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THE STAGE

IN THE GREEK THEATRE
ACCORDING TO THE

EXTANT DRAMAS
BY

EDWARD CAPPS

NEW HAVEN, JUNE, 1891

BERLIN. 1893.

Verlag von S. CALVARY & Co.

Ectracted from the Transactions of the American Philological
Association, Vol. XXII, 1891.

STABLE

OF CONTENTS.
PAGE

.

Introduction .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
*
*
* 5-7
I. Evidence against an Elevated Stage .
.
.......
7
A. Inter-action between Actors and Chorus .
...
.
7-53
I. Passing from palace to orchestra
. .
.
.
. .
8
2. Passing from orchestra to palace
.
....
o
3. Chorus and actors depart together .
.....
12
. 20
.....
4. Chorus and actors enter together .
5. Chariot scenes ..........
27
6. Assembly scenes
.
.......
. 29
7. Search scenes .
...........
32
8. Altar scenes
.
.........
. 35
9. Chorus called to the palace, and minor instances-- a refutation
of A. Miiller's argument, based on the non-performance of
certain proposed movements of the chorus, that the action
was prevented by the difficulty of mounting the "stage " . 37
1o. Encounters between actors and chorus .
.
.
. .
47
' Results of Preceding Arguments .
. * 50
Table of the Instances of Inter-action between Actors and Chorus 53
B. General Relation of Chorus to Actors
.
.
.
. 54
C. Numbers often brought upon the "Stage"
.
57
D. Character of the Scenic Setting in Certain Plays
. 59
E. Street Scenes in Aristophanes
. .
.
.
.
.
. 60
II. Consideration of the Evidence adduced in Favor of an Elevated Stage 64-77
I. Indications of a change of level when there is passing between
stage and orchestra; cbva- and Kara-favet
.
.
.
64
2. Expressions which are explained by the supposition of a difference
of level between " stage " and orchestra ......
69
3. Scenes whose presentation required an elevation; use of roof of
proscenium
.
.
.
.... .
.
. 71
Conclusion .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
. 78

IT has long been an accepted principle I in the study of
scenic antiquities that the evidence derived from the extant plays outweighs in value that from all our other
sources - the existing theatre ruins, Vitruvius, Pollux, and
the scholiasts. An equally important principle, however, has
not been distinctly recognized, viz., that the plays themselves
must be the ultimate test of all theories based cnr evidence
drawn from external sources. Even the results obtained from
the existing ruins must be made to conform to the requirements of the plays, 2 in view of the many elements of uncert ainty introduced by the alteration and decay of the ancient
structures. But if ruins are found whose condition warrants
definite conclusions, the testimony of the theatre and the
requirements of the drama should be in perfect harmony.
1 First definitely laid down by Gottfried Hermann in his recension of Otfried
Miuller's Eumenides. Albert Muller, Biihnenalterthiimer, p. 107, subscribes to
the same principle but fails to follow it consistently. See the same author in Phil.
Anzeiger, xv, p. 525; Wilamowitz-Mllendorff, Hermes, xxi, p. 603; and Haigh,
Attic Theatre, p. 144.
2 Drpfeld himself, who bases his new theories entirely on archaeological and
architectural grounds, recognizes the plays as our best source of information. See
his recension of Haigh's Attic Theatre, Berl. Phil. Woch. 1890, 468.

6

Edward Capps.

[1891r.

If this harmony exists, we shall be justified in rejecting any
contradicting testimony of Vitruvius, Pollux, or the scholiasts,
especially since these writers have often been found in error. 1
The traditional belief that the Greek theatre had a stage
of from ten to twelve feet in height 2 reserved almost exclusively for actors, as the orchestra was for the chorus,3 and
connected with the orchestra by a flight of steps,4 students
of the drama have long felt to be unsatisfactory for an easy
and natural interpretation of the extant plays. Three important attempts have been made to relieve the difficulty caused
by so great an elevation. That of Gottfried Hermann, yho
held that a platform for the chorus was erected in the orcliestra to within a few feet of the stage level, has been most widely
received, but has been shown to rest on no sound evidence
either literary or archaeological. 5 Julius Hopken in 1884,'following the suggestion of the plays, and finding support inthe
ancient authorities, announced the novel theory that both
actors and chorus moved on the same level in the orchestra,
in which was built a temporary platform on the level of the
proscenium, while the proscenium, miscalled the stage, was
used for the support of the stage machinery. 6 Most recently
Dr. Wilhelm Dorpfeld, the eminent architect and archaeologist, after study of the best preserved ruins, has reached the
1 Scholars have often been too ready to attribute error to Vitruvius. He claims
(De Arch. v, 6, 7) to treat only of types of theatres. This is shown to be true by
Oehmichen, Griechischer Theaterbau, p. 91 ff.; cf. A. Miiller, Biihnenalt., p. 21.
Vitruvius, moreover, nowhere says that he is speaking of the Greek theatre od
classical times. Kirchhoff, Vergleichung der Ueberreste vom Theater zu Athen,
p. 7, has vindicated his accuracy in details. For a general estimate of his work,
see Geppert, Die altgr. Biihne, p. 85 ff. Pollux is full of errors; see Hermann,
Op. vi, 2, p. 133. On the scholiasts, see A. Muiiller, Phil. Anz. xv, p. 525.
2 Vitruv. 5, 7, 2.
8Pollux, Onom. 4, 123.
4 Poll. 4, 137 and scholiasts.
5 Opusc. vi, 2, p. 153, defended by A. Miiller, Biihnenalt., p. 129, and by Wieseler, Ueber die Thymele, who endeavors to prove that this platform was kown
as the "thymele."
For opposing arguments, see Kawerau in Baumeister's Denkmiller, s.v. Theatergebliude; Haigh, Attic Theat., p. 154; Drpfeld's recension
of the same, Berl. Phil. Woch. 1890, 467; and especially Harzmann, Questiones
Scaenicae, pp. 15-27.
6 De theatro Attico, Bonn, 1884, reviewed and severely criticised by A.
Muiiller, Phil. Anz. xv, p. 525 ff., and opposed by Niejahr, De Pollucis loco qui
ad rem scaenicam spectat. This theory met with much opposition, largely be-

The

Vol. xxii.]

Greek Stage.

conclusion that the theatre had no raised stage in classical
times, but that the building usually supposed to be a stage,
the proscenium, in reality represented the house before
which the action of the piece was supposed to take place.
"Dorpfeld makes almost the same disposition of the actors
as Hopken but offers a different explanation of the purpose
of the proscenium. In accordance with the two principles
of scenic investigation above laid down, it is my purpose to
test this last theory of the stage in the light of the extant
Greek dramas in order to ascertain first, what testimony
these dramas furnish against an elevated stage, and second,
how far they contain evidence in favor of it.
I.

EVIDENCE AGAINST AN ELEVATED STAGE.

The arguments to be presented in the first part of this
paper will be drawn from five distinct features that have
been observed in the extant plays: A, the inter-action or
commingling of actors and chorus; B, the general relation of
the chorus to the drama and to the actors; C, the numbers
brought upon the stage; D, the character of the scenic setting in certain plays; and E, certain street scenes in Aristophanes.
A.

Inter-action between Actors and Chorus.

Obviously the most serious objection to the Vitruvian stage
is that it renders intimate connection between actors and
chorus extremely awkward and difficult. That there was such
connection all scholars now agree, but it has been restricted
as much as possible 1 on account of the difficulty which it was
felt would be involved in the ascending to or descending from
the stage. Assuming that the usual position of the chorus
was in the orchestra, and that the commingling of actors and
cause it overthrew the traditional belief, and on account of the method employed
in gaining support from the ancient authorities. It was first recognized as probably an attempt in the right direction in the Am. Jour. Phil. v, 253.
1 A notable exception is that of Harzmann, Quaes. Scaen., who gives a very
large number of instances of inter-action, but still contends for an elevated stage.

Edward Cafpps.

[1891.

chorus made it necessary for one or the other to pass over
the dividing line between the so-called " stage " (which term
I shall frequently employ to designate the usual position of
the actors without reference to altitude) and the orchestra,
let us see what a natural interpretation of the plays demands.
I. From Palace to Orchestra.
In several plays the
the orchestra by passing
chorus make their entrance into
over the usual station of actors, generally coming from the
palace in the background,' as in Choephori 22 :2
3

LaTr 9 Ec

owv ~'3av.

The chorus in the Eumenides rush out of the temple in pursuit of Orestes.
They are probably still near the temple
when Apollo drives them away, 178 ff. :
So,

KEXEVO,

rTv

8E

8o)l drOV

rdxos

Similarly in the Troades the chorus come out from the tent of
Hecabe, I76 (cf. 154 ff.):
oiot,

7po/epa

O-KcarV

XLrov.

We may suppose that they were in the orchestra for the
first choral ode, 197 ff. In the Suppliants of Euripides the
choreutae are first seen surrounding Aethra; see 8 ff. (cf.
also 94):
ELS Taoe

yap IXEf O'-'

E7rrrVdlarv Tase

rypas, al' Xlroi3 cat GCLar' 'Apyeias9 XOOsa

wrpooriTrvov- ..
aXXgr
'
cT.
wdrcOo rraOooat
KIptL

8Edv"

y 6 vV

The whole situation is described even more clearly in 100 ff.
The first choral ode (42-86), therefore, must have been sung
1 Werckmeister, Orchestra u. Biihne in der gr. Tragddie, p. 1 , contends, but
with insufficient evidence, that this is the case in all the tragedies of Aeschylus.
2 References are to Dindorf's Aeschylus, Bergk's Sophocles, Nauck's Euripides,and Meineke's Aristophanes.

The Greek Stage.

Vol. xxtii.]

9

on the "stage." The chorus are still in the same position
in 359:
axex'
o''
bcpcTe o-rby

ryepaaa,

It is not until the choral passage beginning with 365 that
we can suppose that they took their place in the orchestra.
The women who form the chorus in the Ecclesiazusae
appear at first as actors, some of them at least 1 coming from
the doors in the rear. The house of their leader, Praxagora,
is,the principal one in the scene. The connection between
actors and chorus is very intimate up to 3II,-a feature

which we shall discuss later. In the Lysistrata, although we
have no positive evidence that the chorus of women come
out from the citadel in 319, yet the demands of the situation
make it probable that they do so. 2 They come out as defenders of the citadel against the chorus of men. There is
more doubt about the parodos of the chorus of Mystae in the
Frogs. The words of the chorus (350 ff.) rather favor the
view that they come from Pluto's palace:
6v

rpoI3ca
~v Eay

8E

Xatrdc'

r'dveOpbw

e'yyov

'Xco &d7ecov

dlcap /p3av.
Schonborn (p. 356) gives excellent artistic reasons in support of the same interpretation of the passage. He seems to
be right also (p. 306) in making the chorus in the Thesmophoriazusae appear from the temple. From no other place
could they so fittingly come, and the short choral song 3 (312- 331) suggests a short parodos over the "stage " rather than
a long one through the orchestra. He is wrong, however,,
Xoporoto

1All of them, according to Schanborn, Skene der Hellenen, p. 329.
2 So also Droysen, Quaest. de Arist. re scaen., p. 65 ; Schdnborn, p. 299, following the scholiast, makes them enter the stage from the right. But v. 352,,
0vpa~cv pfbrlOe, favors the view presented above.
For this use of O6pacr,
cf.
Eur. Elec. 1074, O paoty paiveY rpbo-worov.
8This short choral ode is characteristic of a parodos from the palace. Cf.
Choeph, 22-83; Eum. 140-177; Troad. 153 ff.; Lys. 319-351. Contrast Sept.
77-180; Pers. 1-158; Supp. (Aesch.) 1-175 ; Agam. 40-263; Bacch. 64-169,

etc.

IO

[189I.

Carps.

Edwa~d

in supposing that they remain on the "stage" during the
assembly scene, as we shall show later (p. 29).. The narrow
stage would scarcely have admitted of such a scene in any
case.1

2. From Orchestra to Palace. In three plays the exodos of the chorus is made from the orchestra to the house
which forms the background.
In the Choephori, 2 since
they come from the palace in the beginning of the piece, so
they must go back into it at the close, although indications
as to their movements are entirely wanting. The chorus in
the Persians 3 escort Xerxes into the royal palace. At the
command rpos

36povs

i't (1038) the chorus begin to move

slowly toward the palace. Finally comes the word to enter
(Io68), i 8dtov ~e, and as they disappear they say:
i
r iprco rol o-e

3

voOp6os

y 6 os.

For this conclusion we are prepared by the request of
Atossa, 529 ff.:
ca

raa'

cv 7rep oep'E/LOV

7rap lryope'TE, icat 7rporrtLrer'

7rpooUpdoev

6
X,

4
eS OdLovS.

In the Birds a messenger announces the coming of Pisthetaerus and his bride, and bids the chorus receive them into
their new home in Nephelococcygia, 5 1708:
BiEOE

o/otv
Tol 70pavvov L)

8oFLv0t.

1 Similar to the instances above cited is Lys. 1239, discussed more fully elsewhere, where the chorus come from the palace. Dicaeopolis in Ach. 280 goes
from his house into the orchestra, as is shown later (p. 73).
2 Schinborn, p. 225, denies, without reason, that the palace was represented
in the scenery, and thus avoids the crossing of the " stage " by the chorus. See
Hermann's arguments on this point in De re scaen. in Aesch. Orestea, p. 9. Albert Miller, p. 125, note 7, favors the above.
3 Wilamowitz-Mllendorff, Die Biihne des Aeschylus, Hermes, xxi, p. 607,
contends that no conventional scenery was used in Supp., Sept., Pers., and Prom.
of Aeschylus. His arguments are weaker for the Persians than for the other
plays. Sommerbrodt, Scaenica, p. 147, cites v. 159 in favor of the usual scenery.
These verses are much better read after 850 with Wecklein.
5 We follow Sch6nborn (p. 322) in supposing a change of scene (but not
necessarily a change of scenery) at 1565, as the words of Poseidon, rb

plv

7r6Xwj.a

T7

Ne

XOKOKKUylaS

6op
v

To70 7rCpEQ L,

seem to demand.

Muhl, Sym-

Vol. xxii.]

The Greek Stage.

II

They accordingly arrange their ranks and sing about the
pair the hymenaeum, 1720 ff.:
3

avaye

lXe E rrpaye 7adpeye
i
ro
t.
-byvTxa, KTE.",

acapa dicapa
ycapa /kaKapa

7-Ept7r1TE0-e0ec
rnepswe'recr~e

At its conclusion they are invited by Pisthetaerus to follow
in the bridal train, 1755 ff.:
e7re-Oe

v

yryaLowLLIV

bvXa 7v7rava c-vvvo'pwv
L
rTepofop' E7rt &a 're6ov os

With these last instances may be classed those in which
the chorus leave the orchestra and enter the palace during
the progress of the play. These are two in number, and of
course involve two passings each between "stage" and orchestra. The situation in the Helen is clearly seen from the
following passages, 327 ff.:
Xo.

eXo

&

icKayo ao

ica, o-v/wrve' Oa
*

*

*

a'vveto-eXOeZf

3

6pLOUv

'rapOevov deo-rlo-tpara.
*

*

*

'EX. bXat, Xoyov 4.8e icav"
&re iaTe 8' el 6 1ovc.

They return in 515:
Xo.

lcovo

7asr

a xpoo-'

eaort~p ov

copa9,

~4cavr 'v rvpavvote

oFots, ICTE.

So in the Lysistrata both the chorus of men and the chorus
of women 1 enter the citadel at the invitation of Lysistrata
(I182 ff.). That the women as well as the men go in is
shown by the character of the following ode sung by the
former (cf. II95 ff.:

rao-tv

bitv X yo

XaL/3Pdvwv vaWv dE/tv

bolae ad rem scaen. Ach. et Av., p. 35, opposes this view. If his view is correct
the exit would be made through one of the wings.
1
This is Sch6nborn's view (p. 301), strengthened by additional arguments.
Droysen (p. 61) holds that only the chorus of men entered, but he gives no grounds
for his belief.

12

Edward

[1891.

CaEpps.

Xpsirnl-0v vvv ev 8o 0 e v), by the fact that they do not appear
again as a separate chorus, and by the scene of the marketloungers (1216-1241), which is plainly thrown in by the poet
to fill the gap in the action of the piece caused by the disappearance of both actors and chorus. The two choruses
come out again at 1239, and with them the Laconian ambassadors, who now form a third chorus, joining after one choral
ode the women of the chorus who are Spartans, while the
Athenian men join the Athenian women, and all march
Lysistrata seems
together in two bodies from the scene.
to have become one of the chorus of women.
As bearing on this same point we may cite here the most
striking instance of communication between "stage " and
orchestra in the Greek drama, that in the Cyclops. The
decoration of the scene represents the cave of the Cyclops
(cf. 33, 82, 87, etc.). In it are kept his flocks (cf. 35 and
388), as in the Odyssey. The chorus of Satyrs come in accompanied by 7rpoo-rdhoL driving the flocks, and are directed
by Silenus to bid these servants drive them into the cave,
82 ff.:
GLy?0caT,
TKV, avrpa 8' elc rrrp'pe0
/
wol vas J polo-at 7poorohovs KceXe -aTe.
Their answer shows that the command was obeyed :1
XP

wap
aTa'

01

TWva, 7rarcTp, orrov6bv

cxe6;

We may believe that real goats were driven over the " stage,"
or else that some attempt was made to represent goats by
suitable costumes, as the choruses of birds and wasps were
represented in Aristophanes. It would hardly suffice that the
actions indicated should be carried out only in dumb show
with imaginary flocks.

3. Chorus and Actors depart together.

In a large num-

ber of plays, chorus and actors make their final exit for
the same destination, in addition to the three plays already
1 Bruno Arnold, De rebus scaenicis in Euripidis Cyclope, p. 19 ff., feeling the
absurdity of making sheep climb steps to a high platform, tries unsuccessfully to
prove that they and the chorus enter the " stage " by one of the wings.

Vol. xxii.]'

The Greek Stage.

13

cited where this destination is the palace.
In every instance it is the natural supposition that they depart together
and by the same place of exit, but many writers1 on this subject, in view of the supposed difficulty caused by the height
of the "stage," have supposed the chorus to leave the orchestra by one of the parodoi, and the actors to leave the "stage"
through one of the wings' the direction in which they depart
would be the same, and the spectators must imagine them
to meet after their disappearance fronr view. It is necessary, therefore, to bring together from the plays, both from
the text itself and from the general situation, all the instances
which furnish evidence that the actors and chorus were actually together in making their exit.
The closing scene of the Eumenides is a splendid procession in which all take part, - Athene, the Areopagites, the
servants of the temple, and the Eumenides. Athene leads
the way, 2 Ioo1003:

r'poT4pav 8' 6'XPZ'
UTELXLV.

The temple-servants follow with lighted torches, serving as
an escort to the procession proper. Cf. oo5:
7rp

pjc Lepvpv ov e

7rporo7ro v ;

and 1024:

bv

rrpocrwXot Lv, aTe

(povpoao-v, 13p rac

Tovtpov &icat¢.

