albert, duke of Austria, became their protector, and goaded them
to rebellion that he might find excuse for depriving them of their
independence and adding them to his own estates. To this end
he sent them " Egyptian taskmasters," who annoyed them in every
way possible.
After enduring much, the proud mountaineers formed a conspiracy to free themselves of their " protector." They assassinated
the governor, Gessler, and, after the famous battle of Morgarten,
obtained their release by royal charter.
DEATH OF ALBERT (1308).—Albert was on his road to punish
the Swiss for their rebellion when he was murdered by his
nephew John, whom he had basely defrauded of his inheritance.
John was the son of Albert's younger brother Rudolf, and
joined with four others to assassinate his uncle. They followed
him to the war, they crossed the Reuss in the same boat, and on
their way to Habsburg castle fell on him and murdered him.
T h e lifeless body was left on the road, and subsequently a
convent was built upon the spot where it was found. No one
mourned his loss, and the electors refused to make choice of his
son for the next kaiser.
T H E TALE OF WILLIAM TELL.
William Tell was one of the chiefs of Uri, and refused to salute a cap which Gessler, t h e
governor, had insolently raised on a pole in Altorf market place. Gessler commanded Tell
to be p u t to death, but being told of his skill in archery, condemned him to shoot an apple
from the head of his own son at the distance of ioo paces. Tell succeeded in this perilous
task without injuring the lad, but letting fall a concealed arrow, was asked b y Gessler with
w h a t object he h a d secreted it. " T o shoot thee," said Tell, " i f I h a d failed in the task
allotted me.
Gessler, on hearing this, arrested the archer, and ordered him to be carried in
chains to the dungeon of Kiissnacht, in the lake Luzern, " there to be devoured alive b y
reptiles; " and went himself to see the sentence carried out. Scarcely had they pushed from
shore when a dreadful storm arose, and Gessler commanded the prisoner, who knew the lake
well, to be unchained that h e might steer the boat. When near enough to the island, Tell
leaped ashore, pushed back the boat into the lake, and shot Gessler with an arrow.*
Albert was on his march to punish the Switzers for this offence when he met with his d e a t h ;
a n d Leopold (the brother of kaiser Frederick), who took up the cause, was utterly defeated
in the battle of Morgarten some seven years af:erwards (1315).
* Dr. Bernays, in his edition of Schiller, says: " According to the prevailing fashion of our day doubts
have been thrown upon the truth of the story of Tell, because there exist other legends to the same
effect, and, it is thought unlikely that history would repeat itself in so singular an occurrence ; but, he adds,
the story has been believed in Switzerland for five centuries, and in all parts of the country are there
memorials of it, such as the chapel on the Tellen-platte, where the hero leaped from the boat during the
storm ; the tower in Altorf to mark the spot where Tell's son was placed with the apple. The chapel was
erected only thirty years after the death of Tell (1388), and a series of frescoes, coeval with the building,
commemorate every incident of the tale. It is further said that when the chapel was opened there were
X14 persons present who had known Tell, and had been witnesses of the exploits.

I3O0-I312.]

DIVERS HOUSES.

117

H E N R Y V I I , OF LUXEMBURG (HEIIMRICH V I I . )
K i n g of the Romans {i.e. king elect), 1308 ; King of Germany, 1309 ; King of Italy, 1 3 1 1 ;
Kaiser or Emperor of the H o l y Roman Empire, 1312.
B O R N , 1263.

R E I G N E D 4 Y E A R S , 1309-1313.

Father, John count of Luxemburg.
Wife, Margaret of Brabant, married 1292, died 1311.
Son, John, who in 1310 married Elizabeth, widow of Wenceslaus IV. and heiress of the
throne of Bohemia. By this marriage J o h n became king of Bohemia.

After an interregnum of seven months the electors chose for
their king, Henry count of Luxemburg. H e was chosen " for
his renowned valour," and because his brother, the archbishop, was
one of the electors. Henry was brave and powerful, sagacious
and just, but he lived too short a time to do much for the empire.
None of the kings of Germany since Frederick II. had been
crowned emperor of the Romans by the pope, and none since his
successor, Konrad IV. had entered Italy with a hostile army.
Henry VII. wished to be crowned emperor, so leaving his son
John regent of Germany, he entered Italy; was crowned at Milan
" King of Lombardy," and at Rome " Kaiser of the Holy Roman
Empire." H e then put Robert king of Naples to the ban of the
empire, and marched to Naples to bring it into submission.
In Tuscany he received the sacrament from the hands of a
Dominican monk,* but died the next day, poisoned, as the world
said, by the sacramental wine; if so, it was certainly an atrocious
crime.
His death was a great loss. Cut off in the flower of his age,
and in the full tide of his usefulness—cut off, too, in such a
way that the flesh shudders at the thought—poisoned by wine
administered to him in a sacrament, in the house of God, by one
of the ministers of the Holy Gospel,—it is almost too horrible
to be believed, but a Dominican himself lays the charge at the
door of his brother monk.
The connection between Germany and Italy was now practically at an end, and it is well for Germany that it was so. It was
a costly honour, and Rudolf was wise enough to know it. H e
compared Italy to the lion's cave, and said with the fox, " I see
many footsteps tending that way, but none from the cave back
again." Certainly much blood and treasure was spent in Italy,
but no German king brought away with him thence either profit
or glory.
A L B E R T I N M U S S A T O (1261-1329) poet and historian, filled several omces near kaiser H e n r y
VII., and commanded the troops in the Italian expedition, but he died in exile. H e left
behind him, in Latin, two historical w o r k s : The Deeds of^ Kaiser Henry VII. and the
Historic Events since the Death of Henry. _ These histories are excellent both in style
and matter. Mussato also wrote several tragedies in Latin, still extant.
* The monk's name was Politian.

n8

[D. II ; Pt. ii.

DIVERS HOUSES.

TWO SIMULTANEOUS KAISERS.

FREDERICK (FRIEDRICH) T H E H A N D S O M E ,
DUKE OF A U S T R I A , 1314-1338.
LUDWIG V . , DUKE OF B A V A R I A ,

1314-1347.

King of the Romans (i.e. kingelect), 1314 ; crowned at Milan King of Lombardy, 1327 ;
crowned at Rome Kaiser or Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, 1328.
Ludwig married Margaret of Holland, 1324.
Contemporary with Edward II., 1307-1327 ; and Edward III., 1327-1377.

On the death of Henry VII., the electors could not agree upon
a successor; some were for Frederick, surnamed the "Handsome,"
son of kaiser Albert I . ; while others chose Ludwig duke of Bavaria, both being grandsons of Rudolf. Frederick was crowned
at Aix-la-Chapelle, and Ludwig at Cologne. The result of this
double election was a terrible war which lasted for ten years.
T h e towns, for the most part, sided with Ludwig, but the nobles
with Frederick. At length a decisive battle was fought at
MUHLDORF, in Bavaria, in which Frederick was . defeated and
taken prisoner (1322). H e had fought like a lion. The
chroniclers say that " he slew fifty of the opponents with his
own hand." His brother was to join him, and after ten hours'
fighting a cry was raised of " Help at hand! Leopold to the
rescue ! " On rushed the Austrian with redoubled fury, on drove
he into the thickest of the fight; but alas! the reinforcements
were not those of his brother, but those of the enemy. All hope
was lost. Resistance was in vain. Pie was surrounded on all
sides, hemmed-in, disarmed, and taken captive. For three years
was he kept prisoner in an old castle in the Upper Palatinate,
where his sole employment was whittling sticks. His Spanish
wife cried herself blind at the sad fate of her " H a n d s o m e "
husband. H e was ultimately set free by his brother Leopold, on
condition of resigning all claim to the empire, and he died in
1338.
The battle of Muhldorf was fought eight years after the battle of Bannockburn, and
twenty-four years before the battle of Crecy. Frederick the Handsome is not reckoned
among the sovereigns of Germany any more than Lady Jane Grey is reckoned among those
of England.

Ludwig V. had no sooner got rid of his rival than he became
involved in a quarrel with the pope. Pope John XXII. was
angry because Ludwig had not applied to him to sanction his
election; but Ludwig insisted that he owed his crown to the
electors, whose choice was final, and needed no confirmation.

I3I4-I347-]

LUDWIG V.

119

The pope would not admit this, and excommunicated him, laying
under an interdict all those parts of Germany which supported
him. Thus the old old quarrel between pope and emperor broke
out afresh, but the beginning of the end had set in, and the
thunders of the Vatican were passed by as the idle wind which
no man regarded.
Pope John XXII. was succeeded by Benedict XIL, who carried
on the contest of his predecessor, but found himself no longer
supported by public opinion. The effect of these anathemas was
indeed the reverse of what was intended : instead of weakening
the power of the kaiser they strengthened i t ; instead of estranging
the people they made them rally round their monarch, and lifted
a personal quarrel into a great national question, which the
general voice resolved should be now and for ever settled.
The Pragmatic Sanction of Rense* (1338).—At length the
princes of the empire took the matter up, and met in convocation
at Rense, near Coblentz, on the Rhine. Here they passed a
decree declaring that the "kaiser or emperor of the Romans
derived his rank and power, not from the pope, nor yet from the
pope and the electors mutually, but from the electors only. This
ordinance was accepted by the states, was proclaimed through the
length and breadth of the empire, and became a law of the land.
It was of the utmost importance, as it established for all time the
independence of the empire.
Ludwig V, and Margaret Maultasch (1346).—The next move of
kaiser Ludwig V. was most unwise. H e had won triumphantly his
first contest with the pope, because it was a question pertaining
to the civil polity of the empire, but his present dispute was like
that of Korah against Moses. In the first dispute the voice of
all Europe was with h i m ; in the second, the voice of all
Christendom was against him. The case was t h i s : Margaret
surnamed " Maultasch" or Bag-mouth, daughter of the Duke of
Tyrol, was the richest heiress in Europe. She had married the
eldest son of John king of Bohemia, but after twelve years of
wedded life, having no child, had separated from him.
The
kaiser resolved to secure the wealth of this rich heiress; so he
undertook as emperor to sign her divorce, and then gave her in
marriage to his son. f
* " Pragmatic Sanction." The Latin word sanctio means an '.' ordinance to which a penalty is attached,"
or " a penal statute," and the Latin word pragmaticus means, "relating to state affairs." Hence a
pragmatic sanction means " a penal statute bearing on some important state question."
t Margaret Bag-mouth had a son by her second husband young Ludwig, but the boy died in 1363,
aged ten. The father died two years before (1361) and the mother three years after (1366). The Bagmouthed lady left all her possessions to the arch-duke of Austria, her cousin (i.e. son of her mother's sister),
and it is said that " the Austrian lip " is inherited from the mother of Margaret Maultasch.
When Margaret married duke Ludwig, her first husband also married again, and had both sons and
daughters.

120

DIVERS HOUSES.

tD.n; Pt.ii.

A kaiser had no more right to annul a marriage than the pope
had to elect an emperor. Marriage, at that time, was a religious
rite, and to interfere with it was to interfere with the prerogatives
of the church. Here, then, the pope stood on good ground. In
1346, Clement VI. declared Ludwig deposed, and named Karl,
margraf of Moravia, kaiser in his stead. Happily for the nation
Ludwig died the year following by a fall from his horse in a boar
hunt, or another civil war might have broken out (1347).
The battle of Crecy was fought August 24, 1346.
It was this Ludwig V. who placed the two eagles on the imperial
seal; whence the double-headed eagle of Austria.
Ludwig V. was the last emperor excommunicated by a pope.
BATTLE OF MORGARTEN* (November 15, 1315).—We must now go back
to the death of kaiser Albert. It will be remembered that he was assassinated
on his march to Switzerland. Frederick of Austria was one of the two
kaisers elected to succeed him, and his brother Leopold took up the cause of
kaiser Albert. In 1315 he entered the Forest Cantons at the head of 15,000
men. It is said that he carried ropes with him, to hang the ringleaders, and
scare the peasants into submission.
The Swiss were not daunted. They contrived to muster some 1300 men,
who placed themselves on the mountain slopes of Morgarten. At daybreak
the Austrian cavalry began to move. Their helmets and armour, swords and
lances, glistened in the sun. The advance guard entered the pass. The
whole land, from the foot of the hill to the Lake Luzern, was covered with
troops. They began the ascent, when some fifty Switzers rolled down on them
huge boulders and fragments of rock. The horses were terrified ; the foremost
of the men were crushed to death; confusion followed surprise; and before
they could restore order, the Swiss poured on them like an avalanche. The
Austrians fled. They fled "from the villany of their own fear." Counts,
knights, nobles, and common soldiers all fell in one common ruin : heaps upon
heaps they fell—heaps upon heaps. Hundreds of horses and men were
drowned in the lake. Leopold was one of the few who escaped. In one
hour-and-a-half the 15,000 Austrians "gleaming in purple and gold," were cut
down by 1300 Swiss peasants. Like the leaves of the forest in June were
they at sunrise, and in less than three hours were they strewn and scattered
like the leaves of the forest in December. The victory was complete. The
cause was won; and kaiser Ludwig V. confirmed the freedom and independence of the cantons by royal charter. The battle of Morgarten was one of
the decisive battles of the world, and as worthy to take its place with Marathon
and Thermopylae of old Greece.

The latter part of the reign of kaiser Ludwig V. was a time of
peace and prosperity. Tournaments, which had been discontinued
for nearly 400 years, were revived with great splendour. The
citizens grew opulent; and there were above 200 free cities
governed by their own laws and electing their own magistrates.
Law was beginning to be studied as a profession, and opened
* At Morgarten the French beat the Swiss in 1798, and the Austrians in 1799.

*3*4-i347-l

LUDWIG V.

121

up a new field of employment for the younger sons of the aristocracy. But one occupation—that of the sword—had hitherto
been open to them, and they were glad to relieve the tedium of
an idle life by brigandage and adventure. Now, however, instead
of rude, unlettered soldiers, many became learned lawyers. Colleges
greatly multiplied, the taste for literature increased, and the
manners of society were greatly improved.
INVESTITURE

OF VASSALS.—The investiture of bishops

has

already been referred to (p. 55), not so the investiture of lay
vassals. When a great fief fell vacant by the death of its
possessor, and there was no direct heir, it lapsed to the king, who
had the right of installing a new vassal. A platform being raised
in some open space, the kaiser took his seat thereon arrayed in
robes of state and surrounded by the electors and princes of the
realm.
The nobleman who was to receive the fief then rode to the foot
of the platform, attended by his friends and tenants dressed in
his livery. At a given signal the whole party galloped thrice
round the platform to the sound of martial music. T h e first time
without any banner; the second time with the banner of the
chief; and the third time with the new banner, decorated with
the arms of the fief about to be conferred.
When these courses had been duly made the chief dismounted,
and was conducted by two princes to the throne to do homage,
swear fealty, and receive investiture.
Homage was paid kneeling on both knees, but without oath.
The person who performed it placed both his hands between
those of his suzerain, and said aloud, " I become your man from
this day forward, to life and limb, and all earthly worship.
Unto you will I be true and leal, and will bear you faith for the
tenements I shall hold of you." Having thus said, the king,
without rising from his seat, bent forward and kissed him on the
forehead and each cheek.
The chief then rose, and, standing before his lord, swore fealty.
This was done by placing his right hand on a book, and saying,
" Know ye this, my lord, that I swear to be faithful and true to
you, and to bear faith to you for the lands that I shall hold of
you. And I will lawfully do unto you the customs and services
which I ought to do, and at the times assigned. So help me God
and his saints." Then taking up the book on which he had laid
his hand, he kissed it and returned it to its place. Homage was
paid kneeling, but without oath; fealty was tendered standing,
and was confirmed by oath.

122

DIVERS HOUSES.

[D.n; Pt.n.

Having received homage and fealty, the kaiser invested his
man with the fief by delivering to him the old banners belonging
thereto. There were often a goodly number; for every large fief
contained several smaller ones, each of which had its own banner.
The chief threw the old banners into the crowd to be torn to
pieces, and then presented his dependents with new ones
emblazoned with arms of the new fief, by accepting which the
dependents acknowledged the suzerainty of their new lord.
THE

DUCHY OF CARINTHIA.—There was a peculiar custom

belonging to the duchy of Carinthia, which once belonged to
Bohemia and was taken by Rudolf from king Ottokar (p. i n ) .
The duke of this province was not invested by the kaiser, but had
to "purchase his fief from the people." Of course " t h e purchase " was only nominal; but it told of days gone by, when the
lands belonged to the people and the lordship was bestowed by
them, and not by the crown.
When a duke of Carinthia died, the people chose a free
peasant as their representative, and the new duke had to buy of
him the lands of his dukedom. T h e peasant appointed was not
chosen at random, but belonged to a particular family, in whom
the right had been vested time out of mind. It was an honourable office, and not without its perquisites.
On the day of inauguration, the peasant seated himself on a
marble block beneath a tree. H e was conducted thither by a
great crowd, who waited around him the arrival of the heir. T h e
new duke approached on foot, dressed as a countryman, and
carrying a crook, a spade, and a wallet of bread and cheese.
Two noblemen, also on foot, attended as his sponsors; and the
procession was brought up by the knights and nobles of the
province, in the duke's livery, mounted on horseback, and bearing
the flags and banners of the duchy.
The peasant, affecting great surprise, said to the crowd, " Who
are these I see coming hither in such pomp and state?" " T i s
the prince of the country," was the reply. " Is he a good man
and true, a just man and a Christian ? " demanded the peasant.
" H e is," was the response. " T h e n , by what right will he remove
me from this s e a t ? " asked the peasant. " H e will buy it of
thee," said the crowd. " F o r how m u c h ? " " F o r sixty pence."
Whereupon the peasant rose, and the duke took possession of the
seat. For the part he played in the ceremony the peasant was
entitled to sixty pence, to the clothes worn by the duke on the
occasion, and exemption from rents and taxes.
Soon as the duke had seated himself, his vassals approached to

I.3I4-I347-]

LUDWIG V. ; AUTHORS.

I23

pay him homage. The duke then promised even justice to all,
proceeded to church to hear mass, and finished the day with a
state banquet.
ULRICH BONER (1324-1349), a didactic poet, is worthy notice,
because his Edelstein (or precious stone) was the first book in
German which appeared in print (1461). It is a collection of
fables, tales, and maxims, " to win to brighter worlds, and point
the way." Ulrich Boner set his face against science "falsely so
called;" denounced the arrogance and vices of the nobles; and
considered the love of money the "root of all evils."
\ * The first printed book was the Psalter of Mainz (1457);
the next was William Durand's Holy Offices (Rationale
divinorum officiorum libris viiu distinctum) printed 1459; the
third was Balbi's Catholecon, a sort of dictionary (1460).
Then comes the Edelstein in German.
BERTHOLD SCHWARZ, a Benedictine monk, born at Fribourg, in
Switzerland, is sometimes credited with the invention of gunpowder (in 1320), and a statue has been erected to him at
Fribourg. H e seems to have learnt by accident its explosive
powers; but its composition had been known hundreds of years
previously. Thus the Chinese in the first christian century used
it in their fireworks, and in 673 it was employed in what is called
"Greek fire." Roger Bacon, in 1216, makes mention of its
composition. It was employed by the Spaniards as far back as
1257 in the siege of Niebla; but we do not hear of its employment again in artillery till 1378, at the siege of Venice, though
some say it was used by Edward I I I . at the battle of Crecy, in
1346.
WALTER LOLLARD must not be omitted, the morning star of
the Reformation in Germany. H e was born in England, and
declaimed against " t h e intercession of saints" as wholly without
scripture warrant. H e also declared the seven sacraments and the
ceremonies of the catholic church to be priestly inventions wholly,
not to be defended by the New Testament. H e was tried by the
Inquisition, and burnt alive at Cologne in 1322, but left behind
him 20,000 disciples who spread his doctrines in Bohemia and
Austria. Walter Lollard prepared the way of Wycliffe in England
(1324-1384) and John Huss in Bohemia (1376-1415).
N.B.—Ludwig of Bavaria
by others Ludwig K The five
Debonair (814-840);
Ludwig
Saxon (876-881);
Ludwig

is called by some Ludwig IK, and
are made out thus:—Ludwig I. the
II (853-876);
Ludwig III the
IK the Child (800-011).
Those

124

DIVERS

[D.

HOUSES.

II

; Pt.

II.

who called the Bavarian kaiser Ludwig IV. omit Ludwig the
Debonair, and begin with Ludwig " king of Germany " 843, made
emperor 855; but Ludwig the Debonair has as much right as
Charlemagne to be reckoned among the German kings.

KARL CUNTHER, COUNT OF SCHWARZBURC.
B O R N 1304.

R E I G N E D N O M I N A L L Y 2 Y E A R S , 1347-1349.

After Ludwig V. was deposed, the pope's nominee was Karl
duke of Luxemburg; but the electors refused to ratify his election,
and set up Giinther, a simple knight, for the new kaiser.
There was nothing to object to in this choice. Giinther was
brave and prudent, and might have proved a good king; but he
sold the crown to his rival, and died two days afterwards, some
say of apoplexy, and others of poison. Be this as it may, his
death left the coast clear for Karl " the pope's kaiser," who
succeeded without further opposition.

KARL

I V . OF L U X E M B U R G (CHARLES IV.)
" T H E POPE'S KAISER."

K i n g of the Romans (i.e., king elect), 1346 ; K i n g of Bohemia and King of Burgundy, 1347 ;
crowned a t Aix-la-Chapelle King of Germany, 1349 ; a t Milan, K i n g of Lombardy, 1355 ;
at Rome, Kaiser of t h e H o l y Roman Empire, 1355 ; and King of Aries, 1365.
B O R N 1316.

R E I G N E D 31 Y E A R S , 1347-1378.

Died a t Prague, in Bohemia, Monday, November 29, 1378. Aged 62.
Contemporary

with Edward

III.

In France, Jean le Bon and Charles

Father, J o h n king of Bohemia, t h e blind king slain a t Crecy.
H i s elder brother, J o h n , fell with his father a t Crecy.

V. le Sage.

Karl was t h e second son.

Wives, (1) Anne, princess palatine, who brought h i m t h e U p p e r P a l a t i n a t e ; (2) Anne of
Schweidwitz, who brought him Silesia, 1353.
Children,
b y his second wife, Wenceslaus, king of Bohemia, who succeeded his father in
G e r m a n y ; Sigmund, margraf of Brandenburg, who succeeded R u p e r t ; and J o h n .
Possessions, Karl IV.* was, in his own right, king of Bohemia from 1346. H i s hereditary
estates included also L u x e m b u r g , t Moravia, a n d Lusatia. H i s first wife added t h e
Upper Palatinate, and his second wife brought him Silesia.
Biographers,
Karl's Commentaries
on his own life.
Rudolf I . to Karl IV., both inclusive.

Albert of Strasburg, Chronicles

from

* Karl I, was Charlemagne, Karl II. was Charles the Bald of France, Karl III. was Charles the Fat of
France.
t Luxemburg included the present Belgium, Luxemburg, and other adjoining territories.

1347-1378.]

KARL

IV., T H E

THINGS TO BE

POPE'S

KAISER.

125

REMEMBERED.

1346.

A u g . 25. T H E B A T T L E O F CRECY. This was a month after Karl was crowned
" King of the Romans," and fourteen months before he succeeded to the crown
of Germany.
1347.
R I E N Z I tribune of R o m e . H e was assassinated in 1354. Lord Lytton has a novel
on the subject.
1348. T h e plague referred to b y Boccaccio in his Decameron.
1349.
E d w a r d I I I . of England instituted the Order of the Garter.
1351. T h e great Helvetic Confederation instituted.
1354.
Marino Falieri elected doge of Venice at the age of eighty. Beheaded b y order of
the Ten, April 17, 1355. Lord Byron has a tragedy called Marino
Faliero.
1356.
Karl I V . submits to the diet of Niirnberg the famous G O L D E N B U L L , which defined
the number and powers of the electors.
Sept. 19.—The famous B A T T L E O F P O I T I E R S .
J o h n Mandeville wrote his adventures in French and Latin. T h e book was dedicated
to E d w a r d I I I .
1357.
Robert Bruce of Scotland set at liberty b y E d w a r d I I I .
1363. Tamerlane, or Timur the T a r t a r , begins his wonderful career.
1371. T h e Stuart dynasty of Scotland begins with Robert Stuart.
1374. T h e Italian poet Petrarch dies. D a n t e died 1321. Chaucer lived 1328-1400.
1376.
E d w a r d the Black Prince dies.
1377. E d w a r d I I I . dies.

Karl IV. was the grandson of kaiser Henry VII., and son of
John, the blind king of Bohemia,* slain at the battle of Crecy.
According to tradition, the badge of the prince of Wales, consisting of a plume and the motto Ich dien \ik deen\ was taken by
the Black Prince as a trophy from Karl's father, f
As Karl was nominated by pope Clement VI. without consent
of the electors, he was nicknamed the Pope's Kaiser. % H e was a
bad ruler for Germany, as he sacrificed the empire to his hereditary kingdom of Bohemia. H e was no " father of his country,"
but a hireling who fleeced his sheep, and contrived like Jacob,
by a thousand artifices, to make Laban's flock contribute to his
own.
H e greatly enlarged his hereditary lands by purchase and
marriage.
His first wife, Anne, brought to him the Upper
Palatinate; and his second wife, another Anne, added Silesia
to his dominions. Brandenburg he obtained by purchase from
Otto, the drunken son of kaiser Ludwig IV. It is said that Karl
promised him ^ 3 0 , 0 0 0 for the electorate, but never paid half the
purchase money; and Otto died soon after the bargain had been
struck.
This grasping policy did not answer; for his son Sigmund
pawned Brandenburg to the House of Hohenzollern, and most of
his other domains went to the House of Austria. Karl IV. was
* King- John of Bohemia was father-in-law of Jean le Bon, king of France. (Jean= Dfah'n.)
+ This tradition has been disputed.
% Pfaffen Kaiser.

126

DIVERS HOUSES.

[D.II;

Pt.n.

a man of considerable learning. H e was master of several languages, and wrote a Commentary of his own life for the use of
his son. H e founded the three universities of Heidelberg,
Vienna, and Prague; built the schloss of Tanger-miinde {Mouth
of the Tanger), where he generally resided; and erected the castle
of Karlstein, in Bohemia, as a depository for the regalia; but the
electors insisted on their being kept either at Niirnburg or at
Frankfort.
T h e national seal, which in the reign of Ludwig V. had been two black eagles, was changed
in the reign of Karl I V . to a black eagle with two heads.

T H E GOLDEN BULL (1356).—By far the most important act
done by Karl IV. for Germany was passing the edict called the
" Golden Bull," from the gold case in which the seal was enclosed.
The object of this edict was to settle everything connected with
the kaiser's election. It limited the number of electors to
seven, three prelates and four lay princes. T h e prelates were
the three archbishops of Mentz, Cologne, and Treves;* the lay
electors were the king of Bohemia, the duke of Saxony, the margraf of Brandenburg, and the palsgraf of the Rhine. It declared
the person of the electors sacred; enacted that every question
should be decided by majority, and that there should be no
appeal from the sentence of the court. It appointed Frankfort
the place of session, and Aix-la-Chapelle the place of coronation.
Indirectly it set aside the interference of the pope in these
elections, as it pronounced the kaiser fully elected and competent
to exercise every function of his office from the moment of his
election. Finally, it appointed the palsgraf of the Rhine and
the duke of Saxony regents, in case of an interregnum.
T h e " b u l l " is in Latin, and was drawn u p by Bartoli, the Italian lawyer.

N.B.—In the Thirty Years' War the palsgraf of the Rhine
was struck off from the electoral college and the duke of Bavaria
put in his place; but at the Peace of Westphalia, in 1648, it was
determined that the honour of elector could not be alienated;
consequently, the palsgraf was restored, and the number of
electors was increased to eight.
I n 1692 Ernst duke of Hanover was created a ninth elector;
but in 1777 the number was again reduced to eight, because the
palsgraf of the Rhine was also duke of Bavaria.
Napoleon
broke up the German empire, and the college of electors fell
asunder.
Kaiser Karl IV. died at Prague in 1378, in the sixty-second
year of his age and the thirty-first of his reign. Two years pre* The German names are Mainz, Koln, and Trier; but Cologne and Treves are French perversions.

1347-1378.]

KARL I V . ; T H E BLACK DEATH.

127

viously the electors had named his son Wenceslaus " king of the
Romans," or heir presumptive of the empire.
Few periods of the world have been so pregnant of mighty events as the
latter half of the fourteenth century. Fourteen months before the accession
of kaiser Karl IV., Edward III. and the Black Prince won over the French
the memorable battle of Crecy, and during the reign Edward III. instituted
the Order of the Garter and won the battle of Poitiers. During the same
reign started up Tamerlane, the Mongolian Bonaparte; Marino Falieri, made
doge of Venice at the age of eighty, was beheaded (1355), a mournful tale
which has furnished lord Byron with the subject of his best tragedy; about the
same time (1354) was Rienzi assassinated, a demagogue who had raised himself
to imperial power under the modest title of "tribuneof Rome." Lord Lytton
has embodied this historical romance in a novel of great interest and considerable fidelity. In the same reign occurred that terrible plague which suggested
to Boccaccio the scheme of his Decameron, in which he supposes that ten
ladies and gentlemen diverted their attention from the horrors around by telling
each a tale daily for ten days. Petrarch, the great Italian poet, flourished and
died while Karl IV. was kaiser; so did our English traveller, sir John
Mandeville, whose adventures in Palestine, Egypt, and China were for many
years the delight of Europe. Chaucer was fifty when Karl died, but had not
yet published his Canterbury Tales; Wycliffe was fifty-four, and had been
charged by the pope with heresy (1377), but lived some seven years longer;
and Froissart, whose Chronicle embraces the period of English history between
1322 and 1400 was forty years old when Karl died. It would be difficult to
find a reign more full of matter for romance; and Petrarch, Chaucer,
Boccaccio, sir John Mandeville, and Froissart, are names which will be held
in honour as long as the world endures.
THE BLACK D E A T H .
T H E BLACK DEATH (1348, 1349).—In the reign of kaiser Karl IV.
occurred the plague called the Black Death, which devastated Asia, Europe,
and Africa. It broke out in China in 1333, where it carried off twenty-four
millions of the inhabitants. It appeared in Italy in the year of the battle of
Crecy, and spread thence into France, Spain, Germany, and England. In
1349 it reached Sweden and Norway, and in 1351 it desolated Russia. It
reappeared in Europe in 1360, 1373, and 1382, and the number of victims
which fell to this scourge exceeded 100 millions. In England, we are told, its
ravages were so tremendous, that "scarcely a tenth part of the inhabitants
survived.* Though Germany did not suffer like Italy, England, and France,
yet were its ravages frightful : thus the deaths in Liibeck are set down at
90,000, Basle at 14,000, Erfurt 20,000. Vienna was almost without inhabitants. In Poland three-fourths of the people were carried off, and above 200,000
of the villages were left " a s a cottage in a vineyard, as a lodge in a garden of
cucumbers."
For ten years before the great outbreak the earth had been troubled. Thus
in 1338, armies of locusts had devasted Hungary, Poland, Silesia, Austria,
and many other countries. A great famine ensued, and thousands died of
* This does not seem an exaggeration if we accept the following statistics, which Dr. Hecker affirms to be
worthy of credit. The mortality of London was above 100,000, of Norwich nearly 52,000. The entire
population of London did not exceed 120,000, and the entire population of Norwich was about ,60,000.
Many villages were wholly depopulated by the terrible scourge.

128

DIVERS HOUSES.

[D.njPt.n.

want. From the year of the locusts to 1342, inundations, hurricanes, earthquakes, and other disturbances, followed each other in quick succession.
Several mountains sank into the earth; others shifted their places; whole
cities were swallowed up ; castles, houses, and churches were overthrown, *
huge chasms appeared in thousands of places, from which issued most
noxious vapours, and enormous swamps covered whole districts with stagnant
water.
The disease was accompanied with inflammation of the lungs, boils and
tumours over the whole body, and black spots, indicative of putrid decomposition. The sufferings were great, the thirst intolerable; the contagion so
certain that wives fled from their husbands, and husbands from their wives ;
mothers from their children, and children from their mothers. Decent burjal
was out of the question: all that could be done was to throw the dead bodies
into pits or rivers. Even sheep and oxen, horses and asses, birds and fishes,
were affected. Boccaccio tells us he saw two hogs worrying some rags and
drop down dead, as if they had been shot. Flight was of no avail to the
timid, for they carried the plague with them in their clothes. Medicines were
useless. Some tried dietary, others fasting, some seclusion, others gaiety;
some prayer and penance, others riot and debauch ; some flocked to hospitals,
others to churches, but the Black Death followed them, regardless of everything—youth and age, strength and weakness, piety and profanity, wealth and
poverty, no matter, the plague was no respecter of persons.
FLAGELLANTS (1349).—The chief effect of this fearful mortality was a great
increase of religious fervour. Men felt the helplessness of man, and rushed
to religious observances, penance, and gifts. They gave largely to religious
houses and the shrines of saints, so that religious establishments grew
wealthy, and with wealth came luxury and worldliness. We soon see the sins
of the church grow gross, and provoke indignation, persecution follows, and
within a century and a-half came Luther denouncing the degenerate hierarchy,
and bringing in the Reformation.
The more immediate effect of this religious infatuation was to call up a
body of impostors, who made a market of men's credulity and weakness. A
set of riff-raff banded together, and called themselves the "Brotherhood of
the Cross," but they are better known by the name of Flagellants or
Scourgers. They wore a cross on their breast, another on their back, a
third on their hats, and they took upon themselves to do penance for the sins
of the people. This was no new device : a similar folly had appeared some
ninety years before in Italy, and was put down. These fanatics, assuming that
the mortality was a punishment for sin and that God's anger might be appeased by human penance, undertook by their own blood to make atonement
for sin. Strange as it may appear, this blasphemous folly fell in with the
religious craving of the time, and became for the nonce so popular, that nobles
and priests flocked to the standard—yea, nuns and honourable women joined
the vagabonds, and soon brought the movement to open shame.
The method of proceeding was as follows: A procession was formed in
which the brotherhood marched two-and-two, preceded by crucifixes, tapers,
and banners. Bells rang when it entered a town, and the people from all the
neighbourhood flocked together. When the procession reached the spot
agreed upon, the whole body of Flagellants, whether male or female, threw
off their shoes, stripped to the waist, and appeared in a short linen dress
reaching to the ankles. Being thus stripped they fell prostrate in different
positions, according to the sin they undertook to atone for. Those, for
* In Carinthia alone thirty villages were demolished.—J. VlTODURAN, Chron. p. 84.

I347-I378.1

KARL I V . ; T H E FLAGELLANTS.

129

example, who undertook to do penance for lying and other sins of the
tongue, threw themselves on their side and held up three fingers. Those who
did penance for adulterers fell flat on their faces. Those who undertook to
atone for infidelity and impiety lay on their backs with their arms outstretched
in the form of a cross. In a few minutes the Master called out—
" Rise ! L e t the sacrifice begin—
Blood only can atone for sin."

Instantly all started up, some singing psalms, some ejaculating prayers, some
howling, some bending the knee, some boasting of their chastisement, and all
scourging their naked backs with whips having three lashes, knotted, and
tipped with iron. When this had been carried far enough, one of the brotherhood read a letter which he asserted an angel had left in St. Peter's Church,
at Jerusalem. This impudent forgery stated that Christ was displeased at the
sins of the people, but at the intercession of the Virgin had consented to
forgive all those who joined the Brothers of the Cross for thirty-three days—
a day for a year of Christ's sojourn upon earth.
At first every house gave welcome to the brothers : money was lavished on
them, all sorts of ornaments were devoted to their use ; but arrogance, opposition to the church, contempt of all religious rites, and the breath of scandal
raised a storm against the order. Every door was then shut upon them ; every
church was closed against them; the pope interdicted the pageant, and the
magistrates proceeded against the brotherhood as disturbers of the peace.
The cry was raised that the Flagellants spread the plague, and as no one
would suffer them to enter into town or city the insanity died out.
PERSECUTION OF THE JEWS (1348, 1349).—A far more horrible exhibit of
the plague, was the persecution of the Jews. Strange, that the religion of
love and good-will should be the hot-bed of intolerance, and should number
among its works the crusades, the persecutions of the Jews, the wars of the
Albigenses, the horror of the Inquisition, the Bartholomew massacre, the
fires of Smithfield, the dragonnades, and the persecutions of witches,
sorcerers, and science, miscalled the black art.
Every pestilence has been attributed by the common people to the poisoning
of wells. It was so in the plague of Athens ; it was so in the Black Death.
The question was Who were the poisoners ? and the infatuated people concluded that as the Jews crucified Christ, they must be the natural enemies of
all Christians; as they cut off the founder, they would naturally seek to cut
off his followers also. Hence the present mortality was ascribed to poisoned
wells, the Jews were the poisoners, and the Jews must be stamped out both
root and branch.
The persecution began in the autumn of 1348. Immediately the suspicion
was set on foot, a panic seized the people. The wells were shut up, and the
inhabitants were compelled to drink river or rain water. Men bound themselves by oath to extirpate the Jews by fire and sword : some were torn to
pieces.; some were burnt alive after a mockery trial; many were enclosed in
wooden huts erected for the purpose and burned without trial. At Speyer
[Spire] the Jews in despair set fire to their own houses and consumed themselves rather than fall into the hands of the mob. In Mainz \Mynce\ alone
12,000 Jews were put to a cruel death. At Eslingen, the whole Jewish community burnt themselves in their synagogue. At Strasburg 2000 were burnt
in their burial ground by the populace, and those who attempted to escape
were torn piece-meal, and cast into the flames. Any one who concealed,
protected, or aided the flight of a Jew, was put to the rack and executed
without mercy.
K

DIVERS HOUSES.

ISO

[D.n; Pt.n.

It was currently reported that the Jews obtained the poison by sea from
some remote parts, and prepared it themselves, mixing with it spiders, owls,
adders, and toads, but that the secret was known only to the Rabbis. No
doubt the Flagellants were great instigators of the persecutions. What with
the plague, the Flagellants, the massacre of the Jews, the want of water, and
the disorganised state of society, truly it was a time of sorrows, of sorrows
which " came not single spies, but in battalions."

WENCESLAUS

THE

WORTHLESS,

CALLED T H E " N E R O " AND T H E " SARDANAPALUS " OF GERMANY.

K i n g of Bohemia 1367-1419 ; King of the Romans (i.e. king elect) 1371; King of Germany
and Kaiser or Emperor of the H o l y Roman Empire 1378-1400; deposed from the
German throne 1400.
Died king of Bohemia 1419.
B O R N 1357.

R E I G N E D OVER G E R M A N Y 22 Y E A R S , 1378-1400.

Deposed Monday, December 20, 1400.
Died Wednesday, August 16, 1419, aged 62.
Contemporary with Richard II., 1377-1400; and Charles VI. of France, 1380-1422.
Father, kaiser Karl I V . ; Mother, Anne of Schweidnitz.
Wives, (1) J o a n of Holland, whom he murdered by setting his dog on h e r ; (2) Sophie, his
cousin, whose confessor was J o h n Nepomuk.

CONTEMPORARY POPES.
R owe.
U r b a n V I . , 1378-1389.
Boniface I X . , 1389-1404.
Innocent V I I . , 1404-1406.
Gregory X I I . , 1406-1409.
J o h n X I I I . , 1409-1417.
Martin V., 1417-1431.

A vignon.
Gregory X I . , 1370-1378.
Clement V I I . , 1378-1394.
Benedict X I I I . , 1394-1424.

Like Nero of Rome, Wenceslaus began his reign well. He
reduced the taxes, attended to business, and showed both
energy and judgment; but his natural weakness and vicious
propensities soon cropped up, and he abandoned himself, like
Vitellius the Roman emperor, to gluttony and drunkenness,
seeking excitement either in the chase or in the wanton torture of
his fellow-creatures. He had a great dog, trained by a sign to fly
at any one obnoxious to him, and he murdered his wife Joan by
setting this dog upon her. At another time, it is said, that he
roasted alive his cook for sending to table a ragout not served to
his liking.
The foolery of this sot reminds one of Elagabalus, the Roman
emperor. As Elagabalus invited the chief men of Rome to a
banquet, and then smothered them in a shower of roses, so
Wenceslaus invited the chief men of Bohemia to a banquet, and
then sent an executioner among them. After amusing himself
awhile with their terror, his wife Sophie entered with pen and
paper, and the drunken fool told his guests he would spare them

1378-1400.]

WENCESLAUS T H E WORTHLESS.

I3I

if they would vow in writing to give their lives for him. T h e
document was signed, and Wenceslaus plumed himself on the wit
of this silly joke.
H e rarely quitted Bohemia, being wholly indifferent to the
affairs of Germany; and after twenty-two years of neglect the
diet deposed him. A few months later Richard II. of England
was dethroned by his cousin Henry. Richard II. was murdered
after his deposition; but Wenceslaus still reigned over his hereditary kingdom of Bohemia for nineteen years longer, when he
died regretted by no one (1419).
The last quarter of the fourteenth century was a frightful epoch
of misrule. Germany was cursed with Wenceslaus, a worthless
debauchee; England with Richard II., an extravagant fop;
France with Charles VI., an idiot; and Navarre with Charles
surnamed the "Bad." There were also two opposition popes,
one at Rome and one at Avignon, who ceased not to excommunicate each other, and to curse the adherents of the rival
pontiff.
Germany was in a deplorable state, and so overrun by
brigands that the people leagued together for mutual defence.
The most important of these bands was the SUABIAN CONFEDERATION, which contained thirty-two towns, but later on as
many as forty-one. It was formed on the model of the Swiss
league, which had so eminently distinguished itself in the battle
of Morgarten (1315), and during the reign of Wenceslaus
eclipsed even that achievement by the still more famous victory
of Sempach.
BATTLE OF SEMPACH (July 9, 1386).—The battle of Morgarten
was between the Austrians and the Swiss, so was the battle of
Sempach. The Austrian leader in the former battle was Leopold,
the proud and valiant duke of Austria; the Austrian leader at
Sempach was a nephew of the same name, no less proud and
valiant than his uncle. The battle of Morgarten was undertaken
to punish the Swiss for the death of Gessler, the Austrian
governor; that of Sempach, because the Swiss had admitted to
their league certain towns enfeoffed to Austria, Sempach being
one of them.
The hatred of Austria against the Swiss was unbounded. It
was the hatred of aristocratic pride, the contempt of princes and
nobles who had been humbled by peasants and freed serfs; so
any pretext of war was hailed by the Austrians, and they now sent
forty-three allegations to the Swiss council, demanding instant
redress. The Swiss received the schedule, and prepared for war.
K 2

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[ D . n j Pt. n.

The days of grace passed by, and the Swiss made no sign, so
the Austrians marched at once to Sempach, a small town in the
canton of Lucerne. There is a lake of the same name some nine
miles north-west of the town, and the space between was covered
with Austrian cavalry. Conspicuous among the horsemen rode
Leopold. He was a fine, handsome fellow, about thirty-five years
old, of martial bearing, bold as a lion, and the hero of a hundred
fights.
The Swiss were on the uplands. Their whole force was under
1,400, while that of the allied Austrians was 4000 horse and a
mixed multitude of infantry. The Swiss wore no armour, their
weapons were halberds and short swords; the Austrians were
mail-clad, and their weapons enormous pikes.
When Leopold saw the ground was unfit for cavalry, he commanded his knights to dismount, and in close array, with extended
pikes, to march up the ascent. The Swiss observed the movement, and rushed with a shout on the advancing phalanx; but the
wall of brass was impenetrable, and all who attempted to break
through were slain.
At this juncture one man, named Arnold von Winkelried,
turned the tide of battle; and his name should be enrolled with
those of Kodros and Leonidas, Curtius and Decius, of classic
story.*
Seized with a noble inspiration, he rushed forward, caught in
his arms all the pikes he could grasp, and, flinging himself on the
ground, bore with him the pikes sheathed in his own body. A
gap was thus made in the iron wall, and the Swiss rushed in. A
dreadful havoc ensued. The Swiss with their short swords had
every advantage, while the Austrians could do nothing in the
crowded phalanx with their long and cumbrous pikes. The result
was a decided victory for the Swiss, who lost about 200 men,
while the Austrian loss was ten times as great, including 600
knights. The body of duke Leopold was found next morning on
the field covered with wounds, and buried beneath a pile of slain.
This was indeed a brilliant affair. The world knows no
* KODROS (in Latin Codrus), king of Athens, being informed that an oracle had declared the Dorians
would be victorious if the life of Kodros were spared, resolved at once to give his life a sacrifice to his
country; so he entered the Dorian camp in disguise, provoked a quarrel with the soldiers, and was slain
(B.C. 1068).
LEONIDAS—When Greece was invaded by Xerxes (B.C. 480) Leonidas was sent to Thermopylae with
a forlorn hope of 5000 men to make a stand against him. The Persians in vain attempted to pass; but when
Leonidas perceived that they had passed by another way, he dismissed all his army except 300 who were
Spartans, and this little devoted band resolved to sell their lives as dearly as possible.
CURTIUS.—The tale is that the earth in the Roman forum opened (B.C. 362), and a soothsayer declared it
would never close again till the Romans threw therein their greatest treasure. Curtius cried, that Rome's
greatest treasure was a brave devoted patriot, and so saying leaped into the chasm.
DECIUS, being informed by a vision that if he devoted himself to the gods the Roman army would be
victorious, rushed into the thickest of the enemy and was slain.

1400-1410.]

RUPERT

"KLEMM."

*33

greater, and its anniversary is still celebrated by prayer and
thanksgiving on the field where the battle was fought. The
sword, the shield, and the battle are not the weapons of christian
warfare; but who can fail to honour the men who hold " their
country dearer than themselves ? " Men like Arnold von Winkelried exalt the whole race; and such victories as Morgarten and
Sempach are sturdy preachers to oppressors, feelingly reminding
them that the race is not always to the swift, nor the battle to the
strong.
ST. JOHN VON POMUK, PATRON SAINT OF BOHEMIA
(1330-1393).
John Nepomuk, the patron saint of Bohemia, is noted for refusing to
reveal to king Wenceslaus the secrets of the confessional. This churchman,
born at Pomuk, in Bohemia, became vicar-general of the diocese of Prague,
and was chosen by Sophie (the second wife of Wenceslaus, for her fatherconfessor. Wenceslaus being suspicious of his queen, tried to extort from the
churchman the confessions she had made to him, but he nobly refused to reveal
them. The king put him to the torture, and as he still remained obdurate,
had him taken from the rack and cast into the river Moldau. His body being
rescued was buried with great honour; he was canonized by pope Benedict
XIII., and his memory is still cherished in Bohemia with peculiar affection.
John von Pomuk had further offended the kaiser king by resisting his
simoniacal practices. Wenceslaus was in the habit of selling church preferments for money which he squandered on his own pleasures. This abomination
the vicar-general most stoutly resisted, and became a marked man, meted for
death as soon as a favourable opportunity offered.
John von Pomuk is generally calledJohn of Nepomuk, The French ne means
born, and Ne-Pomuk means born at Pomuk. i(,John of Nepomuk" is nonsense. It should either be "John of Pomuk" or *'John Nepomuk"

RUPERT [RUPRECHT] SURNAMED " K L E M M "
(THE PINCHED OR S T R A I T E N E D ) .
I352, 1400-1410.

When Wenceslaus was deposed, the electors made choice of
Rupert, the elector palatine, for his successor. It was not a bad
choice, as Rupert had a good head and stout heart; but unfortunately he interested himself in matters which in nowise tended to
bring into order the unsettled state of Germany. Thus in the
early part of his short reign he invaded Lombardy to wrest from
"the duke of Milan" the sovereignty he had purchased of
Wenceslaus for 100,000 florins, but met with such a reception
that he gladly sought the north side of the Alps. He made a

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134

[ D . I I ; Pt.ii.

like fruitless attempt to heal the schism of the church, but greatly
offended his nobles by taking the part of pope Gregory XII., who
had been deposed by the council of Pisa (1409). A third failure
was his endeavour to add Brabant to the crown. Rupert was
always too pinched for money to uphold the dignity of the crown,
or to carry out his policy; and as far as Germany was concerned,
his whole history may be written in four short words—" he reigned
ten years."
SICMUND MARCRAF OF BRANDENBURG.
C A L L E D T H E " L I G H T O F T H E WORLD.1*

K i n g of H u n g a r y through his first wife 1386; K i n g of the Romans {i.e. king elect) 1410;
crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle King of Germany 1414 ; King of Bohemia 1419 ; crowned a t
Milan K i n g of Lombardy 1431; and a t Rome Kaiser of the Holy Roman Empire 1433.
B O R N 1368.

R E I G N E D 27 Y E A R S , 1410-1437.

D i e d a t Znaim, in Moravia, Monday, December 9, 1437. Aged 69.
Contemporary
with Henry V., 1413-1422: Henry VI., 1422-1461.
Father, kaiser Karl I V . Mother\ Anne of Schweidnitz.
Wives, (1) Maria of Anjou, queen of H u n g a r y , married 1386, died 1392; (2) Barbara of
Cilley, called the Messalina of Germany.
Children, Ladislaus, died y o u n g ; Elizabeth, daughter of Maria a n d wife of Albert I I . w h o
succeeded Sigmund I I . in Germany.
Biography, Life of Sigmund b y his secretary, E b e r h a r d Windeck of Mainz.
CHIEF

EVENTS.

1414.

Sigmund sends " safe conduct * to J o h n H u s s , t o attend the council a t Constance, b u t
*
abandons him, a n d he is burnt alive as a heretic, J u l y 6, 1415.
1416.
Visits England to form with H e n r y V. an alliance against France. Jerome of P r a g u e
burnt to death for heresy, Monday, M a y 30.
1417.
Benedict X I I I . , the pope a t Avignon, declared by t h e COUNCIL O F C O N S T A N C E t o b e
"contumacious, schismatic, heretical, deposed, a n d deprived of all his dignities."
Martin V. elected pope in his place. Benedict retired from Avignon, b u t continued
to call himself pope, a n d t o launch forth anathemas.
1429.
T h e marvellous success of J e a n n e d'Arc, a village girl, of Domremy, in Lorraine, w h o
succeeded in raising t h e siege of Orleans, a n d getting Charles V I I . of France
crowned and consecrated a t Rheims. N e x t year she was sold to the English b y the
comte de Ligny-Luxembourg. a n d some say she was burnt to death for a witch.
B R A N D E N B U R G , 1387.—Sigmund elector of Brandenburg, pawned the electorate to his cousin
Jobst, to raise money for his H u n g a r i a n expedition. I n 1395, John, who held a part of
Brandenburg, called Newmarkt, having died, that part of the electorate lapsed to Sigmund,
a n d Sigmund pawned it to the Teutonic Knights. Jobst, indignant at this, pawned his
p a r t to William the Rich, a n d dying soon afterwards, Sigmund claimed the electorate of
all Brandenburg, and, in 1412, sold it all to Frederick, burgraf of Niirnberg, t h e first of
the Hohenzollern electors of Brandenburg. (See p . 153).
* # * Sigmund often called
Sigismund.

On the death of Rupert two kaisers were elected—the margraf
of Moravia and the elector of Brandenburg. The former died
within three months, and Sigmund, the brother of Wenceslaus,
remained sole kaiser.
Sigmund, the second son of kaiser Karl IV., was well made
and majestic, certainly the handsomest man of the period, with

I4IO-I437-]

SIGMUND.

135

long Roman nose, brilliant blue eyes, and curly blonde hair
flowing over his shoulders, beard and moustaches. H e was welleducated, could converse in six languages, was quick in
repartee, and was called the " Light of the World." His frankness
was winning, and he wished to do well, but marred his popularity
and usefulness by his selfishness, avarice, and want of determination. Like a man who# beholdeth " his natural face in a
glass: he beholdeth himself, and goeth his way, and straightway
forgetteth what manner of man he w a s ; " so Sigmund saw in his
mind's eye what was required for the good of the people, made
brave resolutions, but forgot them as soon as they were made.
Always hoping, never resting, successful in nothing, specious,
speculative, and diplomatic, full of good words, and ever short of
money, adding crown to crown and therewithal adding debt to
debt also. The loom he wove on was very large, but the weaver
wanted perseverance and wanted thread, so his work was flimsy, and
both warp and woof were dreadfully entangled.
COUNCIL OF CONSTANCE (three-and-a-half years, 1414-18).—
The first object of Sigmund was to put an end to the great
schism of the Western church. This schism had lasted for fortyone years, and now there were three popes, one in Italy, another
in France, and a third in Spain, all hurling anathemas at each
other, and each thundering out curses against those who sided
with the rival pontiffs.
In 1414, the Council met at Constance, a city situated on the
lake of the same name. It must have been a large city at that
time, for the council brought into it at least 200,000 strangers,
some say as many as 400,000. There were the kaiser Sigmund
and pope John XXIII. There were 7 patriarchs, 22 cardinals,
20 archbishops, 52 bishops, 124 abbots, and 1800 ordinary ecclesiatics. There were 166 princes and knights, and 150,000 retainers,
menials, and attendants. Never was known such a brilliant
gathering, and never, since the " Wise Men of the East" presented
their gifts to the Babe of Bethlehem, had there met together such
pride of pomp and pomp of pride.
One finds it hard to look upon the crowns and crosiers, the
sceptres and truncheons, the gilt-spurs and mitres, the purple, the
scarlet, and the gold, the kings, the prelates, and the princes,
assembled at Constance, and reconcile it with those memorable
words of the Nazarene " My kingdom is not of this world."
The three rival popes were all deposed, and Martin V. was elected
instead. Sigmund wished the council to reform the abuses of the
church throughout, but the council resolved to leave that matter

136

[D.n; Pt.n.

DIVERS HOUSES.

to the new pope, and only stipulated that a general council should
meet every tenth year to remove abuses.
Martin having obtained the triple crown,* dismissed the council,
but the decennial assemblies were never called. Thus met, and
thus fell through, this mighty muster which was to effect so much.
Pope and kaiser, cardinals and bishops, princes and knights, all the
talent, rank, and dignity of Europe, brooded for nearly four years
over this wind-egg; they toiled, they debated, they met, they parted,
and brought forth
(the name of this new pontiff might suggest a
pun) for the " mouse " of this great labour was
a Martin.
JOHN

HUSS

T H E BOHEMIAN

REFORMER

(1376-1415).—The

abuses of the church and conduct of the clergy had long been
subjects of ridicule, satire, and grief. Wycliffe, in England some
forty years previously, had declaimed against them, and in order
to enlighten the people had translated the Scriptures into English,
that they might be studied and referred to by the people. Wycliffe
inveighed especially against the doctrine of transubstantiation, or
conversion of the bread and wine, used in the eucharist, into the
body and blood of Christ. His disciples were called Wyclifrltes
or Lollards {see p. 123).
John Huss of Bohemia, a man of low parentage, but great
integrity, piety, and eloquence, entertained similar views to the
"morning star of the reformation." H e was greatly honoured,
and was appointed rector of the University of Prague, preacher of
Bethlehem, and confessor of queen Sophie, second wife of king
Wenceslaus. Huss preached earnestly; his great subjects were :
the depravity of man, and salvation by faith. " Ye are saved by
faith, and that not of yourselves: it is the gift of G o d ; not of
works, lest any man should boast." " Faith," said John Huss,
" not faith in the virgin, not faith in the saints, nor yet in the
pope, nor even in baptism, but in Christ." The church he compared to a barn-floor on which lies wheat and chaff, one for the
garner, and the other for the fire.
This " heresy," of course, was gall and wormwood to those who
believed the pope " the living spirit of the church," and the gospels
the caput mortuum or dead letter; who looked on baptism as the
" new birth unto righteousness," and the church as the ark of salvation. It was, in fact, a deposing of the pope, and placing
faith in Christ above the rites of baptism, absolution, the
sacrament of bread and wine, and even of extreme unction.
Such heresy was not to be borne, and in 1410 the archbishop of
* The third crown of the tiara was only just added, by John XXIII., 1411.

I4IO-I437-1

SIGMUND; J. HUSS.

137

Prague had the writings of Huss burnt by the public executioner.
This persecution only increased the renown of the reformer, and
diffused his doctrines abroad, but at the same time it made Huss
more and more obnoxious, so that he was excommunicated ; and
when the council met at Constance, he was summoned to appear
before it. False miracles were nothing, imposture was nothing,
simony was nothing, traffic in sin was nothing, the scandalous lives
of the clergy were nothing, the schism of the church and the
infamy of pope John were of small moment compared to the
teaching of John Wycliffe and John Huss. The kaiser gave Huss
safe-conduct, and the reformer, "putting his trust in princes," went to
the council. Perhaps he thought his knowledge of the Scriptures
would serve him, but had he been an angel from heaven he could
not have cleared himself, for his condemnation was pre-determined,
and his "examination" was only a trap to entangle him, if possible,
in his words.
The kaiser had promised that Huss should come and go in
safety, but the pope disregarded the imperial promise, and committed the reformer to prison, on the plea that no faith is to be
kept with heretics. H e was laden with chains, and kept in durance
till the day of his condemnation. " I came hither," he said, " of
my own free will, under the public faith of the kaiser, here
present" In so saying he fixed his eyes on Sigmund, " w h o
blushed scarlet at the sudden and unexpected rebuke."
Sentence being passed on him, John Huss was degraded,
arrayed in a surplice, with a chalice in his hand. " Why," said
Huss, " our divine Redeemer was clothed in a white robe, when
the Jews mocked him in Herod's judgment hall, ere he was
given over unto Pilate." " Thou cursed Judas," cried the president of the council, " we take this chalice from thee, in token that
thou hast no part nor lot in the blood of the redemption." Then
stripped they him, put on his. head a paper mitre on which
three devils were painted, and round the band was the word
"arch-heretic." " Thus we devote thy soul to the devil," said the
president; " b u t I," said Huss, "devote it to the hands of Jesus."
Sigmund, as the head of the secular power, then committed him
to the elector palatine to be led away to the stake. His paper
cap fell off as he was going, but one of the soldiers picked it up,
and replaced it on his head.
Having come to the place of
execution, he was chained and bound, the elector withdrew a little,
the fire was kindled, and the martyr of Bohemia was soon suffocated by the ascending smoke.
-^En£as Sylvius tells us, that Huss "went to the stake as to a

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[D.II;

Pt.n.

banquet: not a word, not a look, betrayed that he feared to die.
H e sang hymns in the flames even to the very last."* Thus fell
John Huss, one of the most upright and blameless of men. His
death has branded with infamy the council of Constance, and the
name of Sigmund. Huss was not a man of great parts, but his
uprightness was without reproach. H e was mild in temper, earnest
in piety, and a very Daniel in devotion.
H e had no mysticism,
no vanity, no ostentation. H e was as unlike WyclirTe in character,
as John the Evangelist to John the Baptist. WyclirTe, like the
Baptist, was a lion of the tribe of Judah, but Huss, like John the
Evangelist, was one of the lambs of God's fold. One thundered
and lightened to purify the air; the other, like the gentle rain, fell
in fertilising showers, which blesseth him that gives and him that
takes. John Huss, the Bohemian martyr, died Sunday, July 7,
1415-

JEROME OF PRAGUE, a Bohemian Reformer (1378-1416).—
While Huss was at Constance, Jerome of Prague arrived. H e
was no ecclesiastic, but a layman, a learned scholar, and Master
of Arts. H e promised his friend Huss to follow him and support
him, but, when he found how high the tide ran, his courage failed
him and he left the city. Scarcely had he done so when he was
arrested and haled before the council. H e asked of what he was
accused : " Of heresy," said the president. " What heresy ? "
demanded Jerome. " Heresy concerning the blessed Trinity,"
was the reply. Being requested to state the charge more clearly,
the accuser said, while lecturing at Heidelberg, he had likened
the holy Trinity to a liquid in three states: water, vapour, and ice.
On hearing this the whole assembly cried with one voice, "Away
with him ! Away with him ! To the stake ! To the stake ! H e is
not fit to live!" " Men and brethren," said Jerome, " since
nothing but my blood will satisfy you, God's will be done !" Then
was he delivered into the hands of the warders and carried to a
dungeon, but the archbishop of Rega had him bound to one of
the pillars of St. Paul's church, and fed on the bread and water
of affliction.
Jerome recanted, like Cranmer, the archbishop of Canterbury,
140 years afterwards. As Peter cursed the Christ and swore that
he knew him not, so Jerome cursed WyclifTe and Huss, and abjured their doctrines. H e was now led back to prison, but
relieved of his heavy chains.
On his next examination he withdrew his recantation with
* Kaiser Karl V. refers to this fact.—Of. Hus. Vol. II.

1410-1437J

SIGMUND; JEROME OF PRAGUE.

#

139

great anguish of spirit. " Ye have confined me," he said, " in
several places for 340 days. I have been cramped with irons
and almost poisoned with stenches ; I have been famished and
parched with thirst, but have not been allowed to speak in my
defence. I came here under the safe-conduct of the kaiser, but
ye are witnesses this day how faith has been kept with me. I
acknowledge my cowardice with contrition and shame. I confess
my spirit trembled with the fear of fire; but I renounce my recantation, and declare that I look upon it as the basest act of my
whole life. I know you will condemn me, but my death will
leave behind a worm which will never die." Sentence was then
passed on him, and he was delivered over to the secular power.
When the paper mitre was brought forth he took it in his hands
and placed it on his head, saying, " This is of paper; my Lord
and Saviour was crowned with thorns." When bound to the
stake, the executioner was going to light the fire from behind, but
Jerome bade him kindle the faggots in front of him. H e lived
for fifteen minutes in the burning mass, and died, saying, " Thou
knowest, Lord, that I have loved the truth."
Poggius, the secretary of pope John XXIII., says, " His voice
was sweet and full, his action free and graceful. H e made no
appeal to the passions, but spoke direct to the understanding.
The greatest character of ancient story," he continues, " could not
surpass him in eloquence and greatness of soul. H e was truly a
prodigious man, and the epithet is not extravagant. I was
myself an eye-witness of the whole transaction, and I write this
letter in all soberness and sincerity.""* Jerome of Prague was
burnt to death, Tuesday, May 26th, 1416.
T H E CORRUPT STATE OF THE C H U R C H . — O n e thing the council

of Constance has proved beyond a doubt: that the state of the
church was as bad as it well could be. T h e whole head was
sick, and the whole heart faint. The council proposed to reform
abuses, but all they did towards it was to write letters into
Bohemia to stamp out the rinderpest of Hussism.
Under the gross example of such popes as John XXI11., and
the clergy in general, under the thieving, lying, licentious
examples of such a kaiser as Wenceslaus and the German barons,
can it be wondered at that sin abounded.
Sin was no sin
in those days, provided it touched not the dogmas of the
church. T h e clergy were universally accused of pride and
avarice, of simony and trafficking in sin, of the most flagrant
• The letter was written to his friend Arelin on the very day of the execution.

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[D. n ; Pt.

II.

abuse of the sacraments, and the grossest ignorance of Scripture,
of arrogance and cruelty, of gluttony, drunkenness, and sins
which one dares not so much as name; but they were guiltless of
the sins of Huss and Jerome, " faith in Christ," and belief that
the gospels are " able to make us wise unto salvation."
Bernard, a French abbot, preaching to the council of Constance, declaimed unsparingly against the vices of the clergy.
" With rare exceptions," he said, " the council itself was an
assembly of Pharisees, whose religion consisted of masks and
mummery, but whose lives were whited sepulchres. The catholic
faith has been reduced to mere outside show; the hope of the
baptised is in water and oil, not in piety and good morals; the
love of God is unknown, and the love of one's neighbour a dead
letter. Falsehood pervades the laity, avarice the clergy, malice
and iniquity the prelates.
There is no sanctity even at the
pope's-court, but law-suits are its delight, and imposture its chief
aim." This is bold language, and was spoken to the council, but
like our own confession, " We have erred and strayed like lost
sheep; we have followed too much the devices and desires of our
own hearts . . . .
and there is no health in us," the words
gave no offence, touched no pet dogma, but were rather regarded
as indications of humility and sincerity, a sort of flattering
unction, as if the great magnates had said, Here are we, the
princes of the land, the great ones of the earth, yet see how we
abase ourselves by confessing our sins ! As the pope humbles
himself by washing the feet of beggars, and calling himself the
" servant of servants," so we bow in dust and ashes, and confess
ourselves "miserable sinners." This pride of humility is quite
consistent with worldliness and indulgence in iniquity. It touches
not the apple of the eye, it is not " Go, and sin no more," but,
we have confessed and received absolution, and are now ready to
begin again.
The German memorial to the council was in the same strain as
the sermon of the French abbe\ It complained that the popes
had arrogated the judgment of all causes, civil as well as lecclesiastic; that they had made a sliding scale of sin, an ad valorem
duty on wrong-doing; that for money a Barabbas might get into
the priesthood, a Caiaphas rise to its highest honours. Money
was the lever that moved the world, the passport to Paradise, the
key that unlocked the gates of heaven. The rich had the promise of the life that now is and of that which is to come; but
poverty is the unpardonable sin. It was Lazarus who would die
and be buried, and Dives who would be borne into Abraham's

1410-1437.J

SIGMUND ; T H E HUSSITE WAR. *

141

bosom. The words of our Redeemer were reversed: not " How
hardly shall a rich man," but how hardly shall a,floorman, " enter
into life eternal." It is easier for a camel to pass through the
eye of a needle than for a poor man to enter into the kingdom
of heaven.
This frightful state of things went on for nearly a centuryand-a-half longer, and then came the reformation. We, in this
reformed age, look on that great earthquake as a contest between
the teaching of Luther and the teaching of the Church of Rome
as it now is; but, casting an eye on the picture given above, and
that picture exaggerated by another century of corruption, we
shall form other ideas of the Herculean task of cleansing such an
Augean stable, such " a cage of unclean birds."
T H E HUSSITE WAR (1419-1436).—The Bohemians, indignant
at the murder of Huss and Jerome, organised themselves into
a religious confederacy, bound to maintain: (1) The free preaching of the Gospel; (2) the administration of the Eucharist, in both
kinds, to laymen as well as clergymen; (3) the separation of the
clergy from all secular employments; and (4) the punishment of
offences in clergymen as well as laymen by the civil powers. Because these Bohemian reformers gave the "cup" to the laity in the
Lord's Supper, they were called Calixtines (3 syl.) or chalice-men,
from calix, a Latin word, meaning a chalice. Processions were
made through the streets, in which banners were displayed, bearing the device of a chalice. One day, as one of these processions
was passing through Prague, some one threw a stone at it from
the Guildhall; instantly a rush was made into the council
chamber, thirteen of the magistrates were thrown into the streets,
and the excited chalice-men made a raid on the papists, pulling
down their churches and convents, pillaging and destroying their
property, and killing or torturing the most obnoxious of the
priests and monks.
About this time died king Wenceslaus (1419), and the heir to
the Bohemian throne was his brother, the kaiser Sigmund; but
he was hateful to the chalice-men, for breaking his bond of safeconduct ; and the Bohemians refused to acknowledge him as
their king. The reformers prepared to resist by force, and chose
Zisca, the " One-eyed," for their leader; Sigmund also prepared to assert his rights, and from this moment the conflict
assumed the character of a politico-religious war. Zisca built a
strong fort on mount Tabor, near Prague, and hence his
adherents were called Taborites (3 syl.), but the more moderate
of the reformers continued to call themselves Calixtines or

142

DIVERS HOUSES.

[D.n; Pt.n.

chalice-men. The chalice-men confined their platform to the
four articles stated above, but the Taborites, like our own
Puritans, insisted that nothing should be enforced as an
article of faith or religious rite which is not enjoined in the New
Testament.
In 1420 Sigmund was ready, and at the head of 40,000
Germans, invaded Bohemia; but Zisca, with 4000 Taborites
utterly routed the invaders. Zisca was the most experienced
general of the age. H e had greatly distinguished himself in the
wars against the Teutonic knights, when he lost his right eye;
afterwards he joined the Austrians against the Turks, and then the
English against the French. His ingenuity was endless; he was
a first-rate military engineer, and knew the last devices of warfare.
H e armed his followers with small fire-arms, then very little
known, and protected his infantry against the German knights by
barricades formed by his baggage wagons.
After the defeat of Sigmund the chalice-men wished to end
the war, and offered the throne to the king of Poland and others;
but Zisca was not satisfied, and the reformers split into two
parties. The chalice-men left the army, and the whole brunt and
burden of the war fell on the Taborites.
In 1421 Zisca lost his remaining eye at the siege of Rabi
Castle; but though quite blind he continued to lead the
Taborites from victory to victory, almost without parallel in the
whole course of history. His two greatest achievements were
the rout of Sigmund's second invading army, when 2000 Germans were drowned in the Iglau (January 18th, 1422); and his
victory at Aussig over Frederick the Warlike, of Saxony, and the
Elector of Brandenburg. It this latter conflict the first onset of
the Taborites was repulsed. Zisca in his cart came up to the
fugitives, and after thanking them for their services, added, " If
now, my brothers, you have done your utmost, let us retire."
Thus addressed they made another attack, and that with such
fury, such stern resolution and confidence, that the Saxons fled
on all sides, leaving 9000 dead upon the field. It was magnificent. It was marvellous. The stars in their courses fought for
the reformers.
Sigmund was dumfounded.
H e felt that the
conquest of Bohemia was hopeless, and proposed a treaty of
peace. By this treaty the Hussites were to be allowed full religious liberty, and Zisca was to be their governor. The terms were
ample, but the blind old chief died soon afterwards of the plague
(October 12th, 1424). " Sic vos non vobis" might have been inscribed on his tombstone.

I4IO-I437-1

SIGMUND; PROCOP.

143

Tradition says the blind old hero ordered his skin to be tanned and
made into a drum-head, that even in death his voice might spirit on the
Hussites to victory. The tale is characteristic, like all other popular myths.
Byron twice refers to it in his Werner and his Age of Bronze, In the latter
poem, speaking of Bonaparte, he says—
" But be it as it is, the time m a y come
H i s name shall beat th' alarm, like Zisca's d r u m . "

%* Zisca was called the "One-eyed," having lost his right eye at the
battle of Tannenberg ; but the word "Zisca" does not mean one-eyed, as we
are generally told it does. It is a family name, and had been so for several
generations.
11 Another anecdote is worth mentioning : Wenceslaus was greatly afraid of
his chamberlain. One day a servant inadvertently announced him, when the
the king shouted, "Zisca 1 Zisca there ! You lie, you varlet! " So saying,
he drew his sword, intending to stab the slave, but the paroxysm of rage
brought on a fit, which proved the death of the worn-out debauchi,
U PROCOP T H E E L D E R

AND T H E LESS (1424-34).—On the

death of Zisca, Procop the Elder, sometimes called " the Holy,"
was chosen leader of the Taborites; and for three years his
daring attacks on the Austrians are more like romance than sober
history. Joined by Procop the Less, he offered successful resistance to three German armies, levied to exterminate the
"Bohemian heretics." H e not only resisted the invaders, but
drove them with fire and sword through Silesia, Moravia, and
Hungary, as far as Presburg.
In 1429, Procop made inroads into Germany as far as Magdeburg, and returned not only laden with spoils, but with a host of
captive nobles and knights.
Next year (1430), at the head of fifty thousand men-at-arms,
and half as many horsemen, Procop again broke into Misnia,
Franconia, and Bavaria; burnt 100 castles, destroyed 1,400
villages and hamlets, and carried home an enormous amount of
treasures. Sigmund wished for peace, but Procop rejected the
terms offered.
Another crusading army was utterly routed by the Hussites
in 1431. This victory was followed by others in Silesia, Hungary, and Saxony. A council was then summoned at Basel, and
the treaty called the Basel Compact was passed, allowing the
Hussites the use of the cup in the sacrament of the Lord's
Supper. Procop was not satisfied with this concession; he demanded that the Bible, and nothing but the Bible, should have
any authority in religious doctrines, rites, sacraments, and discipline ; and where the Bible is silent every man should be free
to act on his own judgment. T h e Chalice-men, on the other
hand, accepted the compact, joined the Germans, and succeeded

HOUSE

144

OF

[ D . n ; P t . ii.

AUSTRIA.

in defeating the Taborites in 1434, when both the Procops were
slain. With these brave leaders the party ceased to exist. Those
of them who survived joined the Bohemian Brethren, and both
were ultimately merged in the Moravians or United Brethren.
As for the Calixtines or Chalice-men, they continued for a time
the dominant party in Bohemia, but gradually lapsed from their
four tenets, and at the Reformation were lost in the great
Protestant party.
At the fall of Procop the Elder and the Less, Sigmund was
recognised king of Bohemia; but he survived only a year, and
died at the age of sixty-nine, having reigned somewhat more than
twenty-seven years (A.D. 1437).
Sigmund was the last of the non-Habsburgers.

LITERATURE.
No literary progress was made in Germany in the first half of the fifteenth
century, and all the authors whose names have transpired are three or four
chroniclers who wrote in Latin: Windeck, who wrote the life of Sigmund,
has been already mentioned (p. 134), and two more maybe added:—Thierry de
Niem, in Westphalia ( * -1416), the papal secretary, who has left a history
of the Schisms of the Popes; and Gobelinus Persona, also of Westphalia
(1358—1420) who wrote a Universal Chronicle called Cosmo-dromium.
But printing was begun, and before the close of the century its searching eye
will—
" D a r t his light through every guilty hoTe;
When murders, treasons, and detested sins
( T h e cloak of night being plucked from off their backs),
Will stand stark naked, trembling at themselves."
—Rick. II., Act. ill.

HOUSE OF AUSTRIA
G I V E S 13

(1437-1740)

KINGS.

Albert I I . the Illustrious, Frederick I I I . the Pacific, Maximilian I . , Karl V., F e r d i n a n d I . ,
Maximilian I I . , Rudolf I I . , Matthias, Ferdinand I I . , Ferdinand I I I . , Leopold I . ,
Joseph I . the Victorious, Karl V I .

ALBERT II. THE ILLUSTRIOUS [ALBRECHT1.
(Also called the " G r a v e " and the " Magnanimous,") son-in-law of Sigmund.
D u k e of Austria, 1404; King of H u n g a r y , January,
1438 ; King of Bohemia, in Mayy 1438 \
King of the Romans, king of Germany, and Kaiser, in June, 1438.
B O R N 1394.

REIGNED A YEAR-AND-A-HALF,

1438-1439.

Died at Langendorff, Tuesday, October 27, 1439, aged 45. ( H e died from indigestion of a
melon, like his successor.)
Father, Albert IV. the Pious, duke of Austria, wherefore kaiser Albert I I . was Albert V .
duke of Austria.
Wife, Elisabeth, daughter of kaiser Sigmund and his first wife, M a r y queen of H u n g a r y .
(Married 1422.)
Child, Ladislaus the Posthumous (born after the death of his father).

I438-I439-1

ALBERT II. T H E ILLUSTRIOUS.

I45

Albert, duke of Austria, son-in-law of the late kaiser, was
elected his successor. H e was a prince of great promise, but
died in the second year of his reign from dysentery, brought on
by eating a melon.
COUNCIL OF BASEL (1431-1449).—The council of Constance
had left the reform of abuses to the new pope, and in December,
1431, Martin V. convened at Basel an ecclesiastical council for
the purpose. The assembly was desirous of conciliating the
Hussites, but Martin would not listen to such a thing; and when
the council persisted, he sent his legate to dissolve it. The
assembly refused to be dissolved, and passed* a decree that a
general council is supreme, with power to bind even the sovereign
pontiff himself. This was carrying matters with a high hand, and
Martin stoutly resisted. H e flashed forth his anathemas; he
published " bull" after " b u l l ; " but the council, instead of heeding
them, cited the pope to its bar to answer for himself. Death,
however, removed him to another tribunal, and Eugenius IV, was
pope in his stead (1431).
The council now carried out their conciliatory measures by
granting the Hussites the use of the cup in the sacrament of the
Lord's Supper; the new pope ratified the concession (December 15,
1433), and the Chalice-men accepted it. It has been seen already
that the acceptance of this concession created a division among
the Bohemian reformers which proved their ruin.
The council next proceeded to limit the prerogatives of the
popes, and with this object in view took from them the right of
electing to the stalls and benefices of cathedral and collegiate
churches; restricted their grant of indulgences; removed from
their court the punishment of ecclesiastics who had violated the
law of the land; prohibited the Festival of Fools; and laid down
fixed laws for the future election of popes. This was laying the
axe to the root of the tree indeed. Eugenius was amazed; and
in the blindness of his rage so far committed himself that the
council cited him to its bar for forgery, perjury, simony, heresy,
and other offences. Eugenius answered this citation by calling
an opposition council. So the council of Basel deposed him, and
appointed Felix V. pope in his stead (1438).
Kaiser Albert II. sided with the council against Eugenius, and
had he lived, much of the work of Luther would have been taken
from his hands; but Albert died, and his successor, Frederick III.,
took the part of Eugenius. Kaiser and pope were too potent a
power to be withstood; the position of the council grew perilous,
and its members were obliged to consult their own safety. Again
L

146

HOUSE OF AUSTRIA.

