A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY
OF MOTION PICTURES IN
RELATION TO VENEREAL
DISEASE CAMPAIGNS

BY

KARL S. LASHLEY, P H . D .
AND

JOHN B. WATSON, P H . D .

WASHINGTON
UNITED STATES INTERDEPARTMENTAL
SOCIAL HYGIENE BOARD

Copyright, 1922, by
KARL S. LASHLEY AND J O H N B. WATSON

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION P I C T U R E S
R E L A T I O N TO V E N E R E A L D I S E A S E CAMPAIGNS

IN

KARL S. LASHLEY, P H . D .
AND

J O H X B . WATSON, P H . D .
From the Psychological Laboratory of Johns Hopkins University
I.

INTRODUCTION

In the early summer of 1919 the United States Interdepartmental
Social Hygiene Board made a grant of $6,600 to the Psychological
Laboratory of Johns Hopkins University for the purpose of assisting the laboratory in "investigating the informational and educative
effect upon the public of certain motion-picture films used in various
campaigns for the control, repression, and elimination of venereal
diseases." At the time the grant was made, Dr. T. A. Storey, executive secretary of the Board, suggested that the work should be
carried out under the general supervision of an advisory board
approved by the United States Interdepartmental Social Hygiene
Board.
Dr. Adolf Meyer, Dr. S. I. Franz and Professor
R. S. Woodworth were asked to serve in this capacity, and the
experimental work has been carried out by the writers in consultation and with the approval of this board.
The American Social Hygiene Association has given to the
writers its full cooperation in the work, supplying films and literature and assisting in the organization of groups for study. They
are specially indebted to Mr. Paul Popenoe and Dr. H. E. Kleinschmidt for various criticisms and suggestions as to problems and
methods. They wish to express their thanks also to the many other
individuals and organizations who have aided in the work; in particular to the medical officers at Camp Holabird, to the Maryland
state and county authorities, and to the physicians and social
workers in the various towns where experiments were carried out.
Statement

of the Problem

The problem with which the experiments here reported deal is
that of the informational and educational effects of certain motionpicture films used as propaganda against venereal disease. Popular education in sex hygiene aims toward two goals: first, it
3

4

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES

seeks to increase popular knowledge concerning the facts of sexual
physiology and psychology with a view to equip the public for
better methods of controlling venereal diseases and other sexual ills;
second, it seeks to arouse an emotional attitude in the public which
will stimulate real application of the information assimilated, since
it is doubtful if any amount of information without accompanying
emotional factors will lead to significant changes in behavior.
The need of information and emotional training for the public is
universally recognized but what shall be taught and what emotions
shall be aroused are questions which, at present, depend for their
answer more upon the emotional reactions and traditions of the
educators than upon any scientific data concerning the effects upon
behavior of various methods and degrees of education. Our problem
has been primarily the determination of the effects of the pictures
already in use, the amount of information that can give, the
emotions that they arouse, and the transitory and permanent effects
which they produce upon the behavior of those who see them; but
it is not possible to segregate this problem from the more general
one of the effects of all sex-hygiene propaganda.
Whether a man learns from a lecture, a book, or a picture that
venereal diseases are caused solely by microorganisms, the question
of the value to him of that information remains the same, and unless
it can be demonstrated that the information in some way modifies
his behavior toward the control of disease he can scarcely be said
to have grasped the facts. For the educational aspects of the pictures as for all other problems of education, the question is ultimately that of the social effects of the material presented; its
efficiency in preparing the individual to fit into the social system
with as little friction and as few personal conflicts as possible. We
have sought, therefore, to determine not only the informational value
of the pictures and the immediate emotional effects which they produce, but also their efficiency in instigating permanent modifications of behavior and the probable social effects of such permanent modifications. For the last purpose we have gathered data
concerning the prevailing sentiment of psychiatrists and other medical men who are at the present time in the best position to judge
the social effects of various types of sexual reaction. This work
has been recorded in a separate publication, 1 the chief conclusions
of which are reviewed in Section IV of this paper in their relation
to the interpretation of the educational effects of the film.
iMental Hygiene. Vol. IV, No. 4, pp. 769-847, October, 1920.

INTRODUCTION

5

F o r the determination of the effects of the picture upon behavior
we have sought to follow up the sexual behavior of various groups
for periods of from six weeks to three months following bhe showing
of the films, gathering data upon prophylaxis, venereal incidence
rate, general popular interest in sexual matters, possible serious
emotional disturbances, and general popular reaction to the pictures. These data are presented in Section IV.
The motion picture within the last few years has come to reach
a wider audience than any other educational agent, with the exception of the press and public schools. I t is still largely recreational
in character, however, and its possibilities for educational propaganda have yet to be exploited. One finds discussion in popular
and educational writings of the merits of the motion picture as an:
educational agent, but this discussion seems to be based chiefly upon
vague and dubious psychological notions that visual presentation is
superior to auditory, that the interest of movement will be effective
in fixing the material in memory, where less vivid presentations
might fail; speculations which have at present no factual support.
They fail to take into consideration the passive attitude taken
by the subjects in viewing the pictures, the seeking of the theater
for amusement, and the trifling character of the material which
the public has been educated to expect from moving pictures.
The investigation of the educational effects of sex-hygiene pictures
should give rather valuable data, therefore, upon the real educational value of the motion pictures in general as compared with
other educational methods. The exact amount of material presented may be measured and the percentage of this actually acquired by the audiences under different conditions of presentation
may be determined. We have measured the information of the
audiences before the pictures were shown and after the performance
and compared the results, checking the data gained from questionnaires by personal interviews.
Material for

Study

The need for control of venereal disease during the war led to the
first serious attempt to develop motion pictures for popular education in the field of sex hygiene. Two pictures were produced and
shown to men in army camps throughout this country and FranceLater, other films were developed for women. The military campaign against venereal disease involved a simultaneous employment
of a number of agencies, legal, educational, recreational and medical, with results which, as a whole, were successful. But it was not

6

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES

possible from analysis of the results to determine the relative parts
played by the different methods.
More recently an attempt was made to utilize the pictures developed for army use with civilian audiences, but this met with
opposition and the support of the government was, therefore, temporarily withdrawn. The films prepared for military use were "Fit
to Fight," later modified and renamed "Fit to Win," the "Men's
Xecture Film," and for women, "The End of the Road." A number
of other pictures have been developed primarily for civilian use.
The following is a comprehensive list of these sex-hygiene pictures
prepared ami published by the American Social Hygiene Association
in the Bulletin of that Association.
"And the Children P a y "
"Birth—The Duties of Motherhood"
"Cleared for Action"
""Damaged Goods"
"The E n d of the Road"

" F i t to Win"
"How Life Begins"
"Know Thy Husband"
("Some Wild Oats")
"Open Your Eyes"
"The Scarlet Trail"
"The Solitary Sin"
"The Spreading Evil"
"Venereal Diseases—Their Origin and
("Men's Lecture Film")
and Results"

The need of sex education in childhood.
Delivery and care of the child.
Navy film.
Modified version of Brieux's play.
Women's film emphasizing the need
for instruction in childhood and the
effects of venereal disease.
Described below.
The evolution of reproduction.
Emphasizing the need for sex instruction in childhood and the effects of
venereal disease.
Directed against the venereal-disease
quack.
Directed against the venereal-disease
quack.
Effects of venereal disease and masturbation.
Effects of venereal disease.
Diagrams and photographs of cases.
For use with male audiences in conjunction with a lecture. A similar
film has been prepared for women.

Since this is practically an initial attempt at measuring and
evaluating, on a large scale, the effects of any picture, and since
methods had to be worked out and tested, with accompanying waste
of considerable time upon unprofitable methods, it seemed best to concentrate the investigation upon one film, rather than attempt a
more superficial analysis of a number of films. "Fit to Win" in the
revision adopted for civilian performances was selected as the subject of study. I t offers certain advantages over the others for this

INTRODUCTION

7

purpose, although in turn it omits important features which occur,
for example, in the "Men's Lecture Film." In the first place, it seeks
to impart both information and a definite emotional attitude; second,
it employs dramatic methods for emphasizing some educational features and yet contains a certain amount of data presented without
pictorial illustration; third, it is organized so that it may be used
without an accompanying lecturer and without verbal introduction
of any sort; fourth, it is perhaps the most direct of any film in use
in its methods of presentation, giving venereal-disease data, advice
on continence, prophylaxis, etc., without verbal or literary
euphonisms.
Finally, it seems provocative of most of the criticisms which have
been urged against sex-hygiene films in general. I t emphasizes
both the danger of disease and value of prophylaxis, without stress*
ing the moral aspects of the sexual problem. The interest of the
picture centers largely in questions of venereal exposure and infection with little dramatic interest or plot aside from this. The language of the legends is frequently crude and the scenes dealing with
street soliciting and the bawdy house are open to the charge of
pornography.
The study of the picture should, therefore, reveal most of the bad
effects with which this and the various other sex-hygiene films have
been charged. In the clearness of its presentation of the causes
and effects of venereal infection the ifilm is inferior to others which
have been produced, but these in turn lack the dramatic interest
of "Fit to Win" and are less typical of the majority of films
produced.
The general outline of "Fit to Win" is in brief the following:
The 'first 1,000 feet of the picture are devoted to the showing of
lesions resulting from venereal disease, by photographs of cases and
explanatory legends. A story is then introduced. I t deals with
five young men of diverse education and traditions. They are
shown first as civilians, then as drafted and in training. On leave,
they are approached by bootleggers and prostitutes. One, Billy
Hale, influenced by the memory of his sweetheart, resists temptation.
The others are exposed to venereal disease. Of the latter, Kid
McCarthy resorts to medical prophylaxis promptly and escapes
infection. The others are infected.
Kid McCarthy accuses Billy Hale of being a "mollycoddle," and
a fight ensues in which Kid is defeated. He admits himself beaten
and at Billy's instigation reforms. These two are then held up as
examples of physical fitness and are selected for service abroad.

8

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES

The other three, infected, are disqualified for foreign service. One,
infected with gonorrhea, is discharged and the others, infected with
syphilis, are sent to the hospital for treatment.
This ends the original film of " F i t to Fight," which forms, in
itself, a complete picture. Under some conditions, owing to limitations of time at our disposal, we have used only this much of the
film. We believe that this is justified, first, because it permits of
more adequate replies to the questionnaires which we have used,
and second, because the remaining parts of the film, as revised for
civilian use, contain very few new facts concerning venereal disease
and have relatively slight dramatic interest.
The remaining reels were constructed after the signing of the
armistice and added as an epilogue to the original picture. Billy
is shown returning from France as a captain. Kid McCarthy has
been killed, after citation for bravery in action. The youth afflicted
with gonorrheal arthritis is shown at home, his father heartbroken
over his infection, his mother ignorant of its cause. Billy carries
Kid McCarthy's medal for bravery to McCarthy's sweetheart. He
then meets and sympathizes with the men afflicted with syphilis, telling them that they are now probably completely cured. He then
bids farewell to his company, advising them to be wary of prostitutes
and to keep morally clean in civilian life. After purchasing a
civilian outfit, he visits his sweetheart, and in the final scene they
are shown at the altar.
The lessons which the film seeks to teach are the following:
1. T h a t continence is in no way injurious to health, but t h a t the
continent man is physically superior to the incontinent. This is
brought out in three principal scenes: first, the leading man as a
private is shown talking to a group of other soldiers and emphasizing the point that continence is not harmful but that incontinence
leads to the risk of venereal disease. This scene consumes 43 seconds ; second, a scene dealing with this topic shows a fight between
the leading man and a pugilist whose incontinence is emphasized and
who is badly beaten in the encounter; third, a scene bearing somewhat upon the point shows the principal characters at the end of a
long hike. The leading man and the pugilist, now reformed, are
unfatigued and fit at the end of the day while other characters, infected with venereal disease, are completely exhausted. The total
time devoted to scenes dealing with continence is 453 seconds.
2. T h a t seminal emissions are not harmful unless occurring more
frequently than twice a week. Seventy-five seconds are devoted to
this topic with legends and fairly dramatic scenes.

INTRODUCTION

9

3. That venereal diseases are very serious and may lead to total
disability unless given careful and long-continued treatment. One
hundred and twenty-eight seconds are devoted to pictures of cases
of gonorrheal arthritis and of children blind as the result of gonorrheal infection; 160 seconds are devoted to pictures of syphilitic
ulcers and scars; 100 seconds to nervous disorders resulting from
syphilis. A number of scenes show some of the principal characters
incapacitated by venereal infection. A total of £20 seconds is devoted to these scenes, making a total of 608 seconds of data bearing
on the seriousness of venereal diseases. The cases presented are
realistic and impressive. The scenes dealing with infected characters
are dramatic chiefly because of the disappointment shown by the
characters at being unable to go to the front.
4. T h a t venereal diseases are the result of infection by microorganisms. Thirty seconds are devoted to micro-photographs of
gonococci. These photographs are not very clear and the legends
merely state that they are the germs which cause gonorrhea. Sixtyfive seconds are devoted to micro-photographs of spirochetes and
scenes showing preparation of smears. The photographs are excellent but the legends merely state that the spirochetes are the germs
of syphilis.
5. That syphilis is communicable by contact or by the use of
toilet articles of an infected person. A lip chancre resulting from
an infection from a razor is shown for about 60 seconds. Three
scenes show the infection of one of the characters, an unsophisticated
country 'boy, by a kiss from a prostitute. These scenes consume
131 seconds and are dramatic throughout.
6. T h a t the use of prophylaxis, after exposure, is advisable but
that it must be used promptly and carefully in order to be effective.
One hundred and fifty seconds are devoted to this topic. The
original edition of the film contained a full illustration of the administration of prophylaxis. This, however, was eliminated from
the civilian edition and the character and administration of prophylaxis are explained by legends, without detail.
7. T h a t both gonorrhea and syphilis require persistent and longcontinued treatment. This is brought out in the discharge of one
character for disability incurred while not in line of duty, with the
statement by the medical officer that the government has not time
to bother with the prolonged course of treatment which would be
necessary to cure him; and by the fact that the characters infected
with syphilis are kept in the base hospital for the duration of
the war.

10

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES

8. T h a t the government maintains recreation rooms for soldiers
and that various forms of wholesome recreation may serve as a
substitute for the bawdy house. About 100 seconds are devoted to
these scenes, which are rather badly taken and without dramatic
interest.
9. T h a t venereal infections constitute a serious loss to the government and a severe handicap in the prosecution of the war. This
is given by legends only, consuming about 60 seconds.
10. T h a t doctors advertising quick cure of venereal disease are
unreliable. This point is not clearly brought out.
In addition to these informational parts of the picture, a number
of emotional appeals for continence are made.
1. The sweethearts of the two characters are shown and their
influence in keeping the men continent is brought out. Two hundred
and seventy-five seconds are devoted to these scenes, which, however,
are of rather slight dramatic interest.
2. The appeal is made to the men to remain continent in order to
keep physically fit to fight. The greater p a r t of the picture bears
directly upon this subject. The leading man is shown as an athlete
who, presumably as a result of continence, conquers the pugilist in
the early p a r t of the picture, wins general leadership among the
men, and promotion to the rank of captain. The characters who
are continent or properly use prophylaxis and escape venereal infection are shown setting out for France, and their exultation is
contrasted with the disappointment of the infected men left behind
in the base hospital. The appeal of this subject is primarily to
patriotism but a still stronger motive is touched upon in a number
of scenes.
3. The infected men are shown in strong contrast to the "fit"
in a way that will probably touch the inferiority complex of the
majority of men who see the picture. The desire to be superior,
to gain leadership and promotion, to be hailed as a hero, or to avoid
the shame of the infected men is played upon in some of the most
dramatic scenes in the picture.
4. Appeal is made to parental and filial affection in a number
of scenes. A country boy is shown saying farewell to his parents
and receiving from his father brief and poorly expressed advice
against prostitutes. Later cut-ins repeat and emphasize this scene*
The p a r t of this character throughout the picture is also such as
to inspire sympathy and a protective attitude on the p a r t of the
audience. Scenes dealing with blind children also make a strong
emotional appeal to sympathy for the innocently infected. In the

INTRODUCTION

11

final scenes of the revised version one of the characters suffering
from gonorrheal arthritis is shown at home. His father, who knows
the nature of his infection, is shown as heartbroken while his mother,
who is ignorant of the character of the disease, is resentful that her
son has not received recognition for his services.
5. Many of the scenes are calculated to arouse fear of infection.
Those showing active cases and infection by contact are especially
vivid. The illustration of ulcers may also arouse other emotional
reactions.
In addition to these emotions which the film is intended to arouse,
there is a possibility that it may produce any one of a number of
harmful reactions. Fear of infection may develop as a phobia which
will interfere with necessary social adjustments. The picture may
arouse an excessive interest and curiosity concerning sex matters
and so defeat its own purpose. There is also the possibility that
the attitude taken by the men in the picture toward prostitutes and
the level of masculine ideals presented may serve to arouse in women
an antagonism toward men in general. Finally, the picture may
offend the esthetic or religious traditions of the audience and so
lead to antagonism both toward the film and toward sex education
in general.
An important p a r t of our problem has been the accumulation of
data bearing upon these questions. This has been done partly by
questionnaires but chiefly by field work in towns where the picture
was shown.
Methods of Investigation
The problems which are presented by sex education through motion pictures fall experimentally into three parts which are closely:
related but which require somewhat different methods for solution..
These are the informational value of the pictures, the emotional
reactions aroused by them, which again may be subdivided into the
attitude towards sex matters and the attitude toward the film, and
finally their effects upon sexual behavior.
For the study of the informational value of the picture we have
employed chiefly the questionnaire method. Where possible, the
audience was required to write out answers to a number of questions dealing with information concerning venereal disease, before
the picture was shown. The picture was then projected and when
it was finished the audience was again asked to fill out duplicate
questions. Owing to the length of the picture it was not possible
to use the preliminary questionnaire with the majority of the audiences. We, therefore, have used the average level of information

12

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES

from those obtained, as a standard by which to judge the effects of
the picture upon all of the audiences studied.
The use of the questionnaire method for a study of this type is
open to a number of serious objections. The most important of
these is"* the fact that it exercises a selection among the members of
the audience. Illiterates are, of course, ruled out from the first.
I t may be also that only those who already have a serious attitude
toward sex problems will trouble to answer the questions and that
the large group who do not take the lesson of the picture seriously
or who are accustomed to a frivolous attitude on sex matters will
fail to return their questionnaires. Finally, those who are seriously
emotionally disturbed by the picture or whose sexual inhibitions
prevent them from employing language necessary for answering
such questions as those asking the causes of venereal disease, will
be prevented from cooperating by the emotional storm which is
aroused by the picture.
We have sought to control some of these possible sources of error
through personal interviews. Contact was made with about 75 men
of various professions and degrees of education, and they were
questioned closely as to their knowledge of venereal disease and
other sex matters. Their replies are available as a check upon the
information and emotional attitude of the other groups dealt with
by the questionnaire method. In general, the difference which appears in the results of personal interview and of the written questionnaires is slight and seems to justify considerable confidence in
the validity of the conclusion reached by the questionnaire method.
We have, moreover, a check upon the question of the elimination of
those who do not take the film seriously in the internal evidence from
the questionnaires themselves, in the data upon the proportion
of the men who filled out the questionnaires, and in observations
of the behavior of the audiences while writing the answers. Thus,
in the group of soldiers studied, 63 per cent of the audience returned questionnaires. Fully 20 per cent of the men were illiterate
o r had too limited a knowledge of English to handle the questions.
Five per cent were engaged in distributing the material and other
cluties arising from the experiment. This leaves only a probable
1£ per cent of the men who failed to answer the questions for no
known reason. I t is very probable that carelessness was the chief
reason for their failure to reply. We must, therefore, make allowance for this group in considering the effects of the picture. Their
inclusion, if it had been possible, would perhaps have influenced the
-data upon the emotional effects of the picture but it is doubtful