Then come the Areopagites, and lastly the Erinyes themselves, Ioio ff.:

/l.eisr

8' yoGe, 7roXLtooVxot

e
7rait& KpavaoD, rato tLero cotLs.
1 Schainborn, pp. 129, 134 and 137, and A. Miller, Biihnenalt., p. 119. It
seems strange that the latter, while seeing the absurdity of supposing that
actors and chorus in such passages are seen by the spectators to depart in different directions for the same destination, should not have realized that it would
be almost as absurd for them to be on widely different levels, separated by an impassable barrier.
2 See Wecklein, Orestie, note on Eum. 1032.

14

[1891.

Capps.

Edwzeard

Any interpretation of this scene which would make the rear
of the procession depart on a different level and by a different route from that taken by Athene and the Areopagites
would ruin its grandeur and impressiveness.
Equally repugnant to our ideas of artistic propriety, as well
as in direct contradiction to the words of the text, is the supposition that in the Septem the semi-choruses do not follow
directly after Antigone and Ismene in the funeral trains of
Polynices and Eteocles respectively. Cf. Io68 ff.-:
H

gtX o A'.
op
aie

7e/cL
i'ev
'v ica

s

7tporo

ovvOaJOi/oev

7rot KTE.

It is inconceivable that the poet should represent the body
and chief mourners as moving off the "stage," while the
principal part of the funeral procession is marching ten feet
below, intending to join the body outside. If this division
of the chorus was to be at all effective, the second semichorus must have openly shared the danger of Antigone.
The semi-choruses must have gone over the "stage" or
the actors into the orchestra. The analogy of Ecc. I149,
Plut. 1208, and Vesp. 1516 (see p. i8) is decidedly in favor of
the latter course. The words of the text alone, apart from
aesthetic reasons, demand that all should go out together
(cf. wrporoLro( and' &ia rOSe).
The correctness of this view is proven conclusively by comparison of the scene in the Septem with a similar scene in
the Alcestis. 1 Admetus is addressing the chorus, 422 ff.:

JXX'

dEicophvl yap

ro08e O/ldoau

aKai/
CVOVTES, r
av"

,rctpeor

ratcavaC5 ICdTaTEV ao7rov

vecpoD,

oaTe

Oerdov8
.

The funeral accordingly takes place, and, as we expect from
the above words, the choreutae follow in the procession (cf.
740, O reXO)Lev, coL

a

v

Up^ Oo/ev
vp

vecpov).

Neither Ad-

1Cf. Harzmann's Quaes. Scaen. (Diss. Inaug., Halle, 1889), p. 39.

Vol. xxii.]

Te

Greek

15

Stge.

metus nor the chorus is seen again until they return from the
tomb, 86I ff.:
'A8. ic/, orvyva' 7rpoo0ot, o vyva't

Xpeov
X o.

6'

JreL9

p
/eXdOpov"

rrpdpa 7pdpa"
*

ice0o

aO

oic ov.

Admetus and the chorus both go out and return together.
the Suppliants of Aeschylus also closes with a procession,
consisting of Danaus with his body-guards and the chorus
with their attendants. The King bids the chorus go to the
city (954 ff.), but before complying they ask that their father
be sent to guide them (968 ff.). Accordingly when Danaus
arrives (980) with his body-guard (cf. 985 ff.), and after he
has given the necessary instructions, we must suppose that
they all begin to move off the scene. Danaus, as we should
expect, was at their head,1 for he was the first to disappear
from view, as is shown by the fact that he says nothing in
the last sixty verses of the play.
The chorus of men of Salamis in the Ajax follow the
body of their chief in the funeral procession with which the
play closes. This cannot be doubted when we remember that
the words 1413 ff.,
ahX,'
"
r
T

-i 7rapeivat,
p

,e"rags, O [XoS oo6TCS avryp
ooioo,

rwov
nv6pi "v t9)

f7w
7raVT

a

,coievi rwo Adov OvyTC7iv,

could refer to none so well as to the men of the chorus who
were devoted adherents of the fallen Ajax.
In the Philoctetes also we find the same conclusion. Philoctetes, Odysseus, Neoptolemus, and the chorus of sailors
all go out together. Cf 1469:
XaopwCev &'

7ravTe9g

oXXeiZc.

1 Sch6nborn, p. 286, also takes this interpretation here, because he thinks that
the c4orus was on the "stage" throughout the play. But see p. 36, of this
article.

[I891.

Edward Capps.

It does not satisfy either the word toXXels 1 or the demands of
the situation to interpret these words of the chorus as referring only to themselves. We have here a tragedy with a
happy ending, where former enemies become reconciled and
leave the scene together in token of their reconciliation, such a scene as Aristotle 2 comments upon as more suitable
to comedy than to tragedy.
The chorus of Satyrs in the Cyclops follow Odysseus to
his ship. There is no reason here to doubt that they join
the company of Odysseus in all respects as do his other
attendants. Cf. 708 ff.:
Ije s&
'vres ro

o-vvvavrai tE

XoLrov

7roVS'

BacXIt

'OeSvoo'E

ovkXEvo-opLeCV.

In the Suppliants of Euripides the chorus go with Adrastus from the scene. Cf. 1232:
o-rexwL

ev, "A'pacore,

KTc.

As will be shown later, Adrastus and the women of the
chorus, having the same mission, are together throughout a
large portion of the play. It is quite fitting therefore that
he, their leader, should conduct them home at the end, just
as Danaus leads the chorus in the Suppliants of Aeschylus.
The chorus in the Ion are servants of Creusa, and we may
reasonably believe that they attend their mistress as servants
at the close of the play when she sets out for her home in
Although there is no direct evidence that they
Athens.
make their exit together, we have learned from the instances already cited that a procession was a favorite concluqion for a drama, and here the situation demands it;
the very relation of the chorus to the actors requires this
manner of exit.
Although in the Troades the herald of Agamemnon orders
Hecabe to follow him (1269), and orders the women of the
chorus
1 Cf.

to wait for the call of the trumpet, yet Hecabe
oAXEds in Trach. 513, of rd r' &oXXets ''aEv is Ijaov, referring to the

fierce hand to hand battle of Acheloiis and Heracles.
2 Poetics, 1453 A, cited by Campbell.

The Greek Stage.

Vol. xxii. ]

17

remains until the close of the play, and the chorus leave
immediately after her. Cf. 1328 ff.:
Trpoep a

SE C,

V

6oVXEtov

X o.

e'Xea;, q4per' 'e-

po/ep

i.tvos.

''

E,

a ,epav

tw TaXatva 7i-dX t

'raXatvav

/3ov.
b',Lu9

rpoepe w&sa o-v ehw

s8

dra9 'Axatc v.
a

Here we see clearly the poet's fondness for the dramatic
conclusion which is under consideration. He detained Hecabe so long after the order to depart for this reason - in
order to give the play a more impressive close, by having
the former queen Hecabe lead the way for her companions
to the life of slavery and humiliation.
Frequently we have found this conclusion of a play in
tragedy, in comedy it is well nigh the prevailing one. In
eight of the eleven plays of Aristophanes the chorus go out
in procession 1 with the actors.
Sometimes the effect would
be decidedly ludicrous, as in the Acharnians and Wasps;
again it would be grand and impressive, as in the Frogs, which
reminds us somewhat of the closing scene in the Eumenides.
But whatever its object in individual plays, we can readily
see how extremely effective such a close would naturally be.
The case in the Acharnians 2 is clear from 1231 ff.:
L0~tK.

grrecOe vvv aso0Vres cJ T'veXXa KaXXvLKo9.

Xo.

aJxx'

Eo/~Leoea o41 v

xcpt ,cy
.

In the Frogs, Aeschylus is escorted with great pomp from
the lower world by the chorus of Mystae, accompanied by
Dionysus and Xanthias. Cf. 1524 ff. :
1 The same argument is advanced by Professor White in his article The Stage
in Aristophanes, H arvard Studies, 1891. The present paper was completed
before the appearance of that article, and its conclusions, though similar in several
important details, were reached independently. References are given to Professor White's article in every case, I think, of noteworthy agreement or disagreement. 2 Droysen, p. 8, agrees with this obviously correct view. Muhl, p. 20, following Schgnborn, opposes, but on very weak grounds.

18

Edward Capps.

Cov.

II X o0

avETre Tro'vvv btye7^v

XaJ7rwd8a iepads,

[1891.

TI()

xa/a r poret'r re

7070v
TO0tVTOVTOV ov

e

tLEXeo-Lv.

At the close of the Ecclesiazusse, Blepyrus goes into the
orchestra and heads the procession, in which the chorus
joins. Cf. 1149 ff.:
B

dE
y

.

E rrp

TO
b

eL7VVOV

(7f 'reiopat "
l

X, &' 8

Tot ical Saa Trav7vl vcaXlS.
XX' obic dayet
Ta &aTpi/3eL9 E'XOV,

Ti 8

X o.

L Edov Tt

E7ra-o
o/at

8) KaCTaavets, d yO

v b' r

raoP- Xa/3a v;

peXXo0etrv~dov.
W
0oV To 7rO

ICpY TLC)9

ica

0t

B X.

icivet.

TorTO

pc^>.

With these last words,' Blepyrus takes his position at the
head of the line and begins the dance with which the play
ends. This is very similar to the action at the end of the
Plutus and the Wasps. In the former the choreutae withdraw to one side, while the procession bound for the temple
of Athene marches from the house. At the fitting time
they attach themselves to the line, bringing up the rear with
Cf. 1208 ff.:

songs.
X 0.

L

oV

V
vV

Ed TOVTrto- ev

eicA ELK'o XXetvol 0V '
s

' het

ci p

caTrWL

pav,

XX

avaoopet
a

TroVTdrv c8ovTra

EreoOat.

In the Wasps the sons of Carcinus appear in response to
Philocleon's challenge of tragic poets to a contest in dancing.
The contest takes place. That it takes place in the orchestra
is shown by the fact that the choreutae draw back to make
room for the dancers, just as in the Plutus they make room
for those who are coming from the house. Cf. 1516 ff.:

4pe

vvv

'v'

/' o-vxtias ic&v

/e2Ct9 avrots

oAXyoi

vyX&p

r ravre,
empeLE

p7rrpOeev /3e/pic3tKf1WowtvavroVs.

At last, at the conclusion of the" contest, they all leave the
scene together, dancing. Cf. 1535 ff.:
1

But see White, 1.c. p. 169, who assigns them to the chorus.

The Greek Stage.

Vol. xxii.]
JXX'

ddrye' , el Tt

19

XOvev

SbtXLeT'

O,
;paTe

Sa&s Taxv.

We have already shown (p. 11) how the chorus of women
and the chorus of men in the Lysistrata leave the orchestra
and enter the house in the background, and how at the conclusion of the feast, after they have again made their appearance, they are joined by the Athenians and Laconians who
have heretofore been actors. Cf. 1272 ff.:
A v o-.

a'rryeOETe TravTaS'

8

o)
AdKovces, Tao6e8

rrapah yvvaicKa ca yvvu

vOpet

* avqp

0T'1

T trap'avpa,

KTE.

Then follow two choral passages by Athenians and Laconians
respectively, during which they all go out together.
The Peace, like the Birds, closes with a bridal procession.
We have seen that in the latter the procession goes into the
dwelling represented in the scene. Here, however, the dwelling is the starting point, the country is the destination, as we
rtv$ evpo Kco 'etv, and
a
see from I316,1 xp7 Tv vmyt v w
also from 1329, 8evp'

w

One semi-chorus es-

y;vat elsdvypv.

corts the bridegroom, the other the bride (Schonborn, p. 341).
Cf. 1339 ff. :
XX'apdaevoL AE'popey of rporera,,gevot

X o.

7T1V
*

vv/cfov

ovpe9.
*

*

o XalpeTe XaLpeT

Tp.

*

av-

pe9, cKav vv rno-8
w-hacora, e8eo-8e.

[eoet

To these passages from tragedy and comedy should be
added the entirely anomalous exodos of the Prometheus. The
Oceanides are with Prometheus, but are warned by Hermes
to leave him, lest they too receive harm when he is punished.
1 Verse 1312, &Ah'

rpb

roy 7reLv

vrESs

IAB3dhX'erE

rcivAay'wv is only the mo-

tiving of the advance of the chorus toward the " stage." They do not at once
attack the viands, for no time is given, and the last verse of the play, quoted
above, shows that they have not yet eaten. See, however, White, p. 165.

20

Edweard

[x891.

Cpps.

They refuse, declaring it their purpose to suffer with him.
1058

ff.:
E p.

ctXX'

at r qrLoao'vat9

oi3v I/ EZy'

o7vyicavovarU

aiT

OVE 7671'&

peTrd 7roL XWOpe7' dsIcTV e

X o.

ET T Tod' oTtL XP

1

08o9,ioc

.

'ra°Xe EtOEo.
V

And so, when the great convulsion of nature comes, they are
engulfed along with Prometheus.1
We have seen that a natural interpretation of the words
of the text, assuming that the arrangement of the theatre offered no obstacle to free and natural action, reveals
the fact that in twenty 2 plays actors and chorus make their
exit at the end of the piece together and through the same
passage-way. In each one of these plays, therefore, it was
necessary for either the actors or the chorus to pass over the
dividing line between "stage" and orchestra. In still other
plays 3 the student may find that purely artistic reasons demand the same conclusion, especially since we know that it
was decidedly a favorite conclusion with the classical as it is
with the modern dramatists. It gives an opportunity to the
poet to group together in one suggestive tableau those in
whom the interest of the spectators had been centred.
4. Chorus and Actors enter together. The converse of
the dramatic conclusion just mentioned, viz.: for the chorus
to make their appearance in company with actors, would
serve no such artistic purpose, and is by no means so frequent. We have shown that actors and chorus enter together
in the midst of the play in the Alcestis. In the Ecclesiazusae the women who form the chorus are in the early part
So Wil1 This is the only natural interpretation of the words of the text.
Wecklein, note ad loc., says that verses
mowitz-Maellendorf, 1.c., p. 61o.
1071-79 merely motive the exit of the chorus from the orchestra, to avoid the
use of the " machina" again, and that the chorus sink through the avarIlec a of
the orchestra, Prometheus through that of the " stage "!
2 In three (Choephori, Persians, and Birds) into the palace.
3 As for example in the Trachiniae, according to Schanborn, p. 134.

Vol. xxii.]

The Greek Stage.

2I

of the play actors, or at least not to be distinguished from the
actors. They come out from the house (see p. 9) and soon
are in the orchestra, practising for the ecclesia (see p. 29).
Later in the play (478 ff.) the same women, both actors and
chorus, who participated in the opening scene reappear, returning from the ecclesia. They would most naturally come
in by the same entrance, even Praxagora, though she entered
after the rest (500). In the Plutus Carion is sent out to
summon his master's friends. He returns with them, 253,
but they do not reach the house of Chremylus until 315,
although they hasten (cf. 255-8). They must have come in
together through the orchestra,1 just as do Pisthetaerus and
Euelpides in the Birds. During the whole scene Carion is
evidently hurrying on; the old men, grumbling at his haste,
trying to keep up with him, are all the while closely engaged
in conversation with him. 2 The words of Carion in 295 and
308 (&'reOre) may be quoted as further p:oof.

In 321 Carion

goes into the house.
We can hardly avoid the conclusion that the chorus enter
in a similar way in the Electra of Euripides. Electra has
been to the spring for water, and is now slowly returning,
chanting her lament. Orestes catches sight of her at i07;
her song continues until 166. If, as Schanborn believes, she
appeared from the right side door of the scene, the middle
door representing her home, she would have had scarcely
time to sing so long an ode. But when at its conclusion she
is accosted by the girls of the chorus, she is still, apparently,
at some distance from the house, for she does not see the
two men at the door for fifty verses (215). She seems therefore to be coming slowly from the parodos through the orchestra when the chorus enter from the opposite parodos, invite her to the festival, and express their sympathy. All the
1 There can be no doubt that they enter together, and the interval between
253 and 315 is too long for a parodos from the wings. See note on p. 9.
2 According to Niejahr, De Poll. loco, p. xI, though he tries to limit the

intermingling of actors and chorus, this feature of the passage would in itself
debide

for our explanation.

" Immo quam maximo jure de universis fabulis

mihi videor statuere eos qui inter se colloquantur actores, nisi singularibus de
causis disjungendi erant, eodem loco debere versari."

22

Edward!

[189I.

Capps.

while, as they converse they are slowly moving towards the
house, so absorbed that they do not see Orestes and Pylades
until they are near the door. Then Electra, being somewhat
in advance, runs toward the house, directing the chorus to
flee along the path by which they had come in together. Cf.
218 ff.:
cfvyp cTI/ /V
wras~

icalcovpovs

Ktt

eCL /OV
Oi/JV, e

S8'

aX1eCo/~ev 7ro&.

Before Electra can enter the house Orestes detains her, and
the chorus evidently do not quite leave the scene, for they
speak again after Electra's fears are allayed (297). The
poet's reason for these movements is clear. The chorus in
this play are unessential to the action. The motive for their
introduction is very slight, and their long and sympathetic
conversation with Electra is required to make it appear even
sufficient. They are no longer needed during the recognition scene, and the passage just mentioned is the poet's device for withdrawing them from the main action, bringing
the brother and sister into greater prominence.
In connection with these three plays it remains to consider
four others, in which the chorus is in a peculiar relation
towards the actors who first appear, which seems to require
that they should either appear together or should at least
come in by the same entrance, as if they had been together
shortly before.
In two of these four, the Suppliants of
Aeschylus and the Ion, the chorus are the first to speak; in
the other two, the Philoctetes and the Bacchantes, the actors.
In the Suppliants Danaus is the father and leader and protector of the chorus.
We have seen that he acts in this
capacity of leader at the close of the play, conducting his
daughters from the scene. What more fitting than that he
should be at their head when the play begins, when the
maidens enter, marching to the accompaniment of the anapaests, announcing their lineage and their trouble ? 1 Their
words (12 ff.),
1Niejahr, De Poll. loco, p. xI, realizing the incongruity of the situation as he
is forced to understand it in this passage, says: " Haec ipsa res, Danaum, etsi solus

Vol. xxii.

The Greek Stage.

Aavac 6 wa'aTp iat

23

oiXapXos

ica aorTaOapxo9, KTE.,

are to explain to the audience the presence of the old man
who is with them, - an explanation all the more necessary
since he himself does not speak until 176. That he does not
speak, is no objection to our view; neither does Clytemnestra
speak in the Agamemnon until 264, though addressed as present by the chorus in 83.1 There is no reason why Danaus
should speak before. When he does speak, his words bear
out our interpretation of the opening scene, for he apparently has heard them descanting on their troubles and therefore warns them to take counsel, 176 ff.:
ratiE,

7flo7(GO

fpoviv

rY'

X pr

*j

vb

povoiVTr

It is to be noted that he says

S'

i KeTre

ra7pi.

pOVL 7rT3(3e VaViX?7pt,

bv ..... j'KeTe. But even if they

do not all come upon the scene at the same time, we must
still believe that they come through the same entrance..
From his first words we see that he has gone in advance of
them to this station for the purpose of reconnoitering.
The beginning of the Ion reveals a similar situation. The
chorus enter the orchestra from one of the parodoi, for other-.
wise they could not have seen so clearly the figures in the
metopes (185 ff.). Creusa, their mistress, enters with them;
for, not to repeat the general arguments mentioned before,
she is spoken of as present when Ion asks whose servants
they are, 234:

Immediately after the answer of the chorus,
upa piXaOpa
IIaXX4Gos Evoica rp6oL
TWi) elQvW TvpavVcOv.
7r-ap o

a

t

T

a (3

Tas,

loco
dux et custos filiarum inducitur, tamen alio atque illas et prodire et per aliquantum temporis agere (a v. 176-210), omnino explicari non potest, nisi putabuntur Graeci consuesse actores semper alio loco atque chorum spectare."