[ D . 11; P t . 11.

death stepped in the gap. Eugenius died; and the next pope,
Nicholas V., being of a more conciliatory temper, granted a
general amnesty; so the matter dropped, and the reforms of the
council of Basel came to nothing (1449).
Albert I I . was of the elder branch of the House of Habsburg, fourth in
descent from kaiser Albert I. Karl VII. (son of Maria-Theresa) was a Habsburger on his mother's side only.

FREDERICK

I I I . T H E PACIFIC [FRIEDRICH III.]

(A better title would be the " Indolent." Called b y some historians Frederick IV.)
K i n g of the Romans (/.*?.»king elect), 1440; crowned a t Aix-la-Chapelle with the silver crown
of Germany, 1442 ; crowned a t Rome K i n g of Lombardy, 1452, and three days afterwards Kaiser of the H o l y Roman Empire.
B O R N 1415.

R E I G N E D 53 Y E A R S , 1440-1493.

T H E LONGEST REIGN.

D i e d a t Lintz, Monday, August 19, 1493, aged 78. ( H e died of indigestion of a melon, like
his predecessor).
Contemporary with Henry VI., 1422-1461; Edward
IV., 1461-1483 ; Edward
V., 1483 ;
Richard III., 1483-1485 ; Henry VII. 1485-1509. Also with Louis XI. of France,
Charles le Tenter aire of Burgutidy, and with Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain.
Father, Ernst duke of Austria, surnamed the " Iron-hearted." Mother, Cimburgis, a Polish
princess, daughter of the duke of Masovia, from whom is inherited " the Austrian lip."
Wife, Eleonore (married 1452, died 1467). S h e was t h e daughter of E d w a r d king of
Portugal.
Children, Maximilian, who succeeded him. This was the archduke of Austria, who married
Marie, heiress of Burgundy a n d t h e Netherlands, daughter of Charles le Temeraire of
Burgundy, w h o was killed in t h e siege of N a n c y . After his death diamonds worth
above ,£30,000 were picked u p from the field. One now adorns the pope's tiara, one was
the famous Sancy diamond, another was sold to H e n r y V I I I . for ,£5000. Cunegunda,
Secretary^ ./Eneas Sylvius Piccolomini, afterwards pope under the name a n d title of Pio I I .
CHIEF
1444.
1445.
1446.

EVENTS.

D e a t h of Ladislaus, king of H u n g a r y .
Albert t h e Posthumous chosen king of H u n g a r y , but the kaiser keeps Albert and t h e
crown of St. Stephen in his own keeping.
I n consequence thereof, the Hungarians invade Austria.

1450.

PRINTING

1452.

T h e kaiser crowned a t R o m e .
T H I S WAS
E M P E R O R WAS CROWNED A T R O M E .
A U S T R I A E R E C T E D I N T O A N ARCHDUCHY.

1453.

1456.
1457.
1458.
1459.

j466.
1477.
1493.

INVENTED.
T H E LAST

TIME T H A T ANY GERMAN

Ladislaus allowed b y the kaiser to be king of Bohemia.
Mahomet I I . with 150,000 men besieged Belgrade, b u t compelled b y J o h n H u n i a d e s
to raise it. D e a t h of Huniades.
T h e first printed book appears with date. I t was Psalmdrum
Codex, b y F u s t and
Schseffer. Gutenberg a n d F u s t h a d already printed t h e Biblia Sacra
Latina,
but it had no date.
D e a t h of Ladislaus king of H u n g a r y a n d Bohemia (aged 18); Matthias Corvlnus I . ,
son of J o h n H u n i a d e s , is chosen his successor in H u n g a r y , a n d Podiebrad in
B o h e m i a ; but the kaiser again refuses to give u p the crown of St. Stephen.
T h e kaiser, with his wife and child, being held prisoners in Vienna by some revolvers, is
set a t liberty b y Podiebrad, for which service t h e kaiser recognizes him as king of
Bohemia,
Peace of Thorn, b y which the Teutonic knights are obliged to give u p all the western
part of Prussia to Casimir IV., and to do homage for the rest.
Marriage of Maximilian archduke of Austria (the kaiser's son) with Marie, heiress of
Burgundy (the daughter of Charles the Bold).
A . E . I . O . U . (Austria E s t Imperare Orbi Universo—i.e., Austria's Empire I s
Ordained Universal) was the ridiculous device of this effete kaiser.

I440-I493-]

FREDERICK T H E PACIFIC.

I47

Frederick I I I . was a well-meaning prince enough, but far too
indolent and " pacific " for the times. H e was a square man in
a round hole, and by no means the right man in the right place.
His reign was the longest of all the kaisers of Germany; but
though events of great pith and moment were passing before him,
like Gallio, the deputy of Achaia, " he cared for none of those
things." H e had no talent for ruling, and delighted far more in
his cabbages than in the camp, in his apple-orchard than in his
subjects. H e was also extremely parsimonious, and refused to
spend his private fortune in maintaining the pomp of royalty.
OVERTHROW OF THE TURKS (1456).—The Turks took Constantinople in 1453, and advancing along the Danube laid siege
to Belgrade, intending to make themselves masters of Hungary.
John Capistrano, an Italian monk, preached up a crusade against
them, and put himself at the head of a rabble rout just as the
sultan Mahomet II. was before Belgrade. Being joined by John
Huniades Corvinus, the Turks were forced to retreat, and
Huniades with his cavalry falling on the fugitives made a great
slaughter. The Turkish camp, with all its stores and much spoil,
fell into the hands of the conquerors, and above 20,000 were
left dead upon the field. This victory was achieved by an Italian
monk and a private gentleman of Hungary, but Kaiser Frederick
III. had no part nor lot in the matter. It was a great victory,
big with important consequences; but, sad to say, both Capistrano
and Huniades died before the year had expired. They were
fever-stricken by the putrid exhalations which rose from the
bodies of the slain, and slept the sleep which knows no waking.
KAISER

FREDERICK

III.

BESIEGED

IN

VIENNA

(1462).—As

the kaiser took no part in the great events of the day, he commanded no respect and inspired no terror. Both Hungary and
Bohemia had selected kings for their respective countries, but the
kaiser would not acknowledge them, and even refused to give up
the crown of St. Stephen, which was in his keeping. A revoltwas organised against him; his brother Albert did what he could
to add fuel to the fire; and one day the poor, spiritless emperor
found himself, with his wife and son, held prisoners by his Austrian
subjects in his palace at Vienna.
In this emergency Podiebrad (3 syl.) the king elect of Bohemia,
came to his rescue, and succeeded in patching up a reconciliation
between the two brothers; but Albert died the year following.
For this service Frederick consented to acknowledge Podiebrad
as king of Bohemia;' but the year following pope Pio II. excommunicated him because he favoured the Hussites, cited him to
L 2

I48

HOUSE OF AUSTRIA.

[D.njPt.ii.

Rome, deposed him, and gave Bohemia to Matthias Corvlnus,
the son of Huniades, with whom he carried on war till his
death, early in the year of 1471.
BATTLE OF NURNBERG (1456).—Niirnberg, in Bavaria, was in

the fifteenth century one of the most flourishing cities of Germany,
consequently it was an object of hatred to the cavaliers. These
haughty nobles had no objection to towns so long as they remained abject and administered to their wants; but immediately
they claimed independence they became rivals, and, as Caesar
said, " No world two suns can bear."
So far back as 1449 war had broken out between these rival
powers. Seventeen of the chief nobles of the empire, amongst
whom was Albert, elector of Brandenburg, the "Achilles of
Germany," had leagued together to stamp out the obnoxious city;
but sixty other towns determined to support Nurnberg, and cast in
their lot with the oppressed against the oppressor.
Skirmish followed skirmish, devastation followed devastation.
Eight times the cavaliers prevailed, 200 towns and villages were
burnt by them to the ground; but the sturdy burghers were not
to be put down. Like Antaeus* they fell, but rose from the earth
with renewed strength. They might be infant states; but they
were infants like Hercules, who strangled serpents even in his
cradle. Eight times the cavaliers triumphed. Eight times Mrs.
Partington might sweep back the advancing tide of the Atlantic ;
but what then ? on it flowed, retreating it is true, but advancing
still. So was it with the free towns. No power of man could
stop their progress. It was the tide of civilisation, slow but sure,
and every recoil was only the precursor of a substantial advance.
Thus, although for eight times the cavaliers had swept them back,
in 1456 they made a ninth attempt at independence, and this
time led captivity captive. Albert was taken prisoner, and ere his
ransom was accepted the cities had vindicated their freedom.
The battle of Nurnberg is especially famous, as it is the subject of a lay by
Hans Rosenblut, a mastersinger, and one of the "Twelve Wise Masters" of
Germany. He was an heraldic painter of Nurnberg, and took part in the
contest.
ALBERT, the "Achilles of Germany," is worthy of note as " t h e root of the
princes of Hohenzollern."
CHARLES

T H E BOLD

OF BURGUNDY.—At this period was

living Charles the Bold, of Burgundy, f

Undoubtedly brave, but

* Antaeus, a gigantic wrestler of Lybia, in Africa. When thrown to the earth he rose again with renewed
strength, because Earth was his mother, and always helped him.
t Charles le Temdraire should be called " the Rash," not " the Bold."

I440-I493-1

FREDERICK T H E PACIFIC.

149

his courage was allied to rashness. H e rushed upon danger from
the love of excitement; and flung himself into difficulties because
he despised them. His wealth was enormous, his provinces
thickly populated, his army well-disciplined, his knights the
noblest in the land, his court the most magnificent; he was lavish
in expenditure, splendid in his appointments, but, like Coriolanus, " h e was vengeance proud, and loved not the common
people."
This haughty prince had one child, a daughter named Mary,
and the avaricious Frederick, kaiser and king of Germany, wished
to secure the prize for his son Maximilian. In 1475, t n e t w 0
young nobles were betrothed, the lad was sixteen and the lady two
years older. They certainly were well suited to each other, and
though the alliance was one of policy, it was also one of love.
Mary was a beautiful hazel-eyed maiden, modest, gentle, and affec-.
tionate. Maximilian was an interesting lad, intelligent, brave and
chivalrous, well-formed, and, though not handsome, courteous,
graceful, and tender-hearted. Mary was the greatest heiress in
Europe, and her betrothed the heir-presumptive to the largest
empire.
In 1476, Charles died: like a mad bull he had rushed upon the
Swiss, because they had dared to be m e n ; and the " insolent cowherds," as he called them, had not only routed his army once and
again, but laid the duke low, even in the dust. His orphan
daughter was still a girl, a timid, unpretending girl, " frail as the
glass in which she viewed herself." Louis XI. of France was
marching against her to spoil her lands, probably to take her
captive. What was to be done ? She threw herself at once under
the protection of Maximilian, their marriage was consummated
without delay, and to attack her then would have been to declare
war, not against an unprotected girl, but against the powerful empire
of Germany (1477).
By this alliance Brabant, Luxembourg, Franche comte, the comte Palatin,
Flanders, Hainault, Namur, Artois, Holland, Zealand, the marquisate of
Antwerp, and the seignory of Mechlin, were added to the archduchy of
Austria.
Mary of Burgundy did not long survive. About four years after her marriage
she was thrown from her horse in a hawking expedition, and died.
In 1579, at the Union of Utrecht, seven of these territories were taken from
Austria, and erected into " T h e Seven United Provinces," of Holland. In
1678, Franche comte was united to France. The rest of Mary's possesssions
remained to Austria till the " Peace of Campo Formio and Luneville," in 1801.
PRUSSIA AND BRANDENBURG.—[Brandenburg is now a province

of Prussia, lying, roughly speaking, between the river Oder on the

i5o

HOUSE OF AUSTRIA.

[ D . n ; Pt.ii.

east, and the river Elbe on the west.
It contains Berlin the
capital of the present German empire, Potsdam the " Versailles of
Prussia," Frankfort, Stettin, and so on. Prussia proper lies to the
east of Brandenburg, and contains Dantzig, Konigsberg, Tilsit,
Marien-werder, Thorn, and other cities or towns less known to the
English reader.
Brandenburg is now a province of Prussia, but at one time
Prussia was an appendage of Brandenburg, so that in speaking of
the early history of Prussia, we must begin with Brandenburg, and
graft in Prussia; but the graft has outgrown the stock, has become
the tree, and the stock has lost its identity.
The first notice we have of Brandenburg is from a Greek commissioner, named Pytheas, looking-out for new channels of trade,
while Alexander the Great was pursuing his Indian conquests
(B.C. 327). It was then a country of swamps and woods, marshy
jungles and sandy wildernesses; inhabited by bears and wolves,
otters and wild swine; with a few shaggy barbarians of the Suevic
type, tall, blonde, stern of aspect, of great strength, and formidable
in fight.
From this time we have no further notice of it for 300 years,
when Drusus Germanicus erected pillars on the banks of the Elbe,
under pretence of having taken possession of the land.
In the fourth century, the Goths or Germans moved in throngs
southward, and continued so to do for two centuries, so that the
old Baltic countries were left well-nigh desolate, " a s a cottage in
a vineyard, as a lodge in a garden of cucumbers," and new
emigrants from the East, of Sclavic origin, found no difficulty in
gaining a footing there. In 928, Henry the Fowler marched
across the frozen bogs and took Brandenburg,* at that time a town
of clay huts, fortified by a ditch and sod-wall. His son, Otto the
Great, founded the cathedral, and took great interest in the conversion of the inhabitants.
§ Let us now look to Prussia proper, or Preussen, to the east
of Brandenburg. All that we know of the original inhabitants is
that they were herdsmen and fishers, fiery and strong-boned, a
mixed race of Wends, Letts, and Goths. The country was famous
for amber, a petrified resin distilled from pines. Long after
Poland was christianized, the old Prussians retained their primitive
faith, and the christian states felt a strong desire for their
conversion.
The first missionary to Preussen was Adalbert of Prague, a
zealous hot-headed ecclesiastic, who threw up his bishopric to
* Then called Brannibor.

I44P-I493-3

FREDERICK I I I . ; PRUSSIA.

*5*

preach the gospel to these barbarians. He had not been long in
the land when a lout struck him across the shoulders with an oar,
and stunned him; but he afterwards forced his way into the
" Place of Oak-trees," the Holy of Holies of these worshippers of
Odin, which it was death for any one to enter, but the priests
alone. The ministering Druids hustled him out, and so belaboured
him with blows that he died. Of course he fell in the orthodox
fashion of a cross, with his two arms extended wide, and it need
scarcely be added that numberless miracles are said to have proceeded from his tomb at Gnesen, in Poland.
Little more was done towards the conversion of these heathens
till the thirteenth century, when the Teutonic knights established
among them the " religion of peace" at the point of the sword,
and in 1283 found themselves the undisputed masters of the
country. They founded the cities of Thorn, Kulm, Marien-werder,
Memel, and Konigsberg; colonised the country with Germans;
encouraged agriculture and trade ; and laid in Preussen the foundation of a wellrordered and prosperous state. The unhappy wars
between the Poles and these knights led, in 1466, to the "Treaty
of Thorn," by which all the western part of Preussen was ceded to
Poland, and the rest was held by the knights as a fief of that
kingdom.
§ Returning now to Brandenburg. In the twelfth century it
formed part of the great duchy of Saxony held by Henry the
Proud. This haughty noble refused to do homage to Konrad III.
and the kaiser confiscated his fiefs. Bavaria he gave to Leopold
margraf of Austria, and Saxony to Albert the Bear. On the
death of Henry the Proud, Saxony was divided into two parts,
one of which was given to Henry's son, and the other was retained
by Albert; but, in compensation for the loss of Bavaria, the residue
of the fief was erected into an electorate—that is, one of the seven
principalities which elected the reigning sovereign of Germany.
Albert the Bear was a really great man. He was called the
" Bear," not that he was bearish in manners, or in temper, but because his cognisance was a bear. He was a fine tall fellow with a
quick eye, and so well-featured that he was familiarly called the
" Handsome." He had a good head and a strong hand, was a famous
manager, a capital soldier, and saw instinctively not only what
could be done, but when to stop. Pushing his way among the
Wends, he seized the town of Brandenburg, called his territory
the Mark of Brandenburg, and was thus first margraf to that
frontier. As Henry the Fowler was the Romulus of Brandenburg,
Albert the Bear was its second Romulus. He died in his castle

152

HOUSE OF AUSTRIA.

[D.n; Pt.ii.

at the age of sixty-five, in 1170, the very year that Thomas-a-Becket
was murdered in Canterbury cathedral.
On the extinction of Albert's line, the electorate of Brandenburg
came by purchase to Frederick, count of Hohenzollern and burgraf
of Niirnberg, a remote kinsman of the Bear. Kaiser Sigmund sold
it him in 1412, and the towns, harried and plundered, gladly
paid him homage, but the barons and gentry, who liked better to
" live by the saddle," turned sullen. Frederick was patient with
them for a time, but as they continued in their evil courses, he resolved to make an example, and blew up two or three of their
castles with a cannon called "Heavy Peg." The lawless gentry,
terrified by these vigorous measures, abandoned their evil ways, and
the electorate has ever since gone on peacefully and well (see p. 134).
Frederick of Brandenburg was a very master in the art of
governing; just and patient, brave and resolute, honest and impartial, active and vigilant. He was square-headed, mild-looking
but solid; there was a twinkle of mirth in his eye, and a line of
humour on his mouth, but his high-bridged nose showed that he
was born to command and be obeyed.
He presided over
Brandenburg some thirty years, and died in 1440, at the age of
sixty-eight, a few months after kaiser Frederick III. had succeeded
to the imperial crown.
The next elector of Brandenburg was Frederick II., son of the
preceeding, as good a governor as his father. He was only twentyseven at his accession, but when certain of the burghers, presuming
on his youth, tried to take some liberty with him, he showed
his teeth so unmistakably that he was nicknamed "Iron-tooth." It
was this elector who built, for his own residence, the Schloss at
Berlin, but his chief glory was the purchase of Neumarkt, in
1455, of the Teutonic knights. Frederick Iron-tooth abdicated
in 1470, in favour of his brother Albert, called the "Achilles of
Germany."
Elector Albert was tall, fiery, and resolute. His battles were
numerous but of no historical importance. He died in i486,
aged seventy-two, a few months after the battle of Bos worth-field,
where Richard III. fell, and the War of the Roses was brought
to an end.
§ Again going back to Prussia, in order to join it with Brandenburg, we must pass to the year 1525, when the Grand Master
of the Teutonic Order and many of his knights became Lutherans.
The country then made most rapid strides in wealth and wellbeing ; schools were established, the University of Konigsberg was
founded, the Bible was translated, printed, and circulated, and

I440-M93-!

FREDERICK I I I . ; PRUSSIA.

153

ever since Prussia proper has remained eminently protestant in its
faith and practice.
In 1609 elector John Sigmund of Brandenburg married Anne,
daughter of the insane duke of Prussia, by which alliance all
eastern Prussia became incorporated with Brandenburg, and the
electorate was doubled in extent, 1618.
Frederick William, called the Great Elector, raised the country
to the rank of a great European power, and elector Frederick I I I .
in 1701, receiving the title of " K i n g of Prussia," raised his
electorate to a kingdom.
From this epoch, with a short interval
when Napoleon, the spoiler of nations, reduced Germany to a
geographical expression, Prussia has gone on steadily increasing
in wealth and power. In 1866, in a war of seven weeks duration,
it overmastered Austria, and in 1870, in the seven months' war,
it triumphed over France in a series of battles and sieges, and
William king of Prussia, during the siege of Paris, added the words
" Emperor of Germany " to his former title] .*
ELECTORS OF BRANDENBURG.
Brandenburg was declared an electorate in 1356, b y the Golden Bull, b u t we m a y pass over
the electors till we come to
Elector Frederick I . , 1415-1440.
Elector Frederick I I . , Iron-tooth, 1445-1471.
Elector Albert, t h e Achilles of Germany, 1475-1486.
Elector J o h n , surnamed the Cicero of Germany, 1486-1499.
Elector Joachim I . , 1499-1534.
Elector Joachim I I . , who established Lutheranism, 1534-1571.
Elector J o h n George, 1571-1598.
Elector Joachim Frederick, who married Eleonore, daughter of Albert Frederick duke ol
Prussia, 1598-1608.
Elector J o h n Sigmund, duchy of Prussia united 1618, 1608-1619.
Elector George William, 1619.
Elector Frederick William, called T h e Great Elector, 1619-1688.
Elector Frederick I I I . called his^ dominion a kingdom, 1701, a n d assumed the name and title
of Frederick I . king of Prussia 1688, 1701-1741.
F r o m 1701 the rulers of Prussia have been called " kings," b u t the title of " elector " was not
formally abolished till 1806.

DEATH OF KAISER

FREDERICK I I I . — T h e closing years

of

Kaiser Frederick the Pacific were his quietest and best. H e was
fond of melons, and like his predecessor, Albert II., died from
indigestion, brought on by the too free indulgence in this fruit.
H e had reigned above fifty-three years, and had passed his
seventy-eighth birthday.
It was Frederick the Pacific who took for his device the five
vowels A. E. I. O. U., an anagram, which means that Austria is
destined to be the empire of the world; but after the seven weeks'
* In 1878, the queen of England followed suit by adding the words " Empress of India " to her other title.

154

[D. II ; Pt. ii.

HOUSE OF AUSTRIA.

war in 1866, when Austria was obliged to succumb to Prussia, the
anagram was wittily perverted into A ustria's E mpire I s
O verthrown U tterly.
In Latin:
Austria.
In German: A lies
In English: Austria's

Est
Erdreich
Empire

Itnfieratura
1st
Is

Orbi
O esterreich
Ordained

Universe
Untherthan.
Universal.

% * T H E AUSTRIAN LIP.—Frederick I I I . was the first of the Habsburg
kaiser's who had what is called the "Austrian lip," that is, a protruding underjaw, with heavy lip disinclined to shut. He got it from his mother, Cimburgis, a Polish princess, daughter of the duke of Masovia.
I N V E N T I O N OF P R I N T I N G .
The end of the reign of Frederick I I I . and the accession of his son Maximilian in 1493, bring us to the close of the fifteenth century; this is also the
close of the Middle Ages, and the beginning of Modern History. This can
be easily remembered, inasmuch as mediaeval history closes with the invention
of printing and discovery of America; and modern history begins with the
Lutheran Reformation.
Printing, in a sense, had been known long before the fifteenth century, but it
was printing by blocks or tablets ; that is, an entire page or entire word being
cut on a tablet, an impression was taken off in much the same way as a woodengraving. This is not, strictly speaking, printing, though it may be called
" block printing." The great merit of the invention of printing was that of
forming each letter and each stop in a separate piece.
This very simple, yet marvellous idea, is said to have first occurred to
Laurence Koster, in 1420, but John Gansfleisch, a German, is also credited
with the invention; probably, like so many other inventions, the discovery
struck both at the same time. The types first employed were of wood, but
metal was soon found to be better and less cumbersome.
John Gutenberg, a relative of Gansfleisch, was the first to use the new
system of "moveable metal types " in the printing of books. In 1450 he was
joined by John Fust, a rich goldsmith, who brought money into the concern;
and, in 1455, or thereabouts, issued his Biblia Sacra Latina. It is a folio
Bible, printed in double columns, and the initial letter of each chapter is
"illuminated," or done by hand with a pen, in colours and gold. Unhappily
this book bears no date.
In 1455 J o n n Fust dissolved partnership with Gutenberg, and joined a
young mechanic named Peter Schseffer, who married his daughter. This firm
brought out the Psalmorum Codex, in 1457, the first printed book containing
a date ; the Biblia Latina, in 1462 ; and Cicero's De Ojficiis, in 1466. By the
close of the century the art had spread to Italy, France, and England.
Of all inventions ever made by man none has exercised such influence
on society as the art of printing. It has brought knowledge to the door of the
cottage, has made "public opinion" more powerful than pope or kaiser, and
has given employment to more hands than even war. Man must have some
work to do, some outlet to his energies. Before the invention of printing the
great employment was manual dexterity, either in mechanical works, pillage,
rebellion, or war ; but the art of printing and the multiplication of books has
given work to legions of men and women—some as authors, some as printers
and binders, some as sellers, others as machinists, founders of type, makers
of paper, and hundreds of collateral arts. Its influence on society was soon

iSth Cent.]

PRINTING;

LITERATURE.

155

felt, but much still remains to be done. The education of the masses, in a few
more years, will work such a change on society that a new epoch in the
history of man will be ushered in, an epoch as far in advance of that we live
in, as the age of modern history was an advance on the down-trodden,
benighted, feudal domination of the Middle Ages. It must come. It is as
certain as that night opens into dawn, and dawn to the light and genial
warmth of noon.
LITERATURE.
Towards the close of the fifteenth century, the dawn began to break in upon
the blackness of the darkness of the previous age. Albert Durer and Luke
Kranach had won fame as engravers and painters; Alexander Heguis of
Westphalia, called the restorer of letters, had just passed away; astronomy
was reviving under John Miiller, of Konigsberg, and his talented pupil George
Peurbach ; Kamerer, bishop of Worms, had founded the university of Heidelberg, the most ancient school for science and literature in all Germany; and
several ecclesiastics had produced excellent chronicles, not of " a l l time,"
beginning ab ovo, but what is of infinite more value, histories of the times in
which they themselves lived, and biographies of persons with whom they had
familiar acquaintance. As literature grew into power, the importance of
popes, kings, and kaisers, declined; so that although a reigning family still
made, and ever must make a strong mark upon a nation, other influences
co-operated, and a poet, philosopher, inventor, or other genius, has led the
world, stamped his own image and superscription on the age, and given
currency to certain views or opinions, even as the moon acts upon the tides of
the sea, with more power than the sun.
In the long reign of kaiser Frederick the Pacific, the names which stand
most prominently forward are the following :—
NICHOLAS OF CUSA, on the Mosel(i40i-i464), the son of a poor fisherman,
who rose to be the foremost man in all the state. He acquired a profound
knowledge of Hebrew and Greek, then very little known even by the ripest
scholars, and was an eminent philosopher, mathematician, and theologian.
In the Council of Basel he defended " t h e infallibility of the church," and
was made by the pope cardinal and bishop. He tried to reform his diocese,
but stirred up such commotion among the monks, that he was accused of
heresy and imprisoned. Nicholas of Cusa wrote in Latin several treatises on
theological and philosophical subjects, the best known of which are Learned
Ignorance, True Wisdom, and Conjectural Knowledge,
JOHN MULLER* of Konigsberg, in Franconia (1436-1476), the restorer of
the science of astronomy, was archbishop of Ratisbon. His lectures on
astronomy drew together immense crowds; and the "system of Ptolemy"
was the most popular novelty of the day. John Muller wrote several works
on mathematical and astronomical subjects.
GEORGE PEURBACH of Austria (1423-1461), was the disciple of Muller,
and the two names are always linked together, so that Muller and Peurbach are
spoken of as the regenerators of astronomy in the Middle Ages. Probably
the disciple outstripped the master. His Theory of the Planets and Table of
Eclipses are his best known works.
Three other names in a different branch of literature must be added, viz.,
Rudolf Agricola, Albert Krantz, and Werner Rolewinck.
* He is often called REGIOMONTANUS, a latinized form of Konigsberger. KQnigs-berg in German means
the king's mount, which m Latin is Regius mons, and hence " regio-montanus" simply means Konigsberger.

156

[D.n; Pt.n.

HOUSE OF AUSTRIA.

RUDOLF AGRICOLA, a professor of philosophy at the new college of Heidelberg (1443-1485), was one of the restorers of science and letters in Europe,
and deserves honour, if for nothing else, for his bold and masterly antagonism
of scholastic divinity. He was a truthful thinker, and saw the shallow learning of the war of words, then in fashion. His chief works are one on the
Praise of Philosophy, and another on Dialectics or scholastic divinity.
A
life of Agricola was written by Treslong in 1830.
ALBERT KRANTZ of Hamburg, 1450-1517, chronicler, philosopher, and
theologian, was German ambassador both in Paris and in London. He wrote
in Latin several chronicles, as, for example, the Chronicles of the Danes, the
Chronicles of the Swedes, the Chronicles of the Norwegians, another called
Vanddli, and a fifth entitled Saxonia, A life of Albert Krantz, written by
"Wilkens, was published in 1722.
WERNER ROLEVINCK of Westphalia, 1425-1502, historian, is universally
known by his Fasciculus Temporum. Strange to say, his name does not
appear in any ordinary biographical dictionary, yet few books of the period
are to be compared with Werner Rolewinck's Sketches of his own Times,

MAXIMILIAN I, THE PENNYLESS
THE TACITURN.

AND

K i n g of the Romans {i.e. king elect of Germany), i486 ; crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle K i n g of
Germany, 1493 ; proclaims himself " Emperor Elect of the Romans," 1508.
B O R N 1459.

R E I G N E D 26 Y E A R S , 1493-1519.

D i e d a t Wels in Upper Austria. Wednesday, J a n u a r y 12th, 1519. Aged 60.
Maximilian,

his father

Contemporary

Frederick III., and his grandfather
eating too freely of melons.
with Henry

VII.,

1485-1509, and Henry

Albert
VIII.,

II.,

all died

from

1509-1547.

I n France: Charles V I I I . , Louis X I I . , and Francois I .
I n Spain: Ferdinand and Isabella.
T h e Popes: Alexander V I . , Pius I I I . , Julius I I . , and Leo X .
Father,
Wives,

Kaiser Frederick I I I . the Pacific.

Mother,

Eleonore of Portugal.

(1) Mary, only child of Charles le Temeraire of Burgundy, heiress of seventeen
provinces (married, August 1477 ; died, 1482, from a fall from her horse).
(2) Bianca Maria [Sforza], widow of Philibert duke of Savoy, and niece of Ludovico
Maria Sforza " t h e More," 1494.
Children [both by the first wife], (1) Philipp the Handsome, who (1496) married the infanta
J u a n a of Spain, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella. By this marriage Spain became
united to the House of Austria. Philipp died 1506, leaving issue Karl V. (Charles-quint),
a n d Ferdinand (kaiser Ferdinand I.) (2) Margarethe, born 1480, betrothed when only
two years old to the dauphin (Charles V I I I . ) and brought u p in the French court, but
jilted for Anne de Bretagne, and sent back to Germany.
Possessions added to the House of Austria, T h e Netherlands and Free Country of Burgundy,
b y the marriage of Maximilian with Mary. (The duchy of Burgundy was seized by
Louis X I . of France.) Spain b y the marriage of Philipp with the infanta. Bohemia and
H u n g a r y b y the marriage of Ferdinand with the daughter of Wladislaus king of
Hungary.
Biographers, M a r k u s Treizsurwein, his secretary, from materials by the emperor himself, 1514 ;
Sebastian Frank, History of his own Times (born 1500, died 1545).

I493-I5I9-1

MAXIMILIAN I. THE PENNYLESS.

157

CHIEF EVENTS.
1494.
1495.

T h e kaiser married Bianca for her dowry (500,000 ducats=^200,000).
Diet of Worms, and establishment of the Imperial Chamber, for civil and criminal
suits.
1496. Marriage of Philipp with the infanta of Spain.
1499. W a r with the Swiss. Maximilian, after eight defeats, signed the Peace of Basel.
1500. Diet of Augsburg and birth of Karl (Charles-quint). Germany divided into six
circles: Franconia, Bavaria, Suabia, U p p e r Rhine, Westphalia, and Saxony.
1501. T h e Aulic Council established for crown causes.
1507. Margarethe (the kaiser's daughter) regent of the Netherlands.
1508. Maximilian refused a pass through Venice, proclaims himself " E m p e r o r elect of the
Romans." T h e league of Cambray.
1510. Expulsion of the J e w s from Brandenburg.
1511. Maximilian, during the illness of the pope, tries to get nominated his successor, but
the pope recovers and the scheme falls through.
1512. T h e Rhine and Saxony each subdivided, and two new circles (Austria and Burgundy)
added. T h u s making the number of circles ten.
1516. Martin L u t h e r preaches at Wittemburg.
1517.
1518.
1519.

Pope Leo X . publishes his bull for the sale of indulgences, to raise funds for the
construction of St. Peter's at Rome.
Diet of Augsburg, in which Luther is condemned by the pope (December 9th).
D e a t h of Maximilian I .

Maximilian I., son of Frederick the Pacific, is certainly one
of the most conspicuous figures of mediaeval times. Not that he
was a bright and burning light, but that he was a candle set on a
hill, and could not be hid. H e was no colossus, yet stood he as
a colossus, with one foot on the old regime and one on the new.
His reign was the closing of the feudal period, the transformation
scene between middle and modern history.
In the " good old times" kings had armies at beck. They
had but to ask, and their vassals found them soldiers; but, in the
fifteenth century, armies were composed of paid soldiers, and
kings had to find the pay. If the people liked the cause they
shared the expense; if not, those who made the wars had to find
the sinews, and it became a very expensive plaything. Maximilian was no Alexander, but he was perpetually making war;
and though his possessions exceeded those of any other kaiser
before or since, he was always a beggar, and was called the
" Pennyless."
H e was furthermore conspicuous for being one of the crowned
heads in a race of contemporary giants: There was Julius II.,
one of the greatest of the popes, patron of Michael Angelo and
Raphael, and founder of St. Peter's, at Rome. There were Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile and Aragon, names almost
identical with Spanish greatness and prosperity. There was Emmanuel the Great of Portugal, founder of the Portugese navy, the
Maecenas of arts and sciences, and friend of Vasco da Gama the

158

HOUSE OF AUSTRIA.

[D. 11.; Pt. 11.

great navigator. There was Henry V I I L of England, with Cardinal Wolsey his councillor, a statesman never equalled for his
foreign policy, and the first to win for England a place among
the great powers of Europe. .There was Bajazet I I . , sultan of
the Turks, conqueror of Constantinople, whose mosques have no
rivals for beauty and magnificence. T h e kaiser of Germany
could not even stand in such a group and fail to be conspicuous.
Again. H e was conspicuous for his marriages—his own, his
son's, and his grandson's. His first wife was Mary of Burgundy,
heiress of seventeen provinces, and daughter of Charles the Bold.
Charles would have nothing to say to the young man, when his
father, kaiser Frederick, like a thrifty tradesman, tried to strike
a bargain for his son ; but Mary looked with favour on the
young enthusiast, of whose personal appearance writers greatly
disagree.
PERSONAL APPEARANCE.—German

historians, who never saw

him, except perhaps in a picture, describe him as " tall and strong,
majestic in bearing, with blonde hair falling in curls about his
shoulders; eyes like two stars, blue and sparkling; high forehead,
and prominent aquiline n o s e ; " but John Taylor, clerk of the
English Parliament, who had seen him scores of times, and knew
him as well as way to parish church, assures us " h e was of
middle height, pallid complexion, snub-nose, and a grey beard."
Of course, at the age of nineteen he was no grey-beard, and his
pale cheeks might then have glowed with " the purple light of
youth," but be this as it may, the French maid looked with favour
on him, and six months after the death of her father, who fell at
Nancy by the hands " of shepherds and cowherds," she gave both
herself and her possessions to the archduke. She bore him two
children, a boy and a girl, but falling from her horse some five
years after her marriage, she died, before Maximilian had
succeeded to the throne (1482).
His second marriage was in the year after his father's death
(1494). H e was then pennyless, and would have married Anne of
Brittany, but could not raise money enough to buy a wedding suit,
so he offered his hand to Bianca Sforza, widow of the Duke of
Savoy, who brought him some 500,000 ducats (about ^200,000),
as a dowry. This rich young widow was the daughter of Ludovico Sforza, called the More, from a morus or mulberry (stain) on
his right arm. H e was only an Italian adventurer, whose very
name in the same century was first borne by a woodman, who
made himself captain of a band of foresters. No great alliance
this for an emperor, the living representative of the great Caesars ;

X493-*5i9-l

MAXIMILIAN I. T H E PENNYLESS.

159

and the proud blue-blood of Germany asked one another with a
sneer, " Ought we to visit her ? " Never mind ; Bianca had the
one thing needful, and ^ 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 would do something to patch
the fortune of the always-pennyless ; and so he married her.
In regard to his son Philipp, a sad profligate, surnamed the
" Handsome," he married, in 1496, the infanta Juafia, daughter of
Ferdinand and Isabella, by which alliance Spain became united
to the house of Austria. The fruits of this marriage were two
sons—Karl and Ferdinand. Karl was subsequently the great
emperor Charles V., the second Charlemagne, called by the
French Charles-quint; and Ferdinand succeeded Charles as
emperor of the West.
Once more. Maximilian was most of all conspicuous for his
invariable bankruptcy, and the mean and shuffling tricks to which
he resorted to " put money in his purse." The state papers published under the direction of the Master of the Rolls, tell us he
was " t h e most barefaced and importunate of beggars, who felt
no delicacy in appropriating to his own use the money entrusted
to him for other purposes ; and yet withal, " this man of few
pence," set up a claim for fastidiousness and delicacy.
He
was called a man of parts, but seemed to concentrate his whole
intellect on shifts and expedients for raising money, without ever
being the richer for it. There was no meanness to which he would
not stoop for money: " honour and empire were both bartered for
it." This is no exaggeration, for Henry VIII. himself, in a letter
to Margaret of Savoy (June 12th 1514) distinctly states that
Maximilian offered to sell him the imperial crown, and even
agreed upon the terms of sale.* We know he sold Hungary
for 100,000 ducats (about ^45,000), and served the king of
England, in Picardy, as a common mercenary, for 100 crowns
a-day. Noblesse oblige was not the motto of the bankrupt Maximilian, but rather the plea of the poor Mantuan apothecary,!
who sold poison at the hazard of his life, " my poverty and not
my will consents." Yet was he kaiser and king, but money in
his hands was like water in the sieves of the fifty daughters of
king Danaus. { So thriftless a prodigal would always be pennyless, though backed with " the wealth of Ormus and of Ind."
T H E IMPERIAL CHAMBER (1495).—The reign of Maximilian is
connected with one establishment which has given it renown,
* This letter is contained in the State papers referred to, Vol. I. p. 823.
t See Romeo and Juliet, Act V. Sc. 1.—SHAKESPEARE.
X Horace, Carm. iii. II. 26, tells us that the fifty daughters of Danaus were punished in Hades for killing
their husbands on the night of their espousals, by being compelled everlastingly to pour water into a sieve
inane lymj>hoz dolititnfundo fcreantis imo.

i6o

HOUSE OF AUSTRIA.

[D. II. ; Pt. ii.

inasmuch as it put an end to those sanguinary feuds which were
for ever disturbing the public peace; substituted order for confusion; and changed the sword of vengeance, if not "into a
pruning hook," at any rate into a sword of justice.
In 1495 Maximilian asked his diet, then assembled at Worms,
for troops and money to oppose the king of France, who had invaded Naples; but the nation was sick of war, and instead of
granting his request proclaimed a perpetual peace. By this decree
the right of private feuds was for ever abolished. Those who
thought themselves wronged were no longer to appeal to "the
sword, the shield, and the battle," but to a court of law, where an
umpire would adjudicate between the wronger and the wronged ;
and whoever refused to abide by the judgment was at once put to
the ban of the empire. Thus, with a high hand, was established
the first law-court in Germany, called The Imperial Chamber.
The Imperial Chamber consisted of one president, four judges,
and fifty assessors. The president was named by the crown, and
the other officers by the states. Maximilian never liked it, and
did all he could to make it fail, but it went on, and remained a
permanent institution to the end of the empire.
Aulic Council.—The Imperial Chamber was assisted by an
inferior court called the Aulic Council, which was established to
expedite business by preparing matters for the Chamber; but it
soon assumed higher functions, and in 1654 was formally recognised as equal in dignity to the Imperial Chamber itself. The
Aulic Council was composed of a president, a vice-president, a
vice-chancellor, and eighteen councillors, all (except the vicechancellor) chosen and paid by the crown. On the death of the
kaiser the council was dissolved, to be reconstructed by his successor. This court also continued to the end of the old German
empire in 1806.
T H E TEN CIRCLES, 1512.—Almost as a necessary part of these
legislative reforms was the division of Germany into ten jurisdictions, called circles, the government of which was to assist in
maintaining order, and to see that the sentence of the courts was
carried out. Each circle was presided over by an ecclesiastical
and lay prince, aided by a military chief; and each circle was
represented in the national diet. At the reformation, one circle
(viz., Saxony) was Protestant, three (Austria, Bavaria, and Burgundy) were Catholic, and the rest were mixed.*
* Albert II. had made some futile attempts to divide the empire into circles, and in 1500 it was actually
parcelled out into six circles, viz., Bavaria, Suabia, Franconia, the Upper Rhine, Westphalia, and Lower
Saxony. In 1512 they were reorganised, and four more circles were added, viz., Austria, Burgundy, the
Lower Rhine, and Upper Saxony.

1493-15*9-1

MAXIMILIAN I. T H E PENNYLESS.

l6l

EMPEROR ELECT OF THE ROMANS (1508).—The wars of Maxi-

milian were of no national importance; they began in arrogance
and ended, for the most part, in disaster. Two, however, require
a passing notice, not so much on their own account, as for what
arose indirectly out of them.
In 1508 the kaiser started with a large army over the Alps,
intending to go to Rome, and there receive from the hands of
pope Julius I I . the imperial crown. Having reached Italy, the
doge and senate forbade his march through Venice. H e was
greatly indignant, and put them to the ban of the empire. But
how about the crown? As he could not go to Rome to receive
it from the pope, he crowned himself "Emperor Elect of the
Romans," a title which all his successors continued ever after.
LEAGUE OF CAMBRAY (1508) AND T H E H O L Y LEAGUE (1513).—

Having declared himself " Emperor Elect," he returned to Germany for fresh supplies to punish the Venetians; but during his
absence, the French and Venetians fell on his army at Friu'li, and
so demoralised it, that Maximilian was fain to sue for peace,
which he bound himself to observe for three years.
No sooner had he signed the treaty than he joined the League
of Cambray (1508). This alliance, which consisted of the pope,
himself, Louis X I I . of France, and the duke of Ferrara, was
bound by oath " to blot out the Republic of Venice from the map
of Europe, and divide the spoils." The Venetians bribed off the
pope, and the pope promised to break up the league. With this
view he made a compact with the Swiss to chase the French out of
Lombardy; Venetia, Spain, and England, joined the alliance,
which was called The Holy League (1513), and the French were
soon driven across the Alps.
Henry V I I I . of England now led his army into Picardy, and
here the Emperor Elect of the Romans served in the English
army as an hireling, at 100 crowns a day. In September, 1513,
was fought at Guinegate the battle known in history as the Battle
of the Spurs, because the French used their spurs in flight more
than their swords in fight.
DEATH OF MAXIMILIAN (1519).—Always in hot water, always in
want of money, the Emperor Elect of the Romans went on forming
schemes which came to nothing; struggling to be rich, but growing
poorer every d a y ; and planning new wars which he could never
carry into effect. During the illness of Julius I I . the pennyless
kaiser plotted to get himself elected pope ; but this bubble burst
like all the others, for Julius recovered, and Maximilian could not
crown himself eyen "Pontiff Elect of Rome."
H e next tried to
M

l62

[D. II ; P t . n .

HOUSE O F AUSTRIA.

rouse the States to vote a crusade against the Turks, but the diet
declined. Lastly, he tried to persuade the electors to make his
grandson, Karl, " King of the Romans," but in this also he failed.
On his way home from the diet the disappointed kaiser died, from
a surfeit of melons, as his father and grandfather had done before
him.
T h e German historians are enthusiastic in their praise of
Maximilian the Taciturn and Pennyless ; and look upon him as
one of their heroic monarchs and national benefactors. That
something was done in his reign for the better government of the
country and the promotion of order, cannot be denied, but it was
done rather in his despite, than at bis bidding. Even his hardihood and activity seem to be doubtful, for while he was party to the
League of Cambray, and the other allies were up and doing,
Erasmus tells us that " t h e poor emperor was dozing over his
stove," afraid of the cold. Perhaps he was writing poetry, for,
like the Welsh Glendower, " h e framed to the harp many a
[German] ditty lovely well, and gave the tongue a helpful ornam e n t " Perhaps he was making books, for he wrote a treatise on
cookery, another on gardening, a third on hunting, a fourth on
architecture, and one even upon war. H e also left an autobiography, so full of marvels, " it will not let belief take hold of
i t ; " and a genealogical table of his own family. H e was, doubtlessly, clever; he could converse in all the languages of Europe;
made several discoveries in pyrotechny, and some improvements in
gunnery; nor did he lack personal courage, in proof of which the
the following anecdote is told of him :—
While he was at Worms, one Claude de Batr£, a French cavalier,
sneering at the decree of a "Perpetual Peace," declared he would
himself challenge the whole nation. N o notice was taken of this
vaunt, till Maximilian himself picked up the glove, and desired the
Frenchman to meet him, unarmed, in a stated field. It was to be a
fisty fight; and the kaiser, we are told, so mauled and belaboured
the poor Bobadil * " that since he plucked geese, played truant,
and whipped tops, he knew not what 'twas to be beaten till then."
There is nothing in this story incredible, and it may pass muster
with the other royal tales, which for the most part deserve the
doubtful compliment of Celia, in As You Like It, " O wonderful!
wonderful! and most wonderfully wonderful I and yet again
wonderful; and after that, out of all whooping."
U Maximilian had for secretary

HENRY

CORNELIUS

AGRIPPA

* Bobadil is a cowardly bragging bully in Ben Jonson's comedy Every Man in His Humour.
Nineteen more undertook to kill all the French army, twenty at a tune, 200 in a day.

He and

X493-*5*9-J

MAXIMILIAN I. T H E PENNYLESS.

163

(1486-1535) astrologer and alchemist. It was the heyday of
alchemy, and there were very few, even wise men, who did not
believe in the possibility of preventing the decay of the physical
powers, and prolonging the days of our years by means of a compound called the "elixir of life."
Probably Maximilian was far more anxious for the other
el Dorado, the " philosopher's stone," a preparation which was to
convert any of the inferior metals into gold. The monopoly of
such a realgar would doubtlessly be a mine of wealth to its
possessor, but if once discovered there could be no monopoly;
and as gold would then be more plentiful than iron, it would be really
less valuable, as iron can be used for many more purposes. Thus
cutlery made of gold would be worthless; so would machinery in
general. Ladies could not sew with gold needles, nor gardeners
use spades and hoes made of gold. As a money medium it would
of course be worthless, seeing it is its rarity which gives it value.
If alchemists, therefore, had succeeded in discovering the transmutation of metals, they would have done more harm than good.
Nor would the elixir of life have been one whit more useful. It
would be a general curse if our old men had the vigour and energy
of youth,—-for progress is the work of the young not of the old.
And as for the mere extension of days, depend upon it, three score
years and ten, or four score years is all that man requires for any
of the uses of this life.
Happily, therefore, the elixir of life and philosopher's stone have
never been discovered; but the search for these secrets has been
indirectly of enormous benefit. Astrology led to astronomy, and
alchemy to chemistry, the most sublime and infinitely the most
useful of the sciences: the former enlarging the mind, the latter
giving man the lordship of the elements of nature.
Francois I. of France, who, in common with the rest of the
world, believed in alchemy and astrology, invited Agrippa to Paris,
hoping to obtain from him a glimpse of future events. Agrippa
frankly confessed he was no prophet, but Francois would not
believe him, and dismissed him in disgrace.
Louis XL (1461-1483), it will be remembered, had his Calabrian
hermit, who "fooled him to the top of his bent." This worldlywise impostor told the credulous monarch that an astrologer had
" strangely linked their lives together. I am to die first," he added,
" but your majesty will not long survive me." Louis believed the
knave, and petted him like a spoilt child: for if he was to outlive
the astrologer, so long as the astrologer could be kept alive, his
own life would,.of course, be secure. Sir Walter Scott, in his novel
M 2

164

MAXIMILIAN I. THE PENNYLESS.

[D.njPt.n.

of Quentm Durmard has graphically and truthfully touched on
both these characters.
Henri II. (1547-1559), who followed Francois I. on the French
throne, had a similar credence in Nostrodamus, the astrologer.
H e loaded him with favours, and thought the more he bestowed
the more favourably the " prophet" would dispose for him future
events.
Charles IX. (1560-1574), was no less infatuated with the same
charlatan; invited him to the Tuileries, and appointed him court
physician extraordinary.
Henry Cornelius Agrippa was no charlatan, although both
alchemist and astrologer. H e was a really learned man, wellversed in all the sciences of the period. His work on Occult
Philosophy brought him into trouble as a magician, for which he
suffered a long imprisonment. His other chief works are on the
Uncertainty and Vanity of the Sciences, and on The Nobility and
abounding Excellency of the Female Sex.
All, of course, in
Latin.
STATE OF E D U C A T I O N .
THE MASTER-SINGERS

(1350-1570.)

Since the invention of printing education has made rapid
strides, but for many years the whole system was imbued with the
monastic spirit.
In the preceding period, the monasteries had
kept learning from utter annihilation, and they now kept it fossilized
and mummified, more like a curious relic of an age gone by, than
a living energizing principle. The five faculties of the universities
were civil law, canon law, medicine, theology, and the arts, but
theology still dominated, and pervaded the other four. Pedantry
ruled supreme; nevertheless good work was being done.
The children of the wealthier classes had great facilities for education in all the large towns, and Latin, music, and modern
languages, especially French, were generally cultivated. Even the
hard-working artisan and craftsman caught the infection.
Leagues, combinations, and guilds, were universal; they were a
necessity of self-defence, but were by no means confined to
political associations and trade. There were guilds of all sorts for
mutual improvement and amusement. The masonic guild was doing
good work in church architecture. The military guilds made the
use of the musket, sword, and crossbow, a useful recreation. The
rhetoric guilds were for the encouragement of poetry and music.
All guilds had a holiday once a year, when a guild-king was

I350-I550*]

T H E MASTER-SINGERS.

165

chosen, a pageant got up, and a banquet for the brotherhood
prepared.
So important were these societies and so powerful their influence, that kings and princes enrolled themselves as members,
and paid their " g u i l d " or annual subscription, attended their
meetings, and took part in their feasts. Of all the guilds, that of
the Master-singers concerns us most. It was a guild of Rhetoric,
or association of mechanics to amuse their leisure with music and
poetry. It had its officers, its laws, and its degrees. The lowest
degree was the "apprentice," given to those who had just joined
the guild; " companion " was the next step ; and " master " the
third. The members were apprentice-poets or apprentice-singers,
companion-poets or companion-singers, master-poets or mastersingers, as they went in for the composition of poetry, or for the
musical branch which consisted of the composition and performance of music, both vocal and instrumental. Of course, we
are not to look for much original genius in a literary guild, nor
very refined taste in a society of mechanics; but the productions
of the tradesmen were quite equal in wisdom and good taste to the
vile pedantry of the " schools," and it was a glorious move to see
weavers and cutlers, smiths and gardeners, cobblers and tailors,
spending their leisure in the fine arts, even if they did not arrive
at great proficiency therein.
Agreeable to the general taste, the chief subjects of these
craftsmen poets were Bible stories, hymns, the lives of saints,
and moral songs. The composition was stiff and formal, the
metre counted by the finger, and the rhymes doubtful; but the
work was judged by the committee which consisted of cobblers,
carpenters, tailors, weavers, and so on, in much the same way as
they would judge of a fabric, shoe, or garment. The manual
work was expected to be in conformity with the rules laid down.
The manufacture must pass muster; but breathing thoughts and
burning words are gifts of nature, and not to be attained by file
and hammer.
The first towns that set up guilds of rhetoric were Mainz
\Mynce\ Niirnberg, and Strasburg; others afterwards joined in.
The popularity of the movement may be inferred from the fact
that in Niirnberg alone there were more than 250 members with
the degree of " master," who held their meetings every Sunday in
the cathedral; and its national importance may be inferred from
Karl IV. giving them corporate rights and a corporate seal
(1378).
Almost the only names of these master-singers which have

i66

MAXIMILIAN I. T H E PENNYLESS.

[D.njPt.ii.

pushed their way into notoriety are Hans Rosenbliit (herald
painter), Hans Folz (barber-surgeon), and Hans Sach (cobbler).
Sach was a genius, a born poet, and it need not be added that he
was facile princeps.
H e was so prolific a writer that he has left
behind him above six thousand poems, amongst which are The
Land of Cockaigne and The Children of Eve,
His collected
works contain historic and mythological tales, Bible stories,
legends, fables and facetiae, hymns, allegories, tragedies, comedies,
and moralities. As he was contemporary with Luther, he overlapped the next reign (that of Karl V.), and that of Maximilian
I I . ; but no more convenient place will be found than the present
to give a somewhat detailed account of this master of the mastersingers.
H A N S SACH (1494-1578).—As a specimen of his writings, we
select one of his Bible stories, called The Children of Eve:—
" When our first parents were driven out of paradise, they went to dwell in
a barren land, where Adam had to eat bread by the sweat of his brow. Ten
children were born to him—five good and amiable like Abel, and five bad like
Cain. Their life was one of toil and of deep regret, but the promise of God
was to them as a cloud with a silver lining of hope. One day the angel
Gabriel came to tell them that the Almighty was about to pay them a visit on
the morrow, * So let the children be clean and tidy, put on their best clothes;
and be sure to sweep the house, strew the floor with fresh rushes, and make all
look spruce, for cleanliness is next to godliness.'
" On the morrow the Lord came, as Gabriel had announced. Like a prince
he came, with pomp of angels and seemly glory. Adam and Eve, in holiday
trim, were ready to give him welcome. They had ranged the children in two
rows, the Abelites on one side, and the Cainites on the other; and they had
strictly enjoined them ' to keep their faces clean, to mind their manners, to
make their best bow, to stand uncovered, and to offer their hands courteously
to the Lord and his angels.' Abel was very polite, but Cain was sullen, illmannered, and awkward. He even offered his left hand when the Almighty
saluted him.
"After talking to the parents for awhile, the Lord examined the children,
beginning with Abel and the four like him. He bade them repeat their
prayers, their hymns, and their articles of belief. He examined them in
theology, and praised them for their answers: ' Well done, good and faithful
children, of such is the kingdom of heaven.'
" T h e n turning to the other five, the Lord examined them in like manner.
But what a difference! Cain could not repeat a single prayer, Dathan had
forgotten his * belief,' Nabal blundered over his hymns, Achan knew not the
simplest question of theology, and Nimrod was positively insolent. But this
must be no matter of wonder, inasmuch as Satan stood behind goading them
on, and filling their minds with other thoughts. God was very angry, and
said to them, ' Naughty boys, take example from Abel and the four like him.
I tell you, they shall become preachers and prelates, priests and kings; but
such as you, like salt that has lost its savour, are only fit to be trodden under
foot of men.' So saying the Almighty and his angels left the house, and
returned to whence they came.

13501550.]

THE

MASTER-SINGERS.

167

" Soon as they were gone, Abel, in the fulness of his joy, offered up a
thank-offering,—it was a pet lamb he offered,—and the Lord was pleased.
Cain saw it, and his face fell. His temper was roused, his wrath was kindled,
and plucking a hedge-stake from his garden, he rushed on his brother, felled
him to the ground, and slew him.
"Next day the Lord appeared again, and asked Cain what had become of
Abel; but Cain answered insolently, * How should I know ? Am I my
brother's keeper ? ' Then said God, ' The voice of thy brother's blood crieth
unto me from the ground.' And he put a mark upon Cain, and sent him
away, a fugitive and a vagabond in the earth."

Such is the story of EvJs Children. The scene between Satan
and Cain, after God's rebuke, is by far the best part, but cannot
be produced in this brief sketch.
Cain complains of God's
favouritism; and Satan works upon the jealousy of the young
reprobate.
Hans Sach favoured the religious reformation, and wrote a
poem on Luther, whom he addressed as " The Nightingale of
Wittenberg" (1523). In this poem he hails the advent of Luther
as the harbinger of a new and better period; but in his elegy on
The Death of Luther (1546) he expresses deep regret at the
theological contests which " a t e like a canker in the hearts of
men." H e severely censured the constitution of Germany, lashed
the clergy and the jurists as " t h e pests of the nation," and denounced the nobles as self-seeking and wholly regardless of the
public weal, " so different," he says, " to the old Roman heroes,
those models of patriotism."
His facetice and farces are perfect of their kind; just in censure,
true in observation, and never rancorous or one-sided. H e shoots
folly as it flies, no matter in what grade; kaiser or peasant, noble
or mechanic, hawker or lance-knight, gipsy or townsman, he was
sure to note " t h e hole in a' their coats," but he never tore it
bigger, or made it worse. Truly he may be called a very prince
of satirists.
Other pieces of the same period, and of the same European
celebrity, are The Ship of Tools, The Owlglass, Reynard the Fox,
and The Battle of the Frogs and Mice. Each of which deserves
a passing notice.
T H E SHIP OF FOOLS {Naren-schiff), by Sebastian Brandt, lawyer, of
Strasburg (1458-1520), an allegorical satire in n o chapters, was first published
in 1494, and few books have been more popular. It anatomized the follies
and vices of every class, not so much for their bad moral tendencies as for
their gaucherie and social incongruities. He blames the clergy " as whited
sepulchres," and shows how they lost influence thereby. He declaims against
authors as wordy more than worthy; and reminds them that "self-knowledge
is the beginning of wisdom." Like Sach, he deplores the want of patriotism.

i68

MAXIMILIAN I. THE PENNYLESS.

[D.n;Pt.ii.

"Every one," he says, " i s for himself, and would push his neighbour from
his stool. The earthen pot would float with the iron pot. Money is affected
more than morals, and social distinction more than well-doing. We are all
passengers on life's highway, all equal as human beings; but, alas! vanity has
made for itself many devices."
The tale of the allegory is very simple. The poet says the transport-ship of
this world, laden with fools, and bound for Fools' Paradise \Narrgonia\ was
capsized by Antichrist. The voyagers, tossed on the surface of the waves,
sought safety, some by devotion, some by scrambling into a crazy boat, and
others by "little wanton bladders." The sea was also strewn with books, all
of which were of an heretical character. The moral to be drawn from this shipwreck is that the abuse of printing will upset the world. On this slight
allegory the poet speaks his mind freely, as he spies out abuse * * in the foul
body of the infected world." The superstitious, he says, waste their lives in
watching the jumps of grasshoppers, or the rings made in water by stones
thrown into a pond or well. Knights, he tells us, enter church with hawk
and hounds. Tradesmen have no honesty, but are light upon weights, short
in their measures, palm off on their neighbours false money, and sell imitation
furs for true ones, and lame horses for sound ones, shoeing them with padded
shoes. Manners at table come in for their share of reproof—such as helping
oneself to salt with a knife, instead of deftly * * taking a pinch between finger
and t h u m b ; " blowing into a drinking-vessel to rid it of a fly or stray
particle, instead of expelling it "with a little morsel of bread, or calling for a
fresh glass." He rebukes a carver who selects for himself the choicest bits,
those who eat too fast, talk too loud, and those who engross the general
conversation.
The original of this censorious poem is in the Suabian dialect; but a
modernised edition was published at Berlin in 1872, and Alexander Barclay, a
Dominican monk, made in 1509 a translation of it in English verse.*
T H Y L OWLGLASS THE JESTER is another German tale, said to have been
circulated in 1493; D u t t n e earliest copy now known is dated 1540. It was
immensely popular, and was translated into almost every European language.
Thyl Owlglass, the son of a poor Brunswick peasant, lived by his wits, and
wherever he went had his practical joke—half knavery, half fun. He ran from
pillar to post, brimful of merry mischief, as servant, charlatan, lansquenet,
artist, disputant, monk, blacksmith, cook, miller, and so on, and died in 1350.
Thyl was a little squat figure, with sharp, keen eyes, and red beard and hair.
The following are specimens of his drollery:—
Seeing a countryman b u y a piece of cloth at a fair, T h y l resolved to obtain possession of it,
and accordingly got two confederates to act with him. " Friend," said Owlglass, " where did
you b u y that beautiful blue cloth? " " Blue," says the m a n ; " why, 'tis green, and not blue
a t all." " Green 1 N o , no, friend; none of your gammon," said Owlglass, " can't I believe
my own eyes ? I say it is blue, and will lay you twenty florins against the cloth, that it is so."
" D o n e , " said the man, " a n d we will abide b y the decision of the first man we meet."
" D o n e , " said the jester. " Done," said the peasant; when up came one of the confederates.
" Sir," said Owlglass, " we are disputing about_ the colour of this cloth, and have agreed to
refer the matter to you. W h a t say you, sir; is it green or blue ? " " There can be no doubt
about that, friends," said the arbiter; " why, most certainly it is blue." " You are a k n a v e , "
cried the man, " in league with this rogue, and I will prove it b y the priest yonder." T h i s
third confederate, being consulted, of course pronounced it blue—decidedly b l u e ; a n d the
cloth was forfeit according to the bet.
* The version in High Dutch was by Thomas Murner, a Franciscan monk (1543). A French translation
was made in 1559. One in Low Dutch in 1613. An English version was printed by Wyllyam Copland ; this
-was translated from the Dutch, and is preserved in the British Museum. In i860 we had a translation by
R. H. Mackenzie, illustrated by " Crowquill;" and in 1880 another by Thomas Roscoe.

1350-1550.3

T H E MASTER-SINGERS.

169

Another instance is the disputation held in the University of Prague :—
Question.—How many days have passed since the creation of Adam ?
Owlglass.—Seven.
F o r there a r e b u t seven days, a n d when the seven a r e finished they
begin again.
Question.—How far is it from earth to heaven ?
Owlglass.—Not far; for a prayer whispered in the feeblest voice is distinctly heard there.
Question.—How large is heaven ?
Owlglass.—Just
12,000 leagues b y 10,000. I f you doubt it, g o a n d measure it yourself.
On another occasion twelve blind beggars asked him alms. Owlglass said, " W i t h these
twenty florins go to the best inn a n d provide for yourselves both meat a n d drink." T h e blind
men were delighted, were clamorous in their thanks, a n d trudging joyously to t h e best inn,
told the landlord of their luck, and were provided sumptuously to the amount of twenty
florins. Say the blind men to each other, " Let him to whom the gentleman gave the money
pay mine host," b u t no money had been given. Each supposed some other of their company
h a d received i t ; b u t the rogue Thyl had never given one of them a farthing.

REYNARD THE FOX * is an allegorical beast-epic, in which birds and beasts
are made types of human beings. Nodel the lion was the king; the wily
Reynard his lord chancellor. His barons and nobles were Bruin the bear,
Isgrim the wolf, Grimbart the goat, and some others, f
T h e tale says that King Lion held a leet at Sanden on the Feast of Pentecost, when divers
charges were brought against the fox. T h e king resolved to punish him for his misdeeds, a n d
sent Bruin to arrest h i m ; but the sly fellow outwitted the dull bear. Tibert the c a t was sent
next, but with no better success. Then was sent Grimbart the goat, who succeeded in
bringing the culprit before the king, and he was condemned to death. " A l a s ! a l a s ! " cried
Reynard, " h o w many things do these witness against me, because, in m y zeal for your
majesty, I have brought to naught their treasonable plots. Be it known to thee, O king, that
the beasts h a d conspired to dethrone your majesty, a n d set u p Bruin for k i n g ; but I
confounded their devices; and see now how they hate me, and even seek m y life." H e also
pleaded that the beasts were envious of his great wealth, which once belonged to his father,
and which he begged his majesty to accept, "for being about to die, it could no longer be of use
to him." Being asked b y king Lion where he kept his treasure, he replied, " I t is hid in a deep
hole on the banks of the Crekenpit, in Flanders; but it may easily be discerned," said the fox,
" by two beech trees which overshadow the place." When asked to go with the king to point
out the exact spot, h e excused himself, saying he grieved that he could not do so, b u t he h a d
made a vow, a n d was obliged to start for the H o l y Land a t once. This being unanswerable,
king Nodel dismissed him, a n d wished him good speed, b u t before h e left the presence
appointed him first lord of the realm. Sir Reynard h a d scarcely left the court when h e began
his old tricks again, a n d being accused thereof, was again sent for to answer to the charge.
T h e wily favourite again cleared himself b y telling the king he sent b y Bellin the r a m three
gifts of priceless value to his majesty and the queen, b u t that Bellin h a d lost them on t h e
road. So the fox was again acquitted, and sent to look for these lost treasures. H e r e Sir
Isgrim the wolf interfered, and< gave Reynard the lie. Reynard threw down his glove,
fought his accuser, overthrew him, was pronounced innocent b y acclamation, and raised to
higher honours than ever, insomuch that none was greater in the whole kingdom, save the
king alone.

T H E BOOK OF HOUSEWIFERY, by Hans Fischart, of Mainz (1545-1589),
is a treatise on education and domestic life, in which the poet draws, with the
tints of the rainbow, the delights of home duties, affections, and pleasures.
The burden of the song is " Home, sweet home! be it never so lowly, there
is no place like home."
T H E BATTLE OF T H E FROGS AND MICE (Der Frosch-mausler), by George

Rollenhagen, was suggested, no doubt, by the Greek satire, sometimes absurdly
fathered upon Homer; but the old Greek tale is a skit on Homer's Iliad, and
for that very reason, if no other, was certainly not by Homer. The German
imitation is a political satire.
* The earliest German copy is in heroic metre, by Heinrich von Alkmar, who tells us he borrowed the tale
from the French (1498); but some think that Alkmar was the real author. There was a Dutch .tale of the
same name, but of inferior merit, in 1485, from which Caxton's translation was printed. Goethd turned
Alkmar's story into hexameter verse.
t As Bellin the ram and Tibert the cat. Amongst his subjects were Kayward the hare, Chanticleer the
cock, Tisellen the raven, Corbant the crow, and so on.

170

MAXIMILIAN

I. T H E

PENNYLESS.

[D. 11; P t . 11.

Rollenhagen (says the poem), son of king Mouse, went on a visit to king Frog. T h e
Mouse-prince recounted to his host all that was doing in Mouse-land, and king Frog told his
guest, in return, all that was doing in Frog-moor. H i s majesty then proposed to the prince a
walk through Frog-park, and as they were crossing a pool the prince was drowned. W h e n
the news of this accident reached Mouse-land, king Mouse declared war against the Frogs.

Part 11. is a treatise upon governments, in which the merits and evils of
the three forms of government (the republican, the aristocratic, and the
monarchical) are duly set forth. Part HI. is the battle.

There were other poets of the period besides those of the
literary guild, but they all wrote in Latin. The chief were
Rudolf of Lange, Conrad Celtes, and Henry Bebel.
RUDOLF OF LANGE (1440-1519) was one of the pioneers of the revival of
letters in Germany, and introduced into Munster the study of Greek.
CONRAD CELTES (1459-1508), of Wurtzburg, received at the hands of
kaiser Frederick III. the poetic crown, and was appointed by Maximilian
professor of eloquence in the University of Vienna. He founded in Heidelburg the first literary society in Germany, and greatly contributed to the
spread of literary taste. To him we owe the discovery of Phcedrus's Fables.
His chief works are The Art of Poetry and four books of Odes.
HENRY BEBEL (1475-1516), received from the hands of Maximilian the
poetic crown, and is well known by his poem The Triumph of Venus, a
Recueil of Facetice (in Latin), and a collection of treatises called his Opuscula.
- JOHN TRITHEIM (1462-1516), chronicler and theologian, should not be
unmentioned. Like our own Roger Bacon, he was accused of dealings with
the devil, because he was wiser than his fellows; as Festus said to Paul,
" Thou art beside thyself; much learning doth make thee mad," so was it said
of Tritheim.
Being appointed abbot of Spanheim, in Prussia, he tried to reform the
monks, but called down such a storm upon his head that he was forced to
resign. He was afterwards appointed Abbot of Wurtzburg. His chief works
are Ecclesiastical Authors, Familiar letters of German Princes, and Steganographia or secret correspondence, which gave great offence, and was placed in
the Index of books forbidden by the pope to be read.
It is no proof that a book is unfit to be read that the pope of Rome condemns it
in his Index. Milton's Paradise Lost was placed in the Index, and even the
pretty child's tale called Henry and his Bearer. Of course all works of Luther,
Calvint and other reformers.

SOCIAL AND COMMERCIAL STATE OF GERMANY AT T H E
TIME OF T H E REFORMATION.
TOY-MAKING.—Germany had made some progress in the polite arts at the
time of the reformation, but in this respect was far behind Italy, the Low
Countries, England, France, and Spain. It was chiefly in mechanical arts
that the Germans excelled.
NURNBERG, in Bavaria, was even then famous for its wooden toys, which
were sold in all the fairs of Europe, and were exported to India. The demand for these wares was so great, that almost all the villagers round about
Nurnberg earned their living by toy-making. Even to the present day the

i5thCent.]

SOCIAL STATE.

DOMESTIC

HABITS.

171

old city and its suburbs are famous for bone and wood carvings, dolls and toys
of all sorts, which find a ready sale in every part of Europe, America, and the
East.
The church of St. Lawrence, in Nurnberg, which was two centuries in
building, was finished in 1478, with its painted-glass windows, its towers, and
doorway. In 1500 the stone pyx, by Adam Kraft—the work of five years—•
was completed; and about the same time, the exquisite wood carvings by
Veit Stoss.
Nurnberg derived its name from Nero. It contained 528 streets. In St.
Lawrence Church we are told that the spear which pierced our Saviours side
and a part of the cross are preserved.
AUGSBURG, in Bavaria, was, at the time, in the spring-tide of its prosperity, and continued so till the "Thirty Years' War." It was noted for its
gold and silver smiths, its jewellers, its dye and manufactures. It still retains
much of its old reputation for gold and silver wares, but the blight of religious
persecution was its ruin.
All the cities of the Hansa, as Frankfort, Lubeck, Hamburg, Cologne,
Brunswick, and Danzig, were governed by their own burgomasters, sheriffs, or
other annual magistrates, and were both rich and populous.
Augsburg derived its name from Augustus Ccesar.
FUGGER.—There needs no greater proof of the private wealth of the
merchant princes of Germany at this period, than that furnished by the Fugger
family. Their goods were sold in every part of the globe ; their wagons were
on every road, and their ships on every sea. Antony Fugger, at his death,
left in ready money, six millions of gold crowns.* When Karl V. was in Paris,
and was shown the royal treasury, he said to his royal host, " I have a linenweaver in Augsburg who would pay as much as this out of his own pocket,
and not empty it either." It was this rich merchant who lent Karl the money
for his Tunis expedition, and in the banquet given on his return burnt the
bonds in a fire made of cinnamon wood.
Germany had not, at the time, many manufactures, being supplied from
Antwerp with linens, woollens, and mercery. From the same city it obtained
drugs, spices, sugar, tapestry, precious stones, and Indian produce. These
articles the Antwerp traders obtained from Lisbon.
Exported German
goods were for the most part metals, glass, dye-stuffs, saltpetre, furniture,
kitchen utensils, children's toys, and Rhenish wines.
DOMESTIC HABITS.
There was no lack of shops in the towns. Bakers and butchers, wine and
other traders were numerous enough ; but the chief marts were the fairs, held
once or twice a year in almost all the great towns. These fairs were
frequented by merchants from Holland, Spain, Italy, and other countries ; and
here it was that the German nobles and merchant princes supplied themselves
with Genoa velvet, cloth of gold, and other costly articles of dress.
It was about this time that coaches were first introduced, but litters were
more common. Thus Karl V., when too weak in his legs to walk or ride on
horseback, was carried in a litter ; although it is quite certain that coaches had
been used in Paris some years before, and Karl must have seen them there.
DRESS.—The German nobility, as well as the Italian, Spanish, French,
and English, were, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, wonderfully
• About 18 millions sterling, according to the present value of money.

172

DOMESTIC HABITS.

[ D . n ; Pt.ir.

extravagant in dress. Men, as well as women, wore the most costly velvets,
silks, and satins, wrought with gold, and adorned with jewels. Silk stockings
were introduced into England in the reign of Elizabeth, but Karl V. had been
dead for twenty-five years ere we hear of their introduction into Germany.
The dress of a German gentleman in 1577 is thus described by a contemporary : " He wore a doublet of blue satin, the sleeves and body slashed
with crimson velvet, and the slashes fastened with diamond, pearl, or gold
buttons. His cloak was of crimson velvet, lined with satin, and edged with
gold. His cap was of velvet, with a large white ostrich feather fastened with
a jewel. His hose were of silk, his shoes of Spanish leather, and the hilt of
his sword was marvellously inlaid with diamonds and gold."
The ladies also wore velvet hats, and not unfrequently a veil of gold gauze.
Their gowns were open in front and hung loose from the neck, without sash or
girdle. They were generally of silk, and over them when they went out
they wore a loose jacket of black velvet. The sleeves of the gown were full,
reaching to the wrist, but those of the jacket were half-sleeves. Ruffs were
fashionable in Bavaria.
The senators of Leipzig dressed in black cloth or velvet. In their official
capacity they wore long black-silk robes trimmed with fur, a black velvet hat,
and a gold chain. In Leipzig long beards were in vogue, but every province
followed its own taste in this respect.
Citizens wore an undercoat fastened round the waist with a leather belt.
In the street they wore besides a loose topcoat with tight sleeves, puffed at the
shoulders ; a ruff and a black velvet hat with a broad brim. Their hose and
trousers were all in one, and they were shod with half-boots, wide at the top,
trimmed with some sort of fringe and rucked over the shins.
The wives and daughters of citizens imitated the style of their superiors
as they do still. The rich had their velvet jackets and silk gowns ; but those
of humbler means had to be satisfied with some cheaper material made up in a
similar style.
The peasantry of every province had their own special costume, which was
generally both simple and picturesque ; and as it never varied, was a provincial
characteristic.
IT In Bohemia the costume was far ruder than in the rest of Germany. It
was a short slouch coat of coarse woollen cloth, lined with fur; thick wide
boots; and a high fur cap. But it must be remembered that Bohemia,
especially in the mountainous districts, is extremely cold. Its high peaks are
generally covered with snow, and full a third of the country is forest. The
natives called Czechs, are Slavs, and differ widely from the Germans or
Teutons. They are formidable in appearance, with large moustaches, strong
frame, and uncouth manners.
GYPSIES.—About three years before the death of Maximilian I. a new race
of people cropped up in Bohemia. They are called by us gypsies, because we
took it for granted they migrated out of Egypt. The French call them
Bohemians, because those that first showed themselves in France came from
Bohemia. Probably they were a people driven out of Egypt by Selim (father
of Solyman the Magnificent), when he conquered it in 1516. They have
always been a nomad, homeless race, living under tents, and but "indifferent
honest." The men are tinkers and the women fortune-tellers. In Spain they
were innkeepers in league with bandits.
T H E JESUITS (1554).—In the middle of the sixteenth century the society of
Jesuits was founded to counteract the influence of Luther and the reformers.
They took charge of the public education, and were uncompromising catholics.

KARL

1519-1556".]

V.

173

In Austria, Bavaria, and the Rhine provinces, they founded several colleges,
were appointed professors of the universities, and had charge of the episcopal
schools then newly established. The Jesuits differed widely from the monks
against whom Luther railed, and whose ignorance and sensuality were a
standing jest. They were men of superior learning ; perhaps, on the whole,
no body of men ever equalled them for keen intelligence, knowledge of human
nature, and political wisdom. Their habits, too, were remarkably temperate,
so that they soon became leaders. It is supposed by some that they instigated
and kept alive the "Thirty Years' War," but of this there is no proof. The
society was suppressed in 1773, but many of the order remained, and in
Bavaria and Austria they are still employed as teachers.

DIVISION III.—PART L
FROM T H E REFORMATION AND REIGN O F KARL V. T O
MARIA THERESA AND H E R SON JOSEPH II.

KARL

V.

[Called b y the English Charles V . ; b y the French Charles-quint.]
K i n g of Spain, 1516 ; Emperor Elect of the Romans, 1519 ; crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle King of
Germany, 1520; crowned a t Bologna King of Lombardy and the T w o Sicilies, F e b r u a r y
22, 1530, and two days afterwards Kaiser or Emperor of the H o l y Roman Empire.
B O R N 1500.

R E I G N E D 37 Y E A R S , 1519-1556.

A B D I C A T E D 1556.

DIED

1558.

