ECCLESIASTICAL CHRONOLOGY.

LONDON ;

Printed by A. SPOTTISWOODE,
New- Street- Square,

OR,

ANNALS

THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH,
FROM ITS FOUNDATION TO THE PRESENT TIME:

CONTAINING A

VIEW OF GENERAL CHURCH HISTORY,
COURSE OF SECULAR EVENTS;
THE LIMITS OF THE CHURCH, AND ITS

SECTS AND PARTIES ;
RITES, INSTITUTIONS, DISCIPLINE ;

RELATION TO THE STATE ;

ECCLESIASTICAL WRITERS.

CONTROVERSIES *
,

THE WHOLE ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THE ORDER OF DATES,
AND

DIVIDED INTO SEVEN PERIODS.
TO W H I C H A R E A D D E D ,

LISTS OF COUNCILS, AND OF POPES, PATRIARCHS, AND ARCHBISHOPS
OF CANTERBURY.

BY THE REV. J. E. RIDDLE, M.A.
AUTHOR OF " A

MANUAL OF CHRISTIAN A N T I Q U I T I E S , " " S E R M O N S , "
"A

LATIN-ENGLISH D I C T I O N A R Y , " &C.

LONDON:
LONGMAN, ORME, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS,
PATERNOSTER ROW.

1840.

or\o

S

PREFACE.

f
A KNOWLEDGE of Church History is requisite for every
Christian scholar, and especially for every student of
theology, next to an acquaintance with Holy Scripture
and with the human heart.
The due cultivation of this branch of study is a work
of time and labour ; nor can the subject be thoroughly
understood without the patient examination of many
voluminous records, and other works, both ancient and
modern. This field of inquiry is, therefore, so wide,
that it cannot be explored, in all its parts, by the mind
of any individual student. And the scholar who may
desire to throw light upon ecclesiastical history, or to
deduce from it any important principles, would do well
to confine his attention to some single section of
events; or, if he choose to survey a more extensive series of facts and occurrences, he may find it
profitable to regard and treat them under some peculiar
point of view. Thus may a most important service be
performed in this department of theological literature.
At the same time, a compendious view of the whole
range of ecclesiastical history has its use, in various
ways, and to large classes of readers. Such an outline
is valuable, and even more or less necessary,—as a
manual for younger students, — as a source of information for those persons who have no means of pursuing the study to its full extent,«—and also as an
A

3

VI

PREFACE.

auxiliary, for various purposes, in the hands of the
more advanced ecclesiastical scholar.
Our own language has been hitherto extremely
deficient in books of this kind, as well as in more
elaborate performances in the department of Church
History ; and it is hoped that the present work will
meet with some degree of favour and acceptance, as
being an attempt to supply so remarkable a want.
Outlines of history may be composed either in the
form of succinct continuous narrative, or in the shape
of annals. Of these two plans, the latter has been
adopted in the following pages, which contain an enumeration of the principal subjects of Church History
arranged in chronological order. Several advantages, of
great importance, have been thus secured. The detail
of events is more copious and explicit than any which
can be contained in a compendium of this size when
written as an entire narrative, and designed to exhibit
a regular classification of facts and incidents. T h e
form of annals has also its peculiar utility with reference
to the philosophy of history, inasmuch as it serves to
point out and illustrate the connection, dependence,
and relations of events. Accuracy of information and
truth of reasoning is, in many ways, connected with a
right understanding of the succession of those events
and agents whose records make up the page of history.
And, to some minds more especially, an arrangement
of historical facts according to their dates is peculiarly
valuable as an aid to memory. It may be observed,
also, that the historical method has been here combined
with the chronological arrangement, in the division of
the whole work into leading periods, and in the descriptive or narrative style of those articles which relate

PREFACE.

vii

to the principal subjects of ecclesiastical record ; so
that, while the work may be used as a set of Chronological Tables, for reference, it may also be available for
the reader who seeks an acquaintance with the general
outline of Ecclesiastical History, or with the nature and
bearing'of any particular event.
In the preparation of this volume, recourse has been
had to the usual sources of Church History, The
chronological and synchronistic Tables of several eminent German writers, namely, Walch, Semler, Seiler,
Schrock, and Vater, have been consulted and occasionally employed. Several hints also have been taken, and
a few passages extracted, from the valuable compendium
of Guerike;—a work truly excellent of its kind,
and worthy of high regard, as conveying an unusual
amount of well condensed information, and as being
distinguished by general accuracy, and written on sound
philosophical principles.
The study of Church History can be to no readers
more important or more delightful than to the members
of our own Reformed Church, which is occupied in the
simple proclamation of divine truth, and the due celebration of divine worship, while, at the same time, it protests
against theological error, ecclesiastical usurpation, and
the follies of vain superstition. Spiritual tyranny, superstition, and fanaticism, supported by ignorance on
the one hand, and by deceitful and ambitious pretensions on the other, have been, from age to age, the
great pests of the Christian Church, and have presented
grievous obstacles to a wide dissemination, and a profitable reception, of the pure and holy doctrines of the
Gospel. Records which bear upon their surface this
striking, but melancholy, truth, demand the humble,

viii

PREFACE.

serious, and candid attention of every member of the
great Christian community. We may learn wisdom
from the mistakes of ancient churches ; humility and
charity from the quarrels and dissensions which have
subsisted among those of both earlier and later date >
and a devout admiration of that overruling providence
of God, whereby divine truth has been preserved even
under an accumulation of human errors, and the lustre
of this cherished truth has been made to appear more
glorious, by its contrast with human ignorance and
folly. While we look to the Bible, and the Bible alone,
as the depository and rule of our faith, we may do well
to consult the annals of the Church for warnings
against those manifold perversions to which truth becomes liable in the hands of man. And may not the
members of our scriptural communion derive from the
records of the past many a reason, not indeed for idle
self-complacency, arising from a proud comparison of
themselves with others, but yet for cheerful thankfulness to the Great Disposer of all events and the Giver
of all good? Surely we have abundant cause to rejoice,
with gratitude, in the consideration that we are members of a church which establishes its claims to respect,
attachment, and support, not on the false assumption of
any inherent authority, — not on the assertion of its
ancient origin, or the number and learning of its members, -—but on its efficiency as a teacher and expositor
of divine truth, in conformity with the word of inspiration, — on its value as a guide to worship, at once
rational and devout, — and on its character as a promoter of zealous and well-directed efforts in God's service ! Well may we recognize our happiness in being
members of a Christian community which teaches from

PREFACE.

1%

the Bible, and not from tradition, — which proclaims
apostolical truth, instead of boasting of apostolical succession—which builds upon the sure word of God,
instead of appealing to the forgeries and impostures of
human fraud, or to the speculations of human imbecility
and error,— and which is bound, by its own fundamental principles, to maintain the language of courtesy
and respect, and to hold out the right hand of Christian
fellowship, towards all other churches in which the
pure word of God is preached, and the sacraments are
duly administered. We may thank God also that,
while our church has rejected the claims of spiritual
tyranny, she has had the wisdom to retain a form of
good government which has subsisted, under various
modifications, from the apostles' times, and is eminently
adapted to do good service in our own country at the
present day, and under the existing condition of
society. We may, moreover, find cause for rejoicing in
the circumstance that our communion, after having
renounced those follies, of heathen origin, whereby
the beauty of Christian worship was for a long time
tarnished, is yet distinguished by that reverence for
things sacred, and that attention to positive institutions, outward observances, and the decencies of order,
which equally accord with the majesty of God and the
nature of man, and are suited to the relation that
subsists between the human worshipper and the great
object of adoration. And we may feel no less grateful
in remembering that, under the good providence of
God, we have been incorporated into a society which,
while it knows nothing of the fanaticism of early ascetics,
or the extravagances of more modern visionaries, yet
does not lose sight of the fact that Religion, rightly so

PREFACE*

X

called, is not only truth in the intellect but love in the
heart, not merely a light of the understanding but the
life of the soul j existing not in letter but in spirit;
not so much a theme of abstract and retired contemplation, as a principle of self-devotion towards God
and active benevolence towards man, — the spring of
lively and zealous endeavour in the ways of holiness
and virtue, — the giver of glory to God in the highest,
*
and the fostering patron of unfeigned good-will towards
thq great Christian community under all its denominations, and towards the whole family of mankind in
every climate under heaven.
J. E. R.
CHELTENHAM,

September 29th, 1840.

CONTENTS.

PREFACE

.

.

.

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„

Page v

P E R I O D I.
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF T H E CHRISTIAN CHURCH TO T H E F I R S T
G E N E R A L COUNCIL, A. D . 33—325.

~

-

1

PERIOD II.
FROM T H E F I R S T G E N E R A L COUNCIL TO T H E D E A T H OF GREGORY

THE F I R S T , A. D . 3 2 5 — 6 0 4 .

-

-

-

- 6 3

PERIOD I I I .
FROM T H E D E A T H

OP GREGORY

THE FIRST

CHARLEMAGNE, A. D . 6 0 4 — £ 1 4 .

-

TO T H E D E A T H OF

-

-

- 150

PERIOD IV,
FROM

THE D E A T H

OF CHARLEMAGNE

GREGORY V I L , A. D . 1814—1073.

TO T H E PONTIFICATE OF

-

-

-

-184

P E R I O D V.
FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY V I I . TO THE BEGINNING OF T H E

REFORMATION, A. D . 1 0 7 3 — 1 5 1 7 .

-

-

-

-230

PERIOD VI.
E R A OF T H E REFORMATION, A . D . 1 5 1 7 — 1 5 5 5 .

-

-

- 331

PERIOD VII.
FROM T H E REFORMATION TO THE PRESENT T I M E , A. D . 1 5 5 6 — 1 8 3 7 . 3 6 4

INDEX

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

477

In the following

pages,

The asterisk ( # ) distinguishes matter relating to British Churches.
The obelisk ( j ) is equivalent to obiit; denoting the death of the
individuals to whose name it is prefixed.
In the column of dates, a dash ( — ) signifies that the clause
opposite to which it is placed relates to precisely the same year as
that last mentioned. When a blank occurs, the reader will understand that the date of the corresponding historical matter is more
indefinite.

ECCLESIASTICAL CHRONOLOGY.

PERIOD I.
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH
TO THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL.

33—325.
TIBERIUS, EMPEROR.

Pontius Pilate, Procurator ofJudcea.
During the reign of Tiberius, the Roman power was at
its height. The empire was enlarged in several directions.
The Jews impatient of their subjection to Rome.
Crucifixion, Resurrection, and Ascension of
OUR L O R D AND SAVIOUR, J E S U S C H R I S T ,
who is the foundation stone of the Christian Church, and
the great subject of Christian doctrine.
THE DISPENSATION OF THE SPIRIT BEGINS.
The Apostles, under divine agency, become the founders of Christian churches.
Baptism, and the Lord's Supper, administered according
to our Saviour's holy institution.
Assemblies for divine worship, under the superintendence
of the Apostles, probably upon the model of the synagogue.
(Breaking of bread; prayer; psalmody; preaching.)
B

2

FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH

33 I

(First

Acts of Pilate. Justin Martyr (Apol. 1.) refers to some
acts or despatches of Pilate, perhaps genuine.
Soon after the day of Pentecost, the number of disciples
in Jerusalem amounted to more than five thousand.
Persecution of the Apostles at first not very severe or
successful at Jerusalem. (Divisions in the Sanhedrim respecting the doctrine of the resurrection. Absence of the
Roman procurator, who resided at Caesarea, and went to
Jerusalem only on the great festivals.)

84

34—41. FIRST PERIOD OF APOSTOLIC HISTORY.
Gospel preached to the Jews in Judaea, Samaria, and
Antioch.
Appointment of the Seven Deacons.
(Deacons probably from the beginning. The seven an
addition of Hellenistic officers to Jews already appointed.)
Death of St. Stephen.
Pharisees and Sadducees unite in persecuting the disciples. Saul active in the persecution. Consequent dispersion of the disciples, a means of the more extensive
propagation of the Gospel, beyond Palestine and Phoenicia, to Antioch, Cyprus, and Cyrene.

35

First apostolical journey of St. Peter.
Acts ix. 32.
It is probable that all the Apostles were employed in
visiting disciples in different places, as well as in founding
churches; and that during these visits they established a
regular ministry; that is to say, persons were appointed
to superintend public worship, and to manage the funds
of Christian societies, subject to the direction and advice
of the Apostles.
(al. 38.)

CONVERSION OF ST. PAUL.

(But some suppose this event to have taken place a
few months only after our Lord's ascension. Perhaps
I the Apostle resided at Tarsus several years after his

Period.)

TO T H E F I R S T GENERAL COUNCIL.

3

conversion, during which time his preaching was confined
to that neighbourhood.)
T h e doctrine of the Church during this period is contained in the books of Holy Scripture.
T h e first Christians formed a common fund, from
which distribution was made to the poorer members of
the C h u r c h ; but they do not appear to have established a
community of goods, strictly speaking; except, perhaps,
in the Church of Jerusalem, for a time. T h e r e were
rich and poor among Christians when the Apostles wrote.
Feasts of charity in connection with the Lord's Supper.
Simon Magus in Samaria.
Pontius Pilate banished. Judaea and Samaria annexed
to the presidentship of Syria. Persecution relaxed.
CALIGULA, E M P E R O R .

Herod Agrippa,

King of Galilee.

T h e reign of Caligula was favourable to the growth of
the infant Church. T h e Jewish authorities anxious to
protect themselves.
Some critics ( L e Clerc ; Eichhorn) have imagined the
existence of an original gospel (Protevangelion), on the
basis of which the four now extant were composed. B u t
this appears to be a mere speculation or theory, deficient
in historical and critical proof.
(or 38.) Probably, the Gospel by St.Matihew,

in

Aramaic.

T h e existence of this early composition is deemed probable by many, who join in rejecting the theory of the
Protevangelion; but it is very doubtful, and altogether
denied by some judicious critics.
T h e fact appears to be, that the Gospel was at first
B 2

FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH

(First

contained in the tradition, or oral preaching, of the eyewitnesses of its facts, and the disciples of its great subject.
Barnabas sent to Antioch.
Church of Antioch founded by Barnabas and by other
disciples who had fled from Jerusalem on occasion of former persecutions.
Christianity spreads rapidly.
CLAUDIUS, EMPEROR.

Herod Agrippa, King of all Palestine:
Conversion of Cornelius.
(But some suppose this to have taken place as early as
the second year after the crucifixion.)
41—45* SECOND PERIOD OF APOSTOLIC HISTORY.
Gospel preached to Jews and devout Gentiles (after the
conversion of Cornelius).
The disciples first called Christians at Antioch.
St. Paul at Antioch a whole year.
Simon Magus at Rome.
The sacred seasons now observed by Christians were,—
the Jewish Sabbath, and the Lord's day, weekly, and the
Festival of the Resurrection annual. Jewish converts observed also other times and seasons, according to the
Mosaic institutions.
Among customs of the apostolical churches may also be
reckoned,— the holy kiss, fasting, the anointing of the sick,
and imposition of hands in benediction, on appointment
to the ministry, "and on other occasions.
James the Elder put to death.

Peter imprisoned.

Death of Herod Agrippa. All Palestine a Roman
province.
Cuspius Fadus, Procurator.
Theudas, a Jewish impostor, beheaded.

Period.)

TO THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL.

5

Hitherto the labours of the Apostles had been confined
to Palestine.
Paul and Barnabas go with contributions to Jerusalem,
and return to Antioch (Acts xi. 30.).
Presbyters or elders had been appointed at Jerusalem
some time before this event. Perhaps they had existed
in the churches of provincial towns in Judaea even before
they were found needful at Jerusalem.
Tiberius Alexander, Procurator of Judaea.
St. PaitVs first apostolical journey, with Barnabas.
45—70. T H I R D PERIOD OF APOSTOLIC HISTORY.
Gospel preached to idolatrous Gentiles, as well as
to Jews and Gentiles (after the call of Paul and Barnabas). But converted Gentiles were considered as distinct in some respects, until the destruction of Jerusalem,
A.D. 70.
St. Paul leaves St. Luke in temporary charge of the
church at Philippi, Silas or Silvanus at Bercea, and
Timothy at Thessalonica. (Perhaps Dionysius, the Areopagite, was left in charge of the church at Athens, but
there is no proof of this.)
(al. 49.) Claudius expels the Jews from Rome.
Onkelos, Chaldee translator of the Pentateuch, n.
Sts. Paul and Barnabas resident at Antioch.
Debates at Antioch respecting the necessity of imposing upon the Gentile converts circumcision and the
keeping of the whole Mosaic law.
Cumanus and Felix, Procurators of Judcea, Samaria, and
Galilee.
B

3

FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH
(al. 52.)

ASSEMBLY OF T H E A P O S T L E S ,

(First

E L D E R S , AND

W H O L E C H U R C H AT J E R U S A L E M .

(Question brought by Paul and Barnabas from Antioch
considered. A n epistle written, containing the decision
of the assembly. Paul and Barnabas return to Antioch.
Circumcision of Gentile converts and their conformity to the
whole Mosaic law declared unnecessary.)
Gnosticism at Ephesus and other places.
( T h e confession of faith, commonly called The Apostles'
Creed, ascribed by tradition to the assembled Twelve, is a
compilation of later d a t e ; but it faithfully represents the
outlines of the Apostles' doctrine.)
State of religion among Gentiles and Jews in the Homan
empire at the beginning of the Christian era.
Among the heathen a general scepticism and extreme
impiety had been succeeded, to a certain extent, by a r e currence to ancient belief, together with a n admixture of
Asiatic and Egyptian superstition; so that, among the
multitude, unbelief and superstition held a divided sway.
Among educated men there was much inquiry, and
several systems of philosophy were in vogue, chiefly that
of the Stoics, which taught men to seek happiness in the
exercise of innate moral power; and that of the Platonists>
which inculcated a dependence on a higher power, a n d
taught men to seek virtue and happiness in a communion
with the Supreme. Stoicism was proud, a n d as unsuccessful in its pretensions as it was v a i n ; Platonism was
ineffectual, because it could not teach men how to find the
good which it proposed to their apprehension.
Among the Jews, the popular religion had greatly d e generated, and was characterised by pride and a worldly
spirit, the members of that nation regarding themselves
as exclusively the favourites of Heaven, and being desirous of temporal prosperity, a n d especially of deliverance from the Roman yoke, as their chief good. T h e
theology of Palestine, as it existed among its divines and

Period.)

TO T H E F I R S T GENERAL COUNCIL.

7

students, was comprised in the three forms of (so called)
orthodoxy, rationalism, and mysticism; the first being
the system of the Pharisees, the second that of the Sadducees, the third that of the Essenes. A t the same time,
the Jews of Alexandria had constructed a peculiar system
by their adoption of Platonic notions, and their consequent habit of allegorising Scripture. Some of them
received the Old Testament in its literal as well as its
supposed allegorical sense, b u t others rejected the literal
meaning altogether.
5 0 — 5 3 . (al. 53—-56.) St. PauVs second journey, with
Silas, and afterwards Timothy and L u k e , through
Syria, Cilicia, Lycaonia, Phrygia, Galatia, and Greece
(Macedonia, Athens, Corinth).
Barnabas went to Cyprus with M a r k .
First and second Epistles to the Thessalonians.
(N. B . T h e dates assigned by some chronologists for
the several books of the New Testament are a few years
earlier than those generally received.)
or 5 3 . Epistle to the Galatians.
Claudius Felix, sole Procurator of Judcea.
NERO, EMPEROR.

Agrippa, already king of Trachonitis, receives the
addition of Galilee, and some towns in Trachonitis.
5 4 — 5 8 . (al.56—60.) St. PauVs third journey ; Galatia,
Phrygia, Ephesus (residence); Macedonia, G r e e c e ; J e rusalem.
Festus, Procurator of Judcea.
The Ministers of the Church during this century were—
Apostles and their assistants; Evangelists; P r o p h e t s ;
Elders or Bishops, who were teachers and general overseers of particular churches; Deacons, who were teachers,
almoners, and general assistants, especially of presbyters;
Deaconesses; Widows.
B

4

FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH

Judaizing teachers in Asia Minor.
Judaizing teachers at Corinth and Rome.

(First

Gnostic and

First Epistle to the Corinthians.
or 58. Epistle to the Romans.
Second Epistle to the Corinthians.
St. Paul made prisoner at Ccesarea.
(al. 55.; al. 63.) St Paul sent to Home, where he arrived in the following year.
The Gospel by St. Matthew in Greek.
Epistle to the Ephesians. Epistle of St. James.
The Gospel by St. Mark; between the years 60 and 63.
About this time St. Mark (probably) founded a church
at Alexandria.
Albinus, Procurator of Judaea.
or 63. James the Just, President of the Church of
Jerusalem, put to death.
Epistle to the Colossians.
or 63. Epistles to the Philippians, to Philemon, to the
Hebrews.
St Paul released.
(After his release he probably visited Spain, and returned by way of Crete to Jerusalem, thence to Antioch
in Syria.)
or 64. Gospel by St. Luke.

Acts of the Apostles.

The burning of Rome.
Persecution at Rome under Nero, commonly called
The First Persecution
(It lasted four years. It probably extended to the
provinces. According to an old inscription, it raged in
Spain.)

Period.)

TO T H E F I R S T GENERAL COUNCIL.

9

Perhaps about this time St. Paul undertook another
journey; passing through Colosse, Philippi, Nicopolis in
Epirus, Corinth, Troas, and Crete, to Rome.
First Epistle to Timothy.
Epistle to Titus,
First
Epistle of St. Peter.
or 6 5 . Epistle of St. Jude.
Second Epistle of St. Peter. Second Epistle to Timothy.
Gessius Florus, Procurator of Judaa.
T h e r e are traditions to the effect that St. P a u l planted
Christianity in Spain, Gaul, and Britain, but very uncertain. I t is not improbable that the Gospel was preached
in those countries during the reign of Nero.
St. Paul a second time at R o m e ; imprisoned.
The Jewish War begins.
Christians retire from Jerusalem to Pella.
St. Paul and St Peter put to death at Rome.
Epiphanius says that the founders of the sects of the
Nazarenes and Ebionites were among the Christians who
retired to Pella. A t all events, the Nazarenes, or Christians who strictly adhered to the Mosaic Law, began to
be distinguished as a sect about this time. — Hitherto,
converts from among Jews and Devout Gentiles had conformed to the Mosaic ceremonial; but not so those from
among Idolatrous Gentiles.
GALBA, EMPEROR.

After the death of Nero, an opinion prevailed among
Christians that he had not destroyed himself, but had
retired beyond the Euphrates with the design of r e appearing as Antichrist,
or 69. First, Second, and T h i r d Epistles of St. John.
O T H O ; — VITELLIUS ; — VESPASIAN,

al. 72.

EMPERORS.

Destruction of Jerusalem.

FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH

(First

Vespasian did not persecute the Christians as s u c h ;
but probably they were molested during his reign and
that of Titus by the demand of the Jewish capitation tax.
T h e duties and office of ordinary Christian ministers, — superiors and inferiors, presbyters and deacons,
7rpe<r§uTspoi huKovoi and vewrepoi diaxovoi, — probably u n derwent continual changes and modifications during the
first century, according to circumstances, a n d the wants of
particular churches.—During this period the constitution
of the church was not uniform a n d settled: it contained
the elements of various forms of g o v e r n m e n t ; b u t the
system of subordination (episcopacy) soon prevailed in
the larger communities; and, in the course of the next
century, it predominated to the exclusion of other schemes
(presbyterian; independent).
TITUS, EMPEROR.
DOMITIAN, EMPEROR.

A church was founded at Edessa on the Euphrates, probably before the end of this century.
D u r i n g the Apostolic Age, the usual designations of the
professors of the Gospel were the following: — Disciples;
Brethren and Sisters; Believers ; Saints; Christians.
GNOSTICISM

had now made great progress. This was a combination
of Oriental and Platonic philosophy, and also, in some
cases, Judaism, with certain elements of Christian doctrine.
T h e system was subject to various modifications in the
hands of different teachers and parties.
Its prominent
features w e r e ; T h e doctrine of E m a n a t i o n ; — T h e doctrine
of Emanation combined with that of D u a l i s m ; and this
Dualism, either according to the Oriental scheme (matter
an evil principle and active), or the Alexandrian (matter
an evil principle, but passive); — Admission or rejection
of the Jewish Scriptures : Judaizing and Anti-Jewish
Gnostics.

Period,)

TO THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL.

11

The Gnostics regarded Christ as one of their supposed
later emanations from the Deity, and as having been sent
into the world to remedy the disorders occasioned by the
fancied Demiurgus or creature iEon. They thus denied
the real divinity of Christ; and at the same time they
destroyed the doctrine of the union of the two natures, or
of our Lord's true and proper humanity, by framing a
distinction between Christ and Jesus, and, in some cases,
supposing the latter to have been a mere phantom.
Persecution under Domitian, commonly called
The Second Persecution.
Search after the descendants of David in Judaea.
Grandsons of St. Jude examined and acquitted. —Christians return to Jerusalem before the end of Domitian's reign.
Propagation of the Gospel.
The Apostles and their companions established Christianity in Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor, Macedonia,
Greece, Italy, and Egypt.—The principal churches which
they founded were at Jerusalem, Antioch, Rome, and
Alexandria; also at Ephesus, Colosse, Laodicea, Thessalonica, Philippi, Corinth, Smyrna, Sardis, and in Crete.
— Thus far authentic history.
Christian converts chiefly from the middling and lower
classes of society.
Christian virtue flourishes
both in theory and practice. It consists in an honest and
cheerful endeavour to discharge all duties to God and
man. The source or foundation of this virtue is a simple
and lively faith in Christ the Saviour of the world.
But there were not wanting hypocrites or false professors, — vicious and disorderly members, — sins of infirmity, and other defects, which are inseparable from the
condition of the visible church upon earth.
Discipline, extending to all classes of Christians alike,—
was either extraordinary or ordinary: the former consisting in punishments inflicted by the Apostles, in virtue of

FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH

{First

their miraculous powers and divine authority; the latter
in the exclusion of offenders from communion with the
church in acts of divine worship.
The first controversies among Christians originated with
certain Judaizing teachers (false Apostles). They took
their rise at Antioch, and although decided by the assembly of the church at Jerusalem and by the express declarations of St. Paul, they were renewed or continued in
various churches. The chief subjects of debate were, — the
necessity of imposing the Mosaic Law upon converts from
heathenism, — the doctrine of justification, or the foundation and terms of man's acceptance with God, — the
Abrahamic covenant, — the use of meat offered in sacrifice to idols, — the apostleship of St. Paul.
NERVA, EMPEROR.

Nerva recals the exiles, and makes some regulations
for the protection of Christians.
Menander. — Docetce; so called from their having believed the body of Jesus to have been a phantom, — thus
denying the proper humanity of our Saviour.
CerinthuS) in Asia Minor, a Judaizing Gnostic.
or 97. Revelation of St. John,
or 98. Gospel by St. John,
(The Gnostic tenets, containing an admixture of imperfect or distorted Christian doctrine, not only seduced
many from the faith of the Gospel, but probably obscured
or perplexed the tenets of some who remained, on the
whole, firm in their belief of essential Christian truth.)
The ministry of Prophets in the Church had probably
ceased before this time.
TRAJAN, EMPEROR.

Dissensions at Corinth relating to discipline. Some
presbyters dismissed. Deputation from the Christians at

Period,)

TO T H E

FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL.

13

I Rome with a view to restore unanimity. Episcopal form
of government not yet established at Corinth. No authoritative interference on the part of R o m e ; — an epistle
written in the name of the whole Church, by Clement, its
president or bishop.
T h e Church of Rome superior to all others in numbers
and in wealth. N o claim to authority over other churches
until the close of the second century.
N . B . T h e epistle of Clement to the Church of Corinth
is the only genuine work of any uninspired Christian writer
of the first century now extant.
Death of St. John, about this time.
No evidence of any persecution at Rome during the
reign of Trajan. B u t an edict prohibiting Hetaeriae, or
secret societies, was brought to bear against the
Christians.
Churches were now established in the principal cities of
Asia Minor, in Palestine, Egypt, Greece, and Italy. T h e
heathen manifest opposition and hostility.
C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T OF T H E C H U R C H .

T h e Apostles or their representatives exercised a g e neral superintendence over the churches by divine authority, attested by miraculous gifts. T h e subordinate
government of each particular church was vested in itself;
that is to say, the whole body elected its minister and
officers, and was consulted concerning all matters of importance. All churches were independent of each other,
b u t were united by the bonds of holy charity, sympathy,
and friendship. B u t this state of things did not last long.
I n other words.
T h e original constitution of the
church was a supreme Theocracy, together with a subordinate Democracy, modified by an elective Aristocracy.
T h e head of the whole body was the L o r d Jesus Christ,
ruling by his Spirit, through the immediate agency of the
Apostles. This Theocracy was designed to be p e r p e t u a l ;

FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH

{First

I and the Holy Gospels, and other inspired writings of the
New Testament, were composed and left as the representatives, or, so to speak, successors, of the Apostles to the
end of time. In like manner, the subordinate Democracy,
with its elective Aristocracy of rulers and teachers, was
designed to subsist and to exercise its functions continually, for the good of all men, and to the glory of the
sovereign Lord and Saviour. But, in process of time,
the Theocracy was greatly neglected, — the Democracy
oppressed and almost annihilated by the Aristocracy, —
and the Aristocracy itself converted, first into an ambitious Oligarchy, and lastly into a tyrannical Despotism.
A real, living Unity, and a well regulated Liberty,
characterised the early constitution of the Church. But
liberty was afterwards sacrificed to uxiity; and this unity
itself degenerated into a merely external, forced, and dead
Union, — which became subservient to the purposes of Oppression, and to the growth of the Hierarchy,
In tracing the history of the changes which took place
in the government and institutions of the Church, two
particulars especially deserve to be borne in mind. First,
That the immoderate claims, aggression, and undue exaltation of the Hierarchy, are not always to be attributed
to ambition or evil design on the part of the clergy. Much
allowance is to be made for indiscreet zeal, errors in
judgment, and the circumstances of the times. Secondly,
That the evils which were introduced into the system,
were wonderfully overruled by the Saviour's Providence
for the ultimate good of the Church. The fictitious claims
of the clergy in general, and the lordly pretensions of
bishops, — the mistakes of weak men and the designs
of the ambitious, -~ the overcharged ceremonial,— the
growth of superstition,— and the general degeneracy and
secularisation of the Christian body, were made subservient
to its preservation and establishment; — and eventually,
we hope, to its complete and most beneficial development,
— its universal efficiency in promoting
GLORY TO GOD IN THE HIGHEST,
AND ON EARTH PEACE, GOOD WILL TOWARDS MEN.

Period.)

TO THE F I R S T GENERAL COUNCIL.

15

Primitive Christian Worship.
Frequent assemblies by day and night. H e r e the
Holy Scriptures, and other books tending to religious
edification, were read, — upon which the bishop or presbyter delivered a discourse, with practical application.
T h e n all stood up, and prayed — for themselves, the b r e thren, and the world at large. Psalms and hymns were
sung. T h e Lord's Supper was celebrated, together with
the feast of charity, and the kiss of charity or peace was
exchanged; and mutual engagements to a life of holiness
and virtue were made. — T h e death and resurrection of
the L o r d Jesus Christ were commemorated in annual
festivals at the season of the passover. T h e first day of
the week (the Lord's day) was regarded as holy, in remembrance of Christ's resurrection: and the Jewish
Sabbath also was observed by many.
About A.D. 100, f Clement of Rome.
Jealous inquiry after the descendants of David in
Judaea.
or 107. Symeon, Bishop of Jerusalem, put to death.
Several parties at Jerusalem after the death of Symeon,
probably more or less infected with Gnostic errors.
Thebuthis.
Elcesaites.
Nicolaitans, Gnostics who did not refuse to join in the
heathen sacrifices, when required to do so.
Trajan sets out for P a r t h i a ; stops at Antioch.
(al. 116.) Ignatius put to death.
Trajan
(Third).

Persecution under

Seven Epistles of Ignatius, written from Smyrna to the
Ephesians, Trallians, Magnesians, Romans, and from
Troas to the Smyrnseans, Philadelphians, and Polycarp.
Other Epistles were afterwards ascribed to Ignatius,
which are now deservedly rejected as spurious. T h e
seven genuine epistles appear to have suffered considerable interpolations.

16

FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH

110 I
111

(First

Pliny goes to Bithynia as Propraetor.
Trajan returns to Rome.
Persecution in Bithynia under Pliny.
Trajan the first Emperor who enacted penal laws
against the Christians.
Epistles of Pliny to Trajan and Trajan to Pliny concerning the Christians.

It soon became usual with the Christians to fast on
certain days, namely, on Wednesdays and Fridays in
every week; and annually, before the Paschal festival.
At first, this latter fast continued for the space of forty
hours; but it was afterwards extended to forty days. —
The duration of fasts, and the mode of observing them,
varied in different places.
Insurrection of the Jews in Egypt and Cyrene.
Probably a persecution arose in Palestine, as a consequence of the turbulence of the Jews.
ADRIAN, EMPEROR.

Troubles at Rome ; — perhaps no general persecution.
But this reign is generally considered as the period of
the
Fourth Persecution.
Persecutions in the Roman empire proceeded partly
from the magistrates, partly from the people, partly from
individuals.—The magistrates were sometimes induced to
persecute, because an adherence to a c religio illicita,' an
unlicensed or unlawful religion, with a refusal to join in the
ceremonies of the state-religion, and to pay the customary
tribute of respect to the person of the emperor, seemed
to indicate disaffection to the government and constitution; and the despotic government was jealous and suspicious,—The people were excited against the Christians by
means of false charges of impiety and inhuman conduct;
and their prejudices led them to ascribe public calamities
to the presence of Christians in the country.—Individuals

Period.)

TO THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL.

17

were often personally interested in maintaining the existing idolatry and worship.
Aquila translates the Jewish Scriptures into Greek.
Papias fl.
• Adrian at Alexandria.
Martyrdom of Symphorosa and her sons.
Adrian at Athens.
Persecution at Athens; where Christianity, which had
languished, revives under Quadratus.
The Apologies of Quadratus and Aristides (now lost)
were presented to Adrian, about this time, or somewhat
later.
A forgery, entitled the Epistle of Barnabas, was composed probably at the beginning of this century.
(Hermes Trismegistus is a forgery of this date, or a
little later.)
Basilides, of Syria, founds a Judaico-Gnostic School at
Alexandria; which was continued by his son Isidorus.
His system combined the doctrines of Emanation and
Dualism.
Saturninus, of Antioch in Syria, founds there an AntiJewish Gnostic sect.
Adrian returns to Rome. He afterwards visited various
parts of the empire.
Adrian's letter to Minucius Fundanus, proconsul of
Asia Minor, favourable to the Christians, inasmuch as it
ordered the punishment of any who should accuse them
falsely; but it provided also that "obstinacy" on their
part, i. e. a perseverance in their religion after conviction,
should be punished.
(Report of iElius Lampridius (4th century), that
Adrian would have erected a temple to Christ at Home,
had he not been dissuaded by the priests, probably without foundation. He had a great contempt for all " sacra
peregrina")

FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH

(First

T h e Christians now form a body entirely distinct from
the Jews.
Fraternal communion of Christian churches, in different
countries, with each other.
Christians numerous at Alexandria.
Adrian mentions the Christians in a letter to Servianus
the consul; he displays great ignorance of their tenets and
religion.
AGE

OF

S C R I P T U R A L D O C T R I N E , SIMPLE W O R S H I P ,

P U R E M O R A L S , AND M A R T Y R D O M .

CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE.

T h e main articles of Christian faith, as delivered by
Christ and his Apostles, were maintained by the Church
from the beginning, and have been confessed in all ages,
notwithstanding the various controversies and minor differences which have arisen. This original and prevalent
system of belief may be described in the words of Irenaeus,
a writer of this (second) century: — " T h e Church, though
it be dispersed over all the world, from one end of the
earth to the other, has received from the Apostles and
their disciples the belief in one God, the Father Almighty,
Maker of heaven and earth, the sea, and all things in
t h e m ; and in one Christ Jesus, the Son of God, who was
incarnate for our salvation; and in the Holy Ghost, who
preached by the prophets the dispensations of God, and
the advent, nativity of a Virgin, passion, resurrection from
the dead, and bodily ascension into heaven of the flesh of
his beloved Son Christ Jesus our Lord, and his coming
again from heaven, in the glory of the Father, to restore
all things, and raise the flesh of all m a n k i n d ; that, according to the will of the invisible Father, every knee
should bow, of things in heaven, and things in the earth,
and things under the earth, to Jesus Christ, our Lord, and
God, and Saviour, and K i n g ; and that every tongue
should confess to h i m ; and that he may exercise just
j u d g m e n t upon all, and may send spiritual wickednesses,

Period.)

TO THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL.

19

I and the transgressing and apostate angels, with all ungodly, unrighteous, lawless, and blaspheming men, into
everlasting fire; but, having granted life to all righteous
and holy men, that keep his commandments, and persevere in his love, some from the beginning, others after
repentance, on them he may bestow the gift of immortality, and invest them with eternal glory."
All churches receiving Holy Scripture as the sole
rule of faith, or even (erroneously) as only part of the
rule, have agreed in confessing these primary doctrines of
Christian truth. The corruptions of doctrine which have
taken place from time to time within those churches, have
consisted in unwarranted additions to these truths, or in
undue refinement upon some or all of them, tending more
or less to error. Variations and defects have arisen as a
consequence of such corruptions. But we may trace
substantial agreement in essential points of doctrine, even
under all additions, and amidst all diversities. The greatest
amount of error in faith has been occasioned by the unwarranted adoption of tradition as a concurrent rule
of faith. The absolute suspension of faith, or disavowal
of primary and elemental truths, by societies bearing the
Christian name, was reserved for modern times. In some
countries, Scripture did in fact, for a season, cease to be regarded as even part of the rule of faith, and its place was
usurped by the dictates of false philosophy and rationalism.
Early Corruptions of Christianity.
In the earliest times the Gospel was corrupted, and sects
were formed among Christians, partly in consequence of
attempts to incorporate preconceived notions and ancient speculations into the Christian system, and partly
by reason of the common infirmities and aberrations of
the human mind. These causes, and their results, have
been classified under four heads : —
1. An attempt to amalgamate Christianity with a dead
and formal Judaism; whence the Judaizing sects (Ebionites, Nazarenes).
c 2

20

FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH

I

(First

2. An attempt to engraft the Oriental philosophy upon
the Gospel, and to construct a Theosophic system upon the
basis of Christian doctrine; hence the Oriental Theosophic
sects (Gnostics, Manichees).
3. The incorporation of a superstitious system of willworship and asceticism; hence the Superstitious and
Ascetic sects and institutions (Montanists).
4. An endeavour to bring down the doctrines of revelation to the level of finite human understanding, weakened as it is by sin ; hence the Rationalistic sects (Antitrinitarians).

130

About this time The Perpetual Edict was issued, which
enacted that all cities and towns throughout the empire
should follow the laws and customs of Rome, instead of
their own local and annual regulations. It was probably
adopted by enemies of the Gospel as a means of harassing
the Christians.

132

(al. 128.) Revolt of the Jews under Barcochebas.
(The Jewish Christians refused to join Barcochebas;
but they suffered greatly during the war from persecution
by the Jews.)
Justin Martyr leaves Palestine, having become a convert to Christianity about this time.

135

—

End of the Jewish War.
Jews forbidden to approach Jerusalem, except once a
year.
(Jerusalem is now called JElia Capitolina. Perhaps the
name had been given a few years before. It is certain
that the city was rebuilt, and the name changed, during
the reign of Adrian.)
Marcus, first Gentile bishop of Jerusalem.
N.B. The prohibition of settling at JElia did not
extend to Christians. Eusebius says, that the church of
I that city was now composed entirely of Gentiles,

Period.)

TO THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL.

21

Interpolation of the Sibylline books may be referred to
this date, or somewhat later. It appears from the writings
of Justin, that the spurious oracles were now generally
regarded as genuine and inspired.
138

|

ANTONINUS P I U S , EMPEROR.

Persecution at Rome. Telesphorus, Bishop of Rome,
put to death. Hyginus now becomes bishop of Rome,
according to Eusebius and Tertullian; but some place
him as early as 122 or 118.
The sufferings of Christians during this reign were not
countenanced by the emperor himself, who, on some
occasions, even wrote letters in their favour. But Christians were exposed to the effects of private malice and
popular violence.
Gentile converts, during this period, were more numerous and more faithful than those from among the Jews
and Samaritans (Justin Martyr).
Correspondence kept up between different churches.
Letters of communion and recommendation.
Celsus writes against the Christian religion about this
time.
Ophites, in Egypt, an Anti-Jewish Gnostic sect, without
admixture of Christian doctrine. — Continued until the
sixth century. — To these the Sethites and Cainites bore
great resemblance.
Valentinus, a native of Egypt, goes from Alexandria to
Rome, where he founds a Judaico-Gnostic school or sect.
To this sect belonged Heracleon of Alexandria, Ptolemy,
Marcus of Palestine, Bardesanes of Edessa.
An apocryphal book, entitled " The Shepherd," is
supposed by some critics to have been composed about
this time by Hermas, brother of Pius, Bishop of Rome.
Before 150. Carpocrates, at Alexandria, founds a sect
of Anti-Jewish (Eclectic Antinomian) Gnostics. This
sect was small; but it continued until the sixth century.
c 3

22

148
150

FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH

(First

Justin Martyr presents his first Apology to Antoninus.
GNOSTICISM AT ITS HEIGHT.

Persecution in various parts of the world.
Gradual cessation of miracles hi the Church during
this century.
Flourishing period of the Church of Athens.
The greater part of the Books of the New Testament
were now received as the rule of faith by all churches.
During this century, great pains were taken in adjusting
the lists or canons of sacred writings; and translations
were made, especially into Syriac and Latin.
A creed or confession offaith^ from the very earliest ages,
was committed to memory and repeated by candidates for
baptism. This creed was substantially the same in all the
churches, but ivith slight variations.
About this time, some Christians of Asia Minor left
their own country and settled in Gaul, where Christianity
had already been planted. Intercourse was afterwards
kept up between the Churches of Vienne and Lyons, and
those of Asia.
The epistles or decretals, purporting to have been
written by the bishops of Rome during this century, are
forgeries of a later date.
Apocryphal gospels, and other works of that kind, many
of which were probably forged by the Gnostics, were circulated during this century.
Controversies and divisions relating to constitution and
discipline prevailed chiefly in the West; those which had
reference to doctrine or theory existed principally in the
East
Papias, Bishop of Hierapolis, is said to have been the
first who taught the doctrine of a Millenium ; i.e. that after
a first resurrection of the just, they will reign with Christ
upon earth for a thousand years, before the final judgment.

Period.)

TO THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL.

23

Justin Martyr believed in a Millenium; but he tells
us that he differed herein from the belief of many good
Christians of his day.
N.B. The Gnostics expected a Millenium, and so did
the Montanists. Before the end of the third century,
the Millenai^ians were generally regarded as in error.
157

(al.168.) Rise of the MONTANISTS, or CATAPHRYGIANS ;
so called from Montanus, native of Ardaban, a village
of Mysia, near the borders of Phrygia.
Montanus pretended to be the Paraclete promised by
Christ, commissioned to carry to perfection the code of
Christian morals, and to restore the purity of the Christian
life and the discipline of the Church, so far as it had
decayed. Montanus was soon joined by other fanatics,
who, like himself, pretended to the gift of prophecy, and
attempted to confirm his mission. The Montanists did
not oppose or falsify any of the fundamental articles of
the Christian faith (except that some of them may perhaps
have declined into Sabellian error); but they carried the
principles of mortification and laws of discipline to a great
length: they imposed severe fasts, forbad a second marriage, set a high value upon celibacy and martyrdom,
visited all grievous crimes with perpetual excommunication, and taught a sovereign contempt of earthly goods.
They held the near approach of the end of the world,
and of the commencement of the millenial reign of Christ
on earth.
Montanists continued in the Church under various
names (Cataphrygians, &c), until the sixth century.
Edict of Antoninus Pius, confirming that of Adrian,—that no one should be prosecuted merely as a Christian,
without being charged with some offence.
Polycarp visits Rome. Difference of opinion between
Polycarp and Anicetus respecting the time of celebrating
Easter ; the former advocating the practice and opinions
of the Jewish and other Asiatic Christians, the latter defending the usage of the Western Churches.
c 4

FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH

(First

N.B. Asiatic Christians celebrated the Passover on the
night of the fourteenth of Nisan ; they commemorated the
crucifixion on the following day (7racr^a (rTctvpooo-ipov); and
on the third day after the}' celebrated the resurrection
(vaayu avoivTavipov). Western Christians did not celebrate the Passover at all; but, on the Lord's day next
after the full moon in Nisan, they celebrated the resurrection, holding a communion in the morning; and they
set apart the foregoing Friday in commemoration of the
crucifixion.
Justin's Dialogue with Trypho.
Tatian's Diatessaron.
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS (THE PHILOSOPHER),
EMPEROR.

Crescens, a Cynic philosopher, active in opposition to
Christianity.
Marcus Antoninus was a systematic and diligent persecutor of the Christians, carrying into effect the law with
great rigour, and authorising the search after suspected
persons. But Christians were now made eligible to public
offices, under certain moderate restrictions.
Death of Papias, Bishop of Hierapolis.
Period of the (so called)
Fifth Persecution.
Second Apology of Justin Martyr, probably between
161 and 165.
Epistles of Dionysius, Bishop of Corinth.
Marcel!a, a female teacher of Gnosticism, at Rome.
About this time PROVINCIAL COUNCILS were first held.
This took place in Asia, on occasion of the Montanist
controversies.
Evidence of liberal contributions for the relief of distressed Christians about this time.
Justin Martyr put to death.

Death of Peregrinus.

Period.)

TO» THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL.

25

Tatian, a disciple of Justin, returns to the East. Having
embraced the errors of Valentinus and Marcion, he
founds the sect of the Encratites (Tatianists, Hydroparastatse). Some regard his followers as an Anti-Jewish
Gnostic sect,
Bardesanes of Edessa, fl. He wrote in defence of
Christianity, but afterwards was misled by the Oriental
philosophy, and held some of the opinions of the Valentinians. He is regarded as a forerunner of Manicheism.

166

The emperors celebrate their triumph for the Parthian
conquests.

167

(al. 147. 169. 175.) Martyrdom of Polycarp, Bishop
of Smyrna, and others.
Letter of the Church of Smyrna, describing the martyrdom of Polycarp.
Commemoration of Martyrs.
At this period it was usual with Christians to commemorate Martyrs by meeting at their graves on the
anniversaries of their martyrdom, and there celebrating
divine worship, with the Lord's supper, as on the Lord's
day, reading the acts of the Martyr, and making
collections for the poor. But no invocation of Martyrs,
or worship of relics, was yet introduced. There is no
evidence that any religious veneration was paid to relics
during the second century.
Controversies concerning the obligation of the Mosaic
law continue.
A pestilence rages during several years.
The emperors leave Rome to make war against the
Marcomanni. Death of Verus. M. Aurelius returns to
Rome.
M. Aurelius sets out to prosecute the war in Germany.
Melito, Bishop of Sardis; his Apology and Canon of
the Old Testament.

26

FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH

I

(First

Apologies of Miltiades and Claudius Apollinaris.
Treatise of Hermias against the heathen philosophers.
APOLOGETIC AGE.

Severus, a disciple of Tatian, at the head of a sect. —
Florinus, J9/#s£ws, followers, to a certain extent, of Valentin us.
174

Victory over the Quadi. Story of the Thundering
Legion.
Insurrection of Avidius Cassius in Syria. Tertullian
says that no Christian joined his party.

175

Athenagoras, said to have been head of the Catechetical
School at Alexandria.
Bardesanes writes against Marcion. His son, Harmonius, a writer of Syrian hymns.
Christian writers and Alexandrian Jews assert that
Plato borrowed his philosophy from Moses.
Hegesippus writes his history.
"["Tatian. Dionysius of Corinth.
Apology of Athenagoras.

176

Evidence of the existence of churches, each with regular
establishment of bishop and presbyter, at Vienne and
Lyons. Irenceus, Bishop of Lyons. Persecution at Vienne
and Lyons ; Pothinus died in prison.
—

Evidence of the practice of Infant Baptism at this period.
M. Aurelius at Rome.
The emperor and his son Commodus set out for a second
war with the Marcomanni.
Lucius, a British prince, is said to have sent to Eleutherus, Bishop of Rome at this time, for instruction in the
Gospel. Story quite unfounded.

178

First traces of Christian Ascetics.
Celibacy was now regarded as a heresy.

1

(During the reign of Aurelius, Lucian, Apuleius, Galen,
Pausanias, Polyaenus, Gellius, Artemidorus, Sextus Empiricus, fl.).
Theophilus writes his work to Autolycus.
Theodotion translates the Old Testament into Greek.

Period.)

TO THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL.

27

(Rabbi Judah, of Tiberias, compiles the Mishna, or first
part of the Talmud. Later dates are assigned by some
writers.)
COMMODUS, EMPEROR.

Pantaenus, head of the Catechetical School at Alexandria.
Doctrine of the Trinity in Unity. The Christian doctrine of the Trinity in Unity was taught by the earliest
writers from the New Testament, although the Platonic
word Tpa£ was first used by Theophilus of Antioch
(Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, Tatian). Irenseus speaks
obscurely concerning the connection, or mutual relation,
of the three persons of the divine nature ; but he expressly
declares that a belief in the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit
was universally adopted by the Church from the beginning.
The Unity of God is maintained apologetically against
Polytheists, and against such Monotheists as contended
that the doctrine of three persons in one essence involves
the false doctrine of a plurality of Gods ; and polemically
against the dualism of the Gnostics and Manichees.
Under Commodus, the persecutions of Christians were
only partial. The emperor was careless of the honour of
the national religion ; and his subjects, being compelled
to provide for their own safety, had few opportunities of
harassing their neighbours.
Christians are now divided into two classes, the Faithful and Catechumens ; probably in imitation of the heathen
system of initiation, &c, or rather as a necessary precaution for the purity of morals, suggested by the circumstances of the Church.
Marcia, the mistress of Commodus, favours the Christians.
The Church enjoys peace; but individual Christians
occasionally suffer cruel treatment,
Apollonius put to death, and with him his slave, who
had acted as informer.

28

FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH

{First

About this time Irenasus writes his work Against H e r e sies.
188

Clement, head of the Catechetical
andria.

School at Alex-

T h e Gospel preached in Ethiopia by Pantsenus.
Gradual change in the Constitution of the Church; increasing ascendancy of the Hierarchical
Aristocracy,
Increased number of Church Officers,
Nicolaitans,
sects.

a n d other Anti-Jewish a n d Antinomian
Montanism

had now greatly disturbed the peace of the Church in
various parts of the world.
Christian writers now begin to attack the errors of
Paganism, as well as to defend the Gospel.
jog J
jggn

HELVIUS

PERTINAX;

then D I D I U S J U L I A N U S :

finally,

SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS, E M P E R O R S .

Christians did not suffer much persecution during the
first six years of Severus.
193

Symmachus translates the Old Testament into Greek.
T h e earliest commentators upon Scripture appear to
have been Pantsenus a n d Clement of Alexandria.
Theodotians.
Artemonites.
Theodotus, a t Rome, maintains the doctrine of the
simple humanity of Christ, b u t admits his miraculous
conception. H i s opinions adopted by Artemon or Artemas. A small remnant of this sect existed in the third
century. N o person before Theodotus h a d taught that
C H R I S T was a mere man.

Patripassians*
Monarchians*
Praxeas, of Asia Minor, denies the distinction of persons in the Godhead, teaching that the Son a n d Holy
Ghost a r e only modes or operations of the Divine Being.

Period.)

196 I

TO T H E F I R S T GENERAL COUNCIL.

29

Byzantium taken.
Victor excommunicates Theodotus at Rome.
Councils in Asia Minor a n d Palestine concerning the
Paschal controversy.
( T h e earliest councils were popular deliberative assemblies, consisting of delegates elected
and sent as representatives of independent, but federated,
churches.)
Early aggression of the Church of Rome.
Victor excommunicates the Churches of Asia Minor.
Reconciliation effected by Irenseus, who, with other
bishops, refused to follow the example of Rome. Some
of these bishops sharply rebuked Victor.
T h e letter of Irenaeus to Victor shows that at this time
the fast before Easter lasted in some countries one d a y ;
in others forty hours, and in others two days or more.
T h e same difference is mentioned by Socrates in the
fifth century.
Julius Cassian, Encratite.
T h e Church of Carthage rises into eminence.
succeed to their office by seniority.

Bishops

Tertullian rises into notice at Carthage.
Maximus, on E v i l ; Heraclitus, on the Apostles; Candidus and Apion, on the Six Days of Creation ; Sextus, on
the Resurrection ; Judas, on the Seventy Weeks of Daniel,
who describes Severus as Antichrist.
198 I
(al. 205.) Tertullian's Apology.
D u r i n g this century many works were written by
Gnostics, but they have all perished.

END 0 J

THE
CE°NN-|

Propagation of the Gospel
Europe.
Christians had now been planted in Italy, Spain, Gaul,
and B r i t a i n ; there were also churches in T h r a c e and

30

FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH

(First

ENDOFI parts of Scythia, and in parts of Germany, Dacia, and
THE

\

SECOND

CEN-

Qi

,.

Sarmatia.

Africa.
Churches had been founded at Alexandria and Carthage; there were settlements of Christians along the
whole northern coast; Christianity had been preached in
Ethiopia,
Asia.
T h e Gospel had been preached in Arabia, Persia, and
Bactria. Churches were nourishing in Asia Minor, P a lestine, and Mesopotamia.
T h e writings of the Fathers of this century contain,
for the most part, true scriptural doctrine concerning, —
the rule of faith; the Holy T r i n i t y ; the universality of
redemption; the sacrifice of C h r i s t ; justification; faith;
the sacraments.
B u t various important errors are found in the works of
Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, and T e r tullian. Great injury was done to Christian doctrine by
treating it as a matter of philosophy and speculation, and
especially by mixing up with it some tenets of the new
Platonists.
Christianity had now been embraced by some professors of science and philosophy. The doctrines of the
Gospel begin to be corrupted by means of idle speculations, and the undue application of human learning.
T h e Alexandrians undertook to separate the true from
the false in the Gnostic system; but they did not escape
the danger of adopting some of the false as true.
T h e system of an allegorical interpretation of Scripture
begins to prevail at Alexandria.
Proofs of substantial agreement between the principal
churches (e. g. those of Alexandria, Carthage, Lyons),
respecting Christian doctrine and the canon of Scripture,
but not without circumstantial variations in some customs
and modes of expression. We find traces of creeds or conl fessions of faith in the works of Irenaeus and Tertullian.

Period.)

TO THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL.

31

Divine Worship
was now conducted in nearly the same way as hitherto.
It consisted of—
The reading of Scripture and some uninspired religious writings.
Preaching (chiefly expository and popular).
Prayer (standing on festivals; kneeling on fast-days;
turning the face towards the East; response, Amen).
Psalmody (hymns sometimes composed for the use of
congregations).
Forms of public prayer were probably not unknown
during this age, at least in some places.
No tithes or first-fruits paid for the maintenance of
ministers of religion during this century. Voluntary
offerings made for various purposes.
Christian presbyters begin to be generally regarded as
priests in the Jewish sense of the term.
Lay presbyters have still some influence in the African
churches.
Institutions, Ceremonies^ §*c.
The Lord's Day universally observed. The Jewish
Sabbath partially. Annual festivals of Easter and Whitsuntide. Annual fast, on the day of the crucifixion.
Anniversaries of Martyrs.
Christian teachers sometimes wore the mantle, or peculiar dress, of philosophers.
At this period, the professors of Christianity were numerous, and many of them were wealthy. The tone of
morality in the Church was lowered.
Severus visits Alexandria.
General persecution (commonly called The Sixth) under
Severus, who issued an edict about this time, prohibiting
his subjects from embracing the Jewish or Christian
religion.

FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH

(First

Leonides, father of Origen, p u t to death.
Clement quits Alexandria.
f Irenseus.
Symmachus.
Persecution violent at Alexandria a n d Carthage.
Tertullian joins the Montanists.
Hermogenes, probably at Carthage, propagates Dualistic
doctrines,, b u t opposes the Emanation system of the
Gnostics.
Praxeas, excluded from communion b y Zephyrinus,
retracts his errors, and is restored. H e afterwards r e lapsed.
T h e Alogi, an obscure sect of Antitrinitarians.
Natalius, a Theodotian bishop, retracts his errors, and
is restored to communion.
Severus returns to Rome.
Secular games celebrated at Rome.
Questions relating to the Restoration of Lapsed Penitents were agitated early in this century, which led to a
long a n d painful controversy.
T h e assembling of Provincial Councils, in which the
bishop of the chief city of the province presided, led to
the development of a rising HIERARCHICAL SYSTEM — to

the assumption of increased power on part of ministers in
general, — a n d to the establishment of separate interests
in their favour. Hitherto we have read chiefly of t h e
acts a n d sufferings of the church; henceforward history
is especially employed in describing the acts, errors, a n d
disputes of the clergy,
1. A distinction was now established between the clergy
and the laity.
2. T h e clergy consisted of bishops, presbyters, a n d
deacons. T h e bishops were less restrained by their presbyteries than formerly.
3 . T h e larger a n d apostolical churches began to /claim

Period.)

TO T H E F I R S T GENERAL COUNCIL.

33

precedence and honour, but without infringing upon t h e
liberties of others.
4. T h e doctrine of " t h e Catholic Church," as one
body, begins to prevail.
# Some suppose that Christianity was about this time
introduced into Britain from G a u l ; b u t it appears that
it had already been widely disseminated there. ( T e r t u l l .
Adv. Jud. c* vii.)
T h e word Sacramentum was now applied to baptism,
the Lord's supper, the Holy Scriptures, and various religious ceremonies.
(Tertullian's Theological Terminology; afterwards
adopted by Cyprian, a n d made current in the Western
Churches.)
Monthly charitable contributions were usual in t h e
churches at this period.
Origen teaches at Alexandria; soon after made head
of the Catechetical School.
Ammonius Saccas, a t Alexandria, founder of t h e Ec*.
LECTIC P H I L O S O P H Y ,

o r school of L A T E R

PLATONISTS.

His first attempt was to bring the Platonic and Aristotelian systems into agreement. H e then proceeded to
blend this new compound with Christianity. H e framed
his system in t h e interval between 200 and 235
H e is
said to have abandoned the Christian faith a t last.
Tertullian writes against Marcion.
Minucius Felix writes his Octavius.
Severus and his sons go into Britain.
Severus dies at York. Caracalla a n d Geta,
emperors for a time. Geta killed by his brother.

joint

CARACALLA, E M P E R O R .

Christians generally enjoyed toleration during this

FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH

(First

reign; but they were exposed to persecution in some
places.
Origen goes to Rome; and returns to Alexandria.
Origen called into Arabia.
Alexander, Bishop of Jerusalem, for some time in conjunction with Narcissus, restored. First instance on
record of two persons together holding the same see,
which was afterwards forbidden by councils.
Alexander had been Bishop of Flavias in Cappadocia ;
first instance of translation.
Council at Carthage, under Agrippinus, concerning
baptism administered by heretics.
Origen goes to Csesarea in Palestine.
Demetrius, Bishop of Alexandria, expostulates with
Theoctistus, Bishop of Csesarea in Palestine, for allowing
Origen, who was a layman, to read the Scriptures and
deliver discourses in the church. Theoctistus, in reply,
quoted precedents in favour of such a practice; and he
was supported by Alexander, Bishop of Jerusalem. Demetrius, however, commanded Origen to return to
Alexandria.
Massacre at Alexandria by Caracalla.
A question arises about this time respecting the validity of baptism administered by reputed heretics.
Exaggerated statements respecting the efficacy of the
sacraments of baptism and the Lord's supper gain currency, attended with superstitious veneration for those
rites, and abuses.
Baptism, in the second Century, and beginning of the third.
1. Was now more generally administered to infants.
2. Some limitations had been introduced respecting
the ministering of baptism, and the times of administration (Easter and Whitsuntide).
3. Ceremonies were added to the rite. Renunciation
of the devil and his pomps.

Period.)

TO THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL.

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

35

Solemn confession of faith repeated.
Use of the sign of the cross.
Sponsors.
Anointing with oil.
Use of milk and honey.

The Lord's Supper, during the same period.
1. Received several new names and appellations.
2. Elements consecrated by none but bishops,
3. And distributed by deacons.
4. Sometimes conveyed to persons absent from public
worship.
5. Occasionally, perhaps, administered to infants.
6. Still administered in both kinds.
7. Bread leavened; wine mixed with water.
Prayers for the Dead.
Feasts of charity still celebrated; but not always in
connexion with the Lord's supper.
The following are the principal doctrines which were
brought prominently forward during the latter half of the
second century and the beginning of the third, occasioned by the assertions and pretensions of various sects
and parties: —
1. Against the Gnostics; the unity of God; the goodness of the Creator; the identity of the origin of the Old
and New Testaments; the reality of the life and sufferings of Jesus Christ upon earth.
2. Against the Montanists and Novatians; Christian
liberty ; necessity of infant baptism; needlessness of rebaptizing the lapsed.
3. Against the Semi-Gnostics, Alogi, and Sabellians;
the proper deity and personality of the Logos (without
defining any thing concerning the nature of the Holy
Spirit).
4. Against the Marcionites; the canonicity of certain
parts of the New Testament (but without finally fixing
the canon).
D 2

FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH

(First

(Holy Scripture was recognised as the source of religious doctrine; but with a certain respect to Tradition,
as a concurrent witness to the teaching of the Apostles.)
Various controversies were agitated during this century. Some <old disputes continue, and others take rise.
The first system of Christian doctrine compiled by
Origen (De Principiis).
Disputes concerning Montanism now run high. The
Montanists divide into two parties; one, under iEschines,
maintaining opinions resembling those of Praxeas and
Sabellius; the other, under Proculus, retaining mora scriptural views of the doctrine of the Holy Trinity.
MACRINUS, EMPEROR.

(cir.) J Clement of Alexandria.

Tertullian.

HELIOGABALUS, EMPEROR.

Heliogabalus attempted to establish the worship of the
Sun throughout the empire; but he offered no molestation
to the Christians in particular.
During the early part of this century, Philostratus
wrote the life of ApoUonius of Tyana, whose impostures
were placed in competition with the divine miracles of
our Saviour.
Origen, head of the Catechetical School at Alexandria.
(This is the latest date assigned for the compilation of
the Mishna by Rabbi Judah.)
f Minuc ius Felix,
Hippolytus, fl.
ALEXANDER SEVERUS, EMPEROR.

Alexander tolerates, or even favours, the Christians;
but they appear to have been exposed to partial sufferings.
The celebrated Ulpian, in particular, who was the emperor's secretary, and commander of the prastorian guards,
was their enemy.

Period.)

[

222

TO THE FIRST GENERAL couNctL.

87

Christianity is not yet a " religio licita," or religion
tolerated and recognised by the State.
With this year the Canon Paschalis of Hippolytus
begins.
Fasting was now in great repute, but still with due
allowance for Christian liberty. The observance becomes
more and more systematised. Various kinds of fasts, with
corresponding names.
The kiss of charity retained. The custom of signing
with the sign of the cross, still without superstition.
First traces of churches, or distinct buildings appropriated to the purpose of Christian worship. Several
were erected about this time.
Increased strictness of discipline.

226

228
2%g
230

Martyrd om of Martina at Rome.
Ammonius Saccas pretends that Christians borrowed
and corrupted the doctrines of Plato; in fact, that the
Gospel is a corruption of Platonism.
" Christians fell into the snare of proving an agreement between Platonism and the Gospel. Still it must
be remembered, that the Platonists, and not the Christians,
perverted the doctrines of their founders. Plato was
made to deliver opinions which he never held; and
Christian writers explained the mysteries of their religion
in the language of Plato. It is not improbable that these
speculations led the way to the Sabellian and Arian heresies." (Burton, Lectures on Eccles. Hist lect. xxx.)
Origen ordained presbyter in Palestine by Theoctistus,
Bishop of Csesarea, and Alexander, Bishop of Jerusalem.
Origen returns to Alexandria.
Demetrius
Origen.

holds a council at Alexandria against

D

3

FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH

(First

Noetus, of Smyrna, denies the distinction of persons in
the Godhead.
By the Council of Iconium, baptism administered by
heretics (Montanists) is declared invalid.
Christian Churches (or Congregations) now existed in every
province and city of the Roman Fmpire.
Origen finally leaves Alexandria, and settles at Csesarea
in Palestine. His Commentaries.
Heraclas (who had formerly assisted Origen). head of
the Catechetical School at Alexandria.
Succeeded by Dionysius.
Eclectic Philosophy gaining ground.
Plotinus attends the lectures of Ammonius Saccas.
After the ejection of Origen from Alexandria, Christian
writers became less fond of using the language and imagery
of Plato.
Firmilian, Bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia, visits
Origen. Also, Athenodorus and Theodorus from Pontus.
Opinions of Origen,
The errors (subsequently) ascribed to Origen relate
principally to the assertion of inequality between the
Father and the Son (in which respect he may be regarded as a forerunner of Arius); his ambiguous or inadequate expressions concerning the work of redemption
(for he made but faint and indefinite mention of the
incarnation, life, and sufferings of Christ, his sacrifice and
satisfaction, and the forgiveness of sins); the mutual
relation of human power and divine grace (on which point
he made way for the doctrines of Pelagius); and his
resolute denial of the eternity of future punishments.
His system of allegorical interpretation of Scripture
formed also a subject of complaint.
Montanism makes progress in Asia Minor.
MAXIMINUS, EMPEROR.

Partial persecution of Christians, aimed especially at

Period.)

TO T H E F I R S T GENERAL COUNCIL.

39

the heads of the Church (commonly called The Seventh
Persecution).
Origen retires to Cappadocia, and begins his Hexapla.
Athenodorus and Theodorus go to Alexandria.
GORDIAN,

EMPEROR.

Universal toleration and peace to the Church.
Origen visits Greece a second t i m e ; continues his
Commentaries.
Origen returns to Caesarea; rejoined by his former
pupil Theodorus (afterwards called Gregory T h a u m a turgus).
Beryllus, Bishop of Bostra, confounds in his doctrine
the persons of the Holy Trinity. H e is convinced of his
error by Origen.
(Manes born.)
The bishops or presidents of the several churches, as such,
now possess great and increasing influence ; hut it does not
appear that authority, independent of their presbyteries, had
been formally conceded to them.
Funds collected for charitable purposes, and administered by the bishops, were now considerable.
I t was usual to recite publicly the names of almsgivers or benefactors, at the celebration of the Lord's
supper.
Foundation of the doctrine of Purgatory laid.
Origen taught, in accordance with the views of Plato,
that the souls of all good men will hereafter (namely, at
the day of judgment) pass through a purgatorial fire.
Origen writes against the Elcesaites.
Gregory Thaumaturgus builds a handsome church at
Neoceesarea.
D

4

40

FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH

I

(First

Increasing Uniformity in Worship. Multiplication of
Rites and Ceremonies.
Origen completes his Hexapla about this time, and
composes his work against Celsus.

244"

P H I L I P THE ARABIAN, EMPEROR.

Philip openly showed favour to the Christians. He is
said by some to have been himself a convert; but this
assertion is apparently unfounded.
Some Christians in Arabia maintained that the soul
perishes with the body, and that both will be restored
to life at the resurrection. Origen persuaded them to
abandon this opinion.
Some change in the manner of appointing bishops at
Alexandria appears to have taken place about this time.
247

Pierius, head of the Catechetical School at Alexandria.

248

Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage; his election opposed by
Novatus.

—

^49

By this time, Christianity was extensively established
in Gaul.
Christians persecuted at Alexandria by the people.
Christianity had made great progress during the long
period of peace since the death of Severus.
DECIUS, EMPEROR.

Persecution (commonly called The Eighth) begins.
Decius issues an edict, by which Christians are peremptorily required to sacrifice to the gods. Fabianus, Bishop
of Rome, put to death.
During the Decian persecution, large numbers of
Christians apostatised from the faith; many cheerfully
submitted to sufferings; and not a few displayed an undue and immoderate passion for imprisonment and martyrdom.

Period.)

I

250

TO T H E F I R S T GENERAL COUNCIL.

Diptych s, or Catalogues of
Catechumenate. Disciplina

41

Martyrs.
Arcani.

Cyprian seeks safety in flight from Carthage. Dionysius escapes from Alexandria. Origen thrown into prison.
Alexander, Bishop of Jerusalem, and Babylas,
Bishop of Antioch, die in prison. T h e Christians endure
great sufferings at Rome, Alexandria, and C a r t h a g e ; also
in Palestine and Asia Minor.
Church of Rome without a bishop.
R T S E OF

MONACHISM.

Paul the Hermit, of Thebes, and others retire to the
deserts of Egypt from the Decian persecution.

—

t Hippolytus.

251

GALLUS, EMPEROR.

Questions concerning the Restoration of the Lapsed
(Sacrificati, Thurificati, Libellatici). Novatus and his
party advocate the more lax system at Carthage, in opposition to Cyprian. Novatian and his followers at Rome
uphold the more severe discipline, in opposition to Cornelius.
—

Schism of Novatus and Felicissimus at Carthage.
Cyprian returns, holds a council, and settles the question
of the Lapsed.
Election of Cornelius, as Bishop of Rome, opposed by
Novatian. Council at Rome. Novatian condemned, after
having been consecrated as a rival bishop.
Synodal letter of the Council of Carthage contains the following pretensions : — " Placuit nobis, Sancto
Spiritu suggerente, et Domino per visiones multas et
manifestas admonente."
T h e doctrine of the Unity of the Church supported
and advocated by Origen.

252

I

Great Pestilence begins.

FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH

(First

Invasion of the Goths. War with Persia begins.
Persecution renewed by Gallus (Ninth Persecution).
Cornelius, Bishop of Rome, put to death.
(Christians numerous at Rome. The churches of that
city were now served by forty-six Presbyters, seven Deacons, seven Sub-deacons, and forty-two Assistants, fiftytwo Exorcists, Readers, and Porters.)
VALERIAN, EMPEROR.

Lucius, Bishop of Rome, put to death. Persecution
ceases after the death of Gallus.
Valerian's household was full of Christians at the beginning of his reign.
Gallic bishops consult the bishops of Rome and Carthage respecting treatment of the Lapsed.
"j* ORIGEN.

Marcianus, Bishop of Aries, deposed for Novatianism.
Basilides and Martialis, Spanish bishops, deposed. Stephen advocates their restoration; Cyprian opposes it.
Cyprian strongly insists upon outward unity of the
Church; he speaks of St. Peter as the representative of
this unity; and says, that the Bishop of Rome is the successor of St. Peter, and that the Church of Rome is
entitled to precedence, from the importance of the city;
but he refuses to acknowledge the superiority of the Bishop
of Rome over other bishops in point of jurisdiction or
authority, such as Stephen claims.
Council at Carthage decides against validity of baptism
by heretics, and asserts the necessity of rebaptizing those
who had received it. Stephen, of Rome, takes the contrary part.
Firmilian, Bishop of Cappadocia, speaks of Stephen as
a schismatic ; as having withdrawn from the unity of the
Church, in allowing the validity of heretical baptism ; and
asserts that many things are done at Rome contrary' to
apostolical authority.
(The Church of Rome stood quite alone in this contro-

Period.)

256

TO T H E F I R S T GENERAL COUNCIL.

43

I versy; but Stephen called his opponents " perverters of
the truth, and traitors to ecclesiastical unity," threatening
to exclude them from communion.)
Another council at Carthage again decides against the
validity of baptism by heretics, and that lapsed ministers
should be re-admitted only as laymen.
Another, in the autumn, against validity of heretics'
baptism.
Cyprian strongly asserts the right of every bishop to
make laws for his own church.

Commemorations of Martyrs and Confessors,
celebrated with increased care, and attended with festivities.
Penitentiary
Presbyters
were established about this time, but the institution does
not appear to have become general. The customs of the
Church respecting excommunication, penance, and absolution,
begin to be reduced to a system.
Christians were eminent for their attentions to the
dying and the dead during the Great Pestilence.
T h e council of Carthage enjoins infant baptism.
At
this period it was usual at Carthage to administer the
Lord's Supper to infants.

257

258

Macrianus uses his influence with the emperor against
the Christians.
Persecution under Valerian begins. Stephen, Bishop
of Rome, put to death. Cyprian banished to Curubis.
M a n y Christians sent to the mines.
Dionysius of Alexandria banished. Sixtus of Rome,
with his deacon Laurentius, and CYPRIAN put to death.
Sabellians.
Sabellius propagates his doctrines in Egypt. Dionysius
of Alexandria opposes them.
66
T h e Sabellians denied the personality of the Son and
the Holy Ghost. T h e y believed that God the Father

FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH

[First

was himself the Redeemer and Sanctifier of mankind;
that the divinity of the Father resided in Jesus Christ,
who had no separate existence before his appearance upon
earth; and that the Son and the Holy Ghost are mere
modes or operations of the one only God. If we seek for
a difference between the theory of Sabellius and those
of his predecessors, we are perhaps to say, that Noetus
supposed the whole divinity of the Father to be inherent in Jesus Christ, whereas Sabellius supposed it to
be only a part, which was put forth like an emanation,
and was again absorbed in the Deity. Noetus acknowledged only one divine Person; Sabellius divided this one
divinity into three; but he supposed the Son and the
Holy Ghost to have no distinct personal existence, except
when they were put forth for a time by the Father."
(Burton.) They supposed the emanation (Logos) to
have been to Christ in place of a human soul.
Sabellians existed at Rome and Alexandria until the
fourth century.
Valerian made prisoner by Sapor, king of Persia.
GALLIENUS, EMPEROR.

Thirty Tyrants.
Gallienus, by an edict, granted to the Christians
liberty and protection in the exercise of their religion.
And thus CHRISTIANITY became, for the first time, a "religio
licita" or mode of worship RECOGNISED AND PERMITTED
BY THE STATE.

Paul of Samosata, Bishop of Antioch.
Macrianus and his two sons put to death. Christians
free from persecution until the end of the reign.
Theognostus, head of the Catechetical School at Alexandria.
Dionysius, Bishop of Alexandria,

called upon by

Period.)

262

TO THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL.

45

Dionysiiis, Bishop of Rome, to answer a charge of holding
unsound doctrine concerning the nature of Christ. In
the following year the Bishop of Alexandria published
" A Refutation and Defense."
Nepos, an Egyptian bishop, writes in favour of the
doctrine of a Millenium. — Opposed by Dionysius, Bishop
of Alexandria.
From this time we find but few writers who maintain
the Millenarian doctrine.