INTRODUCTION

13

whether the information acquired by this group differed essentially
from that of the others. As to a question of emotional shock during
the picture, it is, perhaps, most likely to arise in the case of audiences of women. From two groups, one made up altogether of
women, the other of men and women in about equal number, replies
to the questionnaires were obtained from practically every member
of the audience. The average of these replies does not differ significantly from that obtained from a small proportion of the women
in a mixed audience. I t thus seems unlikely that the selection error
reduces the validity of the results which we have obtained by the
questionnaire method to any great extent.
For the determination of the emotional effects of the picture we
have likewise used the questionnaire method to get at the immediate
emotional reaction of the audience. Observations upon the behavior
of the audiences also furnish important data here, although some of
our data indicate that there is little possibility of determining the
later emotional attitude of the audience from their immediate reactions. The most important data upon the emotional effects of the
picture, both in regard to the attitude toward sex matters and attitude toward the educational campaign conducted in this way, have
been obtained by keeping track of members of the audiences and
interviewing them later, either personally or with the aid of some
social worker.
The most important of the problems centered around the film is
that of its influence upon the sexual behavior of those who have
seen it, and this is likewise the most difficult about which to gain
information. We have been able to attack this problem only indirectly. Since there was little hope from the first of gaining any
direct knowledge of changes in sexual behavior from members of the
audience, questions were used after the performance which were intended to bring out the individual's own attitude toward changes
in his sexual behavior. These inquired both what effect the individual believed the picture would have upon others and wThat effect
it would have upon himself. These questions were inserted because
it seemed probable that the subjects would be more apt to project
his own emotional attitude to others than to express it definitely
concerning himself, if it seemed to him likely to be objectionable to
the experimenters, or in conflict with social dicta.
In addition to the use of the questionnaire method we have attempted to follow up the effects of the picture through the cooperation of social workers, physicians, and others in several towns
where the films were exhibited and also in a military camp where

14

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES

the largest audience was obtained. The results of this study are
summarized in Section IV.
Groups Studied
The problem before us was to test the effects of the picture upon
a number of individuals differing widely in education, social traditions, and economic standards. The principal groups from which
we obtained sufficient data to justify our conclusions, are listed
below:
Medical Group: About 40 physicians, nurses, and other members of the staff of a large hospital were invited to attend the showing of the picture. No questionnaire was used with them,-but at
the end of the performance voluntary expressions of opinion were
requested. This led to a rather lively discussion which brought out
chiefly the emotional reaction of the audience to the picture.
Executive and Clerical Group: The picture was shown to 45 members of an extension course in applied psychology made up of men
and women engaged for the most p a r t in executive business work.
They were asked to fill out a questionnaire after the performance,
the preliminary questionnaire not being used. Forty-five replies to
the questionnaires were obtained.
Literary Club Group: This audience consisted of about 60 mature
women, belonging to a social and literary club in a Pennsylvania
city of about 25,000. Discussion of the picture was obtained from
the group and 58 questionnaires were returned. I t has been possible
to follow up the effects of the picture with this group to a limited
extent through personal acquaintance with some of the members.
Mixed Audience:
In order to test the effects of the picture
under the severest conditions of commercial use, we decided to undertake a public presentation without any restriction upon the character of the audience. A free performance of the picture was advertised in a village of 3,000 inhabitants in middle Pennsylvania,
with no further indication of its character than that it was an educational film dealing with sex hygiene. The audience, about 250 in
number, consisted of about equal numbers of both sexes. Fully half
were boys and girls below the age of seventeen. Data were obtained
concerning the behavior of the audience during the performance and
concerning the after-effects of the picture in the town, through the
cooperation of persons interested in social conditions there. Eightyseven questionnaires were returned.
Car Men Group: Arrangements were made for an audience of
employees, mostly motormen and conductors of a large street railway company in New York City. Between 850 and 400 men at-

INTRODUCTION

15

tended. Unfortunately, at the close of the showing of the picture,
the company physician, of whose presence we were ignorant, arose
and delivered a twenty-minute address to the men, contradicting a
great many statements made in the picture and advising the men
t h a t venereal diseases were not particularly serious and that if they
would come promptly to him for treatment he would guarantee that
they would have no trouble. This incident reduced the validity of
the results obtained in the car men group to an unmeasurable extent. However, 147 questionnaires were returned and as a majority
of these were filled out during the first p a r t of the physician's leeture, it is probable that attention to them prevented his remarks
from greatly influencing the results.
Merchant Sailor Group: Through the courtesy of the officers of
the Seamen's Church Institute of New York City, we obtained an
audience of between 450 and 500 sailors a t the Church Institute.
Some of these were officers but the majority were ordinary seamen.
We obtained 134 questionnaires from them and notes on interviews
from a considerable number who remained after the performance to
discuss sexual questions in which they were interested.
Soldier Group: The picture was shown to about 1,200 men in an
army training camp. The majority of these men were recently enlisted, though some few regulars were included. A large percentage
of them were foreigners or illiterates and many of the questionnaires
which they returned showed language difficulty. The men were
ordered up and remained under military discipline throughout the
performance. Seven hundred and sixty-four questionnaires were returned. I t was possible to follow up the venereal-disease and prophylactic records of this group and compare them with records of the
same group preceding the performance.
In addition to these groups from whom an attempt was made to
get data during or immediately following the performances, we carried out two experiments, the object of which was to reach as many
of the inhabitants of two towns as possible. The experiment as
originally planned intended to employ diverse films or methods of
presenting the films with audiences in two towns and to follow up the
effects in both towns with a view to determine the relative merits of
the different methods. This later proved impracticable, but accounts in p a r t for the methods employed. For the purpose, two
towns of 7,000 population each on the eastern shore of Maryland
„were selected. They were quite similar in character of population,
both were rather isolated from large cities and dependent chiefly
upon fishing industries. The populations of these towns are reputed

16

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES

to be ultraconservative and should, therefore, constitute a fairly
severe test of the possibility that the picture may arouse antagonism.
Four performances were given in each town, one each to men and
women,*white and colored. "Fit to Win" was used for the men and
"The End of the Road" for the women. In the two towns 730
white men, 920 white women, £08 Negro men and 450 Negro women
were reached. The showing of the pictures was followed by study
of their effects through interviews with ministers, physicians, social
workers, druggists, and others.
We have tried also to measure the residual effects of the pictures
by sending out a questionnaire to individuals who saw them, at an
interval of from three to five months after the performance. Questionnaires have been returned from the Executive and Clerical Group,
the Mixed Audience, and the Eastern Shore Groups last described.
They are discussed in Section I I .
We wished to make tests upon men engaged in educational work,
upon mill workers, upon shop girls, and upon school children of
public and high-school ages. Preliminary arrangements were made
to exhibit the pictures at the annual meeting of the National Educational Association but owing to a change in their program at the
last moment this was prevented. Attempts to gain cooperation for
the organization of the other audiences have met with strong opposition, and we have not been able to carry out experiments upon them.
In regard to the mill workers, the Car Men Group probably is
equivalent both in educational level and social traditions upon sex
matters. The lack of data upon the other groups is a real defect
in our investigation, which we have been unable to remedy.
In the various experiments the picture has been shown to between
4,800 and 5,000 persons. Twelve hundred and thirty questionnaires
were obtained and subjected to statistical analysis. The aftereffects of the picture have been followed up by the method of interviews in three towns where they were shown to about W per cent of
the population, and by actual venereal-disease and prophylactic
statistics in the military camp. The groups studied range in education from the thoroughly informed medical and executive groups to
the illiterates. I t seems, therefore, that the data obtained may be
looked upon as a fair sample of the effects which the picture might
produce in any community.
$

II.

INFORMATIONAL E F F E C T S OF THE PICTURE

Levels of Popular

Information

T h a t the public is largely ignorant of matters relating to venereal
diseases is obvious, but we have been unable to find in the literature,
any estimate of the level of sex education of any social group. T o
determine the informational value of the picture, we must begin with
groups of known informational level. We must give them definite
facts, through the medium of the motion pictures, and finally must
test them again to determine what facts, of those presented, have
been assimilated. For the measuring of the informational effects
of the pictures, we have been compelled to rely upon the questionnaire method. In most of our experiments, questions dealing with
the causes and effects of venereal diseases were submitted to the
group studied, before the picture was shown, and questions covering
the same points were again submitted after the picture was exhibited.
A comparison of the replies to the two sets of questions makes it
possible to determine rather accurately just what facts, previously
unknown, were acquired by the subjects as the result of seeing the
picture.
We have carried out such tests upon a number of different groups,
ranging from classes of university students and groups of cultured
women, to groups of uneducated laborers. About 4£5 replies to
the preliminary questionnaires have been obtained. The majority
of these replies are from laborers and other groups having an average school education of not more than the fifth grade.
Personal Interviews.
Before the questionnaire method was used
we arranged personal interviews with about 75 men, seeking by
questions and discussion to bring out their knowledge of venereal
diseases. They were asked to tell all they could of the causes and
effects of gonorrhea and syphilis, of the use and theory of prophylaxis, of the necessity for sexual intercourse, and of the other subjects later covered by the questionnaires. Their replies were noted
in detail. Our object in this was: first, to gain a knowledge of the
popular vocabulary dealing with sex matters; second, to have a
check upon the questionnaire method since we suspected that i t
might exert some selection upon the subjects, or that obscurity of
some of the questions might produce misleading results; third, to
give a more thorough insight into the men's organization of their
17

18

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES

knowledge than is possible from the brief replies to the questionnaires.
Thirty of the men interviewed were incoming patients at the
genito-urinary dispensaries of the city. These represent the most
uneducated class that we have dealt with, many of them being illiterate and few exceeding the fifth grade in education. Forty more were
selected at random from the patients at a military hospital. They
range from illiterates to well-trained officers. The remainder were
workmen and students picked at random.
The data obtained from these men are too varied and extensive
for analysis here and will be considered chiefly for the help t h a t
they give for the interpretations of the questionnaires. In general
there is a very close agreement between the distributions of opinion
as brought out in interviews and by the questionnaires. We asked
these subjects, in case they were reluctant to express an opinion,
a t least to hazard a guess. We found that these guesses divided
in about the same proportions as the unhesitating answers returned.
T h a t is, the classes who at first state that they are ignorant of the
subject, when they are pressed for an opinion give the same answers
in the same proportions as those who give their opinions without
urging. This point is important for the interpretation of answers
to the questionnaires, for it means that the percentages of answers
claiming ignorance may be largely disregarded, and that the percentage given for expressed opinions represent very nearly the true
proportions of belief of the population.
The results of interviews indicate further that where either ignorance or carelessness may explain an imperfect answer to a question,
ignorance is almost certainly the cause. Thus £5 per cent of the
men give filth as the cause of venereal disease and we find that an
even larger percentage of the men interviewed actually consider lack
of cleanliness to be the cause of venereal disease and have no conception whatever of the true nature of infection.
Preliminary Questionnaires.
Before showing the films we requested, where possible, that the members of the audience should
fill out a preliminary questionnaire, designed to bring out their
general information concerning the causes and seriousness of venereal
disease, and their emotional attitude toward it. The data obtained
from the questionnaires used before the showing of the pictures are
of considerable interest aside from their bearing upon the educational effects of the picture, in that they give a fairly exact measure
of the average level of information possessed by the public at large
concerning venereal diseases. I t seems worth while, therefore, to

INFORMATIONAL

EFFECTS

19

p r e s e n t them in r a t h e r extended forms as a s t a n d a r d for use in
f o r m u l a t i n g f u r t h e r educational measures.
T h e questions submitted before the showing of the p i c t u r e a r e
given below, with a classification of the replies received. T h e numbers a r e given in p e r c e n t a g e s of the t o t a l number of answers. T h e s e
p e r c e n t a g e s a r e based u p o n a b o u t 425 replies a n d a r e , therefore,
a fairly reliable index of the general information of t h e individuals
a n d of the educational level of the g r o u p s studied before t h e y h a d
seen the p i c t u r e s . T h e differences between the g r o u p s a r e less s t r i k i n g t h a n m i g h t be expected a n d will be considered a f t e r the general
results have been presented. T h e results of the p r e l i m i n a r y quest i o n n a i r e will be t a k e n u p in the o r d e r in which the p o i n t s b r o u g h t
o u t by the p i c t u r e were listed on p a g e s 8-10.
1. Relation of Continence to Health.
The first of these was that continence is in no way injurious to health. Is sexual intercourse
necessary
to keep men or women healthy?
41 per cent answered that sexual intercourse is necessary for health..
47 per cent answered that it is not.
12 per cent stated that they did not know.
The belief that intercourse is necessary for health is widespread and,.
as appears later, this is one of the points upon which the informational
effects of the picture are most apparent.
2. Effects of Seminal Emissions.
No preliminary question as to the
effects of seminal emissions was included, since this part of the questionnaire had to be made very brief. Data from interviews lead us to believe,,
however, that not less than 50 per cent of men having less than full
high-school education believe seminal emissions to be injurious.
S. Seriousness of Venereal Diseases.
A group of questions sought to*
bring out the subjects' knowledge of the after effects and seriousness of
venereal disease:—
What are the effects of gonorrhea if it is not treated
promptly?
25 per cent gave vague statements, such as ill health, suffering, e t c
11 per cent described the symptoms of active infection.
14 per cent gave syphilis as an effect.
10 per cent gave other incorrect but serious effects, such as tuberculosis, leprosy, insanity.
13 per cent gave blindness, rheumatism, sterility, or other serious,
effects.
27 per cent stated that they did not know.
What are the effects of syphilis if it is not treated
promptly?
24 per cent gave vague statements such as ill health.

20

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION

PICTURES

23 per cent referred to sores, skin diseases, etc.
9 per cent gave paralysis, insanity, heart disease, and other serious
effects.
7 per cent gave serious but incorrect effects.
37 per cent stated that they did not know.
Only 23 per cent of the individuals studied have a correct knowledge of the effects of gonorrhea, and 32 per cent, of syphilis. Serious effects are indicated by at least 48 and 39 per cent for gonorrhea
and syphilis respectively.
Is a child born to parents having a venereal disease likely to become
infected before birth? If so, what are the residts of such infection?
83 per cent stated that infection was probable.
2 per cent stated that it is not probable.
15 per cent stated that they did not know.
The effects described were the following:
Vague: fatal, serious, etc., 11 per cent.
Deformity, cripples, etc., 23 per cent.
Blindness, 31 per cent.
Mental defect, 10 per cent.
Skin diseases, 7 per cent.
No knowledge, 18 per cent.
The seriousness of venereal disease for children thus seems to be
better known than the effects upon adults, or the subject arouses more
interest and hence leads to a more conscientious answer to the question.
Other data, given below, indicate that diseases in children make one of
t h e strongest of all appeals presented by the picture.
How quiclcly can gonorrhea and syphilis be cured?
Perhaps the best single index to the belief in the seriousness of
venereal diseases is given by the questions concerning the time within
which they can be cured, and the indication of cure. (
25 per cent gave periods of less than 1 year.
13 per cent gave periods of 1 to 3 years.
4 per cent gave periods of 4 years or more.
15 per cent stated that there is no definite time limit.
4 per cent stated that cure is impossible.
39 per cent stated that they did not know.
The 25 per cent who gave periods of less than one year seem, to judge
from other replies to the questionnaires and from the results of interviews, to consider that the diseases are not very serious. Exceptions of
course occur, for some of the men are quite well informed concerning
treatment, but in the majority of the cases this holds true. The 15 per
cent who state that there is no definite itime limit are in this respect also
the most intelligent and best informed of the men and this percentage
may be put down as representing roughly the proportion of the men

INFORMATIONAL

EFFECTS

21

who are adequately informed. Nineteen per cent gave replies varying
from one year to life time, and clearly have a realization of the serious*
ness of venereal disease. Forty per cent know little or nothing of the
time required for cure. I t appears that not more than* 25 per cent of
the men believe that gonorrhea and syphilis can be cured quickly. Not
more than 2 per cent distinguished between the two diseases in answering the question, but 31 per cent placed the time at more than a y e a r ;
an indication that they regard the diseases as serious.
Knowledge of the seriousness of venereal diseases thus appears to be
widespread, but there is little accurate knowledge of the precise results
arising from infections.
4. Venereal Diseases Result of Infection.
To determine the subjects*
knowledge of the causes and modes of transmission of venereal diseases,
the following questions were asked:—
What is the cause of gonorrhea (clap) and how is it contracted?
19 per cent of the answers showed some knowledge of the infectious
origin of venereal disease, either by reference to germs or to infection
by contact.
27 per cent referred to sexual intercourse as the method of contraction without further comment.
25 per cent gave "dirt, filth," etc., as the cause of venereal disease.
7 per cent gave "strain" or other fantastic explanation of the disease.
22 per cent stated that they did not know.
What is the cause of syphilis (pox) and how is it contracted?
22 per cent of the replies showed some knowledge of infection, as
above.
12 per cent gave sexual intercourse, without comment.
3 6 per cent laid emphasis upon filth as the cause of the disease.
13 per cent described syphilis as a late stage of gonorrhea.
7 per cent gave other causes.
30 per cent stated that they did not know.
Other questions used after the showing of the film indicate that very
few of the men have any clear understanding of the nature of infection
(page 24) and that many of those who mention germs as the cause of
disease believe that the germs may originate spontaneously. Thirteen
per cent of the men give syphilis as a stage of gonorrhea. These were
spontaneous statements, and it is probable that a much larger percentage
actually confuse the diseases. Questions concerning chancroid were also
asked, but so few of the men distinguished between this and syphilis,
either before or after the showing of the film, that it has not seemed
worth while to include the data obtained.
6. Effectiveness
of Prophylaxis,
To reveal popular knowledge of
prophylaxis, the following questions were asked:—

22

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION

PICTURES

7$ there any way to prevent catching venereal diseases if you have
been exposed to them? What is it?
55 per cent answered yes,
11 per cent answered no.
34 per cent stated that they did not know.
49 per cent mentioned prophylaxis or some specific prophylactic.
8 per cent advised abstinence.
3 per cent thought prevention possible but knew of no method.
Knowledge of prophylaxis thus seems disseminated among about half
of the men studied. Not more than one fourth, however, gave any indication of effective knowledge.
7. Length of Treatment Required.
Data bearing upon this point are
given under 3 above. About 32 per cent of the men show a knowledge
of the facts or a realization that long-continued care may be necessary.
How can you tell when gonorrhea and syphilis are cured?
48 per cent would rely upon a "blood test" or doctor's examination.
40 per cent did not know.
8 per cent stated that it is impossible to tell.
4 per cent listed a disappearance of the symptoms.
Most of the answers clearly referred to gonorrhea but so many of the
men failed to distinguish clearly between the various venereal diseases
that the fact is of little importance.
As an indication of a cure only four per cent listed a disappearance
of symptoms, "When you can walk straight/' "When it quits r u n n i n g / '
"When the sores h e a l / ' etc. Forty-eight per cent considered medical
examination necessary for determination of cure. These men are likely
to continue treatment until advised to stop.
8. Recreation as a Substitute for Sexual Activities.
No preliminary
questions were asked concerning this point as it was impossible to phrase
it briefly in a way that would be intelligible to the majority of the subjects studied.
9. The Effects of Venereal Disease upon Efficiency.
also omitted from the preliminary questionnaire.

This point was

10. Sources of Information Concerning Treatment.
One question was
included to determine the probability that the men would avoid venerealdisease quacks.
How would you find out the name of a doctor to treat the diseases?
55 per cent listed a reliable source, family doctor, hospital, Public
Health Service, etc.
32 per cent replied that they did not know.
11 per cent stated that they would inquire of friends who had been
infected.