1 Wecklein, Orestie, note on Agamin. 83, thinks that she is still in the palace,
quoting in support Aj. 134. But in the apostrophe to Ajax there is no such indication of the presence of the person addressed as there is in the Agamemnon;
cf. 85

XpOS; ri

e'ov;

KCTr.Electra in the Choephori is silent from

16 to

84.

24

Edward~a

[1891.

Capps.

Ion turns and looks in the direction indicated and at once
sees her. The question arises, why has she not either spoken
or been referred to before 237 if she has been present since
184? The explanation is found in the context. Ion refuses
the chorus admission into the temple unless they have performed the necessary rites, 226 ff.:
et

pv aO o-aTe

e

7reXavov

CaT 7w vOr'a-Oc XpT/eTe
ridptr' OvpLXa, KTE.

7rp

lOov
/

otov,

Creusa had come to consult Phoebus and must needs enter the
temple. She therefore has stopped at an altar -p; &64 cov to
make the sacrifice. This altar was probably at one side of
the scene not far from the parodos by which she entered, so
that she might easily have escaped the notice of Ion, absorbed
in his conversation with the maidens. Ion's address to her
(238-246) shows that Creusa is still at some distance at first,
but coming nearer she draws from him the exclamation of
rXc
pqe.
wonder a "a
dxx' 'f
In the Philoctetes there is reason to think that the chorus
come in with Neoptolemus and Odysseus at the beginning.
The office of the chorus in this play was to assist in taking
away Philoctetes and to fulfil this purpose it was as necessary
that they should be in attendance from the beginning as at any
time.
There is no intimation of their approach before they
speak in 135, nor any point between I and 135 where their
entrance would be quite fitting. It has been claimed that we
find no other instance 1 of a chorus being silent throughout
135 verses after their entrance; but this very fact, and the
unusual character of the scene, would have made their silence
the more effective. How much more impressive it would be,
1 Sch6nborn, p. 267. In discussing this point he admits the force of the
but because " tritt nie eine
arguments which require their entrance before
Person mit dem Chore zusammen so auf, dass sie selbst auf dem Logeion, der Chor
in der Orchestra erscheint," he puts their entrance at some uncertain point
between I and 135, nearer the latter.
But why was it necessary in any case for
one to appear in the orchestra and the other on the "stage," when all artistic
reasons are against such a division? Schneidewin-Nauck agrees that the chorus

135,

were present from the first.

Vol. xxii.]

The Greek Stage.

25

and to how much higher a pitch would the expectation of the
spectators be raised, if, while Neoptolemus is following the
instructions of Odysseus and approaching silently the cave of
Philoctetes (22 7rpoo-eXO8v o-Zya), the chorus of men cautiously

and speechless wait behind to see if the man is in his home,
than if the two main actors alone were seen. The first words
of the chorus and their movements throughout show that they
are fully informed of what passed between Neoptolemus and
Odysseus in the opening scene,1 and Odysseus as he leaves
uses a plural verb (126 8oKi -e). 2

The chorus therefore were

not only present from the first, but came in along with the
actors.
The reasons given to show that the chorus in the Suppliants and Ion appeared either with the actors or following
close after through the same entrance, apply also to the Bacchae,' where Dionysus, having spoken the prologue, in 55
addresses the chorus:

AdX'

&w
Xetroio-at T CoXov 'pvua Avlaq

Olaoos Etdos, yvvatices,
ico'pto-a rapE8pov ca~

dtc Pap/3cIpow
3s

vvepwo'povs e'pot.

We find no special reason why the chorus should have
appeared before this point, and they probably do not, but as
the immediate followers of the god, and his fellow-travellers,
they must have come by the same way. There is no reason
why they should not have come as usual through the parodos
into the orchestra as in the Suppliants (Aesch.) and Ion;
hence Dionysus probably reached the "stage" through the
orchestra.
Though actors and chorus in the Birds do not enter together, yet since the actors at the beginning of that play
seem to come in through the orchestra, the passage may
be cited here for convenience. Euelpides and Pisthetaerus
1 As even Schanborn admits. Jebb, who assumes that the chorus did not
enter until 135, is compelled to deny (note on 135) that they show any knowledge of what had passed in 70 ff. But this explanation of their words is forced.
2 So we often find servants referred to as present or directly addressed without
previous indication of their entrance or presence.

Edward Capps.

26

[I89I.

appear, wandering about over a rough, stony country, and at
last reach the home of Epops. That this was on ground
that was, or was pretended to be, somewhat elevated, is evident not only from the fact that it was the home of a bird,
but also from two passages in the play, 49 ff.:
IIt o-.
aV&

oro.
TL

E

pdeL.

V.
7I
E

V

avO KEX1KE)V cO7repTe

OTve ;
X(A

iI o-.
l

KcoXOLO

Oc;VKopco rdXat
pot

oUToOG

3

etlVr Tb
T/OL.

and, after they have reached the spot, 175 ff.:
IIlo..3Xfrov

KaTIc .

Ei.

Kcal

82

Xerw.

llcr. /Xere

v-v avw.

Schbnborn (p. 318 ff.) is of the opinion that the two actors
enter in the usual way, on the " stage," and then climb by
ladders to a balcony which was in front of the house of
the Epops. The difficulty with this view is twofold. In the
first place, the house of Epops is the central point of the
action of the play for over a thousand verses; all actors
would thus have to mount the ladders at their entrance and
descend again at their exit. Secondly, the whole chorus,
soon after their entrance into the orchestra, make an attack
upon Euelpides and Pisthetaerus, who are supposed to be in
the balcony. Now according to Schdnborn the chorus would
not only have to ascend the high stage, but would also have
to ascend the ladders to the balcony, - either of which
actions would be out of the question for a large chorus, and
which, taken together, are absolutely inconceivable. A balcony therefore was not used, and the place to which the two
actors ascended was such that it could be readily reached by
the chorus also. Since after the opening scene no reference
is made to the height of this place, it is probable that the difficulty of the ascent was suggested to the spectators mainly by
the actions and words of the chorus, and not to any important
extent by the nature of the ground. Cf. p. 76. That the actors
enter through the orchestra is shown by the time occupied
in reaching the door of the house of Epops (from I to 54).1
1 Compare the beginning of the Plutus; see p. 21. These two passages furnish
valuable evidence in favor of the view that in all of the plays cited under this
head actors and chorus entered together through the orchestra.

Vol. xxii.]

The Greek Stage.

27

5. Chariot Scenes. In four plays actors enter in chariots.
The question has been much discussed whether the chariot
appeared in the orchestra or on the stage.
Hermann 1
claimed that, since actors never reached the stage through
the orchestra, chariots also must have come in on the stage,
unless it could be shown that there was too little space
between the rear wall and the periacti (i.e. in the wings)
for the passage of horses and chariots; and this, he held,
could not be shown, because several actors bearing a corpse
often enter and depart through these passages. But, as a
matter of fact, actors often do reach the " stage " from the
orchestra; 2 and the presence of chariot and horses on the
very narrow stage in which Hermann believed, would have
given rise to endless confusion, especially since they appear
occasionally to remain for a long time on the scene. 8 But the
most conclusive answer is gained by a comparison of the
various scenes in which this occurrence is found. In the Iphigenia at Aulis the context shows that the chariot appeared
in the orchestra. The women of Chalcis, who form the chorus, when they see Clytemnestra and Iphigenia approaching,
propose to assist them from their chariot, 598 ff.:
o-rcopev, XaXKct'os

a.o

/

a'avoJW

caXepoJv
T

of Xepo

OpLpapra

'yova

T?-v /3acXetav & &JeOe'
r

b'xwv

ryaiav

paXaiciry
/v

,

and so we are prepared for the following words of Clytemnestra, 607 ff.:
1 De re scen. in Aesch. Orest., p. 7. For references to the literature of the
discussion on this point see Miiller's Biihnenalt, p. 134, note I.
Miiller adopts
Hermann's view partly for the reasons quoted above, partly because of the presence of the supposed raised platform in the orchestra.
But since this platform has been discarded, only Hermann's arguments are left in support of the

view.
2 We have already discussed the instances in the Plutus, Ion and Birds, pp. 21,
23 and 25. Niejahr, Quaes. Arist. Scaen., p. 28 and Comment. Scaen., p. 5,thinks
that this occurs only in chariot-scenes.
8 In the .Agamemnon from 728 to 1294 (A. Miiller), in Troades from 569
to 789 (Schnborn).

Edward Capps.

28

[1891.

opvtOa LEov Tdv ' a'io-tov 7roLto/eOa
XpprTv icat Xdo'yov ev;plotav "
7v
a-ov

-re

*

*

*

*

*

,ix' oXfl aTO3V
g'w
Kai

7ropeeeO'
'rrre/ir'

as
pepcoepv icopy,
el~9
spXalpov exapoL/3oevot.

b 8',TeICVOV
01

Lo,

i
Xtre roa)lcobv' "Xov,

appY
ovrTl ioa ,ccXov a<Orevis 0' Epa.
3
v
e vL E9 wv ayKacLaL gw'
69S8

V.e

dfa Oe

ca 7rropevo-a'aT

d
F

'pdmY.

Schonborn (p. 231 ff.) has shown that even if we follow Dinilorf in rejecting the ver es by the chorus (598-606) as an
interpolation, we are still obliged to understand the words of
8
Clytemnestra, btyeZ6 vedCLcs, as addressed to the choreutae,

whom she has just thanked for their kind offer. The fact
that their services were offered and accepted in this way,
which would require that the choreutae should go upon the
"stage," combined with the additional awkwardness of having a chariot and horses upon a high and narrow platform, is
enough to establish the view of Schonborn that the chariot
here, and consequently everywhere, entered by the orchestra.Accepting this view therefore, Clytemnestra, Iphigenia, and
the servants who accompanied them passed from orchestra
to "stage" in the Iphigenia at Aulis; in the Agamemnon
905 ff., Agamemnon and Cassandra; in the Electra (Eur.)
998, Clytemnestra and her maids; in the Troades 568 ff., Andromache and Astyanax. 1 If this view is not taken, then
the chorus in the Iphigenia must go upon the "stage" in
order to assist Iphigenia, -fully as difficult a movement, supposing that the "stage" were high, as the other view would
involve, by which six actors with their attendants would
mount the "stage." From Persians 607 ff.:

iceXevOov

)77v)'d'veyv 7'r
d
'o7xdv
wd1v
XXLr9 7E 79 rS7TpotOev E K C
Trot7yp

eoTTELXa,
1 Schanborn, p. 237, endeavors to show that they

chariot at all.

do not descend from the

Vol. xxii.]

The Greek Stage.

29

we infer that Atossa, when she enters (at 159), is borne on a
chariot, making a possible fifth instance under this head; and
from 1oo0, 7PoxTXaowo-'L
o-crvais, that Xerxes enters in this
3
way. Since chariots enter the orchestra, the azajpyT
pip/o
(Orest. 1251) would also pass through the orchestra,' and
actors appearing on asses or horses should properly ride into
the orchestra; therefore we may decide that in the orchestra
appear Ismene in Oedipus at Colonus 310 (cf. 313 ~ 'crrhov),

and Xanthias in the first act of the Frogs.
6. Assembly Scenes.
In three plays of 'Aristophanes,
the Acharnians, Ecclesiazusae, and Thesmophoriazusae, we
find scenes in imitation of the public assemblies of the Athenians, clearly intended to be as realistic as such burlesques
could be. The place of assembly is provided with seats for
3
the citizens (Ach. 42, Thes. 292) and with the @pLa for the
speakers (Ecc. 104) ; the usual officers are present, - 7pvrdvetS (Ach. 40), rofdrat (Ach. 54), Kc)pvKces (Ach. 43, Thes.
295); the regular forms of the iccXio-la are employed,--

the purification (Ecc. 128), the prayer (Thes. 295),.the reading of the wpo/3 oiXevza (Thes. 372), the call for speakers

(Ach. 45, Ecc. 130, Thes. 379), the putting on of the speaker's
chaplet (Ecc. 122, 131, Thes. 380); formal speeches are deliv-

ered, and the adjournment announced (Ach. 173). From a
comparison of these plays we are enabled to form a fairly
correct idea of the manner in which these representations
were given, and of the movements of the participants. In
two, the Ecclesiazusae and Thesmophoriazusae, the chorus
form the body of the assembly; hence it is clear that, as we
should naturally suppose, the open and commodious space of
the orchestra was, the place of assembly. The speaker's
stand would be near the wall of the scene, so that the
speaker should face the audience in the theatre and become
in reality an actor, and must therefore have been on the
1 Cited wrongly therefore by Miiller (p. 126) as bringing the chorus on the
" stage." The chariot of the Oceanides in the Prometheus and that of Athene
in the Eumenides do not belong in this discussion, inasmuch as they come down
from above.

Edward Capps.

30

[I891.

" stage." In accordance with this view we find that the only
actors in the first 280 verses of the Ecclesiazusae, in which
we have a mimic assembly, become with their attendants the
chorus,' and leave the scene singing a choral ode. The one
who plays the leading part in the piece seems to be also
the coryphaeus (cf. 491 o-rparyy 6 ), leading the chorus as

7

they march out to the becKXo-la.

On the other hand, in the

Acharnians, Dicaeopolis, the principal actor, has a part that
is always distinct from that of the chorus; yet, after examining the other two plays, we cannot doubt that he took
his seat in the orchestra as a member of the assembly, 2 and
that he did not go upon the "stage "- that is, the usual
position for actors - until the assembly was dismissed. He
then crossed it to enter his house in the background.3 Cf.
202 :

1 That the women who form the chorus come from the houses in the scene
and from the wings, we have shown, p. 9. When, moreover, we consider that
this was a street scene, it becomes evident that these were the only directions
from which they could come without introducing inconsistency. See on this
point p. 62. Niejahr, De Poll. loco, p. vII, contends that those who take part
in the assembly scene of the Ecclesiazusae are actors, and therefore on the
"stage," and that no chorus appears until 285, because the women of the mimic
assembly, when about to leave in 280, say that others " from the country" will
appear at the ecclesia; that the women who sing the choral passage 285-310
speak of themselves in 300 as from the country, and hence are those predicted in
280. If this is true, the chorus appear in 285 and disappear in 310, -a thing
unheard of in extant plays. Niejahr is inconsistent also; for he insists (p. VIII)
that in the Thesmophoriazusae the assembly scene takes place in the orchestra
and yet denies it for the Ecclesiazusae.
2 Harzmann, p. 56, reaches this conclusion because of the numbers that would
otherwise be brought upon the stage; see p. 57Droysen, Quaes. de Arist. re scaen., p. 10, after having proved conclusively that

3

Aristophanes regularly uses Els-l vat-EpxEOaL, etc., with the meaning of "enter the

house " in the background of the scene, tries to make an exception of El'tdu in
this passage, on the ground that Dicaeopolis was going to celebrate the ruralDionysia. He would translate it " domum ibo." But in 240 the chorus uses the verb
E/'pXETaL at the reappearance of Dicaeopolis, which Droysen has also shown to
mean always " come out of the house." Moreover, the two other exceptional uses
of elrdtva that he cites, Pax 427 and Lys. 246, are also best taken in their usual
meaning (see note p. 76). Muhl, Symbolae, p. I i, proves conclusively that here,
as often in Aristophanes, the same scenery is used in two successive acts without
change, it being left to the spectators to imagine the change of scene from the
words of the actors.

The Greek Stage.

Vol. xxii.]
c

To
a

caararypov

E 0

31

coAtovvo-ta.
v

This is made certain by comparison with the Thesmophoriazusae. There Mnesilochus, the principal actor in the play,
disguised as a woman, goes into the orchestra and takes his
seat among the women who constitute the assembly and
who are the chorus.
Soon he goes forward to the ij~$
a
and addresses the assembly (466) precisely as two women of
the chorus had done before him.' So too in the Ecclesiazusae members of the chorus go forward and address the
assembly, returning then to their seats.
The results then of our study of this feature of these
three 2 plays are as follows.
An actor in the Acharnians
,appears first in the orchestra, remains through 200 verses,
and then enters the house in the background. In the Ecclesiazusae the women who go through the forms of an
assembly before the spectators, come from the houses in the
rear and take seats in the orchestra, with the exception of
their leader Praxagora, the

Erro-dTaT 7c

of the meeting, and

there they begin to practise the forms of an assembly (cf. 57
and 121). One speaker after another goes forward to the
regular place for the actors, speaks, and again retires into
the orchestra. Finally they all leave the scene, Praxagora at
their head. She also then must have gone into the orchestra.
On their return she goes again upon the " stage," and thenceforward is only an actor. In the Thesmophoriazusae the
chorus seem to come from the temple, as does also the
herald, and enter the orchestra to form the assembly. Mnesilochus, hitherto an actor, goes into the orchestra before
them and takes his seat as one of them (cf. 292); with others
he goes forward and speaks. That he then'returns to the
orchestra is shown by the fact that he is soon attacked by
the chorus, who are still there (cf. 567 ff.). He seems to re1 Geppert, I.c. p. 163, says: "Die ganze Scene von 295 an spielt offenbar in
der Orchestra, indem die einzelnen Redner (383, 443, 466) wie bei Volksversammlungen die Biihne besteigen." Droysen, 1.c. p. 68, denies this without reason.
2 The meeting and discussion of the women in the early part of the Lysistrata
is so similar to the portion of the Ecclesiazusae above cited that it might almost
be added to these three, but the forms of an assembly are entirely wanting.

32

[1891.

Capps.

Edward

main there until 689, when he flees to the altar, which was
presumably near the door of the Thesmophorium (see p. 35).

Fvv4 a'. ,aro'Co-i

edvecs; oi7ro
'

XX E7a
Xa'

Mvjl.

oiT0o

ob /Lcvees;

'E7TThWvpApi&v

KTC.

Since the further action of the piece was on the "stage," we
may be sure that the altar was located where we have supposed. During this assembly scene Clisthenes enters, with
the information that a man is in the midst of them disguised
as a woman. He goes into the orchestra to examine all who
are there. Laying hold of Mnesilochus he says, 617:
ov /La&L
M vl.

8ep'

TG 8r
qTa'EXE
Le

dE
e

;

aoEVOVO-cav ;

In the following verses he helps to strip Mnesilochus, finally
leaving the now broken-up assembly through one of the wings.