—

Great disturbances at Alexandria, occasioned by the
rival claims of Gallienus and iEmilianus.

—

Porphyry, one of the bitterest enemies of the Gospel,
at Rome. (N.B. Plotinus and Porphyry asserted that
the doctrines of Plato and of the Christians respecting
the Trinity were identical; and that the Gospel was a
corruption of Platonism.)
The foundations of the Canon Law were laid by the
Councils of the African Church in the course of this
Century.
The present period may be characterised as
T H E AGE OF IMPOSTURE,
RISING HIERARCHICAL PRETENSIONS,
AND
INCIPIENT CONTROVERSY.

264

Odenatus of Palmyra acknowledged by Gallienus as
Emperor of the East.

%Q5

First council of Antioch against Paul of Samosata.
Paul of Samosata
taught that Jesus was born a mere man; but that after
his birth he was invested with the Logos, or Reason of
God, which Paul supposed to have had no personal pre~
existence distinct from God himself, but to have been put
1 forth by God after the birth of Jesus. He therefore

FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH

(First

denied the proper divinity of Christ, but he did not hold
that our Saviour was merely a human being.
The Pestilence ceases.
Zenobia, widow of Odenatus, rules over several Eastern
provinces.
CLAUDIUS, EMPEROR.

Some say that Claudius persecuted the Christians.
Porphyry goes to Sicily.
The Council of Antioch, held this year* in a letter
addressed to Paul, plainly asserts the essential divinity
of Christ; his eternal pre-existence; his creation of the
world; his relation to God as a son, not as a creature;
and his miraculous incarnation. The doctrine contained
in the word "consubstantial" is thus clearly taught,
although the word itself does not appear. Paul of Samosata deposed. Domnus, Bishop of Antioch.
f Firmilian, Bishop of Csesarea in Cappadocia.
"j* Gregory Thaumaturgus.
f Plotinus.
Commodian, a Christian poet, fl.
AURELIAN,

EMPEROR.

Aurelian was unfriendly to Christianity; but, in consequence of the edict of Gallienus, he was obliged to
recognise the Christian Church as a lawful society.
Celibacy is now in high esteem, as an antidote against
the supposed influence of demons.
It appears that at this period many females made profession of religious chastity, but without forming themselves into communities, and probably without taking
upon themselves the obligation of a vow.
Devout or Holy Virgins, Virgins of the Church,
Aurelian defeats Zenobia.

Period.)

TO THE EIRST GENERAL COUNCIL.

47

Deposition of Paul of Samosata completed by Aurelian
after the defeat of Zenobia.
274 I
Constantine born.
Aurelian was about to commence a persecution of the
Christians when he died. (The Ninth Persecution, according to Augustin, De Civ. Dei, xviii. 52.).
Rise of Manicheism in Persia.
Manichees entirely distorted Christian doctrine, and
accommodated it to a conformity with the Persian
Theosophy. They formed themselves into a distinct corporation or church.
Paulianists. The followers of Paul of Samosata continued to exist as a distinct sect until the beginning of
the fifth century.
275

TACITUS, EMPEROR.

276 I

Manes put to death.
Manicheism (doctrine of two principles) begins to prevail in the West.
PROJBUS, EMPEROR.

279

282

(t Rabbi Johanan, compiler of the Gemara in the
Talmud of Jerusalem.)
I

CARUS, EMPEROR,

with his sons Carinus and Numerianus.
During forty years of general toleration and tranquillity, Christianity had made great progress. It was
openly professed by large numbers of persons in all
ranks of life. Christians were appointed to the government of provinces, and were excused from assisting at
heathen sacrifices.
Achillas, head of the Catechetical School at Alexandria.

48
284

286
—•
—

FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH
I

(First

DIOCLETIAN, EMPEROR.

Maximian Herculeus associated in the empire with
Diocletian in Italy and Africa.
Reported martyrdom of the Theban Legion, in Switzerland, under Herculeus.
Dionysius, Bishop of Paris, put to death.
The Apostolical Constitutions and Canons are generally
supposed to be a forgery of about this date. They probably contain remnants of earlier compositions; but the
work, as a whole, although attributed to Clement of Rome,
appears to have been compiled towards the close of this
century, with a view to support the fictitious pretensions
of bishops, and to assist the growth of episcopal power.

292

Galerius Caesar in Italy; Constantius Chlorus in Gaul,
Spain, and Britain.
The School of Antioch (distinguished by its strictly literal and historical interpretation of Scripture) founded by
Dorotheus, a presbyter.

296

Origenist Controversy.
Methodius, Bishop of Olympus, attacks the doctrines of
Origen, which are defended by Pamphilus, a presbyter
of Csesarea in Palestine.

—

Hierax teaches that Christ is to be regarded as a mere
lawgiver.
Edict against the Manichees.
(Manicheism had now made great progress in Egypt.)

_

In his edict against the Manichees, Diocletian manifests
a decided and exclusive attachment to the ancient superstition.
Diocletian, from motives of policy or humanity, had
long tolerated the Christian religion; but at length, induced probably by Galerius, the deadly enemy of the
I Christians, he manifests a disposition to persecute.

Period.)

TO THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL.

49

Persecution in the court and army. All soldiers required to take part in heathen sacrifices.
Christians made subject to civil disabilities and burdens.
I N THE
GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTION OF THE CHURCH
THE ARISTOCRATICAL ELEMENT
BECOMES MORE AND MORE PREDOMINANT.

Opposition and persecution on the one hand, and the
efforts of false teachers on the other, had brought the
several churches into close connexion and frequent communication with each other : hence arose the idea of T H E
ONE CATHOLIC CHURCH, which had been supported by the
writings of Irenseus, Tertullian, and Cyprian, and was
now continually acquiring consistency and influence. But
this idea of the unity of the Church was not yet associated
with that of the supremacy of any one bishop, or the subjection of the whole body to the authority of any visible
head. Bishops were subject (under God) only to provincial councils, in which the metropolitan presided.
Concerning the Councils which met during this century,
observe, —
1. They were all provincial.
2. They were composed of bishops, presbyters, deacons, and laymen.
3. They were occupied about matters of doctrine— the
unity of the Church — ecclesiastical ceremonies —• and
discipline.
4. Their decrees were binding only on churches represented in council.
5. The decrees of different councils were sometimes
inconsistent with each other, or even contradictory.
The distinction between clergy and laity gradually
widens (witness the practice of Lay Communion). A
haughty and secular spirit manifests itself among the
E

50

FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH

{First

END OPI clergy. Major and minor orders of clergy. Fondness of
THIRD power and pomp; unlike the humility and simplicity of
CEN- former times.
Bishops were now distinguished by high-sounding
titles and increasing influence. The equality of all
bishops zealously asserted. Attempts of the bishops of
Rome to usurp authority hitherto fruitless.
Presbyters still continue to perform ministerial acts
which were afterwards restricted to bishops.
Deacons increase in importance; their number still
limited.
The additional ministers or officers in large churches
were now — Subdeacons; Acolyths; Readers; Porters ;
Exorcists.
The first instances of the translation of ministers from
one charge to another occur during this century.
Country churches possess their own bishops and presbyters.
Christians are still, for the most part, pious and exemplary in their lives and morals. They regard faith as the
source of love, and love as the parent of all Christian
virtue.
But there are many indications and instances of corruption. Pride and indolence increase. Jealousies and
dissensions multiply.
Baptism.
The following additional ceremonies are now connected
with this rite : —
1. Exorcism.
2. The kiss of peace.
3. Candidates clothed in white garments.
4. Imposition of hands by a bishop regarded as necessary in some places.
Many persons now defer baptism, often until the hour
of death; a consequence of over-wrought statements and
superstitious notions respecting the nature and efficacy
of the sacrament.

Period.)
E N D OF
THE
THIRD
CENTURY.

TO THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL.

51

The Lord's Supper.
1. Consecration and distribution of the elements as
before.
2. Received by baptized persons, including children ;
3. In a standing posture.
4. Some abuses connected with the conveyance of the
elements to private houses.
5. Still received under both forms ; but sometimes the
bread (leavened) was dipped or soaked in the wine (mixed
with water).
6. Publicly celebrated on the Lord's day, but with
some exceptions.
Penitents are now divided into different classes, according
to the various degrees of penance.
In the West, public confession preceded absolution: in
the East, private confession also was admitted.
Fasting has risen in repute; it is now observed on Wednesdays and Fridays : — during the week before Easter:
— in some churches of the West, on Saturdays, but not
without opposition. Christian liberty in this respect is
not yet destroyed.
Lay Communion.
Christians now possess spacious and convenient places
ofivorship in some parts. Many of their churches even
assume an appearance of splendour.
Mention of Feasts of Charity, and of Voluntary Oblations, becomes less frequent.
The Kiss of Charity is still in use.
The festivals continue as before: the Lord's day;
Easter; Whitsuntide; Anniversaries of Martyrs.
Great virtue begins to be attributed to the Sign of the
Cross.
The officers of public worship are essentially the same as
hitherto; but certain practices connected with the reading of Scripture have grown into custom; and in the
larger churches the duties of Reader are discharged by an
officer or minister specially appointed. Preaching is less
E 2

52

FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH

(First

simple in its character than formerly, preachers aiming at
oratorical effect.
Hours of prayer. The practice of praying three times
a day is adopted by many Christians.
Celibacy of the clergy is not yet recognised by ecclesiastical law.
The great doctrines of Christianity are still (as hitherto)
rightly stated, for the most part, in the writings of the
Fathers.
But errors likewise are found in the works of Minucius
Felix, Cyprian, Origen, and Methodius.
Origen rendered great service to the cause of Scriptural
truth by his laborious revision of the saered text, and his
exposition of the literal sense; but he contributed also to
pervert and obscure it by his favourite system of allegorising.
No regular system of Christian doctrine was yet compiled, although something of the kind had been undertaken by Origen.
Increasing admixture of philosophy with Christian
theology : this opens a door to verbal controversies.
Baptismal creeds or confessions of faith exhibit substantial agreements with slight variations.
Doctrine concerning the Existence of God.
The sacred writers and early Christian Fathers do not
attempt in any way to demonstrate the existence of God.
Belief in the fact is represented as a duty, and the absence of such belief a folly or sin; it is treated as a
subject not capable of demonstration. Tertullian, Arnobius, and Clement of Alexandria, appeal to innate ideas
of God, and contend on that ground that proof is needless.
Purity of heart described as the requisite faculty for
apprehending this truth.
The works of nature, and the consent of mankind in
this belief, were not supposed to furnish a demonstration
of the fact, but were regarded as a means employed by
the Deity to lead men to the knowledge of himself.

Period,)
23ND OP|
THE
THIRD
CENTURY.

TO T H E F I R S T GENERAL COUNCIL.

58

T h u s matters stood until the time of Augustin.
Doctrine concerning the Nature and attributes of God.
T h e early Fathers of the Church taught simply, in accordance with Scripture, that God is a Spirit, and that
his nature cannot be comprehended by finite faculties.
T h e y maintained, especially, that God has no name, and
that the terms Father, Creator, Lord, are not names of
the Divine Being, but only declarations of his acts or
works. I t was generally agreed, that the divine nature
or essence could not be the subject of definition.
A n opinion prevailed to some extent, during the third
and fourth centuries, that God is not entirely incorporeal
(Anthropomorphism). T h e School of Alexandria eventually
subverted this doctrine, and established that of the absolute spirituality of the divine nature.
We do not find any systematic distribution and classification of the divine attributes in the writings of the
earlier Fathers.

Summary of Information relating to
THE

P R O P A G A T I O N OF T H E

GOSPEL

In Asia.
From Palestine soon to Antioch and Syria, and then to
Asia Minor. Not long after, to Mesopotamia; towards
the end of the second century, the Prince of Edessa was a
Christian. From Edessa to Persia ; Gospel propagated in
Media, Persia, Parthia, Bactria, in middle of second century. Also to Armenia during second century. T h e Gospel
was preached in parts of Arabia and Ethiopia, by P a n taenus, end of second century (according to tradition, by
the Apostle Thomas). Christianity had made progress in
Arabia during the third century.
In Europe.

\

Churches founded in Greece and Rome by Apostles.
Churches at Lyons and Vienne in Gaul, early part of
second century.
Middle of third centurjr, churches
founded at Paris by Dionysius, at Toulouse by Sal
E 3

FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH

(First

turninus, and at other places in Gaul by missionaries
from Rome (according to Gregory of Tours). Irenceus
speaks of the spread of the Gospel in Spain and Germany.
End of second century, Tertullian speaks of the propagation of the Gospel in Britain. (A tradition that Lucius,
a British king, received missionaries from Rome about
middle of second century; but customs of ancient British
churches, correaponding to those of Asia Minor, render it
probable that the Gospel came from Gaul to Britain.)
In Africa.
The Gospel was preached in Egypt, and especially at
Alexandria, during the lifetime of Apostles. Tradition
speaks of St. Mark as founder of the Church of Alexandria. From Alexandria, the Gospel spread to Gyrene
at an early period. At the end of the second century, or
the beginning of the third, Copts received the Gospel
from Greek colonists of Egypt. No account concerning
progress of the Gospel in Abyssinia. During the second
century, the Gospel spread, probably from Rome, in Proconsular Africa, and especially at Carthage. Christianity
widely diffused in Mauritania and Numidia during second
and third centuries.
At the commencement of this century, there was a considerable number of Christians in Persia, under the metropolitan bishop of Seleucia and Ctesiphon.
In Arabia^ Christianity is kept in check by the hostility
of the Jews.
Hierocles writes against Christianity; drawing a comparison between our Saviour and Apollonius of Tyana,
unfavourable to the former. Answered by Lac tan ti us,
A. D. 303.
Diocletian enacts severe laws against the Christians.
Anthimus, Bishop of Nicomedia, put to death.
Beginning of the Ten Years Persecution
(Tenth).
Churches destroyed. Sacred books burnt. Christian
assemblies prohibited. Several Christians put to death.
# British Churches suffer severely during this persecu, tion. Alban, martyr.

Period.)

TO THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL.

55

Galerius persecutes in the East. Edicts for the imprisonment of the Christian clergy; and for compelling,
first the clergy, afterwards all Christians, to offer sacrifice
to the gods.
No persecution under Constantius in Africa, Gaul,
Spain, and Italy.
See of Rome vacant four years from this time.

(t Porphyry.)
Some Christians having delivered up their copies of
the Scriptures, in compliance with the Imperial Edict, they
were excommunicated for this offence. The question was
again keenly agitated concerning the treatment of the
Lapsed and the Traditores.
Limits set to the marriage of the clergy by the Council
of Elvira.
Paintings in churches forbidden by the same council.
Abdication of Diocletian and Maximian.
CONSTANTIUS AND GALERIUS, EMPERORS.

Severus and Maximinus, Caesars.
Constantius dies (at York).
GALERIUS AND MAXIMIAN, EMPERORS.

Constantine, Maxentius, Maximinus, and Severus (after
his death Licinius), Caesars.
(al. 301.) Beginning of the Meletian Schism in Egypt
During the persecution under Galerius, when Peter of
Alexandria had sought safety by flight, and other Egyptian bishops were imprisoned at Alexandria, Meletius,
Bishop of Lycopolis, administered ordination, and also
discharged other episcopal functions, in the dioceses of
the absent bishops. He continued this conduct notwithstanding the remonstrances of the bishops, being supported by Isidorus and Arius (afterwards celebrated for
his erroneous tenets) ^ by whose assistance Meletius became
E 4

FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH

(First

the head of a party. Meletius deposed. This schism was
formally terminated by the Council of Nieasa (325) ; but
many of the Egyptian clergy refused to acknowledge the
authority of the metropolitan of Alexandria during nearly
a century afterwards.
Maximinus persecutes in the East. Peter, Bishop of
Alexandria, seeks safety in flight. Numbers of victims at
Alexandria vary from ten to a hundred daily. Mutilation
a favourite punishment.
Licinius and Maximinus take the title of emperor.
Alexander assumes that title in Africa.
Pamphilus imprisoned at Csesarea. Alexander persecutes in Africa.
Pamphilus and Eusebius write the Defence of Origen.
Arnobius, fl.
Pamphilus put to death.
Christianity had by this time been introduced among
the Goths.
(A Gothic bishop was present at the Council of Nicasa.)
Antony, great patron of Monorchism, in the deserts of
Egypt.
Eusebius writes against Hierocles.
Thirty-nine confessors of Palestine beheaded at one
time.
Hypsistarians, an obscure sect in Cappadocia.
Caecilian elected Bishop of Carthage by the majority
of the Church.
Rise of Donatism.
Majorinus opposed to Caecilian. After this time, the
Donatists continued for several years to elect a bishop of
their own. The party of the Donatists was composed

:Period.)

TO THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL.

57

chiefly of those who sided with the Montanists, and advocated the more severe discipline.
Acts of Pilate forged, containing a false and calumnious
account of the life of Jesus.
Alexander killed in Africa. Galerius dies, after having
issued an edict in favour of the Christians.
Lucianus put to death at Antioch. Peter, Bishop of
Alexandria, put to death. Maximinus, finding his efforts
ineffectual, issues an edict of toleration in favour of the
Christians.
Constantine marches against Maxentius. Alleged Vision
of the Cross* Maxentius defeated and killed.
Conversion of Constantine.
Constantine and Licinius publish an Edict of Toleration,
intended for the protection of Christians. This edict,
misinterpreted, was used as an engine of persecution.
f Lucian the Martyr; a supporter of the School of
Antioch.
Defeat and Death of Maximinus.
EDICT OF MILAN.

Constantine and Licinius publish a second and more
express Edict in favour of the Christians, and of universal
toleration in religious matters.
Constantine supports the claims of Csecilian at Carthage.
Donatus, Bishop of the Donatists, after the death
of Majorinus.
Council at Rome concerning the Donatists.
Constantine and Licinius at war with each other.
Licinius soon after makes peace on disadvantageous
terms.
Licinius persecutes in the East. Licinius becomes the
champion of Paganism, as Constantine was the patron of
the Christian worship.

58

FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH

{First

314 |

Eusebius, Bishop of Csesarea in Palestine.
Council of Aries decides against the Donatists, and
affirms the validity of baptism by heretics.
* Three British bishops were present at the Council
of Aries.
* Christianity re-established in Britain. Church at
Verulam in honour of Alban.
316
Constantine decides against the Donatists, having heard
the cause pleaded by delegates of both parties. Donatists refuse to submit to the decision; their enthusiasm
rises to fanaticism, under violent measures.
3 1 7 I Constantine sends a letter to the African bishops,
enjoining moderation towards the Donatists.
318

I

R I S E OF ARIANISM.

Conference between Arius and his bishop, Alexander.
The bishop maintained, with the Church at large, especially in the West, the eternal generation of the Son of
God from the Father, and his consubstantiality with the
Father; Arius declared that the Son was created by the
Father out of nothing, and that there was a time when
he did not exist.
319

Constantine tolerates Paganism, and protects the celebration of heathen rites by an edict. He destroys some
heathen temples, but only on particular occasions, or in
consequence of special provocation.
Constantine fully exempts the clergy from liability to
serve in civil offices; partially granted in 313. This leads
to a collision between the interests of Church and State;
3 2 0 I and hence the emperor enacts that no person of rank or
wealth shall enter the clerical body. Efforts to unite
the interests of Church and State in this matter frequent
until 383.
About this time Lactantius completes his Institutions.
321

Constantine decrees that both parties in the African
Church (the Donatists and their opponents) should possess equal rights. He persevered in this determination to
the end of his life.

Period.)

321 I

TO THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL.

59

Constantine commands a general cessation of business
on the Lord's day.
Arians. Arius deposed and excommunicated by a
council. He found influential friends in Eusebius, Bishop
of Nicomedia, and the sophist Asterius, of Cappadocia.
Eusebius of Csesarea, and other favourers of Origenist
(Semiarian, Homceousian) views respecting the Trinity,
endeavoured by their mediation to restore peace in the
Church of Alexandria. Constantine wrote a letter, exhorting both parties to moderation and forbearance in their
speculative controversies.
Hosius, Bishop of Corduba, and other Western bishops,
persuaded Constantine that the doctrines of Arius were
not consistent with the due acknowledgment of the divinity of Christ.

323 I

Constantine at war with Licinius.
taken prisoner, and put to death.

Licinius defeated,

CONSTANTINE SOLE EMPEROR.

Constantine makes laws for the suppression of Paganism and the propagation of Christianity.
Christianity is now THE RELIGION OF THE STATE. Emperors are its professed guardians. They not only assert its
liberty', and protect its external rights and privileges, but take
measures for the preservation of doctrine and support of discipline.
Constantine formally accords a judicial power to bishops, when appeal has been voluntarily made to them by
both contending parties. By degrees, also, is established
the Intercessio episcoporum, or right of bishops to act as
assessors or advisers of civil magistrates.
Propagation of the Gospel.
One half of the inhabitants of the Roman Empire profess
Christianity.

60

F R O M T H E F O U N D A T I O N OF T H E CHURCH

BISHOPS

OF JERUSALEM, ANTIOCH,
TO T H E Y E A R

46. (cir.) Evodius, Antioch.
62. Symeon, Jerusalem,
Annianus, Alexandria.
67. L I N U S , BISHOP OF ROME ;
perhaps appointed by St. P a u l
and St. Peter.
JS. B . T h e succession of the early bishops
of Rome is involved in great obscurity and contradiction.
68. ANENCLETUS, ROME.

70. Ignatius, Antioch.
82.
. 93.

91.)

CLEMENT,

EVARESTUS,

ROME.

ALEXANDER, ROME.
Primus, Alexandria.

112. Zacchceus, Jerusalem.
114. Tobias, Jerusalem.
116. (al. 119.) XYSTUS orSixTus,
ROME.

— Benjamin, Jerusalem.
120. Matthias, Jerusalem.
—

—

Justus, Alexandria.

Philip, Jerusalem.
Seneca, Jerusalem.
Justus, Jerusalem.
Levi, Jerusalem.
TELESPHORUS, ROME.

129. Cornelius, Antioch.
130. Ephrem, Jerusalem.
1 3 1 . Eumenes, Alexandria.

132. Joseph, Jerusalem.
133. Judas, Jerusalem.
135. Marcus, Jerusalem.
138.

HYGINUS, R O M E .

141. Heros, Antioch.
142. P I U S , R O M E .
1 4 3 . Marcus, Alexandria.
1 5 3 . Celadion, Alexandria.

ALEXANDRIA,

ANICETUS, ROME.

Cassianus, Jerusalem.
Publius, Jerusalem.
Maximianus, Jerusalem.
JuUanus, Jerusalem.
Theophilus, Antioch.

171. Caius, Jerusalem.
173. Symmachus, Jerusalem.
ELEUTHERUS, ROME.

ROME.

104. Justus, Jerusalem.
107. Hero, Antioch.

122.
125.
126.
128.

AND

325.

SOTER, ROME.
Agrippinus, Alexandria.

Abilius, Alexandria.
(al.

9 7 . Cerdo, Alexandria.
100.

156.
161.
163,
166.
168.

ROME,

{First

176. Caius, Jerusalem.
179. JuUanus, Jerusalem.
181. Apion, Jerusalem.
Maximinus, Antioch.
Julianus, Alexandria.

184 Maximus, Jerusalem.
187. Antonius, Jerusalem.
188. Demetrius, Alexandria.
189. Serapion, Antioch.
(al. 185.)

190.
193.
196.
201.
202.
205.
208.
211.
214.
217.
218.
222.
229.
230.
232.
238.

VICTOR I., ROME.

Valens, Jerusalem.
Dulichianus, Jerusalem.
Narcissus, Jerusalem.
ZEPHYRINUS, ROME.

Dius, Jerusalem.
Germanio, Jerusalem.
Gordianus, Jerusalem.
Asclepiades, Antioch*
Alexander, Jerusalem.
Philetus, Antioch.
CALLISTUS, R O M E .
URBANUS, R O M E .

Zebinus, Antioch.
PONTIANUS, ROME.
Heraclas, Alexandria.
ANTEROS, | R O M E _
FABIANUS, J

239. Babylas, Antioch.
247. Dionysius, Alexandria.
250. Fabius, Antioch.

Period.)

TO T H E F I R S T GENERAL COUNCIL.

251. CORNELIUS, ROME.
252. Lucius, ROME.

—

Demetrianus, Antioch.

253. STEPHEN, ROME.
257. SIXTUS II., ROME.
259. DIONYSIUS, R O M E .

260. Paul, Antioch.
264. Hymenceus, Jerusalem,
2 6 5 . Maximus, Alexandria.
269. F E L I X , R O M E .

—

Domnus, Antioch

274. EUTYCHIANUS, ROME.

276. Timseus, Antioch.
281. Cyril, Antioch.
282. Theonas, Alexandria.
283. C A I U S , R O M E .

61

297. Zabdds, Jerusalem,
299. Tyrannus, Antioch.
•— Hermon, Jerusalem,
300. Peter^ Alexandria;
304. M A R C E L L I N U S , R O M E .
(See of Rome vacant).
308. M A R C E L L U S , R O M E .
300. EUSEBIUS,
" ^
J
MELCHIADES,JROME'
3 1 1 . Peter, Alexandria.
312. Achillas, 1
'
, .
' 5 - Alexandria.
— Alexander, J
313. M E L C H I A D E S , R O M E .
314. S I L V E S T E R , R O M E .
— (ALEXANDER,
BYZANTIUM.)
326. Athanasius, Alexandria.

COUNCILS B E F O R E T H E Y E A R 3 2 5 .

215.
230.
231.
240.
24*2.

Councils in Asia Minor and
Thrace, against the Montanists and other false
teachers, between 150
and 173.
(Euseb. H . E . v. 16.)
(Provincial) Councils in various parts of C hristendom,
concerning the time of
celebrating Easter, between 196 and 199.
Before the end of this century, the practice of assembling annual councils
had been adopted in Asia
Minor.
Carthage; against baptism
by heretics.
Alexandria.
Iconium.
Carthage.
Bostra, in Arabia (concerning Beryllus).

245. Ephesus (against Noetus).
251. Carthage (against Felicissimus, and concerning the
Lapsed).
— Rome (against Novatian).
252. Carthage (infant baptism;
and baptism by heretics).
— Antioch (against Novatian.)
253. Carthage (baptism of infants).
254. Carthage.
255. Carthage (baptism by heretics).
256. Carthage (baptism by heretics).
— Rome (against the decisions
of Carthage).
258. Rome (against the doctrines
of Noetus).
260. Rome (under Dionysius,
concerning Dionysius of
Alexandria).
265. Antioch (against Paul of
Samosata).

62

FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH, ETC.

269. Antioch (Paul deposed).
305. (al. 313.324.) Illiberis (El*
vira), (on discipline).
— Cirta, in Numidia.
312. Carthage (Csecilian deposed
by the Donatists).
313. Rome (against the Donatists).
314. Aries (against the Donatists),

315. (al. 314. 318.) Ancyra (concerning the Lapsed).
— Neocsesarea (on discipline).
321. Alexandria (Arius excommunicated).
— (Other councils, in Bithynia
and Palestine, in favour
of Arius).
324. Alexandria (against Arians
and Colluthians).

END OF THE FIRST PERIOD.

PERIOD II.
FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL TO THE DEATH
OF GREGORY THE FIRST.

325—604.

CoNSTANTINE, EMPEROR.

Rule of Faith settled by Imperial authority. Heterodox
banished. Religious liberty abridged.
T H E COUNCIL OF NIC^SA. — It was composed almost
entirely of members of Oriental Churches.
First General Council
Convened, and ratified, by the emperor.
The Council enacts that the election of every provincial
bishop shall be confirmed by the metropolitan, before his
ordination, which shall be performed by not less than
three bishops; — that deacons shall not usurp the privileges of presbyters; — that two councils shall be held
every year in each province.
Measures for putting an end to the Meletian Schism.
The doctrine of Arius that the Son of God is not coeternal with the Father, and that he is a created being,
condemned as heretical by the Council.
NICENE CREED, OR CONFESSION OF FAITH,

in which the Son of God is declared to be opoovwos TW
7Turp)9 consubstantial with the Father.
Eusebius of Caesarea proposed a confession of faith
which all parties could subscribe. But Alexander and his
friends, including Athanasius, a young deacon of Alexan-

FROM THE

F I R S T G E N E R A L COUNCIL

(Second

dria of great ability, insisted upon the necessity of a formal
and unequivocal condemnation of the tenets of Arius.
Accordingly, certain additions were made to the confession
of Eusebius, which received the sanction of the emperor.
Hence the Nicene Creed, Eusebius subscribed this confession ; which, however, he interpreted in accordance with
his own views : and he persuaded other Origenist or Semiarian Oriental bishops to do the same.
Arius, Theonas, and Secundus, refusing to receive this
confession, were banished to Illyria. Eusebius of Nicomedia and Theognis of Nicsea were banished to G a u l : —
in a confession presented by the former, the Son of God
is declared to be only 6y,otov<rioe9 i. e. of like substance
with the Father.
Religious ceremonies increase greatly in number and pomp.
Christian worship systematised.
Heathen rites adopted or
imitated.
Splendid vestments.
Dispute respecting the time of celebrating Easter,
settled by the Council of Niccea.
T h e Jewish customs
of Asia Minor rejected.
Celibacy of the Clergy.
A t the council of Nicsea an attempt was made to
establish strictly a n d universally the celibacy of the
clergy; but, upon the motion of Paphnutius, it was
merely enacted that all bishops, presbyters, or deacons,
unmarried at the time of their ordination, should not be
permitted to marry afterwards.
About this time Pachornius establishes in Egypt the rules
of a strictly monastic life.
Helena, mother of Constantine, said to have found the
cross on which our L o r d died, at Jerusalem.
Constantine puts to death his son Crispus, and afterwards his wife Fausta.
f Alexander, Bishop of Alexandria.
ceeds.

Athanasius suc-

Period.)

TO T H E DEATH O F GREGORY T H E FIRST.

65

f Lactantius (probably between 325 and 330).
About this time, a thousand bishops presided over the
Eastern Church, and eight hundred over the Western.
Testamentary bequests in favour of the Church permitted.
T h e clergy exempted from civil offices and burdens.
T h e adherents of the Jewish custom as to the time of
celebrating Easter formed henceforth a distinct party,
opposed to the Catholic Church, under the name of
TecrcrapecxaiSexaTn-ai, Quartodecimani ; so called from their
celebration of the festival on the fourteenth day of Nisan.
Arians.
Constantine, influenced by Eusebius of Caesarea, and other Semiarian bishops, and probably by his
sister Constantia, recurs to his original opinion, that
' Arius did not virtually deny the divinity of C h r i s t ; and
that much of the opposition which had been made to him
and his doctrines had originated in jealousy.
Arius and the bishops of his party recalled from exile.
Many heathen temples converted into churches.
Discipline variously enforced in different places.
Councils frequently employed in the regulation of this
matter. Distinction between the clergy and laity in
point of discipline.
Christianity introduced into Iberia.
Constantinople, as a Christian city, the imperial residence.
New division of the Roman empire into prefectures,
dioceses, and provinces.
A party of Donatists having demolished a church belonging to Catholics, the emperor compels the destroyers
to rebuild it at their own cost.
Eustathius, Bishop of Antioch, deposed.
rents (Eustathians) begin a schism.
F

His adhe-

66

FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL

(Second

I R I S E OF THE DIGNITY AND POWER OF METROPOLITANS.

About this time Eusebius writes his Ecclesiastical
History and other works.
Juvencus, a Christian poet, fl.
In the latter part of his reign, Constantine published
an edict (which, however, did not take effect), prohibiting
the public exercise of heathen worship, — Sacrificia
publica.
331

Avians. Constantine declares himself satisfied with a
confession of faith presented to him by Arius, and
commands his restoration, as presbyter, in the Church of
Alexandria. Athanasius, now Bishop of Alexandria,
maintains, however, that the doctrine of Arius is unchristian, and refuses to obey the emperor's injunction.
Hereupon the enemies of Athanasius represent him to
the emperor as hostile to the peace of the Church.
335
Athanasius summoned before a council at Tyre, composed chiefly of his declared enemies. Dissatisfied with the
course of their proceedings, he repairs to Constantinople,
to demand of the emperor a new hearing and examination.
Deposed iby the council. Next year, 336, the enemies of
Athanasius again assemble at Constantinople. Athanasius
banished to Treves, in Gaul. Marcellus of Ancyra
deposed.
Arius, having been restored to the communion of the
Church at Jerusalem, seeks the same reception at Constantinople. Notwithstanding the efforts of the Bishop
of Alexandria, a day is fixed for his re-admission into the
Church; but before the arrival of the appointed time
\/Arius dies suddenly.
336
Marcellus, Bishop of Ancyra, who held peculiar doctrines respecting the nature of Christ, deposed by the
Eusebians, in a council at Constantinople.

337

Constantine baptized, shortly before his death, by the
I Arian bishop Eusebius, of Nicomedia.

Period.)

337

TO THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST.

67

f Constantine. Buried in the Church of the Apostles
at Constantinople; — first instance of the kind.
CONSTANTINE II. AND CONSTANS, E M P . WEST.

CONSTANTIUS, EMP.

EAST.

Constantine II. and Constans favour the Nicene exposition of doctrine. Constantius supports the Arians.
Avians. Constans restores Athanasius ; who is enthusiastically received by his church at Alexandria.
The enemies of Athanasius engage Constantius in
their interest against him, and seek to enlist on their
side also Julius, Bishop of Rome. Julius demands that
both parties appear before a council of Western bishops.
Athanasius willing to comply; not so his opponents.
War with Persia, with various success, until 363.
Eusebius of Nicomedia, Patriarch of Constantinople.
"j* Constantine II.
f Paul the Hermit, f Eusebius of Csesarea.
Monachism.
The monastic spirit did not spread so soon or so rapidly in the West as in the East. But it made its way
even there. Athanasius, during his exile in Gaul, brought
it into repute, and published his " Life of Antony." It
was introduced about this time, by Hilarion, into Syria
and Palestine. Nuns in Egypt.
Constantius zealous for the suppression of Paganism.
An edict against the celebration of heathen sacrifices
(renewed in 346, 350, 353, 356), with orders for closing
of the temples. Some temples destroyed, others converted
into Christian churches.
Council of Antioch; against Athanasius and Marcellus
of Ancyra.
F 2

68

FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL

I

342
—

(SeCO?ld

Gregory, Arian Bishop of Alexandria. Athanasius
flees to Rome.
Macedonius (Eusebian) Patriarch of Constantinople.
Council at Rome, in favour of Athanasius.
Arians. (341.) The Council of Antioch deposes Athanasius, and appoints Gregory of Cappadocia Bishop of
Alexandria. Athanasius flees to Rome. (341 and 342.)
The bishops of Antioch (for the most part Semiarian), in
order to prove their orthodoxy, publish four confessions
of faith, approaching very nearly to the Nicene doctrine,
but avoiding the term opoovtnog. (343.) The Council
of Antioch condemns the tenets of Photinus, who had revived the doctrine of Paul of Samosata.
Donatists.
Cons tans, hoping to reconcile the Donatists to the
dominant church, showed them great favour, and made
them a grant of money. Donatus returned the money,
with a strong protestation against such an alliance of
Church and State. Constans then adopted violent measures; by which means the contest between Donatists
and Catholics became more fierce than ever.
Circumcelliones among the Donatists.
Persecution of Christians in Persia, under Sapor, begins.—(343.) Symeon, Bishop of Seleucia, put to death.
The Magi had represented the Christians as in league
with the Roman emperor, or favouring his cause.

343

The Power and Privileges of Metropolitans confirmed and
increased by the Council of Antioch.
Julius Firmicus Maternus, fl.
The number of days appointed to be kept holy in commemoration of saints is now considerable.

345

Arians. The Antinicene bishops at Antioch publish a
' fifth confession of faith, more copious than the others

Period.)

TO T H E D E A T H O F GREGORY T H E F I R S T .

69

(pciKpoo-Tthog e>tSe<n§)9 in which the Son of God is styled
perfect and very God, like to the F a t h e r in all things.
T h e Western Church, however, persists in adhering to the
creed of Nicsea. Hence a Division between the Eastern and
Western Churches.
Council at Milan condemns the doctrines of Photinus,
who taught that Christ was a mere man, b u t miraculously
born, and endued with divine powers. His followers
were called Homunciones.
Athanasius returns to Alexandria.
(al. 344.) A general council convened by Constantius
at Sardica in Illyria, for composing the difference between
the Eastern and Western Churches; but, in consequence
of the conflicting interests of the Oriental or Nicene and
the Western bishops, the council divided itself into two ;
one (Oriental) at Philippopolis, which confirmed the
fourth creed of Antioch; and the other (Western) at Sardica, which supported the decrees of Nicaea, denouncing
all further definitions or explanations.
T h e decrees of Sardica, supported by Constans and
Constantius, were generally received, even in the East.
Athanasius restored.
I t was enacted by the Council of Sardica that none
should be eligible as bishop without having previously
discharged the office of reader, deacon, or presbyter.
By this council a kind of general right of supervision
was given to the bishop of Rome.
I t was decreed that if a
foreign bishop should appeal from the decisions of his
church to the bishop of Rome, the latter should institute
a new examination of the case by the neighbouring bishops, and should send to the assembly a presbyter as his
own representative and plenipotentiary.
# British bishops
Sardica.

were present
^ ^

Constans killed.

at the Council of

Constantius sole emperor.

Cyril, Bishop of Jerusalem.
F

3

F R O M T H E F I R S T G E N E R A L COUNCIL

(Second

Festival of the Nativity celebrated at Rome on the
25th of December.
About this time, Theophilus probably laboured for the
propagation of the Gospel in India. Subsequently amongst
the Homerites, or Sabseans, in Arabia Felix.
Iberians on the Black Sea (in Georgia) converted to
Christianity, in consequence of the good example and influence of a female slave.
Gospel propagated in Abyssinia by iEdesius; in Ethiopia, by Frumentius.
During this century, the Gospel makes progress in
Armenia. Gregory (Illuminator) converts the king Tiridates. Hilarion and other monks endeavour to propagate
Christianity among the Nomadic Arabs.
Church and State.
During this century, 1. The emperors convened, and
presided in, general councils; 2. Confirmed their decrees ; 3. Enacted laws relative to ecclesiastical matters
by their own authority; 4. Pronounced decisions concerning heresies, and controversies ; 5. Appointed
bishops; 6. And inflicted punishment on ecclesiastical
persons.
Hence arose complaints that the bishops had conceded
too much to the emperors; while, on the other hand, some
persons maintained that the emperors had left too much
in the hands of the bishops. The bishops certainly did
possess too much power and influence, to the prejudice of
the other clergy, and especially to the disadvantage of
Christians at large.
Bishops become more and more independent of their
presbyteries. As a body, they possess legislative power in
councils; as individuals, their exercise of judicial authority
adds to their importance. Growing opinion of their apostolical authority and descent. Learning and eloquence of
many among them increase respect for the whole order.
The laity retain a negative vote in the election of bishops;
— great irregularities attend the exercise of this right

Period.)

TO T H E DEATH O F GREGORY T H E F I R S T .

71

Translations of bishops, forbidden by the Council of Nicsea,
sometimes take place.
Thus, the emperor and the bishops share the chief
government of the Church between them; but the limits
of their authority were not well defined. Great part of
the power formerly possessed by the general body of
Christians (the laity) had passed into the hands of the
civil governor.
During this century, care continues to be used in settling the canon of Scripture.
Scriptural doctrines concerning the Holy Trinity in
Unity, and the nature of Christ, are not only maintained,
but carefully expounded and settled; — a benefit which
resulted to the Church from the circumstance of its teachers
being called upon to expose and resist the Arian, Photinian, Macedonian, and Apollinarian errors.
But some unscriptural tenets on other subjects are
advanced or implied in the writings of almost all the eminent Fathers of this age.
351

Gall us, Caesar, in Syria*
Julian, brother of Gallus, studies at Constantinople and
Nicomedia. Already prejudiced against Christians, he
becomes decided in his hostility by reading the works of
Libanius. The Pagan party, roused by persecution, seek
to attach him more firmly to their interests.
First Council of Sirmium.
Arians. (351.) Constans being dead, the enemies of
Athanasius use their influence with Constantius against
the bishop. A council assembled at Sirmium, in Pannonia, deposes Photinus, Bishop of Sirmium, who maintained
that Christ was a mere man; and condemns the doctrine
of Marcellus of Ancyra, a friend of Athanasius.
The enemies of Athanasius, determined, if possible, to
effect his ruin, notwithstanding the support of the Western
F 4

P R O M T H E F I R S T G E N E R A L COUNCIL

(Second

Church, prevail upon Constantius, during his residence in
in the West, to command all Western bishops to subscribe
a condemnation of his person.
At the Councils of Aries in 353, and of Milan in 355,
the greater part of the Western bishops were induced to
join in condemning Athanasius; others, who persisted in
refusing to do so, were deposed or banished, — including
Liberius of Rome, Hilary of Poitiers, and Lucifer of
Cagliarh Thus a momentary silence was imposed upon
the Western Church, and George of Cappadocia was
made Bishop of Alexandria. Valens and Ursacius, Arian
bishops, exercise great influence over the emperor. Felix,
Bishop of Rome, Arian; Auxentius, Bishop of Milan,
Semiarian.
ARIANISM AT ITS HEIGHT.

Constantius causes G alius to be put to death.
Julian, Caesar, in Gaul, after having studied at Athens,
together with Gregory Nazianzen and Basil.
Monachism.
The passion for a monastic life had now become very
prevalent, and was attended with injurious consequences
to Church and State. Many had become monks out of
vanity or idleness, merely as following the example of
others. The institute operated injuriously to religion by
means of the obscurity which ascetic doctrine and practices threw over the way of salvation, and by the fanatical
spirit which was fostered among the monks. It was detrimental to the state by withdrawing from the business
of life many who ought to have taken an active part in
civil offices. Men left their wives, and servants their
masters, under colour of peculiar sanctity. Many refused
to acknowledge married priests as worthy of the clerical
office. — Eustathius, Bishop of Sebaste in Armenia, was a
great advocate of the monastic life.
During this century, monks become divided into two
great classes, — Anchorites and Cenobites.

Period.)
356

TO T H E DEATH O F GREGORY T H E F I R S T .
f

ANTONY

(THE

73

GREAT),

a celebrated promoter of Monachism.
Gregory Nazianzen teaches Rhetoric at Athens.
Athanasius retires to the deserts of Egypt. Hilary,
Bishop of Poitiers, an opponent of Arianism, banished to
Phrygia.
Second Council of Sirmium, against Photinus, and in
support of Arianism. Hosius induced to subscribe an
Arian confession of faith.
Council of Antioclu—Aetius, Eudoxius, Acacius, and
Eunomius, contend for the strict Arian or Anomcean
doctrine. Council of Ancyra.
Liberius restored to his bishopric (Rome) after having
subscribed an Arian confession of faith. He subsequently
adhered to the Nicene or orthodox doctrine, notwithstanding this abjuration.
Avians. Arians and Semiarians had hitherto been
united in their opposition to the adherents of the Nicene
Creed. After the victory which they had obtained, their
own differences of opinion led to dissensions among themselves. The strict Arians, headed by Aetius, a deacon of
Antioch, and Eunomius, Bishop of Cyzicus, declare that
the Son of God is unlike the Father as to his substance
(avopoiog xctr ova-lav); hence called Anomceans. The
Semiarians, on the contrary, assert a likeness of substance in the Son and the Father; hence called
Homceousians,— with Basil, Bishop of Ancyra, and
George of Laodicea, at their head.
In order to prevent an open rupture, the Council of
Sirmium, in 357, under the influence of Ursacius and
Valens, Anomcean bishops, declared all definitions and
assertions concerning the substance of the Son of God to
be unscriptural, and beyond the human understanding.
Second Creed of Sirmium. — But the Homceousians, discovering the design of the Anomceans, procure a sjmodal
letter in favour of their own doctrines from a council assembled, in 358, at Ancyra, under Basil.

FROM THE

F I R S T G E N E R A L COUNCIL

(Second

Third Council of Sirmium. — Council at Ariminum, of
Catholics and Arians. The former insist upon the Nicene
doctrine, but are soon afterwards induced to subscribe a
Semiarian confession at Nice. Council at Seleucia, composed of Semiarians and Anomceans. Divisions among the
Arians.
Constantius had resolved to convene a general council as the only means of peace. The strict Arians, or
Anomceans, fearing lest the Nicene and Homceousian
bishops should unite against themselves, Ursacius and his
Arian friends combine with some leaders of the Semiarians in a council at Sirmium, and prepare a creed,
the third Sirmian Creed, for presentation at the approaching general council. This creed approximated
most nearly to the doctrine of the Semiarians, who, however, consented to avoid all definitions respecting the ova-la,
and merely asserted that the Son of God was " like unto
the Father in all things" (opoiog Kara, TTUVTU), according to the Scriptures. The Arians, not satisfied with
this, resolved at all events to prevent the union of the two
adverse parties, induced the emperor to convene, instead
of one general council, two separate councils, an Oriental
council at Seleucia in Isauria, and a Western at Ariminum
(Rimini) in Italy. Their partisans divided themselves
between both councils, in order to overreach the Western
Nicene bishops and the Semiarians of the East. The
Council at Seleucia at first resolved to adhere to the fourth
creed of Antioch, and that at Ariminum to the Nicene.
The Council of Ariminum sent ambassadors to the emperor with its decisions, and a petition praying for dismissal
of the bishops to their respective dioceses. Ursacius and
Valens took measures to prevent their legates from receiving an audience; and having wearied them with delay,
at length prevailed upon them to subscribe a confession,
essentially the third Sirmian Creed, declaring that the Son
of God is like the Father (omitting in all things), according to the Scriptures. Valens by arguments and threats
prevailed upon the bishops still at Ariminum to adopt the
creed thus subscribed by their representatives.

Period,)

TO T H E DEATH O F GREGORY T H E F I R S T .

75

Thus, under the plea that the Western Church had
consented to abandon the Nicene Creed, the representatives
of the Seleucian Council were induced to adopt the same
confession ; and Constantius declared that all who should
henceforth raise the question concerning the substance
(ov<rla) of the Son of God, should be treated as enemies
of the peace of the Church.
But neither of the contending parties was satisfied with
what had taken place, those who had subscribed the
creed being regarded as traitors to the cause of truth;
and, with the death of Constantius in 361, the scheme of
Ursacius and Valens failed.
359 I (N.B. # Many British bishops present at the Council of
Ariminum.)
Phcobadius fl.
360

I

MACEDONIUS,

Semiarian Bishop of Constantinople, deposed by the
Arians. He denied the con substantiality of the Holy
Ghost with the Father. His followers were called Macedonians, or Pneumatomachi. Their opinions were condemned by the Council of Alexandria (362).
t Eusebius, Bishop of Emisa.
Constantius causes the supposed relics of St. Andrew,
St. Luke, and Timothy, to be conveyed to the Church of
the Apostles at Constantinople.
ggj

JULIAN, EMPEROR.

Julian openly renounces the Christian religion, and endeavours to re-establish Paganism. He commands universal toleration. This toleration becomes decisive in
favour of the Nicene exposition of doctrine.
Meletius, Bishop of Antioch, deposed. His adherents
(Meletians) separate from the Eustathians.

FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL

{Second

Second Meletian Schism.
J Macedonius.
Gregory Nazianzen ordained presbyter.
"f Hosius, Bishop of Corduba.
Athanasius and the Council of Alexandria attempt in
vain to put an end to the Meletian Schism. Divisions at
Antioch multiplied. The council excuses those bishops
who had lately, out of ignorance or fear, subscribed the
creed of Arian origin.
Julian writes against Christianity; grants permission
to the Jews to rebuild the Temple; forbids Christians to
teach the liberal arts and sciences; commands all Christian sects to tolerate each other; recals the exiled
bishops, and restores them to their office, with the exception of Athanasius, who is again compelled to quit
Alexandria. Christians lose all their immunities and
privileges. Apollinaris, a presbyter of Laodicea, and his
son, bishop of that city, write against Julian and Heathenism.
Donatists.
(361—363.) Julian secured toleration to the Donatists
in Africa; they recovered their churches, which had
been taken from them, and continued to exist as a distinct
but moderate party.
#• Soon afterwards divisions arose among the Donatists
themselves. Tichonius attempted to establish a middle
system, between those of the Catholics and the more
strict Donatists.
Avians,
Athanasius returns to Alexandria. Council of Alexandria asserts the Nicene doctrine, and the divinity of
the Holy Ghost. Communion with all who receive the
Nicene Creed, without reference to former opinions.
Valens, a zealous Arian, was restrained in his proceedings against the other parties only by the circumstances
of the times, and the steadfastness of the orthodox
bishops.
The Semiarians separate themselves more and more

Period.)

TO T H E DEATH OF GREGORY T H E F I R S T .

77

widely from the Arians, and unite more closely with the
adherents of the Nicene Creed against the common enemy.
The spread of the Nicene doctrine greatly promoted by
Basil, Bishop of Neocaesarea; his brother Gregory, of
Nyssa; and Gregory Nazianzen.
ggg

JOVIAN, EMPEROR.

Jovian favours the Catholic doctrine; restores the privileges and immunities of the Church ; recals the exiled
bishops ; no persecution, either of Pagans or Christian
sects. Toleration and conciliatory measures towards all.
Athanasius possesses great influence with Jovian (in a
letter to whom he praises the orthodoxy of the British
churches).
_
364

Jerome at Rome.
VALENTINIAN I.

E M P . WEST.

VALENS,

EAST.

EMP.

Valentinian favours the Catholics; Valens, the Arians.
The latter opposes alike Homoousians and Homceousians,
takes away their churches, and banishes their bishops,
including Meletius and Gregory of Nyssa.
Valentinian tolerant and moderate. He protects the
heathen temples. Freedom of religious worship and
opinion.
Western Church tranquil and flourishing.
3Q5

In the East, Valens still persecutes the Orthodox; probably at the instigation of Eudoxius (Arian) Bishop of
Constantinople. Basil the Great and Gregory Nazianzen
zealously oppose the measures of Valens with some success.
The Council of Gangra, in Paphlagonia, held probably
about this time, attempts to set bounds to the passion for
Monachism. It recognised Monachism as a Christian
institution; but it also recognised Matrimony as a holy
state, and assumed the possibility of leading a Christian
I life in possession of temporal goods. It condemned all who

FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL

(Second

should embrace the monastic profession out of aversion
from matrimony or the business of life, and all who
should refuse to attend divine offices celebrated by a
married priest.
Sanguinary contests between the parties of Ursicinus
and Damasus, after the death of Liberius, Bishop of
Rome. Damasus elected bishop.
Epiphanius, Bishop of Constantia or Salamis in Cyprus.
Valentinian sets limits to the law by which Cons tan tine
had empowered the Church to receive testamentary
bequests.
Athanasius obliged to protect himself by flight; b u t he
remained in retirement only a few months, in consequence
of the earnest demands of his people. H e spent the rest
of his days in peace (died 3 7 3 ) .
Heathen superstition is now generally renounced by the
educated classes of society.
I n an edict of this year, the adherents of the ancient
superstition are styled, for the first time, Pagani.
Valens publishes an edict, ordering that all persons
who had embraced the monastic life out of idleness, or in
order to avoid the discharge of civil duties, should be
forcibly withdrawn from their retirement.
t Hilary, Bishop of Poitiers.
H e contributed greatly
to the establishment of Nicene doctrines in Gaul and
Italy.
Aerius, presbyter under Eustathius, Bishop of Sebaste
in Armenia, becomes the leader of a small party. H e
opposed especially the pre-eminence of bishops, and the
practices of fasting and prayer for the dead. H e even
held that the distinction between bishops and presbyters,
such as prevailed in his time, is unlawful.

Period.)

37O

TO T H E DEATH OF GREGORY T H E F I R S T .

79

Basil made Bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia. About
the same time, Chrysostom appointed Reader at Constantinople.
First mention of " Cantores," singers or precentors, in
public worship.
Clerical Education.
The bishops and clergy privately trained many young
men (readers and others) for the clerical office. Others
received education at the theological schools; and others
in the schools of general literature, <?. g. Alexandria and
Athens. By many it was erroneously supposed, that any
special education or preparation for the work of the ministry was needless. Chrysostom, Gregory Nazianzen,
and Augustin, inveighed against the last mentioned {very
prevalent) opinion, and the consequent practice.
Lucifer, Bishop of Cagliari, head of a small and shortlived sect,—Luciferians.
Companies of itinerant monks in Mesopotamia, called
ivJouo-jacrra/ and S6^1TCH, Chald. ]^itQ* hence Messalians.
I They renounced all kinds of labour, and professed to
I occupy themselves continually in prayer.
Divine worship was now conducted with more pomp
and splendour than formerly, but its parts and substance
remained nearly the same as in the last century. It consisted in psalmody, prayer, reading of the Scriptures,
preaching, and the celebration of the Lord's supper.
Until the practice of infant baptism became general, it
was divided into two parts, — the one, didactic (reading
of the Scripture and preaching), in which the catechumens
were allowed to share (Missa Catechumenorum); the other,
containing the type and bond of spiritual communion,
namely, the celebration of the Lord's supper, with its
accompanying prayers (Missa Fidelium).
During this century, the religious use of pictures and
I images was discountenanced. Eusebius of Caesarea, at

80

FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL

(Second

the beginning of the century, and Epiphanius of Salamis,
towards the close of it, denounced the practice as heathenish and unscriptural.
The veneration of martyrs and saints, and the superstitious
use+of relics, had now greatly increased.
Lighted tapers in churches, 8fc.
Incense.
Ulphilas propagates (Arian) Christianity among the
Visigoths, and becomes their bishop. H e constructs an
alphabet for them, and translates the greater part of the
Scriptures into their language.
Gregory Nazianzen, Bishop of Sasima.
ther of Basil, Bishop of Nyssa.

Gregory, bro-

Edict against the Manichees.
Persecution of this sect,
continued for some time, excites their enthusiasm, b u t
fails to root out their doctrine.
Priscillianists.
Gnostico-Manichean doctrines had spread (probably
from Africa) into Spain ; where Priscillian constructed a
system compounded of the doctrines of Emanation, D u a l ism, and Astrology. T w o bishops, Instantius and Salvian,
among his followers. Severe measures against them on
part of the Catholics (especially Hyginus, Bishop of Corduba, and Idacius of Emerita) tend to increase their zeal.
T h e Orthodox greatly oppressed in E g y p t by Arian
influence.
Lucius, an Arian, and opponent of A thanasius, forcibly
made bishop of Alexandria. Orthodox clergy, who supported an election, banished.
I Athanasius.
Ambrose, Bishop of Milan,—after the death of Auxentius,
who was the only considerable opponent of the Nicene
doctrine belonging to the Western Church. Ambrose was
a powerful defender of the doctrine of the divinity of
Christ and the Holy Spirit.
Philastrius, Bishop of
Brescia, who died in 390, wrote also on the same side.

Period.)
375

I

TO T H E DEATH O F GREGORY T H E F I R S T .

81

VALENTINIAN AND GRATIAN, E M P . WEST.

Gratian zealously supports the orthodox faith; but
tolerates the Arians.—Eunomians, Photinians, Manichees,
and Donatists, forbidden to hold religious assemblies.
Under Valens, the Arians persecute the Orthodox.
Gratian was the first Christian emperor who renounced
the title of Pontifex Maximus.
Jerome embraces the monastic life, and begins his exposition of Scripture.

—
576

378

_
-—-

Epiphanius writes.
Didymus of Alexandria writes against the Macedonians.
Martin, Bishop of Tours.
j " Ulphilas, Bishop of the Goths.
Gregory of Nyssa banished.
Gregory Nazianzen labours in defence of the Nicene
doctrine at Constantinople.
Theodorus, Bishop of Tarsus, a learned expositor of
Scripture.
Ruffin, Presbyter of Aquileia5 betakes himself to an ascetic life on the Mount of Olives.
Jerome ordained presbyter, at Antioch, about this time.
t Eph raim the Syrian, deacon at Edessa.
j " Basil (the Great) of Ccesarea.
After the death of Valens (378) Gratian favours the
Orthodox, and recals the exiled bishops. (Gregory of
Nyssa restored.)
Union of Natures in Christ
Apollinaris the Younger, at the head of a party maintaining that, in Christ, the divine Logos, or mind, was in
the place of a rational human soul. The Arians also held
that the divine Logos had united itself to a human body
only.
N.B. From this time two different systems prevailed
in the Orthodox Church, concerning the union of the divine
and human natures in Christ. — 1. The Alexandrian
Church, anxious to give prominence to the real and intiG

FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL

(Second

mate union of the two natures, was accustomed to predicate the same things equally of both (e. g. the Logos was
crucified; Mother of God). — 2. The Church of Antioch,
on the other hand, carefully distinguished the natures, and
avoided predicating the same things of both. Hence the
latter charged the former with erroneously confounding
the two natures; while the Church of Alexandria upbraided that of Antioch with incurring the risk of separating the deity and humanity of Christ into two persons,
and of denying the true deity united with the manhood.
A third system, between these two, was eventually established, and generally received as orthodox.
Origenist Controversy.
The great writers of the fourth century were largely
indebted to the study of Origen. Others, especially the
monks, were divided into two classes; on the one side,
those who favoured Anthropomorphite representations of
God and divine things; and, on the other side, the friends
of spiritual mysticism and advocates of Origen. Among
the former, a leading man was Epiphanius; among the
latter, Jerome, and his friends Ruffin and John, Bishop of
Jerusalem. Admiration of Origen now begins to be
unsafe.
Monachism.
The bishops, especially Basil, endeavour to correct the
abuses of Monachism by reducing it to a system, and
establishing regular societies of monks and monasteries
(ccenobia) in which monks should be occupied in moderate
daily labour, and submit to the presidency of a superior
(abbot, archimandrite), implicit obedience to whom
should constitute their chief virtue. It was hoped that
societies thus formed might become useful for the increase
of learning and piety, especially by educating the youth
and the clergy, and might also produce good by relieving men's temporal wants in poor and needy districts.
Female societies of this kind had been already formed,
and convents established. Irrevocable vows of chastity are

Period,)

TO T H E DEATH OF GREGORY T H E F I R S T .

now exacted.
introduced.

83

T h e practice of taking the veil has been

Funeral ceremonies multiplied.
Christian churches now generally acquire the right
of asylum, which had formerly belonged to heathen
temples.
Christian morality suffers great detriment from the influence of monks and mystics, and from its contact with their
mistaken principles of piety and duty.
Extravagant opinions concerning the supposed merit of celibacy.
THEODOSIUS,

EMP.

EAST.

Theodosius baptized. Restores to the Catholics the
churches of Constantinople, which the Arians had possessed nearly forty years. Proclaims the doctrines held by
Damasus, Bishop of Rome, and Peter, Bishop of Alexandria, as the standard of O r t h o d o x y ; and makes the
Heterodox liable to civil punishments. Demophilus vacates
the high church at Constantinople; of which Gregory
Nazianzen takes possession.
Priscillianists.— Council of Saragossa excommunicates
Priscillian and his followers. Gratian condemns them to
exile. Priscillian, however, procures continued toleration.
First Council of Constantinople (Second General) convened by Theodosius.
Eunomians, Pneumatomachi,
Sabellians, Marcellians, Photinians, Apollinarists, condemned.
Gregory Nazianzen, Bishop of Constantinople, r e signs ; and is succeeded by Nectarius.
Gregory had failed in an attempt to put an end to the
Meletian Schism at Antioch.
The Bishop of Constantinople declared to be second in rank
only to the Bishop of Rome.
He gradually becomes the
Second Patriarch.
Creed of Constantinople,
containing some additions to that of Nicsea, especially
concerning the divinity of the Holy Spirit, against the
Macedonians. Victory was now decided in favour of the
G 2

FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL

(Second

Nicene doctrines, which had been questioned or denied
only in some portions of the Church, particularly in the
East.
DECLINE AND FALL OF ARIANISM.

From this time the Arians existed as a distinct, but oppressed, party in the Roman Empire. Their tenets, however, were propagated and maintained among various
tribes of Barbarians, —Vandals, Goths, and Lombards,—
until the middle of the seventh century.
Theodosius intolerant in his zeal for Orthodoxy.
Theodosius forbids the burying of corpses in towns.
Choral singing introduced by Ambrose.
Chrysostom ordained deacon at Antioch; and soon
after writes his Treatise on the Priesthood.
Gregory of Nyssa at the Council of Constantinople.
Jerome, at Rome, assists the Bishop Damasus in biblical
studies ; improves the old Latin translation of the Scriptures ;
favours monastic institutions.
Epiphanius, Jerome, Ambrose, and Siricius, strenuously assert the perpetual virginity of the mother of our
Lord, against the Antidicomarianites of Arabia, Helvidius of Rome, and Bonosus, Bishop of Sardica.
MAXIM us, Usurper, after the death of Gratian.
Arians favoured in the West by the Empress Justina,
mother of Valentinian II. Ambrose successfully exerts
himself in opposition to her influence.
Difficulties affecting the interests of Church and State,
with reference to the civil exemptions of the clergy,
adjusted by way of compromise. Clergy confirmed in
their exemptions and immunities; all persons eligible to
the clerical office; but those liable to civil burdens, on
account of rank or property, required to make provision
for the discharge of their duties by others, before they
can themselves enter the clerical body.

Period.)

384 |

TO T H E DEATH O F GREGORY T H E F I R S T .

85

Priscillianists.
Council of Bordeaux against the Priscillianists. Priscillian, and two of his adherents, beheaded at
Treves (385). Theognistus, Martin of Tours, and Siricius
of Rome, protest against these proceedings. T h e sect of
the Priscillianists, esteeming evasion lawful for the propagation of their opinions, survives this persecution and others.
First instance of the infliction of capital punishment upon
reputed heretics,
Didymus teaches at Alexandria,
t Hilary, the Deacon. Damasus, Bishop of R o m e .
t Optatus of Milevi.
Exegetical theology begins to be cultivated; but with
great disadvantage, arising from want of legitimate criticism, and fondness for allegorical interpretation.

385

Theophilus, Bishop of Alexandria; he zealously opposes the new claims of the Patriarch of Constantinople.
GRADUAL EXTENSION OF THE P O W E R
ROMAN

OF T H E

SEE.

Siricius nominates the bishop of Thessalonica as his
" Vicar Apostolical."
N.B.
T h e Church of Eastern Illyria had attached
itself to the See of Rome, in consequence of the temporary prevalence of Arianism in the East.
I n the course of divisions and controversies by which
the Oriental Churches were distracted during the fourth
and fifth centuries, the decisions of the Patriarch of Rome,
who was independent of the temporal power, and famed
for orthodoxy, naturally had great weight with at least
one of the contending parties. His decisions were humbly
sought, and authoritatively given.
ggg

f Cyril, Bishop of Jerusalem.
Jerome retires to a monastery at Bethlehem.
Chrysostom ordained presbyter at Antioch.
( H e celebrates the Festival of the Nativity on the 25th
of December, according to the custom already established
in the West.)
G

3

FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL

(Second

Augustin converted from Manicheism, and baptized,
at the age of thirty years.
f Philastrius, Bishop of Brescia.
Maximus defeated.
VALENTINIAN II. E M P . WEST.

At this time the majority of the inhabitants of Rome
are Christians. The Roman Senate recognises Christianity
as the religion of the empire.
Extensive conversion of the Gauls.
The Gospel introduced into various parts of Germany.
Theodosius gradually prohibits all heathen sacrifices
and religious rites throughout the empire.
During this reign the ancient superstitions generally
acquire the name of Paganism. Advocates of Heathenism
(e.g. Themistius, Symmachus) now merely plead for its
toleration as one system of religion among many, on the
ground that God is most extensively honoured by diversity of forms and creeds, naturally incident to so exalted
a subject in the present condition of the human mind.
Siricius, Bishop of Rome, discourages the marriage of
the clergy. In his epistle (decretal) to Himerius, Bishop
of Tarragona in Spain, he pronounces, as Vicar of Christ,
against such marriages; and says that it would be useful
and honourable to Himerius to make this decision generally known, although no priest ought to be ignorant of
the ordinances of the apostolic chair.
Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, pretends to discover certain
relics of saints.
About this time, Helvidius at Rome, and Bonosus,
Bishop of Sardica, but especially Jovinian, a Roman monk,
speak slightingly of the value of celibacy and fasting, and
protest against monastic abuses. Jovinian denied the
merit of monastic exercises, condemned the celibacy of the
clergy, and inveighed against ascetic institutes and principles in general, as being at variance with true Christian
doctrine and morality. He appears to have expressed
himself obscurely and paradoxically, or to have been be-

Period.)

TO T H E DEATH O F GREGORY T H E F I R S T .

87

| trayed by his zeal into excessive statements. He was
severely attacked by Jerome, and was excommunicated
by Siricius, Bishop of Rome, and Ambrose, Bishop of
Milan.
388

Theodosius compels the Christians to restore a certain
synagogue which they had destroyed. Ambrose compels
him to retract his order.

389

t Gregory Nazianzen.
(He was a zealous and powerful defender of the Nicene
Confession.)

390

After an insurrection at Thessalonica, Theodosius
causes seven thousand men, the innocent with the guilty,
to be put to death. For this crime, Ambrose imposes
penance upon the emperor, and excludes him from church
communion during eight months.

„

Nectarius puts an end to the office of Presbyter Penitentiarius at Constantinople.
The Church now possessed lands and other property to
a considerable amount. This operated as one cause of
declension in the morals of the clergy. It was protested
against by some ecclesiastical writers of this age.
j" Macarius the elder.
Many bishops and doctors of the Western Church advocate the cause of Monachism. At this period, Ambrose
of Milan and Jerome of Rome are particularly zealous
in its favour. In Gaul, Martin of Tours is its warm
advocate.
Augustin writes against the Donatists, who decline engaging in a formal disputation with him.
Gnostics and Manichees continue to exist (sometimes as
separate sects, and sometimes united) in the East, especially in Syria. Manicheism especially in North Africa.

391

Augustin ordained presbyter at Hippo Regius.
G 4

88

FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL

|

392

(Second

Augustin, as a presbyter, frequently called upon to
preach in the presence of his bishop; contrary to the
practice which had hitherto prevailed in Africa.
Valentinian II. killed. Eugenius, Usurper.
Eugenius favours Heathen Superstition.
Eugenius killed.

394

THEODOSIUS THE GREAT, SOLE EMPEROR.

Theodosius completed the overthrow of Heathenism.
Christianity almost universal in the empire,
Jerome composes his Catalogue of Ecclesiastical Writers.
Heliodorus and Nonnus, Christian poets, fl.
Cento Virgilianus of Proba Falconia.
Claudian, a Christian poet, fl.
"j* Amphilochius of Iconium.
t Gregory of' Nyssa. Diodorus of Tarsus.

395

ARCABIUS,

EMP.

EAST

[WITH

RUFINUS).

HONORIUS, E M P . WEST (WITH STILICO).

Arcadius and Honorius zealously support the Orthodox.
T Macarius the Younger.
Cassian visits the monks and hermits in the Thebaid
and other places.
Origenist Controversy.
Epiphanius goes to Jerusalem and demands a condemnation of the opinions of Origen. Jerome is alarmed.
Vehement controversy between John of Jerusalem and
Ruffin on the one part, and Jerome and Epiphanius on
the other; composed, in 397, by the mediation of Theophilus, Bishop of Alexandria. Ruffin, returned to Aquileia, translates into Latin the Books of Origen, wsp) otp^6ov9
with omissions.
Violent controversy between Jerome
and Ruffin. This controversy produced little effect.
Many Origenists and Anthropomorphites among the
monks in Egypt. Disputes between them.

.
—

I

About this time, Augustin becomes Bishop of Hippo.

Period.)

TO T H E DEATH OF GREGORY T H E F I R S T .

396

t Didymus of Alexandria.
T Libanius, an opponent of Christianity.
T Ambrose, Bishop of Milan.

397

89

The Ostrogoths gradually receive (Arian) Christianity
from the Visigoths.
#• Culdees on the coasts of Ireland and Scotland.

398 J

399

Third Council of Carthage. Canon of Scripture.
Chysostom, Patriarch of Constantinople.
Edict of Arcadius against the ecclesiastical right of
asylum'; without any permanent effect.
Origenist Controversy.
Theophilus, Bishop of Alexandria, openly combats
the opinions of the Anthropomorphite monks, whom he
pacifies with difficulty. Afterwards, partly from fear,
partly from personal hatred against certain individuals of
the Origenist party, he sides with the Anthropomorphites
against the Origenists; and unites with Epiphanius and
Jerome in endeavouring to procure a condemnation of
the opinions of Origen. Hence the Councils of Alexandria, 399 and 400, condemn the doctrines and writings of
Origen. Theophilus persecutes the Origenist monks.
Prudentius, a Christian poet; Nemesius, a Christian
philosopher, fl.

END OF I
FOURTH

CENTURY.

Councils during this century,
1' Were partly general, partly provincial; 2. Frequently
convened by the emperors; 3 . Held under the presidency of emperors or their representatives, or of the
bishop of the city or province in which they m e t ;
4. Sometimes received and decided complaints against
bishops; 5. Their decrees were ratified by emperors.
Rites, Institutions, Sfc.
Agapce, or Feasts of Charity, had now fallen into disuse.
Superstitious veneration of martyrs and their relics,
credulous reliance upon their reputed powers of interces-

90

FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL

(Second

END OPI sion, reports of miracles and visions at their tombs, and
otner
FOURTH
follies of this kind, form a prominent feature in the
CEN- religion of the age.
TURY.

.

°

Tithes (voluntary and partial) were paid before the
close ofthis century. When demanded as due, there appears to have been great difficulty in collecting them, at
least in many places, for some time henceforth.
New Festivals during this century. Christmas-day,
Ascension-day, Whitsunday (in the modern sense).
Baptismal Rites, Ceremonies, Sec. — 1. Wax tapers in
the hands of the candidates; 2. Use of salt, milk, wine,
and honey ; 3. Baptisteries; 4. Easter and Whitsuntide,
times of baptism; 5. Twofold anointing, before and after
baptism; 6. Dominica in Albis.
The Lord's Supper, 1. was now commonly called Missa
by the Latins; 2. Tables had come into use, and were
now called attains; 3. Liturgies used at the celebration of
the rite; 4. Elements still administered in both kinds as
before; 5. No private masses.
400

Irruption of the Visigoths into Italy, under Alaric.
j" Martin, Bishop of Tours.
During the debate and contests which agitate the
church, certain metropolitans acquire preponderating influence and power. Hence the
RAPID PROGRESS OF CHURCH OLIGARCHY, AND FORMATION OF THE PATRIARCHATE.

Among the clergy, Archdeacons are now next in influence to bishops.
Presbyters are appointed by the bishops ; the bishops
elected (except when imperial influence interfered) by
the other bishops of the provinces, but with the concurrence of the churches; which, in the West, often elected
without the concurrence of the other bishops.
End of the Meletian Schism ; Flavian, at first the Meletian bishop, being recognised as bishop by all parties.

Period?)

,

TO T H E DEATH OF GREGORY T H E F I R S T .

91

In Africa, Faustus revives Manichean doctrines for a
little while. Augustin writes against him.
Christians again tolerated in Persia, through the influence of Maruthas, a Mesopotamian bishop, who had
acquired the confidence of the king.
Priscillianists unite with other Spanish bishops.

401

Origenist Controversy.—The Origenist monks, persecuted by Theophilus in Egypt, take refuge in Palestine
and other countries. Theophilus pursues them even to
Constantinople, where Chrysostom is disposed to afford
them protection, and endeavours, by his mediation, to
effect a reconciliation.
The controversy now assumes the form of a sharp
personal dispute between Chrysostom and Theophilus;
the latter, as bishop of Antioch, having long been jealous
of the power of the bishop of Constantinople. Theophilus summoned to Constantinople to answer for his
conduct.
Epiphanius, at Constantinople, contends vehemently
against Chrysostom and the Origenists.
Theophilus, having gained the Empress Eudoxia
over to his side, presides in a council at Chalcedon (ad
Quercum), before which charges are preferred against
Chrysostom. Chrysostom deposed, excommunicated, and
banished to Bithynia; but hastily recalled the same year,
when he entered Constantinople in triumph. Theophilus
obliged to retire.
"j* Epiphanius.
Machinations of Theophilus against Chrysostom. Eudoxia again offended, and Chrysostom banished to
Caucasus, on the borders of Armenia and Cilicia. In his
place of exile he labours assiduously for the benefit of his
church.

402
403

404

f Paula, at Bethlehem.
I

Abolition of Gladiatorial Shows.

FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL

(Second

Pelagius, at Rome, writes Expositions of the Pauline
Epistles, and instructs Ccelestius in-his opinions.
Vigilantius complains of the respect lately begun to be
paid to martyrs and their relics; of the nocturnal celebration of divine worship ; of the celibacy of the clergy;
and of Monachism.
Jerome writes against Vigilantius, and declares that he
ought to be put to death as a heretic.
Sulpicius Severus writes a Jewish and Christian Church
History.
Severe laws against the Donatists; punishing their
laity with confiscation of property, and their bishops
with exile. Augustin is at first opposed to such measures,
but afterwards he defends the use of violence in order to
bring men over, for their own good, to the Church, in
which salvation may be obtained. Early apology for
ecclesiastical usurpation and tyranny.
Importance of the patriarch of Rome increased by the
removal of the seat of civil government from Rome to
Ravenna, under Honorius.
Irruption of the Vandals, Sueves, and Alans, into
Gaul.
Chrysostom ordered to a more severe place of exile on
the Black Sea. He died in course of his removal, near
Comana in Pontus.
N.B. The persecution of Chrysostom gave rise to a
difference between the Greek and Roman Churches,
which continued until due respect was paid to his memory
under Theodosius II. in 438.
Christianity having been made the Religion of the
State, and many persons having been induced to profess
the Gospel, who were secretly attached to their ancient
superstition, occasion was hence given to the intro-

Period^)

To

THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST.

93

| duction of many human inventions and superstitious
practices into the Church, for the purpose of meeting
the depraved taste of these nominal converts to the Faith.
These practices exerted an influence upon the doctrines
of the Church.
407

Palladiusfl.
In Africa, Augustin patronises Monachism, endeavouring
to make the institution as useful as possible.
Ccelicolae.
The divine right of Tithes was zealously asserted by
some Fathers about this time.
Origenist Controversies
were lost in the struggle against Chrysostom; they were
not revived until the middle of the sixth century.
Advance towards the doctrine of Purgatory.
Augustin thinks it probable that the purgation of souls
by fire, which Origen had taught, may take place in the
interval between death and the day of judgment, instead
of being deferred until the latter period.