23

INFORMATIONAL EFFECTS

2 per cent referred to advertisements or specialists.
2 per cent also advised avoiding doctors who advertise.
Thus 45 per cent lack information which would make them likely to
avoid venereal-disease-quacks.
Average Differences between the Groups Studied.
Answers to
preliminary questionnaires were obtained from the Mixed Audience,
the Car Men and the Sailor Group. These total $68. The other
groups from whom preliminary questionnaires were obtained were
too small, alone, to have statistical value and will be included later
in the analysis of improvement in information resulting from the
showing of the pictures.
The total audience to whom the preliminary questionnaires were
submitted numbered 1,200, from whom a total of 425 usable questionnaires were obtained. The length of the picture and limitations
of time with the other groups studied made it impossible to use the
preliminary questionnaires with them. The significance of the failure
of the large percentage of the members of the audiences to fill out:
the questionnaires is discussed on page 12.The percentages of each group giving the various replies to the
questions on information are tabulated below:
Car Men
1. Effects of Continence.
Necessary for Health
Unnecessary for Health
No Information
3. Seriousness of Venereal Disease.
Effects of Gonorrhea:
Active Symptoms
Correct, Serious
Incorrect, Serious
Vague
No Information
Effects of Syphilis:
Active Symptoms
Correct, Serious
Incorrect, Serious
Vague
No Information
Transmitted to Children:
Yes
No
No Information
Deformity
:
Blindness
Mental Defect
Skin Diseases
Vague
No Information

lilors

Mixed Audience
Men
Women

»

52
26
22

31
56
13

17
33
50

8&
4-

15
17
22
24
22

18
32
13
18
18

6
6
28
12
48

O
Or
26
30>
44

25
20
3
14
38

23
26
13
19
19

6
69
13
6
6

0
420
16
AS

80
0
20
25
22
5
13
8
27

90
3
7
36
29
16
6
6
7

70
6
24
31
25
19
0
19
6

97
0
3
3$
12
12
13"
16
10

24

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES
Mixed Audience

Car Men
Duration of Treatment:
Less than 1 year
18
1 to 3 years
10
4 plus, years
2
Indefinite
13
Cure Impossible
6
No Information
51
4. Infectious Character of Diseases.
Causes of Gonorrhea:
Infection
14
Sexual Intercourse
1(5
Filth
21
Bizarre Causes
8
No Information
41
Causes of Syphilis:
Infection
16
Sexual Intercourse
4
Filth
21
Gonorrhea
25
Other Causes
3
No Information
31
Infection from Dirty Women:
Yes
"
71
No
7
No Information
22
Infection from Menstruation:
Yes
54
No
13
No Information
33
Infection from Strain:
Yes
43
No
,
36
No Information
21
6. Effectiveness of Prophylaxis.
Prevention Possible
34
Prevention impossible
17
No Information
,
49
7. Duration of Treatment.
Recognition of Cure:
Medical Examination
35
Disappearance of Symptoms
55
Cure Impossible
9
No Information
51
10. Sources of Information concerning Treatment.
To Locate Doctor:
Reliable Source
41
Unreliable Source
12
No Information
47

lilors

Men

33
18.
4
18
4
23

22
0
5
6
15
52

5
13
9
5
5
63

31
22
13
8
26

12
12
7
12
57

9
23
5
13
50

34
18
13
8
5
22

21
0
7
21
7
44

15
10
5
5
0
65

60
15
25

66
0
34

58
18
24

66
0
34

35
44
21

0
17
83

74
5
21

56
6
38

55
6
39

65
4
7
24

25
0
18
57

29
0
16
55

66
17
17

36
21
43

37
16
47

Women

From this table we can gain some idea of the relative amounts of
information concerning venereal disease, possessed by the different
groups. The Sailor Group seems in general to be the most widely
read and to have the most accurate information of any of those

INFORMATIONAL EFFECTS

25

studied, with the exception of the small groups of university men
not included in the table. Even they, however, are largely ignorant
of the real character of venereal disease. About one third of the
men show a knowledge of the infectious nature of disease, either
by mention of the germ or of the contraction of the disease by contact with infected persons, yet more than 10 per cent of these believe
that disease may be acquired by some sort of spontaneous generation, as indicated by the answers to Questions S and 4 and by the
personal interviews with the men of this type. The men of the other
groups show even slighter knowledge of the infectious character of
disease and a large percentage of them hold mistaken ideas as
to its origin. Among the women, the vast majority are completely
ignorant of the cause of diseases. Only 9 per cent give indication
of the infectious character of gonorrhea, and only 15 per cent of
t h a t of syphilis. While we do not have definite data upon the point,,
it is probable that these women have no more understanding of the
character of bacterial infection than the men who were examined in
personal interviews. If this is so, the information which they do
have is inadequate to serve as a foundation for any instruction concerning prophylaxis or venereal-disease control.
The effects of venereal disease are better known than the causes*
probably because they require less appreciation of details. P r a c tically all of the individuals examined recognize the danger of t r a n s mission of the disease to children of infected persons and have a fair
appreciation of what the result of such transmission may be. The
groat majority also have an appreciation of the seriousness of the
effects of venereal disease upon the individual infected, although almost half of them have only a vague or incorrect notion of the specific
character of such effects. In this fielcl also the sailors are better
informed than any of the other groups of men, and the women arefr.r raor° poorlv ir formed. In answers to other questions which:
throw light upon the appreciation of the seriousness of the disease,
the sailors again exceed the other groups, and the women seem t o
rank equally with the other groups of men.
Belief in the necessity for intercourse is very prevalent among
the men of every group and almost completely absent among the
women. The village group shows the smallest percentage of belief
in the necessity, and the city men the largest.
The social conscience of all the groups toward venereal disease
seems to be well developed. The majority of all the groups disapprove of marriage of individuals once infected with venereal disease and there is almost complete unanimity in the belief that certificates should be required before marriage.

26

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES

The groups, then, seem to differ primarily in accuracy of knowledge of purely informational material. Wherever emotional factors
are involved, as in the appreciation of the seriousness of diseases,
of the effects on children, of the desirability of health certificates
before marriage, etc., the groups are in essential agreement.
Experimental Data on the Facts Conveyed by the Picture
These data provide a foundation for the measurement of the informational effects of the picture. They are based upon a large
enough number of individuals to constitute a fairly reliable sample
of the information of the average middle-class American. We may
compare with their average the amount of information shown by
people who have seen the picture and so determine the average increase in sexual information which results. We have done this in
the case of audiences with which, owing to limitations of time, it
was not possible to use the preliminary questionnaires. These were
the Executive and Clerical Group, the Literary Club Group, and
the Soldiers. Questionnaires were used both before and after the
picture with the remaining groups (pp. &8ff.), and their scores
before and after the performance were compared.
To the first method above, there may be the objection that the
knowledge of preliminary information is obtained from one group
of individuals and of the educational effects of the picture from
another, and that, therefore, the two groups of material are incomparable. However, as has been pointed out, the number of
people included in the two groups is large enough to give the data
significance as a purely statistical study, personal differences in education being largely ruled out as chance variations. Further, the
groups from which answers to both questionnaires were obtained
serve as a control of this statistical comparison which will reveal
t h e effects of any great initial differences in the informational level
of the other groups.
The knowledge of the points made by the film, which was acquired by the members of the different groups studied, is analyzed
in the following series of tables. The different points made in the
film are taken up in the order in which they are discussed on pages
8 to 11. Pages 19 to %3 present the questions used and for
^brevity the questions are not repeated here. Additional questions
which were not included in the preliminary questionnaire are included under the points listed below. In the questionnaires the
questions were arranged in an order which seemed least likely to
prejudice the answers. Questions testing retention, as, " W h a t facts
l a v e you learned from the picture that you did not know before ?"

INFORMATIONAL EFFECTS

27

were placed on the first page, and those which seemed likely to suggest answers to others were placed last.
Limitations of space make it impossible to give separately the
data of all the groups, so the data for the groups of somewhat
similar training and traditions have been combined. The men of
the Executive and Clerical ( E . and C.) group and the men of the
Mixed Audiences are treated together; The Seamen and Car Men
form a second group ( S . and C.) of which the former has the higher
educational level to begin with; the women form a third group and
the Soldiers a fourth. The latter are closely comparable to the Car
Men in educational level but because of their specialized interests it
has seemed best to consider them separately.
For brevity and convenience in comparison, the data are given
in percentages of the men giving each answer. The percentageb are
based upon approximately the number of questionnaires given for
each group on pages 14 to 16, and their statistical validity may be
determined by reference to these numbers. In the following tables
a uniform arrangement has been followed. The percentage of men
giving each type of answer to the question, before the picture was
shown, is given first (before). The percentages of the three groups
(Executive and Clerical; Sailors and Car men; Soldiers) giving the
same types of answer after seeing the picture follow (after). The
data for the women are presented in the same way.
The first question to be decided is that of the power of the film
to carry conviction. Three questions bearing upon this point were
used:—Do you believe the statements
effects of venereal disease?

made in the picture concerning the

The replies, as percentages of the total answers, were distributed
as follows:
Belief
Men
E. and C
S. and C
Soldiers
Women

,

Do you think the effects are

100
98
98
99

Disbelief
0
0
2
1

0
2
0
0

exaggerated?
Not Exaggerated Exaggerated

Men
E. and C
S. and C
Soldiers
Women

Doubtful

95
83
73
97

5
13
21
1

Doubtful
0
4
0
2

28

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES

Do you think that the diseases are as easy to contract as the picture makes out?
As easy
Men
E. and C
S. and C
Soldiers
Women

Not as Easy

100
89
89
97

Doubtful

0
7
9
1

0
4
2
9

The Medical Group who saw the picture objected to it chiefly
on the grounds that it exaggerated the effects of venereal diseases
and the ease of communication. The layman is not critical on these
points, although from 13 to 27 per cent of the better informed men
consider the effects exaggerated.
The analysis of the informational points made by the picture follows in the order in which they are listed in the introduction.
1. Effects of Continence.
Is continence harmful or not harmful to health?
Not harmful
47
79
82
90
88
100

Men—Before
After
E. and C
S. and C
Soldiers
Women—Before
After

Harmful
41

No
information
12

14
15
8
8
0

7
3
2
4
0

All the groups show a decided increase in the percentage of individuals believing that sexual intercourse is not necessary for a
healthful life. A p a r t of the increase is due to the failure of some
men to answer the question after seeing the picture, but 28 per cent
of those who answered showed a change in their belief as a result
of seeing the picture.
Another question dealing with the relation of continence to
venereal disease was inserted in the questionnaire used after the
picture.
What does the picture advise as the only sure way of
clear of the diseases?
Continence
Men
E. and C
S. and C
Soldiers
Women

Prophylaxis

Other
measures

85
94
86
88

5
2
7
9

0
3
1
3

keeping

No
information
10
I
6
O

INFORMATIONAL EFFECTS

29

Nearly 90 per cent of the people who saw the picture were impressed by the lesson of continence which it seeks to convey. Not
more than 7 per cent understood that medical prophylaxis was advanced as a certain preventive. This fact is important in view of
the criticism which has been urged against the picture that it overemphasizes the efficiency of prophylaxis. This will be discussed
again in the consideration of criticisms of the film.
2. Effects of Seminal

Emissions.

Questions concerning this were asked only after showing the film
and in the questionnaires for men only.
Harmless
Men
E. and C
S. and C

Harmful

93
85
90

Quote film

7
6
8

(15)
(28)
(10)

No information
0
9
2

The number of men who quote the film concerning dangerous
frequency of emissions makes it appear that a good percentage
gained information from the film. About half the men interviewed
in the preliminary work believed that seminal emissions are harmful,
and if this can be taken as representative of popular information,
the picture was quite effective in its emphasis on this point.
3. Seriousness of Venereal Disease.
Effects

Men—tBefore
After
E. and C
S. and C
Soldiers
Women—Before
After

of

Minor
effects
19

Serious,
correct
23

Serious,
incorrect
17

Vague
21

11
0
16
0
0

59
48
46
0
59

4
21
8
25
22

18
21
16
30
9

8
10
14
45
10

Effects of
Men—-Before
After
E. and C
S. and C
Soldiers
Women—Before
After

Gonorrhea
No information
20

Syphilis

44

10

18

28

47
52
83
42
58

14
18
7
0
23

29
20
4
16
6

10
10
6
40
13

50

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES
Infection of fetus
Can be
infected

Cannot be
infected
2

100
99

0
0

0
1

97

0
0

3
0

After
E. and C
S. and C
Soldiers—not asked.
Women—Before . . *
After

Effects of Such

No information
33

Infection

Correct,
serious
71

0
0

15
7

10
2

74
100

After

Vague
11

75
91

After
E. and C
S. and C
Soldiers—not asked.

Incorrect,
serious
0

0
0

16
0

10
0

No information
18

There is a definite improvement in all the groups with respect
t o knowledge of serious effects of venereal disease. F o r gonorrhea
the increase in the number of people who are well informed is from
£5 to 50 per cent. For syphilis it is from 44 to 60 per cent. F o r
the effects of infection of the children by their parents, the increase in information is less, but the subjects were better informed
from the first. As a result of the picture 99 per cent of the audience know the transmissibility of disease and about 80 per cent the
serious effects.
Duration

Men—Before
After
E. and C
S. and C
Soldiers
Women—Before
After

Months
25
8
22
17
5
4

of Treatment

for Gonorrhea and

In1-3 years 4-12 years definite
13
4
15
30
23
15
13
8

0
3
6
9
0

38
15
21
5
52

Syphilis

Cure
impos- No insible formation
4
39
8
4
2\
5
\2

16
33
20
63
21

The picture gives no exact information on this point but seems,
in general, to induce a belief in the necessity for prolonged treatment.
The presentation of data upon the effects of venereal disease by
photographs of cases is on the whole effective. I t increases the

INFORMATIONAL EFFECTS

SI

proportion of the audience who can enumerate definite effects of the
diseases, to more than 50 per cent. Even where it fails to convey
precise information it is effective in strengthening the belief in the
seriousness of venereal disease.
4 and 5. Infectious

Men—Before
After
E. and C
S. and C
Soldiers
Women—Before
After

Nature of Disease.

The Cause of Transmission
Sexual
Infection intercourse
"Filth"
19
27
25
50
32
19
9
64

23
24
26
23
22

16
21
44
18
8

of Gonorrhea
Bizarre
No incauses formation
7
22
0
4
1
0
0

11
19
4
50
6

One question upon the transmission of syphilis by contact was
included:—
Can these diseases be contracted in any other way than by sexual
connection? How?
The replies were distributed as follows. All the groups are combined since there is no significant difference in the character of
their answers.
Yes
No
No information
97
2
1
Eighty-three per cent mentioned infection through toilet articies,
kissing, and other means illustrated by the film. This shows clearly
that knowledge of infection through contact is increased by the picture but this knowledge is not very thorough as indicated by the
following test.
In interviews with men we had found that relatively few had an
adequate knowledge of infection and that many believed in the spontaneous generation of disease. The large proportion who gave
sexual intercourse or filth as the cause of disease led us to insert
other questions to determine whether they had any knowledge of
the nature of infection and had merely given the mode of transmission, or whether they really were ignorant of it.
Can you get gonorrhea or syphilis from a dirty woman who has
•never had the disease herself or been exposed to it?
84 per cent answered yes.
7.5 per cent answered no, and 30 per cent of these gave "germs" as
the cause of disease.
8.5 per cent stated that they did not know.

32

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES

Can you get gonorrhea or syphilis from a woman in her
period if she does not have the disease herself?
67 per cent answered yes.
15 per cent answered no.
18 per cent stated that they did not know.
Can you
53 per
32 per
15 per

monthly

get gonorrhea or syphilis from strain?
cent answered jet.
cent answered no.
cent stated that they did not know.

The large number of affirmative answers to these questions suggested that the men had possibly not understood the questions. The
data from personal interviews show, however, that this is not the
case. In these interviews an effort was made to avoid any misunderstanding by following the subjects' statements with questions leading
to a full expression of opinion. The results of the interviews are in
accord with the above data. Three fourths of the men examined had
no knowledge of infection by germs and believed that the diseases
were the direct product of lack of cleanliness. Even many of those
who gave germs as the cause of disease asserted that the germ
started with filth, from sexual intercourse with animals, or from the
mixture of the semen of a number of men. An average of £0.5 per
cent show some knowledge of infection and 18 per cent deny the
possibility of infection in the absence of preexisting disease. The
data show, therefore, that in the population studied, not more than
SO per cent of the men are prepared to understand an account of
the transmissibility of disease which will presuppose some knowledge of the action of microorganisms or the distinction of disease
entities.
This widespread ignorance will, undoubtedly, militate against any
consistent use of prophylaxis. We discussed the use of prophylaxis
in personal interviews and found that the majority of men who
made consistent use of it had a fair knowledge of its germicidal
effects, whereas those who believe that "it gets into your blood and
cures you," that it "keeps you clean," etc., state that they rarely
use it even though they believed that it would help to prevent disease. A large percentage of the men believe in the spontaneous
generation of disease and it seems improbable that much progieaa.
in popularizing repressive measures can be made until there is a
more general recognition of the principle that only disease can give
rise to disease. The picture did little to clear up these misconceptions and the results of the tests emphasize the need for a more
simple and thorough exposition of the subject.

INFORMATIONAL EFFECTS

3$

6. Effectiveness of Prophylaxis.
In its original form "Fit to
Win" laid stress upon medical prophylaxis. The revised edition,
however, does not stress it. Several questions were devised to bring
out the knowledge and the strength of the impression made by
prophylactic treatment in the development of the picture.
As we brought out in the data on the lesson of the picture concerning continence, nearly 15 times as many people learned f^om
the picture that continence is the only sure method of avoiding infection as learned that prophylaxis insures safety. The preliminary
question on prophylaxis indicated that 49 per cent of the men and
women studied, already had some knowledge of prophylaxis and
t h a t 55 per cent had faith in preventive measures.
After the picture was shown the following questions were asked,
with the results indicated:
What should you do in case you have been with a woman who
might have venereal disease?
See a physician or
take prophylaxis
100
73
95

E . and C
S. and C
Soldiers

Other
answers
0
9
1

No information
0
18
4

Almost all those who were ignorant of prophylaxis learned something about it from the film. They did not acquire a dangerous
faith in it, however, as is brought out by the following question:
Does medical prophylaxis
properly taken?

prevent

Always
effective
19
34
32
31

E . and C
S. and C
Soldiers
Women

catching
Almost
always
0
0
3
0

the disease if it is
Not always
effective
48
47
51
49

No information
33
19
14
20

How soon after exposure must it be used?
Less than
4 hours
3
3
65
0

Immediately
78
71
24
95

E . and C
S. and C
Soldiers
Women

Do other preventives

No information
17
20
3
3

(condom, etc.) prevent getting the disease?
.

E. and C
S. and C
Soldiers
Women

Up to
24 hours
2
6
8
2

-.