H e died a t the convent of St. J u s t e , in Spain, Wednesday, September 21. Aged 58.
Contemporary
with Henry VIII., 1509-1547; Edward
VI., 1547-1553 ; Mary, 1553-1558.
Father, Philipp, son of kaiser Maximilian I . Mother, Juafia, daughter of Ferdinand and
Isabella of Castile and Aragon.
Wife, Isabella, daugher of Emmanuel king of Portugal, (married 1526).
Children, Margaret of Palma (nat. d.), mother, Margaret Van der G e n s t ; Philip (afterwards
Philip I I . of Spain), born 1527 ; a n d two daughters, one of whom, Mary, married her
cousin Maximilian, a future kaiser.
Possessions, K i n g of t h e Spanish dominions and of the T w o Sicilies; kaiser of G e r m a n y ;
king of L o m b a r d y ; and emperor of the Romans ; titular king of Jerusalem; " a b s o l u t e
dominator' in Asia, Africa, and A m e r i c a ; d u k e of both B u r g u n d i e s ; and hereditary
sovereign of the Seventeen Netherlands.
Biographers, J u a n Genesius de Sepulveda, Spanish historian, De rebus gestis Caroli V. 1657;
Robertson, History of Charles V. (English); Mignet, Abdication
de Charles-quint,
et
son sejour au monastere de Ytiste (French) ; Stirling, The Cloister Life of Charles
V,;
Gachard, Retraite et mort de Charles-quint,
1854.
Successors, Philip his son, succeeded him in Spain, and Ferdinand, his brother, in
Germany.
CHIEF EVENTS.
1520. (June 15) Leo X . publishes his bull against Luther. Karl visits H e n r y V I I I . in
London. Interview called the Field of the Cloth of Gold near Guines [Gheeu].
Karl crowned in October a t Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle).
1521. ( J a n u a r y ) Leo X . anathematises Luther and the Lutherans. T h e faculty of theology
in Paris condemns Lutheranism (April 15).
H e n r y V I I I . publishes his book
against Luther, and receives from the pope the title of " Defender of the Faith."
1526. W a r against the Anabaptists. Karl marries Isabella, daughter of Emmanuel late king
of Portugal, and sister of J u a n I I I . the reigning king. Solyman the Magnificent
invades H u n g a r y and gains the battle of Mohacz.

174
1529.
1530.

1531.
1535*

1541.
1544.
1546.
1547.
1548.
1551.
1552.
1555.
1556.

HOUSE

OF

AUSTRIA.

[D.m; Pt.i.

T h e diet of Speyer [Spire], accords to the Lutherans liberty of conscience till t h e
next general council. T h e Lutherans protest against this decree (April 19), and
receive the name of
Protestants.
Karl crowned at Bologna king of Lombardy ( F e b r u a r y 22), emperor of the West and
king of the Two Sicilies (February 24). Diet of Augsburg opened b y Karl in person
(June 13). T h e Protestants present the summary of their faith called The Confession of Augsburg.
T h e Smalkaldic League formed (December).
Ferdinand, king of H u n g a r y and Bohemia, brother of Karl V., is elected king of t h e
Romans.
Solyman the Magnificent invades H u n g a r y and wins the battle of Gradisca. Karl V .
embarks on his expedition to Tunis, and restores Muley Hassan to the throne.
T h e Anabaptists are besieged in Munster, and J o h n of Leyden their chief perishes
b y fire, J a n u a r y 1536.
Solyman the Magnificent invades H u n g a r y for the third time, and incorporates B u d a ,
its capital, with the Turkish empire. H e again invades H u n g a r y in 1543.
T h e Lutherans admitted to the imperial council.
D e a t h of L u t h e r (February 16).
Victory of Karl over the Smalkaldic League in the battle of Miihlberg, near t h e river
Elbe (April 24). H e r e John-Frederick, elector of Saxony, is taken prisoner a n d
deposed.
T h e diet of Augsburg, and the imperial formula of faith, called the Interim, is p u b lished ( M a y 15).
Moritz of Saxony, who had sided with Karl in the Smalkaldic War, is rewarded for his
services by the electorate of Saxony.
H e n r i I I . , king of France, declares war against K a r l , taking the side of the Protestants.
T h e Passau treaty securing freedom of religion signed (August 7).
T h e diet of Augsburg concedes to the Lutherans liberty of conscience.
Karl abdicates and retires to the monastery of St. J u s t , in Estremadura. H e dies
September 21, 1558.
T H E NEW WORLD.

1519, Mexico taken b y Ferdinand Cortez ; 1520, Magellan makes t h e first voyage round t h e
w o r l d ; 1529-1533, conquest of Peru b y P i z a r r o ; 1535, Buenos Ayres founded b y
Spaniards; discovery of Chili; 1539, conquest of F l o r i d a ; 1542, Cabrillo of Spain discovers
California.

Karl, the eldest grandson of the late kaiser, had succeeded to
the Spanish throne in 1516, nearly three years before the death
of Maximilian the Pennyless. He was also heir of the Two
Sicilies, the Netherlands, and the dukedom of Burgundy; and
joint-heir, with his brother Ferdinand, of Austria and its dependencies. It was a question with the electors whether one with such
large possessions would be a desirable monarch. Frangois I. of
France, offered himself, but here the same objection occurred:
if Karl might make Germany subordinate to Spain, Francois
might make it subordinate to France; so they offered the crown
to Frederick the Wise, elector of Saxony. Frederick declined the
honour, and then they elected Karl, but bound him by oath
" never to make war or form alliances without consent of his
diet; to enlist no foreign soldiers in the German army; to give
office in Fatherland only to natives; to use the German
language habitually, both in speech, in the law courts, and in
all legal documents; and to make Germany his chief residence." The young king, then barely twenty years of age, having

1519-1556.]

175

KARL V.

set his hand to the bond, left Spain, was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle
with great pomp (October, 1520), and appointed his first diet to be
held at Worms the following year. This was the great diet, the
most splendid ever held, the diet to which Martin Luther was
summoned, and it will be desirable at this point to give a short
sketch of the stirring events which led up to this brilliant convocation.
Martin Luther and the Diet of Worms

(1521).

Many an effort had been made from time to time to reform
some of the grossest errors of the christian church, but these reforms had aimed, for the most part, at external abuses and corrupt
practices. The Lutheran movement went much deeper. It was
no longer a question whether the cup of communion should be
given to the laity, whether the clergy should be allowed to
marry, or whether "bishops should be invested by the civil or
ecclesiastical authorities: but whether " eternal life is the gift of
God, through Jesus Christ, our L o r d ; " whether man is " saved by
faith;" whether " when we have done all we are unprofitable
servants," or can accumulate merit to pay off the short-comings
of others ;" whether " God will render to every man according to
his deeds," or will strike a balance between his sins and the
vicarious merits he may chance to purchase of some hawker
of "absolutions." These were the moot points of the Lutheran
movement, and were infinitely more important than those of
investiture, the cup in the eucharist, and the celibacy of the
clergy.
If the clergy had been decently moral and tolerably literate
they might, at least, have commanded respect; but the moral
sense was outraged by their sensuality.
Luther, writing to
pope Leo X., appeals to him in confirmation of the following
statement: " No man living can deny that Rome is more corrupt
than Babylon or Sodom. It is," he says, " a most licentious den
of thieves, and Antichrist himself could add nothing to its impiety.
Nothing can even be conceived further from Christ and his
religion than the practices of the Roman see." There can be no
doubt of the scandal, when a humble monk can thus write to the
pope, fearless of contradiction. The Hussite persecution had
done the church much harm, so had the everlasting warfare
between church and state, the anathemas bandied by pope against
pope, the scandalous crimes of Alexander VI., and the military
ferocity of pope Julius II.
There was at this period a large leaven of thinking men.

176

HOUSE OF AUSTRIA.

[ D . m ; Pt.i.

Printing had supplied the means of diffusing knowledge ; and the
discontent at the state of the church was both wide and deep.
Gunpowder is harmless till a spark ignites it, and Martin Luther
was the spark which fired the train that led to the reformation of
the sixteenth century.
Pope Leo X., being desirous of completing the cathedral of
Rome begun by his predecessor, thought to raise funds for the
purpose by the sale of indulgences, and committed the promulgation of them in Germany to Albert, archbishop of Mainz
\Mynce\ and Magdeburg.
The archbishop chose for his emissary John Tetzel, a
Dominican monk who had already been employed on a similar
commission by the Teutonic knights. Tetzel was a vulgar charlatan, with plenty of low wit and impudence. H e was the very
man for a mob, and no one could better puff a nostrum, or cajole
the uneducated. This holy Autolycus* hawked about his "wares"
in a most shameless manner. For a paltry sum of money any one
could buy immunity from crime, both in this world and in the life
to come. '''The very moment the ring of the cash is heard in the
basin/' said Tetzel, "St. Peter will throw open the gates of paradise
to the buyer; and if for the dead they will be taken at once into
Abraham's bosom." H e boasted he had saved more souls by his
indulgences than St. Peter by his preaching.
Some notion of the enormous sale of these pardons, may be
inferred from the well-known fact that 500 bales of them were
found in a captured vessel; about a million in a bale; the price
ranging from twenty pence to half as many pounds.
" M a y the Lord have mercy on thee," so the words ran, " a n d
absolve thee by the merits of his most holy passion! And I, by
God's authority, do hereby absolve thee from all ecclesiastical
censures
and from all sins . . . . how enormous
soever they may be . . . . and I remit to thee all the
punishment which those sins have deserved. I restore thee to the
holy sacraments of the church, to the communion of saints,
and to perfect innocence of life; so that when thou diest, the
gates of hell shall be shut and those of paradise thrown open to
thee
In the name of the Father, and of the Son,
and of the Holy Ghost."
These are the exact words of one of these diplomas. Sometimes a favourite of the pope had a monopoly of them in a given
district, but more often they were farmed to the highest bidder.
In the memorable year 1517, it happened that certain persons
* Autolycus, a pedlar and witty rogue in The Winter's Tale, by Shakespeare.

1519-1556.]

KARL V.

LUTHER.

177

having confessed to Luther sins of great magnitude, refused to
submit to the penances he awarded them, because they had
bought diplomas of indulgence. Luther was at a non-plus, but
refused absolution. The matter was laid before Tetzel, who was
then in the town. The Dominican blustered and bullied, but
Lather was not to be brow-beaten. H e drew up ninety-five objections against the sale, and nailed his theses on the door of
Wittenberg church.
In his controversial writings, published in 1518, he says: " I was
compelled in my conscience to expose the scandalous traffic, as I
myself saw some seduced into profaneness by them. The sale of
pardons has made us the jest of every pothouse. There was no
occasion to fan the hatred and contempt of the public against the
priesthood, for their avarice and profligacy had already become a
bye word and a proverb."
The pope cited the Reformer to Rome, but Frederick the Wise,
duke of Saxony, interfered, and the pope consented to his appearing at Augsburg before Cajetan, the cardinal-legate. T h e
cardinal tried to induce the u heretic " to recant, but failing in this,
he resolved to arrest him; Luther, however, left Augsburg secretly,
and returned to Saxony, where the power of the elector was
sufficient to protect him.
In June, 1520, pope LeoX. published a bull, in which forty-one
statements of the Reformer were condemned as " heretical, scandalous, and offensive." It forbade the faithful to read any of the
books of the son of Belial, and commanded those who had any,
at once to burn them. It then goes on to say, " unless within
sixty days the arch-heretic recants, he shall be bound over
unto Satan, and it will then be doing God's service to seize
him, that he may suffer the punishment which his sins have
deserved."
Such was the bull against Luther; but the time of anathemas
and interdictions had gone by, and Luther, in reply, publicly
announced his intention to separate from the church of Rome,
and to burn the pope's bull without the city gates. Great was
the thrq^ ,of spectators to see the threat carried out, and every
eye was
*n Luther as he walked at the head of the professors
and stuc
of Wittenberg to the place appointed. H e then
deliberate^ committed the bull to the flames, and with it the
decretals and book of canon law (December 10, 1520).
Three weeks after this defiance the pope issued another bull
against the " heretic," repeating the substance of his former anathema, and giving over Luther and his followers to everlasting
N

178

HOUSE OF AUSTRIA.

[ D . m ; Pt.i.

perdition. " In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of
the Holy Ghost, the blessed Virgin, St. Peter and St. Paul, we do
curse him and those who are led astray by him ; and we cut off
both him and them from all communion of the saints. Cursed be
they in prayer, cursed in speech and in silence, in eating and in
sleep, in taste, in hearing, and all the other senses. Cursed in the
eyes, the head, and the whole body, from the crown of the head
to the sole of the foot. I conjure Satan and his imps to torture
them both day and night, till they perish by water, by fire, or the
cord." As these imprecations were read in the churches, the
officiating priest blew out the lights, saying " a s I blow out these
lights may the light of life be for ever hidden from their eyes.
So be it. Amen and Amen." "Bless, and curse not," said St.
Paul,* yet was this malediction given in the name of St. Paul.
We have now come to the year of Karl's coronation, and the
diet of Worms, a few weeks later, to which Luther was cited. The
papal legate wanted the young kaiser to take measures at once
against the apostate, but the great elector supported him, and
Karl durst not so condemn him. H e was therefore brought before the board, and when commanded to recant, boldly made
answer, " whatever is shown to be contrary to Scripture or right
reason, that will I retract; but he who shall take away from the
words of God's book, God shall take away his part out of the
book of life." H e was then suffered to depart, but was pronounced a heretic and put to the ban of the empire. Twenty-one
days afterwards any one might slay him, and to give him
shelter or food would be to make oneself partaker of his crimes
(May 8, 1521).
To save him from assassins, Frederick the Wise had him secretly
conveyed to the castle of Wartburg, near Eisenach. Here he
remained for nine months translating the New Testament into
German, and publishing numerous pamphlets on the great subject
of the day. In the meantime his books were read everywhere,
were translated into several languages, and wTere spreading in all
directions. The diet of Worms made the Reformer notorious,
and the prohibition to read his books, made every one greedy to
taste the forbidden fruit.
Luther left his "Patmos," after lying concealed
for nine
months, and returned to the active duties of the K formation.
Leo was dead, but so long as his bull remained in force, the
Saxon Reformer carried his life in his hand.
Adrian VI., the new pope, was more bitter against Luther than
* Romans xii. 14.

1519-1556.]

KARL V.

LUTHER.

179

even Leo had been, and in his brieve to the diet of Nurnberg, he
calls on the princes of Germany to stamp out the pestilence, and
even, if needs be, " t o have recourse to the cautery and the
knife." " What!" says he, " is Luther alone wise ? is Luther alone
guided by the Holy Ghost?
Has the church been ever in
darkness till this turbulent monk gave it light ? Deal with him as
the Almighty did with Korah, Dathan, and Abiram. Deal with
him as St. Peter did with Ananias and Sapphira. Cleanse the
land of the foul spot, as your forefathers purged it of Huss and
Jerome. Cut off the accursed one from the land, that ye be not
partakers of his sin. So let all thine enemies perish, O Lord;
but let them that love Him, be as the sun when it goeth forth in
his might."
In reply to this brieve the diet sent a memorial of a hundred
grievances which they besought his holiness to redress, and that
without delay, for the nation neither could nor would endure
them any longer.
It was plain that the principles of the Reformation were at
work, and the Reformers grew bolder with success.
Luther
severed himself from the church of Rome, left off his monkish
dress, and even married a nun, named Katharine von Bora.
Just about this time Frederick the Wise died, and was succeeded by his brother John, a far bolder spirit, who not only
sided with the Reformers, but established reformed churches
throughout Saxony, and appointed professors of the same persuasion in Wittenberg University. So earnest was he in the work,
that he is generally called the " Second Parent of the Reformed
Church." Philipp, landgraf of Hessen, pursued the same course,
and their example was followed, says Dr. Milner,* " by all the
most enlightened princes and states of Germany" (1525). T h e
papal party grew seriously alarmed, and thinking it high time to
stand at bay, the kaiser called a diet of the empire at Augsburg,
to settle what was to be done to prevent a rent in the seamless
robe of the christian church. T h e diet met in November, but
was adjourned to Speyer [Sfl're] for the following May. It
ended in a temporary toleration, so that the Reformers had rest
in those parts of Germany presided over by princes favourable to
their views; but in other parts, as Bohemia, Hungary, and Bavaria,
they were persecuted even unto death. John Heuglin and Peter
Spengler were held under water till they were d e a d ; while Tolmar
and the aged widow Clara, of Bohemia, with George Carpenter and
Leonard Caesar, of Bavaria, witnessed at the stake a good con• Milner, Ecc. Hist., Vol. IV. p. 458.
N

2

l8o

PROTESTANTS.

AUGSBURG CONFESSION.

[D.in;Pt.i.

fession (1527).
Oh, when will persecutors learn this simple
truth, " there is no sure foundation set in blood."
PROTESTANTS (1529).—The decree of the last diet of Speyer
[Spire] accorded to all Germany liberty of conscience " till the
next general council;" but in 1529, a new diet, held in the same
place, revoked this decree, and declared Lutheranism "heretical."
Fourteen imperial cities,* with the elector of Saxony, the marquis
of Brandenburg, the duke of Liineburg, and the prince of Anhalt,
at their head, protested against this revocation, as unjust and intolerable.
Hence the reformed party were nicknamed the
" protestors," or PROTEST-ANTS.

The kaiser was absent from Germany during these litigations.
H e left soon after the diet of Worms, in 1521, and did not return
for eight years. H e was busy at war with the French at Milan,
but his victory over Francois I. at Pavia, and his siege of Rome,
ending with the Peace of Cambray in 1529, belong to Spanish or
French history, and may be passed over. Having brought these
contentions to an end, he went to Bologna to be crowned by the
pope "Emperor of the West," and " K i n g of Lombardy" (1530).
This was the last time that any of the kings of Germany received
from His Holiness the imperial crown.
CONFESSION OF AUGSBURG (1530).!—Being now the greatest

monarch since the time of Charlemagne, king of Germany,
Lombardy, and Spain, emperor of the West, and ruler under one
title or another of more than half Europe, and much of the New
World, he again turned his eyes to the German schism, which he
determined to put down. Accordingly, he summoned a diet
at Augsburg for the 8th of April, which he promised to attend in
person. H e was, at the time, at Bologna, in the papal palace, a
guest of pope Clement VII., who had recently placed on his head
the imperial crown. Clement greatly objected to diets and
councils, and wanted Karl to take a high hand, and support the
church with the sword; but Karl held back, and commanded
that a summary of the points in dispute should be laid before
him at Augsburg, that he might himself judge between the
* T h e s e w e r e Strasburg, Niirnberg, Ulm, Constance, Reutlingen, Windsheim, M e i n e n g e n , L i n d a u ,
K e m p t e n , Hailbron, Isni, Weissenberg, Nordlingen, a n d St. Gall.
t CONFESSION OF AUGSBURG.—Art. i of t h e Augsburg
Confession " O f G o d " corresponds t o A r t . I.
of t h e C h u r c h of E n g l a n d ; 2. Of Original Sin (Art. I X . ) ; 3. Of t h e Son of G o d (Art. I I . ) ; 4. Of justification
b y faith (Art. X I . ) ; 5. Of preaching (Art. XXIV.); 6. Of o b e d i e n c e ; 7 a n d 8. Of t h e church (Art. XIX., X X . ) ;
9. Of baptism (Art. XVII.); 10. Of t h e L o r d ' s s u p p e r (Art. XXVIII., XXIX., XXX.); 11. Of confession;
12. Of p e n a n c e ; 13. Of t h e use of t h e sacraments (Art. XXV.); 14. Of church government (Art. X X . ) ; 15. Of
c h u r c h o r d e r ; 16. Of secular g o v e r n m e n t (Art. XXXVII.); 17. Of Christ's second c o m i n g ; 18. Of free will
(Art. X . ) ; 19. Of t h e cause of sin (Art. I X . ) ; 20. Of faith a n d g o o d works (Art. X i i . , X i n . ) ; 21. Of t h e
worship of saints.
T h e last seven a r e these:—22. Of b o t h k i n d s (Art. XXX.); 23. Of t h e marriage of priests (Art. XXXII.);
24. Of t h e sacrifice of t h e mass (Art. XXXI.); 25. Of oral confession; 26. Of distinction of m e a t s ; 27. Of
conventual v o w s ; a n d 28. Of t h e authority of bishops.

1519-1556.]

KARL V.

PEACE OF NURNBERG.

l8l

disputants. Melanchthon was deputed to prepare the summary,
which he digested into twenty-eight articles, twenty-one of which
pertained to doctrine, and seven to practical matters.
This
summary, called the Confession of Augsburg,
minutely resembles the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England.
The Confession was presented; discussion followed discussion;
neither party would give way; at length John elector of Saxony,
and Philipp landgraf of Hessen, left Augsburg and returned
home.
Karl now, sick of the controversy, pronounced the
articles "heretical." H e commanded the schismatics to return
to mother church, to restore the property they had appropriated, to re-endow the religious houses they had suppressed,
and to destroy all the pernicious books which they had spread
broadcast over the empire. If within three weeks they obeyed,
they should find him merciful; but if not, they should be
put to the ban of the empire. Then appointing his brother
Ferdinand " King of the Romans " or regent of Germany, he
dissolved the diet, and supposed he had settled the matter right
royally.
PROVISIONARY PEACE OF NURNBERG (1532).—The next move

requires a little retrospect in the political history of the period.
In 1522, Ferdinand, the kaiser's brother, married the daughter of
Ladislaus, king of Bohemia and Hungary, and on the death of
Ludwig her brother, the two crowns came to him by inheritance.
A party opposed to the archduke set up a rival king in Hungary,
John of Transylvania, who applied to Solyman I I . of Turkey for
support. John promised the sultan to hold the crown as his
tributary and vassal, if he would grant him effectual aid; so
Solyman, in 1529, came at the head of a large army, and not
only overran Hungary, but entered Austria, and laid siege to
Vienna.
Ferdinand sought to ally himself with the protestant party,
which had formed into a united body called the "Smalkaldic
League;" but the league would have nothing to say to him unless
the Augsburg decree was revoked. In this dilemma Karl had no
choice; so after trying in vain to make a compromise, he granted
the protestants full liberty of worship till the next imperial diet;
and this decree is called the " Peace of Nurnberg."
The league now joined the imperial army, and the Sultan,
unwilling to risk a battle, withdrew his forces to Constantinople.
This danger being over, the kaiser summoned an imperial diet at
Trent, in the Tyrol, for March 15, 1545 ; but the protestant
princes refused to attend, because Trent was on the frontiers of

l82

DEATH OF LUTHER.

[D.III;

Pt.i.

Italy, and the pope who had already condemned them was to
preside at the council.
Karl, wholly unable to untie the knot, determined to cut it
with his sword; and, making a treaty with the pope, prepared for
war. The protestant party did the same; and this brings us to
the death of Luther.
DEATH OF LUTHER (Feb. 18, 1546).—Luther died before the
war broke out. H e saw it coming, and tried to avert i t ; but
each party was too strong to give way, and so distrustful of the
other that "their only voice was in their swords." The Augsburg
Confession was the culminating point of the German reformation ;
and though Luther lived some sixteen years longer, he passed out
of historical interest.
His character presents a rare combination of great qualities.
H e was possessed of strong human sympathies, herculean energy,
and an intuitive penetration. H e was a born leader; intrepid in
danger, reckless of place, and neither to be allured by flattery
nor alarmed by threats. What was said by Pyrrhus of Fabricius
might be said of the Saxon reformer, " It would be as easy to
turn the sun from its course, as Luther from the path of duty."
In constitution he was strong and healthy, in habits abstemious
and self-denying, in temper impatient of contradiction, in conduct
submissive to authority, but insolently defiant when authority
came into collision with his conscience. His eyes were piercing
and full of fire; his voice singularly sweet, but vehement; his
countenance stern, but benevolent; his spirit meek, but dauntless.
Children and women loved him, good men honoured him, his
enemies feared him, his friends adored him. H e was an undoubted
scholar, and " a good and ripe o n e ; " blameless in life; a man of
thought, and yet a man of action; a voluminous writer, and a
true orator. Varillas calls him " a perfect master of eloquence."
Like St. Bernard, he could carry captive the understanding; like
Peter the Hermit, he could command the passions. It was a
Titanic work he set himself to do, but Luther was a Titan. T o
clear the air, as he himself said, required thunder and lightning ;
but Luther could wield the thunder of Jove and the lightning of
Apollo. On the whole, history presents no parallel to the great
Saxon reformer of the sixteenth century; and never did one man,
single-handed, achieve so enormous a task. Like the stone cut
out without hands, which smote the image of the Babylonian
dreamer, and brake it in pieces, so Luther broke in pieces the
image of popery as it then was, and scattered " the iron, the clay,
the brass, the silver, and the gold . . . . like chaff of the summer

1519-1556.]

KARL V.

INTERIM OF AUGSBURG.

183

threshing-floors
And the stone that smote the image became
a great mountain, and filled the whole earth." (Dan. ii. 34, 35).
Popery survived the reformation, and is in vigour still; but it is
reformed popery, and Esau's hands are well-nigh as smooth as
Jacob's. It is not the province of history to pass any opinion
upon creeds, except so far as they are motive powers to those
outward acts which make up the obedient subject, the peaceful
citizen, the wise ruler, and the benefactor of mankind.
SMALKALDIC WAR (I546-1547).—Karl V. and Frangois I. were
like cat and d o g ; they were for ever at war with each other, and
for ever patching up treaties of peace, which neither intended to
keep. Frangois at length allied himself with the Turks, laid
siege to Nice, and invaded Italy, but was repelled by the kaiser.
Karl then formed an alliance with England, and attacked France
at five different points at once; but the danger was averted by
the Turks, who threatened Germany. Karl and Frangois now
shook hands at Crespy, in Laonnais (Sept. 17, 1544), and agreed
to terms of peace. The French king because he was unequal to
the contest, the kaiser that he might defend Germany from the
Turks.
In this crisis of affairs, the kaiser tried to win over the
Lutherans; but he had deceived them too often, and they
thought this a ripe time to stand at bay, so they raised the
standard of revolt. Karl put the whole league to the ban of the
empire, raised a new army, and marched against the revolters.
In April, 1547, was fought the Battle of Miihlberg, in which the
Lutherans were utterly defeated, and the elector of Saxony (the
giant John-Frederick, called the "Magnanimous") with the landgraf of Hessen, were taken prisoners. Moritz or Maurice, a
Saxon and a protestant, greatly distinguished himself in this
battle, fighting in the imperial army; and Karl, to reward his
services, appointed him elector of Saxony in the place of his
cousin, John-Frederick, who was deposed. Thus ended the first
religious war in Germany.
T H E INTERIM OF AUGSBURG (1548).—We are told that Karl,
in his dispatch announcing his victory at Miihlberg, parodied the
Caesarian brag, " I came, I saw, God conquered." It certainly
was a brilliant exploit, perhaps the most brilliant of his reign : so
complete and so sudden that it was compared to the victory of
Joshua in the valley of Ajalon. Karl did what he could to
conciliate the conquered Saxons; he treated with kindness the
wife and children of the captive elector, and even visited the
tomb of Luther. When the duke of Alva hinted to him that he

184

HOUSE OF AUSTRIA.

[D. in; Pt. i.

should disinter the bones of the heretic and burn them, the
kaiser replied, " Let be ; he has found his judge. I war not with
the dead, but with the living."
The pope was angry with him for not smiting the heretics both
hip and thigh when he had them in his power; but Karl called
the pope a drivelling old dotard, and like his grandfather, entertained the idea of adding the tiara to his other crowns at no very
distant period. H e took upon himself to settle the affairs of the
church in Germany, and summoned the states to Augsburg for
May 15 (1548) to hear his determination. When the diet was
assembled he read to them " The Declaration of his Royal and
Imperial Majesty on religious rights in the Holy Roman empire,
till the next general council," and this declaration was called
" T h e Interim of Augsburg." It reduced matters pretty well to
the statu quo before the reformation. The elector of Mainz
[Mynce\ thanked the kaiser in the name of the states; the diet
dispersed; and Karl supposed he had made all things smooth;
but it was the lull before the storm.
Moritz, the new elector of Saxony, was a protestant; and
although he had served in the imperial army, his sympathies
were with the Lutherans, and the captive princes were his kinsmen. Being now ruler in the very cradle of the reformation, and
surrounded by Lutherans on all sides, his sympathies with them
were rekindled, and he entertained the idea of making himself
their champion. Accordingly, he dispatched a secret embassy to
Henri I I . of France, to unite with him in protecting the liberties
of the Germans.
Absorbed at Innspruck with the deliberations of the Council
of Trent, Karl paid no heed to the mutterings of the coming
storm; and while he was spinning his webs to ensnare the
schismatics, the rapid and daring Moritz, with long red beard,
streaming like a meteor in the wind, dashed through the mountain passes at the head of his lancers, and nearly caught his bird.
T h e gouty old kaiser had just time enough to escape in a
peasants' wagon, disguised as an old woman, and fled to Flanders.
On pressed Moritz, and again, at dead of night, midst thunder
and lightning, wind and rain, the kaiser fled. Moritz was glad of
it, because, as he said, he had " no convenient cage for such a
falcon." The TREATY OF PASSAU followed in August, and the
whole fabric of the kaiser's toil to extirpate the protestants
crumbled into dust.
By this treaty, which secured perfect
freedom of religion to protestants, the " Interim of Augsburg"
fell through; the landgraf of Hessen was liberated; and full

I5i9-X556-]

ABDICATION OF KARL V.

i»5

freedom of worship was accorded to every one till the next
imperial council (July 31, 1552).
Karl now turned his arms against France to win back the three
bishoprics of Mainz, Verdun, and Toul, which had fallen into the
hands of the French king. H e laid siege to Mainz [Mynce\
but without success; and concluded peace with his rival by
giving up the three episcopal cities.
RELIGIOUS PEACE OF AUGSBURG (Sept. 26, 1555).—According

to the treaty of Passau, an imperial council was called for the
autumn. Karl would take no part in i t ; he was disgusted at the
turn of affairs, and deputed his brother Ferdinand to represent
him. T h e council was held at Augsburg. Full liberty of worship
was confirmed. Lutherans and Catholics were declared alike
eligible to all offices of the state, and to seats in the imperial
diets. Every ruler might sanction what form of religion he chose
in his own province, but all were to tolerate those who held
different views.
ABDICATION OF K A R L V. (Aug., 1556).—Disappointed in his

schemes, broken in his fortunes, with income anticipated, estates
mortgaged, all his affairs in confusion, failing in mental powers,
and with one foot in the grave, the second Charlemagne determined to retire from public life, and prepare himself for a
kingdom not of this world. H e was sadly shattered. T h e victim
of gout, asthma, dyspepsia, and gravel; crippled in the neck,
arms, knees, and hands; and troubled with boils and blotches all
over his body, the effect of gluttony and intemperance. His
appetite remained when he could no longer digest his food. H e
breakfasted at five in the morning on a fowl seethed in new milk
with sugar and spices; went to sleep again, and dined at noon on
twenty dishes. H e supped twice, at vespers and at midnight. At
all his meals he ate ravenously of pastry, of which his son Philip,
the husband of our queen Mary, was extravagantly fond. In
I
555 n e made over to his son the Low Countries, the Two
Sicilies, and Spain; in the year following, to his brother Ferdinand, the government of Germany; then retired to St. Juste, in
Estremadura, where he died in about eighteen months (1558).
Karl V. was never good looking even in his hey-day; but at
fifty, as Heuter the Spaniard, and cardinal Contarini, who knew
him well, inform us, he was ugly and decrepit with premature old
age. H e was of medium height, and had once been athletic.
Broad in the shoulders, deep in the chest, thin in the flank, and
muscular in the arm. As a young man he was a match for any
one of his own age in the tourney and the ring; and no matadore

186

KARL V. IN RETIREMENT.

[D.m; Pt.i.

could better tackle a bull in the arena. But at fifty he was feeble
and nervous. Being crippled in his knees and legs, he supported
himself on a stick in one hand, and leaned with the other on the
shoulder of an attendant. His hair, which in youth was blonde
and flowing, was hoary, sparse, and bristling in middle life; and
his beard shaggy, coarse, and gray. His forehead was wide; his
eyes dark blue; his nose aquiline, but crooked; and the lower
part of his face was deformed with the heavy hanging Austrian
lip and protruding lower jaw. When he opened his mouth he
showed a hideous array of discoloured stumps, which made his
speech thick and hard to be understood. Eating was his besetting sin, and even to the last his appetite never failed him.
For the greater part of his life he was an indefatigable warrior,
and could endure any privation but that of food. H e could sit
in his saddle all day and all night, and, as the duke of Alva says,
" he was a born soldier." Karl used himself to say the " t h r e e
best captains of the age were himself, the duke of Alva, and the
constable Montmorency." H e was fearless and energetic, calm
in reverses and success, the first to arm for battle, and the last to
throw his harness off. So phlegmatic was he in temperament, that
he was called a man "without sentiment and without a tear."
No doubt he was a hero to his soldiers, and a favourite almost
everywhere; for besides his military genius, he had a wonderful
talent for arranging a court pageant, and knew how to flatter with
spiced words.
KARL V. IN RETIREMENT (1556-1558).—The romantic pictures of Sandoval and Strada of the kaiser in retirement, are
about as true to fact as David's picture of Napoleon, prancing
over the Alps, on a cream-white charger, instead of toiling in
comforter and great coat on a patient mule. The investigations
of Stirling, Mignet, and others, have drawn back the curtain, and
shown us the spangled harlequin of the stage in real home life.
So far from leading a cloister life, in prayer and meditation, his
whole time was occupied in politics and eating. H e read nothing
but despatches, wrote nothing but replies. H e had no taste for
retirement, no religious sentimentality. H e was fond of making
clocks, like Louis XVI. of France; and, if we may believe biographers, was apt at an epigram and a jest; but how far these
smart things were filed and hammered into shape by court
flatterers we cannot judge. His furious letters to his son " t o
cut out heresy without mercy " are still extant; and as for fasting
and mortification, his cell was literally crammed with Estremadura
sausages, sardine omelettes, eel pies, pickled partridges, fat

1519-1556.3

KARL V.

187

capons, quince syrups, iced beer, flagons of Rhenish, senna and
rhubarb. This picture of " the monarch retired from business "
is from life, that of Sandoval and Strada from imagination. One
is the painting of Euripides of the man as he was; the other of
Sophocles of what he should have been.
In reading up the lives of Karl V., his son Philip of Spain, and
Ferdinand II. of Germany, from state papers and other original
sources, often and often I have felt so sick at heart that I have
been obliged to abandon the task sometimes for several days.
The martyrology of John Fox distressed me less. Lorente (1. 280)
informs us that in the Netherlands alone, during the eighteen years
of Torquemada's administration, 10,220 persons were burnt at
the stake, and 197,327 punished by being buried alive, drowned,
imprisoned for life, or reduced to beggary, merely because they
thought Luther and Calvin interpreted Scripture more correctly
than he did. It would be as easy to believe that Robespierre,
Danton, and Carrier were the servants of the God of Mercy in
the French Revolution, as that a church can be infallible which
could instigate, organise, and commend such wholesale murder
and horrible suffering.
1 T H E TURKS.—The religious affairs of Germany in the reign
T
of Karl V. were of such absorbing interest as almost to eclipse
others of less permanent importance; nevertheless, the invasions
of Solyman the Magnificent must not be wholly passed by.
H e invaded Hungary in 1526, 1541, 1543, 1552, and 1566.
In the second of these invasions he took Buda, the capital, and
annexed it to the Ottoman empire. During these invasions
frequent inroads were made into Austria, sometimes to the very
gates of Vienna; many women and children were taken captive,
and great cruelties were committed.
Barbarossa, a notorious pirate, having driven into exile Muley
Hassan, the dey of Tunis (1534), was made by the sultan "pacha
of the Turkish fleet." Karl V., taking the part of Hassan, embarked for Africa, defeated the corsair, took Tunis, restored the
dey, and set at liberty 20,000 christian captives who had been
sold by Barbarossa into slavery (1535). This was a very brilliant
achievement, and raised the fame of Karl throughout all Christendom. It was like an exploit of one of the seven champions,
a paladin of Charlemagne, or a knight of the round table in the
court of Arthur. It does not look like sober history, but no
conceivable act would be more calculated to captivate- the mind in
the Middle Ages. It was heroic; it was on the side of Christ; it
was a veritable crusade—in its effects the most brilliant of them all

i88

FROM 1450 TO IS50.
L I T E R A T U R E OF THE

[D. in; Pt. 1.

PERIOD.

There are times in the history of man when a wave of inspiration seems to pass over the race, and men of towering genius
spring up in all directions at the same time ; periods like these are
historic landmarks, epochs not of a single people, but of a whole
continent of nations.
Such a period was that between the
middle of the fifteenth century, and the middle of the sixteenth.
Where can a hundred years be found so full of mighty events ?
The injejitic^j^prinjtijag, the sail round the Cape of Good Hope,
the discovery of a new world, the reformation of religion by
Luther, and that of astronomy by Kopernik?
The same age
that produced Luther and Calvin, produced Laelius Soclnus
(founder of the Socinian sect), and Ignatius Loyola (founder of the
Jesuits). The same age that saw Zwingli and Melanchthon, saw
Cardinal Wolsey and Sir Thomas More. Of the same period
were Erasmus of Rotterdam, Sleidan of Cologne, Colet (founder
of St. Paul's School, London), Vasco da Gama the Portuguese
navigator, Christopher Columbus of Genoa, Raffael and Leonardi
da Vinci (Italian artists), Albert Diirer and Kranach. France at
the same time boasted of her " Chaucer " the poet Marot, and
of Rabelais the very phoenix of wit, whose coarseness, verging
often on profanity, and oftener still on indelicacy, would have
sunk him into oblivion, if his genius had not produced a work
which stands alone in the literature of the world.
It will be desirable to give a short sketch of some of the most
noted Germans contemporary with Karl V., and their specialities
will be more easily remembered if they are divided into four
groups :—(1) Those connected with the religious reformation;
(2) the historians of the period; (3) Kopernik and Paracelsus ;
(4) Albert Diirer and Lucas Kranach.
(1) The chief of the reform group round Luther were Ulrich
Zwingli, Philipp Melanchthon, John Agricola, Andrew Carlstadt,
Martin Bucer, and John Calvin; with Jerome Emser and John
Faber on the other side.
ZWINGLI (1484-1531), the reformer of religion in Switzerland. As earnest
as Luther against the abuses of the court of Rome, he nevertheless differed
from him on several important points—notably on that of the "real presence "
in the elements of the eucharist. The very same cause which roused Luther,
stirred Zwingli also into activity, viz., the sale of indulgences. Tetzel was the
chapman of these wares who provoked Luther ; and Zwingli set himself
against Samson, the licensed hawker of indulgences in Switzerland. Being supported by the chief powers of Zurich, Zwingli had not the uphill work of the
Saxon reformer. In 1520 the magistracy commanded that the Bible, the
whole Bible, and nothing but the Bible, should be the law of the church and

1450-1550.]

CALVIN, MELANCHTHON, ETC.

189

its doctrines; and two years later the reform was fully established in the
canton. All pictures and images were removed from the churches, mass was
abolished, begging friars were put down, marriage was made a civil contract,
and Zwingli protested against the celibacy of the clergy by marrying the
widow of a Swiss nobleman.
Of all the reformers none surpassed Zwingli in honesty of purpose. He
knew exactly what he wanted, and adhered from the first to the simplicity of
the Gospel. Less violent than Luther, he was more candid ; less controversial, he was more clear-headed. Less systematic than Calvin, he was quite
as original; less dogmatic, he was no less faithful. His Confession, or sixty-seven
articles of religion, will always be considered a master work by Protestants,
and will bear comparison with Melanchthon's Confession of Augsburg, or the
Thirty-nine Articles of our Anglican reformed church.
JOHN CALVIN (I509-1564), a Frenchman by birth, cast his lot in Geneva.
He was twenty-six years younger than Luther, and twenty-five than Zwingli,
both of whom he outlived. He was very stern and dogmatical, but rendered
effectual service to religious reform. What St. Paul did for the christian
church at its foundation, Calvin did for the reformed church : he organised its
discipline, and enunciated its doctrines. As a religious teacher, social legislator, and theological writer, he has no equal. His works are numerous, all
written in elegant Latin ; but his Institutes of the Christian Religion, his first
work, is still the best known. Nearly all orthodox dissenters, except the
Methodists, lean towards Calvinism, but the Protestant episcopal churches of
England and Germany incline more to Luther's teaching.
PHILIPP MELANCHTHON (1497-1560), Luther's fellGw-labourer, was a
leader of the Reformation. Being appointed professor of Greek in the
university of Wittenberg, he soon took the side of Luther ; and, being an
excellent scholar and clear thinker, he helped on the work discreetly and well.
It was Melanchthon who composed the articles of religion known as the
Augsburg Confession. As a public teacher he was exceedingly admired,
and was certainly one of the ripest scholars that Germany has ever had. His
Common-place Book of Theology went through fifty editions even in the lifetime of the author.
JOHN AGRICOLA (1492-1566), was another of Luther's fellow-labourers.
He took part in the "Interim of Augsburg " {see p. 183), and signed the articles
of Smalkald, in 1537. Like Melanchthon, he too was a professor of Wittenberg.
Agricola was not orthodox according to Luther's views. Luther called him
an Antinomian, meaning an opponent of good works. l i e said, with St.
Paul, " man is not justified by the works of the law, but by the faith of Jesus
Christ . . . . for by the works of the law shall no flesh be justified'
(Gal. ii. 16); but he did not say, as Luther insinuated, let us " continue in sin,
that grace may abound " (Rom. vi. 1). He was, however, obliged to resign his
professorship, and, being reduced to want, he recanted, and became preacher
to the court at Brandenburg. Agricola wrote many books, but by far his best
is Comtnon German Proverbs with Explanations.
ANDREW CARLSTADT (1483-1541), of Franconia, was another of Luther's
friends, and like Melanchthon and Agricola, a professor in the university of
Wittenberg. Carlstadt, like Agricola, was unable to go the whole length with
Luther. Agricola differed on the subject of faith and good works, Carlstadt
on the subject of the "real presence" in the bread and wine served to communicants in the sacrament of the Lord's supper. Luther believed that the
body and blood of Christ "were verily and indeed taken " by those who ate
the bread and drank the wine administered to them; but Carlstadt believed

190

KOPERNIK.

PARACELSUS.

D.III; Pt.i.

that the bread was only bread, and the wine only wine ; that no sort of
change took place in the elements by consecration, and that the sole object of
the sacrament is " t o show forth the Lord's death." Carlstadt was the first
ecclesiastic in Germany that broke through the law of celibacy by marriage.
MARTIN BUCER (1491-1551), a Dominican, was one of the most ardent of
the reformers. He went to Strasburg, where he introduced the doctrines of
the reformation. Bucer, like Carlstadt, differed from Luther on the subject
of " t h e real presence." This made his position in Strasburg untenable, and
he accepted an invitation from archbishop Cranmer to teach theology in the
university of Cambridge. His best work is an Exposition of the Psalms.
It was the fashion a t this period to take a Greek or Latin name instead of your own.
T h u s , Agricola's real name was Schneider (tailor); Bucer's real name was Kuhhont (cowhorn), of which Bucer is the ^ Greek. Melanchthon's real name was Schwartzerde
(black
earth), for which Melanchthon is t h e Greek. So with others.

(2) T h e chief historians of the same period are Cuspinian,
Aventin, Dubraw, and Sleidan, all of whom wrote in Latin.
JOHN CUSPINIAN of Franconia (1473-1529), wrote a History of Austria',
and another of the kaisers, From Julius Ccesar to Maximilian.
AVENTIN (1476-1534), the name by which John Thurmaier is generally
known, was born at Aventinum, or Abensburg, in Bavaria. He wrote a
history of Bavaria, called Anndles Boiorum, a standard work still.
JOHN DUBRAW of Bohemia (* -1553), wrote a History of Bohemia, in
thirty-three books.
JOHN SLEIDAN of Cologne (1506-1556), called " t h e Protestant Livy,"
wrote a history of the Reformation, a standard work, which he called 2 he
State of Religion in the Reign of Kaiser Karl V.

(3) Kopernik of Prussia and Paracelsus were men of enormous influence. Each was a Luther in his own line. Kopernik
was the great reformer of astronomy, and Paracelsus of
medicine. Luther discarded the old traditions of the Roman
church, and purged off its worst errors; Kopernik discarded
the old traditions of the solar system, and began that brilliant
conception which was perfected by Sir Isaac Newton; and Paracelsus discarded the red-tape of mediaeval pharmacy for experiment and observation.
Hippocrates was nothing, Galen was
nothing, Aristotle was nothing; experiment was far more to be
relied o n ; observation and experience were far better teachers.
Galen believed in the influence of the moon, in critical days, in
amulets, but Paracelsus maintained that every disease requires its
special treatment, which only experience can determine. His
two axioms were:—(1) T h e cure of diseases is not to be learnt
from books, but from observation and experience; and (2)
disease does not depend on any one thing, such as excess or
deficiency of bile, phlegm, or blood, but each disease has its
special cause, must be specially treated, and is subject to its own
laws. This was a great advance. It weaned the mind from old
stagnant notions, half dogmatic, half superstitous, and pointed to

I450I550-]

COPERNICUS.

PARACELSUS.

191

observation, experiment, and practice. The system of Kopernik, no doubt, was crude and imperfect, but it started on the
right path; the "system" of Paracelsus was no less so, but was a
midwife of thought. And both called up a host of men in quick
succession, who purged off the crudities, and brought astronomy and medicine to their present state.
NICOLAS KOPERNIK, Latinised into Copernicus, of Thorn, in
Prussia (1473-1543), showed that the earth is not the centre of
our system, and that day and night are not due to the sun
moving round our earth, but to the earth moving round its own
axis. H e proved the revolution of the planets round the sun by
eclipses, and that the earth has two motions, one round the sun,
and the other on its axis. The ideas were not new.
They
had been suggested long before by Pythagoras, but Kopernik
disinterred them, brought them to the front, and gave them increased probability. To those who start right, every fresh observation is a valuable fact; but those who start in error, stray in
error, and even truthful observations are distorted to confirm their
error. Take an example ; According to classic mythology, every
aerial phenomenon is an act of Jove; if it thunders and lightens,
it is Jupiter hurling about his thunderbolts ; if an eclipse occurs,
it is the angry god who causes i t ; a falling star is only a
messenger from heaven. Believing this, observation is of no
value, because the phenomenon is ascribed to a wrong cause, and
truth makes no progress; but once believe that lightning is a disturbance in the electrical state of the atmosphere, that eclipses are
due to the movement of planets, and falling stars to gravitation,
then every observation is useful, and helps on to more perfect
knowledge.
The merit of Kopernik was not so much its
freedom from error, as its starting in the right direction.
PARACELSUS (1493-1541) is no proper name, but a GraecoLatin free translation of Bombast. As bombast means "turgidity," so para-celsus means "very lofty."
The real name^j
of this physician are Aureolus Theophrastus Bombast. Some
called him a quack, because he pooh-poohed received authorities,
such as Hippocrates, Galen, and Aristotle. But charlatan or not,
none can deny that he introduced into pharmacy many new
drugs, both mineral and vegetable, such as mercury, salt, sulphur,
antimony, arsenic, and opium. H e lectured in German, and for
a time his lecture-rooms were crowded. Without doubt he was
conceited and only half-educated; without doubt many of his
notions were crude, and he bitterly offended the budge doctors
of the classic school; but it is no less true that he made men

192

DURER.

KRANACH.

[D. in ; Pt. 1.

doubt—to doubt is to think, and to think is to improve. Truth
is not dogma and tradition, but the result, for the most part, of
the shock and collision of differing opinions. Nothing ^ a n be
worse than a stereotyped system, from which no one must deviate
either to the right hand or to the left. This Chinese " circumlocution " makes merit to consist only in memory and repetition.
Luther broke it down in religion, Kopernik in astronomy, Paracelsus in medicine; and though all had errors of no little magnitude, they all did good service by abolishing mental serfdom, and
introducing liberty of thought.
(4) ALBERT D U R E R (1471-1528).—Albert Diirer, son of

a

goldsmith in Niirnberg, was a great painter and engraver. H e is
said to have been the first who engraved on wood. His
countrymen call him " the prince of artists." Maximilian I.
appointed him court artist, and Karl V. continued him in the
same office.
Englishmen call him " the Chaucer of artists."
His portraits of Charlemagne and other emperors are universally
admired. T h e pictures of Diirer are scarce and highly valued;
and his book on the " rules of painting " is still a high authority.
LUCAS KRANACH (1472-1553), the engraver and painter, was

intimate with Luther and Melanchthon, and his portraits of these
reformers are as interesting and valuable as the portraits of
Charlemagne and his successors by Albert Diirer. Kranach's son
was also a noted artist.
FERDINAND !., MAXIMILIAN I I . , RUDOLF I I . , MATHIAS.
FERDINAND I., born 1503, kaiser 1556-1564, was the second son of
Philipp the Handsome, and brother of Karl V. He married Anne of
Bohemia, and died of dropsy at Vienna.
MAXIMILIAN II., born 1525, kaiser 1564-1576, was the son of Ferdinand I.
and Anne.
He married his cousin Mary, daughter of Karl V., and had
fifteen children. His daughter Anna Maria was the third wife of Philip
I I . of Spain (1570). Isabella married Charles IX. of France (1570).
RUDOLF II., born 1552, kaiser 1576-1612, was son of Maximilian I I . and Mary.
^IATHIAS, born 1556, kaiser 1612-1619, was brother of Rudolf I I . Having
no children of his own, he adopted his cousin Ferdinand of Styria.

The next four reigns may be dismissed in a few lines.
FERDINAND I., brother of Karl V., reigned eight years. H e
was a man of moderation, and his government was peaceful and
prosperous. H e called himself Emperor of the West, but was
never crowned by the pope.
MAXIMILIAN II., son of Ferdinand I., was a very mild and
temperate prince of Lutheran proclivities. H e lived and died in
peace after a reign of twelve years.

1564-1619.]

MAXIMILIAN II.

RUDOLF II.

MATHIAS.

193

It was during the reign of this "prince of peace," that the
massacre of the protestants in Paris was perpetrated on St. Bartholomew's eve. It needs scarcely be added that Charles IX.
was king of France, under the leading-string of his mother
Katharine de Medicis; Elizabeth was queen of England; and
Philip II. was king of Spain. Queen Mary died in the second
year of the reign of Ferdinand I., the father of Maximilian, and
the Spanish armada was equipped and scattered (1588) in the
reign of his son Rudolf. Just eighteen months before, the luckless Mary queen of Scots, was beheaded; and about thirty years
from the death of Rudolf brings us to the reign of Louis XIV.,
the grand monarch of France.
A fair notion may hence be
formed of the social and commercial state of Germany,—its
progress in the arts, its comforts and conveniences of domestic
life,—for it differed but little in these respects from Spain,
France, and our own country.
RUDOLF II., son of Maximilian II., was brought up in Spain.
H e had no talent for ruling, but left all state affairs to the Jesuits,
while he himself occupied his time in chemistry, natural history,
and botany, in studying astronomy with Tycho Brahe and Kepler,
or in turnery, etching, and mechanics.
In this reign Kepler and Tycho Brahe drew up their astronomical tables, which they called " Rudolfine Tables," out of
compliment to their imperial pupil. H e reigned thirty-six years.
MATHIAS, brother of Rudolf, reigned seven years. H e was no
ruler, and as he had no children he adopted his cousin Ferdinand, duke of Styria, who was also his coadjutor. In this reign
began the Thirty Years' War between the catholics and the protestants, but all further mention of this important event may be
deferred to the following reign.
TYCHO BRAHE, the astronomer, was a Dane. He left Denmark because
the Danish nobles thought he degraded his rank by studying astronomy.
Rudolf allowed him a pension of 3000 ducats (^1500) a-year (1546-1601).
KEPLER, " t h e father of modern astronomy," was a German, born in a little
village of Wiirtemberg. He is celebrated for the three great truths called
Kepler's Laws: (1) The planets move in ellipses, with the sun in one of the
foci; (2) the radius-vector sweeps over equal areas in equal times; (3) the
square of the periodic time of the planets is proportional to the cube of their
mean distance. He furthermore ascertained that Galileo's " four new planets "
were not planets at all, but satellites of Jupiter ; he gave a complete theory of
eclipses ; calculated the exact epoch of the transits of Mercury and Venus
across the sun's disc; and made numerous important discoveries in optics,
geometry, and general physics (1571-1630).
GALILEO, of Pisa, was contemporary with Tycho Brahe and Kepler, but
his name belongs to Italian and not German history (1564-1642).
O

HOUSE OF AUSTRIA.

194

[D. i n ; P t . i .

COPERNICUS, the Prussian astronomer, died three years before Tycho
Brahe was born (1473-1543).
MERCATOR, the Flemish geographer, another noted name of the same
period, published a number of maps and charts, which he engraved and
coloured with his own hand. Mercator is universally known for what is called
"Mercator's Projection," a plan of drawing longitudinal lines so as to cut the
parallels of latitude at right angles (1512-1594).
§ SHAKESPEARE, the greatest dramatic poet that ever lived, was born the
same year as Galileo, but died before either Galileo or Kepler (1564-1616).
SIR ISAAC NEWTON was born the year that Kepler died (1642-1727).

FERDINAND

I I . AND I I I .

F E R D I N A N D I I . , King of Bohemia, 1617 ; crowned a t Presburg King of H u n g a r y , 1618 ;
Emperor Elect of the Romans, 1619. Resigns t h e crown of H u n g a r y 1625, and that of
Bohemia 1627.
BORN

1578.

REIGNED

18 Y E A R S ,

1619-1637.

Died, Sunday, F e b . 15th, 1637. Aged 59.
Contemporary with James I., 1603-1625, Charles I., 1625-1649.
Father, Charles, archduke of Styria, younger brother of Maximilian I I . a n d 13th son of
Ferdinand I . Mother, Maria of Bavaria, who infused into her son a hatred of the •
protestants, and had him brought up by the Jesuits of Ingolstadt.
Wife,
Child, Ferdinand [ I I I . ] who succeeded him.
Biographers,
Hurter, Reruni
Austriacarunt
Historia
(1643).
F . Christ,
Annales
Ferdinandei
(1578-1637). Nicolas Bellus, Affairs of Germany from 1617 to 1640.
Schiller, Thirty-Years'
War, Lamormian t h e Jesuit, Virtutes Ferdinandei
(1637).
Koester, Seiffart, Zimmermann, Funke, Garve, Stein, Thibault, Fcerster, Preuss, Nicola'i
(anecdotes).
F E R D I N A N D I I I . , K i n g of H u n g a r y , 1625 ; K i n g of Bohemia, 1627 ; King of the Romans,
1636 ; Emperor of the Romans or of the West, 1637.
BORN

1608.

REIGNED

12 Y E A R S ,

1637-1657.

Died, Monday, April 2nd, 1657. Aged 49.
Contemporary with Charles I., 1625-1649. The Commonwealth,
1649-1660.
Cromwell
was lord protector 1653-1658.
Father, Kaiser Ferdinand I I .
Mother,
Wives, (1) t h e princess Maria-Anne, daughter of Felipe I I I . of Spain, married 1631, died
1646.
(2) Maria-Leopoldina archduchess of Austria, married 1648, died 1649.
(3) Eleanora of Mantua, married 1651 and survived him.
Children, Ferdinand, who died, 1654, of smallpox ; Leopold I . , who succeeded h i s father in
the empire.
F E R D I N A N D I.
Maximilian I I .

I
Rudolf II.

Karl duke of Styria

(13th son).

Ferdinand I I .
Mathias.

Ferdinand I I I .
Leopold I .

I

Karl V I .
Marie Antoinette
Joseph I .
who married the elector of
J
Maria Theresa
Bavaria.
1
i
who married
I
Maria Josephine
Maria
Amelia
Franz Stephan
I
I
who married
who married
duke, of Lorraine.
Joseph Ferdinand
Karl Albert ^ Augustus I IT.
Karl
Albert
died 1699.
elector of Bavaria
elector of
elector of Bavaria
called
Saxony and
her cousin
Karl V I I .
king of Poland.
(Karl V I I . )

FERDINAND

1619-1637-]

CHIEF
1617.

II.

195

EVENTS.

Persecution of the protestants in Bohemia.

f i 6 i 8 . x T h e T h i r t y Years' W a r began by a revolt in Bohemia.
1620. (November 8). Battle of Prague won over the protestants b y Maximilian duke of
Bavaria.
1621. Forty-three chiefs of the protestant party executed.
1623. T h e electorate of Frederick given to Maximilian duke of Bavaria, a rigid catholic. ,
1624. D e n m a r k invited b y the protestants to intervene.
tf 1625. 3 Christian IV. of Denmark responds to the appeal.
Ferdinand I I . cedes the crown of H u n g a r y to his son.
1626. Wallenstein raises an army in the catholic interest, and wins the battle of Dessau.
Tilly, head of the Catholic league, defeats Christian I V . at L u t t e r .
1627. Wallenstein defeats the Danes, and nearly all Holstein falls into his hands.
Ferdinand I I . cedes the crown of Bohemia to his son.
1629.

IT 1630. 3
1631.

1632.

1634.

T h e kaiser commands b y edict that the protestants should restore to the catholics
their possessions.
Peace of Lubeck, between Ferdinand (kaiser of Germany) and Christian IV. (king
of Denmark).
T h e Danes having abandoned the protestant cause, the king of Sweden is invited to
take it in hand. Gustavus Adolphus accepts the invitation, and enters Germany.
Gustavus Adolphus makes an alliance with France. Battle of Leipzig gained b y
Gustavus Adolphus, over Tilly and the Catholic League (September 7).
Ferdinand's son marries the princess Maria-Anne, daughter of Felipe I I I . of Spain,
and sister of the queen of France.
Battle of the Lech won b y Gustavus Adolphus. H e r e Tilly was mortally wounded.
Battle of Liitzen won by l:he Swedes, but Gustavus Adolphus died of his wounds,
and was succeeded in cdmmand by Oxenstiern.
Assassination of Wallenstein at the instigation of the kaiser Ferdinand I I .
Battle of Nordlingen won over the protestants by the kaiser's son.

U" 1635.* T h e French join the Swedes in the T h i r t y Years' W a r . T h e peace of P r a g u e
between the kaiser and the electors of Saxony and Brandenburg.
1636. T h e kaiser makes his son " king of the Romans."
The battle of Wittstock won by the Swedes in the protestant interest.
1637. D e a t h of the kaiser. H i s son Ferdinand I I I . continues the war.
FERDINAND
1639.

Battle

of

1640.

Accession of Frederic William I., the Great.

1641.

D e a t h of Banier the Swedish general.

III.

Thionville.
H e is succeeded b y Torstensohn.

1642.

Torstensohn defeats the army of the archduke Leopold, and of general Piccolomini.
and takes Leipzig.
1645. Second battle of Nordlingen.
This was won by the duke d'Enghien over the
imperial German a r m y (September 6). See above 1634.
1648. Battle ofSommershausen
won by Turenne and Wrangel (April 17).
Peace of Westphalia a n d end of the T h i r t y Years' W a r (October 24). W a r
1618-1648.

Ferdinand II. was forty years old when he was crowned king of
Hungary; he had succeeded to Bohemia the year before. H e
was a rigid catholic, who had been educated at Ingoldstadt by
Jesuits, and had been taught to believe it a christian virtue to say
with David: " D o not I hate them, O Lord, that hate thee?
And am not I grieved with those that rise up against thee ? I
hate them with perfect hatred: I count them mine enemies."
o 2

I96

HOUSE OF AUSTRIA.

[D. 111 • Pt. 1.

(Ps. cxxxix. 21, 22). Of course liis error was in supposing
the catholic section of the church to be the one and only true
church, and that all who differed from it were the enemies of God.
Knowing the man, the protestants had good reason for fearing
him ; and events proved that their fears were not groundless, for
he involved the whole empire in a series of wars which continued
without intermission for thirty years (1618-1648.)
The progress of this war will be the history of Germany during
this reign and the next, and it will be convenient to divide it into
four parts: —
(1) From the commencement to the intervention of the Danes.
A period of seven years (1618-1625).
(2) From the intervention of the Danes to the peace of Liibeck,
when Christian IV. retired from the contest. A period of five
years (1625-1630).
(3) From the intervention of the Swedes under Gustavus
Adolphus to the battle of Nordlingen. Another period of five
years (1630-1634).
(4) And lastly, from the French intervention to the peace of
Westphalia, a period of thirteen years, in which the character of
the war was wholly changed. It was no longer a struggle between
catholics and protestants, but a fight by Sweden and France for
political ascendancy over Germany (1635-1648).
The chief battle of the first period was that at Weissenburg,
near Prague, in which the protestant Bohemians were defeated by
the imperialists (1620).
The chief battles of the Danish period were those of Lutter
and Dessau, in 1626, in both of which the Danes were defeated
by Wallenstein and Tilly.
The chief battles of the Swedish period were those of Leipzig
(1631), the Lech and Liitzen (1632), won by the Swedes; and the
battle of Nordlingen (1634), in which they were defeated by the
kaiser's son, afterwards Ferdinand I I I .
The chief battles of the French period were those of Wittstock,
Leipzig, Nordlingen, and Sommershausen, in all of which the
imperialists were defeated. Then the peace of Westphalia put an
end to the war, and the land had rest for a few years.
With this brief outline for a guide it will be more easy to follow
out the details of the war. In the first two periods the imperialists
and catholics had the advantage; but in the last two the tide
turned in favour of the Swedes and the French, who fought in
the protestant interest.
N.B.—Pronounce the German au like ott in the word "our."

FERDINAND II.

1619-1637-]

L

197

The first period of the Thirty Years9 War.
(1618-1625.)
(From the commencement to the intervention of the Danes).

There had long been two protestant churches in Bohemia, one
in the diocese of the archbishop of Prague, and the other in the
territory of the abbot of Braunau. The archbishop and the
abbot pulled these churches to the ground, and the protestants,
when they remonstrated, were told it was the king's pleasure;
so count Thurn headed a deputation which went to the Royal
Castle at Prague to lay their grievance before the king. Being
admitted into the Council Hall, they were so insolently received,
that they threw two of the councillors and the king's private
secretary out of the window into the moat. The malcontents then
took forcible possession of the Castle, drove the Jesuits out of
Bohemia, and appointed a new council consisting of thirty protestants. Ferdinand, king of Bohemia, instantly drew together an
army to put down the rebels, and was promised support from
Spain and the Catholic League. Count Thurn also girded up his
loins for war. In the meantime kaiser Mathias died, leaving
Ferdinand (king of Hungary and Bohemia) his successor.
The Bohemians refused to acknowledge the new monarch, and
set up the elector-palatine, Frederick (son-in-law of James I. of
England), in his stead. Frederick was a poor pitiable prince,
called the " Winter King," because he was elected in November,
reigned one winter, and fled to England ere the year came
round.
Ferdinand II., being crowned at Frankfort kaiser and king of
Germany, lost no time in marching against his rival, won the battle
of Weissenberg, near Prague (Sunday, November 8), while the
" Winter King " was at dinner. Frederick heard the booming of the
cannon, made off in hot haste, and his palatinate was given to the
duke of Bavaria, who was a catholic.
The Bohemian protestants were cruelly treated by the victorious
kaiser: their lands were confiscated, and many were put to the
sword. The protestant clergy were banished; and every form of
religion was prohibited except that of the Roman catholic
church.
Thus ended the first part of the war, though fighting still continued for three years longer with different adherents of the
" Winter King," The troops of the protestant union were still in
arms, strengthened by a contingent from England under Sir
Horace Vere. The unionists, however, were little better than

198

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[D. i n ; Pt. 1.

paper soldiers.
Sir Horace Vere showed fight, and so did
Christian of Brunswick, a fiery young prince, who stuck the glove
of the " Winter Queen " in his hat, and declared he would either
restore her to the throne or die in the attempt. Count Mansfeldt
was another of the fighting protestants who continued in arms,
but all saw it was a losing game. Christian of Brunswick was
poisoned, and Mansfeldt with Sir Horace Vere were sent for by
James I.
IL

The Danish intervention in the Thirty Years' War.
(1625-1630.)

The protestants now invited Christian IV. king of Denmark to
come and take their part. H e was brother-in-law of James I., and
like the kings of Denmark referred to by Shakespeare, "was
fond of his rouse." His intervention in the war was disastrous from
beginning to end ; it brought the protestants to the brink of ruin,
and endangered Denmark also.
Almost the only thing one remembers of Christian's campaign,
is the accident which befell him at the commencement. While
riding to inspect the ramparts of Hamelin his horse stumbled, and
the royal rider was thrown. Many thought he was killed, but
being "full of wine," he met the usual luck which is said to befall
drunkards and children.
The protestants of Hanover and Mecklenburg, Hamburg,
Liibeck, and Magdeburg, took no part in the war; but Christian of
Denmark received some slight support from his brother-in-law,
James I., and more substantial aid from count Mansfeldt and the
duke of Brunswick; the circle of Lower Saxony, however, bore
the chief brunt of the protestant cause.
At this crisis Albert von Wallenstein, a rich Bohemian
nobleman, offered his services to the kaiser in the catholic
interest. H e promised to raise an army of 50,000 men, at his
own expense, provided he might command it himself, choose his
own officers, and recoup himself by plunder. The kaiser gladly
accepted the offer, and Wallenstein soon found himself at the head
of 30,000 adventurers.
There can be no doubt that Wallenstein was the right man for
such an expedition. His parents were protestants, but they died
when he was a boy, and his uncle sent him to be educated by the
Jesuits. H e married a rich widow, who soon died leaving him all
her wealth. By the death of his uncle he was heir to his fourteen
estates; and he furthermore enriched himself by buying at a low
value sixty confiscated lordships. H e was the richest man in

1619-1637-]

FERDINAND II.

I99

Bohemia, and the kaiser dubbed him duke. Wallenstein was a
tall proud man, with short black hair, and deep sunk eyes. H e
spoke little, but was a most rigid exactor of discipline.
This volunteer chief with his band of adventurers, hot for action
and hungry for plunder, fell on count Mansfeldt at Dessau, and
utterly routed him. H e followed the retreating army through
Silesia and Moravia, and the count died of fever brought on by
anxiety and fatigue. To add to this calamity, the young duke of
Brunswick died also the same year. About the same time Tilly,
at the head of the Catholic League, defeated the king of Denmark
at Lutter, and Wallenstein joining Tilly, drove Christian and his
Danes out of Germany.
For these services, kaiser Ferdinand II. gave Wallenstein
the duchies of Mecklenburg, and made him admiral of the East
Sea (the Baltic). H e now fitted out a fleet of fifteen ships, intending to make himself master of Denmark; but the Danes
annihilated his fleet, and then proposed peace. Wallenstein
advised the kaiser to conclude it, and peace between Germany and
Denmark was signed at Liibeck, May 12, 1629. Thus ends the
second part of the war.
Ill

The Swedish Intervention in the Thirty Years' War.
(1630-1635.)
The retirement of the Danes from the war seems to have turned
the kaiser's head, for he forthwith issued that foolish proclamation
called The Restitution Edicts which enjoined restoration to the
catholics of the two archbishoprics, the twelve bishoprics, and all
the parish churches, lands, and other properties which had been
confiscated by the protestants since the "Treaty of Passau."
Compliance with this edict was well-nigh impossible, and the protestants applied to Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, for
succour.
Gustavus Adolphus was a Lutheran, and one of the most
accomplished princes of Europe. H e was eminently war-like, and
very unlike the softish king of Denmark.
His discipline was
perfect—his moral influence unbounded.
On June 24, 1630, he
landed with 15,000 Swedes in the isle of Usedom, (3 syl.) and
soon set to work in right good earnest. H e drove the imperialists
from Pomerania, and took Stettin. The catholics in contempt
nicknamed him the " Snow King," because he came from the
north, and they thought he would melt away like Frederick the
"Winter King ; " but Gustavus Adolphus was of sterner stuff than
the king of Bohemia or Christian IV. of Denmark.

200

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[D. in ; Pt. i.

BATTLE OF LEIPZIG (September 7, 1631).—The elector of
Saxony joined the king of Sweden, and marched against Tilly,
who, at the head of the Catholic League, had entered Saxony, and
given it up to pillage. They halted at Leipzig, and here was fought
one of the three great battles of the war.* Tilly was an experienced general, who used to boast he had never lost a
battle; Gustavus Adolphus was under thirty-seven years of age.
Here then they were to try conclusions ; and on the result of the
fight the hopes of the protestants hung as in a balance. T h e
elector with his Saxons occupied the left wing, Banier with his
Swedish cavalry the right. Tilly began the battle by an attack on
the left wing, the Saxons fled, and Tilly pursued. With the
Swedish cavalry it was far different. It stood like a wall of brass;
seven times the assault was renewed, and seven times it failed.
Tilly came up and joined in the attack, but the Swedes budged not.
Foot to foot they fought, breast to breast, and horse to horse.
Victory hung on a thread. Gustavus now raked the hill with his artillery ; the enemy wavered; it was enough, and Gustavus saw he
held the battle in his hand. On he pressed with greater vigour; the
Germans gave ground. On he still pressed; Tilly was severely
wounded, and the fight was won. It was a grand success, and all the
world rang with the praises of the Swedish king. H e was called
" The Star of the North." Wherever he went he was hailed by the
protestants as their deliverer. Prophecies were applied to h i m ;
and one might have supposed that no inconsiderable portion of
the sacred volume had special reference to this young king.
His march from Leipzig to Bavaria was a series of triumphs,
but at the river Lech the elector Maximilian attempted to bar his
passage.
H e was driven back, and the river crossed. Tilly
coming up at this moment was mortally wounded by a bullet, and
died at Ingoldstadt, whither he was carried. H e was a man of
iron and a good general, one who had passed his whole life in the
tented field. A tall gaunt man, hard-featured, with large lustrous
eyes, bushy eyebrows, huge moustache, a prominent nose,
grey hair, and a thin grey beard. H e rode a small grey cob, and
dressed like a Spaniard, in green satin doublet with slashed
sleeves, and a hat turned up in front, with a large red plume
hanging down behind; round his waist he wore a broad belt, in
which he carried a pistol. After the battle Gustavus marched to
Munich, where he was presented with the keys of the city; and
the elector Maximilian fled to Ratisbon.
* The other two were Liitzen won by Gustavus Adolphus 1632; and Nordlingen [Norfcling'til
the kaiser's son, afterwards Ferdinand III., 1634,

won by

1619-1637.J
BATTLE

FERDINAND I I .
OF LUTZEN

THIRTY-YEARS' WAR.

(November

201

16, 1632).—The Catholic

League hated Wallenstein, and after the peace at Liibeck, induced
the kaiser to dismiss him. So his army was broken up and placed
under Tilly; but on the death of Tilly, Wallenstein was recalled
as the only general who could cope with the " Snow King." Wallenstein took Prague, drove the Saxons from Bohemia, and set out
for Niirnberg. Gustavus Adolphus was there before him, and
Wallenstein, unwilling to hazard a battle, marched towards
Saxony. Gustavus followed, and on November 16, was fought at
Lutzen the second of the three great battles of the war.
It was a bitter cold morning with a thick fog, but at noon the
fog lifted and the two armies prepared for fight. T h e Swedes, as
usual, sang Luther's hymn :—
" A fort our God of strength indeed,
A sword, and shield around us,
A refuge in the hour of need,
A help when ills confound us."

The hymn being over, Adolphus addressed his men, and offered
a short prayer,—then placing himself at the head of the right
wing, swung his sword above his head and shouted " Onwards!
In the God of battles is our trust!" Onwards rode he, and his
army followed like a torrent. T h e foe fell back, and the battle
would have been won, but just at this moment Pappenheim came
up with a reinforcement of cavalry. T h e Swedes were staggered,
and Gustavus, seeing the danger, rode to the front to reassure his
troops. It was a fatal move, for he was instantly shot in the arm;
as he turned, another bullet struck him in the back, and he fell.
A melee round the body ensued ; hundreds and thousands fell on
both sides. T h e Swedes fought like tigers, resolved not to leave
the body of their king in the hands of the foe. T h e catholic
general Piccolomini was wounded, Pappenheim was slain,
Wallenstein sounded a retreat, and the Swedes were left masters
of the field. It was so dark and foggy that pursuit was impossible,
and Wallenstein led back to Bohemia the residue of his army.
At daybreak search was made for the king's body. It had been
stripped of everything, and was covered with wounds from head
to foot. Being sent to Stockholm, it was buried with the burial
of a king, and all protestants mourned for him. H e was only
thirty-eight years old, and died a hero's death in the very zenith
of his glory.
The place where he fell was marked for two
centuries with the " Swede's Stone," erected by Jacob Erichsson
on the night after the battle; but in 1832 the German nation
replaced the stone by a noble monument erected to his memory.

HOUSE OF AUSTRIA.

202

[D. in ; Pt. i.

H e was succeeded in command by count Oxenstiern the Swedish
chancellor.
About fourteen months after the death of Gustavus Adolphus,
Wallenstein was treacherously murdered while sitting at mess.
H e had been removed a second time from his command, and the
kaiser probably instigated the murder : at any rate he sanctioned
it by rewarding the murderers (January 24, 1634). H e was a
good general, and deserved a better fate for saving the empire
twice in its hour of danger.
BATTLE OF NORDLINGEN (November 6, 1634).—On the death
of Wallenstein, the kaiser's son Ferdinand was made general-inchief, and opened his career with brilliant success. After chasing
the Swedes from' Bavaria, he halted at Nordlingen, in Franconia,
and here was fought the third great battle of the war. The other
two were won by the Swedes in the protestant interest—this by the
kaiser's son in the interest of the Roman catholics. It was a
crushing defeat, and the Swedish power in Germany was well-nigh
annihilated. It was followed by the defection of Saxony which
made peace with the kaiser; and such easy terms were granted,
that within three months all the chief protestant states sent in
their allegiance to the treaty.
The state of Germany at this epoch was deplorable indeed.
T h e wars had mowed down the men like grass; the lands were
uncultivated, or if here and there a patch of corn sprang up, ten
chances to one it would be trampled on by soldiers on their
march, or be made the plunder of a raid. The towns were left
desolate ; the buildings were in ruins ; the whole head was faint
and whole heart sick. The sword did its work, and famine was
not far off. O Ferdinand, Ferdinand, did you never ask yourself
this question : Wherewith shall I come before the Lord, and bow
before the high God ? Shall I come before him with a kingdom
laid desolate for his sake ? Will the Lord be pleased with the
slaughter of thousands, the wail of widows, and the cry of orphans?
Shall I give cities to be sacked, and lands to be laid waste, that I
may find favour in the day of judgment ? " H e hath showed thee,
O man, what is good;—and what doth the Lord require of thee,
but to do justly, and to love mercy,—and to walk humbly with thy
God?"—(Mic. v. 8).
IV.

The French Intervention in the Thirty Years' War.
(1635 t° Me Peace of Westphalia 1650.)
After the defeat of the protestants at Nordlingen, the war
entered on its fourth phase, the least interesting and most

1619-1657.]

FERDINAND II.

FERDINAND III.

203

extended of them all. Oxenstiern applied for aid to Richelieu,
chief minister of France. Richelieu was a cardinal, a catholic of
the deepest dye. H e detested the " Augsburg Confession," and
did all in his power to root out the pernicious heresy; but preferring France to the catholic church, he now cast in his lot with the
protestants, thinking to make them his cat's paw for the exaltation
of France over Germany and Spain. In order to limit hostilities
as much as possible he also concluded alliances with Holland,
Switzerland, and Savoy. As for England, it was far too busy with
her own revolution, which brought Charles I. to the scaffold, to
take any interest in foreign affairs.
Having declared war with the kaiser (Ferdinand II.) and also
with Spain, the cardinal raised four large armies; one of which he
sent into Flanders, another into Mil'an, a third into the Valtelllna,
and the fourth to the Rhine.
It is only with the last that the
history of Germany is concerned.
The object of Richelieu was to annex Alsace to France, and
that of Oxenstiern to extend the territory of Sweden. Neither
fought " for an idea ; " and the war henceforth was not for protestant
or catholic ascendancy, but for French and Swedish supremacy.
The disposition of forces was now astounding. There was Saxony,
the very cradle of Lutheranism, allied with the kaiser, whose whole
policy was to stamp out the Augsburg heresy; and Richelieu, the
catholic, who hated the very name of Luther, siding with Sweden,
their angel and defender. It was protestant and catholic against
protestants, and catholic and protestant against catholics.
Sweden being reinforced by new arrivals restored the prestige
of her army by defeating the Saxons at Wittstock (October 4,
1636), and battle followed battle, with similar success.
In 1637 the kaiser died, and was succeeded by his son
Ferdinand III., the victor at Nordlingen. In 1641 Banier the
Lion of Sweden, died also, and was succeeded by Torstensohn,
a wonderful military genius, brilliant in conception, fertile in resources, and rapid in execution. H e swept like a whirlwind from
Austria to Denmark. Victory followed victory; and though borne
on a litter, being too weak to sit his horse, he burst on his foes
ere they supposed he was in motion.
So brilliant his career, the
Saxons deserted the kaiser, and again joined the Swedes.
So
fatal his blows, that a few more of them would have laid the
empire at the feet of Sweden; but increasing feebleness compelled
him to retire in 1645. H e was received in Sweden with the
wildest enthusiasm, and honours were literally piled upon him
The French allies, led by Bernard of Weimar, were less sue-

204

HOUSE OF AUSTRIA.