408

409

THE0D0SIUS II {about eight years old) EMP. EAST.
Honorius continues to reign in the West. He causes
Stilico to be put to death.
(The education of Theodosius was conducted under the
influence of eunuchs and monks; hence, probably, he acquired an ascetic kind of piety, and that blind veneration
of the clergy by which he was afterwards distinguished.
His sister, Pulcheria, also had great influence in the administration of affairs throughout the reign.)
Alaric plunders Rome.
The Vandals, Sueves, and Alans, pass the Pyrenees, and
establish themselves in Spain.
Paulinus, Bishop of Nola, a Christian poet.

F R O M T H E F I R S T G E N E R A L COUNCIL

(Second

Synesius, Bishop of Ptolemais. He denied the doctrine
of the Resurrection.
f Puffin, f Nonnus, a Christian poet.
,*• The Roman Legions withdrawn from Britain.
Pelagians.
Pelagius propagates his opinions at Rome.
Hitherto it had been the constant doctrine of the Church,
that man, as he is now born into the world, is not in his
originally perfect and upright moral condition; that, accordingly, no mere development or cultivation of his own
faculties is sufficient to enable him rightly to fulfil the end
of his existence, or to attain to the state and happiness for
which he was designed; but that, on the other hand, human
nature, in its present corrupt state, having lost its original
affinity or likeness to God, and being disturbed by an ungodly principle of selfishness, man stands in need of an
inward change by the almighty power of God, in order to
be able to live according to his original nature, and to do
good, with real holiness of heart. During the first four
centuries this was, in general, the doctrine of all divines ; but
there were certain special points on which they were not entirely agreed; and they differed particularly in attempting
to define the relation of the remaining moralfaculties of man
to the divine-power* This difference subsisted chiefly between
the Eastern and Western Churches, and also between
certain portions of the latter. The chief writers of the
West, especially Tertullian and Cyprian in the third century, Hilary of Poitiers, and, more particularly, Ambrose,
in the fourth, gave prominence to the doctrine of man's
corruption, and the necessity of a change or conversion of
his nature by divine grace; but the Alexandrian teachers,
on the other hand, especially Clement, and other Orientals,
e.g. Chrysostom, placed in the foreground the doctrine of
the power of man's remaining free will, as working before
and together with divine grace. In the fifth century, these
two systems were brought out in their full difference, and

Period.)

TO THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST.

95

openly arrayed against each other; the latter especially
being pushed to such an extreme as actually to oppose the
earlier doctrine of the Church. This took place in the
course of the controversy between Augustin and Pelagius.
411

Conference at Carthage between Catholics and Donatists,
under the presidency of Marcellinus, imperial commissioner. Bishops present, 286 Catholic, 279 Donatist.
The chief points of debate were, whether Felix of Aptunga, who had ordained Caecilian, was a traditor or n o ;
and whether a church loses its character as such by holding
communion with unworthy members ? Each party ad<hered to its former positions: the president decided
against the Donatists.
Severe laws framed against the Donatists tended henceforth to diminish their numbers. But some remains of the
party existed until the end of the next century.
John Cassian, author of " Monastic Conferences and
Institutions" (Collationes, Institutiones), founds two monasteries at Marseilles.
Pelagians.
(411.) Pelagius and his friend Ccelestius go to Carthage.
Pelagius, afterwards, to Palestine. In 412, Ccelestius was
summoned before a council at Carthage, to answer a
charge of heterodoxy brought against him by Paulinus.
The council discussed two propositions of Ccelestius : 1.
That the sin of Adam had affected only himself, not the
wjiole human race. 2. That children are born into the
w6rld in the same condition as that in which Adam was
before the fall; also the question, whether human nature
is corrupt since the fall or not ? Ccelestius refused to
retract his opinions, and was excommunicated.
(Babylonian Talmud compiled.)

412 '

Irruption of the Visigoths into Gaul.

96

FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL

(Second

Rufus, Bishop of Thessalonica, vicar (apostolical) of the
patriarch of Rome.
f Theophilus of Alexandria.
Augustin begins his treatise De Civitate Dei.
Jerome writes against the Pelagians.
Irruption of the Burgundians into Gaul.
Persecution of Christians in Persia, in consequence of
the imprudent zeal of Abdas, Bishop of Suza, who demolished a heathen temple, and refused to rebuild it.
Visigoths in Spain take Barcelona.
Theodosius issues an edict against Gamaliel, Patriarch
of the Jews, who was active and powerful in his opposition
to the Christians.
Cyril expels the Jews from Alexandria.
Relics of St. Stephen and other saints, said to be discovered and translated.
The Vandals, Sueves, Visigoths, and Burgundians, after
their irruptions into Gaul and Italy, become (Arian) Christians. Perhaps the Burgundians had been converted before they left the banks of the Rhine.
Pelagians.
(415.) Pelagius accused by Paul Orosius, a Spanish presbyter, before a council at Jerusalem, and by two Gallic
bishops, Heros and Lazarus, before another council at
Diospolis; but acquitted. His doctrine was more in accordance with that of the Oriental Churches than with the tenets
of the West; and his explanations were deemed satisfactory.
Augustin maintains the doctrines of the total corruption
of human nature, original sin, irresistible grace, and the
absolute decrees of election, against Pelagius. His system
finds general acceptance in the West. Innocent I. favoured
it. Zosimus at first (417) inclined to Pelagius, but was
afterwards (418) induced to join in condemning him.
Innocent L9 Bishop of Rome, requires all Western Churches
to conform to the customs of the Church of Rome.

Period.)

TO T H E DEATH OF GREGORY T H E F I R S T .

97

Council at Carthage, against Pelagius : appeals for aid
to Innocent of Rome. Innocent opposed to Pelagius.
Pelagius and Ccelestius repair to Rome. Zosimus, the
new patriarch, satisfied with their explanations and statements.
f John, Bishop of Jerusalem.
Council at Carthage condemns Pelagianism.
The
Emperor Honorius publishes a Sacrum Rescriptum against
Pelagius. Zosimus assents to the decree of the council.
Eighteen Pelagian bishops in Italy deposed.
Paul Orosius publishes a Roman History as an apology
for the Christian religion against the objections of the
Heathen.
T h e African bishops refuse to acknowledge the appellate
jurisdiction of the patriarch of Rome.
A t Rome there are now twenty-six churches, and more
than seventy presbyters.
I n the West, Augustin and his system triumph in opposition to Pelagian tenets. Julian, a Pelagian bishop,
writes against Augustin*
f

Jerome.

AGE

OF

C O N T R O V E R S Y , POMPOUS

CEREMONIAL,

RISING SECULAR P O W E R , AND GROWING
OF THE

CORRUPTION,

CHURCH.

Persecution rages in Persia under Baranes V.
Augustin actively engaged in controversy against the
Pelagians and Donatists. H e speaks of the purification
of the soul byjire after death as not improbable.
Ccelestinus, Patriarch of Rome, zealously opposed the
Pelagians.
Marius Mercator writes against them.
H

98

424

FilOM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL
VALENTINIAN

(Second

III. E M P . WEST.

Theodosius is still Emperor of the East.

425

About this time all mention of Jewish patriarchs is
lost in history.
Simeon Stylites attracts attention in Syria.
Edict of Valentinian against the Pelagians.
In the East only afew Heathen temples remain; the Heathen
excluded from offices and posts of honour.
Valentinian
III.
makes it a capital offence to go over from Christianity to
Heathenism^ or to assist at Heathen sacrifices.
The revenues of the Church have now become very l a r g e ;
having been continually augmented by testamentary bequests and voluntary contributions. T h e celibacy of the
clergy also tended to the same result.
Rise of the Semipelagians.
A party of theologians in southern Gaul, with J o h n
Cassian of Marseilles (a pupil of Chrysostom) at their
head, assert the necessity of the cooperation of divine
grace and the human will, maintain that God works
differently in different men, and reject the doctrine of
predestination as a vain speculation of mischievous tendency. T h e y were called at first Massilians; afterwards,
by scholastic writers, Semipelagians.
A t this date the History of Philostorgius ends.
Augustin writes his Retractationes. — His great work,
D e Civitate Dei, published.
Christians again tolerated in Persia.
Some monks of Adrumetum deduce from Augustin's
doctrine of absolute predestination the inutility of moral
endeavours, and the injustice of punishment for sin.
Augustin answers them in his books, D e Gratia et Libero
Arbitrio, D e Correptione et Gratia.
Nestorius, a monk and presbyter of Antioch, made
patriarch of Constantinople.

Period.)

TO T H E DEATH OF GREGORY T H E F I R S T .

I

99

NESTORIAN CONTROVERSY.

T h e term §EQTOXO$ begins now to be generally applied
to the Virgin M a r y ; Nestorius objects to its use. Cyril
of Alexandria takes part against Nestorius. Rise of a
controversy concerning the relation and union of the
divine and human natures in Christ. Nestorius suspected
of Photinianism and Samosatenism.
Augustin defends his system against the Semipelagians
in two treatises concerning Predestination and Final
Perseverance.
428

t Theodore, Bishop of Mopsuestia.

429

^

e

Vandals pass over into Africa.

Theodosius the Younger issues an edict imposing civil
disabilities on the Jews, and prohibiting the erection of
any new synagogues.
—
—

Hilary, Bishop of Aries.
A t this date the History of Theodoret ends.
Prosper of Aquitain publishes a poem against the
Semipelagians.

430

t

AUGUSTIN.

f Synesius, Bishop of Ptolemais.
T h e Franks pass the Rhine, and occupy part of
Belgic Gaul. Foundation of the kingdom of France.
_

Council of Rome, against Nestorius, in which he is declared a heretic, and deserving deposition.
Coelestinus
refers the matter to the decision of Cyril of Alexandria,
as vicar of the Roman see. Cyril summons Nestorius to
Alexandria, where he convenes a council, which proposes
twelve propositions to be anathematized by Nestorius.
Nestorius in return requires Cyril to anathematize twelve
counter-propositions, and charges him with Apollinarianism.

431

COUNCIL OF E P H E S U S ( T H I R D G E N E R A L ) ,
1

convened by Theodosius at the request of Nestorius.
H 2

100

FROM THE FTRST GENERAL COUNCIL

(Second

I Unfair proceedings of Cyril and his party. Nestorius
condemned. ®SOTOXO$ established as the title of the Virgin
Mary. Errors of Ccelestius, the friend of Pelagius, denounced. Syrian and other Oriental bishops, upon their
arrival, annul the former decrees of the council, condemn
the propositions of Cyril as heretical, and excommunicate
Cyril himself. The emperor proposes to institute a new
examination; but Nestorius, dreading the influence of
Cyril at court, retires to his monastery.
Patriarchs forbidden to exercise jurisdiction over
churches not originally subject to their respective sees.
4g2

432

"f Paulinus, Bishop of Nola.
(431,432.) Two edicts of Theodosius, by which the
right of asylum was formally granted and secured to
Christian churches and their precincts.
In Crete many Jews embrace Christianity, having saved
themselves from the delusions of a Jewish impostor.
# Patrick (or Succath, a native of Scotland) begins
to preach Christianity in Ireland.
Although Pelagianism was condemned by the Council
of Ephesus, yet the opposite (Augustinian or Occidental)
system was never established in the East.
The Nestorians separated themselves from the Catholic
Church after the Council of Ephesus. They suffer persecution. Many of them settle in Persia. N.B. Nestorians
maintain, that in the person of Christ there is no hypostatical union of the divine and human natures, but only
an union of will and affection.

433

Attempts at reconciling the Alexandrian and Antiochenian
parties. Cyril subscribes a confession of faith drawn up
by Theodoret, substantially Nestorian, but avoiding the
condemnation of Cyril's propositions,, Sentence of deposition against Nestorius confirmed. Compromise unsatisfactory to both parties. At length Theodoret yields to
J the wishes of the emperor; and Alexander, Bishop of

Period.)

TO THE DEATH O F GREGORY T H E F I R S T .

101

I Hierapolis, and Meletius, Bishop of Mopsuestia, adhering
to the Nestorian cause, are deposed and banished. Nestorius was banished to the great Egyptian Oasis, and afterwards to the Thebaid, where he died. His writings were
burnt by order of the emperor.

434

Continued attempts to spread Christianity among the
Nomadic Arabs. Influence of the Jews prejudicial.
Persecution of the Catholics in Africa by the (Arian)
Vandals.
Theodosius takes an active part in the Nestorian controversy.
Edicts of Theodosius I I . and Valentinian (434), of
Valentinian and Marcian (454, 455), of Leo and Anthemius (470), of Zeno soon after, and of Anastasius, favour
the increase of Church property> and forbid its alienation.
Prosper writes against the Semipelagian doctrines of
Cassian.
Vincent of Lerins writes his Commonitorium. (Semipelagian tenets find general acceptance among the monks
of southern Gaul, including Vincent.)
The Athanasian Creed was probably composed about
this time for the use of the Gallican Church.

435

t Cassian.

438
439

(Theodosian Code.)
At this date the Histories of Socrates and Sozomen
end.
Salvian. Treatise on Providence.
Christian morality declines. — Two distinct codes of
morals gradually formed, one for perfect Christians, and
another for the more common class of believers; — the
former consisting of mysticism and ascetic or overstrained
virtue, — the latter in the performance of outward ceremonies and ritual observances. The distinction itself unH

3

102

FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL

(Second

sound and mischievous; the morality, to a great extent,
perverted or fictitious.
History now records fewer examples of high Christian
character than before. Complaints of the Fathers, and
decrees of councils, lead us to fear that impiety and disorderly conduct prevail within the borders of the Church
to a melancholy extent.
S U P E R S T I T I O N MAKES RAPID P R O G R E S S .

The numerous controversies of this age tend to foster and
propagate an undue respect for human authority and opinion
in matters of faith.
Salvian speaks of pious bequests to the clergy as a kind
of purchase of salvation (redemptio animse).
The Aristotelian logic begins to rise into repute after the
time of Augustin. Attachment to Plato and his system
diminishes in proportion to the increasing unpopularity
of Origen.
L E O I . OR T H E G R E A T , P A T R I A R C H O F R O M E ,

remarkable for his extension of the power of the Romish
see, — his opposition to the claims of the patriarch of Constantinople, — and his successful defence of the orthodox faith.
Council of Orange, under Hilary as Metropolitan.
T h e acts of this council indicate remarkable discrepancies between the ecclesiastical observances of Rome
and Gaul.
During the early part of this century, disputes among the
Gallican bishops, followed by reference to Rome, contribute to
advance the influence of the Roman see.
Right of asylum conferred upon churches in France by
the Council of Orange.
H u n s , under Attila, threaten Constantinople; T h e o d o sius buys them off, by consenting to double the annual
tribute already paid.
Predestination.
Some adherents of Augustin's system {e.g. Leo) are
now disposed to teach the doctrines of free grace gener-

Period.)

TO THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST.

]03

. ally, without giving prominence to the tenets relating
to predestination. Others state the latter doctrine broadly, and without due moderation or caution.
Sedulius, Claudius, Marius Victor, and Dracontius,
Christian poets, fl.
# Pelagianism had now made great progress in Britain.
About this time, two Gallic bishops, Germanus and Lupus,
were called over to assist in refuting and suppressing this
scheme of doctrine.
#• Some suppose that the Galilean Liturgy, of Oriental
origin, was introduced into the British Churches by the
bishops who came over to assist in refuting Pelagian doctrines.

444

445

446

Dioscurus, a violent man, patriarch of Alexandria. By a
council (probably at Besancon) under Hilary, Celidonius
is deposed. Celidonius goes to Rome, where Leo receives
him to communion, and orders his restoration.
Leo I. appoints Anastasius, Bishop of Thessalonica,
as his vicar in Illyricum.
f Cyril of Alexandria.
Valentinian I I I . enacts that all bishops of the Western
Empire should obey the Bishop of Rome, and should be
bound to appear before him at his summons, as Rector
totius Ecclesias, possessing supreme authority by virtue
of "Petri meritum, jura urbis, et synodum (Sardic.)."
Severe edict against the Manichees.
Leo issues a sentence of excommunication and deposition against Hilary, Bishop of Aries — thus usurping
jurisdiction over Gallic Churches.
Leo claims jurisdiction over the bishops of Africa.
He assumes a tone of superiority also in a letter to
Dioscurus, Bishop of Alexandria.
The supreme authority of the bishops of Rome was
not yet generally acknowledged in the West; much less
in the East.
ia 4

104

FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL

(Second

* Conference at Verulam between Orthodox and Pelagians,
Union of two natures in Christ.
In Egypt attempts were still made to establish the
Alexandrian doctrines concerning the person of Christ,
in opposition to those of Antioch; while in Syria a
struggle was maintained against the so-called Monophysites of Egypt.
Eutyches, an abbot of Constantinople, maintains that
there was only one nature in Christ after his incarnation. Hence his followers were called Monophysites or
Eutychians ; and thus begins the Eutychian Controversy.
Leo forbids the Sicilian bishops to baptize on the Festival of the Epiphany, and enjoins the administration of
the rite at Easter and Whitsuntide only.
The Seven Sleepers said to awake after a sleep of about
two hundred years,
Theodosius makes peace with the Huns, under promise
of paying a heavy tribute, and with other humiliating
conditions.
t Vincent of Lerins.
Council of Constantinople, under Flavian. Eutyches
condemned and deposed, notwithstanding that Dioscurus,
Patriarch of Alexandria, and the Empress Eudocia , espouse
his cause.
Council of Ephesus, without the Antiochenian bishops,
called the Synod of Robbers, proclaims Eutyches orthodox,
and restores him to his dignity. Flavian, Theodoret, and
other bishops, deposed. Proceedings of the council marked
by violence, and even force of arms, whence its appellation.
Temporary triumph of Monophysites in the East
Council at Rome declares the acts of the Council of
Ephesus invalid.

Period,)

449
450

TO T H E DEATH O F GREGORY T H E F I R S T .

105

Philoxenus, Bishop of Hierapolis in Syria. Syriac
translation of the New Testament.
f Hilary, Bishop of Aries, "" Isidore of Pelusium.
f
MARCIAN,

EMP.

EAST.

Valentinian I I I . still reigns in the West.
# Anglo Saxons land in E n g l a n d under Hengist and
Horsa.
t Eucherius, Bishop of Lyons.

Moral Treatises.

Differences between Jews and Christians confirmed and
augmented.
T h e completion of the Babylonian Talmud, which is a
bulwark of modern Judaism; the introduction of religious
veneration of saints and relics in the Christian Church ;
disputes concerning the divine nature, which had long existed among Christians; and severities exercised against
themselves,—-had contributed to confirm the Jews in their
prejudices against the Gospel and its adherents.
Pictures in churches. D u r i n g this century, the use of
pictures in churches, as a means of exciting devotion, becomes general, not without some admixture of superstition.
Infant Baptism had now become general.
T h e Council of Chalcedon made some good canons r e specting the discipline of the clergy, and against bribery
and corruption, in the matter of their ordination and appointment.
#• Monastery of Bangor founded about this time.
T h e avarice and rapacity of the clergy had now reached
an enormous height, as appears from a treatise of Salvian,
" Adversus Avaritiam," which is, in fact, a defence of
ecclesiastical avarice.
Alms are now generally regarded as a means of purchasing forgiveness of sins.
Marriage of the clergy discountenanced by successive
synods; e.g. Orange, 4 4 1 ; Aries, 4 5 2 ; Angers, 4 5 3 ;
Tours, 4 6 1 ; Vannes, 4 6 5 .

106

FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL

(Second

The bishops of Rome recommend and promote clerical
celibacy.
451

Irruption of the Huns under Attila into Gaul.
Valentinian and Marcian publish an edict forbidding
all persons, under penalty of confiscation of their property,
to enter or resort to Heathen temples for the purposes of
worship.
Flavian and his friends having sought the support of
Leo the Great, who had given his opinion against the
Eutychian doctrines, and pointed out the true medium
between those tenets and Nestorianism, appeal was made
to a new council to be regularly convened. Hence,
COUNCIL OF CHALCEDON (FOURTH

GENERAL),

convened by the Emperor Marcian.
Doctrines of
Eutyches and Nestorius condemned as heretical. The
bishop of Constantinople declared to possess equal rights
and privileges with the bishop of Rome, and to be the
second in rank. The bishops of Rome, Constantinople,
Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, recognised as patriarchs of the Universal Church. Acts of the late Council
of Ephesus annulled ; and Dioscurus, who had presided in
it, deposed and banished.
The Council of Chalcedon determined the Catholic
Faith to be, that, in the person of Christ, the two natures,
divine and human, are inseparably united, but without
confusion. More particularly, that the one Son of God,
Christ, is of one substance with the Father according to
his Godhead, and with men in all things, sin only excepted, according to his manhood; and that this one
Christ subsists in two natures, which are united without
confusion or division. Accordingly, by this council, Eutychianism (the confounding of the Godhead and manhood
in one nature), and Nestorianism (the dividing of the
Godhead and manhood into two persons), were equally
condemned.
Nestorian doctrines are propagated
Armenia by the Abbot Barsymas.

in Syria and

Period.)

TO T H E DEATH O F GREGORY T H E FIRST,

107

451 I

(Proclus succeeds Syrianus at Athens as professor of
the Eclectic Philosophy.)

452

Attila devastates the north of Italy. (Refugees contribute to the foundation of Venice.)
Leo persuades Attila to retire from Italy without
attacking Rome.
Proterius, Patriarch of Alexandria, irritates the dissatisfied Monophysite party, at the head of whom are a
presbyter, Timothy iElurus, and a deacon, Peter Mongus.
#• Pelagians banished from Britain.

453

454

Death of Attila. Soon after his death his kingdom
was weakened by internal dissensions, and the Huns
retired to the border of the Black Sea and their old
Asiatic territory.
Valentinian kills his general Aetius.
* About this time many of the Irish were converted to
Christianity by means of Patrick. Several new bishoprics
were erected in England.
Faustus, Bishop of Rhegiurn.

*%OiJ

456
457

Valentinian III. killed by Maximus, in revenge for his
adultery.
MAXIMUS, first, and, after his death, AVITUS, E M P . WEST.
Marcian still reigns in the East.
Vandals, under Genseric, plunder Rome.
Leo I. prevails upon Genseric not to destroy Rome
with fire and sword. Genseric takes away, among other
treasures, the sacred vessels which Titus had brought
from Jerusalem.
Visigoths establish their dominion in Spain.
f Theodoret. t Petrus Chrysologus.
f Ibas, Bishop of Edessa.

108

457 I

FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL

(Second

(457.) Timothy iElurus (Eutychian) forcibly gains possession of the patriarchate of Alexandria; the Catholic
patriarch, Proterius, murdered.
LEO

THE THRACIAN,

EMP.

EAST.

MAJORIAN, E M P . W E S T .

The Abbot Severinus propagates the Gospel in Bavaria.
Leo recommends private confession of sins to a priest, in
preference to public confession. This practice of private
confession contributed to increase the influence of the
clergy to a dangerous extent.
458

The Emperor Leo collects the subscriptions of the
Eastern bishops to the canons of the late Council of Chalcedon; of these, sixteen demand an explanation of the
phrase " two natures."
4 5 9 I Timothy iElurus banished from Alexandria, upon the
interference of the emperor. Timothy Salophacialus, a
judicious and moderate Catholic, made patriarch in his
room. Peace for a time in the Church of Egypt.
460 J
( a l. 455. al. 439.) * Patrick, Bishop of Armagh.
#• Saxons dominant in England.
461 I

Majorian dethroned by Ricimer.
SEVERUS, E M P . WEST.

Leo the Thracian is still emperor of the East.
f Simeon Stylites, the Elder. Prosper of Aquitaine,
private secretary to Leo I., a Christian epigrammatist.
Hilary, Patriarch of Rome, claims the primacy of
St. Peter. Interferes in the affairs of the Gallican
Churches. Refers to the decree of Valentinian, enacting
that all bishops should submit to regulations made by the
bishop of Rome.

Period.)

<*vo

TO T H E DEATH OF GREGORY T H E F I R S T .

109

Hilary founds two libraries in the baptistery of the
Lateran Church at Rome.
This is the first mention in history of libraries b e longing to Roman bishops; such however, no doubt, had
already been formed.
Monachism. — A monastery (studium) built at Constantinople for the StxolpYjToi, watchers,—a class of Cenobites,
who professed to keep up a continual course of divine
worship, day and night.

465

Peter the Fuller, a Monophysite monk of Constantinople, made patriarch of Antioch, where he occasions disturbances by adding to the Trisagium the words " who
was crucified for us."
Hilary reprimands Mamertus, Bishop of Vienne, for
having acted as metropolitan within the limits of the p r o vince assigned by himself to the bishop of Aries.
Hilary, in a council at Rome, decides authoritatively
some affairs of Spanish Churches, concerning which certain bishops of that country had sought his opinion and
advice.
Severus murdered.

Ricimer rules the West.

ANTHEMIUS, E M P . WEST.

Leo the Thracian still reigns in the East.
I t is said, b u t upon slight authority, that Anthemius
at one time meditated the restoration of Heathen superstition. But, about this time, Anthemius and Leo p u b lished a severe edict against the performance of H e a t h e n
r i t e s ; enacting that if any man should perform such rites
upon another's estate, or in his house, with the knowledge of the owner, the property of the latter should be
confiscated, and himself should be deprived of his civil
r a n k ; or, if of no rank, should suffer corporal punishment,
and either be sent to the mines, or at least condemned
to perpetual exile.

F R O M T H E F I R S T G E N E R A L COUNCIL

(Second

About this time, it was ordained that the revenues of
churches should be divided into four parts (varying, perhaps, in their relative proportions); namely, one for the
bishop, another for the rest of the clergy, the third for
maintaining the fabric of the church, and the fourth for
the benefit of the poor.
Leo and Anthemius prohibit the obtaining of bishoprics by purchase.
Solemn process ions, called Rogations or Litanies, instituted about this time by Mamertus, Bishop of Vienne.
Faustus protests against both the doctrine of Predestination (as it had been taught by Augustin) and the errors
of Pelagius.
Peter the Fuller, Patriarch of Antioch, banished.
"j" P a u l Orosius, friend and pupil of Augustin.
Sidonius Apollinaris, Bishop of Clermont, fl.
Ricimer takes and plunders Rome.
OLYBRIUS, E M P . WEST.

Leo the Thracian continues E m p e r o r of the East.
D e a t h of Ricimer.
Acacius, Patriarch of Constantinople, contends vehemently
with Simplicius for his equality of privilege and rights, as
established by the twenty-eighth canon of the Council of
Chalcedon.
ADVANCE O F T H E

PATRIARCHATE.

Archbishops (in part) supply the place of metropolitans. Higher orders of clergy oppress the lower; and
the rights of the people lost.
T o the superior orders of clergy are added, Patriarch's
Vicars, Archpriests, Archdeacons, Abbots and Archimandrites (the monks now beginning to reckon themselves among the clergy).

Period.)

TO THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST.

HI

The ecclesiastical learning of the times exerts an unfavourable influence upon general literature, and holds it in
check.
473

GLYCERIUS, E M P . WEST.

f Claudianus Mamertus, a presbyter of Vienne.
474

LEO

III., and afterwards

ZENO,

EMP.

EAST.

JULIUS NEPOS, E M P . WEST.
475

ROMULUS AUGUSTULUS, E M P . WEST.

Fresh Monophysite disturbances in Egypt.
Semipelagians.
(475.) At the Councils of Aries and Lyons, the Presbyter Lucidus, a promoter of the strict Augustinian
system, was compelled to retract his opinions; and the
Semipelagian system of Faustus, Bishop of Rhegium, was
sanctioned as orthodox.
In Africa and Italy the Augustinian system is retained.
Odoacer, general of the Heruli, defeats and deposes
Romulus.
4^g

END OF THE WESTERN ROMAN E M P I R E .

Odoacer, King of Italy and Noricum.
BASILIC

us, EMP.

EAST,

after the Deposition of Zeno.
Timothy iElurus again Monophysite Patriarch of
Alexandria. Succeeded by Peter Mongus.
Catholics in Africa persecuted by the Vandals.

477

ZENO,

EMP.

EAST,

restored.

112

FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL

I

477
478

(Second

Zeno destroyed a Heathen temple, which had remained
near Constantinople. He caused the Samaritans to be
driven from Mount Gerizim, and a church, dedicated to
the " Mother of God," to be built on its summit. Some
of the Samaritans embrace Christianity.
Monophysite patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch
expelled.
Death of the patriarch of Alexandria:—"the Catholic
party elect as his successor John Talaja; the Monophysites, Peter Mongus. The latter, by the aid of Acacius,
Patriarch of Constantinople, and the Emperor, confirmed
in his dignity, Peter's plan for the union of parties.
Zeno endeavoured to promote peace between the conflicting religious sects of his day.
About this time great complaints were made concerning
the vices of the clergy.
Gelasius of Cyzicum composes a History of the Council
of Nicaea.

480

Simplicius, Patriarch of Rome, appoints Zeno, Bishop
of Seville, his vicar in Spain.
Benedict born at Nursia in Umbria.
Boethius, ten years old, sent to Athens to study.

481

Clovis, King of the Franks.

482

Zeno publishes his HENOTICON, or Decree of Union, designed to reconcile the Catholics and Monophysites. The
decree was approved and promoted by Acacius, Patriarch
of Constantinople. Mongus subscribed the decree, which
required disputants to abstain from all controverted
terms, in stating the doctrine concerning the person of
Christ. Violent Monophysites in Egypt withdraw from
communion with the Patriarch Mongus (ctxstycthoi).
I Friends of the Chalcedonian Council suspect an intention

Period.)

TO THE DEATH O F GREGORY T H E F I R S T .

I1&

to favour the Monophysite doctrine. Great disturbances
in connexion with this question during the reigns of
Zeno and his successors.
"f Severinus, Apostle of Noricum.
483

On occasion of the election of Felix as patriarch of
Rome, Basil, prime minister of Odoacer, claims on behalf
of the kino* a right of interference in such elections.
(Afterwards protested against by Council of Rome,
A. D. 502.)

484

Conference of Catholic and Arian bishops at Carthage.
Felix, in a council at Rome, condemns, deposes, and
excommunicates Acacius, Patriarch of Constantinople;
who, in return, excommunicates Felix.
From this timeft?519, no communion between the Eastern
and Western Churches.
t Salvian.

485

f Faustus, Bishop of Rhegium. ,

Peter the Fuller subscribes the Henoticon; again
admitted as patriarch of Antioch.
f Barsumas, Bishop of Nisibis.
( | Proclus, an Eclectic philosopher.)
.ZEneas of Gaza, a Christian philosopher, fl.
Vigilius, Bishop of Thapsus, writes against Arian and
Nestorian tenets. He is supposed by some to have composed the Athanasian Creed.

486

Clovis destroys the remains of Roman power in Gaul,
and founds the monarchy of the Franks.
The Franks, at the time of their irruption into Gaul,
were Heathens.

488

Theodoric and the Ostrogoths enter Italy.
j" Peter the Fuller. *j* Sidonius Apollinaris.
The Monophysites now obtain the aid of two able
leaders, Philoxenus, Bishop of Hierapolis in Syria; and
Severus, a monk, afterwards patriarch of Constantinople.

114

489 |

FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL

(Second

T Acacius, Patriarch of Constantinople.
AGE OF
AMBITION, USURPATION,
AND CONTENTION.

491

ANASTASIUS,

EMP.

EAST.

Anastasius accorded equal rights and privileges to the
Catholics, Eutychians, and all other religious parties in
his empire. He deposed turbulent and quarrelsome
bishops of various sects.
Gennadius continues Jerome's List of Ecclesiastical
Writers.
(Marcianus Capella, fl.).
Andreas, Bishop of Csesarea in Cappadocia; Commentary on the Revelation of St. John.
493

_

Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths, conquers Odoacer,
and becomes king of Italy, Sicily, Provence, the South of
Germany, Hungary, and Dalmatia. Resides at Ravenna.
He restores prosperity to Italy.
Theodoric, himself an Arian, tolerant of the Catholics.
Throughout his reign he grants protection also to the
Jews.

"j* Gennadius.
Cassiodorus, fl.
494
Gelasius, in a council at Rome, asserts that the primacy
of the Roman see is founded, not on the decrees of councils,
but on the divine authority of our Lord's appointment
[Thou art Peter, 8fc). Alexandria declared to be the second
church, and Antioch the third, in dignity.
,
The Council of Rome, under Gelasius, distinguishes
between the canonical books of Scripture and apocryphal
books. It also appoints certain writings of the Fathers,
&c. to be read, and prohibits others. The genuineness
of this decree is doubted. Probably, as it exists, it is
I interpolated.

Period.)

|

TO T H E DEATH O F GREGORY T H E FIRST*

115

N . B . T h e canon of Gelasius is substantially the same
as that of Augustin and the Council of Carthage.
Communion in both kinds*
Gelasius (writing against the Manichees) strongly
asserts that the Lord's supper cannot be rightly received
by partaking of the bread only. H e declares the dividing
of the mystery to be an act of sacrilege.
Some refer the institution of the order of Canons
Regular of St. Augustin to this date.

496

Clovis, King of the Franks, baptized by Remigius,
Bishop of Rheims.
Dominion of the Franks contributes to the extension of the
Catholic Church.
"f Gelasius*
Anastasius I I . , Patriarch of Rome, disposed to moderate
the claims of his see with reference to Constantinople*
Opposed herein by many of his clergy.

498

499

—

After the death of Anastasius I I . , Symmachus and
Laurentius are severally elected as his successors by two
rival parties. T h e contest involves great disorder a n d
bloodshed. Theodoric declares in favour of Symmachus.
Council at Rome, concerning election of patriarchs to
the see.
T h e whole Persian Church, in a council, declares its
adoption of Nestorian doctrines.
(Stobaeus, Charisius, fl.).

END OF
D u r i n g this century, the doctrines of Scripture r e FIFTH specting the person and nature of Christ, — original sin,—
TURY" ^ r e e w*^> — t n e ° P e r a t i ° n a n d means of divine grace, —
were enforced and illustrated by many valuable definitions,
I proofs, and explanations.
1 2

-life

FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL

(Second

But writers of this age (orthodox Fathers) laid the
foundation of various errors, such as — False doctrines
concerning departed saints, the fable of purgatory, the
fictitious authority of apocryphal books.
The Agapae, or Feasts of Charity, have been discontinued.
The daily celebration of mass (the Lord's supper) had
now become general in the West. It was consequently
often performed by the priest alone.
Veneration for martyrs and saints succeeded by actual
adoration. Frequent pilgrimages to their tombs. Increased importance of relics. These superstitious practices of the people were countenanced and promoted by
the clergy and monks.
Of the new rites and ceremonies, institutions, or
customs, introduced during this century, the following are
the principal: — Raised pulpits in churches ; litanies ; the
Trisagion; rogation days ; the chanting of creeds.
And others of a more objectionable character; such as
—The worship of the Virgin Mary (promoted by the
Nestorian controversies) ; increased pomp and splendour
of vestments, &c. used during divine service; the consecration of tapers to be used in churches; private confession.
Three conflicting parties in the Church : one contending
for the Henoticon without the Council of Chalcedon;
another for the Henoticon and the Council; a third in
favour of the Council without the Henoticon.
Patriarchs of Rome and Constantinople engaged in
continual disputes respecting the extent and limits of their
respective jurisdictions.
A council at Rome repeals the laws of Odoacer respecting the election of the bishop of Rome and the property
of the Church.
Council at Rome (SYNODUS PALMARIS), convened by
Theodoric, concerning some charges brought against
Symmachus. Symmaehus acquitted, and confirmed in

Period.)

TO THE DEATH OF GREGORY TJIE FIRST.

117

his dignity. Ennodius writes a defence of this synod,
in which he bestows immoderate panegyrics on the Roman
patriarch, and from which it appears that the foundation of the Papal power was already laid. In another
council this work is approved, and the proposition maintained, that the bishop of Rome is* not amenable to any
human authority, and can be judged by none but God.
Western bishops manifest a disposition to acknowledge
the patriarch of Rome as their head and governor, apparently with a view to consolidate and increase the power
of the Church, as a body, against the temporal princes,
many of whom were Arians.
Defensores.
By order of Anastasius (505), certain persons, chosen
from the Orthodox, having professed their faith on oath in
the presence of a bishop, were specially charged with the
defence of the faith. They were entitled, from the nature
of their office, Defensores.

504

The acts of the Synodus Palmaris (503) indicate a
subjection of the Roman patriarchs and councils to the
sovereign prince.
Thrasamund (Arian), King of the Vandals, banishes
more than two hundred Catholic bishops of Africa,
for having consecrated bishops contrary to his command.
Symmachus receives and maintains the banished bishops.
Clovis, having by a course of treachery and cruelty
established his sovereignty over all the Franks, pays great
respect to the clergy, and is zealous for the propagation of
Christianity throughout his dominions.
CONVERSION OF THE FRANKS.

This people, like their prince, repeated and assented to
a creed which they did not understand; they were amused
by a splendid, or at least imposing, ceremonial; listened
with wonder to fabulous legends and reports of pretended
miracles; paid a blind veneration and deference to the
clergy; performed penance, and gave large gifts to
churches and monasteries; and remained, as they fori 3

118

FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL

(Second

merly had been, a barbarous, ferocious, and licentious
people. Such, alas ! was the conversion of the Franks.
Clovis, during his reign, sent a royal crown of gold,
set with precious stones, as a present to " the Apostle
Peter." Theodoric also made presents to the Roman
Church.
Under pretence of zeal for the Catholic religion, Clovis
now makes war upon the (Arian) Visigoths in Gaul.
Celibacy of the clergy. — At this period, the liberty of
the clergy with respect to marriage appears to have been
but little abridged, if at all, in the East.
Number and influence of monks continually on the
increase. Profligacy generally prevails in the monasteries of the West; fanaticism in those of the East. ^
The Council of Agde (held by permission of Alaric,
the Arian king of the Visigoths) forbids the multiplication of monasteries^ and makes many canons respecting
the discipline of the clergyr, — a subject which occupied the
attention of many provincial councils about this time. It
enacts that every member of the Church shall receive the
Lord's supper at least three times in every year, namely,
on the high festivals.
Clovis defeats and kills Alaric II. King of the Visigoths.
Gaul is now in undisputed possession of the Franks.
Severus, a monk, opposed to the decision of the Council
of Chalcedon, goes to Constantinople with a large body
of adherents, and procures the deposition of the patriarch
of that city.
The king of Persia (Cabades) favours the Christians,
who are said to have miraculously assisted him in recovering a treasure.
BARBARISM OF THE MIDDLE AGES BEGINS.

Irruptions of the Barbarians into the West during this
century very prejudicial to the interests of literature.

Period.)

TO T H E DEATH OF GREGORY T H E F I R S T .

119

Learning preserved in the bishops' schools and monasteries. Here arts and sciences were taught very imperfectly ; but great attention was bestowed upon the reading
of the earlier ecclesiastical writers. The works of ancient
authors preserved in the libraries of the monasteries; but
the libraries of monks and churchmen were composed
chiefly of ecclesiastical and ascetic works. Greek literature generally neglected; Latin poorly cultivated; rhetoric
turned into bombast; liberal arts comprised within a few
barren rules; study of philosophy abandoned and decried.
This barbarism almost extinguishes the light and life
of Christianity; as the influence of the Church, in the
course of its previous corruption, had already suppressed
ancient literature.
Boethius, privy counsellor to Theodoric, King of the
Ostrogoths, explains and recommends the Aristotelian
philosophy; which hence rises in credit.
(The Masora, or Jewish criticism of the Hebrew text
of the Old Testament, begun by the Rabbins of Tiberias.)
Doctrine of the Existence of God,
Augustin was the first who attempted to demonstrate
this fact, or to prove it by reason. He endeavoured (in
the manner of Plato) to deduce it from our ideas of perfect truth and wisdom. Boethius also (after the Stoics)
sought to prove the existence of God, the supreme good,
from our ideas of absolute perfection.
Doctrines of Grace and Predestination.
The Augustinian system now begins to find more
acceptance in Gaul. Caesar, Archbishop of Aries, especially pleads in its favour.
Death of Clovis. First partition of the kingdom of the
Franks;— Theodoric I. at Metz; Chlodomirat Orleans;
Childebert at Paris; Clotaire at Soissons.
Clovis had been a great patron of the clergy ; had built
and endowed many churches and monasteries; was the
i 4

120

F R O M T H E F I R S T G E N E R A L COUNCIL

(Second

founder of the French Church, as distinguished from the
old Gallican; and was entitled " The Son of the Catholic
Church,"—" The Great,"—and, by some, " T h e Pious."
By the Council of Orleans, laymen were forbidden to
take holy orders without the command of the king, or the
consent of some civil magistrate.
The Council of Orleans makes regulations respecting
clerical discipline; and establishes the use of litanies or
rogations in France.
Sever us and other Monophysite monks attempt to introduce at Constantinople the words " who was crucified
for us," as an addition to the Trisagion, which had already
been done by Peter the Fuller at Antioch. The emperor
at first favours Severus and his party.
Violent religious commotions disturb the Eastern empire. The Emperor Anastasius, refusing to give exclusive
support to the Orthodox, is regarded as a heretic and a
persecutor.
Insurrection of Vitalian, who lays siege to Constantinople.
In consequence of the insurrection of Vitalian, Anastasius is compelled to declare in favour of the Council of
Chalcedon.
Christianity is now more widely spread, and more
firmly established, than heretofore, in many parts of Germany and Switzerland.
The Slavi begin to spread themselves over Europe.
By the Council of Tarragona bishops were permitted
to associate with themselves in council a certain number
of laymen as well as presbyters of their dioceses. Perhaps these laymen were not allowed to vote.
Sigismund, King of the Burgundians, renounces
Arianism, and conforms to the Catholic Church. The
labours of Avitus had probably contributed to this
result.

Period.)

TO T H E DEATH O F GREGORY T H E F I R S T .

517 I

T h e Council of Lyons inflicts ecclesiastical censure on
a Burgundian nobleman who had married within the
prohibited degrees.

518

JUSTIN

I. EMP.

121

EAST.

Justin repeals the Henoticon^ and gives effect to the decrees
of the Council of Chalcedon.
Justin deprives reputed heretics of their churches
(except, at first, the Arians, by virtue of his treaty with
Theodoric).
Peace restored between the Eastern and Western Churches.
The. Gothic and German princes retain their dominion
over the clergy of all degrees, but support them with
their favour, and contribute to the exaltation of their
power.
About this time, regulations were frequently made
concerning the withdrawal of the clergy from the jurisdiction of the civil magistrate.
Zacharias Scholasticus, Bishop of Mitylene in Lesbos, a
Christian philosopher, fl.
521

War with Persia.

THE

M O N A R C H Y O F T H E B I S H O P OF
GRADUALLY
THE

ROME

SUPERSEDES

OLIGARCHY
OF

THE

PATRIARCHATE.

The title of Pope begins to be exclusive!?/ applied to the
bishop of Home.
Monophysite Controversies.
M a n y Monophysite bishops who were deposed durinothis reign repaired to Alexandria. H e r e arose dissensions
among the Monophysites themselves; some asserting the
corruptibility of our Saviour's body (Phthartolatrae, or

122

FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL

(Second

I Severians, from Severus), and others insisting upon its
incorruptibility (Aphthartodocetse, Phantasiasts, or Julianists, from Julian, Bishop of Halicarnassus). The Phthartolatrse produced the Agnoetse, or (from Themis tius, a
deacon of Alexandria) Themistians, who maintained that
many things were unknown to Christ according to his
human nature. The Aphthartolatrae again divided into
the Actistetas, who held that the body of Christ was uncreated, and the Ktistolatrse, who affirmed the contrary.
521

#• Saxon Heptarchy in England in course of formation.

•—
523

f Ennodius, Bishop of Pavia.
f Hormisdas, Roman Patriarch.

524

Justin, by an edict, deprives the Arians of their
churches in the East. Theodoric demands the restoration
of these churches, threatening to withdraw his toleration
of the Orthodox in Italy in case of refusal.
John I. goes to Constantinople at the instance of
Theodoric, and obtains the restoration of the churches to
the Arians. When he approached Constantinople, the
emperor, and almost the whole city, came out to meet
him, bearing wax tapers and crosses: the emperor prostrated himself on the ground, and did homage. He also
caused himself to be crowned by the patriarch. (Some
say, that John urged Justin to retain possession of the
Arian churches.)

525

About this time, Dionysius the Less compiled his collection of the ancient canons, and of the decretal epistles
of the popes from Siricius (384).

—

Boethius put to death, — a Roman patriot and Christian
philosopher. His zeal for Orthodoxy against the Arians
probably favoured the unfounded charge of his having
maintained a treasonable understanding with Justin, Emperor of the East.
"j* Alcimus Avitus, Bishop of Vienne, a Christian poet,

Period.)

TO THE DEATH OE GREGORY THE FIRST.

123

5%Q \

Athalaric, King of the Ostrogoths.

—
—

John I. dies in prison. Disputes respecting the election
of his successor. Felix III., Patriarch of Rome, appointed
by the interference of Theodoric.
About this time, several councils made regulations concerning ecclesiastical discipline.
The Festival of the Purification of the Virgin Mary was
established probably about this time, to supply the place
of the Lupercalia, a heathen festival lately abolished.

527

JUSTINIAN,

EMP.

EAST.

During this reign, the Eastern empire advanced to a
high degree of power and splendour, chiefly by means of
the successes of the emperor's generals.
In the West, the Franks subdue the Alemanni, Bavarians, and Thuringians.
Justinian destroys the remnants of Paganism in his empire
generally.
Some individuals, however, continued to retain, and
even to profess, their attachment to the ancient superstition. Several writers employ their pen against Christianity during this century.
Many forced, and therefore insincere or partial, conversions to Christianity in the East during this reign,
arising from the measures of Justinian for the suppression
of idolatry, such as the burning of heathen books, destruction of images, penal statutes, imprisonment and
flogging of the professors of Heathenism.
#• Persecution, and gradual suppression, of Christianity in
England under the Anglo Saxons.
527

t Procopius of Gaza.

528

Justinian enacts, that when the bishopric of any town
becomes vacant, the inhabitants shall nominate three
persons, and then elect one of that number as bishop;
* that no one shall be eligible to the office who may have

J24

FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL

(Second

children to provide for; and that no ecclesiastical ap-*
pointments whatever shall be procured by purchase.
Bishops and metropolitans forbidden to leave their dioceses or provinces without special licence or command,
Justinian (reviving and extending a law of Honorius)
requires the bishop of every city to visit the prisons
weekly, and to take cognizance of the condition and
treatment of the prisoners, and associates them with the
local magistrates in the administration of various civil
affairs.
Pelagians and Semipelagians.
The Augustinian system of doctrine established in
Gaul by the Council of Orange, in opposition at once to
Pelagian and Semipelagian tenets. The decree of the
council was confirmed by the Council of Valentia, same
year, and by Boniface in 530.
Final triumph of the Augustinian or Church doctrines
concerning Grace and Predestination over Semipelagian
tenets,
Monachism.
Benedict of Nursia establishes his monastic rules and
institutes. His intention was " to form an order whose
discipline should be milder, their establishment more
solid, and their manners more regular than those of other
monastic bodies; and whose members, during the course
of a holy and peaceful life, wTere to divide their time
between prayer, reading, the education of youth, and
other learned and pious labours." He distributed his
monks into twelve monasteries, of which that on Mount
Casino, in Campania, was the most celebrated. His rules
demanded that every monk should pass through a period
of probation (novitiate); that all should be bound by
oath to a perpetual residence in their monastery, — to
render implicit obedience to their superior, — to live in accordance with prescribed law, — and to occupy themselves
in study or manual labour, especially in agriculture.
Benedict also prescribed the education of youth as an
especial duty.

Period.)

1
529

TO T H E DEATH OF GREGORY T H E F I R S T .

125

This reformation soon spread beyond Italy, to Gaul,
Spain, and other countries.
(Justinian'sCode published; CodexRepetitcePrcelectionis.)
In the schools of monasteries, youths were trained to
become monks rather than scholars; but from this time
literature was, to a certain extent, encouraged amongst
the monks, who had hitherto been taught to despise it,
and especially to avoid the use of ancient (profane)
authors.
Theological instruction was generally confined to the
act of training the junior clergy to the performance of
public offices of religion, and the committing of portions
of Scripture to memory. Parish priests were ordered to
keep the young unmarried readers in their houses, and
give them such instruction.
Decline of Modern Platonism,
That system was gradually replaced by the Aristotelian
philosophy, which was especially patronised by the Monophysites and Nestorians. The schools of Athens were
closed by an edict of Justinian in 529.

530

Boniface, Patriarch of Rome, after a contested election.
Great bribery and corruption now practised in the elections
to this see. Roman senate passed a decree against these
malpractices.
531
Dispute between the patriarchs of Rome and Constantinople
revived, on occasion of an appeal from Stephen, Metropolitan of Larissa, to Boniface, against the sentence of
Epiphanius, Patriarch of Constantinople. It appears that
Stephen was eventually deposed, notwithstanding this
appeal.
(Chosroes I. King of Persia.)
Gothic kings in Italy assert and exercise the right of
sanctioning the appointment, and confirming the election, of the patriarchs of Rome and subordinate bishops.
Rates of payment for such confirmation. Justinian enacts
that no one who has filled a civil office shall be eligible to
J the rank of bishop or presbyter in the Church.

126

532

FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL

(SeCO?ld

i Boniface. Contests and great corruption at the election of a successor.
Justinian sanctions as orthodox the formula " God
(one person of the Trinity) was crucified in the flesh."
First mention of the forged writings attributed to
Dionysius the Areopagite, made this year, in course of a
conference at Constantinople.
During this reign, Christianity is embraced by the
Abasgi, between the Euxine and Mount Caucasus; the
Heruli, beyond the Danube; the Alans, Lazi, Zani, and
other uncivilised tribes. Many Jews also embrace the
Gospel in the East. Justinian enacts that no Jew should
be allowed to give testimony in civil causes against the
Orthodox.
Cosmas Indicopleustes, in his Christian Topography,
speaks of Christian churches at three places in the East
Indies; namely, on the island Taprobane (Ceylon), on
the coast of the Pepper Island (probably Malabar), and
at Calliana.
Kingdom of the Vandals in Africa distracted by ecclesiastical differences.
In France, Christians are forbidden to intermarry with
Jews, by the second Council of Orleans.
Justinian made various laws respecting the condition
and qualification of persons eligible to the several orders
of the clergy; concerning the payment of fees, &c. on
institution; and the age of ecclesiastical officers. (Lowest
age of a presbyter, 35 years; of a deacon or subdeacon,
2 5 ; of a reader, 18; of a deaconess, 40.)
In 534 he commits to the bishops the execution of
certain restrictions relating to the management of stageplays ; reproves the propensity of many of the clergy to
gaming and theatrical amusements; and forbids deacons,
presbyters, and bishops, to play at dice.
Growth of superstition in the Church, arising from the
rapacity of the clergy, and the ignorance which generally
prevailed. An opinion was propagated with industry
among the people, that the remission of sins was to be

Period.)

TO THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST.

127

purchased by liberal gifts to churches and monasteries,
and that the efficacious prayers of departed saints were
to be bought by offerings presented to the Church.
Conquests of Belisarius in Africa, Sardinia, and Corsica.
Power of the Vandals destroyed, and Africa reunited to
the empire of the East.
Theodahat, King of the Ostrogoths.
Kingdom of the Burgundians overthrown by the
Franks.
Justinian pays tribute to the Bulgarians, and to Persia.
Theodora, Justinian's queen, favours the Eutychians.
By her influence, Anthimus, a Monophysite, was made
patriarch of Constantinople.
Wars of Justinian against the Ostrogoths in Italy until
553, when their kingdom is destroyed.
Vitiges, King of the Ostrogoths.
Belisarius takes Rome, which remains in the power of
the Greeks until 541.
Cassiodorus, seconded by Agapetus, projects the foundation of a theological school at Rome, in which candidates
for the ministry should be educated by paid teachers or
professors. But the design was frustrated by the continuance of war in Italy.
Cassiodorus greatly encourages literature among his
monks; recommends the study of ancient authors as
useful towards the exposition of Scripture; introduces
the work of transcribing as a monastic employment; enjoins, above all things, the reading of Holy Scripture (with
the best expositors and no other), combined with especial
attention to the moral instruction contained in its plain
narrative.
Sacred vessels of the Jews recovered from the Vandals,
and distributed in various churches of Jerusalem, by order
of Justinian.
Arians in Africa lose their churches.
During this century, the Christians of Abyssinia afford

128

FROM THE

F I R S T G E N E R A L COUNCIL

(Second

protection to their brethren of Arabia Felix, who were
persecuted by the Jews.
Justinian favours the increase and security of Church
property.
The Council of Clermont sanctions the appointment of
bishops by the votes of the clergy and people, with consent
of the metropolitan.
Agapetus, at Constantinople (whither he had been sent
by Theodahat to intercede with the emperor in favour of
the Ostrogoths), refuses to hold communion with Anthimus, Patriarch of Constantinople, because he had been
translated from another bishopric, and also was suspected
of holding Eutychian errors. Anthimus is deposed by a
council, and x\gapetus consecrates Mennas, the new
patriarch of Constantinople, at the suggestion of the emperor. The council condemns Monophysite doctrines.
Agapetus, in a synodal letter to the bishop of Jerusalem,
speaks of Mennas as made patriarch by the appointment
of the emperor, with the approbation of the clergy and
people. Agapetus died at Constantinople.
Silverius, Patriarch of Rome, deposed and banished.
His ruin effected by the machinations of Theodora and
Vigilius with the support of Belisarius, Vigilius having
engaged to annul the acts of the Council of Chalcedon,
and to support Anthimus and his party.
Vigilius, Patriarch of Rome, elected by command of
Belisarius. Some say that he fulfilled his promise to the
queen : others that he refused, declaring that, as vicar of
St. Peter, he could not patronise heretics ; and that hereupon he was seized and carried prisoner to Constantinople.
After the conquest of Rome by Justinian, the emperor
exercises the right of confirming the election of Roman
patriarchs, and of receiving payment for the act.
By the Council of Orleans, Jews are forbidden to appear
in public during a prescribed period at Easter. The same
council favours Christian slaves against Jewish masters.

"period^

I

538
539

540

TO THE DEATH OF GREGOHY, THE FIRST.

129

The Monophysite Controversy
was continued by means of some Origenist Monophysite
monks of Palestine : they made progress under the protection of Theodore Ascidas, Bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia, who possessed the confidence of the emperor.
A Monophysite church was established in Armenia,
under the patriarchate of a " Catholic bishop."
Celibacy of the clergy supported by edicts of Justinian
in 530, 536, and 541.
Regulations respecting the punishment of delinquent
clergy made by the Council of Orleans.
Cassiodorus, at the age of seventy years, retires to a
monastery which he had founded—-where he lived twentythree years more. It has been disputed whether or not
Cassiodorus and his monks are to be reckoned among the
Benedictines.
Justinian enacts that sponsors may not marry their godchildren, on account of spiritual relationship.
Justinian grants permission to the Jews to read Greek
and Latin translations of their Scriptures, recommending
especially the Septuagint; but prohibits the reading of
the Mishna.
Reported conversion of Jews in Arabia Felix.
(540 to 545.) War of Justinian with Chosroes, King of
Persia.
Chosroes severely persecutes the Christians in Persia.
The church in that country never recovered from the
effects, of this persecution.

541

Totila, King of the Ostrogoths, recovers Italy.
Justinian confirms the clergy in the possession of various
privileges and immunities; enacts that every archbishop,
patriarch, and metropolitan, shall convene the bishops of
his province once or twice every year; and forbids
K

130

FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL

(Second

bishops or presbyters to excommunicate without sufficient
cause.
Further favours or privileges granted to Christian slaves
against Jewish masters, by the fourth Council of Orleans,
About this time, the foundation of the system of private
patronage in presentation to ecclesiastical benefices is laid
by an edict of Justinian.
541

5U

Justinian, urged by the friends of the Council of Chalcedon, publishes an edict condemning the Origenist opinions,
propagated by the monks of Palestine. A council at
Constantinople condemns the same error.
Theodore Ascidas, endeavouring to counteract the
plans of the Chalcedonians, resolves to persuade the emperor to condemn certain earlier writers of the Antiorigenist or Antiochenian School, proposing this step as the
best means of accomplishing the emperor's favourite object
of bringing the Monophy sites into union with the Catholics.
Accordingly, in 544, Justinian published an EDICT condemning the person and writings of Theodore of Mopsuestia, the writings of Theodoret against Cyril's propositions,
and the epistle of Ibas to Maris (TRIACAPITULA), notwithstanding that the orthodoxy of Theodoret and Ibas had
been recognised in general by the Council of Chalcedon.
This step, intended as a means of accommodation, appeared
to many as a measure in favour of Monophysite doctrine.
Hence the distracting controversy concerning the Tria Capitula. The Eastern Church sided with the emperor; the
Western resisted.
(Jornandes, a monk, some say bishop of Ravenna, historian of the Goths, fl.).
About this time, the councils in the West are occupied chiefly
with matters of ecclesiastical discipline; while those of the
East are engaged with points of theological controversy.

54*5

(or about 556.) | Dionysius Exiguus, a Roman abbot,

.Period.)

TO T H E DEATH OF GREGORY T H E F I R S T .

131

J founder of the Christian system of Chronology, and compiler of the Decretals.
( f Tribonianus, chief compiler of the Justinian Code,)
The judicial authority of the bishops was increased during the reign of Justinian, but without power over the persons or property of offenders.
545

546

547
—

Jacobus Baradaeus (or Zanzalus) ordained bishop of
Edessa and apostle of the East by certain Monophysite
bishops. He furnished the churches of Syria and Mesopotamia with presbyters and bishops, and united the various
Monophysite parties of those countries in one church
(Jacobites) under their own patriarch at Antioch* He
died A. D. 578.
Vigilius, Patriarch of Rome (who had been appointed
to the see by the influence of Theodora, on condition of
supporting the Monophysite cause) refusing to concur in
the sentence of the edict, is summoned to Constantinople.
Here he yields to the influence of the court, and unites in
condemning the Tria Capitula (Judicatum), with an oath
to persevere in the part he had now taken.
* Saxon Heptarchy in England completed.
Rome pillaged by the Ostrogoths under Totila.
Justinian commissions John, Syrian bishop of the
Eutychian or Jacobite party, to preach for the conversion
of the Heathen still remaining in Constantinople and Asia
Minor. John baptizes seven thousand persons.

548

Council at Constantinople. Many Western bishops
(especially Facundus) oppose the Edict. Vigilius afterwards persuades seventy Western bishops to subscribe his
Judicatum; but others persevere in their opposition, supported by an able work of Facundus, Pro Defensione
I Trium Capitulorum.
K

2

132

549 j

PROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL

(Second

The Fifth Council of Orleans declares the consent of the
sovereign necessary to confirm the election of a bishop.
In France, the princes and nobles commit frequent depredations upon the great and increasing property of the
Church.
Dedication of churches to the honour of saints.
, The Tonsure^ which had already been adopted by monks,
becomes general among the clergy in the West.
Eleemosynary regulations by the Fifth Council of
Orleans.
Fulgentius Ferrandus fl. Abridgment of Canons.

550

to 556.

War with Persia.

Justinian imposes severe pains and penalties upon
Jews and Samaritans.
The doctrines of Christianity are now greatly obscured
by subtle philosophy and vain distinctions, more especially in the East.
Blind veneration of the clergy, and superstitious attachment to rites and ceremonies, continually on the increase,
to the detriment of Christian truth. Superstition was
greatly advanced; first, by the neglect of sound learning
among the clergy; and, secondly, by the credulity of the
barbarians who now received Christianity, and their fondness for the marvellous. But the clergy had now become
the sole depositaries of the learning of the age, such as it
wras.
Celibacy of the Clergy.
Canons designed to check the marriage of the clergy
were made by various councils during this century: e. g.
Agde, 506; Gironne, 517; Toledo, 5 3 1 ; Auvergne, 535;
Orleans, 538, 541, 549; Tours, 567; Auxerre, 578 ;
Macon, 585; Toledo, 589.

Period.),

551 |

TO T H E DEATH O F GREGORY T H E FIRST.

133

Vigilius refuses to assent to a second edict of Justinian
confirmatory of the former; he excommunicates all who
should defend the edict; flees from Constantinople, but is
recalled,

552
Teias, King of the Ostrogoths, defeated by Belisarius
•
and Narses.
5 5 3 I Kingdom of the Ostrogoths destroyed.
Justinian
master of Italy and Sicily.
Arians in Italy lose their churches.
*—

SECOND COUNCIL OF CONSTANTINOPLE

(FIFTH

GENERAL),

convened for the purpose of settling the controversy
connected with the Tria Capitula. The council confirms
all the religious edicts of Justinian. Vigilius and the
Western bishops stand aloof. Vigilius publishes his Constitutum, at variance with the decrees of the council;
thrown into prison; the following year revokes his Constitutum, and accedes to the decrees of the council. He
died at Syracuse on his return to Rome, 555. His successor, Pelagius, recognised the council; but hence arose
differences between the Church of Rome and other Western
churches; and the object in view — an accommodation
with the Monophysites — remained unaccomplished.
556

Justinian stipulates for greater toleration of Christians
in Persia.
^_
Justinian was distinguished during the greater part of
his reign by his attention to the interests of the Church,
and his zeal for Orthodoxy. But, at length, he fell
under suspicion of heresy. He was influenced by his
wife Theodora, a woman of great ability; formerly an
actress, of loose character. He kept the bishops and clergy
as much as possible under his own power. He published
numerous edicts relating to the faith, worship, discipline, and property of the Church. Next to Constantine
I he was the chief (temporal) legislator of the Church.
K 3

134

FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL

(Second

Baronius censures h i m p n account of this interference; and
upbraids him with having taught and ruled in the Church,
instead of having submitted to the teaching and government of her ministers. Perhaps, however, he legislated
at the suggestion of the patriarch of Constantinople and
other bishops; and certain it is that the clergy lost less by
their dependence upon him than they gained by his
countenance and support.
"j" Arator, subdeacon in the Roman Church, a poet.
T h e Council of Paris enacts that no bishop shall be
appointed by royal mandate, or in any other way, against
the will of the metropolitan and other bishops. I t enforces
ecclesiastical discipline.
M a n y canons for the protection of Church property were
passed during this century : by the council of Rome, 5 0 2 ;
council of Agde, 5 0 6 ; Orleans I V , 5 4 1 ; Orleans V, 5 4 9 ;
Paris I I , 5 5 7 ; T o u r s I I , 5 6 7 ; Valence, 584.
Clotaire I. sole monarch of the F r a n k s .
Tlie barbarous tribes, now masters of the West of Europe
and great part of the South, begin to amalgamate with the
old inhabitants,— adopt some of their laws — agriculture and
other arts of peace, — and embrace Christianity ; but their
credulity and ignorance are abused by the superstitions which
had already been introduced into the Church, and their morals
corrupted by the licentiousness of the conquered people ;• they
introduce some of their own barbarous customs, e. g. duelling ;
extinguish or corrupt the Latin language. Feudal System.
T h e continued use of the Latin language in the provinces of Europe, which had been overrun by Barbarians,
contributes to increase the influence and poiver of the clergy.
(Novellae. — T h e Codex Repetitae Praelectionis, Instit u t i o n s , et Novelise, collected into a body of civil law —
Corpus Juris Civilis RomanL)
I n Spain the Sueves renounce Arianism, and adopt the
Catholic Faith.

Period.)

561 I

TO THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST.

135

Second partition of the kingdom of the Franks, between
the four sons of Clotaire I. viz. CHARIBERT at Paris;
GONTRAM, Orleans; CHILDERIC, Soissons; SIGIBERT,
Metz.
#• Christianity received amongst the Picts and Scots,
Columba, an Irish abbot, founds a monastery at Iona;
(d.597).

—

The Benedictine order of monks makes great and rapid
progress, and threatens to absorb all others in the West.
Liturgical regulations by the Council of Braga.

—

Laws against the Priscillianists.

563

Council at Bourdeaux, under Leontius, deposes Emerius, whom Clotaire had appointed bishop of Santones by
royal mandate. Charibert (son of Clotaire) confirms the
appointment, and imposes a fine upon Leontius and the
other members of the council, as a punishment for contumacy.
Justinian, at the close of his life, was engaged in a
fruitless attempt to exalt the opinions of the Aphthartodocetse to the rank of orthodoxy.

,
I
•—

5p5

T Cassiodorus, after 562/
Martin of Braga. Collection and translation of the
decrees of councils.
( 1 Procopius.)
JUSTIN

II.

EMP.

EAST.

The Monophysites noio begin to firm a distinct sect.
Several minor sects arose out of the Monophysite controversies. — About this time, John Philoponus, a grammarian of Alexandria, propounds a Tritheistic system,
founded upon an erroneous application of the Aristotelian
Realism to the doctrine of the Trinity. Damian, Monophysite Patriarch of Alexandria, contending against
I Philoponus, verges towards Sabellianism (Damiariites).
K 4

136

FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL

(Second

Stephen Niobes denied that there was any difference between the two natures of Christ after their union (Niobites).
Two Gallic bishops, deposed by a council at Lyons for
disorderly conduct, appeal to the patriarch of Rome,
who effects their restoration. They were afterwards deposed again for fresh and more flagrant misdemeanours.
A council at Tours enacts that no fees shall be taken
at ordinations.
Severe edicts against the Jews renewed by Justin II.
Lombards, under Alboin, invade Italy, and erect a new
kingdom at Ticinum (Pavia). Greeks retain Southern
Italy (Exarchate of Ravenna), with dukes of Rome and
Naples dependent.
Some Christians among the Lombards. By degrees
all the Lombards adopt Arianism, and thus restore the
ascendancy of that creed in their part of Italy,
(Mohammed born at Mecca.)
Justin (in alliance with Turks from the river Don) at
war with Persia.
The Council of Braga requires metropolitans to give
early notice of the time of Easter. Regulations concerning episcopal visitations, fees, and offerings.
Revenue of the Church very large. Clergy more and more
separated from laity. False and arrogant claims of the
clergy. Esteem and veneration of relics continually increase.
Ecclesiastical writers are now occupied, for the most part,
in collecting the opinions and sayings of earlier authors, or in
allegorising.
Ancient superstitions are still maintained, to a certain extent, hy the learning and eloquence of some of their apologists,
and especially by means of surviving ceremonies, festivities,
monuments, and vulgar prejudices.

Period.)

573

TO THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST.

137

Incursions of the Avares in the West.
In Gaul many Jews were compelled by Childebert to
receive baptism.

578

TIBERIUS

II. EMP.

EAST.

Hormisdas V. King of Persia.
Lombards lay siege to Rome.
t Johannes Scholastieus.
MONASTIC SCHOOLS.

Columban establishes his rule of monastic discipline in
Ireland, Gaul, Germany, and Switzerland.

581

582

At the Council of Macon it was enacted that no
Jew should sit down in the presence of a bishop without
special permission.
The acts of the Council of Macon held this year^
the first document in which the term archbishop occurs,
instead of metropolitan.
MAURITIUS,

EMP.

EAST.

John the Faster, Patriarch of Constantinople.

584

Visigoths overcome the Sueves, and thus complete the
conquest of Spain.

5S5

Second Council of Macon. Ecclesiastical discipline.
Right of asylum belonging to churches. Marks of respect
to be paid to the clergy on the highway, under penalty of
excommunication. Baptism to be administered only at
Easter, except in cases of necessity. Payment of free-will
offerings and tithes demanded.

586

War between the Greeks and Lombards.
The Council of Toledo inflicts pains and penalties upon
the Jews.

FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL

(Second

Towards the close of the century many Jews embrace
the Gospel in the West, Gregory the Great discountenanced all violent measures against the Jews, and all
compulsory baptisms; and admonished the bishops to
endeavour to convert that people by instruction and
persuasion.
John the Faster, Patriarch of Constantinople, assumes the
title of (Ecumenical bishop. Pelagius, Patriarch of Rome,
earnestly contends against this assumption.
Gregory, Patriarch of Antioch, accused before a council
at Constantinople, under John the Faster.
Reccared, King of the Visigoths, conforms to the
Catholic Church. Final blow-to Arianism. among the
Goths.
The Council of Toledo enacts, that remnants of idolatry
in Spain and Gallicia be destroyed.
Rise of the dispute between the Eastern and Western
Churches concerning the Procession of the Holy Ghost.
The difference which. subsisted between the Oriental
and the Western genius and turn of thought (the former
quick, volatile, and speculative; the latter more sedate,
settled, and practical), combined with difference of circumstances attending the formation and development of
the Greek and Latin Churches (the former continually
fettered and restrained by imperial interference; the latter
left more at liberty in its decisions), had already produced
variations in the tenets of the two churches, which, however, had not led to any permanent disunion. But, at
length, a dispute arose in connexion with speculations
concerning the nature of the Holy Spirit, which led to
more serious results. The Greek Church always held,
that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father alone ;
and thus the doctrine was stated in the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed (381). The Western Church, although
it received that Creed, was disposed to represent the Holy
Ghost as proceeding from both the Father and the Son;
chiefly, perhaps, with a view to uphold the doctrine of
the Unity in Trinity, and to assert the co-equality of the

Period.)

TO T H E DEATH O F GREGORY T H E F I R S T .

139

Son with the Father, in opposition to the Arians. At
last, the Spanish Church made an addition to the Creed,
in accordance with the Western doctrine. In 589 the
Council of Toledo added " Filioque" to the words " Sp.
S. qui procedit a Patre." This step was regarded by the
Oriental Church as bold and dangerous, and immediately
led to vehement controversy.
589

The Council of Toledo enacts, that no clergyman shall
accuse another before a civil magistrate (a rule frequently
established by other councils also). Magistrates to attend
in ecclesiastical councils once a year, in order to receive
admonitions concerning their duties.
Many regulations made by councils respecting the discipline of the clergy.
The Council of Toledo enacts, that the Nicene Creed
be repeated by all persons before communicating in the
Lord's supper (as a protection against Arianism).
John Philoponus, a Christian philosopher, fl.
Successful war of the emperor with Persia.

590

Agilulph, King of the Lombards.
Agilulph was tolerant of the Catholics. He eventually
embraced the Nicene doctrines.
GREGORY I.

591

(OR T H E GREAT)

POPE.

Mauritius restores Chosroes II. to the throne of Persia.
Peace with Persia.
f Sulpicius Severus.
The popes are now in possession of large revenues,
arising from landed estates, cattle, &c. continually in-

140

FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL

creased by presents and testamentary bequests*
mony of the Church, or of St. Peter.)

{Second

{Patri-

Gregory's Regulae Pastoralis Liber.
Gregory, by virtue of authority committed to him (as
he said) by God and St. Peter, exercises jurisdiction
over foreign bishops; e. g. the bishop of Thessaly, and
Maximus, Bishop of Salona in Dalmatia.
The Emperor Mauritius forbids certain classes of his
. subjects to embrace the monastic life. Gregory expostulates.
"j" Gregory, Bishop of Tours, historian of the Franks.
| John the Faster. Cyriacus, Patriarch of Constantinople, perseveres in using the style of QEcumenieal Bishop.
Opposed in this by Gregory.
. Gregory strenuously opposes the practice of buying
and selling ecclesiastical offices, which he denominates
the heresy of Simon Magus, or Simony. This practice
encouraged by the French kings.
In the Epistles of Gregory frequent mention of Cardinales Episcopi, Presbyteri, Diaconi.
Correspondents (Apocrisiarii) and^M?0cafes(Defensores)
resident at the court of Constantinople.
* Gregory the Great sends monks into Britain under
Augustin. Ethelbert, King of Kent, who had married
Bertha, daughter of Charibert, King of Paris, favourably
disposed towards the Christian religion.
#• Ethelbert, King of Kent, chief of the Anglo-Saxon
kings, baptized by Augustin. Christianity generally
embraced in Kent.
Gregory, himself formerly a monk, a great friend and

Period.)

TO THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST.

141

• promoter of monastic life and institutions. He endeavours
to improve the state of monastic discipline; allows bishops
and other clergy to be chosen from among monks; but
seeks to prevent the blending of the two orders, monastic
and clerical. He frequently granted to monasteries certain exemptions from episcopal jurisdiction, and forbade
bishops to interfere unnecessarily in the affairs of monks.
But monasteries were still, to a great degree, subject to
the visitation and superintendence of bishops.
. Choral singing patronised and promoted by Gregory
the Great.
Gregory a great promoter of ceremonial observances in
Christian worship: removed many old customs ,• established some new ones. Gregory's Liber Sacramentorum.
All worship of images was disclaimed and censured by
Gregory, who however maintained that images may be
of use, especially to the unlearned, as remembrancers, or
incentives to devotion, and as vehicles of instruction.
In France, Childebert II. fixes a rate of fines to be
levied upon all persons neglecting the observance of the
Lord's day.
Gregory required the clergy to celebrate marriages,
J baptisms, and funerals, without fees; but allowed them to
accept voluntary offerings on such occasions.
Gregory endeavoured to check the disorders which prevailed in the lives of the clergy, arising from the institution of celibacy. But he was a zealous supporter of the
system of clerical celibacy itself.
599

End of the war between the Greeks and Lombards.

J600

I Venantius Fortunatus, Bishop of Poitiers/a Christian
poet.

601

Council at Rome.
asserted.

Rights and privileges of monks

#• Augustin, first Archbishop of Canterbury, was en1 joined by Gregory to appoint twelve bishops under him-

142

FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL

(Second

self, one of whom (the bishop of York), after his death,
and upon the establishment of Christianity in his part of
the country, should in like manner appoint twelve subordinate suffragan bishops. Probably this plan was never
carried into effect.

602

PHOCJS}

EMP.

EAST.

* In a conference with the ancient British bishops, who
still retained the old Oriental custom of celebrating Easter,
and other peculiar practices, Augustin endeavours to persuade them to conform to the Roman ritual. He almost
prevails, by means of a pretended miracle. But afterwards, in a council, they refuse to comply.
During the last century, it was common for missionaries
among the Barbarians to report false prodigies, and even
to pretend to the power of working miracles. The standard of Christian doctrine which they taught was very
low. " The principal injunctions they imposed upon
their rude proselytes was, that they should get by heart
certain summaries of doctrine, and pay to the images of
Christ and the saints the same religious services which
they had formerly offered to the statues of their Gods."
Paganism is strangely blended with Christianity in
many countries. Licences to sacrifice to heathen gods
are now sometimes granted by (Christian) magistrates,
upon payment of a certain fee.
Gregory intolerant of all reputed heretics and schismatics.
Arian and Donatist parties may now be regarded as at
an end.
Pelagians, Nestorians, Manichteans, still subsist.
Gregory is a great enemy of ancient (profane) literature,
but a zealous promoter of theological schools, and
therein especially of psalmody. Isidore, Bishop of Seville,

Period.)