7. Search Scenes. In four plays the chorus seem to traverse the whole available space of the scene in their search
for an actor, who twice is at length found upon the "stage"
at the altar. This is the case at the end of the assembly
scene just described in the Thesmophoriazusae, where it is
the poet's device for breaking up the formal assembly and
merging it into the main action of the play. After Mnesilochus, on the information of Clisthenes, is discovered .disguised
as a woman in his seat in the orchestra, the chorus scour the
entire region to see that no other man is in hiding among
them. Cf. 657 ff. (the entire passage):
flTrev,

77v

e'7rov KaXXo
wt7rvla

T
-

-ao-av cat

avp Eo-eXrXvOe,
as

cac wreptpeat

YK17-vc 9 Kaat Ta

&saOpglo-ai.
Eta 8 7rp ooTa /J v Xpi Kovcov E opaav 7roa
icaZ
o tLow, 7r a vrT a X "

8aaTowrrEv

x

cXX' ot
X
Ly a 7ra vr Tarw9
v
sGtcee eat aXC.
X
oi) -opoiev yovv '
XX o oVv'EyKaOh/,0evov.

8tOeOV9

Vol.

The Greek Stage.

xxii.]

33

When -these last words were spoken they had completed their
circuit (cf. 662 Trpeetv

We cannot suppose that in

KcicKX).

their zeal they would leave an inch of ground unexamined.
Mnesilochus had taken advantage of their absence and diverted attention to seize the child of one of them and to take
his stand at the altar, as described above.
One or more
follow him and guard him, probably until the arrival of the
Prytanis, 929. When they are about to kindle a fire about
him (726 ff.), and when he cuts the wine-skin and one of the
women holds a bowl below, some at least of the chorus are
very near him. Even during the parabasis it is evidently the
presence of the chorus that prevents any attempt to escape,
since only one woman was left to guard him (762).
In the Oedipus at Colonus, the chorus on their entrance
search carefully for the intruder in the sacred grove. Cf.
117 ff.:
X o. Xedcar' abrv" ?rpo eTpicov,
'rrpoWreVov

7

ravTax^.

ir-av
iwov

valat TE~evoS
arw

yvcwvat 7roi poi 710ore valet.
They would leave no spot untraversed except the ground'
of the sacred enclosure itself. Oedipus, who shows himself
immediately after the words just quoted, probably does not
appear until the chorus are in a position to see him, i.e. until
they had reached in their search the avtw'erpos

P/3a

(192)

which bounded. the sacred enclosure.
Very similar is Eumenides 244 ft: The Furies are tracking Orestes by the blood-stains on the ground. They must
enter the scene over precisely the same route that Orestes.
had taken, if we are to interpret strictly their words:
etev
p"
e7rov

''

6E

'

vT p

EcavE9

vvo7rpos COE0yiKTrov

TE/cap.

pa8a~.

y ip ch ticOy ve/phv
rphy ailta Icat oTaXaypYv EicaTeVO/le,

TeTpav/aLaTto' /evov

that is, we have another violation of Hermann's rule that

34

Edweard

[1891.

Capps

actors must not enter through the orchestra. At any rate
the chorus search over the entire scene. Cf. 255 ff.:
opa opa ~~aX'
XVBy cfy a

a, Xevo-reo
re
' r7a, /aP
hs /aTpocjxoVS a7TcTas.

When at length they discover him they seem to be on the
"stage" near Orestes, who is hiding behind the statue 1 of
Athene. We have seen (p. 13) that they depart with the
actors at the close of the piece. During the trial scene,
between this and the closing scene, we may reasonably
believe that they remained near Orestes as his accusers and
prosecutors.
The sailors in the Ajax, as they set out in opposite directions in search of their chieftain (805 ff.), so appear again
from different directions (865). They are still searching for
Ajax, when they hear indistinctly his fall (870), and soon
the cry of Tecmessa (891), who, though she had gone more
slowly (8Io), had found him first. She is still at some distance, for her cry is but faintly heard (892) and she herself
is not seen immediately. Soon the choreutae come nearer,
and ask what is her trouble (897). She points to the body of
Ajax, which they now see for the first time (898 Ai'as
iKetat.
They are not near enough, however, to understand
the whole situation (905). Coming nearer, they ask to see
Ajax, but Tecmessa has covered him and refuses to let

8e

t
him be seen (915 ff. o 5 rTo eao

KrTE).

From this point the

body of Ajax is the central point of the action. It would
therefore be in the part called the "stage," and so far back
as to be scarcely visible even to the nearest spectators.2
The choreutae, then, are on the "stage" when they ask
to see the body, just as Teucer is when he makes the
same request 3 (1oo3). They sing with Tecmessa lamenta1 Cf. Niejahr De Poll. loc., p. xvI: "In scena, ante ipsum templum illam
statuam positam esse demonstratur eo quod chorus Furiarum in orchestram
ingressus matricidam non statim conspicit, sed adesse eum praesentiens ad
indagandum eum se cohortatur."
2 That dead bodies were always seen near the rear wall of the scene is shown
by Niejahr, De Poll. loc., p. xiv.
8 This request of Teucer was probably addressed to the chorus -- another

The Greek Stage.

Vol. xxii.]

35

tions 1 over the body, and when Teucer leaves he bids them
stand by to protect it.2 1182 ff.:
KE avr
vva/V ~cv'
're i ,,

vLEtsi

XX .. p jET,

TacT,
7rapEo- rL
Trchfov

WEXa
p v 7r

,4te~yj9ets

,t8e~
7-(8 ,d3v 1,

r

ey ,
,S

"X
o

@E.

We have seen that at the close of the play they help to bear
out the body.
It seems probable that we have a similar situation in the
following passage from the Hecabe, although it is the actor
here, rather than the chorus, who makes the search. Within
the palace Hecabe and her attendants have put out the eyes
of Polymnestor and have killed his two children. She herself comes from the palace, and seeing him breaking the
doors and forcing his way out she avoids him, probably hid.
ing in one of the passages, 1054 ff. ;
JXX'

E1crosov

Ovp

4
Eovr

"r0V t KaaW;o
7T/

Opt

o/aI

t 7' .
Cr8vo-aXW7

Since Polymnestor is eagerly searching for the women who
injured him, he would traverse all the accessible space, going
even into the orchestra (cf. Iooo, 65, and 70), following the
sound of their footsteps (1070). As soon as he hears their
voice (1085), he shouts for help and goes in pursuit (1099 ro
Tpa7rco.LaL; 7roZ w opevOo);). We see at a glance that a scene

like this precludes the possibility of a raised stage. But any
other action than that we have described would be tame in
comparison with the natural suggestions of the context.
8. Altar Scenes. The altars of the gods, which were
near the front of the palace,3 were the place of refuge for
proof of their presence. So Schneidewin-Nauck, note ad loc. For the oppos.
ing view see Piderit, Scenische Analysis des Soph. Dramas Ajas, p. 39.
1 Those who lament over dead bodies should always be together; cf. Sept. ad
fin. Compare the pouring of libations in Cho., Pers., and Iph. Taur.; see p. 45.
2 Sch6nborn, p. 259, gives all these arguments, strengthened also by v. 892, if
*rdpavuosmay mean yyvs, but still holds to the opposite view. His principal
objection seems to be the supposed difficulty of mounting the stage.
8 Almost all scholars who have adhered to the old view of the stage place the
altars and images of the gods always on the stage. But all the arguments given

Edward Capps.

36

[I891.

those in distress or danger. Orestes in the Eumenides seeks
protection at the altar of Athene, and the children of Heracles
in the play of Euripides at the altar of Zeus, - in both cases
actors. When those who seek protection are members of the
chorus, as in three plays, then they must of necessity pass over
the boundary between " stage " and orchestra. The Danaids
in the Suppliants of Aeschylus sing the first stasimon in the
orchestra. At the approach of strangers, Danaus directs
them to seek the altars near him, 188 ff.:
a.ervdV oE7L rarO

OVerc',

icopat,

?radyov rrpoot'Lv TOV'

ayrvloVWv

icpeto-oov

oo\,

rE
vpyovu

hX'
Tcoxt-T7a

OBeJv.

appicrov o-Kcor.

j8a^re.

Cf. also 208:
X o.

dXot/'

Av

8

o-ol '7rXac

Opdvovs e Xev,

to which Danaus replies pri5 vvv o-yxXa'e. The chorus remain
at the altars until 516 (circ.). The king asks them to leave
their suppliant boughs there (aibroD) and to go back to their
former place in the orchestra (Xevpvy Xeo-o); cf. 506 ff.:
iKXcdov9 /hv abTroV Xere, op'eZov 7rwov.

aX0-o
Xevpov KaicaT'

X o.

ca

rc

vv

3e/3qXov daXo-o

reo-Tpcbov

roe.

Av pvo'Tod 'e;

Their fears are soon allayed and they obey, singing the
second stasimon immediately following from their usual station. Again, in 832, they flee to the altars to escape the herald of the sons of Aegyptus. The word
in the cry of
the chorus, fa'tve fvy^ 7rphy JXIc v,is to be interpreted by
the previous commands of Danaus in verses 731 ff. and 773
if., as well as by the words of the herald (852), Xef' A'pava.
We have already seen that the chorus make their final exit
together with Danaus.

AXic

in favor of this (see Niejahr, De Poll. loc., IX) prove only that they were near
p.
the rear wall of the scene, i.e. in the part of the orchestra most distant from the
spectators, according to Dirpfeld's view.

Vol.

The Greek Stage.

xxii.]

37

The action of the chorus in the Septem is similar. The
sound of the approaching army fills them with alarm, and
they flee to the altars of the gods, 96 ff.:
paicape
icL

ebe8pot, aicad et IpeTewv

1 'XXo Lev

eXeoat. 7

ayda-7rovoL ;

Eteocles sends them back again to the orchestra, 265 ff.:
ECTo

0.0

aada.toTCv

eVXov ra icpecloo'w.

We must suppose that they obey, for they at once begin the
first stasimon. 1 Of the opening scene of Euripides's Suppliants we have already spoken (p. 8).
9. Chorus called to Palace - Libation Scenes, etc. It is
a very frequent occurrence for the chorus, whose usual station was in the orchestra, but near by the palace (see p. 55),
to be called into the palace by actors. Often the chorus decide, after debate or consultation, to answer the call; again
they refuse through fear; but in no case do they actually
carry out their intention of going inside, being checked by
some circumstance, such as the arrival of a new actor, while
approaching the house.
In five plays, however, I think
it can be shown that the choreutae advance to a position near
the doors of the house, and therefore go upon the "stage."
In the Ajax, Tecmessa comes out of the tent and asks the
chorus of sailors to try to calm her lord. - Cf. 328 ff.:
aXX',

ap

& diXot,

TOVT)V
7y hp ovveIc 'ErTdX_7v,

aT eceXoVTE7,

eG

vvatrE 'Tt.

They accordingly quit the orchestra. When on the "stage"
near the tent they ask that the door be opened (344), to
which Tecmessa replies:
1 0o,

totryco

Ta

8

7poo-I3Xretv

TOV e 7rpayf, Icavro

<os

3' Eeo-TL
eXOv

o-oL

cvpe.

1 " Saepius hoc fit in fabulis, ut si quid aut chorus aut actores facere jubeantur,
id ei efficere putandi sint, tametsi hoc ipsum verbis non est indicatum." Niejahr

De Poll. loco, p. III.

38

Edward Capps.

[189r.

They remain there for some time with Ajax. At last he
orders the doors closed (cf. 579-81 and 93), and despairing
of ever diverting him from his purpose, they go back again
to their position. They are in the orchestra at the beginning
of the next stasimon. In this passage the poet had good
reason for allowing the chorus to carry out their intention.
Ajax, sitting in the midst of the slaughtered sheep, surrounded by blood and filth, could not be shown in all his
misery to the spectators. It was enough that these should
have an account of these revolting details from others. We
notice that the chorus describe all that they see with minuteness of detail; they were where they could see what the
spectators could not see.1
So in the Agamemnon.
After long discussion the choreutae decide to go to the aid of Agamemnon after they have
heard his cries from within. At once Clytemnestra comes
out. It is too late to aid the hero, but the poet's purpose is
accomplished, and the chorus is on the "stage," 2 grouped
about the open door of the palace, looking at the bodies of
the slain. There are many indications that the bodies are
in sight of the chorus (e.g. 1405, 1581, etc.), but none that
they were seen by the whole theatre. On the contrary, the
chorus is brought near the palace for the very purpose of
making it unnecessary that the whole spectacle should be
seen by the audience. The aesthetic taste which required
that such scenes should be enacted out of the sight of the
spectators would surely demand that they should remain out
of sight as far as possible. The chorus was probably in the
orchestra again at the beginning of the commos, 1447 ff.
Similarly in the Hippolytus one semi-chorus is inclined
to go into the house where Phaedra is attempting to take
her own life, 782 f. :
1 It is a widely accepted view that in this and some of the following scenes
the eccyclema was employed to show the bodies,'and that the chorus need not
have been upon the stage, but Neckel, Das Ekkyklema, Prog. Gym. Fried. 1890,
has proved that this machine was not used in any of the extant tragedies, except
in the Heracles (and this seems to me to be very doubtful). We may follow
therefore the natural suggestions of the plays as to the movements of the chorus.
2 So Wecklein, note ad loc.

The Greek Stage.

Vol. xxii.]
tbXar,

ri

p8pcLev;

Xiact '' dvao-tav

)

o8Ke

ew

39

'7repJv

o7raer&wv

6

1,ovs

8p6xov;

In 788, before they could have gone far, they infer from the
words of the nurse, who is inside the palace, that Phaedra is
dead. There was no longer reason for their going in. But
they had already advanced toward the house, for they clearly
hear the nurse's commands within the house, and speak of
themselves as "just arrived at the house" when Theseus
questions them about the outcry. Cf. 790 ff.:
ryvvatfcesLoaT6e

X

o.

Too0oUrov oiteVr

TV

7L9OT

*aprtL

L

ycp

c0)27;

ic /r)

3

0/tLots,

17¢7ev, 7rapetpit owv caictov 7rever)7pa.

Then the body of Phaedra is shown. It is seen by the chorus as well as by Theseus; but Hippolytus on his entrance
does not see it until several sentences have been spoken.
This would support the view that the spectators in general
were not supposed to have a clear view of the body and its
surroundings, but only those gathered immediately in front
of it. Even if it be objected that we cannot assume that
the chorus actually go upon the "stage," yet it is clear that
they are near the door, and that a difference of ten feet in
level would make it impossible for them to see what is
within.
The same purpose on the part of the poet, viz.: to use the
chorus as a means of avoiding the exhibition of a disgusting
spectacle to the theatre, is still more obvious in the Choephori. Although the choreutae in fear keep as far as possible from the scene of the murder (cf. 872 aroo- a8(pcev
rpady/aTrov), yet when the deed is done their presence is so
desirable as a means of gaining the full dramatic effect of the
exposure of the bodies without in reality making these clearly
visible to the spectators, that another motive is devised by the
Orestes calls upon them 1
poet for bringing them forward.
1 It is true that crTEfiTE may be addressed to'servants, but this would not be
so natural an interpretation. The scholiast, Wecklein, and others favor that
given above.

40O

Edwa~rd

[I891.

Capps.

to spread out to view the garment in which Agamemnon
had been slain. Cf. 980 ff.:
i'eo-Oe 8' are,

EKTEivaT

ThVS ErKcOOL tKicK&W,

aiTo Ka K1JXp

a7rpao-Tabv

TrrE(7drTpov av8pos uetaO',

c7TE.

They probably do not go again into the orchestra, for we
have seen that they soon retire into the palace.
In the Heracles, also, it appears that the choreutae advance
to see the inside of the palace, although, so far as the text
sh'bws, not until the calamity has fallen. They see the palace
tottering in 905. Soon the messenger comes out and narrates what has happened. Up to this point they have not
seen anything inside, but from
ff. they see very distinctly all that has been described before. The natural
inference is that, after hearing what has happened within,
they advance to the breach in the wall and see what they
proceed to describe. That they did approach, and so near
that there was danger of their disturbing the sleeping Heracles, is seen from the warning of Amphitryon lo42 ff. He
drives them away from Heracles, back into the orchestra.

1032

'pO,3 arTE,

Kcao'Tpro

/c

KTvreTE /,L?7/oa re, tc)
Tro

e) "r laovO'

trrvciac

7' Evvas EyelpeeT.

tya,I
rvo

X o.

P
4pe

7rp9

os

f aXo.

~v8ee ;

It is to be noticed that the chorus see every detail at first;
but when they withdraw again at the bidding of Amphitryon
they cannot see even whether Heracles is sleeping or not, a
circumstance which they had before easily noticed (o1034).
In these five passages it is clear that the chorus left their
usual position in the orchestra for one nearer the door of the
palace. Albert Muller' cites several others in which similar
1 Biihnenalt., p. 127.
Supp. (Eur.), and Ion.

His citations are Hipp., Bacch., Cyc., Aj., Hec., And.,
Of these we claim that Hipp., Aj., and Bacch. are to

The Greek Stage.

Vol. xxii.]

41

action is proposed but not executed, as proof that, though it
was always possible for the chorus to reach the stage from
the orchestra, it was always inconvenient and avoided by the
poet as much as possible. The prevention of the action is
caused by fear on the part of the chorus, by the entrance of
an actor, or by the direct prohibition of an actor or semichorus. A detailed examination of these passages will show
that the poet had weightier reasons for preventing the action
than merely to avoid an awkward situation.
The chorus in the Hecabe seem inclined to go to the aid
of the queen.
X

0.

Cf.

1042:

o /oXo-O' dweo''7r

-copev; co daKtic aXet
do-v Te o-v.tp/iXOV9.

'Eic3y-rrapeiva Tp

But Hecabe herself at once comes out, and soon after her the
raging Polymnestor, eager to catch any of the women within
reach. Surely the chorus would follow the example of Hecabe, and get out of the way (1054 dicroSowv

tery).

Ac-

cordingly we cannot expect any description of what is seen
within the palace, and we do not find it. Except for the
announcement by Hecabe in 105 I that the bodies of the two
children would soon be seen, and a passing reference to them
by Agamemnon in I I 18, we should not know that they were
seen at all. Here the poet deliberately gives up the usual
grouping of the chorus about the dead bodies for the superior
effects of the unique scene we have described above (see also
p. 35). In the Medea the choreutae decide to go within the
palace, but Jason arrives before they have yet done so,
addressing them as rvvace, a% 7Tq ' dyy
)'
JT-~'ae orTyV
(1293).
How near they are we cannot tell, but there is
no need of their being on the "stage" after Medea appears above in her chariot, and so we may assume that
they are not unusually near. In the Andromache, 817 ff.,
Hermione comes out of the house just after the chorus have
been asked to go in'to calm her. The reason for entering no
be rejected, the two former because the action of approaching the palace was
carried out, the last because of a misunderstanding of Miiller's. I have added
Med. and Ach. to the passages for discussion.

42

Edweard

Capps.