Prevent
11
19
29
0

Do not
prevent
61
50
63
58

No information
28
31
8
42

34

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES

The film thus seems to increase the knowledge of prophylaxis, to
give good idea of the need of immediate use, but to reduce rather
than increase faith in its absolute effectiveness.
In our interviews with various men we found that a rather large
number had faith in their ability to select an uninfected prostitute.
Since no incentive based upon venereal disease will be effective with
these men so long as they hold to such a belief, it seemed essential
to find out how widely the belief is prevalent.
Is there any way by which you can tell that a woman does not
have gonorrhea or syphilis? If so, what is it?
The replies of all the men were distributed as follows:
Yes
29

No
51

No information
20

Twenty-five per cent of the men gave specific methods for recognizing freedom from disease. These were distributed in the following percentages:
Medical examination
Clear complexion, freedom from sores
Clear eyes
Astringents applied to vagina
Other methods

19
28
17
19
17

About one fourth of the men believe that they can avoid venereal
disease by careful selection of prostitutes and almost all of these
have some special and wholly unreliable method. The picture does
not bear directly upon this point, although the difficulty in the way
of any such methods may easily be deduced from it.
7. The Duration of Treatment.
Two questions tending to throw
light on the success of the picture in emphasizing the need for prolonged treatment were used:—
How quickly can gonorrhea or syphilis be cured?
The data obtained from this question have been presented on
page £4. In general the picture tended to induce a slight increase
in the estimated time, but conveyed no accurate information on the
subject.
How can you tell when gonorrhea and syphilis are cured?
This question was inserted primarily to determine whether the
men knew of the necessity for continued observation after the clearing up of the first symptoms. The replies were distributed as
follows:

35

INFORMATIONAL EFFECTS
By medical By disappear- Impossible
tests
ance of symptoms
to tell
48
4
8

Men—Before
After
E . and C
S. and C
Soldiers
Women—After

53
68
49
27

14
0
9
0

0
9
22
14

No information
40
33
23
20
59

The majority regard the disappearance of symptoms as inadequate proof and would probably be persuaded to continue under
observation. Less than one per cent distinguish between gonorrhea
and syphilis in their answers.
8. Recreation as a Method of Sublimation.
No questions bearing directly upon this point were asked but general questions concerning memories of the picture throw some light upon the readiness with which it was grasped by the audiences.
List the parts of the picture which you remember best.
Less than one per cent of the men and none of the women mentioned recreation or any of the scenes dealing with the government'*
efforts to check venereal disease by social activities. Although 95
seconds were devoted to this subject in the picture, the point is not
made effectively. The film fails in its attempt to convey the lesson
of sublimation.
9. The Effects of Venereal Disease upon Efficiency. About 9 per
cent of the men mention the "effect of the hike" in which fatigue of
the infected men is contrasted with the vigor of the uninfected. No
one mentioned the data on the loss to the government occasioned by
cases of venereal disease. This is presented solely by legends which
seem quite ineffective.
10. Sources of Information

Concerning

Treatment.

How would you find out the name of a good doctor to treat the
diseases?
Men—Before
After
E. and C
S. and C. . .
Soldiers
Women

Reliable
source
55
.

Unreliable
source
13

80
'89
78
73

20
1
16
7

No informations
32
0
10
6
20)

Approximately half of those who gave a reliable source of infor-

36

PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES

mation listed the Public Health Service referred to in the picture.
The remainder mentioned family physicians or hospital ^dispensaries.
The unreliable sources listed were, "from a friend who has had it,"
"from the telephone directory," "a doctor who advertises," etc.
As a general test of the information conveyed by the picture, two
blanket questions were used:—
What facts have you learned from the picture that you did not
know before?
Only about five per cent of the men gave more than one fact.
The more frequent replies from the men are listed below with the
percentages listing each of them.
Nothing (knew it before, saw the picture, etc.)
To keep away from prostitutes
Vague answers ("A lot," "Everything," etc.)
Syphilis is communicated by kissing
Mention of specific effects of venereal diseases
Infection through use of toilet articles
"V. D. more easily contracted than had been believed
V. D. more serious than had been believed
That there are different kinds of disease
That syphilis cannot be cured
,
That syphilis can be cured
That gonorrhea produces blindness in children
To be careful
To use prophylaxis
The prevalence of venereal diseases
Less than one per

34.1
16.4
12.8
8.3
7.2
3.6
2.7
1.9
1.2
1.1
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0

cent.

That venereal disease may go undetected for years.
That a man may be discharged uncured from the army.
How to detect venereal disease.
That germs cause venereal disease.
That venereal disease can disqualify a man so quickly.
That prophylaxis is not always effective.
The value of self-control.
That venereal disease may be fatal.
That intercourse is not necessary.
That information may be obtained from the State Board of Health.

The replies from the women differed little from those of the men,
except that 35 per cent of them mentioned the "manner in which
prostitutes tempt men," and 30 per cent the possibility of cure.
List the parts of the picture that you remember best.
The more frequent answers and the percentages giving each answer follow:

INFORMATIONAL EFFECTS
Men
Scenes showing prostitutes
3C2.5
Pictures of lesions
30.0
Fight scenes
25.1
Comedy
18.7
Bootlegging whiskey
16.2
Infection from contact
13.2
Strength of will in resisting prostitutes
13.5
Hospital scenes, with the implication of sympathy for infected men
*
*
12.7
Patriotic scenes
12.0
"The moral of the picture"
11.2
Disappointment of infected characters
10.0
Officer lecturing
9.7
Blind children
7.2
Prophylaxis
7.0
Effects on efficiency
7.0
Discharge for disability
5.0
Sweethearts of men
4.0
Germs as cause of disease
3.0
Less than one per cent, in the order

37
Women
47.5
47.5
26.7
25.0
25.0
4.0
6.2
22.7
10.2
8.3
53.7
2.5
8.2
4.0
6.2

listed.

Recreation rooms.
Reformation of McCarthy.
Certificate that prostitute is free from disease.
Cure of disease.

The answers to these two questions bring out the relative impressiveness of the various points made by the picture. The questions
were placed first in the questionnaire and were, therefore, answered,
for the most p a r t , without suggestion from the other questions.
The percentage of men who stated that they learned nothing from
the picture is probably exaggerated, for many of those who replied "nothing" showed by answers to other questions that they had
learned specific facts from the picture.
The scenes showing prostitutes evidently make the strongest impression, and the danger of venereal disease from them is the lesson
most thoroughly inculcated. The photographs of lesions rank second in effectiveness and the conception of the serious nature of
venereal disease ranks third of those conveyed. The possibility of
infection through contact ranks fourth, with scenes showing infection from kissing most frequently mentioned. The remaining informational points of the picture are mentioned by relatively few of
the men, although the replies to the other questions show that a fair
percentage of them gained additional information.
Tests of Later Retention
As a measure of retention of the material taught by the film we
sent out copies of the questionnaire used after the performance to

38

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES

a large number of former members of the audiences studied, at intervals of from three to nine months after they had seen the picture.
Less than 50 of these questionnaires were returned to us and they
scarcely form an adequate basis for judgment of the retention of
the material. Owing to their small number it does not seem worth
while to record here a detailed analysis of the replies. In general,
they reveal as much knowledge of the facts presented as do questionnaires returned immediately after the performance. I t is probable that only the more interested people answered these later tests
and that they give too high an average for the total groups. Among
those who answered retention seems to be nearly perfect.
Summary of Informational
Effects
The majority of the answers to the questionnaires indicates that
the subjects gained general impressions rather than accurate knowledge of details. T h a t there is great danger of venereal infection
from prostitutes, that venereal disease may be communicated by
contact with diseased persons or their property, that venereal diseases are serious, that continence is not harmful, that prophylaxis
is not always effective, that a physician's certificate does not assure
the individual's freedom from disease, were the chief lessons learned.
The distinction between gonorrhea and syphilis, the bacterial origin
of venereal diseases, the specific effects of infection, etc., were less
effectively taught.
However, even specific points were acquired by a relatively large
number. Reviewing the answers reported in this section we find
that an average of 70 per cent of the people who saw the picture
had, after the performance, a fairly detailed and accurate knowledge of the points made (listed correct serious effects of prenatal
syphilis, for example). Only 42 per cent had equivalent information before seeing the picture, so it seems that 28 per cent of the
members of the audience acquired specific information concerning
each point made by the picture. T h a t is, 48 per cent of those uninformed before seeing the picture acquired information from the
picture on each point made.
These figures do not take into account inaccurate information
which will serve the purpose of the picture as well as accurate. The
belief that syphilis gives rise to "leprosy" may be as effective a
deterrent as that it results in paresis. The reply that the effects
of gonorrhea are "terrible" may indicate that the subject was more
effectively impressed by the picture than would an accurate description of lesions. If we include answers showing some general idea
of the facts without evidence of accurate information the data show

INFORMATIONAL EFFECTS

39

that 89 per cent of the audience have a general impression of the
communicability, seriousness of venereal diseases, etc., without
accurate knowledge of specific facts.
Finally, if the numbers who claim to be ignorant are averaged,
26.2 per cent are found to claim ignorance before the performance,
10.1 per cent afterwards; a decrease of 60 per cent in those claiming,
complete ignorance.
There is no standard to which we can refer these data, since there
exist no published accounts of the informational value of lectures
or other methods of presentation. From our own experience with
class and lecture work, however, we believe that the results speak
very well for the effectiveness of the film in bringing home the lesson
which it was designed to teach.
The analysis given in this section was designed primarily to determine quantitatively the informational effects of the picture. No
mention has been made of the emotional bearing of the material presented or of its probable affects upon behavior. A picture which
strives for so many different effects as this one seems to do, cannot
be expected to bring out all with equal clearness. There is no doubt
that it succeeds in impressing the information which its authors
consider most important. But whether or not their choice of
material was justifiable is a problem which can be decided only by
studies of the effects of the picture upon the sexual behavior or by
the evaluation of the instruction in the light of the experience of
those whose profession has brought them in intimate contact with
individuals having diverse sexual traditions and training. The immediate emotional reactions of the subjects contribute material for
evaluation of the data presented, and our data on this topic are
summarized in the following section.

III.

EMOTIONAL E F F E C T S OF THE PICTURE

The information conveyed by the picture is of value probably
only in so far as it is accompanied by the arousal of some emotional
attitude on the p a r t of the subjects. The mere possession of information concerning the infectious character of venereal disease*
methods of prophylaxis, or the healthfulness of continence will be
of little value unless there is also some incentive for acting upon
the information through fear of infection, pride in efficiency, or any
one of a large number of possible incentives. The picture as constructed makes an appeal, as pointed out on page 10, chiefly to the
following motivating agents:
1. Fear of infection.
2. Pride in physical fitness.
5. Patriotism and desire to keep fit to fight.
4. Interest in a possible sweetheart and the desire to keep clean
for her sake.
5. Sympathy for innocently infected persons and the desire to
protect them, apparently an appeal to the parental instinct.
These incentives are all apparently calculated to influence the
audience toward avoidance of venereal disease and to this extent
should fulfill the aim of the picture. However, it is possible that the
arousal of certain of these emotions may result in social maladjustments which will more than counterbalance their effects in eliminating
venereal diseases. Fear of disease might become a serious phobia,
while the attitude toward illicit sex relations aroused by the picture
might be transferred to all sex relations and lead not only to con*
tinence but to abstinence from marriage. Fear of disease aroused
in the women seeing the picture, disgust for the men infected or
identification with prostitutes might lead t o serious disturbances of
behavior. Some scenes in the picture may actually be sexually
exciting, with the result that the picture would completely defeat
its own purpose; or the emphasizing of sex matters in the picture
may lead to a general increase in interest in sex and to the breaking
down of the barriers established by the social code.
I t was necessary, therefore, to investigate the picture both from
the standpoint of the incentive which it offers for the avoidance of
venereal disease and from that the possibility of arousing emotions
which will lead to social maladjustments.
40

EMOTIONAL EFFECTS

41

The investigation of the emotional effects of " F i t to Win" ha*
been carried out along five chief lines. First, a number of questions
were introduced in the questionnaires employed before and after the
showing of the pictures, which we believed would throw some light
upon the immediate emotional effects of the picture. Second, detailed notes were made upon the behavior of the audiences during
the performances in order to determine whether the facts presented
were taken seriously; whether there was an excessive interest in the
possible pornographic parts of the picture; whether the audiences
indulged in inuendo or appeared in any way to look upon the picture
as salacious; whether any marked disgust was aroused by the illustration of the cases; and whether there were any indications of
offense at the direct presentation of facts, or a t the crude language
of the legends. Third, in interviews with members of the audiences
after the showing of the picture, we inquired into their general impression and emotional attitude toward the picture and their opinion
as to the effect upon other members of the audiences with whom they
were acquainted. Fourth, data were collected from citizens in towns
where pictures were shown, relative to the popular impression which
the picture created. These people were asked to be alert particularly
for criticisms of the picture or the method by which it was shown,
as, to minors, mixed audiences, etc. Fifth, inquiries of social workers, physicians, and others were directed toward gaining evidence of
any cases of exceptional emotional disturbances due to the picture.
Immediate Emotional Reaction of the Audiences to the Picture
The behavior of the audience during the performances has been
heretofore the sole method by which the effects of the picture were
judged. The difficulties and objections to such a method are obvious.
There is no assurance that permanent effects of the picture or even
the impressions left a few hours after the performances correspond
in any way to the emotional expression during the scenes. Moreover, the interpretation of the behavior of the audience is largely
a matter of the attitude of the observer himself toward the picture.
This has appeared in many phases of our work, when our own interpretations of the immediate reaction of the audience and that of
others with whom we consulted failed of verification in discussion
with members of the audiences after the performances.
During various performances of the picture we made detailed
notes of behavior of the audience, recording comments that were
overheard, scenes during which there was laughter or disturbance,
the general attention to the different parts of the picture and the

42

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES

facial expressions of the audiences in so far as we could observe them
in the dim light of the motion-picture theater. Wherever possible,
at the close of the performances, we asked for comments from the
audience, or discussed the picture and the reactions of the audience
with members as they were leaving. In these notes we sought, as far
as possible, to avoid interpretations and to record exactly the behavior of the people observed.
The data obtained are valuable chiefly for comparison with other
data gained by following up the effects of the picture. Below are
given summaries of the notes made during the performances.
The Medical Group was frankly bored throughout the picture.
Several requested that the performance be stopped as it was a mere
waste of the time of the audience; attention was poor; there was a
great deal of fidgeting, slumping down in chairs, and other indications of fatigue. With this well-informed group the questionnaires
prepared were useless, so voluntary expression of opinion was requested. These took the form of severe condemnation of the picture
upon the following grounds :
1. The danger of infection is exaggerated in the picture since
three out of four exposures are represented as resulting in infection.
2. The severity of the effects is exaggerated. Cases, such as
shown, are rare except in rural districts.
3. The possibility of cure is not sufficiently emphasized. The
remaining comments all dealt with the literary aspects of the pictures. "The hero is a sentimental fool who could not possibly gain
leadership among men"; "His preaching is overdone and tedious";
" T h e 'rube' is exaggerated and silly"; "The behavior of the father
who is shown depressed by and ashamed of the infection of his son
is unnatural and sets up false ideals. The man should take a common-sense attitude toward the matter." Other comments dealt with
the technique of different scenes of the picture, with criticisms of the
actors, the pointlessness or tediousness of particular scenes.
The obvious conclusion from the reaction of this audience was that
the picture carried, for the majority of them, no emotional appeal
whatever, and their interest in it was that of remote critics and
critics of the literary rather than of the educational value of the
picture.
The Executive and Clerical Group gave rather varied reactions.
The picture was presented as a substitute for a regular lecture in
a course. During the performance the women in the class commented upon the unfairness of this and seemed greatly embarrassed.
The men received the picture with tolerant boredom. Some of them

EMOTIONAL EFFECTS

43

were amused by the attitude of the women. In conversation with
individual members of the audience after the performance, we found
that the majority of the women were rather resentful that the picture had been shown under the circumstances. The men tolerated it
as an amusing episode, but they felt that the evening had been
wasted. By the next class meeting, however, the attitude of the
women seemed to be entirely changed, and all but two or three of
those who had protested before volunteered that they were now glad
to have seen the picture and to have been forced to think about the
subject presented.
The Literary Club Group:
This audience was composed entirely
of women, none of whom were under twenty-five years of age. They
showed little detectable emotion during the performance but maintained close attention and almost complete silence. After the performance there was a rather lively discussion in which the presence
of the experimenter was largely ignored, so that we feel that the
discussion was not modified by a desire to please the show-man.
There were no objections or serious criticisms beyond the suggestion
that the legends might be toned down a bit. A number of members
of the audience stated that they were glad to have seen the picture
and to have been aroused to many facts of which they were ignorant
before, and they thought the picture should be shown more widely
in that community.
We have been in close touch with members of this group since the
performance and have had no word of unfavorable comment concerning the picture. A few members of the audience are reported to have
been somewhat wrought up for a few days following the performance,
to have been self-reproachful for their former ignorance and failure
to instruct their children, but this disturbance apparently wore off
without bad after-effects. We received from the group an invitation
to repeat the performance for the benefit of other members of the
club who were not there for the first and, through individual members of the group, three invitations to show the picture to general
audiences in other towns. No one in this group appears to have been
seriously shocked by the picture or to have felt any ill effects from
it. On the contrary, all seemed favorably impressed both during and
after the performance.
Mixed Audience:
This group undoubtedly gives the severest test
of all those studied. The film was advertised as an educational film
with practically no description of its contents, and as open to all
comers. A small hall with a seating capacity of approximately 150
was secured for the exhibition of the film. The audience began to>

44

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES

assemble half an hour before the time advertised. The first to come
were groups of young men and boys who collected in the rear of the
hall and showed a rather aggressive spirit from the start. The
audience finally assembled numbered about 250, of whom nearly
half were forced to stand throughout the performance. At least
half the audience were boys and girls between the ages of 1% and
18. Many of these came in couples and sat together during the
performance. The more mature members of the audience were present in sufficient number to have exerted an influence upon the
younger, but they were seated, for the most p a r t , apart from them.
Throughout the performance the attention of the audience was
held by the picture but at certain scenes and legends there was a
suggestion of a riot; catcalls and "horse laughter" were started by
the boys in the back of the room and kept up until some dramatic
p a r t of the picture attracted their attention. Frank embarrassment
and discomfort were shown by many of the women. At the close of
the performance there was no attempt at general discussion, and
many members of the audience left with eyes to the front and fixed
expressions that suggested that they had been strongly offended.
After the performance we talked with a number of the older
people who had been present and found they agreed that the exhibition of the picture to such an audience had been a rather dangerous
experiment, and they were relieved that the disturbance during the
performance had not been worse than it was. We talked also later
with a number of young men who had been present, boys ranging
from fifteen to nineteen. They seemed interested chiefly in the fact
that girls, with whom they were acquainted, had been present at the
performance, had shown signs of embarrassment, etc., and that the
boys and girls had exchanged questionnaires after the performance.
A few of them expressed some interest in questions of venereal disease, but this attitude seemed to be exceptional.
In every way the immediate effects of this exhibition of the picture
to a mixed audience seemed disastrous. A spirit of levity, of interest
in the suggestive parts of the picture, prevailed and few of the
young men interviewed seemed in any way impressed with the lesson
which the picture sought to convey. The conditions immediately
following the performance were in sharp contrast to those which we
found on our second visit to the town three months later. This is
described on page 68.
The Military Group: The reaction of this audience is not typical
and will be sketched but briefly. The men were under the military
discipline and were ordered to keep silent during the picture. This

EMOTIONAL EFFECTS

45

order was obeyed save for laughter during the bawdy-house scenes
and a t some of the legends. Observers stationed in the audiences
reported that the men were unmistakably interested throughout the
performance. No discussion was obtained.
The Car Men Group: This audience was composed entirely of
men, of whom the vast majority were young and undoubtedly of the
lowest educational average studied. The men were attentive during
the performance but reacted rather strongly to the suggestive parts
of the picture. The interruption of the experiment, described above,
prevented our getting discussion or reactions to the picture following the performance. The interest of the audience was held throughout. Not a man left until the film was ended. Observation of the
men, when leaving, showed them serious and interested in the lesson
of the picture. A number of groups collected outside after the performance and were overheard discussing such topics as the origin
of gonorrhea from strain, the prevalence of infection among prostitutes, etc. At the end of the performance five men came to the
experimenters for advice concerning treatment of active infections
from Which they were suffering.
The Seaman Group: We were warned beforehand by men familiar
with the character of this group that we would find it impossible
to hold the attention of the audience or to induce them to fill out
the questionnaires. This proved far from the truth, however, as the
men were interested throughout the performance. There was relatively little laughter even at the comic scenes, and comments heard
during the performance all indicated that the men were primarily
interested in the serious aspect of the picture. After the performance a large number of men gathered around the experimenters to
discuss questions raised by the film. Among these, nine men suffering
from active infections, applied for advice concerning the best medical treatment they could obtain.
The S. and C Groups of White Men: These audiences were of
men only, collected in response to press advertisements. They
showed keen interest in the pictures throughout and no tendency
toward rowdyism or excessive reaction to the suggestive parts of
the picture.
The S. and C. Groups of Negro Men: These audiences were
§mall and to some extent were probably restrained by the fact that
the pictures were shown in the church and in the presence of the
pastor. Interest appeared to be keen during the performance and
there was little evidence of excessive interest in the suggestive parts
of the picture.