TO THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST,

148

makes great efforts for the promotion of theological
learning.
Ancient literature henceforward more and more denounced as worldly wisdom (literse seculares, sapientia
secularis), unprofitable, and even injurious to Christian
students.
604

f Gregory the Great,
distinguished by his practice of ascetic piety, — his encouragement of learning, — liberality in almsgiving, —
and his endeavours to maintain strict discipline among
his clergy.
The name of Gregory the Great closes the list of writers
commonly called Fathers of the Church. After this time,
theological literature was at its lowest ebb. Some germs
of it, however, were found in Ireland, England, Spain,
Italy, and France. The study of Scripture and of the
writings of the Fathers was prosecuted especially in Irish
monasteries, which became the seminaries of a new speculative dialectic system — the scholastic.
Throughout this period, the bishops and whole body of
clergy had been subject to the temporal princes and
governors of their several countries.
A general expectation of an approaching end of the
world prevails.
Doctrine of Purgatory.
Gregory positively asserted the hypothetical doctrine of
Augustin (see 409), respecting the purgation of souls by
fire after death, and before the resurrection; and established the doctrine as an article of faith.
The Eucharist.
During the first $ix centuries, the doctrine concerning
the elements of the Lord's supper, or the relation of the
signs to the things signified, was stated by ecclesiastical
wTriters in three different ways.—First, the theological
position, which appears to have been the prevalent eccle-

144

F R O M T H E F I R S T G E N E R A L COUNCIL

(Second

I siastical notion, represented the bread and wine as being
closely united to the body and blood of Christ, — and as
it were penetrated or saturated with the sacred substance.
This idea is found in the writings of Ignatius, Justin
M a r t y r , Irenaeus, Hilary of Poitiers, Didymus of Alexandria, Cyril of Jerusalem, Gregory of Nyssa, Ambrose,
Chrysostom, Cyril of Alexandria, Theodoret. — Secondly,
Some regarded the bread and wine as mere signs or symbols, supposing however, at the same time, that the body
and blood of Christ stood in some sacred and supernatural
relation to them. T h e patrons of this opinion (sometimes
with approximation to the former) were Tertullian,
Cyprian, Athanasius, and Augustin. — Thirdly, Others
maintained that the signs and things signified were entirely
distinct; b u t they held that a supernatural sanctifying
efficacy attended the whole celebration of the rite. T h e
writers who adopted this view (sometimes with a leaning
to the second opinion) were Clement of Alexandria,
Origen, Eusebius of Csesarea, and Gregory Nazianzen.
No traces of the later doctrine of Transubstantiation
are discoverable in any of these writers, except perhaps
Gregory of Nyssa.

L I S T OF PATRIARCHS

AND

325
325. Alexander,

TO

Constantinople,

3 2 6 . Athanasius, Alexandria.
337.

J U L I U S , ROME.

339. Eusebius, Constantinople.
341. Paul and Macedonius, Constantinople,
Deposed and restored in turns
during several years.

P O P E S , FROM THE

604.
triarchs of Constantinople in italics, without any other distinction,
356. F E L I X .

360.

Eudoxus.

366.

DAMASUS.

370. Demophilus.
380. Gregory Naz.
381. Nectarius.

347. Leontius, Antioch.

384.* SIRICIUS.

352.

398. Chrysostom.

L I B E R I U S , ROME.

Henceforth, in this list the names of
the BISHOPS OF R O M E , or P O P E S , will be

printed in capitals, and those of the P « -

YEAR

—.

ANASTASIUS I.

402. INNOCENT I.
404, Arsacius.

Period,) TO THE DEATH OF GREGORV THE FIRST
405. Atticus.

532.
535.

417. ZOSIMUS I.
419. BONIFACE I.
4 2 2 . CCELESTINUS.

—
536.

145

JOHN II.
AGAPETUS.

Anthimus

I.

SILVERIUS.

426. Sisinnius I.
428. Nestorius.
431. Maximian.

552.

432.

SIXTUS

555.

PELAGIUS I.

434.
440.
447.
449.
458.
461,

Proclus.
LEO I. ( T H E G R E A T ) .
Flavian.
Anatolius.
Gennadius.
HILARY.

559.

JOHN

468.

SIMPLICIUS.

—

III.

*

471. Acacius.
483. FELIX II. (III.).

489.
492.
496.

Euphemius.
GELASIUS I.
ANASTASIUS IL

—

Macedonius.

498.

SYMMACHUS.

511.

Timotheus.

514.

HORMISDAS.

518. John
523.

II.

J O H N I.

—

Epiphanius.

526.
530.

F E L I X III.
BONIFACE IL

Mennas.

538.

VIGILIUS.

Eutychius.
III.

565. (John III

Scholasticus.

Eutychius deposed).
573.

BENEDICT I.

577.

Eutychius
restored.

5.78.

PELAGIUS II.

582. John IV. (the Faster).
590. GREGORY I. OR T H E
GREAT.
595. Cyriacus.
597. * Augustin
First Archbishop of Canterbury.
Henceforth the names of these archbishops will be added, — printed in R o man letters, with an asterisk prefixed;
so that this list will contain the names
of
POPES,
Patriarchs of Constantinople,
* Archbishops of Canterbury.

COUNCILS FROM THE YEAR 325 TO 604.
325.

330.
331.
334.
335.

336.

NioffiA I.

F I R S T GENERAL

(against Arius ; on discipline).
Alexandria. Carthage.
Antioch (Arian).
Caesarea (Arian).
Tyre.
Jerusalem (Eusebian ; against Athanasius,
and in favour of Arius).
Constantinople (Eusebian ;
against Marcellus and
Athanasius).

339. Antioch.
Constantinople
(Arian).
340. Alexandria (in favour of
Athanasius).
341. Rome (in favour of Athanasius).
— Antioch (Marcellus and
Athanasius again deposed).
343 Antioch (by Eusebians ;
fruitless embassy to the
West).

146

FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL

346. Milan (in favour of the
Creed of Nicsea).
(344) 347. Sardica and Philippopolis (by Eusebians).
348. Carthage (under Gratus;
on discipline).
349. Jerusalem. Rome (in favour of Athanasius).
— Cordova (confirming the decrees of Sardica).
351. Sirmium I. (against the
doctrine of Photinus).
352. Egypt. Rome (in favour
of Athanasius).
353. Aries (against Athanasius).
354. Antioch (against Athanasius).
355* Milan (Athanasius again
condemned).
356. Beziers (Hilary deposed
by Arians).
357. Sirmium II. (strict Arian,
or Anomoean. Photinus
deposed).
353, Antioch
(strict
Arian;
under Eudoxius and Acacius).
— Ancyra (Homceousian or
Semiarian; under Basil
of Ancyra and George of
Laodicea).
— Sirmium III.
359. Sirmium IV.
— Rimini (Western; against
Arius).
— Seleucia (Oriental; Semiarian).
360. Constantinople (Arian).
361. Paris.
— Antioch (Arian).
362 & 363. Alexandria (under
Athanasius).
363. Antioch
(Nicene Creed
adopted by Arian bishops).

364.
366.

367.
369.

370.
372.
—
374.
375.
376.
377.
378.
379.
380.
380

(Second

Between 347 & 380. Gangra; but some assign an
earlier date.
Lampsacus (by Macedonians).
Rome (Macedonians adopt
the Nicene Creed).
About this time, Laodicea
(on discipline).
Rome. Antioch.
Rome (in favour of Nicene
doctrine; against Ursacius and Valens).
Alexandria (under Athanasius).
Rome (Auxentius excommunicated).
Antioch. Nicopolis.
Rome (against Apollinarists).
Illyria. Ancyra.
Nyssa.
Rome. Puza in Phrygia.
Cyzica (Semiarian, & c ) .
Rome (against Apollinarists).
Rome (against Arians, & c ) .
Antioch (Homceousian).
Antioch.
or 381. Saragossa (against
Priscillianists).

381. CONSTANTINOPLE I.
COND GENERAL.

SE-

— Aquileia (under Ambrose).
382. Constantinople. Rome.
384. Bourdeaux (against Priscillianists).
386. Rome (on discipline).
389. Carthage (on discipline).
391. Antioch. Sida (against the
Messalians).
— Capua (under Ambrose;
concerning the Meletian
Schism at Antioch, and
against Bonosus).
393. Hippo (under Aurelius,

Period.)

TO T H E DEATH OF GREGORY T H E FIRST.

Bishop of Carthage; on
discipline).
393. Sangara (by Novatians ; celebration of Easter).
397. Byzacium (on discipline).
— Carthage (on discipline).
398. Carthage (on discipline).
399. Alexandria.
Jerusalem.
Cyprus (Origenist doctrines condemned).
400. Ephesus (under Chrysostorn. Gerontius, Bishop
of Nicomedia, deposed).
— Rome (against the Donatists).
— Toledo I. (communion between Priscillianists and
other bishops).
401. (or between 399 and 402.)
Turin (dispute between the
Bishops of Vienne and
Aries).
— Carthage.
— Milevi (concerning the Donatists).
403. Chalcedon; ad Quercum
(against Chrysostom).
— Constantinople (in favour of
Chrysostom).
— Carthage (concerning the
Donatists).
404. Constantinople (Chrysostom
deposed).
405* Carthage.
407. Carthage (on discipline,&c).
408. Carthage.
409. Carthage.
410. Carthage.
— Seleucia (on discipline).
411 Conference with Donatists
at Carthage.
412. Carthage (Ccelestius condemned).
— Cirta (against the Donatists).

147

414. Africa (by Donatists).
— Jerusalem (against Pelagius).
415. Diospolis (under Eulogius.
Pelagius acquitted.)
416. Carthage (against Pelagius).
— Milevi (against Pelagius).
417. Carthage (Pelagius again
condemned).
418. Various councils in Africa
on discipline.
— Carthage (against Pelagius).
419. Carthage (against appeals to
Rome).
423. Cilicia (against Pelagians).
424. Antioch (against Pelagians).
425, Carthage (against appeals to
Rome).
426. Constantinople.
— Hippo.
430. Rome. Alexandria (against
Nestorius).
431. EPHESUS, T H I R D GENERAL
(againstPelagius and Nestorius).
434, Edessa (against the doctrines of Theodore of
Mopsuestia).
435. Antioch (concerning Theodore of Mopsuestia and
his doctrines).
440. Antioch (Theodore condemned).
441. Orange (on discipline).
442, Vaison. Aries (on discipline).
447. Toledo (against Priscillianists).
448, Antioch (Ibas, accused of
Nestorianism, acquitted).
f Constantinople (Eutyches,
448 J
charged with Apollon449
L arianism, condemned).
449, Ephesus (under Dioscurus ;
in favour of Eutyches.
Synod of Robbers).

L 2

148

FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL

449. Rome (against the proceedings at Ephesus).
450. Constantinople (against Eutychian and Nestorian
doctrines).
451. CHALCEDON, FOURTH G E NERAL
(against Euty-

—
452.
453.
455.
457.
465.
471.
475.

476.

477.
478.
481.

484.
—

485-

—
492.

chian and Nestorian errors ; on discipline).
Milan. Aries (against Eutychians).
Aries (on discipline).
Angers (on discipline).
Aries,
Alexandria (against the
Council of Chalcedon).
Rome (on discipline).
Antioch (Peter the Fuller
deposed).
Aries. Lyons (against Lu~
cidus, accused of Predestinarianism).
Ephesus. (under
Timotheus iElurus; by the
opponents of the Council
of Chalcedon).
Alexandria (against the
Council of Chalcedon).
Constantinople (Peter the
Fuller deposed).
Laodicea (Stephen, Patriarch of Antioch, accused of
Nestorianism, acquitted).
Rome.
Conference at Carthage between Arians and Catholics. (No agreement).
Seleucia (two councils concerning marriage of the
clergy; conflicting decisions).
Rome.
Constantinople (under Euphemius; for confirmation of the canons of
Chalcedon).

(Second

495. Rome.
496. Constantinople (Euphemius
deposed and excommunicated).
— Rome (canon of Scripture).
Several councils in Asia
about this time in favour of
the marriage of the clergy.
499. Rome.
500. Lyons (conference between
Catholics and Arians.)
501. Rome (concerning the dispute between Symmachus
and Laurentius).
502. Rome; St/nodus Palmaris
(in favour of Symmachus).
504. Rome (Church property).
506. Agde (on discipline).
509. Antioch.
511. Orleans (on discipline).
— Sidon (against the Council of Chalcedon).
512. Antioch (Severus made patriarch).
516. Constantinople (against the
Council of Chalcedon).
516. Tarragona (on discipline).
517* Epaonum (on discipline).
— Lyons (on discipline).
518. Constantinople (Council of
Chalcedon confirmed. Severus condemned).
— Jerusalem.
Tyre (Confirming the decrees of the
preceding council).
519. In Wales (David made archbishop).
520. Constantinople (Epiphanius
made patriarch).
524. Lerida.
— Valentia.
— Aries (on discipline).
525. Carthage.
527. Toledo (on discipline).
529. Orange (against Semipelagian doctrines).

Period,)

529.
530,
533.
534.
535.
—
536.
—
538.
540.
541.
—
542.
543.
546.
546.
548.
549,

TO T H E DEATH O F GREGORY THE FIRST.

Vaison (on discipline).
531. Rome.
Orleans (on discipline).
Rome.
Carthage.
Clermont in Auvergne (on
discipline).
Constantinople (against Severus and Anthimus).
Jerusalem (confirmatory of
the preceding council).
Orleans (on discipline).
Orleans (on discipline).
Orleans (on discipline).
Byzacena (on discipline).
Antioch(againstOrigenists).
Constantinople
(against
Origenists).
Lerida (on discipline).
Valentia (on discipline).
Constantinople (against the
Tria Capitula).
550. In Illyria and at Carthage (in support of the
Tria Capitula).

553. CONSTANTINOPLE I I . T H E
F I F T H GENERAL (against

the opinions of Origen
and the Tria Capitula).
— Jerusalem (confirming the
decrees of the preceding
council).
554. Aries (on discipline.)
556. Aquileia (against the decrees of the last general
council).

149

557. Paris (Church property).
560. * LlandafF (native princes
excommunicated for murder).
563. Braga (against Arians and
Priscillianists).
566. Lyons (on discipline).
567. Tours (on discipline).
572. Braga (on discipline).
576. Seleucia (on discipline).
580* Braine (in favour of Gregory
of Tours).
581. Alexandria (on discipline).
— Toledo
(re-baptism
of
Arians).
582. Macon (on discipline).
583. Lyons (on discipline).
585. Macon (observance of the
Lord's day, &c).
5S6. Auxerre (confirmatory of
the foregoing).
588. Constantinople (in favour of
Gregory of Antioch).
589. Toledo (Arianism abjured).
— Narbonne (on discipline).
590. Seville (on discipline).
592. Saragossa
(concerning
Arians conforming to the
Catholic faith).
595. Rome (on discipline).
597. Toledo (on discipline).
598. Huesca (on discipline).
599. Barcelona (on discipline).
601. Sens (reformation of manners, &c).

END OF THE SECOND PERIOD.

L 3

PERIOD III.
F R O M T H E D E A T H OF GREGORY T H E FIRST TO T H E
D E A T H OF CHARLEMAGNE.

604—814,

(PHOCAS,

EMP.

EAST.)

Goar, a French hermit, propagates the Gospel on the
Rhine, where it had been nearly exterminated by the
incursions of Barbarians.
N.B. Germany received the Gospel first from the
Romans, — then from Gaul, — and afterwards, more especially, from the British Islands. About this time, monks
from England and Ireland greatly contribute to the propagation of Christianity in that country. Columban.
Gall us.
sc Christianity embraced in Essex.
f
Columban, driven from Germany by the opposition of
the nobles, removes to Switzerland; whence he was afterwards obliged to retire.
Gallus (St. Gall) propagates Christianity in Switzerland and Suabia.
# Heathen temples in Britain turned into churches ;
ancient pagan rites and ceremonies retained, and christianized, as far as possible, among the Anglo Saxons.
$• Augustin, Archbishop of Canterbury, laboured to
induce the British churches to conform and submit to
Rome. His attempts were resisted ; whereupon he endeavoured to force a compliance.

Third Period.)

FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY, ETC.

151

Soon after the death of Gregory, a superstitious use of
pictures and images became prevalent in the West, and was
sanctioned by the heads of the Church. The Gallican
Church, however, adhered rather to the principles of
Gregory.
Phocas concedes to Boniface I I I . the primacy of the
Church of Rome, declaring it the head of all churches,
not excepting even that of Constantinople. But the pope
does not exercise unlimited dominion over the whole
Church during this century. Eastern and ^British
Churches do not acknowledge the primacy of Rome. But
some say that the supremacy of the bishop of Rome was
acknowledged in England at this time.
Theodorus, a presbyter, asserts the genuineness of the
pretended works of Dionysius the Areopagite. These
works acquire great credit in the East, and contribute to
the growth of a contemplative or mystical theology during
this century.
HEBACLIUS,

EMP.

EAST.

t Moschus, monastic historian.
Mohammed begins to propagate his doctrines at Mecca*
The Avares conquer Istria. The Persians masters of
Syria and Cappadocia; and afterwards of Palestine and
Egypt.
Boniface IV. established a festival in honour of All
Martyrs (whence came afterwards the Festival of All
Saints).
Clotaire II. sole monarch of France.
* Slaughter of twelve hundred monks of Bangor by
Ethelred, King of Northumberland, in consequence of
their resistance to papal dominion, and the introduction
of Romish ceremonies. (Some suppose that this massacre
took place at the instigation of Augustin or Ethelbert).
L 4

152

FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST

[Third

Columban died in a monastery which he had founded
at Bobium, in a valley of the Pennine Alps in Liguria.
The Benedictine monks and others are now zealously
employed in propagating the doctrine of Purgatory.
#• Westminster Abbey (St. Peter's and St. Paul's)
founded.
The ecclesiastical literature of this period consists
chiefly of
Catence Pdtrum,
Vitce Sanctorum^
Libri de Divinis Officiis.
Many churches were built about this time.
Bells begin to be applied to ecclesiastical uses.
FLIGHT OF MOHAMMED.

HEGIRA.

Successes of Heraclius against the Persians.
Monothelite Controversy.
Disputes between the Catholics and Monophysites continue. Heraclius, desirous of effecting an union between
the two parties, listens to a suggestion that such union
might take place if no mention were made of one or
two natures in Christ, but it were simply asserted that
there is in him only one will and mode of operation :
such was the origin of the Monothelite controversy.
#• Christianity received in Northumbria.
Dagobert, King of France.
#• The British churches refuse to submit to the au-

Period.)

TO THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE.

153

thority of the pope, Honorius, in the matter of the Paschal
controversy.
630

Mohammed captures Mecca.
Croatian s converted to Christianity.

631

# The East Angles christianized.

632

Death of Mohammed. The false prophet leaves Arabia
under the dominion of the Caliphs. Abu Beker, first
Caliph, compiles the Koran.

633

f Isidore, Bishop of Seville.

Monothelite Controversy,
Cyrus, Catholic Patriarch of Alexandria, declares, in
accordance with the emperor's views, that Christ, as God
and man in one person, wrought all his works by one
divine-human mode of operation (pia Szavdpixiri hvepyelu.).
Sophronius, a monk of Palestine, residing at Alexandria,
protests against the declaration of Cyrus, as favouring
Monophysite doctrines, and maintains that the two natures of Christ imply two corresponding modes of operation.
Sergins, Patriarch of Constantinople, advises Cyrus to
let the matter rest, as being attended with difficulties on
both sides.
634 I The Pope, Honorius, gives his opinion in favour of
Cyrus. He regards the whole question as one of idle
speculation, but considers the doctrine of two wills particularly dangerous.
He incurs the condemnation of
councils by his toleration of Monothelite doctrines.
Sophronius, nowPatriarch of Jerusalem, protests against
Monothelite doctrines, and contends that the doctrine of
two wills in Christ does not imply any opposition between
his divine and human nature.
Omar, second Caliph, pursues the victories of Mohammed.

154

FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST

634 I
635

637
638

{Third

* Christianity embraced in Wessex.
About this time a revised edition of the Dionysian Collection of Canons was published, under the name of Isidore
of Seville. Several editions of the canons and decretals
were from time to time published, having the Dionysian
collection for their basis.
Nestorian Christians preach the Gospel among the
Tartars; perhaps, also, their labours extended to China.
The followers of Mohammed begin to make inroads
upon the Christian churches in the East. In many
countries the doctrines of the false prophet supersede the
religion of the Gospel (as it was then professed) before
the close of the century.
Jerusalem in the hands of the Caliphs.
Antioch, and all Syria, under the Caliphs.
The kingdom of France again divided.
mayors of the palace established.

Power of the

Heraclius publishes an edict — " EXPOSITION OF THE
— in order to suppress the Monothelite controversy. Edict received at Constantinople by councils under Sergius and Paulus (638, 639). The two patriarchs
of Rome, Severinus and John IV., protest against the
edict as favouring Monothelitic views.
FAITH"

Qgg
640 [

641 j

Mesopotamia in the hands of the Mohammedans.
Alexandria, and all Egypt, in their power.
# Mercia receives Christianity.
CONSTANTINE

III,

HERACLEONAS,

EMP.

EAST,

to

then

CONSTANS

II,

668.

During this reign the empire rapidly declined. Constans purchased the retreat of the Saracens from Constantinople.
Gradual growth of episcopal power in the West, and espe-

Period.)

TO THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE.

J 55

daily of the authority of the bishop of Rome, after the
abolition of metropolitan influence.
Theodore assumes the title of
SOVEREIGN PONTIFF.

644

Othman, Caliph.
(al. 648.) Theodore,Patriarch of Rome, excommunicates
Cyrrhus, Patriarch of Constantinople, as a Monothelite.
Edict not universally received in the East. Maximus
strenuously defends Dyothelite doctrines. (Theodore
wrote his anathema with sacramental wine.)
Saracens make conquests in Africa.
— 650. Cyprus and Rhodes subdued by the Saracens.
#• Christianity had now made great progress among the
Anglo Saxons.
Constans publishes a new edict—" FORM OF THE FAITH,"

—forbidding all persons to raise the question concerning
one or two natures in Christ, and commanding all to abide
by the doctrine of the Fathers, and not to charge each
other with heresy. Unwelcome to the Catholics, as secretly
favouring Monophysite or Monothelite tenets, or as an
indication of gross latitudinarianism or indifference.
" T H E EXPOSITION " revoked.

Martin, Patriarch of Rome, rejects the edict of Constans. Holds a council in the Lateran Church at Rome
(First Lateran Council), which confirms the Dyothelite
doctrine, pronounces an anathema against the opposite
system of belief, its patrons, the patriarch of Constantinople, and the two imperial edicts.
Clerical celibacy is now strictly enforced.
ARABIAN SCHOOLS.

Expositors of Scripture are now few, and their works
are of a very inferior kind.

156

050 j

FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST

{Third

Paulicians.
Gnostic sects, as such, are now no longer found. But in
this century the sect of the Paulicians maintained GnosticoManichaean opinions (chiefly Marcionite), in combination
with a deeply religious or mystical sentiment, opposed to
ceremonial observances of the dominant Church. It was
their professed object to restore apostolic institutions and
discipline in their churches, and especially to follow the
rules and examples of St. Paul; whence probably their
name. Photius says that the sect originated with two
brothers, Paul and John, of Samosata, who flourished
about 650. Soon after that date, Constantine (called
Sylvanus) was at the head of an establishment of this
sect at Cibossa in Armenia.
During this age Christian doctrine became more and more
obscured by prevailing superstition and ignorance. Fables
and errors relating to purgatory, demonology, and the
authority of the pope, were exalted into articles of faith,
and confirmed by fictitious miracles.
Strenuous asserters of great truths, in opposition to the
tide of error and false doctrine, were not altogether
wanting.
Concerning rites and ceremonies about this period, the
following particulars are worthy of note: —
1. A long and even sanguinary struggle in England
concerning the celebration of Easter.
2. A dispute in England concerning the threefold tonsure of St. Peter, St. Paul, and Simon the Sorcerer.
3. The introduction of bells.
4. The prevalence of the Latin language in the offices
of divine worship, to the exclusion of the vernacular
tongues.
The festival of All Martyrs in Italy,—of the Ascension
in the Greek Church, — and the Elevation of the Cross.
The system of so-called spiritual relationship.
The celebration of private masses.

Period.)
I

TO THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE.

157

The excessive extension of rights of asylum already
granted to churches.

651

Persia completely in the power of the Saracens.
Emmeran spreads Christianity in Bavaria.

653

The emperor proceeds against Martin and Maximus
Confessor as guilty of high treason. Martin made prisoner, taken to Constantinople, deposed, and banished,
together with Maximus.
The Western Church had now broken off communion
with the Eastern, which inclined for the most part to
Monothelite doctrines. The Dyothelite system of the
West eventually prevailed also in the East.
Many severe persecutions and forced conversions of
the Jews in Spain, until the overthrow of the kingdom of
the Visigoths.

Q55

Ali, Caliph.

Dissensions among the Saracens.

In the East, the civil power is supreme, and the ecclesiastical subordinate. In the West, the influence and authority
of the Church predominate.
The patriarch of Rome now lays claim to the exclusive
appellation of POPE, which had been gradually conceded
to him.
The possessions of the Church, having been continually
enlarged by the donations of princes, and the benefactions of
charitable individuals, are now very extensive.
The earlier sects and parties had now been, for the
most part, overborne and suppressed. But the Nestorians
and Eutychians subsisted in the Eastern provinces, and
enjoyed liberty of conscience under the Mohammedan
conquerors of those regions.
661

Moawiah, first of the Ommiyade Caliphs, at Damascus.

158

FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST

{Third

f Ildefonsus, Bishop of Toledo.
Grimoald, King of the Lombards, makes inroads upon
Lower Italy.
7 Maximus Confessor, Byzantine secretary of state,
and afterwards a monk. He wrote a commentary on
the pretended works of Dionysius the Areopagite, and
introduced into the East a compound system of theology,
dialectic and mystical.
The Pope does homage to the emperor at Rome.
Exclusive use of the Latin language in the offices of
divine worship enjoined.
#• In the Council of Whitby, the question concerning
the time of observing Easter in Great Britain was decided
in favour of the Roman method.
# Various seminaries of religious learning in Great
Britain.
CONSTANTINE

XIV.

(POGONATUS) EMP.

EAST.

% Theodore consecrated archbishop of Canterbury,
on the nomination of the pope (Vitalian). Theodore was
a native of Tarsus in Cilicia. He was a patron of theological learning.
—676. The Saracens besiege Constantinople during the
summers of seven successive years. The city saved by
the Greek fire.
Grimoald, King of the Lombards, renounces Arianism,
and conforms to the Catholic Church.
Mention of the Athanasian Creed, at Autun, this
year.
The Council of Toledo enacts canons against Simony,
and enforcing the study of Scripture among the clergy.

Period.)

To

THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE.

159

#• Use of the Latin language in divine worship gradually established in England,
# In England, Theodore, Archbishop of Canterbury,
promotes the establishment of parish churches, and gives
the right of patronage to the founders.
* It is supposed that the payment of tithes was established in Britain at the period of the conversion of
the Anglo Saxons. The custom may have been introduced by Augustin.
Superstition continually increases, and vice abounds
more and more, especially among the clergy.
The monastic orders of the West begin to be peculiarly
attached to the see of Rome, partly perhaps as a means
of escaping the more immediate authority of their lawful
superiors — the local bishops.
#• Wilfrid, Archbishop of York (i. e. of all Northumbrian resists the attempt of Theodore to divide his
bishopric, and appeals to the pope. The pope decides
in his favour; but he was deprived and imprisoned by
Egfred. He was afterwards successively reinstated, and
deposed, and reinstated again. The Saxon kings resisted
the undue interference of Rome.
N.B. At this time a certain deference was paid to the
decisions of Rome, and precedence was conceded to it as
an elder church. But the Saxon kings did not yield to
the pope ecclesiastical power within their dominions.
Rome had not yet obtained spiritual supremacy in Britain.

678

*• Christianity received in Sussex.
$• Conversion of the Heptarchy complete.
The Eastern Church has now made a collection of
canon laws.

680

The Bulgarians establish a kingdom between the
Danube and the Balkan. (This became a Greek province in 1018.)

160

FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST

(Third

Constantine Pogonatus, in order to settle the differences
between the Eastern and Western Churches, convenes
the
COUNCIL OF CONSTANTINOPLE (SIXTH GENERAL).

The Council decides in favour of Dyothelitic doctrines.
George, Patriarch of Constantinople, abandons the Monothelitic party; Macarius, Patriarch of Antioch, persevering in his attachment to that cause, is deposed. All
Monothelites, including Honorius, former Bishop of Rome,
anathematized.
The council, by its decrees, demands the acknowledgment of two wills and modes of operation in Christ,
corresponding to His two natures, without division and
opposition, and without confusion, the human will being
always subordinate to that which is divine and almighty.
The Paulicians suffer persecution. Constantine, their
leader, is put to death by order of the emperor. Soon
afterwards, Simeon, who was employed in the execution
of the sentence, became a convert to their opinions, and
was recognised as a leader of the sect, under the name of
Titus.
% Laws relating to the celibacy of the clergy were nominally in force in the Anglo Saxon Church, at a very early
period of its history.
Vamba, King of the Visigoths in Spain, deposed by
the Council of Toledo.
Leo usurps the right of Investiture.
JUSTINIAN

II.

EMP.

EAST.

Abdul-Melech, Caliph,
(remarkable for his hostility to Christianity).
to 695. Fresh persecution of the Paulicians.
and others put to death.

Simeon

Period.)

686 I

To

THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE.

161

f

Anastasius, a monk of Mount Sinai.
687 J Pepin d' Heristal, Mayor of the Palace, ruler of all
France. The French kings are now mere ciphers.
690

692 J

Kilian preaches among the Franks.
Willibrod preaches in Holland and Friesland.
The Trullan Council (at Constantinople) completes the
fifth and sixth general councils by some canons relating
to the government and constitution of the Church. (Hence
called Quinisextum.)
Celibacy of ^Bishops enjoined in the Eastern Church.
The Trullan Council decrees that married bishops
shall separate from their wives; but allows all other orders
of clergy to retain them. The contrary enactment of the
Church of Rome censured.
It is probable that the worship of images had now
prevailed to a very considerable extent.
Restoration of discipline attempted by means of Penitentiaries, canons of councils having been found ineffectual.
Erroneous views respecting the effects of excommunication, and abuses in connection with satisfaction and
penance, have now gained ground. No trace of Indulgences.

695

Justinian deposed.
LEONTIUS,

EMP.

EAST.

* Adamnan, Abbot of Hy in Scotland, conforms to
the customs of the Church of Rome.
696

Rupert, Bishop of Worms, baptizes Theodo II. Duke
of Bavaria; and labours successfully for the establishment
of Christianity in that country. He died in 718.
Willibrod, an English monk and presbyter, who had
successfully laboured for the propagation of Christianity
in Franconian Friesland, and founded the archbishopric
M

162

FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST

{Third

I of Utrecht, was this year consecrated archbishop at
Rome, under the name of Clemens.
697
Carthage in the hands of the Saracens.
Christians in China (where the Gospel had probably
been preached during the early centuries) persecuted.
They were tolerated again in course of the next century.
—

Election of a chief at Venice, with the title of Doge or
Duke.
Leontius deposed.

698
I

TIBERIUS III.

EMP. EAST.

END OF
The emperors and kings of Spain, France, England,
g1^ and Italy, continue to assert and exercise their rights in
VENTH ecclesiastical matters, and maintain them against attempted
Tirny. encroachments on the part of Roman patriarchs.
The patriarchs of Rome continue to acknowledge the
supremacy of the emperor.
They still send their confession of faith to other patriarchs, and even confirm it with an oath, on coming to the
see.
Their election is confirmed by the emperor, or the
exarch of Ravenna.
They extend their influence by sending the archiepiscopal pall to foreign prelates; a present which, conveyed
through the hands of monks, tends also to increase the
importance of that order, to the prejudice of the bishops.
Councils,
During this century, were for the most part convened,
and their acts were confirmed, by temporal princes.
They sometimes proceeded to condemn even the patriarch of Rome.
Their numerous regulations and enactments were detrimental to Christian morality.
They often contradicted each other.
Ceremonies to be observed on occasion of their assemI blingwere made the subject of express laws and regulations.

Period,)

TO THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE.

163

E N D OFI
THE
SEVENTH
CEN.

Some special endowments of tithes were probably made
before the end of this century.
Many good laws and regulations were made during
TURY. I this century, concerning the election and appointment of
clergy; but they were frequently neglected.
We now find frequent mention of the following ecclesiastical officers, whose origin, however, may be traced to
an earlier (but uncertain) date: — Syncelli and Protosyncelli; Scenophylaces; Chartophylaces; Apocrisiarii.
The great controversies with Jews, Heathen, and false
teachers, still employ the pens of some writers. The
custom of discussing frivolous questions and subtleties is
also introduced into Christian polemics.
Great corruption of morals among Christians continues
to prevail. The penitentiary books, first introduced by
Theodore, Archbishop of Canterbury, are supposed to
have increased this demoralisation in the West.
But the age is not without proofs of the exercise of
practical religion.
Monachism in great repute,
partly from the circumstance that many of the first
preachers of Christianity among the barbarous tribes were
monks, and partly in consequence of the advantageous
contrast between the lives and morals of the monks and
those of the more dissipated clergy.
Various privileges were granted to monasteries, but
without exemption from episcopal jurisdiction.
A large part of Christendom, especially in the East, was
now overspread by the propagators and adherents of a false
religion. This may be regarded as a divine chastisement for
the sins of the Church, in which genuine Christianity had
declined to afearful extent. But now also the religion of the
Gospel finds entrance among many uncivilised tribes and nations in the West, mingled at first with error and superstition,
M 2

164

FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST

(Third

but destined to be by those nations PRESERVED, GRADUALLY
PURIFIED^ and PROPAGATED throughout the world.
Maronites.
The remnant of the Monothelites now form a distinct
sect. They occupy a monastery near Mount Lebanon,
where they maintain their independence and the profession of their faith until the time of the Crusades. Their
first patriarch was John Maro. Hence they were called
Maronites. In the twelfth century these Maronites were
induced to conform to the creed of the Romish Church.
# Aldhelm, Abbot of Malmsbury, writes against the
celebration of Easter according to the ancient British
slebrat
custom.
JUSTINIAN

III.

EMP.

EAST,

restored.
Armenia in the hands of the Saracens.
#• Saxon translation of the Psalms by Aldhelm.
The whole of North Africa is now in the power of the
Saracens.
# f Aldhelm, Bishop of Sherborne.
Naiton, King of the Picts, renounces the ancient customs of his church, and conforms to the Church of Rome.
PHILIPPICUS,

EMP.

EAST.

First invasion of Europe by the Caliphs.
Spain in the power of the Saracens.
Roderic killed at Xeres. End of the Gothic monarchy
in Spain. Spain under the power of the Caliphs.
Luitprand, King of the Lombards.
The Emperor, Pbilippicus Bardanes, makes an unsuccessful attempt to restore the ascendancy of Monothelite
doctrines.

Period.)

TO THE DEATH OP CHARLEMAGNE.
ANASTASIJJS

II.

EMP.

165

EAST.

(714.) t Pepin d'Heristal.
The Spanish Christians (Mozarabes) recover their religious liberty.
(Saracens generally concede to Christians the exercise
of their worship in the conquered countries.)
Charles Martel, Mayor of the Palace; master of all
France (718).
Winfried (Boniface, the Apostle of Germany) undertakes his first missionary journey for the conversion of the
Frisons, but without success.
THEQDOSIUS

III.

EMP.

EAST.

% Bede contributes to the increase of theological learning in England.
LEO

III.

(ISAURICUS)

EMP.

EAST.

and 718. Saracens besiege Constantinople.
Desolating contests between the Mohammedan chiefs in
Spain.
The emperor (Leo the Isaurian) favours the Paulicia?is9
as enemies of superstition and image-worship. He caused
their leader Gegnasius to be heard in defence of their
opinions at Constantinople.
The power of Charles Martel was favourable to the in^
troduction of Christianity among the conquered people.
Winfried, convinced of the supreme authority of the
Romish see, and of the impossibility of laying the founda-*
tion of a church securely without adherence to it, goes to
Rome, and receives authority from Gregory X I . to preach
the Gospel in Germany. He afterwards assisted Willibrod, Bishop of Utrecht, three years.
The Council of Rome enacts canons against the marriage of the clergy. It defines the degrees of consanguinity within which marriage is prohibited*
M

3

166

FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST

*

(Third

Saxon translation of the four Gospels, by E g b e r t .

Winfried preaches in T h u r i n g i a and Hesse.
Winfried at Rome, — consecrated archbishop, under t h e
name of BONIFACE. — Convinced of the necessity of e n gaging the secular power on his side, as a defence against
the remaining influence of Heathenism, h e repairs to
Charles Martel, with a recommendatory letter from Rome,
and enters into an understanding with him. Preaches
again in Germany, and founds a church and monastery in
Thuringia.
D u r i n g this century, new life is given to the Gallican
Churchy which h a d suffered greatly from the rapacity of
the nobles, and from civil commotions.
$• About this time, two English missionaries, t h e
brothers Ewald, make an unsuccessful attempt to p r o pagate Christianity among the Saxons, a n d are p u t to
death.
Leo I I I . (the Isaurian) publishes a n edict prohibiting
the religious adoration of images, Germanus, Patriarch of
Constantinople, John of Damascus, a n d many monks,
oppose this edict.
Now begins the vexatious CONTROVERSY RESPECTING T H E

USE O F IMAGES, which continued to distract the Church
during the space of a hundred and twenty years, until 8 4 2 ,
when the superstitious practice was finally confirmed and
legalised,
* Inas, King of Wessex, founds a Saxon school a t Rome,
and makes a grant for its support.
Second edict of Leo prohibiting all image-worship under
severe penalties. Anastasius, Patriarch of Constantinople
in room of Germanus, supports the edicts.
Popular
tumults.
T h e Romans erect themselves into a republic; a t t h e
head of which they place the pope, who is intrusted with
the general administration of affairs.

Period.)
730

167

TO THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE.

f Corbinian. He had advanced the cause of Christianity
in Bavaria.
John of Damascus, promoter of dialectics and the Aristotelian philosophy in the East.
"j* Cosmas of Jerusalem, poet.
* With this year Bede's English Church History ends.
Boniface made archbishop and vicar apostolical.
Charles Martel defeats the Arabians at Tours, and
thus sets bounds to the inroads of Mohammedanism in
the West.
The popes attach themselves to Charles Martel in preference to the Emperor Leo.
Doctrine of the Church concerning the existence of God.
John of Damascus maintained that the knowledge of
God was originally implanted in the mind of man; but
that it had been taken away by the Evil One; and now
it is only by means of divine revelation that we are
enabled so to make use of our reason, as to argue from
the mutability of the creature to the unchangeableness of
the Creator.
* Saxon translation of St. John's Gospel, by Bede.
f Venerable Bede. (Alcuin born.)
Attempts to introduce Christianity into Denmark had
been unsuccessful.
Boniface erects bishoprics in various parts of Germany,
and adopts measures for the general establishment and
organisation of the Church in that country.

f Willibrod.
* First mention of the payment of tithes in Britain; but
not as a new custom.
741

CONSTANTINE

V. (COPRONYMUs) EMP.
M 4

EAST.

FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST

(Third

741 I

to 750. Constantine Copronymus perseveres in opposition to image-worship. Popular tumults in favour of
, image-worship quelled.
T H E POPES, HAVING BECOME MONARCHS OF THE CHURCH,
AIM AT SUPREMACY OVER TEMPORAL PRINCES.

—

A council held this year enjoins upon bishops and
abbots care for the due instruction of youth in Holy
Scripture; enacts that bishops shall preach during their
visitation journeys; and that priests shall teach the people
the creed and Lord's prayer.
* It appears that at this time the British Church was
not entirely independent of Rome. But there is no
proof that the supremacy or judicial authority of Rome
had been yet established in Britain.

743

First Provincial Council of Germany, under the presidency of Boniface, as pope's legate. Many such councils
under Boniface, for the purpose of enacting laws concerning the lives and manners of the clergy, spreading
religious knowledge among the people, healing divisions
and schisms, and condemning erroneous doctrines.
Sturmio, a disciple of Boniface, founds the abbey of
Fulda.
The archiepiscopal seat of Boniface fixed at Mentz,

744
745

747

Pilgrimages to Rome are now of frequent occurrence,
and often attended with disorderly conduct.
The Monastic Orders gradually obtain large accessions of
wealth.
* It was decreed by the Council of Cloveshoo that the
people should learn the creed, the Lord's prayer, and
some portions of the liturgy in the vulgar tongue.

749 i

Aistulph, King of the Lombards.

Period,)

7^0 I

TO THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE.

169

Abul Abbas, Caliph, first of the Abbassides.
(cir. 750.)
John of Damascus.
His " Exposition of the Orthodox Faith," a compound
of Aristotelian philosophy and Patristic doctrine, continued to be a standard of faith in the Eastern Church,
and exercised considerable influence also in the West.
His writings, in fact, gave a new turn to the method of
stating and expounding Christian doctrine.
Doctrine of the Church.
The churches retain the fundamental articles of Christian faith, but with certain corruptions, arising partly
from general ignorance, and partly from erroneous tenets,
especially those which were introduced by John of
Damascus.
The points of doctrine which now form the chief subjects of discussion are those relating to the person of
Christ and the procession of the Holy Ghost.
Religious controversy was now conducted solely with
arguments derived from the opinions and authority of
former teachers.
Church and State.
The kings of the Franks, before Charlemagne, assumed
the right of nominating bishops at their pleasure, either
gratuitously or for money, notwithstanding the protests
of popes and councils.
Provincial councils also fell into disuse during this
period, no merely ecclesiastical statute being allowed to
possess the force of a law. But they were revived after
Boniface had established such councils in Germany.
After this, the influence of the Church in matters of civil
government was considerable. To this influence, however, limits were set by Charlemagne, who divided the
estates of the kingdom into temporal and spiritual (the
latter consisting of the bishops), entrusting to the former

FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST

{Third

the care of civil matters, and to the latter the management of matters ecclesiastical, and ordaining that the
decrees of both should await the royal sanction.
In Spain, the Church had great influence in matters of
State. Here it was arranged that in the great national
assemblies ecclesiastical matters should first be arranged
by ecclesiastics alone, and then the temporal or civil
business should be conducted by ecclesiastics and laymen
conjointly.
The practice of religion now in the greatest esteem
consisted in the honouring of saints, contributing to the
erection of religious edifices, and making rich presents
to the clergy.
Pilgrimages also are in high repute.
The celebration of the Lord's supper is now entirely
converted into the so-called sacrifice of the mass.
Masses for the dead, for the sick, for fine weather.
The service much frequented by children.
Many Italian and Gallican bishops, following the example of Augustin in Africa, had endeavoured to establish certain rules and orders among the clergy, for the
better regulation of their morals and the preservation of
decorum. About this time, Chrodegang, Bishop of Metz,
succeeded in establishing rules for canons and chapters, in
imitation of the monastic (Benedictine) institutes, which
were confirmed in general by Charlemagne.
Childeric III., last of the Merovignian kings, deposed,
and shut up in a convent.
The Lombards attack Ravenna, and make themselves
masters of the Exarchate and Pentapolis.
Pepin the Short, sole monarch of France.
End of the Merovignian dynasty in France. End of the
Greek Exarchate in Italy.

Period.)

753 I

TO T H E DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE.

171

Almanzor, Caliph of the Arabians, a great promoter of
learning and science.
Boniface, choosing rather to labour as an apostle or
missionary, resigns his archbishopric (to Lull).

754

The emperor convenes a council at Constantinople,
designed as the Seventh General Council, which anathematizes all persons making images of Christ, as Nestorian or
Eutychian heretics; declares the eucharistic elements to
be the only lawful representation of our Lord's body;
and condemns the religious use of images in general.
At the same time, it anathematizes all opponents of the
religious veneration of Mary, and other saints. Opposition is offered by the monks, who defend the use of
pictures and images, and are severely treated in consequence. Opponents of image-worship — Iconomachi —
in the ascendant.

755

Abdalrahman, first of the independent Ommiyadan
Caliphs, at Cordova.
Boniface put to death by the heathen Frisons, after
having converted many of their countrymen to Christianity.
Christians in Syria forbidden to build new churches.

756

Pepin the Short confers the Exarchate and Pentapolis
upon St. Peter (the pope).
The donation of Pepin confirms and extends the secular
power of the pope. Origin of the pope's temporal sovereignty.
The clergy withdraw themselves more and more from
the jurisdiction of the civil magistrate. Their habits of
life, for the most part, are exceedingly dissolute and
vicious. But their fictitious piety is extolled, and their lying
wonders are believed; while some men of higher moral
character, who refuse to serve the avarice or ambition of
the order, are branded with infamy, as impious blasphemers,

172

FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST

(J'hird

Gregory of Utrecht, a disciple and companion of
Boniface, presides over a monastery in Friesland, where
he trains English, German, and Frankish youths as missionaries.
The kingdom of Oviedo or Leon founded, under
Alphonso I.
Desiderius, King of the Lombards.
Pepin expels the Arabs from Languedoc.
Ecclesiastical authority makes various encroachments on
the civil power.
France now possesses many schools.
* At York there is a school for the clergy, and a library.
Alcuin was educated there.
Gregory, disciple of Boniface, trains young men for the
work of promoting the conversion of the Saxons.
Almanzor makes Bagdad the capital of the Caliphate,
instead of Damascus.
Struggle for the see of Rome, between Constantine,
Philip, and Stephen.
Ecbert, Archbishop of York, makes a collection of
canon laws.
Charlemagne, King of the Franks.
Charlemagne endeavours to propagage Christianity
among the Saxons by force. Outward conformity occasionally produced; but the Saxons renounced Christianity as soon as they threw off the French yoke. Alcuin
advised the emperor to attempt their conversion by means
of instruction and conviction; but in vain.
The Eastern and Western Churches at variance respecting the doctrine of the double procession of the Holy
Spirit.

Period.)

T 0 THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE.

173

Charlemagne patronises andpromotes Literature in the West,
* Alcuin labours for the advancement of theological
# Alcuin labours
learning in England.

771

774

775

778

780

Charlemagne, sole king of France.
From this time, until the end of the century, Charlemagne successfully prosecutes wars against the Saxons,
Bohemians, and Huns. He compels the people whom
he conquers to embrace Christianity. This method of
propagating the Gospel by the sword was learnt, say
some, from the Mohammedans.
Under the dominion of the Franks, the clergy enjoyed
the privilege of exemption from military service; but
with two provisions, first, that the lands of abbots and
bishops should furnish due contributions for war; and
secondly, that no persons of free condition should enter
holy orders without permission from the superior magistrate. Hence many slaves were admitted into the clerical
body.
Charlemagne dethrones Desiderius, and puts an end
to the kingdom of the Lombards in Italy. He receives
the right of sovereignty over Rome and the ecclesiastical
states.
LEO IV. EMP. LAST.
(Irene, Empress.)
Leo IV. is opposed to image-worship. His queen,
Irene, a superstitious and depraved woman, favours it.
The practice of different churches, with respect to the
use and worship of images, varies, according to the different parts taken by their leaders in the controversy on
that subject now pending.
The payment of tithes for the first time rendered compulsory by a law of Charlemagne. *
After the death of Leo, and during the minority of his
son, Irene lends her support to the friends of imageworship.
Sergius, under the name of Tychichus, an active and
influential leader of the Paulicians; zealous especially in
the cause of practical Christianity. (He died in 811.)

174

FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST

780 I

CONSTANTINE

VI. EMP.

{Third

EAST.

His mother, the Empress Irene, Guardian, until 790.
782

From this time Alcuin is in France.
Many schools in cathedrals and monasteries founded
by Charlemagne.

784

Tarasius, Patriarch of Constantinople in the room of
Paul, seconds the views of Irene. He unites with the
Church of Rome, which had declared in favour of imageworship, and declares the last council not general.
Attempts at convening a general council at Constantinople frustrated by the opposition of opponents of imageworship.

78u

Haroun al Raschid, Caliph.
787

This year, the
at NICJEA

—

—

SEVENTH GENERAL COUNCIL

assembled

(IL).

Here the acts of the former council were annulled, and
the religious adoration of images was established (not
Xarpela, worship, but 7rpo(rxuvY}<ri$ TI^TITC^, veneration).
Adrian, of Rome, approved the acts of this council. But
the decree in favour of the religious veneration of images
was condemned by councils at Frankfort, Paris, and in
Britain.
Transubstantiation. The Second Council of Nicsea determines that the elements in the Lord's supper are the
very body and blood of Christ, not figures. Doctrine of
transubstantiation, not yet quite formed.
Charlemagne increases the grants of temporal possessions to the pope. He retains, however, complete
sovereignty over Rome, and is acknowledged by the
pope as supreme.
Adoptian Controversy.
Elipandus, Archbishop of Toledo, and Felix, Bishop of
Urgella in Catalonia, maintain that Christ, according to
I his divine nature, is the true Son of God (filius Dei,

Period.)

TO

THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE.

175

genere, natura); but, according to his human nature, the
Son of God only by adoption (filius Dei adoptivus; filius
Dei gratia, beneficio, voluntate, assumtione, electione).
Hence themselves and followers are called Adoptians.
This doctrine meets with violent opposition, as savouring
of Nestorianism, and tending to the denial of the true
and proper divinity of Christ.
Gradual foundation of churches and monasteries in
Saxony.
7y^

791
792

Charlemagne publishes a refutation of the principles
sanctioned by the Seventh General Council (Quatuor Libri
Carolini). He maintains, in accordance with the sentiments
of Gregory the Great, that no kind of veneration ought to
be paid to images or pictures, although they may be
lawfully and conveniently retained in churches as memorials of sacred subjects— incentives to devotion—a
means of instruction for the illiterate — and ornaments.
Charlemagne compels the Saxons to pay tithes.
At the Diet and Council of Ratisbon, the doctrine
of the Adoptians is condemned as heretical. Felix recants.
# Offa, king of Mercia and East Anglia, having
murdered his son-in-law Ethelbert, seeks to atone for his
crime by imposing a tax of one penny on each family in
his dominions, to be paid annually to the Roman see.
This, with a similar donation of Ina, King of the West
Saxons, in 725, lays the foundation of the tribute denominated
Peter's Pence.

793

Felix, after his return to Spain, maintains his former
opinions. Alcuin writes a refutation.

794

A council at Frankfort-on-the-Maine repeats the con-

176

FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST

(Third

demnation of Adoptian tenets, and decides in favour of
Charlemagne's positions respecting image-worship.
Felix defends his doctrine against Alcuin. Several
bishops unite with Alcuin in the controversy against him,
especially Paulinus, Bishop of Aquileia.
T h e universal payment of tithes enforced by a canon
of the Council of Frankfort.
Temporal princes and nobles are now in possession of the
principal church patronage.
Two celebrated forgeries, designed for the advancement of
the power of the Roman see, namelyr, the false Decretals, and
the Donation of Constantine, were published about this time.
Bishops have now begun to take an oath of allegiance
to the pope. T h e pope supreme in the Western Church,
although not yet quite absolute.
The Aristotelian philosophy is now in high repute in the
East
Charlemagne promotes the education of the clergy.
He
founds the Academy of Paris.
Homiliarium, a collection of sermons for all the Sundays
and Festivals of the year, selected from the writings of the
Fathers, especially Augnstin and Gregory the Great,
compiled by Paul Warnefried, and published by authority
of Charlemagne.
Charlemagne also patronised a revision and correction
of the Latin version of the Scriptures, which had been
disfigured with barbarisms.
Normans invade Ireland.
T h e conquests and dominions of Charlemagne continually increase.
I n a council held at Friuli, the doctrine of the double
procession of the Holy Ghost is asserted, and the words
Filioque added to the Nicene Creed.
IRENE,

EMPRESS

OF THE

EAST,

after the murder of her son.

Period.)

TO THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE.

177

Felix again retracts his Adoptian tenets at the Council
of Aix-la-Chapelle, after a disputation with Alcuin. Elipandus continued to maintain his tenets.
f Paul Warnefried (Paulus Diaconus).
Timothy, the Nestorian patriarch (778—820), is said
to have sent missionaries to the inhabitants of the borders
of the Caspian Sea, and as far as China and India.
CHARLEMAGNE, EMPEROR OF THE WEST.

Image-worship opposed by Charlemagne.
Prayers to the Virgin Mary and other Saints for intercession have become common.
Charlemagne transmitted the decrees of the Council of
Frankfort-on-the-Maine, and his books, to Adrian. The
pope compiled a Refutation of the Caroline treatise;
which, however, made no impression on the Gallican
Church.
Charlemagne was a great cultivator of church music
and psalmody, and promoted the celebration of divine
service in the vernacular tongue. Organs introduced
from the East to the West, but not yet employed in
public worship.
The Frankish liturgy made conformable to the Roman.
f George Syncellus, historian.
Tlie Caliphate begins to decline.
Irene deposed.
NlCEPHORUS (LOGOTHETJ),

EMP.

EAST.

(806.) The Saracens overrun Asia Minor, and compel
Nicephorus to pay tribute.
The Saxons finally subdued by Charlemagne.
T Alcuin.

Paulinus.
N

178

FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST

809 I

(Third

Charlemagne causes the addition of Filioque to the
Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed to be confirmed by the
Council of Aix-la-Chapelle. Leo declared the doctrine of
the double procession to be correct, but thought that the
Council of Constantinople had forborne to make the addition under the guidance of divine inspiration. Therefore
the admission of Filioque into the creed was not confirmed
at Rome.
Unsuccessful attempts at the forcible conversion of the
Slavi, in the north and east of Germany.
A mission for the conversion of the Avares, in Austria and Hungary, under conduct of Arno, Bishop of
Saltzburg.
Many churches, monasteries, and bishoprics, founded in
Saxony, where the Gospel is now gaining a firmer footing. Christian knowledge disseminated by the labours of
pious and zealous preachers.
Partial and temporary revival of Literature in Europe.
Flourishing period of Arabian Literature.

811 J

813

|

(After Stauracius) MICHAEL
L EMP. EAST.
Persecution of the Paulicians renewed by the Emperor
Michael and his successor.
LEO

V. (THE

ARMENIAN)

EMP.

EAST.

Al Mamoun, Caliph.
The Council of Mentz frames a general rule for the
canons regular of Augustin.
Great corruption had now spread among the monastic
institutions. In many cases monasteries were under the
superintendence of lay-abbots, whose only object was the
appropriation of revenue.
The Council of Mentz enjoins the practice of preaching
in the vernacular tongue. Council of Chalon on the
Seine enjoins scriptural preaching, and the foundation
of Christian schools.
During the reign of Charlemagne, the clergy acquired
a large accession to their wealth, and an increase of their

Period.)

TO THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE.

179

I immunities and privileges; e. g. the right of coining
money,— of hunting and f i s h i n g , — a n d exemption from
the jurisdiction of inferior civil magistrates.
Temporal princes still exercise authority in ecclesiastical
matters to a considerable extent. T h u s Charlemagne took
cognisance of controversies, and procured the assembling
of councils for the purpose of deciding them ; instituted
| bishops, or confirmed their appointment; superintended
the administration of Church p r o p e r t y ; determined the
boundaries of dioceses; and enacted laws affecting the
interests of the Church.
The judicial authority and independence of the bishops
were greatly extended by Charlemagne. T h e jurisdiction
of the bishop extended to all causes, referred to him by
either of two parties, and to all persons, whether clerks or
laymen. No appeal from his decision. All the clergy declared exempt from secular jurisdiction. T h e right of
imprisonment conceded to bishops in the execution of
judicial sentences.
Beyond the limits of Italy and the countries occupied
by the Franks, the poxoer of the pope was at its highest
pitch in England, and its lowest condition in Spain.
Church discipline thoroughly relaxed; — superstitious
opinions concerning the awful effects of excommunication
p r e v a l e n t : but the doctrine widely spread, that men may
redeem their own souls, or those of their relatives, by gifts
to the Church.
The Eucharist. — Doctrine of
Transubstantiation.
As early as the seventh century, and especially during
the eighth and ninth, the fictitious doctrine of a miraculous, and as it were magical, change of the elements of the
Lord's supper into the body and blood of Christ began to
gain ground. This change* it was supposed, was made
secretly, for the exercise of faith ; and therefore the transmuted elements existed under the appearance (colour,
flavour, &c.) of bread and wine (sub specie panis et vini).
This doctrine was not established in the West without
opposition and controversy; but it gained footing in the
1 Greek Church more quietly, during the eighth century,
N 2

180

F R O M T H E DEATH OF GREGORY T H E F I R S T

(Third

It was not distinguished by its modern name ( T r a n s u b stantiation) before the twelfth century.
About this time, the use of unleavened bread in the
Eucharist was introduced in the West.

L I S T OF P O P E S ,

PATRIARCHS,

AND A R C H B I S H O P S

OF

TERBURY, FROM THE YEAR 604 TO 814.
604.

SABINIAN.

— * Lawrence.
606. BONIFACE III.
607. BONIFACE IV.
— Thomas I.
610. Sergius.
615.

617.
619.
624.
625.
634.
638.
640.

DEODATUS.
BONIFACE V.

restored.
BENEDICT II.
J O H N V.
CONON.

* Mellitus.
* Justus.

—

Paul

687.

HONORIUS I .

* Honorius.
Pyrrhus.
SEVERINUS.
JOHN IV.

IL

Pyrrhus deposed.

642. THEODORUS I.
649. M A R T I N I.
654. * Adeodatus.
655. EUGENIUS,
Pyrrhus,

676.

Theodore deposed.

682. L E O II.
683. Theodore,
684.
685.
686.

641. Paul

657.
667.
668.
669.
672.
674.

678. George I

III.

SERGIUS.

693. Callinicus I.
— * Birthwald.
701.
705.

JOHN
JOHN

VI.
VII.

—

Cyrus.

708.
—

SISINNIUS.
CONSTANTINE.

712. John
715.

VI.

GREGORY II.

— Germanus I.
730. Anastasius I
731.

GREGORY

III.

Restored.
VITALIAN.

— * Tatwine.
735. * Nothelm.

Thomas II.
* Theodore.
John V.

741.

ZACHARY.

742. * Cuthbert.

ADEODATUS.

752.
—

Constantine.

754. Constantine II.

DOMNUS.

— Theodore I.
678. Agatho.

757.

STEPHEN II.
STEPHEN III.
P A U L I.

759. * Bregwin.
763. * Lambert.

CAN-

Period.)

TO T H E DEATH O F CHARLEMAGNE.

766. Nicetas L
767. CONSTANTINE.
768. STEPHEN IV. (or
772. ADRIAN I.

780. Paul

784.
793.
795,
804.
806.

III.)

IV.

Tarasius.
* Athelard.
L E O III.
(al. 807.) * Wulfred.
Nicephorus.

C O U N C I L S F R O M T H E Y E A R 604

604. * Worcester (celebration of
Easter, &c).
605. * Canterbury (abbey of St,
Peter and St. Paul).
— London (under Augustin ;
concerning marriages).
610. Rome.
— Toledo.
614. Egara.
615. Paris V. (national council
and diet; on discipline).
619. Seville (national council and
diet; respecting Church
property, and against
Monophy sites).
625. Rheims (on discipline).
626. Constantinople (in favour
of Monothelites).
630. *Lenia, in Ireland (concerning Easter).
633. Alexandria (in favour of
Monothelitic doctrines).
— Toledo (on doctrine and
discipline).
636. Toledo.
638. Toledo.
638. Constantinople (reception
of the Ecthesis; in favour
of Monothelites).
640, 641. Rome (against the
Monothelites).
644. Chalon on Seine (on discipline).
646. Africa (against Monothelites).
646. Toledo (on discipline).

J 81

TO 814.

648. Rome (against Monothelites).
649. Thessalonica.
— Rome (Lateran: —Ecthesis
and Typus condemned).
653. Toledo (in support of the
four general councils).
655. Toledo (Church property).
656. Toledo (on discipline).
659. Malay le Roi (on discipline).
660. Nantes (on discipline).
664. * Whitby (on discipline).
666. Merida (on discipline).
667. Rome.
670. Bourdeaux (on discipline).
673. * Hertford (celebration of
Easter).
670. Autun.
675. Toledo (on discipline).
— Braga.
679. Milan, France (concerning
Monothelitic doctrines).
679. Rome.
680. * Hapfeld ' (Anglican, or
Anglo-Saxon; under Theodore ; against Monothelites).
680. Rome.
680 and 681. CONSTANTINOPLE
III. T H E SIXTH GENERAL

(against
lites).
681. Toledo.
683. Toledo.
684. Toledo.
N 3

the Monothe-

182

FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST

68S. Toledo.
689. Rouen.
691. Saragossa (on discipline).
692. CONSTANTINOPLE—QUINISEXTUM ;
TRULLANUM

(on discipline).
693. Toledo (on discipline).
694. Toledo (on discipline),
— * Beaconsfield (immunities
of churches and monasteries).
697. * Berkhampstead.
698. Aquileia (Tria Capitula condemned).
701. Toledo.
703. * Nesterfield (against Wilfrid, Archbishop of York).
704. Rome (Wilfrid absolved).
705. * Near the river Nidda, in
Northumberland (Wilfrid
received again by English
bishops).
712. Constantinople (in favour of
Monothelite
doctrines;
the Sixth General Council
declared null, and its acts
burnt).
715. Constantinople (against Moriothelites ; in support of
theSixthGeneralCouncil).
720. Rome.
730. Rome (in favour of imageworship).
731. Constantinople
(against
image-worship).
732. Rome (in support of imageworship).
742. Germany (on discipline).
743. Rome.
— Leptinse (Lestines).
744. Soissons.
745. Germany.
— Rome.
747. * Cloveshoo, or Abingdon.
752. Mentz,

{Third

754. Constantinople
(against
image-worship).
755. Vern (on discipline).
756 * England (under Cuthbert.
Feast of St. Boniface).
— Compeigne.
— Attigny.
766. Jerusalem (in favour of
image-worship).
767. (al. 796.) Gentilly.
768. Ratisbon.
769. Rome (Lateran; in support
of image-worship; the
Council of Greece in 754
anathematised).
774. Rome.
777. Paderborn
(council and
diet).
778. Rome (Lateran.)
780. Paderborn.
782. Cologne.
782. 785. Paderborn.
787- NICJEA I I . T H E SEVENTH
GENERAL
(image-wor-

—

792.
793.
794.

796.

799.
—

ship re-established).
In England, one under the
archbishop of York, and
another under the archbishop of Canterbury, in
presence of papal legates.
Ratisbon.
*Verulam (abbey of St.
Alban's founded).
Frankfort - on - the - Maine
(against image-worship;
decision of Seventh General Council rejected;
against Adoptians).
Friuli (against Adoptians;
double procession of the
Holy Ghost asserted).
Ratisbon (on discipline).
* Beaconsfield (Church property).

Period.)

TO T H E DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE.

799. * Finkley (observance of
Easter).
Aix-la-Chapelle
— Rome.
(against Adoptians).
800. * Cloveshoo (matters of
faith).
— Rome.
803. Aix-la-Chapelle.
807. Saltzburg (fourfold partition
of tithes).

183

809. Constantinople.
— Aix-la-Chapelle (procession
of the Holy Ghost).
Rheims. Tours.
813. Aries.
Chalon. Mentz. Aix-IaChapelle (on discipline).
814-. Constantinople (in favour of
image-worship).

E N D OF T H E T H I R D P E R I O D .

N 4

PERIOD IV.
FROM T H E

DEATH

OF CHARLEMAGNE TO T H E

PONTIFICATE

OF GREGORY V I I .

814—1073.

Louis
(LEO

THE PIOUS, E M P . WEST.

V. THE ARMENIAN,

EMP.

EAST.)

The weak reign of Louis was favourable to the consolidation and advancement of papal power. The emperor
himself was disposed to submit to the arguments of the
champions of ecclesiastical authority and superstition;
and the rebellion of his sons furnished an advantageous
opportunity for papal interference, which was carefully
improved.
The friendly relations which subsisted between the
Franks and the Danes were favourable to the introduction
of Christianity into Denmark, which had been hitherto
prevented.
Leo V. (the Armenian) declares against image-worship,
notwithstanding the opposition made by Nicephorus,
Patriarch of Constantinople, and the Abbot Theodore
Studites.
Temporary suppression of Image-worship.
Theodore Cassiteras, Patriarch of Constantinople, in
the room of Nicephorus. A council at Constantinople
forbids the worship of images. Theodore Studites and
the monks persevere in their attachment to the cause of

FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE, ETC.

185

Agobard, Archbishop of Lyons, 816—840, protested
against the prevailing superstition in the worship of pictures and images, and the adoration of saints. He reproved
the clergy for paying more attention to the art of chanting than to the study of Scripture.
Canons and chapters formally established among the
clergy of France by the Diet and Council of Aix-la-Chapelle (Regula Aquisgranensis), comprising the previous
enactments of the Council of Mentz. Order of Canonesses Regular founded.
Benedict of Aniane in Languedoc attempts to establish a
new rule for the reformation of monasteries, founded
upon the existing Benedictine institutes (Congregatio
monachorum),
During the early part of this period (until the tenth
century), the schools of the monasteries continued to cherish an assiduous study of Scripture, with the commentaries of the Fathers, especially of Augustin; but, in opposition to this scriptural and practical system of study and
exposition, a contemplative mystical theology insinuated
itself into the Western Church from the East, supported
by the spurious writings which went under the name of
Dionysius the Areopagite. Partly in connexion with
this mysticism appeared also the germs of a speculative
dialectic system of theology (scholastic), the representative
of which wras John Scotus Erigena (distinction between
negative and positive theology).

f Theoph anes, historian.
In the course of this century Adoption tenets sink into
oblivion.
MICHAEL

II. (BALB us) EMP.

EAST.

This emperor was dissatisfied with the dominant clergy,
and with many doctrines of the Church.
Personally opposed to the superstitious use of images,
he endeavoured, for political reasons, to effect a reconciliation between the two parties at issue on the subject, and
permitted the (private) use of images.

FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE

(Fourth

Foundation of the dynasty of the Taherites at Chorassan. Division of the Arabian monarchy in the East.
Decline of the Western Empire. Internal dissensions and
wars.
Propagation of Christianity in Bulgaria.

Persecution.

f Theodulph, Bishop of Orleans. He had endeavoured
to promote scriptural preaching.
t Benedict of Aniane.
Rabanus Maurus, Abbot of Fulda.
Ebbo, Archbishop of Rheims, appointed missionary
for Denmark and the North of Europe at the Diet of
Attigny. His appointment confirmed by the pope.
Without much effect.
The Emperor Louis performs penance.
Crete taken by the Arabians (Candia).
The friends of image-worship, not satisfied with the emperor's conciliatory measures, accuse him of heresy. He
repels the accusation in a defence of himself addressed to
the Pope and the Emperor Louis the Pious.
A council, assembled at Paris, declares the adherence
of the Gallican Church to the Caroline principles respecting the use of images, and transmits its decrees to
the pope. The two churches retain their respective sentiments and customs in this matter.
After a series of efforts on the part of Louis to plant
Christianity in Denmark, Harald I., King of the Danes,
was baptized this year. Ansgar appointed missionary in
Denmark. He began his work by instructing the
children of slaves.
The greater part of Sicily in the hands of the Saracens.
f Theodore, Abbot of the Studium at Constantinople.
# Egbert, King of all England.

Period,)

TO THE PONTIFICATE OF GREGORY VII.

187

End of the Saxon Heptarchy.
The Emperor Michael Balbus sends to Louis the Pious
the (spurious) works of Dionysius the Areopagite.
"f Nicephorus.
Harald, unwisely zealous in the overthrow of idolatry,
driven out of Jutland. (829.) Ansgar, after the deposition of Harald, obliged to leave Jutland, preaches in
Sweden. First church in Sweden.
Louis of France yields more and more to the claims of
temporal power and authority on the part of the bishops,
and their exemption from civil jurisdiction.
THEOPHILUS,

EMP.

EAST.

Gottschalk, a monk of Orbais, seeks to renounce the
monastic life; permission given by the Council of Mentz;
but Rabanus Maurus, Abbot of Fulda, prevents his
release by prevailing upon Louis to ordain that all Oblati
(persons dedicated to the monastic life by their parents,
as was Gottschalk), as well as others, should be bound
to the perpetual observance of monastic rules.
The Church lends its sanction to the barbarous custom
of Ordeals.
The Emperor Theophilus publishes an edict prohibiting
all use of pictures and images in churches.
Gregory IV. appoints November as the month for the
celebration of the Festival of All Saints, already introduced by Boniface.
First rebellion of the sons of Louis.
Christianity preached in Sweden.
Louis, with the sanction of the pope, founds the
archbishopric of Hamburg. Ansgar, Archbishop, formally
commissioned by the pope to undertake the conversion
of the Northern nations. Ansgar gains permission from
Horic, King of Denmark, to found a church in that
country.

188

JFROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE

(Fourth

The doctrine of Transubstantiation
clearly defined and
boldly maintained by Paschasius Madbert, a monk, and
afterwards abbot, of Corbey. H e appealed, in support
of his doctrine, to an alleged miraculous appearance of
the blood of Christ in the place of the consecrated element. His doctrine, however, met with opposition,
especially from the pen of Rabanus Maurus (De Corpore
et Sanguine D o m i n i ) .
Claude, Bishop of T u r i n , opposes the superstitious use
of relics and of the sign of the cross, and the worship
of saints and images.
Second rebellion of the three elder sons of Louis
against their father. Louis deposed, clothed in the garb
of a penitent, and confined in a monastery.
Archbishops E b b o , Agobard, and other prelates, take
part in the rebellion. Other bishops retain their allegiance. Gregory advances to the support of Lothaire,
b u t meets with an unfavourable reception from the
bishops of the imperial party.
Louis restored.
Continued quarrels and wars in France.
Ebbo, Agobard, and other bishops deposed.
Louis receives absolution from the Church before resuming the government to which he had been restored.
Ansgar founds a school and monastery at H a m b u r g ,
and preaches Christianity in the neighbourhood.
The popes take advantage of the weakness and distraction
of the Western Empire to strengthen and increase their authority over princes and bishops* But in these efforts they
continue to encounter opposition.
About this time (829—836) the Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals were published, — compiled (probably by some member of the Gallican Church) with a view to support the
claims of the papacy.

Period.)

TO THE PONTIFICATE OF GREGOKY vn.

189

This collection was given to the world under the name
of Isidore of Seville, to whom a revision of the Dionysian
Decretals had been formerly ascribed (see above A. 635);
but it is manifestly spurious, and professes to contain decretals of the popes before Siricius, from the very first
times. The chief objects of the forgery appear to have
been, the depression of the metropolitan power — the
exaltation of Romish supremacy—the establishment of the
independence of the Church — and of the inviolability of
the spiritual power.
840

Haimo, Bishop of Halberstadt.
f Hilduin, Abbot of St. Denys. He translated the
(spurious) works of Dionysius the Areopagite.
f Agobard. f Eginhard.
The caliphate declines rapidly, in consequence of the
establishment of independent dynasties in Africa and
parts of Asia, and the growing power of the body-guard
of the caliphs (Turks).
Ravages of the Normans, who were violent opponents
of Christianity.
"" Claude, Bishop of Turin.
f
By a diligent study of the Scriptures and the works of
Augustin, he was led to discover and denounce many of
the prevailing errors and corruptions of his times. He
inveighed against the superstitious use of pictures and
of the sign of the cross, and against the worship of saints,
insisting upon the paramount importance of practical
piety. Several of the clergy, and even a pope, Pascal I.,
declared against him. He protested against the usurped
papal authority itself. He enjoyed the protection of the
emperor.

841
842

Quarrels between the sons of Louis respecting the
division of the empire. Battle of Fontenay.
|

MICHAEL

III.

EMP.

EAST,

(under his mother, Theodora, until 857).

190

FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE

842 I

843

After the death of Theophilus, the regents, Theoctistus
and Manuel, with the Empress Theodora, restore the
worship of images. A council at Constantinople confirms
the decree of the Seventh General Council; and images
are gradually restored to their places in the high church
of that city. I n commemoration of this event, and in
honour of all zealously orthodox emperors and patriarchs,
the Greek Church afterwards established the Festival of
Orthodoxy.
T R E A T Y O F V E R D U N for the partition of the Western
Empire.
SEPARATE

—

844

—
—

(Fourth

ITALY, G E R M A N Y , AND F R A N C E , F O R M E D INTO
STATES.

Lothaire,

Emperor

of

Italy,

&c;

Louis, K i n g of G e r m a n y ; Charles the Bald, King of
France.
(Origin of the kingdom of France, properly so called.)
"j" Jonas, Bishop of Orleans, distinguished by his protest against t h e superstitious adoration of images, a n d his
exhortations to practical piety.
T h e bishops assembled in the Council of Thionville
style themselves Vicars of Christ.
Sergius introduces the custom of assuming a new name
upon election to the papal chair.
Paschasius Radbert, Abbot of Corbey.
Doctrine of the Eucharist.
O n the publication of a second edition of Radbert's
work on the Body a n d Blood of the Lord, Charles the
Bald desired R a t r a m n to give his opinion on the subject. R a t r a m n writes against the doctrine of T r a n s u b stantiation, and maintains the doctrine of a spiritual
presence of Christ in the eucharist vouchsafed to faith
and the faithful.
Ratramn's work did little towards correcting the prevalent errors concerning the sacred elements, especially
as it contained expressions themselves savouring of the
doctrine of Transubstantiation (e.g. convertitur panis in
corpus Christi, operante invisibiliter Spiritu S.). Only a
few divines (Walafried Strabo, Druthmar, Florus Magister)
I agreed with R a t r a m n in his partial opposition to error.

Period.)

TO THE PONTIFICATE OF GREGORY VII.