[D. i n ; Pt. i.

cessful in the Rhine provinces, but when Conde* and Turenne
joined him, the kaiser's army was like straw before the whirlwind.
PEACE OF WESTPHALIA (October 24, 1648).—Heartily sick of
the war, the new kaiser, Ferdinand III., tried to negociate peace;
but Sweden and France claimed such mighty indemnities that the
conference dragged on from month to month for five years. At
length, a basis of a negociation was agreed upon, and the treaty,
called " The Peace of Westphalia," was signed at Munich,
October 24, 1648.
By the terms of this treaty the sovereignty and independence of
all the different states of Germany were fully recognised; and liberty
was given to them to form alliances at pleasure, provided the kaiser
and the empire were not menaced thereby.
All religious persecution was wholly forbidden; the " Edict of
Restitution " was cancelled; perfect freedom of conscience was
accorded to every o n e ; and all men, irrespective of creeds, were
placed on one common level.
No one was henceforth to be put under the ban of the empire
but by the diet alone.
§ In regard to the territorial changes, they were as follows :—•
The Lower Palatinate was restored to the son of the " Winter
King " (Frederick V.), and an eighth electorate was created in his
favour.
Part of Alsace was added to France, and a much larger cantle to
Sweden,* besides a large money indemnity. The provinces and
townships awarded to Sweden were to be held as fiefs of the
empire.
The independence of the United Provinces was recognised by
Spain, and that of Switzerland by Austria.
France gained something by the treaty, Sweden more, the protestants all they required, but the German empire was irretrievably
ruined. It was a sad ending for the empire, to one of the saddest
wars that imperial bigotry and wrong-headedness ever devised.
T h e pope's agent still protested against the peace. H e protested
against the alienation of church property to Augsburg heretics.
H e would rather have seen all Germany without inhabitant, than
one tittle of land or ducat of money pass from the church of Rome
to " those vile mischievous animals called Lutherans."
There may be consistency in such a creed, but 'tis a creed too
dangerous to be entrusted to man, be he prophet, priest, or king.
The legate made his protest, and shaking the dust from off his
* These fiefs were Upper Pomerania, Rugen with Stettin, Gartz, Damme, Golnau, the isle of Wollin, Peine,
Schiveine, the Divenau in Lower Pomerania, Wismar, the duchy of Bremen, and the principality of
Verdun. (N.B.—Au is to be pronounced like ou in the word " our.")

1637-1657.]

FERDINAND

III.

LITERATURE.

205

feet, left the congress and returned to Rome. Thus ended the
Thirty Years' War, a warning to kings and kaisers. Wars of
aggression are bad enough, but wars of political opinions or religious creeds are "most mischievous foul sin."
Ferdinand I I I . continued to reign till 1657, when he also was
gathered to his fathers. The sundry states of Germany were still
called an empire, but they were an empire only in name. Every
state was wholly independent, and the kaiser had no longer even
the power of declaring wrar or making peace, of forming alliances
or raising armies. All these dangerous privileges were vested in
the diet.
Six years later (1654), the diet itself was little better
than a name, for all questions of importance were settled by negociations between the states interested therein.
As the states differed in size and power, the weaker ones were
protected by international laws, and the feeblest principality was
as safe from aggressions as the most powerful electorate. T h e
history of Germany is henceforth the history of each individual
state. Each had its courts of justice, its hired troops, its coinage,
its tolls and taxes. The several rulers rivalled each other in pomp,
and took for their model the court of Louis XIV. of France.
The people were heavily taxed to keep up this vain show, trade
languished, and the empire of Germany was only a geographical
expression.

LITERATURE
(THE

OF T H E R E F O R M A T I O N

PERIOD

SIXTEENTH AND SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES.)

The reign of Ferdinand III. brings down the history of Germany to the
middle of the seventeenth century. Dante and Petrarch, the great Italian
poets, had been dead three centuries. Ariosto and Tasso, about half that
time. England had passed her golden age: Spenser, for example, was contemporary with Tasso; Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, and Massinger were dead.
In Spain, Cervantes, the author of Don Quixote, died in 1616; and Lope de
Vega, the dramatist, in 1635. France was in her Augustan prime; but
Germany had scarcely begun a native literature. It is almost incredible that
MARTIN LUTHER, the reformer (1483-1546), was the father and founder of
German prose; but for a century longer all solid learning in Germany was
written in Latin. Luther formed his style on the old Saxon charters, but
greatly enriched the language. His prose is vigorous, flowing, and sweet.
His translation of the Bible was immensely popular, and became the model of
German prose.
SEBASTIAN MUNSTER of Ingelheim (1489-1521), contemporary with
Luther, to whose religious views he was a convert, was a most learned
scholar, and published an edition of the Hebrew Bible, a Chaldee grammar,
and many other works; but he is best known by his Universal Cosmography\

206

HOUSE OF AUSTRIA.

[D. in; Pt. i.

a huge folio in Latin on History, Chronology, and Geography. This learned
book won for the author the cognomen of " The German Strabo."*
KONRAD VON GESNER of Zurich (1516-1565) was the son of a furrier, who
published a host of books on the three kingdoms of nature. His Catalogue of
Plants, in four languages, was highly esteemed; his Bibliotheque Universelle
(in French) was the first biographical dictionary of modern Europe; but his
History of Animals (in Latin) was a marvellous production, which from that
day to this has formed the basis of all treatises on zoology. This great scholar
is called the " Pliny of Germany." t
JOHN KEPLER of Wurtemberg (1571-1630), nearly a century later, died in
the seventh year of the reign of Ferdinand III,, a name second to none in
astronomical science, and immortalised by his discovery that the orbits of the
planets are not circular but elliptical. His Tables and Ephemerides are invaluable, and his New Astronomy contains the great treatise on " t h e motion
of Mars." He was an ardent restless genius, most enthusiastic, laborious, and
patient. Undaunted by difficulties, unbroken by fatigue. His motto was,
" So fixed and so resolved."

LEOPOLD

I., JOSEPH

L, AND

KARL

VI.

T H I S PERIOD INCLUDES, T H E SIEGE OF VIENNA BY T H E T U R K S ; T H E
W A R OF T H E SPANISH SUCCESSION; AND T H E WARS OF MARLBOROUGH.
L E O P O L D I., King of H u n g a r y , 1655 ; King of Bohemia, 1657; Kaiser, 1658.
BORN

1640.

R E I G N E D 47 Y E A R S ,

1658-1705.

Died Wednesday, M a y 6. Aged 65.
(On his death-bed he requested that the court musicians should be admitted into his chamber, and he died
to the sounds of sweet music. Mirabeau, of France, said on his death-bed, *' Let me die to the sounds of
sweet music")
'
Contemporary

with Charles II., 1660-1685; James II., 1685-1688; William III., 1689-1702;
Anne, 1702-1714.
Father, Ferdinand I I I . Mother, Maria Anne of Spain, who died 1646.
Wives, (1) Margaret Theresa, daughter of Felipe IV. of Spain, and sister of Maria Theresa
(wife of Carlos I I . of Spain), married 1666, died 1673.
(2) Claude Felicite, daughter of the archduke of Innspruck, married 1673, died 1676.
(3) Eleonore Anne, daughter of the count palatine of Neuburg, married 1676, outlived
her husband.
Children, Marie Antoinette (daughter of the first wife). She married Maximilian Emmanuel,
elector of Bavaria, and had two children: Joseph Ferdinand, who died 1699; and
Karl Albert. I t was this Karl who married his cousin Maria Amelia, and was kaiser
Karl V I I .
Ferdinand, who died before his father.
Joseph I., who succeeded his father. H e was apparently the son of Eleonore before
wedlock; for Claude Felicite died April 8, 1676, Eleonor was married December 14,
1676, and Joseph was born J u l y 26, 1676.
K a r l V I . , who succeeded his brother.
Biography, T h e Italian histories of Leopold I. by Galleazzo Gualdi, Baptista Comazzi, and
Joseph Maria Reina. And the German histories of Leopold I. by J . J . Schmaus, C. B .
Menken, E . G. Rink, and F . Wagner (in Latin).
* Strabo was a Greek geographer who flourished about the beginning of the christian era (B.C. 54—A.D, 24).
t Pliny, the author of Historia Naturalis, in Latin, was born somewhere in the North of Italy, either at
Verona or Como (A.D. 23-79). His work is a compilation of astronomy, geography, meteorology, mineralogy,
zoology, botany, inventions, fine arts, and almost everything.

HOUSE OF AUSTRIA.

1658-1740-]

207

J O S E P H I . T H E V I C T O R I O U S , King of H u n g a r y , 1687; K i n g of t h e Romans, 1690;
Kaiser, 1705.
B O R N 1676.

R E I G N E D 6 Y E A R S , 1705-1711.

Died Friday, April 17. Aged 35.
(Joseph, his elder brother Ferdinand, and his younger brother Karl VI., all died of smallpox.)
Contemporary with Anne, 1702-1714.
Father, Leopold I . Mother (?), Eleonore Anne, before wedlock (see above).
Wife, Wilhelmina Amelia of Hanover.
Children, (1) Maria Josephine, who married Augustus I I I . , elector of Saxony a n d king of
Poland. (2) Maria Amelia, who married Karl Albert, her cousin, elector of Bavaria. I t
was this son-in-law of kaiser Joseph who was afterwards Karl V I I .
Biographers, Wagner, Zschackwitz, and Herchenhahn.
K A R L VI.

\Eng. Charles V L ]
B O R N 1683.

Kaiser, 1711; King of Naples, 1714.

R E I G N E D 29 Y E A R S , 1711-1740.

Died Wednesday, October 26.

Aged 57.

Contemporary with Anne, 1702-1714; George I., 1714-1727; and George II., 1727-1760.
Father, Leopold I . Mother, Eleonor Anne.
Wife, Elizabeth Christina, daughter of Rudolf of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel, brought u p a
protestant, but became a catholic when she married. (Born 1691, died 1750.)
Children, Leopold, who died y o u n g ; Maria Theresa, who married Franz Stephan, d u k e of
Lorraine, 1736. H e changed this duchy for the grand-duchy of Tuscany in 1737.
Biographers^ Zschackwitz, Schwarz, Schmauss, and Schirach.

1660.
1665.
1674.
1681.
1692.
1697.
1700.
1701.

CHIEF EVENTS
Between 1658 and 1740.
Peace of Oliva between kaiser Leopold I . , Sweden, Poland, a n d t h e elector of
Brandenburg.
T h e diet of Ratisbon made perpetual.
Campaign of Turenne in the Rhine States. Killed J u l y 27,1675, and replaced by Conde.
Strasburg seized b y the French (Louis X I V . ) Restored to Germany 1871.
(1690. Battle of the Boyne.)
A Ninth Elector created in favour of Hanover.
T h e peace of Ryswick.
Frederick the " Great E l e c t o r " of Brandenburg made " King of Prussia."
T h e W A R O F T H E S P A N I S H SUCCESSION begins.

(1702. Death of William III., and accession of
(1704. Admiral Rooke takes
Gibraltar.)
( ,, Marlborough's victory at Blenheim!)
1705.

Anne.)

D E A T H O F L E O P O L D I . a n d accession of J o s e p h I .

(1706.
(1708.
(1709.

Marlborough's
Marlborough's
Marlborough's

victory at
victory at
victory at

Ramillies.)
Oudenarde.)
Malplaquet.)

1711.

D E A T H O F J O S E P H I . a n d accession of K a r l V I .

1714.
1716.

E n d of the W a r of the Spanish Succession.
T h e Turks attack Corfu. Karl V I . (now king of Naples) declares war against T u r k e y ,
and prince E u g e n e obtains a victory which causes the T u r k s to raise the siege.
T h e T u r k s defeated before Belgrade (August 20).
Karl V I . signs the treaty of the Quadruple
Alliance.
" T h e pragmatic sanction," settling t h e crown of Germany on Maria Theresa, signed
October 25.
Signed in the Netherlands April 7, 1721; in England, J u l y 22, 1731.
(1727. Death of Sir Isaac Newton and of George I.)
W a r of the Polish Succession. E n d s November 18, 1738.
Marriage of Maria Theresa with Franz Stephan duke of Lorraine. D e a t h of prince
Eugene.

1717.
1718.
1720.

-1733.
1736.
1740.

D E A T H OF KARL VI.

208

HOUSE OF AUSTRIA.

PRUSSIA.

[D. i n ; Pt. i.

Kaiser Leopold I., generally called " t h e little man in red
stockings," had no end of wars,—wars with the Turks, wars in
Italy, wars in which Dutch William was the chief actor, wars
growing out of the Spanish Succession. Elector Frederick, with
his 30,000 excellent troops, did him good service, and in return
was created king of Prussia (1700). As Austria is now hastening
to its set and Prussia rising to the ascendant, the present will be
a convenient point to sketch in the history of Frederick William,
the " Great Elector" of Brandenburg, father of Frederick I. of
Prussia (1620, 1640-1688).
U Frederick William, the " Great Elector" of Brandenburg, was
the founder of the greatness of the House of Hohen-zollern, the
present imperial family of Germany. H e was no fighting hero,
though troubled with wars on every side by the mischief-making
Louis the " Grand Monarch " of France. The forte of the Great
Elector was not war, but administration. H e was a very farseeing man, a man of method; and had the gift of calling out
the talents and energies of those under him. H e encouraged
trade, as every wise ruler ought to d o ; he drained bogs, colonised
waste places, and gave a home to 20,000 refugees, driven out of
France by the mad folly of the Grand Monarch, in revoking the
" Edict of Nantes." This wretched prig of a king, miscalled the
" Great," deemed it treason against his mightiness for any one to
think differently to himself. Was he not anointed ? H a d he not
the " divine right" of doing what seemed good in his own eyes ?
And was it not treason to God and himself to think one's own
thoughts when the thoughts one ought to think were set down
and patented by law ? So he drove his protestant subjects out of
France, and when he found the exodus depopulating his kingdom forbade them to leave, and sent his dragoons to teach them
" the royal faith" by sword and gibbet, galley or wild beast;
and so a million of his subjects, by death or exile, testified to the
littleness of this " great king."
Some 20,000 of these refugees settled in Brandenburg, made
the " waste sands about Berlin into potherb gardens," introduced
many useful arts, and helped to make the electorate both industrious and rich.
Frederick William was a protestant and a good one too, a
God-fearing man. Not a lazy monk, not a hermit, but a man of
activity and energy, who watched the tide of affairs, took it at the
flood, and was led on to fortune.
In person he was thick-set; had brisk eyes, high Roman nose,
and a large head, which seemed almost gigantic from his

1658-1705.]

LEOPOLD I.

PRUSSIA.

209

enormous frizzled Louis-quatorze wig. When young he had
eagle features and a ready smile; but in middle life he was
sedate and ponderous, wrinkled and puckered about the eyes
and mouth.
When he succeeded to the electorate he found an empty
exchequer, towns sparsely inhabited, and lands lying waste, the
results of war. His first care was so to regulate the finances as
always to leave a balance in his favour; to conclude a treaty of
peace with Sweden; to organise an effective army; to repeople
his towns and villages; to encourage trade; to colonise waste
places; and to invite over strangers. Every refugee found a home
there, for the wise elector knew that population means wealth and
strength.
In the course of ten years he had an army of 30,000 men, the
best of all Germany. H e aided Charles X. of Sweden in the
siege of Warsaw, for which service Prussia was freed from its
feudal dependence on Poland, and this was the first step to its
future greatness.
As soon as Frederick-William could consolidate peace, rib
applied all his energies to the well-being of his subjects. life
more than tripled the area of his electorate, greatly increased its
population, founded or reorganised several universities, established
the royal library of Berlin, opened canals, organised a system of
posts, greatly beautified the city of Berlin, made roads, and left
at death a well-filled exchequer, a well-disciplined army, and a
thriving merchant community (1688).
H e was succeeded by his son Frederick III., the first elector
who bore the title of "king of Prussia."
LEOPOLD I.—Return we now to the kaiser, with the red feather
and red stockings. His reign was a very long one, extending
over forty-seven years, eventful years in European history, but in
which kaiser Leopold I. had about as much influence as a fly on
the speed of a railway express.
It was during this period that Vienna was invested by the
Turks and saved by Sobieski, the Polish hero.
It was during this period that the Stuarts were chased from
England, and William of Orange was substituted for James II.
It was during this period that the war of the Spanish Succession was begun; but it ran through the reign of Joseph I.
and dipped into that of his successor, when the peace of Radstadt
brought it to an end (1714).
It was during this period that the elector of Brandenburg was
made " king of Prussia."
p

2IO

MEN OF MARK.

LEOPOLD

I.

[D. i n ; Pt. i.

It was during this period that Louis XIV. revoked the Edict of
Nantes,* a short-sighted folly which drove his best subjects into
foreign lands, to enrich them by their arts and industry.
During this period the Madman of the North f undertook to
humble Denmark, Poland, and Russia; and in 1700, with 8,000
men overthrew 80,000 Russians at Narva, a success which made
him madder than he was before.
In this long period seven popes filled successively the chair of
St. Peter: Alexander V I L , Clement IX. and X , Innocent X L ,
Alexander VIII., Innocent XII., and Clement XL
It was a very noted period, but not distinguished for men of
genius, at least in Germany. A few names, however, stand out
conspicuous in science and astronomy: Otto von Guericke (3 syl.),
John Hevel, and John Christopher Sturm.
OTTO VON GUERICKE of Magdeburg, one of the counsellors

of the great elector, invented the air-pump, the Magdeburg hemispheres, J and the weather-glass (1602-1686).
JOHN HEVEL of Danzig, was a famous astronomer, second
only to our own Flamsteed, his contemporary.
H e wrote a
Treatise on Comets, and made a Map of the Moon (1602-1686).
J O H N CHRISTOPHER

STURM of Bavaria, restored and popu-

larised science in Germany, and published, in Latin, several
excellent compilations, but wrote no original work (1635-1703).
To these must be added Puffendorf, and three coin-students of
great celebrity—Morell, Beyer, and Spanheim.
SAMUEL PUFFENDORF of Saxony (1632-1694), contemporary
with Grotius, was the son of a Lutheran minister, immortalised
by his masterly work On the Law of Nations, in eight books
(Latin), which is a standard book in all the nations of Europe.
H e also wrote in Latin The Elements of Natural Jurisprudence', §
and several histories, as the History of Sweden froi7i Gustavus
Adolphus to Queen Christina (1628-1654), a History of Charles
Gustavus of Sweden, and a History of Frederick Willia?n IIL%
the Great Elector of Brandenburg (1632-1694).
IF ANDREW MORELL of Berne, the coin-student, wrote in Latin
two works on Roinan Coins, the most complete ever produced,
and still standard books (1646-1703).
* "Edict of Nantes," passed in the reign of Henri IV., giving protestants equal status and rights with
catholics, in France.
f "Madman of the North"—i.e., Charles XII. of Sweden.
% The Magdeburg hemispheres are two brass cups each furnished with a handle. The two cups fit each,
other and form a sphere. The object of this scientific toy is to show the pressure of air, for when the air
is pumped out of them, two strong men cannot pull them asunder, but the moment air is admitted they
part without the slightest effort.
\ In Latin, Dc Jure Natures et Gentium.

1656-1715-1

LEOPOLD

I.

TURKISH

WAR.

211

LAURENTIUS BEYER of Heidelberg, coin-student, wrote (in
Latin) on the Coins of the Roman Pontiffs^ and the Coins of the
Kaisers (1653-1705).
EZEKIEL SPANHEIM of Geneva, coin-student, wrote (in Latin)
on Ancient Coins. H e was a scholar of the very highest order,
and filled several important posts, amongst others that of ambassador to our English court (1629-1716).
T o these may be added O T T O M E N C K E of Oldenburg (1644-1707), who edited the first
literary journal of Germany. I t was in Latin, and entitled Acta Entditdrttm.
H i s son
succeeded him. T h e great Leibnitz may be called its founder, and was for years its chief
contributor.

U The little man in red stockings had no part in all this, except
that by the accident of birth he happened to be kaiser. It was
Louis XIV. who pulled the string which set all Europe by the
ears. H e it was who instigated the Turks to invade Austria.
H e it was who supported James II. after his abdication, and
assisted him in the battle of the Boyne. H e it was who stirred
up the War of Succession, which lasted twelve years; and after
the victories of Marlborough at Blenheim, Ramillies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet, left France at the verge of bankruptcy.
And he it was who induced the Madman of the North to run a
tilt with Peter the Great of Russia. H e is called the Great
Monarch of France; but he muddled whatever he touched, and
his greatness is by no means due to his morals as a man, or his
wisdom as a ruler.
The Turkish War
(1683-1697).
Count Stephen Tekeli joined a conspiracy to free Hungary from
the Austrian rule. The conspiracy failed, the possessions of
the count were confiscated, and his son Emeric took refuge in
Poland (1656).
On the death of Stephen, the son tried to recover his patrimonial estates, but meeting with no success, invaded Hungary at
the head of 20,000 men. Being joined by numerous malcontents,
he not only established himself in his paternal castle, but made
inroads into Austria, Styria, and Moravia. Emeric was persuaded by agents of Louis XIV. to form an alliance with the
Turks, and was promised substantial help from France. Accordingly, the Sultan proclaimed him " King of Upper
Hungary," and sent his grand vizier, Kara Mustapha, at the head
of a large army to hold Hungary for his ally.
Leopold, supported by John Sobieski, king of Poland, being
joined by the electors of Saxony and Bavaria, and some others,
got together 46,000 men to drive back the invaders.
p 2

212

HOUSE OF AUSTRIA.

[D. in ; Pt. i.

SIEGE OF VIENNA (1683).—The Turks being garrisoned in
Hungary, after several minor inroads, marched to Vienna to
take it by assault. The terror of the townsmen was beyond
description. Many fled, but a garrison of 50,000 men defended
the walls.
On marched the Turks, destroying everything in their path.
On they marched, almost to the walls of the city, and pitched
their tents. The siege began. It went on from week to week
Probably the grand vizier intended to starve the defenders into a
capitulation. They were in despair. They felt that at any
moment an assault would lay the city at the mercy of the foe,
when every one would be put to the sword or reduced to slavery.
The kaiser had deserted them, and sent no relief. Stay! A
booming of cannon is heard. It comes from mount Kalen, and
tells the besieged of succour near at hand.
On the 12th September, early in the morning, the allied army,
led by Sobieski, attacked the Turks. The king of Poland, with
his cavalry, threw himself on the besiegers with the fury of a
hurricane. H e was on the point of being taken prisoner, when
a reinforcement arrived which brought him off in safety.
Next morning, as the grand vizier was sipping coffee in his tent,
a messenger announced that the Poles were at hand, fighting
their way to the camp. " Sobieski! Sobieski! " rang through the
air. It was the battle-cry of the day. Nearer and nearer it
resounded. No time Was to be lost. In hot haste Mustapha
mounted his horse. In hot haste he gave orders for battle. It
was too late. Sobieski was within the camp. The grand vizier
galloped off; the Turks fled in disorder, leaving everything
behind—the money for the siege, the pay for the soldiers, the
baggage, tents, cannons, chariots, even the sultan's standard,
inscribed with the words, " There is but one God, and Mahomet
is his prophet" Sobieski was allotted ^ 3 0 , 0 0 0 as his share
of the spoil, and all the other chiefs obtained a proportionate
booty.
The Turkish standard was long kept in the palace of Munich,
and shown to strangers. It was of painted calico, with silk
cords, tassels, and ornaments. Together with the standard were
preserved many splendid dresses/ and the harnesses of several
Turkish horses adorned with silver, gold, and precious stones.
It was a splendid triumph indeed! and Sobieski, writing to his
wife, says " Never could be seen a more complete overthrow. It
was like the explosion of a mine, it was so sudden. After the
battle the elector of Bavaria, and many other of the princes, fell

1658-1705.]

LEOPOLD

I.

WARS WITH

FRANCE.

213

on my neck and kissed me in the fulness of their joy. The
generals hoisted me on their shoulders and carried me through
the ranks. Wherever I went, * Long live Sobieski!' * Sobieski
for ever!' * Huzza!' sounded on all sides. Mothers and
children ran to touch me, old men covered my hands with kisses,
and those who could not get through the crowd, waved their hats
or handkerchiefs, shouting with one voice, ' God save thee,
Sobieski! Welcome, Sobieski! Huzza !'"
The little man of the red stockings and feather came also to
welcome his deliverer, but greeted him with chilling politeness. It
was the old, old story of Saul and David over again. The people
shouted in their simple honesty, " Saul hath slain his thousands,
but David his tens of thousands," and the countenance of Saul
fell, for his envy was moved against the man who had delivered
Israel from the giant of Gath. Leopold I. had not slain his
thousands, he had only deserted Vienna in its day of peril, and
he felt humiliated that a king of Poland should be more
honoured than a kaiser, who bore the high-sounding title of
Caesar Augustus of the Holy Roman empire.
(We are assured b y writers worthy of credit, that amongst the spoil was found in the tent
of the grand vizier a letter from Louis X I V . of France, giving a plan of the siege.)

The war did not end with this overthrow. It dragged on for
fourteen years longer. The duke of Lorraine and prince Eugene,
so well known in English history, defeated the Turks in 1687 ;
and the margraf of Baden in 1691; but prince Eugene gave
them the grace-blow at Zenta in 1697 ; after which they gladly
signed the Peace of Carlovitz, not to bear arms against any part
of Germany for twenty-five years.
Tekeli lived in retirement in Turkey. The crown of Hungary,
which was before elective, was made hereditary in the house of
Austria, and it still forms a part of the Austrian empire.
Wars with France (1673-1697).
The mischief-making Louis XIV., who wanted to be
universal king, was for ever disturbing the peace of Europe;
and sent Turenne into the Rhine provinces under the hope
of making that river the scientific boundary between Germany
and France.
Kaiser Leopold I. gave the command of the allied imperial
army to Montecuculli. Frederick William, the Great Elector,
joined the allies, but had to return to Brandenburg the following
year to defend it from the Swedes (1674).
The two generals were unwilling to run the hazard of a general

214

LEOPOLD I.

PRUSSIA A KINGDOM.

[D.m;Pt.i.

engagement, and manoeuvred for four months, each hoping to
outwit the other, or to catch him tripping. At length, they
prepared for battle at Sasbach, in the duchy of Baden ; but while
Turenne was visiting a battery, he was struck with a cannon ball
and killed (1675).
H e was sixty-four years old, had been brought up a protestant,
but not long before his death had become a catholic. H e was
undoubtedly one of the foremost men of France. Mighty in
battle, and unrivalled as a tactician. Clear-sighted and kindhearted, noble in mind and of the simplest manners, just and
generous, a politician and a soldier. Honoured with a splendid
funeral, he was buried at St. Denis \Unee\ amongst the kings of
Prance.
On the death of Turenne, Montecuculli entered Alsace without
opposition, and next year peace was concluded with France
at Nimeguen \Nim-g>n\ in Holland. Montecuculli retired from
public life, and was killed in 1681, by a beam falling on him as he
was entering Linz with the imperial court.
STRASBURG SEIZED (1681).—Notwithstanding the peace, Louis
XIV. would not leave Germany alone, but under one pretext or
another, seized upon several towns, villages, and lands, on both
sides of the Rhine. Amongst other towns was that of Strasburg,
the key to southern Germany. This he seized on a Sunday,
while most of the inhabitants were gone to Frankfort for the
annual fair. Though thus treacherously taken, it was suffered to
remain as a part of France till the end of the Franco-German
war in 1871, when it was restored to Germany.
In 1688 Louis again renewed the war in the Rhine provinces
on the most frivolous pretence. It was then that Heidelberg
with its beautiful castle was destroyed.
These infamous aggressions so disgusted the European powers
that a coalition against France was made by England, Germany,
Spain, Holland, and Savoy; and battle after battle was fought
with varying success. At length, in 1697, another peace was
patched up and signed at Ryswick. France kept Strasburg, but
had to resign to Germany, Spain, and Holland, all that she had
won from t h e m ; so that after an enormous loss of life and
treasure, she found herself in about the same position as she was
before the war broke out.
Frederick created King of Prussia, December 17th, 1700.
Frederick-William, the Great Elector of Brandenburg, was succeeded by his son Frederick, whose great ambition was to be

1658-1705.]

PRUSSIA A KINGDOM.

SPANISH SUCCESSION.

215

made a king. This title could only be obtained from the kaiser
himself.
The elector had 30,000 troops, the best in all Germany, and
the elector played his cards well. H e did the kaiser good service
with his troops, and the kaiser rewarded him by the coveted title;
so Frederick elector of Brandenburg, was styled Frederick " king
of Prussia."
It was mid-winter, and Frederick was at Berlin when the
diploma arrived, duly signed and sealed. Unbounded was his
joy, and he determined to set out for Konigsberg, the chief city
of Prussia, without delay, for his coronation. Now Konigsberg
is 450 miles north-east of Berlin, and the way thither was through
tangled forests, wild bogs, and deeply rutted roads.
Never
mind; there was a famous stud of horses at Berlin, and 30,000
post-horses were stationed along the road for the use of the royal
cortege. Sophia Charlotte, the elector's wife, Frederick William
her son, and 1,800 carriages, started with the elector for Konigsberg, December 17th, 1700.
The procession through the city was of more than eastern
magnificence. The streets were carpeted with scarlet cloth, and
the houses draped with flags. Illuminations, salvos of cannon,
fountains running wine, bands of music and processions, followed
one another for many days. The coronation dress of the elector
must have cost a fortune. It was a snuff-coloured coat with
diamond buttons, each button being worth above ^ 1 0 0 0 . H e
himself put the crown on his own head, saying as he did so,
" King now in my own right." All present shouted in one voice,
" God save king Frederick ! God save the king of Prussia ! "
and salvos of cannon thundered abroad the news that Prussia
had received her first king.
The War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714).
The whole reign of the little man in red stockings and of his
brother Joseph was one perpetual war, profitless in the extreme,
and forced on Germany by the "Great Monarch" of France.
First it was an ambition in Louis to attach Holland to his
kingdom; then to attach Germany, or at any rate the Rhine
provinces; now it was Spain he wanted to get into his hand. Of
course, there is always some pretext, and in the present instance
it was this :—
Carlos II. of Spain died without issue, and four of the crowned
heads of Europe had more or less claim to be his successor: the
king of France, the kaiser of Germany, the elector of Bavaria,

2l6

WAR OF T H E SPANISH SUCCESSION.

[D. i n ; Pt. i.

and the king of Savoy. The two latter abandoned their claims,
and left the field clear to France and Germany.
Louis XIV. was the cousin of Carlos, and son-in-law of Felipe
IV. of Spain, whose eldest daughter he had married.
The
descendants, therefore, of Louis had the highest claim; and
Carlos had recognised it by leaving the crown to Philippe
d'Anjou, the dauphin's second son.*
Leopold I. of Germany argued that no son of the dauphin
could accept the crown of Spain, because Louis had made this a
distinct stipulation in the Treaty of the Pyrenees. By that treaty
Spain and France were never to be united under one family.
So Leopold claimed the crown of Spain for his second son Karl,
whose mother was a daughter of Felipe IV. Besides, he said,
Karl V. was kaiser of Germany and king of Spain, and therefore
the succession belonged to the house of Austria, and not to
France.
Louis cared very little for treaties or such considerations as
these, and his grandson, Philippe, was proclaimed " king of
Spain." Leopold, on the other hand, proclaimed his second
son, Karl, "king of Spain;" and the two monarchs girded
themselves for battle to fight it out to the bitter end.
It so happened just at this crisis that Louis XIV. had insulted
England by sending James II., after his abdication, to recover his
crown by French soldiers. This was virtually a declaration of
war. So England recalled her ambassador, and made an alliance
with Holland, Portugal, Germany, Prussia, and Savoy, against
France and Spain.
The war lasted twelve years. The French won the battles of
Friedlingen (1702), of Alamanza in New Castile (1707), of
Villa-Viciosa in New Castile (1710), and of Denain in the
north of France (1712); but lost the battles of Blenheim,
Ramillies, Turin, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet; together with the
naval battle of Malaga, won by Admiral Rook in 1704.
In 1711 Joseph, the eldest son of Leopold I. died, and Karl,
who succeeded his brother, gave up all further claim to the
Spanish throne; so Philippe, the grandson of Louis X I V , after
all was acknowledged king of Spain.
Louis was seventy-two years old. H e lost in one year, by
death, his only son, his eldest grandson, his great-grandson, and
the duchess of Burgundy, his great-grandson's mother. The war
ended in the Treaty of Utrecht, which was signed in 1713, and
* He could not leave it to the dauphin, because the dauphin was heir to the crown of France; nor could
he leave it to the dauphin's eldest son, because he was heir-presumptive in case of his father's death.

1711-1740.]

KARL VI.

POLISH SUCCESSION.

217

in 1715 the old king died. His long reign was one of unheard-of
pomp and courtly splendour, but his grey hairs were brought with
sorrow to the grave. Requiescat in pace!
Leopold I. died in 1705, the fourth year of the war.
Joseph I., his son and successor, in 1711, the year after the
battle of Malplaquet. And Joseph was succeeded by his brother
Karl VI., who reigned from 1711 to 1740.
The Peace of Utrecht was signed in 1713; but Germany,
although abandoned by all her allies,—England, Holland, Portugal,
and Savoy,—still continued the war till the following March, when
the Peace of Radstadt was signed. The kaiser gave up all claim
to Spain; and received the Spanish Netherlands, Naples, Milan,
and Sardinia.
Last Years of Karl VI.
Karl had no son, and therefore drew up a decree, called
" The Pragmatic Sanction,"* in favour of his elder daughter Maria
Theresa. This decree fixed the succession in the female line,
and most of the powers of Europe were willing to guarantee the
arrangement.
The duke of Bavaria protested against it, for he had married
Maria Amelia, a daughter of Leopold, " t h e little man in red
stockings;" and he maintained that the daughter ought to
succeed before the grand-daughter.
The only other event which needs to be mentioned is the War
of Polish Succession (1733-1738), the history of which was briefly
this :—
On the death of Sobieski (1674), Frederick elector of Saxony
was chosen king; and at his death (1733), two claimants were put
forward, Stanislaus a Pole, and Frederick-Augustus elector of
Saxony. France supported Stanislaus, who was father-in-law of
Louis XV. the reigning king, but Germany took the part of the
elector. The war terminated by a compromise: Germany gave
up Lorraine to Stanislaus, and agreed to exchange Naples and
Sicily for Tuscany and Parma. This being done, Frederick
Augustus was allowed to keep the crown of Poland.
Karl died of smallpox, October 26, 1740, the last kaiser on the
male line of the House of Habsburg. H e was a heavy, humane
* "Pragmatic Sanction "—that is, an edict relating to the state (see p. 119 n). This law, which made the
crown hereditary in the house of Austria, is what is generally meant by the "Pragmatic Sanction ;" but there
were other statutes so called : as the " Pragmatic Sanction of Kense," which abolished the interference of the
pope in the election of sovereigns (1338). St. Louis, in 1268, published a "Pragmatic Sanction " forbidding
the pope to levy taxes in France. Our "Constitution of Clarendon," in 1164, compelling the clergy to submit
to the civil law, was a pragmatic sanction. Charles VII. of France passed another, in 143S, limiting the
power of the pope, and forbidding him to present to any dignity or benefice in France. Hence, a " pragmatic
sanction " is a statute limiting and defining the power of the pope, or a statute fixing the succession of the
crown in a certain line.

2l8

PRUSSIA.

TWO MARVELLOUS BOYS.

[D. m ; P t . i.

man, fond of pardoning criminals, stately and dull.
His life
was an expensive one, full of futile adventures and airy nothings;
profitless to his own house and to those under him.
Bielfeld says he saw him :—He was then a short, squat figure,
with a thick neck sunk between his shoulders, and a big head.
His eyes were fine, and the " glance of them was terrible." H e
says the portraits of his majesty represent him as very beautiful,
" but certainly there was no beauty in his face or figure when I
saw him. His complexion was a compound of the strongest
tints of blue, yellow, green, and red." It is true that he regarded
all except crowned heads as inferior clay; but there was a gleam
of humanity in his love of pardoning, quite cheering after the
sickening persecutions of several preceding reigns.

PRUSSIA.

Frederick the first king of Prussia was succeeded by his son
Frederick-William I. (1713-1740).
H e was, in almost every
thing, the opposite of his pomp-loving father. Simple and almost
penurious in his habits, attentive to business, and passionately
fond of soldiering. H e hated books, was impatient of moral
training, and entertained the most antiquated ideas of the
" divinity which doth hedge a king." By his economy he was
enabled to indulge his passion for military organisation. H i s
only extravagance was his whim for tall soldiers. A good tall
fellow he would bribe at any price, kidnap, or force into his
service. At death he left a splendid army of 70,000 men, most
of whom were giants.
Carlyle tells the following anecdotes of the wilfulness of Frederick-William
in his early boyhood. At the age of five he was one day slobbering one of
his buckles, when his nurse chid him, and threatened to take it away
from him. " N o you sha'n't," cried the wilful little fellow, and deliberately
swallowed it.
On another occasion, when his governess set him a task which he disliked,
he jumped out of the window, clinging to the sill with his hands; and if the
governess had not given way, he would certainly have dropped himself down
to the ground; but getting the mastery, he allowed himself to be drawn back,
and was from that day placed under the charge of a man.
J O H N P H I L I P BARATIER AND CHRISTIAN H E N R Y HEINECKEN,

In the year 1721 were born two boys of such marvellous precocity that it
will not be out of place to mention them.
J O H N P H I L I P BARATIER (1721-1740) was of French extraction, but was

born at Schwabach, near Niirnberg.

At the age of four he spoke in French

1700-1750.]

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.

219

and German. As his father talked to him in Latin, this language was familiar
to him when he was five. At the age of six he could turn the Greek version
of the Bible into Latin; and at seven he could translate the Hebrew
Bible into Latin, French, or German; and could repeat in Hebrew any
of the Psalms. Between seven and eight he made a Hebrew Clavis. At nine
he had read the Talmud, studied Chaldee, Syriac, and Arabic, and had made
acquaintance with the Greek fathers. Before he was eleven he had mastered
both the globes in ten days, so as to solve instantly any problem on them; he
had also communicated a discovery to the Royal Society of London. At
fourteen he was admitted a member of the Berlin University. At fifteen he
received a literary pension from the margraf of Brandenburg, and took his
M.A. degree. Between fifteen and eighteen he had published several treatises
on Christian heresies, the old Roman pontiffs, the Thirty Years' War,
astronomy, medals, and antiquities. At nineteen he died, and was writing
at the time a book of Egyptian Antiquities,
His life was written by Formey
in 1741.
CHRISTIAN

HENRY

HEINECKEN,

called

the

"Infant

of

Lubeck '

(1721-1725), is an instance of even greater precocity, if what we are told of
him can be trusted. We are told that he spoke when only a month old. At
twelve months old he knew the chief events of the Pentateuch; at thirteen
months he knew the history of the whole Old Testament, and in one month
more all the history of the New Testament also. At two and a-half years he
could answer any general question of history and geography. At three years
old he knew French and Latin as familiarly as he knew German, although
he was not then weaned. He died between four and five. It appears
that this unhappy babe actually had a tutor, named Schoneich, and this
tutor wrote his life. It is devoutly to be hoped that such a monster never
existed.
Of Baratier there can be no doubt; but that two infants should be born in
Germany the same year, of such unearthly precocity, to say the least, is
marvellous as a blue moon.

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE GERMANS.
(FIRST HALF OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.)

VIENNA.—Vienna was a gay and handsome city in the first half of the
eighteenth century. The houses were built of stone, the citizens rich, and
the tables well furnished. The rooms were heated with stoves; and ladies,
when they went to church, had foot-warmers or portable stoves taken thither
in winter time. Both men and women wore furs.
A favourite pastime of the ladies in winter was sledge-racing, especially by
torchlight. The sledges were made in curious devices: some like scallopshells, others like tigers, others like gondolas, and so on. They were all
handsomely decorated, and drawn by a single horse tricked out with plumes,
ribbons, and bells. Servants on horseback carried torches, and a gentleman
sat behind each lady to guide the sledge-horse.
The favourite pastime of gentlemen was boar-hunting; and the boar's head,
with a lemon in the mouth, and garnished with leaves and flowers, was a
grand dish at state banquets.
The kaiser Leopold was especially fond of a hunt. On Twelfth Night it
was customary for masters and servants to lay aside their rank and join in the
common sports* Kaiser and kaiserin, duke and duchess, margraf and

220

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.

[D. HI; Pt. i .

margravine, waited on their respective households, laid the cloth, poured out
the wine, handed the plates, and joined the dance or general games. It was a
universal Saturnalia, and some vestige of it still remains.
There were no protestant churches in Vienna, but several in Presburg, about
forty miles off, and coaches plied between the two cities. By this time stage
coaches were very general; and, being under government superintendence,
brought in a large addition to the revenue.
Jews did not live in the large towns, but in what was called the Jews*
Quarter, the opposite side of the Danube. Whenever they passed the city
gates they had a toll to pay; and there was a part of the city where they were
allowed to have their benches to exhibit their goods for sale. This was not
peculiar to Vienna, but was general in all commercial towns of Germany.
There were no operas and theatres in Vienna, but plenty of gaiety and
amusement. Dancing, fencing, mountebanks, jugglers, and so on, kept the
people alive; and bousing was always a German delight.
DRESS.—The upper classes had left off their satin doublets and velvet
mantles in the first half of the eighteenth century, and generally dressed in
black, with a short cloak thrown over their shoulders in the streets, a huge
ruff, and a peruke. The peasantry still retained their gay-coloured vests,
high-crowned hats covered with green and yellow ribbons, and ruffs of black
taffeta. The peasant women wore little caps of coloured stuff bordered with
another colour; their petticoats were very short, like the fish-women of
Boulogne, fastened round the waist with a leather girdle, and spread out with
hoops or some similar device.
HUNGARY.—The people of Hungary, at this period, were chiefly graziers or
farmers. They reared cattle and sheep in great numbers ; and corn was so
abundant, that bread was both plentiful and cheap. The Hungarians used to
store their corn in caves ; and they had underground places of refuge, because
they were very subject to Turkish raids.
The Hungarian dress was most convenient for horseback. It was a close
coat very short in the skirt, fastened round the waist with a leather belt, a
short mantle, tight trousers, boots, and a fur cap. The coat was generally made of green, yellow, or light blue cloth, for the Hungarians were
always fond of gay colours.
The shepherds and herdsmen generally wore a long sheepskin cloak, with
the wool inside, and trousers made of hemp. The young village maidens
wore a dark bodice, blue petticoat, and red boots. Their chief employment
was spinning and basket-making. There were no schools in Hungary, and
the gentry had to send their sons to Vienna or Prague to be educated.
TRANSYLVANIA.—The least civilised part of the Austrian dominions was
Transylvania, where the people still lived in mud huts, and occupied themselves in tending flocks and herds. They were a very indolent race, and spent
their time chiefly in eating, drinking, and sleeping.
The useful arts were not yet known to these primitive people, except,
indeed, spinning and weaving; and though the country is remarkably fertile,
the people were too indolent to cultivate it.
HAMBURG.—Hamburg was the largest of all the commercial cities of Germany. The houses were very high, and the streets so narrow that two
vehicles could not pass each other. The inhabitants were chiefly merchants,
and amongst them were many English families. The city was divided into
five parishes, each of which had a handsome protestant church. Hamburg
was a free city, governed by four burgomasters, twenty-four senators, and

I700-I750']

PERSECUTION OF WITCHES.

221

some other magistrates. There were very few mechanics and fewer manufacturers, the only articles made there being gold and silver lace, stockings, and
silks. The trade, however, was so great that as many as 300 ships were
constantly employed in carrying its merchandise to and from England,
Holland, and the German states, by means of the river Elbe (2 syl.) So
important was this city, that in times of war it was always considered neutral,
and was not, therefore, subject to depredations like other cities.
Hamburg was very conspicuous for its little trim Dutch gardens along the
banks of the river. Not a twig was out of order, not a plant was allowed to
grow to any height. All was prim and formal in the extreme ; but here the
merchant would saunter up and down smoking his pipe after office hours, in
gossip with his neighbour on the current topics of the day.
The gate were always closed at sun-down, after which no one was allowed
to enter or leave the city.
The ladies of Hamburg were very reserved in their manners, and rarely
appeared in the streets without a thick black veil. The senators wore a black
Spanish cloak, a velvet hat, and a sword. They were chosen for life, ten
being lawyers, and fourteen of them merchants, each of whom was expected
to keep a private coach.
T H E TYROL.—In the Tyrol the men were famous for their skill in hunting;
and every village had its playground, where the boys went to practise shooting
and wrestling. The hunting costume was a large green hat to keep off the
sun, a gun slung at the back, a stick pointed with iron to assist in climbing
the dangerous heights, and a bag of provisions.
AUSTRIAN COSTUME.—The female peasantry of Austria wore very pretty
dresses, consisting generally of a stuff petticoat of their own manufacture, a
tight bodice laced with ribbon, and a red or yellow kerchief. The stockings
and apron were blue, and the hat grey ornamented with ribbons. Of
course in so large a dominion as Austria, there was a great variety of
costume in the different parts, and each village was very conservative in its
special costume.
GERMAN CITIES.—The towns and cities of Germany were, for the most part,
handsome and well-built, populous and wealthy, governed by their own laws
and their own magistrates. They were fortified and garrisoned. The
Germans were not manufacturers like the Flemings, but their toys, clocks,
and watches were imported to every part of the globe.

PERSECUTION OF WITCHES.
The same misapprehension of scripture which led to the crusades and the
persecution of protestants, led also to the belief in witches. The Egyptians
practised sorcery, and the Jews, while they sojourned in the land of bondage,
learnt the idolatrous practices and vain superstitions of their lords and masters.
Moses forbade the people under his charge to make graven images, whether in
the likeness of human beings, land animals, fish, or any other thing; and he
also forbade them to practise witchcraft or magic, like their Egyptian taskmasters. In order to enforce these laws, he decreed that all who professed
these arts should be put to death. In the Middle Ages, the church of Rome,
which assumed to be the one and only true church, persecuted to death those
who held any creed but its ownj and taking it for granted that men and
women sold themselves to the devil, or got possession of familiar spirits by
some black art, it hunted after the accursed thing in order to root it out.

222

PERSECUTION OF WITCHES.

[D.

HI

; Pt. i.

P o p e Innocent V I I I . led the way in his famous bull of 1484, which charged
the inquisitors and all true catholics diligently to search out and put to death
those who practised diabolical arts, such as witchcraft, magic, sorcery, and
enchantment. H e appointed for Germany two special inquisitors, Heinrich
Institor and J a c o b Sprenger, who, with the aid of J o h n Gremper, an ecclesiastic, drew u p t h e infamous document called the Witches' Hammer.
This
vile balderdash lays down with great minuteness the characteristics of witches
a n d wizards, the skin-marks to be sought for, the familiar which clung to
them in the shape of cat, dog, goat, or other pet animal, and the questions to
be asked in order to convict them out of their own mouths.
Alexander V I . in 1494, L e o X . in 1521, and Adrian V I . in 1522, supplemented the bull of pope Innocent V I I I . , adding to its severity, and fanning to
a flame the mania which continued in Christendom with more or less violence
for four centuries. T h e result of these bulls was sickening. A panic-fear of
witchcraft set in. If any one fell ill it was attributed to an " e v i l e y e ; " if
any one suffered from lumbago or rheumatism, ague or toothache, misfortune
or accident, crosses or losses, it was the effect of witchcraft; if a storm injured
the crops or troubled the sea, it was some witch who " u n t i e d " the w i n d s ; if
cattle sickened or died, witchcraft was the cause. T o be accused of the
offence was to be convicted, for the Witches' Hammer would always supply
reasons for sending a suspected person to the stake. If the accused pleaded
not guilty they were put to the test, either by water or by torture. I n the
former ordeal, the hands and feet being tied together, the person suspected
was thrown into a running s t r e a m ; to float was proof of guilt, to be punished
at the s t a k e ; to sink was to be drowned. Many a wretch would plead guilty
under terror of these tests, or after being racked, to save themselves from a
repetition of the torture.
I n no part of the world were witch-hunts more common than in Germany.
I n the small bishopric of Bamberg, 600 persons in four years were burnt for
witchcraft; in Wurzberg 9 0 0 ; and in Lindheim, in the same space of time,
one in twenty of the whole population.
I n Geneva, 1515, within three months, above 500 persons were burnt at the
stake on the same charge. I n Como, 1524, double that number, and for m a n y
following years between 100 and 200 every year. I n France, fires blazed in
every town for the extermination of witches and wizards in the year I5 2 °> and
for at least a century the provincial " p a r l e m e n t s " were ceaselessly employed in
witch-trials. England was not exempt from the same madness. During the
L o n g Parliament, 3000 persons are said to have perished for witchcraft, and
executions on the same absurd charge continued long afterwards. T h e Scotch
Assembly, between 1640 and 1649, passed five acts against " t h e crime," each
more stringent than the preceding one. As many as seventeen persons, in
1659, were burnt for witchcraft in Stirling, and the entire number in all
Scotland who suffered death for the offence exceeded 4000.
T h e last instance of a witch-execution in England was in 1716, when M r s .
H i c k s and her daughter, a child only nine years old, were hanged at
H u n t i n g d o n " f o r selling their souls to the devil, and raising a storm by
pulling off their stockings and making a lather of soap." I n Scotland the
last execution was at Dornoch, in 1722; at Wiirzburg, in 1749; at Geneva, in
1782; and at Posen, in 1793.
Witch-executions were abolished by law in France during the reign of
Louis X I V . (1670); in Great Britain, not till the reign of George I I . (1736);
and in Austria, during the kaiserite of Maria Theresa and her husband
Francis I . , in 1766. T h e scripture says the heart of m a n is desperately

I74C-I745-1

MARIA

THERESA

AND KARL

VII.

223

wicked, and cruelty is bound up in his very constitution. Strange, that popes
and prelates, kings and counsellors, budge doctors of our universities, and
men of genuine learning, should consent to hound to death "old women with
a wrinkled face, a furred brow, a hair-lip, or gobber tooth, or squint eye,
a croaking voice, or scolding tongue, or tattered gown, or one who in her
loneliness has a dog or cat, bird or goat, to bear her company. Such were
the wretches pelted and persecuted as witches. Such were the wretches burnt
or hung, because a farmer's cart stuck in the mire, or some idle boy pretended
to be bewitched for the sake of a holiday from school or work." Yet such
were the poor unfortunates selected by christian nations to endure tortures
which it would have been death to inflict upon a brute.

MARIA THERESA, "MOTHER OF HER COUNTRY."
Kaiserin or Empress of the West, 1740 ; Queen of H u n g a r y , 1741; Queen of Bohemia, 1743.
Joint Kaiser and King, Francis I . husband of the Kaiserin (1745-1765); Joseph I I . son of the
Kaiserin (1765-1780), and after his mother's death, Kaiser (1780-1790.)
(Joseph was made " King of the Romans," that is, joint ruler with the right of succession, in 1765).
T h e Elector of Bavaria was crowned kaiser at Frankfort, under the name and title of
Karl V I I .
MARIA THERESA.

B O R N , 1717.

M A R R I E D , 1736.

Died, Sunday, October 29th, 1780.
Contemporary

R E I G N E D 40 V E A R S , 1740-1780.

Aged 63.

with George II., 1727-1760 ; George III., 1760-1820.

Father, Kaiser Karl V I . ; Mother, Elizabeth Christina, daughter of Rudolf of BrunswickWolfenbiittel (1691-1750).
Hushand, Francis Stephan duke of Lorraine. H e changed this duchy for the grand-duchy of
Tuscany. Married, 1736 ; crowned kaiser Francis I . , 1745 ; died, 1765.
Children, 1. Joseph I I . , who was associated with his mother after his father's death in 1765,
and succeeded to the empire in 1780.
2. Leopold I I . , who succeeded his brother, and was grand-duke of Tuscany from
1765.*
3. Maria Karoline, who married Ferdinand IV. king of Sicily.
4. Ferdinand, who married Maria Beatrice d'Este, b y which marriage h e became
duke of Modena.t
5. Marie Antoinette, who married Louis X V I . of France, and was guillotined.
And four other daughters.
CHIEF
1740.
1741.
1742.

EVENTS.

Frederick-William, king of Prussia, dies ; a n d is succeeded b y his son Frederick I I .
" the Great."
Maria Theresa refuses to give u p Silesia to Frederick I I . of Prussia. W a r of t h e
Austrian Succession. Frederick I I . wins the battle of Molwitz.
Maria Theresa appeals to t h e Hungarian diet. T h e elector of Bavaria crowned a t
Frankfort a s Karl V I I . (February 12th).

1743.

Battle of Dettingen won b y George I I . in favour of Maria Theresa ( J u n e 27th).

1744.

Frederick I I . of Prussia renews the war against Maria Theresa.

* This Leopold was the grandfather of Marie Louise, who, in 1810, married Napoleon I., and was the
mother of Napoleon Francois Joseph Charles "king of Rome" and duke of Reichstadt.
t Ferdinand was the father of the count of Chambord, and great-grandfather of don Carlos of Spain.

224
1745.

MARIA THERESA

AND KARL VII.

[ D . i n ; P t I.

1747.
1748.

League against France a n d Prussia b y Maria Theresa, George I I . of England, t h e
elector of Saxony, and the king of Holland.
T h e husband of Maria Theresa crowned kaiser Francis I . (June 13th).
Alliance between Maria Theresa and Russia.
Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. Silesia awarded to Prussia.

1756.

T H E S E V E N Y E A R S ' W A R (1756-1763).

England and Prussia allied against Maria Theresa and France.
1757. Russia joins the alliance of Austria and France.
1764. Joseph, son of Maria Theresa, made " King of the R o m a n s " (March 27th).
1765. D e a t h of kaiser Francis I . the husband of M a r i a Theresa.
1772. T h e partition of Poland proposed.
1773. Poland partitioned between Russia, Prussia, and Austria.
1777. W a r with Bavaria renewed.
1779. Peace of Teschen.
1780. D e a t h of Maria Theresa. Succeeded b y her son Joseph I I .
1790. D e a t h of Joseph I I . Succeeded b y his brother Leopold I I .
1792. D e a t h of Leopold I I .

Maria Theresa was twenty-two years old when her father died;
beautiful, young, magnanimous, and energetic. By a decree,
called the pragmatic sanction (/. 217), she was heir to the Austrian
dominions, but others having a priority by birthright, disputed
this arbitrary decree; and the rival claimants involved Germany
in the War of the Austrian Succession, which lasted seven years
(1741-1748).

If kaiser Karl VI. had followed the advice of Eugene prince of
Savoy, and left his daughter a full exchequer and good army, it
would have done her more service than any parchment bond;
but he left a people peeled and exhausted, an exchequer empty,
an army weak, and a worthless bond; so Bavaria, Saxony,
Prussia, Sardinia, and Naples, all backed up by France, put in
their rival claims; and if Maria Theresa had not been a woman of
stout heart and heroic constancy, the Austrian dominions would
have been rent into fragments by the different claimants.
First, the elector of Bavaria, Karl Albert, maintained that he
had a greater right than Maria Theresa, both on the male and
female line. He himself was the grandson of Leopold I. seeing
his father married the kaiser's eldest daughter; so much for the
spear side. Then for the spindle side—the elector's wife was
Maria Amelia, second daughter of kaiser Joseph I. (elder brother
of Karl). Legally, there is no doubt that Karl Albert had right
on his side—unless, indeed, a subsequent crown over-rides a
previous one.
The next claimant was Frederick Augustus, elector of Saxony
and king of Poland, who had married Maria Josephine the eldest
daughter of kaiser Joseph. On the female side Frederick
Augustus had a prior right to the elector of Bavaria, seeing he

I740-I745-]

MARIA-THERESA.

T H E SILESIAN WAR.

225

married the elder sister; but he had no Austrian blood in his
own veins.
Prussia demanded Silesia; Sardinia wanted Milan; and Spain
laid claim to Bohemia and Hungary.
The first Silesian War (1740 to the Peace of Berlin^ 1742),
$

to

Berlin.

°£A,
Leipzig.

V)
rt

\*»

S I * '

S

POLAND.

W

7 A

°*
Dresden.

Q

Leignitz.

' .

SAXONY.

Bre3lau

'*

/-

Oppeln.

BOHEMIA.
Mainz.

h*

\

». A . . . . . .

Dtttingetu ^X>, \
*f.

MORAVIA.
HUNGARY.

(The three governments of Silesia Were Leignitz, Breslau, and Oppeln, This
province was the bone of contention in the three " Silesian wars " : first war,
1140-1142 ; second war, 1744-1745 ; third war, 1756-/763.)

At a very early date Silesia was joined to Bohemia. In the
tenth century it belonged to Poland, from which it was severed in
1163, when it was ruled by dukes. These dukes at death
divided their province amongst all their sons, so that at one
time it was subdivided into seventeen petty dukedoms. To
prevent falling into the hands of Poland again, Silesia. placed
itself under the protection of Bohemia. In 1537, the duke of
Leignitz (one of the many dukes) made an agreement with the
elector of Brandenburg that if either failed in succession, the
other should rule over the two realms. In 1675 the line of the
duke of Leignitz did fail, and therefore belonged to the elector
of Brandenburg; but the kaiser (Leopold I.) refused to acknowledge the agreement, and seized on the province, pretending it
was a "lapsed fief of Bohemia," and therefore a part of the
Austrian dominions. At the death of kaiser Karl VI., without
male issue, Frederick the Great, of Prussia, claimed Silesia as
'Q

226

MARIA-THERESA AND KARL VII.

[D. m ; P t . I.

his right by private agreement, for it will be remembered that the
elector of Brandenburg had been raised to the dignity of king of
Prussia. Marching an army into Silesia, he sent an embassy to
Maria Theresa, offering to help her against all her other rivals, if
she would resign to him the province in question. The young
kaiserin indignantly rejected the proposal, and Frederick at once
began hostilities. H e had no difficulty in driving the Austrians
out of Silesia, as they were wholly unprepared for war.
In the following spring Maria Theresa sent an army to oppose
the young king of Prussia, but it was utterly defeated at Molwitz,
in 1 7 4 1 .

The ill success of Maria Theresa induced the French to coalesce
with Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony and Spain, against the young
kaiserin, and they attacked Austria in five different points at
once. The elector of Bavaria marched to Lintz in Upper Austria,
where he proclaimed himself " hereditary grand-duke of Austria;"
then to Prague, where he proclaimed himself " king of Bohemia;"
and in January the year following (1742), to Frankfort, where he
was crowned "kaiser," under the name and title of Karl VII.
H e accordingly styled himself "king of Bohemia, hereditary
grand-duke of Austria, and kaiser Augustus of the Holy Roman
empire."
MARIA T H E R E S A WINS THE HUNGARIANS TO HER SIDE (1741).—

There seemed now but small chance for Maria Theresa, but it was
her nature to incline to hope rather than fear; so, leaving Vienna, she
repaired to Presburg, where she was crowned " queen of Hungary."
Then riding on horseback up the royal mount she waved her
sword in defiance to the four cardinal points, and summoned her
diet to meet without delay to deliberate on the state of affairs.
The diet met, and the beautiful young queen with her infant in
her arms, entered the assembly. " Hungarians," she said, " I am
your queen, and this infant your future king. Abandoned by my
friends, persecuted by my enemies, and attacked by my nearest
kinsmen, I have only you to rely on. Your fidelity, Hungarians,
your courage, your constancy, these are the anchor of my hope.
I commit myself to your hands, and to your charge I consign this
infant, the child of your kings." The chivalrous Hungarians were
touched to the quick; they started to their feet; drew their sabres
and exclaimed, " In defence of our queen will we die ! God save
Maria Theresa, our queen ! " A powerful army was soon on foot,
which in six days won back Austria; then entering Bavaria, while
the elector was at Frankfort, took possession of Munich, the
capital (January, 1742).

i74o-i745-]

MARIA-THERESA AND KARL VII.

227

BATTLE OF CZASLAU AND PEACE OF BERLIN (1742).—While the

Hungarians were thus successful in Bavaria, the prince of Lorraine
was sent against Frederick king of Prussia. A battle was fought
at Czaslau, in Bohemia, which was won by the Prussian army, and
Maria Theresa demanded a peace conference. T h e conditions
were agreed to at Breslau, and the treaty signed at Berlin (June
28, 1742). By this treaty Silesia was given up to Prussia, and
thus ended the first Silesian War.
The Second Silesian War 1744, to the Peace of Dresden 1745.
The elector of Saxony having come to a rupture with the nominal kaiser [Karl VIL, elector of Bavaria], retired from the contest,
and Maria Theresa could direct the whole of her Austrian force
against the French and Bavarians. T h e French army was in
Bohemia, and held Prague in its possession. Accordingly, the
young kaiserin sent the prince of Lorraine to besiege that city;
and the French marshal, reduced to extremities, abandoned it
secretly in midwinter.
His retreat was most disastrous; it
resembled in miniature Napoleon's retreat from Moscow. T h e
roads were wretched, the mountains deep with snow, and in eleven
days 4,000 men succumbed to fatigue and cold. Thus ended the
French domination in Bohemia.
The elector of Bavaria, the shadowy kaiser, now only remained,
and his resistance was of the feeblest. T h e prince of Lorraine
led his Austrian army into Bavaria in the early spring; the elector
fled to Frankfort, and Austria took possession of the electorate.
" Kaiser Karl VII." had indeed lost the substance for the shadow!
—the rich electorate of Bavaria for the tinkling cymbal of an
empty title. H e called himself " king of Bohemia," but he had
no subjects there who acknowleged him. H e flaunted the
title of " hereditary grand-duke of Austria," but had no inheritance
there. H e had been crowned " kaiser " at Frankfort, but was as
much a kaiser as Lambert Simnel was earl of Warwick or Perkin
Warbeck duke of York. Like a poor player he strutted and
fretted his hour upon the stage, and then was heard no more.
His coronation and claims of empire ended in smoke; the whole
was a mere "tale told by an idiot, full of sound and fury,
signifying nothing."
T H E BATTLE OF DETTINGEN (June 27, 1743).—The king of
England now took part in the war; and George II. in person led
an allied army of British, Hanoverian, and Hessian troops into
Bavaria. The allied army amounted to 37,000 men, the French
to 72,000. The two camps lay only four leagues apart from each
Q 2

228

SECOND SILESIAN WAR.

[D. m ; P t . i.

other. T h e English general in command was lord Stair, anything
but a military genius. H e allowed his army to be hemmed in on
all sides by the French, to be totally cut off from supplies, and
with no way of escape.
Never was situation more hopeless.
Never was blundering more patent. At this critical moment the
king arrived at the camp, and instantly saw the peril of the
situation. There was only one way of escape—a desperate one,
indeed—to cut his way through the French, superior as they were
in number; so, on June 27, at daybreak, he struck his tent and
marched to Dettingen.
Here he took up his position, and
presently saw his advanced posts driven back. King George and
his soldiers kept up their courage, and resolved to cut through the
foe.
The king's horse, taking alarm, became unmanageable,
plunged forward furiously, carrying the king towards the French
lines. It was a perilous moment. T h e king of England was
almost made prisoner, and never afterwards was any sovereign
of the British isles allowed to appear in person on the battlefield.
The horse was stopped, and the king, dismounting, flourished
his sword, and shouted, " N o w , boys, for the honour of
Old England! Be steady. Behave well, and the French
will run. F i r e ! " Shock after shock from the French horse
broke upon the British infantry, but without effect.
They
would not give back. The king, at length, formed his whole foot
into one solid mass, and advanced. Onward went the column,
dense, steady, overwhelming. Onward moved the mass, breaking
the French squadrons, driving both foot and horse before them.
Onward with steady tramp and murderous fire they marched, till
the enemy broke into promiscuous and wild retreat. Still onward
moved the column, driving the French into the Maine, and cutting
them down in their flight. The French had fought bravely, but
they had British troops to contend against. Our English general
blundered and nearly got entrapped, but the French general also
blundered and lost the day. George I I . was no hero, but undoubtedly brave and sagacious. The battle of Dettingen, lost by
lord Stair, was won by the king, and in all history was never such
a battle lost and won.
The king of Prussia, alarmed at this victory, formed an alliance
with France and the " elector" of Bavaria; and Maria Theresa,
emboldened by the victory of Dettingen, declared that he had
forfeited Silesia, by allying himself to her enemies. Accordingly,
both parties girded themselves for the "Second Silesian War."
PEACE OF DRESDEN

(December

25, 1745).—Frederick

the

Great of Prussia, began the new campaign with an army of

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MARIA-THERESA AND FRANCIS I.

229

100,000 men, penetrated into Bohemia, and took the city of
Prague. The duke of Lorraine was sent against him, and drove
him out of Bohemia. It was a disastrous campaign for Prussia.
The king lost many of his soldiers, large stores of provisions, and
wasted much treasure. The alliance of France in which he trusted
proved " the staff of a broken reed, whereon if a man lean, it will
go into his hand and pierce i t ; " and Karl [elector of Bavaria],
the nominal kaiser, died suddenly, January 20, 1745.
The king of Prussia was now without ally, and his state was
full of danger; but, like a true hero, " t h e fire that killed him
made the ashes of his revival." Girding himself with strength, he
won several battles; and Maria Theresa again concluded peace,
confirming to him Silesia. The treaty was signed at Dresden,
December 25, 1745, and terminated the "Second Silesian
War."
T H E PEACE OF AIX-LA-CHAPELLE (October 18, 1748).—Karl

being dead, Maria Theresa arranged with his son Maximilian
Joseph to restore to him the electorate of Bavaria; and Maximilian
agreed to abandon his claim to the kaiserate, and to give his vote
to the husband of the kaiserin. Accordingly the grand-duke
of Tuscany was elected kaiser Francis I., and crowned at
Frankfort, October 4, 1745.
France still continued the war with Austria under the command
of marshal Saxe. Saxe was one of the greatest commanders of
the eighteenth century, both in gallantry and enterprise. H e obtained several victories in the Low Countries, over the duke of
Cumberland, a peace was signed at Aix-la-Chapelle, October 18,
and the land had rest for the next eight years.
The years of peace improved in Austria and Prussia.
(1741-1756.)
The beautiful and heroic kaiserin employed the interval of
peace in repairing the evils consequent on the wars, and was
eminently qualified for the task. She united the administrative
talent of queen Elizabeth to great kindness of heart, wifely affection,
and a mother's domestic love. She was a true queen and a true
woman; full of feminine graces, piety, charity, and the most affable
manners. H e r husband, now kaiser, took very little share in the
government.
H e was a very humane and amiable prince, but
more fond of experimental chemistry than politics. His hobby
was searching for the "philosopher's stone," and the best hope
of his life was that he might be the lucky individual to stumble
on the secret

230

FREDERICK THE GREAT OF PRUSSIA.

[D.m;Pt.i.

Frederick the Great, of Prussia, also employed the peace wisely
and well. H e lived for the most part in the palace of Sans Souci,
which he had built at Potsdam, and devoted several hours of the
day to public business. H e was fond of books, wrote in French
numerous works both in prose and verse, and was passionately
fond of music. Once a year he made the tour of his kingdom to
review his troops, and make himself personally acquainted with
the state of affairs. Various industries were encouraged by him ;
Berlin was beautified with new buildings, and enriched by works
of art. In 1750 he invited Voltaire to come to Berlin, and reside
in his court. The great and popular Frenchman, twenty years
the king's senior, was treated at first with every mark of respect.
Frederick greatly admired the speculative wisdom and literary
genius of the Frenchman, but they soon felt disappointed with
each other and parted in mutual disgust. The king was a wouldbe poet and Voltaire was no courtier. When asked to criticise
and correct the king's verses (which were always written in
French), he made no concealment of his contempt for the royal
doggerel, and the king hated the critic, as the archbishop of
Granada hated Gil Bias, and dismissed him. When Voltaire left
Berlin he wrote a most scandalous chronicle purporting to be
The private life of the king of Prussia.
It was full of wicked wit,
but utterly worthless as an historical chronicle. Frederick was no
demigod, but he was at least a reality; he spoke what he meant, and
meant what he said ; his acts were not like those of Felipe II.
of Spain, mere shams, but the honest exponents of an honest heart;
and what little truth is incorporated in Voltaire's "chronicle" is so
exaggerated, distorted, and masked, that it was the worst of all
falsehood, " the lie that is part of a lie," expressly designed to
deceive and lead to false conclusions. The great Prussian king
had his faults, but was an excellent monarch for Prussia, thrifty
and considerate. Though so many years were years of war, he
never overtaxed his people. H e was most liberal, but practised such
wise economy that he left a full treasury to his successors, and a
kingdom most prosperous.
Frederick II., as he is best known, was a little wiry alert old
man, slightly stooping in his figure. H e was greatly beloved by
the common people who called him endearingly "Father Fritz."
H e was a king every inch of him, without the shams of royalty.
Carlyle tells us that he dressed with Spartan simplicity; wore an
old military cocked hat, a soldier's blue coat with red facings, " far
from new, and thickly covered down the front with Spanish snuff."
His legs were encased in high military boots, well-soled, but

1740-1765.]

MARIA-THERESA AND FRANCIS I.

231

" guiltless of Day and Martin's brilliant blacking," or what might
be the Nubian blacking of the day. In his hand he carried a
walking stick. It was a contrast worth looking at to see Louis XIV.
sleek, grimacing, periwigged, and posturing,—and old Father Fritz
dignified, simple, stiff as a poker and slovenly in dress, mounted
on his jog-trot mare, walking-stick in hand, which he held upright
or with which he struck the patient old brute ever and anon between the ears. The blow was always a tender and loving one,
not by way of chastisement but by way of reminder that Father
Fritz was its companion. It was a mountebank and a Spartan, a
royal fop and royal father.
His face was not heroic, but had strong character. His mouth
firmly shut, lips thin, jaw and nose prominent, brow receding,
eyes grey and swift-darting, no lynx had keener—Mirabeau said
of them, " They fascinated with seduction or with terror." His
voice was clear and sonorous. H e talked much but well to the
point, and those who heard him would sooner have tasked him
for silence than taxed him for speech.
H e was a very original man, and what is more, he dared to be
honest, dared to discard all falsity and shams. H e lived in one
of the worst periods of European history, the eighteenth century,
the age of rottenness and falsehood ; but was neither tainted
with the corruption nor tarred by its touch. No wonder the
French revolution broke out, for the whole state of society was
a bubble, and bubbles must burst. Kings had bubble notions
of king-craft, ministers of diplomacy, the church of religion,
society of socialism, tradesmen of common honesty, and artists
of art. The drama was without decency, and works of fancy
without even the veil of modesty. The earthquake came, the
windows of heaven were opened, the fountains of the great deep
were broken up, and the whole fabric of lies was swept away.
True there is much evil still, but it is not so hopelessly predominant—it does not contaminate everything—the slime of the
serpent is not over all. There are frogs and flies to annoy, but
they are not in "all our quarters."
With Maria Theresa in Austria and Frederick I I . in Prussia,
Germany rapidly grew in population, wealth, and literary eminence; and neither Maria Theresa nor Frederick " a t e their
hearts," because men saw not eye to eye with themselves, nor
attempted to pull up the tares in God's wheatfield, lest by so
doing they pulled up the wheat also.
In the character of Frederick II., Carlyle's biography has been both consulted and freely
used, as well as some of the originals to which Carlyle refers.

232

MARIA-THERESA.

FREDERICK T H E GREAT.

[D.mjPt.i.

THE SEVEN

YEARS'
WAR (1756, to the peace of Hubertsburg, 1763).
(Called the Third Silesian War).
Eirst Campaign (1756).
Dresden captured by Frederick I I . king of Prussia (Aug.).
Battle of Lobositz (Oct. 1), Indecisive. Saxons surrender.
Second Campaign (1757).
Prague (May 6). Won by Frederick I I . over Charles of Lorraine,
Kolin (June 18). Daun defeats Frederick I I .
Rosbach (Nov. 5). Won by Frederick I I .
Leuthen (Dec. 5). Won by Frederick over Charles of Lorraine,
Third Campaign (17 58),
Zorndorf (Aug. 25). Won by Frederick over Fermor.
Hochkirchen (Oct. 14). Daun defeats Frederick I I .
Fourth Campaign (1759).
Minden (Aug, 1). The French defeated by Ferdinand of Brunswick.
Kunersdorf (Aug. 12). Laudon defeats Frederick I I .
Maxen (Nov. 20). Daun defeats the Prussian army.
Fifth Campaign (1760),
Leignitz (Aug. 16), Won by Frederick I I .
Torgau (Nov. 3). Won by Frederick I I . over Daun.
Sixth Campaign (1761).
Langensalza (Feb. 14). The French defeated by Hanoverians.
Villingshausen (July 15). The French defeated by Ferdinand of
Brunswick.
Schweidnitz captured in September by Laudon,
Seventh Campaign (1762).
Burkersdorf (July 21). The Austrians driven from their intrenchments,
Reichenbach (Aug. 16). Won by Frederick I I . over Daun.
Schweidnitz recaptured (Oct. 7) by the Prussians.
Wilhelmsthal (June 24). Won for Prussia by the two dukes of
Brunswick.
Peace of Hubertsburg and end of the War (Feb. 15, 1763.)
—CARLYLE, History of Friedrich IE of Prussia, Vols. HI. and IV.
On the Austrian side:—
MARIA THERESA, allied with France, Russia, Sweden, Poland, and (in the
first year) with Saxony.
Commanders: Charles prince of Lorraine, Daun, Fermor (a Russian
general), and Laudon. (Prince Charles was removed in 1757, and the
command given to marshal Daun).
On the Prussian side:—
FREDERICK I I . the Great, king of Prussia, allied with Great Britain,
Hanover, and Hessen.
Cotnmanders : Frederick I I . and the two dukes of Brunswick. (The duke
of Cumberland was recalled in 1757, and the command of the allied British,
Hanoverian, and Hessian army was given to Ferdinand duke of Brunswick,)
P R I N C E CHARLES OF LORRAINE was the younger son of duke Leopold

of Lorraine, and younger brother of Francis or Franz (husband of Maria
Theresa). H e was one of the Austrian generals in the Silesian wars, but
often defeated.

1740-1765-]

2

MARIA-THERESA AND FRANCIS I.

33

MARSHAL DAUN [pronounce Doun\ 1705-1766. Commander-in-chief of
the Austrian troops in the " Seven Years' War," was brave and prudent.
He won the battles of Kolin (1757), Hochkirchen (1758), and Maxen (1759)',
but lost those of Torgau (1760), and Reichenbach (1762).
FERMOR (1704-1741) a Russian general, but son of a Scotchman. H e
entered the army of the czar in 1720, and was made commander-in-chief in
1755. In the " Seven Years' War " he lost the battle of Zomdorf (1758).
LAUDON (1716-1760), an Austrian general of Scotch extraction. H e won
the battles of Kunersdorf (1759), and Landshut (1760); carried the town of
Glatz, in Silesia (1759); and was created field-marshal in 1778.
FERDINAND DUKE O F BRUNSWICK (1721-1792), appointed by George I I .

commander of the allied British, Hanoverian, and Hessian troops, in the
place of the duke of Cumberland. He defeated the French at Minden
(1758), and again at Wilhelmsthal (1762).
CHARLES

WILLIAM

DUKE

OF BRUNSWICK

(1735-1806)

nephew

of

Ferdinand, under whom he served in the " Seven Years' War." It was
the son of this duke who took part in the battle of Waterloo, and was killed
at Quatre Bras (1815).

First Campaign (1756).—Maria Theresa could never reconcile
herself to the loss of Silesia, which had been ceded to Prussia at
the close of the last war; and as the rapid growth of Prussia
was viewed with jealousy by most European powers, she thought
it a favourable moment to strike at the young king. Accordingly,
she secretly negotiated an alliance with France and Russia.
Frederick II. of Prussia, fully aware of the threatened danger,
formed an alliance with Great Britain, and marched suddenly
into Saxony at the head of 70,000 men. His object was to
prevent the Saxons from joining the Austrians, a conjunction
which would have been ruinous to his best hopes. An army of
Austrians was sent against the young Prussian king, and being
defeated by him, the Saxons laid down their arms, and most of
the men were enrolled in the Prussian army. Thus, with
the submission of the Saxons, ended the first campaign of the
" Seven Years* War," and Frederick the Great with his Prussians
wintered in Saxony and Silesia.
Second Campaign (1757).—In the second year of the war the
Austrians had received another ally, the Swedes; so that now
there were on the side of Austria—France, Russia, Sweden,
and numerous German states; on that of Prussia only Great
Britain, with Hanover and Hessen. The allied Austrian armies
were 450,000 strong, while the allied Prussians were scarcely half
that number. On each side was a most incompetent general—
prince Charles of Lorraine commander-in-chief of the Austrians,
and the duke of Cumberland of the allied British, Hanoverian,
and Hessian army. Both these generals were superseded,

234

THE SEVEN YEARS* WAR.