46

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES
The Immediate Emotional Effect of the Picture as Shown
by Replies to the Questionnaires

Questions were included in the questionnaire which seemed likely
to gave some insight into the emotional reactions of the audience..
Data from these questions were collected from the following groups::
Executive and Clerical, Literary Club Group, Mixed Audience,
Seamen, Car Men and Soldiers. The replies returned by various,
groups of men differ to a much smaller degree than the replies to the
informational questions, so for brevity the men are all grouped together in the following tables. An analysis of the replies returned!
by the men and women are given below.
The emotional reactions to the picture may be divided into two
sections: first, the attitude toward sex matters aroused by the picture and second, the attitude taken by the audience toward the
picture itself. Sixteen questions bearing upon emotional reactions
were included in the list for men and seventeen in the questionnaires
for women.
1. Fear of Disease. The first of these dealt with the question of
fear aroused by the picture: Has the picture made you afraid of
getting gonorrhea or syphilis? The distribution of replies was the
following:
Yes
Men
E. and C
S. and C
Soldiers
Women

No

Uncertain

55
75
79
56

39
23
18
35

0
1
0
0

No, but
careful
6
1
3
9

Somewhat more than half of the individuals state that the picture
aroused a fear of venereal disease. However, a similar question
was included in the preliminary questionnaire, and 64 per cent of
the replies to it indicate a preexisting fear of infection. We have
no way of judging the relative intensity of fear before and after
the showing of the picture, but these facts indicate that relatively
few of those who were not afraid before were frightened by the
picture.
%. Attitude Toward Future Behavior. In the questionnaire for
men six questions bearing upon the possible alteration in sexual
behavior were included. Three of these asked the opinion of the
subjects concerning the probable influence of the picture upon the
sexual behavior of others, since it seemed probable to us that replies
to these questions would give a truer picture of the individual's own?
emotional reaction than a direct question concerning his own be-

47"

EMOTIONAL EFFECTS

havior. A fourth question was asked directly concerning the probable effect of the picture upon the individual's own sexual behavior.
Two additional questions sought to bring out the immediate effects,
of the picture upon the man's emotional attitude toward women.
Do you think that the picture will make very many men more careful about using prophylaxis?
Men

Yes
86

No
6

Yes,
qualified
4>

" I t will
me."
1

No information
3

Do you thvnk that the picture will keep very many men
going with whores?
Men
(i

Yes
67

No
17

Yes,
qualified
10

"It will
me."
2

from

Noinformation
4

Do you think that the picture mil make very many men look for
private snap" instead of going to whores?"

Men

Yes
n

Yes,
qualified
5

No
16

No information
7

The largest per cent of the men consider that the picture may
increase the use of prophylaxis and the positive replies to all three
of these questions far outnumber the others. The qualified affirmative answers for the most p a r t suggest that the changes will be
temporary or that relatively few men will be influenced.
In general the men seem convinced that the picture will make for
a reduction of venereal disease. The third question was intended
to reveal whether or not a fear of venereal disease might lead any
considerable number of men to avoid prostitutes and to attempt
seductions. Many of the replies to this question, however, indicate
that the men believe that the risk of venereal disease from an
occasional prostitute is fully as great as from a professional.
Do you think that the picture will change your own behavior
toward fast women? Why?
Sixty-four per cent of the men thought that the picture would
change their behavior. Of these, 64 per cent gave fear of disease
as the incentive; 8 per cent, marriage or expectation of marriage.
Thirty-six per cent of all the men stated that the picture would not
affect their behavior. Of these, 68 per cent claimed to be continent;
7 per cent said that habits of incontinence were too long established
to break; 3 per cent said they would use prophylaxis. Twenty^six
per cent of all the men gave no reason for their answers. Of the
remainder, only 10 per cent expressed themselves as not determined
to avoid prostitutes.

48

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES

Thus 24 per cent of all the men studied claim to be continent.
Sixty-four per cent believed that seeing the picture would modify
their sexual behavior either through fear for themselves of contracting venereal disease, or of venereal disease in relation to marriage.
Twelve per cent who answered that the picture would not modify
their behavior failed to give a reason, and continence may account
for a large number of these negative answers. Only 10 per cent, or
if we include this questionable 12 per cent, 22 per cent of the men believed that the picture would fail to change their habits of incontinence.
I t appears that the picture aroused in the great majority of incontinent men an immediate determination to modify their sexual
behavior. This appears not only in answers to the questionnaires
but in the comments and discussions overheard as the audiences were
leaving. Whether or not the impression made has permanence is,
however, another question, which we have sought to answer in experiments described in Section IV.
3. Erethitic Effects of the Picture.
The questions seeking to
bring out the possible sexually exciting effects of the picture were
the following:
Did seeing the picture make you want a woman? Ninety-four
per cent of the men answered no and many of the "no's" were underscored or reinforced with profanity. Four per cent answered
"Yes, a good woman," which is perhaps an even more emphatic " n o "
to the implication of the question. Two per cent answered "yes."
Of these, 30 per cent had stated that they were too old to reform,
etc., and many of the remainder made such comments as " P a r t s of
it did, but it died quickly."
The comments of the men after the performances bear out fully
these results. "Believe me, I'm off of that for life," "Never again,"
were the most frequent remarks overheard as the audiences were
leaving.
In two cases where the film proved sexually exciting, we were able
to get a small amount of further data. The indication was that
both individuals were of the introverted type and that the scenes
in the picture were simply substituted for a time for other sex fantasies without producing any essential change in the individuals'
overt reactions.
These data show that the picture is only very rarely sexually
stimulating, and then only in cases of those whose sexual reactions
are unusually strongly developed.

EMOTIONAL EFFECTS

4&

4. Sex Antagonism.
Did it make you want to keep away from all women?
Sixty-one per cent of the men answered no, 39 per cent, yes. Of
the former, 24 per cent qualified their answers by comments such as.
"from bad ones." This indicates that the question was ambiguous
and that many of those who answered "yes" had in mind all prostitutes rather than all women. We have nowhere found any evidence of a prolonged sex antagonism either in men or women as a
result of the picture.
Two questions bearing upon the changes in the social attitude
of the audience toward venereal disease were included.
5. How long should a man who has had venereal disease wait
before he marries?
This question was asked before the showing of the film in a
slightly different form. "Do you think that a person who had a
venereal disease should marry ?" In replying to- this, 69 per cent
of the men said " n o " ; 22 per cent answered "when cured"; 6 p e r
cent "yes"; 3 per cent stated that they were in doubt. The form
of the second question probably modified the percentage of the
replies more than the picture. Only 22 per cent of the men replied
to the second question that a man once infected should never m a r r y ;
26 per cent, that he should make certain of his complete cure; 23
per cent, that he should wait from one to three years; and 22 per
cent that he should wait for four years or more. The general indication of the replies to this question is that men take a rather serious
attitude toward the social responsibility of the individual infected.
Only two individuals among the 1,132 from whom questionnaires
were obtained gave replies which indicated a lack of any feeling of
responsibility. These replied that a man should marry right away.
The probability of levity in these replies is ruled out by answers to
other questions and they are probably referable to the familiar widespread superstition relative to cure of gonorrhea.
Do you think that a health certificate should be required for men
and women before marriage?
Before the performance 93 per cent of the men answered thi&
question in the affirmative. The others were for the most p a r t in
doubt. After the performance 95 per cent replied in the affirmative.
I t is doubtful whether the picture had any influence here since the
differences are no more than a random variation, but the very large-

.50

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES

per cent of men who favor such certificate is interesting in relation
to legislation on this subject.
6. Attitude of the Men Toward the Picture. Two questions were
intended to reveal the attitude of the men toward the picture.
Would you want your sister or sweetheart to see such a picture?
Fifty-three per cent of the men answered this question in the
affirmative. The reasons given were rather vague; " t h a t every one
should know the facts," " t h a t the picture might do good," etc.
Forty-seven per cent gave negative answers, for the most p a r t without reasons. A few gave as reasons that " T h e picture is not fit
for any one to see," " T o o dirty," "They would not need it," etc.
These give the sense of practically all the negative reasons. Many
of the answers on both sides were quite emphatic and it appears
that this question is one which has a great deal of affective value
for the men, and one upon which there is little hope of immediate
agreement.
Do you think that pictures of this sort should be shown to the
public?
Why?
Ninety-three per cent of the men thought that the picture should
be shown. The reasons given were practically all variations on the
theme, " I t is educational." Five per cent thought that the picture
should be shown to men only. The reason for the apparent disagreement of the replies to this question and the preceding one is
not clear. The difference is probably referable to the strong traditions of purity in their own immediate families current among the
men and the relative indifference toward all others.
For the women a different series of questions bearing on the emotional reaction was included. Since the belief seemed to be rather
prevalent among some classes of women that venereal diseases are
largely restricted to the demimonde, a question was included to
determine the tendency to apply the facts of the picture to themselves.
7. Do you feel that the facts presented in the picture may affect
you directly, or do they apply only to the lower classes?
One hundred per cent replied that the picture dealt with facts
which directly concerned them. Only two suggested that they considered the facts more applicable to more ignorant people.
The questions dealing with the feeling concerning future sexual
behavior were the following:
8. Attitude
Marriage.

of Women toward Venereal Diseases in Relation

to

EMOTIONAL EFFECTS

51

Did the picture make you afraid to marry any man for fear he
wight have venereal disease?
Thirty-nine per cent answered in the negative; 48 per cent, in
the affirmative; and I S per cent were doubtful. Many answered
" N o t afraid but cautious," or in other ways indicated an influence
t>f the picture.
How do you feel about marrying a man who has had a venereal
disease but who has been cured?
Fifty per cent stated that they would not marry a man once
infected; 37 per cent stated that they would be afraid although
they did not indicate that the fear would prevent marriage; 13 per
cent stated that they were uncertain and would be unable to answer
unless confronted by the problem. One stated that she would hesitate to have children, and only one took a strictly moralistic attitude, that her decision would depend upon how the man was infected.
Do you think that the facts presented in the picture will make
young women antagonistic toward men or unwilling to risk marriage? Ninety-three per cent answered in the negative.
The replies to these questions indicate that the picture does not
tend to set up in the majority of women any antagonism toward
men or marriage but does induce a feeling that they should be cautious and protect themselves against marriage with an infected man.
9. Attitude toward the Picture, Four questions were calculated
to bring out the attitude of the women toward the picture:
Do you feel that you would rather not know the facts given in
the picture?
Ninety-eight per cent stated that they would rather know the
facts. A few indicate that they find them very disagreeable.
Do you think that any parts of the picture ought to be cut out?
What?
Ninety-one per cent stated that all parts of the picture should be
included; 6 per cent suggested the omission of the bawdy-house
scenes; 3 per cent advise the modification of the legends. We were
able to verify these results in later discussions of the picture and
it seems certain that vast majority of women are not only not
offended by the inclusion of this material but consider that it is
valuable in bringing home to them the seriousness of the temptations to which men are exposed, and the need for education to develop a different attitude in them.

52

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES

Do you think that such a picture should be shown to young women
before marriage? How old should they be before seeing it?
One hundred per cent replied in the affirmative to the first question and a number later expressed regret that they had not brought
their young daughters to see the film. Ninety-six per cent suggested
the minimum age at which girls might see the picture to be between
14 to 16 years; the remainder suggested higher ages, none above
18 years.
In what ways might the picture do harm?
Ninety-two per cent of the women answered that they could think
of no way in which the picture might be harmful. Six per cent suggested that it might show the methods of vice and £ per cent that
it might cause morbid anxiety or fear.
The judgment of the women thus seems to be almost unanimously
favorable. There is no indication that they are offended by the
frankness of the picture or that they are excessively disturbed by
the facts presented.
In addition to these questions bearing upon specific points, two
general ones were asked which seemed likely to throw light on the
emotional effects of the picture. A list of emotions was included in
the questionnaire and the audience was asked to "check the words
that describe the way the picture made you feel." The list, with the
proportion of replies to each word, is given below:

Frightened
Interested
Indifferent
Sick
Fatigued
Unhappy
Excited*
Disgusted
Angry
Indignant
Shocked
Amused
Sceptical
Bored
Resentful
Surprised
Tired
Blue
Doubtful of the facts
Angry at being shown the picture

Men
Per cent
19.3
79.6
4.3
13.9
2.7
17.4
7.8
26.8
8.3
3.0
11.0
7.8
1.6
1.6
2.7
16.1
4.5
9.1
2.2
0.0

Women
Per cent
18.9
94.2
0.0
23.7
1.5
31.9
1.5
3(5.7
7.1
21.9
26.4
0.0
1.5
6.3
6.6
S0.9
4.5
1.2
0.0
6.6

53

EMOTIONAL EFFECTS

The list is significant chiefly with respect to minor emotions. The
looseness with which such terms are popularly used deprives it of
any great significance. Interested, sick, unhappy, disgusted, and
surprised make up the most frequent classes. Many qualified their
replies in such a way as to give them clearer meaning. The more
frequent and important of these qualifications are: frightened at
the danger of infection; disgusted at the sores; indignant that such
things should he allowed to exist; surprised at the prevalence and
seriousness of the diseases.
Only a very small per cent were bored by the picture. Even fewer
expressed any doubt of the facts presented. None of the men and
only 6.6 per cent of the women resented being shown the picture.
The latter figure included those of the Executive and Clerical Group,
the majority of whom later voluntarily retracted their expressions
of the resentment.
The second general question called for a list of the scenes remembered best. Thet replies to this are tabulated on page 55. They
give some indication of the relative emotional effectiveness of the
various topics dealt with in the picture. In absolute number of
replies the photographs of the lesions far outnumber any of the
other educational parts of the picture and none of the other appeals
makes any significant impression. T o judge from these lists, the
film is most effective in its emphasis of the terrible effects of the
venereal disease.
The Relative

Value of Various Emotional
in the Picture

Appeals

Used

There is a great difference in the vividness with which the various
incentives are portrayed and in the length of the scenes dealing with
them. We have sought for some measure of relative effectiveness of
the different motives employed in arousing interest and making a
lasting impression. For a clear-cut experiment to determine, for
example, the relative effectiveness of an appeal to fear of disease
and to parental instinct, as shown by the interest in defective children, we would have to construct scenes dealing with the two topics
at equal length with equal amounts of action, etc. T h a t is, scenes
should differ from one another as little as possible except with
respect to the instinct to which appeal is made. Such an experiment is obviously impracticable at present and we must rely upon
an analysis of the relative stimulating effects of the different scenes
which have already been prepared. This, of course, has the disadvantage of complexity, since the scenes differ enormously in length,

54

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES

in the amount of action which is involved, in the excellence of photography, etc.
In analyzing the strength of the different appeals made by the
picture, a number of features must be taken into consideration.
First, the so-called laws of association may modify the relative
efficiency of the scenes. The first, last, longest, or most often repeated scenes may be remembered best. Second, the vividness of
presentation is one of the most important factors. The rapidity of
action and skill of the actors, the association of actors with other
scenes, the directing and staging of the scenes all have an influence-,,
but if we can form any conception of the p a r t played by these
factors we may arrive at some estimate of the third and most important agent, the relative effectiveness of an appeal to different
instinctive motives.
We have attempted an analysis of this problem in the followingway : Immediately after the performances the audiences were asked
to write a list of scenes they remembered most clearly. No suggestions were made as to what sort of scenes were wanted or in what
order they should be listed. The answers to this question were
tabulated according to the scenes listed, and the percentage of individuals listing each scene was computed.
The time devoted to each scene in "Fit to Win" was measured and
the scenes dealing with the same topic were summed so as to give
a list of the total number of topics dealt with in the picture and
the time devoted to each. These were compared with the lists of
scenes given by the subjects. The percentage of the subjects who
listed each scene gives a measure of the absolute effectiveness of the
scenes in producing a lasting impression. These percentages for
all individuals studied are given on page 55.
For the soldiers, the street soliciting and bawdy-house scenes
were by far the most effective, being mentioned by 48.3 per cent of
the men. The pictures of venereal-disease infection and of the after
effects of untreated infections were next in effectiveness, being listed
by 37.9 per cent of the men. The third in effectiveness were the
scenes of bodily combat, fighting and boxing. The scenes of bootlegging whiskey were fourth in effectiveness, and others which impressed more than 10 per cent of the men were effective in the following order: lip chancre from kissing, slackers as a result of venereal
disease, commanding officer lecturing, resisting prostitutes, sailing
for France, the effect of venereal diseases on children, and the administering of prophylaxis.
For the car men, the effects of venereal infection scenes were the

EMOTIONAL EFFECTS

55>

y

most impressive, 38 per cent of the men listing them. Second in
effectiveness were the scenes dealing with prostitutes, 18 per cent of
the men listing them. Third in effectiveness were the comedy scenes
dealing with the country boy, Hank. Not more than 10 per cent of
these men listed any other scenes.
For the sailors studied, the effects of venereal disease were most
impressive, 76 per cent of the men listed them; the soliciting and
bawdy-house scenes were next in effectiveness, listed by 37 per cent
of the men; the self-restraint of Bill and Hank in resisting the prostitutes ranks third; the disappointment of the boys left behind, the
ease of contagion and scenes dealing with recreation rooms for
soldiers rank next, listed by equal numbers of men. No other scenes
were listed by more than 10 per cent of the men.
The women who saw the picture listed the scenes in the following
order: Effects of venereal disease, 50 per cent; soliciting and prostitutes, 29 per cent; scenes dealing with the country boy, Hank, #1
per cent; blind children, 16 per cent. No other scenes were listed
by more than 10 per cent of the women.
TABLE 1.