191

Scotus, in his treatise " De Eucharistia" (now lost), took
part with Ratramn; but the doctrine of Transuhstantiation
had taken deep root, and continued to prevail.
845 J

Cruel persecution of the Paulicians; the Empress
Theodora having resolved to exterminate the sect. Those
who escaped fled for protection to the Saracens, by whom
they were received as enemies of the Greeks. They
founded a town (Tephrica) on the borders of the Greek
territory, from which place they carried on hostile operations ; and here their doctrine was preserved, — a seed
destined to produce much fruit in succeeding centuries.
John Scotus Erigena at the court of Charles the Bald.
He translated the (spurious) works of Dionysius the
Areopagite, and laid the foundation of the scholastic system of theology, maintaining the insufficiency of doctrines
founded solely on testimonies of Scripture and the writings of the Fathers, and contending that the Christian
religion and doctrine could be, and ought to be, deduced
philosophically by a priori reasoning, thus reversing the
maxim of Augustin " Fides praecedit intellectum." He
distinguished also between negative and positive theology.

847

Rabanus Maurus, Archbishop of Mentz.
Predestinarian Controversy.
During the sixth century, the whole Augustinian system
of doctrine concerning predestination received the stamp
of ecclesiastical authority ; but many of the clergy evinced
a disposition to explain away or to conceal the more harsh
positions of this system, and to incline to the more moderate views of Augustin, as stated in his book " De Vocatione Gentium," regarding a plain and decisive statement
of the doctrine of predestination as dangerous. About this
time, the difference between the strict and more lax followers of Augustin became matter of open acknowledgment
and debate. Gottschalk, in his monastery, had diligently
studied the works of Augustin, and had become an enthusiastic advocate of the doctrine of absolute predestination.

192

FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE

(Fourth

I He regarded the large number of his contemporaries, who
refused to state the question in accordance with his views,
as no better than Semipelagians; and at length, on occasion of a pilgrimage to Rome, he openly charged them
with Semipelagian error in the presence of the Bishop of
Verona. This took place in the year 847. He taught
the doctrines of election and reprobation under the title
of " a twofold predestination."
Rabanus Maurus takes part against Gottschalk, who
maintains the strict Augustinian doctrines concerning
848 predestination. At the Council of Mentz (848), Gottschalk
appears before Louis and Raban, where he is excommunicated as a false teacher, and delivered over to his metropolitan, Hincmar, Archbishop of Rheims. He was
brought by him before the Council of Chiersy in 849,
and, refusing to retract his alleged errors, he was flogged
as a contumacious monk, and sentenced to perpetual imprisonment in the monastery of Hautevilliers. He remained in confinement twenty years, still persevering in
his opinions, which he embodied in his " Confessions."
—
849

Cyril sent by Michael III. as a missionary to the
Charazes (about the Crimea), at their request.
Bishopric of Bremen united to the archbishopric of
Hamburg.
" Walafried Strabo,
f
*
Prudentius, Bishop of Troyes. Epistola ad Hincmarum,
&c.

850

R I S E OF THE FEUDAL SYSTEM.

The crown weak and dependent; the power of the
bishops continually increasing. The successors of Charlemagne were abjectly submissive to the ecclesiastical
rulers.
The history of the female pope, Joan, said to have been
head of the Church between the pontificates of Leo IV.
and Benedict III., is probably a fiction of the eleventh
century. Perhaps it was originally designed as a satire

Period.)

TO THE PONTIFICATE OF GREGORY VII.

193

on the vices of the Popes John X., XL, and XII.^ who
reigned during the tenth century.
§50

Ratramn, De Praedestinatione.
Christian Druthmar (Grammaticus), author of a literal
or grammatical commentary on the Gospel of St. Matthew.
Deplorable ignorance prevails among all orders of Christians. Many of the clergy are illiterate.
Great abuses in appointments to ecclesiastical offices, and
in the administration of Church property.
Patron Saints.

853

f Haimo, Bishop of Halberstadt.
Predestinarian controversy.
The hasty condemnation and unjust treatment of Gottschalk probably tended to raise up many advocates of his
opinions. About this time, his cause and doctrines were
defended against Hincmar by Prudentius, Bishop of
Troyes, Ratramn, and Servatus Lupus, Abbot of Ferrieres. Hincmar sought the assistance of Scotus Erigena
in the controversy. After Scotus had written (De Praedestinatione Dei contra Gotteschalcum), the tenets of
Gottschalk were defended by Prudentius, Florus Magister, and Remigius.
Hincmar seeks to gain the stamp of ecclesiastical
authority in favour of his opinions. By his influence, the
Second Council of Chiersy, held in the presence of Charles
the Bald, publishes four propositions (Quatuor Capitula
Carisiacensia) in opposition to the tenets of Gottschalk
and his party. These contained not a contradiction, but
only a modification, of the Augustinian doctrine.
Servatus Lupus: Liber de Tribus Quaestionibus; De
Libero Arbitrio; De Praedestinatione Bonorum et Malorum; De Sanguinis Christi superflua Taxatione.
Prudentius: Tractatus de Praedestinatione contra
Johannem Scotum.
Florus Magister (of Lyons): Liber de Praedestinatione contra Scoti erroneas Definitiones.

194

FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE

I
855

{Fourth

Remigius (Archbishop of Lyons): De Tribus Epistolis
(against Hincmar, &c).
By the influence of Remigius, the Council of Valence
publishes six propositions in opposition to the Four
Capitula of the late Council of Chiersy. These contain
a modification of the tenets of Gottschalk. The difference was now rather in terms than in substance : both
parties built, in fact, upon the Augustinian or Anti-semipelagian system.
Continued subdivisions and dismemberment of the
Western Empire.
Lothaire II. King of Lorraine, &c.
# Ethel wolf makes, or perhaps renews, a grant
(of tithes ?) to the Church.
%- Ethelwolf undertakes a pilgrimage to Rome.
The Bulgarians manifest a disposition to receive Christianity.
Christianity had hitherto made little progress in Sweden.
Ansgar now labours in that country, and succeeds in
founding a church. He leaves Erimbert to carry on the
work there, and devotes himself, during the remainder of
his life, as Archbishop of Hamburgh and Bremen, to the
conversion of the Danes, with uncommon piety, industry,
and zeal.
Cyril and Methodius, Apostles of the Slav?'. Cyril translates the Bible into the Slavonian language.

856

f Rabanus Maurus, Archbishop of Mentz.

858

Kingdom of Navarre founded.

—

Ignatius, Patriarch of Constantinople, deposed by the
profligate Bardas, regent during the minority of Michael
I I I . Photius made patriarch. Ignatius refers his cause
to Nicholas, who sends two bishops to Constantinople, as
legates, to examine and decide.
The power of the Papacy increases greatly during the pontificate of Nicholas.

d»)

TO THE PONTIFICATE OF GREGORY VII.

J 95

The Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals begin to acquire
general currency and credit. Pope Nicholas I. cited
them as genuine. Objections against their genuineness
overborne by the voice of authority.
(They were held in high repute until the Reformation,
when the forgery was exposed. Romish writers at first
offended them as genuine ; but at length abandoned the
position.)
Hincmar and Remigius agree to unite in a common
exposition of faith, to be published by a council. The
council never held. Hincmar continues to write against
Gottschalk; and difference of opinion on the disputed
point continues in the Church.
Bogoris, King of the Bulgarians, professes Christianity.
After a short struggle with his heathen subjects, Christianity was established in his dominions.
The papal legates agree with the Council of Constantinople, in confirming the deposition of Ignatius and appointment of Photius.
Lothaire II., of Thuringia, anxious to put away his
queen Theutberga, in favour of the licentious Waldrade.
Archbishops of Cologne and Treves favour his design.
Council of Aix-la-Chapelle, held this year, pronounces
the divorce. Hincmar of Rheims protests against the
decree.
The Russian Monarchy founded by Ruric.
Olaf Trygvesen attempts to plant Christianity in
Iceland by force; but without effect. In the course of
the next century, the Gospel was gradually propagated in
that country.
The Council of Mentz confirms the decree of Aix-laChapelle. But Nicholas declares it null, and deposes the
Archbishops of Cologne and Treves.
o 2

FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE

(Fourth

Moravians apply to the Greek Church for missionaries.
Cyril and Methodius sent to them.
Hincmar, at the Council of Soissons, deposes Rothad,
Bishop of Soissons, notwithstanding his appeal to the
pope.
In a council at Rome, Nicholas excommunicates his
legates, declares Photius deposed, and recognises Ignatius
as the Patriarch of Constantinople.
The deposed archbishops of Cologne and Treves protest against the conduct of the pope, as being an undue
usurpation of authority by one who is no more than their
equal; but in vain. Nicholas perseveres in maintaining the sanctity and inviolability of marriage, against
Lothaire.
Nicholas humbles Hincmar, the strenuous defender of
the liberty of the Gallican National Church. He commands him either to restore Rothad forthwith, or to
submit the examination of his case to Rome ; maintaining
that the pope alone is sovereign judge in the affairs of
bishops, and that no council can pronounce sentence concerning them except by his authority. He supports these
principles by reference to the Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals.
Rothad restored to his bishopric by the pope in 865.
Frequent discoveries of bones and relics of saints, &c.
long since dead, many of whom had been hitherto unknown or forgotten.
Anastasius, Librarian at Rome, fl.
(al. 85 L) | Paschasius Radbert.
Lothaire obliged to receive again Theutberga as his
queen. Waldrade sent to Rome to do penance there.
f Ansgar, Apostle of the North. After his death arose
many obstructions to the propagation of Christianity in
Denmark and Sweden; but it eventually retained its
ground in those countries.
Christianity had been introduced into Bulgaria from

Period.)

866

TO T H E PONTIFICATE OF GREGORY VII.

197

the Greek church; but Bogoris, after a communication
with Nicholas, prefers the jurisdiction of Rome to that of
Constantinople, and forms a connexion with the R o m a n
see.
to 8 7 1 . # Conquests and ravages of the Danes in
England.

867

BJSIL,

EMP.

EAST.

Beginning of the Macedonian dynasty.
T h e court of Constantinople had espoused the cause of
Photius, in opposition to Ignatius; b u t Basil is now inclined
to favour the latter.
D u r i n g the reign of Basil, Crete and Sicily are recovered from the Arabs.
Photius convenes a council of Oriental bishops at Constantinople, in which the pope is (pro forma) deposed and
excommunicated.
T h e Roman Church charged with
maintaining sundry errors, especially in the doctrine relating to the Holy Ghost, and with having corrupted the
Niceno-Constantinopolitan creed.
From this period we may date the open and final
SCHISM

BETWEEN T H E

EASTERN

AND

WESTERN

CHURCHES.

Besides the controversy respecting the procession of the
Holy Ghost, there are many other causes of disagreement
between the Western and Greek Churches. T h e former
received only 50, the latter 85, Apostolical Canons as
g e n u i n e ; the former forbad priests, the latter permitted
them (except bishops), to live with their wives after
ordination, if previously married; the former d e n i e d ,
the latter affirmed, that the patriarch of Constantinople
was equal in rank to the pope of R o m e ; the former
permitted, the latter forbad, fasting on Saturdays, the
eating of blood, & c and the representation of Christ
under the figure of a lamb. Lastly, also, a dispute had
arisen between the patriarch and the pope concerning
jurisdiction over Bulgaria.
to 869. Basil invites Adrian to decide between the
o 3

FROM THE DEATH OE CHARLEMAGNE

(Fourth

claims of Photius and Ignatius. A council at Rome
(868) annuls the acts of the late council at Constantinople,
deposes Photius, and recognises Ignatius as patriarch.
All this was confirmed by a new council at Constantinople (869).
Moravians incline to a connexion with Rome. Cyril
and Methodius invited to Rome. Cyril dies there. Methodius returns as bishop of the Moravian Church.
The Canons of Worms contain a total prohibition of mar-'
riagefor all the clergy.
T Ratramn (otherwise called Bertram).
The kingdom of Lothaire II. divided, after his death,
between Charles the Bald and Louis the German.
The pope asserts the rights of Louis II.; Hincmar of
Rheims espouses the cause of Charles the Bald.
Gottschalk dies in confinement. Refusing to retract,
he is denied the privilege of partaking of the eucharist
before his death.
All Latin priests compelled to quit Bulgaria.
Charles the Bald at first asserts the rights of the temporal power and the national church of France against
the claims of the pope. He supports Hincmar against
Nicholas.
#• Alfred the Great, King of England.
Hincmar of Rheims, with the Council of Douzi, deposes
his nephew Hincmar, Bishop of Laon. The pope, claiming to be the only judge of bishops, according to the
forged Decretals, protests against their proceedings. Hincmar, backed by the power of Charles, maintains his
ground. He inveighs strongly against the validity of the
Decretals.

Period.)

TO T H E PONTIFICATE OF GREGORY VII.

199

The Paulicians had continued to harass the neighbouring Greeks from Tephrica. After the destruction of
their chief town by Basil, which took place this year,
they continued to exist as a separate party, and were
zealous in the propagation of their doctrines, especially in
Bulgaria.
George, Metropolitan of Nicomedia, remarkable for his
zeal in advancing the honour of the Virgin Mary.
Masses in honour of saints.
Charles the Bald, in hope of being made emperor by
the favour of the pope, yields to the papal claims of ecclesiastical monarchy, and is ready to sacrifice the rights of
the civil governor and of the national church.
Notwithstanding the protestations of Hincmar, Ansegisus, Archbishop of Sens, is appointed vicar apostolic in
France.
Charles the Bald crowned Emperor and king of Italy.
Charles the Bald resigns the imperial right of giving
consent to the consecration of the bishops of Rome, and
then confirming the election. He accepts the empire as
a donation from the pope.
The bishop of Rome is now styled Papa Universalis,
Vicarius Petri et Pauli.
The connection of the Moravian Church with Rome
confirmed.
f Ado, Archbishop of Vienne, martyrologist,
The Mohammedans push their conquests as far as Rome;
are bought off by a yearly tribute.
The kingdom of Germany divided.
The doctrine of the merit of good works (especially
such as benefactions to the Church and almsgiving) had
long been established. Charles the Bald, in making a
donation to a monastery, in the year 877, says, — Si
servorum Dei utilitatibus subveniendo conferimus, profuturum nobis hoc ad aeternam beatitudinem fore, nullo
modo ambigimus.
o 4

FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE

(JBoUVth

The Russians evince a disposition to embrace Christianity. They request the presence of a Greek bishop.
Subsequently, hostilities between Greeks and Russians
retarded the progress of Christianity in Russia.
Violent contests between Rome and Constantinople respecting the jurisdiction of Bulgaria, t Ignatius. Photius
again Patriarch of Constantinople.
* The Danes, having been reduced by Alfred, receive
permission to settle in England, on condition of their embracing Christianity; — baptized, — with Guthrun their

king.
* Alfred is said to have instituted a literary society at
Oxford, and even to have founded a college there (University College), But the establishment of the University of Oxford must be referred to the beginning of the
thirteenth century.
* It is probable, from the omission of the second commandment in the laws of Alfred, that image-worship was
now established in England. If so, the practice was of
recent introduction in this country.
Foundation of the kingdom of Burgundy Cisjurana;
the bishops bestow it upon Boson, the pope's favourite.
Christians at Kiev, in Russia,
Papal legates at Constantinople, with a view to settle
differences. The pope promises to recognise Photius as
patriarch on condition of his seeking forgiveness for his
offences from the Church of Rome, and foregoing all
claims upon Bulgaria. Photius not disposed to yield so
far. The pope pronounces a fresh anathema against him,
and all who should recognise him as patriarch.
Methodius accused of celebrating divine service in the
Slavonian language. The Pope, John VIII,, prohibits
the use of a vernacular tongue in the celebration of the
mass, but sanctions it in preaching.

Period.)
880

TO THE PONTIFICATE OF GREGORY VII.

201

Methodius, having defended his practice at Rome
(880), obtains from the pope a remarkable permission to
celebrate all offices of divine worship in the Slavonian
language, only with an injunction to read the gospel in
Greek or Latin before reading it in Slavonian, as a
mark of respect.
# Saxon translation of the Psalms by Alfred. That
prince published also the works of Orosius, Bede, and
Boethius, in Saxon, and a translation of the Pastoral of
Gregory.

881

Charles the Fat, King of Italy.

8S2

f Hincmar, Archbishop of Rheims.

884* I

Charles the Fat, as sole monarch, re-unites the Western
Empire.
* Alfred sent an embassy to the Syrian Christians in
India.

886

|

LEO VI. (THE

PHILOSOPHER)

EMP.

EAST.

Photius deposed by the emperor; but no real reconciliation with Rome took place.
* f John Scotus Erigena.
887

Charles deposed.
Western Empire finally dismembered.
888 I
Arnulph elected Emperor of Germany.
The Crown henceforth elective.
The kingdom of Burgundy Transjurane founded by
Rudolph,
Italy a distinct kingdom.
The new emperor of Germany swears allegiance to
the pope.
891

Photius dies in exile. After his death the disputes
between the Greek and Latin Churches continued. Nor

202

FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE

(Fourth

I was a cordial and permanent agreement between the East
and West ever effected; although, in the course of the
following (tenth) century, the violence of the contest considerably abated.
894

T h e K i n g of the Bohemians baptized by Methodius.
After this there was a long struggle between Paganism
and Christianity in Bohemia.

898
899

Charles the Simple, King of France.
Louis, Emperor of Germany.

END OF

Ecclesiastical

Supremacy.

NINTH
Bishops now not only claim part with princes in the
CEN- government of their kingdoms, but require princes themselves to be subject to the Church. T h e pope had already
told an emperor that he occupied his throne chiefly for
the purpose of protecting the Church. Quarrels between
different princes had greatly contributed to the establishment of this ecclesiastical supremacy.
Exemptions of monasteries from episcopal jurisdiction, and
their immediate subjection to the pope ; — assertion of the
principle that bishops derived their power from the pope ; —
general councils convened by command of the pope ; — appeals
from General Councils to the pope.
The celibacy of the clergy had now given rise to scandalous vices, and abuses beyond number.
The wealth of the Church continues to be greatly augmented by means of superstition and imposture.
In the West, the theory of Christian morals had now
suffered fresh debasement by means of translations of the
mystic writings attributed to Dionysius the Areopagite.
Christian doctrine was obscured and deteriorated by the
controversies which were agitated during this century
concerning image-worship, the eucharist, and predestination. B u t the very existence of these controversies,
and various passages in the writings of authors of this
date show that some remnants of great Christian truth
. J were at least partially retained.

Period.)
E N D OF|
THE
NINTH
CENTURY.

TO THE PONTIFICATE OF GREGORY VII.

203

The Monophysites, by the assistance of the Mohammedans, had now become dominant in Egypt.
The Festivals of St. Michael the Archangel, of All
Saints, and of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary, were
introduced in the Frankish churches during this century.
(But it was not until the thirteenth century that the
bodily ascension of the Virgin was taught.)
Christianity propagated from Moravia to Bohemia.
Schools and Literary Institutions suffer decay during this
century.
Attempts were made to refute Mohammedan errors;
but the age did not possess divines equal to the task.
Scandalous practices for obtaining the pontifical dignity
prevail about this time.
Aristocratical government of the nobles in Rome and
its neighbourhood.
*s*
Christianity introduced among the Hungarians from
Constantinople.
Turks obtain authority in the Caliphate of Bagdad.
Foundation of the Dynasty of the Fatimites in Western
Africa.
The canons of Trosley provide for the maintenance of
the rights, privileges, and revenues of the clergy. Tithes
declared due, not only from the produce of the soil, but
from the fruits of labour and industry. N.B. From the
eighth century until the eleventh, claims for the payment
of tithes were continually enforced, and frequently resisted.
During the greater part of this century the election of

204

FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE

(Fourth

popes was influenced by a faction in the state. Men of
the most corrupt morals and dissolute lives were now
continually placed at the head of the Church.
Theological literature xoas now at its lowest ebb. The
efforts which had been made by Alfred the Great for the
continuance and promotion of sound religious learning
remained ineffectual.
Controversy was hushed in ignorance arid apathy.
The worship of saints, as supposed intercessors with God,
had continually increased. It was now universally practised, and in high repute. Many churches and monasteries were erected and richly endowed in honour of these
imaginary favourites.
The Monastery of Clugny,
founded by Berno ; who follows up the efforts of Benedict of Aniane for the reformation of monastic orders, by
uniting several societies under one common head.
ALEXANDER,

EMP.

EAST.

Rollo, the Dane, having obtained the cession of Normandy, is baptized. He assumes the title of Robert,
Duke of Normandy.
CONSTANTINE VII. (PORPHYROGENITUS) EMP. EAST

(under his mother, Zoe).
Persecution of Christians in Denmark under King
Gorm.
* Moses Barcepha, a Jacobite.
Simeon Metaphrastes, fl.
Berenger I. King of Italy, Emperor of the West.
ROMANUS

(LECAPENUS)

EMP.

EAST,

with his three sons, Christopher, Stephen, Constantine
VIII.
Henry the Fowler, King of Germany.
Lorraine finally re-united to the crown of Germany.
to 940. # Athelstan, King of England.

Period.)

TO THE PONTIFICATE OF GREGORY VII.

205

* During this reign, Christianity continually gains a
firmer footing in England.
During the former half of this century, the Hungarians
make desolating inroads into Germany and Italy.
9^7 J

t Berno. Odo (927—941) prosecutes his plans. The
monastery of Clugny under its early abbots (after Berno
and Odo, Aymard to 948, Mayol to 994, Odilo to 1048)
distinguished by the severity of its discipline and its strict
observance of ascetic rules, by its zealous and efficient
labours in the education of youth, and in the cause of art
and science.

930

The two kingdoms of Burgundy united under Rodolph II.

931

The pope presents to the monastery of Corbeyarib of
the Evangelist St. Matthew, and a relic of the Apostle
St. Andrew.

933

Henry I. defeats the Hungarians.

934

Henry
tianity in
Fierce
parties in

procures from Gorm the toleration of ChrisDenmark*
contests between the Heathen and Christian
Bohemia.

935

The Caliphs of Bagdad lose their political power, which
remains in the hands of Ahmed the Buyide and his descendants, under the title of Emir al Omrah.
936 I
Otho the Great, King of Germany.
ggg

939 I

Hakon, King of Norway, a Christian, attempts to establish Christianity in his dominions, but without effect.
He died in 950.
Boleslas I. King of Bohemia; under him, Paganism
was in the ascendant.
Anthropomorphites condemned as heretics.

206

FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE

(Fourth

About this time Unni, Archbishop of Hamburg and
Bremen, dies in Sweden, where he had laboured for the
propagation of the Gospel with great success. Missionaries, who were sent by his successors, prosecuted the
work.
Great opposition to Christianity in Bohemia. War
with the empire fourteen years (936—920).
CONSTANTINE VII. EMP. EAST, restored.
Berenger II. King of Italy.
Boleslas compelled by Otho I. to permit the restoration
of the Christian Church in Bohemia.
Gylas, Hungarian prince, baptized at Constantinople.
Harald II. King of Denmark, embraces Christianity.
Continual civil wars in France between the barons
throughout this century.
The differences which existed between the Greek and
Latin Churches, and those which had arisen within the
latter concerning predestination and the eucharist, were
not settled; but, amidst the barbarism of this century,
controversy was suspended.
A very general expectation of the approaching end of
the world prevails.
During this century, erroneous doctrines concerning
purgatory, the veneration of saints, and the eucharist, gain
ground. (The opinion of some persons, who maintained
that the Archangel Michael says mass every Monday in
heaven, was condemned as heretical.)
The spiritual character of the superior clergy is now, to a
great extent, merged in that of secular princes, or military
commanders.
•* Dunstan, Abbot of Glastonbury, endeavours to reform the Church by establishing the rule of Benedict in
the English monasteries, and enforcing the celibacy of
the clergy.

Period.)

950 I

951

TO T H E PONTIFICATE O F GREGORY VIT.

207

f Eutychius, Bishop of Alexandria.
CEcumenius fl.
Otho invades Italy.

Berenger submits.

—

* Christianity introduced among the Normans in Ireland.

952

Marriage of the clergy strictly prohibited by the
Council of Augsburg.
Baptism of bells by the pope.

955

Otho drives the Hungarians out of Italy.

—

Olga, a Russian princess, baptized at Constantinople.
Adelbert afterwards preaches the Gospel in Russia. The
general conversion of the Russian people proceeds, however, but slowly.

959

ROMANUS

IL EMP.

EAST.

The Bulgarians conform to the Church of Rome.
960

Otho the Great resumes the imperial right of confirming the election of popes (see 875). He proceeds
to appoint popes by his own authority.

;—
-

t Atto, Bishop of Vercelli.
on the Epistles of St. Paul.

He wrote a commentary

The collegiate bodies of clergy established by Chrodegang partake of the general corruption of the order.
The canonical clergy aim chiefly to render themselves
independent of the bishops, and to secure their respective
shares of the collegiate income (prebends).

961

Otho, King of France, makes a second expedition into
Italy. Berenger dethroned.

FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE

(Fourth

Otho crowned King of Italy and Emperor.
From this time to 1508 no king of Germany took the
title of emperor until after he had been crowned by the
pope.
# Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury, imposes upon
Edgar seven years' penance.
NICEPHORUS

II.

(PHOCAS)

EMP.

EAST.

The emperor (Otho), enraged at the perfidy of the
pope, caused him to be deposed by a council held in St»
Peter's Church at Rome. Leo VIII. made pope in his
room.
Otho confirmed the grants of Charlemagne to the pope.
—975. Nicephorus makes successful expeditions against
the Caliphate, and extends the Eastern Empire. Cyprus,
Cilicia, and Antioch, recovered.
In the East, Nicephorus enacts that nojbishop shall be
consecrated without consent of the emperor: — this law
was soon after repealed by Basil.
Christianity propagated from Bohemia to Poland.
Micislaus, Duke of Poland, baptized. He founds the
bishopric of Posen, and endeavours to establish Christianity in Poland.
Harald Harfragre, King of Norway, suppresses idolatry.
f Flodoard of Rheims.
Otho II. joint Emperor of the West.
Boleslas II. King of Bohemia. Christianity in the
ascendant, and finally established in his dominions. After
this time, Paganism gradually becomes extinct in those
parts.
Many bishoprics founded in Germany about this time.
The emperor exercises the right of investiture.
| Luitprand, Bishop of Cremona.
The Fatimite Caliphs of Africa in possession of Egypt,
Syria, and Sicily. Grand Cairo founded.

Period.)

TO T H E PONTIFICATE OF GREGORY V I I .
JOHN

ZIMISCES,

EMP.

209

EAST.

Successes against the Bulgarians in Syria.
Otho and his successors bestowed large grants of land
upon the bishops; who received towns, counties, and
entire dukedoms, with the prerogatives of royalty, such as
justiciary powers, the right of coining money, and of
levying tolls and other revenues.
The great power of the clergy becomes highly injurious
to the imperial authority.
* Marriage of the clergy in England forbidden, under
pain of deprivation.
# In England, violent disputes between the married
clergy and the monks prevailed about this time. Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury, was a great patron of
the monks.
The Emperor, John Zimisces, removes a great part of
the Paulicians to Philippopolis in Thrace, where he gives
them a settlement. This circumstance contributed to
the propagation of their tenets in Europe; and to their
influence may perhaps be traced the rise of various sects
of mystics in the Western Churches, such as existed
during the tenth and eleventh centuries in Italy, France,
and Germany. The Paulicians were charged with holding Manichaean or Gnostic opinions; but they were chiefly
distinguished by their strict and zealous observance of
practical religion.
The sects which afterwards arose
conformed to the external rites and worship of the dominant church, and were distinguished chiefly by the
strictness of their lives, and by aiming at higher degrees
of piety, and purer morals, than such as generally prevailed
among the Catholics of their day.
Harald, King of Denmark, having made peace with
Otho, is baptized, and becomes zealous for the propagation
of Christianity in his dominions.
Christianity makes progress in Hungary, under the
auspices of the Prince Geysa.

210

973

FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE

(Fourth

Bishopric of Prague founded.
The pope (Boniface VII.) deposed and banished for
his crimes.
OTHO II.

E M P . WEST.

97*

T Ratherius, Bishop of Verona ; distinguished by his
zealous efforts to check the corruption of the clergy, and
to promote their usefulness.

975

Harald, King of Denmark, having conquered Norway
in 962, endeavours to establish Christianity in that
country. His attempts are resisted, and the Norwegians,
under Haken, throw off his yoke.

976

BASIL

II. AND

CONSTANTINE

IX.

EMP.

EAST.

f Simeon Metaphrastes.
Reformation of the order of Canons. Distinction
between Canons Regular and Canons Secular.

982

983

Greenland discovered by Norwegians. Christianity
introduced soon afterwards.
Otho makes Geisler Archbishop of Magdeburg, in
place of another chosen by the chapter.
Slavonians return to Paganism, having been formerly
compelled by the Germans to embrace Christianity.
OTHO III.

E M P . WEST

(under his mother Theophania).

984.

T Roswitha, a Latin poetess.

987

Hugh Capet, King of France.
End of the Carlovignian dynasty ; foundation of the
Capetian.

988 J

Wladimir (Basil I.) Grand-duke of Kiev, invites Christian bishops and clergy to Russia, and founds several

Period.)

TO T H E PONTIFICATE OF GREGORY V I I .

211

bishoprics (one archbishopric at Kiev, another at Novogorod).
The Greek ritual was introduced into Russia by Wladimir. Schools and convents founded.
$• T Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury.
^ Danes make the English tributary.
Hugh Capet procures the deposition of Arnulph, Bishop
of Rheims, by a council held in that city, and the election
of Gerberrtn his room. Absolute supremacy of the pope,
and the claims founded upon the forged Decretals, contemptuously denied.
Harald, King of Denmark, deposed by the influence
of the pagan party in his dominions, with his son Sveyn
at their head. Sveyn king; destruction of Christian
establishments, and suppression of Christianity in Denmark.
Peter Urseolo II. Doge of Venice; regarded by the
Venetians as the founder of their state.
First instance on record of the Canonization of a Saint
(Ulric, Bishop of Augsburg), by the pope, in a Lateran
Council.
Continued growth of Superstition. Worship of Saints and
Images increases.
Saturday is distinguished by special worship, io honour
of the Virgin Mary.
Some suppose that Rosaries came into use before the
close of this century.
The Eucharist. Gerbert maintained that it is best to
say simply, without further definition, and in accordance
with our Saviour's own words, that the bread and wine in
the eucharist are the body and blood of Christ (but to
be apprehended only by faith). This plea for moderation
in the statement of the doctrine produced, however, but
little effect. Transubstantiation was generally believed;
P 2

212

FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE

{Fourth

and in the course of the following century a contradiction
of the doctrine was accounted heresy.
Otho I I I . crowned Emperor.
Robert, King of France. Stephen I. King of Hungary.
A struggle for the papacy between Gregory V. and
John XVI. or XVII.
Robert was not disposed to persevere in the struggle
maintained by Hugh Capet against the papal pretensions.
Council of Rheims, held this year under the presidency
of the pope's legate, annuls the acts of the former council.
Gerbert deposed. Arnulph restored.
Adalbert of Prague preaches the Gospel in Prussia,
where he suffers persecution, and is put to death, 997.
The Gospel makes no progress in that country.
Micislaus, Duke of Poland, places his country under the
protection of St. Peter, i. e. the Pope.
Christians in Spain overpowered by the Arabs.
(995—1000.) Christianity established in Norway by the
King, Olaf Trygvesen, who attributed his former successes
in battle to a shield bearing a figure of Christ, which
had been given him by a Saxon priest. He exercised
great violence and cruelty towards the heathen priests,
and was killed in battle in the year 1000, when the
kings of Sweden and Denmark became masters of his
country until 1017. They tolerated all religions in
Norway.
Feast of All Souls, instituted at Clugny, for the redemption of souls from purgatory; it having been said
that, on occasion of an eruption of flame in Sicily, the
devils had been heard to lament the fact, that many souls
had been delivered from their torments by means of almsgiving and prayers, and especially by those of the monks
of Clugny.
Gerbert (Archbishop of Ravenna, 998) made Pope
(Silvester II.) by the influence of the emperor, whose tutor
he had been.
This year Silvester first suggests the idea of the Cru-

Period.)

213

TO THE PONTIFICATE OF GREGORY VII.

| sades, ih an " Epistola ex persona Hierusalem devastatae
ad Universalem Ecclesiam."
Robert, K i n g of France, compelled by the pope to
divorce his queen Bertha.
(997—1038.) Christianity finally established in Hungary',
under King Stephen I., and propagated thence to Transylvania and Wallachia, by force of arms. Finally established in Bohemia (999).
T h e system of Ecclesiastical Benefices may now be
considered as completed and established.
I t had now become usual for papal legates to convene
and preside in councils assembled in foreign lands.
1000

H u n s , Avars, and other Barbarians,—also, the Persians
and Russians,— harass the Eastern Empire.
T h e Seljukian T u r k s conquer Asia Minor.
Norman conquests in Italy.
The Greek Church is rent by numerous schisms.

,

1001

1002

T h e canons of the Council of Poitiers are
against the marriage of the clergy, and simony.
About this time, all persons were required to
souls in purgatory by the authority of the pope.
Institution of an annual procession with relics
Corbey and Amiens. O n these occasions many
are said to have been wrought.

directed
pray for
between
miracles

H E N R Y I I . E M P E R O R OF G E R M A N Y , AND KifrG O F
ITALY.

F r o m this time, the dukes of Poland make many fruitless attempts to subdue the Pomeranians, and to introduce
Christianity in the train of conquest. Boleslas I. founded
a bishopric at Colberg about the year 1000 ; which, however, did not survive the death of its first bishop.
Boleslas I. (995—1025) promotes the spread of ChristI ianity in Poland. This prince was very submissive to the
p 8

214

FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE

(Fourth

superior clergy, not presuming to sit in their presence, and
submitting to all the penances and burdens they imposed.
Sultan Mahmoud, a Turk, spreads his dominion and
Mohammedanism from the Caspian Sea to the Ganges.
T Gerbert. He planted the seeds of a literary taste
in Rheims, and in France generally.
In Denmark, Sveyn is more tolerant of Christianity
than formerly, from political considerations.
During the fresh disturbances which arose about this
time in Italy, the counts of Tuscoli obtained such influence, that the papal dignity became completely in possession of their family, in which it remained for a long time,
as it were, hereditary.
Bruno* surnamed Boniface, with eighteen companions*
preaches the Gospel, and attempts to found a church in
Prussia, but without effect: himself and his whole company were put to death in 1008. No efforts made for
the conversion of the Prussians for two centuries afterwards.
Fulbert, pupil of Gerbert, Bishop of Chartres. A
school of theology flourished under his auspices. He was
a zealous promoter of the worship of the Virgin Mary.
Olaf, King of Sweden, baptized; first Christian king
of that nation. He promotes the cause of Christianity in
his dominions, chiefly by the aid of English clergy. First
Swedish bishopric founded.
" A strange mixture, both of doctrine and worship, long
prevailed in Sweden, where Jesus Christ was profanely
associated with Odin, and the pagan goddess Freya con-i
founded with the Virgin." (Koch.)
Sultan Hakem in Egypt persecutes the Christians.
During this period, the papal chair is usually obtained by
the most nefarious means. In general, the popes themselves
are men of corrupt morals and profligate lives.

Period.)

TO THE PONTIFICATE OF GREGORY VII.

215

10101

A sect in Aquitaine rejects the use of the sign of the
cross and baptism. In the latter particular they agreed
with the Paulicians, and with several sects of the Middle
Ages, who substituted imposition of hands for baptism.

1016

* Canute the Great, King of England.
Canute was devoted to the interests of the Church of
Rome.

—

Pontius, Bishop of Aries, grants indulgence, or absolution of sins, on consideration of contributions in aid of
building churches.
About this time a congregation of Hermits is founded
in a part of the Apennines, Campus Malduli, Camaldoli.
Camaldulensian Order,
(1014—1035.) Christianity finally established in Denmark, under the auspices of Canute the Great, who had
married Emma, a Christian princess, widow of the English king, Ethel red.
(1017—1033.) Olaf II. King of Norway, promotes the
final establishment of Christianity in his dominions, partly
by persuasion, partly by force; founds churches and
schools. Venerated after his death as a saint.
Sardinia recovered from the Arabs.
The Brethren of Orleans,
a sect denying the meritoriousness of human works ; propagating certain Gnostic errors; professing to receive
no doctrine but such as is written by the Holy Spirit in
the inner man. Leaders of the sect summoned before an
assembly of bishops. Thirteen members put to death.

1018
1022

Bulgaria again a province of the Greek Empire.
t Notker Labeo, Abbot of St. Gall.
I some books of Scripture.
p 4

He translated

216

FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE

(Fourth

Continued struggles of the See of Rome with the emperors
respecting the independency of papal elections.
1024

CONRAD II.

EMPEROR OF GERMANY.

Beginning of the Franconian or Salic dynasty.
1025

CONSTANTINO,

SOLE

EMPEROR

OF THE

EAST.

Nestorians said to be still engaged in propagating the
Gospel among the Tartars.
Christians, in many parts, suffer great persecutions
from Saracens and Turks.
A sect, in the diocese of Arras and Cambray, insists
upon spirituality of mind and the exercise of practical religion, to the disparagement of external rites, and especially of infant baptism. Persuaded by Gerhard to cease
their opposition to the Church.
A sect near Turin maintains that the whole history of
Christ is to be regarded as only an allegorical representation of the spiritual or religious life. Several members
of this sect put to death.
(al. 1005.) t Burkard, Bishop of Worms.
End of the Caliphate of the Ommiyades in Spain.
ROMANUS

II. EMP.

EAST.

t Fulbert, Bishop of Chartres.
Henry I. King of France.
Conrad unites the Kingdom of Burgundy to the German crown.
Norman conquests in Italy and Sicily.
The French bishops and abbots appoint Friday in
every week to be kept sacred as a day of penance, in which
injuries should be forgiven, and all quarrels and litigations should be suspended.

Period.)

TO THE PONTIFICATE OF GREGORY VII.

217

Benedict raised to the Papal See, at the age of ten years,
for money. His life was most profligate and scandalous.
MICHAEL

IV.

EMP.

EAST.

Jaroslav, head of all Russia. He exerted his influence (from 1019 until 10.54) in favour of the establishment of Christianity in his dominions.
Togrul Beg, Emir al Omrah.
An order of Cenobites founded at Vallombrosa, in the
Apennines, by John Gualbert.
HENRY III. EMPEROR OF GERMANY.

(Under him the Bohemians and Hungarians become
tributary.)
MICHAEL

V. EMP.

EAST.

Treuga Dei, or the cessation of all hostilities and litigations during the latter part of the week, established by
authority of the Church, first in Aquitaine, afterwards
also in neighbouring countries. (See 1033.)
CONSTANTINE

X. (MoNOMACHUS) EMP.

EAST.

#• Edward the Confessor, King of England. Saxon line
restored.
Lanfranc, a monk in the monastery of Bee in Normandy.
Theophanes Ceramius, Nilus Doxipatrius, fl.
Bruno, Bishop of Wurtzburg.
The Council of Sutry affirms the right of the emperor
to nominate to the Holy See. Plan of the emperor for the
reformation of ecclesiastical abuses.
" The whole of Christendom composed, as it were, a
single and individual republic, of which the pope was the
spiritual head, and the emperor the secular. The duty of
the latter, as head and patron of the Church, was to take
cognisance that nothing should be done contrary to the

218

FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE

(Fourth

general interests of Christianity. It was his part to protect the Catholic Church, to be the guardian of its preservation, to convocate its general councils, and exercise
such rights as the nature of his office and the interests of
Christianity seemed to demand." (Koch.)
From Otho the Great to Henry IV. all the Roman
pontiffs were chosen, or at least confirmed, by the emperor.
Three rival popes deposed by the Council ofSutry.
From this time the rupture between the Greek and Latin
Churches became more complete and irremediable than ever.
Michael Cerularius, the Patriarch of Constantinople, caused
all churches and monasteries belonging to the Latins in
Constantinople to be shut up. The ancient controversy
renewed, and the breach widened by agitating a question
concerning the use of unleavened bread in the eucharist.
False doctrines respecting the power of the pope, saints,
the merit of good works, and transubstantiation, acquire
consistency and strength.
Capital punishment for (alleged) heresy had now become
general.
Profligacy and vice abound among people of all ranks
and conditions, especially among the clergy.
Pilgrimages to the Holy Land frequent and highly
esteemed, especially in connection with the belief in the
approaching end of the world, which still prevails.
Berenger declares his doubts concerning the doctrine of
Transubstantiation, and prefers the work of Scotus on the
eucharist to that of Paschasius Radbert.
Leo condemns Berenger and his doctrine in a council
at Rome. The Council of Vercelli, in the same year,
zealously condemns the tenets of Scotus and Berenger,
concerning the eucharist. The treatise of Scotus burnt.
Berenger imprisoned before the assembling of the latter
council.
Dismemberment and decline of the Mohammedan Caliphate in Spain.

Period.)

1

TO THE PONTIFICATE OF GREGORYVII.

219

During the latter part of this century (1041—1090),
the Normans in South Italy conquer Apulia, Calabria, and
Sicily, from the Greeks.
Idolatry still exists in Sweden, especially in connection
with a celebrated temple at Upsal.
Nicetas Pectoratus, fl.; an advocate of the Greek Church
against the Latins.
Michael Psellius, and Michael Cerularius, fl.
During this century, the popes are zealous in forcing
the Roman customs and ceremonies upon other churches;
e.g. in Spain. Strong representations concerning the necessity of celebrating divine worship in Latin.
Church discipline, as in past centuries, is weak, and the
subject of great abuse.
Offences against the pope and clergy were visited with
more severe punishment than moral transgressions.
The sentence of excommunication against temporal
princes was often employed as a means of effecting revolutions, or for other political purposes.
Immunities, &c. granted to Crusaders rendered imposition of penance, in a great degree, nugatory.

1052

1053

-A- sect > n e a r Grorlac, insists upon abstinence from animal food. Members of this sect put to death by order
of the emperor.

Michael Cerularius, assisted by Leo, Metropolitan
of Bulgaria, vehemently attacks the doctrines and ceremonies of the Romish Church. He complains especially
of the use of unleavened bread in the eucharist, which he
denounces as heretical; and brands the adherents of the
custom with the name of Azymites.
Leo published a defence of the Latin Church.
The emperor is unwilling, from political motives, that
the controversy between Michael and Leo should proceed.
10541
Legates sent from Rome to Constantinople to settle the

220

FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE

(Fourth

I dispute between Michael and Leo. A Greek monk, Nicetas
Pectoratus, compelled to burn his book, "Against the
Latins," in presence of the legates. Michael highly exasperated. Supported by the clergy and people against
the emperor. Patriarch and Pope excommunicate each
other.
From this time Hildehrand obtains continually increasing influence with the popes and superior clergy.
He was soon at the head of a party in the Church, and
exerted his influence to carry forward a plan for checking
ecclesiastical disorders, advancing the clergy in efficiency
and reputation, and promoting the independence of the
Church with regard to the temporal powers. With this
view, efforts were made to suppress simony, and to restrain the licentiousness of the clergy — especially to enforce the practice of clerical celibacy — as immediate
means of diminishing the influence of princes, nobles, and
wealthy individuals, in relation to ecclesiastical appointments.
1054
At this time the greater part of the temporal possessions
of the Holy See had passed into the hands of the emperor
and neighbouring princes.
Leo sends commissioners plenipotentiary into various
parts of Europe, with a view to promote this Reformation.
Origin of papal influence by means of legates,
_

Berenger declares, at the Council of Tours, that he does
not deny the presence of Christ in the eucharist, but regards the bread and wine after consecration as his body
and blood. Hildebrand, papal legate in France, declares
himself satisfied with this declaration.
THEODORA,

EMPRESS

OF THE

EAST.

(End of the Macedonian dynasty.)
1055
The Sultan Togrul Beg captures Bagdad, and becomes
master of the Caliphate.
_

MICHAEL

VI.

(STRATIOTICUS)

EMP.

EAST.

HENRY IV. EMPEROR OF GERMANY.
1057

ISAAC

COMNENUS,

EMP.

EAST.

Period.)
1059

T0 THE

PONTIFICATE OF GREGORY VII.

CONSTANTINE

IX.

(DUCJS)

EMP.

221

EAST.

Robert Guiscard created Duke of Apulia and Calabria
by the Pope, to whom he swears allegiance.
The right of election to the pontifical chair vested in
the college of cardinals, with consent of the people, and
approbation of the emperor.
Beginning of disputes between the popes and emperors respecting Investiture and nomination to the Holy See. These
disputes last until 1122.
Berenger goes to Rome, hoping to obtain a declaration
of the pope in favour of his views of the eucharist. The
opposite party (under Humbert) too strong for him. At
a council, Berenger is required to subscribe a declaration
that, after consecration, the bread and wine are the true
body and blood of Christ, and that his body is sensibly
broken by the hands of the priest, and pressed by the
teeth of the communicant. Berenger subscribes. But
after his return to France he openly retracted his confession, asserted his former doctrines against Lanfranc, and
inveighed violently against the Church of Rome. Lanfranc
writes against Berenger (De Eucharistise Sacramento
Liber). Berenger replies (De Sacra Ccena Liber).
Nicholas II. enforces the relaxed discipline of the
Canons Regular.
Order of the Brethren of St. Antony.
(Many miraculous cures, said to be wrought by the
pretended relics of St. Antony and St. Didier, lately imported into Dauphin e from Constantinople.)
Philip I. King of France.
By a synod at Spalatro, in Dalmatia, the use of the
Slavonian language in divine worship is prohibited.
Methodius (confounded with Ulphilas) is declared to
have been a Gothic heretic.

FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE

(Fourth

In Arragon, and soon afterwards in Catalonia, the
Roman liturgy is substituted for the Mozarabic.
Lanfranc, Abbot of Caen.
Alp Arslan, Seljukian Sultan.
Siegfried, Archbishop of Mentz, Gunther of Bamberg,
and other German and French bishops, undertake a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, accompanied by above seven
thousand devotees. Only about five thousand return.
f Humbert, advocate of the Western Church against
the Eastern.
Idolatry exterminated in Hungary. All Jutland Christianised.
William of Normandy invades England under the sanction of a papal grant.
Alp Arslan zealously propagates Mohammedanism in
Georgia and Armenia.
$• William the Conqueror, King of England.
* One third of the land in England now in the hands
of churchmen.
* After the Conquest, the erroneous doctrines and
practices of the Church of Rome begin to take deeper
root than formerly in England. But the way had already
been prepared for the admission of such errors.
William consents to the payment of Peter's Pence; not
as a tribute, but as a benefaction; and refuses to do
homage to the pope for his dominions.
* He exercised supreme authority in matters ecclesiastical as well as civil in England. But many English
ecclesiastics were ejected from their benefices in favour
of William's Norman followers, by the interference of
papal legates. This was a dangerous introduction of
papal authority into England. William also separated
the ecclesiastical and civil courts, and thus assisted the

Period.)

TO THE PONTIFICATE OF GREGORY VII.

223

clergy in establishing their claims to a separate jurisdicK
tion.
EunociA)
ROMANUS

III.

EMPRESS OF THE
EAST.
(DIOGENES)
EMP.
EAST.

Congregation of Hirschau (Congregatio Hirsaugiensis)
founded, in imitation of that of Clugny.
N.B. The monastery of Hirschau was founded about
A.D. 830.
Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury.
Alp Arslan takes the Emperor Romanus prisoner.
MICHAEL

VII.

EMP.

EAST.

Sultan Malek Shah.
T Peter Damian.
During this period, the state and civil governors acquired considerable influence over the Church, which
was exerted especially in the way of granting investiture
to bishops. " The popes used to date their acts from the
years of the emperor's reign, and to stamp their coin with
his name; and all the higher clergy were virtually bound
and subject to the secular power, by the solemn investiture of the ring and the crosier. This investiture gave
to the emperor and other sovereigns the right of nominating and confirming bishops, and even of deposing them,
if they saw cause. It gave them, moreover, the right of
conferring, at their pleasure, those fiefs and royal prerogatives which the munificence of princes had vested in
the Church." (Koch.)
Bishops had become extremely negligent of their
spiritual duties, notwithstanding provisions and penalties
designed to enforce the discharge of them. Their chief
care, in general, was to furnish their friends with a subsistence from the revenues of the Church, and to trade

224

FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE

(Fourth

I with ecclesiastical benefices. This evil continued, and
even increased, during the following centuries.
Archdeacons also, as representatives and commissioners
of the bishops, were guilty of many flagrant abuses of
their station and influence; an evil which subsequently
led to the abridgment of their authority, and the appointment of bishop's officials or vicars.
T h e influence of Rome had been greatly increased by
means of the vices and injustice of temporal princes, as
well as by dissensions and ambition among the bishops.
Sometimes princes appealed to Rome against the pretensions of their clergy; and sometimes the clergy appealed
against the claims and exactions of princes. T h u s both
parties contributed to establish the power of the pope.
Such was the case, e. g. with regard to England.
Monastic Orders. Hitherto the rule of St. Benedict
(see 817.) was the only one allowed by the Romish
C h u r c h ; and the rule of St. Basil prevailed exclusively
(as it still does) in the East.
Disputes between Realists (i. e. those who maintained
that universals are real things), and Nominalists (who
contended that they are mere names, or simple abstractions).
T h e revival of philosophy in the Latin Church, and
the consequent controversies between the Nominalists
and Realists, occasioned a remarkable change in the
method of propounding religious doctrines^ which were
henceforth not only stated in a more logical form than
hitherto, but also mixed up with metaphysical prin' ciples.

LIST

OF

POPES,

PATRIARCHS,

AND

ARCHBISHOPS

C A N T E R B U R Y , F R O M T H E Y E A R 815 TO

1070.

815. Theodorus.

821. Antonius I.

816.
817.

824. EUGENIUS II.
827. VALENTINE.

S T E P H E N V.
PASCAL X.

OF

Period.)

TO THE PONTIFICATE OF GREGORY VII.
928. L E O VI.
—
Tryphon.
— * Wulfelm.

828. GREGORY IV.

830.
—
832.
842.

225

* Theolgild.
* Ceolnoth.
John VII.
Methodius I.

929. STEPHEN IX. (VIII.)

844. SERGIUS II.

931. J O H N XL
9 3 2 . See of Constantinople vacant.

846.
847.

933.
936.

855.

857.

Ignatius.
L E O IV.
BENEDICT III.

Theophylact.
VII.

LEO

939. STEPHEN IX. (or VIII.).

941. * Odo Severus.

Photius.
Ignatius deposed.

943. M A R T I N I I I . (or

858. NICHOLAS I.

II.).

946. AGAPETUS II.

Photius.

954. * Dunstan

867. A D R I A N II.

956. J O H N XII.

—

—
Polyeuchus.
963. LEO VIII.

Ignatius,
restored.

871. * Atheldred.
872. J O H N VIII.

964. BENEDICT V.
in opposition to Leo,

877.

965. JOHN XIII.

882,

Photius,
restored.
M A R T I N I I . (or

970. Basil I.
I.).

884. A D R I A N III.
885. STEPHEN VI.

886. Stephen I

—

891. FORMOSUS.

984. J O H N XIV. '
986. J O H N XV.
VI.).

897. ROMANUS.
898. THEODORUS II.
—
J O H N IX. (X.)

—. * Aluricius.
"1 .

I.

Nicholas I.

restored.
913. LANDO.
914?. J O H N X.

923. * Atheln.
925. Stephen II.

997.

Schism between Gregory V. and
JohnXVI.(orXVIL)

999.

SYLVESTER II.

Y rivals.
J

Nicholas deposed.
911. ANASTASIUS III.

—

988. * Ethelgar.
989. * Siric.
995. Sisinnius IL
996. GREGORY V.

905. SERGIUS III.

Euthymius

III.

983. Nicholas II.

BONIFACE VI.
STEPHEN VII. (or

900. BENEDICT IV.
903. L E O V.
~
—
CHRISTOPHER.

Antonius

975. BENEDICT VII.
See of Constantinople vacant*

— * Phlegmund.
893. Antonius II.
895. Nicholas I.
896.
—

972. BENEDICT VI.
973. BONIFACE VII.
974. DOMNUS II.

— Sergius IL
1003. JOHN XVII. (or XVIII.)
1005. * Elphege.
1009.

SERGIUS IV.

1012. BENEDICT VIII.

1013. * Living, or Leovingus.
1019. Etistathius.
1020. * Agelnoth, or ^ r t h e l n o t .
1024. J O H N XVIII (or XIX).

226

1025.
1033.

F R O M T H E DEATH OF C H A R L E M A G N E

Alexis.
BENEDICT

IX.

1038. * Edsine, or Eadsius.
1043. Michael I. Cerularius.
1044.

SYLVESTER III.
Elected in opposition to B E N E DICT: with whom he afterwards shares the papacy.
Benedict makes a simoniacal
contract with J o h n Gratian,
who assumes the title of G R E GORY V I . Three popes at
once.
All three deposed by the Council
of Sutry, which elects

1046.
1048.

CLEMENT II.
DAMASCUS II.
L E O IX

—
1050.
1052.

* Robert Gemetieensis.
* Stigand.

1054.
1055.
1057.

See of Rome vacant.
VICTOR II.
STEPHEN IX.

[1058. BENEDICT X.]
1058.

NICHOLAS

1059.

Constantine

III.

1061.

ALEXANDER

816.
—
817.
821.
822.
—
—
823.
—
824.

825.

826.
—
829.

Constantinople (for removal
of images.—Decrees of Seventh General Council annulled).
Aix-la-Chapelle (reform of
monastic abuses).
Rome.
Aix-la-Chapelle.
Constantinople.
Thionville (on discipline).
* Cloveshdo.
Attigny.
Rome.
Compeigne.
* Cloveshoo (dispute concerning the Monastery of
Westbury).
Paris ; and Aix-la-Chapelle
(in support of image-worship).
Ingelheim.
Rome (on discipline).
Mentz. Paris. Lyons.
Worms. Constantinople.

II.
II.

1063. John VIII.
Xiphilin.
1070. * Lanfranc.

C O U N C I L S FROM T H E Y E A R

815.

(Fourth

832.
833.
834.
835.
836.
837.
838.
841.
842.
842.
844.
—,
845.
846.
847.
—
848.
—
—

815

TO

1072.

St. Denis.
Compeigne.
St. Denis.
Thionville.
Aix-la-Chapelle (Church
property).
Aix-la-Chapelle.
Chiersy (against the liturgical works of Amalarius).
Tours.
Constantinople (against the
Iconoclasts).
Aix-la-Chapelle.
Thionville.
Vera.
Meaux (on discipline).
Paris. Sens.
Constantinople.
Mentz (Church property.
— Discipline).
Mentz (opinions of Gottschalk condemned).
Limoges.
Bretagnc. Rome.

Period)

TO T H E P O N T I F I C A T E O F GREGORY V I I .

848. Lyons.
849. Chiersy (Gottschalk condemned).
— Chartres.
— Paris.
850. Pavia (on discipline).
851. ^Beningdon, in Mercia (privileges of the monastery of
Croyland).
852. Cordova.
— Mentz (on discipline).
853. Soissons. Verberia.
— Chiersy (against Gottschalk).
— Frankfort-on-the-Maine.
— Paris,
— Rome (on discipline).
855. Valence.
— Pavia (on discipline, &c.).
— Bonceuil.
—. * Winchester.
857. Chiersy.
— Mentz.
858. Worms.
— Chiersy.
— Constantinople
(against
Photius).
859. Langres. Metz. Saronieres.
860. Aix-la-Chapelle. Coblentz.
Mentz. Rome.
— Tousy.
861. Constantinople (in favour of
Photius).
— Rome (against Photius).
862. Aix-la-Chapelle.
•— Rome.
— Soissons.
863. Rome (against Photius).
— Metz.
.— Verberia.
.—. Rome (against the Council
of Metz).
864. Rome (Lateran).
865. Attigny.
866. Pavia.

227

866.
867.
—
—

Soissons.
Constantinople.
Troyes.
Constantinople (Photius deposed).
868. Worms (on discipline).
— Rome (Photius condemned).
869. Metz.
—-

870.
—
—
—
871.
—
872.
873.
-—
874.
—
—
875.
876.
—
—
877.
—
—
—
—
878.
—879.

879,

CONSTANTINOPLE; reckon-

ed as the Eighth General
Council by the Latins
(against Photius).
Vienne.
Attigny.
Cologne.
Spalatro.
Douzi.
Compeigne.
Rome.
Senlis.
Cologne.
Douzi.
Ravenna.
Rheims (on discipline).
Rome.
Pavia.
Rome.
Pontion.
Oviedo.
Compeigne.
Rome.
Ravenna.
Compeigne.
Rome.
Troyes.
Rome. Jerusalem. Antioch.
Alexandria (in favour of
Photius).
880

CONSTANTINOPLE ;

reckoned as the Eighth
General Council by the
Greeks (in favour of Photius ; concerning the Nicene Creed, and the Six
General Councils).

228

881.
886.
887.
.—•
888.

FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE

Fimes (on discipline).
Chalon,
Cologne.
Tours.
Mentz. Metz (on discipline).
392. Vienne.
893. Rheims.
895, Tribur (near Mentz).
896 (or 897.) Rome (against the
late Pope Formosus).
898. Rqme (against the foregoing
council).
— Ravenna.
900. Rheims.
— Lateran.
906. Constantinople.
— Barcelona (on discipline).
909. Trosley.
911. Constantinople.
920. Constantinople.
921. Trosley.
922. Coblentz (on discipline).
923. Rheims.
927. Treves (reformation of the
clergy).
-— Trosley.
928. * Gratley.
931. Altheim (on discipline).
— Constantinople.
932. Ratisbon.
— Erford (on discipline).
— Dingelfind (reformation of
the clergy).
935. Fimes (Church property),
94-1, Soissons.
943. * LlandafF.
946. Astorga (on discipline).
947* Narbonne (on discipline).
— Verdun.
948. Mouson,
— Ingelheim.
-— * London.
*
949. Rome.
952. Augsburg(ondiscipline,&c.)

955.
958,
963.
—
964.
967.
—
968.
—
969.

(Fourth

* LlandafF.
Ingelheim.
Constantinople.
Rome.
Rome : — two.
Rome.
Ravenna.
Rome.
Ravenna.
* England (under Dunstan;
on discipline).
— Rome.
971. Rome.
975. * Winchester (under Dunstan).
— Rome.
— Rheims.
978. * Calne.
979. Ingelheim (on discipline).
988. LlandafF.
990. Narbonne (Church property)991. Rheims.
992. Aix-la-Chapelle.
993. Lateran.
— Rheims (Church property).
995. Mouson.
996. Rome. St. Denis (Church
property).
997. Pavia.
998. Rome.
—• Ravenna.
1000. Poitiers (on discipline).
1001. Rome.
1007. Frankfort-on-the-Maine.
1009. * Exham, in England (ecclesiastical discipline).
— Milan.
1018. Nimeguen.
1020—1024. Several in France,
1022. Pavia (reformation of the
clergy).
1025. Arras,
1027. Constantinople (on discipline).

Period.)

TO T H E PONTIFICATE O F GREGORY VII.

1027. Rome.
1029. Limoges.
1031. Bourges. Limoges (on discipline).
1034. Several in France.
1036. Tribur, near Mentz (on
discipline).
1040. Venice (on discipline).
1041, 1042. Several in France.
(Treuga Dei).
1046. Sutry.
1047. Rome.
1049. Rome. Pavia. Rheims.
Mentz.
1050. Rome. Tours. Vercelli.
Brienne. Paris. Siponto.
1051. Mentz (against marriage
of priests).
1053. Mantua.
— Rome.
1054. Constantinople.
— Narbonne.
1055. Mentz. Florence. Angers.
Lyons. Rouen.
1056. Compostello (on discipline).
— * Llandaff.
— Toulouse (Church property).
1059. Sutry.
—. Rome.

END

OF

1059.
1060.
—
1061.
—
1062.
1063.
—

229

Aries.
Vienne. Tours.
Toulouse.
Rome.
Basle.
Angers (against Berenger).
Rome (against simony).
Rouen (in support of the
doctrine of Trari substantiation).
1065. * London (immunities of
the Abbey of Westminster).
1066-1067. Constantinople (concerning marriage).
1067. Mantua.
1068. Gironne (Treuga Dei).
— Barcelona.
— Toulouse (against simony).
1069. Mentz.
— Spalatro (use of Slavonic
language in divine service forbidden).
1070. * Winchester and Windsor
(in presence of a papal
legate).
1071. Mentz.
1072. Chalon.
— * England.
— Rouen.
— Rome.

THE

PERIOD.

Q 3

PERIOD V.
FROM T H E ACCESSION OF GREGORY V I I . TO T H E
BEGINNING

OF T H E

REFORMATION.

1073—1517.

(HENRY IV. EMPEROR OF GERMANY,
MICHAEL

VII

EMP.

EAST,

Philip I. King of France,
#• William the Conqueror, King of England).
Hildebrand) Pope, under the name of
GREGORY

VIL

pursues his plan of restoring religion by establishing a
Papal Theocracy. He endeavours to reform the clergy,
and especially to detach them from secular interests and
pursuits; and seeks to inspire princes and other laymen
with respect for the Church, as an independent and
superior body. The theory of the Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals, which represents the bishop of Rome as universal bishop of the Church, begins to be realised.
Great indignation prevails in Europe on account of
the oppression of pilgrims in the Holy Land. Gregory
renews the idea of a Crusade (see A.D. 999), and projects
the arming of all Christendom for an attack upon the
common enemy.
Gregory makes successful efforts for the recovery of
Church patronage from princes and nobles, in whose
hands it had rested for several centuries.

(Fifth

Period.)
|

THE

FROM T H E ACCESSION O F GREGORY VII.
ERA

OF SCHOLASTIC

THEOLOGY

231

BEGINS*

The history of the Scholastic Theology divides itself into
three periods.
1. The latter part of the eleventh century and the whole of
the twelfth was the period of its origin and development.
2. During the thirteenth century it flourished at its height.
3. Throughout the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries it
ivas on the decline.
T h e system of Congregations of monks or monastic
orders, already established, contributes during this period
to the restoration of discipline, a n d general improvement, in monasteries.
1074
B y the Council of Rome, the strict enforcement of
celibacy upon the clergy was renewed, and Simony was
forbidden under the sanction of penalties. Laymen forbidden to confess to married priests, or to attend their performance of mass, under penalty of excommunication.
1075
T h e Council of R o m e forbids all lay investiture, or
appointment to spiritual offices, as simoniacal.
The pope claims absolute and unlimited dominion over all
the states of Christendom, as successor of St. Peter and
vicar of Christ upon earth.
•—

1076

Inge, K i n g of Sweden, prohibits idolatry within his
dominions. Christianity now established in Sweden.
T h e Pagans rebel.
Malek Shah, Seljukian Sultan, subdues E g y p t and
Palestine.
Jerusalem captured b y Seljukian T u r k s .

T h e emperor ( H e n r y IV.) refuses to submit to the
papal claims, a n d quarrels with the pope. H e n r y causes
the Council of Worms to depose the p o p e ; and Gregory,
in a Council of Rome, excommunicates the emperor, a n d
absolves his subjects from their oath of allegiance. H e e x communicates also all who took part in the Council of
Worms.
1077
H e n r y performs penance, and submits to the demands
of the pope. H e afterwards unites with the Lombards
' against the pope.
Q 4

232

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

(Fifth

From this time the pontiffs regard the empire as a Jief of
the Church.
Gregory had now begun " to put in execution the project which he had so long been concerting and preparing,
viz. the erecting of a spiritual despotism, extending to
priests as well as to kings; making the supreme pontiff
the arbiter in all affairs, both civil and ecclesiastical —the bestower of favours, and the dispenser of crowns.
The basis of this dominion was, that the vicar of Jesus
Christ ought to be superior to all human power. The
better to attain his object, he began by withdrawing himself and his clergy from the authority of secular princes.
" The bishops, vainly flattering themselves with the
prospect of an imaginary liberty, forgot the valuable gifts
with which the emperor had loaded them, and enlisted
under the banners of the pope. They turned against the
secular princes those arms which the latter had imprudently trusted in their hands." (Koch.)
By the Council of Borne (1079), bishops were obliged
to take an oath of fealty and homage to the pope, binding themselves to aid and defend " the royal rights of
St. Peter."
NICEPHOBUS

III.

EMP.

EAST.

Rodolph of Bavaria supported by the pope as anti-emperor, against Henry: — defeated.
Continued struggles between Christians and Pagans in
Sweden.
Theophylact, fl.
He may be regarded as the best expositor of Scripture
whom this age produced. But hermeneutic theology was
still at a very low ebb.

f John Xiphilin.
Gregory cites Berenger to appear at Rome, with a view
to effect an amicable adjustment of the Eucharistic Control
versy. He requires Berenger to subscribe a confession of
faith drawn up in moderate terms. Berenger's opponents

Period.)

TO THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION.

233

| dissatisfied with this, and disposed to call in question the
orthodoxy of Gregory himself. Gregory, jealous of his
reputation for orthodoxy, which was especially valuable
as a means of carrying out his plan of consolidating a
papal theocracy, requires Berenger, in a council assembled the next year, to subscribe a confession, declaring
that the bread and wine are changed " subs tan tialiter "
into the body and blood of Christ. Berenger complies —
renounces his alleged errors, — and returns to France.
1080
Gregory renews his excommunication of Henry, and
recognises Rodolph as emperor. Henry causes Gregory
to be deposed again by the Councils of Mentz and
Brixen; and sets up another pope, under the title of
Clement III.
1080-1083.
years.
1081

Henry lays siege to Rome during three

ALEXIUS

COMNENUS,

EMP.

EAST.

Many abuses prevailed in connexion with the so-called
- sacrament of Penance, which had continually acquired
more and more of an arbitrary and merely external cha«?
racter. The Popes Gregory and Urban denounced these
abuses, but in vain.
# Osmond, Bishop of Sarum, frames the Service-book
" In Usum Sarum.''
Use of the Latin Liturgy imposed upon the whole Church
by Gregory.
In the Western churches many of the clergy were married^
notwithstanding all efforts to the contrary. The laws of
celibacy found great and lasting opposition in some
parts: e.g. at Milan in France, and in Britain.
1084
Carthusian order of monks founded by Bruno, at
Chartreuse (Cartusia), near Grenoble. Strictly ascetic ;
— monks employed, solitary and silent, in transcribing
religious books.
I

Several princes of Italy and Germany abandon the

234

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

{Fifth

emperor, and do homage to the pope. William, King of
England, refuses such submission.
$• In England, churchmen are forbidden to leave the
kingdom, or to acknowledge any one as pope without
permission of the king.
" Gregory pretended to unite in himself the plenary
exercise both of the ecclesiastical and episcopal power,
leaving nothing to the archbishops and bishops but the
title of his lieutenants or vicars. He completely undermined the jurisdiction of the metropolitans and bishops,
by authorising, in all cases, an appeal to the court of
Rome, reserving to himself exclusively the cognisance of
all causes called major; including more especially the
privilege of judging and deposing bishops. This latter
privilege had always been vested in provincial councils,
who exercised it under the authority, and with the consent of, the secular powers. Gregory abolished this usage,
and claimed for himself the power of judging the bishops,
either in person or by his legates, to the exclusion of the
synodal assemblies. He made himself master of these
assemblies, and even arrogated the exclusive right of convocating general councils." {Koch.)
Henry gains possession of Rome by treachery. Duke
Robert Guiscard recovers Rome in favour of Gregory.
Gregory VII. dies at Salerno.
The pope is now the absolute monarch of the Church.
The fiction by which he had been represented as the
Vicar or Successor of St. Peter in the Church of Rome, is
turned into the still grosser fiction of his being the
VICAR OF GOD, OR OF CHRIST, for the whole Church upon
earth.
Authority of the pope maintained by his absolute
control of councils, — the immediate subjection of bishops
to the See of Rome, — appointment to benefices by papal
mandate, under penalty of excommunication, — appeals to
Rome from all courts, and in all causes, — general right
to grant absolution and dispensation, and exclusive power
of canonization, claimed by the pope, and conceded to

Period.)

TO THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION.

235

I him, — taxation of churches, — the mission of papal legates
with unlimited authority to all parts of Christendom.
Disputes between the emperor and the pope continue long
after Gregory's death.
Christians oppressed by the Seljukian Turks in Asia
Minor.
1086

Penance. Indulgences had hitherto been granted only
with reference to certain Church penalties, but in this
year Urban proclaimed the remission of all penalties
(indulgentia plenaria), on condition of joining an expedition against the infidels in Africa.
Libraries and Schools multiplied.
The usual course of study comprised the Trivium,
(grammar, rhetoric, and dialectics,) and the Quadrivium
(arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy).
During the age of scholastic theology, we meet with
systematic divisions and classifications of the Divine attributes for the first time.

1087
—

* William II. (Rufus) King of England.
Rise of the Italian Republics.
Crusade against the Arabians in Africa.
(1089—1093.) * William Rufus keeps the See of Canterbury vacant during the space of four years, appropriating its revenues. He exercised his cupidity in the
same manner with regard to other English bishoprics, and
several abbeys.

1088
1089

f Berenger.
* T Lanfranc. Commentary on the Epistles of St. Paul
and on the Psalms. Treatise on Confession. Dissertation on the Body and Blood of Christ in the Eucharist,
against Berenger. Orations. Epistles.
Lanfranc may be considered as having introduced the
I scholastic theology.

236

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

[Fifth

to 1097. The Emperor Henry in Italy.
Death of the Seljukian Sultan Malek Shah. Division
of his territories. Foundation of the Kingdom of Roum,
in Asia Minor. Soliman II. Sultan.
Conrad, son of the Emperor Henry, supported by the
1093
pope, rebels against his father, but fails.

1090
1092

10941

Peter [the Hermit) of Amiens receives a commission from
the pope to preach a Crusade.
At the Council of Autun, a papal legate excommunicates the Emperor Philip I. King of France, and
Clement III.
Philip I. King of France, imprisons Ivo, Bishop of
Chartres, on account of his opposition to his unjust divorce
of his queen Bertha, and marriage with Bertrade.

1095

Order of monks of St. Antony founded by Gaston, a
French nobleman, in gratitude for the recovery of his
son. Duty of the monks to tend the sick.
At the Councils of Placentia and Clermont, Urban
zealously supports the cause of the Crusades. Promises
of absolution, indulgence, and eternal life to all who should
join the expedition. The enterprise undertaken with
furious ardour.
Peter the Hermit, and Walter the Pennyless, lead
forward a mixed multitude, 300,000 of whom perish
before the Crusaders start.

1096

T H E FIRST CRUSADE,

under Godfrey of Bouillon, Hugh of Vermandois,
Robert of Normandy, Robert of Flanders, Stephen of
Chartres, Raymond of Toulouse, Bohemond, and Tancred. Number of Crusaders 600,000, besides priests,
monks, &c.
The part taken by Urban in promoting the Crusades
" tends greatly to increase his influence and power in the
Church. As the leader and abettor of a highly popular
measure,— one which exactly fell in with the taste and disposition of the times,—he soon becomes more than a match
for his rival Clement.

Period.)

TO THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION.

237

j

A second sentence of excommunication against the
King of France, on account of his divorce, &c.
1097
* Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury, quarrels with
Henry, King of England, respecting Investitures.
William II. agreed to acknowledge Urban as pope, on
condition of his deposing Anselm. A papal legate received William's acknowledgment, and then confirmed
Anselm in his see. But Anselm was obliged to flee the
kingdom.
1098

The Council of Bari, under Urban, again condemns
the doctrine of the Greek Church concerning the procession of the Holy Ghost
Anselm, Archbishop of
Canterbury, undertakes the defence of the Latin doctrine.
Doctrine concerning the Existence of God,
Anselm is generally regarded as the first writer who
advanced an ontological proof of the existence of God;
and, in fact, he was the first who fully developed this idea,
which had been started by Augustin. Duns Scotus, William Occam, and other scholastic writers, however, rejected every a priori argument; and Peter d'Ailly maintained that reason, though it may show the existence of
God to be probable, can never demonstrate it. Hence
Des Cartes is ranked as the patron of the ontological
argument on this subject.

~ " I The Cistercian order of monks founded at Citeaux
I (Cistercium) near Dijon, in the diocese of Chalons, by
Robert: confirmed by the pope in 1100. Most important
of the new orders founded about this time; soon rivals
that of Clugny.
1099

Jerusalem taken by the Crusaders, July 15. Order of
the Hospitalers of St John of Jerusalem first founded, for
the cure of the sick.
—- I Kingdom of Jerusalem founded by Godfrey of Bouillon.

238

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

[Fifth

No general council had been held during this century.
The use of Rosaries has now become general in the
Latin Church.
Religious flagellation has been introduced:
And also the celebration of Saturday, in honour of the
Virgin Mary.
* Henry I. King of England.
Councils against Simony.
Celibacy of the clergy finally established in Saxony.
"f Bruno, founder of the Carthusian order.
Boleslas II. King of Poland.
Division of the Empire of the Seljukides.
The Bogomili, a Mystic sect, holding some Gnostic
doctrines, in the Greek Church. (It is probable that many
who did not hold such doctrines, but merely rejected the
superstitions of the dominant church, and were sincere
and serious Christians, were included under this odious
name.)
Peter of Bruys denounces some prevalent errors and
superstitions, such as the mass, mere ceremonial worship,
&c. But he fell into extremes, denouncing all places of
worship as needless, opposing the perpetual celebration
of the Lord's supper, and rejecting infant baptism.
The emperor's second son (Henry) rebels against his
father. Supported by the pope. Henry IV. compelled
to abdicate.
HENRY V. EMPEROR OF GERMANY AND KING OF
ITALY.

He renews the contest with the pope concerning
Investitures.
#• Quarrel between the archbishop and pope, and the
King of England (Henry II.), respecting Investitures
continues. Henry at length submitted to a compromise :
he gave up the right of Investiture, but churchmen
agreed to do homage for their temporalities (1107).
This century is distinguished by continually recurring

Period.)

TO THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION.

239

struggles between the popes on the one side, and other prelates^
or temporal princes, on the other.

1106

# In England, Anselm takes great pains to enforce the
celibacy of the clergy : — he meets with much opposition.
Robert of Arbrisselles founds the order of Fontevraud.
The custom of elevating the Host at the celebration of the
eucharist had now become prevalent in the West. It was
of earlier date in the Oriental churches.
Communion in one kind. — A custom had now been introduced of administering to communicants in the Lord's
supper the bread dipped in wine, or sometimes bread
alone, instead of bread and wine. This innovation was
opposed at first by Pope Paschal II. and Anselm of Canterbury, and afterwards by Peter Lombard and Albertus
Magnus. But these Schoolmen maintained the doctrine of
a concomitantia corporis et sanguinis Christi, i. e. that
both the body and blood are administered under each
species; with which it was easy for others to defend the
withdrawal of the cup from the laity.