[D.injPt.i.

Charles of Lorraine by marshal Daun, and the duke of Cumberland by duke Ferdinand of Brunswick.
The campaign began in April, when Frederick II. led his
Prussians into Bohemia, and utterly defeated prince Charles of
Lorraine at Prague (May 6th); but marshal Daun coming up,
inflicted on the victorious Prussians a most crushing defeat at
Kolin (June 18th), and drove them out of Bohemia.
King Frederick, nothing daunted, instantly marched into
Saxony, where he utterly defeated the French at Rosbach. So
complete was this victory and so disgraceful to the French, that
the " rout of Rosbach " became proverbial in the French army.
The loss of the Prussians in this victory was under 300 men,
while the French left 1,300 slain on the field, and 6,000 were
taken prisoners (November 5, 1757).
Exactly one month after the victory of Rosbach, the Prussians
defeated the Austrians at Leuthen (December 5th). Prince
Charles was the Austrian leader, but after this terrible defeat he
was recalled, and the chief command was given to marshal Daun.
Though the Austrians at Leuthen were more than two to one, so
complete was their overthrow, that whole battalions were made
prisoners, and thirty cannons with 3,000 baggage wagons fell
into the hands of the Prussians. Frederick followed up his
victory by chasing the Austrians out of Silesia. Thus ended the
second year of the war. Silesia was left in the hands of the
king of Prussia, and although marshal Daun won for the
Austrians the battle of Kolin, Frederick II., justly called " t h e
Great," won those of Prague, Rosbach, and Leuthen, against
vastly superior numbers ; and acquired immortal glory for the
rapidity of his movements, the energy of his character, the
fertility of his resources, and his indomitable courage.
Third Campaign (1758).—The third year of the campaign
began with an attack on the French in Lower Saxony by Ferdinand, duke of Brunswick, commander-in-chief of the allied
British, Hanoverian, and Hessian army. The duke drove the
French across the Rhine, and defeated them at Krefeld with
greatly inferior forces (June 23rd).
Meanwhile Frederick the Great marched to Brandenburg
against General Fermor, who had been sent by the Czarina
Elizabeth with a Russian army to aid the Austrians and humble
the Prussians. The king fell in with the Russian army at Zorndorf (August 25th), and gained so complete a victory that Fermor
retreated into Poland.
This was the most bloody conflict of the whole war. It could

1740-1765.3

MARIA-THERESA AND FRANCIS I.

235

scarcely be called a battle in the modern sense of the word, for
it was more like one of those Homeric fights we read of in the
Iliad. It began at nine in the morning and continued till ten at
night. Hand to hand they fought, and horse to horse. They
rushed on each other like personal foes; they reeled from side to
side; they hewed each other like ancient paladins; from morn
to noon they fought, from noon to night—"trasing, raising,
loyning, staggering, panting, bleeding;" now butting like rams,
now goring each other like wild boars, now grovelling on the
ground, now hurtling together. The sun went down and still
they fought, the moon rose in her fulness, and still they fought.
No quarter was given, and therefore no life was spared. Above
19,000 Russians were mowed down like autumn corn, and
11,000 Prussians.
Scarcely was this bloody battle fought and won, at such terrible
cost, than the indefatigable Frederick marched into Saxony to the
relief of his brother, who was hard pressed by marshal Daun, the
Austrian leader.
Daun retreated as the king came up, and
Frederick followed him.
Strange to say, on October 14th, the king encamped on an
open plain near Hochkirchen. How he could commit such a
blunder is past understanding, but Daun was not slow in taking
advantage of it. At five o'clock in the morning, while it was still
dark, noiselessly and stealthily he crept towards the foe. The
Prussians were roused from sleep by the roar of artillery. The
advanced post was attacked, and their battery, being seized, was
made to play upon the camp. Crash went volley after volley,
belching out flame and smoke. Whish! whir! crash ! boom !
without intermission. Nothing could be seen, but the rattle was
sharp and crisp. Up start officers and men in every style of
undress, some with their nightcaps on. The horses, mad with
terror, scamper in all directions, adding to the confusion; and
the riders are at their wits' end. All is at sixes and sevens. It
is impossible to move. No word of command can be obeyed.
The men are shot down at a venture, before they can lay hands
upon their muskets. The sun rose—rose in thick clouds, a
dingy red, like a candle in a horn lantern. The fog thickens; so
thick was it one could not see his h a n d ; and well it was so.
Bugles sounded the retreat, the Prussians decamped, but all their
baggage was lost and many of their guns ; while several of the
best officers, and 3,000 rank-and-file strewed that fatal field like
broken glass.
Though in retreat and checked, the undaunted king was " cast

236

THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR.

[D.mjPt.i.

down but not destroyed; perplexed but not in despair." He led
his army at once into Silesia, and met there with such success,
that the end of the year saw him still master of that coveted
province. He had won in this campaign the great battle of
Zorndorf, and suffered a check at Hochkirchen, but the balance
of advantage was still with him, and he wintered in Bohemia.
Fourth Campaign (1759).—The fourth year of the war was to
the Prussians the most unfortunate of the seven. The state of
Frederick at the end of the campaign could not be worse, and
"things at the worst must cease, or else climb upward." The
kingdom and life of Frederick did not "cease" in this, his
" worst" condition, and, therefore, dawn broke through his
darkness, or, as Shakespeare has it, his affairs began to "climb
upwards."
The year began with a little patch of red, for Ferdinand duke
of Brunswick, with his allied British and Hanoverian troops,
gained a signal victory at Minden over the French (Aug. 1) ; but
this was the only gleam of light in the deep darkness of this
terrible year.
August 12th, king Frederick of Prussia, suffered at Kunersdorf,
near Berlin, the greatest defeat of all his reign, from the combined Russian and Austrian armies. He had gone to Brandenburg to strengthen the hands of general Wedel, who had been
sent to prevent the Russians from joining the Austrians. He had
won the day, and had even dispatched a letter to Berlin to
announce his victory, when Laudon with his Austrians came up,
and completely changed the whole aspect of affairs. His defeat
was unmistakeable : 165 cannons were lost, and of all his fine
army but 5,000 answered to their names when the roll was called
over. Frederick was broken-hearted, and wrote in pencil to his
chief minister at Berlin: "All is lost. Save the royal family."
Three hours later he dispatched another note: " I shall not
survive my kingdom. Farewell for ever." Strange to say, the
victors did not march to Berlin, but the Russian and Austrian
generals fell out, and Prussia was saved.
Misfortunes never come in single file, but in battalions. In
November the king suffered another loss: A body of men had
been sent to defend Dresden, but before they arrived the city had
been delivered up to the Austrians; and not long after this misadventure, Fink, another Prussian general, with his whole army,
surrendered to marshal Daun. " T o lowest pitch of abject
fortune fallen," the great Frederick could say with David, "the
waters are come in unto my soul. I sink in deep mire, where

1740-1765.]

MARIA-THERESA AND FRANCIS I.

237

there is no standing: I am come into deep waters, where the
floods overflow me
Deliver me out of the mire,
let me not sink. Let me be delivered from them that hate
me, and out of the deep waters. Let not the waterflood overflow me, neither let the deep swallow me up, and let not the
pit shut her mouth upon me." And he could add with the
Psalmist, " Thou hast shown me great troubles, but Thou wilt
quicken me again, and bring me up from the depth of the earth.
Thou will increase my greatness, and comfort me on every side.
I will yet praise thee, and my lips shall rejoice, for they are
confounded and brought unto shame that sought my hurt."
Fifth Campaign (1760).—The fifth year of the war found
Frederick of Prussia in great straits.
His army was much
reduced, and was composed chiefly of foreigners and recruits,
while the number of his enemies had increased. In August he
marched into Silesia, dogged by the Austrians, and halted at
Leignitz.
Three Austrian armies threatened him—one under
marshal Daun, another under general Laudon, and the third
under Lasci.
Before daybreak on the 15th, general Laudon led his men
stealthily round to the opposite heights, intending to fall on the
Prussians in the rear, while Daun and Lasci held them in fight,
but it so happened that king Frederick, during the night, had
changed his encampment, and taken up his position on the very
heights which Laudon intended to occupy. It was early morning ; the Prussians were asleep; the king himself had lain down
to rest, with his martial cloak over h i m ; all was silent, not a
sound stirred except the occasional challenge of the sentries, or
the hushed whisper of watchers. Between two and three in
the morning, while it was still dark, the patrol woke the king
with the announcement " the foe is at hand !" In a moment he
was on his horse, in a moment later every officer was at his post,
the whole camp was astir, every man, from highest to lowest was
on the alert. Laudon was thunderstruck: he had fallen into a
trap, but retreat was impossible, and he prepared for battle, being
fully persuaded that Marshal Daun and general Lasci would hear
the guns and bring up their men without delay.
After three hours' fighting (it was then only five in the morning)
the struggle was decided. Laudon had lost 4000 men, 6000 more
were wounded, eighty-two cannons had fallen into the hands of
the Prussians, and Laudon retreated in full flight.
At daybreak, marshal Daun, wholly ignorant of what had taken
place, moved his army to give battle; but was driven back with

238

T H E SEVEN YEARS' WAR.

[D. m ; P t . i .

great loss, and the victory of the Prussians was brilliant and
complete. The fortune of the king had turned, for the victory of
Leignitz gave Frederick all the north-western portion of Silesia.
T h e Austrians who escaped from Leignitz, joining the Russian
contingent, now marched to Berlin, the capital of Prussia, which
soon fell into their hands; but hearing that the king was on his
way to the relief of the city, the combined armies retreated into
Saxony. Here the king came up to them, and offered battle at
Torgau. The attack was made in two divisions, that led by the
king was repulsed, and Frederick was under the impression that
the battle would be renewed next morning. Not so. Marshal
Daun decamped secretly during the night.
Having been
wounded, he retreated to Dresden, and at daybreak the Prussians
were amazed to see the camp deserted. The battle of Torgau
cannot be called a victory; but it was as good as a victory, for it
left the Prussians masters of the field, and the greater part of
Saxony fell into their hands. The year had been a brilliant one
for the great Frederick, and he took up his quarters for the winter
in Leipzig.
The Sixth and Seventh Campaigns (1761-1762).—Nothing
of
any great moment occurred in the sixth year of the war, but
in January, 1762, the czarina died, and in July Katherine II.
recalled the Russian army, and entirely withdrew from Germany.
Sweden also withdrew, so that only Austria and France remained,
and Frederick no longer doubted of a successful issue. Victory
followed victory. France, tired of being beaten, withdrew; the
minor states of Germany, wholly exhausted, withdrew also; and
Maria Theresa, the kaiserin, was compelled to conclude peace.
The treaty was signed at Hubertsburg, February 15, 1763, and
Frederick the Great of Prussia was the acknowledged Lord of
Silesia.
The war began because Prussia refused to resign Silesia, the
war ended and Prussia was allowed to retain it. This was a very
small matter for a war of seven years' duration, a war in which
almost all Europe took part—a war in which a million lives were
lost, and many a nation was brought almost to the brink of ruin;
but small as this result undoubtedly was, the heroism, the pertinacity, the genius of king Frederick, made him the observed of
all observers; and Prussia, which seven years ago was only an
insignificant kingdom, became at once one of the Great Powers,
and the rival of Austria.
II For the next century Germany was two-fold, Austrian and
Prussian, and all the minor states grouped themselves around

1740-1765.]

MARIA-THERESA AND FRANCIS I.

239

these two great powers, according to their interests or sympathies. Prussia was the rising sun, Austria the setting. In another
century, another wrestle of supremacy occurred. This time the
conflict did not last seven years, but seven weeks; for in 1866
Austria yielded the palm to Prussia, and after the Franco-German
war (1870-1871) the king of Prussia, not the kaiser of Austria,
was the acknowledged "Emperor of Germany." Seven years
made Prussia a European power, seven weeks placed it above
Austria, and seven months made the king of Prussia " emperor of
Germany."
II When the Seven Years' War was ended, Maria Theresa
employed herself again in promoting the well-being of her
subjects, and Austria rapidly increased in wealth, prosperity,
and population. She encouraged the arts and sciences; protected trade; established schools; and gave prizes for useful
inventions, improvements in manufactures, and superior excellency in cereals, fruits, and flowers. She abolished the game
laws, and the right of sanctuary. Hitherto no farmer was allowed
to kill game. Wild boars, wolves, foxes, rabbits, or hares were so
called, and to hunt or shoot them was the privileged amusement
of the upper ten. By the new law, farmers were allowed to
destroy any wild animals that injured their crops, and their wealth
rapidly increased. By the right of sanctuary, any criminal who
could make his escape to a convent or church was under the
protection of the priesthood, and could not be punished by the
civil authorities; but the right being abolished, every law-breaker
was amenable to the law, and might be arrested in a convent or
church as well as in a private house or the public streets. Maria
Theresa also abolished the search for witches, examination by
torture, the Inquisition, and religious persecution ; and threw open
all civil offices to protestants and catholics alike.
By this wise administration Austria soon became one of the
richest and most prosperous countries of the world; poverty was
rare, and want absolutely unknown.
The Partitions of Poland.
Maria Theresa, like most other crowned heads,—kings, kaisers,
sultans, shahs, and czars,—thought she served the country by
pushing back its limits. Russia has always made encroachment
her policy, and Prussia has sought scientific boundaries, as well
as France and England.
Poland was an extensive country,
reaching from the Baltic Sea to the Carpathian Mountains, north
and south; with Brandenburg and Silesia on the west; and

240

PARTITION OF POLAND.

[D. i n ; Pt. 1.

Russia on the east. It was then weak and divided, offering a
tempting bait to her powerful neighbours, who agreed to hunt
together and share the spoils.
The kingdom of Poland was established long before that of
Russia or Austria. It existed in the time of Charlemagne, and
was christianised when Henry the Fowler and his son Otto laid
the foundation of the German empire. Its golden period was the
sixteenth century, our Tudor dynasty, especially the reigns of
Sigismund I., called the "Great," and Sigismund II., his son,
surnamed Augustus (1506-15 72). These wise rulers kept aloof
from the religious persecutions of Spain, France, and Germany;
and their kingdom was rich, powerful, and prosperous.
At the death of Sigismund Augustus, the crown of Poland,
hitherto hereditary, was made elective; and ere long foreigners
reigned there, instead of native princes. Augustus II. duke of
Saxony being elected king, introduced religious persecution; and,
to strengthen his power, made a close alliance with Russia.
His successor, Augustus III., followed the same unwise policy;
and the Poles were no longer a united people, but were divided
into royalists and patriots. As the Saxon kings were protestants,
the royalists were catholics, hand-in-hand with the Jesuits. Here
was an opening for interference; and in 1770 Frederick II. the
Great, of Prussia, proposed to Russia and Austria to prey on " the
sick man " a n d divide the spoils. This was done in 1772. In
this FIRST PARTITION, Russia took as her share 42,000 square
miles, Austria 27,000, and Prussia 13,000. The country now,
alive to its danger, gave a feeble struggle for freedom; but was
like a "limed bird, which, struggling to be free, is more engaged."
It resolved to have no more foreign rulers, but to elect only native
princes, and to make the crown hereditary. Russia objected;
and in 1790 made a SECOND PARTITION, by which she took
96,000 square miles more, gave Prussia 22,000 as a sop, but left
Austria in the cold.
Austria thought it unfair, and determined to help herself. The
Poles resisted. The Prussians and Russians joined with Austria ;
Kosciusko, the Polish general, of course was overthrown;
Warsaw, the capital, was taken; and what was left of Poland
was shared between the spoilers. In this THIRD PARTITION, which
took place in 1795, R U £ S i a t c ° k 435°°° square miles (making
altogether 181,000 square miles), Prussia took 21,000 square
miles (making altogether 56,000 square miles), and Austria
18,000 square miles (making altogether 45,000 square miles).
It would be absurd to attempt any justification of this plunder;

1748-1870J

MARIA THERESA.

LITERATURE.

241

but it will not do to scan the honesty of nations too minutely, for
the very best of them cannot show a " a maiden and an innocent
hand," be it Jew or Gentile, protestant or catholic, republic or
monarchy; the lust of dominion is a masterless passion, which
always sways "to what it likes or loathes."
Death of Maria Theresa and Frederick the Great
Maria Theresa died in 1780, ten years before the second
partition and fifteen before the third partition of Poland.
Frederick the Great died in 1786, and had no share in the
second and third partitions of the peeled nation. Maria Theresa
was succeeded in Austria by her son Joseph II., and Frederick in
Prussia by his nephew Frederick William II.
JOSEPH II. died in 1790. He wished to reign well, but was
too violent in his reforms. Frederick William II., who died in
1797, was weak and worthless.
Joseph II. was succeeded by his brother LEOPOLD I I , who
died in 1792, a little after the outbreak of the French Revolution.
Like his brother, he meant well, and was more prudent; but both
these kaisers reigned in an interval between the bursting of a great
storm, and are wholly dwarfed by the magnitude of the events
which followed their almost eventless lives.
LITERATURE OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
The seventeenth century may be looked on as the dark period of German
literature. The Thirty Years' War crushed out the spirit of men and paralysed both science and art. Yet even in these calamitous times there was a
silver thread of genius. This time of rapine and roguery, of wild disorder
and instability, gave birth to a class of literature called picaresco romance or
romance of knavery, like The Adventures of Gil Bias. Of these tales that called
Simplicius Simplicissimus is the best.* Simplicissimus relates his own adventures, and Fortune casts him into various grades of society to " blow on whom he
pleased." The adventurer is the son of a peasant, but in consequence of the
wars is sent for security to be educated and brought up by a hermit. In time
he enters the service of a government officer, where he plays all sorts of
pranks, and his master resolves to make him a licensed fool. As this does not
suit the views of Simplicissimus he runs away, and after many strange adventures,
enlists as a soldier, distinguishes himself, and is made a baron. So much
for his rise, now for his fall. He marries, loses all his money, becomes fearfully
disfigured by small-pox, and is taken prisoner. Here more adventures follow,
till at last weary of life, worn out with fatigue, broken in spirit, and disappointed in all his hopes, he retires from the world and turns hermit. This
popular tale gives us a graphic picture of society in the Thirty Years' War.
The Robinson Crusoe period followed the picaresco. Of this class of
romance, Octavia, by Anton Ulrich of Brunswick, is well known. It is a
capital tale, full of anecdotes, episodes, incidents, and historical traditions.
* By Christopher von Grimmelshausen ( • -1676).

R

242

MARIA THERESA.

SILESIAN POETS.

[D.injPt.i.

The Marvellous and Veracious Visions of Philander of Sittewald (1650), is a
romance of different character to either of the foregoing. It is a prose satire
on the vices and follies of the day, and contains many important details of the
Thirty Years' War. The vices of the age are castigated in dreams or visions :
Thus, one vision, called " the army of the dead" lashes the lawyers,
and ridicules their chicanery and jargon. Another gibbets the folly of astrology. Another the bastard German language, distorted into Brummagem
Italian, French, and Latin; as Johnson and Addison a little later tortured
the English language. In another vision the author directs his shaft against
the picaresco school of novels, their immoral tendency, their coarseness, and
their bad influence. One chapter " O n Military Life" is especially excellent,
and is often referred to in proof of the savage brutality of the period.
THE SILESIAN POETS.
War is not the time for poetry, but during this stormy period flourished the
Silesian poets Martin Opitz, Paul Fleming, Andrew Gryph, and Gaspar
Lohenstein. Contemporary with Fleming was Paul Gerhard of Saxony, and
a little before him was Waldis the fabulist.
MARTIN OPITZ of Silesia (1597-1639), the "father of modern German
poetry," was a protestant, but was much pampered by catholic princes.
Ferdinand II. ennobled him, and few poets have ever been so petted—none
have exercised a greater influence. His poetry is not fervid and glowing ; it has
no deep passion or brilliant fancy, but the language is chaste and the metre
smooth, descriptive or didactic, full of reflections, and in long Alexandrine
verse. He wrote an opera called Judith ; translated into German the Antigdne
of Sophocles and the Psalms of David ; and wrote a descriptive poem on the
Campaigns of Ladislaus IV. against Russia. Some call his Ladislaus an
epic, but it has about as much claim to such a distinction as Voltaire's
Henriade. His best production is a didactic poem called Consolation in
the troubles of war. Opitz, absurdly called the "Dryden of Germany," bears
no more resemblance to the "immortal John " than Klopstbck does to Milton.
He was at best a mere imitator of the Italian poets, and had no originality, no
vigour, no imagination. In fact, his ideal of good poetry was elegant diction,
and he might with far more justice be termed the Mad. Tussaud of poetry.
Fancy comparing a finical courtier who bowed himself into "society," a Beau
Brummel of language, to the duke of Buckingham's poet Squab ! Opitz was
the founder of a school, but none of his followers need even be mentioned.
PAUL FLEMING of Silesia (1609-1640), the "German Herrick,"* stands at
the head of all the lyric poets of the seventeenth century. He is a better poet
than Opitz, with far more fire, vigour, and passion. His Sacred and Secular
Poems contain some exquisite love-songs worthy Anacreon,t and for a century
or more were looked on as models of elegance and finish. His sonnet On
Myself and his epitaph written only four days before he died, are gems of
"heaven-bred poetry."
ANDREW GRYPH of Silesia (1616-1664) was the prince of Silesian poets, and
the "father of the modern drama" in Germany. Our Shakespeare died the
very year that Gryph was born. Like Shakespeare the Silesian dramatist wrote
* Robert Herrick an English poet of the time of Cromwell and Charles II. He wrote sacred and erotic
poetry, showing a luxuriant fancy and elegant quaintness.
t Anacreon, a Greek, wrote erotic or bacchanalian poetry of the highest order. His poems have been
translated into English by T. Moore.

17th Cent.]

LITERATURE.

LEIBNITZ.

243

both comedies and tragedies, but he was no child of nature like our bard
of Avon. Gryph took Seneca for his model, and is consequently pompous,
declamatory, and overstrained ; but his plots are good, his observations just,
and his characters strongly drawn ; two of them have become household words
in Germany, Peter Squenz and Horribili-scribritax* The former an author, the
latter a soldier of the Bobadil type, " a coward but a bragger."* He also
wrote odes, elegies, and hymns.
GASPAR LOHENSTEIN of Silesia (1635-1683) was a writer of tragedies of the
same school but not equal to Gryph. He was altogether a blood and thunder
poet, delighting in horrors, and selecting his plots from the bloodiest pages of
Roman and Turkish story. " Titus Andron'icus,'* one of the doubtful dramas
of Shakespeare, might have been written by him, for it is most revolting from
beginning to end. His best tragedies are Sophonisba, Agrippina, and Cleopatra,
but even in these he is turgid, pedantic, and strained.
The golden age. of German poetry had not dawned even in the seventeenth
century.
N o subject has been so often the subject of tragedy as Sophonisba. In Italian, we have
the plays of Trissino (1514) and Alneri (1783), in English, those of Marston (1605) a n d
Thomson (1729); in French, those of Mairet (1630), Corneille, Lagrange-Chancel, and Voltaire;
and in German, that of Gaspar Lohenstein.
Sophonisba was the daughter of Asdrubal, the Carthaginian, and like Hannibal, was
reared to detest Rome. She was affianced to Masinissa, king of N u m i d i a ; but was given b y
her father in marriage to Syphax, who then became the ally and friend of Carthage. After
the defeat of Syphax b y Masinissa, Sophonisba fell into the hands of the conqueror, who
married her. Scipio, the Roman, fearing the influence of the beautiful captive, insisted on
her being given into his h a n d s ; and Masinissa, to save her from captivity, sent her a bowl
of poison which she readily drank, a n d thus put an end to her life.
There are many points of resemblance between Sophonisba and Cleopatra (another popular
subject of dramatists). Both were young and fascinating—both were married—both were
doomed to hold in bonds of love their conqueror,—both were saved from being made R o m a n
captives by suicide.

PAUL GERHARD of Saxony (1606-1676) was a religious poet of the highest
order. Deeply pious and full of religious fervour, a spirit of adoration breathes
in every line. His hymns are still popular, and are justly reckoned master-pieces
of sacred poetry.
BURKHARD WALDIS of Altdorf (sixteenth century) is the best fabulist of
Germany, and was the first to translate ^Esop's fables into German. He
published 139 original fables, tales, and short allegories. His style is graceful,
arch, and humorous.

AUTHORS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY NOT POETS OR
ROMANCERS.
The seventeenth century produced no poets of great merit, but three names
stand out in strong relief: Leibnitz, Spinoza, and Stahl; and two others are
worthy most honourable mention, Michaelis and Heineccius [Mi-nexf-i-us],
WILLIAM LEIBNITZ (1646-1716) linguist and historian, philosopher and
mathematician, was a man to be proud oi. His scholarship probably was never
equalled, certainly never surpassed. His writings are "legion," but all either in
French or Latin. German was still despised by courtiers and scholars, and indeed
was, at the time, a sad harlequin unfit for solid literature. Leibnitz contributed
* Bobadil, a vaunting: coward in Ben Jonson's comedy of Every Man in his Humour (1536).
R

2

244

SPINOZA.

STAHL.

[D. i n ; Pt. I.

to almost every journal of the day. . His History of the House of Brunswick is
in Latin, so is his great work The Diplomatic Codex, a collection of treaties,
manifestoes, and other public documents ; but his Annals of Germany to 1005,
and his Theodocea, which contains his metaphysical and theological ideas, are
in French.
This magnate of German literature was a man of middle size; spare,
but of vigorous frame. His countenance was pleasant, his eyes keen, he
stooped in his walk, and his hair was prematurely grey. He ate sparingly, and
slept little. He was a member of the Royal Society of England, and it was
through his influence that the king of Prussia founded the University of Berlin.
Leibnitz is chiefly known for his speculative philosophy, and the two most
original of his speculations are his Theory of Monads, and what he calls Preestablished Harmony.
He maintained that there are two kinds of monads, or
protoplasms, one spiritual and the other material. The former make mind,
and the latter body. Spirit monads, he said, possess innate consciousness, and
are the protoplasms of soul; material monads possess innate sensibility, and
are the protoplasms of the animal body. " Pre-established harmony" is the
cause of the perfect sympathy and joint action of these two protoplasms. He
compared the machines made of spirit and body monads in one individual to
two clocks having simultaneous but independent action. The mind machine
or thinking clock determines the operation (as the hour, minute, and time of
striking), but the body clock shows outwardly what the hour or minute is, and
strikes audibly the hour required. The one is the machine of volition, the
other of action. He opposed Locke, the English philosopher, on the subject
of "innate ideas." Locke maintained that the mind at birth is as bare as a
sheet of white paper, but Leibnitz insisted that the seeds of ideas are in the
infant mind, as the seeds of plants in the embryo shoots. The influence of
Leibnitz on all Europe was immense, and can hardly be overstated ; but his
day has gone by, and no one now believes in dual monads and their preestablished harmony,
SPINOZA (1632-1677), the deepest thinker and most logical reasoner the
world has ever seen. His great work, written in Latin, and called Ethics, is an
exposition of "pantheism," that is, the identity of God and the Universe.
According to this philosopher the universe was not created by God, but is
identical with God. God is everything and everything is God. This
hypothesis was not a new one: it was suggested by the Greek philosophers 500
years before the christian era, and even they were by no means the first to entertain it. Spinoza was no atheist—the furthest from it possible: he believed in
an omnipresent deity in its widest extent. Everything with him was the present
deity; but he did not believe that deity and the universe are separate or
separable. He was wonderfully modest, devout, and honest, and his Ethics,
in five parts, is the most stupendous piece of logical reasoning that ever issued
from the human brain. The Bible says " Canst thou by searching find out
God ? " No, for " the world by wisdom [knows] not God," but only by revelation. Why is this? " T h a t no flesh should glory in his presence." If the
devout spirit, and logical reasoning of Spinoza did not succeed in leading him
to the truth as revealed in the Bible, no inferior mind can hope by philosophy
to succeed. These things, revealed to babes, are often hidden to the wise.
Unlike to ordinary science, the foolish may be the wisest, and the wise
foolish in that knowledge which is not given to man's understanding to find
out.*
* Spinoza was a Dutchman, bom of Jewish parents, but belonged to the " German School," and he forms
such a connecting link in the speculative philosophy of the century that he could not be passed by.

i8thCent.]

LITERATURE IN GERMAN.

245

U GEORGE ERNEST STAHL of Anspach (1660-1734), was a chemist, once of
universal repute, but his systems of Animism and Phlogiston, like those of
Leibnitz, have been superseded. Stahl taught that there was in the world a
force called antma, a vital principle independent of matter and superior to it.
Pope, who lived at the same time as Stahl, alludes to this principle in his
Essay on Man, in which he compares creation to a body, and calls anima
" G o d . " Thisanfma, he says, is—
*' Great in the earth, as in the ethereal f r a m e ;
W a r m s in the sun, refreshes in the breeze,
Glows in the stars, a n d blossoms in the trees,
Lives thro' all life, extends thro' all extent,
Spreads undivided, operates u n s p e n t ;
Breathes in our soul, informs our mortal part,
As full, as perfect, in a hair as h e a r t ;
As full, as perfect, in vile man that mourns,
As the rapt seraph that adores and burns."

This is what Stahl calls the anima mundi, the force which energises, vitalises,
and directs every force in nature. This is no place to discuss whether it is God
in the tree which makes it grow and bloom; whether it is God in the sun
which makes it give forth light and heat; whether it is God in the air
which stirs it to a breeze or gale; or whether these effects are produced by
natural causes. The difference of these two ideas may be shown by a simple
illustration. Take a watch. Is it the watchmaker in the watch which makes it
go ; or is it that the watch once made goes of itself ?
In regard to "phlogiston," Stahl's other theory, he taught that there is a
principle of heat in inflammable bodies which causes them to burn, and this
principle he called phlogiston. Thus, if asked why fire burns? he would
answer because fuel contains phlogiston. If asked why candles and lamps
give light? he would reply because they contain phlogiston. Phlogiston was
with Stahl a sort of electricity resident in combustible bodies.* This system
was universally accepted for about a century, when Lavoisier showed that the
phenomenon is due not to phlogiston, but to the breaking up of the elements
of the air and fuel, and their recombination with oxygen g a s t (1775).
J. THEOPHILUS HEINECCIUS [Hi-nex'-i-us] of Altenburg (1681-1741), was
not a magnate like Leibnitz and Stahl, but his work is more enduring.
Leibnitz and Stahl blazed like comets, and almost set the world on fire ; but
Heineccius studied law, and wrote several books which are still consulted as
authority. His Elements of Civil Law is one of the books used in the law
schools of our universities.
JOHN HENRY MICHAELIS, count of Hohenstein (1668-1738), professor of
Hebrew at Leipzig, was a most learned oriental scholar, who knew Hebrew,
Chaldee, Syriac, Samaritan, and Arabic, besides Greek and Latin. His
chief work is a Hebrew Bible in folio, with notes.
DAVID MICHAELIS, his great nephew (1717-1791), is also well known as the
author of Commentaries on the Law of Moses, and an Introduction to the JVezv
Testament,, translated into English by bishop Marsh. Both these are valuable
works.
* Phlogiston, according- to Stahl, was not only the principle of combustion, it was also the principle ottevity:
its presence "levated" objects, or made them lighter ; and bodies deprived of it were the heavier, as metal
(say lead) which is a compound of the calx of lead and phlogiston, is lighter than the calx itself. It was
Lavoisier who annihilated this system, showing that the increase of weight is not due to the expulsion of
"levity," but to the fixation of oxygen.
t This oxygen gas is the chief element of air. Fuel contains hydrogen and carbon. These elements being
set free by heat combine with the oxygen of the air. Hydrogen combined with oxygen in certain proportions
becomes water; and carbon combined with oxygen becomes carbonic acid gas,

246

MARIA THERESA.

WOLF.

[D.mjPt. 1.

GERMAN LITERATURE IN THE GERMAN LANGUAGE.
(THE

EIGHTEENTH CENTURY).

Prior to the eighteenth century the German language was looked on by
scholars and polite society as a jargon only fit for hinds. All respectable
persons spoke French, and all scholars wrote their books in French or Latin.
The German of the previous century was certainly a miserable jumble of
Latinised words and French phrases, nor was Menzel far wrong when he said
of the poets " their Apollo sits on the German Parnassus in full-bottomed wig,
leading with a French fiddle the concert and dance of his well-powdered
Muses. n
In the first half of the eighteenth century some men of genius dared to
employ their native language in science, philosophy, and general literature.
It gradually threw off its tawdry patches of French and Latin, and in the
second half of the century was wholly regenerated, became fashionable, and
assumed a distinctive character.
The pioneers, all honour to their names, were Wolf in science and moral
philosophy; Thomasius in general literature; Spener in theology; and
Gellert in poetry. These bold spirits dared to address the million in their
mother tongue, purged of that perilous stuff which the German courts affected
and admired.
The perfecters of the language were Klopstock, Lessing, Herder, Wieland,
Goethe, and Schiller. Klopstock showed it to be susceptible of dignity and
elegance; Lessing of perspicacity and strength; Herder of suppleness and
richness; Wieland of grace and airiness ; and under Goethe and Schiller it
rose to the fulness of its stature, strength, and beauty.
First half of the Eighteenth Century.
W O L F (1679-1754), a disciple of Leibnitz, was a philosopher and a scholar.
Leibnitz wrote only in French or Latin, but Wolf had the courage to employ
his native German at least in his elementary works, and as these books wTere
used in schools, where Latin only had been hitherto employed, they introduced
the wedge which was about to split up the absurd old system. The theories of
Leibnitz and Wolf are now quite out of date, but in the first half of the eighteenth
century they were immensely popular, and laid the foundation of that taste for
speculative philosophy for which the nation is still noted. {See Leibnitz, p. 243).
Leibnitz affirmed, in contradiction to Bayle the French philosopher, that the world we
live in is the best possible that man could enjoy, and if evils exist they are the inseparable
accidents of all finite things.

THOMASIUS (1658-1728), was still more zealous than Wolf for the general
use of his mother tongue. He did all he could to induce his countrymen to
abandon French and Latin ; to expunge from their own language all Latin
terminologies and French phrases, and to use every effort to make German as
a medium of thought and speech, full, graceful, and characteristic. He was
the first to deliver lectures in the language, and in this he greatly offended the
ecclesiastics, who seemed to think that orthodoxy was somehow bound up with
Latin, and that heresy of faith would indubitably follow heresy of speech.
Thomasius also founded a critical and general periodical which appeared
monthly. It was the first German serial, and did much to popularise the language. Besides these literary merits, Thomasius deserves great honour for the
outspoken way in which he denounced the hue and cry against witchcraft, and
for his manly efforts to abolish torture.
SPENER (1635-1705) was rather before Wolf and Thomasius, but of the same

18th Cent.]

LITERATURE.

KLOPSTOCK.

247

school. H e always employed his mother tongue both in his spoken sermons
and in his theological writings. H e founded " the Pietists," took great interest
i n children, established home meetings, was a fervent and popular preacher, a n d
laboured hard to wean the mind from speculative religion to active piety,
humility, a n d works of christian charity.
G E I . L E R T (1715-1769) was a poet and moralist. H i s lectures on poetry,
rhetoric, and medicine, were numerously attended and greatly admired. L i k e
Thomasius he lectured in German, and not in French or Latin. H e wrote
fables and stories in verse, didactic poems, songs, and odes. H i s style is
easy and natural, more after the French than the Latin model. Gellert assisted
Wolf, Thomasius, and Spener in lifting the literature of his country from the
pedantry and dullness of the preceding period.
G O T T S C H E D (1700-1766) cannot be omitted, because for the first half of the
eighteenth century he was the literary dictator of Germany, and the arbiter of
taste. H i s influence in Prussia was unbounded, but instead of advancing t h e
German literature and language he turned the tide back to the pedantry a n d
millinery of Opitz. Opitz advocated imitation of the Italian style, Gottsched
of the F r e n c h ; both thought that fine feathers m a k e fine birds in poetry,
and their productions were not living breathing thoughts, but wax dolls dressed
in the last new fashions.
T h e poetry of Gottsched is about equal to the
odes of our poets laureate Eusden, Cibber, Whitehead, and Pye.
Second half of the Eighteenth

Century,

K L O P S T O C K (1708-1803) was the author of an epic poem in the German
language, called The Messiah, in fifteen books. A s an epic it is doubtless very
defective, but its language is elegant and thoroughly German. I t was received
with unbounded honour, and did the language incalculable service.
As
Chaucer was called " t h e well of English undefiled," so Klopstock m a y b e
called " t h e well of modern German undefiled." H i s Messiah was the foundation of a new epoch in German literature.
T h e general scheme of Klopstock's Messiah, written in G e r m a n hexameters, is
as follows :—
Jesus spends the night in the Mount of Olives with his desciples in prayer, and in the
interim Satan sends a dream_ to J u d a s , and enters the heart of Caiaphas. Caiaphas now calls
together the Jewish council in his own palace, and the council determine that Jesus must be
p u t to death. While the council is in the palace Jesus sends Peter and J o h n to prepare t h e
passover supper, which he eats with his apostles, and afterwards retires to the garden.
Here
h e passes the time in an agony of sorrow, and being seized b y a band of soldiers sent b y the
high priest, is taken before Annas first, then before Caiaphas, then before Pilate. Pilate sends
him to Herod, and Herod sends him back to the Roman governor, who delivers him to
the Jews. Then follow the crucifixion, the death, the burial, and the resurrection.

I t will be seen at once that Klopstock has chosen for his subject the closing
days of the Messiah—his betrayal, trial, crucifixion, and resurrection. Milton,
in his Paradise Regained, selected the beginning of Christ's ministry—the
temptation in the wilderness.
T h e r e is a singular propriety in Milton's
choice, as a supplement to his great poem. I n Paradise Lost the poet shows
that A d a m (our federal head) lost paradise, because when he was tempted by
Satan he yielded to the temptation. In Paradise Regained he shows that Jesus
(our new federal head) regained paradise for man, because when tempted by
Satan h e resisted the temptation. Klopstock has chosen, no doubt, a most
tragic story, but his poem is no more an epic poem than if h e had described
the murder of Julius Caesar, or the death of Richard I I I . on Bosworth field.
I t is a series of connected lays or religious idylls, but no epic. I t is descriptive
and not realistic. W e are told that the characters introduced wept, loved,

248

MARIA THERESA.

LESSING.

[D.mjPt.i.

moved, and talked, but they want reality; they are picture men, women, and
angels—actors and actresses dressed up. There is no living movement, no
masterless passion swaying them to what it likes and loathes. It is a mere
panorama and not a living world. His language is excellent German, and his
story is interesting, but the Messiah of Klopstock is no more to be compared
with the Paradise Lost of Milton, than the pictures of David * with those of
Michael Angelo.
LESSING (1721-1781) followed in the footsteps of Klopstock, and chose his
native language for his medium. He was a poet, but by far the larger part of
his productions are in prose. Most of his dramas are in prose, all his fables,
and his Laocobn (a treatise on painting and poetry); but his prose is admirable,
and may be called the corner-stone of modern German. Lessing was for many
years a leader of thought, and a leader of literary taste. His style is singularly
lucid and vigorous, and always charming. His chief poetical work is the
drama of Nathan the Wise, his friend Moses Mendelssohn being the
academy figure of the wise Jew. The story of the play is as follows :—N a t h a n , a rich J e w merchant of Jerusalem, adopts Recha, a christian child, and brings her
u p as his own daughter.
H e r mother died in childbirth, a n d her father starting for
Askalon, where he was slain, sent the infant child to N a t h a n , who accepted the charge,
although his wife and his seven sons h a d all been burnt alive at Gath by the christian
invaders.
W h e n Recha was eighteen years old, during t h e absence of the merchant, his house caught
fire, and Recha would have perished in the flames, if she had not been rescued by Conrade, a
captive Templar recently liberated b y the sultan Saladin.
Conrade falls in love with Recha, but being vowed to celibacy could not marry, and it turns
out t h a t h e and Recha are brother a n d sister, the children of Assad, the Sultan's brother.

The characters of Nathan and Recha are well drawn, and parts of the play are
undoubtedly excellent, but its construction is most defective. A large part is occupied with the "crime" of Nathan, a Jew, in adopting and bringing up a christian
child. The patriarch of Jerusalem declares it to be " t h e unpardonable sin,"
and tells us he shall go straightway to the sultan and insist that Nathan be
burnt to death ; but all this crackling ends in smoke, and if it were left out,
the plot of the play would not be affected in the least. Of course the
denouement falls flat, and several of the dramatis persona are mere academy
figures.
il
Minna of Barnhelm " and " Emilia Galloti " are Lessing}s best dramas, and
are infinitely superior to any previously produced in Germany. The style of
composition is clear, precise, compact, and active. He keeps the reader or spectator awake by vivid images, wit, and unexpected turns of thought.
His notions of poetry and art were wholly ideal. Hence he condemned
descriptive poetry and painting from nature.
THE GOLDEN AGE OF GERMAN LITERATURE.
1750-1850.
The last half of the eighteenth century, and the first of the nineteenth, may
be considered the Golden Age of German literature. The revolution was so
complete it has been called the "Storm and Strain"t period, or in more intelligible phrase the " volcanic era," when old things were done away and all things
became new. Wolf, Thomasius, and Spener had led the way in prose; Gellert and
* David, a French painter contemporary with Napoleon I. His paintings have no breath of life in them,
and however beautiful are at best but painted statues. Michael Angelo an Italian artist (1474-1564), the
most sublime of all artists.
t Sturm und Drang. As storm and violence topples down " houses built upon sands," so these reformers
uprooted everything un-German from the language and literature of Germany.

i8thCent.]

HERDER.

WIELAND.

GOETTiE.

249

Klopstock, in poetry; Lessing, in general literature ; then followed Herder,
Wieland, Goethe, and Schiller, with about forty others of inferior note, and the
German language became the language of the pj-tion, in courts and schools, for
poetry and prose, even for philosophy, science and exegesis. It was no longer
relegated to hinds and peasants, but was u; ed in polite society. It was no
longer confined to popular literature, but was employed by scholars. And as
language acts upon thought, as soon as Italian and French, Latin and Greek,
were swept out of it, originality of thought set in, and German literature became essentially German.
HERDER (1744-1813) follows Klopstock and Lessing as one of the regenerators of the German language. His Fragments on recent German
Literature had a magical influence on the literary taste of his countrymen.
As Cervantes by his Don Quixote gave the death blow to chivalric romance,
so Herder weaned his countrymen from bald and lifeless imitations of Italian,
French, and English authors, to a healthy national poetry, national in spirit
as well as in language. He wrote a book on the Spirit of Hebrew poetry,
which produced a considerable sensation; was a voluminous writer on philosophy
and history; published some theological works of Socinian tendency, and tried
his hand on poetry, but was no poet. His master work was his Outlines of the
philosophy of the History of Man, in which he sets himself to prove that history
is not a mere series of isolated nationalities, but a grand drama of the race of
man. Different scenes may be laid in different places, at different times, and
be awarded to different actors, but all tend to the ultimate issue. Herder was
contemporary with Kant, whose philosophy he entirely opposed.
WIELAND (1733-1813) is undoubtedly one of the greatest of German poets.
Klopstock's poetry had a great influence over him. His philosophical prose
romance of Agathon was well received, but his fame rests on his Oberon, an
heroic poem suggested by Shakespeare's Midsummer Nighfs Dream, The
language of this charming poem is graceful, its versification airy, and its fancy
" spirituel."
Wieland was not a reformer, like Klopstock and Lessing, but he did good
service to German literature, and helped to give the language grace and
harmony. He was surnamed the "Voltaire of Germany."
Agathon is a romance of Greek life. T h e hero is an Epicurean in sentiment, exalting t h e
claims of the senses, and placing supreme happiness in kindliness of heart and good temper.

G O E T H E * (1749-1832), called by his countrymen the "prince of German
poets," had an influence on their literature wholly unexampled. He holds in
Germany the peerless place which Homer holds in Greece, Dante in Italy, and
Shakespeare in England, but out of Germany this judgment is by no means
confirmed. All allow him to have been a man of extraordinary talent, but his
lyric poetry has been greatly surpassed, his dramas are defective in dramatic
art, and his prose novels are seldom read in the present day. Homer, Dante,
and Shakespeare are as fresh now as ever, are read with the same pleasure, and
rather increase in fame than decrease, but Goethe is waning fast. He is
scarcely read out of his own country, and even there his reputation is not
equal to what it was.
His four chief works are The Sorrows of Werther, a sentimental romance ;
Wilhelm Meister, a philosophical novel (both in prose); IphigenTa in lauris,
a classical play; and Faust, a dramatic poem in two parts. Next to these
come Hermann and Dorothea, a poem in hexameter verse ; and Torquato Tasso,
Of these Faust alone seems to maintain its ground, and that only in parts.
* It is difficult to indicate in English letters the pronunciation of this name: Geut-eh, perhaps, is as near as
we can get, but the en is like the French/rw, peu, &c.

250

MARIA THERESA.

GOETHE.

[D.mjPt.i.

(1) Hie Sorrows of Werther, a prose romance, created a tempest of praise and
censure far beyond its merits. The tender sentimentality of Werther suited the
times, and gave birth to a host of imitations. Suicide being upheld as an act
of heroism, the religious world could not but condemn the novel.
W e r t h e r is a young German student of poetic fancy and sensitive disposition, who falls in love
with Lotte [2 syl.\ the betrothed and afterwards the wife of Albert. H e becomes intimate with
Albert, who invites him to his house, and here Werther renews his love-making, which L o t t e
encourages. T h e young man mewls and pules for some time after forbidden fruit, and then
puts an end to his life and the tale at the same time

The redeeming points of this novel are its warm love of nature, its vivid
picturesqueness, its vigour and sweetness, pathos and strong feeling; so that
with all its faults it still captivates the reader.
(2) Iphigenia in Tauris is the old classic tale modernised. The story is
this : Iphigenia, the daughter of Agamemnon, was about to be sacrificed to
Diana in order to propitiate that goddess; and thus secure favourable winds
for the sail of the Grecian fleet to Troy. Just as the priest was about to slay
his victim, Diana carried her off to Tauris {i.e., the Crimea), and gave her
charge of the temple there. Part of her duty was to offer up in sacrifice all
strangers who set foot in the peninsula. Now, one day her brother Orestes
landed in Tauris with his friend Pylades; but Iphigenia, instead of immolating
them, fled with them, carrying off the image of the goddess. In the mean
time, Electra being told that Orestes was murdered by the priestess of Diana,
resolved to avenge the crime ; and meeting Iphigenia at Delphi was about to
put out her eyes, when Orestes appeared and explained the whole matter.
(3) Faust, a debauchee no longer young, learned in all the learning of the
times, finds it only vanity and vexation of spirit. By the means of magic he
summons a spirit into his presence, and the spirit chides him as altogether
unworthy of a high destiny. Faust then resolves to take poison and put an end
to his life, but hears the clock strike, and forthwith the choir in the neighbouring church begin chanting the Easter hymn. Old memories of childhood rush
acros's his brain, and he feels there is a beauty in holiness and innocence
devoutly to be desired. While he thus muses, Satan, under the guise of a
travelling scholar, named Mephistopheles, appears and makes a compact with
him. The terms agreed on are that Faust should have all his wishes gratified
for a time, and should then consign both body and soul to Satan. Faust now
becomes a libertine—not a coarse, vulgar sensualist like Don Juan^ but an
intelligence imbruted " b y lewd and lavish acts of sin." Meeting with
Margaret on her return from church, he woos and wins her. The artless,
innocent girl, who knew no sin, and feared no evil, loves the enchanter but too
well, and in due time a child is born. Overcome with shame, she destroys
her infant, and is condemned to death. Faust, stung with remorse, tries to save
her, and gaining admission to the cell, finds her huddled up on a bed of straw,
singing wild snatches of ancient ballads, her reason jangled out of tune. She
refuses to leave the prison, suffers death, and, in the second part, appears in the
heavenly choir of penitents.*

This is really a great poem, not without dramatic scenes. It
may be called a metaphysical drama of a thinking and unbalanced
mind ; but what its object is, it would be hard to say. The story
of Gretchin interwoven in it is certainly out of character; but it
* Dr. Faustus is one of the dramas of Lessing also, and has furnished the subject of a host of old dramas
and romances from 1587 downwards.

i8thCent.]

SCHILLER.

BURGER.

VOSS.

KOTZEBUE.

251

is captivating to think of Margaret as a soiled dove, so loving, so
gentle, so innocently guilty, so wronged against, so suffering, that
we lose sight of her wrong-doings in pity for her fall.
SCHILLER (1759-1805), the greatest poetical genius of modern times, was a
native of Wurtemberg. The Germans place him in the second range of their
poets, but foreigners place him highest of all; certainly in England no German
poet is so well known, and so much liked. Before he was 20 years old he brought
out his play called The Robbers which excited among the young men of Germany
an enthusiasm wholly unparalleled, and gave birth to a series of dramas and
romances about brigands. It is a "thunder and lightning" drama, of the most
violent kind, glowing with passion, and full of fancy; but the duke of Wurtemberg, his patron and superior officer, a fossilized German " Serene Highness,"
forbade him to write any more plays without submitting them to his inspection.
About 18 months afterwards the play was brought out at Mannheim ; the poet,
who was in the army, was clandestinely present, and was put under arrest for
being "absent without leave." Impatient of this tyranny, he deserted, and
lived in Mannheim under a false name. Here he became acquainted with the
director and manager of the theatre, and entered upon his literary career.
His masterpieces are Wallenstein and William Tell (dramas), and The Song
of the Bell (an allegorical ode). As a dramatist Schiller has no equal in
Germany ; as a lyrist he is certainly equal if not superior to Goethe; and his
prose writings are models of elegance and profound thought.
" Wallenstein " is a trilogy or triple drama, like Shakespeare'*s "Henry VI.,"
in three parts,
Don Carlos, Mary Stuart, Joan of Arc, and the Bride of Messina, are other
dramas of the same poet of surpassing merit.
His Song of the Bell is an allegory of human life, each phase being varied by
corresponding melody and metre. Both lord Lytton and Browning have translated the lyrics of Schiller into English.

Next, but a long way inferior to Goethe and Schiller, come
Burger, Voss, Kotzebue, and Schlegel (poets).
Lower still,
Gesner, Zimmermann, and Sturm (prose-poets); and second to
none, John Paul Richter, the humourist, one of the most original
geniuses of the age.
GOTTFRIED BURGER (1748-1794) writer of ballads and lyric poet. His
ballad of Leonora first brought him into notice. His poem called Chastity
is in all collections of hymns and sacred poetry. The style of Burger is clear,
forcible, and elegant, but he was not a power in German literature.
J O H N HENRY VOSS (1751-1826), one of the ripest scholars of Germany,

translated into German hexameters the Odyssey and Iliad of Homer, Virgil,
Hesiod, and other Greek and Roman authors. His Homer takes the same
rank in Germany as Pope's Homer does with us, and is a far better translation.
He attempted Horace, but failed. His metrical idyll called Luise was an
original work, and created a new class of poetry, imitated by Goethe in his
Hermann and Dorothea, What are especially admired in Voss's idyll are the
portraitures, so simple and true to life, that they remind one of Goldsmith's
Vicar of Wakefield, and a higher compliment cannot be paid them.
KOTZEBUE (1761-1819), a very prolific dramatic author of Germany, whose
plays were at one time well-known by translations and adaptations on the
English stage, especially Pizarro, Sheridan's adaptation of the Spaniard in

252

MARIA THERESA.

SCHLEGEL.

RICHTER.

[D.mjPt.i.

Peru; The Stranger, Benjamin Thompson's adaptation of Misanthropy and
Repentance, touched up by Sheridan; Lover's Voivs, by Mrs. Inchbald, was
borrowed from Kotzebue, so was the Virgin of the Sun, and the Indians in
England,
The. forte of Kotzebue was clap-trap. He loved to startle his audience ; to
tear a passion to tatters, to very rags; to pile up agony; and melt down pathos
to maudlin sentimentality. Strange that his best play the Two Klingsbergs has
not been produced on the London stage. Kotzebue was a very prolific playwright, who flashed like a rocket for a time and delighted play-goers, but his
day is gone, and little but his name will outlive the century.
AUGUSTUS SCHLEGEL of Hanover (1767-1845), the translator of
Shakespeare into German, was one of the founders of the Athenceum, a
literary journal in great vogue, which placed the name of Schlegel first in the
list of critics. He had also the merit of exhuming the Nibelungen-lied, called
the " German Iliad." Schlegel was the friend of Goethe and Schiller.
Voss also translated Shakespeare, but his version is not equal to Schlegel's.
GESNER, ZIMMERMAN, AND STURM.

The names of Gesner, Zimmermann, and Sturm, are too wellknown in England to be omitted, although they can none of them
be ranked among the great authors of Germany.
GESNER (1730-1788), a pretty idyllic poet, was at one time well-known
in England by his First Navigator, and still better by his Death of Abel,
English translations of which were staple books in the "British Classics,"
published in the first half of the nineteenth century. Few books were more
popular with the general public, especially with such as loved Elizabeth the
Exile of Siberia, Paul and Virginia, Herve^s Meditations among the Tombs,
and Sturm9s Reflections,
ZIMMERMANN (1728-1792), was an eminent physician whose medical work on
Irritability is still held in esteem. He wrote a poem on The Earthquake of
Lisbon, and an essay on National Pride which was translated into almost every
European language; but his name is chiefly associated with his essay On
Solitude, a translation of which, like Gesner's First Navigator, and Death of
Abel, formed part of the " British Classic " series. Every one still knows it by
name, but few read it now. It was written in the lucid interval between two
deplorable attacks of constitutional melancholy.
STURM (1740-1786), a German clergyman, is also known by name in almost
every country of Europe, by his book called Refections, religious observations
and meditations on the works of God, arranged in an " annuary," that is, one
for every day in the year. This book also formed one of the "British Classics,"
and in the reign of George III. few gentlemen's houses would be without it.
The section for a day was very short, and the Reflection was sufficiently suggestive to call up pious thoughts on the goodness, providence, and wisdom of
God.
These three authors just suited the half literary taste, and pious sentimentality
of the Georgian era. Sterne's Sentimental Journey (1768), and Mackenzie's
Man of Feeling (1771), were household books in the same period.
H RICHTER, generally known as John Paul (1763-1825), was a German
humourist, born in Bavaria. He was so original that it was some time before
his countrymen caught his spirit, but when it flashed upon them he was
instantly raised from abject poverty to easy circumstances and unbounded

18th Cent.]

LITERATURE.

DESCARTES.

253

popularity. His Wild Oats is a charming prose idyll, but Titan or the Age
of Follies* is his great romance, in which we are introduced to the two
extremes of perfection and corruption.
John Paul was as simple-minded and unsophisticated as Goldsmith, as great
an observer, and as full of humour. He lived in a world of his own. His
lovers are pure of heart like himself, and his heroes wholly imaginary. His
descriptions are rural sketches of village ways and village fetes, of hills and
valleys, of the rising and setting sun. In Titan we have two brothers, one a
model of enthusiastic youth, and the other a humourist who knows the world.
In Flowers, Fruits, and Thorns, we have the magnificent Dream of the dead
Christ, which has been translated into English by Carlyle.

The Philosophers

(1750-1S50).

The second half of the eighteenth century and the first of the
nineteenth, produced in Germany such a number of deep
thinkers, that no period of history has equalled it, since the
era of the seven sages of old Greece ; but it is a matter of doubt
whether this vast array of brain-force has accomplished any
adequate result. Is the world wiser for their wisdom? or will
their ponderous volumes be placed beside those of the schoolmen
whose art was to puzzle rather than expound ?
The great German metaphysicians of the latter half of the
eighteenth century were Kant and Fichte (2 syl.). Those of the
first half of the nineteenth century were Schelling and Hegel.
They carried on the speculations of Giordano Bruno, from whose
birth to Schelling's death is about 300 years.
Bruno (1550-1600), the Italian, maintained that the Creator and
creation are as much one as the divine and human nature which
make one Christ, or as soul and body which make one man.
According to the jargon of the time, God is called the natura
naturans, the substance and life of everything. Bruno was burnt
alive for his theory, but burning Bruno did not put an end to his
speculations, for in the very next century (1632-1677) Spinoza
taught that nature and God are all one, and that both are eternal
(see p. 244).
In the meantime Descartes (Da-kart), the French philosopher
(1597-1650), attempted to prove the existence of God by his
celebrated axiom cogito, ergo sum (I must exist, because I think).
H e argued thus: " I think," but thought cannot proceed from
nothing; if, therefore, I think, " I " must be something. Again, ex
nihilo nihil fit (something cannot proceed from nothing); and if
thinking man is something, he must proceed from something, and
that something is God.
* Flegeljahre.

254

MARIA THERESA.

LEIBNITZ.

STAHL.

[D.m; Pt.i.

Some fifty years later (1638-1715) Malebranche of Paris took
up Descarte's axiom to prove the duality of human nature.
Taking the existence of man for granted, he argued thus: Man's
body is made of dust, or /according to modern science) of
carbon, certain gases, and a few minerals. But carbon, gases,
and minerals, cannot think; and as man thinks, this thinking
power must be something else than carbon, gas, and mineral.
That " something else" is the deity in man, or what is called
" soul." Hence there must be a God, and man must consist of
body and soul.
Leibnitz (1646-1716) denied this theory, and said the reason
why man thinks, is not because his body is the temple of God,
but because it is made of two different sorts of atoms or monads,
body monads and spirit monads, which, act together by "preestablished harmony."*
Stahl (1660-1734), going back to Bruno and Spinoza, maintained, it is not God, but a vital principle, which he termed
anima mundi, that animates creation. This force, he said, dwells
in every living thing, as the soul in man's body. It is not
material, it is wholly independent of matter, but co-exists with it,
and quickens it I
Bishop Berkeley (1684-1753) asserted that Stahl's anima
mundi is not wanted; but only a soul in man's body. For,
said he, the objects of the world around exist only in the mind.
The things we see, like Macbeth's dagger, are only the creations
of the brain. If man had no mind, his eyes would see nothing,
his ears hear nothing, his tongue taste nothing, his fingers feel
nothing, in fact, all nature would be a blank, quite shut out.
From these premises he inferred the reality of a God. If the
world around is wholly ideal, wholly the creation of man's
thinking faculties, what but a creator could have given to man
this wounderful creative faculty?
Berkeley struck the keynote which has pervaded metaphysical
theology from that day to this: What is the world? Does it
absolutely exist, or is it only a dream and vision of the mind ?
Kant affirmed that everything is twofold, subjective or relative,
and objective or real. Every one knows that the senses are not
trustworthy. Thus the moon which is opaque and spherical
appears to the eye luminous and flat. The waves of the sea, like
corn blown by the wind, seem to move forward, but remain
* Van Helmont of Brussels (1577-1644) taught that man is a compound of two principles, archi and
duumvirat.
" ArcheV' or the vital principal, penetrates the entire body, and performs the functions of
nutrition and digestion. "Duumvirat," or the intellectual principle, is what we call the soul. He calls it
duum-vi-rat because it resides in the two organs called vi[scera] aad rat[aj, the bowels and the spleen.

i8thCent.]

LITERATURE.

KANT.

FICHTE.

255

stationary. Flowers appear coloured with various dyes, and so
does a common lustre in the sun, or cut drinking glass if light
shines on it. Hence we cannot trust our senses, and things may
be very different to what they appear to be from the report of our
senses. What they are to our senses, or as they seem to us, they
are said to be subjectively; and what they are absolutely or really,
they are said to be objectively. Of the latter we can know
nothing, but can suppose the possibility. Kant affirmed that
everything has this twofold nature, what it seems to be to our
senses he calls its subjective nature, but what it is in reality its
objective nature. By a similar distinction thought is the subject,
the thing thought out the object of thought.
Man, as the
fulcrum of thought, is the subject who thinks, and ideas which
are its creations are the objects of thought.
Fichte (2 syl.) inclined more to Berkeley's "idealism." H e
argues thus: What is knowledge? What one knows. What
does one know ? only that which is in the mind. All, therefore,
that man can know of the world must be in his mind. Hence
the whole world is ideal, inasmuch as all we can know of it must
be in our mind.
Schelling inclined more to Bruno's and Spinoza's notions, that
God is nature and nature God. According to Schelling, Kant's
division of subjective and objective is a distinction without a
difference. The outside world, he maintained, has a real existence, and we obtain our knowledge of it by " intuition."
Hegel harks back again to Berkeley and Fichte, whose theory
he adheres to with a difference. Fichte says man can know, see,
and feel nothing but what his brain informs him of. If he sees a
tree, the tree he sees is in his brain. If he hears a sound, the
sound he hears is in his brain. If he feels a touch, the touch he
feels is in his brain. Everything is in his brain, and can be
nowhere else. Hegel says, not so : objects may exist per se, and
the mind does not create, but only takes knowledge of them.
The world, therefore, is not the work of man's brain, but only
the recognition of it. What is God? That which the mind
recognises. What is the world ? That which man recognises ?
What is man himself? What he recognises, no more.
This brief sketch will suffice to give a notion of the subjects
which have occupied the minds of German scholars for 200
years, and have evoked more thought than any subject since
the schoolman measured Scripture with the lines and compass of
Aristotle. In both cases we cannot but admire the array of
thought; but in both cases feel inclined to ask cut bono ?

256

MARIA THERESA.

SCHELLING.

HEGEL.

[D.mjPt.i.

K A N T , F I C H T E , SCHELLING, AND H E G E L .

IMMANUEL KANT of Konigsberg (1724-1804), one of the hardest thinkers
that ever lived, was of Scotch extraction. His great work, in which he
explains his theory, is the Critique of Pure Reason (in German). It made an
immense sensation, and all Europe was divided into Kantists and antiKantists.
Kant was a little man, not much above five feet high, and slightly deformed.
His hair was light, complexion fresh, forehead square and high, eyes blue,
muscular power very feeble. He lived with Spartan frugality, and was as
methodical as a machine. He rose at five, retired to bed at ten, ate one meal
a day, and lived to the age of eighty. He died a bachelor, and for thirty
years never left the city where he lived.
His watchwords are phenomena and noumena, subjective and objective.
Subjectives are things as we recognise them—these he calls "phenomena."
Objectives are things as they are absolutely, or quite independent of our
notions of them—these he calls " noumena." Phenomena we know, noumena
we can only imagine. Phenomena are outward and sensible, noumena are real
but wholly ideal.
Besides his Critique of Pure Reason, Kant wrote a Critique of Practical
Reason, setting forth the motives which urge men to moral actions ; the
Critique of Final Causes, defining the dominion of judgment; and several
other works.
Kantism is now gone by. The sceptre of this intellectual kaiser is broken ;
but his writings abide as prodigies of human intellect. Like the great
pyramid of Egypt, the style of architecture has passed away, its very use may
be doubtful; but the whole world must regard it as one of the wonders, if not
the greatest wonder of the world.
JOHN GOTTLIEB FICHTE \Fek-teh~\ of Lusatia (1762-1814), contemporary with Kant, was more famous as a lecturer than a writer. His fervent
eloquence, his clear reasoning, his correct language, gave a charm to his
lectures, which won the hearts of all who heard him. He differed from Kant,
as he explains fully'in his Doctrine of Science,
The watchwords of Fichte are ego and non-ego, and his system is called
" idealism." Let us try to get at the meaning of these two terms. The sun and
moon, trees, rivers, and hills, exist. How do we know it? Our senses tell us
so. If we had no senses, then, all nature would be a blank, and therefore our
senses make our world. Diseased senses make a distorted world, but to the
diseased this distorted world is the only true one. Now, as the senses of no
two individuals are identical, there are as many worlds as there are individuals,
and no two alike. Here then comes the necessity of this distinction, the world
as our individual senses represent it, and the world as it really is, the ego
world, and the non-ego world,—our own world, and the world as it exists
irrespective of ourselves. Of course, all we can know of the world is our own
personal world, that is, the world which our own senses reveal to us, but we
can think of a different state of being. The ego world is my world, the world
as it is to me, the world as it affects me, the world as I know i t ; but the
non-ego world is the imaginary world, the world as it exists perse absolutely and
regardless of what my senses reveal it to be.
This, however, is not all. If our senses make our world, then it follows
there is no world out of ourselves. Thus, I look at the sun—what do I see ?
not the sun certainly, but only a picture of the sun painted for the time being on
the retina of the eye. So when we look at ourselves in a glass, we do not see
ourselves, but only a reflection, and that reflection we do not see in the glass,

1750-1850.]

GOLDEN AGE.

PHILOSOPHERS.

257

but only a transfer of it photographed on the retina of the eye and telegraphed
by nerves to the brain. No doubt there is a truth in all this, but a truth that
is part of a truth is often the greatest falsehood.
Fichte's system is called idealism. The difference between Idealism and
Materialism is this : the former places the recognition of objects in the mind,
a something independent of the material body ; but materialism places it in
the brain. The idealist says thought springs from mind, the materialist says
there is no such thing as mind, but that all thought, conscience, judgment, and
so on, are offspring of the brain, as much as perfume is the outcome of a
flower, or light and heat of fire.
This I think is the theory of Fichte, and his point of departure jrom Kant,
but the books of these metaphysicians are very large and very subtile. Difficult
to grasp, and still more difficult to condense into eight or ten lines,
Fichte was a little sturdy man, well formed, and of commanding bearing,
amiable in disposition, and of singular purity of life. He combined the deep
thinker with the fire of a prophet, and the thunder of an orator.
Besides his Doctrine of Science, he published several other works, as a
System of Ethics, the Destination of Man, the Way to a Happy Life, the
Characteristics of the Present Age, &c, all of which have been translated into
English and published in the " Catholic Series."
FREDERICK WILLIAM SCHELLING of Wurtemberg (1775-1854), began

with Fichte's idealism, but afterwards published his Philosophy of Identity^
in which he tries to prove that knowingand being are identical.t
His system, called the philosophy of identity, and his watchwords are—
"ideas are identical with the things that create those ideas," "thought is
identical with substance," Fichte's ego with his non-ego, Kant's phenomena
with his noumena, man with nature, all being the one absolute God.
His works are very numerous: besides the one mentioned, we have Ideas on
the Philosophy of Nature, the System of Transcendental Idealism, and several
others.
GEORGE WILLIAM

FREDERICK H E G E L of Stuttgard (1770-1831), first

embraced the system of Fichte, then that of Schelling, but ultimately
propounded a system of his own. He agreed with Schelling as to the
identity of subject and object, and the absolute unity of all things, but
differed from him as to the method whereby this unity is obtained.
His watchwords are Intuition, and the identity of contraries. His axioms
are "every thought involves its contrary;" "whatever is rational is real,
and whatever is real is rational." The three processes of thought, he says,
are logic, the philosophy of nature, and the philosophy of mind.
His chief works are the Philosophy of Nature, Logic, and the Philosophy of
Mind, His lectures were delivered in a stammering manner and without
rhetorical ornament, but notwithstanding, attracted large audiences.
Other philosophers: BAUMGARTEN, MOSES MENDELSSOHN, AND HAMANN,

BAUMGARTEN (1714-1762), a native of Berlin, and disciple of Liebnitz and
Wolf, was the first to establish the " theory of the Beautiful," which he called
{Esthetics. According to Baumgarten, the sensibilities are the ultimate judges
* There seems in all this a confusion between the mental telegraph and its operations. The telegraph is
not the telegram, nor does it make the telegram—it only conveys it or makes it known. So the human
faculties do not create what they announce, but only convey the information to the brain, more or less
correctly as it may be.
t If not identical they are certainly inseparable, for as thinking- is an active process it includes the
subject thought upon. Thus, if I think of a tree, my thinking- (or faculty of thought in operation) and the
thought itself on which that faculty is employed are inseparable. In fact, thinking implies thought or
some idea. They inseparably co-exist but are not identical.
S

253

MARIA-THERESA.

GOLDEN AGE.

[D. m.; Pt. i.

of what is beautiful. What is really so must harmonise with our sensibilities,
and not jar upon our feelings. His chief work is ALsthetica, in Latin. His
manuals of Metaphysics and Ethics (also in Latin) contain nothing original.
MOSES MENDELSSOHN (I729-1786), a friend of Lessing's, was a Jew, and
contributed in no small degree to break down the general prejudice against
that race, and to the repeal of those laws which once disgraced the
statute books of Christendom. While he thus laboured for the emancipation of the Jews, he strove to elevate them, and make them worthy of'higher
honour.
His best known works are a Dialogue in German, between Socrates and his
friends on the Immortality of the Soul; and a short treatise, also in German,
entitled Jerusalem, which paved the way to the political emancipation of his
countrymen. Moses Mendelssohn was the prototype of Lessing's Nathan the
Wise {see p. 248).
HAMANN (1730-1788), who called himself the "Magician of the North,"
was a Prussian philosopher, who defended "Revelation" against the attacks
of the Rationalists. He was the friend of Herder {see p. 249), and like him a
staunch opponent of Kant.

Natural Philosophers,
The five most noted for science, including natural philosophy,
in the Golden Age of German literature, are Haller (the father of
physiology), Winckelmann (the antiquary), Mesmer (the father of
mesmerism), Lavater (the father of physiognomy), and Herschel
the great astronomer who made England his adopted home.
HALLER (1708-1777), called the "Father of physiology," was one of the
greatest physicians that ever lived. His great work The Elements of Physiology
is in Latin, for at the time this book was published the German language was
thought unfit for scholars and gentlefolk. He wrote as many as eighty-six
books on medicine and physiology, and contributed 12,000 articles to different
periodicals.
Haller is especially celebrated for his observations on muscular irritability.
H e was also a poet. His poem, The Alps, is full of picturesque descriptions
of Swiss scenery, and though somewhat ponderous is energetic and noble.
WINCKELMANN (1717-1768), the great antiquary and historian of ancient
classical art, wrote in German a History of Arts among the Ancients, a most
learned work, which exercised an important influence on the progress of art in
the eighteenth century. Winckelmann was the forerunner of a great movement, and his influence has been deeply felt in all subsequent art literature.
Even now his great History must be studied by all who desire to make themselves masters of this branch of aesthetics.
MESMER (1734-1815), conceived the existence of a force called "Animal
Magnetism." He began by investigating the curative powers of the ordinary
magnet, and conceived the idea that there exists in the human body a magnetic
force which may be made to pass from the operator to those operated on, either
to induce sleep or cure maladies. For a time " Mesmerism" produced a great
sensation in Europe, but it was condemned as quackery by the Royal Commission of France and the Royal Society of Medicine in London. Mesmer
having retired from public life, died in obscurity in his native city.
Whether " animal magnetism " is a force or not is an open question. Though
condemned by the French and English savants it still has a large number of

1750-1850.]

GOLDEN AGE.

NATURAL PHILOSOPHERS.

259

believers, and if any part of what we are told of its cesthetic power is true, it must
be a real force.
SIR WILLIAM HERSCHEL (1738-1822) was born in Hanover of German
parents, and is therefore justly numbered among the German worthies, although
England was his adopted country where he lived above sixty-two years of his
life. No one before or since has added so many new bodies to our planetary
system. His great discovery was the planet Uranus, which he named the
Georgium Sidus, in compliment to George III., who appointed him his private?
astronomer, with a salary of ^400 a year, and knighted him. Besides the
planet, Herschel discovered its six satellites, the two satellites of Saturn, and
the rotation of Saturn and Venus ; he also threw new light on the Milky Way,
and investigated the constitution of nebulae. His catalogue of double stars and
nebulae, his tables of the comparative brightness of stars, and his researches on
light and heat, would of themselves entitle him to the first rank in astronomy
and natural philosophy.
His sister Caroline assisted him both in his observations and in his writings.
Her " Catalogue " published by the Royal Society, added561 stars to the British
list.
His son Sir John Herschel was born in England, and died in 1871,
LAVATER (1741-1801) was born at Zurich. His books on Physiognomy (in
German) profess to reduce to a system the art of reading character by the expresion of the face. They caused an immense sensation, and in some places
men and women wore masks in public, that casual observers might not have
the opportunity of knowing their secret character.
Of the men of science in the eighteenth century, Herschel belongs to
England, his adopted country, as much as to Germany where he was born ;
Mesmer and Lavater started systems scarcely admitted into the pale of science.
Winckelmann, as an antiquary, was wholly German ; but Haller, in the first
half of the century, was undoubtedly the greatest genius of the five.
Lavater was a celebrated preacher, and was often called the if Fenelon of
Germany."
PESTALOZZI of Zurich (1746-1827) though neither poet nor speculative
philosopher has made himself a name. His speciality was object teaching.
As the five senses are the doors of knowlege, he based all his instructions on
sensible objects or real occurrences, a system now pursued in all our-national
schools. Take an example : Pestalozzi would hold up a piece of sponge, and
say sponge is an animal product. Sponge is porous. Sponge is absorbent.
Sponge is amorphous, i.e., of no one uniform shape like trees, horses, birds,
and so on. And in teaching arithmetic he would show how 3 books added
to 5 books made 8 books; or how if you subtracted or took away 2 of
them, there would be 6 books left. Without doubt, he introduced a great
change for the better in infant and ragged schools.
A more complete list.
Haller
Winckelmann
Platner
Hahnemann
Gall . .
Spurzheim . .
Mesmer
Herschel
..
Lavater
Pallas..
Herbst
..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

1708-1777 father of physiology.
1717-1768 antiquary.
1744-1818 the German Nestor of philosophy.
1755-1843 creator of homoeopathy.
1758-1828 founder of phrenology.
1766-1833 popularised phrenology.
1734-1815 founder of Mesmerism.
1738-1822 astronomer.
1741-1801 founder of physiognomy.
1741-1811 naturalist.
1743-1807 naturalist.

S 2

260

MARIA-THERESA.
Pestalozzi
Olbers
Senefelder
Vogel

..

..

..
..

GOLDEN AGE.
1746-1827
1758-1840
1771-1832
1829-1856

P . in.; Pt. i.

educationist.
astronomer. ^
inventor of lithography.
African explorer.

To these add.
H e y n e \Hi-ny\
Rontgen
..
Klauber

..
..

..
..

1729-1812 classical editor.
1745-1807 ebenist.
1753-1817 engraver.

Musicians (1700-1850).
The age that produced Klopstock, Lessing, and Wieland; Kant
and Fichte; Haller and Herschel; produced five musicians of
undying fame : Handel, Bach, Gluck, Haydn, and Mozart.
HANDEL (1684-1759), one of the greatest musical geniuses that ever lived,was
a native of Saxony, but, like Herschel, made England his adopted country,
and composed there his greatest works. From infancy he manifested his
musical taste. Among his works are fifty operas and twenty oratorios. Of
the former Ads and Galatea and Pastor Fido are not unfrequently performed
still; but his oratorios hold the same place in music that is accorded in the drama
to the plays of Shakespeare. His Israel in Egypt is a wonderful piece of
sound-painting, but his Messiah is wholly unrivalled in sublimity and effect.
Of his other great productions may be mentioned U Allegro and E Penseroso,
Alexander's Feastt Esther; Samson, and Saul.
SEBASTIAN BACH [pronounce Bark] (1685-1750), tne organist, was also born
in Saxony. Like Handel he manifested his musical talent in early life, like
Handel he was a master-player on the organ, and like Handel he was blind
towards the close of his life. He was a voluminous composer of sacred music,
noted for fugues, of striking originality, elevated in style, and rich in melodies.
His music, though of the first order, is too difficult to be generally popular.
His second son Karl inherited his father's musical talents, and composed
numerous vocal and instrumental pieces (1714-1788).
GLUCK (I714-1787), called by Dr. Burney the " Michael Angelo of music,"
was a genius of the highest order, and may be termed the " father of modern
opera." He found it insipid and artificial, but left it natural and stirring.
He found it a combination of music and words without sympathy, but made
its music an echo of the words, and insisted that it should rigidly preserve
their accents and rhythm. His dramatic effects are truly marvellous, but he is
especially great in depicting intense grief and tempestuous passion. His
master-piece is his IphigenTa in Tauris, which was received with an enthusiasm
never equalled in the annals of music.
Piccini, the Italian, was a rival composer, and before the appearance of
Iphigenia, all Paris was divided into two factions called Gliickists and Piccinists;
but after hearing that splendid composition, Piccini would not allow his opera on
the same subject to be produced, so the contest was dropped.* Although the
* The following is a free translation of a French squib on the rival claimants.:—
•' One day the muses had a quarrel
To whom they should present the laurel—
Whether to Gluck'or to Piccini;
They could not for the world agree
'Twixt tweedledum and tweedledee;
* There's not a pin to choose between ye,
So Pic or Gluck/ say I, 'or neither.
Or both, for aught I care, or either;
More undecided than Babouc,
Here's heads for Pic, and tails for Gluck/ "—E.C.B.