T H E RELATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VARIOUS SCENES IN " F I T TO W I N . "

The number of indixnduals recalling each scene is divided by the length of th+
scene in seconds. The scenes having the highest stimulating value
for each group are marked by italics.
Literary Mixed Average
Seconds Soldiers Car Men Sailors
Club Audience Rank
Lecture
120
0.125
0.086
&
Germs
95
0.063
0.031
15
Effects of disease.. 355
0.107
0.094
0.214
0.079
0.060
9"
Blind children
63
0.183
0.110
0.288
0.270
1
Fight scenes
520
0.065
0.006
0.044.
0.054
11
Sweetheart appeal. 195
0.041
0.015
0.062
17
Father's advice . . . 120
0.039
0.050
19
Prophylaxis
145
0.076
0.021
....
10
Venereal disease
frequency
60
0.167
14
Bootlegging whiskey 120
0.208
0M5
T
Street soliciting and
bawdy house . . . 560
0.006
0.068
0.054
0.079
0.052
4
Resisting soliciting. 155
0.995
0.103
0.090
5*
Recreational activities
80
0.035
0.125
135
Infection from kiss 215
0.092
0.058
9
Effects on efficiency 100
0.094
13
Continence not
harmful
43
0.006
19
Boys infected and
left behind
200
0.120
0.062
0.050
0.145
3*
Discharged for
disability
60
0.080
....
....
10
Sailing for "Over
There"
80
0.169
0.175
G

-56

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES

Thus we see that for the men the scenes in the bawdy house, the
fights, the lesions of venereal disease, and hospital scenes were most
impressive. F o r the women the effects of venereal disease, the scenes
in the bawdy house, and the appeal made by the innocent boy,
Hank, were most effective.
The determination of the effectiveness of different motives by the
percentages of individuals listing them, does not take into consideration the relative length of the scenes. If we weighed the percentages according to the length of the scenes the relative importance
is altered to a marked degree. Table 1 gives constants obtained by
dividing the length of the various scenes in seconds into the percentage of the individuals listing them for the five audiences from
whom a sufficient number of replies were obtained to give significant
statistical data. The length of the scenes in seconds is given at the
left of the table. The scenes dealing with prostitutes, with fighting
and with effects of venereal-disease infection are far longer than any
others. Those dealing with blind children, bootlegging, and the disappointment of the infected boys are very much briefer, yet we find
that per unit of itme they are much more effective.
The Soldier Group must be considered as rather specialized in
interest and this will probably account for the high effectiveness of
certain scenes. Thus the most effective of all scenes for them per
unit of time were those dealing with illicit selling of liquor. Personal
interest in the sale of liquor to men in uniform undoubtedly accounts
for their interest in these scenes, which were quite unimpressive lor
the other groups not under military discipline, and interest in the
lecture by the Commanding Officer and in the final scene dealing with
departure for France may also be looked upon as a product of their
special interests since they were disregarded by members of other
groups. Omitting these scenes from consideration, therefore, we
find that the scenes showing children blind as a result of gonorrhea
had by far the strongest appeal, exceeding even that of personal fear
of the diseases. Sympathy for the infected boys comes second in
effectiveness, the effects of the venereal disease comes third; the
reduction in efficiency by disability as illustrated by the effects of
the hike, fourth; the strength of character of Bill and Hank in
resisting soliciting of prostitutes, fifth; the street soliciting and
bawdy-house scenes, and fight scenes which abound in action fall to
sixth and tenth place respectively.
For the Car Men Group the relative impressiveness of different
scenes varies considerably from that for the soldiers. F o r these
men the effects of the disease were most impressive, the street solicit-

EMOTIONAL EFFECTS

5T

ing and bawdy house scenes were second; the disappointment of boys
infected, third; and the father's advice to the country boy, Hank,,
fourth.
The Sailor Group shows a still different ranking but approaches
the Soldier Group. The pictures of lesions were for them the most
impressive. The venereal-disease statistics rank second for them;,
the blind children, third; and the possibility of infection from kissing, fourth. The relatively high ranking of the purely informational
parts of the picture is rather to be expected from the level of intelligence of these men, who, to judge from their answers to the questionnaires, make up the most widely read and intelligent group of
those studied statistically.
For the women studied the appeal of the blind children far exceeded t h a t of any other scene. Next in order were the scenes
involving the country boy, Hank, which seemed likewise to appeal to
the maternal instinct. The street soliciting and bawdy-house scenes
were third in impressiveness, and the effects of the venereal disease,,
fourth.
The relative ineffectiveness of some of the emotional appeals t a
which much space is devoted in the picture is of special interest.
The parts dealing with the power of a good woman to keep the men
straight rank fourth in the time devoted to them in the picture.
Yet, in impressiveness for the men they rank never higher than
fourteenth place. The lack of ill effects from continence received
no attention whatever, although as much time is devoted to it as to
the advice of Hank's father. The greater vividness of the latter
may account for this difference.
These figures represent the relative effectiveness of the different
motives as treated in " F i t to Win." With other treatment, change
in dramatic interest, length of presentation, accentuation in plot,,
etc., the relative values would undoubtedly change and we can make
only a rough estimate of what their effects would be under different
conditions of presentation. The appeal of the blind children stands
out, however, as the most effective of all, irrespective of treatment,
since it could scarcely be given less prominence or presented les£
dramatically than in this film.
Persistent Emotional Effects of the Picture
In following up the effects of the picture we have been constantly
on the alert for any indication of adverse emotional effects. W e
have received verbal reports from about 73 men and women, physicians, social workers, ministers, and others who were requested to-

58

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES

look for and report any case of morbid anxiety, excessive curiosity,
o r any antagonism toward the performance which might appear in
their community. No word of anything of the sort has been received. We believe we have been in close touch with a sufficient
number of people to reveal any serious emotional effects which the
performance might have produced and the lack of reports justifies
the conclusion that no morbid reactions occurred.
Summary

of Emotional

Effects

of "Fit to Wiriy

The chief emotions aroused immediately by the film are horror
.at the pictured effects of venereal diseases and fear of infection.
Neither of these is very strong, however, and there is no indication
i h a t they ever reach pathological intensity. They seem quite effective in inspiring a resolution to avoid exposure and a desire for a
general improvement in hygienic conditions. The fear of infection
is the chief motivating agent to which the film appeals. The other
possible incentives to continence which are touched upon in the film
are given too brief space or too little dramatic value to impress
any great number of men. An analysis of their retention in relation
to the time devoted to them in the film indicated that the appeal of
sympathy for the innocently infected is greater than of fear of
disease; and that admiration for the strength of character which
can resist temptation may be an almost equally strong motive, but
that the absolute space devoted to these incentives is too limited to
make them effective.
The picture does not produce any sexual excitement in the majority of the men. The replies to questionnaires, comments of the
audience, and data gained from interviews with men after the performance all indicate that there is, instead, a temporary inhibition
of sex impulses.
No general sex antagonism seems to be aroused either in men or
ivomen. The majority of both take the attitude that they would
Tiave no greater hesitancy in marrying than before they saw the
picture, although they would take greater precautions to guard
against venereal disease.
We have found no evidence that, when used with audiences of one
sex only, the film produces any objectionable shoe kin either men or
women, nor have persistent inquiries following at various periods
up to three months after the showing of the films given any indication that any morbid emotional reactions are aroused.
Where the picture is shown to a mixed audience its disturbing
effects are much greater. In particular such performances seem

EMOTIONAL EFFECTS

59

liable to lead to a relaxing of sex inhibitions in the younger members
of the audience and to flippant and suggestive discussion of the
picture. Where the sexes do not mingle immediately after the performance there is no indication that anything of this sort occurs.
The attitude of both men and women toward the picture is almost
without exception one of approval. Very few of either sex showed
uny resentment at the content of the film. Without exception the
"women expressed the opinion that the film might be shown to young
girls without harm, and very few suggested any revision of it for
this purpose. In contrast to this, the majority of the men objected
to the showing of the film to women.
In general the persistent emotional effects of the picture are
slight. Members of the audience are aroused temporarily but, as
is true of all emotional measures that are not followed up continuously, interest quickly dies out and as our studies in the next section
indicate, the effects of the film upon subsequent behavior are too
slight to be detected.

IV.

T H E INFLUENCE OF THE PICTURE U P O N SEXUAL BEHAVIOR AND
PUBLIC OPINION

The methods thus far discussed bring out chiefly the immediate
effects of the picture and tell little concerning its ultimate value or
defects. To gain evidence upon these points it has been necessary
to follow up the exhibitions with field studies extending over several
weeks or months, and involving the cooperation of the numerous
volunteer agencies. The points on which we have sought to get data
in following up the effects of the picture were the following: 1.
Changes in the sexual continence of selected groups. (Adequate
data upon this point are extremely difficult to obtain and we could
hope for only a rough estimate of changes in a few limited groups.)
2. The effects of the picture upon venereal-disease incidence and
prophylactic rate in selected communities as an index of continence
and the prevalence of venereal disease; 3. The arousal of popular
interest in sexual topics, both from the standpoint of the development of greater freedom of discussion and of the stimulation of
erotic curiosity; 4. The probability of the development of excessive
fears, self reproach, sex antagonism, and other morbid emotional
reactions; 5. Popular attitudes toward the picture and the methods
of presenting instruction; the possible conflict of the picture with
esthetic, moral, or religious conventions.
Data from Direct

Inquiries

We obtained interviews with 35 men who had seen " F i t to W i n "
from six to eighteen months previously and after gaining their
cooperation and arousing their interest in the problem, we asked
whether or not the picture had had any influence upon their behavior, either by increasing continence or by stimulating the use
of medical prophylaxis. Sixteen men of this group claimed to have
been continent before they saw the picture and to have been reinforced in their determination by fear of disease aroused by the
picture. In view of the attitude taken by the others it seems probable that their ascribing of continued continence to the picture is
a rationalization of some other motive which was effective before,
for none of the others admitted that they had been influenced. All
of these others stated that the picture had had only a very temporary influence upon them, if any at all. Two reported that they
60

INFLUENCE UPON SEXUAL BEHAVIOR

61

had been frightened for a time but that they soon forgot about it.
The attitude of the remainder is typified by the statement of a
first sergeant, a particularly well-informed man. " I saw the picture
about eight months ago and thought it was a mighty good thing.
But another fellow and I had a date for that night and we went
out with a couple of girls and had a big night, anyway. I don't
think he took prophylaxis and I know I didn't bother with it."
The general attitude of these men, and indeed, of the majority
of careless young men with whom we have talked, is that the picture
is well worth seeing, that they are very glad to get the information
that it conveys, that it will undoubtedly influence the young man
who has had no sexual experience, but—"well, I know the ropes."
We inquired of these and of some 30 additional men who had had
experience with the film in the army as to whether they could cite
a case among their friends where the film had served as a deterrent
from sexual indulgence, but we could learn of no such case. These
data give no indication that the film is effective in modifying sexual
behavior. The men had been interested by the pictures and without
exception praised it highly. Many of them, the sergeant mentioned
above, for example, were able to describe it almost scene by scene,
so its failure is in no wise due to a lack of understanding. The men
had been members of the national army and not regulars, so that
they were representative of the civilian rather than of the military
population. Their small number makes the conclusion drawn from
their statements less certain than we might wish, but other lines of
evidence corroborate their statements and the results may be taken
as one link in the chain of evidence against the existence of any significant behavior effect of the picture.
The Effects of the Picture upon Prophylactic
Incidence Rates

and

Venereal-Disease

The need of a large group of men, concerning whom venerealdisease records could be obtained, led us to request the assistance
of the authorities' at a military camp. With the cooperation of
the medical officers there, the following experiment was planned*
The picture was to be shown to one half of the men of the camp,
divided by organization, so that the prophylactic and venereal-disease records would be readily obtainable. We thus hoped to divide
the camp into two equal groups, only one of which saw the picture,
and to compare the prophylactic and venereal-disease records of the
two groups for the three months preceding and three months following the showing of the pictures. Thus, the group which did not

m

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES

see the picture would serve as experimental control and make possible the determination of the normal prophylactic and venerealdisease rates of the camp during the period of the experiment.
Unfortunately the division of the men actually made by the camp
authorities was such that we were unable to follow the records of
two separate divisions. However, the records of the camp as a
whole are available and gave data of considerable value for the
analysis of the effects of the picture.
The army group constitutes practically the only available one
from which records of sexual behavior are obtainable. The use of
it has certain objections which may make the results of the experiments not strictly applicable to civilian groups. The men have
been to some extent instructed in prophylaxis and in the dangers
of venereal disease and hence those most readily influenced may
already have had their behavior modified to such an extent by this
instruction that they are less likely than civilians to show further
changes. The character of army life, moreover, is such as to counteract somewhat the effects of the picture, since alternating periods
-of restraint and liberty and the general atmosphere of barrack life
tend to introduce a number of abnormal features.
The group studied, however, was taken from a training school
and was made up chiefly of recently enlisted men. I t seems probable,
therefore, that it differs from the civilian population much less
markedly than would a group taken from a regular army post. The
answers to the questionnaires by these men and the general similarity of their reactions to those of the civilian groups studied, lead
us to believe that the result obtained from this specialized group
is not greatly different from what we should expect of civilian
groups, if data were obtainable, and that we may with justice apply
conclusions drawn from them to the civilian population.
The picture was shown on February 13th to about 1,200 men.
They were required to fill out the questionnaire which has been described above. Seven hundred and sixty-four more or less complete
questionnaires were returned. Their replies have been described in
preceding sections. As the analysis there given shows, the majority
of the men were interested in the picture, took it seriously, and
believed that it would effect some modification of their behavior
(Questions 4, 6, 23 and 27). Further (as the replies show) the
questions exercise little if any selection of men upon the basis of
their sex standards. Men who were admittedly regular patrons of
prostitutes answered the questions conscientiously and seemed fully
&s much impressed as those who claimed total abstinence.

INFLUENCE UPON SEXUAL BEHAVIOR

63

Three months after the showing of the picture, the venereal records of the men were tabulated and compared for the three months
preceding and following the exhibition. The total prophylactic
and venereal records for the camp are given week by week in Table £.
TABLE 2. TOTAL NUMBER OF PROPHYLACTIC TREATMENTS AND N E W VENEREAL
DISEASE CASES P E R W E E K I N THE MILITARY CAMP W H E R E THE PICTURE
WAS SHOWN.

The columns at the left precede,

those at the right follow,
picture.

December
January
January

January

2o...
2...
9. ..

30. . .

Venereal
Disease
Incidence
2
2
6
4
1
3
3
2
0
0
5
2
3
3

Prophylactics
79
76
39
29
27
80
27
17
39
61
37
24
17
59

36

Week
Beginning

611

Week
Beginning
February 1 3 . . .
February 20...
February 27...
March
5. . .
March
12...
March
19...
26...
March
April
2
April
9. . .
April
16...
April
24...
April
30...
May
7...
14 .
May

the showing of the
Venereal
Disease
Incidence
2
7
1
5
7
0
2
0
2
3
3
4
1
3

Prophylactics
45
21
28
61
46
45
26
50
77
36
32
27
103
54

40

651

The table shows that for the three months preceding the showing
of the picture the total number of venereal infections in the camp
was 36, of prophylactic treatments 611. For the three months
following the showing, the infections numbered 40, and prophylactic
treatment 651. For briefer periods the proportions are almost
exactly the same. During the four weeks preceding the showing
there were 13 cases of venereal disease and 137 prophylactic treatments. In the four weeks after the showing there were 15 new
cases of venereal disease, and 155 prophylactic treatments. These
differences were very slight in comparison with the normal variations
shown by the camp. The new cases of venereal disease increased
15 per cent and the prophylactic treatment 13 per cent after the
picture. Such a difference is well within the monthly range of variation and is not significant.
A few facts which might obscure a real effect of the picture must
be considered. If the picture both reduced the number of exposures
and increased the use of prophylaxis, the prophylactic rate might
remain constant or rise in spite of the beneficial effects of the pic-

64

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES

ture, but if this were true the venereal incidence rate should show
a corresponding reduction. The table shows that this is not the*
case. There is no decrease in the venereal-disease incidence rate
which would indicate a reduction in the number of exposures. Second, if in addition, the picture led more men to apply for treatment
of previously concealed infection, the venereal-disease incidence rate
might remain constant even though there was a reduction in the
number of exposures. With the civilian group this source of error
might be serious, but the men studied were subject to thorough
bimonthly medical inspection, and a chance that undiscovered cases
might exist for any length of time is rather slight.
The irregularity in the venereal-incidence rate in the two months
following the showing of the picture may be merely a chance variation, but is more probably due, according to the statements of
medical officers, to the arrival of new detachments in the camp.
The rise in both the venereal incidence rate and of the prophylactic
rate during the time of the experiment is a normal seasonal variation and has no significance for the experiment. The statistical
data thus show no appreciable effect of the picture.
As the questionnaires show, the men who saw the picture took it
quite seriously at the time. Sixty-five per cent of those who saw it
(89 per cent of those who did not claim to be already continent)
were convinced that the picture would modify their sex behavior as
a result of their increased knowledge or fear of venereal disease.
Yet in spite of this expressed belief, the week following the performance did not show a prophylactic rate significantly below the average
of corresponding weeks in other months. The attitude aroused
immediately by the picture seems to give little index of its final
effect upon behavior. The weekly and monthly variations in rates,
for this camp of about 3,000 men are quite large and we cannot
say with absolute certainty that a very slight beneficial effect of
the picture might not have failed to be detected by our methods.
But so far as this experiment could determine, the actual behavior
effect of the picture upon these men was too slight to be detected.,
The Effects of the Picture upon Civilian

Populations

For field tests of the picture with civilian populations, two towns,.
C. and S., of approximately 7,000 population each, were selected.
In a preliminary visit we called upon all the physicians, druggists,,
district nurses, ministers, and Y. M. C. A. officers in each town and
arranged for their cooperation. The physicians were asked to keep
records of all new cases of venereal disease and prophylaxis whiche

INFLUENCE UPON SEXUAL BEHAVIOR

65

-were received during the six weeks preceding and following the
exhibition of the pictures. The druggists were asked to keep records
of the sales of prophylactics and patent venereal remedies and of
.all the applications for treatment during the period. Nurses, ministers, and others were asked to make inquiry among the people of
the town following the showing of the pictures and to report upon
t h e popular attitude toward the pictures and especially upon any
adverse criticism which they might hear.
Six weeks later we advertised through the press performances of
" F i t to Win" for men only, and "The End of the Road" for women
only, in each of these towns. The pictures were shown to the whites
in the local armories and to negroes in negro churches. The audiences were unlimited in age but contained few under 15 years, and
the pictures were shown to each sex separately. The total number
«oi people in the two towns who saw the pictures is given below:
NEGROES

WHITES

'C.

Men
Women
S. Men
Women

350
525
380
395

C.
S.

Men
Women
Men
Women

100
250
180
200

Total number who saw the picture in C , 1,225, and in S., 1,155.
T h u s approximately one sixth of the total adult population in these
towns saw the pictures. The audiences were observed during the
performances and notes made concerning their apparent interest
and emotional reactions to various parts of the picture, etc. (These
have been described on page 45.)
Eight weeks after the showing of the pictures we obtained reports
from the various agencies which had agreed to cooperate in determining the effects of the pictures. The physician in the local
venereal-disease dispensary which has just been established by the
State Board of Health at C. reported that four men had applied for
treatment at the dispensary and had mentioned the picture as the
occasion for their coming. Two of these were old cases who wanted
information concerning the liability of recurrence of gonorrhea.
T h e other two were new cases of gonorrhea: Three other inquiries
of a general nature concerning venereal disease were received at
the dispensary as a result of the picture. The negro physician reported no cases but stated that about 25 men and 10 women had
asked him non-professionally for information concerning venereal
disease. Several of the other physicians reported having heard the
picture discussed favorably but had received no inquiries concerning venereal diseases, prophylaxis, or other sex matters which seemed
referable to the pictures.

66

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES

The district nurse in C. reported that she had discussed the
picture with a number of women in the town and had heard no unfavorable comment, that all with whom she talked praised the purpose and character of the picture, and many expressed the wish
that it might be shown again. From the reports obtained from
ministers and others who had agreed to trace the possible effects
of the pictures, not a single adverse criticism was expressed, although
the investigators laid particular stress upon their desire to hear
such criticism.
Practically no information of value was obtained from the druggists in either C. or S. I t is probable tha4t these men completely
failed to cooperate since the State Board of Health has been carrying on a rather vigorous campaign to have all cases of venereal
disease reported and it is certain that some of the druggists considered the investigator to be an agent of the State Board of Health
and were unwilling to report actual sales of venereal-disease remedies.
In S. 12 physicians were seen. Only one of these could report
any inquiry concerning sex matters, resulting from the showing of
the pictures. He was the colored physician of the town and reported
that during the six weeks following the showing of the pictures he
hard had six cases, four men and two women, suffering from skin
lesions who wished to know whether the lesions were syphilitic in
character and who stated that they had come as a result of seeing the
picture. None of the cases were of venereal disease. Two women
also asked him concerning methods of prophylaxis. The two white
physicians in the town who have the largest practice with venereal
disease, report that not only have they had no inquiries traceable to
the film but venereal-disease cases during the entire period of the experiment were unusually rare. The district nurse and other social
workers who were cooperating reported conversations with a number
of young men and women in the town. As in C , the comments heard
were without exceptions favorable to the pictures. No criticism
of any character could be obtained. Some of the people who saw
the pictures were so favorably impressed that the investigators were
urged to return and show the pictures a month after the experimental performance. From ministers similar reports were obtained,
although the majority of them seemed to have made little effort to
follow up the picture.
One minister, who is interested in social problems, reported having
discussed the picture with boys of his Sunday School class, ranging
from 13 to 18 years, the older ones of whom had seen the picture.
He was very favorably impressed by the effects of the picture upon

INFLUENCE UPON SEXUAL BEHAVIOR

67

the boys. He stated that they seemed to have taken it seriously*,
to have received valuable information from it, and to have suffered
no ill effects that he could determine.
We inquired in particular for any cases of emotional disturbance
following the picture but could get no word of anything of the sort.
One observer reported that she had overheard a girl remark, after
the performance, that she would never look at another man, but
within thirty seconds this girl was describing the ring which she
expected her sweetheart to buy for her.
The populations of these towns are reputed to be ultra-conservative, yet, although we reached some hundreds of people either directly
or through cooperating agents, we did not learn of any one whoobjected upon moral or religious grounds to the picture nor of
anyone who had been offended by its frank treatment of sex matters.
Except among the people who were cooperating in the study, any
interest aroused by the pictures seemed to have died out at the end
of six weeks. The majority of our personal inquiries at this time
met with vague replies as, " I do remember hearing several people
speak of the picture just after it was here, but I don't recall the
conversation now, except that they thought it was a good thing."
Outside of those who had attended the performance and discussed
it immediately afterwards, few whom we approached could recall
having heard any discussion of it.
T o summarize the effects of the picture in these two towns wemay say that the only direct effect seems to have been to bring a
few cases of venereal disease for treatment which might otherwise
have been allowed to remain untreated, and to stimulate others
suffering from skin lesions to investigate the nature of their lesions.
The interest aroused by the pictures seems to have been rather
widespread during the first week or so after the performance but
to have completely died out by the end of the six weeks, except in
those who were actively engaged in the experiment. We made particular inquiry for cases of excessive emotional reaction following
the showing of the pictures. No case of this sort was reported by
any of the observers, nor could we get word of any other ill effects
of the pictures.
The third experiment, and most severe of all tests undertaken,
was carried out at M., a village of about 2,000 in middle Pennsylvania. The population of this town is made up chiefly of farmers,
with a number of retired lumbermen and workers in small furniturefactories. I t is said to be unusually conservative and resistant to'
any form of social-hygiene instruction.