[1891.

longer existed, so that it cannot be held that any difficulty in
the action prevented its execution. The same may be said of
Cyclops, 630 ff. The chorus of Satyrs refuse to help Odysseus against Polyphemus, but the poet's object in this was to
make a display of their ridiculous cowardice. In the same
play a drove of goats had been driven from the orchestra into
the cave, showing that the act of crossing was not in itself
inconvenient. The mothers who form the chorus in the Suppliants (Eur.) are not permitted to go forward to touch the
dead bodies of their sons at 940 ff., but they have once before
(815 ff.; see p. 44) been permitted to embrace them. It is
hard to see the reason for the distinction, but it has been
suggested that in the later passage the mothers were to do
more than to embrace, - they expected to uncover the faces
for a last look, - and this is forbidden on account of the foul
condition of the bodies (cf. 944-945), which had not yet been
washed. The reason why the chorus in the Ion, 219 ff., do
not go into the temple (see p. 23) is perfectly good, both from
the poet's point of view and from that of the spectators. It
would have been offensive to the religious feelings of the
Athenians if these servants had been permitted to enter the
holy shrine of Apollo from motives of idle curiosity, and
the poet needed their presence in order to effect the meeting
between Creusa and Ion. I need cite but one more instance
of this kind. In the Acharnians, 564, one semi-chorus is
about to strike Dicaeopolis, but is prevented by the other
semi-chorus; yet in 280 all the chorus had attacked him
violently.1
In all of these passages the poetic reason for the non-performance of the proposed action is strong enough and apparent
enough to explain its prevention. Either the poet has special
reasons for preventing the action or in the natural progress
of the play the action was no longer necessary. Similar
occurrences are frequent where going upon the "stage" does
not enter into the question, as in Philoctetes 887, where the
chorus are probably on the "stage " already; and yet no one
1 A. Miiller' quotes also Bacch. 954 ff.; but Dionysus could not be addressing the chorus, since he had not yet come out of the palace.

The Greek Stage.

Vol. xxii.]

43

has for a moment supposed in such cases that the proposed
action was attended with especial difficulty.
We have seen, therefore, from the very passages that
Muller quotes in favor of his theory of the stage, that we
need not suppose that the poet was hampered in this way by
the inconvenient arrangement of the theatre in which his
dramas were to be performed, for the action would probably
have been the same, however convenient the arrangements
for the setting of the play might have been. But in case
this proof should seem insufficient, we may approach the
question from another side. Muiller would say that the stage
was ascended by the chorus where the motive for such action
was sufficiently strong; but that in the cases he cites the
need is so slight that it is easier for the poet to devise another motive for the prevention of the action than to have
the action first proposed put into effect. But how slight is
the evidence on which Muller bases his theory is shown
by the fact that in a number of other passages, although the
motive is exceedingly slight, sometimes nothing more than
mere curiosity, the chorus are allowed to perform the very
action that is forbidden in the passages cited. One of these
has already been pointed out (p. 40), Heracles 1032. There
are two other instances in the same play. Amphitryon proposes to go where he may see the slaying of Lycus, i.e. close
to the door of the palace ; the chorus go with him. Cf. 747 f.:
X o.

aXX"

0

ryepctL,

Yk1O7rJ/kijEV,

Ka& ra &JtFLraTOV Ec

el 7rp awet

TLS (

Er/)

OeX o.

They return to their usual station in 760:
X o.

otry ^eXaOpa" 7rp c Xopoib

7parrctela.

Afterwards when Heracles is seen awaking, they go again
with Amphitryon to his side. I 109-1o:
'At.
X

.

r/ povTe9, EX

7oWye o-Vb

ow -t(v V

tcaK&ICjV 7rEXaq;

o-ol, 1? 7rposobV 7a

o-v/4opda.

From this point the chorus has no part in the play until the
last two verses, and we cannot tell its position. It probably

Edward Capps.

44

[I891.

returned to the orchestra, since it was needed but a short
time for the protection of Amphitryon.
Almost identical with Heracles 1032 ff. is Orestes 137 if.
Electra sees the women of the chorus approaching the bedside of Orestes, and requests that they step lightly, but they
are not quiet enough to satisfy her, and are ordered away.
When, however, by their subdued voices they have reassured
her, she bids them come and tell their errand, 147 ff.:
7Tpe/haov c(9 vropobov 4'pa
o',

Xo.

odv.

'H

X. vac ofirm

"Tpiaq 'ierpe'a9*
i10

caTaye icTayE, 7rpo o l'

Xo'yov awd6o0s

'

eT
Xpor

'dXer?orE.

Before Electra speaks the last words, the choreutae have taken
their stand where she had directed. That this station was
very near her is proven conclusively by 170 ff. . The chorus
have seen Orestes stir on his bed, and Electra, accusing them
of awakening him, send them away again :
OV

apk'' y.LWY, oar
01/C

V00),a
Xo.

O'KwJ) ..

eXLoeL ;

vrrvchoaeEt.

They calm her with this assurance, and she permits them
to remain. But in i8I she again sends them away for being
too noisy, and this time they obey. Cf. 208 ff.:
bpa
/J

wrapoo-a, wrapOe'v 'HX6'crpa, 7reXa9,
KaTOavaW

o-e r/oyyovo9 X'X40 ' 6e"

o) yap /a atpeo-KceL T

Xtav rapet v, ,

showing that they are now too far away to see that Orestes
has awakened, yet still near enough to notice the change.
They are probably in their usual position when the lyric
passage (316 ff.) is given.
Adrastus in Euripides's Suppliants has the dead bodies of
the six leaders brought upon the stage. The mothers of the
dead form the chorus. They ask to be permitted to embrace
the bodies of their sons, and Adrastus grants it. Cf. 815 ff.:

Vol. xxii.]

X o.

The Greek Stage.
860',

45

)8

7reptrvao-a

xepaq rrpoo-appoc-aa- e4pot
Ev ayKcro)
eicOa O'ae.
'As8.

EXeLsxEU.

We have seen that soon after this they are probably back
again in the orchestra, for Theseus forbids their uncovering
and touching the bodies.
The Trojan sentinels in the Rhesus go from their posts in
the orchestra to Hector's tent, seen in the background, and
wake him. I ff. :
Xo.

wrrpho
,aOt evva
T 9Etcropeov9 7r

VcTraor7atrWv.

XeZ're xaIevva9 bvXXoo-Tpcrov,
eat'
re vawov cX8O'va paOcov,
"EKTOp *icatpo

,yap dacoVo-at.

It seems that they remain here, i.e. on the "stage,"
ordered back to their posts in 523
Pav'rag Xp?
/vlkag
3

until

'7rporatv Tac4eov

jpovpev EyepTr irKE.

That this station,

rrporatvl

rdeowv, was in the orchestra is

shown by the opening scene of the play and by the scene
immediately following the passage last cited.
The chorus in the Choephori, the Persians, and the Iphigenia among the Taurians assist in pouring libations at the
tomb of the dead by handing the bowl to the actor in the
last-named play, and in all by chanting as the offering is
made. It was this fact in the Choephori that convinced
Hermann 1 that the tomb was on the margin of the stage,
since Electra and the chorus are together during the libation, as they have been from the time they came from the
palace. The chorus are sent out as Xoav Tpowro/,r 69 (23),
and are asked by Electra to sing as she pours, 150:
1 De re seen. in Aesch. Orest., p. 9: "Non est dubitandum quin sepulcrum
Agamemnonis in margine proscenii sit."

46

Edward Capps.
Ovc)

SE
&

cKcvTOL9

[I89I.

voPo.

drravOteetv

After the libation Electra finds the lock of hair on the tomb.
That the chorus do not see the hair at first does not prove
that they are not near by, as some have claimed. Electra
has ascended the steps of the altar. Upon this, out of the
sight of the chorus, the lock is found. In the Persians,
Atossa in like manner calls for the chants of the chorus
while she pours the libation on the tomb of Darius (619).
When the shade of Darius appears, it addresses the choreutae
first, 681, not seeing Atossa until 684.
w

71Tt

7

\Tt7Th)V
)MKE9

llepoaL yepaoi icr
XEVQ-OYOP

3

LKOLTLZ

U

j7p179

E/% )

. ..

77V E/hlv
PTdcov

7rEXa9

Tap/3

, XO 9 &)
7rpev/tevrP9 Se& /lwv.
s

V/etS

&E Op7vetir'

Eyyvs

EYoTCOTE9

His wife is rEXa9, the choreutae, dyy

ds.

rdov

cTE.

That he turns

from one to the other so readily in his speech proves that
they are near together and both on the side of the tomb
toward the spectators - for Darius would not turn his back
to these.
The chorus of Greek maidens in the Taurian Iphigenia
are the attendants of Iphigenia, given her by the king for the
temple-service. Cf. 63 ff.:
I

b.

AS

av rpordXot
LOLv, 'o W
X
EXXlva 7cvvacat.
a

'

/?UV
ava
FX' airias
L

'arpeLo-wt;

ovrro
v'r0vo

When these arrive, Iphigenia proceeds to carry out her purpose of making libations to Orestes. In the course of the
~
passage beginning i 8/twal, addressed to the chorus immediately after their parodos, she asks them for the vessel and
libation, 167 ff.:
AhX'

Evos/oL

TEVXO9

cal Xot/
Lv

dpoyxpvo-ov
At8a.

It would be forcing this passage excessively to suppose
these words to be addressed to any but the chorus, and

Vol. xxii.]

The Greek Stage.

47

furthermore the two similar passages quoted favor this interpretation.1
We have seen therefore that in the case of the nonperformance of the proposed action of entering the palace,
(I) in five instances the chorus advance to a position near
the palace; (2) in the others a satisfactory motive for the
action as we have it is apparent; and further (3) that the
same action which is proposed in these passages is often carried into execution, however slight the motive may be, showing that there was no obstacle in the arrangement of the
theatre. Mtiller's arguments based upon these passages consequently cannot stand.
io. Encounters between Actors and Chorus. Striking,
and also clearly indicated by the text, are the instances of
actual conflict between actors and chorus. The course of
action in these passages is generally recognized, and the discussion of them may therefore be brief.
After the chorus in the Suppliants of Aeschylus, 832 ff., have
taken refuge at the altars, the Herald arrives and attempts
to drag them away by violence (909). The chorus attack
Aegisthus with swords in Agamemnon I650 ff., before the
intervention of Clytemnestra. So, too, in Acharnians 280 ff.,
the choreutae attack Dicaeopolis with stones as he marches
across the scene.
They are so close upon him that he cannot turn and flee (see p. 73). Euelpides and his companion
are charged upon by the chorus in Birds 344 ff., but Epops
interferes and persuades the latter to retire (4o00). In the
Knights (see 247, 257, and 471) the Paphlagonian is assaulted.

The chorus are still on the "stage" in 490 ff., for they give
oil and garlic to the Sausage-seller. Xanthias and Bdelycleon
in Wasps 453 ff. find considerable difficulty in beating back
the chorus of wasps.
The chorus in the Rhesus leave the scene in the midst of
the play. On their re-entrance, representing now the relief
1 Further evidence that the choreutae are with the actors in these libation
scenes is furnished by the lamentation scene, Aj. 9Io-975, in which for other

reasons the chorus must be by the side of the corpse.

Edward Capps.

48

[189t.

guard, they fall upon Diomedes and Odysseus, take them
captive, and finally let them go again. Cf. 675 ff.:
,'x
I

X o.

dxe
xe

pd/aXe
.

E've Oe

70Tov;-'

'0

8.

70Tov-'

'X,

4ios.

X o.

/'hapa.

b'alov* I'Xee

2as

3

OpV.

They probably then return to their usual position.
The chorus in Helen, 1627 ff., hold Theoclymenus by the
garments to keep him from entering the house and killing
his sister. In the Oedipus at Colonus they hold Creon, who
with his attendants is carrying off Antigone, until the arrival
of Theseus. This is made clear from the text, 724 ff.:
Oes.

JoXT7aToL
qiaivotT

X o.

av

yep0oV7es, Ef7
TEp/ cE 79

"/klEpos

8,q7

c0&rllpiac.

(dpo-et, rape'o-rat.

Cf. 856 ff. also:
Xo0.
Xo.

Erio-aXEs avrov, 4erve.

K p.

'a

7y'

oiToLO o'

oiW, 7&v8

p

favetw Xbyo.

EoT'rep'7ivO.

From this point the chorus have little part in the play.
They probably remain in the orchestra.
There is a scene very similar to this in the early part of
the Heracleidae, and although the action is less animated
and the words of the text less decisive than in the Oedipus,
the general similarity is close enough to warrant the same
interpretation. Cf. 270 ff.:

An.
K 0.

A17 .

cXatcLvtp'

#L

17 7TpO'hOeOW
el

p/,j 7'

0K

Xo.

a7eXOe * Kat

Ko.

o7elXW"

t ta9

T&5V

KVe ES a/3oXas.
KIC

Kx7jpvKCa 7OX/r
o W.povet

ToV
708e /

ryap XetLPO9

o- , OEVeLy.

apuVa9rjto-eTat.
/

Oly9e,ava4.
,dXl.

avOelvh

The last verse makes the inference easy that Copreus saw
opposing him and ready to attack him not only Demophon,

Vo1. xxii. ]
,, also
"stage"
wards to
gratitude

The

Greek Stage.

49

the choreutae.
That the latter were in fact on the
is made certain by 307 ff., where Iolaus tells his
join right hands with the Athenians in token of
and lasting friendship. 1

cor

T)',

vtets

&
S

Ecv',avrot~

xepa

av

OTE

cracuo, we'aa 7rpooleXOere.
Ka"

The last verse, or at least the first half of it, must have been
addressed to the chorus.
With these encounters between actors and chorus we
should class Lysistrata 381 ff. The chorus of women come
out of the citadel against the chorus of men, who 'are trying
to set the citadel afire.
The chorus of women therefore
for the time being represent an actor.
When the men
threaten to burn them, they respond by drenching them
with water.
' e p.

~'rrpfo'ov abT
r

Pep.

Ta
7

icdlua.

Fv v.

b'pyov AeXoe.

o'pot rdaXas.

obv

They must have been together on the same level at this
point. The old men are driven back from the citadel. The
chorus of women soon follow, going into the orchestra, as
is shown by 539 ff.:
a7rape'Tr

oyvvacf.e9 atro 'rCo

l,'t Tb Tta
v rr r/-pet X/Ep

s

KaX7ri&)v,

(o9ctv

[Xat o avXX3aLO,$w

,.

Therefore the drenching scene took place upon the "stage,"
at the gates of the citadel. Both choruses are together in
the orchestra from this point until the close of the play (cf.
615 ff. and 1020 ff., and pp. 11 and 19).2
1 The action here is as clear as O. C. 1632 ff.: dS Ot xepbs os ier'e-rLv &pXaav
rq6e. We have no right to make byeis in our passage

re,iroIs, ,ELS TE, 'rai8es,

refer to others than those to whom it naturally refers, the chorus, merely because
of a supposed barrier between " stage " and orchestra.
p.
2 Droysen's argument (1.c. 6o) from the obscene passage, 821 ff., that the
women were higher than the men proves absolutely nothing. Miiller would
include Pax 469 ff. also under this class, but by our interpretation of the passage
(see p. 76) the connection of actors and chorus does not require that the
latter should here pass from the orchestra to the "stage."

Edward Capps.

50

[ 1891.

Our examination of these 44 plays has shown that 36, or,
rejecting those that have furnished the most doubtful evidence, 32, contain evidence of intimate connection in the
action between actors and chorus. In 31 of these (all but
the Prometheus) there must have been passing between
"stage" and orchestra, sometimes by actors, but in a large
majority of c-ses by the chorus or by both together. This
passing between "stage'' and orchestra was, so far as we
can judge from the plays, perfectly free and unrestricted,
and it occurs not only when the action may be slow and
deliberate, suited to the ascending of steps, as at the close
of Persians, but also, and far more frequently, when the
action must needs be hasty and even precipitate. Two illustrations will suffice. The Danaids in the Suppliants (Aesch.)
hasten to the altars as soon as the Herald comes into view.
They see him in 826, begin their flight in 832 (/3aive fv4y
rwp9

aXiedv),

and have reached the altars by 835 ('va(

rpo-

*rdocTov). And this scene is no burlesque, such as we might
expect in Aristophanes, with which the sight of twelve
maidens scrambling in terror and confusion up a flight of
steps would be in keeping, but it is dignified tragedy, in
which this scene was entirely appropriate. In Helen 1624,
Theoclymenus first declares his intention of going into the
palace. Only four verses later he orders the chorus to get
out of his way. Judging from scenes such as these we cannot avoid the conclusion that the height of the "stage" was
no barrier to the free passage of the chorus from orchestra
A stage ten feet high undoubtedly would have
to "stage."
been a barrier, and would have prevented such action as we
have described, no matter in what way connected with the
orchestra. Either the orchestra and the "stage" were on a
level, or else the "stage" was very low and easily accessible
from the orchestra under all circumstances and in all periods
of the classical drama. This, it would seem, would be satisfactorily proven by the eighteen instances of crossing involved
in the personal encounters between chorus and actors, in
addition to the sixteen required by the parodos from the
palace and exodos into it, for these include almost all of

Vol. xxii.]

The Greek Stage.

5I

the hasty passages over the "stage" by the chorus. But
so strong has been the influence of tradition that even
those who have admitted all these instances have labored
hard to convince themselves either that, though the floor of
the orchestra was ten to twelve feet lower than the stage,
yet, to prepare for just such emergencies as these, a platform
was built up for the chorus to within a few feet of the
stage level, or else that, after all, we cannot judge of
Greek dramatic art by our ideas of good taste.
In spite of such expedients, however, the adherents of the
traditional view have spared no pains to reduce the number of
instances of intimate action between "stage" and orchestra.
Oehmichen, 1 the most recent writer, commits himself only
so far as to state that "auf der Biihne erschien der Chor
zuweilen im Beginn des Stiickes; sonst jedenfalls sehr
selten, seltener als man annimmt." Haigh 2 does not cite
full instances, but says authoritatively that "in all the fortyfour Greek plays which have come down to us hardly fifteen
certain examples are to be found." Niejahr would grant
about twenty-two, though he follows Pollux closely. Albert
Muiller gives what is supposed to be a complete citation of
instances, making the number of crossing-s of the "stage"
by the chorus about thirty-eight. But his list is not complete, even of the kind of passages he takes into account.
It is difficult to see on what principle, for example, he says
that the chorus in the Choephori come out of the palace
(iaXT ~ c 8wv
3av) without including the Troades also
( wo coM'lo-aoO' oI'wov), or why he does not count Agamemnon

1649 among the places where the chorus attack actors.
If my arguments in the preceding discussion have been
well grounded, the chorus alone pass over the boundary
line between the stage and the orchestra at least 68 times,
the chorus and actors together 9 times, and actors alone
39 times, making a total of 77 times for the chorus and
II6 times for both actors and chorus, rejecting all instances
o,

1 Das Biihnenwesen d. Griechen u. R6mer, 189 p. 276.
2 The Attic Theatre, 1889, p. 153.
1885. He gives no exact enumeration, nor does Miller.
De Pollucis loc.,

8

52

Edward Capps.