1700-1850.]

GOLDEN AGE.

261

MUSICIANS.

operas of Gliick are wholly unrivalled in merit, they are not often performed
in London or Paris. Perhaps it is because they contain very few airs suitable
for street organs, concert rooms, or parlour singing.
His Jive best operas are " Orpheo" ''Alceste" " Tphigenie en Aulide,"
" Iphiginie en Tauride" and "Armida."
HAYDN (1732-1809), especially noted for his symphonies and quartets. His
great oratorio, called the Creation, he began when he was sixty years old, and
it took him two years to complete it. It is full of beautiful music, and in some
parts rises to the sublime. His other oratorio, the Seasons, though not
equal to the Creation in grandeur and sublimity, is a very masterly composition. His " A m e n s " and "Hallelujahs" are especially joyous and
spirited.
For symphonies and quartets Haydn stands unrivalled. His " allegros " are
spirited and full of life, occasionally bursting into strong passion. Altogether
he produced 527 instrumental pieces.
When asked w h y he did not make more haste to complete his great oratorio, he replied,
because he intended it to last for many years. This reply was something like that of Euripides,
the Greek poet. When Alcestides chaffed him for having written only three verses in three
days, whereas he had himself thrown off 300, Euripides replied " m y three will last 300 years,
but your 300 will scarcely survive for three days."

MOZART (1756-1791), the "Raphael of music," was one of those extraordinary geniuses which, like Homer and Shakespeare, sort not with the
common race of man. At the age of 4 he wrote several musical pieces, still
extant. At 7 he took part at sight in a violin trio ; at 13 he created by his
compositions and performances an enthusiasm which gave him a European
renown ; at 15 he produced his opera Mithriddth; at 16 his opera of Idomeneo
which forms an epoch in the history of music; but Don Giovanni is
undoubtedly his master work. Here we have most exquisite melodies and
perfect harmonies. Here we have all that is tender and playful, pathetic and
terrible, mysterious and sublime. The ghost scene of the last act is wholly
unequalled for dramatic effect.
His Requiem (or mass in D minor) was left unfinished at his death. It was
bespoke by a stranger who paid him 100 ducats in advance. It was to be
completed in a month, but when the stranger called, Mozart required another
month for its completion. The stranger paid down fifty more ducats, and
Mozart, wishing to know who he was, sent a man to follow him; but the man
lost sight of him, and Mozart got into his head that the stranger was a messenger from the world of spirits sent to announce his death. "This requiem,"
said he to his wife, "will serve for my own funeral, and will be my requiem in
a double sense."
Mozart is called the father of modern music, and no music was ever produced
which so stirs the feelings. He left behind him about 800 pieces.
Germany has truly no equal in musical composers; and the five geniuses of
the eighteenth century (Handel, Bach, Gliick, Haydn, and Mozart) are so
great, that no nation in the world in a single century, can produce their equal
in any one department of the arts and sciences.
A more complete list of Musicians,
Handel
Bach
giick
Haydn
Rheineke
Vogler
Kalkbrenner
Vogel

1684-1759
1685-1750
17H-1787
1732-1809
1748-1796
1749-1814
1755-1806
1756-17I8

Mozart
Pleyel \Ply-et\
Beethoven
Hummel
Spohr .. . .
Meyerbeer \My-er-beer\
Weber

..
,.
..

1756-1791
. . 1757-1831
1770-1827
1778-1837
. . 1784-1859
. . 1791-1864
1786-1826

262

GOLDEN AGE.

FRANCIS II.

[D. m . ; Pt. 1.

MOSHEIM AND H E Y N E .

Two other names, Mosheim and Heyne (2 syl.) can hardly be
omitted; but it would swell the book far beyond its intended size
to mention even briefly the many Germans of the century, in
almost every department, less generally known, or of less influence,
although undoubtedly highly honoured in their own country, and
well-known to German scholars.
M O S H E I M * (1694-1755) was author of an Ecclesiastical History, in L a t i n .
T h i s church history has been translated into English, and was a standard book
till it was superseded in 1825 by N e a n d e r ' s Universal History of the Christian
Religion and Church, which is fuller, more profound, more suggestive, and less
dogmatic. A s a preacher, Mosheim was chaste, lucid, and graceful; fervent,
eloquent, and earnest.
H E Y N E (1729-1812,) the great classic and " k i n g of critics," must not b e
confounded with H e i n e the German poet who was born seventy years
later. H e y n e was a leviathan of literature who edited H o m e r and Pindar,
Virgil and Pliny, with several other Greek and R o m a n authors ; published a
" c a r t - l o a d of translations," and six volumes of opuscula or minor treatises
a n d essays.
IT Karl Hillebrand, in his " Lectures on German Thought" (1880), says the
seed of German literature was sown by Klopstock, Winckelmann,
Wieland,
Mendelsshon, and, above all, by Lessing.
He furthermore
says that it sprang into full vigour under the hands of the
four great geniuses, Herder, Goethe, Schiller, and Kant.
Herder's beat was
" mankind and history ;" Goethe's " mankind and nature ;" Schiller's " mankind and art; " Kanfs " mankind and
morality."

FRANCIS II., EMPEROR OF THE ROMANS
AND KING OF CERMANY.
(Afterwards called Francis I., Emperor of Austria [Franz]).
Crowned K i n g of H u n g a r y 1792, J u n e 6 ; Kaiser, J u l y 14; and King of Bohemia August 5.
B O R N 1768.

D I E D M O N D A Y , M A R C H 2, 1835.

AGED

68.

Reigned as kaiser Francis I I . , emperor of Germany, 14 years (1792-1806).
Reigned as Francis I., emperor of Austria,
29 years (1806-1835).
Contemporary
with George III. (1760-1820); George IV. (1820-1830); and William
IV.
(1830-1837).
Father, kaiser Leopold I I . Mother, the Infanta Maria Louisa.
Wives, 1. Elizabeth of "Wurtemberg 1788. Died 1790.
2. Maria Theresa 1790. Died 1807.
3. Maria Louisa of Austria 1808. Died 1816.
4. Charlotte Augusta of Bavaria 1816.
Children, 1. Ferdinand, born 1781, archduke of Austria. H e succeeded his father as emperor
of Austria 1836, and abdicated in 1848, when he was succeeded b y his
nephew^ Francis Joseph, aged 18. H e died 1850. •
2. Maria Louisa, b o r n ^ g i , married Napoleon 1810, and was the mother of his son
Napoleon Francis Charles Joseph [king of Rome], but after the abdication of
his father created (1818) duke of Reichstadt.
Died 1832.
When Louis
Napoleon, in 1852, was elected " E m p e r o r of the French," he recognised the
d u k e of Reichstadt as Napoleon I I . , and therefore assumed the name and title
of Napoleon I I I .
3. Francis-Karl-Joseph, who married Sophia of Baden, mother of Francis-Joseph,
who succeeded his uncle Ferdinand as emperor of Austria in 1848.
N . B . — K a i s e r Francis II. was the brother of Marie Antoinette,
the wife of Louis

XVI.
• Pronounced Mo'shime.

Heyne and Heine pronounced Hy-neh.

1792-1806.]
Empire,

FRANCIS

IT.

.263

Gives u p the Netherlands and Lombardy, by the T r e a t y of Campo Formio, b u t
receives Venice, October 17, 1797.
Gives up all his possessions on the left bank of the Rhine by the T r e a t y Luneville,
February 3, 1801.
Gives up all his Italian states, Suabia, and the Tyrol by the T r e a t y of Presburg,
December 26, 1805.
Renounces the dignity of emperor of Germany, but retains the title of emperor of
Austria, August 6, 1806.
E n d of the H o l y Roman Empire. I t was " restored " in 800 by Charlemagne, and was
put an end t o b y the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806, having lasted 1006 years.

CHIEF EVENTS.
Alliance of Austria and Prussia against the revolutionists of France (February 7).
D e a t h of Leopold I I . (March 1).
H i s eldest son, kaiser Francis I I . , aged 24, succeeds him in Bohemia, H u n g a r y , and
Austria.
T h e National Assembly of France declares war against the new kaiser (April 20).
Commencement of hostilities in Flanders and Hainault favourable to the allied
Germans. Sardinia joins the allied Austrian and Prussian army (July 23).
Manifesto of the duke of Brunswick (July 25).
T h e Prussians bombard Thionville in the department of the Moselle (August 5).
T h e Prussians take Longwy, in the department of the Moselle (August 23).
Verdun surrenders to the Prussians.
Dumouriez, the French general, with 24,000 men, defeats the Prussian army, which
numbered 50,000 men (September 20).
T h e revolutionary a r m y of France take Savoy and Nice (September 24, 28).
1T T h e Prussians retreat from French soil (September 30 to October 21).
T h e Austrians bombard Lille, which is so heroically defended that the siege is raised
(September 29-October 7).
T h e French take Spire and Worms (September 30).
T h e French take Mainz and Frankfort (October 21). ^
IT Dumouriez obtains a great victory over the Austrians a t Jemappes (November 6),
and all Belgium falls into his hands.
Savoy made a department of France (November 21).
T h e French garrison a t Frankfort is massacred, and Frankfort is restored to Prussia
(November 28).
1793. First coalition against France made by England and all the powers of Europe (except
Sweden and Denmark).
T h e Convention declares war with England (February 1), and with Holland and
Spain (March 7).
Germany declares war with France (March 22).
T h e combined armies of England and Austria take Valenciennes (July 26).
T h e Austrians take Quesnoy and Cambray (September 10).
T h e duke of Brunswick wins the battle of Pirmasens or Landau (September 14).
T h e Austrians gain the battle of Wattignies, near Lille, over J o u r d a n the French
general (October 15, 16).
T h e duke of Brunswick wins the battle of Kaiserlautern (November 30).
N A P O L E O N B O N A P A R T E , at the age of 24, is made Brigadier-General (December 19).
1794. T h e Sardinians and Austrians drive Massena, the French general, from Piedmont to
Genoa (April 7).
1795. Prussia concludes (at Basle) peace with France (April 5).
Saxony and all the north of Germany declared neuter.
Holland makes with France a treaty of peace (May 16).
T h e French take Diisseldorf (September 6).
T h e Austrians beat J o u r d a n at Hochst (October 11), and compel the French to cross
the Rhine.
17^96. Bonaparte's marvellous Italian campaign. H e was only 27 years of age.
H i s victory over the Austrians
a t Montenotte (April 11), again at Milesimo (April 14),
again at Dego (April 15).
H i s victory over the Piedmontese at Mondovi' (April 22).
Defeats Beaulieu, the Austrian general, at the bridge of Lodi (May 10).
Sardinia concludes peace, cedes Savoy and Nice (June 3).
Massena, the French general, occupies Verona (June 3).
T h e French occupy Bologna, Ferrara, and Anc5na (June 19).
Massena takes possession of the Tyrol (July 6). ^
T h e German a r m y from the Rhine joins the Italian army.
Kleber and Lefebvre defeat the Austrians at Altenkirchen ( J u n e 4).
Moreau, the French general, takes the fort of Kehl (July 1).
A r c h d u k e Karl conquered by Moreau at Neresheim (August 10).
1792.

264-

HOUSE OF AUSTRIA.

[D. i n . ; P t . 1.

Archduke Karl defeats t h e French army a t N e u m a r k t (August 22), and a t Amberg
(August 23).
Wiirtzburg taken b y the French (September 3), but restored to the Austrians in October.
T h e famous retreat of Moreau towards the Rhine (October).
1f Bonaparte beats Wiirmser, t h e Austrian general, a t Lonato (August 3), a n d a t
Castiglione (August 5).
H e gains over Wiirmser the battle of Bassano (September 8).
T h e Cispadian Republic formed (October 10).
Bonaparte's great victory a t Areola over Alvinzi, the Austrian general (November 17).
1797.
T h e archduke Karl retakes the fort of Kehl (January 9).
Bonaparte's triple victory, a t Rivoli (January 14); a t the faubourg of St. George, near
.Mantua (January 15); and near the palace called T h e Favourite (January 16).
Capitulation of Wiirmser (February 2). T h e Austrians evacuate Italy.
IT Bonaparte defeats the Austrians under the archduke Karl a t Tagliamento (March 16).
Austria cedes to France the Belgic provinces, renounces Lombardy.
T h e Cisalpine Republic is formed (July 9).
T h e T r e a t y of C A M P O F O R M I O (October 17). B y this t r e a t y A U S T R I A G A I N S V E N I C E ,
b u t gives u p . t h e N E T H E R L A N D S a n d L O M B A R D Y .

1799.

1800.

Bonaparte returns t o France in December.
N.B.—Frederick-William I I . of Prussia dies November 16, and is succeeded b y his
son Frederick-William I I I . , aged 27. T h e new king reforms t h e court, greatly
corrupted in the last reign, and reduces the taxes.
The second coalition against France b y Russia a n d Austria joined b y England,
Naples, Portugal, Turkey, &c. (only T% years after the peace of Campo Formio).
T h e archduke Karl conquers Jourdan, the French general, a t Ostrach (March 20), a n d
at Stockach (March 25).
T h e Austrian general K r a y beats the French in Italy a t Verona (March 30), and again
a t Magnano (April 5).
Suwarow, t h e Russian general, defeats Moreau a t Cassano, and takes 5000 prisoners
(April 28), and again on t h e Trebia (June 17-19).
Assassination of the French plenipotentiaries a t Rastadt (April 28).
T h e allied Austrian and Russian a r m y win the battle of Novi. I n this bloody battle 4000
French prisoners were taken, and Joubert, the French general, was slain (August 15).
Moreau, t h e French general, defeats t h e Austrians a t Engen, a t Moskirch, and a t
Biberach (April).
Bonaparte's u forty days' campaign." H e left Paris M a y 6, marched over t h e Great
St. Bernard a n d reached t h e valley of Aosta b y M a y 23, a n d entered Milan
J u n e 2 ; won the battle of Montebello over t h e Austrians J u n e 9, and t h e great
B A T T L E O F M A R E N G O J u n e 14.

1801.

Bonaparte returns t o Paris (July 2).
Battle of Hochstadt won b y Moreau (June 19).
Battle of Hohenlinden, in Bavaria, in which Moreau took 10,000 Austrians prisoners,
amongst whom were three general officers (December 3).
Moreau occupies Salzburg (December 15); defeats the Austrians near the river T r a u n
(December 18); takes Lintz, on the Danube (December 25); and marches towards
Vienna.
P E A C E O F L U N E V I L L E between Austria and France. By this treaty kaiser Francis I I .
resigns to France all his possessions on t h e left bank of the river Rhine, thus
making t h a t river the boundary of France (February 9).

1802.

P E A C E O F A M I E N S (March 27).

1803.

T h r e e new electors, all protestants—viz., those of Baden, Wiirtemberg, and HessenCassel. T h e college of free cities reduced to these eight—Augsburg, Niirnberg,
Ratisbon (the seat of t h e diet), Wetzlar (the seat, since 1688, of t h e imperial
chamber), Frankfort, Liibeck, H a m b u r g , and Bremen.
T h e kaiser proclaims himself " H e r e d i t a r y Emperor of Austria," because Napoleon
had assumed the title of emperor (August 11).
The third coalition against France^ consisting of England, Austria, Russia, a n d
Sweden (August 9).
T h e Austrians under t h e archduke Ferdinand take Munich from t h e French
(September 8). Another Austrian army, led b y the archduke John, occupy t h e
T y r o l ; and a third, under the archduke Karl, advance along the Adlge (3 syl.)
T h e Austrians, under Mack, beaten b y the French a t Wertingen (October 8), a n d a t
Gunzburg (October 9). Augsburg occupied b y t h e French (October 10), a n d
Munich retaken b y them (October 12). T h e French, under marshal Ney, win t h e
battle of Elchingen (October 14), and, under Napoleon, successfully invest U l m
(October 17). Mack capitulates (October 20).
Napoleon marches to Vienna (November 13).
T h e B A T T L E O F A U S T E R L I T Z won b y Napoleon (December 2). Anniversary of his
coronation.

1804
1805.

1792-1806.]

1806.

FRANCIS

265

II.

T h e kaiser has an interview with Napoleon (December 6).
P E A C E O F PRESBURG (December 26). By this treaty Austria loses her Italian states,
Suabia, and the Tyrol.
T h e electors of Wiirtemberg and Bavaria made independent " kings."
T h e king of Wiirtemberg, king of Bavaria, elector of Baden, landgraf of Hessen,
duke of Berg, archbishop of Ratisbon, and some other German princes, acknowledge Napoleon as their " protector," agree to supply him in war with 63,000 men,
and are designated " T H E

CONFEDERATION OF T H E

RHINE."

Henceforth the sovereign, hitherto called kaiser or_ emperor of the West (or of the
Romans), is made to abandon these titles. _ H e is no longer recognised as chief of
the German states, but changes his designation from kaiser Francis I I . into
Francis I . emperor of Austria.
H i s successor Ferdinand was also styled " e m p e r o r of Austria," so was Francis-Joseph
I., till the year 1868,^ when he called himself " e m p e r o r of Austria, and king of
H u n g a r y and B o h e m i a ; " his dominion being styled the " A u s t r o - H u n g a r i a n
empire " (November 14).

Leopold II. promised before he died to send an army into
France for the liberation of the king, who had been virtually
dethroned, and was held in captivity by the revolutionists; but
when Louis XVL accepted the new constitution, a term of mutual
forbearance ensued, and Leopold consented to receive again the
French ambassador.
The National Assembly now demanded that the kaiser should
cease to interfere with their concerns. Leopold received this
message with haughty disdain, and would have declared war
if his life had been spared. H e died suddenly in the fortysecond year of his age, and the second of his reign (1792).
His son and successor, Francis II., made it his first duty to
send to Paris a declaration of war; and being joined by the king
of Prussia, an army of considerable force was raised, and placed
under the command of the duke of Brunswick.
The duke was a haughty German who utterly despised the
French mob and their parliament. H e looked on the revolution
as a contemptible riot, an insolent subversion of established order
and divinely-constituted authority; so he gave out that he was
commissioned by the sovereigns of Europe to lay Paris in the
dust, and to crush the republican vipers under his heels. France
being at the time wholly unprepared for war, the duke met but
small resistance, and took several towns in his march towards
Paris. At length France was alarmed, and sent an army to arrest
the invaders. The collision took place at Valmy, in the department of the Marne, and strange to say the republican army was
victorious. The old duke was thunderstruck. H e never dreamt
of such a rebuff, but was obliged to retreat. Every town taken
by the invaders was now retaken by the French; and the retreating
Germans were followed closely into Belgium. They turned at
bay in the vicinity of Jemappes (2 syl.), were completely overthrown,
and all Belgium, which at that time formed part of the Austrian
empire, was annexed to the French republic (Nov. 6, 1792.)

266

HOUSE OF AUSTRIA.

[D. in.; Pt. i.

In January, the year following, Louis XVI. was brought to the
scaffold, and all the sovereigns of Europe flew to arms,—Austria
and Prussia, England and Holland, Spain and Portugal, Naples
and Sardinia, the Holy See, and, after a time, Russia, took up the
cudgels; and France was literally hemmed in on every side.
England with her ships was on her coasts; Spain on the Pyrenees;
Sardinia and Austria on the Alpine frontier; Holland and Prussia
on the northern frontier. Altogether there were 250,000 men in
arms against the republic. What was to be done ? Danton was
the only man bold enough to cope with the difficulty : " Our
soldiers," said he, " desert us by thousands. Our only hope then
is in Paris. Paris must save France. This very day Paris must
supply a volunteer army of 30,000 men. By these Holland must
be conquered, by these France must be saved."
It was a bold project, but the case was desperate. Mad as the
scheme appeared, it was received with tumultuous applause.
T h e black flag of despair was hoisted on the guild hall; and
before midnight not thirty but thirty-five thousand volunteers
presented themselves, ready to carry their lives in their hands for
their beloved France.
It will not be worth while to follow the vicissitudes of the war
prior to the advent of Napoleon; the coalition was too strong,
and was almost everywhere successful. In 1795 Prussia left the
allies, and made peace with the French republic. A little later,
Hanover, Hessen-Cassel, Holland, and Spain fell off.
France
boldly seized the opportunity, resolved to concentrate her
whole strength against Austria, and to force her to peace by a
general invasion. Moreau was sent into Suabiaa Jourdan into
Franconia, and Bonaparte into Italy.
The French had already an army in Italy, but it was wholly
demoralised, ill-fed, ill-clad, without artillery and without pay.
When the new young general arrived, "Soldiers" said he, " I am
sent hither by France to lead you to victory, wealth, and glory.
You are short of provisions, short of clothes. Your country
owes you much, and can pay you nothing. Your patience,
soldiers, and courage must carve you out a fortune, and I am
come to show you the way; come to lead you into the most
fertile plains of the whole world, and to take you where you will
find glory and riches to your heart's content. Soldiers, will you
follow me ? "
These words were received with tumultuous applause, and
young Bonaparte was at once received with confidence by both
officers and men.

1792-1806.]

FRANCIS I I .

NAPOLEON BONAPARTE.

267

The French army in Italy did not exceed 36,000 men in all,
while the allied Austrian and Sardinian force was nearly double
that number. Bonaparte, therefore, resolved at once to divide
and conquer; accordingly, he moved to Savona, and separated
the Sardinians from the Austrians.
BONAPARTE'S

BRILLIANT

ITALIAN

CAMPAIGN

(1796).—April

n t h , the young general won his first Italian victory at Montenotte, in Sardinia. It was over Beaulieu, the Austrian general.
On the 14th he repulsed the Austrians at Millesimo ; on the 15th
at Dego. On the 22nd he confronted the Piedmontese and
defeated them at Mondovi'. On the 10th May, after driving the
Austrians from the town of Lodi, he forced the passage of the
bridge. It was a wooden bridge, 609 feet long, and was
obstinately defended. The young general led the charge in the
face of a tremendous cannonade, and completely succeeded. T h e
Austrians fled, and on the 15 th the victorious army entered
Mil'an without any further opposition.
The Piedmontese had to pay, as the price of peace, twenty-one
millions sterling towards the expenses of the w a r ; to cede to
France Savoy and Nice; and to give up 100 of their masterpieces of art. T h e tide had evidently set in for France, and,
till it turned, resistance would be vain. T h e pope saw this, and
bought permission to remain neuter with ^ 2 1 , 0 0 0 in gold, and
100 rare MSS.
Thus began the first Italian campaign. T h e army was in
raptures, and Paris beside itself with joy. T h e Directory twice
voted that Bonaparte and his army " h a d deserved well of their
country," and from this moment the victorious general was
virtually the Dictator of France.
^1 Meanwhile two French armies under Jourdan and Moreau
were forcing their way into the heart of Germany. I t was a
perilous time for Austria; but the archduke Karl, younger brother
of the kaiser, staved off the danger for a time. H e twice
defeated Jourdan in the month of August, and so complete was
the victory, that the French army fled to the Rhine, and Jourdan
resigned his command.
Moreau, after this disaster, could no longer remain in
Germany; but he conducted his retreat with such dexterity that
it has immortalised his name. It was indeed a perilous march,
through Suabia and the Black Forest, the foe always in pursuit,
and the natives annoying him in every way possible; but for
all this, he reached the Rhine after a march of 200 miles,
with all his booty and his prisoners.
It reminds one of
the famous retreat of the 10,000 Greeks under Xenophon, the

268

HOUSE OF AUSTRIA.

[D. in.; Pt. i.

historian,* along the Tigris, over the table-lands of Armenia, to
the Black Sea.
U In Italy the Austrian arms continued unsuccessful. Bonaparte beat Wurmser at Lonato (Aug. 3), at Castiglione (Aug. 5),
and at Bassano (Sep. 8). An army was placed under marshal
Alvinzi to support the Italian contingent, but, after two indecisive
engagements, it sustained a signal defeat at Areola (Nov. 17).
January 14, the year following (1797), Alvinzi and Wurmser were
defeated at Rivoli, near the Adige (3 syL). It was for his
prowess in this battle that Massena, the French marshal, was
called by Napoleon Bonaparte the " Child of Fortune," and
was created by the Directory the " d u e de Rivoli." January 15
and 16 Bonaparte, having obtained two more victories, entered
Mantua; and further contention being utterly hopeless, Wurmser
capitulated and evacuated the peninsula (Feb. 2).
Italy had always been the evil genius of Germany. Like the
gold of Tolosa, it was an ill-starred treasure.! It was, in fact, a
white elephant, coveted, no doubt, but ruinous to those who
indulged in the possession.
TREATY

OF CAMPO

FORMIO (Oct.

17, 1797).—Italy being

conquered, Bonaparte resolved to carry the war into Austria
itself. It was a bold step to isolate himself thus from all help,
and leave no line of retreat, but Austria had been so whipped
and stung by pismires, it had no life left. Crossing the Alps, the
young Frenchman marched boldly into Styria, and threatened
Vienna. Where was the imperial army? where the armed
Hungarians? where was field-marshal Laudon, who had done
good service for Maria Theresa ? where the Venetian contingent ?
If they had acted vigorously, coming up on all sides, where
would the French army have been?
But, while they were
thinking and debating, Bonaparte had finished his work. T h e
kaiser craved peace, and the wily Frenchman, knowing the peril
of his situation, condescended to grant what only a madman
would have refused. Peace was agreed to, and signed at CAMPO
FORMIO, October 17, 1797.

Thus Bonaparte in two campaigns had conquered Italy, won
fourteen battles, brought Sardinia and Austria to their knees,
* This retreat is told by Xenophon in his Anabasis. The fact is this : Cyrus wishing to dethrone his
elder brother, was joined by some Greek mercenaries. Being slain and his army broken up, the Greeks
were conducted back by Xenophon, who succeeded in reaching Asia Minor after surmounting unheard-of
perils, B.C. 401.
t Caepio, in his march to Gallia Narbonensis, stole from Tolosa {Toulouse] the gold and silver consecrated
by the Cimbrian druids to their gods. In the battle which ensued both Caepio and his brother-consul were
defeated by the Cimbrians and Teutons, and it was said to be in retribution for stealing "the gold of
Tolosa."

1792-1806.]

FRANCIS II.

NAPOLEON BONAPARTE.

269

added to France Savoy and Nice, the Netherlands and Italy, had
obtained large money compensations, and enriched Paris with
numerous art treasures. Austria, in return for her Italian states,
which were formed into a republic under the protection of
France, received Venice and the islands of the Adriatic.
All things seemed prosperous and promising to general
Bonaparte. A congress was convened at Rastadt to settle the
moot points of the peace treaty. The German princes were
snubbed and snuffed out whenever they opened their lips; but
suddenly the wind changed, the congress was broken up, and
a second coalition against France compelled the republic to
gird itself again " for the. grappling vigour and rough frown of
war."
U 1799. The congress of Rastadt continued till the close of
the year 1798, when Paul, emperor of Russia, whose personal
dignity felt affronted, formed a coalition with Austria against
Bonaparte. It was only about a year and a-half since the treaty
of Campo Formio, but treaties are ropes of sand, " and force with
force will be ejected when the conquered can." England joined
the league, so did Portugal, so did Naples, and even Turkey. It
was the second European coalition against the modern Attila,
and, like the first, ended in a further dismemberment of the
Austrian empire.
The war of 1799 began most brilliantly for the allies. First,
the archduke Karl of Austria delivered Germany from the
French incubus by his two victories over Jourdan, who had been
again selected by the Directory to command the French army on
the Danube (March 20, 25).
Next, Massena, the " child of Fortune and duke of Rivoli,"
was driven out of Switzerland.
Thirdly, the Austrian general Kray defeated the French at
Verona and Magnano, in Italy (March 30, April 5).
Fourthly, the Russian Suwarow, surnamed " t h e Invincible,"
defeated Moreau, the French Xenophon, at Cassano and Trebia
(April 28, and June 17 to 19). Above 5000 Frenchmen were
taken prisoners in this last battle, and almost all Italy returned to
its former masters.
Three months later Suwarow again defeated the French at
Novi, in Sardinia. It was a brilliant victory, in which 4000
French were made prisoners, and general Joubert wTas slain
(Aug. 15).
§ And where was Bonaparte all this time ? H e had been sent
by the Directory into Egypt, where his usual good fortune had

270

HOUSE OF AUSTRIA.

T H E FIRST CONSUL.

[D. 111.; Pt. 1.

followed him. While the French generals in Germany and Italy
were losing battle after battle, Bonaparte was gaining fresh laurels
every day. Alexandria fell into his hands, he won the great battle
of the Pyramids, completed the subjugation of Egypt, passed into
Syria, made himself master of Gaza and Jaffa, won the battle of
Mount Tabor, returned to Egypt, attacked the Turks at Aboukir',
and utterly destroyed their whole army (July 25, 1799).
Hearing of the deplorable losses of the French in Germany
and Italy, he left Kleber with the army in Egypt, returned to
Paris, overthrew the Government, and got himself appointed
First Consul (Nov. 9, 1799).
11 1800. Next year he set himself to repair the fallen fortunes
of France in Europe. H e sent Moreau to the Rhine, and went
himself into Italy to encounter his old enemies.
The whole aspect of affairs was now changed, as if by magic.
Moreau defeated the Austrians in three successive battles, in the
month of April, and Bonaparte in his " forty days' campaign,"
won back Italy. It was a marvellous success; a vent, vidi, vici ;
not a conquest without a terrible struggle, but a conquest so
rapid and so complete, that almost as soon as he set eyes on a
nation he obtained possession of it.
T o take the enemy by surprise, he led his army over the Alps,
and debouched into Italy by the valley of Aosta. It was a
Titanic labour. All the stores had to be conveyed on the backs
of mules; and all the cannon, packed in hollow pine-trees, had to
be dragged over the mountains by men, 100 soldiers to a cannon.
On the 17th May he began his ascent, on the 2nd June entered
Mil'an, and on the 9th of the same month won the battle of
Montebello.
Eight days afterwards (June 14, 1800) the Austrians attacked
him at MARENGO, and so impetuous was their charge, that the
French gave way. At this critical moment the First Consul
launched into the plain the grenadiers of the consular guard.
They formed into a square: stood like flints against the foe;
stopped all further advance; and received the honourable
cognomen of the Granite Redoubt
It was well-timed and
well-planned. The foe was checked ; other divisions had time to
come up, Kellerman with the dragoons and Desaix with the
reserves. " Forward !" shouted the First Consul. " Forward ! "
ran along the lines. The charge was terrible, was irresistible.
The Austrians gave ground. " On !" shouted Bonaparte. " On !"
was echoed from mouth to mouth. The disorder became general;
the victory was won; and Italy was again in the hands of France.

1792-1806.]

FRANCIS II.

PEACE.

271

The campaign had occupied less than six weeks, and Bonaparte
returned to Paris more honoured than ever (July 2, 1800).
T h e loss of Austria a t Marengo was 4,500 killed, 6,000 hors de combat^ 5,000 prisoners, 12
standards, and 30 field-pieces.

The rest of the year belongs to Moreau. H e had defeated the
Austrians thrice in the month of April, and on the 19th of June
won the battle of Hochstadt. Austria now summoned her whole
male population to arms, and the archduke John, with 120,000
men, encountered the republican army at Hohenlinden, in Bavaria.
This famous French victory has been immortalized by the beautiful poem of Thomas Campbell, beginning—
" On Linden when the sun was low
All bloodless lay the untrodden snow,
And dark as winter was the flow
Of Iser rolling rapidly.
But Iser saw another sight
When the drum beat at dead of night,
Commanding fires of death to light
The darkness of her scenery.

It was a bloody victory, won on the 3rd of December, and
11,000 Austrians with 100 field-pieces fell into the hands of the
French army. T h e way to Vienna being now open, Moreau
pressed forward without delay, gained fresh laurels, and compelled
the kaiser to sue for peace.
PEACE

OF LUNEVILLE

(February

9,

1801).—In

twenty-five

days the French marshal had subdued 90 leagues of German
territory; had forced four formidable lines; beaten 100,000 men
twice; and made 25,000 prisoners. T o hold out longer was impossible, and the treaty of Luneville concluded peace between the
belligerents.
This treaty confirmed and extended that of Campo Formio.
The kaiser confirmed to France the Austrian Netherlands; consented to recognise the several republics which France had created
in Italy, Switzerland, and Bavaria; gave up all the territory left of
the Rhine, and compensated the princes thus despoiled by
secularising the church property. The landgraf of Hessen-Cassel,
the margraf of Baden, and the duke of Wurtemberg were made
" electors," and the fifty-six Free-cities were reduced to six:
Liibeck, Frankfort, and Bremen,—Hamburg, Augsburg, and
Niirnberg.
PEACE of AMIENS (March 27, 1802).—Only one enemy now

remained, and that was England. William Pitt having resigned
office, was succeeded by Mr. Addington; and the new cabinet,

272

HOUSE OF AUSTRIA.

NAPOLEON EMPEROR.

[D. m . ; Pt. i.

desirous of peace, signed the treaty of Amiens, by which England
was allowed to retain Ceylon, Trinidad, and the Cape of Good
Hope. France gave back to Rome both Naples and Elba; Malta
was restored to the knights of St. J o h n ; Spain and Holland
regained their colonies; and Turkey was restored to its integrity.
T H E T H I R D COALITION AGAINST FRANCE (August 9, 1805).—

Pitt, who was again prime minister of England, viewed the
over-bearing conduct of Napoleon, now emperor of the French,
with considerable dissatisfaction, and induced Austria, Russia, and
Sweden, to join England in resisting the encroachments of the
modern Nimrod.
As in former cases the allies gained at first several victories.
The kaiser's son, Ferdinand, took Munich from the French
garrison (September 8 ) ; another Austrian army, led by the archduke John, occupied the Tyrol; and a third, under the arch-duke
Karl, advanced along the Adige.
These little spurts of success were counterbalanced by as many
reverses : Thus, Massena, called by Bonaparte the " Child of
Fortune," drove the arch-duke Karl out of Italy; Murat (Mu-rah),
brother-in-law of Napoleon, called " the good swordsman," defeated
Mack, the Austrian general, at Wertingen (October 8 ) ; Augsburg
was occupied by another French army (October 10); Munich was
recaptured (October 12); and marshal Ney, called le brave des
braves, won the battle of Elchingen, in Bavaria, an achievement
which gave him the title of " d u k e of Elchingen" (October 14).
Napoleon himself now comes on the scene. H e crossed the
D a n u b e ; occupied Bavaria; made himself master of Ulm
(October 17); and entered Vienna (November 13). From Vienna
he marched to Austerlitz, in Moravia, to meet the allied armies of
Austria and Russia, led by their respective emperors. T h e
number of the allies was 84,000, of which 16,000 were cavalry;
that of the French was 80,000. Napoleon placed Bernadotte
(3 syl.) in the centre; Soult in the right wing; Lannes (1 syl.) to
the left; Murat, the best cavalry officer in France, commanded
the cavalry ; and 20 of the best battalions formed the reserve.
At sunrise, December 2, Napoleon passed along the lines.
"Soldiers," said he, "this battle must be a thunder-clap." It was
enough. T h e enthusiasm of his troops was unbounded, and
shouts of applause greeted him as he rode along the lines. By
one o'clock he had obtained the most brilliant of all his victories.
15,000 of the foe perished on the field ; 2,000 more were drowned
by the breaking up of the ice ; 20,000 were made prisoners; 40
colours and 200 pieces of cannon were among the trophies of the

1792-1806.]

FRANCIS II.

END OF ROMAN EMPIRE.

273

day. Napoleon called it the " Battle of the Three Emperors,"
and the result of it was peace. It was won on the anniversary of
his coronation.
PEACE OF PRESBURG (December 26, 1805).—Four days after
the battle, kaiser Francis II., went in person to Napoleon's tent to
sue for peace, and he signed on the 26th, at Presburg, a treaty
in which he surrendered all his Italian states, and ceded to
France Suabia and the Tyrol. Bavaria and Wurtemberg, for their
fidelity to Napoleon, were erected into independent kingdoms; and
Prussia, which had remained neuter, was rewarded by the
electorate of Hanover. Napoleon returned to Paris, was received
with rapturous enthusiasm, and surnamed " t h e Great."
END

OF T H E HOLY ROMAN

EMPIRE (August 6,

1806).—

Austria was now humbled almost to the dust, but there was still
some life left. Prussia was also a European power. The alliance
of these two might " sting to hurt," but either alone could only
" buzz."
During the war of 1805, so disastrous to Austria, several
German princes, too weak to remain neutral, had allied themselves with France. The first to do so were the electors of
Bavaria and Wurtemberg, who, in recompense of their treason,
were raised to the dignity of "kings." A few months later the
arch-chancellor of Germany announced to the diet that he had
chosen for his successor one of Napoleon's uncles; and, in July,
1806, sixteen German princes, having signed an act of allegiance
to the Aaron's serpent of France, and dissolved their connection
with the German empire, were formed by Napoleon into T H E
CONFEDERATION OF T H E R H I N E . *

To call what remained the Empire of the West or the Holy
Roman Empire would be a farce; and it scarcely needed the
official declaration of the great arbiter of Europe through his
ambassador to inform the sovereign that his master, Napoleon,
no longer recognised a Germanic empire.
The confederate princes were under the protectorate of
Napoleon, and engaged to furnish him in times of war with 63,000
fighting men, fully equipped, and led by the confederate princes
themselves. Between 1806 and 1808 several minor states joined
the league, swelling it to fifteen million souls, with an army in
* These sixteen princes were the king of Bavaria, the king of Wurtemberg, the arch-chancellor of Germany,
the elector (now called the grand-duke) of Baden, the new grand-duke of Cleves and Berg (Napoleon's
brother-in-law), the landgraf (now called the grand-duke) of Hessen-Darmstadt, the prince of Nassau-Usinges,
the prince of Nassau-Weilburg, the prince of Hohenzollern-Hechingen, the prince of HohenzolernSigmaringen, the prince of Salm-Sahn, the prince of Salm-Kyrburg, the prince of Isenburg-Birstein, the
pruice of Leichtenstein, the duke of Aremberg, and the count of Leyen. Subsequently the duke of Wiirsburg,
the king of Saxony, the king of Westphalia, the duke of Mecklenburg, and other small princes joined the
confederation.

T

NEW

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EMPIRE OF AUSTRIA.

[D. m; Pt. if*

behoof of France amounting to nearly 120,000 men.* These
German potentates, so mighty once in their own eyes, were now
become " but mockery kings of snow, standing before the sun
[of Bonaparte]."
Francis II. was no longer king of Germany, for Germany was
no longer a kingdom, but only a geographical expression. H e
was no longer emperor of the Romans, for all Italy had been
taken from him, and more than half the states had " cracked the
strong warrant of their oaths." H e was no longer kaiser Francis
II., the successor of Charlemagne, but as the first sovereign of a
new empire he called himself henceforth FRANCIS I. EMPEROR OF
AUSTRIA (August 6, 1806).
Thus ended the HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE, 1005 years after pope
Leo conferred on Charlemagne the title of Augustus, and crowned
him " Emperor of the West."

DIVISION III.—PART II.
END OF THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE.—BIRTH OF THE NEW
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE; AND, IN 1871, OF THE NEW GERMAN
EMPIRE.

THE EMPIRE OF AUSTRIA, KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA,
AND CONFEDERATION OF THE RHINE.
F R O M 1806 T O 1813.

Emperor

of Austria,

King

F R A N C I S I . (late kaiser Francis I I . )

of Prussia,

FREDERICK WILLIAM I I I .

Confederation of the Rhine, formed J u l y , 1806, dissolved March, 1813.
CHIEF
1806.

1807.

EVENTS.

The fourth coalition against France, consisting of Prussia, Saxony, Great Britain,
and Russia (October 6). Dissolved b y the peace of Tilsit (July, 1807).
Napoleon leaves Paris (September 26); his first success a t Schleitz (October 9), his
next a t Saalfeld (October 10). H e defeats the Prussians a t J e n a (October 14), a n d
on the same d a y marshal Davoust defeats another Prussian army a t Auerstadt.
Bernadotte defeats t h e Prussians a t Halle (October 16, 17).
Napoleon defeats the Prussians a t Potsdam (October 25), and a t Berlin (October 28).
Prussia gives u p Liibeck (November 7), Custrin a n d Magdeburg (November 8), and
nothing of t h e kingdom b u t oriental Prussia a n d Silesia remains to Frederick
William I I I .
T h e Silesian campaign. Glogau and Breslau taken b y the French ( J a n u a r y 7).
Siege of Dantzic (March 19).
T h e B A T T L E O F E Y L A U , the most bloody of all Napoleon's victories. T h e French were
54,000 strong, the allied Prussians and Russians 72,000 (February 8).

* The utter collapse of the Moscow expedition melted this snow-ball, and by the summer of 1813 it wholly
vanished in the sudden outburst of German patriotism.

*8o6-i8x 3 .] F R A N C I S

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III.

OF

PRUSSIA.

275

A r m y of reserve created, consisting of French, Germans, Italians, D u t c h , and Spaniards
(40,000 men).
Capitulation of Dantzic (May 26).
T h e Russians beaten at Heilsberg ( J u n e 10), and again a t Friedland ( J u n e 14).
Soult occupies Konigsberg ( J u n e 16).
Interview of the two emperors, France and Russia ( J u n e 22).
T R E A T Y O F T I L S I T (July 8). Napoleon restores to Prussia Pomerania, Brandenburg,
and Silesia. Dantzic is constituted a free city.
Hessen-Cassel formed into a kingdom for Jerome Bonaparte.
T h e duchies of Posen and Varsovie, with Poland, erected into a grand-duchy for t h e
king of Saxony, who is received into the Confederation of the Rhine.
T h e princes of Oldenburg a n d Mecklenburg re-established in their respective
sovereignties.
1809. Napoleon forms Tuscany into a grand-duchy for his sister Elisa (March 2), and gives
the grand-duchy of Berg to Louis Bonaparte, son of Louis [Bonaparte] king of
Holland.
The fifth coalition against France by Austria and Great Britain (April 9), dissolved
by the battle of W a g r a m ( J u l y 6, 1809).
T h e archduke Karl seizes Munich (April 9).
Napoleon wins the battle of Ingolstadt (April 20), takes ILandshut (April 21), defeats
the arch-duke Karl at Eckmiihl in Bavaria (April 22), takes Ratisbon, where he is
wounded in the heel (April 23).
T h e French marshal Masse*na defeats the Austrians a t Ebersberg ( M a y 13).
T h e Tugend-bund in the north of Germany provokes a n insurrection in favour of
fatherland (April and M a y ) .
Napoleon adds the states of the H o l y Roman Empire to France ( M a y 17).
Napoleon defeated b y the arch-duke Karl a t A s p e r n ( M a y 21), and a t Essling ( M a y 22).
Napoleon excommunicated by the pope ( J u n e 10). T h e pope made prisoner is taken to
Savona ( J u l y 6).
Siege of Presburg b y Davoust (June 27).
B A T T L E O F W A G R A M won b y Napoleon ( J u l y 6).
T R E A T Y O F P E A C E signed at V I E N N A (October 14). Austria divested of almost all her
estates.
1810. T h e emperor of Austria (Francis I.) gives his daughter Maria Louisa in marriage t o
Napoleon (April 2).
Louis [Bonaparte], king of Holland abdicates ( J u l y 3), and Holland is united to the
French empire ( J u l y 9).
University of Berlin opened (October 15).
Abolition of corporations in Prussia (October 27).
I n imitation of the division of France into departments, Bavaria is divided into nine
circles, and Wurtemberg into twelve departments (October 1 to November 12).
1812. T H E M o s c o w E X P E D I T I O N , — N a p o l e o n enters Moscow September 15, and evacuates
it October 19-24.
1813. Frederick-William I I I . of Prussia calls to arms all the male strength of his kingdom
(February), and declares the Confederation of the Rhine dissolved (March), but it
w a s not broken u p till the battle of Leipzig (October 18, 19) when Saxony and
Wurtemberg joined the allies, Bavaria followed at the end of the month.

The Fourth Coalition against France {October 6, i8o6y to
July 7, 1807).
Frederick-William III. of Prussia, a young man who had quite
lately succeeded his father, justly alarmed at the magnitude of the
"Confederation of the Rhine," resolved no longer to remain
neutral; and demanded that the French troops should be withdrawn from Germany. This, of course, was a virtual declaration
of war; and both sides prepared themselves for the inevitable
T

2

276

FREDERICK-WILLIAM III. OF PRUSSIA.

[D. m ; Pt. 11.

fight. Louisa, the young queen of Prussia, " with hot ardent zeal
would set the realm on fire," and rode about the streets of Berlin
in military costume to rouse the spirit of the people.
Napoleon
wittily said of her, " she was Armlda in her distraction setting fire
to her own palace."*
Pitt and Fox were both dead, but the new ministry readily
entered into a new coalition with Prussia, Russia, and Sweden,
against the disturber of the peace of Europe. Austria took no
part in this campaign. It began September 28, and by October
14 the fate of Prussia was sealed, by two defeats in one day,—•
at JENA [ Yea-naK\ and Auerstadt—the former won by Napoleon
and the latter by Marshal Davoust, who was created " duke of
Auerstadt" in reward of his victory (October 14, 1806).
After three or four more combats of no great moment Liibeck
was taken; fortress after fortress capitulated; and by November
the military monarchy of Prussia, once so powerful, was well-nigh
annihilated.
Having taken Berlin, the capital, Napoleon visited Potsdam,
the burial-place of Frederick the Great, and carried away the
sword of that hero, to deposit it as a curiosity in the Hotel des
Invalides\ of Paris. H e deposed the elector of Hessen, and
raised Saxony into a kingdom.
What remained of the Prussian army, marched towards
Konigsberg, and was joined by an army of Russians. Napoleon
followed, town after town fell into his hands with little resistance;
and at last he halted at Eylau, % where was fought one of the best
contested battles he had witnessed. A thick snow had covered
the ground, and added greatly to the horrors of the day. The
murderous struggle was repeatedly renewed, and the promise of
victory swayed from side to side. Night closed upon the scene
while the French were in retreat; but Napoleon claimed the day,
because the foe during the night decamped, leaving him master of
the situation (February 8, 1807).
Day after day fighting went on, always with the same result, till
June 14, the anniversary of the battle of Marengo, when was
fought the decisive battle of FRIEDLAND. It began at daybreak
and continued far into the night. The allies fought manfully, and
for many hours the balance was against the French; but when
Ney and Victor arrived with reinforcements the scale was turned,
* Armlda was the beautiful sorceress with whom Rinaldo fell in love; and when he left her to return to the
army she tried to allure him back. Not succeeding- in this she set fire to her palace, rushed into the midst of
the battle, and was slain.—TASSO, Jerusalem Delivered.
t Invalides pronounce Ahn-wa-leed
\ Eylau pronounce I'lou {au like ou in the word " our "}.

I8O6-I3I 3 .]

FRANCIS

I.,

EMPEROR

OF AUSTRIA.

277

and the allies gave up the struggle. The victory was complete,
and Napoleon entered the town of Tilsit.
TREATY OF TILSIT (July 8, 1807).—Alexander of Russia expressed a wish to see the conqueror; a conference took place,
and a treaty of peace was signed at Tilsit by Prussia, Russia, and
France. Hard terms were exacted from Prussia, which was stripped
of Brunswick. Hessen-Cassel and part of Hanover were formed
into a new monarchy, called the " kingdom of Westphalia," and
given to Napoleon's youngest brother, Jerome. T h e Polish territory of Prussia was also taken away, formed into what was called
the " grand-duchy of Warsaw," and given to the king of Saxony.
A fine of five-and-a-half millions sterling was exacted as an
indemnity, and the Prussian army was restricted to 42,000 men.
The Fifth Coalition against France {April p, to October 14, 1809).
Austria stood aloof from the fourth coalition, but it may well be
understood that she was only watching her opportunity. The
peace of Tilsit was signed in 1807, and at the opening of the year
following (1808), Napoleon Bonaparte entered Spain to repair the
losses which his armies had sustained there. Arthur Wellesley,
afterwards duke of Wellington, had been sent to the peninsula to
support the Spaniards, and the emperor of Austria thought this a
favourable opportunity to rise and strike.
So the army was
strengthened to the utmost, the emperor's brother Karl was
appointed commander-in-chief, and every thing was done to rouse
the spirit of the people.
On the 9th April, 1809, the arch-duke left Vienna, and directed
his march to Bavaria: but it was too late. Napoleon had quitted
Spain at the close of the previous year, and was quite ready for
the new trouble immediately it began. H e left Paris the day after
the arch-duke left Vienna, and took up his quarters at Ingolstadt,
in Bavaria. Day after day the Austrians were defeated, twice on
the 20th of April; at Landshut * on the 21st; Eckmiihl* on the
22nd. This was a serious affair, as 20,000 prisoners, all the
Austrian artillery, and 15 standards fell into the hands of the
French. On the 23rd of the month, the Austrians were chased
from Ratisbon. Here it was that Napoleon received his first and
only wound, a slight one in the heel. May 13 he entered Vienna
for the second time.
The arch-duke hearing of the fall of Vienna, marched thither
and halted at ESSLING. Napoleon met him there, and a dreadful
* Landshut pronounce Lants+hute. Eckmuhl pronounce Ek-mool (mool to rhyme with wool).

278

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III.

OF PRUSSIA.

[D.mjPt.iu

conflict commenced on the 21st of May, which was renewed the
following morning. Here it was that kaiser Rudolf in 1276 overthrew Ottokar, king of Bohemia, and here it was that Napoleon
met his severest check. Not only was marshal Lannes \Lann\
slain, but 30,000 French were made prisoners. Having reinforced
his army from Italy, Bavaria, Wtirtemberg, and Saxony, Napoleon
Bonaparte resolved to measure swords again. Pretending to make
preparations of battle on the former site, he completely deceived
the foe, for on the 4th July, during a terrific thunderstorm, he
marched six miles lower down, crossed the Danube, and drew up
his order of battle near the village of WAGRAM. This was a
serious disadvantage to the arch-duke, as it compelled him to meet
the foe in a most unfavourable position, and rendered his previous
operations of no avail. At daybreak, on the 6th of July, the fight
began, and by 10 o'clock in the morning its issue was decided.
The French were victorious, their loss did not exceed 5,000 men,
while that of the Austrians was at least 8 to 1, according to the
French bulletins.
The emperor of Austria now found it useless to continue the
contest longer. An armistice was proposed, and on the 14th of
October was signed the TREATY OF VIENNA, in which Francis I.
agreed to recognise all the political changes enforced by Napoleon,
to cede to him several provinces,* to discard his English allies,
and to observe faithfully " the continental system," that pet folly
of the French emperor, t
SECOND MARRIAGE OF NAPOLEON (April 2, 1810).—Napoleon,

decidedly the foremost man of all the world, now above forty years
of age, emperor of half Europe, " the expectancy and rose" of
France, had still a crook in his lot, a thorn in his flesh, a poison
drop in his cup, a puddle in his path. H e had been married to
Josephine for thirteen years, but was without an heir. This was a
great grief to him. H e hoped to be the founder of a long line of kings,
but began to fear his dynasty would begin and end with himself.
Under hope of obtaining a posterity he divorced his virtuous
and loving wife, called his Good Angel; so amiable and gracious,
so honoured and beloved, that he frequently said to her " I can
win battles, but you win hearts."
Josephine being informed of the mutual wish of her husband
and the nation regarding a successor, nobly sacrificed her own
* He ceded Carnlola, Friuli, Croatia, part of Dalmatia and Trieste to France ; Salzburg to Bavaria; and
Galicia to Russia and Saxony.
t The "Continental System" was a prohibition to deal with Great Britain, to hold every Englishman who
set foot in the country a prisoner of war, and all British merchandise as lawful prize. It was a " pet folly,"
for commercially it was cutting off the nose to be revenged on the face, inasmuch as England was the best
customer of Germany.

X8O6-I8I 3 .]

FRANCIS I. OF AUSTRIA.

MOSCOW.

279

private feelings and splendid position, and actually consented to
her husband's marriage with Maria Louisa, arch-duchess of Austria,
the most ancient and illustrious house in Europe.
On the 20th March, 1811, Napoleon's joy was full; the climax
of his wonderful destiny was attained,—a son and heir was born.
The infant from his cradle was proclaimed King of Rome. This was
the "crest unto the crest" of all his hope, but was almost the last of
the brilliant gifts of fortune accorded to him. Already the storm
was gathering, the noise of the thunder might be heard, the
blackness of the darkness might be seen. It might be no bigger
than a man's hand, but it portended the coming rain ; and in four
more years the Phaeton who drove for a little day the chariot of
almost all Europe was a poor discrowned exile in the island of St.
Helena, "fallen like Lucifer, never to rise again."
In the year 1811, in Fortune's cap Napoleon "was the very
button," but in 1812 " h e and Fortune parted," It was the fatal
year of his retreat from Moscow, when famine, pestilence, and
the sword, fatigue, disaster, and the unusual severity of a Russian
winter, combined to plague him. Every bridge was broken down
to increase the labour of his retreat. Every convoy was intercepted. Plunder was impossible. Rest and repose were impossible.
And, to add to these " griefs upon griefs," on the 7th
November, there fell a terrible snow-storm, accompanied with a
cold and biting wind, fierce as a tornado. The roads were no
longer discernible. Multitudes fell into ditches and died there.
The horses perished "not only by hundreds but by thousands ; "
and no little of the artillery and baggage had to be abandoned.
In less than a month, the 110,000 who started from Moscow
were reduced to 80,000. With these Napoleon hastened to reach
the Vistula, but found, on nearing the Berezyna, that the bridge
had been destroyed. By a dexterous manoeuvre he contrived to
deceive the vigilance of the foe, and constructed two new bridges,
one for the cavalry, and one for the foot; but now befel a calamity
more like romance than history: Napoleon himself passed first,
and took his route towards Zemlin. Next day a Russian army
came up, and opened a dreadful cannonade on those who were
seeking to cross the bridges. Suddenly the bridge for the cavalry
broke in, and the whole way was blocked up by horses, baggagewagons, carriages, artillery, and men, advancing at full speed
towards the river. On rushed they all to the other bridge,—horse
and foot, gun-carriages and baggage-wagons, in inextricable confusion. The strong thrust the feeble into the river, or trod them
under foot.
Hundreds were crushed to death—an army of

280

FREDERICK-WILLIAM

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OF

PRUSSIA.

[D. i i i ; P t . n .

Russians was close behind, was in sight, when one of the French
generals, who had crossed the bridge, ordered it to be fired to
arrest pursuit. Horrible beyond description was the scene which
followed. The mass on the bridge was so wedged in, it could not
move.
It saw the double death; and shrieking, struggling,
cursing, imploring, sank into the stream below. Those who
escaped, regardless of discipline and authority, ran for their lives,
and the retreat was a mere stampede, a "save who can."
The loss of the French in this deplorable campaign, has been
estimated at 200,000 men. Napoleon's star "shone darkly over
him," and " his glory, like a shooting star, was falling from the
firmament."
Misfortunes never come in single file. While the French army
retreating from Moscow was thus cruelly dealt with, the armies in
Portugal and Spain were being defeated in every direction by the
duke of Wellington. H e had chased them from Douro, in
Portugal, right out of Spain; and on the 9th November, 1813, the
great duke slept for the last time on Spanish ground.

NAPOLEON'S

DOWNFALL.

FROM T H E M O S C O W E X P E D I T I O N T O T H E B A T T L E O F W A T E R L O O .

Contemporary

1813.

with George III.

of Great Britain

1813

TO

1815.

(1760-1820).

CHIEF EVENTS.
T h e senate of France accord Napoleon 350,000 men (January 11).
Frederick-William I I I . calls to arms all the male population of Prussia (February 3-10).
Frederick-William I I I . declares " T h e Confederation of the R h i n e " dissolved
(March 29). I t still existed, however, and melted away gradually as the terror of
Napoleon's name declined.
Napoleon hastens into Germany (April 15).
B A T T L E O F L U T Z E N won b y Napoleon over the allied armies of Prussia and Russia
(May 2).
T h e four days' defeat of the same allied armies, a t Bautzen, in Saxony, at Wurtchen,
and at Hochkirchen (May 19, 20, 21, 22).
Suspension of arms at the intervention of Austria (from J u n e 4 to August 17).
T h e terms of peace proposed b y Austria indignantly rejected (August 16).
The sixth and last coalition against Napoleon^ consisting of Prussia, Russia, Austria,
Sweden, and Great Britain (August 16).
W a r declared by the allies against France (August 16).
T h e French repulsed at Gross Beeren by the Swedes (August 23).
T h e French defeated a t Katzbach by Blucher (August 26).
T h e allies defeated at Dresden b y Napoleon. Moreau slain in the battle (August 27).
T h e French defeated at Kulm by the allied armies of Austria and Russia (August 31).
T h e French defeated at Dennewitz by the Swedes (September 6).
T h e French defeated at Wartenburg in Prussia (October 3).
B A T T L E O F L E I P Z I G won by the allied Prussian, Austrian, and Russian armies.
(This battle is memorable for the defection of the Saxon and Wiirtemberg soldiers in
Napoleon's army.)
T h e destruction of the Elster bridge between Leipzig and Lindenau.

1813-1815.]

1814.

FRANCIS

I., EMPEROR

O F AUSTRIA.

28l

T h e French retreat to the Rhine pursued b y Bliicher. T h e Bavarians revolt from the
Confederation (October 30).
T h e French marshal Davoust blocked u p in H a m b u r g ; Dantzic invested; t h e
Russians blockade Magdeburg and occupy Cassel (October 28 to November i i j .
T h e Prussians enter Amsterdam and declare the house of Orange restored (Dec. 2).
Geneva opens a passage to the Austrians.
Napoleon restores Ferdinand V I I . to the throne of Spain (December 11).
Schwartzenberg, the Austrian general, invades French territory, and a Prussian a r m y
led by Bliicher does the same (January 1).
T h e three sovereigns of Austria, Prussia, a n d Russia meet a t Vesoul, in France
(January 23).
Schwartzenberg and Bliicher join their armies at Langres, in France (January 25).
Napoleon repulses the Prussians under Bliicher a t St. Dizier (January 27), and again
at Brienne (January 29).
Napoleon defeated a t Rothiere the combined armies of Bliicher a n d Schwartzenberg
(February 1).
Bliicher separates from Schwartzenberg, and, advancing towards Paris, is defeated b y
Napoleon a t Champ-Aubert (February 10); at Montmirail (February 11); a t
Chateau-Thierry (February 13); a n d again a t Champ-Aubert (February 14).
Schwartzenberg, with the Austrian army, next menaces Paris ; and Napoleon, leaving
Bliicher, goes to oppose him, and defeats him a t Mery-sur-Seine (February 24).
Bernadotte of # Sweden joins Blucher's army, a n d t h e two march towards Paris.
Napoleon is beaten b y them a t Laon (March 7).
T h e Austrian general Schwartzenberg makes a second move towards Paris, a n d
Napoleon meets him a t Arcis-sur-Aube, but the fight is indecisive (March 20).
Schwartzenberg joins Bliicher a n d Bernadotte (March 23), and the combined armies
reach Paris (March 29).
Paris surrenders (March 30).
T h e czar of Russia and king of Prussia enter Paris with their armies (March 31).
Napoleon deposed b y the French senate (April 3).
Napoleon signs his abdication a t Fontainebleau (April 11).
Napoleon banished t o the Isle of Elba (April 20).
Restoration of Louis X V I I I . t o the French crown (May 3).
D e a t h of Josephine, the divorced wife of Napoleon (May 29).
T H E P E A C E O P P A R I S ( M a y 30).
C O N G R E S S O F V I E N N A (October 1).

1815.

Napoleon Bonaparte escapes from E l b a (March 7).
Germanic confederation established (June 8), dissolved 1866.
Napoleon defeats t h e Prussians under Bliicher at Ligny (June 16); b u t the same d a y
the French were worsted a t Quatre Bras. I n this combat Frederick-William duke
of Brunswick was slain.
T H E B A T T L E O F W A T E R L O O , in which t h e French, led b y Napoleon, were defeated
by the allies, commanded b y the duke of Wellington (June 18).
Second abdication of Napoleon (June 22).
T h e allies take possession of Paris ( J u l y 7).
Napoleon banished to St. Helena (October 18).
S E C O N D T R E A T Y O F P A R I S (November 20).

Reorganisation of Germany.

Germany only waited its opportunity, and justly thought this
French disaster the joybell of deliverance. Prussia was the first
to move. A secret society, called the Tugend-bund or League of
Virtue, was organised by the students, having for its object the
expulsion of the French from German soil. This bund was
joined by all sorts of men, students and professors, patriots and

282

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ID. 111; Pt. 11.

fanatics—all who smarted under the scorpion lash of the Corsican
Sesostris.
Then again, the restriction of Napoleon, at the Peace of Tilsit,
to limit the army of Prussia to 42,000 men, was turned to good
account, and skilfully evaded. The army was nominally kept at
this maximum, but as soon as one set of men were well drilled
and trained for war, it was replaced by another; and in this
manner the whole male population was one vast army without the
expense of keeping up more than 42,000 at a time.
This sort of militia was called the land-wehr and land-sturm,
that is, the "land-defence" and the "land-assault" levies. The
former included all young men up to the age of 40, and the latter
all men between 40 and 60. The land-wehr could be called to
arms on all occasions, and was, in fact, the general soldiery of the
nation; the land-sturm was called into service only when the
country was invaded or assaulted, and was not expected to be
sent on foreign service. In times of war it was required to act as
a home militia, but not to follow the land-wehr beyond the
frontiers (March 17).
Every battalion of the land-wehr had, and still has, its squadron
of uhlands or "hussars," mounted on fleet horses, lightly clad, and
armed with sword, pistol, and lance. These uhlands did notable
service in the Franco-Prussian war half a century later (1870).
On February 3, the young king of Prussia (Frederick-William III.),
issued an appeal to the young blood of Prussia to arm in defence
of fatherland, and on the 18th (1813) he formed an alliance with
Russia against the common enemy. The " c a l l " was eagerly
responded to,—young men flocked to the standard, and one
spirit breathed in all. There could be no doubt of the earnestness
this time to avenge on France the injuries and insults offered by
her to Germany. Every man was ready for martyrdom, if needs
b e ; every man would subscribe to the words "come the three
corners of the world in arms, and we shall shock them."
The Sixth and Last Coalition against Napoleon (August 16, i8ij9
to the end of the year 1815).
Napoleon saw the gathering storm, and obtained from the
senate a new levy of 350,000 men. H e was in Germany by the
15th April, drove the allied Prussian and Russian forces out of
LUTZEN, May 2 ; gained the barren victory of BAUTZEN on the
21st; and ten days afterwards obtained possession of BRESLAU,* in
Silesia.
* Pronounce au like ou in the word " our."

1813-1815.I

FRANCIS I.

BATTLE OF LEIPZIG.

283

Francis I., emperor of Austria, the father-in-law of Napoleon,
now proposed to mediate between the combatants, and a congress
was opened at Prague on the 4th June, when an armistice for two
months was agreed upon.
At the end of July the terms proposed, as the basis of a treaty,
were that Napoleon should abolish " T h e confederation of the
Rhine," and circumscribe the empire of France by the Alps, the
Rhine, and the Meuse. These terms were indignantly rejected,
and the kaiser declared war against his son-in-law. The natural
result of this declaration was a sixth coalition, formed of Prussia
and Russia, Austria, Sweden, and Great Britain, with the sole
view of overthrowing Napoleon the "great disturber." All minor
details were wisely held in abeyance till this " one thing needful"
was accomplished.
The torch of the Corsican adventurer was nearly burnt out. It
really seemed that Josephine was his good star and his Austrian
queen his malignant one. Till his divorce all went well with him,
and on his "sword sat laurelled victory." With the divorce he
seemed "wedded to calamity." First came the Moscow expedition (1812). A slight flash burst forth in the spring of 1813, but
the year closed with loss upon loss. Next year (1814) Paris
surrendered to the allies, and Napoleon was banished to Elba;
and in 1815 was the battle of Waterloo and the banishment to
St. Helena. The torch was gone out, and only smoked awhile in
a distant land, and then—well, " since the torch is out, lie down,
and stray no further."
Six combats ensued, in five of which the French were defeated
by the allies, and then came the great BATTLE OF LEIPZIG, one of
the most sanguinary and decisive of modern times. The French,
commanded by Napoleon, numbered 160,000 m e n ; the allied
Prussian, Austrian, and Russian forces amounted to 240,000.
During the action 12,000 Saxons, in Napoleon's army, deserted,
and this determined the fate of the field. Napoleon ordered a
retreat over the bridge which crossed the river Elster.
Under this bridge the French engineers had laid a mine to
prevent pursuit; but it exploded while the whole rear of the
French army was still on the Leipzig side of the river. A cry of
dismay arose; many threw themselves into the river; many were
killed by the explosion; and the rest were taken prisoners.
Next day the allied sovereigns made their solemn entry into
Leipzig, and congratulated each other in the great square of the
city on the deliverance of Germany, and the dissolution of the
" Confederation of the Rhine." The spoils were enormous:

284

FREDERICK-WILLIAM III. OF PRUSSIA.

[D.m; Pt. 11.

15,000 prisoners, 250 field-pieces, 900 caissons, besides eagles
and colours. Of the 160,000 French brought into the field, not
80,000 escaped with their imperial commander (October 16, 18,
19, 1813).
T H E ALLIES ENTER PARIS (March 31, 1814).—On returning to

Paris after this disaster, Napoleon demanded another army. T h e
Senate accorded him a levy of 300,000 men, but the Legislative
Assembly ventured to oppose the grant, and even to pass a
vote of censure on their emperor. Napoleon was furious; pronounced its instant dissolution ; and prepared himself for one last
effort. H e had yet to learn that a falling tree can never be set
upright.
Leaving his Austrian wife regent, and his brother Joseph in
charge of the capital, the Scourge of Europe entered on his last
campaign.
All the frontiers of his empire had been snatched from him.
The English, under Wellington, had advanced to the south of the
Pyrenees ; 150,000 Austrians and Russians, under Schwartzenberg, were debouching into France by Switzerland; 130,000
Prussians, under Bliicher, wrere marching from Frankfort; and
100,000 Swedes, under Bernadotte, had reached Belgium. Such
was the desperate aspect of affairs at the beginning of 1814. T h e
emperor, in this terrible crisis, despatched Augereau \0-zje-rd\ into
Lyons to arrest the march of the Austrians; Eugene he sent to
defend Italy ; Soult to the Pyrenees to oppose Wellington; while
he himself marched against Bliicher and Schwartzenberg.
The Austrians were successful against Augereau, and succeeded
in occupying Lyons. Murat [Mu-rak] king of Italy, so far from
co-operating with Eugene, forsook the sinking ship of his imperial
brother-in-law, and made common cause wTith the allies. And
Soult was utterly trodden under foot by the 'British army under
Wellington. In all points the allies were victorious, except
against Napoleon himself, who defeated both Bliicher and
Schwartzenberg; but his victories were barren, as the allies
succeeded in effecting a junction and reaching Paris.
It was nearly two centuries since Paris had been threatened
with invasion. T h e empress fled. Joseph capitulated. The
allies were admitted into the city; and Talleyrand, in the name of
the senate, declared Napoleon deposed.
In the meantime the discrowned emperor turned aside to
Fontainebleau, where he was compelled to sign his abdication,
and was banished to the little island of Elba, in the Mediterranean
sea.

1813-1815.]

FRANCIS I.

BATTLE OF WATERLOO.

285

Thus fell the colossus of the 19th century, after having governed
France for 14 years. Never was it given to man to achieve more
brilliant success; and no man ever so deeply shook the thrones
of Europe. H e is now fallen; but his career is not ended. T h e
giant will put on strength again in less than twelve months, "for
he weened, by fight or by surprise, to win [e'en] yet the height of
his aspiring."
With the restoration of Louis XVIII. to the throne of France
this history has no concern; but in October was held in VIENNA
a CONGRESS of the allied sovereigns to distribute the spoils of the
French empire. It was found impossible to satisfy the greed of
the different powers ; and probably they would have fallen out
into war had they not been startled by the alarming news that
Napoleon had escaped from Elba, was gathering around him the
best strength of France, and was preparing to "set his life upon a
cast" (March 7, 1815).
No time was to be lost. All the allies girded on their swords;
and by June 15 a combined English and Prussian army was
quartered in the vicinity of Brussels under the command of
Wellington and Bliicher.
Napoleon, with his usual promptitude, was ready. It was his
intention to divide and conquer ; so he directed Ney to drive the
allies from Quatre Bras, while he himself went to Ligny to
encounter Bliicher. The attack on Bliicher was successful, but
the defeat was not sufficiently grave to prevent his appearing two
days afterwards on the field of Waterloo. The attack of marshal
Ney was less successful; for, at the close of the day he was
obliged to withdraw his troops, and give up the point he had
most bravely contested.
BATTLE OF WATERLOO (June 18, 1815).—Napoleon, triumphant at Ligny, proceeded at once to meet the English, Dutch,
and Hanoverian troops, under the command of Wellington. It
was a motley group, but such as they were, the duke drew them
into array near Waterloo, and waited the attack of the French
army. Never was battle more momentous. The fate of Napoleon,
the fate of Europe, hung on the issue of the field.
On the 18th June, at ten in the morning, the action began. It
was a desperate affair, Napoleon thought to overwhelm the foe
before Bliicher arrived with reinforcements, but the iron duke
was of unyielding stuff, and stood his ground with unflinching
obstinacy till six at night. A body of troops now appeared in the
distance. Who are they? Are they about to throw the poise
into the British balance, or into the scale of France? Both

286

FREDERICK-WILLIAM III, OF PRUSSIA.

[D. m; Pt. 11.

armies are on the tiptoe of expectation. Napoleon hoped it was
Grouchy; Wellington that it was Bliicher. It was Blucher with
his Prussians. The victory was complete. The carnage horrible.
The spoil immense. This wa,s the most glorious victory ever
won by British arms, and the most happy in its consequences.
It was won over the greatest captain of the world, and the finest
troops, by sheer fighting, not by strategy or trick, accident or luck,
but by patient endurance, courage, and skill. The victory was
decisive, and it settled the state of Europe.
Napoleon was lost. His honour, his crown, his hope, his all,
had been cast upon one stake, and the stake was lost, lost beyond
hope, lost beyond redemption. When he saw the resistance of
the British, he took snuff by handfuls; and as the guards at the
command of Wellington made their last charge, he said to one
of his officers " Let us be off, it is all over."
To Paris he fled, leaving his army, as he did in Russia. He
demanded of the senate another levy, but his appeal was not
listened t o ; and on the 22nd June he again abdicated. Thus
fell the new Sesostris, " whose game was empire, and whose
stakes were thrones." In October he was sent in exile to St.
Helena u t o fret out" what few years remained to him "of life's
fitful fever."
"Plunged in a dungeon, he had still been great;
But lo ! how little was this middle state ! . . ,
A single step into the right had made
This man the Washington of worlds betrayed ;
A single step into the wrong has given
His name a doubt to all the winds of heaven."
—BYRON, The Age of Bronze*

FROM T H E B A T T L E OF W A T E R L O O T O T H E
D E A T H OF FRANCIS I.
1815 TO 1835.
Contemporary

with George III.) 1760-1820; George IV., 1820-1830; William
1830-1837.

IV.,

E M P E R O R O F A U S T R I A : Francis I . , died 1835.
K I N G O F P R U S S I A : Frederick-William I I I . , 1797-1840.

K I N G O F B A V A R I A : Maximilian-Joseph, died 1825; Louis I . , 1825-1848.
K I N G O F SAXONY : Frederick Augustus I . , 1806-1827 ; Antony L , 1827-1836.
K I N G O F W U R T E M B E R G : Frederick, died 1816; Frederick-William I . , 1816-1848.
G R A N D - D U K E O F B A D E N : K a r l Louis Frederick, 1811-1818; Louis William Augustus
1818-1849).
D U K E O F B R U N S W I C K : Frederick-William, 1806-1815 ; Karl Frederick, 1815-1830; William,
1830, abdicated 1831; when Brunswick was joined to Prussia.
With many more of inferior
importance.

*i-851
85i3.

FRANCIS I
.

GERMAN CONFEDERATION.

287

CHIEF EVENTS.
1815.

1816.

1817.

Germanic Confederation established ( J u n e 8). B y this confederation all t h e German
princes were bound to grant representative constitutions t o the people under them.
T r e a t y of the H O L Y A L L I A N C E signed b y Austria, Prussia, a n d Russia (Sept. 26).
T h e German diet, as constituted b y the Germanic Confederation, holds its first session
(Oct. 1).
Lippe-Schauemberg, Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt, Saxe-Weimar, a n d Waldeck, receive
constitutions.
D u k e William grants a new constitution to Nassau.

1818.

Servitude abolished in Wiirtemberg (Jan. 1).
Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld receives a representative constitution (March 19).
Bavaria ( M a y 26); Baden (Aug. 22).

1819.

Wiirtemberg receives a constitution (Sept. 29); Hanover about t h e same time.

1820.
1821.
1824.
1828.

Hessen-Darmstadt receives a representative constitution (Dec. 17).
Saxe-Coburg receives a representative constitution (Aug. 8).
Saxe-Meiningen receives a representative constitution (Sept. 4).
T h e Zollverein formed ( J a n . 28).

1830.

Brunswick a n d Saxony receive representative constitutions.

1831.

Hessen-Cassel receives a constitution ( J a n . ) ; Hanover a second constitution ( F e b . 22).

1833.

T h e Zollverein reorganised (March 22-30)

1835.

D e a t h of Francis I . emperor of Austria, who began t o reign a s Francis I I . kaiser of
Germany.

After the fall of Napoleon, the German princes thought that all
the lands taken from them by the French would be restored; but
this idea could not be carried out, and they were obliged to
content themselves with the boundaries which existed in 1792.
The new kingdom of Westphalia, made by Napoleon, was at
once abolished. Prussia received part of Saxony, the Rhineland,
and Swedish Pomerania. Austria received back the Tyrol and
Salzburg. Hanover was erected into a kingdom.
Weimar,
Mecklenburg, and Oldenburg, became grand-duchies.
Lubeck,
Bremen, Hamburg, and Frankfort, free cities.
The jealousies of Austria and Prussia, and the unwillingness of
Bavaria and Wiirtemberg, effectually prevented the restoration of
the German empire, so the sundry states were bound together into
a bund, called T H E GERMAN CONFEDERATION.

This league or

bund was made up of thirty-nine states, including the four free
cities. Each state was to remain independent in all matters
except such as affected the general interest. A permanent diet,
consisting of the plenipotentiaries of the States, was established,
Frankfort-on-the-Main was fixed on as the place of assembly, and
Austria presided. T h e first session was held November 5, 1816,
and decreed that representative constitutions should be granted
to every state, and that every one in each state should have equal
rights regardless of religious creeds.

288

FREDERICK-WILLIAM III. OF PRUSSIA,

[D. H I ; P t . n .

This division of Germany into thirty-nine states was its true
weakness. Austria was jealous of Prussia, and Prussia of Austria.
The small states were jealous of the larger ones, and the larger
ones coveted the weaker. So, instead of a united Germany,
there were thirty-nine governments tied together with a rope of
sand, whose only agreement was jealousy of each other.
The history of the next ten years is little else than that of the
pitiful devices by which the German rulers sought to evade
popular rights, and to submit the many to the ruling few.
In Austria prince METTERNICH was the controlling spirit. His
political system was the old one of " t h e divine right of kings,"
and the sin of revolutions. Hence the scandalous union called
the HOLY ALLIANCE (Sept. 26, 1815), entered into by Russia,
Austria, and Prussia, to stamp out all popular demonstrations,
and to preserve intact the absolutism and privileges of royalty.
In 1822 England protested against this " unholy" compact, and
in 1830, when the second French revolution broke out, Francis L,
" emperor of Austria," exclaimed " All is lost! " Metternich
thought otherwise.
True, half the thrones of Europe were
emptied of their rulers, but Metternich clung to the old regime to
the last. To calm the people he was asked to resign, but said to
the deputation which waited on him, " No, gentlemen, I will not
resign," The arch-duke John then said, " I have already told you,
prince Metternich, to resign." The old man indignantly replied,
" Is this the return I get for fifty years' services?" and next day
left the city in a huff. H e died at the age of eighty-six in 1859,
as the Times remarked, " renowned rather than great, clever
rather than wise, venerated for his age more than for his power,
and admired more than lamented."
Prussia was not quite so fossilised as Austria, but even Frederick-William of Prussia tried to smother popular aspirations, and
stamp out secret societies, as dangerous to the powers that be.
In 1830, Charles X. of France was driven from his throne.
H e was a " H o l y Alliance" man, with Stuart notions of the
" divinity that doth hedge a king; " b u t the day was past when
kings could say, " I am the state." The spirit of the revolution
leavened the states of Germany. Prussia and Austria were too
powerful to be disturbed, but the smaller states were a good deal
shaken. In Brunswick the duke Karl Frederick was chased from
the dukedom by insurgents, just as Charles X. had been driven
from France. His brother William, who succeeded him, granted
the required constitution. Saxony followed suit, and in 1831
Hessen-Cassel, and even Hanover, stood out no longer.