68

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES

A performance of "Fit to Win" was advertised in the town without any statements as to the character of the picture, beyond the
i a c t that it dealt with social hygiene, and without any limitation as
to the age and sex of those who might attend. About 250 people
attended the performance. Of these, fully one fourth were boys
-and girls between the ages of IB and 18. Many young men and
girls came together, and the audience was packed into a small hall
so that there was scarcely standing room.
The audience was requested to fill out questionnaires before and
after seeing the picture but in other respects an attempt was made
to keep conditions as nearly like a commercial performance as possible. In the audience there were several large groups of young
men and boys crowded together and even before the beginning of
the performance these showed some tendency to horse play. All
six reels of "Fit to Win" were run. During some of the scenes and
especially at the legends there was much noise and disturbance, but
the interest of the audience was maintained throughout the picture
and, in spite of the conditions prevailing, no member of the audience
left during the performance. At the end of the performance there
was a general exodus before the questionnaires were filled out. The
reactions of this audience have been described in detail on page 44.
As they left we felt that there was much resentment among them
a t the picture. Very little discussion could be obtained except from
those who were cooperating in the experiment. On the whole the
test seemed to show quite conclusively the impossibility of using the
picture indiscriminately with mixed audiences.
Two months after the performance we revisited the town and
sought to trace the after-effects of the picture. Ministers, physicians, and social workers in the town were interviewed. In spite of
the unfavorable conditions prevailing during the presentation of the
picture, we were unable to learn of any criticism of the performance.
The ministers in general expressed themselves as in sympathy with
the movement, and, while stating that it probably would have been
better to have shown the picture to men and women separately they,
nevertheless, believe that no harm has been done by showing it to
a mixed audience. We took special pains to ask for adverse criticism
but learned of only a single case; a girl of 15 was reported as having told her mother that she was glad she saw the picture but did
net see why the girls had to see it with the boys. The liberal attitude of the mother in this case was shown by her reply: "Now
the girls know that the boys know and the boys know that the girls
know." We could get no word of criticism directly or at second

INFLUENCE UPON SEXUAL BEHAVIOR
hand from anyone whom we approached.
no effects whatever from the picture.

69

The physicians reported

Incidental Observations upon Other Groups
The Executive and Clerical Group was the only one which showed
any antagonism toward the picture after the performance. This
group was assembled for regular class work and then forced to see
the picture whether they would or no. I t contained several women
who certainly would not have attended the performance had they
known its nature beforehand. Six of those women gave evidence of
offense at the picture. Later two of these stated that they had been
much offended at the time but that after thinking it over they were
glad that they had been made to face the problems. They reported
also, that they had talked with others of the groups and found that
they, too, felt the same way about it.
Two women in the Literary Club Group were reported to have
worried somewhat for a few days after seeing the picture because
they had not realized before the temptations to which men are subjected and had failed to give their sons adequate instruction, but
beyond the immediate emotional disturbance there were no bad effects
in these cases.
After the performances to the Car Men and Sailors the experimenters were approached by men seeking advice as to treatment of
venereal infections from which they were suffering. Two such cases
appeared from the Car Men and seven from the Sailors. Of the
latter, three had been previously untreated. In addition, more than
50 men remained after the two performances to make inquiries concerning particular problems of sex; physiology in which they were
interested. The possibility of recurrence of venereal disease, the
effects of masturbation, and some phases of the sexual psychology
of women were the chief points discussed.
Data Gained from Medical Men upon the Possible Effects of
Material Presented in the Films
The full determination of the social value of any type of sexual
instruction presents a problem far beyond solution within the limited
time and resources at our disposal. I t would necessitate complete
studies of the sexual life of numerous men and women extending
throughout a long series of years and would demand a completeness
of confidence from the subjects such as is rarely obtainable except
in case of those in need of medical aid. In the absence of facilities
for such investigations the best available sources of information are

70

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES

those physicians whose practice brings them into intimate touch with
the sexual ills of large numbers of patients. Their experience will
reveal at least whether any special type of sexual education or experience invariably or very frequently gives rise to social maladjustments.
An extensive questionnaire was prepared and sent to all members
of the American Pyschopathological Association, the American Association of Genito-Urinary Surgeons, and the American Gynecological Society. Replies were received from 67 men. They have
been summarized in a separate publication. 1 The answers cover a
wide range of problems involved in education in sex hygiene. Only
those bearing upon questions raised in connection with the motion
pictures will be reviewed here. Opinions were obtained upon the
following points which apply directly to our d a t a :
1. The age at which instruction should be given. Few consider
that anything like complete instruction should be given before
puberty, the prevailing view being that natural curiosity concerning
various phases should be satisfied as it arises. At puberty the majority consider that instruction should still aim chiefly to satisfy
natural curiosity concerning the child's own experiences, but there
is a frequent suggestion that there is little that the child of this
age does not have knowledge and curiosity about, so that the majority of replies rather favor complete instruction. Practically all
favor, with some reservations, instruction at this age, even concerning the main facts of prostitution.
The majority consider that the dangers which arise from misinformation acquired at puberty are serious enough to justify any
risk that complete instruction at this time will arouse a dangerous
curiosity or excessive interest in sex matters.
2. The amount of information concerning the physiology of sear
and venereal disease which should be included in a venereal-disease'
campaign. The majority favor making the instruction as complete
as possible concerning the anatomy and physiology of the individual's own reproductive organs. Opinion is divided as to the effects
of instruction concerning the organs of the opposite sex, but theconsensus of opinion seems to be that it should not be so detailed.
The majority also consider that in its general lines, at least, the
instruction given to men and women should be the same. The suggestion is, therefore, that the educational campaigns are erring on
the side of including too little rather than too much in the material
presented. The great majority state that complete information
* Op. cit.

INFLUENCE UPON SEXUAL BEHAVIOR

71

concerning the physiology of sex does not and will not lead to
incontinence. Opinions as to the advisability of presenting data
concerning the prevalence and symptoms of venereal disease are
divided. The majority consider them beneficial, but a few of the
psychiatrists state positively that they have had frequent cases in
which morbid fears arise from such knowledge. Their experience
would speak strongly against the emphasis or at least exaggeration
of the effects of the disease.
In venereal-disease campaigns the assumption is made that fear
of disease will act as a deterrent to exposure, and that the majority
of exposures are the result of ignorance. The majority of the
physicians consider that only a small proportion of the infected
were adequately informed beforehand. Nevertheless, they find that
the knowledge and experience gained from infection do not generally
lead to any greater care to avoid infection. This suggests that the
fear motive may not be a very effective one in combating venereal
disease and that the chances of arousing morbid fears may more
than offset the possible deterrent effects of fear aroused by presentation of extreme cases. We find that the attitude of the man once
infected is rarely that, since he has been once infected, further infection does not make much difference. He rather expresses himself as very much afraid. Medical opinion and our own data, however, indicate that it is only during the infection that fear has any
deterrent effect in the majority of cases.
The great majority favor complete instruction concerning medical
prophylaxis and slightly more than half approve instruction concerning self-administration, with due emphasis upon the fact that
ft is not an absolutely certain preventive.
With but few exceptions, these men consider that the possibility
of cure of venereal diseases by prompt and continued treatment
should be emphasized and agree that there is little danger of producing over-confidence by such instruction.
3. Social responsibility of the infected men. All but three of the
men consider that marriage of recovered cases of gonorrhea or
syphilis is permissible but the majority insist that the women should
be warned of the danger and should demand adequate proof of cure,,
involving a delay of perhaps three years from the time of infection.
With the possible exception of the appeal to fear of infection the
material included in " F i t to Win" does not conflict with the opinions
of medical specialists as to what should be included in popular sex
instruction. Indeed the inclusion of considerable more detail concerning all phases would he approved by them. This is particularly

72

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES

true of the possibility of cure, which is inadequately emphasized in
the film, and the question of marriage of recovered cases. We have
found that the large percentage of men and the majority of women
condemn the marriage of those once infected and, w^re knowledge
of the prevalence of infection among men to become general, this
attitude would constitute a serious social problem. From the
dilemma here involved, medical opinion would escape by encouraging
a tolerant attitude.
Summary

of the Behavior Effects of the Picture

The evidence obtained from these observations and experiments
indicates that the picture has extremely little effect upon the sexual
behavior of the men who see it. A few who are suffering from
venereal infection or who are uncertain concerning the cure of past
infections, report for examination soon after the picture is shown.
'These numbered 19 from audiences of men numbering about 1 3 6 0 ,
or a little more than one per cent. Such evidence as has been obtainable indicates that there is no effect whatever upon continence
or upon the use of prophylaxis.
The interest aroused is only temporary and we could get no evidence that anyone of the 4,800 people to whom we showed the picture, suffered from any harmful after effects of the information
conveyed or the emotions aroused. In the mixed audience there
was indication that harmful results might develop but later inquiries failed to reveal them.
As for the popular attitude toward the picture, it has been everywhere favorable. From each town where it was shown, requests
have come for further performances and our inquiries have failed
to elicit adverse criticism.
Our field studies included performances which reached more than
15 per cent of the adult population in each of three towns, and
verbal reports from 73 men and women in the three towns who agreed
to make inquiries among their acquaintances and to report any
facts which seemed at all unfavorable to the pictures. Among
these were many, the ministers for example, who were in a position
to hear unfavorable criticism. The percentage of the audiences
reached in this way is great enough to assure that any serious emotional disturbances or objections would have been reported. The
fact that none was forthcoming seems, therefore, significant.

V.

A CONSIDERATION OF CRITICISMS OF THE PICTURE

Since their first appearance, motion pictures dealing with sex
hygiene have met with rather strong opposition. A history of their
vicissitudes is not p a r t of our work, but the criticisms which have
been advanced against them really furnish the occasion for this
investigation. The criticisms which we have collected fall into twoclasses : those based upon esthetic and religious attitudes, and those
suggesting that the effects of the pictures are anti-social in character. Examples of the former are, " I t ('Fit to Win') denounces
immorality solely because of physical ill resulting therefrom, and
does not set up spiritual, intellectual, or moral standards of virtue,"
" t h a t the proper channels to be used in combating this evil (venereal
disease) are the parents of the children, our chaplains in the army,
and priests and ministers in civilian life"; in general, that the film
does not make an appeal upon high moral grounds but only upon
considerations of expediency. With such criticisms the present investigation can have nothing to do. They are not based primarily
upon the supposed effects of the pictures but upon purely sectarian
concepts of morality.
The second group of criticisms has, however, a direct bearing
upon the problem of the effects of the picture. They claim that the
method of sex education by motion pictures is ineffective or that it
will lead to specific anti-social alterations in behavior. The majority of the points made in these criticisms are open to experimental investigation and the data presented in the preceding sections
bear upon them directly.
The more important of these criticisms with our data tending to
confirm or negate them are given below.
1. The teaching concerning prophylaxis in the film counteracts
completely the lesson of continence taught by the picture and the
only lesson carried away by the majority of the audience is that
"if you are careful, you do not need to be good."
The film does imply that prophylaxis, if properly used, is an
effective preventive, but it also stresses the fact that it is not always
effective and that continence is the only sure way of avoiding
venereal disease. The relative impressiveness of the treatment of"
the two topics is shown by the following figures.
An average of 88.3 per cent of all who saw the picture stated'
73

74

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES

t h a t continence is the only certain way of avoiding venereal disease.
Only 5.7 per cent mentioned prophylaxis in this connection (page
S3).
When asked directly, 29 per cent stated that they believe
medical prophylaxis to be always effective, whereas 55.0 per cent
held this belief before they saw the picture. In listing the facts
learned from the picture, eight times as many men mentioned avoidance of prostitutes as mentioned prophylaxis.
These data show that, far from teaching that prophylaxis may
be substituted for continence in the avoidance of venereal disease,
the film reduces faith in prophylaxis and carries the lesson of continence to the great majority of the audience.
2. The suggestion conveyed by the soliciting and bawdy-house
scenes is of such character as to lead to sexual excitement. This
makes the picture favor rather than militate against sex indulgence.
We have found no evidence whatever that this is true. F o r the
men the immediate effects are not erethitic. The answers to tne
•question, "Did the picture make you want a woman?" were emphatically negative and the tone of all the other answers to the
questionnaire bears this out in full. The comments of the audiences
and such data as we have obtained from conversations with the men
after performances speak conclusively against the arousal of any
sexnal excitement in the picture.
3. The manner in which the picture presents prostitution and
other material tends to break down the sense of reserve, modesty,
or shame; this may lead to open discussion of sex matters. Although
the discussion may at first be serious it readily slips "through the
flippant to the indecent, and the step from indecent in word to indecent in act, is short."
Certain evidence bearing upon this point is difficult to obtain,
for obviously it is only within intimate groups that such effects could
be produced and from these the experimenters are excluded. We
found reason to believe, however, that the criticism is justified when
the picture is shown to mixed audiences. After the experiment with
the mixed audience we talked with a number of young men, loafers
about the hotel lobby, and the like. They reported that the boys
and girls who had seen the picture had talked together and that
flippancy and innuendo prevailed in their talk. However, later investigations in the town failed to reveal that there had been any
bad after-effects of this, or that the parents had felt that any serious problem had arisen.
Where the picture was shown to men and women alone, there was
never any suggestion of such an effect. We have received reports

CONSIDERATION OF CRITICISMS

75

from men and women social workers who are in close touch with
the younger people in the towns of C. and S. who saw the picture
and none of them found any indication that the picture led to any
discussion of sex problems between the sexes.
I t appears, therefore, that the criticism is valid regarding the
presentation of the picture to mixed audiences, especially where the
members of the audience are widely acquainted with each other,
but that it is not valid when the sexes are not subjected to the simultaneous emotional arousal that attends witnessing the performance
together.
4. The picture, by the use of obscene legends, shocks and offends
the audience.
Where the picture was presented to men or women alone we have
not met with a single case of resentment at the crudity of the
legends or the candor of the scenes. To the question as to whether
any parts of the picture should be eliminated for showing to women
audiences, 91 per cent of the women replied in the negative. The
remainder suggested changing some of the legends and omitting the
bawdy-house scenes. We brought the point up for discussion after
the questionnaires were completed and reached the same result by
this method. Those who suggested the alterations did so without
any warmth and apparently upon the ground that someone might
be shocked rather than upon any strong emotional reaction of
their own.
A few of the women of the Executive and Clerical Group gave
-evidence of offense, but they were forced to see the picture without
wrarning and in the presence of men of the same social group.
Within a few days after the performance, not only had their resentment passed off, but the majority of them voluntarily stated that
they were glad to have had the experience and to have been forced'
to face the problems squarely.
The picture, thus, does not seem to be offensive to the great majority of either men or women, nor to impress them in any way as
obscene.
5. The picture shows, as a characteristic of the young men described in it, a carelessness and lack of moral responsibility in sex
matters which casts an unmerited reflection upon the decency of
the average American home and of the army.
We have found no evidence that the picture was so interpreted
by any member of the audiences to which we have shown it. The
interest in the main thesis of the picture is so keen that few members
of the audience take thought of the fact that the men presented are

76

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES

soldiers, nor does there seem to be any general feeling that the characters presented are typical. The attitude taken is rather t h a t
the film presents bad conditions which are by no means universal,
although found only too frequently.
6. The relaxation and attitude of recreation created by the motion picture theater is, "if not sexually stimulating, at least far from
inhibitive, and thus the theater is an extremely unfavorable place
for the teaching of sex hygiene."
This criticism is met in p a r t by the data which is given under S
above. As was pointed out there, the use of the picture with a
mixed audience does result in a certain relaxation of sex inhibitions
which presumably has ill effects, but with audiences restricted to*
men or women there is no evidence that anything of the sort occurs*
7. The picture depends almost entirely upon the dissemination
of information concerning venereal disease and scarcely at all upon
an emotional attitude for the attainment of its aim. This is bad
pedagogy, since moral education must be directed toward the modification of instincts rather than to the mere spreading of information.
As has been brought out in the chapter on the emotional effects
of the picture, this criticism does not seem to be justified. Although the picture is thoroughly effective in giving accurate information concerning causes and results of venereal disease, it is much
more effective in establishing a series of fairly definite emotional
attitudes toward the disease. Fear of them, and indignation at the
carelessness of those who transmit them, stand out much more
plainly in the reaction of the audiences than do any purely informational features.
8. The picture appeals primarily to the instinct of fear (fear of
disease), and does not make an appeal to the most important instincts through the use of which moral education might be promoted.
I t makes no appeal to "that deep-seated reverence of every man
for a pure woman," to the parental instinct with the desire for p r o tection of the weak and pity for the suffering. The data given on
page 55 show that this criticism is justified. The scenes showing
lesions resulting from venereal disease are second in frequency of
mention. Those making appeal to other emotions come far down
in the list. The most effective of them falls into seventh place r
the appeal of the "sweethearts at home" reaches seventeenth place r
and those involving parental feelings excite equally slight attention-

VI.