[I891.

classed as doubtful. We feel safe in saying that all of these,
as well as those marked doubtful and many others 1 that
would be suggested in the course of the action for the. sake
of dramatic effect, would be not only accepted, but regarded
as necessary if it were not felt that the supposed height
of the stage was an obstacle. When we take into account
that many of these (even those granted by Muiller) could
have been avoided by the poet had there been the slightest
difficulty in carrying out the action indicated, and that too
without any apparent loss of dramatic force, we cannot
believe that there was any barrier in the way.
It would
be hard to show, for example, what was gained by having
the chorus enter the palace during the action in Helen 327,
or go upon the "stage " in Heracles 731 and

1oo9;

and why

the chorus in Iphigenia at Aulis 598 help Iphigenia descend
from her chariot, but do not in like manner assist Andromache in Troades 5,68.
The following table is a summary of the instances of
interaction between "stage" and orchestra which we have
endeavored to establish, arranged in groups, showing those
granted by Muller, who is most natural and liberal in his
interpretation, and giving the results of the preceding portion of this paper.
1 One of the clearest indications that actors and chorus were at least very
near together is Iph. Taur. 1069, where Iphigenia earnestly begs the choreutae
severally to aid her (oa Kal o'r LKVOOFLCaL,
KTE.).

In Aristophanes are many passages

that have been cited by all scholars from the scholiasts down.

In two the chorus
hand actors something (Eq. 490, oil and garlic; Eq. 921, a ladle). But perhaps
these passages are wrongly assigned to the chorus. Meineke gives the Yormer to
oLKr71 a.
In Ach. 1224 Dicaeopolis pretends to get a wine sack from the priest
in the front row of seats, and in Ran. 293 Dionysus appeals to the priest for
protection. In Pax 906 Trygaeus offers Theoria to the prytanes in the theatre
and pretends that they receive her. In Pax 965 Trygaeus has barley thrown into
the audience. In Nub. I102 Dicaeus says that he "deserts to the side of the
rogues," referring to the audience. In all of these cases we cannot know how
strictly the action was carried out nor how much was broad jest. Hence no
argument can be based on them. On the other hand, their interpretation will
be much simplified if we find that there was no stage to hinder. Harzmann
,accepts all the above from Aristophanes (as White does also) and suggests a
great many others that we cannot, however, accept on his theory of the stage.

Vol. xxii.]

The Greek Stage.

53

TABLE OF THE INTER-ACTION BETWEEN ACTORS
AND CHORUS.
Passing between
" Stage" and
Orchestra.

No.

Occasion.

o
-cd
I

From palace to
orchestra.

*.

References.
0
55e~-

Cho. 22; Eum. 140; Troad. 154; Supp.
(2) 8; Eccl. .init.; Lys. 319; Ran. 350;
Thes. 312; Hel. 515 ; Lys. 1239; Ach. 280.

7

2

IO

2

From orchestra to Cho. fin.; Pers. 1038; Av. 1706; Hel.
palace.
327; Lys. 1182; Cyc. 82.

3

3

6

3

Chorus and actors (Cho., Pers., Av., Hel., No. 2) Eum. oo004;
depart together. Sept. Io66; Alc. 422; Supp. (I) 954; Aj.
1413; Phil. 1469; Cyc. 708; Supp. (2)
1232; Ion fin.,; Troad. 1325; Ach. 1231;
Ran. 1524; Eccl. 1149; P l u t. 1208; Vesp.
Lys. 1272; Pax 1339; Prom. 1o67.

1516;

13

4

17

7

7

568; Pers. 607, 909 ; O. C. 310; Ran. init.

7

7

Assembly scenes. Ach. init.; Eccl. 57 and Thesm. 292 (see also
No. i). Cf. Lys. init.

16

16

4

8

4

Chorus and actors (Cho., Hel., No. I) Ale. 861; Eccl. init.;
enter together.
Plut. 295; Elec. (2) 167; Supp. (i) init. ;
Ion init.; Phil. init.; Bacch. 55,; Av. init.

5

Chariot scenes.

6
7

Search scenes.

I. A. 598; Agam. 905; Elec. (2) 998; Troad.

Thes. 657;

0. C. Iii;

Eum. 244 and Aj. 865

(see also No. 3) ; Hec. 1054.

4

8

Altar scenes.

9

Chorus called to Aj. 328; Agam. 1372; Hipp. 790; Cho. 980;
palace - minor
H. F. 1032; H. F.731, 1109; Orest. 137;
instances -liSupp. (2) 815; Rhes. init.; Cho. 15o (No.
bation scenes.
I) ; Pers. 619; I. T. 167.
19

Io

Encounters between actors
and chorus.

Supp. (i) 188; 832 (see also No. 3); Sept. 94.

4

4

4

Supp. (1) 909 (No. 8); Agam. 1649; Ach.
280; Av. 344; Eq. 247; Vesp. 453;
Rhes. 675; Hel. 1627; 0. C. 856;
Heracleid. 2 7 0; Lys. 381 (No. I).

Italics = Doubtful, i.e. without clear proof from text.
Heavy-Faced Type= Granted by MUller (p. 124 ff.).

18
I8
68 39

He counts also

Prom. 281 (see p. 59, this art.); Orest. 1251 (p. 29); Pax 426 (pp. 52 and 76);
and Eq. 490 (p. 52).

* Deductions are made for instances that would be counted twice.

23

9

116

Edward Capps.

54
B.

[ 1891.

General Relation of Chorus to Actors.

The conclusion which we have been compelled to reach in
view of the preceding considerations, viz.: that the actors
played on practically the same level with the chorus, is supported also by the general relation of the chorus to the actors.
Following the history of the drama from the early dithyrambic chorus of fifty members, at which time the chorus alone
was the drama, down to the New Comedy, in which there
was, as a rule, no chorus whatever, we can trace a steady decline in the importance of the chorus, both as to the actual
number of verses assigned to it in each play and as to its
participation in the action. 1 At first the entire performance
consisted of dancing and song by the chorus. Then one actor
was introduced, so that the songs might be interspersed with
dialogue between the coryphaeus and the actor. Then another actor was introduced; and now there could be progress
in the action, which before this time had necessarily been
stationary, and a plot. To this period belongs what seems
to be our earliest extant play, the Suppliants of Aeschylus.
Here are never more than two actors on the scene at the
same time, and throughout several long passages only one,
and but three dramatis personae. The plot is exceedingly
simple, and, as we might expect, the chorus is very prominent.
To it are given fully three-fifths of the whole play. The chorus is the centre of interest, and the actors are but the means
of giving progress to the action. So we might trace a gradual
decline in the functions of the chorus through Sophocles,
Euripides, and Aristophanes. In some of the plays of the
two last poets it might easily be omitted altogether without
seriously affecting the symmetry of the composition. This is
particularly true of the last of the comedies of Aristophanes, the Plutus. In the New Comedy the chorus had disappeared.
But notwithstanding this manifest general tendency of
decline, there is never ,a period throughout which the chorus
1 See Haigh, Attic Theatre, p. 259 ff.

Vol. xxii.]

The Greek Stage.

55

is consistently so unimportant as it is in particular plays
. hich appeared during that period.
This is an important
fact to note. For example, the Bacchae of Euripides, whose
chorus reminds one of that of the older poets, was composed
in the same period with the Taurian Iphigenia, in which the
chorus is of so little interest that the poet himself at one
time actually forgets its presence.
And the Ecclesiazusae
of Aristophanes, during the early part of which the chorus
is as vital to the piece as in the Suppliants of Aeschylus, was
written between the Frogs, whose first chorus is not really a
chorus and whose second might easily be dispensed with, and
the Plutus, of which we have spoken before. The decline
of the chorus was so gradual that even toward the end of the
classical period there were frequent revivals of its old prominence. Therefore we cannot say, with Verrall,' that after
a certain date (431 B.c.) a high Vitruvian stage could have
been used. We have seen that Aristophanes demands fully
as low a stage as Aeschylus.
According to this general intimate relation of the chorus to,
the actor throughout the classical drama we should expect
that the usual position of the chorus during the play, when
they were neither mingling with the actors on the one hand,
n r engaged with their strictly choral duties in the orchestra
on the other, would be the position natural to an interested
auditor standing ready to take part in the conversation or, if
necessary, in the action; and we find many indications in the
plays themselves that this was the case. The choreutae are
generally the first to see and to announce each newly arrived
actor; the incoming actor often apparently sees, and, at any
rate, addresses them first, before turning to the actors who,
are present. 2

That this position of the chorus was in that part of the
orchestra nearest to the place for the actors is shown by the.
1Review

of Haigh's Att. Theat., Class. Rev., 1890, p. 225.

2 Examples are Pers. 246; Elec. (Eur.) 1442; Bacch. 205; Supp. (Eur.) 87;:

and Orest. 340. Harzmann, 1.c. p. 47, argues from these that the actors in
these places entered through the orchestra--an opinion that could hardly be
held with the old view of the stage, but which would be in harmony with the new.

Edward Capps.

56

[1891.

general expression 1 ol rXar or Edyyvs, by which the choreutae
are often addressed by actors, and by the more definite expre.ssions, yvvaiccs, at 7crTov8' &pb1 cp7wit7a9 8~opov, Ion 510o;
v/JAe 0'
7rapeoTa' E7 rTao-tv 0pac, Eccl. 114; eygy
-0-as
o-TCOT esT-dov, Pers. 686, where Atossa, who is of course on

the "stage," is said two verses before to be also 'rcov ewXas.
Still clearer for the use of the two words r'eXas and dyyus are
Aj. 1182, where the chorus, who are already on the "stage"

(see p. 34), are asked to stand " near by " the body of Ajax
('7~Xas rapdo-raTe); O. C. 803, where Oedipus speaks of the
choreutae as T70oo-;e T70o
srXa and we find them soon (856,

see p. 48) holding Creon back, as they had promised to do
in 724; and Supp. (Aesch.) 208, where the Danaids, with the
words OeXot ' av
o-o' ' lrXa9 Opo'vov
'xetv, go to their

2'8

father's side.
'rnXa9 and dyyvs, although, like our "far" and "near,"
only relative words, seem to mean in these passages either on
the "stage" or very near to it,2- nearer than one could
be and still see clearly what was going on upon a stage ten
or even six feet above him. We find that when the chorus

are farther away from this position than usual they are ob
Ae'Xa, as in Orestes 208.
There the chorus have been by
the side of Electra, but have at last been sent away by her,

for in 208 they can no longer see Orestes's face distinctly,
but Electra is still "near" him (see p. 44)
opa
j

wapoao-a, rap0ev' 'HXE'icTpa,
icccaavcv o-e o ir/yrov9 XX e''
7

7Xwies

o8e.

So in O. C. 165 the chorus are compelled to shout loudly to
Oedipus because he is so far away (wroXXK IEcevO0 dEparzeEL"
ickXeL ;).
It may be, however, that Oedipus is far back in
the grove in the rear of the scene, while the chorus cannot
go toward him beyond the limits of the sacred grove which
1 The following is, I think, a full list of similar expressions.

1182;

Ion 51o; Med. 1293; Ecc.

1114.

Milller gives Aj.

To these should be added O. C. 803;

O.T. 1047; Hipp. 777; Supp. (Aesch.) 208; and Pers. 686.

2 So near the actors that the poet does not hesitate to have the chorus hear
some one coming from the house and announce him to those who are on the
" stage," as in the Electra of Sophocles 1322.

Vol. xxii.]

The Greek Stage.

57

he is desecrating. Again, in Hipp. 565, the chorus have just
finished a long lyric song. They are silenced by Phaedra,
who hears the angry words of Hippolytus within the house.
From the agony and alarm expressed by the words and gestures of Phaedra they are filled with dread as they ask, 566:
t

o' 'dapa,
0g 7 L,

Bevov dv 80'otowt

o-ots ;

and 572:

ve

C

bo/3 Ei oe f4),aa, ryivat.

And so when Phaedra asks them to stand by the doors
and hear for themselves what she could not tell them, they
naturally excuse themselves with the words:
o-b 7raph iXyOpa*" o-ot L et 7rorta
4 Wrt9 &O/JAT(oV.
vere
8' evere tot, 71TOT' '3a icaco'v;

insisting still that she should tell them.
How far distant
they really are, vie cannot say. If they are only five feet dis1
tant, they could still speak as they do. But inasmuch as
they have just finished an ode they probably are still near
the centre of the orchestra.
Clearly if the chorus regularly stood so near the actors as
these passages indicate, and so often joined in the action
with the actors as we have seen, there was either no stage
at all, but both actors and chorus played on the same level,
or else, if there was a raised stage, it was very low in order
that the chorus might be able to fulfil the functions regularly
assigned to it.
C.

The Numbers brought upon the "Stage."

According to the rules of Vitruvius the depth of the stage
in an ordinary Greek theatre would be from eight to twelve
feet.2
Haigh 3 shows that this extreme narrowness is a
direct and necessary result of its height, inasmuch as the rear

rp~b

1Just as in Cyc. 635, dae-p JaKpdrepo
T6
OvpCv. This excuse of the
satyrs is not to be taken seriously. See p. 42, note.
2 At Epidaurus the depth is about 8 ft.; at Athens, 12 ft. Considerable deduction should be made from this depth for scenery.
8 Th., pp. 14o and 143.
Att.

Edward Capps.

[I891.

portions of a deeper stage would be partly hidden from many
He also defends this narrow stage on the
of the spectators.
ground that it was quite consistent with the general taste of
the Greeks, which preferred such scenes as are found on
temple friezes to the more modern group-scenes. But even
if we should grant that the Greeks were ignorant of or
disliked the superior effects that lie in the skilful grouping
of figures (and this no one who studies the Greek drama will
feel disposed to grant), it could still be readily shown that
many scenes are found in all the dramatic poets, particularly
in Aristophanes, in which the numbers brought upon the
stage are too great to be accommodated in so narrow a space.
We need mention only the trial-scene in the Eumenides,
which we have already seen to have been enacted on the
stage, if there was a stage. Orestes still stands by the statue
of Athene which had given him protection. On one side of
him sit the twelve judges of the court of Areopagus; on the
other, the twelve Furies. Athene presides. There are present also the servants of the temple, who at the close lead the
way out, bearing torches. How many these are we cannot
know; but since the poet desired to obtain a splendid spectacular effect by the procession they were probably numerous,
at least as many, we should say, as the chorus.
There were
therefore about forty persons on the stage and most of them
were probably seated. When we consider that in addition
space must have been found for the movable scenery, altars,
stage fittings,' etc., we must see the complete inadequacy of
a narrow Vitruvian stage for such a play. A deep modern
stage would be more in keeping with such a scene, in which
so good an opportunity is offered for effective grouping.
And yet in this scene there is no movement by the actors or
chorus, as in many scenes in which as large numbers appear.
It would be much more difficult to set the mock assembly
scene at the beginning of the Ecclesiazusae or the Acharnians, 2
1 On the large quantity of scenic apparatus often in use, see Sommerbrodt,
Scaenica, p. 150.

2 White, p. 188, gives several excellent illustrations from Aristophanes of an
overcrowded stage.

Vol. xxii.]

The Greek Stage.

59

in which the "stage," crowded with the speaker's stand
and with seats for the throng of citizens, must still furnish
room for numerous officers and for the coming and going of
actors. The argument which decided against the appearance
of chariots on such a stage now decides against such a stage
itself. If there was a stage at all, it must have been low
and broad in order to furnish sufficient space for the scenic
apparatus and the large numbers of mute and speaking actors
who were often brought upon it.
D.

Characterof the Scenic Setting in Certain Plays.

In certain plays it is impossible to suppose that any stage
whatever was used, in view of the character of the scenes
represented. These are the plays whose scenes are laid in
some wild, desolate region, where only natural objects would
be found, and in which anything approaching the conventional would be incongruous. The most striking play of this
kind is the Prometheus. "Its scene of action is a rocky,
desolate region 'at the end of the world,' in the north of
Scythia, near the ocean. The scenery represents a rocky
eminence with a gorge," 1 in which Prometheus was to be
bound. The chorus appear in a winged car, and, desiring to
heyr the story of Prometheus, descend from the car at his
reon est (272). The place where they alight could not well
have been the orchestra, at a considerable distance from the
Titan. They could have heard his story with greater ease
by iinaining in their car. But verse 252,
Kcpo6a~~

7T7e 7TreXCo,
'0ov4

shows that they were on the same rocky ground near which
Prometheus was fettered. They remain near him throughout the play. In the Io scene we can draw little distinction
as to position between Io and the chorus, except that the
former would occupy the more prominent place. They are
both intensely interested listeners to Prometheus,, and both
trke active part in the conversation. At the end of the play
1 Wecklein, Prom. Introduction, p. 25.

Edward Capps.

6o

[I891.

the chorus refuse to move from their position near Prometheus and so perish with him. A raised stage, or any distinction which would set a barrier between Prometheus and
the chorus, would utterly ruin the effect of this superb play.
If any attempt was made to represent to the eyes of the
spectators the scene as it is indicated by the poet, there was
no stage, any more than there would be an altar to Dionysus
in that wild, uninhabited region. The same arguments hold
good for Philoctetes and Cyclops, whose scenes are laid before
caverns; for Ajax, Hecabe, Iphigenia at Aulis, and Troades,
where the scene is before tents, amidst the surroundings
of the camp; for Oedipus at Colonus, whose scene is laid in
a grove; for Electra of Euripides, in the country before a
farmer's hut; for the Birds, on a perhaps slightly elevated
spot before the nest of Epops; and perhaps for Aeschylus's
Suppliants and Septem, since no indications are found in
them of scenery of any kind. It is a striking fact which
strongly tends to confirm what has been said about the absence of a stage as distinct from the orchestra in these plays,
that in every one of them without exception there is intimate
connection between the actors and the chorus. According to
our table, which was made on the hypothesis that there was
a dividing line between the place for the actors and the place
for the chorus, the chorus in these twelve plays cross this
boundary line at least twenty-seven times, to say nothing of
the Prometheus, in which they are with the actors throughout.
Nothing could be more evident, therefore, than that in these
twelve plays at least there was no stage whatever, and that
the actors were on the same level with the chorus except
when the scenery, imitating the nature of the place represented, may have shown one portion of the region somewhat
higher than the rest (e.g. in the Birds).

E.

Street Scenes in Aristophanes.

In Greek tragedy the scene is laid generally in front of
a palace or temple, sometimes before a tent or hut, or
before a cave in some uninhabited region. In all of them

Vol. xxii.]

The Greek Stage.

61I

the immediate place of action seems to be more or less
isolated from its surroundings. In the Eumenides we find
no indications of the bustle of city life at Athens, nor in the
Phoenissae are we made to feel that we are in the heart of
Thebes. But in comedy the case is quite otherwise. In some
comedies we are taken into the midst of the most active city
life, see the hurrying of people along the street, the gathering together in knots for the discussion of politics and the
war with Sparta, and scenes even more realistic than these.
The comedies whose scenes are laid in the city are Knights,
Wasps, Ecclesiazusae, Lysistrata, Thesmophoriazusae, and a
part of the Acharnians. Of these, the scene of the Lysistrata, excepting act first,.is laid before the Acropolis, the first
act of the Acharnians in the Pnyx, and the first act of the
Thesmophoriazusae before a private residence (the rest before
the Thesmophorium). We shall have no need especially to
consider these portions of the plays. There remain for discussion Wasps, Knights, Ecclesiazusae, and the opening
scene of the Lysistrata. In all of these a street of the city
is represented, and in them we may therefore look for a realistic presentation of the city life of the Athenians. In the
background are private dwellings in front of which runs the
city thoroughfare.
?The opening scene of the Ecclesiazusae has already been
described. One after another enter from various quarters
of the city, and gathering together before the house of Praxagora, they hold their meeting. That they afterwards fulfil
the functions of a chorus is incidental-no one of the spectators would have thought of the disordered crowd of women
as a substitute'for the well-trained, orderly chorus to which the
theatre was accustomed, and in fact they were not a chorus
in any true sense until they joined for their exit in 285. This
is shown by the early part of the Lysistrata, which is in
every respect similar to this part of the Ecclesiazusae, except
that the forms of an ecclesia are not imitated. The women
who enter into the lively discussion which resembles the
more formal meeting in the Ecclesiazusae fulfil throughout
the functions of actors. In the Lysistrata every scholar

62

Edward Calls.