I8 4 O-X86I.3

FREDERICK-WILLIAM

IV.

OF PRUSSIA.

289

T H E ZOLLVEREIN (1819-1828).—Almost the only sensible
thing done by the states of Germany since the fall of Napoleon
was the establishment of a Customs Union called the Zollverein.
It was set on foot by Bavaria and Wiirtemberg. Another union
was made with a similar object for the northern states, having
Prussia for its leading power; and a third was constituted in
central Germany. In 1833 the idea of an amalgamated Zollverein was started, which was joined by almost all Germany
except Austria. I t removed many obstructions to commerce, and
was of infinite service in bringing Prussia to the fore-front, while
Austria fell behind, no less averse to reform than Russia or
Turkey (1833-1836.)
On March 2, 1835, Francis L, emperor of Austria, died. As
kaiser he had ruled over Germany for thirteen years, and when
the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved, he reigned over Austria
as emperor for nearly thirty more. H e laboured hard and
honestly for the welfare of his subjects, encouraged the making
of roads and canals, and the introduction of manufactures. His
horror of everything revolutionary had some excuse, seeing his
aunt, Marie Antoinette, had been scandalously guillotined, as well
as her husband. Napoleon was a nursling of the revolution, and
Napoleon was the plague of Austria. Francis I. was succeeded
by his son Ferdinand, a weak-minded emperor, who abdicated in
1848, in favour of his nephew, Francis-Joseph.

F R E D E R I C K - W I L L I A M I V . OF PRUSSIA.
B O R N 1795.

R E I G N E D 21 Y E A R S , 1840-1861.

Died J a n u a r y 21, 1861. Aged 65 years a n d 3 months.
ContemJ>orarywith

queen

Victoria*

Father\ Frederick-William I I I . Mother% Louisa Augusta of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.
Wife^ Elizabeth Louisa of Bavaria.

CHIEF EVENTS.
1840.
1842.
1846.
1847.
1848.

1849.
1850.
1852.
1858.
1861.

Publishes an amnesty.
Visits London, a n d stands godfather for t h e prince of Wales.
I s visited b y queen Victoria (August).
H i s life attempted b y Tschech (July 26).
Refuses the demand for a constitution.
Insurrection in Berlin (March 15 to 19, 21).
W a r with Denmark on t h e Schleswig-Holstein question.
Publishes a constitution (December 5).
Elected German emperor b y the diet, b u t declines t h e honour.
T h e king promises b y oath t o maintain t h e new constitution ( F e b r u a r y 6).
H i s life again attempted. This time b y Sefeloge (May 22).
Abolishes the constitution (1852-54).
Seized with disease of t h e brain, a n d a regency appointed. •
Died ( J a n u a r y 21).

U

290

SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN

1848.
1849.
1859.
i860.

QUESTION.

[D.injPt.n.

AUSTRIA.
Prince Metternich flees to England (March 13).
Francis-Joseph succeeds his uncle Ferdinand (December 2).
Publishes a constitution (March 4). Repealed 1851
T h e Franco-Austrian war ( J u n e and J u l y ) .
Loses Lombardy b y the Peace of Zurich.
A new constitution granted (October 20).

In 1840 Frederick-William IV. succeeded his father in the
kingdom of Prussia, and, as he was known to be a wise prince,
his accession to the throne was looked on as the dawn of a more
liberal government. H e began his reign by a free pardon to all
political prisoners; and he received with open arms the brothers
Grimm, who had been driven from Gottingen by Ernest Augustus,
king of Hanover. These were wise acts, but it was soon found
that Frederick-William IV. was as autocratic as his predecessors
had been.
In 1848 the third French revolution broke out, and caused in
Germany a widespread dissatisfaction, All the people clamoured
for constitutional governments, and demanded : Freedom of the
press; trial by jury; national armies; and political representatives. As, however, there was no unity of action, the platform
fell to the ground, and the attention of the people was diverted
by the Schleswig-Holstein question.
The Schleswig-Holstein question was this: Did these two
duchies belong to Denmark or to Germany?
I t might be
thought at first sight that this question could present no real
difficulty; for, as they were parts of the kingdom of Denmark,
they must of necessity belong to that kingdom. Not exactly so.
For example, Hanover belonged to the crown of England, but
when queen Victoria ascended the throne it no longer followed
the crown, because no woman was allowed to rule in Hanover.
So was it with Holstein. This duchy was only a fief of Denmark,
and, though the duke owed homage to the crown, he was independent of it. In the reign of our Henry VIII. it so happened
that the duke of Holstein was also king of Denmark, and therefore held the double title "king of Denmark and duke of
Schleswig-Holstein."
Holstein, as an independent duchy, joined the German Confederation, and, as the king of Denmark was also duke of
Holstein, he was ex officio member of the same b u n d
In 1846 the king of Denmark declared the two duchies were
henceforth to be united to the crown, but Holstein demurred and
appealed to the German Confederation. T h e diet warned the
king to respect the rights of the duchy, and the king replied that

1849-1853-]

AUSTRIA V. PRUSSIA.

29I

he never intended to infringe them. Nearly two years had rolled
on, when the third French revolution (1848) greatly disturbed the
states of Germany, and the spirit of insurrection spread into
Holstein. T h e king of Denmark sent troops to put down the
revolt. T h e German diet sent troops to defend Holstein as a
member of the confederation. More or less fighting went on till
1851, when peace was effected, and the Great Powers of Europe
signed in London a protocol (1852) guaranteeing to Denmark the
possession of the duchies. This was all very well, but neither
the confederation nor the duchies would acknowledge t h e
obligation of the protocol; so the " serpent was scotched, not
killed."
The rest of this question must stand over for a while. It opens again in the year 1863.
{See p. 296).

ABDICATION OF FERDINAND (Dec. 2, 1848).—In the mean-

time it seemed likely that the Austrian empire would fall to
pieces.
Bohemia and Italy were in revolt,—the Hungarians
demanded home rule, and Prussia was watching her opportunity
to supplant her rival. T h e danger was averted, at least for a
time, by the abdication of Ferdinand in favour of his nephew
Francis-Joseph.
DIFFERENCES

OF PRUSSIA AND AUSTRIA

(1849-1853).—Ger-

many had long been thirsting for unity, but the moot point was
who should be elected emperor. Should the emperor of Austria
be emperor of Germany also, or should the king of Prussia be
the overlord of the German-speaking states. T h e Frankfort diet
drew up a formula; but Austria objected, and proposed the
appointment of a board consisting of seven princes, Austria and
Prussia being chairman and chief alternately. This scheme did
not commend itself to the diet, and Frederick-William IV. of
Prussia was named "emperor of Germany." Frederick-William
knew if he accepted the honour it would involve him in civil
war, and, not having the heart to "pluck honour from the nettle
danger," he declined it, saying he could not take on himself the
responsibility of the imperial title unless he was assured that it
was the unanimous wish of all the German princes and free
cities; he invited, however, the several powers to send deputies to
Berlin to discuss the question. I n fact, he was afraid to be the
same in act as in desire, and let " I dare not wait upon I would,
like the poor cat i* the adage." T h e deputies met (1849), and a
" G e r m a n Union" was determined on, with Prussia at the head.
To this, of course, Austria objected, and prayed the princes to
u 2

292

FRANCO-AUSTRIAN WAR.

[D. m ; Pt. 11.

send deputies to Frankfort to re-organise the Germanic Confederation. So Germany was a house divided against itself. No
world two suns can bear, no empire two masters. Austria,
Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, Hanover, Saxony, and the two Hessens
were on one side, Prussia and the smaller North German states
on the other. It was Austria and the Confederation against
Prussia and the Union.
A little spark would suffice to set the hostile spirits in a blaze,
and it was not far off. The elector of Hessen-Cassel violated a
fundamental law of the constitution by levying taxes without
applying to his "parliament." The "parliament" protested, and
was at once dissolved. Austria backed up the elector, but Prussia
took the other side. Austria and Bavaria sent troops into the
electorate to " defend the right" by the logic of the sword; and
Prussia, with greater vigour, actually held by her troops the towns
of Cassel and Fulda. Austria insisted that Prussia should withdraw her troops, but Prussia refused to do so. War seemed
inevitable; but a compromise was proposed, and the fire-eaters
consented to refer the question to a conference to be held at
Dresden. The conference met in 1850; but everything suggested by Austria was opposed by Prussia, and everything
proposed by Prussia was rejected by Austria, so the conference
ended in airy nothing but a name.
n a
T H E FRANCO-AUSTRIAN WAR (1859).—"*
^ s e quarrel
there is no true valour." The quarrel over Hessen-Cassel was a
thorough sham, and the antagonists did not come to blows.
In 1859, Napoleon III. was inspired with the " idea " of driving
the Austrians out of Italy. He thought to gain over Italy as a
useful ally in case of war with Prussia, for he watched and
waited for the opportunity of making the Rhine the boundary of
France. War was proclaimed, and the French emperor himself
went in person to Italy to command the campaign. While waiting
for the concentration of the five armies, he sent forwards to
MAGENTA his friend MacMahon. He was vigorously attacked by
the Austrians, but sustained the onslaught so sturdily that the
Austrians retreated, not without loss of prestige and men. For
this brilliant action MacMahon was made on the field a marshal
of France, and received the title of "due de Magenta"
(June 4, 1859).
On the night of the 23rd of June the Austrians crossed the
Mincio and resolved to take the offensive. Early next morning
some 250,000 of them occupied the formidable position of
SOLFERINO; and the allied French and Sardinian army went

I86I-X88X.]

WILLIAM I.

FRANCIS-JOSEPH.

293

to dislodge them. The fight began at six in the morning and
continued till three in the afternoon, when the Austrians retreated, leaving 1,500 prisoners in the hands of their opponents
(June 24, 1859).
The Austrians next entrenched themselves in the famous
"Quadrilateral" or four fortresses;* but while expectation stood
on tiptoe, a telegram flashed through Europe that an armistice
had been privately concluded between the emperor of the French
and the emperor of Austria, A treaty of peace was signed two
days afterwards, by which Francis-Joseph ceded Lombardy to
France. Napoleon I I I . handed it over to the king of Sardinia,
and received for honorarium Nice and Savoy (July 12, 1859).
Victor Emmanuel king of Sardinia was proclaimed king of Italy
added in 1866, and Rome in 1870.

in 1861; Venetia was

Next year Frederick-William IV. of Prussia died, and the
crown devolved on his brother William I. This was the golden
period of Prussia, when Bismarck, by his sagacity and daring, not
only placed it at the head of Germany, but won for her king the
title of German emperor.

WILLIAM I. KINC OF PRUSSIA AND EMPEROR OF
GERMANY.
R e g e n t 1858, K i n g of Prussia 1861, Emperor of Germany J a n u a r y 18, 1871.
B O R N 1797.

REIGNED

1861-

FRANCIS-JOSEPH, EMPEROR OF AUSTRIA
KINC OF HUNCARY AND BOHEMIA.

AND

Emperor of Austria 1848, King of H u n g a r y and Bohemia 1867.
B O R N 1830.

REIGNED

1848-

W I L L I A M I.
Father\ Frederick-William I I I . (second son).
Mother, princess Louisa Augusta of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, married 1793, died 1810.
Wife, Maria Louisa Augusta, daughter of Karl-Frederick grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar, m. 1829.
Heir apparent, Frederick William Nicholas, born 1831, married Victoria, princess-royal of
England (daughter of queen Victoria) 1858.
FRANCIS-JOSEPH.
Father, Francis Karl Joseph (second son of Francis I. emperor of Austria). H e was the
younger brother of Ferdinand,emperor of Austria, and hence Francis-Joseph would be the
nephew of Ferdinand his predecessor.
Mother, Sophia, princess of Bavaria.
Wife, Elizabeth, daughter of Maximilian Joseph, of Bavaria, m. 1854.
Children, (1) Gisela, born 1856, married prince Luitpold of Bavaria 1873.
(2) arch-duke Rudolf, heir apparent, born 1858.
(3) arch-duchess Maria Valeria, born 1868.
* They were Peschlera and Mantua (on the Mincio), Verona and Legnarto (on the Adige).

294

AUSTRIA
CHIEF

IK

PRUSSIA.

[D. i n ; P t . n .

EVENTS.

1862.

Count Bismarck made minister-president (September 22).

1865.

Convention of Gastein, in which Austria and Prussia agree to a joint occupation of
Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenberg.
Entrance of Prussian troops into Holstein ( J u n e 8).
T h e German diet pass a decree of " federal execution " against Prussia, as the enemy
of Germany (June 14).
Prussia sends identical notes to Saxony, Hanover, and Hessen-Cassel, demanding the reduction of their armies within twenty-four hours ; and at the expiration of that time
takes military possession of the three kingdoms ( J u n e 15).
W a r declared b y Austria against Prussia,

1866.

T H E S E V E N - W E E K S ' W A R ( J u n e 17).

5867.

1870.

1871.

Battle of Custozza. Victor Emmanuel defeated by the Austrians (June 24).
Battle of Langensalza, won by the Hanoverians over the Prussians ( J u n e 27).
B A T T L E O F SADOVVA or Koniggratz, won by Prussia over Austria ( J u l y 3).
Battle of Olmutz won by Prussia over Austria ( J u l y 15).
Napoleon I I I . , emperor of the French, induces the combatants to make a truce, which
leads to a treaty of peace ( J u l y 26).
P E A C E O F P R A G U E signed (August 23). Austria entirely excluded from Germany.
T h e emperor of Austria cedes Venetia to I t a l y (October 3). Venetia had been an
Austrian crown-land since 1814, forming with Lombardy the " Lombardo-Venetian
Kingdom."
Hanover, Hessen-Cassel, Nassau, and Frankfort, incorporated with Prussia. T h e other
states, north of the Main, united to Prussia in a bund, called the " N o r t h German
Confederation."
Schleswig-Holstein united to Prussia.*
T h e first session of the N o r t h German Confederation under the leadership of Prussia
(September).
H u n g a r y made a separate kingdom under the emperor of Austria.
Henceforth his
empire is called the " A u s t r o - H u n g a r i a n , " and the ruler is entitled " e m p e r o r of
Austria and king of H u n g a r y . '
France declares war with Prussia ( J u l y 19).
Battle of Weissenburg won b y Prussia (August 4).
Battle of Worth won b y Prussia (August 6).
Battle of Saarbruck won b y Prussia, same d a y .
Battle of Vionville won b y Prussia (August 16).
Battle of Gravelotte won by Prussia (August 18).
Battle of Beaumont won b y Prussia (August 28),
Battle of Sedan won by Prussia (September 1).
T h e emperor of the French gives u p his sword to the king of Prussia (September 2).
Strasbourg surrenders to Prussia (September 27).
Siege of Paris begins (October 5).
Metz capitulates (October 27).
T h e N o r t h German Confederation becomes the " G e r m a n Confederation," b y the
voluntary union of Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Baden, and Hessen (November).
William I . of Prussia made " Emperor of Germany " ( J a n u a r y 18).
Paris surrenders ( J a n u a r y 28).
Peace of Frankfort signed ( M a y 10).
* Prussia after the Seven Weeks' War consisted of—
The kingdom of Prussia, as before existing.
The kingdom of Hanover.
Hessen-Cassel, Nassau, Frankfort.
Lauenberg (since 1865), Schleswig, and Holstein.
Caulsdorf, Gersfeld, and Orb (ceded by Bavaria).
Hessen-Homburg, Amt-Homburg, Amt-Meisenheim (ceded by Hessen-Darmstadt).
Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Hessen-Darmstadt, Baden, and Saxony allied to Prussia for mutual defence.

i866.]

WILLIAM I.

FRANCIS-JOSEPH.

295

1

The Austro-Prussian
or Seven-Weeks
War,
(War declared
June if; Peace of Prague signed August 23, J866).
After the fall of Napoleon Germany was split into thirty-nine
Governments, the two most powerful of which were Austria and
Prussia. These states were united in a measure by a common
bund called the German Confederation. It was the unity of a
mechanical mixture, like differently-coloured sands in a bottle, not
the unity of a chemical compound, where every separate individuality is lost in the general mass. The unity of banded
states with separate interests may be all very well, but the Germans
sighed for a more perfect union. It was not enough that Germany
should be a geographical expression, they wanted it to be an undivided empire. The moot point was where should the centre
be, at Vienna or Berlin. The old empire was Austrian, and
therefore Austria had the prestige in her favour, but Prussia was
the strongest military power, and was more thoroughly German.
The riddle was now on the eve of solution, and Bismarck, the
chief minister of Prussia, was the QEdipus to solve it. There are
times in a nation's history when one man sways it to the mood of
what he likes or loathes. His influence is all powerful. H e has
made himself master of the latent wish of the people, developes
it, guides it, and brings it into substantive reality.
Such a man was count Bismarck in the reign of William I. of Prussia.
A tall powerful man, with massive strongly-marked countenance, and
decided features, the sure index of vehemence and strong passion.
His grey eyes were clear and penetrating, but could turn a cold
impenetrable gaze on any object they wished to watch. His highbridged nose told of command, his mouth of an iron will, and his
broad massive brow of deep thought and logical arrangement.
His one idea was to place Prussia at the head of united Germany,
and this idea he pursued through evil report and through good
report. If the " parliament" went with him, well, but if not he still
followed out his plan. Shakespeare says " spirits are not finely
touched, but to fine issues;" this was certainly true in the case of
Bismarck. His spirit was " touched " with patriotic ambition, and
he would win or perish, nay more, his country should win or perish
also. H e knew exactly what he wanted, and like Cromwell he
screwed his courage to the sticking place, and could not fail.
It so happened, just at this crisis, that William I. was king of
Prussia. H e was averse to a German war, no doubt, but having
once set his hand to the plough, would not draw back. H e would
strike at first with a heavy heart, but after the flash of the first

296

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[D i n ; Pt. 11.

cannon, would throw his whole soul into the fight, and lose the
monarch in the general.
An opportunity soon occurred for count Bismarck to set his
plan afoot. In 1863 the old Schleswig-Holstein question cropped
up again. It will be remembered that the question had been
settled in London in 1852 :* all the Great Powers agreed to unite
the duchies to Denmark. Prussia now pretended that the king
of Denmark did not treat the duchies fairly, and as Holstein
belonged to the German bund, Austria and Prussia proposed that
the bund should send troops into the duchy to keep the peace.
The bund declined to interfere, so Austria and Prussia took
military occupation of the duchies themselves. Denmark resisted;
a war ensued ; success fell to the side of the strongest battalions;
and the duchies were severed from Denmark. England cried
shame. All Europe cried shame. History cries shame. No
matter. Count Bismarck said in his sleeve, " my cunning shall
not shame me," and scored his first game (October, 1864).
His second—a quarrel with Austria—was not far to seek. If a
man is resolved to throw stones, he can pick one up in any lane.
Prussia was ripe for war—not so Austria. Never was nation so well
prepared as Prussia. Never was Austria less so. It had recently
battled with France, and had been driven out of Italy. Hungary
was on the eve of a revolt. Venetia wanted to join united Italy.
And though the southern states of Germany sympathized with
the emperor, there was no masterless passion to unite them like
that which constrained Prussia. All Prussia had one wish ; but
in the southern states the feeling was " each one for itself, and
Austria for us all."
The cause of the quarrel was no better than that of Demosthenes'
travellers,! the "shadow of an ass, in the hot sunshine." It was
infinitely ridiculous in the abstract, but it served as well as the
Irishman's coat at Donnybrook fair to provoke afight.J It was
simply this: Austria and Prussia had taken possession of the
duchies. Austria held Holstein, and Prussia Schleswig. Ere
long Bismarck objected to something. It was about equal to the
* See p. 291.
t Demosthenes says, a traveller hired an ass to carry him to MegSra, and the master of the ass went with
the traveller. At noon the sun was so hot that the traveller alighted and sat in the shadow of the ass, when
the master interfered and insisted that, as master of the ass, the shadow was his right, arguing that the
traveller had hired and paid for the beast, and not for its shadow.
X The Donnybrook Fair adventure is that an Irishman taking off his coat trailed it along the road daring
any one to stamp on it. Like Bombastes Furioso when he wanted to quarrel with king jArtaxaminous, the
fire-eater hung his military boots on a tree with this label—
" Who dares this pair of boots displace
Must meet Bombastes face to face."
This is a mere skit on Ariosto, who makes his hero Orlando in his rage, hang up his armour on a tree, with
this distich attached to it—
" Orlando's arms let none displace
But such who'll meet him face to face."

i866.]

PRUSSIA HEAD OF GERMANY.

297

offence of the rival retainers in Romeo and Juliet
Says one, " Do
you bite your thumb at us, sir ? " " I bite my thumb, sir," says the
other. " Do you bite your thumb at us, sir ? " demands the first
speaker. " No, sir, I do not bite my thumb at you, sir, but I bite
my thumb," and then they fight. Austria bit its thumb in
Holstein, and Bismarck sent a protest to Vienna. The Austrian
minister replied that the protest could not be listened to, and both
prepared for war. Prussia obtained Italy for its ally under the
promise of continuing the war till Austria gave up Venice.
In June, 1866, war was declared by Austria, and in seven weeks
it was ended.
Prussia won every move, and on July 3 (1866)
was fought the decisive battle of SADOWA,* in Bohemia. It began
at seven in the morning, and raged with great fury several hours.
Early in the afternoon the crown prince of Prussia came up with
his army, and the Austrians fell back. The Prussians pursued;
the ranks of the retreating army were broken, and the retreat became a flight. This battle, one of the most important in modern
history, virtually decided the great German question, Prussia and
a united Germany.
Fighting still went on, but on July 26 (1866), the emperor of
the French persuaded the combatants to an armistice, and on
August 23 the PEACE OF PRAGUE was signed, by which Austria
was wholly and entirely excluded from Germany. Prussia annexed
Hanover, Hessen-Cassel, Nassau, and Frankfort.
Bismarck in
the meantime concluded a secret peace with Bavaria, Wiirtemberg,
Baden, and Hessen-Darmstadt, all of which states agreed to place
their armies at the disposal of Prussia in case of war. As for
Venetia, the emperor of Austria was too proud to cede it to Italy,
so he gave it to Napoleon for the part he had taken in bringing
about the armistice, and Napoleon handed it over to Victor
Emmanuel, the king of Italy. Hence the results of the battle of
Sadowa were : (1) A united Germany with Prussia at the head ;
(2) the exclusion of Austria from Germany; (3) the union of
Venetia with the new-formed kingdom of Italy. Thus Bismarck
scored his second game.
The Franco-Prussian or Seven-Months' War.
(War
July ip, 1870. Peace signed at Frankfort, May 10,

declared
iSyi.)

Napoleon I I I . fully expected to obtain from Prussia a sop for
not siding with Austria; and when peace was signed, was amazed
to find that Bismarck had made secret alliances with Bavaria,
Wiirtemberg, and Hessen-Darmstadt, so that these nations could
* Sadowa or KOniggratz.

298

FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR.

[D.in;Pt.n.

not be paraded in terrorem over him. H e demanded from
Prussia " the frontier of the Rhine with Luxemberg and Mainz "
[Mynee], but Bismarck made answer that " Not an inch of land
nor one single fortress shall be yielded, be the consequences what
they may." Napoleon bit his lips in wrath: the crafty had been
taken in his own wiliness, and he convened at once a council of
war. The adder would have bitten the file, but was told by his
own marshals that France was wholly unprepared for war, and
would require at least two years before it could take the field.
It was a sad truth; but Napoleon I I I . never for one moment
doubted the fact, and gave orders to make the needful preparations. This delay was quite as beneficial to Prussia as to
France, as it gave Bismarck time to bind the national strength of
Germany more closely together.
In 1870 the minister of war informed Napoleon that France
was ready, and only a pretext was wanted for declaring war.
This, of course, is never far to seeL In July, 1870, the Spanish
government asked Leopold prince of Hohenzollern to become
their king. The emperor Napoleon objected, and Leopold declined the offer (July 12). Thinking that Prussia had yielded out
of fear, the emperor next demanded a promise from the king of
Prussia that no prince of the house of Hohenzollern should ever
sit on the Spanish throne.
This insulting demand was not
listened to, and on the 19th of July the French emperor sent a
declaration of war. All Paris was jubilant Every Frenchman
expected the war would be simply a triumphant march to Berlin,
when the king of Prussia would be glad to purchase peace by
paying the expenses of the campaign, and extending the frontier
of France to the Rhine; but events turned out far otherwise.
Instead of the French marching in triumph to Berlin, the
Prussians marched to Paris. Instead of Prussia paying France
the expenses of the campaign, France had to pay Prussia
200 millions sterling.
Instead of extending France to the
Rhine, the French had to give up Alsace and Lorraine, including the fortified towns of Strasburg and Metz.
The emperor Napoleon with his son left for the frontier
July 28, 1870, and on the 2nd of August the business of the
war began. The French crossed the frontier, and carried the
height overlooking Saarbriick, in Prussia.
The emperor and
his young son were present at the action. It was an affair of no
merit, but Napoleon telegraphed to the empress that her son had
passed bravely his " baptism of fire."
This was the only laurel which the French won. 'Twas but a

1870-1871.]

WILLIAM I . OF PRUSSIA.

299

leaf flaring with Dutch gold, the tinsel for a child's fairing—no
wreath of the god Mars. The crown prince of Prussia stormed
Weissenberg on the 4th of August, and on the 6th the French
marshal MacMahon suffered a disastrous defeat at Worth. T h e
discomfiture was complete. The French fled in disorder, and
were for some time hopelessly scattered. On the very day of the
battle of Worth the Prussians gained another victory, and retook
the height where the prince imperial had received his " baptism
of fire." The bravery of this action has rarely been equalled,
and forthwith the whole German army crossed over into France.
Disaster followed disaster; the demoralised French troops fled
in all directions; the supposed invincible army was a mere wreck;
and still the Prussians marched on steadily, resolutely, victoriously,
carrying all before them. Blow followed blow with frightful
rapidity, and not once did fortune change. Never were so many
slain in a war of the same duration, never did victors take such
spoil of arms and so many prisoners.
BATTLE OF SEDAN (Sept. 1, 1870).—The great battle-field of
German invaders was near Metz, which was invested August
23.
The French marshal Bazaine made several sorties, but
always without success.
Marshal MacMahon tried to join
Bazaine to operate with him against the German army under
prince Frederick Karl, but being attacked on his route retreated
to Sedan, where the French emperor was. Here was fought
(September 1) the decisive battle of the campaign. It began at
five o'clock in the morning. A shell burst beneath the horse of the
marshal, and wounded its rider in the thigh. H e was carried to
the back, and the emperor Napoleon took his place. H e soon
found that resistance was in vain, and a flag of truce was hoisted
on the fortress of Sedan. Just one month after the " baptism of
fire," Napoleon placed his sword at the feet of William I. king of
Prussia, and he was sent to Wilhelms-hohe till the end of the war.
Here he was treated with every honour due to his exalted rank;
and there he remained till the following March (1871), when he
joined the empress and his son at Camden House, Chiselhurst,
Kent.
With the surrender of the emperor terminated the first half of
the Franco-Prussian War. The second half consisted of a series
of sieges, and the roll of French towns which became a prey to
the Germans within a few months is most startling. Amongst
them was Nancy ("the darling of Lorraine); Strasbourg ("the
Amazon of Alsace"); Metz ("the maiden fortress"); Rheims
("the Sanctuary of Champagne"); Dijon (the court of Bur-

300

KING OF PRUSSIA EMPEROR OF GERMANY.

[D. m ; Pt. n.

gundy); Laon and Soissons (the abodes of Frankish royalty);
Orleans (the field of the "Maid's exploits"); and Rouen (the
scene of her " legendary " martyrdom).
On the 19th of September (1870) Paris was invested; and,
after suffering greatly from want of food, it capitulated January
2 8 , 1 8 7 1 ; and peace was formally signed at Frankfoit on the tenth
of the following May.
WILLIAM I. MADE EMPEROR OF GERMANY (Jan.

18, 1871).—

During the siege of Paris, Ludovic I I . king of Bavaria proposed
that the "president of the German Confederation" should receive the title of "German emperor." William agreed to accept
the honour; and, on January 18, 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors,
in the palace of Versailles, in the presence of a brilliant company
of German princes, and during a great siege, the king of Prussia
was proclaimed "William I. king of Prussia and Emperor of
Germany." Thus Bismarck won his third game. First he
severed the duchies from Denmark; then he ousted Austria
from Germany, and placed Prussia at the head of the states; and
lastly he converted the Northern Confederation into the " German
Confederation " with the king of Prussia as president, and added
to the royal title the style of emperor. By the ^te/^-Prussian
war Prussia was raised to the foremost place in Germany; by the
Franco-Yxv&siaxi war Germany was placed amongst the first-class
powers of Europe.
The whole scheme of the Franco-German war was not limited to the Rhine frontier, but
extended to Italy and Spain. The programme was to conquer Germany and push back the
frontier of France to the Rhine; then to'insist on the restoration of the pope, who had
presented the empress with the golden rose; and then to restore Isabella to the throne of
Spain, for the French empress was a Spaniard, and had strong sympathies with the old court
party. This is no conjecture, but was well known to the cent guard; and one of its high
officers, a very intimate friend of mine, with whom I lived for many years in Paris, told me
personally it was the common talk of the court at the outbreak of the war. More was told
me; but perhaps it will be better, till living biography has settled down into past history, not
to press the fallen too far. The same French gentleman told me that Napoleon III. was not
born in the Tuileries, and when I wrote so to Notes and Queries, I called forth hailstones
and rain from all the newspapers, but now every one is convinced of the fact.

From 1871 to the Present Day,
It might be supposed that these brilliant achievements, this
enormous accession of territory, and the unheard-of indemnity
exacted from France, would have made Germany rich, contented,
and prosperous; but never in modern times has it been more
pinched, never more discontented.
The resources of the nation had been drained by a costly
military system, trade declined, wages fell, and thousands were
thrown out of employ. Every great change must of necessity
entail inconvenience, and disturb the well-being of many. These

i87x-x88x.]

WILLIAM I.

LITERATURE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

301

evils are unavoidable; but without doubt the unity of Germany
is a mighty accomplishment, and it is well that neither "The
Holy Roman Empire" was revived, nor the new empire incumbered with Italian dependencies. Germany is now a Germanspeaking people, with one interest, one nationality, one confederation; and although it contains more than one crowned
head, yet, for all defensive and offensive purposes, it is one and
indivisible, with a brilliant future before it.
1878.

M a y 11.—Hodel tried to assassinate the German emperor William I. a t Berlin.
Hodel was executed on M a y 11.
J u n e 2.—Dr. Nobiling tried to assassinate the German emperor. Nobiling died
September 9.
J u n e 13.—The Berlin congress for the settlement of the Turkish question was opened
a t Berlin. I t terminated its session J u l y 13.
1879. April 25.—Francis-Joseph emperor of Austria celebrated his silver wedding.
J u n e 11.—William I . king of Prussia and emperor of Germany celebrated his golden
wedding.
N . B . — T h e G E R M A N E M P E R O R represents the entire empire for all international purposes,
such as the declaration of war, making peace, forming treaties and alliances, &c. H e is
commander-in-chief of all the armies and: navies both in peace and war (except the military
powers of Bavaria a n d Wiirtemberg in times of peace). H e names and dismisses all the
imperial officers and functionaries.
T h e Reichstag or legislative parliament consists of one representative to every 100,000
inhabitants.
T h e entire population of the empire is about 43 millions, of which about 25 millions are
protestants.
T h e Germans in Austria, Switzerland, and other states not belonging to the empire are
about 13 millions.
1T T h e K I N G D O M O F P R U S S I A (part of the German empire) contains about 26 millions of
inhabitants.
Agriculture and the rearing of cattle form the chief sources of wealth in the rural districts.
Its chief manufactures are linens (in Silesia, Saxony, a n d Westphalia); cotton goods,
woollen goods, silk fabrics, &c.
N e x t in importance to these are leather, earthenware, paper, glass, and tobacco.
I t s chief exports are linens, woollens, and wool; hardware, timber, pitch, and mineral
w a t e r s ; corn, linseed, and t o b a c c o ; horses, horned cattle, hams, salt meats, and Rhenish
wines.
Prussia contains 10 universities; 25,500 public schools, 1,500 private elementary schools,
500 middle-class private schools, and 280 " grammar schools."

LITERATURE OF THE NINETEENTH

CENTURY.

T H E ROMANTIC SCHOOL

First half of the Nineteenth

Century,

The founders of the Romantic School in Germany were Schlegel, Noval'is,
and Ludwig Tieck, to each of which a short memoir must be given.
SCHLEGEL is most celebrated for his translation of Shakespeare's plays, in
which he was assisted by Tieck, and which is accounted the standard German
text of our great dramatist. Of his original works the most valuable and
popular are his Lectures on Dramatic Literature, a translation of which forms
one of the volumes of Bonn's "Standard Library" (1767-1845).
NOVAL'IS is the pseudonym of Frederick von Hardenberg, a Saxon lyric poet,
chief of the Romantic School of Germany. His first production was that

302

LITERATURE

NINETEENTH

CENTURY.

[D.mjPt.ii.

entitled Hymns of Night, his last was a wild romance called Henry von Ofterdingen, meant, as he tells us, for " a n apotheosis of poetry," but never finished.
Carlyle calls Noval'is the "Pascal of Germany," but probably the "Keats
of Germany " would have been more appropriate (1772-1801)
LUDWIG TIECK was a brilliant and prolific German writer of the Romantic

School. His Phantdsus is a collection of ghost and goblin stories, his Popular
Tales are such stories as " Bluebeard," " Puss in Boots," " Little Red Ridinghood," and so on, made the medium of satire, especially of the literature of the
eighteenth century. His chief novel is Kaiser Octavianus. Tieck has won for
himself a great name, but it may be questioned whether the influence of the
Romantic School has not been evil, although without doubt the introduction of
Shakespeare's works is worthy of all praise (1773-1853).
HOFFMAN, DE LA MOTTE FOUQUE, AND CHAMISSO.

The next three names of the same school, Hoffman, De La Motte Fouque,
and Chamisso are well known, especially the two latter,—one by the lovely tale
of Undine, the other by Peter Schlemihl the man who had no shadow.
HOFFMAN was a wild genius, brilliant in fancy, but most mournful to look
back on. It was in the drunken orgies of a tavern that this gem shone
brightest. There his wit flashed and set the table in a roar, and there, amidst
thick smoke and Bavarian beer, he wasted the nectar of his genius. The
success of his novel, The DeviVs Elixir, turned his head, and confirmed his evil
tendencies. His master-work was Life-sketches of the Torn-cat Murr. His
humour is racy and his fancy rich, but all that he has left behind are but
organic remains of a genius wasted and buried in the paradise of fools (17761822).
D E L A MOTTE FOUQUE (1777-1843) is the author of Undine, one of the

most beautiful, simple, and original tales ever produced.
Undine is a water-sylph who was changed in infancy for the offspring of a fisherman. This
fisherman lived near an enchanted forest, and learned to love the changeling as his own child.
One day Sir Huldbrand took shelter in the fisher's hut, fell in love with Undine, and married
her. Being thus united to a human being in marriage, she received a human soul. Soon
after the wedding Sir Huldbrand returned home, but on his route invited Bertalda, a haughty
beauty^ to come and stay with his young wife. For a time the knight was troubled
with visions, but Undine had a well-head covered over to prevent the water-sprites from
molesting her lord. In the meantime Sir Huldbrand fell in love with Bertalda, who was in
fact the fisherman's daughter.
One day, sailing on the Danube, he rebuked Undine in anger. She was instantly snatched
away by sister sylphs to her watery home, and not long after Sir Huldbrand proposed to
Bertalda and was accepted. On the wedding morn the bride requested her handmaid to fetch
her some water from the well, and immediately it was uncovered Undine rose pn the heaving
water, went to the chamber of the knight, kissed him, and he died. They buried him, and a
silver stream ran bubbling round his grave. It was Undine who thus embraced him, true in
life, and faithful in death.

CHAMISSO is chiefly known in England by his tale of Peter Schlemihl, the
man who sells his shadow to the foul fiend. This story was written for the
children of a friend, and has been translated into most European languages.
Chamisso was a botanist, and his ballads take rank with the best in Germany.
(1781-1838).
J. Karl Musaeus is well-known for his collection of Gentian Popular Legends, gathered
from the peasantry, and told in graphic and simple narratives (1735-1787).
HISTORIANS AND THEOLOGIANS.

MULLER the Swiss historian, wrote a Universal History, but his most
celebrated work is his invaluable History of the Swiss Confederation* His style

I3OO-I85O.]

WILLIAM I.

LITERATURE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

303

is dignified, his research deep, and his liberality of sentiment most praiseworthy (1752-1809).
SCHLOSSER was a distinguished German historian, whose great work is a
History of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries, which has been translated
into English. He also published A Critical Examination of Napoleon, and a
History of the Ancient World and its Civilization (1776-1861).
RAUMER (1781) wrote a History of the Hohenstaufen Dynasty, a
History of Europe from the close of the fifteenth century, and a History of
England.
NEANDER.*—Few German authors are better known in England, especially
by scholars interested in theology, than Neander's Universal History of the
Christian Religion and Church, which has superseded Mosheim's Ecclesiastical
History, once a standard work. Neander's is a noble history, pious, profound,
and of excellent discernment. The style, however, is somewhat heavy, and it
is wholly unrelieved by graphic pictures of life. No professor was ever more
loved than Neander. His modesty, his kindness of heart, his delightful simplicity won every one who knew him. He was a living epistle of christian life
known and read of all men (1789-1850).
RANKE {2 syl.), author of the History of the Popes, translated into English
by Mrs. Austin, and commented on by lord Macaulay in one of his very best
essays. This work was received with rapturous applause in Germany, and no
modern book has been more largely circulated in England and America,
Holland and France. His History of Germany during the Reformation, also
translated by Mrs. Austin, is even more highly esteemed than his History of
the Popes. It contains many documents never before made public, and is set
forth in the most methodical and intelligent manner possible. He published
several other histories and biographies of great value, as that of Prussia in
the Seventeenth aitd Eighteenth Centuries, Louis XIV., &c. (1795-1872).
IT HUMBOLDT is almost universally known as the author of Cosmos, or a
physical description of the universe, a translation of which is published in
Bonn's "Scientific Library' (1769-1859).
Second Half of the Nineteenth Century.
Literature, like the chameleon, changes its colour with changing circumstances. The salient characteristics of the time being is reflected in the
current literature, as face answereth to face in water. In the age of chivalry,
the deeds of knights and the glow of love were reflected in the lays and
romances of the period. The crusades opened up new themes and new
aspirations. Then was it that poets and romancers told of wonders in field
and flood, mixed up mythologies, and introduced into European tales the
legends and fables of Egypt and Asia. Infidelity over-ran the nations as a
flood, and satirists inveighed loudly against the church and its ministers. The
Reformation waved its wand, and the literature was dipped in the vat of
religion. Hymns were the mode, polemics and doctrinal treatises the popular
taste. This mode also had its day, and then gave place to the revival of letters
called the classic period, when bad imitations of Greek and Latin classics,
Italian, French, and English, produced a harlequin patchwork most stale,
flat, and unnatural. Next followed the revolutionary period when religious
and political creeds were turned upside down, all old-established orders were
set aside, and novelty was the order of the day. Napoleon came and set his
His real name was Mendel, but when he left the Jewish for the christian church he took the name of
Neander [i.e. New-man, veof dvrjp Ger. ctySpos].

304

LITERATURE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

[ D . m j P t . 11.

foot upon the nations, stamping-out their nationality and liberty, but like
Samson bound, they broke their bonds, and rose up in newness of strength, as
a giant refreshed with wine. This was the period of strong patriotism.
Germany was no longer French but wholly German : the spirit of liberty was
abroad, men were in earnest, and spoke the words of earnestness and independence. Then was it that Uhland and Arndt shared with Schiller and Korner the
inspiration of Tyrtaeus, kindling the ardour of war—not war for aggression, but
for nationality ; and, shaming the nobles of their selfish jealousies, knit them
together in the one great cause. Last, came Young Germany, the age of smartness
and point, piquancy and polish ; the age of critics and periodicals; the age of
dogmatism, book-learning, and startling novelties.*
UHLAND (1787-1862), head of the Suabian school of poets, is the author of
numerous songs and ballads, the popularity of which is unbounded. He was
a patriot politician as well as a patriot poet. His poetry is overflowing with
spirit and imagination, true to nature, picturesque, and exquisite in its varied
touches of feeling. Nothing can surpass the terseness, vigour, and suggestive
beauty of his ballads. One of the most popular of his songs is The Lad of the
Mountain* Two of the five stanzas run thus :—
» " T h e mountain summit is m y domain,
Round about clatter the storm and rain,
But tho' from the north and south they roar,
M y song shall be heard all their tumult o'er
For I a m the lad of the mountain.

*

11

*

*

*

*

And when uprises the war-bell's sound,
While beacons flash on the hills around,
Downward I'll fly to join the throng,
Swinging m y sword and singing m y song,
For I a m the lad of the mountain."
—Dulckeris
translation,

ARNDT (1769-1860) in The Spirit of the Times attacked Napoleon like a
bull-dog. So boldly he spoke in the cause of freedom that the nobles of
Germany were alarmed, and denounced him for his History of Serfdom in
Pomerania. He co-operated with Stein in outwitting " the enslaver of
nations," and his spirit-stirring lays had the same irresistible effect on the
Germans that the Jacobite songs had on the Scotch. What is the German
Fatherland? might be called the Rule Britannia or Marseillaise of Germany.
Two of the stanzas run thus:—
" W h a t is the German fatherland ?
Is't Prussia's realm or Suabian-land ?
Is't where the Rhenish red-grapes hang,
Or where the Baltic sea-mews clang?
O nay, nay, nay, so cribbed a strand
Is not the German fatherland.

*
1

*

*

*

*

Our fatherland all Germany—
Who speak the tongue our sons must b e ;
God give us courage, will, and strength,
T o free it in its breadth and l e n g t h ;
Join every heart, join every hand
Till Germany's one fatherland."—E.C.B.

• Young Germany was headed by; Karl Gutzkow, and the other chief members of the same school are
Theodor Mundt, Gustav Kiihne, Heinrich Laube, Ludolf Wienbarg, Robert Heller, Ernst Kossak, and, the
best of all, Heinrich Heine.

1850-1881.]

WILLIAM I.

LITERATURE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

305

KoRNER, the dramatic poet, was author of The Green Domino, The
Bride, and The Night Watcher, which are among the very best of German
comedies. The uprising of the nation against Napoleon inspired Korner with
patriotic zeal, and his Lyre and Sword Songs stirred his countrymen like a
trumpet. It was Tyrtasus and the Spartans over again. The most famous of
the collection is that called The Sword Song (1791-1813).
1 Amongst the national war-songs of Germany The Watch Jer the Rhine,
T
by Schneckenburger is one of the best and most popular. Two of the verses
run thus :—
" A cry ascends like sabre clash,
Like ocean's roar, the thunder's crash.
* Who'll be our nation's shield and sword,
T h e Rhine to watch, the Rhine to ward ? *
D e a r fatherland, no fear be thine, ^
For all thy sons will guard the Rhine.

*

*

*

*

*

" While there's a drop of blood to run,
While there's an arm to bear a g u n ,
While there's a hand to wield a sword,
N o foe shall dare thy stream to ford.
D e a r fatherland, no fear be thine,
T h y sons stand firm to guard the Rhine. — E . C . B .

Becker's German Rhine is very similar and no less inspiriting:—
" N o , no, they shall not have it,
Our free-born German Rhine."

In 1841, when M. Thiers was stirring up the French to claim the Rhine
as the scientific boundary of France, the general cry of Germany was, *' On to
France I " a cry strangely realised thirty years afterwards. The following is
the first verse of a song in everybody's mouth at the time:—
" If the Frenchman again must provoke us to fight
And the storm-wind of war sweep our land,
L e t Germany rise as one man in her might,
And give them the same they demand.
Surround them with terror from far or from near,
F r o m hill, plain, and valley pursue them with fear,
A n d shout, ' T o the R h i n e ! Cross the river ! A d v a n c e ! '
And carry the war into France."

H E I N E [ffl-neh], wit, cynic, and poet, was born on the 1st of January,
1800; and was therefore, as he said, " t h e first man of the century." The
brilliant wit, and bold political addresses to the sovereigns of Germany in his
Pictures of Travels established his fame; and his Book of Songs placed him at
the head of the " Young German School." Since the days of Voltaire there
has been no such scoffer as Heinrich Heine. Nothing that men venerate
escaped his sneers. His prose is smart, but has been buried in the limbo of
forgetfulness; not so his ballads and his songs. Some of these are most
exquisite, and of such ethereal beauty that they are wholly unequalled
(1800-1856).
Translations of his "songs" have been published by J, E. Wallis and by
2T. A, Bowring,
HEBEL (1760-1826) was a popular poet, somewhat similar to our Charles
Mackay. He sang to the people, exhorting them to piety, charity, cheerfulness,
and work.
X

306

LITERATURE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

[D.mjPt.n.

THEOLOGIANS.
Theology has occupied a large share of attention in Germany during the
nineteenth century. Writers of commanding talent have headed five schools—
the rational, the evangelical, the mythical, the historical, and the broad
church.
The " Rational School" was revived by PAULUS at the beginning of the
century in his Commentary of the New Testament (i800-1804). His object
was to show that miracles, and all that is beyond man's reason and general
experience should be discarded, and that the object of biblical criticism should
be to prove this. Paulus was a man of great note in his day, but his theory
has given way to more recent ones (1761-1851).
The "Evangelical School" was under the leadership of SCHLEIERMACHER
[Shiy-er-mark'-er\, whose Discourses on Religion (1804-1828) made a new era
in theology. These "discourses," though most eloquent, are rather pleas for
religion in the abstract than for the christian religion in particular. His Sermons
are masterpieces of argument and pulpit oratory, carrying captive both the
head and heart. His Brief Outlines of Theology', which have been translated
by Farrar, divide theology into philosophical, historical, and practical, the first
being the battle-field of polemics. His last and greatest work is Christian
Faith according to the Evangelical Church (1768-1834).
The "Mythical School" was founded by STRAUSS [Strouse]t and was of
course opposed to the " orthodox" or evangelical. Strauss tried to prove
that the Gospels are not real history, but beaux-ideals of ancient prophecies
personified. His Life of Jesus (1840) caused an immense excitement both in
and out of Germany. Never did book call forth such a war of controversy.
His Christian Doctrine of Faith enters upon the struggle between science and
the Bible. Whatever may be thought of the orthodoxy of Strauss, there can
be no doubt of his massive understanding, his masterly eloquence, his earnestness and devotion. His style is model German, wholly unapproached since
the days of Lessing (1808- * ).
The "Historical or Tubingen School" was founded by BAUR [Bower] to
maintain the historical genuineness of the New Testament. His most
important works are The Christian Philosophy of Religion, The Christian
Doctrine of the Trinity and Incarnation, and The Christian Doctrine of the
Atonement, Baur wrote a book to prove that the Gospel of St. John was
written some time after the three other Gospels; and another to show that St.
Mark's Gospel was not written so early as had been hitherto supposed. In all
his works he insists on the historical statements of the New Testament as
undoubted facts, and that these facts must be admitted before criticism begins
(1792-1860).
Zeller, Schwegler, Kb'stlin, and Hilgenfeld are distinguished writers in the
same school.
The "Broad Church" divines of Germany, headed by Neander, can hardly
be called a school. We should call them in England the moderate party.
Neander was a disciple of Schleiermacher \Shly'-er-mark'-er\ but took
broader views. He gave a place to religious feeling, and cared less for
theological subtleties. Resting on the grand central truths, he took broad
general views, and hence was called a "broad church divine."
All these were men of massive genius, profound thought, devoutness, and
eloquence. They were thoroughly in earnest, and made theology a true
science as well as a matter of faith.
KRUMMACHER.—It is scarcely consistent to place Krummacher with these
great names; but few books were better known in England and America, as

1850-1881.]

WILLIAM I.

LITERATURE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

307

well as in Germany, in the middle of the nineteenth century, than Krummacher's life of Elijah the Tishbite, a kind of religious historical novel. It
was followed by the life of Elisha, but the Shunamite was not received with
the same favour as the Tishbite.
§ The father of F. W. Krummacher was also a popular writer of religious
books, the best known of which are The Life of St. John, Cornelius the
Centurion, and Parables, all translated into English. The parables were
extremely popular (1768-1845).
There was also a G. D. Krummacher, well known by his book called Daily
Manna, reproduced in England under the title of The Christian's Everyday
Book. Another of his books, The Wanderings of the Children of Israel, was
translated into English,
MISCELLANEOUS.
JACOB GRIMM, universally known by philologists • for his Word-book.
"Grimm's law" for the changes of letters in etymology makes a literary
epoch (1785-1863).
LIEBIG, the great chemist, was the author of a host of books. The
following are well known in England:—Chemistry in its Application to
Agriculture, Principles of Agricultural Chemistry, Animal
Chemistry,
Chemistry of Food, Familiar Letters on Chemistry. The last of these has
done more to popularise the study of chemistry than any book ever written
(1S03-1873).
The chief musical composers of Germany of the nineteenth century have
been Beethoven, Hummel, Spohr, Weber, Meyerbeer, Schubert, Mendelssohn,
Schumann, and Wagner, 1813-

X 2

3©8

SUPPLEMENT.
KAISER.
i.—EMPEROR OF THE ROMANS (800-888.)

Kaiser was no title of itself, but only an extra title given to the king of some
nation.
In 800 the Roman empire was divided into East and West; the Western
part was given by the pope to Charlemagne, who was crowned by him
" K a i s e r " or Emperor of the Romans.
On the death of Charlemagne, his son Ludwig the Debonair received the
title, but soon after his death, the empire of Charlemagne was divided into
three parts (France, Italy, and Germany), and the kaiserite went to Lothair
king of Italy. On the death of Lothair, his son Ludwig the German received
it. It then went to his half-brother Charles the Bald king of France, and
then to Charles the Fat also king of France. On the death of Charles the
Fat the empire was disintegrated, and the title of kaiser was in abeyance
for seventy-four years.
2.—EMPEROR OF THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE.

Neither Konrad I. of Germany nor Henry I. the Fowler was kaiser; but in
962 pope John XII. induced Otto I. (the Fowler's son) to receive the title of
Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, a title which all the kings of Germany
continued to bear till Napoleon broke up the empire.
3.—EMPEROR OF THE WEST. EMPEROR OF THE ROMANS. EMPEROR OF THE HOLY
ROMAN EMPIRE. EMPEROR OF ROME.
KING OF THE ROMANS.

KING OF ROME.

Emperor of the West is the same as Emperor of the Romans, Emperor of
Rome, and Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, and all these titles are
synonymous with Kaiser. Charlemagne and his successors were Emperors of
the West, Emperors of Rome, or Emperors of the Romans. Otto and all
subsequent kings of Germany were Emperors of the West, Emperors of
Rome, or Emperors of the Holy Roman Empire. Strictly speaking, this
distinction should be observed, but historians call the kings of Germany by
all four titles indifferently.
K I N G OF THE ROMANS is quite another title. It was about equivalent
to king elect. It was Henry I I I . who invented the title. A little before
his death in 1056, he induced the electors to nominate his son as his successor,
and then called him "king of the Romans." This title was borne (till
1508) by every associated king or king elect of Germany. Thus, if a father
made his son joint king, the father was emperor and the son king of the
Romans. Also every king elect of Germany was King of the Romans, and
continued so till he was actually crowned Emperor of the Romans. In 1508
Maximilian, who failed in getting crowned emperor, called himself "Emperor
Elect of the Romans," a style adopted by all his successors between their
accession and coronation.'

SUPPLEMENT.

309

K I N G OF ROME was the title given by Napoleon I. to his infant son at birth
(1811), whom he "associated in his empire." Probably he meant to revive
the title invented by Kaiser Henry I I I . of Germany—if so the title was a
blunder; but if he simply meant to imitate that kaiser, he was quite free to
call his son "king of Rome" if he chose.
When did a king of Germany become Kaiser?
From the time of Charlemagne no king of Italy, France, or Germany was
Emperor of the West, or Emperor of the Romans, till he was crowned so by
the pope, generally at Rome; but in 1056 Henry I I I . invented the title
" k i n g of the Romans," and in 1338 the electors declared that it led up to
that of emperor as naturally as mayor elect leads up to mayor, or bishop elect
to bishop. As the king elected was ex officio "King of the Romans," it
followed that as soon as he was crowned king of Germany he became ex officio
emperor of the Romans. So they did away with the coronation by the pope,
and the king appointed by the college of electors was kaiser without a second
coronation.
ELECTORS.
The kings of Germany were originally chosen by the popular assembly, and
the person selected was hoisted on a buckler, shown to the people, and proclaimed. As the population increased, these popular assemblies became
impracticable, and the choice of the king was made by a council of barons,
and finally by a body of the chief nobles called electors (xii. century).
The original number of the electing nobles was seven, four princes and
three prelates. The prelates were the archbishop of Mainz (official president
of the college, and " Convener of the Electors"), the archbishop of
Cologne, and the archbishop of Treves (r syl.). The four lay electors were
the duke of Saxony, the margraf of Brandenburg, the palsgraf of the Rhine,
and the king of Bohemia. In 1648 the number of electors was raised to
eight, the duke of Bavaria being added; and in 1692 Ernest, duke of
Hanover, was created ninth elector; but in 1777 the number was again
reduced to eight.
In 1356, the famous Golden Bull, issued by Karl IV., recognised the right
of the electors to choose the king, and so legalised their elections; but in
1806 the whole system was swept away by Napoleon Bonaparte, and the law
of inheritancej which had been recognised among vassals from immemorial
time, was applied to the king and kaiser too.
The crown till then was never hereditary in Germany, although the eldest son was often
" e l e c t e d " to succeed his father, and many of the kings managed to get their sons elected
during their own life-time ; in which case the king elect was sometimes associated with his
father in the government. From H e n r y I I I . ' s time the king elect was entitled " king of the
Romans," and from Maximilian's time to the end of the H o l y Roman Empire (1806), the
kaiser elect (i.e., from the actual accession to the coronation) was entitled " Emperor Elect of
the Romans."

EMPEROR OF

GERMANY.

It must be distinctly understood that William I. king of Prussia, was
first "Emperor of Germany" or '•' German Emperor," and that the title
not exist till January, 1871. I h e kings of Germany were emperors but
emperors of Germany; they were kings of Germany and emperors of
Romans or " o f the West."

the
did
not
the

3io

SUPPLEMENT.

The kings of Germany never succeeded by inheritance but only by election.
This is proved by the very existence of a college of electors, and was notably
shown in the period between the great Interregnum and the accession of the
House of Habsburg (1256-1438), when there was no approach to an
hereditary successor.
T I T L E S OF T H E K A I S E R .
King of Germany, Emperor of the Romans, or more correctly, Emperor of
the Holy Roman Empire, King of Italy or King of Lombardy. Some of
them had other titles of a personal or family nature.
GRAF.
Graf, originally a reeve, as in our word "sheriff"—*.*?., a Shire-reeve. Subsequently it was a mere honorary title, somewhat like the French count and our
earl. Probably the office of a graf was to collect the revenues of his district. The
word is very old, and occurs in the lex salica (v. century). Charlemagne
divided his vast empire into graffchaften or districts, over each of which was a
chief magistrate called a graf.
MAR-GRAF is the reeve or chief officer of the mark or march—i.e., the
frontier, like our marquis, whose duty was originally to defend some frontier
or border-land.
PALS-GRAF is the reeve or president of the pfalz or palace-court, the highest
court of the realm, which originally moved from place to place with the monarch.
When the law-courts were stationary, the presidency was given to a " j u d g e ; " ,
but if the king chose, he conferred judicial power on the " m a n of a fief" or
province, who was then called a pals-graf or vice-roi. There were two German
grafs possessed of this judicial power, and their districts or provinces were called
"palatinates." There was the Upper Palatinate, which was Bavaria, and the
Lower Palatinate on the Rhine; but the word palsgraf used alone always
means the count-palatine of the Rhine. This nobleman was one of the seven
original electors, but in the tenth year of the Thirty-Years' War he was
deposed from the college and his place given to the duke of Bavaria. At the
Peace of Westphalia (1648) it was settled that the dignity of Elector could
not be alienated, so the palsgraf was restored, and the number of electors was
raised to eight. When, in 1692, the honour was conferred on Ernest duke of
Hanover the electoral college contained nine members; but in 1777 the
number was again reduced to eight by the amalgamation of Bavaria and the
Rhenish palatinate. The title was abolished (except for Hessen-Cassel) by
Napoleon I. in 1806.
GROWTH OF T H E BARONIAL

POWER.

Charlemagne strove to strengthen the sovereign power, and therefore
preferred paid ministers to independent nobles for offices of trust; but on
the death of the great king the royal power rapidly declined, and a number of
nobles sprang up rivalling the crown in power, and making the government a
virtual oligarchy.
This arose chiefly from the incursions of border hordes. As the kings were
unable to keep invaders at bay, they deputed this office to powerful border
chiefs, who were strengthened by standing armies. Hence arose such
powerful dukes as those of Franconia, Saxony, and Bavaria, with those of

SUPPLEMENT.

3"

Suabia, Lorraine, and Carinthia. In time, the duke of Saxony became the
most powerful of all; and his duchy extended along the whole west of
Germany, from the North Sea to the Rhine.
At first these dukes were crown ministers, but as they increased in power
they arrogated to themselves privileges which the kings were too feeble to
dispute. They had their vassals, and transmitted their titles and offices to
their children.
In the reign of the boy-king they boldly declared themselves independent,
and the great ecclesiastics did the same; so that Germany was in reality
divided into a number of minor states, as England was during the heptarchy,
and "emperor" was little else than a mere titular expression.
" A house divided against itself cannot stand." These " lords many " had
always some grievance in hand. Sometimes one of them coveted his neighbour's "vineyard"; sometimes his neighbour's wife. Sometimes a baron
wanted to avenge a wrong; sometimes a rival baron bit his thumb, and his
quarrelsome neighbour would demand whether he bit his thumb at him. If
the governing power is weak, might always becomes right, and the strongest
arm is a law unto itself.
CIRCLES OF G E R M A N Y .
In 1387 kaiser Wenceslaus divided Germany into four departments, called
circles (Saxony; the Rhine provinces; Austria, Bavaria, and Suabia; Franconia
and Thuringia). In 1438 kaiser Albert II. increased the number to six, each
of which had a right to be represented in the diet or national assembly. The
six circles were Franconia, Bavaria, Suabia, Westphalia, Upper Rhine, and
Saxony; represented by the archbishops of Mainz and Salzburg, the electors
of Brandenburg, Cologne, and Saxony, and the count of Wurtemberg.
In 1512, under Maximilian I., the circles of the Rhine and Saxony were
each of them sub-divided; and two new circles being added, raised the entire
number to ten, viz., Austria, Bavaria, Burgundy, Franconia, Lower Rhine
provinces, Upper Rhine provinces, Lower Saxony, Upper Saxony, Suabia,
and Westphalia.
Each circle had an ecclesiastical or lay prince, with a military chief.
At the Reformation the circles were divided into Catholic, Protestant, and
Mixt.
The Catholic Circles were Austria, Bavaria, and Burgundy.
The Protestant Circles were those of Saxony.
The Mixt Circles were the other five.
This division into circles fell through in 1806, when Napoleon I. instituted
the "Confederacy of the Rhine."
A.D.

843.

MEMORANDA.
By the TREATY OF VERDUN Germany was severed from the empire of
Charlemagne, and erected into a separate kingdom. Ludwig,
sumamed the "German," had assigned to him, for a kingdom,
all the territory bounded—
South by Switzerland; North by the North Sea; West by the
Rhine; and East by the Elbe, the Saal, and the Bohemian forest.

This includes Holland and Hanover, Westphalia and Saxony, Hessen Darmstadt a n d
Franconia, Baden, Wurtemberg, Bavaria, and part of Austria.

He had also the three towns of Mainz, Speyer [Spire], and
Worms.

312

SUPPLEMENT.

A.D.

924. Lotharingia [i.e. Lorraine] was made a fief of Henry I. the Fowler.
928. Brandenburg was added by Henry I. [East of the Elbe].
957-1355. Poland did homage to the German crown.
961. Lombardy, in Italy, was made feudatory by Otto I. the Great.
962. The king of Germany was called "Emperor of the Holy Roman
Empire."
There was no Emperor of Germany or German emperor, till 1871. The style from 962 to
1806 was " King of Germany, and Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire;" since 1871, it is
" King of Prussia and Emperor of Germany."

1024-1125. Aries was added.
1033. Lower Burgundy was added by the marriage of Konrad I I . with Gisela,
niece and heiress of Rudolf.
Lower Burgundy included Franche-comte, Dauphine, Lyonnais, West Switzerland,
Provence, and Savoy.
#%

Henry I I I . was king of Germany, king of Burgundy, emperor of
the Holy Roman Empire, &c.
1045. Bohemia was added.
1056. The king elect of Germany was called " king of the Romans."
1057. Hungary was again added. See 955.
1152-1355. Holstein and Lauenburg were made fiefs of the German crown.
(Holstein was subject to the dukes of Saxony.)

1205-1556.
1230-1525.

Livonia became part of the German empire.
Prussia became part of the German empire.

(By Prussia in this case is meant the north-east corner of Germany, east of the Vistula.)

1387.

Germany was divided i n t o y ^ r circles; in 1438 into six, and in 1512
into ten.
1452. Frederick I I I . was crowned kaiser by the pope. This was the last
king of Germany crowned at Rome.
1495. The imperial chamber and ulic council were established.
1508. Maximilian king of Germany, called himself "Emperor Elect of the
Romans," a title which all his successors assumed between their
accession and coronation.
1530. Charles V. received at Bologna the imperial crown. This was the last
time any kaiser received the imperial crown from he hands of a
pope.
1806. End of the Holy Roman Empire.
Kaiser Francis II. henceforth called himself Francis I. emperor of Austria.

1868.

The emperor of Austria was styled " Emperor of Austria and King of
Hungary." His domain being called the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
1871. The king of Prussia was styled " K i n g of Prussia and Emperor of
Germany."
1881. Population of Prussia 27,260,351.

INDEX.
PAGE
xxv

PAGE

Albert D u r e r
155
Albert I . of Austria . xvi. 115
a lout
115
death of..
116
Albert I I
xvii. 144
child of
144
father of
144
wife of
144
Albert of S t r a s b u r g . . 107, 124
Albert, son of Rudolf
107
marries Elizabeth . . 107
Albert the Bear . . . . 74, 151
called R o m u l u s . . . .
151
handsome
151
Albert the Great . . 108, 113
Albert the Wise
107
Albertin Mussalo
117
Albertus Magnus . xxvii. 113
speaking head of
113
winter gardens of . . 113
Alcuin
xxiv. 23
corrects M S S
23
death of
24
Alemanni, who
7
Alessandra threatened . . 74
Alexander I I I
74, 76
„
VI
222
bull against witches 222
Alexanderlied)
The . . . . 95
Alfonso I X . . . .
. 84
Alfonso of Castile, kaiser 106
calls creation a
" c r a n k m a c h i n e " 106
Al Kamel's clock-tent . . 87
Alkmar, Heinrich von 169 n
Allmands, who
7
Allodia
28
converted into fiefs.. 28
Allvader
8,9
Alnaschar
114
Altenkirchen, battle of . . 263
Alva
183
reproved
183
Amalfi
65
Amber, Prussian
46
Amiens, peace of
271
Amulets, use of
105
Amusements of Charlemagne
21
1 4 8 , 152
10th century
30
taken prisoner
148 Anacreon.
242 n
Albert sells indulgences.. 176 Ancient history
1

A B B A T of Slade

Abdication of Karl V. . . 185
Abraham von Sta.Claira xxxii
Achilles of Germany 148, 152
Adalbert
57> 15°
martyred
151
Adalbert (count)
63
tale told of him
63
Adalenda
18
A d a m of B r e m e n . . . . xxv. 56
Adamus Magister
56
Adelaida
44
Adelaide of Lombardy . . 37
ill-treatment of
39
marries Otto
39
Adelaide of Russia
56
Adelaide, wife of Barbarossa
74
repudiated
74
Adelheid
37
Adelung
xxxix
Administration of justice 102
Adolf of N a s s a u . . . . x v i . 115
Adrian 1
22
„
IV
76
rebukes Barbarossa.. 76
VI. ......
178
brieve against Luther 179
A E I O U
153
iEneas S y l v i u s . . . . xxix. 137
on H u s s
137
Aerometer, Fahrenheit xxxv
Agathon
249
Agnes, daughter of Rudolf 107
Agnes, mother of Barbarossa
76
Agnes, wife of H e n r y IV. 62
Agricola, George
xxix
Agricola, John
xxix. 189
Agricola, Rudolf.. xxix. 156
Agrippa, H . C. ... xxix. 162
invited to Paris
163
works of
164
;
Air-pump v. Guericke . xxxii
Aix, battle of
4
Aix-la-Chapelle—peace of 229
Alber, t Erasmus
xxix
Albert,
Achilles
and
Ulysses of G e r m a n y . xviii

PAGE

Ancillon, statesman . . xxxix
Andernach, battle of . . . . 38
Andrew, J
xxxii
Angelo, Michael
157
Anhalt, principality of . . 97
Anima Mundi
245
Animal magnetism
258
Animal oil v. Dippel . . x x x v
Anne of Brittany
158
Anne, wife of Karl I V . . . 125
,,
,, S i g m u n d . . 153
Annolied, T h e l e g e n d . . xxvi
Anselm, St
xxvi
Antaeus
148 n
Antwerp, margraviate of 33
margraviate abolished 33
Anulf
xiv
Apostle of the G e r m a n s . . 18
„ . ,, Goths . . . . 17
Apostolic succession . . . . 49
Appeals to God
105
Archbishoprics, the six . . 4 6 «
Archbishops of Germany 99 n
Arch-chancellor
82
Arche
xxxii. 254»
Architecture, ecclesiastical 97
Arcis-sur-Aube, battle of 281
Areola, battle of
268
Aremberg slain
14 n
Ariovistus
9
conquered
9
death of
11
meaning of
io«
reply of, to Caesar . . 10
Aristotle's " Idea "
104
Aries added to G e r m a n y . 312
Armida
276 n
in her distraction
276
Arms given to the people 63
Arnaldo of Brescia
81
Arndt
xxxix. 304
Arnim, poet
xxxix
Arnold, Godfrey
xxxiv
Arnold of Lubeck . . . . xxvii
Arnoldo burnt
74
Arnulf
25, 26
Articles and Augsburg
confession . . . . . . 180, 181
Aryan stock
6
Aspern, battle of
275
i Astronomical divinity . . 105
I Astronomy revived
155

3*4

INDEX.