At the Council of Troyes, a fruitless attempt was made
to settle the question respecting Investitures,
Louis VI. King of France.
1108
Small Christian states in Palestine and Syria, dependent
on Jerusalem.
11101 The emperor marches into Italy against the pope.
The Italian Republics recognise the emperor of Germany as their head, but claim sovereign power for themselves.
1111 The pope made prisoner. He is compelled to concede
the right of Investiture to the emperor.
1112 A Lateran Council annuls the forced concessions of the
pope relating to Investitures, and the contest is renewed.
The council excommunicates Henry.

1107

1113

ALEXIUS,

EMP.

EAST.

240

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

(Fifth

1113|

Bernard retires, with thirty companions, to the new
monastery of Citeaux.

1115

| Ivo, Bishop of Chartres.
He had maintained that it was not unlawful for emperors
to invest bishops, &c. with temporal power and dignity;
and that the Church needs not require more than that
they should lay no claim to a right to invest with spiritual
authority. This distinction eventually led to the settlement of the contest respecting Investitures.
Bernard, now Abbot of Clairvaux, improves the discipline and raises the reputation of his order.
The
monastery of Clairvaux became afterwards the head of
160 other Cistercian (or Bernardine) monasteries in
France, Germany, England, Ireland, Denmark, Norway,
and Sweden.

(1115—1124.) Tanchelin, or Tanquelin, an eccentric
fanatic in Flanders.
1116
Henry of Lausanne preaches at Mans; — inveighs
against the pomp and wealth of the clergy ; — afterwards
preaches in various parts of Languedoc and Provence.
-—
*
1118

•—

„

The emperor again marches into Italy to maintain his
cause against the pope.
JOHN

COMNENUS,

EMP.

EAST.

Henry supports Gregory VIII. as pope, in opposition to
Gelasius II. Gelasius excommunicates the emperor and
his anti-pope.
The order of St. John of Jerusalem becomes military,
under Raymond du Puy. (Knights of St. John of Jerusalem.)
Norbert labours to promote a reformation of the clergy
in Germany, France, and the Netherlands.
Basil, leader of the Bogomili, put to death.

Period.)

TO T H E B E G I N N I N G O F T H E REFORMATION.

241

Gelasius I I . compelled to quit R o m e : dies in exile.
Calixtus I I . , at the Council of Rheims, prohibits all lay
investiture of bishops and abbots; excommunicates the
emperor, the anti-pope, and their adherents; and a b solves all the emperor's subjects from their oath of allegiance.
Godfrey of Vendome (abbot and cardinal) recommends the separation of spiritual authority and temporal
dignity in Investitures. H u g o of F l e u r y suggests that
princes may be permitted to invest with the sceptre, but
not with the cross and ring.
Order of Knights Templar instituted.
A t this time a church at Lubeck is the only one of the
Slavi, north of the Elbe.
Arnulph, Bishop of Rochester, recommends that communicants in the eucharist should partake of bread dipped
in wine. T h e late popes ( U r b a n and Pascal) had insisted
upon the administration of both elements, and especially
the bread.
The States of Germany insist upon the emperor's making
peace with the pope.
Boleslas I I I . conquers Wratislas, D u k e of Pomerania.
H e endeavours to propagate the Gospel among the P o m e ranians, at first with little success.
Attempt at promoting a reformation of the clergy by
uniting the monastic life with the discharge of spiritual
functions. I n 1121 Norbert, with some companions, r e tires to Premontre (Prsemonstratum), in the diocese of
Laon. — Canonici Regulares.
Peter Maurice (Venerabilis), Abbot of Clugny, from
1122 until 1156, restores the discipline and credit of his
order.
Dispute respecting Investitures terminated by the
CONCORDAT OF

WORMS.

242

FROM THE ACCESSION

or

GREGORY VII.

{Fifth

The emperor empowered to invest with the sceptre,
but not with the cross and ring. Elections to be free, in
presence of the emperor or his commissioner. Emperor
to possess a kind of casting vote in disputed elections.
" The ties of vassalage which connected the bishops with
the emperors were still preserved by this transaction, contrary to the intentions of Gregory VII.; but the emperors,
being obliged to approve of the persons whom the Church
should hereafter present, lost their chief influence in the
elections, and were no longer entitled, as formerly, to
grant or refuse investiture." [Koch.)
The Council of Lateran confirms the Concordat of
Worms.
Peter of Bruys put to death. A sect of his followers,
Petrobrusians, survives. Henry of Lausanne becomes
their leader; whence they acquire the title Henricians.
Otho, Bishop of Bamberg, labours successfully for the
conversion of the Pomeranians. Wratislas and many of
his subjects baptized.
Christianity established in Pomerania. First Pomeranian bishopric at Wollin. Otho returns to Bamberg.
LOTHAIRE II. EMPEROR or

GERMANY.

Struggles of the Scholastic Theology with the more practical,
and the traditional or ecclesiastical, systems.
Controversy between Abelard and Bernard.
The pope formally confirms the rule of Norbert, and
thus establishes the order of Prcemonstratensian Canons.
Norbert, made Archbishop of Magdeburg, labours zealously for the propagation of his order until his death in
1134.
Otho undertakes a second mission to Pomerania. His
zeal and intrepidity contribute greatly to the final subversion of Heathenism in that country.

Period.)

TO THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION.

248

Rules.for the order of Knights Templar by the Council
of Troyes.
1129

Teaching of the Church. By the Council of Toulouse,
the laity are forbidden to read either the Old or the New
Testament* except the Psalter; and that not in the vernacular tongue.
1130|
Dispute and division at the election of a new pope.
One party elects Innocent I I . ; the other Anacletus II.
Innocent obliged to flee from Italy to France.
Roger II. created King of Naples and Sicily by the
Pope.
(The Novels, or New Collection of Imperial Institutions,
found this year at Amalfi in Italy.)
Extreme Unction in repute.
f Honorius of Autun.
1131
1132
1133

Innocent recognised as pope in Germany and France.
Innocent returns to Italy.
Innocent at Rome, crowns Lothaire II. The party of
Anacletus afterwards gain possession of the city, and
Innocent is obliged to quit.
About this time, the Gospel appears to have been introduced among some of the Tartar tribes by the influence
of one of their chiefs {Presbyter Johannes). His successors
continued to unite the kingly and sacerdotal dignity, until
their territory was overrun by the Moguls (1202).
Christianity now makes some progress among the tribes
on the banks of the Elbe and Oder. Bishoprics of Havelsburg and Brandenburg created about this time. While
the dukes of Saxony sought to propagate the Gospel in
these parts by force of arms, some bishops laboured to the
same purpose with the more legitimate means of persuasion and instruction.
R 2

244

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

[Fifth

Christianity finally established in Sweden.
Struggles between the Danish clergy and their king.
Henry of Lausanne condemned to perpetual imprisonment by the Council of Pisa. He escapes, and continues to preach in the South of France.
Arnold of Brescia begins to inveigh against the papal
system. He maintained that the clergy ought not to
possess temporalities; that the revenues of popes, bishops,
and monasteries ought to be resigned in favour of the
civil rulers of each state; and that ministers of the Gospel
ought to possess no more than a spiritual authority, with
a subsistence from tithes and voluntary contributions.
$• Stephen, King of England.
Louis VII. King of France.
After the death of Anacletus, his party elect Victor IV.
as pope, but soon submit to Innocent.
CONRAD I. EMPEROR OF GERMANY.

First Emperor of the House of Suabia or Hohenstaufen.
A general council (Lateran II.) recognises Innocent II.
as pope. Arnold of Brescia condemned: obliged to
retire into Switzerland.
* The bishop of Winchester summons the king
(Stephen) before him to answer for his conduct against
certain bishops, — claims on behalf of the Church the
right of appointing sovereigns, — and declares in favour
of Matilda and her son.
Alphonso I. King of Portugal, receives confirmation of
his title from the Pope, for tribute.
f Otho, Apostle of Pomerania.
The Festival of the Immaculate Conception of the
Virgin Mary introduced.

Period.)

TO THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION.

245

The Council of Constantinople condemns to the flames
the writings of Constantine Chrysomalus, as propagating
the doctrines of the Bogomili.
*

Canon Law introduced inta England..

Innocent imposes the obligation of a vow upon the
Canons Regular.
The doctrine of Seven Sacraments is established by the
Schoolmen^ about this time.
The adoration of the Host, and the multiplication of
" altars" in churches may be traced to this century : a
natural consequence of the doctrine of Transubstantiation.
Bernard and others insist upon confession of sins to a
priest; Peter Lombard and Gratian speak of it as not absolutely necessary.
t Hugh of St. Victor.
Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria,

f Abelard.
MANUEL

I. (COMNENUS)

EMP.

EAST.

(The Greek Empire regained much of its importance
under the Comneni.)
Fiefs of the Western Empire become hereditary. This
is one great cause of the decline of the imperial authority,
and the ruin of the empire.
Tumults at Rome, against the authority of the pope.
t Innocent II.
#• The power of the Church of Rome in England was
greatly increased during the reign of Stephen.
64
The kings of Portugal, Arragon, England, Scotland,
Sardinia, the two Sicilies, and several others, became, in
course of time, vassals and tributaries to the Papal See; and
there is not a doubt that the universal monarchy, the
scheme of which Gregory VII. had conceived, would have
been completely established, if some of his successors had
R 3

246

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

(Fifth

I been endowed with his vast ambition and his superior
genius." (Koch.)
About this time, the wealth of the Church was immense.
Its territories are supposed to have included nearly one half
of the empire.
1143

Clemens and Leontius, two Cappadocian bishops, deposed as Bogomili. Soon after, Niphon, a monk celebrated for his study of Scripture, and Cosmas, the pious
Patriarch of Constantinople, were deposed on the same
charge.

1145

Tumults and seditions at Rome continue; promoted by
the doctrines of Arnold of Brescia. The Romans request Conrad III. to make Rome the seat of his empire,
and insist upon rendering " to Caesar the things that are
Caesar's, and to the Pope the things that are the Pope's."
Eugenius obliged to flee from Rome; but soon finds
his authority supported by the influence of Bernard of
Clairvaux. This well-meaning and pious, but mistaken,
man, advocates the papal authority by his writings (De
Consideratione, libb. v.). He probably considered only
the good which might arise from the due exercise of
power by sovereign pontiffs, forgetting the evils which
must flow from the (more than probable) abuse of such
authority, and overlooking the precepts of Scripture on
the subject.
Eudon de Stella, or Eon, a fanatic in Bretagne and
Gascogne.

1147

fHE

SECOND CRUSADE,

under the Emperor Conrad, and the King of France,
Louis V I I . ; promoted by the preaching of Bernard of
Clairvaux.
This Crusade tends to renew and establish the power of the
pope, under whose auspices it was undertaken.
About this time, the Monophysite Armenians, oppressed
I by the Turks, consent to an union with the Church of

Period,)

TO THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION.

247

I Rome. Subsequently this union was more or less firm,
according to political circumstances.
1147
The pope sends a legate, Cardinal Bishop Alberic, of
Ostia, accompanied by Bernard, into Languedoc, for the
suppression of the Henricians, Henry captured ; sentenced
to perpetual imprisonment by Council of Rheims 1148;
died 1149.
1149

Eugenius compels the people of Rome to submit to his
authority.

1150

A controversy exists in the Greek Church relating to
a passage in their liturgy concerning the sacrifice of
Christ,
The principal controversies in the Latin Church during
this century related to the method of studying and teaching theology; the eucharist; the will of God; the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary.
Among the errors finally established by writers of this
century may be reckoned especially, — the doctrine of
papal authority; the nature and value of indulgences;
the inexpediency of reading the Scriptures in the vernacular tongue; transubstantiation.
The system of theology had now undergone a remarkable change in consequence of the adoption of logic and
metaphysics, and the foundation of large schools and
universities, especially that of Paris. The following may be
described as its general characteristics during this age : —
1. The foundation consisted of sentences of the Fathers,
together with passages of Scripture badly interpreted.
2. The sentences of Fathers were carefully collected
and arranged.
3. Some divines received and propounded these doctrines simply;
4. While others defended and interpreted them by the
aid of the Aristotelian philosophy;
5. And others used still greater freedom in philosophising upon religious truth and the grounds of it, introducii 4

248

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

{Fifth

I ing the dialectic method (Schoolmen); and these were
divided among themselves into various parties and classes;
6. On which account they were attacked by others,
with more or less reason, and in some cases even persecuted.
The pretended science of Alchymy is zealously cultivated by clergy and monks.
Severities of Penance and Excommunication carried to
a great height, and employed as a means of spiritual despotism ; but rendered nugatory as to any moral effect by
the doctrine and practice of Indulgences.
(1156.) Carmelite order of monks founded by Berthold,
on Mount Carmel.
Quarrel between the Cistercians and the Monks of
ciu

gny*

___________

About this time the study of the Civil Law revives,
and makes great progress, especially at Bologna. Ten
thousand students at that university.
1150
f Robert Pulleyn, scholastic writer (Book of Sentences).
1151
Gratian (a Benedictine of Bologna) publishes a new
collection of the Canon Law, combining the ancient
Canons and Decretals, with the Pseudo-Isidorian, and
those of later date; and attempting to account for discrepancies (Concordantia Discordantium Canonum) —
Gratiani Decretum, sive Corpus Decretorum.
After this, the Canon Law became a subject of diligent
study. Controversy between the Legist_e and Decretistae.
1152

FREDERIC I. (BARBAROSSA) EMPEROR.

Caliphs of Bagdad restored.
1153

t Bernard of Clairvaux. He was distinguished by
simple and unaffected piety (strongly tinctured with the
prevalent superstition and asceticism), united with great
energy of character, and persevering zeal and devotion in
I the cause of religion. His influence was extensive, and

Period.)

TO T H E BEGINNING OF T H E

REFORMATION.

249

in many respects highly beneficial.
B u t he was also
distinguished by a mistaken devotedness to the papal
cause.
1154
| Gilbert, Bishop of Poitiers.
* Henry I I . (Plantagenet) K i n g of England.
Frederic claims the kingdom of Italy,
An Englishman (Nicholas Breakspeare) made pope,
under the title of Adrian I V .
1 \55\
Arnold of Brescia seized, and burnt.
Frederic crowned by the Pope. Frederic resolves to
set himself in opposition to papal claims.
Noiv begins the struggle (which lasted nearly a century)
between the Ghibelines (or imperial party, of the House of
Hohenstaufen) and the Guelphs (or papal faction).
The struggle between the Guelphs and Ghibelines, with its
results, carried the poiver of the Papacy to its height.
The compilation of the Canon Law by Gratian assists the
growth of papal power.
1156

t Peter Maurice (the Venerable), Abbot of Clugny.

About this time the Gospel is propagated in Brandenburg and its neighbourhood.
1157|
Eric I X . of Sweden introduces Christianity into Finland by force of arms. Founds the first bishopric in that
country.
Frederic treats with contempt a haughty and patronising
letter of the pope. H e prescribes limits to pilgrimages a n d
appeals to Rome, and thus seeks to weaken the dependence
of the German Church upon the Papal See. T h e pope
complains of the emperor's proceedings, in a letter to the
11581 German bishops. (1158.) Frederic obliges the pope to
explain, with moderation, the terms of his letter. Diet of
Roncaglia defines the emperor's rights, to the disparage-

250

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

{Fifth

ment of those of the pope and bishops. The pope, highly
exasperated, was on the point of excommunicating the
emperor, when he died, 1159.
Rise of Universities, with important immunities and privileges
t Gratian.
Peter Lombard, Bishop of Paris.
Alexander I I I . elected pope in the hierarchical interest;
Victor IV. on the emperor's side.
This election of two rival popes favours the emperor's
design of weakening the papal power.
The emperor convenes a general council at Pavia. The
rival popes summoned to appear before it. Alexander
denounces the act of the emperor as an unjustifiable lay
interference in ecclesiastical matters. The council recognises Victor as pope, and the emperor espouses his cause.
About this time, various sects, in opposition to the dominant church, commonly designated Mystics, exist in the
South of France, the North of Italy, Germany, Flanders,
England, and even Spain.
#• First instance of punishment for Heresy in England.
Some Germans, under Gerhard, who are said to have
rejected the sacraments, and to have opposed marriage,
were examined before a synod at Oxford, and punished
for their offence by being branded on the forehead.
* Henry II. of England enters into a struggle with the
pope. The English clergy had become independent of
the state, and Henry sought to confirm their independence
and power within certain limits.
Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony, conquers the Obotrites, and completes the overthrow of Heathenism among
the Wends (between the Elbe and Oder).
#• Thomas a Becket made Archbishop of Canterbury.
He soon begins to take part with the clergy against the
king.

Period)

TO THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION.

251

f Peter Lombard (Book of Sentences).
In his celebrated work, Lombard united the two systems
of scholastic and ecclesiastical theology.
Penance and Indulgence. Peter Lombard first established the distinction between contritio cordis, confessio
oris, and satisfactio operis. Concerning penance and indulgence, he argued thus : — In baptism, all sin is forgiven, and salvation bestowed for Christ's sake; but sins
committed after baptism expose men to the punishment
of divine justice, and this punishment is inflicted on most
men by the fire of purgatory; but, according to a power
committed to the Church, through the merits of Christ,
this future punishment may be commuted into the infliction of temporal chastisements; and the Church has
also power to remit even these chastisements, on consideration of certain services, or compliance with certain
demands. But Lombard taught that such remission or
indulgence could avail only those who, notwithstanding
their infirmities, lived in the possession and exercise of a
lively faith. This scheme, however, served as the basis
of further error. It led the way to continued refinements
(e. g. by Alexander, Albert, and Thomas); and was liable
to misrepresentation and misconception.
# Constitutions of Clarendon,
for the protection of the rights and prerogatives of the
crown against the claims of the clergy, and for restraining
the independence of the latter.
Becket at first assents to the Constitutions, but soon
after resists them. He quarrels with the king, and seeks
refuge in France, where he is protected by Louis.
# The Pope takes up the cause of Becket against
Henry. He condemns the Constitutions of Clarendon.
# Becket excommunicates all who should observe the
Constitutions of Clarendon, and threatens the king himself
with a similar sentence.
Frederic in Italy.

252

II67I

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

[Fifth

League of Italian cities for the preservation of their
liberties.

1168|

Alexander, in connection with the States of Lombardy,
had now established a paramount authority as pope, in
opposition to his rival, who was supported by the
emperor.
1169
The island Riigen, the last refuge of Heathenism in
Pomerania, subdued by the Danish king, Waldemar.
Idolatrous temples destroyed, and the inhabitants baptized.
II70I
* Becket returns to England, after a reconciliation or
compromise with the king. Murder of Becket.
The power of the emperor in Italy is now broken.
Controversy in the Greek Church concerning the words,
" My Father is greater than I."
Mission of Theorianus into Armenia, with a view to
the re-union of the Greek and Armenian Churches —
ineffectual.
R I S E OF THE WALDENSES.

Peter Waldo, a citizen of Lyons, founds a society for
the preaching of the Gospel, in its simplicity, among the
poor. His followers (the Poor Men of Ijyons, Humiliati,
Sabbatati) at first appear merely as a set of monks, not
distinguished by any peculiar opposition to the dominant
church. Such was the origin of the Waldenses ; (which
some, however, endeavour to trace back to Claude of
Turin, in the ninth century).
11711

Saladin, Sultan of Egypt to 1193.
(He extended his dominions in Egypt, and subdued
Syria, Assyria, Mesopotamia, and Arabia.)
1172|
* Conquest of Ireland.

Period,)

TO T H E B E G I N N I N G OF T H E REFORMATION.

253

#• Extreme indignation of the pope and clergy against
Henry I I . of England, as the supposed instigator of the
murder of Thomas a Becket.
"f Richard of St. Victor.
Thomas a Becket canonized by Alexander.
(Alexander claimed for the pope the sole right of
canonizing saints.)
Frederic in Italy, defeated at the battle of Legnano.
T h e emperor is obliged to recognise Alexander as
pope. H e receives absolution.
# H e n r y I I . compelled to do penance at the tomb of
Thomas a Becket.
Bernard of Clairvaux canonized.
T h e sovereignty of the Adriatic granted to the Venetians by the pope (Alexander I I I . ) .
Peace of Venice.
The prevalent superstition is now supported, as much
perhaps hy fraud and imposture on the one hand, as hy
ignorance on the other.
A correspondence takes place between the pope (Alexander I I I . ) and the Christian (Nestorian) king in Eastern
Asia, a descendant of Johannes Presbyter.
Waldenses. John, Archbishop of Lyons, forbids the
preaching of the followers of Waldo. T h e y continue their
preaching, but without any formal separation from the
Church. I n the following year, Waldo transmits to the
pope a copy of his translation of the Scriptures, and the
plan of his society, with a petition for the confirmation of
the latter. Alexander refuses his sanction.
For the prevention of disputes at the election of popes,
it was enacted by the Lateran Council held this year, that

254

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

{Fifth

the person chosen by two thirds of the cardinals should
be regarded as the true pope.
1179|
The Third Lateran Council excommunicates the
Cathari, Paterini, and Publicani, sects in the South of
France.
1180|

ALEXIUS

II.

(COMNENUS)

EMP.

EAST.

Philip II. (Auguste) King of France.
Controversy in the Greek Church concerning the Mohammedan doctrine of the Deity.
1181
118!2|

1183

1184

1185

f John of Salisbury, Bishop of Chartres.
The Monothelite Maronites conform to the Church of
Rome.
ANDRONICUS

COMNENUS,

EMP.

EAST.

Waldenses. The pope, at the Council of Verona, denounces the Waldenses as an unprivileged society, and
excommunicates them.
ISAAC ANGEL

US, EMP.

EAST.

Administration of the eucharist to children forbidden
in France.
Laws relating to the payment of tithes are noiv universally
and effectually enforced.
1186

The Livonians had become acquainted with Christianity
by means of their intercourse with Bremen and Lubeck.
In 1186, Meinard of Holstein undertook a mission for
the propagation of the Gospel in Livonia. His labours
were successful; and, in 1188, he was appointed bishop of
Uxkull.
1187l
The Saracens, under Saladin, capture Jerusalem. Fresh

Period.)

TO THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION.

255

ardour in the cause of the Holy Land pervades Europe,
Hence originates
T H E T H I R D CRUSADE.

# Richard I. (Cceur de Lion) King of England.
The Emperor Frederic advances on the Third Crusade.
Richard I. (Cceur de Lion) of England, and Philip II.
(Auguste) of France proceed on the Third Crusade.
HENRY VI. EMPEROR AND K I N G OF ITALY.

At Paris, Peter Cantor recommends spiritual and
practical religion in preference to formal devotion and
dead ceremonies; but his doctrine finds little acceptance.
The Waldenses, after their excommunication, spread
themselves in the South of France, the North of Italy, and
Germany. They now purify their system of doctrine
more and more from ecclesiastical errors and corruptions ;
proclaim the Bible as its own interpreter, and the only infallible source of Christian knowledge; contend against the
adoration of saints, and other superstitious observances;
shame the great majority of the Catholic clergy by their
superior acquaintance with Scripture; and acquire general respect by their good conversation, equally removed
from fanaticism, and from a cold, selfish, worldly form of
religion.
Switzerland becomes a province of the German Empire.
The Teutonic order of knights, founded in Palestine,
confirmed by the pope (Calixtus III.).
Dominions of Saladin divided.
The Emperor Henry VI. is King of Sicily, and powerful in Italy.
ALEXIUS

III.

(ANGELUS)

EMP.

(Isaac deposed.)

EAST.

256

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

(Fifth

Peter Waldo died this year in Bohemia, whither he
had fled.
(al. 1180.) | Peter Cantor. In his manual, entitled
Verbum Abbreviatum, he maintained that all doctrines
necessary to salvation are contained in Scripture, or may
be deduced from it.
Opposition having been made by the Livonians to Berthold, successor of Meinhard as Bishop of Uxkull, he
sought safety in flight. The pope institutes a Crusade
against the Livonians, and Berthold returns with an army
in order to enforce submission. The Crusaders conquer,
but Berthold falls in battle. Albert of Apeldern, Bishop
of Uxkull. (The bishopric of Uxkull was transferred
to Riga in 1200.)
Philip of Suabia (House of Hohenstaufen, supported by
the Ghibelines) and Otho of Saxony (supported by the
Guelphs) dispute the imperial crown, after the death of
Henry.
The new pope (Innocent III.), a man of great ability
and address, zealous for the interests of the Church. The
death of the emperor, leaving a son only three years old,
furnished an opportunity for the encroachments of papal
power, and the aggrandisement of the Roman See.
The power of the Roman Pontiffs had now nearly reached
its height.
They had usurped the nomination and collation to
almost all ecclesiastical benefices; founding the assumed
right on the false Decretals, according to which all ecclesiastical jurisdiction emanates from the court of Rome.
Innocent describes himself as " the successor of St.
Peter, set up by God to govern not only the Church but
the whole world." "As God," said he, " has placed two great
luminaries in the firmament, the one to rule the day and
the other to give light by night, so has he established two
grand powers, the pontifical and the royal; and as the
moon receives her light from the sun, so does royalty
borrow its splendour from the papal authority."

Period.)

TO T H E B E G I N N I N G O F T H E R E F O R M A T I O N .

257

ALBIGENSES.

T h e pope sends legates armed with complete powers for
the suppression of sects in the South of France, which the
bishops had been unable to overthrow. T h e y had been
protected by Raymond, Count of Toulouse.
Order of the Holy Trinity founded by John of M a t t h a
and Felix of Valois, for the redemption of Christians
made prisoners by Infidels.
f Peter Comestor,
Scholastica).

Chancellor

of

Paris

(Historia

* John, K i n g of England..
Innocent I I I . undertakes to examine the claims of the
rival candidates for the empire. H e obliges the prefect of
R o m e to swear homage to the Apostolic See.
D u r i n g this century several councils were held which
were entitled G e n e r a l ; .but they were not recognised as
such by the Greek Church, or even by all the churches
of the West. T h e y were convened in the Lateran, at the
will of the pope, and for the advantage of the See of Rome.
Heathen revelries and buffooneries connected with
various Christian festivals, under the auspices of the clergy,
notwithstanding the prohibitions of the pope.
T h e misunderstanding between the Greek and Latin
Churches had continued, notwithstanding various embassies and disputations with a view to an accommodation.
T h e political aggressions of the Western powers, about
this time, tended to confirm and widen the breach.
T h e pope imposes a tax on ecclesiastical revenues, for
the purpose of raising a Crusade (Saladin T a x ) .
T h e Armenian Church begins to make a partial submission to the Church of Rome, with a view to protec-

258

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

{Fifth

| tion. The union never became complete; no perfect
conformity in doctrine or ceremonial established.
Amalric of Bene, and his disciple David of Dinanto,
leaders of a philosophico-mystic, or pantheistic, sect,
1200

f Peter of Blois.

1201

The order of Poor Catholics, one of the earliest mendicant orders, confirmed by Innocent.
History now abounds with instances of prescribed
penances, — flagellations, — daily repetition of a certain
number of prayers, — and alleged appearances of spirits
detained in purgatory, exhorting the faithful to prayers,
masses, and the like.

~

The Pope decides in favour of Otho as emperor. The
adherents of Philip protest against his interference in the
matter. But the pope maintains that, as it belonged to
him to crown and consecrate the emperor, it was also his
province to determine beforehand who may justly lay
claim to that honour.
Contests between Philip and Otho continue.
1Q02
Order of Fraires Militia Christi, or Gladiferi, established in Livonia, for the maintenance and propagation
of Christianity in that country.
—

T H E FOURTH CRUSADE,

undertaken chiefly by French and Venetians; diverted
from its object, and ends in the siege and capture of Constantinople, in favour of
1204

ISAAC

AND

ALEXIUS

IV.

EMP.

FAST.

Second siege and capture of Constantinople by the
Crusaders, after the murder of Isaac and Alexius.
—

ALEXIUS

Due AS MURZUPHILUS,

EMP.

EAST.

Establishment of the Latin Empire in the East.
Baldwin, Latin Emperor at Constantinople.
(Under the Latin Empire in the East (1204—1261) the
* Church of Constantinople is subject to the See of Rome.)

Period.)

TO THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION.

259

The March of Ancona and the Duchy of Spoleto were
added to the domains of the Church during the pontificate
of Innocent I I I .
About this time, history records many instances of the
exercise of papal authority over temporal princes. Thus
Philip (Auguste) of France was compelled to receive
again his queen Ingehurgis, whom he had put away;
Alfonso IX. of Leon was obliged to put away his queen
on account of consanguinity; Sancho I. of Portugal, to
pay arrears of tribute; Peter of Arragon, to make his
dominions tributary to the pope; John of Bulgaria, to
receive his crown at the pope's hands.
1204

The act of kneeling at the elevation of the Host in churches,
and when carried through the streets to the sick, enjoined
by Guido, papal legate, at Cologne. This law was made
universal by Pope Honorius I I I . in 1217*

1206

Henry, Latin Emperor of Constantinople.
Dgengis Khan begins his career of conquest in the East,
and founds the Mogul Empire.
This conqueror does not persecute the Christians in the
East; he is said to have had a Christian wife. He permits the Nestorian clergy to labour among the Moguls;
but this probably led to no more than the adoption of a
few Christian ceremonies by that people.
t Nicetas Acominatus, Byzantine historian.
University of Paris founded.
Early foundation of the Inquisition.
The Waldenses, and other sects, promote the circulation and reading of the Scriptures. Societies having
been formed at Mentz for the reading and exposition of
Scripture and mutual edification, the bishop of Mentz
resolved to exterminate them. But the pope (Innocent
III.) protected them, and encouraged the laity in their
s 2

260

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

(Fifth

attempts to understand the Scriptures, and to edify one
another,
Theodore Lascaris, Greek Emperor at Nicasa.
independent Greek princes.

Other

Rise of the Franciscan order of Mendicants.
Francis (John Bernadoni, a native of Assisi in Umbria,
born 1182, surnamed Franciscus the Frenchman) and a
few friends, — resolved to carry into practice the idea of
complete self-denial and devotion to God, with renunciation of all temporal possessions, and of a life entirely
dedicated to Christ and the preaching of the Gospel, —
founds a society, the members of which should oblige
themselves to live in absolute poverty, subsisting only
upon alms, and to preach the Gospel among the people
with apostolic simplicity of life and manners. As early
as 1209, Innocent declared himself favourable to the institution; but the order was not finally established until
1223.
Philip murdered. OTHO IV. universally acknowledged
EMPEROR OF GERMANY.

* King John, of England, resists the pope's appointment of Stephen Langton to the archbishopric of Canterbury. The pope lays the kingdom under an interdict
(i. e. forbids the celebration of divine offices).
Gothofred, a Cistercian Abbot, preaches Christianity in
Prussia with some success.
Alhigenses. The death of a papal legate in the South
of France by an unknown hand occasions the adoption of
severe measures against the sectaries in the South of
France. Arnold, Abbot of Citeaux, preaches a crusade
against them. Under the general name of Albigenses,
they are murderously persecuted during the next twenty
years.

Period.)

1209)

TO THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION.

261

Several followers of Amalric put to death by the
Council of Paris; the sect gradually dispersed.
The Emperor Otho crowned by the Pope.
# The Pope excommunicates John, King of England.

—

The Council of Paris orders all the works of Aristotle
to be burnt.

1210

Otho maintains certain imperial rights against the pope..
He is placed under a bann.
Waldenses. The pope endeavours to bring the Poor
Men of Lyons (Waldenses) within the limits and under controul of the Church, as a society of Poor Catholics. But
his efforts are now too late. The Waldenses had penetrated too deeply into the truths of the Gospel, and had
imbibed too much of their spirit, to endure any admixture of Catholic errors with their creed; and they were
become, by God's grace, too wise to fall into the snare
prepared for them. They preserved their distinct characters as independent ivitnesses of the truth ; and henceforth
became subject to violent persecutions, which they meekly
endured for conscience sake.
Beghards or Beguines in Flanders and Germany. Turlupins in France.
The Abbot Joachim uttered predictions against the
Papal See, and was a declared enemy to the scholastic
theology. He had many followers, who were called
Joachites,

1212

The pope favours Frederick of Sicily in his attempts
to secure the imperial crown.
_
#• He deposes John, King of England; and promises
his crown to the King of France,
12131
* John submits to the Pope, surrenders his kingdom
I to him, and receives it back as a fief of the See of Rome.
s 3

262

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

{Fifth

Otho defeated at the battle of Bovines; obliged to retire from the contest.
1215
Frederick II. crowned Emperor at Aix-la-Chapelle.
* English Magna Charta signed.

1214]

Christian, one of Gothofred's companions, Bishop of
Prussia.
The Gospel had made some progress in Prussia; but
this was checked in consequence of attempts on the part
of the dukes of Poland and Pomerania to make use of
Christian missions for the purposes of oppressing the
Prussians. The Christian teachers were driven out of
the country, and war ensued. Hence the orders of knights
were afterwards excited to propagate Christianity in Prussia
with the sword.
The Fourth Lateran Council; assembled chiefly with
the view of promoting a new Crusade, and for the reformation of the Church. Further multiplication of monastic
orders forbidden. Payment of tithes declared to be a
duty of common right.
Throughout this century, the Holy See remains at the
height of poioer to which it had attained during the pontificate of Innocent. "The resistance of the House of Hohenstaufen
tends rather to increase, than to diminish, its influence.
Provisional mandates. Gratise exspectativas.
The election of Bishops is now generally vested in
chapters.
The doctrine of Transubstantiation declared to be an article
of faith by the Fourth Lateran Council.
But many divines (of Paris) during this century contended for the possibility of the real presence of the body
of Christ in the sacrament, without any change in the
substance of the bread. They held that there may be an
union of two substances in consecrated bread (the later
Lutheran doctrine of Consubstantiation).
The pope endeavours to counteract some of the abuses
now connected with Penance and Absolution. As a remedy,
it was enacted by the Fourth Lateran Council that all

Period.)

TO THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION.

263

I laymen should confess their sins, general and particular,
to a priest, at least once a year. Establishment of compulsory auricular confession.
121.5
The Fourth Lateran Council obliges all persons to com*
municate in the Lord's supper, at least once a year, under
pain of excommunication.
—
The foundation of new monastic orders was prohibited
by a decree of the Lateran Council.
But in the same year, Innocent gave his assent to the
plan of Dominic, a Spanish presbyter and canon, for the
formation of an order for the purposes of preaching and
the religious instruction of the people, on condition that
it should conform to the rule already extant under the
name of Augustin, with certain modifications. And in
1216 this order of preachers was formally established
(Fratres Praedicatores). Such was the
Origin of the Dominican Order.
The conduct and professions of certain sectaires, who
inveighed against ecclesiastical corruption and luxury, and
were regarded as the enemies of the Church, is said to
have occasioned and suggested the foundation of mendicant orders under the sanction of the Church, for the purpose of rendering it more efficient, or at least of upholding its credit with the people.
| Theodore Balsamon.
Cities now begin to erect themselves into political
bodies, and to form, by degrees, a third order, distinct
from that of the clergy and nobility. Rise of Communes,
or Free Corporations.
1216
* Henry III. King of England.
1217

T H E F I F T H CRUSADE,

under Andrew II. King of Hungary.
Unimportant.
No permanent results.
1218
Death of Otho. Frederic renews the war in Italy.
I During the pontificate of Honorius, the emperor,is. on
s 4

264

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

(Fifth

1 good terms with the p o p e : chiefly by promising to p r e p a r e a new Crusade.
1219

T h e Franciscan order now includes five thousand
monks.

1220

T h e Emperor Frederic I I . cedes to Honorius I I I . the
patrimony of the Countess Matilda, afterwards designated
as the Patrimony of St. Peter.
State and Prospects of Religion.
On the one hand, symptoms of the revival of religion
appear — in the lives a n d influence of individuals distinguished by fervent a n d devoted piety, such as Bernard
of Clair vaux a n d F r a n c i s ; in the interest connected with
religious subjects, which h a d been awakened by the C r u sades ; a n d in the rapid a n d wide spread of sects distinguished by their profession of simple and practical piety.
But, on the other hand, there was — much ignorance a n d
superstition even in the minds of those who were most
distinguished by sanctity a n d zeal; a n d the multitude
lived in the indulgence of unbridled licentiousness a n d
sensuality. T h e ignorance a n d evil lives of the great
body of the clergy formed also a barrier to improvement.
S U P E R S T I T I O N WAS AT ITS H E I G H T .

Adoration

ofrelics9

belief in fabulous miracles and legends of the saints, pilgrimages to places accounted sacred, and the like, were universal,
notwithstanding the (partial) remonstrances of such men
as Bernard, Hildebert (Archbishop of Tours, 1134),
Guibert of Nogent, Eckbert (Bishop of Munster), Abelard 5
and others. Idolatrous worship of the Virgin Mary e x ceeded all bounds: to this Bernard, Bonaventura, a n d
other eminent men consented, although they refused to
admit the doctrine of the immaculate conception of the
Virgin.
The superstitious abuse of the sacraments was
also carried to excess.
Dominic -obliges the members of his order to take a

Period.)

TO THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION.

265

I vow of poverty. Thus the Dominican order becomes Mendicant. As such, it spreads rapidly throughout Europe.
Dominic died in 1221.
1221

Extensive conquests of Dgengis Khan.
Robert, Latin Emperor at Constantinople.
During this century the number of serfs in Germany
diminishes.

_

Friars Tertiary.
Francis establishes his Tertius Ordo
de Poenitentia, for persons wishing to live in the bonds
of a religious society without being subject to monastic
rules.
# First establishment of Mendicants in Oxford.

—
1222

JOHN II.

(VATAZES)

GREEK

EMPEROR,

successful against the Latins.

_
1223

(al. 1260.)

f Peter of Corbeil.
University of Padua founded.

Louis VIII. King of France.
Franciscan order of Mendicants formally established,
under the title of Fratres Minores. This order soon
became very large and important.
The Church of Rome is strengthened by the Mendicant
Orders lately established, and now rapidly rising into
repute.

1225

The emperor promises to furnish a new Crusade within
two years, under penalty of excommunication.

12g6

f Francis.
Violent disputes arise among the Franciscans,
respecting the observance of their rule; one party contending for a strict, another for a more lax, interpretation
and compliance.

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

(Fifth

1226,

(St.) Louis IX. King of France.

1227

Crusade still deferred. The new pope excommunicates
the emperor.

1228

T H E SIXTH CRUSADE,

under the Emperor Frederic II. Peace for ten years
concluded with the sultan. Frederic obtains restoration
of Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nazareth, and Sidon.
These successes lead to a professed reconciliation of the
emperor and the pope.
_
—

t Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury. Said
to have been the first who divided the Bible into chapters.
Universities of Salamanca and Toulouse founded.
The Teaching of the Church.
The reading of the Scriptures (which had been sanctioned by Innocent III,), having led to the discovery of
many errors in the doctrine of the dominant church, the
Council of Toulouse, assembled in 1229, decreed that laymen should not possess copies of the Scriptures, and that
they should read the Psalter and Breviary, during divine
offices only, in Latin.
R I S E OF THE INQUISITION.

The Council of Toulouse adopts and enforces a decree
of the Fourth Lateran Council, providing that all bishops
should appoint sworn men in different parts of their dioceses, to discover heretics in all their lurking-places, and
deliver them over to punishment; and that every man
and woman should once in every two years take an oath
of fidelity to the Roman See, and bind themselves to
assist in the detection of heretics.
The council enacts that in every diocese one priest and
several laymen should be appointed to search for heretics.
Every house in which a heretic is found to be pulled
down, and the ground confiscated.
By the same council, all householders are compelled to
attend mass everv Sunday and festival.

Period.)

TO THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION.

267

1229)

Baldwin I I . Latin Emperor at Constantinople.

1230

The Livonian knights (Gladiferi) plant Christianity in
Courland.
Nuns of St. Dominic.
The Western Empire gradually decays.
Frederic II. is obliged to grant charters to several
princes recognising their territorial rights.
A series of quarrels between the pope and the emperor.
The Greek emperors are anxious to bring about a reconciliation between the Eastern and Western Churches.
But the great majority of the Greek clergy offer violent
opposition to the attempt. Only some few (Latinising)
members of their body favour it.
The knights of the Teutonic order undertake to establish Christianity in Prussia by force of arms, at the instance of the Polish Duke, Conrad*

1231

—
—

1232

The pope commands that no layman shall dispute,
either publicly or in his house, concerning the Catholic
Faith, under penalty of excommunication.
The Mendicants now possess great influence in the
universities. A party in the University of Paris, headed
by William de St. Amour, resists the claims of the Dominicans to a theological chair.
Order of Sylvestrians founded in Italy, under the rule of
Benedict.
This year Gregory publishes a bull in favour of the
more lax Franciscans, authorising an abatement of the
rigour of their rule.

The Inquisition. Gregory, finding the bishops not sufficiently energetic and efficient in the suppression of heresy,
' establishes, first at Toulouse and Carcassone, and after-

268

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

[Fifth

wards in other districts, tribunals under the immediate
authority of the pope, commissioned to receive charges of
heresy, to seize persons suspected, to keep them in confinement as long as may be deemed necessary, to endeavour
to extort confession by torture, to inflict penances (e. g. of
imprisonment for life) upon those who should recant, and
to deliver over the incorrigible to the secular arm for
capital punishment.
INQUISITORES EDERETIO^ PRAVITATIS [Dominicans).
Conrad of Marpurg, a Dominican, first inquisitor in
Germany, having executed his commission with cruel
severity, was slain by some German nobles in 1233.
Order qfServites founded.
Convent of Port Royal des Champs, between Paris and
Versailles, founded.
Gregory causes Raymond de Penna forti to compile a
systematic collection of Canon Law, which is published by
authority, as a means of repressing frequent fabrications
and forgeries in this department (Deeretalium Gregorii
P. IX. lib. v.).
Robert Grostete (Capito) Bishop of Lincoln.
The Stedingians inveigh against the clergy.
The emperor and the Lombard States at war.
The Livonian knights (Gladiferi) unite with those of
the Teutonic order for the introduction of Christianity
into Prussia.
The Kingdom of Granada founded.
The Carmelite order of monks (founded in 1156) extends into the West.
Raymond de Penna forti, General of the Dominicans.

Period.)

TO THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION.

269

The pope still aggrieved by the efforts of the emperor
to establish his power in Italy. He takes part with the
Lombard cities against the emperor. At length (1239),
the pope excommunicates Frederic " on account of his
manifold oppressions of the Church," threatening further
proceedings against him as " one suspected of heresy."
Frederic appeals from the pope to a general council.
The pope openly accuses the emperor as an unbeliever.
Sancho II. King of Portugal, involved in disputes with
the bishops and the pope. (Deposed by the pope in
1245.)
The emperor forcibly prevents the assembling of a
general council at Rome, convened by Gregory.
The Moguls penetrate as far as Silesia and Hungary.
The pope divides Prussia into four bishoprics.
Continual troubles and anarch?/ in Germany.
Fruitless attempt at establishing a good understanding
between the emperor and the pope. Mutual jealousy and
distrust. The pope refuses absolution to the emperor,
flees to Lyons, pronounces a fresh sentence of excommunication, and cites the emperor before a general council
at Lyons, 1245. The emperor refuses to appear before
such a judge. Council pronounces sentence of excommunication and deposition.
The pope sends missionaries to the Moguls; but with
little effect.
The Khan demands submission. (Kajuk, Great Khan
of the Moguls, is now formidable in Europe.)
The emperor writes against the pope, and calls upon
princes to throw off his unapostolic yoke. The pope continues to demand absolute submission. The contest lasts
during the life of Frederic.
The Carmelites a mendicant order.

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

{Fifth

The pope authorises the Franciscans (Friars Minor) to
possess houses, furniture, books, &c. The more lax party
adopt this permission, regarding these things as their own
for use, but the pope's as to property. The advocates for
the strict observance of the rule and the vow of poverty
contend against these proceedings. Under the name of
" zealous," or " spiritual," they kept up a violent contest on
this subject throughout the century.
Bonaventura studies at Paris.
T Alexander of Hales, Irrefragable Doctor (Sum of

Theology).
University founded at Rome.
Thomas Aquinas studies at Paris, and afterwards at
Cologne, under Albert the Great.
The Berghards, &c. amalgamate with the Tertiary order
of Franciscans.
T H E SEVENTH CRUSADE

(under St. Louis of France).
Another mission to the Moguls, sent by Louis I X . of
France.
Capture of Damietta by the Crusaders. St. Louis taken
prisoner, and Damietta lost again. (After the release of
the king in 1250, four years spent before Acre to no
purpose.)
* University College, Oxford, founded.
# Edmund, late Archbishop of Canterbury, canonized.
About this time, a forgery, entitled " The Eternal
Gospel," composed probably about the beginning of the
century, was republished, with an Introduction: filled
with prophecies in favour of St. Francis and his friars.
* Some blood, said to have been part of that shed by
our Saviour on the cross, conveyed, with great pomp, to
Westminster Abbey.
CONRAD IV. EMPEROR OF GERMANY.

Period.)

TO THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION.

271

Origin of the Hanseatic League.
1250

College of the Sorbonne at Paris founded, by Robert,
Chaplain to Louis I X . (Collegium, or Congregatio, pauperum magistrorum studentium in theologica facultate.)

1251

Mangu, Great Khan of the Moguls.
Ruysbrock conducts a mission to Mangu. The Khan
adopted the Christian name in 1253; but the religion of
the Gospel did not make any real progress among his
people.
1253
Grostete resists the papal appointment of a youth as
canon in his cathedral. In a letter, he protests against
the undue authority and interference of the pope.
f Grostete.
Thomas Aquinas teaches at Paris.
Bonaventura promotes the worship of the Virgin Mary.
Nicephorus Blemmidas, fl.
GREAT INTERREGNUM OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE.

1254

1255

12561

The Knights of St. Lazarus of Jerusalem come into
France.
Egypt under the Mamelukes (1250—1282).
THEODORE

LASCARIS

II.

GREEK

EMPEROR.

Enfranchisement of Serfs in Italy.
The struggle between the Popes and the House of
Hohenstaufen continues during the pontificates of the
three successors of Innocent, — Alexander, Urban, and
Clement.
William de St. Amour, defending the University of
Paris against the Dominicans, publishes his book,
" Concerning the Perils of the Last Times;" in which
he inveighs not only against the Mendicants, but against
many superstitions and corruptions of the Church, not
sparing the pope himself. The pope afterwards decided

272

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

(Fifth

in favour of the Friars, and William was obliged to seek
safety in flight.
The Hermits of Augustin, a mendicant order (the
union of several societies of hermits in Italy, under a
rule said to have been derived from Augustin).
Bonaventura, General of his order (Franciscans).
f Vincent of Beauvais (Speculum Majus).
Arsenius Autorianus, Patriarch of Constantinople
(Nomocanon).
# University of Cambridge founded,,
After the capture of Bagdad, the Moguls showed
favour to theNestorian Christians. Subsequently, Christianity and Mohammedanism appeared to prevail by turns;
until, at the beginning of the fourteenth century, Mohammedanism obtained the upper hand decidedly, and
thenceforward the Christians were violently persecuted.
Manfred, King of Sicily.
THEODORE

LASCARIS

IV.

GREEK

EMPEROR.

End of the Caliphate of Bagdad.
Thomas Aquinas repairs to Italy.
f William of St. Amour,
(al. 1222.) University of Padua founded.
The Teaching of the Church.
The clergy of this period, for the most part ignorant
themselves, were incompetent to teach. They offered to
the people little more than dead forms and a dead language. But some individuals laboured for their improvement. Guibert, an abbot of Nogent ("j* 1124), published
a treatise on preaching (Liber quo Ordine Sermo fieri
debeat). Humbert of Romans, General of the Dominicans (f 1277), wrote a work in two books (De Eruditione
Praedicatorum). Bonaventura (f 1274) compiled an instruction for preaching, entitled Biblia Pauperum.
Thomas Aquinas (f 1274) promoted a simple and scriptural style of preaching by his own example. Thomas

Period.)

TO THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION.

273

I Aquinas and Berthold of Ratisbon preached in the
vernacular tongue.
Translations of Scripture were made during the
twelfth century, especially in the South of France. But
the reading of Scripture was generally discountenanced;
and hence Christian knowledge was at a low ebb.
Communion in one kind.
Thomas Aquinas, Bonaventura, and other Schoolmen,
defend the withdrawal of the cup from the laity in the
Lord's supper. In the course of this century their arguments prevailed, and the practice of administering the
communion in one kind became general, founded on
a superstitious regard for the mere elements used in the
Lord's supper, and on a false opinion of the superior
sanctity of the clerical order.
N.B. Popes Leo the Great and Gelasius had denounced the act of receiving the sacrament under only
one kind as sacrilegious.
The sect of Apostolicals in Italy, with Gerard Segarelli
at their head; denouncing, in the rising spirit of the
times, the luxury and indolence of the clergy.
1260

1261

Contest between the Dominicans and the University of
Paris decided by the pope in favour of the former.
MICHAEL

PJLJEOLOGUS,

GREEK

EMPEROR,

retakes Constantinople.
End of the Latin Empire in the East.
1263
The Genoese, in league with the Greek emperors, at
war with Venice.
_

t Hugh of St. Cher (Concordance of the Bible).
(al. 1272.) Thomas of Cantinpre (Bonum Universale,
seu De Apibus).
During this period, the attention bestowed upon Holy
Scripture consisted in — the revision of Latin manuI scripts, and the compilation of Concordances (Anton of
T

274

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

{Fifth

, Padua, and Hugh of St. Cher), and Expositions (chiefly
mystical, exhibiting great want of critical or philological
science).
1264,

Festum Corporis Domini,
established by Urban, for the whole church (in favour of
the doctrine of Transubstantiation, and the adoration of
the Host). But the observance of this festival did not
become general, until the order was repeated by Clement V. in 1311, with effect.
Adoration of the consecrated bread of the eucharist becomes more and more general; the withdrawal of the cup
from the laity takes its rise.
The doctrine of human merit, and of supererogatory
woj'kS) was now carried to an extreme height. It produced
most pernicious effects upon the whole body of received
theology.

1265

* The Commons admitted into the English Parliament
for the first time.
Charles I. of Anjou conquers the Sicilies.
to 1268. Caesarea, Jaffa, and Antioch, taken from the
Christians by the Mameluke Sultans of Egypt,

_•
—

—

1268

Reservation of benefices becoming vacant by the in-^
cumbents dying at Rome, introduced this year by
Clement IV.
" This first reservation was the forerunner of several
others, such as the reservation of all cathedral churches,
abbeys, and priories; as also of the highest dignities in
cathedral and collegiate churches; and of all collective
benefices, becoming vacant during eight months in the
year, called the pope's months, so that only four months
remained for the ordinary collators; and these, too, encroached upon by mandates, expectatives, and reservations." {Koch.)
Conradin, the last member of the House of HohenI staufen, made prisoner and beheaded.

Period.)

12681

TO THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION.

275

The contest between the Pope and the House of Hohen*
staufen terminates in favour of the Pope.
T H E PAPAL DOMINION AT ITS UTMOST HEIGHT.

About this time, the petty princes of Europe continually make concessions and donations to the Roman See.
to 1271. Dissensions among the cardinals concerning
the election of a pope.

—

1270

EIGHTH (AND LAST) CRUSADE

—

under Louis of France, and Prince (afterwards King)
Edward of England. Edward rescues Acre, and obtains
a ten years' truce before his return.
Philip III. (the Bold) King of France.

1273

RODOLPH OF HAPSBURG, EMPEROR OF GERMANY,

I
—
—
1274

(first of the Austrian line).
Rodolph renews the oath of Otho IV. and Frederic II.
to the Pope,
* Edward I. King of England.
The Greek Emperor, Michael Palseologus, endeavours
to put an end to the controversy between the Eastern
and Western Churches. But in this attempt he is opposed by Joseph, Patriarch of Constantinople, who is not
disposed to make any concessions concerning the points
in debate. Joseph abdicates ; and John Beccus or Veccus,
who had formerly opposed the union, but had suddenly
changed his views on the subject, is made patriarch in his
room.

At the General Council of Lyons, fresh laws are passed
concerning the election of popes. Conclave of cardinals
established, or the rule relating to the strict confinement
of the members of the college during their deliberations,
until the election.
At this council, the ambassadors of the Greek emperor
recognise the primacy of the pope, and subscribe a confession of faith, on condition that the Greek Church
should retain its old Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed,
! and certain peculiar rites. But this union of the two
T 2

276

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

(Fifth

churches — the work of the Byzantine court — was only
temporary.

32?'4

Orders of Mendicants.—By the Council of Lyons, the
number of mendicant orders is restricted to four, namely,
Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, and Hermits of
Augustin. The number of orders had amounted to no
less than twenty-three.
The ardour of Europe in the cause of the Crusades subsides.
The pope fails in an attempt to procure such an expedition.
| Thomas Aquinas (Angelic Doctor), and Bonaventura
(Seraphic Doctor).
The latter had contributed greatly to the union of the
scholastic and mystic theology.
Missionaries sent to China, under the auspices of the
Khan, by whom they are favourably received. (Marco
Polo accompanies the missionaries.) The Khan died in
1293, without making profession of Christianity.
Penance and Indulgence.
Alexander of Hales, Albert, and Thomas Aquinas,
added to the errors already preached by Peter Lombard.
They established the doctrine of a Thesaurus supererogationis perfectorum, a treasure of the supererogatory merits
of Christ and the saints, the property of the Church, from
which she could appropriate to any of her members so
much as might serve as a substitute or satisfaction for
punishment deserved. According to these Schoolmen,
this indulgence was not equivalent to the forgiveness of
sin, but related only to penalties which it was in the power
of the Church to inflict, or to the sufferings of purgatory;
and further, such indulgence was said to benefit none but
those who exercised hearty repentance, and were united
to Christ and the Church by a true faith. But this distinction and these necessary conditions were usually kept
out of sight by those who were concerned in the sale of

Period.).

TO THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION.

277

Indulgences; and the people ignorantly supposed that
they could purchase the remission of all their sins by the
performance of certain services, or the payment of money.
1276

Kingdom of Arragon.
The cardinals obtain a suspension of the rule of conclave.
Durandi Rationale Divin. Officiorum.

1278 The emperor renounces all his rights in the Exarchate.
1279i

#• In England the statute of mortmain makes the king's
consent necessary for transfer of property to the Church.
Bull of Nicholas I I I . (Exiit qui seminat), intended as a
means of reconciling the conflicting parties of Friars
Minor. It allowed " the use " of certain things; and so
did not satisfy the Zealous or Spiritual party, who not only
rejected the papal interpretation of their rule, but set
themselves in more decided opposition to the interests of
the See of Rome.

1280

Segarelli, Leader of the Apostolicals, taken into custody
by the bishop of Parma.
T Albert the Great, a celebrated schoolman.

1282

Massacre of the French in Sicily [Sicilian Vespers).
Peter III. King of Arragon and Sicily.
Christians persecuted in Persia, by the Mohammedans.
t Georgius Acropolita Logothetes, continuator of Byzantine history.
The more strict Franciscans (Spiritual) may now be regarded as
an influential party in opposition to the dominant church.
T 8

278

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

(Fifth

j The Greek Emperor Andronicus I. annuls the union
with the Latin Church, and restores ecclesiastical matters
to their former condition. Veccus is deposed and persecuted, and Joseph is again made Patriarch of Constantinople. The Latinising clergy are unpopular; and thus
the quarrel between the churches of the East and West is re~
vived.
1283

1285

ANDRONICUS

IL

EMPEROR

OF

CONSTANTINOPLE.

Philip IV. (the Fair) King of France.
•j* Raymond Martin.

1286

t Gregory Abulpharagius, Bishop of Aleppo, and Primate of the Jacobites (Universal History).
Segarelli released. But the sect of Apostolicals, not
being a privileged order, prohibited by the pope (Honorius IV.)
Frequent misunderstandings and quarrels between the pope
and European princes.
State of Theology,
As the source or foundation of Christian doctrine, some
theologians of this age adhered to the Scriptures and the
Fathers (tradition); while others (the Schoolmen) superadded the Aristotelian philosophy as a distinct source of
knowledge.
j
The Schoolmen employed themselves chiefly inj commenting upon the Sentences of Peter Lombard.
Undue deference to human authority acting as a;check
upon liberty of thought in matters of religious belief, it
followed that the more vigorous minds of this age employed their energies in inventing distinctions, friaming
and answering captious questions, or other such exfercises
of reasoning or ingenuity. Hence many unprofitable
questions and speculations were introduced into the prevalent theology, in addition to the various errorfc with
which it was already overcharged.

Period.)

TO THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION.

279

1289

John de Monte Corvino, a Franciscan, sent by the
pope as a missionary to the Chinese Mogul Empire. He
laboured in Pekin with industry and apparent success,
during eleven years, alone. About 6000 Moguls baptized. New Testament and Psalms translated into their
language*

1290

The society of Apostolicals condemned as heretical.
Members of the society persecuted. Segarelli inveighs
against the dominant church as Spiritual Babylon.
University of Lisbon founded.

1291

The Genoese triumph over the Republic of Pisa.
End of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.
Capture of Acre by the Mamelukes. The Knights
Templars and Hospitalers escape to Cyprus. Christian
dominion in Palestine at an end.
ADOLPHUS OF NASSAU, EMPEROR OF GERMANY.

1292

Masoud, last Sultan of Iconium, conquered by the
Moguls.
* Edward I. of England demands one half of the
revenues of the Church within his dominions. The clergy
make some resistance, but are compelled to submit.
Beghards and Beguines condemned and persecuted.

1294|

The cardinals, compelled to proceed to an election,
hastily nominate a recluse, under the title of Celestin V.
The Cardinal Benedict Cajetan, having persuaded him to
declare the abdication of a pope valid, and then to abdicate, procures his own election under the title of Boniface VIII.
Friars Minor. Celestin permits the Spiritual party to
form themselves into a separate society (order of Celestines). But this act was annulled by Boniface; and the
Spiritual henceforward suffer great persecution.
*

T

4

280

1294J

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

{Fifth

t Alan of Lille (Universal Doctor)*
* f Roger Bacon. As a biblical divine, he contended
for the authority of Scripture as the fountain of truth,
in opposition to all other authorities. Hugh of St. Cher
(t 1*260) may be placed in the same class.

1296

The pope [Boniface) quarrels with Philip the Fair, of
France. Philip having taxed the clergy of his kingdom
to defray his military expenses, Boniface issued a bull of
excommunication against all laymen who should demand
tribute from the clergy, and all spiritual persons who
should pay tribute to laymen. Negotiations were begun,
but broken off. Afterwards the pope wrote to the emperor in the following terms: — " Scire te volumus, quod
in spiritualibus et temporalibus nobis subes
Aliud
credentes haereticos reputamus." To which the emperor
replied, — " Sciat maxima tua fatuitas, in temporalibus
nos alicui non subesse
Secus credentes fatuos et
dementes reputamus."
* Winchelsey, Archbishop of Canterbury, obtains a
bull, forbidding the levying and payment of taxes, in the
case of ecclesiastics, without permission from Rome*
1297J
Canonization of Louis I X .
1298

ALBERT OF AUSTRIA, EMPEROR OF GERMANY.

(al. 1284.) John Beccus (Veccus).
University of Montpellier founded.
1299

THE

OTTOMAN

EMPIRE

FOUNDED

BY

OTHMJN,

During this century, some of the errors of the dominant church were sanctioned by the decrees of councils,
e.g. Transubstantiation; others were systematized by the
diligence of Schoolmen, e.g. the doctrine of Indulgence.
But testimonies to a purer system of Christian doctrine
were given in the course of the century by the Schoolmen in various parts of their writings, as well as (more
decidedly) by those witnesses of truth who were con-

Period.)

TO THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION.

281

demned by the dominant party as heretics) e. g. Waldenses.
Large numbers of persons were punished as heretics during
this century ; but the majority of these appear to have taught
a purer faith than that which prevailed within the borders of
the dominant church.
The worship of the Virgin Mary was carried to a great
height during this century; a festival was appointed in
honour of her birth; and the use of St. Mary's Psalter
became general.
The house of the Virgin, said to have been miraculously
transported from Nazareth to Dalmatia, and then to
Loretto, during this period. (Miracle not related until
the end of the fifteenth century.)
Controversy between Thomists and Scotists.
The followers of Thomas Aquinas (Thomists) and
those of Duns Scotus (Scotists) differed with each other on
the following matters : — I n philosophy, the Thomists took
the Aristotelian view of universals, while the Scotists defended the system of Plato. In theology, the Thomists
adopted the opinions of Augustin concerning sin and
grace: but the Scotists were Semipelagians, inclining
strongly to Pelagianism. The Thomists attributed an
infinite value to the merits of Christ in virtue of his
nature as God-man; the Scotists supposed them to have
possessed their value and efficacy in consequence of the
divine appointment or decree. The Thomists denied,
the Scotists assumed, the doctrine of the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary.
1300

The First Jubilee,
or solemn centennial visit to the Church of St. Peter at
Rome for obtaining a plenary indulgence, proclaimed by
Boniface VIII.
Lollards. About this time a society was formed in
Antwerp, chiefly for visiting and relieving the sick. The

282

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

(Fifth

members of this society were called Lollards (from lollen,
to sing).
Segarelli, Leader of the Apostoiicals, burnt at Parma.—
Dolcino (Dulcinus) succeeds him as head of the party:
he prophesies the overthrow of the Church in 1363, and
returns to Dalmatia.
Universities of Lyons and Lerida founded.
Philip having refused to obey a summons from the
pope, Boniface issues a bull (UNAM SANCTAM) declaring
the doctrine of the sovereign and unlimited power of the
pope to be a necessary article of faith, and condemning,
as a Manichaean heresy, the recognition of two independent
powers, the spiritual and the temporal (as of two principles, good and bad).
Boniface excommunicates Philip. The king and his
people appeal to a general council, and institute charges
against the character and orthodoxy of the pope. Boniface flies to Anagni; is made prisoner by William de
Nogaret; afterwards released by the people. He died at
Rome the same yeai\
First assembly of the States-general in France, cornposed of the three orders of the kingdom.
University of Avignon founded.
* Richard Middleton (Solid and Copious Doctor).
Dolcino returns to Italy. At the head of many thousand followers, he takes possession of a mountain, from
which he makes predatory incursions upon the neighbourhood. In 1306 he removed to another position, where
his party for some time resisted the efforts of a crusade
which had been sent against it; but was at length (1307)
compelled to yield. Dolcino put to death.
Benedict, the next pope, seeks to make peace with
France; but his plans are frustrated by death. Two
parties (Italian and French) among the cardinals. They
agree upon a mode of election, after the lapse of nine

Period.)

TO THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION.

months.
France.

283

Clement V. elected (1305); in the interests of

The Knights Templar, who had acquired great wealth
and many privileges, had become obnoxious to Philip of
France, and their possessions were an object of his cupidity. Many charges of impiety, blasphemy, and crime,
were alleged against them; apparently not without some
foundation.
1307

* Edward II. King of England.
# In England, the civil power continues to gain ground
against ecclesiastical influence and usurpation.
The pope appoints seven missionaries (consecrated
bishops) as assistants to John de Monte Corvino, who is
appointed Archbishop of Cambalu (Pekin), and continues
to labour for the conversion of the Moguls until his
death.
Knights Templar in France seized and imprisoned by
order of Philip, who sought the destruction of their order.
General examination, and trials, with the forced concurrence of the pope.
University of Perugia founded.
Pachymeres, Byzantine historian, fl.
#• t Duns Scotus.
University of Coimbra founded.
Elements of decay in the scholastic theology become apparent; Schoolmen, content to adopt, without examination,
the system of either Scotists or Thomists, Nominalists or
Realists, employ their dialectic skill in fruitless and ridiculous subtleties.
They support the existing Church
system, without respect for modern improvements, and
the more enlightened spirit of the times.
HENRY VII.

OF LUXEMBURG, EMPEROR OF GERMANY.

Swiss Cantons throw off the Austrian yoke.

284

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

{Fifth

C L E M E N T REMOVES T H E S E A T O F T H E PAPACY TO
AVIGNON.

This removal tends greatly to weaken the power of the
popes; first, by the loss of the historical reminiscences
connected with Rome, upon which certain pretensions had
been founded; secondly, as involving dependence upon
France ; and thirdly, as favouring an increase of profligacy
in the papal court.
T h e Diet of Spires, held this year, was the first in which
the cities of the empire appeared as a third order.
T h e Knights of St. John (Hospitalers) settle in Rhodes.
Philip had stipulated that Clement should procure the
condemnation of the late pope. Articles of accusation
against him were now exhibited before C l e m e n t ; but, in
deference to public opinion, the matter was deferred until
the next general council.
Precursors of the Reformation.
D u r i n g this century the Gospel was preached in a considerable degree of purity by the Waldenses scattered in
Bohemia.
Philip causes to be b u r n t at Paris, in one day, fifty-four
Templars, who were about to defend their order before the
papal commissioners.
T h e pope formally suppresses the order of Knights
Templar, in the Council of Vienne.
T h e council refuses to condemn Boniface, the late pope.
I t makes some ineffectual provisions for the reformation of
the Church.
Observance of the Festival of Corpus Domini strictly
enjoined by the Council of Vienne.
University of Orleans founded*

Period.)

TO THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION.

285

Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit in Italy ; a sect
distinguished (for the most part) by the union of true religion with fanaticism. Persecuted by the Inquisition.
Adamites, an ignorant and deluded class of Brethren of
the Free Spirit, in Austria.
In China and Tartary the Gospel was now propagated
with some degree of success by missionaries (Franciscans)
sent by the pope, and by the Nestorians. But the reception of the Gospel by the people of those parts was only
partial and temporary.
Louis X. King of France.
Louis IV. of Bavaria and Frederic of Austria contend for
the empire, after the death of Henry TV. who had been killed
by poison.
After the death of Clement, the French and Italian
parties among the cardinals contest the election of a pope
during the space of two years. The French party at
length procure the election of John X X I I .
Many Templars had been put to death, protesting their
innocence of crimes alleged against them. Such was the
fate of their last grand master this year. Only a small
remnant of the order left.
"f Raymond Lully.
Philip V. King of France.
Matthew Visconti, Duke of Milan.
The pope claims the right of deciding the contest between Louis of Bavaria and Frederic of Austria, for the
imperial crown; but forbears to pronounce a decision.
Efforts are made to effect an union between the Arme-

286

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

nian and Latin Churches.
1323.)
1320|

(Fifth

(Lower Armenia united,

The pope (John XXII.) causes the Festival of the Holy
Trinity to be generally observed.
f Antony Andreas (Doctor Dulcifluus).

1322|

The pope exasperates the strict Franciscans by deciding
against their proposition, that our Lord and his Apostles
possessed no temporal property.
Contest of the Pope with Louis of Bavaria.
13231
The pope refusing to acknowledge Louis as emperor,
the latter appeals to a general council.
"j" Hervseus Natalis, General of the Dominicans.
1324

The Pope excommunicates Louis.
The more strict
Franciscans, offended with the pope on account of the part
he had taken with reference to the controversies of their
order, side with the emperor. William Occam writes in
his defence.

1325]

t Francis Mayronius (Doctor Illuminatus et Acutus;
Magister Abstractionum).
About this time several individual Schoolmen, adhering
to the scholastic system in general, began to differ from
their brethren in their mode of treating questions of theology. Such were Nicolas de Lyra, Bradwardine, and
Raymond of Toulouse.
Ave Maria to be repeated three times a day.

1327

Louis

OF BAVARIA, EMPEROR OF GERMANY.

# Edward III. King of England.
Louis, having caused himself to be crowned at Rome,
procures the deposition of the pope, and the nomination

Period.)

TO THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION.

287

of Nicholas V. as his successor. But he is unable to persevere in a successful opposition to John.
Some partisans of the emperor (Marsilius of Padua,
John of Janduno) maintain in their writings the bold,
and at this time strange, positions, that the Church possesses only a spiritual authority; that the pope can claim
no higher dignity than other bishops; and that the
primacy of the bishop of Rome cannot be derived from
St. Peter, the fact of whose residence at Rome is doubtful.
These assertions contrary to public opinion.
1328

Philip VI. of Valois, King of France.
ANJDRONICUS

13301

1332

III.

EMPEROR

OF

CONSTANTINOPLE.

The emperor quits Italy.
Nicholas V. obliged to submit to John, and implore his
pardon.
The pope (John XXII.) in danger of being condemned
as a heretic, for maintaining that the souls of the Virgin
Mary and all saints do not attain to the beatific vision
until the last day. He retracted his opinion shortly before
his death.
f Theodore Metochita.

1333

Unable to resist the influence of papal excommunication and opposition, the emperor endeavours to bring
about an accommodation with the pope. The pope insists upon absolute submission. The emperor about to
abdicate, when the States of Germany resolve to appeal to
a general council.
| Nicephorus Callistus.
f William Durand (Doctor Resolutissimus). He proposed modifications of the doctrine of Transubstantiation.
The leading errors of the Church of Rome were partially exposed during this century, not only by the Wal-

288,

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

{Fifth

denses, but also by various writers in the course of their
protests against practical abuses.
Durand made some excellent remarks respecting the
source of religious knowledge on the grounds of Christian
doctrine. But the scholastic theology continues to be
employed chiefly in the discussion of frivolous or captious
questions, and in maintaining an undue deference to human
authority in matters of belief.
1334

Flagellants appear in Italy.

1335

The archbishop of Upsal founds a (nominally) Christian Church in Lapland.

1337] ( o r s o o n a f t e r -) t Walter Burleigh (Doctor Planus et Perspicuus).
1338

Contests between England and France, for the French
crown, begin. They last during more than a century.
Benedict desires to throw off the yoke of France, and
to come to a good understanding with the emperor; also,
to reform the corrupt clergy and monks; but he encounters much opposition, and is unable to effect his projects.

1339

Beginning of the struggle between the Houses of Colonna (imperial) and Ursini (papal) at Rome.
The Greek emperors, from political motives, still desire
to effect a reconciliation with Rome. This year Barlaam,
a Greek abbot, negotiates with Benedict at Avignon, but
without success. Barlaam afterwards conformed to the
Romish Church.

1340|

Universities of Pisa and Grenoble founded.
t Nicolas de Lyra (Doctor Planus et Utilis). Postillse
Perpetuae, seu Brevia Commentaria in Universa Biblia.

Period.)

|

TO THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION.

289

Nicephorus Gregoras, Byzantine historian, fl.
% Earliest English Translations of Scripture. Roue's [of
Ham-pole) Psalms^ tyc.
Study of the Greek and Hebreio languages begins to be
cultivated. Some approach towards a critical interpretation
of Scripture.
Benedict appointed a festival in honour of the (fictitious)
wounds of St. Francis.
The pope soon ceases to interfere in the quarrels of the
Franciscans.

Monks of Mount Athos (Quietists) in controversy with
Barlaam respecting the vision of God and the nature of
the divine light. Defended by Palamas.
1341
The Council of Constantinople decides in favour of the
Monks of Mount Athos, and condemns the doctrine of
Barlaam.
Flagellants again in Italy.
Beghards, many of the more strict Franciscans, and
others, compose a motley union, under the title of Fratricelli. They are continually persecuted as heretics. Great
numbers fall victims to the Inquisition.
—

JOHN PJLJEOLOGUS,

EMPEROR

OF

CONSTANTINOPLE.

John Cantacuzenus shared the throne from 1347 to 1355.
1342

Clement VI. Pope ; entirely in the interests of France.

f Peter Paludanus (Franciscan).
* Michael Csesenas (Dominican).
(These two Schoolmen, Paludanus and Caesenas, were
antagonists in the controversy concerning the poverty of
Christ and the Apostles.)
— I
University of Cracow founded.
ta

1343

v

290

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

|

1343

{Fifth

Louis the Great, King of Hungary, compels large
numbers of the Cumani in Wallachia to profess (R.C.)
Christianity. They subsequently conformed to the Greek
Church.
* In England a statute is made against Provisions.
Penance and Indulgences. — The pope issues a bull confirming the doctrine of a treasure of supererogatory merits
of the saints in the keeping of the Church.

1346
—

Peter Aureolus fl. (Epitome of Scripture).
Theophanes, Archbishop of Nice, fl. (Evidences).
t John Bacon (Doctor Resolutus).
University of Heidelberg founded.
Battle of Cressy.
Clement effects the deposition of Louis and the election of Charles IV. as Emperor of Germany.

1347

CHARLES IV. OF LUXEMBURG, EMPEROR OE GERMANY.

—

He preserves a good understanding with Clement and
his successor.
to 1354. Democracy (in Rome) under Rienzi.

„

_

The Council of Constantinople favours the Monks of
Mount Athos.

t William Occam, a disciple of Duns Scotus, afterwards a leader of the Nominalists (Doctor Singularis et
Venerabilis Inceptor).
Controversy between Realists and Nominalists revived.
(William Occam and Durand (who died in 1333) inclined to that doctrine concerning the elements in the
Lord's supper which has since been called Consubstantiation.)
1348
t Thomas Bradwardine (Doctor Profundus).
'
University of Prague founded.

Period.)

TO T H E BEGINNING OF T H E R E F O R M A T I O N .