[189I.

admits that all the participants in the action come in by the
doors in the scene and by the wings. That this is the case
in the Ecclesiazusae we have already seen, and the similarity
of its opening scene to that of the Lysistrata makes it still
more certain that the movements of the actors are the same.
The reason for this lies beyond the rules of Pollux and the
scholiasts. It is that the scene presented to the eyes of the
spectators is a street scene, approaching as nearly as possible to
a realistic representation. Now in a street scene actors could
enter from but three directions,-from the doors of the
houses which faced the street, 'or from the right or left
of the street which ran in front of the houses. For any
persons connected with the action to enter from the parodoi
into the orchestra facing the spectators, and then, turning, to
converse or commingle with others in front of the house,
would be altogether incongruous, -just as if during a similar
scene in a modern theatre a troop of actors should come out
of the doors connecting the auditorium and the wings, and,
passing around to the front of the stage, should then take
part in the action. It would be ruinous to the illusion of
a street scene. It should be remembered that the so-called
parodoi were parts of the theatre, and not of the scenery.
But if we assume that the Greeks would have tolerated so
great an incongruity, we must face at once a still greater
difficulty; for the incoming chorus would then find themselves far below the level of the street in which they were to
take their stand. Therefore in at least the four plays under
discussion all the dramatis personae, both actors and chorus,
must have entered either from the houses or from the wings.
If this is true, then we at once meet with another difficulty, if
we are to believe in a raised stage. We have preserved the
illusion, but in doing so we have brought upon a platform
from eight to ten feet in depth-a number too great to be
accommodated. In the first act of the Ecclesiazusae are seen
the fifteen women of the chorus and several actors; and yet
we must believe that after the women have taken their seats
for the mock assembly there is still room left for the passing
to and fro of actors. Even more are on this "stage " toward

Vol. xxii. ]

The Greek Stage.

63

the end of the piece and move about freely upon it; for
Blepyrus, at the summons of the maid-servant, moves off the
scene accompanied by the chorus and perhaps many others,
all dancing as they go (cf. 1149 ff.). So also in the Wasps and
in the Knights the fifteen choreutae make their charge upon
the actors on this narrow platform; and in the Wasps, while
the chorus is still present, the mock trial scene takes place.
This is impossible. These actions require as much space as
would be furnished by a narrow street in the city. A narrow
stage of any considerable height is out of the question.
Reference to a plan of the stage-buildings and orchestra of a Greek theatre will explain the setting of these
plays. If instead of supposing the action to take place on
the shallow roof of the proscenium we place it in front of the
proscenium, on Dorpfeld's theory, every movement is simple
nrd natural. There is ample room for any number. All
who enter come from the doors in the rear or through the
tide wings. The side wings and the parodoi are one and the
same thing and well represent the streets of the city, opening
upon which are the houses in the rear. The orchestra is
merely a widening of the street.' When the chorus disappeared from the drama and less space was needed for the
presentation, a portion of the orchestra was occupied by the
seats reserved for the nobility, and, in order that the place
for spectators might be distinct from that for the actors, this
reserved portion was reduced in level so that the inner part
of the former orchestra presented the appearance of a low
.and broad platform. This was the Roman stage of Vitruvius.
The Greek "stage" of Vitruvius was the proscenium, which
he wrongly supposed to be the place for actors. The scenes
from Aristophanes which we have here examined are forerunners of the new comedy as we know it from its Roman
adaptations.
These street scenes are the stock scenes of
Plautus and Terence. The entrances used in them are the
same as in the Roman poets.
1 See Darpfeld's Recension of Haigh's book in Berl. Phil. Woch. 1890, 470.

Edward Capps.

64
II.

[1891.

DIRECT EVIDENCE ADDUCED IN FAVOR OF AN
ELEVATED

STAGE.

We have seen that in many plays the character of the
scene and, in the whole classical drama, the relation of the
chorus to the actors, their numbers and movements during
the action declare strongly against a stage of any considerable
height. It remains to consider the evidence that has been
or may be drawn from the plays in favor of the opposing view.
Although in view of the preceding arguments the existence
of the Vitruvian stage could hardly be proved, yet possibly
some support may be found for Haigh's theory that during
the early classical period the theatre had a stage of moderate
height, so low as not to hinder to any great extent the movements required in the presentation of the play, yet high
enough to distinguish the actors from the chorus, and that
this stage was gradually increased in height as the importance of the chorus declined. We have seen that the stage
of Aristophanes must have been fully as low as that of Aeschylus. Perhaps the supposed increase in height took place
during the period of the Middle Comedy. However this may
be, if there was a stage of any height during the classical
period, we may reasonably expect to find in the plays produced during that period (I) words of direction accompanying
the ascending to or descending from this stage, (2) expressions which can be explained only on the supposition of
difference of level, and (3) scenes which could have been
presented only on an elevation.
I. Though both chmrus and actors in tragedy often, as we
have found, have occasion to pass from the portion of the
theatre, that lies nearest the rear wall of the scene to the
open space of the orchestra, and vice versa, and thoupgh in
many other passages also words of command that would
require such movements are given but not obeyed, yet there
is not one word of direction, either prepositional or adverbial,
that indicates a change of level. On the contrary, the prepoo, Ec, e s, dw, 7rpd, 7rpo', and r-apcd, alone and in
sitions

The Greek Stage.

Vol. xxii.]

65

verbal compounds, and their corresponding adverbs, or even
in many cases the simple verb unaccompanied by preposition
or adverb, are found when the action is such as we have
described, but never ave and ;cara. This is at least a singular fact and difficult to explain except on the supposition that
there was no difference between the level of actors and chorus.
At other times when an actor ascends or descends, the action
is made evident by some word or expression in the context,
as in the Suppliants (Eur.) 1045 and in the Phoenissae 193.
The poet could have had no desire to avoid indicating a difference of level if there was such a difference.
The same general rule holds good for comedy. In at least
forty instances, of inter-action between actors and chorus in

Aristophaned no word i., used which might indicate a change
of level. But believers in the Vitruvian stage have found
six passages whose positive testimony, they claim, outweighs
the unanimous negative testimony of tragedy and the gen2
Three times the verb Ava3aiveLv is

eral rule in comedy.

found where it has been made to refer to the height of the
stage, and twice xaraavewv and once (see p. 68) a similar
expression.' First we shall examine the occurrences of ava-/3aive v.

In Knights 148 the Sausage-seller as he enters is hailed by
OlrKiT)nS a' as follows:
8e€po
ava/arve ocov p

T

w6Xrra

8

63p'pwO trare"

Kat v v

avet9.

Two scholia upon this passage give the two explanations:
which have since prevailed.

I.

7ay AXoye ov avatp.

8t

E'rr

Syap

ovcK avaykcaov.
Tb Xoy7e0v Eto-evat.

II.

va,

rio-l

rT ce/ 7Tr,

,

ic

7T4 rrapo'vou

rapoSov ;

rovro

XEKTe
Oiv
V BTt aova3alvety dkgE7ETO TO Ert
o Ka 7rpdoicKeLra. Xeyera yap KcaTa/3a-

viv TO a7rraXXacTc-Oaz
evpEvicv ' ro7Ol rraXatoi3EOvu.

In Acharnians 732 the' Megarian who has just arrived add esses his daughters:
1 These passages have often been cited and discussed. See Professor White's
clear and convincing discussion of the first five in Harvard Studies II., p. I64 ff.
Tlhough my conclusions are practically the same as his in the case of -av- and
KcafraaivCV, they are given in full for the sake of completeness.

66

Edward Capps.

7

a)XX ov'7p4

dpta

KaOXo

/ aav, a' X
adL/aT 7 roTTavrrV

[1891.
71aTpdo,

Vp'lTE rra.

Finally in Wasps 1342 Philocleon, who is just entering from
one of the wings, calls to the music girl:
3
ava/ atve Gepo Xpvo-ot'rXoXdvOtov.

It is to be noticed with regard to these three passages that
the commands are all addressed to newly arrived actors; that
the action of the piece does not require that they should enter
in any but the usual way; and that only the occurrence of the
word ava3alvetv has given rise to the explanation of Scholiast I and his followers, that the actors entered through the orIf, therefore, we can
chestra and then ascended the " stage."
find any suitable meaning of ava/aiveLv in these passages we
shall be justified in rejecting an interpretation which seems
artificial, and in following the natural suggestions of the text.
The interpretation of Scholiast II, that ava- and icaat3acveLv have the meanings do-tevat and draXXckrTeoOat, is
at first thought attractive. It admits of an explanation
on historical grounds also. As Dirpfeldl shows, dva3aivetv
would be the natural term for the "entering " of an actor in
the early days of the drama, when the spectators sat on the
level ground and the single actor mounted the table or platform. When in the course of the development of the drama
rising tiers of seats were erected and actors and chorus freely
mingled on a level surface, these terms would still continue
to be used, though now as stereotyped terms. But in the
three passages under discussion even this interpretation,
which avoids the supposed mounting of the stage, is not
the natural one.
In each of these passages the actor to
whom the word avaalivetv refers has already appeared upon
the scene, so that the technical meaning of the word cannot
properly be used. If we look once more at the passage from
the Knights, we shall see that ava- adds nothing whatever to
the GSepo of the preceding line, and that the whole meaning
of Ava/avev is again expressed in ep' iXl of the line fol1 Recension of Haigh's Att. Th., Berl. Phil. Woch. 189o, 468.

Vol. xxii.]

The Greek Stage.

lowing. ol/cer dtcalls to the Sausage-seller, "Here, here,
my dear fellow, come up (or over) here and show yourself a
saviour to the city and to us; come here;"
vd/3caLve seems
to mean no more than "approach." This meaning satisfies
Wasps 1342 also. The music girl has come in after Philocleon through one of the wings, and he, turning to her, tells
her to " come up" to him. Simply SeIpo
might have
been used. The same rendering fully satisfies Acharnians
732. This force of the preposition avd, conveying the idea
of direction to or over, is not uncommon.1 We may compare
Acharnians 245 avd8oc epo TV dirv pvo-tv, "hand over here
the soup ladle," and Xenophon's Symposium 2, 8 wrapeo-'rccov

naive

8E Tr 7i)pxo-orp
i Avec818ov ToS70 rpoxovs and the use of
va/alvetv and avaXeopEiv with the meaning of " pass over,"
Herodotus 7, 205 dE Aewovi v Avi/gatvv 4 #/ao-tX t" (cf. Hdt,
l r
7, 5 avaXogpetv) and avte'vat in the Iliad
492:

22,

eybyLevo e/

7 avet o-T wr

dE

-rarps

dratpovo.

We may, therefore, dismiss the traditional rendering of these
passages from our discussion, without passing judgment
against the statement of Scholiast II, that Ava/alvetv was
used aro 70Tov aXaeoiJ d'Oove with the meaning of elo-ivac.
The two occurrences of icaragalveev are as follows: In

Wasps 1514 Philocleon has challenged tragic poets to a contest in dancing. The sons of Carcinus appear. With the
words
arrov !uoL
Trap carap/3arov r' irr'
he enters into the contest while the chorus draw back to
make room.
Toward the end of the Ecclesiazusae the
chorus alone are on the scene, A servant enters, inquires for
the master, and on his entrance invites them all to dinner.
The invitation is accepted, and the chorus in I151 say:
ri 86pa Sarpttvs XOcV, aXX' OVb dyect
Taa' XaL3v ; Ev o-' &8 caaalvect9,
E7co
e7ra0o/at

pe'Ao

Tt

/eXXAo8et7'rvecov.

Then follows a dance, during which all go out together.
1 See Niejahr's arguments on this point, Quaes. Arist. Scaen., p. 28.

68

Edward Capps.

[I189I.

It happens that in both these scenes there .s dancing at
the close of the play. This would certainly have taken place
in the orchestra. Moreover, in both cases an actor mingles
with the chorus. Hence so long as men believed in a raised
stage it was natural that the verb should have been thought to
be an indication of its height. But as regards the first instance, scholars from Stephanus down have given the verb the
undoubtedly correct meaning of "descendere in certamen,"
as if we had in the text icaa/a'eov
el
ycwv' 7r' aboue, for
which we have the authority of several classical writers. As
to the second passage, which is the only passage remaining which can be quoted as evidence of a raised stage
because it contains Ava or lcaTc, we must rest upon the statement of the scholiast and give it the meaning of craXXdrre-

aOat, though we can furnish no other example of this use,
and must admit that the whole situation is puzzling.
The one other instance under this class that has been
quoted to prove a raised stage is Lysistrata 286 ff. The
chorus of old men are making their entrance and advancing
towards the citadel, complaining of the difficulty of the

journey:

hXX'

''TO
ryap

Xot7rdv EO
TO 7rp0

7r0dX1T 70 o

t

pot

TS

P! o ov,
Joo7t

6'o

v

E).

-GtlUv, the scholiast says, was o'vo~a Xoplov 70o rrps T)v
1
o
To ctLoYv avLT 70r pqoo-avres, and Niejahr, going
a cporoXTv
Tr

still further, adds: "scalas, ni fallor, quibus ex orchestra
in proscenium escendebatur, per jocum significantes." But
the fact that this chorus and the chorus of women passed
over this same ground again and again during the course
of the play, and without another reference to the difficulty,
shows that there was no such "pulpitum " to ascend as Droysen and others believed. We must beware of taking Aristophanes too seriously. No characteristic of his is better
recognized than the liberty he took in drawing on the imagination of his audience.
If the actors said that it was night,
1 De Poll. loc., p. vI.

The Greek Stage.

Vol. xxii.]

69

to them it was night, though in reality it was midday; if
they said they were going up hill, the spectators could be
trusted to believe that the way was steep, even if it were
on a dead level. This was comparatively .but a slight dePrecisely the same thing is found in
mand upon them.
tragedy. In Electra (Eur.) 489 ff., the old servant coming through one of the wings complains of the steepness of
the path:
wpSojao-Lv vriv' 8pliav otiov EXe

(1

fvo-

Tw;e 7rpopj3va

VypOVT

v7o8.

No one has ever yet, on the strength of these words, advanced
the view that the actor entered through the orchestra and
uttered these words as he climbed the steps to the stage,
and yet it indicates an ascent much more clearly than any
of the cases from comedy which we have quoted. The actors
in all these cases kept the same level.
2. We now come to our second class, - references by
actors to the elevation of the position they occupy. Albert
Muiller ' cites Peace 564 as showing that the chorus were on a
lower level than the speaker. Hermes sees the chorus with
their mallets and mattocks, and says:

) IIoo-eLov
caL 7rvicvov

cosca
cat

Ov

7

yopyov

o-r o

arc

oX-7wep Laa

Wv caiveTa

ca

wavoato-La.

It is difficult to see what evidence can be gained from these
words one way or the other. Miiller's second passage, Birds
268 ff., is fully as weak. He claims that the conversation
between the two Athenians during the entrance of the chorus
of birds indicates that the birds were below them; cf. 263 ff.:
II o-.

"XXo v V,
'yr
'A
opas T"vopvtv; Ev. caTv
"
KcaLTOL KEX7V 7EsX Tv oUpavovPXE7Trov,

and 296 ff.:
3

E v.

'ovac4 "A7roXXov Toi
ob'

1teitv Er
7'o-O v
Br

vYIov*•

abvTrov 7revTOLeow

1 Biihnenalt., p. 109.

lo0o,
T)v efo0ov.

70

Edward Capps.

[r89r.

If we can infer anything from the above, it is that the birds
were above the actors, "like a cloud." Muller cites further
from the same play 175 ff. Pisthetaerus is talking to Epops:
II

to-.

X fovr

aT
-

E.
E

KIaL O8
II

'E7.

I t oa.

XfWrwO.
Ec&i
cTt;

II

.

7ro.
paye

E w. r

o-.

/3X67o.

hXE7re

vlv 'avw.

70 Tpc TylX0ov.

vse(e'Xasr
ye

a' 7)ov opavov.

If all were on a level, it is claimed, the command to "look
down " would be absurd. But this is pushing the words
quite too far again. These commands are intended to be
ridiculous. It is not impossible, however, since the scenery
of the Birds is wild and unconventional, that there was
a rising ground to represent the home of the birds and the
city in the air, but we cannot make this passage the basis
of such a view.
Danaus in Suppliants (Aesch.) 713 tells the chorus of the
approach of the ship of their pursuers :
iKcerasocou yap
70)

This

i~ceaa

6

ico

70o-8

a7T

o-icorr/9 opco

7rXotov.

o-to7r

was near the altars of the gods and

therefore on the "stage."
Was Danaus necessarily above
the chorus; and if so, was it his position on the "stage" 1
that made him so ? Both these questions, we think, can be
answered in the negative. In the first place, again we do
not know how much in such a case was left to the imagination. In 18o Danaus, from probably the same position, not
only saw the cloud of dust made by the approaching army,
which the chorus does not see, but also hears the o-tptyyee
&aovrXarot, which the chorus does not hear.
Is this too

made possible by his holding a higher position? Secondly,
supposing that it should still seem necessary that Danaias
in 713 should be higher than the chorus, why should he not
1 No argument can be based on rdv e
of Danaus, any more than in Prom. 130.

rdryov

in 189, which refer to the station
rdyos is not necessarily a " hill." Cf.

Miiller in Phil. Anz. 15, 528, where he takes up other passages here discussed.

The Greek Stage.

Vol. xxii.]

71

have mounted the steps of the altar?l In support of this
proposed alternative is Knights 169, where the Sausageseller, by mounting the small table which he had brought in
with him, is said to have beheld all the outlying islands:
Icat icrtE

Le
T

v4o-ovs'

aro-a'

Ev icvKcX(.

In either case no argument can be based on this passage.
3. Muller 2 gives four passages in which the chorus disappear for a short time from the view of the actors, and endeavors from these to show that the only place where they could
have been completely hidden without leaving the scene altogether was under the front wall of the stage twelve feet high.
The passages are Choephori 872 ff.:
a7roo-TaO~&ev
(SOcC/LE
tV

oe7rwa

"ppar/oaTo TeXovivOV,
TW '

avat~rta KatcGow

ELIat.

Heracles Io8 I ff. :
2

cOMvry
/wa,7
ic/ETE
v8p'

yEpOv7TE%,

t7TOrpO &O/ATV

tapyov

ceVyETEre

EerT7Lpoevov.