PAGE
PAGE
Bartoli (Cosmo)
74 Battle of—
Langensalza (1761).. 232
Basedow of H a m b u r g . xxxiv
(1866).. 294
BaselLaon (1814)
281
Bishop of
109
Lech (955)
39
,,
" S i t firm" 109
(1632)
195, 200
compact
143
Legnano(ii76)
78
Council of
145
Leignitz (1760)
237
Bassano, Battle of
268
Leipzig (1631)
200
Bassientello
43
(1813)
283
Batre's vaunt
162
Leuthen (1757)
234
Battle of—
Ligny (1815)
285
Aix ( B . C . 102)
4
L o b o s i t z ( i 7 5 6 ) . . . . . . 232
Altenkirchen (1797) 263
Lodi (1796)
267
Andernach (939)
18
Lonato (1796)
268
Arcis-sur-Aube (1814) 281
L u t t e r (1626) . . 196, 199
Areola (1796)
268
Lutzen (1632)
201
Aspern (1809)
275
„
(1813)
282
Auerstadt (1806)
276
Magenta (1859) . . . . 292
Austerlitz (1805)
272
Magnano (1799) . . . . 269
Bassano (1796)
268
Malaga (1704)
216
Bautzen (1813)
282
Malplaquet(i709) 207,216
Beaumont (1870)
294
Marengo (1800) . . . . 270
Blenheim (1704) 207, 216
Markfeld (1278)
in
Bouvines (1214) . . . . 84
Maxen (1759)
232
Boyne (1690)
207
Merseburg (934)
32
Burkersdorf (1762) . . 232
Mery-sur-Seine(i8i4) 281
Camp-Aubert (1814) 281
2
Millesimo (1796)
267
Cassano (1799)
^4
Minden (1759)
236
Castiglione (1796) . . 268
Mondovi (1796) . . . . 267
Chateau Thierry
Montebello (1800) . . 264
(1814)
281
Montenotte (1796) . . 267
Cortenuova (1237) . . 85
Montmirail (1814) . . 281
Crecy ( 1 3 4 6 ) . . . . 120, 125
Morgarten (1315)
120
Custozza (1866) . . . . 294
Muhlberg (1547)
183
Czaslau (1742)
227
Muhldorf (1322)
118
Denain (1712)
216
Neresheim ( 1 7 9 6 ) . . . . 263
Dennewitz (1813)
280
N e u m a r k t ( 1 7 9 6 ) . . . . 264
Dessau(i626), 195,196,199
Nordlingen (1634) . . 202
Dettingen ( 1 7 4 3 ) . . . . 227
(1645) . . 195
Dresden (1813)
280
Novi (1799)
269
B A C H , S E B A S T I A N xxxix. 260
Ebersberg ( 1 8 0 9 ) . . . . 275
Ntirnberg (1456) . . . . 148
Bach, W . F
xxxix
E c k m u h l (1809) . . . . 277
Olmutz (1866)
294
Bach, K. P
xxxix
Elchingen ( 1 8 0 5 ) . . . . 272
Ostrach (1799)
264
Bach, J . C
xxxix
Engen(i8oo)
264 I
Oudenard (1708) 207, 216
Bahrdt, theologian
xxxiv
E y l a u (1807)
276 I
Pavia(i525)
180
Bajazet I I .
158
Friedland (1807)
276 j
Pharsalia (B.C. 48) . . 11
Bajorix, T h e Cimbrian . .
2
Friedlingen (1702) . . 216 |
Poitiers (1356)
125
Defeat of
......
6
Frogs (The)
169
Potsdam (1806)
274
Interview of, with
Gravelotte ( 1 8 7 0 ) . . . . 294 j
P r a g u e (1620)
195
Marius
5
Gross Beeren(1813).. 280
kills Scaurus
2
»
( r 757)
234
Gunsburg (1805)
264 1
Balde, poet
xxxii
Q u a t r e B r a s ( i 8 i 5 ) . . 285
Halle (1806)
274 j
Bamberg, See of
45
Ramillies (1705) 207, 216
Heilsberg (1807) . . . . 274
Banier, "lion of S w e d e n " 203
Reichenbach(i762).. 232
Hochkirchen(i758).. 235!
Bannockburn, Battle of.. 118
Rivoli (1797)
268
(1810).. 280 !
Banquets, XII. cent
68
Rothiere (1814)
281
Hochst (1795)
263
" Baptism of
fire"
298
Rosbach (1757) . . . . 234
Hochstadt (1800)
264
Baratier
218 :
Saarbruck ( 1 8 7 0 ) . . . . 298
Hohenlinden(i8oo).. 271 I
Barbara of Cilley
134
Sadowa (1866)
297
Ingolstadt ( 1 8 0 9 ) . . . . 275
Barbarossa
74 j
St. Dizier (1814) . . . . 281
Jemappes (1792) . . . . 265
joins a crusade
73
Sasbach (1675)
214
J e n a (1806)
276
See Frederick I .
Schweidnitz (1761) . . 232
Kaiserlauten(i793).. 263
Barbarossa, the pirate . . 187 |
Sedan (1870)
299
Katzbach (1813)
280
Baron of the H . Sepulchre 76
Sempach (1386) . . . . 131
Kolin (1757)
234
Baronial power, Growth of 310
Solfereno (1859)
293
Konigratz (1866)
297
Bartholomew slaughter . . 193
Sommershausen
Krefeld (1758)
234 ]
Bartoli a n d the Golden
(1648)
19S
Kulm (1813)
280 i
Bull
126
Spurs, T h e (1513) . . 161
Kunersdorf (1759) . . 236;
PAGE
Attila
16
Auerstadt, battle of . . . . 276
Augsburg—
confession of
180, 181
,,
heretical 181
diet of
179, 180, 184
interim of
183, 184
meaning of
171
noted for jewellery . . 171
peace of
185
Augustan Age of France xxxi v
A u g u s t u s and Varus . . . . 14
A u g u s t u s I I . of P o l a n d . . 240
Augustus I I I . of Poland 240
Aulic Council
160
A u r u m Tolosanum
2
Austerlitz, battle of
272
Austria, an archduchy . . 146
contends with Prussia 291
empire of
274
excluded from Germany
297
given to Albert
. . 112
house of
xvii. 144
margraviate o f . . . . 33, 40
renounces—
Lombardy
264
Netherlands
264
Venice ceded to
264
Austrian—
dress
221
life
ngn, 154
Austro - Hungarian Empire
312
Austro-Prussian W a r . . . . 295
Autolycus
176 n
Avars conquered
21
Aventin, historian . . x x x . 190
Ayrer, Jacob
xxxii

INDEX.
PAGE
Battle of—
Tagliamento (1797).. 264
Teutoberger
13, 14
T o r g a u (1760)
238
T r a u n (1800)
264
Turin (1706)
216
U l m (1805)
272
Valmy(i792)
265
Verona(i799)
269
Villa Viciosa (1710).. 216
Villingshausen (1761) 232
Vionville (1870) . . . . 294
W a g r a m (1809) mn, 278
Wartenberg (1813) . . 280
Waterloo (1815) . . . . 285
Weissenberg (1620).. 197
,,
(1870).. 299
Wertingen (1805) . . 264
Wilhelmsthal (1762) 232
Wittstock (1636) 195, 203
W o r t h (1870)
299
Wurtchen (1813)
280
Zorndorf (1758;
234
Baumgarten
xxxiv. 257
Baur, theologian
xxxix
Bautzen, Battle of
282
Bavaria, i.e. Boiaria . . . . 97
confiscated
151
duke of, elector io8«, 126
great duke of
97
Kingdom
97
Bayer, John
xxxii
Beatrice, wife of Barbarossa
74
dower of
76
Beaumont
294
Beautiful (The), t h e o r y . . 257
Bebel, H e n r y
xxx. 170
Becker
xxxix. 305
Becket, Thomas
152
Beethoven
xxxix. 261
Behaim, Martin
xxx
Bellus, Nicholas
xxxii
Benedict V., a captive . . 37
,,
V I . , strangled 44, 49
,,
VIII
45
„
IX
54
„
XII
113
Bennon
xxvii
Berengar
. . 39
persecutes Adelheid 39
put to death
41
Berengaria
83;?
Berkeley, Bishop
254
Berlin congress
301
peace of
227
Schloss, built
152
taken
276
Bernard of C l a i r v a u x . . . . 72
compared to Peter . . 72
preaches a crusade . . 72
Bernard's sermon
140
Bernard of Weimar
203
Bernouilli,
mathematician
xxxiv
Bertha
18
Bertha, daughter of Otto 56
Berthold Schwarz
123

PAGE
Beyer, L
211
Beza, Theodore
xxxiv
Bianca Sforza
158
Bible translated
152
Biblia Sacra. Latina....
154
Bielfeld
218
Bilfinger, philosopher . xxxiv
Bishops of Germany . . . . 99^
Bismarck
xxxix. 295
minister president . . 294
o u t w i t s N a p o l e o n l l l . 298
wins his first stake . . 296
,, second stake . . 297
,, third s t a k e . . . . 300
Black D e a t h
127
Black King
53
Black Prince
125
Blenheim, Battle of 207, 216
Blumenbach, ethnologist
xxxix
Bobadil
i62«, 243^
Boccaccio
127
Bodmann
107
Bodmer, poet
xxxix
Bodmer of Zurich
xxxiv
Boehm, Jacob
xxxii
Bohemia, fief . . . . 32, 37, 312
king of, elector io8n, 126
kingdom
74
Bohemian dress
172
"platform"
141
Boii
17, 97
Boleslas of Bohemia
37
conquered
37
murders Wenceslas.. 37
persecutes the christians
37
Boleslas of Poland
45
revolt of
46
Bonaparte—
Addresses of
266, 272
Alps surmounted b y 270
Brigadier-General ^ . . 263
Egyptian campaign 269
first consul
. . . 270
forty-days' campaign 270
Italian campaign
267
Bone brook
13
lane
. . . 13
Boner, Ulrich
xxviii. 123
Bongars, J o h n
xxxii
Boniface (St.)
17
murdered
18
Book of Heroes
97
of Housewifery
. . . . 169
Bora, Katharine von
179
Borne of F r a n k f o r t . . . . xxxix
Bouvines, Battle of . . . . 84
Boyne, Battle of the
207
Boys, Precocious
218, 219
Brabant, Dukes of
99
Brandenburg, bought . . 125
electors of
153
fief of Germany
312
house of
xviii
margraf
of,
elector
io8n, 125
margraviate of
33

315
PAGE,

Brandenburg, Original inhabitants of
150
part of Saxony
151
pawned
125
sketch of
149
sold by S i g m u n d . . . . 152
Brandt, S
xxx. 167
Ship of Fools
167
Brave des braves
272
Breakspeare
76
Bremen, Archbishopric of 4 5 ^
Brentono, poet
xxxix
Broad Church
306
Brockes of H a m b u r g . . x x x v
Bruce, Robert
125
Bruno
31
Bruno
253
Bruno (St.)
xxvi. 63
Brunswick, D u k e of
265
defeated
265
manifesto of
265
Bucer, Martin
xxx. 190
Buddasus of Pomerania xxxv
Bull ^Pope's)—
against witches . . . . 222
burnt
177
curse of
178
Bunau, historian
xxxv
Bunsen, statesman
xxxix
Burchard
xxv. 47
Burchardic, what
47
Burger
xxxv. 251
Burger, poet
xxxix
Burgher class c r e a t e d . . . . 34
Burgundy, E x t e n t o f . . . . 50
added to Germany . . ^312
Busching, geographer . xxxv
Buxtorf, J o h n
xxxii
CjEPIO, DEFEATED
2
escape of
2
imprisoned
2
robs a temple
2
Caesar and Ariovistus.. 9, 10
„
„ Pompey
10
Caesar, L., martyred
179
Cajetan, the legate
177
Calabrian hermit, T h e . . 163
Calixtines, who
141
quit t h e Taborites . . 143
Calixtus I I
64
Calvin, J o h n
xxx. 189
Calx of lead
245 n
Cambray, League of
161
object of
161
peace of
180
Camp-Aubert, battle of.. 281
Campo-Formio, T r e a t y of 268
Canitz, F . R
xxxii
Cap of the popes
54
Capistrano, J o h n
147
Carinthia, duchy of
122
investiture of
122
Carion, historian
xxx
Carlos I I . of Spain
215
Carlovitz, Peace of
i 213
Carlstadt, Andrew . .xxx. 189
Carolin Books
24

316

INDEX.
PAGE
Chivalry
100
due to Henry 1
33
Christ, F . , h i s t o r i a n . . . . xxxii
Christian, archbishop . . xxvii
Christian of Brunswick.. 198
Christian IV. of D e n m a r k 198
Christopher von Grimmelshausen
xxxii. 241
Churchcities
48
corrupt state of
139
rise of the
48, 49
Cid, who
i5«
the German
15
Cimbri
1
known to the Romans 7/2
migrate southwards .
1
overthrown
5
Cimbrian panic
2
Circles of Germany . 160, 311
four
311
six
311
. .ten
311
Cities
221
Citizens' dress, sixteenth
century
172
Civilis
9
Batavian Hannibal . gn
Civilisation never ebbs . . 36
Clara martyred
179
Clarendon, Constitution
of. v
217*2
Claudius, poet
xl
Clement I I
54
Clement I I I
61
e x c o m m u n i c a t e d . . . . 61
Clement V I I .
180
objects to diets
180
Clementina
(Rudolf's
daughter)
107
Cleopatra and Sophonisba 243
Clocks invented
44
Cluvier, Philip
xxxii
Coaches introduced
171
Coalition against France—
First
263, 266
Second
264, 266
Third
272
Fourth
275
Fifth
277
Sixth
282
Cocceji of Bremen
xxxv
Cogito, ergo sum
253
Collin of Vienna
xl
Cologne, Archbishop of,
elector
108*2, 125
archbishopric
46*2
cathedral
97
christianised
16
Columban
17
" C o m e , H o l y G h o s t " . . xxv
Commercial state sixteenth century
170
Concordat of Worms
64
Confed. of the Rhine 273, 274
declared dissolved . . 280
Napoleon protects . . 273
princes of the
273*2
87

PAGE
Carpenter, G., m a r t y r e d . 179
Carthusian order founded 63
Carver, T h e king's . .
38
Cassano, Battle of
264
Castiglione, Battle of . . 268
Catholecon, T h e
123
Catulus defeated
5
Cauldron of Slaughter . . 13
Cavalry of H e n r y 1
33
Celestine I I I
84
Cellarius, geographer.. xxxv
Celtes, Conrad
xxx. 170
Celtic language
7
swarm
6, 7
Chalice-men
141
allowed the cup . . . . 145
quit the Taborites . . 143
Chamberlain appointed . . 38
Chambord, Comte de ..223*2
Chamisso
xl. 302
Charlemagne
18
amusements of
21
Avars conquered by . 21
biographers of
18
books he liked b e s t . . 21
brothers of
18
buried, where
25
capitularies of
23
children of
18
death of
24
described
20
diet of
20
disposition of
20
dress of
20
d y i n g words of
24
dynastic table
xiv
education promoted b y 23
empire of
18
expeditions of
21
father of
18
height of
20
kaiser .^
21
legislation
22
mother of
18
palace of
T8
reflections on
25
Saxons conquered b y 21
stature of
20
strength of
20
successors of
25
sword of
18
wives of
i
18
Charles the Bold
148
death of
149
Charles le Gros
26
See K a r l .
Charles I X . , believer in
magic
164
Charles X . deposed . . . . 288
Charles duke of Austria . 234
Charles-quint
173
Charter-house
63
Chateau Thierry, Battle of 281
Chaucer
125, 127
Chieftains, Titles of . . . . 47
Child of Fortune
269
Children of Eve
166

Children's crusade

PAGE
Confession of Augsburg . 180
compared with our
Articles
180*2
"heretical"
181
Confessional
133
and N e p o m u k
133
Congress of Berlin
301
Rastadt
269
Vienna
285
Conrad {see Konrad).
Conring, H
xxxii
Constance, Council of . . 135
large city
135
treaty of
74
Constance, wife of Fred. I I . 85
„ H e n . I I . 74
„ H e n . V I . 82
Constitution of Clarendon 21772
Constitutions granted 286, 288
Consubstantiation
114
Continental System
278*2
Conversion ofthe Germans 16
Contests of W a r t b u r g . . 92
Copernicus
xxx. 191
Coronation of Otto I . . . 38
place of
126
Cortenuova, Battle of . . 85
Corvinus
147
Corvinus, Matthias
148
Cosmo-dromium
144
Council of Basel
145
Council of Constance
135
abortive
136
Cramer of Bohemia
xl
Cramer, poet
xxxv
Cranz, philosopher . . . . xxxv
Creation a
crank machine"
106
Crecy, Bat. of, 118,120,125,127
Crema destroyed
77
Crescentius
44
consul of Rome . . . . 44
death of
44
Crespy, Peace of
183
Critics, King of,z>. H e y n e xli
Critique of Pure Reason 256
Croneck, poet
xxxv
Crown, last time given b y
pope
180
not hereditary
309*2
the iron
77
red-hot iron
81
sold
124
Crozier given b y prelates 55
Cruel, T h e
82
Crusade, Children's
87
craze
87
first
65
second
72
third
80
Crusius, philosopher . . xxxv
Cumberland, D u k e of . . 233
Cunegunda
45
Cupbearer, T h e king's . . 38
Curas, historian
xxxv
Curse of a pope's bull . . 178
Curtius
132/2
Cusa, Nicholas von . . xxix

INDEX.
PAGE
PAGE J
xxx. 190
Cuspinian
xxx. 190 1 Dubraw
Ducal towns
48
Customs, Eighteenth Cen91
tury
219 Duke Ernest
98
Custozza, Battle of
294 ] D u k e of Bavaria
Franconia
99
Czaslau, Battle of
227 I
Lotharingia
99
Saxony
98
D A C H , Simon
xxxii
Suabia
99
Dahlmann, historian
xl
98
D a m m , lexicographer . xxxv 1 D u k e s , T h e great
Duncker, historian
xl
Danes
conquered
by
xxviii
Henry 1
83 Duns Scotus
made Christians . . . . 37 Durer, Albert . . x x x . 155,192
7
Dante
125 D u t c h = G e r m a n
=Teut
7
Danton
266
clocks
7
Dantzic, a free city
274
D a t e s from A.D
24 Duumvirat . . . . xxxii. 254^
xx
D a u n , Marshal
234-238 Dynastic Tables
David, artist
2487*
painting of Napoleon 186 E A D G Y T H , wife of O t t o . . 37
D a v i d Scotus
xxvii Eagle, T h e two-headed.. 126
120
Decameron
...
127 Eagles of Austria
Decius
132?* Eberhard, A. G
xl
xl
Demosthenes' fable . . . . 2947* Eberhard, J . A
Denain, Battle of
216 Eberhard of A l t h e i m . . xxviii
Denewulf
113 Ebersberg, Battle of . . . . 275
architecDenmark, a
fief
. . . . 39 Ecclesiastical
ture
97
Dennewitz, Battle o f . . . . 280
xxxv
De officii*
154 Eckhof, actor
277
Descartes
xxxiv. 253 Eckmuhl, Battle of
Ecu, Value of
837*
Desiderata, wife of Char123
lemagne
18 Edelstein, T h e
Dessau, battle of, 195,196,199 Edith, wife of O t t o . . 37f 42
D ' E s t e , House of
xvi Education, thirteenth century
100
Desvignes, Pierre
90
125
Dettingen, Battle of
227 Edward I I I
xxiv. 18
Diet of Augsburg, 179,180,184 Eginhard
256
Roncaglia
74 Ego and non-ego
xl
Spire
180 Eichendorff, poet
Trent
181 Elchingen, Battle of . . . . 272
309
Worms
178 Electors
Brandenburg
153
"Wurzburg
74
d i s c o n t i n u e d . . . . 126, 309
Dippel, chemist
xxxv
eight
126, 309
Disen
17
nine
126, 309
Dithmar, chronicler xxv. 47
number fixed.... 74, 126
DIVERS HOUSES
107
place of meeting . . . . 126
dynastic table of . . . . xvi
sacred
126
Divinity.
105
seven . . . . io8», 126, 309
astrological
105
who
126
legal
105
magical
105 Eliza Bonaparte's kingdom
275
medical
105
scientific
105 Elizabeth of B u r g u n d y . . 107
Elizabeth of Russia . . . . 234
Domestic habits,
sixdeath of
238
teenth century
171
Donation of Pepin
22 Elixir of life undesirable. 163
Donnybrook fair
294^ Elster bridge catastrophe 283
xxxii
Doza, Geo.
83s* Elzevirs, T h e
157
Dresden, Battle of
280 Emmanuel the Great
peace of
228 Emperor of Germany 41,310
„
„
T h e First 153
Dress of Charlemagne . . 20
last crowned by pope 180
of H e n r y 1
35
„
„
at Rome 154
twelfth century . . . . 68
of the Holy Roman
sixteenth century, 171,172
eighteenth century . . 220
Empire . . . . 417*, 308
„
Otto 1
41
Droysen, historian
xl
of Rome
308
Drusus
11
of the Roman e m p . . . 41
death of, foreboded . 11
„ Charlemagne 41
fortresses of
11

317
PAGE

Emperor of the Romans 22,308
of the West
308
Emperor Elect of the
Romans
161, 309
Empire of the West . . . . 22
Empress of India . . . . i$3«
Engel, dramatist
xl
Engelbert
xxviii. 113
works of
113
Engen, Battle of
264
Enzio
85
captures a fleet . . . . 85
death of
85
Epicycloid C u r v e . . . . xxxviii
E r a of affectation . . . . xxxi
Erfurt, Diocese of
8
Ergo Bibamus
xlv
Erichsson
raises
the
" S w e d e s ' S t o n e " . . . . 201
Erick
93
Eriphyle
4o«
Ernest, Duke
91
Ernest of Suabia
51
death of
51
hero of song
51
Ernesti, J . A
xxxv
Essling, Battle of . .
277
Eugene, D e a t h of prince. 207
Eugenius I V
145
deposed
145
Euler, mathematician.. xxxv
Evangel
29
Evangelical school
306
Evangelienbuch
29?*
Eve's Children^
166
Excommunication—
of H e n r y IV
60
of Ludwig V
119
the last
120
E y l a u , Battle of
276
F A I R S common

#

171

Fabricius of Leipsig . . x x x v
Fahrenheit _
xxxv
Falieri, Marino . . . . 125, 127
Fastrade . .
18
Father of his Country . . 74
modern music
261
physiology
xli. 258
Faust
250
Fealty, Oath of . . .
121
Feathers of the Prince of
Wales
125
Felix V., pope
145
Female pope
113
Fenelon of Germany . . . . 259
Ferdinand and Isabella . . 157
Ferdinand I . . . xvii. 181, 192
king of the Romans . 181
„ ^ H u n g a r y . . . . i8r
marriage of
181
Ferdinand I I
xvii. 194
biographers of
194
child of
194
death of
203
father of
194
genealogy of
194
mother of
194

INDEX.

31*
^PAGE

PAGE

PAGE

77 Frederick the Great (see
Ferdinand I I I . . . xvii. 194 Frederick I . crowned
death of
80
Frederick I I of Prussia)
accession of
203
father of his country 74 Frederick the Handsome 118
children of
194
H e n r y deserts him 78, 79
genealogy of
xvi
death of
205
Italian
expeditions
Frederick the One-eyed . 74
father of
194
Frederick the Warlike . . 142
genealogy o f . . . .
194
.of
77, 78
defeated by Zisca . . 142
victor of Nordlingen 202
king of H u n g a r y . . 75
wives of
194
king of Poland . . . . 75 Frederick the Winter K i n g 197
restored
204
Ferdinand of Austria xviii. 289
legend about
81
Frederick the Wise
177
abdication of
291
loses battle of Legprotects Luther . 177, 178
Fessler, novelist
xl
nano
78
Frederick-William xviii. 208
Festival of fools abolished 145
person of
75
described
208
Feudal system
27
rebuked b y pope
76
joins theGermanallies 213
Fichte
xl. 255, 256
sets seals to deeds . . 82
the " G r e a t E l e c t o r " 153,
described
257
subjects the barons . . 75
208
Fief, what
28 Frederick I . of P r u s s i a . . 218
an immediate
28
character of
218 Frederick-William I . xix. 218
anecdotes of
218
coronation of
215
Fiefs made hereditary . . 52
character of
218
descendants of
xix
Fischart
xxx. 169
dynastic line of . . xviii Frederick-William I I . . . xix
Flagellants
. . 128
first king
218 Frederick-Williamlll. 275,280
Fleming, Paul
xxxii. 242
calls to arms
282
xv. 85
Flower, Order of the . . xxxi Frederick I I .
pedigree of
xix
anathematised
89
Folz, H a n s ^
xxx. 166
provokes war
275
author
xxvii
Fools, Festival of, abocharacter of
86 Frederick-William I V . . . 289
lished
145
contention with the
death of
293
Fools, Ship of
167
father of
289
pope ...
87
Forster, philosopher . . xxxv
life of, attempted
289
excommunicated
85
Forster, poet
xl
founds a university . . 87
mother of
289
Forster, voyager
xxxv
king of Jerusalem . . 88
pedigree of
xix
Forster, G
xxxv
marriage of
86
wife of
289
Fouque, D e la Motte xl. 302
personal appearance
Free bench
102
Undine of
302
of
87
burghers
102
Fourteenth century pregvows a crusade
88
grafs
102
nant
127
Wonder of the World 85
session
102
Fowler, T h e
31
Freher, Marquard . . . . xxxii
France, W a r s with
213 Frederick I I . of Brandenburg
152 Fremor, General
234
Francis I. ^
xvii. 229
" Iron Tooth "
152 French pope, T h e first . . 44
alchemist
163
third revolution . . . . 290
death of
224 Frederick I I . of Prussia . 230
author
230 Friburg cathedral
97
retires from
state
claims Silesia
225 Fried
9
affairs
229
described
230 Friedland, Battle of . . . . 276
Francis I . of A u s t r i a . . . . 280
improves the peace . . 230 Friedlingen, Battle of . . ei6
death of
2!
lord of Silesia
238 Frisch, naturalist . . . . xxxv
See Francis I I . ^
original
231 Frischlin, poet
xxx
Francis I I
xviii. 262
pedigree of . . xviii, xix Friuli
161
children of
262
sword of, removed . . 276 Froissart
127
death of
289
171
" t h e Great"
234 Fugger
father of
262
Voltaire visits
230
wealth of
171
mother of . .
262
xvii. 146 Fulda, grammarian . . xxxv
no longer kaiser . . . . 274 Frederick I I I
besieged
147 Fulda (the town)
99
ousted from Germany 296
children of
146 Funck, J o h n
85
war declared by
265
death of
153 Fust, J o h n
154
wives of
. . . 262
father of
146
Francis Joseph
xviii. 289
indolence of
147 G A L I L E O
. . . . x x x i v . 193
father of
291
secretary of
146 Gall, phrenologist
xl. 259
mother of
291
vowels adopted b y . . 153 Gall (St.)
17
silver wedding of
301
154
wife of
146 Gansfieisch, J o h n
wife of
291
Garter, Order of the 125, 127
Franconia, D u k e of . . . . 99 Frederick I I I . of Prussia—
called " K i n g "
153 Gebhardo h u m i l i a t e d . . . . 76
Franconia, House of . . 50-65
dynastic table of . . . . xv Frederick Augustus . 217, 224 Geilana
murders
St.
claims the kaiserite.. 218
Franco-Prussian war
297
Kilian
17
of
Hohenwhole programme of. 300 Frederick
Gellert
xxxv. 247
Frank, Sebastian.. xxx. 156
zollern
152 Genre poet, v. Uhland . . xlv
Frankfort, Peace of . . . . 300
buys Brandenburg . . 152 Gentz, statesman
xl
Frederick I
xv. 70, 74
character of
152 George I I . at D e t t i n g e n . 228
Barbarossa %
75 Frederick of Saxony . . . . 217 Gerberga
.
31
71
Burgundy gained by 76 Frederick of Staufen
marries Louis . .
31

INDEX.
JPAGE
Gerbert, historian
107
Gerbert, made pope . . . . 44
clock made by
44
speaking head of
44
tutor of Otto
44
Gerhard, archbishop of
Mainz
115
Gerhard, P a u l . . . . xxxii. 243
German children n a k e d . .
8
German confederation . . 287
in thirty-nine states . 288
German constitutions
286
German empire
301
statistics of the . . . . 301
" German
Fatherland " 304
German kings,how elected
8
German h i s t o r y Austrian period^ . . . . 144
Franconian period . . 50
Great I n t e r r e g n u m . . 106
Hohenstaufen
70
Karlovingian # period 18
Mediaeval p e r i o d . . . . 31
Modern times
173
Prussian period . . . . 297
Romano-German....
1
Saxon period ^
31
German literature in German
xxiv-xlv. 246
German poets,' { Prince of " xl
German tribes
8
democratic
8
in the Roman a r m y . 10
German women chaste . .
8
Germanicus and H e r m a n n 14
Germans described
7
bathed in cold water
8
hated houses
8
squatters
8
Germany bisected
238
etymology of
7
organised
35
religion of
8
severed from France . 3 1 1
under
French
influence
xxxiv
Gersuinde
18
Gertrude, wife of Rudolf 107
Gervais, Legend of
91
Gervinus, historian
xl
Gesenius, Orientalist . . . . xl
Gesner, " G e r m a n P l i n y " 206
Gesner, idyllic poet xxxv. 252
Gesner, lexicographer . xxxv
Gesner, numismatist . . xxxv
Gessler
116
Ghibelins
72
Gilt lance
54
Gipsies
172
Gisla
18
Glass, S
xxxii
Glauber, chemist
xxxii
Gleim, poet
xl
Globes, T h e
first,
v.
Behaim
xxx
Gloves, twelfth c e n t u r y . . 68
Gluck
xxxvi. 260

Gmunden, John von ..

xxix

319
PAGE

Gobelinus Persona
144
Godfrey of Bouillon . . . . 67
Godfrey of Viterbo xxvi. 71,
74, 82, 84
Goethe
xl. 249
Goetz, the Iron-handed xxx
Goldast, historian . . . . xxxii
Golden age of Germany . 248
Golden bull, T h e
74, 126
Golden period of E n g land
xxxi
Golden period of France xxiv
Germany
xxxviii
Italy
xxix
minne-singers . . . . xxvii
Portugal
xxix
Prussia
293
Gonthier
xxvii. 82
Gosbert
17
Goslar built
42
court of H e n r y I V . . . 57
demanded by duke
Henry
78
Gothic alphabet
29
Scriptures
17
Gothofredas
107
Goths
15
apostle of the
17
converted
17
Ostro16
Visi16
Gottfried of Strasburg . / 94
Gottsched
xxxvi. 247
Gotz, poet
xxxvi
Graf
310
" G r a m m a t i c a l C y n i c " xxxiii
Grand master of the Vehm 102
Granite redoubt
270
" Grave," T h e
144
Gravelotte, Battle of . . . . 294
Great, The—
Henry
2
Otto
37
Great dukes, T h e
98
Gregory V
44
Gregory V I
54
Gregory V I I . , D e a t h of . 62
deposed
60, 61
dying words of
62
objects of his l i f e . . . . 62
quarrels with H e n r y
IV
59
Gregory I X
88
death of
89
quarrels of, with F r e derick I I
89
Grillparzer, poet
xl
Grimm, Baron F . M
xl
Grimm, brothers
xl. 307
expelled from Gottingen
290
Grimm, Jacob
xli
Gross Beeren. Battle of.. 280
Grossmann 01 Berlin . . xxxvi
Grotius, H u g o
xxxiv
Gruber
.
xli
#
Grunbeck, historian . .
xxx
Gryph, Andrew , . xxxii. 242

PAGE

Guelf
58, 71
house of
70
dynastic table of . . . . xvi
and Ghibelins
72
Guelf 1
7o
Guelf I I
70
Guericke, Otto de xxxii. 210
Guido d'Arezzo
53
Guilds, Common
164
^ literary
xxxi. 164
Guiscard
6x
Gunhild
53
Gunpowder
123
Gunsburg, Battle of
264
Gunther
xvi. 124.
Gunther, poet
xxxvi
Gustavus Adolphus
199
death of
201
"Snow king"
199
victories of
200
Gutenberg, J o h n
154
Gutzkow of Berlin
xli
Gypsies
172
H A B S B U R G , meaning of..

107

last of t h e line
217
Habsburger kings
146
Hacusser, historian . . . . xli
Hagedorn, poet
xxxvi
Hahnemann
xli. 259
Halem, historian
xli
Halle, Battle of
274
Haller
xxxvi. 258
Hamann
xxxvi. 258
Hamburg
220
customs in
220
enlarged
79
Hammerlein
xxix
Hamiltrude
18
Handel
xxxvi. 260
Hanno
57
Hansa
101*2
cities, self-governed . 171
Hanseatic league
ior
Harold Blue-tooth
39
baptized
39
revolt of
42
Hathburga
31
Hardenberg, Novalis
301
Harmonia's Necklace . . 40/z
H a r o u n a l R a s c h i d s clock 8^
Hartmann, Moritz
xli
H a r t m a n n von der A u e . . 92
H a r t z mines opened . . . . 42
H a t t o eaten b y mice . . . . 30
Hauffof S t u t t g a r t
xli
Hawking party
30
Haydn
xli. 261
" Heavy Peg "
152
Hebel
xli. 305
Hebrew Bible printed . xxix
Hedel, T h e
97
Hedelbuch
97
Hederig, daughter of
Rudolf
107
Hedwig
31
marries H u g h e s . . . . 31
Heer-bann
,
35

320

INDEX.
PAGE

Heeren, historian
xli
Hegel
xli. 255, 257
Heguis, Alexander
155
restorer of letters . . 155
Heidelburg university 126,155
Heilsberg, Battle of . . . . 274
Heine
xli. 305
Heineccius
xxxvi. 245
Heinecken
219
Heinse, poet
xli
Heliand, T h e
29
Helmolde of B u t z o w . . xxvi
Helmont, Von . . xxxii. 254^
Helvetic confederation . . 125
H e n r i ^ I I . , believed in
magic
. . 164
Henry I
xiv. 31
burgher class created
b y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
cavalry
introduced
by •••••
33
character of
34
children of
31
chivalry founded by . 33
conquers the Danes . 32
d e a t h of
34
described
34
dress of
35
empire of
31
events of his reign . . 31
father of
31
father of his country 33
fortresses built by . . 33
Fowler, T h e
31
institutions of
33
organised the n a t i o n . 35
territory added by . . 31
tournaments
introduced b y
34
towns built b y
34
wars of
32
"wife of
31
wins battle of Merseburg
33
H e n r y I I . t h e L a m e xiv. 46
the saint
45
wishes to abdicate . . 46
Henry III
xv. 53
Black, T h e
53
death of
54
Patrician of Rome . . 54
peace proclaimed b y . 54
wars of
54
H e n r y IV
xv. 56
beggared
62
buried
63
death of
62
dethroned
62
excommunicated . . 60, 61
Goslar his residence . 57
penance enjoined
60
quarrels with the pope 59
Saxons revolt against 58
submits to the p o p e . . 60
Henry V
xv. 64
dethrones his father . 62
parricide
64
resists the pope . . . . 64

PAGE

PAGE

H e n r y V I . the C r u e l . . 70, 82
crowned with the iron
crown
77
holds Richard I . captive
83
King of the R o m a n s . 74
Henry VII
xvi. 117
H e n r y V I I I . of England 158
Henry; Poor
92
H e n r y of Bavaria
46
H e n r y of Hervorden . . xxviii
H e n r y of Hessen
xxviii
H e n r y of Ofterdingen . . 92
H e n r y of Rebdorf
xxviii
H e n r y of V e l d i g . . . . xxvi. 91
H e n r y the Black
70
the Cruel
82
Henry the Lion,of Saxony 70
banned
79
disfiefed
79
forsakes Barbarossa . 78
founds Munich
79
reconciled to Barbarossa
76
resides in England . . 80
restored
97
H e n r y the Proud
70
banned
71
death of
71
passed b y
71
possessions of
97
H e n r y the Quarrelsome . 46
disfiefed
42
kidnaps Otto I I I . . . 44
revolt of
42
H e n r y the regent
86
death of
86
Herbert the poet
xxv
Herbst
xli. 259
Herder
xli. 249
Hermann
12
and Germanicus . . . . 14
„ Marbod
15
„ Varus
12
L a y s about
28
overthrows Varus . 12, 13
H e r m a n n elected king . . 57
death o f . . .
57
H e r m a n n the Cripple xxv. 56
Hermann, J
xxxvi
Hermes of Pomerania . . xli
Hermes, G
xli
Herrick
242%
Herschel, Sir W
xli. 259
Sir J .
259
Caroline
259
Hessen Cassel, a kingdom 274
Heuglin, martyred
179
H e u m a n n of Alstadt . . xxxvi
Hevel, J o h n
xxxiii. 210
H e y n e , critic
xli
Hildebrand
262
Hildebrand, Pope
59
Hildebrand, H y m n of . . 29
Hildegard
71
Hildegarda, St
xxvi. 74
Hildegarde
10
Hiocg-nu
i6n

Hippel, novelist
xxxvi
Historical School
, 306
Hitgenfeld
306
Hochkirchen, Battle of.. 235
„ (1813) 280
Hochst, Battle of
263
Hodel, regicide
. v 301
Hoffmann
xxxiii. 302
Hoffmann
xli
;
Hoffmann, Frederick . . xxxvi
Hohenlinden, Battle o f . . 271
Hohenstaufen
71
House of
70
m
dramatic period . 90
dynastic table of xv
Hohenzoliern
xviii. 208
Hollman,philosopher., xxxvi
Holstein fief of Germany 313
held b y Austria . . . . 296
,, by Denmark . . 290
,, by Saxony
312
Holty, poet
xxxvi
Holy Alliance
287
Holy League
161
H o l y places
65
Vehm
102
H o l y Roman Empire ends 273
Homage, Derivation o f . .
28
described
121
words used in
121
Homoeopathy v. H a h n e mann
xli
HonoriusIII
88
Horribili-scribritax
243
Hotels
70
::
H O U S E O F A U S T R I A xvii.

144

Bavaria
70
Brandenburg
xviii
D'Este
xvi
Franconia . . . . xv. 50-65
Guelf
xvi. 70
Hohenstaufen . . xv. 70
Hohenzoliern . . . . xviii
Suabia
70
HOUSES, DIVERS

. . xvi.

107

House in the twelfth century
68
Housewifery, The Book of 169
Howleglass
168
Hrosvita, T h e priestess . . 43
Hubertsburg, Peace of . . 238
Hugbald
3°
H u g h e s count of Paris . . 37
wife of
37
H u g o of Trymberg
xxviii
Humboldt, statesman
xli
Humboldt, naturalist xli. 303
Hummel
xlii. 261
Hungarians, who
26ft
conquered b y H e n r y
1
32
Otto 1
39
described
27
dress
220
meaning of the word 26**
mode of warfare . . . . 26
occupation of
220
vassals to G e r m a n y . . 40

INDEX.
PAGE
Hungary # . . ;
220
christianised
45
fief of Germany . . . . 312
made a kingdom . . . . 45
Huniades, J o h n
147
H u n s , who
16
described ^
16
H u r t e r , historian xxxiii. 194
Huss, John
136
burnt
137
degraded
137
Hussite war
141
Hussites allowed the cup 145
win freedom
142
H u t t e r , Elias
xxxiii
Hymn 0/ Hildebrand
. . 29
I CAME, I saw, &c

183

321
PAGE

JACOBI, philosopher . . . . xlii
Jaeger
«82
J a m e s of Konigshofen . xxviii
Jeanned'Arc
134
Jemappes, Battle of . . . . 265
J e n a , Battle of
276
Jerome Bonaparte's kingdom
274
Jerome of Prague
138
burnt
139
Jesuits, Order of
172
J e w s , Persecution of
129
quarters
220
tradesmen
35
Joachim I . the N e s t o r . xviii
Joachim I I
xviii
Joachim F r e d e r i c k . . . . xviii
J o a n , pope
113
wife of Wenceslaus . . 130
„ killed b y a dog . 130
John X
49
John X I
49
J o h n X I I . crowns O t t o . . 41
deposed
41
profligate
49
son of Marosia
49
JohnXIII
37
JohnXIV
49
John X V I
44
John XVII
49
J o h n X X I I . o r X X I I I . 118,139
infamous
139
tiara worn b y
136
J o h n Frederick, prisoner. 183
J o h n George
xviii
J o h n Nepomuk
133
J o h n of Becka
xxviii
J o h n of T r a n s y l v a n i a . . . . 181
J o h n Paul
xlii. 253
J o h n Sigismund
xviii
John, the Cicero
xviii
Jolanthe
85
Jordanus
..xxlv
Joseph I
xvii. 207
biographers of
207
children of
207
death of
217
father of
207
mother of
207
wife of
207
Joseph I I
xviii. 241
death of
241
Josephine, death of
281
divorced
278
a " g o o d a n g e l " . . . . 278
Joyeuse^ La
19
Judgment of the cross . . 23
J u d i t h , daughter of R u dolf
107
Julius I I .
157
sick
161

Ich dien
125
Idea, meaning of
104
Idealism . . . ; • ;
256
not materialism . . . . 257
Identity, Philosophy of.. 257
Identity of contraries . . 257
Iffland, actor
xlii
Illustrious, T h e
144
Imagina
115
Immermann, d r a m a t i s t . . xlii
Imperator Augustus . . . . 22
Imperial chamber .
159
cities
i8o«
wives
xx
Index E x p u r g a t o r i u s . . . . 170
Indulgences, Price o f . . . . 176
sold
176
words of
176
Ingolstadt, Battle of . . . . 275
Innocent I I I
84
contentions of . . . . . . 87
Innocent I V
89
discrowns Frederick
II
89
Innocent # V I I I . ,
bull
against w i t c h e s . . . . 222
Inns
. . 70
Intellectual state, thirteenth century
104
Interim of Augsburg 183, 184
falls through:
184
Interregnum, T h e G r e a t . 106
a dark period
107
Intuition
257
Investiture
55
of Carinthia
122
of vassals
121
question of, settled . . 64
Invincibles, T h e
269
iphigenia in Tauris . . . . 250
Iron crown of Lombardy 77
,,
burning . . . . 83
" Irritability " v. Haller
xxxvi
KvESTNER
XXXvi
Isabella, wife of Frede308
rick I I
85 Kaiser
emp. of the R o m a n s . 308
Iselin of Basel
xxxvi
of the West . . . . 308
Italian massacre
42
of H . R o m , empire 308
Italy, curse of G e r m a n y . 40
titles of the . , , . , , , . 310
a lions'gave
117

Y

PAGE
Kaiser Augustus
22
elects the pope
37
independent of pope 119
last crowned b y pope 180
pope's
124, 125
two simultaneous 106,118
Kaisers, Wives of the . . xxii
Kaiserlautern, Battle of.. 263
Kalkbrenner
xlii. 261
Kamerer
155
founds
Heidelberg
university . . . .
155
K a n t , philosopher xlii. 254, 256
Karl
124
the F a t
xiv. 25
the Great {see Charlemagne)
Karl I V
xvi. 124
commentaries of . . . . 124
death of
126
learned
X25
pope's kaiser
124
universities founded
by
125
Karl V.
xvii. 173
abdication of
185
and Luther
175
biographers of
173
captives liberated by. 187
chief events of
173
children o f . . . .
173
coronation of
178
emperor
180
escape of
184
father of
173
gourmand
185
in retirement..
186
king of Lombardy . . 180
mother of
173
personal appearance . 185
retires to St. J u s t e . . 185
visits Luther's tomb . 183
wife of
173
Karl V I . ^
xvii. 207
accession of
217
biographers of
207
character of . . . . 217, 218
children of.
207
death of
217
father of
207
last Habsburger . . . . 217
last years of
217
mother of
207
wife of
207
Karl Albert
.... 194
Karl Albert of B a v a r i a . . 224
Karl duke of Styria
194
Karl V I I .
xvii. 226
death of
129
Karl Gunther
124
sells the crown
124
Karlovingian period . . . . 18
dynasty
xiv
Karlstein castle
125
Katharine, daughter of
Rudolf
;.••••• 1 Q 7
Kepler
xxxiii. 193, 206

Keener, p o e t . . . » . . . . . . . . xlii

INDEX.

322
PAGE

Khevenhuller, F . C. . . xxxiii
Kilian, St
17
murdered
17
K i n g crowned b y pope . . 117
poisoned in the eucharist
117
K i n g of Italy, a title
40
K i n g of Prussia, First . . 153
K i n g of R o m e
278, 309
K i n g of the Romans 22, 55,308
title created . .
22
,, not hereditary . . 55
K i n g Saints
51
Kings of Prussia
xix
dynastic tables of . . xxi
wives of t h e
xviii
King Rother; legend of xxvi
Kinkel, poet
xlii
Klauber
xlii. 260
Kleist of Prussia
xxxvi
Kleist, dramatic p o e t . . . . xlii
Klemm, meaning of . . . . 133
Klinger of F r a n k f o r t . . . . xlii
Klopstock
xlii. 247
Klotz of Saxony
xxxvi
K n i g g e , Adolphus von xxxvi
Knighton
85
Knights
100
had
flags
100
„ gilt spurs . . . . . . 100
,, squires . . . . . . . . 100
lived in castles
100
took part in tournaments
100
Knight of the Lion . . . . 93
K n i g h t s of St. George . . 82
of t h e Virgin
82
KnutVI
84
Kodros
i-32«
Kolip, Battle of
234
Koniggratz, Battle of
297
Konigsberg founded . . . . 151
university
X52
K o n r a d , Revolt of
39
death of
39
Konrad son of H e n r y I V . 62
Konrad I
xiv. 31
Konrad I I
x v . 50
crowned
51
death of
53
king of Burgundy , . 51
m a d e fiefs hereditary 52
toga of
69
Konrad I I I
x v . 71
death o f . . . . . " . . . . . . . 73
descent of
70
elected b y seven . . . . 74
joins a crusade
73
Konrad I V
x v . 90
death of
90
regent
86
K o n r a d , author of Rolandslied
xxvi
K o n r a d of L i c h t e n a u . . xxvii
K o n r a d of "Wurzburg.. xxvii
Konradin
'.....
106
Kopernik
191

PAGE

KSrner
xlii. 305
Kdsciusko
240
Kosmos of P r a g u e . . . . xxvi
Koster Laurentius
154
Kostlin
306
Kotzebue
xlii. 251
Kraft's p y x
171
Kranach, Lucas . . . . 155, 192
Krantz, Albert
x x x . 156
Krefeld, Battle of
234
Krummacher, F . W . xlii. 306
Krummacher, G. D . xlii. 307
Krummacher, senior xlii. 307
Krupp
xlii
Kudrun, The
96
Kuhne
xlii
Kulm, Battle of
280
founded
151
Kunersdorf, Battle of . . 236
Kunigild
53
Kiissnacht
116
Kuster of Westphalia . xxxvi
Kutzbach, Battle of . . . . 280
Kyffhauserberg
81

Lad d the Mountain
. . 304
Ladies' dresses
69
sixteenth century . . 172
Lafontaine, novelist . . . . xlii
Lambert, Chronicler xxv. 64
Lambert of Berlin . . . . xxxvii
Lame, T h e . . / .
45
Lance, A gilt
54
Landshut, Battle of . . . . 277
Land-wehr
35, 282
Land-sturm
282
Langensalza, Battle of . . 294
Laon, Battle of
281
Lasci, General
237
Laudon, General
237
Lauenburg fief of Germany 312
Laurence, St.
171
Lavater
xlii. 259
L a v o n i a p a r t of Germany 312
Law studied
120
Law against witches . . . . 222
League, T h e H o l y
161
T h e Smalkaldic . . . . 181
League of Cambray . . . . 161
of Virtue
281
Lech, Battle of.. 39, 195, 200
Lech V
84^
Legend of Gervais......
91
Legnano, Battle of . . . . . . 78
Leibnitz
xxxvii. 243
Leipzig, Battle of
200
„
(1813).. 283
allies enter
283
Lemanus, L a k e
2«
Leo I I I . .
22
Leo V I I I .
41
Leo X . against Luther . . 177
bull against witches . 222
Leonidas
1327*
Leopold I
xvii. 206
biographers of
206
children of.
206
claims Spanish crown 216
Kopp, palaeontologist,... xlii

PAGE

Leopold I . , death of
217
father of
.
206
jealous of S o b i e s k i . . 213
mother of
206
nonentity^
209
red stockings of
208
wives
206
Leopold I I
xviii. 241
Leopold at Morgarten . . 120
Leopold of Austria
83
death of.
83«
Leopold, Defeat of, a t
Sempach
132
Leopold, the m a r g r a f . . . . 33;*
Lessing
xxxvii. 248
Leuthen, Battle of
234
Liberty makes manhood . 49
Lichtenberg of D a r m stadt
xxxvii
Lichtwer of Prussia . . xxxvii
Lieberkiihn of B e r l i n . . xxxvii
Liebig
xlii. 307
Liegnitz, Battle of
237
" Light of the W o r l d , "
The
135
Ligny, Battle of
285
Lingman, Mathias
xxx
Lion, The—
Henry
70, 71, 75
forsakes Barbarossa
78
punished
79
of Sweden
203
Otto
37
Lip, T h e Austrian . . . . . . 154
Literature chameleon-like 303
Gothic
28
Saxon period
47
fourteenth century . . 144
fifteenth century
155
sixteenth century . . 188
seventeenth century . 241
eighteenth century . . 246
nineteenth century . . 301
Literary Guilds
xxxi
Litters common
171
Liutprand
47
Lobositz, Battle of
232
Lodi, Battle of
26^
Logau, poet
.xxxiii
Lohenstein . . . . . . xxxiii. 243
Lollard, Walter
123
Lombard league
85
broken u p
77
Lombardy a
fief
39, 312
for what famous . . . . 264
given to Italy
293
Lonato, Battle of
268
Longinus defeated
2
slain
2
Lorraine
99
Lower a n d U p p e r . . 99
Lothar I I
xv. 65
the pope's " man " ... 65
Lotharingia or Lorraine . 99
duke of
99
fief of Germany . . . . 312
Louis, St. 11«1111
72

INDEX.

PAGE
PAGE I
Magenta, Battle of
292 j Marius conquers the Cimbri 5
conquers the Teutons
3
Magical divinity
105 j
third Romulus
6«
Magician of the north . . 258 ;
wit of
3, 5
Magnanimous, T h e
144
111
Magnano, Battle of
269 Markfeld, Battle of
49
Magnus the Saxon
58 Marosia
disfiefed
58 Marshals appointed . . . . 38
135
Mahomet I I
147 Martin V.
Mainz, Archbishopric of. 4 5 ^ Martin of Poland . xxvii. 113
about pope J o a n
113
archbishop, elector 108,125
242
besieged.
185 Marvellous visions
158
christianised
16 M a r y of B u r g u n d y . .
daughter of C h a r l e s . 149
Malaga, Battle of
216
death of
149
Malebranche.
254
marries Maximilian . 149
Malleus Maleficarum
. . 222
possessions of
149
Mallius defeated
2
Malplaquet, Battle of, 207,216 M a r y , wife of O t t o I I I . . 43
burnt to death
43
Maltegarde
18
Massena, battle of . . 268
Man=vassal—
Mascou, historian . . . . xxxvii
service required of . . 27
38
Mandeville, J o h n . . 125, 127 Master of the horse
Manfred
85, 90 Master-singers, T h e . . . . 164
guild of, founded., xxviii
Manners, & c , eighteenth
incorporated
165
century
219
257
Mansfeldt, count
198 Materialism, what
xvii. 192, 193
routed
199 Mathias
Manuel V
xxx Matilda, d. of Rudolf . . 107
Manuscripts corrected . . 23 Matilda, wife of H e n r y I . 31
See M a u d
transcribed
23
114
Maps, T h e first, v. Behaim xxx Matter, what
Mercator's
xxxi Maud, wife of H e n r y V I . 64
married Godfroi
64
Marbod
15
mother of
Henry
kingdom dissolved . . 15
Beauclerc
64
Marcellus
4
See Matilda
Margraf
310
Marengo, Battle of
270 Maultasch, M a r g a r e t . . . . 119
Margaret Maultasch . . . . 119 Maurice, see Moritz
232
Margaret of Brabant . . . . 117 Maxen, Battle of
xvii. 156
Margaret and Faust .. 250 Maximilian I
bankruptcy of
159
Margaret Theresa
206
biographer of
156
Margraviate of—
character of
162
Antwerp
33
children of
156
Austria
33
courage of
162
Brandenberg
33
death of
161
Lusatia
33
emperor elect
161
Misnia
33
father of
156
Saxony
33
joins English a r m y . . 161
Sleswig #
. . 33
marries M a r y
149
Maria Amelia of Bavaria 217
mother of
156
Maria Josephine
194, 224
pennyless
156
Maria Louisa, wife of
personal a p p e a r a n c e . 158
Napoleon
278
secretary of
162
Maria of Anjou
134
sells Germany
159
Maria Theresa
194, 206
wants to be pope . . . . 161
Maria Theresa, kaiserin . 223
wives of
156
children of
223
xvii. 192
death of
241 Maximilian 11
31, 37
descendants o f . . . . xviii Mechtildis.
105
father of
223 Medical divinity
Mediaeval History
31
Hungarians won over 226
xlii
husband of
223 Meissner, novelist
xxx. 189
improves the peace 229,239 Melarichthon
mother of
223 Melon, the death of
Albert I I
144
pedigree of
xvii
the death of Frede100 M a n e Antoinette
223
rick I I I
153
Marie Antoinette
194, 206
archt h e death of Maxi39, 46 Marienwerder founded . . 151 i
milian 1
156, 162
97 Marino F a l i e r i . . . . . . . 125, 127 S
PAGE I

Louis X I . believed in al|
chemy
. . 163
Louis X I V . claims Spain 216
last days of
216
mischief maker . . . . 213
Louis X V I I I . restored . . 283
Louis X V I . guillotined . . 266
Louis Bonaparte's kingdom
i
275
Louis d'Outremer
37
wife of
37
Louisa queen of Prussia . 275
like Armida
275
Lubeck enlarged
79
free city
98
taken
276
Ludolf poisoned
41
treason of
39
Ludolf of Saxony . . . . xxviii
Ludwig I I I
29
Ludwig I V . or V. ? . . xvi. 123
L u d w i g V.
118
excommunicated
119
quarrels with the pope 118
Ludwig Lay .
29
Ludwig the Child . . xiv. 25
L u d w i g the Debonair xiv. 25
Ludwig the German xiv. 25
Ludwig the Pious
25
^ sons of
25«
Luitgarde
18
daughter of O t t o . . . . 37
Luitprand
xxv. 47
Luneville, Peace of
271
Lusatia changed to Saxony 33
margraviate of
33
Luther
. x x x . 17
Adrian's
brieve
against
179
a t Eisenach
178
bull against
177
burnt
177
character of
182
cited b y Karl V
178
cited to Rome
177
death of
167, 182
marries a nun
179
" Nightingale of Wittemberg"
167
on the state of t h e
church
175
opposes Tetzel
176
ordered to r e c a n t . . . . 178
protected b y Frederick
177, 178
theses of
177
translates the Bible . 178
wife of
179
work of
183
Lutter, Battle o f . . . . 196, 199
Lutzen, Battle of
201
„
(1813).. 282
Luxemburg, what
124/*
M A D A M , a title

Magdeburg,
an
bishopric
cathedral

323

Y 2

324

INDEX.

PAGE
PAGE I
Memel founded
151 Murat deserts N a p o l e o n . 284
xxxi. i6Bn
Mendel (Neander) . . . . 3037* Murner
xxxvii. 302
Mendelssohn, Moses . . . . 258 ! Musseus
206
" N a t h a n the J e w " . . 248 jMusic a t death
Military
36
Mendelssohn, Felix .xlii. 30^
xxiv, 29
Mengs, artist
xxxvii ! Muspelkeint
xxviii. 117
Mentz, see Mainz
^ j Mussato
305
Menzel of Silesia
xlii i Mythical school
Mercator
x x x . 194 i
Merseburg, Battle o f . . . . 32 N A M E S Latinised . . . . . . 190
M e r y sur Seine, Battle of 281 Napoleon I . abdicates . . 284
banished to E l b a . . . . 284
Messiah^ The
247
St. Helena
286
Mesmer
xlii. 258
deposed
248
Messalina of Germany . . 134
downfall of
280
Metternich
xliii. 288
escape from E l b a
285
compelled to resign.. 288
M e y e r b e e r . . . . xliii. 261, 307
refused a levy
284
" Michael
Angelo
of
second marriage
278
son born t o . . ~
278
Music"
xl. 260
278
Michaelis
xxxvii. 245 Napoleon's son
king of R o m e
278
Michaelis, poet . . . . xxxvii
167
Mignet on Karl V
186 Narenschiff
248
Milan invested
77 Nathan the Jew
253
Military music
36 Natura naturans
xliii. 303, 306
Militia
. 35 Neander
Millesimo, Battle of . . . . 267 Nepomuk, J o h n ..xxviii. 133
murdered
133
Milner, quoted
179
Miltiades' reward . ; . . . . 32;* Neresheim, Battle o f . . . . 263
180
Minden, Battle of
236 N e r o of Germany
Minne-singers
§1 Nestor of P h i l o s o p h y . . . . xliii
lays compiled . . . . xxviii Neukomm, musician . . . . xliii
Miracle plays
xxvi Neumarkt, Battle of . . . . 264
Misnia, margraviate of . . 33 N e w Testament, Luther's 178
194
Mobs, despotic
49 Newton, Sir Isaac
Modern History
173
death of
207
Mommsen, historian . . . . xliii N e y , Marshal
272
Monads
244
brave des braves . . . . 272
Mondovi, battle of
267 Nibelungenlied
xxvii
Money-bote
49
analysed
93
Montebello, Battle of
264 Nice,yielded to France 267,293
146
M ;>nrtecuculli
213 Nicholas V., Pope
155
Montenotte, Battle of . . 267 Nicholas of Cusa
Montmirail, Battle o f . . . . 281 " Nightingale of W i t Moreau, Retreat of . . . . 267
temberg "
167
xliii
Morell, Andrew
210 Nicolai of Berlin
xliii
Morgarten, Battle of
120 Niebuhr, historian
Nimeguen, Peace of . . . . 214
Morgenblatt of Stuttgart
xliii N i t g a r d
xxiv
301
Morhof of Weimar . . . . xxxiii Nobiling, regicide
68
Moritz
183 Nobles, highwaymen
m
104
deserts the k a i s e r . . . . 184 Nominalists
creed of t h e
104
Moscow expedition
279
256
Mosen, poet
xliii Non-ego
Norbert, S t
xxvi. 64
Moser, Franklin of Germany
xxxvii
founds Premonstretensians
64
Mosheim
xxxvii. 262
Mouse-tower
30 Nordlingen, Battle of 195, 202
m
Mozart
xxxvii. 261 Noreia, where
Muhlberg, Battle of
183
Battle of
1
Miildorf, Battle of
. . 118 Northmen, w h o
26
invade Germany . . . . 26
Miiller, astronomer xxix. 155
Miiller, historian . . . .xliii. 302
slaughtered
26
164
Miiller, K . O
xliii Nostrodamus ^
Miiller, W . , poet
xliii Notker, historian
xxv
Munich founded
79 Notker, the Stammerer xxv
capital of Bavaria . . 98 Noutnena
256
Munster, the " German
Novalis
xliii. 301
Strabo"
xxxi. 205 Novi, Battle of
269

PAGE

Niirnberg, Battle of
meaning of
noted for toys
Peace of
St. Laurence
O A K - T R E E S , T h e place of

148
171
170
181
171
151

Oath of Otto I .
41
Objective, Meaning of . . 254
Octavia
241
Odin
9
Olbers
xliii. 260
Olearius of Anhalt . . . . xxxiii
Olmutz, Battle of
294
On to France 1
305
Opera introduced
^ xxxi
Opitz
xxxiii. 242
Ordeals
105
Ossian imitated
xxxiv
Ostrach, Battle of . . . . . . 264
Otfried's Evangel..
xxiv. 29
Otto 1
37
beard of
41
chief events of
37
children of
37
coronation of
38
death of
41
deposes pope
37
empire of
37
father of
37
kaiser
40
king of I t a l y
37
mother of
37
no scholar
42
oath of
41
personal a p p e a r a n c e . 41
the Lion
37
wars of
38
wives of
37
Otto I I
42
children of
42
emperor elect
42
father of
42
marriage of
41
mother of
42
poisoned
43
the Bloody
43
wife of
42
Otto I I I
43
emperor elect
43
pilgrimage of
43
poisoned
44
Saracens defeated b y 43
taught b y Gerbert . . 44
Wonder of the World 43
Otto IV
70, 84
abdicates
84
Otto, Bishop
xxvii. 74
Otto of Brandenburg
125
Freysingen
74
Wittelsbach
84
Otto the Bloody
43
Otto the Infant
70
Otto the Great
41
Otto the Illustrious . . . . 30
refuses the crown . . 30
Otto the Saxon
58
disfiefed
58

INDEX.
PAGE

325
PAGE

156
Otto the swordbearer
76 Pennyless, T h e
63
and the legate
76 People carry arms
recognised
48
O t t o von Guericke
210
state of, twelfth cenOttokar of Bohemia
no
tury
68
death of
in
21
homage done by
n o Pepin le Bref
donation of
22
Oudenard, Battle of. 207, 216
Patrician of R o m e . . 22
Oivlglass, Thyl
168
Oxenstiern
203 Perpetual peace, T h e . . . . 160
Person of the G o d h e a d . . 114
PACIFIC, The
146 Persona, Gobelinus xxix. 144
xliii. 259
Pages, Duties of
100 Pestalozzi
xxxiv
Palatine (counts)
46^ Petau
54
Pallas, naturalist
xliii. 259 Peter of H u n g a r y
302
Palm, T h e order of..
xxxi Peter Schlemihl
Peter Squenz . .
. . . . 243
Palsgraf of the Rhine—
66
elector
125 Peter the Hermit
compared with St.
struck off the college 126
Bernard
72
restored
126
eloquence of
66
regent
126
157
Pandects discovered
65 Peter's (St.) founded
125, 127
Pantheism
244 Petrarch
90
Paper Mills set u p . . . . xxviii Petrus a Vineis
Peurbach, George ..xxix. 155
Pappenheim
201
n
Paracelsus . . . .xxxi. 190, 191 Pharsalia, Battle of
real name of
191 Phenomena, what . . . . . . 256
xxxiii. 242
Pardons, Sale of
177 Philander
84
Parricide, T h e
64 Philipp of Suabia
Paris, Peace of
281 Philipp, son of Maximilian
159
entered by allies
284
the grandfather of
siege of
300
Charles V
159
surrenders
284
the Handsome
159
Parzival
93
84
Pascal I I I
74 Philippe I I
Auguste
80
Passau diocese
established
18 Philosopher's stone unde^ sirable
163
treaty of
184
Patrician of Rome
22 Philosophy of identity . . 257
245
Charlemagne
22 Phlogiston, what
259
Henry I I I
54 Phrenology
259
Paulus, theologian
xliii Physiognomy
258
Paulus Diaconus
xxiv Physiology, father of
241
P a via, Battle of . . .
180 Picaresco romance
Piccini
260
Peace of A i x - l a - C h a 146
pelle
229 Piccolomini, E . S
201
Amiens
271 Piccolomini, General
90
Berlin
227 Pierre des Vignes
Cambray
180 Pious kings . ; • . . ;
51
Carlovitz
213 Pirkheimer, historian., xxxi
Crespy
183 Place of Oaks, T h e . . . . 151
Dresden
228 Platner, philosopher xliii. 259
104
Frankfort
300 Plato's ' ' i d e a "
xliii. 261
God
51 Pleyel, musician
2o6»
Hubertsburg
238 Pliny
206
Luneville
271 '' Pliny of Germany "
excommuniNimeguen
214 Podiebrad
cated
147
Niirnberg
181
made king
147
Paris
281
rescues Albert I I . . . 147
Prague
297
Presburg
273 Poggius, on Jerome
139
125
Radstadt
217 Poitiers, battle of
45
Ryswyk
214 Poland christianised
free state
46
Utrecht
217
kingdom, a
45
Westphalia
204
partition of
239
Peasants, dress of sixteenth century
*. 172 Polish succession, W a r of 217
Peculium, A
27 Political state of Germany 47
twelfth century
6&
Peninsula war
277

PAGE

Politian
117
Polyglots, polyhistors ..xxxiii
Poor Henry
92
Pope—
election of, by kaiser 37
first French
44
free
54
kaiser's consent required
55
Pope J o a n
113
Pope's kaiser
124, 125
power curtailed
145
temporalities, whence 22
Portugal, Golden age of xxix
Portuguese navy founded 157
Posen, a see
39
Potsdam
150
battle of
274
battle of
274
built
230
Poussin
xxxiv
Pragmatic sanction
119
of Charles V I I . . . 2 i 7 «
KarlVI.
217
St. Louis
2i7«
Prague, Battles of . . 195, 234
peace of
297
university founded . . 126
Precocious boys . . . . 218, 219
Pre - established
Harmony
244
Prelates of G e r m a n y . . . . 997*
Premonstretensians, T h e ,
founded
64
Presburg, P e a c e of
273
Preussen, see Prussia
Priestly power, Rise of . . 48
Prince of Wales' feathers 125
Princes of Germany . . . . 99;*
Printed book, T h e first.. 123
Printing invented . . 144, 154
value of
154
Procop
143
the H o l y
143
Protestants, origin of
180
Prussia
218
amber trade of
46
ceded to Poland
151
converted
151
dynastic table
xix
first missionary to . . 150
golden period of
293
kings of
xix. xxi
natives of
150
protestant
143
severed from Austria. 291
sketch of
149
uncivilised
46
under
Teutonic
knights
90
Psalmorum
Codex
154
Psalter of Mainz
123
Pueri regis
27
Puflfendorf
xxxiii. 210
Putrid plain
4
Putter of W e s t p h a l i a . . . . xliii
Pyrenees, T r e a t y of the . 216
Pytheas . , ,
150

326
QUADRILATERAL, The.

INDEX.
PAGE
293^

uatre Bras, Battle of . . 285
ueens, table of
xxii
Quentin D u r w a r d
164
RABAN MAUR

xxv

PAGE

Rittershuys, Conrad . . xxxiii
Rittershuys, Nicholas . xxxiii
Rivoli, Battle of
268
Robert of Auxerre . . . . xxviii
Robert of France
45
Robert of Naples
117
banned
117
Rochefoucauld
xxxiv
Rolewinck, W
xxxi. 156
Rollenhagen
xxxiii. 169
R o m a n empire, kaiser . . 41
ended
273
Romans, Emperor of t h e 22
K i n g of the
22, 55
Romantic School
301
Rome, K i n g of.
278
Roncaglia, Diet of
74
Rontgen, chemist ..xliii. 260
Rosbach, Battle of
234
Rosenbliit, H a n s
148, 166
Rosenmuller, a n a t o m i s t . . xliv
Rosenmuller, theologian xliv
Rothiere, Battle of
281
Rotrude.......
18
Rotteck, historian
xliv
Rowland, Cardinal
76
Riickert, poet
xliv
Ruckert, theologian . . . . xliv
Rudolf I . of H a b s b u r g . . 107
and the baker's wife . 113
anecdotes of
109
biographers of
107
character of
108
children of
107
church honoured b y . 109
coronation of
109
death of
112
described
108
father of
107
kingly capacity of . . 112
Markfeld won by . . 111
Ottokar humbled b y . n o
Ottokar's retainer . . 108
raid on robbers
112
sceptre of
109
wives of
107
Rudolf made king
60
slain
61
Rudolf I I
192, 193
Rudolf of Lange . . x x x i . 170
Rudolf of M u n s t e r . . . . xxviii
Rudolf of Saxony
51
Rudolf, son of Rudolf . . 107
Ruodlieb
xxv. 47
Rupert
133
Klemm
133
Rupert, St
17
Ryswick, Peace of
214

Rabener, satirist
xxxvii
Rachel, satirist
xxxiii
Racine
xxxiv
Radevic
xxviii. 74
R a d s t a d t , Peace of
217
Rainier, poet
xxxvii
Ramillies, Battle of . 207, 216
R a n k e , h i s t o r i a n . . . . xliii. 303
Raphael
157
of Music
261
Raspon, H e n r y
85
R a s t a d t , Congress of
269
Rational School
306
Ratisbon
98
diocese of
18
Raudii, Campi, where . . s «
Raumer, historian ..xliii. 303
Realists
104
creed of the
104
R e d Beard (see Barbarossa).
R e d King, T h e
42
R e d Land, T h e
102
Reformation, Luther's . . 175
Regalia, where kept
126
Regents fixed
126
Regina . . .
18
Reginon, historian
xxv
Regiomontanus ^
i55«
Reimar, n a t u r a l i s t . . . . xxxvii
Reinbeck, philosopher xxxvii
Reineccius of Saxony xxxvii
Reinick, poet
xliii
Reiske, J . J . . . .
xxxvii
Religion of ancient Germany
8
Religious Peace
185
Religious W a r , First . . . . 183
Renaut I I I .
74
Restitution Edict
199
Restorer of letters
155
R e t r e a t of Moreau
267
Xenophon
268«
Revenue, Sources of
49
Revolution, Use of the . . 231
Reynard the Fox
. . 169
Rheineke
xxxvii. 261
R h i n e palsgraf, elector . . 126
struck off
126
restored
126
Rhine- Watch, The
305
Richard lion-heart
80
captivity of
83
ransom of
83
Richard duke of Cornwall 106 S A A R B R U C K , B a t t l e of . .
coronation of
106 Sach, H a n s
xxxi.
kaiser
106
Children of Eve . . . .
prodigality of
106
death of Luther . . . .
Richter, J e a n P a u l . . x l i i i . 252
farces and facetiae . .
Rienzi
125, 127 Sachenspiegel
R i n g given to prelates . . 55 Saint, T h e
Rist, poet
xxxiii St. Dizier, Battle of
Ritter, geographer
xliii Saint H e n r y

298

166
166
167
167
102
45
281
45

PAGE

Saintly kings
5
Saladin
80
Salic, T h e
50
Sallet, Frederick von
xliv
Salzburg, an archbishopric 46
first bishop of
17
Sancho 1
84
Sandoval on Karl V
186
Sasbach, Battle of
214
Satire, Father of . . . . xxxviii
Savoy ceded to France 267, 293
Saxe-Lauenburg
98
S a x e - W i t t e n b e r g . . . . . . . . 98
Saxo Grammaticus xxviii. 84
Saxon dynasty
31
end of the
. . 46
mirror
xxvii. 102
revolt
58
Saxons converted
21
Saxony added to Prussia 98
confiscated
151
duke of, elector io8«, 126
regent
126
margraviate of
33
Scandinavia
25^
Scarron . .
56«
Scaurus killed . . . .
2
Schelling
xliv. 255, 257
Schenkendorf, poet . . . . xliv
Schildberger, historian.. xxix
Schiller, J . G
xxxvii
Schiller, poet
xliv. 251
Schilter of Saxony
xxxvii
Schism of the West . . . . 135
Schlegel, A. W . . x l i v . 252, 301
Schlegel, J . E
xxxviii
Schleiermacher . . . . x l i v . 306
Schleswig-Holstein question
290
renewed
. . 296
Schlosser, historian..xliv. 303
Schmeitzel, satirist . . xxxviii
Schmidt, historian . . xxxviii
Schmiedel, b o t a n i s t . . xxxviii
Schmuck, father of Galvanism
xxxviii
Schneckenburger
xliv. 305
Schneider, n a t u r a l i s t . .xxxviii
Schola Palatina
23
Scholastic philosophy .. 113
Schonhuth
xxviii. 107
School divinity
104
Schoppen
102
Schozer, historian
xliv
Schubert
xliv. 307^
Schultens, A l b e r t . . . . xxxviii
Schultens, H . A
xxxviii
Schultze of Prussia . . xxxviii
Schumann
xliv. 307
Schupp, satirist
xxxiii
Schwabenspiegel
io2«
Schwarz, Berthold
123
Schwegler
306
Scioppius, Gaspar . . . . xxxiii
Seal of Germany
126
Seals first used
82
Seasons, only three . . . . 24
Seckendorf, historian., xxxiii

INDEX.
PAGE
Secret tribunal
102
Sedan, Battle of
299
Sefeloge, regicide
289
Segner, mathematician xxxviii
Semeca, J o h n
xxviii
Semitic stock
6
Sempach, Battle of
131
Senators' dress
172
Seneca imitated
xxxi
Senefelder
xliv. 260
Sennert, Daniel . . . . . . xxxiii
Serfs
27
liberation of
101
Sergius I I I
49
Service required of vassals
27
Servus servi
27
Servus servorum
27
Seume, poet
xliv
Seven-months' w a r
297
Seven United Provinces . 149
Seven-weeks' war
295
Seven-years' w a r
232
commanders therein . 232
SeVigne, M a d
xxxiv
Sforza
158
Shadow of t h e ass
2967*
Shakespeare
xxx. 194
translated
252, 301
Shakesperian Germany xxxiv
Shepherds of Pegnitz . . xxxi
Ship of Fools
167
Shoes, twelfth century . . 68
Shops common
171
law respecting
48
Siege of—
Basel raised
109
Dijon
299
Laon
300
Metz
299
Orleans
300
Paris
300
Rheims
299
Rouen
300
Soissons
300
Strasbourg
299
Vienna
232
Weinsberg
72
Siegfried, margraf of
33^
Siffrid, chronicler
xxix
Sigebert, historian
xxvii
Sigismund of P o l a n d . . . . 240
See Sigmund.
Sigmund
134
betrays Huss
136
biographers of
134
children of
134
death of
144
described
134
father of
134
last non-Habsburger. 144
Light of the W o r l d . . 135
mother of
134
wives of
134
Sigmund of Brandenburg
125, 153
Silanus defeated
2
Silesian campaign
274

PAGE
Silesian poets
242
Silesian W a r , First
225
Second
227
Third
232
Silver code
29
Simplicius
Simplicissimus
241
Simrock, poet
xliv
Sir, a title
100
" Sit firm, O L o r d "
109
Six daughters wed six
crowns
107
Slavonic swarm
6
Slavs
27
christianised
39
39
m tributaries
Sleidan
xxxi. 190
Sleswig fortified
33
margraviate of
33
abolished
33
Smalkaldic League
181
banned
183
Smalkaldic war
183
Snow king
199
Sobieski
211
victory of
212
Social state
47
twelfth century . . . . 68
sixteenth c e n t u r y . . . . 170
Soldiery
36
Solfeggio
53
Solferino, Battle o f . . . . . . 293
Solon of French prose . . xxxiv
Solth
xxvii. 56
Solyman I I
181
besieges Vienna . . . . 181
retreats
181
Solyman the Magnificent 187
Sommershausen,
Battle
of--- ;
195
Sophonisba
243
Sorrows of Werther
250
Sortes
. . 23
Spanheim
xxxviii. 211
Spanish succession, W a r
of
...215
Speaking head
44, 113
Spener
xxxviii. 246
Spengler, martyred
179
Spenser
xxxi
Speyer, Diet of
180
Spindler, novelist
xliv
Spinoza
xxxiv. 244
Spire, see Speyer
Spires, Cathedral
97
Spohr, musician
xliv. 261
Spohr, philologist
xliv
Spurs, Battle of the
161
Spurzheim
xliv. 259
Squires
100
called Sir
100
duties of
100
had no belt
100
had silver spurs
100
wore swords
100
Stadweg, historian
. .xxix
Stahl
xxxviii. 245
Stanislaus
217

327
PAGE

State robes
68
StefFens, novelist
xliv
Stephania
44
Stirling on Karl V
186
Storm a n d strain p e r i o d . . 248
Stoss, wood-carver
171
Strabo
2o6«
Strabo of Germany
205
Strada on Karl V
186
Strasbourg cathedral . . 46, 97
seized
214
t
restored t o G e r m a n y . 299
Strauss, philosopher xliv. 306
Strieker, poet
xxviii
Struve, historian
xxxviii
Sturm
xxxviii. 252
Sturm, J . C
xxxviii. 210
Sturm u n d D r a n g . . . . 248ft
Suabia, i.e. Suevia
99
duke of
99
given to a Hohenstaufen
99
house of
70
made a circle
99
minne-singers of . . . . 99
Suabian confederation . . 131
league
99
mirror
xxvii. 1027*
Subjective, Meaning of.. 254
Sulzer of Berlin
xxxviii
Suwarrow
269
Sverken I I .
84
Swan, Order of the
xxxi
Swedes' stone, T h e
.-. 201
Sylvester I I
44
Sylvester I I I .
54
Sylvius, iEneas . . xxix. 137
on H u s s
137
TABORITES

141

platform of the
142
Taciturn, T h e
156
Tagliamento, Battle of . . 264
Tamerlane
125, 127
Tancred
82
Tanger-miinde schloss . . 126
Tankmar
31
treason of
38
Taubmann, Frederick., xxxiii
Taylor, J o h n
158
description of Maximilian
158
T a w d r y & Tinsel period xxxi
Tekeli
211
Tekeli, Emeric
211
Tell, William
116
members of
u6«
T e n t of Al Kamel
87
Tetzell sells pardons
176
Teut=Dutch
7
Teutoberger Wald
13
battle of
13, i 4 «
Teutonic knights
82
build cities in Prussia 151
christianise P r u s s i a . . 151
Lutherans
152
take Prussia
91
Teutonic swarm.
6

328
PAGE
Teutons, who
7
migrate southwards .
1
overthrown
4
Theatres
xxix
Theodora
49
Theology
306
broad church
306
evangelical
306
historical
306
mythical
306
national
306
Tubingen
306
Theophania
37, 42, 43
Theophylactus
49
T h e o r y of the Beautiful . 257
Thierry de N i e m . . x x i x . 144
Thiersch
xliv
T h i r d estate created
48
Thirty-nine articles
i8o«
Thirty-years' war . . 196-205
Thomasius
xxxviii. 246
Thor
9
T h o r n founded
151
treaty.of
151
" T h u c y d i d e s , G e r m a n " . xliii
Thiimmel, novelist
xlv
Thunder-clap battle . . . . 272
Thuringia
112
Tiara
54»
added
136**
Tiberius I I
11
treachery of
11
Tieck
xlv. 302
Tilly
199
Tilsit, T r e a t y of
276
T i m u r the T a r t a r
125
Tinsel, the age of
xxxi
Titurel
94
Tolmar martyred
179
Tolosa=Toulouse
2
gold of
2, 268
Torgau, Battle of
238
Torstensohn . • ; • • .#
203
honours paid him
203
Tournaments instituted.. 34
revived
120
Towns
48, 100
chartered
101
church
48
ducal
48
free
48
German
99^
imperial
48
pertain to feudal lord 101
Toy-making
170
T r a d e confined to J e w s . . 35
disreputable
36
encouraged
35
unions
101
Transmutation of metals
undesirable^
163
Transubstantiation
114
Transylvania
220
manners, & c , of . . . . 220
T r a u n , Battle of
264
T r e a t y of—
Campo Formio
268
Constance
74

INDEX.
PAGE
T r e a t y of Passau
184
Pyrenees
216
Thorn
151
Tilsit
276
Verdun
25
Vienna
278
Trecentisti period . . . . . . xxix
Treizsurwein
xxxi. 156
Trent, Diet of
181
Treves, Archbishop of . . 45»
elector
108, 125
christianised
16
Tristan and Yseult . . . . 94
Tritheim, J o h n . . . .xxxi. 170
Trojan War ( G e r m a n ) . . 91
Truce of God
52
Tschech, regicide
289
Tschirnhausen
xxxviii
Tschudi, historian
xxxi
Tubingen School
306
T u e , T h e war-god
9
Tugend bund
281
Turanian stock
6
Turenne
214
Turin, Battle of
. . . . 216
T u r k s overthrown
147
b y Sobieski
212
Tutilo of St. Gall
xxv
T w o simultaneous kaisers , . . . .
118
Tycho outwits Adalbert . 63
Tycho Brahe
xxxiv. 193
Types, metal
154
movable
154
wooden
154
Tyrol, T h e
221
dress in
221
UHLAND

304

Uhland, poet
xlv. 282
Ulfilas
17
silver code of
29
Ulm, Battle of
272
cathedral spire
97
Ulrich, Anton
241
Ulrich Boner
123
Undine
302
University, the first xxviii
of Heidelberg
155
Konigsberg
152
Vienna
126
U r a n u s discovered
259
Urban I I
66
promotes crusade . . 67
Urban IV
.
57
excommunicated . . . . 57
Usteri, poet
xxxviii
U t , re, me, &c. ^
53
Utrecht, First bishop of . 17
Peace of
217
Uz, poet
xxxviii
V A L M Y , B a t t l e of

Van der Velde
Van Helmont
Varesa, where
Varillas on Luther

PAGE

Varus and Hermann
12
death of
13
defeat of
13
governor of Germany 12
governor of Syria . . 12
Vasco da Gama . . . .xxix. 157
Vassals
8, 27
investiture of
121
service required of . . 27
Vehmgericht
102
judgments of t h e . . . . 103
mode of trial by
103
oath of
fidelity
103
oath of secrecy
103
Veleda
9
Venetia given to Italy . . 297
Veni, Creator
xxv
Vercelli, where
5»
Verdun, T r e a t y of
25
Vere, Sir Horace
197
Verona, Battle of
269
Versailles of Germany . . 150
Victor I I I
77
Vienna
219
cathedral spire
97
Congress of
285
French enter
277
manners, &c
219
siege of
212
treaty of
278
university of
126
Villa Viciosa, Battle of . . 216
Villeins
27
in gross
27
regardant
27
Vionville, Battle of
294
Virgil, T h e prelate
17
Visions, Marvellous,
&c. 242
Vives
114
Vogel, musician.. xxxviii. 261
Vogel, Dr. explorer, .xlv. 260
Vogler, m u s i c i a n . . . . xlv. 261
Voiture
xxxiv
Volsungasage
xxiv
Voltaire in Prussia
230
Life
of
Frederick
II.
230
Voss, poet
xlv. 251
Vou-ti
16

W A C H T E R , philologist xxxviii
Wagner, musician . . xlv. 307
Wagram, Battle of
urn
(1809)
278
;
Waitz, anthropologist
xlv
Walch, historian . . . . xxxviii
Walch, naturalist
xxxviii
Waldau, novelist
xlv
WaldemarH
84
Waldis
xxxi. 243
Wallenstein
198
admiral of the e a s t . . 199
265
murdered
202
xlv Walter Lollard
xxviii
254** Walter the Pennyless
67
5« Walter von Vogelweide . . 91
182 Walther of A quitaine . . xxi v

INDEX.
PAGE

PAGE

W a r , Austro-Prussian . . 295
Franco-Austrian
292
Franco-Prussian
297
Hussite
141
Peninsula
277
Polish Succession . . 217
Seven-months'
297
Seven-weeks'
295
Seven-years'
232
Silesian, First
225
Second
227
Third . . .
232
Spanish Succession.. 215
Religious
183
Thirty-years . . . . 196-205
Turkish
211
W i t h France
213
Warsaw, grand-duchy . . 277
Wartenberg, Battle of . . 280
Warnefried, Paul
xxiv
Watch ver the Rhine .. 305
Waterloo, Battle of
285
Weber
xlv. 261, 307
Weckherlin, lyric p o e t . , xxxiii
Wedel, General
236
Weinsberg, Siege of . . . . 72
paroles of
72
Weise, poet
xxxviii
Weisse, dramatist
xlv
Weissenburg, Battle o f . . 299
Welf made king
57
Wellesley's
Peninsula
Wars
277
Wellington
280
Wenceslaus
130
dreads Zisca
143
king of Rome
127
murders Nepomuk . . 133
murders his wife . . . . 130
Wenceslaus of Bohemia . 37
murdered
37
Werner, archbishop of
Mainz
108, 109

329

Werner, Count
51
death of
51
Wernher, poet
xxvii
Wernicke, poet
xxxviii
Werther
250
Wertingen, Battle of
264
Wessobrunn Prayer xxiv. 29
Western empire revived . 22
Westphalia, Kingdom of, 277
peace o f . . . .
204
Wetiknig, historian . . . . xxv
Wezel, novelist
xlv
What
is the
German
fatherland
?
304
Wieland, poet
xlv. 249
Willamov, poet
xxxix
Willeram of Bavaria . . . . xxv
William I . of P r u s s i a . . . . 293
father of
293
golden wedding of . . 301
mother of
293
son of
293
wife of
293
William archbishop of
Mainz
37
William of Holland . . 85, 90
death of—
90
named kaiser . . 89, 106
William of Scotland
84
William the Good
82
William Tell
116
mementos of
n6n
Willibrod
17
Wimple worn
68
Winckelmann . . . . x x x i x . 258
Windeck
xxix. 144
Winfrid
17
Winter garden
113
Winter king
197
Winter queen
198
Wippon
xxv. 50
Wissenberg, Battle o f . . . . 197
Witch trials abolished . . 222

PAGE
Witch trials in Austria . . 239
Witches' Hammer
222
Witches persecuted
221
bull against
222
executions of, abolished
222
last executions o f . . . . 222
Witikind, historian
xxv
Wittlesbach
98
Wittstock, Battle o f . 195, 203
Wives, imperial
xxit
Woden
9
Wolf, philosopher xxxix. 246
Wolfram von Eschenbach 93
Wolsey, Cardinal
158
Wonder of t h e W o r l d . . 43, 85
Worms, Concordat o f . . . . 64
diet of.
178
memorial of
179
Worth, Battle of
299
Wurtchen, Battle of
280
Wiirtzburg, Diet of
80
diocese of
18
Wycliffe
127
X E N O P H O N ' S retreat . . . . 268*
YOUNG Germany

304**

ZACHARI^E, poet
xxxix
Zeller, theologian
xlv. 306
Zesen, Philip von
xxxiv
Zimmermann . . . . x x x i x . 252
Zinkgref, poet
xxxiv
Zisca, Blind
142
leads the Bohemians. 141
skin used for drums . 142
one-eyed
143
Zollverein, T h e
289
Zopf, historian
xxxix
Zorndorf, Battle of
234
Zschokka
xlv
Zwingli
xxxi. 188

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