S9l

T h e foundation of the University of P r a g u e tended
greatly to support the power of the Romish hierarchy in
Bohemia. T h e Church in that country, having been
founded by Greeks, had long maintained a considerable
degree of independence, and had resisted many innovations on the part of Rome. T h e new university was in
|. the hands of mendicant friars, zealous for the Romish
system.
Societies of Flagellants spread rapidly from the North
of Germany. Clement issues a bull against them. M a n y
of their members afterwards unite with Beghards and
others in opposition to the C h u r c h ; and hence they are
regarded as heretics.
John, K i n g of France.
Continued war between Venice and Genoa.
Persecution of Christians in Egypt.
The Second Jubilee celebrated at R o m e ; Clement V.
having appointed the solemnity to take place every fifty
years instead of once in a century.
Council of Constantinople again in favour of the Monks
of M o u n t Athos.
Ecclesiastical abuses were now manifold and grievous.
Such were the following: — Exclusive jurisdiction of the
pope or Church over the clergy; power assumed by the
popes of granting provisions or expective graces, i. e. of
appointing to benefices before they became v a c a n t ; the
exactions of annates or first fruits, i. e. the first year's income of a benefice after preferment; the taxation of the
clergy according to the value of their benefices; and the
collection of Peter's Pence (in England) — all so many
means of enriching the Roman See to the prejudice of
states and nations. Mischiefs connected with the prerogative of sanctuary. L u x u r y and vices of the clergy and.
monks. Erroneous doctrines (especially relating to I n d u l u 2

292

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

{Fifth

gences and Transubstantiation) and superstitious practices; with the absence of due religious learning and
instruction.
Monks and Friars. The old monastic orders were
now the great advocates and patrons of ecclesiastical corruptions. The Dominicans had in their hands the Inquisition and the cure of souls among the higher classes of
society, and gradually lost the character of a mendicant
order; the Franciscans retained their original character,
but were engaged in controversies and dissensions among
themselves.
Mystics. About this time, many individuals, under the
influence of religious sentiment, oppose not only the dead
ceremonial worship of the Church, but the barren metaphysical theology of the schools.
Such were John Tauler, a Dominican, at Strasburg,
f 1361; Henry Suso, of Ulm, f 1365; John Ruysbrock, f 1 3 8 1 ; Gerard Groot, f 1384; Florentius
Radewin, of Utrecht, f 1400; Thomas a Kempis,
f 1471. These writers are usually denominated MYSTICS.
Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit throughout this
century in various parts of Germany; persecuted by the
Inquisition.
The ceremony of boioing the head at the mention of the
name of Jesus enjoined by the Council of Beziers.
#• Statute of Praemunire.
Ottomans establish themselves in Europe.
Casimir II. King of Poland.
f Nicephorus Gregoras.
Festival of the Spear and Nails.
The Emperor, Charles IV. made a large collection of
relics.
f Gregory Palamas,

Period.)

|

TO THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION.

293

Perpetual struggles between the secular clergy and the
mendicant friars.

1356

T H E GOLDEN BULL.

—

John, King of France, defeated and made prisoner.
The emperor sometimes manifests a disposition to protect his rights and those of the empire against the usurped
authority of the Roman See (Golden Bull); but at
other times he is more submissive towards the pretended
vicar of Christ. Weak and vacillating measures.
#* John Wickliffe, Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, denounces the avarice of ecclesiastics in a treatise entitled,
« The Last Age of the Church."

1359

* Richard Fitzralph, Archbishop of Armagh, contends
against the mendicant friars. He died in 1360.
Rule of the order of St. Brigitta confirmed by Urban.

1360

_

1361
— I

Amurath I. Turkish Sultan.
During this century, the Church still makes an industrious use of excommunication and indulgence. The former
inspires awe ; the latter procures money.
Some individuals, however, protest against abuses of
this kind.
* Wichliffe takes part with the University of Oxford
against the Mendicants. A large party in the English
Church unites with him in denouncing ecclesiastical
abuses.
John Milicz, Archdeacon of Prague, preaches repentance and faith, in opposition to prevalent superstition and
error. He is to be reckoned amongst the Precursors of
the Reformation,
University of Paris founded.
J John Tauler, mystic.
u 3

294

13631
~—

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

(Fifth

Bernardo Visconti, of Milan, offers resistance to the
pope.
Petrarch promotes the request of the people of Rome
for the return of the papal court to that city.

1364M

Charles V. the Wise, King of France.

1365

Wickliffe.—Disputes having arisen between the secular
clergy and Monks of Canterbury Hall, founded by Simon,
Archbishop of Canterbury, the archbishop decides against
the monks, and makes Wickliffe warden of the society.
But, in the following year (1366), the new archbishop
of Canterbury favours the Monks of Canterbury Hall.
Wickliffe and his friends are expelled. Wickliffe appeals
to Rome.
University of Vienna founded.

1367

Urban, in compliance with the wishes of the Roman
people, endeavours to fix his residence at Rome. But
only a few cardinals accompany him thither.
The Greek emperor (John V. Palaeologus) swears
obedience to the pope and conformity to the Church of
Rome. But his subjects persevere in opposition. The
next emperor (Manuel) wrote against the Latins.
Milicz, having preached at Rome, was imprisoned, and
afterwards released. (1369.) He preaches in Bohemia
with increased effect. Under him many students unite
in preparing themselves to preach the Gospel. This
year Conrad Stickna died, distinguished by his zealous
and powerful preaching in Bohemia, and his castigation
of the corrupt clergy and monks.

1369

to 1405. TIMOUR, or TAMERLANE, makes extensive
conquests in the East, and founds a new empire. —
Capital, Samarcand.
The expulsion of the Moguls from China destroys the

Period.)

TO THE BEGINNING OF THE INFORMATION.

infant church in that country.
prevails.
1370 (

295

The system of Confucius

Death of Casimir the Great, King of Poland.
the Piast dynasty.

End of

Urban, yielding to the influence of his court, returns
to Avignon.
* The pope decides against Wickliffe.
# Wickliffe supports Edward III. King of England,
in discontinuing the payment of tribute promised by John
to the Roman See.
13711
* The English Parliament petitions that churchmen
may not be allowed to hold secular offices.
13721
* Wickliffe, in favour with the English court, created
Doctor of Divinity in Oxford.
Turlupins, a deluded and degraded class of Brethren
of the Free Spirit in the Isle de France, exterminated.
1373

John Huss born, July 6. at Hussinetz, a village of Bohemia.
J Brigitta.
* Winchester College founded.

1374

* Wickliffe appointed one of seven ambassadors to confer
with papal commissioners concerning certain grievances of
the English Church; is disgusted with the state of the
papal court; and, on his return to England, declares his
opinion that the pope is antichrist.
Renewed quarrel between the Pope and Visconti.
f Petrarch.

I8751

Sect of the Dancers, in Flanders.
The Waldenses settled in the Valleys of Piedmont.
Society of Fratres Communis Vitce founded by Gerard
u 4

296

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

(Fifth

G r o o t ; a union of priests, for preaching in the vernacular
tongue, the instruction of youth, transcribing and circulating the Scriptures, and promoting Christian edification
by example.
1376

* Wickliffe. — T h e monks, having selected Nineteen
Propositions from the lectures and discourses of Wickliffe,
send them to Rome with a charge of heresy.
Wickliffe
obtains the rectory of Lutterworth, and the prebend of
Aust in the collegiate church of Westbury.
After many urgent appeals, strengthened by the influence of the famous Brigitta and Catherine of Sienna,
the pope finally quits Avignon, and once more fixes the
papal residence at Rome,
Gerson studies at Paris.
* Richard I I . King of England.
WENCESLAUS, E M P E R O R O F G E R M A N Y .
COMMENCEMENT OF THE G R E A T W E S T E R N SCHISM.

April. — U r b a n V I . elected pope.
French cardinals
retire to A n a g n i ; protest against the election, as compulsory ; denounce U r b a n as a destroyer of the Church's
p e a c e ; and elect Clement V I I . in opposition, who afterwards took up his residence at Avignon, with his cardinals.
T h e whole of Western Christendom divides into two
parties; one supports the pope of Rome, the other the
pope of Avignon.
T h e Roman pontiff had the preeminence throughout
the struggle. D u r i n g the most flourishing period of the
court of Avignon, its pontiffwas recognised only by France,
Spain, Scotland, Savoy, and L o t h r i n g i a ; whereas the pope
of Rome was acknowledged as head of the Church by
Italy, Germany, England, Denmark, Sweden, Poland, and
Prussia.
$• Wickliffe, after a bull from the pope, ordering him
to be imprisoned and brought to trial, defends himself
before a convocation in St. Paul's Cathedral this year.
H e is protected by the influence of the D u k e of Lancaster;

Period.)

TO THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION.

297

I and his judges are disposed to rest satisfied with his explanations. The death of the pope (Gregory XI.) probably prevented the issuing of a decree against him.
1379
# Wickliffe establishes a society of pious men, to act
as itinerant preachers in England. They were called
Lollards.
1380

Charles VI. King of France.

Tamerlane propagates Mohammedanism in the East.
The greater number of the Nestorian churches are destroyed.
—
# [Wickliffe undertakes his English translation of the
Bible. He begins to oppose prevalent errors respecting
penance and absolution.
r
—
T H E SCHISM. — Urban (at Rome) w as acknowledged
as pope at first by nearly all the powers of Europe, except
France.
1381
Peter d'Ailly, and some other members of the University of Paris, recommend the convening of a general
council for deciding the claims of the rival popes.
.
# Wickliffe opposes (in part) the prevailing doctrine of
Transubstantiation. The chancellor of Oxford prohibits
him from maintaining his propositions on this subject,
under pain of imprisonment. He appeals in vain to the
king. Many of his friends alarmed. He modifies his
statements, and continues to hold office at Oxford.
* Charles III. King of Naples.
t John Ruysbrock, mystic.
1382

* In a council held at London, Courteney, Archbishop
of Canterbury, condemns certain propositions attributed
to Wickliffe as heretical. The king begins to lend his
support to the hierarchy against him.
Wickliffe was eventually compelled to quit Oxford.
Having retired to his rectory at Lutterworth, he there
continued to write against the abuses and corruptions of
' the Church until his death (1384).

298

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

[Fifth

University of Pest founded.
Struggles between the Pope (Urban) and Charles I I I .
King of Naples.
* t WicklifFe.
John Galeazzo Visconti at Milan.
Urban goes to Naples, where he deposes Charles, whom
he had made king. He is made prisoner by Charles, but
released by a Genoese fleet. Many of his cardinals desert to Avignon.
Christianity established in Poland. Jagello, Grand
Duke of Lithuania, in order to marry Hedwig, the Polish
queen, and to gain the throne, embraces the profession
of Christianity and is baptized (Wladislas V.). Compels his subjects to receive baptism.
(Baptism was administered in Poland to the nobles individually, but to the common people in crowds together,
only the sexes being separated.)
A commission issued against the Lollards.
University of Cologne founded.
Bajazet I. Sultan of the Turks.
Feast of the Visitation of the Virgin Mary.
The Schism materially contributes to the decline of the
Papacy.
The Third Jubilee celebrated. Boniface had ordained
that this solemnity should take place once in every thirtythree years, and had fixed this year for the celebration of
the Jubilee, which (according to that scheme) had become
due in the year 1383*

Period.)
1391 [

TO T H E B E G I N N I N G OF T H E R E F O R M A T I O N .
MANUEL

II.

EMPEROR

OF

299

CONSTANTINOPLE.

—
1392

University of F e r r a r a founded.
University of Erfurt founded.
Boniface demands payment of annates, or first fruits,
in advance; and then defrauds the purchasers of benefices by bestowing their places upon others.
Call for a Reformation of the Church in its head and
members begins to be heard ; and the paramount authority of
general councils to be asserted.
1394
Disturbances in Germany. T h e emperor made prisoner by the Bohemian nobles.
—

T H E SCHISM. — T h e University of Paris proposes, as a
means of accommodation, that both popes should abdicate,
or should appoint umpires, or should refer the decision
to a general council. Clement however, by his influence with the government, silences the university. B u t
after the death of Clement, the government and university
unite in endeavouring to prevent the election of a successor. T h e cardinals at Avignon, however 9 elected Peter
de L u n a , under the title of Benedict X I I L , having pre^viously bound him by oath to use his utmost efforts for
the restoration of peace, and, if necessary, to abdicate.

—
—

Precursors of the Reformation.
T Matthias of Jannow (Magister Parisiensis), Confessor
of Charles I V . By preaching and writing he had advocated the cause of vital and internal religion in opposition
to mere ceremonies and forms, and had chastised the
worldliness and hypocrisy of the clergy and monks. H e
represented to the emperor the existing need of a Reformation of the Church ; and the emperor applied to the pope
on the subject. T h e latter denounced Matthias as a
bold heretic — he was banished — and subsequently lived
at P r a g u e in a private station.

—

Nicholas de Clemangis (Rector of the University
of Paris in 1393), publishes his celebrated work De
Ruind Ecclesice ; exposing the corruptions of the Church,
' and predicting the Reformation.

300

13951

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

{Fifth

Gerson, Chancellor of the University of Paris.
# Petition of the Lollards presented to Parliament.

1396

Bajazet defeats Sigismund, King of Poland, at Nicopolis.
# WicklifFe's doctrine and propositions condemned by
the Council of London.

1398

T H E SCHISM. — Benedict having wearied the University of Paris and the French Church by his delays and
duplicity, is this year made prisoner in his palace at
Avignon, when the French Church renounces its allegiance to him. In 1399 he promises to abdicate, in case
of the abdication or death of Boniface.
John Huss, Professor of Theology at Prague,

University of Angers founded.
1399

* Henry IV. of Lancaster, King of England.
White Penitents (Bianchi), a fanatical sect in Italy.
Their leader put to death, and the sect dispersed.

END OF

The chief theological controversies of this century were, —
that between the Thomists and Scotists, — one concernTEENTH ing the poverty of Christ and his Apostles, — and another
ivRY. I relating to the vision of God by disembodied spirits., The
superstitious doctrine of Transubstantiation also began to
be called in question more boldly and more generally
than hitherto.
Large numbers of reputed heretics were persecuted
and destroyed by the Inquisition.
Many new saints were added to the calendar, and
various superstitions introduced, during this century.
THE
FOUR-

j400

Wenceslaus deposed.
PEROR or

GERMANY.

ROBERT

(Count Palatine)

EM-

Period.)

[

TO THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION.

The Medici in Florence.

301

The Visconti in Milan.

Timour (Tamerlane) was hostile to Christianity. But
Christians (especially Nestorians) continued to exist in
various parts of his empire.
Jerome of Prague labours for the conversion of the
remaining pagans of Lithuania ; he encounters much opposition. Idolatry not yet extirpated.
1400

Huss, Confessor to the Queen of Bohemia.
* Henry IV. assists the bishops in their measures
against the Lollards. Statute against them.

— I

University of Turin founded; also, University of Cracow
(revived in 1817).

1401

* William Sawtrey, an English priest, burnt for alleged
heresy.

1402

Bajazet defeated and made prisoner by Timour. Ottoman and Greek Empires tributary to Timour.

—

Huss, Preacher at the Chapel of Bethlehem. Jerome of
Prague returns from Oxford to Prague, where he propagates Wickliffe's opinions; especially after the arrival
of two of Wickliffe's followers from Oxford in 1404.
1403
T H E SCHISM. — The French Church renews its obedience to the pope of Avignon.
University of Wiirtzburg founded (revived in 1589).
In the course of this century, literature begins to revive,
under the favourable influence of various causes; such as
were, — the presence of learned Greek refugees in Italy
— the invention of printing — the patronage of the
great.

Q02

1494[

—

—-

1405

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

Death of Timour.
stroyed.

{Fifth

His empire dismembered and de-

T H E SCHISM. — After the death of Boniface (of Rome)
Benedict refuses to abdicate. T h e Roman cardinals elect
Innocent V I I .
* JYickliffe's doctrines condemned by the University of
Prague, the Bohemians being outvoted by the Bavarians,
Saxons, and Poles.
The Festival of the Holy Trinity (introduced probably
during the twelfth century) begins to be generally observed.
T h e Roman Pope (Innocent V I I . ) involved in a dispute
with Ladislaus, K i n g of Naples.

1406

T H E S C H I S M . — U p o n the death, of Innocent, the Roman
cardinals elect a pope (Gregory X I I . ) eighty years of
age, hoping by this means to facilitate a termination of
the Schism.
Gerson, Chancellor of the University of Paris, maintains the paramount authority of a general council for the
controul, and even deposition, of a p o p e ; and insists upon
the necessity of a Reformation of the Church in its head
and in its members.
1407
^ H E S C H I S M . — Gregory and Benedict had appointed
to meet at Savona for the purpose of a joint abdication.
Benedict goes to Savona; Gregory advances only as far
as Lucca, and then declares Savona an unfit place for the
meeting. No abdication.
1408
* Wickliffe's doctrines condemned by the Council of
London.
•
T H E SCHISM. — T h e Roman cardinals endeavour to
compel Gregory to take effectual measures for the abdication ; b u t in vain.
Benedict, having exhausted the
patience of France, and being threatened with imprisonment, flees to Perpignan. T h e cardinals of both parties
unite in convening a general council, to be held at Pisa
J in the following year.

Period.)

1409

TO T H E B E G I N N I N G OF T H E R E F O R M A T I O N .

303

G E N E R A L C O U N C I L OF P I S A .

Gregory and Benedict refuse to appear. T h e council
deposes both. T h e n , instead of establishing measures of
reformation in the Church, as had been proposed, it proceeds to a new election, and appoints a third pope,
Alexander V. T h e new pope dissolves the council, and
refers the consideration of reform to a future general
council, to be held within three years.
This council consisted of 22 cardinals, 4 patriarchs, 12
archbishops present and 14 represented, 80 bishops p r e sent and 102 represented, a large number of abbots and
superior clergy, delegates from nearly 20 universities, and
from many of the sovereigns of Europe, and upwards of
300 doctors of divinity and canon law.
The Schism increased instead of terminated. Each of the
three popes has his adherents, and each excommunicates the
others.
Huss.— Sbinco, Archbishop of Prague, accuses Huss at
Rome as a follower of Wiekliffe. T h e pope grants a bull
authorising him to seize WicklirFe's writings, to put his
followers on their trial, and to forbid preaching in private
chapels.
Huss and Jerome, with the Bohemians, obtain an edict
from K i n g Wenceslaus, granting to the Bohemians of-the
University of P r a g u e three votes out of four in all academical transactions. T h e Germans retire from P r a g u e ,
and found the University of Leipsic. ( T h e University of
Aix also was founded this year.)
A t this time, there are said to have been twenty thousand students in the University of P r a g u e (founded in
1348).
University of Valentia founded.
1410
Alexander V. dies; probably poisoned by Balthassar
Cossa, who procures his own election as his successor,
under the title of John X X I I I .
Huss. — T h e archbishop of P r a g u e burns Wickliffe's
works and some writings of Huss, and forbids Huss to

304

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

{Fifth

| preach in the Chapel of Bethlehem. Huss remains firm in
his profession of the truth so far as he had discovered it;
1411 and continues to preach. In 1411 the pope (John X X I I I . )
condemns and excommunicates Huss; who appeals, a papa
male informato ad papam melius informandum.
SIGISMUND, EMPEROR OF GERMANY.

University of St. Andrews founded.
1412

John X X I I I . endeavours to conciliate the University
of Paris, and convenes a general council at Rome, hoping
to establish his authority to the exclusion of his rivals;
but in vain.
D'Ailly and Gerson in their writings insist upon the
necessity of a general council, entirely free and independent, for a radical Reformation of the Church. The
Emperor Sigismund presses the same point.
_,
The pope's legate, sent with the pallium to the new
archbishop of Prague, takes with him a bull for the
issue of Indulgences to all who should join a crusade
against Ladislaus, King of Naples. Huss and Jerome
protest against the doctrine and sale of Indulgences.
1413
A fresh bull against Huss — the place of his residence
laid under an interdict. Huss appeals from the judgment of
the pope to the judgment of Christ. About this time he
writes his book De Ecclesia; (in which he erroneously
denies the existence of a visible external church, and maintains that the true church is only invisible and spiritual).
Huss quits Prague, and retires to his native village.
<
# Several of WickliiFe's writings condemned by the
pope in a council at Rome.
# Henry V. King of England.
14141

Peace between the Pope and the King of Naples.

Period.)

TO T H E B E G I N N I N G O F T H E R E F O R M A T I O N .

305

1414
ANI)

1415

GENERAL

C O U N C I L OF

CONSTANCE,

for the termination of the Schism, and the extirpation of Heresy*
John wished the council to be considered as a continuation of that of Pisa, in which case it must acknowledge
him as pope; but D'Ailly and his supporters carried the
motion, that it should be entirely independent and supreme,
and in a condition to depose all three popes if necessary.
John desired that the council should confine its acts to matters of doctrine and the extirpation of heresy ; but it was
carried by D'Ailly and his party that the Reformation of the
Church in its head and in its members should form a chief
subject of the deliberations. John proposed that none but
bishops and abbots should have seats and voices in the
council, hoping to secure a majority on his side by means
of titular bishops and abbots in his t r a i n ; but the proposal of D'Ailly and his friends prevailed, to the effect
that all those who exercised the office of teaching and
preaching in the Church should be admitted to vote.
Lastly, John desired that the votes should be taken individually, but it was resolved that they should be taken by
nations collectively, i. e. the deputies of each of the four
nations, Germany, Italy, France, and England, should
first make decrees by majority of votes in separate assemblies ; and then those which had been enacted by the
majority of nations should be adopted by the general
assembly, and proclaimed as the decrees of the council.
In February, 1415, charges of impiety and profaneness
were preferred against John. Abdication being pressed
upon him, John escaped from the council, and fled to ShafFhausen. This involved the danger of a dissolution of the
council; but the firmness of the emperor and the influence of Gerson prevailed so as to keep it together; and it
was resolved, " that the Council of Constance, as representative of the Church Militant, derives its authority immediately
from Christ, and that every one, not excepting the pope, is
bound to submit to it in matters relating to faith, to the removal of the schism, and to the Reformation of the Church in

306

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

{Fifth

j its head and members" Proceedings were then instituted
against John, who was eventually deposed, and made
prisoner. Gregory abdicated. Benedict, after some resistance, being deserted by the Spaniards, was deposed, in
the thirty-seventh session of the council, A.D. 1417.
The emperor now urged upon the council the necessity
of proceeding to make provision for the Reformation
of the Church, especially in its head, before electing a
new pope. The great majority, however, objected to this
course, and were even prepared to denounce the emperor
as a favourer of the Hussite heresy (as it was termed), and as
denying the necessity for any visible head of the Universal
Church. At first Germany and England, but afterwards
Germany alone, espoused the cause of the emperor.
Sigismund was obliged to yield; and the council proceeded, in the first place, to the election of a new pope—
Martin V.
Decrees for reformation, partial and imperfect; and
some of these afterwards rendered nugatory. It was
enacted, that in matters of faith no appeal should be made
from the pope, nor any protest against his decision be
allowed; contrary to principles established by the Council
of Pisa.
No real Reformation effected by this Council,
The pope dissolved the council in its forty-fifth session ;
and having granted to all its members and their attendants a full absolution for all sins to the hour of their
death, on condition of their fasting (or performing some
other good works) every Friday throughout two years,
he left Constance (May 16. 1418), his horse being led by
the emperor and the elector of Brandenburg; 40,000
gentry and clergy following in procession.
Huss summoned to appear before the Council of Constance;
arrives at Constance on the 3d of November; made
prisoner, notwithstanding the emperor's safe conduct. The
emperor orders his liberation; but he is told that, as a layman, he cannot interfere in such matters; and that a proI mise made to a heretic is not binding.

Period,)

TO THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION.

307

June 5, 7, 8. — Huss brought before the council. A
total recantation of his alleged errors, and absolute submission to the council required, and refused. Huss condemned as a heretic, degraded, delivered to the secular arm,
and BURNT (July 6.).

Jerome seized in April; brought prisoner to Constance;
defended his opinions before the council (May 23.); subscribed to the doctrine of Transubstantiation (July 19.);
after a wearisome imprisonment, he recanted all the
doctrines attributed to himself, Huss, and Wickliffe, and
professed his approval of the condemnation of Huss and
his doctrines (September 11.); but he was still detained in
prison under the suspicion of his enemies.
(The council rejected forty-five of Wickliffe's propositions as heretical; but the doctrines of Wickliffe continued
to gain ground in England and in Bohemia, tending greatly
to pave the way for the Reformation.)
(The Council of Constance was attended by the emperor and empress, with a train of 1000 followers, — 3 patriarchs, 22 cardinals (including D'Ailly), 20 archbishops,
92 bishops (at first, afterwards more), 124 abbots (each
with large attendance), many princes (with large retinues)
and ambassadors, 1800 priests, and a still larger number
of other clergy, many doctors of divinity and canon law,
deputies from several universities (including Gerson,
Chancellor of Paris), and a large body of monks.
1414

Ninety-one Flagellants burnt this year by the Inquisition.
* The followers of Wickliffe (Lollards) severely persecuted in England.
Communion in loth kinds. Jacobellus de Misa, friend of
Huss, at Prague, insists upon the necessity of receiving
the communion in both kinds. Huss declares such administration to be conformable to primitive practice, and
desirable; but dissuades from violent measures for obtaining the privilege. Opposition to the Council of Constance,
x 2

308

EROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII,

[Fifth

| which had determined that the Lord's supper had been
instituted in both kinds, but that the Church possessed
authority to order the administration in one kind only;
and that all who should not submit to the Church and
Council in this respect would deserve to be punished as
heretics.
1415

Battle of Agincourt.

( a '' 1418.) # Sir John Oldcastle, Lord Cobham, executed for alleged heresy, &c.
Jerome of Prague. Fresh charges having been preferred against Jerome, he was brought before the council
(May 23. and 26. this year). Here he vindicates the
memory of Huss, and formally revokes his timid recantation. Condemned and burnt (May 30.).
1417
War of the Hussites. At Prague the Hussites demand
the administration of the communion in both kinds.
Some thousands rise in arms under Ziska and Nicholas of
Hussinetz, retire to a mountain, and build a town (Tabor),
as a place of rendezvous for their party. Thus begins
the war of the Hussites.

1416

1419
_

1420

The Emperor Sigismund, after the death of Wenceslaus,
becomes King of Bohemia.
t Vincentius Ferrarius (Ferreri), a Spanish Dominican.
(He had preached in Spain, France, and Italy. In
1406 he was in England. He headed several processions
of Flagellants, but was dissuaded from the practice by
Gerson.)
University of Rostock founded.
Treaty of Troyes. Henry V. of England acknowledged
heir to the Kingdom of France.
War of the Hussites. The Hussites begin to divide
| into two parties, the more moderate demanding only the

Period.)

TO T H E B E G I N N I N G OF T H E R E F O R M A T I O N .

309

restoration of the cup to the laity, the translation and exposition of services in the vernacular tongue, improvement
of Church discipline, and reducing the revenues of the
clergy (Calixtines, Utraquists),— others desiring to carry
reform to still greater lengths, and to restore apostolical
simplicity (Taborites).
Study of Theology. — About this time some divines of
the University of Paris contended for a reformation of
theology, against the scholastic method of teaching. T h e
improvements which they proposed were, however, partial
and imperfect; and the erroneous and false views which
they themselves entertained contributed, in a great degree,
to neutralise their efforts. Among these men wereckon
Peter d'Ailly, Archbishop of Cambray (f 1425), Gerson
(f 1429), Nicholas de Clemangis ( t cir. 1440.).
# H e n r y V I . (a minor) King of England.
T h e son of Charles V I . of France claims the throne of
that kingdom, under the title of Charles V I I .
Temporal princes now begin successfully to vindicate their
authority against the tyranny and encroachments of the
pope.
A t Constance the pope had fixed upon this year as the
date of the next general council, to be held at P a via. A
council was opened there, but soon afterwards transferred
to Sienna; and then dissolved, after the transaction of
some unimportant business under the presidency of a
papal legate. Next council to be held at Basle (1431).
War of the Hussites, "j" Ziska. Procopius Rasa, General
of the Hussites.
t Peter d'Ailly.
University of Lou vain founded.
Clement V I I I . resigns.

Martin V, sole Pope.

E N D OF T H E G R E A T W E S T E R N

x 3

SCHISM.

310

1429|

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.-

Maid of Orleans.
crowned at Rheims.

{Fifth

Charles V I I . K i n g of F r a n c e ,

f Gerson, Chancellor of the University of Paris (Doctor Venerabilis et Christianissimus).
1430
1431

University of Caen founded.
University of Poitiers founded.
Rise of the Medici family at Florence (Cosmo de
Medici).
G E N E R A L C O U N C I L OF B A S L E ,

under the presidency of Cardinal Julianus Cesarini, as
pope's legate. T h e tone of this council appears bold and
independent. T h e pope, under certain pretexts, endeavours
to suspend its proceedings, and to cause it to postpone its
sessions until it should re-assemble at Bologna, after the
lapse of a year and a half. T h e council resists the attempt, and asserts its superiority over the pope. F r u i t less negotiations take place, until at length t h e pope
dissolves the council by a bull in 1437. T h e council
resists for some t i m e ; b u t the German princes fearing a
new schism, and the pope having been obliged by worse
troubles at Rome to flee to Florence, the matter is adjusted. T h e bull revoked; b u t proceedings of the council suspended for a time.
I n 1434 the council passes various decrees adapted to
limit the power of the pope, and to promote the reformation of the Church. T h e pope finds fault with these
proceedings. I n 1437 he convenes a new general council
at Ferrara. T h e legate quits B a s l e ; but the Council of
Basle continues its sessions after the opening of the pope's
council, and suspends the pope.
T h e two general councils excommunicate each o t h e r ;
and as the former schism had weakened the power of the
popes, this destroyed the influence of general councils.

Period.)

TO T H E B E G I N N I N G O F T H E REFORMATION.

311

T h e Feast of the Immaculate Conception was confirmed
by the Council of Basle.
University of Florence founded.
The Council of Basle negotiates with the Hussites. T h r e e
hundred deputies of that party at Basle (January if).). Disputation of fifty days. Council at length assents to the
four articles of the Calixtines, with certain modifications
and restrictions. T h e Taborites refuse to acquiesce.
Calixtines unite with the Romanists against the T a b o r ites, who are entirely defeated (May 30.) near Prague.
Phil. M . Visconti, of Milan, opposed to the Pope.
T h e strict Franciscans now compose a separate order of
the Hermits of St. Francis, or Minimi.
(Confirmed by
papal authority in 1474).
Breach of faith, on the part of the pope and emperor,
with the Calixtines, leads to fresh disturbances in Bohemia.
A L B E R T OF A U S T R I A , E M P E R O R

OF

GERMANY.

T h e Pragmatic Sanction established in France.
T h e pope opened his council at F e r r a r a in 1 4 3 8 ; transferred it to Florence in 1 4 3 9 ; and thence to Rome in
1442.
T h e Greek Emperor, John V I I . (Palseologus), accompanied by many Greek prelates, attends the councils at
F e r r a r a and Florence, with a view to the union of the
Greek and Latin Churches. Greeks differ among themselves. Marcus Eugenicus, Bishop of Ephesus, contends
for strict Greek orthodoxy against Bessarion, Bishop of
Nicaea, who favours the emperor's proposals. Articles of
union, however, were completed ( 1 4 3 9 ) ; but, the strict
Greek orthodox persevering in their opposition, the union
did not take effect. From this time however, and especially
x 4

312

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

(Fifth

after the capture of Constantinople, the Latinising party
in the Greek Church increased.
The German princes resolve to adopt the decrees of
the Council of Basle, so far as they do not affect the
pope's person. The council (25th of June, 1439) deposes Eugenius as a disturber of the peace, a heretic, and
perjured. Felix V. appointed to succeed. This appointment recognised by only a few universities and towns,
and the council unable to maintain its position. Many
of its adherents, including iEneas Sylvius Piccolomini,
go over to the opposite party.
The Council of Basle continued to lose its influence.
In 1448 it removed to Lausanne; and here dissolved, in
1449, having recognised Nicholas V. as pope.
The doctrine of Fur gatory declared to be an article of
faith by the Council of Florence.
FREDERICK III. OF AUSTRIA, EMPEROR OF GERMANY.

(A weak emperor, devoted to the interests of the Papal
See.)
\ Nicholas de Clemangis (Doctor Theologus).
University of Bordeaux, and * Eton College, founded.
INVENTION OF THE ART OF PRINTING.

Battle of Varna. Ladislaus, King of Hungary and
Poland, defeated and slain by the Turks under Amurath II.
Eugenius deposes the archbishops of Cologne and
Treves on account of their adherence to Felix. The deposed bishops were also electors of Germany; hence the act
of Eugenius appeared as an attack upon the dignity of the
empire and the liberties of the German Church. In the
following year (1446), the body of electors, assembled at
Frankfort-on-the-Maine, resolved to demand from the pope

Period.)

TO T H E B E G I N N I N G OF T H E R E F O R M A T I O N .

t318

a declaration securing the liberties of their national church,
a recognition of the decrees of Constance and Basle concerning the authority of general councils, restoration of
the deposed archbishops, and the assembling of a council
in Germany. T h e y resolve, in case of the pope's refusal,
to declare for Felix. Eugenius at first threatened resistance ; but at length, by the mediation of i E n e a s Sylvius,
who modified the demands of the electors, the pope complied, and the whole German Church submitted to
Eugenius shortly before his death (1447).
University of Catania founded.
* T h e English have now lost all their possessions in
France, except Calais.
T h e electors of Germany, at Aschaffenberg, resolved
that, for the security of the liberties of the German Church,
its relation to the pope should be defined by a diet at
Nuremberg. But, in 1448, the emperor, on behalf of
the German nation, concluded a CONCORDAT with the
pope at V I E N N A , favourable to papal interests, by the influence of iEneas Sylvius, Bishop of Trieste.
CONSTANTINE

XL

(PALJEOLOGUS)

EMPEROR OF

CONSTANTINOPLE.

* University of Glasgow founded.

1450

T h e pope prohibits the compulsory baptism of Jews in
Sicily; but commands them to hear sermons four times
a year, under pain of capital punishment.
The Jubilee was celebrated at Rome this year, according; to the constitution of Clement V I .
to 1466.
1453

Francis Sforza, D u k e of Milan.

Constantinople taken by the T u r k s under
met I I .
END

OF THE

EASTERN

OR GREEK

Mahom-

EMPIRE.

314

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

1454

(Fifth

* End of English Government in France,

—
—

University of Treves founded.
T Alphonso Tostatus (Commentary on Scripture).
About this time, the study of classical antiquity revives
in Italy.
1456
Universities of Greifswald and Freiburg founded.

* Civil wars in E n g l a n d between the Houses of York
and Lancaster.
T h e pope (Calixtus) endeavours in vain to promote a
Crusade against the T u r k s .
—

T h e electors of Germany demand some security of
the liberties of the national church, similar to the P r a g matic Sanction obtained by France in 1438, as the condition of their recognising Calixtus as pope. B u t the
emperor, convinced by iEneas Sylvius of the identity of
the imperial and papal interests, acknowledges Calixtus
(1456) without further hesitation. T h e protestation of
the electors tended to encourage some men to raise their
voices against the (pretended) divine authority, and the
necessity, of papal government.
—
T h e Feast of the Transfiguration made general in the
Western Church. (This was generally observed, as a high
festival, in the Greek Church, as early as the sixth century;
introduced into the West before the close of the eighth).
1457
Formation of the Church of the Bohemian (and Moravian) Brethren (Unitas F r a t r m n ) , from the remnant of
the Hussites.
1458
By the abilities and energy of i E n e a s Sylvius as pope
(Pius II.), the Papacy obtains a temporary revival of its
influence. T h e two leading objects of this pontiff were,
the promotion of a Crusade against the T u r k s , and the
preservation of the absolute supremacy of the Papal See,
I in opposition to the innovating spirit of the age.

Period.)

TO T H E B E G I N N I N G O F T H E R E F O R M A T I O N .

315

#• Reginald Pecock, Bishop of Chichester, deposed, on
account of alleged errors, &c. i. e. opinions nearly in accordance with those of Wickliffe.
At the General Council of Mantua, Pius fails in his
attempts to set on foot a Crusade. H e procures a prohibition of all appeals from the pope to a general council; and
the condemnation of the principles of Constance and
Basle on this head as heretical.
Appeals by German princes from the pope to a general
council followed by excommunication and defeat.
University of Basle founded.
& Edward I V . K i n g of England.
Louis X I . King of France.
Ivan Basilowitz the Great, G r a n d D u k e of Russia,
founder of the independence of the Russian Empire.
Controversy concerning the honour due to the blood
of Christ apart from his body.
After various disputes and accommodations with the
Calixtines, the pope finally refuses to confirm the compact of Basle. T h e Calixtines henceforth a private party,
or sect, until the sixteenth century.
Pius I I . explicitly retracts his former liberal principles
and writings.
University of Bourges founded.
T Nicholas de Cusa. A strenuous supporter of ecclesiastical tradition, to the disparagement of Scripture.
A n opponent of the scholastic system, in his treatise D e
Docta Ignorantia.
f Laurentius Valla (Annotations on the New Testament).
(1464-9.) Pietro de Medici, at Florence.
Diet of N u r e m b u r g .

316

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

{Fifth

1467|

The Church of the Bohemian Brethren suffers violent
and cruel persecution from the Church of Rome; which
lasts, at intervals, through many years. The Brethren
distinguished by their simplicity of faith, meekness, and
patience in suffering.
Erasmus born, at Rotterdam.
(1469-92.) Lorenzo de Medici, at Florence.

1471

The new pope (Sixtus IV.) became infamous by
taking part in a conspiracy against the House of Medici,
and by licensing houses of ill-fame at Rome for the sake
of revenue.

f Thomas a Kempis.
Bessarion, Patriarch of Constantinople, afterwards
Roman Cardinal (Defender of Latin tenets).
University of Ingolstadt founded.
I474
University of Saragossa founded.

j 4/72

Order of the Hermits of St. Francis (Minimi) established by papal authority.
I475I
Paul II. (in 1470) having finally ordained that the
Jubilee should be celebrated every twenty-five years, it
became due this year, but failed to attract to Rome so
great a concourse as formerly.
* In England, various individuals were burnt for
heresy, from time to time.
1477

A German translation of the Bible, from the Vulgate ;
badly executed.
Universities of Mentz, Tubingen, and Upsal, founded.
(Mentz revived, 1784.)
14791
University of Copenhagen founded.
Union of Arragon and Castile.
—1516); and Isabella (1504).

Ferdinand II. (1479

Precursors of the Reformation.—John Bur chard (of
Wesel) having opposed many prevalent errors, especially

Period.)

TO THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION.

317

those relating to Indulgences, brought to trial by the
archbishop of Mentz. He consents to modify his statements; but his writings are burnt, and himself condemned to perpetual confinement in a monastery, where
he died (1482).
1480

Beginning of the Italian wars between France, Naples,
the Emperor, and Venice.
During these contests, the popes form alliances sometimes with one of the opposite parties, and sometimes with
the other.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE INQUISITION IN SPAIN.

1481

1482|
1483

Celebration of the first Auto-da-Fe in Spain.
Bonaventura canonized.
CEcolampadius born.
Martin Luther born, at Eisleben.
to 1498. Charles VIII. King of France.
#• Edward V. and afterwards Richard I I I . King of
England.

14841

Ulrich Zwingle born.

1485

#• Henry VII. (Tudor) King of England.
His marriage with the daughter of Edward IV. puts
an end to the civil wars.

1486

f George of Trapezond (Latin translator of the Greek
Fathers).
to 1489.

Independence of Switzerland.

1487

Crusade against the Waldenses, encouraged by the
promise of a plenary indulgence from the pope.

1489

"j* John Wessel, Professor of Theology at Heidelberg,
Colonne, Lyons, Paris, and lastly at Groningen.
He had maintained publicly that the Bible is the only

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

(Fifth

infallible source of Christian knowledge, and had taught the
doctrines of repentance and justification in a manner opposed to the errors of the dominant church.
Another German translation of the Bible, from the
Vulgate.
Capture of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella.
End of the Saracen Empire in Spain,
Columbus discovers America.
D u r i n g the late pontificates, the corruption and profligacy of the court of Rome had risen to an enormous h e i g h t
This year, the profligate and abandoned Cardinal Borgia,
having purchased the votes of the college, was made pope f
under the title of Alexander VL His whole pontificate was
signalised by disgraceful vices, his leading aim throughout
being to enrich his (illegitimate) children, especially the
dissolute Caesar Borgia. F o r this object perfidy and poison were continually employed.
M A X I M I L I A N I. E M P E R O R O F G E R M A N Y .

Expedition of Charles V I I I . of France into Italy.
Italian wars until 1559.
Monasteries belonging to Dominicans now amount to
4143.
T John Pic us of Mirandola.
f Gabriel Biel.
T h e Jews in Spain and Portugal compelled to embrace
the profession of Christianity. I n Portugal, their children
(under fourteen years of age) are instructed in Christian
doctrine. In Granada, Ximenes causes several thousand
Mohammedans to be baptized without instruction.
T H E P O W E R O F T H E R O M A N S E E IS NOW VERY MUCH
IMPAIRED.

Period.)

TO T H E B E G I N N I N G O F T H E R E F O R M A T I O N .

319

Scandalous profligacy, avarice, and cruelty of Pope
Alexander V I . and his family.
Melanchthon born.
Vasco de Gama discovers a new passage to India by
the Cape of Good Hope.
Louis X I I . K i n g of France.
Precursors of the Reformation. — Jerome Savonarola, a
Dominican, who had for some time past preached scriptural doctrines at Florence with great effect, accused of
heresy, condemned, tortured, and burnt.
University of Alcala (Complutum) founded,
("f" Marsilius Ficinus, a Platonist.)
During this century, the labours of various witnesses of
truth had succeeded to a certain extent in correcting prevalent errors respecting, — the authority of Scripture as
the rule of faith ; justification and good works ; absolution
and indulgence; invocation of saints, and the use of
images; the nature of the eucharist.
T h e preaching of God's word had, for a long time
past, been obscured by false philosophy and pretended
learning, and debased by an admixture of legends and
fables.
Many new saints were added to the calendar during
this century.
General corruption of morals continues to prevail.
Christianity makes little progress in the newly discovered regions of Western Africa and America. Laudable
efforts of the Spanish Bishop, Bartholomew de las Casas,
almost fruitless. Low state of religion among the conquerors, and the cruelties which they exercised, contributed mainly to this result.

320

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

1500|

New Persian dynasty founded by Ismael Sophi.

1501

(Fifth

M a r t i n L u t h e r enters the University of Erfurt.

1502

University of Wittemberg founded.
Revival of Literature and the study of the Classics in
Germany.
1503|
Sodalitas Literaria Rhenana.
Naples under the power of Spain.
T h e pope (Alexander) killed by accidentally taking
poison, which he h a d caused to be prepared for one of his
cardinals.
Before the election of a new pope, the cardinals took
an oath, to the effect that a general council should be
holden within two years. A n d the same oath was taken
by Julius after his election.
Julius was constantly involved in wars or political
intrigues, undertaken for the promotion of his ambitious
designs.
At the beginning of this century, the Moravian B r e thren possess two hundred places of worship.
Martin Luther enters an Augustinian monastery at
Erfurt. H e studies the Bible a n d writings of Augustin;
becomes convinced of the inutility of ascetic exercises for
the attainment of holiness, a n d learns to look for salvation
by simple, humble, and devoted faith in Christ. I n these
pursuits he is supported by a brother monk, and by
Staupitz, the general vicar of his order.
The animating and invincible principle of the R E F O R M A T I O N — the Scriptural

truth of J U S T I F I C A T I O N B Y F R E E

G R A C E T H R O U G H F A I T H I N C H R I S T ALONE — begins to

come into operation.
University of Frankfort-on-the-Oder founded.
Building of St. Peter's Church at Rome begun (completed in 1614).

Period.)

TO THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION.

321

League of Cambray. The pope, the emperor, and the
king of France, combine against Venice.
Luther appointed Professor of Philosophy in the University
of Wittemberg.
* Henry VIII. King of England.
% Cardinal Wolsey in favour with Henry VIII. and
very powerful in England*
The Knights of St. John (Hospitalers) settled in Malta.
Luther appointed Preacher at Wittemberg.
Erasmus in Oxford.
Luther goes to Rome on a deputation from his order.
He is shocked by the corruption in discipline and morals
prevalent at the papal court; and more deeply than ever
impressed with this great truth,— " The just shall live by
faith/'
The pope, having continually delayed the convening of
a promised council, the king of France, and afterwards
the emperor Maximilian, press for the fulfilment of the
pledge given, and threaten to enforce it. The emperor
afterwards sides with the pope.
This year a general council convened at Pisa by the
influence of France, takes measures against the pope.
Council thinly attended; transferred to Milan, thence
to Asti, thence to Lyons, and dissolved next year without
effect.
The pope himself takes the field against France: lays
the kingdom under an interdict.
The pope at length convenes a general council at Rome
(Lateran).
Luther created a Doctor in Divinity. He disentangles
himself more and more from the scholastic system ; proclaims
an unusual amount of scriptural truth in his sermons^ and in
his lectures on the Bible and Augustin.
The celebrated Cardinal, John Medici, made Pope —
LEO X . : naturally kind and benevolent, but luxurious
and fond of pomp: distinguished by his refined taste, and

S'2'2

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

(Fifth

I and his patronage of arts and literature ; but without due
religious sentiment, and immoderate in his extortion for
the sake of supporting his prodigal expenses.
1513 * In England a question is keenly agitated concerning
the subjection of ecclesiastics to the common courts of
t law.
_

Reuchlin, having opposed a plan for the burning of
Jewish books, is accused of heresy. He appeals to the
pope, who decides in his favour.
1514
Melanchthon takes part with Reuchlin against the theologians of Cologne.
-—

*• In England fresh acrimony is given to the controversy concerning ecclesiastical exemptions.

1515

Louis X I I . of France dies, without having been able to
accomplish his designs against the Papacy (Perdam Babylonis nomen).
Francis I. King of France.
1516
Francis concludes a CONCORDAT with Leo, repealing
the Pragmatic Sanction.
—
Charles I. King of Spain, Naples, Sicily, and the
Netherlands.
Erasmus publishes an edition of the Greek Testament
with a Latin translation — an improvement upon the Vulgate — and notes.
The monks oppose the growing taste for literature, and
Reuchlin. Their ignorance exposed by Reuchlin's friends
in the satirical Epistolse Obscurorum Virorum.
1517]

Syria and Egypt in the power of the Turks (Selim I.
Sultan, 1512).
Christianity introduced into Spanish America.

Period.)

LIST

c

TO T H E B E G I N N I N G O F T H E REFORMATION.

OF P O P E S ,

323

P A T R I A R C H S , AND A R C H B I S H O P S O F

C A N T E R B U R Y , F R O M T H E Y E A R 1 0 7 3 T O 1513.

1073. GREGORY VII.
1075. Comus I.

1156.

1080. CLEMENT I I I .
Antipope.

—
Michael III.
1162. * TN Becket.

1081. Eustratus Garidas.
1084. Nicholas III.

1164.

PASCHAL I I I .
in place of VICTOR IV.
1168. CALIXTUS I I I .
in place of PASCHAL III*

1085. VICTOR I I I .
1088. URBAN II. '

1093. * Anselm.
1099.

PASCHAL II.

1171. * Richard.
1177. Chariton.
1178. Theodosius Borradiotes.

1111.
JohnlXJ
1114. * Rodolph.
1118. GELASIUS II.
GREGORY VIII.
Antipope.
1119. C A L I X T U S I I .
1122. * W . Corbeil.
1124. H O N O R I U S I I .
1130. Two popes elected: —
INNOCENT II.
ANACLETUS II.

1181. LUCIUS I I I .

1183. Basil IL
1184. * Baldwin.
1185. U R B A N I I I .

1186. Nicetas II.
1187. GREGORY VIII.
—
CLEMENT I I I .

1190. Leoniius Thootocites.
1191. CELESTIN III.

1134. Leo Stypiota.

—
Bositheus.
— * Reginald Fitz-Jocelin.
1193. George II. Xiphilin.
—
* Hubert Walter.

1137. VICTOR III.
succeeds ANACLETUS.
1138. INNOCENT I I .
sole Pope.

—

Lucas Chrysoberges."

1159. ALEXANDER III. "1 rival
VICTOR IV.
J PoPes-

1198. INNOCENT I I I .

* Theobald.

—

1143. CELESTIN II.

John X.

—. Michael II.
1144. L u c i u s II.

N.B. Latin Patriarchs at Constantinople.

1145. EUGENIUS I I I .

1206.
1207.
1213.
1215.
—
1216.
1221.

1146. Comus II.
1147. Nicholas IV.
1151. Theodore II.
1153. ANASTASIUS IV.
1154. A D R I A N IV.

—

Constantine IV.
Y 2

Michael IV.
* Stephen Langton.
Theodore III
Maximus I.
Manuel I.
Honorms III.
Germanus II.

324
1227.

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.
GREGORY IX.

1305.

1229. * R. Wethershed.
1234. * Edmund.
1240. Methodius II.

{Fifth

CLEMENT V.

1311. Niphon I.
1313. * Walter Raynold.
1316. J O H N XXII. (XXI.)

See of Constantinople vacant.
1241. CELESTIN IV.
(eighteen days). Interregnum of
twenty months.
1243. INNOCENT IV.

1244. Manuel II.
1245. * Boniface.
1254. ALEXANDER IV.

— John XIII.
1320. Gerasimus I.
See of Constantinople vacant.

1323.
1328.
1333.
—

Isaiah.
* Simon Mepham.
John XIV.
* John Strafford.

1255. Arsenius L
1260. Nicephorus II.

1334. BENEDICT XII.
1342. CLEMENT VI.

1261. U R B A N IV.
1265. CLEMENT IV.

1347.
1349.
—
1350.

1266. Germanus
1267. Joseph I.

III.

1268. f CLEMENT IV.
No pope until 1271.
1271. GREGORY X.

1352. INNOCENT VI.

1354. Philotheus,

1272. * Robert Kilwardy.
1274. John Beccus or Veccus,
1276.
—
—
1277.

Joseph deposed.
INNOCENT V.
A D R I A N V.
JOHN XXL (or XX.)
NICHOLAS I I I .

—

restored.

1370. GREGORY XL

1375. * Simon Sudbury.
1376. Macarius.

restored.

1283. Gregory II.

1378.

1285. HONORIUS IV.
1288. NICHOLAS IV.

1289. Athanasius I.
vacant,

until

XII

Athanasius deposed.
1294. After CELESTIN V. BONIFACE VII.

—
—

Philotheus,

1366. * Simon Langham.
1368. * William Wittlesey.

1282. Joseph I.

1303.

Callistus,
restored.

1281. M A R T I N IV.

1293. John

Callistus deposed.

1355.

3 362. URBAN V.

1278. * J. Peckham.

1292. See of Rome
1294.

Isidore I.
* Thomas Bradwardine.
* Simon Islip.
Callistus I.

* Robert Winchelsey.
BENEDICT XL

Athanasius,
restored.
Roman See vacant.

URBAN VI. (Rome) and
CLEMENT VII. (Avignon).

1379. Nilus.
1381. * William Courteney.
1387. Antonius IV.
1389. BONIFACE IX. (Rome).
1394. BENEDICTXIH.(Avignon).

1396. Callistus II.
— * Thomas Arundel.
1398. Matthew I.
1404. INNOCENT VII. (Rome).
1406. GREGORY XII. (Rome).
1409.

GREGORY X I I .

* ,
1

Period.)

T O T H E BEGINNING OF T H E REFORMATION.
1455.

1409. ALEXANDER V.
elected by the Council of Pisa.

325

CALIXTUS I I I .

1457. Isidore II.
1458. Pius II.
— Jehosaphat I.

( Three Popes at one time.)
1410. JOHN XXIII. (XXII.)

1429.

CLEMENT V I I I . resigns.

N . B . Great confusion in the See of
Constantinople during the remainder of
this century.
T h e following are the
names of the Patriarchs; dates of succession uncertain • —
Mark I.
Maximus I I .
Simeon.
Niphon I I
Dionysius I . Maximus I I I .
Mark I I .
Joachim.
Raphael I .
Pachomiusl. (4- 1513).

1431.

M A R T I N V. sole Pope.
EUGENIUS I V .

1464. P A U L I I .
1471. SIXTUS IV.

in the room of ALEXANDER V.

— Euthymius II.
1414. * Henry Chicheley.
1415.

GREGORY

abdicates.

JOHN

X X I I I . ( X X I I . ) deposed.

1416. Joseph II.
1417. M A R T I N V. (Rome).
1424. CLEMENT VIII.(Avignon.)

1440. Metrophanes

II.

1484. INNOCENT VIII.

1486. * John Morton.

See of Constantinople vacant.

1443. * John Stafford.
1445. Gregory III.

1501. * Henry Dean.

1447.

1503.

PIUS III.

—

JULIUS I I .

1492.

NICHOLAS V.
See of Constantinople vacant.

1452. * J. Kemp.
1453. Gennadius II.
1454. * Thomas Bouchier.

ALEXANDER VI.

— * William Warham.
1513. LEO X.
•— Theoleptus I.

COUNCILS FROM T H E YEAR

1073. Erford.
Rouen.
Poitiers.
1074. Poitiers. Rome. Rouen.
Paris.
1075. Rome.
— * England.
— Spalatro (on discipline).
1076. Worms. Rome. * Winchester.
1076, 1077. Dijon. Autun.
1078. Rome. Poitiers. * London.
1079. Rome. Toulouse. Utrecht.
1080. Rome.
—
Several in France and Germany.
Y

1073

TO

1512.

1084. Rome (under Clement).
— Rome (under Gregory;
mutual excommunication and deposition).
1085. Rome (under Clement).
— Quedlinburg (by Gregory's
party).
— Mentz (in favour of Clement).
1087. Capua. Benevento.
1089. Rome (under Urban).
1090. Toulouse.
1091. Leon, in Spain.
1092. Soissons. Etampes. Szabolchs.
3

326

1093.
—
1094.
—
—
—
1095.
1096.
—
1097.
1098.
1099.
1100.
1102.
1103.
1104.
1105.
1106.
1107.
1108.
—
1110.
1111.
1112.
—
—
1114.
.—
1115.
1116.
—
1117.
1118.
1119.
1122.

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

Rhekns.
* Canterbury.
Constance.
Autun (against Philip's
marriage).
Rheims (in favour of Philip's marriage).
* Rockingham Castle.
Placentia. Clermont. * England.
Rouen. Tours.
Nimes.
* Ireland.
Rome. Bari.
Rome (on discipline).
* Lambeth. Poitiers.
Rome.
* London. Milan.
Rome. Troyes. Paris.
Rome.
Quedlinburg.
Rheims. Florence.
Poitiers.
Troyes, * London.
* London (on discipline).
Benevento.
Rome. Clermont. Toulouse.
Rome (Lateran),
Rome (Lateran).
Vienne.
Jerusalem.
* Windsor.
Leon. Compostello (on
discipline).
Soissons. Rheims. Cologne.
Rome (Lateran).
* Salisbury. Dijon.
Milan. Benevento.
Capua. Rouen. Vienne.
Cologne.
Toulouse.
Rheims.
Soissons. Worms.

1123. L A T E R A N I . — T H E N I N T H
G E N E R A L . (On discipline.)

1124. Several in France.

(Fifth

1125. ^Westminster (on discipline).
1127. * Westminster (reformation of manners).
1128. Troyes. Rouen.
1129. * London.
1131. Rheims.
1134. Pisa (under Innocent ;
against Anacletus).
1136. * London. * Northampton.
1138. * London (on discipline).
1139. L A T E R A N II. — T H E
TENTH GENERAL. (Re-

union of the Church.)]
— * Winchester.
1140. Constantinople.
— Sens (against the opinions
of Abelard):
1141. * Winchester.
Antioch.
* Westminster.
1142. * London.
1143. Constantinople (Bogomili
condemned).
— Jerusalem (concerning the
tenets of the Armenians).
1144. Constantinople
(against
Niphon).
— Rome.
1145. Bourges (Crusade).
1146. Vezelai (Crusade).
1147. Constantinople.
Paris.
Treves.
1148. Rheims. Bamberg. (Matters of faith).
1151. * London (on discipline).
1152. * Ireland.
1153. Worms. Constance.
1154. * London.
1157. Kiev.
Constantinople.
Rheims.
1159. Mentz.
1160. Pavia. Anagni. * Oxford.
1161. Toulouse. Lodi. Beauvais.
1162. * Westminster.
1163. Tours (on discipline).

Period.)

TO T H E B E G I N N I N G O F T H E R E F O R M A T I O N .

1164. # Clarendon.
Rheims.
* Northampton.
1165. Aix-la-Chapelle.
1166. Constantinople (doctrine
and discipline),
— * London.
1169. Kiev.
1170. Constantinople.
1171. * Armagh. * Cashel.
1172. Avranches.
1173. * Westminster.
1175. * London (on discipline).
1176. * Northampton. * London.
1177. * Northampton.
— Conference at Tarsus (for
re-union of the Armenians and Greeks).
1179,

LATERAN I I I . — T H E ELEVENTH G E N E R A L . (On

discipline).
1180. Tarragona.
1182. Limoges (on discipline).
1184?. Verona (against heretics,
&c).
1185. Paris. * London.
1186. * Ireland (reformation of
the clergy)
1188. Several councils for the
promotion of Crusades.
1189. Rouen (on discipline.
1190. Narbonne (Waldenses condemned).
1193. * Canterbury.
1195. * York.
1196. Paris.
1197. Lanciski, in Poland (against
marriage of the clergy).
1199. Dijon.
1200. Vienne. * London.
1201. Soissons. * Perth.
1205. Aries.
1206. * Lambeth (on discipline).
1209. Avignon (on discipline).
1210. Paris. Rome.
1211. Narbonne. Aries.

1212. * Northampton.
1213. * St. Albans.
1215.

1216.
1222.
—
—
1223.
1224.
1225.
1226.
1226.
—
1227.
1228.
1229.
1230.
1231.
1232.
1233.
—
1234.
1235.
1236
1237.
1238.
1239.
1241.
1242.
1244.
1245.

327

Paris.

L A T E R A N IV. —
THE
TWELFTH
GENERAL.

(Doctrine and discipline).
* Bristol.
* Oxford
Sleswic (celibacy of clergy).
Constantinople.
Rouen. Paris.
Montpellier.
Paris. Melun. Bourges.
Mentz.
* Westminster. Paris.
Cremona.
* Scotland (on discipline).
Treves. Narbonne. Rome.
Rome.
Paris. Lerida. * Westminster. Toulouse.
Tarragona.
Rouen. Castle Gontier.
Niceea. * London.
Several in France.
Mentz (against Stedingians).
Beziers. Aries.
Narbonne. Rheims. Compiegne. Senlis.
Tours (in favour of Jews).
Lerida. * London.
Cognac. * London. Treves.
Tarragona.
Tours.- St.
Quintin. Sens.
* Oxford.
Tarragona.
Tarragona. * London.
LYONS. — T H E
THIRTEENTH G E N E R A L . (Em-

peror Frederic deposed.)
1246. Beziers. Fritzlar. Lerida.
* London.
1247. Tarragona.
1248. Tarragona. Paris. Breslau.
Valence.
Y 4

328

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII.

1253. Tarragona. Ravenna.
1254. Castle Gontier.
1255. * London.
Albi.
Bordeaux.
1256. Paris. Sens.
1257. * London.
1258. *Merton.
1259. Mentz (on discipline).
1260. Cognac (on discipline).
1260. Cologne.
1261. Aries. Cologne. Paris.
* London. Mentz.
1262. * Ireland. Cognac.
1263. Paris.
1264. Nantes. Paris. Bologna.
1265. (or 1266.) * Northampton.
1266. Bremen.
1267. Vienna.
1268. Breslau. * London. Castle
Gontier.
1269. Sens (on discipline).
1270. Compiegne (Church property).
—
Avignon.
1274. LYONS. — T H E
FOURTEENTH GENERAL.

1275.
—
1276.
1277.

1279.

—
1280.
1281.
m*m
1281.
1282.

1283.
1285.

Aries (on discipline).
Constantinople.
Bourges.
Constantinople (concerning
the union of the Greek
and Roman Churches).
Beziers. Avignon. (Ecclesiastical
privileges
and property.)
* Reading.
Bourges. Constantinople.
Cologne. Saltzburg. Lambeth.
Paris.
* London.
Tarragona.
Avignon. Tours, Aquileia.
Constantinople.
Constantinople.

(Fifth

1286. * London. Ravenna. Macon. Bourges.
1287. * Exeter. Milan. Saltzburg.
1291. Saltzburg. Milan. ^ L o n don.
1292. Tarragona.
Bremen.
* Chichester. Aschaffenburg.
1294. Saumur. Tarragona.
1297. * London. Constantinople.
1299. Rouen (on discipline).
1300. * Canterbury. * Merton.
1301. Melun (on discipline).
—
Rheims.
1302. Paris. Rheims. Rome.
1303. Paris. Nogaro. Cambray.
1305. Tarragona. * London.
1307. Aquileia. Cologne. Tarragona. Sisa, in Armenia Minor.
1309—1311. Presburg. Mentz.
Cologne (against concubinage of the clergy).
Ravenna. Paris. Mentz.
* London. Salamanca
(concerning the Templars).
1311. V I E N N E . — T H E F I F T E E N T H
GENERAL. (On doctrine

1313.
1314.
1315.
1316.
1317.
1318.
—
1320.
1321.

and discipline; order of
Templars suppressed.)
Magdeburg.
Paris. Ravenna (on discipline.)
Saumur. Nogaro (on discipline).
Adan, in Armenia.
Tarragona. Ravenna (on
discipline).
Senlis (Church property).
Saragossa.
Sens. Halle (on discipline).
* London.

Period.)

TO THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION.

1322. Valladolid.
Magdeburg.
Cologne.
1324. Paris. Toledo.
1326. Avignon. Senlis. Marciac.
1329. * London.
Compiegne.
Paris.
1330. * Lambeth. Kherna, in
Armenia.
1335. Salamanca. Pre* (on discipline).
1336. Bourges. Castle Gontiei\
1337. Avignon. Treves.
1339. Toledo.
1340. Nicosia, in Cyprus.
1341. Constantinople. * Canterbury.
1342. Saumur. * London.
1343. * London.
1344. Magdeburg, t^oyon.
1345. Armenia. Constantinople.
1347. Paris. Toledo. Constantinople.
1350. Padua.
1351. * Dublin. Beziers.
1355. Prague. Toledo.
1356. * London.
1366. Angers.
1367. *York.
1368. Upsala. Lavaur.
1370. Magdeburg.
1374. Narbonne.
1379. Salamanca.
1382. * London.
* Oxford
(against the Wickliffites,
or Lollards).
1383. Cambray.
1386. Saltzburg (on discipline).
1387. Mentz.
1388. Valentia. Palermo.
1390. Cologne.
1391. * London.
1392. Prague.
1395. Paris.
1397. * London (against Wickliffites).

329

1398. Paris.
1401. * London (against Wickliffites).
1404. Paris.
1406. Hamburg.
— Paris.
1408. Rheims. * London. Paris.
Perpignan.
1409. Frankfort. * Oxford. Florence. Pisa. Aquileia.
1410. Salamanca.
1412, 1413. Rome.
1413. * London.
1414 until 1418. CONSTANCE.—
THE
SEVENTEENTH
GENERAL.

1421.
1423.
1429.
1430.
1431.

Prague.
Pavia, and Sienna. Treves.
Riga. Paris. Tortosa.
Aschaffenburg.
Nantes.

1431.

Council of BASLE meets.—
T H E EIGHTEENTH G E NERAL.
(Re-union of

1438.
1439.
—
1440.
1441.
1445.
1448.
1449.
1450.
1452.
1453.
1454.
1455
1457.
1473.
1485.
1486.
1490.

the Greek and Roman
Churches; ecclesiastical
reformation.)
Ferrara.
Florence.
Mentz.
Bourges.
Mentz.
Rouen.
Angers.
Lausanne.
Constantinople.
Cologne. Magdeburg.
* Cashel.
* Canterbury.
Aschaffenburg. Soissonso
Avignon.
Madrid. Toledo.
Sens.
* London.
Saltzburg.

330

1492.
1494.
1503.
1510.
1511.

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. ETC. (Period

Moscow.
Nitra, in Hungary.
Moscow.
Orleans. Tours.
Pisa (by the cardinals and
king of France against

V.)

the pope), transferred
to Milan, thence to
Lyons.
1512. Lateran (against the Council of Pisa),

END OF THE FIFTH PERIOD.

PERIOD VI.
ERA OF T H E

REFORMATION.

1517—1555.

1517,

(MAXIMILIAN I. EMPEROR OF GERMANY.

* Henry VIII. King of England.
Francis I. King of France.
Charles I. King of Spain.)
March 16.—The Lateran Council dissolved in its twelfth
session, having condemned the principles maintained by
the Councils of Constance and Basle, and established afresh
the absolute sovereignty of the pope. But this triumph
of the Papacy was more apparent than real.
Shameless sale of Indulgences in Germany by Tetzel, a
Dominican, under Albert, Elector of Mentz and Archbishop of Magdeburg. Luther preaches and protests
against the evil effects of this traffic, which had interfered
with the exercise of his ministry.
October 31.— Luther publishes ninety-five Theses, against
abuses connected with the doctrine of Indulgences, and
challenges disputants.
No direct opposition to Rome; but fundamental principles asserted concerning repentance, pardon, and sanctification, which form the basis of Christian doctrine as
distinguished from the prevalent superstition.
Erasmus publishes his Paraphrase on the Epistle to the
Romans.

332

ERA OF THE REFORMATION.

(Sixth

Another translation of the Scriptures into German, from
the Vulgate.
Melanchthon, Professor of Greek at Wittemberg.
L u t h e r addresses a
appear before Cardinal
Cajetan, after several
nothing less than a
appeals a papa male
mandum.

letter to the p o p e ; is summoned to
Cajetan, pope's legate, at Augsburg.
conferences, persists in demanding
recantation: L u t h e r refuses, a n d
informato ad papam melius infor-

Nov. 9.—A bull, confirming the doctrine of Indulgences,
and forbidding all persons to dispute against it, under
penalty of excommunication.
Death of the emperor Maximilian.
Frederic, Elector
of Saxony, Regent of the empire. Charles I . King of
Spain, elected, under the title of
C H A R L E S V. E M P E R O R O F G E R M A N Y (crowned in 1520).

January. — Conference of Luther with Miltitz.
March 3.-— Luther's explanatory letter to the pope, a c knowledging his authority, and professing respect for the
Romish Church, b u t absolutely maintaining the doctrine
of justification by grace through faith, a n d the absence
of all merit in good works.
June 2 7 . — Disputation at Leipsic,
between E c k on the one side, and Carlstadt and L u t h e r
on the other. L u t h e r denies divine right of the pope's supremacy. From this time we may date his systematic and
growing opposition to the Papacy.
Melanchthon present a t this disputation ; an impartial
account of which he transmits to his friend GEcolampadius,
at Basle. Afterwards Melanchthon begins to take part in
the controversy.
Luther publishes his Commentary
Galatians.

on the Epistle

to the

U L R I C H Z W I N G L E , at Zurich, after a calm a n d thorough

study of Scripture, shocked at the sale of Indulgences by

Period.)

ERA OF THE REFORMATION.

333

Bernardin Samson, appears in the character of a Reformer,
denouncing ecclesiastical abuses, and teaching a purer
doctrine than that which prevailed in the dominant
church. The Council of Zurich commands all preachers
to teach the pure word of God, according to Holy Scripture, and to refrain from human additions.
Increasing jealousy between Spain and France.
Leo attaches himself to the cause of the Emperor.
June. — Luther publishes an address to the Emperor and
the Christian Nobility of the German nation.
BULL AGAINST LUTHER AND HIS WRITINGS first published in August by Eck.
August—Luther's treatise, " On the Babylonian Captivity
of the Church" In this book, Luther not only exposed
the outward abuses of the Church, the system of the
Papacy, Monachism, &c, but also denounced the more
deeply-seated errors of doctrine, especially Transubstantiation, and other errors connected with the sacraments.
LUTHER NOW DENOUNCES THE PAPACY AS THE K I N G DOM OF BABYLON, AND ANTICHRIST.

October. — Conference of Miltitz with Luther, in hope
of effecting a reconciliation. Luther's treatise on Christian Liberty, and Letter to the Pope.
December. — Frederick, Elector of Saxony, consults
Erasmus respecting the doctrine and proceedings of
Luther. Erasmus applauds Luther's good intentions, but
laments his want of moderation.
" Luther us," said he,
"• peccat in duobus; nempe quod tetigit coronam pontificis, et ventres monachorum."
Some Lutheran preachers in Poland.
Complutensian Bible of Cardinal Ximenes published.
END

OF THE FIRST PERIOD IN THE HISTORY
THE GERMAN
REFORMATION.

OF

334

1521

ERA OF THE REFORMATION.

{Sixth

Soliman II. the Turkish Sultan, captures Belgrade.
Francis Sforza, Duke of Milan.
First war between Charles V. and Francis I.
The pope in alliance with the emperor.
April. — LUTHER, BEFORE THE D I E T OF WORMS, re-

fuses to retract his doctrine, until convinced of error by
proofs from Scripture.
May.

— EDICT OF WORMS,

commanding the apprehension of Luther, and the destruction of his writings.
Luther conveyed to Wartburg, under the protection
of Frederick. Here he begins his Translation of the
Bible into German; completing that of the New Testament : •— a most important work for the interests of
religion, and the promotion of real Reformation. Here,
also, he matures his opinions concerning the nature and
constitution of the Church.
Melanchthon publishes his Loci Communes, a systematic exposition of Luther's doctrine.
# Henry VIII. of England, publishes a Defence of the
doctrine of Seven Sacraments, against Luther. In consequence of this, Leo declares the king " Defender of the
Faith."
George, Duke of Saxony, persecutes the followers of
Luther.
Erasmus endeavours to pursue a middle course between
the Romanists and the friends of Luther. Both parties
dissatisfied with him. The Romanists accuse him of being
a secret favourer of the opposition made to the Papacy;
while the Reformers charge him with lukewarmness.
Hutten writes against him; Erasmus replies.
The principles of Reformation find entrance into
Denmark; also into France, where they are condemned
by the Sorbonne; and into Transylvania.
Reformation advances in Switzerland.
Ignatius Loyola wounded in battle. During the progress of his cure, he imbibes the principles of religious
asceticism.

Period.)

ERA OF THE REFORMATION.

15211
—-

Erasmus settles at Basle.
University of Geneva founded.

1522
—

385

Rhodes captured by the Turks.
Roman Catholic Missions to the East Indies.

"~—

The pope sends Cheregati as his nuncio to the Diet of
Nuremberg; demands the fulfilment of the Edict of
Worms, and the assistance of the German princes against
Luther and his friends. Confesses the existence of abuses
and corrupt morals in the Church and court of Rome;
and promises to use his utmost efforts for the correction of
these disorders. The diet demands the assembling of a
general council for the discussion of religious differences,
and transmits to Rome a list of grievances.
Disorders at Wittemberg.— Hasty changes in the manner
of celebrating divine worship, &c. promoted by Carlstadt.
Fanatics of Zwickaw. Luther writes, and then returns
to Wittemberg. By his sermons and influence he restores
moderation and peace.
September. — Luther's New Testament published at Wittemberg.
Luther writes against Henry VIII. of England.

-—

"j* John Reuchlin (Capnio). A great promoter of
learning, especially of the study of Hebrew.

1523

Knights of St. John obliged to surrender Rhodes^ to
Soliman.
Gustavus Vasa> King of Sweden.
Charles, occupied in the pursuits of ambition, and engaged in war with France and the Turks, pays little
regard to the affairs of religion in his empire, except so
far as they affect his political interests.

—

—

1

Popular misconceptions of Luther's doctrines inspecting
Christian liberty. Munzer, at the head of a party of
fanatics, inveighs against Luther, and excites the populace to violence. Insurrection of the Peasants in Germany
begins. Munzer at Mulhausen.

336

15231

EllA OF THE REFORMATION.

(Sixth

Public disputation at Zurich^ between Zwingle and the
Romanists (Faber of Constance, and others). The council supports Zwingle in preaching the pure word of God,
and forbids preachers to advance any thing which may
not be proved from Scripture.
Zwingle's "Short and Christian Introduction to the
Doctrine of the Gospel."
In Sweden, Gustavus Vasa favours the doctrines of
Reformation; and in Denmark they are supported by
Frederick.
Reformation had now made progress in the Netherlands.
Erasmus completes his Paraphrase of the New Testament.
A Dutch translation of the Bible.
Ignatius Loyola undertakes a pilgrimage to Palestine.

1524

Clement engages in the interests of France.
Reformation makes great progress in Switzerland. Many
superstitious ceremonies and customs abolished. GEcolampadius at Basle. William Farel. Several cantons oppose
the Reformation.
Sweden and Denmark profess the reformed faith. The
doctrines of Luther gain ground in Prussia, and are introduced into Scotland.
Luther abandons the monastic life. His monastery is
now deserted, and delivered into the hands of the elector.
Diet of Nuremberg, attended by Cardinal Campeggio as
pope's legate, promises to carry into effect the Edict of
Worms as far as possible, but persists in demanding a
general council.
Campeggio endeavours to form a confederacy of German princes in favour of the pope and Church of Rome.
At Ratisbon, he brings about a league between several
princes and bishops, who bind themselves to support each
other in efforts to uphold the Romish doctrines and ceremonies, and in checking the progress of Luther's opinions. First League of German princes.

Period.)

1524|

ERA OF THE REFORMATION.

337

Beginning of the Sacramental Controversy. Luther
engages in controversy with Carlstadt: Luther maintaining the real corporeal presence of Christ in, with, and
under, the elements of the Lord's supper (as fire is in
heated iron), Consubstantiation ; Carlstadt maintaining that
the Lord's supper is only a commemoration of our
Saviour's sacrifice.
Carlstadt removes to Strasburg. Wolfgang Fabricius
Capito and Martin Bucer, two preachers of that place,
adopt his sentiments.
Erasmus refutes the allegations of those who had
accused him of maintaining a secret understanding with
Luther, by publishing a treatise entitled, Diatribe de
Libero Arbitrio (of Semipelagian tendency), in opposition
to the reformer's sentiments (which were in accordance
with the Augustinian scheme of predestination).
Melanchthon, Professor of Theology at Wittemburg.
T John Staupitz.
First Danish translation of the New Testament.
The study of Scripture and Greek literature begin to
flourish in England.
Loyola studies at Barcelona. He reads assiduously
Thomas a Kempis's Imitation of Christ.
Order of Theatines founded (Clerici Regulares ; against
heresy).

1525

Battle of Pavia. Francis in the power of Charles.
The Pope obliged to take part with Charles.
Frederic the Wise, Elector of Saxony, died this year.
He was succeeded by John, who gave the Reformation
decided support.
A manifesto published, containing the Claims of the Peasants. Luther's exhortation to peace. The insurrection
becomes general. Luther writes Against the Plundering
and Murderous Peasants. Defeat of the insurgents at
Frankenhausen. Munzer beheaded. End of the revolt.

338

ERA OF THE REFORMATION.