Acharnians 240 ff.:
ovTro

avTOSd

Ecrro&O

ElTL

Oocrvwc

372h eV.
Ov

o/p avp

Co
seic'

&8eVpor~a

AXX,

pea,

and Ecclesiazusae 496 ff.:
&XX' eta Sevp Erl o-ctav
EXOof3oa 7pbOS TO TeLXiov
7rapaphXerovo-a OaTe'p
7rdaXv LETao-Kcedage aoavr2)v alse

Wrep

To-Oa.

Muller believes that a platform was erected in the orchestra to within a few feet of the stage level. Therefore he
is compelled to suppose that the chorus in these scenes
descend from this platform to the ground of the orchestra
1

As Miiller suggests, and Niejahr De Poll. loc., pp. Ix and xxI.
2 Biihnenalt, p. 135 and Phil. Anz., 15, 528.

72

Edwardy

[1891.

Capps.

(except in Ach. and Eccl., where they are just entering)
and then pressed close to the wall of the proscenium. Since
this raised platform, which he terms the "thymele," has
been discarded, and since our preceding arguments have
shown that there was no raised stage which would afford the
shelter here needed, it rests with us only to explain how
these passages were presented in order that the last difficulty
in the way of accepting the new theory of the stage may
disappear.
To the four citations of Muiiller should be added Tippolytu's from 6oi to 6o8, during which interval the chorus are
supposed not to be present,' Electra (Eur.) 220-297, if the
chorus obey the words of Electra 218 ff.:

Ov

0-

/tev KaT' o"LO,

Et9 &J/1&V9 8'

Ey

ATaS icacovpyovS eaXvaywev 7rorI,

and perhaps Hecabe 1055 ff., where it is probable that
the chorus would follow the example of Hecabe herself
1054 ff.:
X'

'KWro&Ov dareLL K'aroo'T? o/lat

3
axw TU7c.
E
OVIUv EuT L eov /c& vpyKL

In none of these passages, I agree with Muller, do the
chorus leave the scene entirely. I cannot agree, however,
that they went to a position where they could not themselves see the actors, as the theory of Muller requires.
Indeed, as the context of the first passage cited by him
shows, the chorus in the Choephori are seen by the servant
who comes out to give the alarm (because they do not
answer she complains that she is "shouting to the deaf,"
KccoboZ dv(), and as soon as they see Clytemnestra led into
the palace and the last danger to them removed, they sing
the choral ode from their usual station. In the Heracles also
Amphitryon with the chorus sees his son awake.
The
words of Heracles as he first awakes, I lo6 ff.:
I It is possible, however, that here again Euripides simply forgets the presence
of his chorus. Very similar is the hiding of Orestes and Pylades in the early part
of the Choephori; they undoubtedly withdrew into the wings.

The Greek Stage.

Vol. xxii.]

C;,

TIyy v7

7rpOc-co

o yvotav o rcTc T7v

bXOv

LclP t
y

73
C Op,

-ETat ;

are to be considered only the words of a man not yet fully
awakened from sleep. We must remember, too, that he is
lying bound to a pillar, not in the usual station of actors.
But all of the features peculiar to hiding scenes that are
found in the other passages are combined in that of the
Acharnians. Let us accordingly examine it more at length.
The scene is as follows: Dicaeopolis is marching from his
house following his slaves and daughter, preparing to celebrate the "rural Dionysia," while his wife is an interested
spectator from the roof of the house. The chorus have just
been entering from a parodos in eager pursuit. Seeing
Dicaeopolis coming out of his house and feeling certain that
he is the man they want (239), they withdraw from his sight.
Then they await their chance. Dicaeopolis marches a considerable distance, all intent on making the finest possible
display with his parade, and happy in the thought of the
pleasure still to come, when without a word of warning the
chorus spring up and pelt him with stones. 280 ff.:
oro70

auTO'S' EoTP, o0u70.

3daxxe

$dXXe

$dxxe

/3axxe.

Though they do not lay hands on him, they apparently hem
him in on all sides, giving no opportunity of escape. Three
facts are clear: (i) That the chorus are in a position to watch
him closely while they are in hiding from him ; (2) that Dicaeopolis marches a long distance (247-280) from his house;
(3) that he comes very near the hiding-place of the Acharnians, so that there is no way of escape for him on their
sudden attack. The only hiding-place that would fulfil all
these conditions is the parodos of the orchestra. To be sure,
Dicaeopolis could have seen them after he had gone some
distance in the orchestra; but, if the poet so wished, he could
also easily avoid seeing them without injury to the illusion.
We have only to recall such scenes on the modern stage to
realize how simple this explanation is.

The reLXiov in Eccle-

74

Edweard

1891

Caps.

siazusae 497, which Muller claimed could be nothing but the
wall of the proscenium, may just as well be the wall of the
parodos. That this conclusion is correct is established by
comparison with Clouds 324 ff.:
Sap.
t

epE iro3 ; kbetov.

e oar ka opco.

bo. Xwpoo-' a aL ravv 7oXXai.
Tp.
t 7t
-Xryltat.

ta, tawov, aibatc

v
oV KoXoXa)
w.r

ap

TI'V

e'aov.

rTp. br7

i vvv

jLOXL9 0'7T0.

The chorus of clouds are just entering, of course through the
parodos, where they had been for some time singing in concealment. Lest objection be raised that by this explanation
of the scene in the Acharnians Dicaeopolis, an actor, is made
to go into the orchestra, it may be well to add that, now that
we are sure that there was no stage, all former objections
to the movement of actors and chorus out of what has been
considered their appropriate positions now disappear. We
may now interpret much more freely, and in many instances
we see how the action is rendered much more simple and
effective, if actors may enter through the parodos and the
chorus through the wings, and if both move about the whole
available space with perfect freedom.
One entire play still remains, the Birds, and a large portion of the Peace, which we are told would require an elevation. As to the former, it is doubtful if the home of the
birds was represented as above the earth. As we have seen,
this play is one of those in which the scenery must have been
wholly unconventional in character, representing a rough,
stony region in the foreground, and in the background the
home of Epops, a cavern among the rocks (54) or a hut in the
midst of bushes and shrubbery. As Euelpides and his companions toilingly make their way from the parodos through
the orchestra to this hut, though they speak much of the
difficulty of the way, they say nothing about its steepness. When at last they draw near to the house of Epops,
still uncertain of their way, they are directed to his house
by the raven, 49 ff.:

The Greek Stage.

Vol. xxii.]

HIIo.
c.
Iva rT pa

eL.

avo)ceX~pceja

75

Kopcovy7
/LOL 7rdXa

E v. Xw ICoXotLo oUTo"

Vo'crwpet

3

EKcv;

Tb /TLpt.

At once they beat the wall with a rock, and Trochilus comes
out. This pointing of the birds is the only indication of
height in the play. But there is nothing in this to prove that
the Athenians ascended. The raven looked up to the nest of
the birds; without going further the travellers knocked. If
some height seems requisite, however, it could easily have
been made by building up the space in front of the rear wall
This supposition would
in imitation of natural scenery.
satisfy those who would interpret strictly the words, icarco
l.E-

rc

(I175).

The following is the situation in the Peace: At the close
of the farmyard scene Trygaeus mounts a huge beetle, and
after a perilous passage in the air reaches safely the home
of Zeus. Learning that the goddess Peace is imprisoned
in a deep cave covered with stones, which was probably represented at one side in the rear, he summons farmers from
the earth to assist in dragging her out. They at once appear, forming the chorus. Trygaeus, Hermes, and the chorus
all (490 ff.) lay hold of a rope, and finally draw Peace forth.
The farmers go back to earth as they appeared, but Trygaeus,
when ready to descend, cannot find his beetle and is at a loss
how to reach the earth, 725 ff.:
Tp.

y' o KaTa/3ro-o/ aLt; 'Ep. Oapp,
W7rw' 8]'
7v rv Oeov.
7yL 7rap' avT3

iaXoa

"

Following the direction of Hermes he soon after appears
below, before his own house.
On the old view of the stage the natural interpretation of
this interesting scene, viz.: that Trygaeus actually ascended
to an elevation representing the court of Zeus, presented
great difficulties. This elevation would be the distegia above
the stage. The chorus would be compelled first to mount
the stage and then to ascend by some means to this narrow
platform, where the lively action described took place. This
Hence SchOnborn argues that the
would be impossible.

76

Edward Capps.

[1891.

chorus and actors were not actually together when they
hauled out the goddess, but that a rope passing over a pulley
above was thrown to the chorus in the orchestra. This is
too fanciful. It would not only ruin the illusion if Trygaeus
in heaven were conversing with the choreutae on earth,
but every circumstance of the scene demands that all should
be together; (I) the chorus are told to be quiet lest they disturb Polemus who is within the palace (309 ff.); (2) the choreutae and Trygaeus are about to carry away the stones from
the cave, when Hermes interrupts them (301); finally (3)
when Hermes grants permission to proceed, he instructs them
(427) to go into 1 the avrpov paO, in order to take away the
stones which are piled on the goddess. Geppert's 2 view
seemed on the whole the most satisfactory. "Der Held des
Stiickes selbst erscheint auf seinem Kafer in der Luft um
in den Himmel zu fliegen. Die Illusion des Steigens aber
wurde dadurch hergestellt, dass die Scene um ihn herabgelassen wurde und eine neue Decoration sich zeigte, die den
Pallast des Zeus darstellte..... .. Sobald dies geschehn
war, stieg Trygaos von seinem Mistkiifer ab und befand sich
vor der Wohnung des Zeus." This explanation obviated the
The main objection to it was
difficulty about the chorus.
that it was not a natural explanation. Too severe a strain
through too long a time is laid upon the imagination of the
spectators, who are compelled to believe that the house of
Trygaeus, before which the sty of the beetle had just been
seen, and where the servants and family had just watched
with anxiety the exciting voyage in the air, represents a
moment later the palace of Zeus. Moreover, the alarm of
Trygaeus on finding his beetle lost would be almost too ludicrous if he'were in reality in front of his own house on earth.
On D6rpfeld's view of the "stage," these difficulties dis1 el~tdvres. Since the chorus are, in my opinion, on the same level with the
actors, Bachmann's conjecture of el iovre is gratuitous (Conj. Arist., p. 133, cited
in Berl. Phil. Woch., 1891, 166). The cave was" deep," hence the usual meaning
of eicrlvac (Droysen, p. Ii) satisfies. The stones need not have filled the cave.
2 Die altgr. Biihne, p. I67. Niejahr, Quaes. Arist. Scaen., p. 21, adopts this view
except as to the change of scenery. White, p. I75, gives practically the same
interpretation as Geppert, with the difference that the former knows no stage.

Vol.

xxii.]

The Greek Stage.

77

appear and the natural explanation becomes possible. Trygaeus ascends to the roof of the proscenium, on which the
whole he.ven scene is enacted.
The chorus of farmers appear on it to help in the release of Peace. How did they reach
this elevation ? Obviously not by a ladder or stairway from
the orchestra, for if this means were at hand Trygaeus would
not have needed a beetle for his ascent nor have been
alarmed at its disappearance when about to descend. They
must have entered through one of the doors leading from the
ends of the proscenium into the stage buildings. By this
way they again disappear, and it is probable that Hermes
points to this means of exit with the words 'y1

Trap'

abrv

Oe6v.
There still remains the objection that it would be
injurious to the illusion for Trygaeus in heaven to shout to
the earth for help, but this objection may be made to any
other view.
It is no more possible to avoid confusion
between heaven and earth in this play than between earth
and Hades in the Frogs.1 The only objection which still
remains is that a very large number of persons would be
made to appear at the same time on the roof of the proscenium. This may have been large enough for them, but at any
rate it is noticeable that during this scene there is no song
by the chorus that would require dancing. If we are right
in the above explanation, then this is the only instance of
any considerable use of the roof of the proscenium 2 in the
extant dramas of the Greeks.
I have endeavored to show that the evidence drawn from
the movements of the actors and chorus in the extant plays
1 On such license in the Old Comedy, see Niejahr, Com. Scaen., p. 13.
2 The other occasions are as follows: The watchman in the Agamemnon is
first seen upon the roof of the house. In the Phoenissae (cf. 193), Antigone and
her attendant ascend to the roof to see the approaching armies. In the Suppliants (Eur.), Euadne climbs a height from which she may leap upon the funeral
pyre (cf. 990-1070). In the Lysistrata, Myrrhina looks down from the battlements and parleys with those below (cf. 870-85). In the Wasps, Bdelycleon is
seen upon the roof guarding against his father's escape (cf. 136 ff.). The wife of
Dicaeopolis views the procession from the roof, in the Acharnians (cf. 262).
Lastly, in the Clouds, Strepsiades mounts a ladder to set fire to the roof of the
phrontisterion (cf. 1485 ff.).

78

Edward Caffs.

[1891.

is decidedly in favor of the supposition that there was no stage
in the Greek theatre of classical times; that the want of positive evidence in favor of a raised stage strengthens this
supposition; that the slight evidence which may be adduced
in favor of an elevated stage can be satisfactorily explained
away by what seems to me to be a more natural and reasonable interpretation; and that there is no scene in any of the
extant dramas that could not be readily set without any stage
whatever. As the archaeological evidence from existing ruins
in favor of this view is becoming more and more convincing,'
we may fairly believe that this vexed question will soon reach
a definite settlement.
1 For accounts of the recent discoveries at Megalopolis and Eretria see Berl.
Phil. Woch., 1891, 418, 514, and 673, and Jour, Hell. Stud., 1890, p. 294.

INDEX
OF

SITUATIONS

DISCUSSED.

Acharnians: Dicaeopolis goes into orchestra, Io, n. I, and 74; closing scene, 17;
assembly scene, 29; action of chorus prevented, 42; similar action executed,
47; Dicaeopolis approaches priest in audience, 52, n. 2; inadequacy of a
"stage" for opening scene, 61; Avaalvery v. 733, 65; chorus hide from
actors, 71; roof of proscenium used, 77, n. 2.
Agamemnon: long silence of Clytemnestra, 23; chariot scene, 28; chorus go
to aid Agamemnon, 38; they attack Aegisthus, 47; roof of proscenium used, 77,
n. 2.

Ajax: closing scene, 15; finding of body of Ajax, 34; chorus called to tent, 37;
scenic setting, 60.
Alcestis: chorus join actors in funeral procession, 14.
Andromache: chorus prevented from entering palace, 41.
Bacchae: entrance of chorus, 25; importance of chorus, 55.
Birds: closing scene, Io; actors enter through orchestra, 25; chorus attack
actors, 47; scenic setting, 60 and 74; inference as to height of stage from
vv. 175 ff. and 263 ff., 69.
Choephori: entrance of chorus, 8; their exit, Io; chorus called to "stage," 39;
libation scene, 45; hiding of chorus, 71.
Clouds: actors communicate with audience, 52, n. 2; entrance of chorus, 74; roof
of proscenium used, 77, n. 2.
Cyclops: goats driven over' "stage," 12; closing scene, 16; action of chorus
prevented, 42; scenic setting, 60.
Ecclesiazusae: chorus enter from houses in background, 9 and 3o; chorus
depart and return with actors, 18 and 20; assembly scene, 29; importance
of chorus, 55; numbers in opening scene, 58; street scene, 61; KaraalveLP
v. 1151, 67; hiding of chorus, 71.
Electra (Eur.) : entrance of chorus, 21; chariot scene, 28; scenic setting, 60;
inference as to height of "stage" from v. 489, 69; brief withdrawal of
chorus, 72.

Electra (Soph.) : chorus announce to actors those coming from palace, 56.
Eumenides: entrance of chorus, 8; closing scene, 13; Orestes tracked by chorus,
33; numbers in trial scene, 58.
Frogs: entrance of chorus of Mystae, 9; closing scene, 17; entrance of Xanthias on the ass, 29; unimportance of choruses, 55; necessary confusion
between earth and Hades, 77.
Hecabe: Polymnestor pursues Hecabe, 35; action of chorus prevented, 41;
scenic setting, 60; hiding of chorus, 72.
79

80o

Index.

Helen: chorus enter palace, II and 52; chorus lay hold of an actor, 48; hasty
action of chorus, 50.
Heracleidae: chorus on "stage," '8.
Heracles: chorus approach palace, 40 and 43; enter with Amphitryon, 43 and
52; brief withdrawal of chorus, 71.
Hippolytus: chorus go to Phaedra's aid, 38; distance of chorus from "stage,"
57; brief withdrawal of chorus, 72.
Ion: closing scene, 16; chorus enter with actors, 23; chorus prevented from
entering temple, 42.
Iphigenia at Aulis: chariot scene, 27 and 52; scenic setting, 60.
Iphigenia in Tauris: libatioh scene, 45; chorus approached in supplication, 52,
n. 2; unimportance of chorus, 55; scenic setting, 6o.
Knights: chorus attack actors, 47; street scenes, 61; dvapatvewtv v. 149, 65.
Lysistrata: entrance of chorus, 9; chorus enter citadel, II; closing scene, 19;
,
resemblance of opening scene to assembly scene, 31 n. 2; fight between the
choruses, 49; street scene, 61; inference as to height of "stage " from vv.
289 if., 68; roof of proscenium used, 77, n. 2.
Medea: advance of chorus to palace prevented, 41.
Oedipus Coloneus: Ismene on horseback, 29; search by chorus, 33; chorus lay
hold of Creon, 48; scenic setting, 60.
Orestes: the d/a
srpipo3 v. 1251, 29; chorus by the bed of Orestes, 44 and 56.
Peace: closing scene, 19; communication of actors with audience, 52, n. 2; inference as to height of " stage " from vv. 564 ff., 69; setting of heaven scene, 75.
Persians: closing scene, 10 and 50; chariot scene, 28; libation scene, 45.
Philoctetes: closing scene, 15; entrance of chorus, 24; action of chorus prevented, 42; scenic setting, 60.
Phoenissae: clear indication of height, 65; roof of proscenium used, 77, n. 2.
Plutus: closing scene, 18; entrance of actors through orchestra, 21; unimportance of chorus, 55Prometheus: closing scene, 19; scenic setting, 60.
Rhesus: chorus approach Hector's tent, 45; chorus seize actors, 47.
Seven against Thebes: closing scene, 14; chorus flee to the altars, 37; scenic
setting, 60.
Suppliants (Aesch.) : closing scene, I5; opening scene, 22; chorus flee to altars,
36; actor assaults chorus, 47; hasty action of chorus, 50; importance of
chorus, 55; scenic setting, 60; inference as to height of "stage" from vv.

gpr

713 ff., 70.

Suppliants (Eur.) : opening scene, 8; closing scene, 16; action of chorus prevented, 42; same action executed, 44; roof of proscenium used, 77, n. 2.
Thesmophoriazusae: entrance of chorus, 9; assembly scene, 29; search by
chorus, 32.
Trachiniae: chorus probably depart with actors, 20, n. 3.
Troades: entrance of chorus, 8; closing scene, 16; chariot scene, 28; scenic
setting, 60.
Wasps: closing scene, 18; chorus attack actors, 47; street scene, 61; dva3altvew
v. 1342, 66; Karaf3alveL v. 1514, 67; roof of proscenium used, 77, n. 2.

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