PRACTICAL, APPLICATIONS OF THE DATA OBTAINED

Many of the problems which arise from a study of the film are
general ones of educational policy in sex-hygiene instruction, for
the investigation of which the films do not contain adequate material. I t is necessary, therefore, to find out what emotional or
instinctive tendencies offer the best foundation for constructive education, the best methods of presenting and emphasizing informational material, and what parts of such material it is best to emphasize. I t has been possible to gain data on some specific points,
however, which should be of value in planning the construction of
future films, as well as in judging the existing ones.
Methods of

Presentation

Should pictures of the type of "Fit to Win" be shown to mixed
audiences? We have been unable to discover any really serious
effects resulting from such performances, but in the absence of
exhaustive data certain facts suggest their inadvisability. We found
that after such a performance, the chief interest of the younger
members of the audience was that friends of the opposite sex had
been present, and that there was a strong tendency toward flippant
discussion and innuendo between the boys and girls. The knowledge that the others had been present seemed to be the determining
factor here and we doubt that segregation of the sexes in different
parts of the theater will remedy the difficulty.
With audiences of mature men and women this danger seemingly
does not occur but the chance of embarrassment or more severe
emotional shock in the women is much increased by the presence
of men. Although we have not found evidence of any persistent
bad effects from performances under these conditions, it seems best
to avoid them, if only because of the bad impression which they
are likely to convey.
With audiences restricted to one sex we have found no evidence
of any ill effects. Many children ranging from twelve years up
were included in the audiences studied, and we could get no evidence
that they suffered the arousal of any undue curiosity or interest.
On the contrary, such data as we gained concerning them was altogether favorable, and many parents expressed regret that they
had not brought their* children to see the picture. Our data sug77

78

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES

gest that there is no need for limiting the age of the audience.
We have shown the picture to audiences of men and women only
and to mixed groups both with and without a verbal introduction;
and have not been able to detect any differences in the resultant
behavior. This seems to depend solely upon the composition of the
audience, and where that was controlled by limitation of sex there
was never any indication that the picture needed any introduction
to give the audience a serious attitude toward it.
With respect to the relative merits of commercial showings as.
compared with those under the auspices of local or national educational organizations, wre have been unable to gain direct evidence..
The performances at the towns of C. and S. were somewhat comparable to commercial showings in that they were not given dignity
by the approval of any local organization or influential citizens*
and they did not seem the less effective on this account. There was.
some indication that they were attended by some who would have
been repelled by any local organization and in this respect commercial presentations would seem to have an advantage over other
types of performances. On the other hand, the temptation to use
pornographic advertising in commercial work must not be overlooked. There is no direct evidence from the films that such advertising can change the attitude of the audience toward the picture,,
but a familiar illustration of such an effect is provided by the difference in the attitude of men toward burlesque and musical comedy,,
irrespective of the content of the show.
The Educational

Material

Included

In general we have not been able to find evidence for any p r o nounced effects of the film on sexual behavior and so are not justified
in outlining any general policy as to what should or should not be
included. If the desire is to convey accurate information concerning
venereal disease, our data indicate that a greater simplification of
material is necessary and greater detail concerning fundamental
facts must be presented. This is especially true of the facts concerning the causes of venereal disease, since the majority of the
public have no adequate knowledge of bacteriology. We have gained
some evidence that a thorough understanding of the nature of infection is effective in producing a greater care in the use of prophylactic measures. Further, there seems to be a rather prevalent
belief that bedily cleanliness is synonymous with freedom from disease and this, combined with the belief of many men that they can
select an uninfected prostitute, will be difficult to meet in any way

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

79*

except by giving accurate detailed information. For these reasons
it seems advisable to bring out clearly the exact nature of infection,.
and to meet specifically the popular beliefs concerning the origin
of disease.
Another point which our data indicate should receive more emphasis is the possibility of cure. Medical opinion favors this, and
in addition, we have found that "Fit to Win" arouses in many men
a fear that they have not been completely cured. The majority
of those who have sought medical advice after the performances
were men who had been infected much earlier and in whom there was
no indication of present disease. While this is an advantage for
those men who are induced to seek medical advice, unless we are
assured that the film will induce the majority of such men to do so,
the danger of arousing disturbing fears is a serious one.
As for the non-medical material included in the picture, the chief
problem is that of the advisability of the inclusion of scenes showing
soliciting. The data obtained indicate that these are not sexually
exciting when joined with the rest of the picture, that they rarely
excite curiosity, and that they do not prevent the lesson of continence from being brought home. On the other hand, there is evidence that they have the advantage over other possible dramatic
situations in one respect. Among the men, admiration for the
strength of character of the man who resisted was frequently expressed, falling into fifth place in the order of absolute effectiveness ;
among the women the scenes brought home the need of sex instruction in boys in order to prepare them to resist severe temptations.
As judged by the immediate effects of the picture upon the audiences, the most objectionable parts were the two legends "Ain't
yous afraid you'll have a wet dream tonight?" and " I wouldn't
touch a whore with a ten-foot pole." These raise the general question of the vocabulary to be employed in such pictures. I t is true
that many men fail to understand scientific names for sexual processes and that there is the danger that material expressed in technical terms will pass over their heads. On the other hand, the
meaning of such terms as are used in "Fit to Win" is readily grasped
from the context by the men and the use of popular expressions in
their answers to questionnaires was exceptional. For example,
fully one-third of the men who were interviewed in our preliminary
work failed to understand the term "sexual intercourse," yet this (the
term used in " F i t to Win") was the term almost invariably employed in the answers to the questionnaires. We have not found
that with audiences of one sex, the use of vulgarisms produces any

£0

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES

marked offense, but in view of the criticisms which have been made
against it and the fact that the meaning of technical terms seems
to be readily grasped from the context, it is advisable to avoid as
far as possible the use of popular names.
The Value of Different

Appeals

One of the first points with which we were impressed in our study
of the picture was its failure to make any appeal whatever to wellinformed men and women. Lacking the interest of new facts for
them, its literary defects overshadow all else. I t was attacked by
them as crude, inconsistent, tedious, maudlin, and it failed to hold
their attention. This at first appeared to be a serious defect in
the film, but as we observed its effects with larger and more ignorant
audiences, such criticisms seemed inconsequential. F o r the vast
majority of people, even among cultured classes, interest in the facts
presented and in the story is intense and its inconsistencies are
not noted. Sentiments which were ridiculed by the medical and
similar groups were applauded vociferously by the car men, soldiers,
and others, and comments in the questionnaires, as "I'm like Bill,"
show frequent identification with the hero. In the criticisms of the
sex-hygiene pictures there is not infrequently the suggestion that
the critic has failed to consider this class distinction and that no
small p a r t of his criticism is a rationalization of his own revulsion
against the "drivelling inanity? of the story. 1
Observations of the reactions of various audiences indicate that
such criticisms may be alrgely discounted, yet they raise the question as to whether any picture can be adapted to all types of audiences or whether special pictures must be constructed for special
groups. We have been able to observe the effects of "Fit to Win"
and "The End of the Road" with white and negro audiences and
find that they make even a stronger appeal to the latter than the
former. Not only were the negroes more interested and enthusiastic
than the whites in their immediate responses to the picture, but
later inquiries showed that a much larger per cent had been influenced to seek medical advice. In general the literary criticism does
not seem to be valid for the great majority of people and seems to
involve chiefly the question of policy toward the small but influential sophisticated group.
" F i t to Win" bases its appeal almost entirely upon fear of
venereal disease. This is shown by the relatively small percentage
i"The Cinema," by Bertram Clayton, Quarterly
1930.

Review,

Vol. 234, No. 3, Julv,

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

81

of the men listing any other motive for their ^tended change insexual behavior and by the relative frequency with which various
scenes were mentioned spontaneously. There is no evidence npon
which we can judge the relative effectiveness of fear and othermotives. Our data on emotional reactions indicate that sympathy
for the innocently infected, especially children, has greater relative
effectiveness, at least for retention of associated scenes, than any
other emotional reaction aroused by the picture. Other possible
appeals are not developed sufficiently in this or any other hygiene
films that we have seen, to permit of any judgment of their merits.
The data on the ultimate effects of the picture upon behavior indicate that the fear motive is inadequate except when actual infection
exists. The stressing of other motives at the expense of fear would,
therefore, at least not entail any great loss in the effectiveness of
the pictures and might make a decided gain.
Narrative

versus Expository

Methods

During our work we have been impressed by the small amount
which the story contributes to the effectiveness of the film. Most
of the information conveyed by the picture is irrelevant to the story
and the parts which impressed the audiences most were unconnected
with the plot. Interest was fully as great in the purely expository
parts as in any but the most dramatic scenes and these—the fight
and bawdy-house scenes—hold attention more through their action
than through their relation to the thread of the story. From the
standpoint of imparting information, much space is wasted by the
drama. F o r example, nearly 300 seconds are devoted to the incident of syphilitic infection from a kiss, showing contact, subsequent
fears, diagnosis, etc. A single legend and less than 30 seconds are
devoted to a lip chancre contracted from a razor, yet more men
gave "using an infected person's toilet articles" as the cause of
infection than mentioned kissing. (51 as compared with 31 per
cent.) The emotional appeal of the drama also does not exceed
the expository parts of the picture. Some of the most carefully
constructed scenes and the very best acting in the picture are devoted to the infection of the innocent country boy and his disappointment at being left behind as a slacker. Relatively little
space is devoted to showing blindness in children infected with gonorrhea, yet the latter produces a much more intense and uniform
reaction from the audience, is recalled by more people, and arouses
greater sympathy.
For the more sophisticated groups the defects of the drama arouse

82

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES

an antagonism toward the entire picture. The story was discussed
with the Executive and Clerical and the Literary Club Groups. The
majority stated that they had been very little interested in the
story, that they considered it trivial, but had scarcely noticed it in
their interest in the facts presented. The antagonistic attitude of
the Medical Group has been described.
Such data suggest that the story form is not particularly advantageous, and that unless the story has real literary merit it detracts rather than adds to the effectiveness of the expository
material.

VII.

GENERAL SUMMARY

The observations and experiments reported in this paper have
been restricted chiefly to a study of the effects of the motion-picture
film, " F i t to Win," in the revision for civilian use. This has been
advisable because of the time required for the working out of methods
of investigation and the variety of problems which are raised by
the single film. "Fit to Win" is typical of most of the commercial
films, however, and data derived from it should be of value in judging
the worth of other existing pictures and in planning future ones.
The investigation has included tests of the range of information on
sexual topics of audiences before and after presentation of the picture, observations upon the immediate reactions of various audiences,
a study of the emotional reactions aroused toward sex problems and
toward the method of presenting them, and attempts to determine
the actual influence of the picture upon the later sexual behavior,
through reports of field workers and individual studies of men who
had seen the picture previously.
The picture has been shown experimentally to about 4,800 people;
1,£00 questionnaires have been received from them and tabulated;
these have been controlled by personal interviews with nearly 100
men; verbal reports have been received from 73 voluntary field
workers who had been asked to seek for evidence of certain specific
effects of the picture and whose observations extended over periods
up to six months after the performances; the experimental groups
have included classes varying widely in social and educational level.
On some of the problems raised by the picture, such as the curiosity
concerning sex, aroused in young people, and the relative effectiveness of appeals to instinctive motives, we have been unable to obtain
adequate data, but on those topics concerning which information
is obtainable, we believe that the number of individuals studied is
sufficient to insure that the data are representative of the communities studied.
We will review the data upon the effectiveness of "Fit to Win"
in venereal-disease education and will then summarize the bearing of
the data upon more general problems.
Evaluation

of "Fit to Win"

In conveying information the picture is quite efficient.
83

For about

84

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES

ten of the more important topics dealt with, our questionnaire
showed that at least 50 per cent of those who were ignorant or misinformed before, acquired from the picture some definite information
on each topic and that this raised the average level of information
to 70 per cent of the total audience with fairly accurate knowledge
of each topic. Naturally, the amount of information acquired varied
with space devoted to the topic and the clearness and emphasis with
which it was presented. Practically all learned the ready communicability of venereal disease by contact, relatively few the distinction between gonorrhea and syphilis in this respect. And so
it was with other topics. Only where the information given was
simple and without the assumption of preexisting knowledge did any
large percentage of the audience grasp it.
There has been some question as to the information conveyed by
certain parts of the picture, especially in regard to the relative
emphasis of continence and prophylaxis as preventives of infection.
Our data show conclusively that almost without exception the men
gathered from the picture that continence is the only sure method
of avoiding infection and that prophylaxis is not always effective.
Belief in the effectiveness of prophylactic measures was weakened
rather than strengthened. I t has been claimed that the film disparages the army and represents the average young American as
having low moral standards. We have found no basis for either
of these assertions. The audience does not identify the characters
with the soldier as a p a r t from any other class, and in the groups
that we have studied the impression has been that the characters
represent common but by no means universal types.
The film teaches the seriousness of venereal disease, the possibility
of transmission by contact, the harmlessness of continence and of
seminal emissions, a relative ineffectiveness of medical prophylaxis,
the necessity for prompt and expert medical treatment, and reliable
sources of information concerning such treatment.
In the factual material presented, the film falls short in several
important respects. I t emphasizes, even exaggerates, the serious
results of venereal disease without giving accurate information concerning the cause or the possibility of cure. Data collected concerning the influence of false beliefs as to the cause of disease upon continence, and the use of medical prophylaxis indicate that ignorance
of the nature of infection is, in p a r t , responsible for carelessness
in exposure and in precautions against infection. The film fails to
correct these false beliefs. The failure to bring out clearly the
possibility of cure is contrary to the best medical opinion, and may

GENERAL SUMMARY

85

bring about conditions which are likely to give rise to morbid
anxiety. While we have not found evidence that such conditions
result from the picture, their possibility would be decreased by a
more even stressing of these three points. This might reduce the
fear of infection, but there is no evidence that this fear alone has
enough deterrent value to counteract the harmful effects of ignorance of other matters.
The film fails to bring out the difference between gonorrhea and
syphilis and a large proportion of the audience confuse the symptoms of these diseases. While this is not important so long as the
purpose is to emphasize the seriousness of the venereal diseases, it
may lead to serious misunderstandings where the distinctions may
be desirable, as in the right of the gonorrheal or syphilitic man to
marry.
The pictures show three infections in four exposures. Many men
(10 per cent at least) have some knowledge of the actual chances
of infection and some of these with whom we talked feel they have
caught the authors of the film in a lie, which shows that their purpose is to foist on the public a moral code under the guise of
hygiene. Such reactions are not frequent, but in education any
suggestion of deceit is likely to be disastrous.
The studies of the emotional effects of the picture have dealt
with the attitudes aroused toward sex matters and toward the picture. There is clear evidence that only in rare cases is any sexual
excitement produced, and there is no danger whatever that the picture will lead to immediate incontinence. On the contrary, according to the reports of men, it has some inhibitory influence, although
this is not strong enough to withstand any strong temptation. No
sex antagonism is produced either in men or women. There is no
evidence that any dangerous interest in sex is aroused, even in children, but our data on this point are limited to one group of boys
and are scarcely adequate. With audiences limited to one sex
there has been no indication of emotional shock or serious offense
at even the crudest parts of the picture.
With men the film arouses some fear of venereal infection and a
resultant determination to be careful, chiefly by avoiding prostitutes. There is little indication of any other constructive emotional
influence. Among mature women, sympathy for the innocently infected, with a desire to guarantee better sex education for young
men and women, is more frequently aroused. In neither sex does
the fear of disease seem strong enough to induce morbid reactions.
The attitude toward the film aroused in both men and women is

86

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES

one of approval. Ninety-^five per cent of the men and 100 per cent
of the women studied believe that the picture would be beneficial
and that it should be shown to the general public. More than half
of the men believe that it should not be shown to women (sisters or
sweethearts) but all of the women believe that it should be shown
to women and even to young girls.
The picture is not adapted for showings to mixed audiences under
any conditions where the men and women may meet immediately
after the performances. In one such experiment we found that
inhibitions were broken down among the younger people and that
comments bordering on the indecent were passed between the boys
and girls. This seemed to have been the result of a temporary
relaxation, produced by the picture plus the knowledge that each
had seen the picture and been somewhat embarrassed before the
other. Where the picture was shown to one sex only we could find
no evidence of flippant attitude in any p a r t of the audience.
Only two important after effects upon behavior have been demonstrated. A few individuals are stimulated to active interest in sexhygiene campaigns. They seek to get repeated showings of the film
or to obtain pamphlets and other propaganda material. They seem
to be, for the most part, individuals who are already interested in
the problem and who see in the performance an opening wedge for
further work. A small number of men, in the belief that they may
be infected, seek medical advice. The number of these that we were
able to trace amounts to about one per cent of the total male
audience.
No lasting effects were found. The retention tests show that the
main facts were remembered very well for periods up to five months
but there is no indication that behavior is modified significantly.
The picture does not reduce the exposure rate of men who see it or
make them more careful in the use of prophylaxis, except possibly
for a few days. Nor did ill effects seem to persist to any greater
extent. Interest dies out rapidly and the picture seems to be forgotten as quickly as the average motion picture devised solely for
amusement.
The effectiveness of the picture thus seems to be limited to conveying information concerning venereal diseases. While the dramatic portions of it do no active harm, it is doubtful if they contribute in any way to its educative value or add to the interest which
the facts presented have for the audience. Indirectly, they cut down
the space that can be devoted to informational topics and limit the
informative value of the picture. The need for more elementary

GENERAL SUMMARY

87

and comprehensive instruction than is included in " F i t to Win"
leads us to believe that the development of more complete and scientifically accurate expositary films along the lines already begun in
the lecture films of the American Social Hygiene Association, will
prove more effective and profitable than will an attempt to continue
the use of the dramatic method of presentation.
Suggestions

Concerning the Use of Motion
m Sex Hygiene Education

Pictures

The difficulty of handling venereal-disease data in dramatic form
argues strongly against the use of this method. Scenes like the
bawdy house in "Fit to Win" and the attempted rape in "The End
of the Road" have little educative value and unless they are handled
with extreme skill and shown under careful regulation there is danger
that they will have some erethitic effect.
There is no evidence that the informative value of the picture is
increased by such dramatic efforts. Material which is presented in
the prologue of " F i t to Win," or which is otherwise irrelevant to the
story, is retained as well as that which is reinforced by a dramatic
background, and seems fully as capable of holding the attention of
the audience, provided it is new to them. Such material can be
presented to them more fully in purely expository form and will so
escape many of the difficulties which attend the construction of the
film story. Our data indicate that the more significant emotional
reactions were produced by parts of the picture irrelevant to the
story and that such emotions as are aroused by the dramatic parts
are evanescent and without important effects upon behavior.
The need for more detailed and accurate information, where any
is given, is another reason for the avoidance of the dramatic method.
The advantages of simple and detailed information are not counterbalanced by any persuasive effects of the stories.
With regard to the educational material to be included, the evidence indicates that the serious presentation of any scientific data
concerning venereal disease will not prove harmful or offensive.
There should be no inclination to conceal p a r t of the truth in the
hope that emphasis of some material will lead to beneficial emotional
attitudes, for too large a portion of the public recognizes the trick
to make the practice safe, and with increasing popular knowledge
of venereal diseases this recognition of deception will increase. For
the present the treatment of material should be made as elementary
as possible, since the majority of the audience have no adequate
preparation to understand even such primary facts as the action

8S

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF MOTION PICTURES

of disinfectants. The popularizing of the material should not entail any relaxation of the scientific attitude, however. The more
nearly the data can be kept on a strictly impersonal plane, the less
possibility there will be of such reactions as we obtained from the
mixed audience described above. The use of popular instead of
scientific names is inadvisable, since the meaning of the latter is
almost always acquired from the context, while the former are
taken as obscenely humorous. There is need for investigation of
popular misconceptions concerning venereal disease and for the
preparation of data which will correct these.
Finally, one of the chief problems of educational policy involved
in the use of the motion pictures in venereal-disease education is:
Shall the film aim simply to give information or to control sexual
conduct through an emotional appeal ? The appeal to fear, as made
in " F i t to Win" has practically no behavior value. I t is possible
that an appeal to other emotions might be more effective in modifying conduct. As used in the existing films the emotional appeals are
not effective in modifying sexual behavior, but they are effective in
imparting information concerning venereal disease and in arousing
people to a realization of the need for educational and social reform.
If the imparting of information is considered the chief phase of the
sex-hygiene program, then expository motion pictures will be an
important factor in disseminating such information.
The one place where we can hope to effect permanent control
of sexual conduct through education is in adolescence. Films of the
type of " F i t to Win" are not adapted for use at this age and it is
doubtful if any motion picture will ever be as satisfactory here as
other educational methods, since there is need for adaptation of
the material to the individual requirements of the youth. The films
seem particularly effective, however, in arousing in adults an appreciation of the need for education and control of sex in adolescence.
The most promising sphere of usefulness for motion pictures would
seem, therefore, to be the building up of public opinion which will
favor the utilization of other educational methods, which can be
better adapted to the individual needs of children and adolescents.