(Sixth

At Zurich, the celebration of the Lord's supper is entirely substituted for the pretended sacrifice of the mass.
Use of pictures and images in churches discontinued.
Even organs and bells silenced. Attempt to separate
spiritual religion, as far as possible, from every thing
outward, visible, and sensible.
Zwingle teaches that the Lord's supper is a symbolical commemoration of the one meritorious sacrifice of
Christ, agreeing nearly with Carlstadt and Luther's
other opponents. John Bugenhagen (Pomeranus), of
Wittemberg, defends Luther's doctrine in reply. CEcolampadius, at Basle, advocates similar sentiments. The
controversy continues.
The title of EVANGELICAL first assumed by the Landgrave of Hesse.
Luther marries Catharine de Bora.
Many Lutherans condemned as heretics, and burnt, in
various parts of Germany, about this time. Persecution
carried on, especially under the auspices of the archduke
of Austria, and the dukes of Saxony and Brunswick.
Luther's treatise, De Servo Arbitrio, in answer to
Erasmus. Zwingle, Commentarius De Vera et Falsa Religione. Eck, Enchiridion Locorum Communium ad versus
Lutherum.
Order of Capuchins^ a kind of Franciscans, or Minorites?
takes its rise.
The pope combines with France, Venice, and Milan,
against the emperor (Holy League).
At Torgau, Philip, Landgrave of Hesse, and John,
Elector of Saxony, agree to support each other in the
preservation of their rights, and in resisting any attack
upon the free exercise of reformed religion in their
dominions. In the course of the year, several other
princes joined their league at Magdeburg.
October. — Conference between Romanists and Reformers
at Homburg.

Period.)

ERA OF THE REFORMATION.

339

Reformation established in Prussia.
Luther*s German Liturgy and Order of Divine Worship.
Loyola repairs to the University of Complutum. His
zeal in religious exercises, and in giving instruction, excites the jealousy of the Inquisition, and exposes him to
persecution.
* Tyndal's English Translation of the New Testament.
(| Pomponazzi, an Aristotelian philosopher.)
Second War between Charles V. and Francis I.
Rome plundered, and the pope taken prisoner by the
imperial forces. The pope purchases his liberty.
January. — Another conference at Marpurg.
The landgrave of Hesse and elector of Saxony take
arms, upon report of a league between Roman Catholic
princes for the extirpation of the reformed religion.
Luther and Melanchthon refuse to sanction these proceedings. Existence of the league denied; and the forces
disbanded. This circumstance gave to the work of Reformation too much of a political and aggressive character.
Many writings of the Reformers translated and circulated in Italy. Their doctrines met with no inconsiderable acceptance.
#• Henry VIII. of England desires to obtain a divorce
from his queen Catharine. Proposals for divorce made
to the court of Rome during the detention of Clement.
Alliance of the seven Roman Catholic cantons of Switzerland.
The Vatican Library in ruins. University of Marpurg founded.
t Jerome Emser, R. C.
N.B. From this date, writers of the several different
churches will usually be distinguished by Gapital letters
affixed to their names in the obituary, thus, — L. denotes
Lutheran; R. Reformed; R. C. Roman Catholic; but
members of our own church will be distinguished by the
asterisk, which has been used throughout the work as denoting reference to British history.
z 2

3 JO

1528|

ERA OF THE REFORMATION.

(Sixth

Visitation of the Churches in Saxony. Melanchthon's
" Instructions/' or " Visitation Articles."
Reformation established in many towns and provinces
of Germany and Switzerland (Haller, at Berne; Viret,
at Lausanne; Farel, in various parts of Switzerland).
* Reformation in Scotland begins. Martyrdom of
Patrick Hamilton, burnt at St. Andrew's.
Sacramental Controversy. Luther's doctrine of the eucharist condemned by an assembly of Swiss divines at
Berne.
Jerome Aurelian, a Venetian, founds the order of
Somaschi, a kind of regular clergy.
Loyola repairs to Paris, to study theology.
Order of Capuchins confirmed by Pope Clement V I I I .
The emperor and the elector of Saxony give their sanction to violent measures against the Anabaptists of
Germany.
Soliman II. invades Hungary, and advances to Vienna.
Peace of Cambray, between Charles V. and Francis L
Clement reconciled to the emperor, who promises to
exert himself for suppression of heresy.
Roman Catholic Missions to Japan.
The Diet of Spires decrees that the Edict of Worms
should be strictly enforced in all countries where it had
been already received, but that where the evangelical
doctrines had been adopted, so that they could not be extirpated without commotion, it should be sufficient to prohibit further changes until a general council should be
held. The diet also determines to suppress the doctrines
of Sacramentarians and Anabaptists, to protect the celebration of mass where desired, and to impose upon
preachers the condition that they should preach the Gospel
only in the sense approved by the Church. The evangelical princes sent (April 19.) a PROTEST against THIS
DECISION, to which they added (April 25.) an APPEAL
to the emperor, to a general or national council, and to
every impartial Christian judge.

Period.)
15291

ERA OF THE REFORMATION.

341

ORIGIN OF THE NAME PROTESTANTS.

The elector of Hesse urges violent measures; Luther
and others remonstrate.
The emperor rejects the Protest and Appeal.
Meeting at Smalcald, for the purpose of forming a
Protestant confederacy; without effect.
June 29. — The emperor, in a treaty with the pope, undertakes " to bring back the heretics in Germany to their
obedience to the Roman See."
October 1, 2, 3.—Conference at Marpurg, between the
Saxon and Swiss divines. Differences respecting the
doctrines of the eucharist continue, but with the understanding that such differences shall not be a bar to union
in the common cause of the Gospel.
Reformation completed at Basle (CEcolampadius).
Luther's Catechisms,
* Trial concerning Henry's divorce before Campeggio,
pope's legate in England. Cause transferred to Rome.
Fall of Cardinal Wolsey.
#• Cardinal Beaton, Archbishop of St. Andrew's, persecutes the Reformers in Scotland. Violent persecutions
in the Low Countries and France.
Hetzer, L., who denied the divinity of Christ, and
attached himself to the Anabaptists, beheaded at Constance
for polygamy and adultery.
Various fanatical sects in the Low Countries. Melchior Hofmann, founder of a sect of Anabaptists."
15301

Charles V. crowned by the Pope at Bologna. Last instance of the coronation of a German emperor by the
pope.
The Knights of St. John receive a grant of Malta from
the emperor.
Articles of Torgau (a statement of the leading articles
of Christian faith presented by Luther and his friends to
the elector of Saxony at Torgau, before the assembling of
the diet).
z 3

342

1530)

ERA OF THE REFORMATION.

(Sixth

D I E T OF AUGSBURG. — June 25. Protestants present and
read a confession or summary of faith, drawn up by Melanehthon, on the basis of the articles of Torgau, the celebrated CONFESSION O F A U G S B U R G . August 13.
Romanists present a Confutation of the Confession, with
which the emperor declares himself satisfied, and demands
the assent and acquiescence of the Protestant members of
the diet, which they refuse. August Conferences between
the two parties; without effect. Protestants finally appeal to the decision of a free general council. Melanchthon
publishes a Defence of the Apology.

TETRAPOLITAN CONFESSION, presented by the cities of

Strasburg, Constance, Memmingen, and Landau.
Sept. 22.—A decree of the diet allows Protestants time
(until the 15th of April following) to deliberate concerning conformity to the Church; requiring them, in the
interval, to make no further innovations, and to aid in
suppressing the errors of the Zwinglians and Anabaptists,
with a promise on the part of the emperor to solicit the
pope to convene a general council within six months.
Nov, 19.—Final decree, censuring the changes which had
been partially introduced; giving new force to the Edict
of Worms; requiring all who had withdrawn allegiance
from the See of Rome to acknowledge its authority, on
pain of incurring the displeasure and vengeance of the
emperor. Indefinite promise of a general council repeated.
* An appeal had been made from the authority of the
pope to the opinions of the universities, relating to
Henry's divorce, probably at the suggestion of Cranmei%
Their decisions affirm the illegality of the marriage. The
clergy, in convocation, acknowledge Henry as Supreme
Head of the English Church.
Conferences between Roman Catholics and Reformers
in Denmark.
Order of Barnabites founded (confirmed in 1532;
denominated, since 1535, Clerici Regulares S. Pauli).

Period.)

1530]
1531

ERA OF THE REFORMATION.

343

Luther's Admonition to the Ecclesiastics. Admonition
to the Germans.
PROTESTANT LEAGUE OF SMALCALD.

Evangelical doctrines propagated in Hungary.
Religious war in Switzerland. Peace; on condition
that each canton shall be independent of the others in
matters of religion.
Bullinger, Zwingle's successor, completes the establishment of a reformed discipline and worship in Zurich.
Michael Servetus publishes his treatise De Trinitatis
Erroribus.
j" Zwingle and (Ecolampadius.
John Frederic, Elector of Saxony; zealous in the cause
of the Reformation.
The emperor and states of Germany continue their
solicitations to the pope for the assembling of a general
council.
Pacification of Nuremberg ; a treaty between the em1532
peror and Protestants.
Sale of Indulgences at Geneva. William Farel and
Antony Saunier banished from the city for preaching
evangelical doctrines.
JOHN CALVIN, a native of Noyon in Picardy, begins to
distinguish himself in Paris.
John Campanus, Antitrinitarian,
University of Compostella founded.
The changes effected by Protestants in the celebration
of divine worship, during this century, may be thus described, in general: —
1. The abolition of all rites and ceremonies founded
upon ecclesiastical errors and fables.
z 4

344

ERA OF THE REFORMATION.

{Sixth

2. The restoration of Scriptural practices and institutions which had fallen into disuse.
3. The granting of liberty, with regard to things innocent or indifferent, either to retain or discontinue them.
(The Lutheran and English Churches retained many
customs, which were abolished by the Swiss and others.)
These changes affected chiefly the following particulars : —• times and places of worship ; common prayer;
psalmody; preaching and catechising; administration of
the sacraments.
The few differences which remained among Protestants
related, principally, to the use of exorcism at baptism;
some eucharistic questions; the retaining of images in
churches: church music.
The Pope espouses the cause of Francis.
* Cranmer made Archbishop of Canterbury. The
king's divorce formally declared. John Forsyth, martyr.
* Violent persecution of Reformers in Scotland.
In Denmark, the Roman Catholic party gains ascendancy for a short time.
Reformation makes progress in Transylvania.
Luther's Treatise on Private Masses. Sermons on
the Apostles' Creed, &c. Commentaries and Lectures on
various parts of Scripture.
Reformation in Wurtemburg, Pomerania, Mecklenburg, and Augsburg.
Persecution of Reformers in France.
# The English Parliament abrogates the papal SUPREMACY in England, and recognises that OF THE KING.
Final rupture of Henry and England with Rome. Power
of the bishops' courts abridged. Oath of supremacy
imposed. Sir Thomas More, and Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, refusing to take the oath, are sent to the Tower.
Publication of a complete edition of Luther's Translation
of the Bible, in three volumes, folio.

Period.)

15341

ERA OF THE REFORMATION.

345

Ignatius Loyola forms a religious society in Paris, for
the maintenance of the Roman Catholic faith.
Fanatical Anabaptists at Munster, under Matthias,
Bockhold, and Knipperdolling. Insurrection; quelled.
t Cardinal Cajetan (Thomas de Vio).

1535

Francis I. of France negotiates with the members of
the Smalcaldic League.
The pope refuses to convene a council in Germany.
The Protestants refuse to attend one if assembled in
Italy.
Interview of Vergerio, pope's nuncio, with Luther, at
Wittemberg.
Evangelical doctrines propagated in Poland.
Reformation makes progress in Geneva.
* Death of More and Fisher.
Under the supremacy of Henry, many persons are condemned and burnt as heretics, for denying the doctrines
of purgatory, the corporeal presence, &c.
^ Visitation of English Monasteries.
#• Cromwell, first Vicar General, afterwards Lord Vicegerent.
Melanchthon, in a new edition of his Loci Communes, evinces a disposition to depart from the Augustinian doctrines concerning predestination, grace, and
free-will.
Luther's Second Commentary on the Galatians.
Calvin's Institutio Religionis Christians, first edition.
Robert Olivetan translates the Bible into French, for
the use of Protestants in that country.
* Coverdale's English Bible.

1536

Third War between Charles V* and Francis I.

846

1536

ERA OF THE REFORMATION.

(Sixth

Publication of the bull In Ccend Domini^ in support of
papal authority.
League ofSmalcald renewed for ten years more.
Concord of Wittemberg between the German and Swiss
divines. (Accepted by Swiss Protestants, generally, in
1538.)
FIRST HELVETIC CONFESSION.

In Denmark, Christian III. prohibits the bishops from
offering further opposition to the progress of Reformation.
Viret labours for reformation in Lausanne. Calvin called
to Geneva. Reformation makes progress in Norway.
Calvin settles at Geneva.
* Articles concerning Faith and Ceremonies, agreed
upon by Convocation and published by royal authority, in
England. Acts of Parliament directed against papal authority.
* Henry, summoned before a general council at Mantua,
refuses to appear. English clergy now form two parties
— one supporting, the other opposing, the work of reformation.
* About this time, proposals were considered for a league
between the German Protestants and the king of England. But, the former refusing to enter into a treaty
against the emperor, the negotiation was fruitless.
* Use of the Scriptures in English. Cromwell orders every
parson to cause a Bible in Latin and English to be set up in
the choir of his church for the perusal of the people.
* Dissolution of monasteries in England having incomes under 200Z. a year. Their revenues bestowed upon
the king.
f ERASMUS. —Promoter of classical learning, of biblical
theology, and the study of the Fathers. Some of the most
important of his works — next to those already mentioned
—were, his Introduction to True Theology; Ecclesiastes,
a treatise on preaching; 'EyxwfMov pooplcts; and Colloquies.
His labours contributed to pave the way for reformation,

Period.)

ERA OF THE REFORMATION.

347

but of themselves would never have been sufficient to
effect it. Luther said of him, that he could point out
error, but would not teach the truth. His works are distinguished by philosophy and learning, rather than by simple
Christianity. He was overcautious, and even timid.
Christian III. King of Denmark and Norway.
Assembly of Protestants at Smalcald. Articles ofSmalcald, drawn up by Luther.
Protestant ecclesiastical constitution of Denmark completed.
#• Discontents and rebellion in England, promoted by
the clergy; quelled. A new visitation of English monasteries. The Bishop's Book, or Institution of a Christian
Man, published.
* In England, many persons deny the doctrine of the
corporeal presence of Christ in the eucharist. Hence
called Sacramentaries.
Order of Ursulines, originated by Angela di Brescia
(for assistance of the needy, and instruction of females).
Ignatius Loyola and his friends repair to Home, where
they are well received, having already acquired great reputation in the Venetian territory by their attendance on
the sick in hospitals, — their ascetic habits of life — and
preaching in the open air.
Menno Simonis quits the Church of Rome, and joins
the Anabaptists.
# Matthew's English Bible (by John Rogers), partly
from Tyndal and Coverdale.
"" James Le Fevre, R. C.
f
The emperor concludes a peace with France for ten
years.
Francis of France had made demonstrations in favour

348

ERA OF THE REFORMATION.

(Sixth

of Protestants; after his peace with the emperor, he begins
to treat them with coolness.
Christian III. King of Denmark, and other princes,
join the League of Smalcald.
June 10.—CATHOLIC OR HOLY ALLIANCE ; a league between the emperor and the Roman Catholic princes
against the Protestants, for eleven years, — concluded at
Nuremberg. Reformation in Nordlingen.
#• The Sacramentaries persecuted in England.
Lambert, brother of Calvin, obliged to withdraw from
Geneva; becomes Professor of Divinity at Strasburg.
Celibacy of the Clergy. — * In England a proclamation
was issued this year against the marriage of the clergy.
Henry, the new Duke of Saxony, a member of the
League of Smalcald.
Fruitless conferences between Romanists and Protestants at Frankfort-on-the-Maine and Leipsic.
Convention of Frankfort, between the emperor and the
Protestants.
The Reformation solemnly recognised and adopted in
Leipsic, at Whitsuntide. The Duke and Elector of Saxony,
with Luther, Melanchthon, and other divines, present.
Reformation of Denmark completed. Reformation in
Brandenburg and Magdeburg.
Henry, Duke of Saxony, establishes the reformed religion in his dominions. Calvin and Peter Martyr in
Strasburg.
# In England, the act of the Six Articles was passed,
notwithstanding the opposition of Cranmer. Cranmer
complies, but Latimer and Shaxton resign their sees.
#• Various negotiations between Henry and the German
Reformers, with a view to a close agreement and cooperation, had now failed.
* Cardinal Beaton, Archbishop of St. Andrew's.

Period.)

ERA OF THE REFORMATION.

349

(1538—1540.) Antinomistian Controversy, of Luther,
with Agricola of Eisleben, concerning the use of the
law.
At Strasburg, Calvin, Farel, and Viret, deliver a confession of faith, propounding a middle doctrine concerning
the Lord's supper, between those of the Lutherans and
the Zwinglians.
* Final suppression of English monasteries. Act for
the erection of new bishoprics in England.
* Licence for printing the Bible granted to Cromwell,
that all persons may have free use of it.

Luther's Treatise on Councils; Expositions of Scripture, &c. Hermann, Archbishop of Cologne, anxious to
promote the Reformation.
Calvin's Treatise on the Lord's Supper.
* Great Bible (Cranmer's), i. e. a new edition of
Matthew's, published under the patronage of Cranmer,
and with a preface by him. Also, Taverner's Bible.

France gives the Protestant princes of Germany assurors
ances of fVimirlaVnn.
friendship
Conference at Spires and Worms; fruitless.
Disturbances at Ghent. Fresh persecution of Protestants in the Low Countries.
Bernardino Occhino adopts the Protestant faith.
Landgrave of Hesse marries a second wife during the
life of the first, against the remonstrances of Luther and
other reformed divines; followed by earnest protestations
from many laymen and ecclesiastics of the reformed
communion.
#• In England, the fall of Cromwell, and the king's
marriage with Catherine Howard, assist the papal cause.
Persecution and death of many Reformers, for opposing

250

ERA OF THE REFORMATION.

(Sixth

Romish errors; and of Roman Catholics for denying the
king's supremacy. Martyrdom of Barnes.
T H E SOCIETY OF JESUS formally established by Paul III.
Loyola appointed first general of the order. The members of this order are divided into four classes : — 1 . Professi, who, besides the usual monastic engagements to
poverty, continence, and obedience, into which all the
members enter, undertake, moreover, to go on the service
of the pope, into any country to which he may send
them. 2. Coadjutores, or presidents of single colleges.
3. Scholastici (approbati), students in these colleges.
4. Members admitted into the order without any special
destination. A preliminary novitiate of one or two years
is required. The object of the order is the support and
promotion of the Roman Catholic religion.

Order of the Brethren of Mercy founded.
# Bishopric of Westminster erected.
*• Use of the Scriptures in English. A king's proclamation orders a Bible of the largest size to be provided by
the curate and parishioners, under a penalty of forty
shillings a month. In the following year, a Brief was
published, containing the same instructions.
Henry Nicholas, of Delft, founder of the Familists.
University of Lausanne founded!
( | Francis Guicciardini, historian.)
Luther's academical disputations against Antinomian
tenets. Preface to the Account of the Martyrdom of
Barnes.
Turkish War.
The German princes make representations to the king
of France respecting the persecution of Protestants in
Germany, but without effect.

Period.)

154l[

ERA OF THE REFORMATION.

351

Maurice, Duke of Saxony, a Protestant, but not a
member of the League of Smalcald.
Francis Xavier, and other Jesuits, go from Portugal
to the East Indies as missionaries.
Diet ofRatisbon ( F I R S T INTERIM, OR INTERIM OF RATISEON ; a plan of union or compromise). The whole matter
again referred to a future general council, or the next
German diet.
About this time, the Reformation takes effect in Halle,
Ratisbon, Hilderheim, Palatinate of Bavaria, and elsewhere.
Calvin recalled to Geneva^ where he acquires great influence. He establishes a presbytery, and a system of
strict ecclesiastical discipline.
* Bishoprics of Chester, Gloucester, Oxford, and Peterborough erected. The Bible ordered to be set up in all
English churches.
The order of Jesuits makes great progress in Italy,
Spain, and Portugal.
Luther's Exposition of the Nineteenth Psalm, and
some of the Minor Prophets. His Exhortation to Prayer
against the Turks.
f Carlstadt, professor and preacher at Basle.
t John Ludovicus Vives, a patron of classical literature;
Pagninus, a celebrated Hebrew scholar; and Paracelsus,
a philosopher.
Fourth War between Charles V. and Francis I*
The Prince of Anhalt advocates the principles of the
Reformation, and supports the Protestant interest.
* Cardinal Beaton, Regent of Scotland, by means of a
forged will, attributed to James (died in 1546).
At the Diet of Spires, the Roman Catholic princes

352

ERA OF THE REFORMATION.

(Sixth

approve of Trent as the place for a general council, as
proposed by the pope. The Protestant princes disapprove.
Advocates of Reformation in Venice and Naples.
* In the English Convocation, an attempt is made to
suppress the translation of the Bible, lately published, on
the ground of inaccuracy. Cranmer resists the effort;
examination of the translation referred to the universities.
* Bishopric of Bristol erected. (It was the design of the
king (Henry VIII.) to create many more.)
f Cardinal Contareni.
Successes of the Turks in Hungary.
Maurice, Duke of Saxony, publishes some good ecclesiastical regulations.
Reformation cruelly suppressed at Metz. Reformation
established in Brunswick Wolfenbuttel.
* The King's Book, or Necessary Doctrine and Erudition for any Christian Man. Act of the English Parliament, in favour of a certain degree of toleration, but
containing restrictions with regard to the leading of
Scripture.
Plot for the destruction of Cranmer; detected and
forgiven.
Clerici Regulares S. Majoli.
Luther's correspondence with the Venetians. Hermann,
Archbishop of Cologne, employs Melanchthon, Pistorius,
and Bucer, to prepare his formulary of doctrine, ceremonies, and discipline (Book of Reformation).
T John JEck9 Pro-chancellor of the University of Ingolstadt; celebrated as a scholastic divine, and on account
of the part which he took in the controversy with Luther.

Period.)

1544)

ERA OF THE REFORMATION.

353

Peace of Cressy.
Charles and Francis agree to exert their united powers
in order to obtain a general council.
Frederic II. Elector Palatine.
Diet at Spires.—Recess in favour of the Protestants, on
account of which the pope sends a haughty remonstrance
to the emperor. At this diet, Hermann, Archbishop of
Cologne, advocates the cause of Reformation. Reformation continues to spread through various provinces of
Germany.
A council summoned to meet at Trent next year.
Reformation completed in Sweden.
* The Litany published in English.
University of Konigsberg founded.
Hermann, Archbishop of Cologne, cited to appear
before the emperor, and before the pope.
At the Diet of Worms, the Protestants disclaim the
proposed council.
COUNCIL OPENED AT TRENT.

Reformation of the Lower Palatinate (of the Rhine).
About this time Vergerio, Bishop of Capo d'Istria,
renounces the errors of the Church of Rome; and is
deprived of his bishopric. (Died 1566.)
Reformed doctrines generally received in Hungary and
Transylvania.
#• In England, the cause of Reformation is apparently
promoted by the advancement of several comparatively
sound divines to the bench of bishops.
# English Book of Common Prayer.
Primer.

The King's

The Waldenses of Provence suffer a cruel persecution.
A A

354

ERA OF THE REFORMATION.

(Sixth

154)51

Luther's Commentaries on Hosea, Joel, and Genesis.

1546

* In Scotland, the crown, the clergy, and the French
are now arrayed against the nobles, the Reformers, and
the English.

—

January — March. — Conference between Romish and
Protestant divines at Ratisbon ; without effect.
LUTHER DIED, FEBRUARY 18.

—

—

First Session of the Council of Trent—The Protestant
princes, assembled at Ratisbon, reject its decrees. (Diet of
Ratisbon, June 5.)
Hostilities commence between the emperor and Protestant princes (Smalcaldic War). Maurice, Duke of
Saxony, invades the Electorate. The elector recovers his
dominions.
Hermann, Archbishop of Cologne, excommunicated
and deposed by the pope, and deprived of his electorate
by the emperor. Reformation of Cologne suppressed.
#• In England, Anne Askew executed, under the act
of the Six Articles.
# Scotch Reformation. Cardinal Beaton assassinated. Reformers commence an open resistance to the government.
* Use of the Scriptures in English.—Proclamation against
Tyndal's and Coverdale's Bible.
Foundation of the sect of Socinians laid by the formation
of a society of Italian Antitrinitarians.
f MARTIN

—
1547

LUTHER.

Edition of the New Testament by Robert Stephens.
t Francis I. of France. Under his successor, Henry II
the condition of the French Protestants was not improved.
* t Henry VIII. of England. Edward VI. succeeds,
I who favours the progress of Reformation in his dominions.

Period.)

E RA

OF THE REFORMATION.

355

Maurice, Elector of Saxony.
15471

March. — The council transferred from Trent to Bologna; and thus, in fact, suspended.
April 24. — Battle of Muhlberg. Elector of Saxony
taken prisoner; and afterwards, by stratagem, Philip,
Landgrave of Hesse.
September. — Diet of Augsburg.
* Execution of the Earl of Surrey, in England. After
the accession of Edward, a royal visitation for ecclesiastical matters, and injunctions to the clergy. First Book of
Homilies published. Bonner and Gardiner imprisoned.
# John Knox, the Reformer, preaches in Scotland.
# In England, the doctrine of purgatory was now
growing out of date; and provision had been made for the
general instruction of children in the Creed, the Lord's
Prayer, and the Commandments.
Lselius Socinus quits Italy, and repairs to Germany and
Switzerland.
* Use of the Scriptures in English. The whole Bible in
English, and the Paraphrase of Erasmus, ordered to be
set up in every parish church.
University of Rheims founded.
t James Sadler, R. C.
to 1552. •# Paraphrase of Erasmus translated into
English.

1548

Ferdinand enacts severe laws against the Evangelicals
in Hungary and Bohemia. Many Bohemian Brethren
repair to Poland and Prussia.
At Augsburg, by command of the emperor, a formulary
is drawn up, containing a rule of faith and worship, to be
AA 2

356

ERA OF THE REFORMATION.

{Sixth

observed by all parties until another council should issue
its decrees (THE AUGSBURG INTERIM) ; less favourable to
the Protestants than that of Ratisbon — rejected by most
Protestants. Succeeded in the same year by the INTERIM
OF LEIPSIC, which was accepted by many Protestants, but
not by all.
The Leipsic Interim, composed under the auspices of
the Elector Maurice, makes concessions " in things indifferent." Rise of the Adiaphoristic Controversy.
# In England, the power of ecclesiastical courts abridged.
Gardiner imprisoned. Cranmer's Catechism.

A brief controversy respecting the Descent of Christ
into Hell (John iEpinus).
#• In England a great purification of doctrine had now
been effected. Private masses had been forbidden, and
communion in both kinds granted to the laity.
Melanchthon plainly asserts the necessity of the concurrence of man's will with the word and the grace of God,
in order to conversion and sanctification.

Philip of Neri lays the foundation of the Society of
Priests of the Oratory, in Italy; at first called the Order
of the Holy Trinity (for the exercise of devotion, combined with religious study).
Jesuits. — Permission granted to the Society of Jesus to
incorporate any number of members, as preachers and confessors.
# In England, this year, images were ordered to be removed, and many superstitious practices were suppressed.
Communion Service published, partly in English; not
free from error and superstition; administration in both
kinds.
Universities of Jena, Messina, and Ossuna, founded,
f George Spalatin, L.

Period.)

ERA OF THE REFORMATION.

357

and 1549. # Two editions of an English translation of
the Book of Ratramn, or Bertram, on the Lord's supper,
#• Learned foreigners in England assist in the recovery
and establishment of scriptural truth. Fagius, Tremellius, and Bucer, at Cambridge. Peter Martyr, and Occhino, at Oxford.
The Jesuit missionary, Francis Xavier, goes from the
East Indies to Japan. Six Jesuits proceed as missionaries
to Brazil.
f Matthias Devay, the Hungarian Reformer.
*• Ecclesiasital visitation in England, for the suppression of superstitious observances. Joan Bocher burnt for
heresy; Cranmer urges Edward to sign the warrant.
Insurrection in England in favour of Romish religion;
quelled. Bonner imprisoned and deprived.
Rise of the Osiandrian Controversy',
respecting the doctrine of Justification* (Confusion of
Justification and Sanctification.)
Calvin comes to an agreement with Bullinger and other
divines of Zurich, respecting the doctrine of the Lord's
supper [Consensus Tigurinus). The doctrines advocated
by Calvin respecting the Eucharist, Grace, and Predestination, prevail generally in Switzerland.
and 1550. * Disputations in Oxford and Cambridge
concerning the doctrine of Transubstantiation.
The Jesuits favourably received in many places. Duke
William III. of Bavaria invites them into his dominions.
The whole order declared to be exempt from all jurisdiction except that of the pope.
* In England, an act passed authorising the marriage
of the clergy. Another, enjoining the eating of fish on
fast days, for the support of the fisheries.
#• English Book of Common Prayer. First Liturgy of
A A 3

358

ERA OF THE REFORMATION.

(Sixtll

Edward VI. published. (Chiefly from the Salisbury
Hours and Hermann's Consultation.)
1550

Many advocates of the Reformation are found in
Spain. The emperor adopts new measures for the suppression of Reformation in the Low Countries.
* In England, Gardiner is deprived of the See of Winchester. Ridley, Bishop of London and Westminster.
Several churches of foreign Protestants in London.
Jesuits. — The Society of Jesus (although a mendicant
order) receives privilege to possess colleges, with the necessary revenues.
* English Book of Common Prayer. First Ordination
Service.
f Paul Fagius, L.
Fresh war with the Turks in Hungary.
Consensus Pastorum Genevensium.
Julius re-opens the Council of Trent; but its sitting is
soon discontinued at the approach of Maurice's army.
The Jesuits make great efforts to reclaim the Evangelicals in Austria. Peter Canisius.
* Commission for reforming the Ecclesiastical Laws in
England.
Predestinarian Controversy among Protestants begins.
Rise of the Majoristic and Stancaristic Controversies
in the Evangelical Church.
(or 1550.) # Review of the English Book of Common
Prayer. Bucer's objections.
Laelius Socinus in Poland.
Castellio's Translation of the Bible.
f Martin Bucer, L.
Universities founded at Mexico and Lima.

Period.)

ERA OF THE REFORMATION.

359

#• Shrewsbury School founded.
# Execution of Somerset, the English Protector.
Persecution of the Reformed in France.
T Francis Xavier, the Apostle of the Indians.
Maurice, Duke of Saxony, had refused to attend the
council to be re-assembled at Trent, except on conditions
greatly in favour of the Protestant cause.
He now turns his arms against the emperor, and compels him to conclude a Treaty at Passau, by which he
engages to release the Elector of Saxony and the Landgrave of Hesse; to revoke the Interim; to grant to the
Protestants the free exercise of their religion; and to assemble, in the course of six months, a diet, for the settling
of all religious differences, or at least for the establishment of perfect toleration.
The Nestorian Patriarch, John Sulaca, at Rome, professes adherence to the Romish Church.
Sacramentarian Controversy renewed by the attacks of
Joachim Westphal upon Calvin.
Jesuit colleges receive from the pope the privileges of
universities.
* English Book of Common Prayer. Second Liturgy
of Edward VI. (under the direction of Cranmer, with
the aid of Bucer and Peter Martyr. Substantially the
same as that now in use). Second Ordination Service.
Acts of Parliament, enjoining the observance of holy
days, and fasting on Fridays and Saturdays in Lent, and
other fast days; and declaring the marriage of the clergy
legal, and their children legitimate,
Universities of Dillingen and Orihuela founded.
[ Hermann, Archbishop of Cologne. | Osiander.
f Paul Jovius, historian.
AA 4

360

ERA OF THE REFORMATION.

1553|

(Sixth

* Mary, Queen of England.
I George, Prince of Anhalt.
Roman Catholic Missions to China.
* In England, under Edward, Forty-two Articles of
Religion were published by royal proclamation, probably
the work of Cranmer.
$• Afterwards, under Mary, measures are taken for restoring the Romish religion. Gardiner, Chancellor.
Bonner recovers his see. Preaching prohibited. Cranmer, having published a protest against the Mass, committed to the Tower on charge of high-treason. Acts of
Edward VI. repealed. Weston, Dean of Westminster,
prolocutor in the Convocation now assembled, aptly
declares to the Reformers, " You have the word, but we
have the sword ! "
Majoristic Controversy^ respecting the necessity of good
works.
* In England, the larger Catechism published, with
royal sanction.
* St. Bartholomew's Hospital, Christ's Hospital, and
Bridewell, founded by Edward, in accordance with the
advice of Ridley.
#• After the accession of Mary, the Common Prayer and
the Catechism were declared heretical by Convocation. Marriage of the clergy no longer sanctioned ; married clergy
ejected from their benefices.
Michael Servetus burnt,, at Geneva, as a blasphemer.
(His Antitrinitarian system combined the Samosatian and
Sabellian errors.)
N.B, It is to be remembered, to the grief and humiliation of all reformed Catholic Christians, that men whose
names are deservedly held in honour in their churches,

Period*)

ERA OF THE REFORMATION.

361

Calvin, Beza, and Melanchthon, -—sanctioned the infliction
of capital punishment on this fanatical teacher of error.
1554

•* Mary, Queen of England, married to Philip, King
of Spain.
* Cranmer, Ridley, and Latimer, engage in a public
disputation at Oxford, against the Roman Catholic party
supported by Convocation.
Cardinal Pole, pope's legate, arrives in England; absolves the nation, and receives it once more into the
(Roman) Catholic Church. Acts against heresy revived,
Calvin's doctrine concerning Predestination occasions
controversies in Switzerland. But his " Consensus Pastorum Genevensium de seterna Praedestinatione" is
adopted by an assembly of divines at Zurich.
The bishop of Paris and the Sorbonne protest against
the introduction of Jesuits into France.
Divisions among the Mennonite Anabaptists, relating
especially to Church discipline (Fleming Baptists, the
more strict; Waterland, the more lax).
Calvin writes against Westphal.

1555

Diet of Augsburg.
PEACE OF AUGSBURG; confirming the Protestant Churches of Germany in all their
rights and possessions, and recognising their independence of the pope.
# Violent persecutions of the Reformed in England,
promoted by Gardiner. Rogers burnt at Smithfield,
Hooper at Gloucester, Saunders at Coventry, Taylor at
Hadley. Inquisitorial measures for the detection of heretics. Death of Gardiner. Cardinal Pole inclined to
moderate measures. Cranmer condemned at Oxford.

September25.—RELIGIOUS

362

ERA OF THE REFORMATION.

Latimer and Ridley burnt.
Geneva.

1555

Knox

seeks

(Sixth

refuge

at

Pfeffinger, at Leipsic, having adopted the views of
Melanchthon, publishes his " Propositiones D e Libero
A r b i t r i o ; " and thus gives rise to the Synergistic Controversy,
T h e Osiandrian Controversy continues to rage with
great violence in Prussia. T h e Osiandrian party, with
F u n k at its head, prevails for a time.
* Predestinarian Controversy among English Protestants painfully violent.
# M a r y endeavours to restore religious houses in
England.
#• Translation of the Psalms into English metre for
use in public worship, by Sternhold, Hopkins, and others,
begun in the reign of Edward V I . , completed in the reign
of Mary.
T Justus Jonas,

L.

t H e n r y Nicholas, founder of the Family of Love.

LIST

OF

POPES,

PATRIARCHS,

AND A R C H B I S H O P S O F

C A N T E R B U R Y , F R O M T H E Y E A R 1520 TO 1555.

1520. Jeremiah L

1533. * Thomas Cranmer.

1522. A D R I A N VI.
1523. CLEMENT VII.
—
Joannicus I.
His successors were

1534.
1550.
1555.
—

Dionysius II.
Jehosaphat II,

P A U L III.
J U L I U S III.
MARCELLUS II.
PAUL I V .

Period.)

ERA O F T H E REFORMATION.

COUNCILS F R O M T H E Y E A R 1520

TO

363

1555.

Various Conferences took place between Protestants and
also, Assemblies of Protestant Churches.
1528. Paris. Bourges.
1536. Cologne.

Romanists;

Lyons.

1545. F I R S T SESSION OF THE COUNCIL OF T R E N T . —
T H E L A S T GENERAL COUNCIL.

END OF THE SIXTH PERIOD.

PERIOD VII.
FROM THE REFORMATION TO THE PRESENT

TIME,

1556—1837.

15561

FERDINAND I. EMPEROR OF GERMANY.

Philip II. King of Spain,
after the abdication of Charles V.
( * Mary, Queen of England.
Henry II. King of France.)
The Greek Church is now under the Turkish yoke ; hut it
recognises the patriarch of Constantinople as its head.
During this century the controversy between the Greek and
Roman Churches continues ; attempts at union fail.
A part of the Nestorians conform to the Church of
Rome.
Doctrines of the Reformation spread from Germany
into Spain, where they made some impression, particularly
at Valladolid and Seville. They were, however, suppressed by the vigilance of the Inquisition, and cruel
persecution. (Annual celebration of the Auto-da-Fe,
after 1559.)
Controversies between the divines of Switzerland and
those of the Low Countries.
Majoristic Controversy continues.
Funk, leader of the Osiandrian party at Konigsberg,

{Seventh Period.)

FROM THE REFORMATION, ETC.

obliged to retract his opinions.
yet at an end.
1556

3b'5

But the controversy not

Jesuit Missionaries proceed to Abyssinia and China.
The pope having espoused the cause of France, the
Duke of Alva invades the papal territory, at the head of
Spanish troops.
Calvin and the Church of Geneva send missionaries to
Brazil; but the undertaking is soon abandoned.
# Persecution in England continues. Cranmer burnt;
Cardinal Pole, Archbishop of Canterbury. Eighty-five
persons in various parts of England put to death for
heresy this year.
John a Lasco zealously propagates reformed doctrine
in Poland.
Reformation makes some progress in France (1521—
1563) amidst powerful opposition.
t Ignatius Loyola.—J. Lainez becomes general of the
order of Jesuits, which continues to increase in importance.
It is established in Italy, Germany, Spain, Portugal,
France, Brazil, Ethiopia, the East Indies, and possesses
one hundred colleges.
# English Reformers in foreign parts dispute among
themselves concerning liturgy and ceremonies.

David Joris, or Georgi, a mystic Anabaptist.
Beza publishes his Translation of the Bible.
T Sleidan, the celebrated historian of the Reformation.
Protestant divines of this period render great service
to the cause of religion by their editions, translations, and
expositions of Holy Scripture.
They also effect improvements in Church History and
Catechetical Theology.

366

FROM THE REFORMATION

(Seventh

The pope makes peace with Spain.
# Visitation of the English universities. Remains of
Bucer and Fagius burnt at Cambridge; at Oxford, those
of Peter Martyr's wife insulted. Persecution continues.
Seventy-nine persons suffer this year for heresy. Commission to Bonner for the discovery of heresy.
# Deed of Union framed by Scotch Reformers in Congregation, for resisting tyrannical opposition to their proceedings.
t Charles V.
Frankfort Recess — for allaying contentions in the
Lutheran Church.
Reformation makes progress in Hungary and Transylvania.
* Persecution of Protestants in England continued.
This year thirty-nine persons suffer death for heresy. A
proclamation issued, forbidding people to pray for the
sufferers. Total number of victims during the reign of
Mary, two hundred and seventy. Death of Mary, and of
Cardinal Pole.
* Accession of Elizabeth.
The Emperor Ferdinand I. makes an unsuccessful
attempt (1558—1564) to effect an union between the
Romish and Protestant Churches.
Opinions of Melanchthon, at variance with those of
Luther, — respecting the presence of Christ in the eucharist, the union of the two natures in his person, and
the ubiquity of his human nature,—are adopted by many
divines of the Lutheran communion, and lay the foundation of the Crypto-calvinistic Controversy.
(Corpus Doctrinse Misnicum, or Philippicum.)
* After the accession of Elizabeth, a committee was
appointed to examine and alter the English Liturgy.

Period.)

TO

THE PRESENT TIME.

367

Permission granted to celebrate some portions of divine
service in English. Injunctions against preaching, for
the avoiding of controversy.
f John Bugenhagen (Pomeranus).
Francis II. King of France.
Protestant missionaries sent to Lapland, under the
auspices of Gustavus Vasa.
CONFESSION

DES EGLISES REFORMEES DE FRANCE,

drawn up by a synod at Paris.
#• Coronation of Elizabeth, Queen of England. Supreme authority in matters ecclesiastical restored to the
sovereign. Act of Uniformity. Disputation in Westminster Abbey. Elizabeth's Injunctions, and Articles of
Visitation. Court of High Commission established. Oath
of Supremacy imposed, — generally taken. (N.B. Of
9400 beneficed men in England, only 189 refused to
take the oath of supremacy; namely, 14 bishops, 6 abbots,
12 deans, 12 archdeacons, 15 heads of colleges, 50 prebendaries, and 80 rectors.) Matthew Parker duly consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury, December 17.
The whole Bible in English to be set up in every parish
church.
* Knox returns to England.
Fresh persecution of the Waldenses.
Calvin's Institutio Christiance Religionis completed.
#• At the accession of Elizabeth, great ignorance and
superstition prevail among the clergy in the English universities, and throughout the kingdom.

368

1560\

FROM THE REFORMATION

(Seventh

Charles IX. King of France.
The government of France opposed to the progress of
the Protestants (Huguenots) in that country.
* Reformation established in Scotland. Superintendence^.
f John a Lasco.
Cruel suppression of Protestant doctrines in Italy.
Great commotion in the churches of Saxony, occasioned by the Synergistic Controversy. The Synergistic
party prevails for a time against the strict Lutheran.
But, eventually, Antisynergistic doctrines are established.
-#• Westminster College founded.
|

MELANCHTHON.

Publication of the Magdeburg Centuries begun.
-# Geneva Bible—partly a new translation, and partly
the old revised (nearly the same as the present authorised
version).
#• English Book of Common Prayer. Liturgy of Elizabeth, i. e. the Second Book of Common Prayer of Edward VI. with a few alterations.
Attempts to suppress the Reformation in the Netherlands
had proved abortive.
1561

THE

BELGIC CONFESSION.

Conference at Poissy.
Controversy of Lutherans with Flacius, concerning the
nature and extent of original sin, or the corruption of
human nature.
Jesuits declared exempt from restrictions imposed upon
other monks, with regard to residence.
t Menno Simon or Simonis — restorer and reformer

Period:)

TO T H E P R E S E N T

TIME.

369

of the party of Anabaptists; afterwards called, from him,
Mennonites. Their chief seat in Holland.
1561

t Caspar Schwenkfeld. — Schwenkfeldians (a small
party) in Silesia and North America.

1562J

Wars in France between the Roman Catholics and Protestants [Huguenots) begin.
Council of Trent re-opened by Pius IV,
HEIDELBERG CATECHISM.

(Reformed Church substituted for the Lutheran in the
Palatinate.)
Major retracts his offensive expressions relative to the
necessity of good works in order to salvation; and the
controversy subsides soon afterwards.
f Laelius Socinus.
f Peter Martyr, R.
* Jewel's Apology for the Church of England.
1563

Close of the Council of Trent
Its decrees comprised a condemnation of the Protestants and their doctrines, and a final ratification and
establishment of the novel and peculiar tenets of the
Romish Church. Protestations against the exorbitant
power of the pope, and declarations in favour of the independency of national churches, silenced. Exposition
of the decrees entrusted to the pope.
* In England the taking of the oath of supremacy enforced by a severe act of Parliament.
Reformation
completed.
* The Thirty-eight Articles published (the original
forty-two revised and altered).
* Noel's (revision of the larger) Catechism approved.
B B

370

FROM T H E REFORMATION

(Seventh

* Second Book of Homilies printed.
University of Dillingen granted to the Jesuits.
The Antitrinitarians in Poland separate themselves from
the Protestant churches at the Synod of Pinkzow; hence
called Pinkzovians.
A way is now open for the reception of Socinianism in
Translyvania.
| Sebastian Castellio.

f Andreas Musculus.

MAXIMILIAN II. EMPEROR OF GERMANY;

an enlightened and tolerant prince. On his accession to
the empire he refused to take any oath to the pope, except one obliging himself to defend the Catholic Church.
End of the First Religious War in France.
Pius IV. confirms the decrees of the Council of Trent
(PROFESSIO F I D E I TRIDENTINA).

The papal system was now broken, but not overthrown*
Opposed to the progress of improvement and the general spirit
of the times, it get preserved its existence by a certain degree
of CONSISTENCY in error, and was aided by the INCON-

SISTENCIES and faults of Protestant churches,
* Violent disputes in England, relating to the use of
ecclesiastical vestments.
The English Nonconformists acquire the name of
Puritans about this time.
f Bernardino Occhino — who, in the latter part of his
life, fell into Antitrinitarian error. Also, Matth. Gribaldi? an Arian, native of Italy.
J Hyperius.
| CALVIN — the Reformer or Restorer of the Reformed
(Zwinglian) Church in Switzerland.

Period.)

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

371

15641

University of Besancon founded.

1565

Philip II. of Spain renews his severe decree against
"heretics" in the Low Countries.
Spain receives the Tridentine decrees; — France
hesitates.
In the Low Countries great dissatisfaction occasioned
by the introduction of the Inquisition. Compromise at
Brussels.
#• English Nonconformists.— Large numbers of persons
in England, clergy and others, object to the use of ecclesiastical dresses and ceremonies, enjoined by the Act of
Uniformity, and to other matters connected with the constitution and administration of the Church.
* Advertisements of the ecclesiastical commissioners
(i. e. canons enforcing uniformity), published this year.
Unitarians, as a separate body, especially at Pinkzow
and Racow. About this time they form distinct societies
also in Transylvania.
"f Paul Alciato, an Italian Antitrinitarian.
Chemnitz publishes his Examen Concilii Tridentini.
University of Milan founded,
f Peter Paul Verger, Bishop of Capo d' Istria. f William Farel, R.

1566
—.

The pope cites the queen of Navarre to Rome. France
compels him to withdraw the citation.
* Mary, Queen of Scotland, having failed in her attempts to restore the Roman Catholic Church in her
dominions, abdicates.
Pius V, endeavours to enforce the universal reception
of the decrees of the Council of Trent. Roman Catechism, or Catechism of the Council of Trent.
HELVETIC CONFESSION,
B B 2

372

PROM THE REFORMATION

(Seventh

1566]

* Some of the London clergy, ejected for refusal to
comply with the Advertisements, hold private meetings
for prayer and devotion.
% In Scotland, the General Assembly decides upon the
adoption of the Geneva (Presbyterian) discipline. But
the court retains sufficient power to prevent the legal
establishment of the Presbytery until 1592.

•—

f J. Valentin Gentilis, an Italian Antitrinitarian, beheaded at Bern; partly on account of his errors, and
partly as a punishment for a civil offence.

—
—

University of Strasburg founded.
f John Agricola, L. "f George Cassander, R. C.

1567
—

Duke of Alva in the Netherlands.
Second Religious War in France.
Rise of the Jansenist Controversy in the Church of Rome.
—Opinions concerning divine grace, advanced by Baius
(Michael de Bay), excite a controversy in the Church of
Rome, and lay the foundation of the Jansenist party.
The Council of Trent pronounced no decision respecting Predestination, and couched its decrees concerning
Grace and Free Will in ambiguous terms. The Augustinian doctrines on these points were contained in the
formularies of the Church; but a different system (Semipelagian) had been long held by a large portion of the
clergy. The Augustinian Thomist party in the Church
now begin to assert their doctrines strenuously against the
Scotists or Semipelagians. The Franciscans of Louvain
select seventy-six propositions from the lectures of De
Bay, and submit them to the pope; the latter, at the instigation of the Jesuits, condemns the propositions, and forbids all further controversy concerning them (A.D. 1567).

15(38

Third Religious War in France.
Prince of Orange in the Netherlands.

Period.)
1568j

TO T H E P R E S E N T

TIME.

373

Pius V. renews the bull In Ccena Domini.
Bold hierarchical claims.
Divisions among the Polish Antitrinitarians. A society
of Arians established at Sandek, on the borders of Hungary.
* English College of secular (R. C.) clergy at Douay
founded.
#• The Bishop's (or Parker's) Bible; i. e. a corrected
edition of the Great Bible.
Breviarium Romanum.

1569

Dispute of the pope with France, Spain, and Venice,
respecting the payment of taxes by the clergy.
Maximilian grants a qualified religious liberty to his
Protestant subjects in Austria.
# The pope (Pius V.) publishes a bull, forbidding obedience to Elizabeth, as being excommunicate*
Jansenist Controversy.
Baius (de Bay) compelled to retract his alleged errors,
notwithstanding his appeal to the authority of Augustin.

1570

Missionaries sent from the Church of Geneva to
America.

.™

Protestant doctrines had made considerable progress
in Poland.
CONSENT OF FAITH AT SENDOMIR,

between the Evangelical, Reformed, and Bohemian
Brethren*
% Controversy between Cartwright and Whitgift at
Cambridge, respecting the Liturgy and episcopal government. Cartwright silenced by authority.
I
# Bull of Pope Pius V< published in England.
B B 3

374

FROM THE REFORMATION

{Seventh

* Alienation and waste of Church property in England
countenanced by Elizabeth throughout her reign.
Crypto-calvinistic Controversy in the Lutheran Church,
respecting the bodily presence of Christ in the eucharist,
takes its rise. Peucer and other Lutheran divines maintain a doctrine resembling that of the Reformed churches.
At first favoured by the elector of Saxony.
Missale Romanum.
f John Brentz, L.
Consensus Dresdensis.
The Belgic Confession approved by the States.
* The English Convocation attempts to improve the
ecclesiastical laws; no canons ratified. Act of Parliament
requires subscription to the Articles of Religion, and makes
regulations respecting the age requisite for ordination of
priests and deacons, and concerning Church property.
Laws against Roman Catholics (occasioned by the bull
of Pope Pius V.).
* N.B. The Articles of Religion, after a review, assumed
their present form and number. These Thirty-nine Articles were subscribed by Convocation, and published under
the superintendence of Jewel.
* From this time members of the high church party
in England strenuously maintain the doctrine of the (exclusively) divine origin and institution of Episcopacy ; affirming, at the same time, the apostolical succession of bishops.
Jesuits obtain permission to lecture in all universities.
* Poor Laws established in England.
* Doctrines of the Familists begin to spread in England.
t Peter Viret, R.

Period,)

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

375

# English universities incorporated by act of Parliament.
* Harrow School founded.
Fourth Religious War in France.
Massacre of French Protestants [Huguenots)
ON ST. BARTHOLOMEW'S DAY.

Rejoicings and public thanksgiving at Rome.
Sixty thousand Protestants slaughtered in France in
the course of thirty days.
#• In England, laws against Nonconformists enforced.
Presbytery of Wandsworth. Admonition to Parliament
Episcopacy in Scotland,
#• f John Knox, the Scotch Reformer.
# In England, a proclamation against Nonconformists
(Puritans).
* The English Puritans and Scotch Presbyterians
were attached to the doctrine, as well as discipline, of the
Reformed Church of Geneva.
Henry III. King of France.
Fifth Religious War in France.
# Partial suppression of exercises, called Prophesyings,
in England.
Crypto-calvinistic Controversy.— Exegesis perspicua controversies de coena Domini, published; in which the Wittemberg divines openly espouse the doctrines of Calvin.
The elector of Saxony interferes in support of the strict
Lutheran tenets. Peucer and other leaders of the Cryptocalvinistic party are imprisoned.
Congregation of the Priests of the Oratory in Italy completely formed.
Faustus Socinus begins to propagate his opinions at
Basle.
B &4

376

15741

FROM THE REFORMATION

(Seventh

T John Campanus, an Antitrinitarian (in prison).
Publication of the Magdeburg Centuries completed,
t George Major, L.

1575

Wars of the Huguenots in France continue.
* Increasing opposition of the Puritans to the Established Church of England.
Jesuits empowered to act as censors of books.
Sect of the Alombrades, or the Enlightened, in Spain.
* Some Anabaptists in London — discovered and imprisoned. The congregation dispersed.
Universities of Leyden and Altdorf founded.
T Matthias Flacius Illyricus, L. t Henry Bullinger, R.

1576

RODOLPH II. EMPEROR
tached to the Romish See.

OF GERMANY;

warmly at-

Jesuit missions make great progress in Japan. Churches
built; schools founded.
The Holy League in France. The king of Navarre at
the head of the Reformed.
The Book ofTorgau, designed to put an end to the
Crypto-calvinistic Controversy in the Lutheran Church
(revised and completed next year at Berg).
Some Lutheran divines open a correspondence with
Jeremiah, Patriarch of Constantinople, with a view to
union; without effect.
Jesuits receive permission to practise medicine.
Universities of Helmstadt and Wilna founded.

Period.)

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

15771

377

Sixth Religious War in France.
# Cuthbert Maine, a Roman Catholic priest, put to
death in England for maintaining the power of the Pope
against the authority of Elizabeth.
# Final suppression of Prophesyings. The queen sequesters Grindal, Archbishop of Canterbury, and confines
him to his house; for^not being so zealous against Nonconformists as the queen desired.
# Presbyterianism prevails in Scotland.

1578

—

In Poland, continued dissensions between various Protestant' churches and parties give advantage to the
Romish cause.
Rodolph withdraws the liberty granted to the Protestants of Austria by Maximilian.
Faustus Socinus in Transylvania, upon the invitation of
Blandrata. He disputes against Davidis, first superintendent, or bishop, of the Unitarians in Transylvania,
who had adopted peculiar tenets concerning the person of
Christ, teaching that he is only a deified man. Davidis
remains unconvinced, is condemned by the Unitarians as a
heretic, and thrown into prison; where he died in 1579.
University of Evora founded.
* English College for education of secular Roman
Catholic clergy at Rome founded.

1579

Union of the northern provinces of the Netherlands
at Utrecht. William of Nassau, Stadtholder.
This Union of Utrecht tends to establish the Reformation and religious liberty in Holland.
Jansenist Controversy.—A new papal bull, directed against
the party of Baius.

378

1580|

FROM THE REFORMATION

[Seventh

Renewed contests between the Reformed and Roman
Catholics in France.
T H E FORM OF CONCORD published; — containing the
three Creeds, and the following writings, recognised as
" symbola publica : " — The Augsburg Confession, —
Apology for the Confession, — The Articles of Smalcald, — Luther's Catechisms, — and the Book of Torgau; and a sentence of excommunication against all
who should refuse to subscribe.
By the Form of Concord the stamp of authority was
now given anew to the strict Lutheran doctrines, in opposition to the peculiar tenets of Melanchthon and Calvin;
but many of the Lutheran churches refused to recognise
this document, and to receive it among their symbolical
books; so that Crypto-calvinistic tenets were not entirely suppressed.

* Parsons and Campian in England.
Attempts to unite the Russian Church to the Romish
See, by Possevin ; fruitless.
Mennonites acquire toleration in Holland.
Confession of the Mennonites; compiled by John Ries
and Lubbert Gerard.
Seminary at Valladolid founded, for education of secular clergy. Other seminaries of the same kind founded
about this time at Seville and Madrid.
An edition of the Corpus Juris Canonici, authorised
by the pope.
The Flacian Controversy runs high among Protestants
in Germany.
1581

The United Provinces of the Netherlands (Protestant)
resist the power of Spain.
* Parsons obliged to leave England. Campian put to
death for denying the queen's supremacy.

Period.)

I

1582

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

379

# Convocation petitions the queen in favour of Grindal.
He was probably restored soon after. Parliament petitions for ecclesiastical reform.
^ Rise of the Independents^ or Congregationalists.
* Insurrections in Ireland, with a view to the re-establishment of the Roman Catholic religion, and the power
of the pope, in that country.
Reformation of the Calendar.
Efforts made to obtain general acceptance for the
Heidelberg Catechism and the Belgic Confession throughout the Netherlands.
#• Rheims New Testament.
# University of Edinburgh founded.

1583

* Continued efforts of Seminarists and Jesuits for the
restoration of the pope's supremacy in England. Rebellions fostered. Queen's life in danger.
Whitgift, Archbishop of Canterbury, rigorously enforces the laws relating to Conformity; and demands
subscription to the Three Articles.
f Z. Ursinus, R., author of the Heidelberg Catechism.

1584

Seventh Religious War in France*
f Cardinal Borromeo, Archbishop of Milan.
# In England, Articles and Interrogatories ex officio
mero. Many eminent members of the Church opposed
to these proceeding. Articuli pro Clero — regulations
affecting ecclesiastical discipline.
Simon Budaeus, founder of an Antitrinitarian party in
Lithuania, excommunicated and deprived.

380

FROM THE REFORMATION

(Seventh

Embassy from Japan to the pope.
University of Franeker founded;
also, University of Gratz (restored in 1827).
* Richard Hooker, Master of the Temple.
-#• Contests between Protestants and Romanists in
England now partake very much of a political character.
* Prosecutions of Roman Catholics in England for
treasonable attempts against the crown. Acts against
Jesuits and Seminary Priests.
* Puritans urgent for reformation of ecclesiastical laws
and discipline, for the establishment of a preaching
ministry, revision of the Common Prayer, and introduction of an admixture of Presbyterian government.
* Rise of the dispute between Travers and Hooker
concerning Church government.
* Babington's conspiracy against Elizabeth, Queen of
England.
The pope (Sixtus V.) limits the number of cardinals
to seventy.
Martyrologium Romanum.
f Martin Chemnitz, L."
* Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots.
* In England, the efforts of Anti-episcopalians are successfully resisted by the queen.
Arminius, pastor at Amsterdam.
f Casp. Olearius, R.

Period.)

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

381

Crypto-calvinistic Controversy (Lutheran) very active.
Jansenist Controversy. — The Jesuits had now taken a
prominent part in opposing the Augustinian tenets maintained by Baius and his friends. This year, the Theological Faculty of Louvain condemned thirty-four Semipelagian propositions from the lectures of Less and
Hamel, two Jesuits of that university. In the following
1588 year (1588) appeared the celebrated work of the Jesuit
Molina (Liberi Arbitrii cum Gratiae Donis, Divina
Praescientia, Providentia, Praedestinatione, et Reprobatione Concordia), in which an attempt is made to unite
the two systems, but with a leaning towards the Antiaugustinian doctrines. The Augustinian party was dissatisfied with this exposition; and Molina was severely
assailed, especially by the Dominicans.
1587|

Baronius publishes his Annates Ecclesiastici.
t Heshusius, R.
j" Valentine Weigel.
1589i

Henry IV. King of France.
Patriarchate of Moscow established.
# English Puritans.—Episcopacy attacked by the writings of " Martin Marprelate" and others. The press
seized. Cartwright imprisoned.
t Baius (Michael de Bay) R. C. f Andr. Dudith, R. C.
Sixtus repairs the Vatican Library.

1590|

Active opposition to (R. C.) Christianity in Japan.
Sixtus V., who died this year, may be regarded as the
last pope who rendered himself formidable to the European
courts.

382
15901
—

FROM THE REFORMATION

(Seventh

James, Margrave of Baden, conforms to the Romish
Church.
Conferences at Baden, Emmendingen, and Stuttgart,
between Protestant and Romish divines.
Oppression of Protestants in Poland, under Sigismund I I .
Opposition to the doctrines of Predestination, fyc. in the
Reformed Church.
Hence a difference of opinion between the divines of
that Church'who defend those doctrines : Supralapsarians^
dating the decree of predestination before the fall; and
Infralapsariansy contending that it was made subsequently.
Vulgata Sixti V.
f G. Blandrata, an Antitrinitarian.

—
1591

f James Andrese, L. f Jerome Zanchius, R.
# Trinity College, Dublin, founded.

1592

Visitation Articles of Torgau, in support of strict Lutheran doctrines. Ejectment of divines refusing to subscribe.
* Legal establishment of the Presbytery in Scotland,

—

Crypto-calvinistic doctrines suppressed in the Lutheran
Church.
Faustus Socinus, in Poland, gradually induces among
the Unitarians of that country a greater agreement of
opinion than had hitherto prevailed, heals their divisions,
and effects an uniformity of discipline and worship.
University of Paderborn founded.
"J" Nicholas Selnecker, L.

Period.)

1593|

TO

THE PRESENT TIME.

383

Henry IV. of France, hitherto a Protestant, conforms to
the Church of Rome; but continues to tolerate Protestants.
His ambassadors afterwards, at Rome, solemnly abjure
the Protestant faith; and the pope grants absolution to
Henry in a humiliating manner.
Attempts to restore the Romish religion in Sweden
utterly fail.
* In England, severe laws against Puritans and Roman
Catholics. Some Roman Catholics executed for treasonable practices. N.B. During the reign of Elizabeth, 204
Roman Catholics were put to death; namely, 15 for
denying the queen's supremacy, 126 for exercising
priestly functions, and the rest for being reconciled to the
Church of Rome, or aiding and assisting priests. Also,
90 died in prison, 105 were banished. Towards the end
of the reign severe measures became less necessary, and
less frequent.
Vulgata dementis VIII.
#• University of New Aberdeen founded.

1595

Index Tridentinus, — i. e. a list of books prohibited by
the Council of Trent, — published.
* Lambeth Articles.
* Predestinarian Controversy at Cambridge.
f William Whitaker, R.

1596

Renewed opposition to (R. C.) Christianity in Japan.
"1" J. Bodin, an Antichristian writer.
University of Barcelona founded,
f Toletus, a Jesuit.

384

1597

1598]

FROM THE REFORMATION

[Seventh

Jansenist Controversy. — The pope appoints a body of
commissioners for the examination of the questions in
dispute: delegates from both parties summoned to appear
at Rome.
EDICT OF NANTES;

securing to French Protestants the free exercise of their
religion.
Congregatio de Auxiliis at Rome, for deciding the
Molinistic Controversies,
t Benedict Arias Montanus, R. C,
1599|

Union of a part of the Nestorian Church, on the coast
of Malabar, with the Church of Rome. The other section
of that Church falls under oppression.

END OF
The means used by the See of Rome to restore its
s^f_ broken power, and to check the progress of the ReformTEENTH ation, may be classed under the following heads : —
The decrees of the Council of Trent; and the conTURY.
tinued assertion of many high, but fabulous, pretensions.
The Inquisition.
Prohibition and expurgation of books.
Missionaries, Jesuits, and Congregations.
Political intrigues.
During this century, persecutions of Protestants, more
or less severe, were carried on by the Romanists, in Germany, Italy, France, Spain, the Netherlands, England,
Scotland, Hungary, and Transylvania.
In some cases, also, Protestants displayed the will,
when they had the power, to persecute the members of
the Romish Church.
1600

T Giordano Bruno (Jordanus Brunus), a philosophising
opponent of Christianity.

Period.)

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

385

# The pope grants a pardon to the rebels in Ireland, a
to Crusaders.
1600
Rise of controversy with Arminius at Amsterdam, concerning Predestination.
* Controversy in England between the Jesuits' and
other Roman Catholic clergy; suppressed by the pope.
Jubilee at Rome.
University of Parma founded.
t David Chyt raeus, ±^.
1601

Rodolph II. expels the Anabaptists from Austria.

1602|

The court of Sweden had at different times made
efforts to restore the Romish form of religion in that
country. This year the Swedes depose Sigismund, who
refuses either to conform to the Lutheran Church himself,
or to cause his son to be educated in Protestant principles.
f #• William Perkins,

1603

f Francis Junius, R.

* James I. King of Great Britain.
Matth. Ricci, a Jesuit, propagates a modification of
Christianity in China.
Oppression of Protestants in Austria.
* Millenary petition, presented to James after his
accession, by the friends of the Puritan party in England.
A synod at Chap in Dauphine decides against the
opinion of John Piscator, a Reformed divine, who maincc

386

FROM

rati

REFORMATION

{Seventh

tained that the sufferings of Christ alone (to the exclusion
of his active obedience) form the ground of justification,
ArminiuS) now Professor of Divinity at Leyden, soon
enters into controversy with Gomarus, respecting the doctrine of Absolute Predestination.
f JEgidius Hunnius, L.
Spanish Jesuit.

f Gregory of Valentia, a

Charles I X . King of Sweden.
Oppression of Protestants in Hungary.
*

CONFERENCE AT HAMPTON COURT.

#• Convocation frames a body of canons, which receive
the royal assent. Parliament declares alienation of Church
property to the crown illegal; renews statutes against
Jesuits, seminary priests, and recusants. Roman Catholics
and Puritans dissatisfied.
* English Book of Common Prayer.
A few alterations made in the Common Prayer, after a
review, under James.
"|* Faustus Socinus.
| Gabriel Vasquez, a Spanish Jesuit.
Dispute of Clement VIII. with Venice, respecting the
property of the Church, and the exemption of the clergy
from secular jurisdiction. Paul Sarpi.
# Gunpowder Plot in England, intended to promote
the cause of the Roman Catholics. The detection followed by severe statutes against Papists, and active punishment, amounting perhaps to persecution.
N.B. Many fines were levied; 128 priests banished;
c
28 priests and 7 laymen put to death.

Period.)

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

387

Flacian controversies continue in various parts of Germany.
Dispute between the divines of the Netherlands and
those of Holland respecting a proposed revision of the
Heidelberg Catechism and Belgic Confession.
Racovian Catechism published.
T Theodore Beza, R.
Peace of Vienna.
#• The pope forbids the English Roman Catholics to
take the oath of allegiance.
The Lutheran and Reformed in Hungary obtain the
privilege of the free exercise of their religion by the peace
of Vienna.
(1605 to 1607.) The Republic of Venice having laid
restrictions upon the clergy, the ^pope (1605) demanded
their repeal, under penalty of excommunication and interdict. The Republic maintained its rights ; and, after publication of the interdict, banished the Jesuits (1606), who
were active in support of Rome. The pope, having in
vain attempted to reduce the Republic to obedience by
force of arms, was obliged to yield; and peace was effected
by the mediation of France (1607).
Jansenist Controversy.—The Pope dismisses the delegates
of both parties from Rome, with a promise to publish a
decision on the disputed points at a more convenient time.
He gives strict injunctions that both parties should refrain
from harsh or calumniating language in conducting the
controversy.
% James I. King of England, proposed the erection of
a college at Chelsea for the promotion of controversial
divinity. The plan was never fully carried into effect.
c c 2

388

16071

FROM THE REFORMATION

(Seventh

University of Giessen founded.
f Cardinal Caesar Baronius.
Continued jealousy and rivalry between Romanists and
Protestants in Germany.

1608

"EVANGELICAL U N I O N " OF GERMAN PROTESTANTS,

under Frederic V. Elector Palatine.
* First Baptist Church in England (Arminian).
1609

"CATHOLIC L E A G U E " under Maximilian, Duke of
Bavaria, — a union of Momanist princes in Germany
against the Protestants.
Protestants in Austria recover some degree of religious
liberty.

Public conference between Arminius and Gomarus. After
the death of Arminius, his opinions continue to spread
rapidly. Uytenbogaert and Episcopius at the head of the
Arminian party.
f Arminius (Harmsen; Germ. Hermann), R.
* Douay version of the Bible.
1610

Louis X I I I . King of France.
f Matth. Ricci, R. C. Missionary in China.
Jesuit Missions in Paraguay*
Independents in Holland.
*• John Robinson and Henry Jacob found the New Independents in England.
Paul V. confirms the bull In Ccend Domini.
* In Scotland, episcopacy begins to gain ground. James
establishes a court of ecclesiastical commission.
The Arminian divines deliver their Remonstrance to

Period.)

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

389

I the States of Holland; hence called Remonstrants, and
their (Calvinist) opponents Contra-remonstrants.
1610
•"""

J. Gerhard's Loci Theologici.
t Thomas Sanchez, a Jesuit.

1611

Gustavus Adolphus3 King of Sweden.
Conference at the Hague, between Remonstrants and
Contra-remonstrants; without effect.
Jansenist Controversy. — The pope commands strict
silence respecting the points which had hitherto been so
fiercely debated.
Rosicrucians in Germany.
* Present authorised English Translation of the Bible
printed.
| Antony Possevin, an Italian Jesuit.

1612

MATTHIAS, EMPEROR OF GERMANY.

Another outbreak against the (R,C.) Christian communities in Japan.
Discord between Roman Catholics and Protestants in Germany fomented by the Jesuits. Jealousy between the German
Evangelical and Reformed Churches.
\Ql%\
* Episcopacy in Scotland.
Laws against Anabaptists in the Canton of Zurich.
# Charter House founded.
cc 3

390

16131

FROM THE REFORMATION

(Seventh

Conference at Delft, between Remonstrants and Contra-remonstrants; without effect.
Order of the Fathers of the Oratory, or The Congregation
of the Priests of the Oratory of Jesus in France, founded by
Berulle in 1611, confirmed by Paul V.
George Calixtus, Professor of Divinity at Helmstadt.
Disputes between the pope and France respecting the
positions advanced by the Jesuit, Francis Suarez, concerning the papal power over temporal princes.

1614

The elector of Brandenburg conforms to the Reformed
Church.

•—

Church of St. Peter's at Rome complete (begun in
1506).

—
1615

University of Groningen founded.
The Reformed (or Cahinian) tenets supplant those of the
Evangelical (or Lutheran) Church, in many parts of Germany.
The writings of Arndt, Gerhard, and others, operate in
Germany as a wholesome remedy against the effects of the
prevailing cold and lifeless orthodoxy, and assist in promoting vital and practical religion,
J. V. Andreae exposes the corruptions of Lutheran
theology.
In Spain, the controversy concerning the Immaculate
Conception of the Virgin renewed between Dominicans
and Franciscans.
Crypto-socinianism at Altdorf; suppressed.

1616

Violent opposition to (R. C.) Christianity in Japan,
occasioned by misconduct of a Jesuit. Churches destroyed.

Period.)

16161

—
"—

TO

THE PRESENT TIME.

391

Marcus Antonius de Dominis, Archbishop of Spalatro
and Primate of Dalmatia and Croatia, in England, —
renounces the errors of the Church of Rome, and conforms to the Church of England. He writes against
papal error (De Republica Ecclesiastica).
Constitution of the Church of the United Brethren settled
by the Synod of Zerawitz.
^ A second Baptist Church in London (Calvinistic).
Order of the Piarists (or Fathers of Religious Schools)
founded, confirmed, and extended, during the papacy of
Paul V. This order, designed for the instruction of
youth, became peculiarly obnoxious to the Jesuits.
f Leonard Hutter, L.

1617

* I n Scotland, the Assembly of St. Andrew's consults
about the introduction of a liturgy.

•—

T Francis Suarez, a Spanish Jesuit.

1618

In Bohemia, the Protestants, finding themselves unable
to endure tyrannical and aggressive measures any longer,
take up arms. Such was the
Commencement of the Thirty Years9 War, political and
religious.
The Prince of Orange sides with the Dutch Contraremonstrants.

—
—

* In Scotland, Articles of Perth, by the Assembly, in
favour of ecclesiastical rites and ceremonies.
Order of the Salesianerins [of the Visitation of oar Lady)
founded by Francis de Sales.
# In England, the king (James I.) issues a proclamation in favour of liberty and amusements on the Lord's
day (Book of Sports).
Congregation of St. Maur founded,
cc 4

392

FROM THE REFORMATION

(Reformation-union
France.)

[Seventh

of Benedictine monasteries in

•j" J. Volket, an Antitrinitarian.
t Cardinal J. D. Duperron.
(1618, 1619.) SYNOD OF DORT.

(Belgic Confession and Heidelberg Catechism, the
symbols of the Reformed Church in Holland.)
Toleration refused to the Remonstrants, until 1630.
The doctrines of the Remonstrants are condemned,
and the Calvinistic scheme approved, by the Synod of
Dort. Doctrine of Absolute Predestination asserted, but
without affirmation of supralapsarian tenets.
* The Church of England gave countenance to the decrees of the Synod of Dort. Calvinistic tenets now prevail in that Church.
FERDINAND II. EMPEROR OF GERMANY.

Barneveld, Grand Pensioner of Holland, put to death.
f J. Heilbrunner, L.
Battle of Prague.
Protestants in Bohemia defeated by the Roman Catholic forces of the League.
Ferdinand II. under the influence of Jesuits^, designs the
overthrow of the Protestant religion in Germany.
Suppression of the Evangelical religion in Austria.
* The English Baptists present a Confession of Faith
to the king and parliament.
Flourishing period of the Socinian societies in Poland^ and
the Unitarians in Transylvania.

Period)

393

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

Buxtorf asserts the high antiquity of the Hebrew vowel
points.
16211

Philip IV. King of Spain.
Renewal of the war between Spain and the Netherlands.
War between French Protestants and Louis X I I I .
Cyril Lucaris, Patriarch of Constantinople, endeavours to
effect an union between the Greek and Protestant Churches.
The Evangelical Union dissolved.
Universities of Saltzburg (R. C ) , and Rinteln founded.
f John Arndt, L.
Robert Bellarmin.

f Daniel Chamer, R.

f Cardinal

* British missionaries, especially Independents and
Presbyterians, actively employed in propagating the Gospel in the Anglo-American colonies (John Elliot).
1622

Congregatio de Propaganda Fide founded at Rome
by Gregory XV.
Marcus Antonius de Dominis returns to communion
with the Romish Church, and retracts his published opinions. (In 1623, at Rome, he was thrown into prison,
where he died, 1624; afterwards burnt in effigy.)
^ In England, James issues a proclamation for releasing
Popish recusants; and in general shows some favour towards Roman Catholics. These measures extremely unpopular.
ARMINIAN CONFESSION, composed by Episcopius.
Lutherans driven out of Bohemia.
f Valentine Schwaltz, Socinian.
f David Pareus, R.

"j" Francis de Sales, R. C.

394

16231

FROM THE REFORMATION

[Seventh

Ignatius Loyola canonized.
The sect of the Alombrades, the Enlightened, re-appears
in Spain. Suppressed by the Inquisition.

—

t Paolo Sarpi, author of the History of the Council of
Trent, R. C.

1624

Successes of the Imperialists.
Erpenius edites the work of Capellus against the antiquity of the Hebrew points.
t J. Gretser, R. C.
T J. Bohme, a theosophist.

1625

* Charles I. King of Great Britain.
University of Mantua founded.
t Paul Laymann, a Jesuit.
# Episcopacy increasingly unpopular in Scotland; a
consequence of the tyranny and oppression of the ruling
party.

1626

League of Holland, Sweden, Denmark, and German
Protestants against the Emperor.
# In England, Charles endeavours to make the Church
an instrument of raising money in support of the State.
The new Convent of Port Royal de Paris founded by
the Abbess Arnauld (see 1233).
Religions liberty formally granted to the Mennonites
in Holland.

Period.)

1626
1627

TO THE

PRESENT TIME.

t * John Robinson,

395

f Balth. Meisner, L.

Continuation of religious wars in France.
Urban VIII. publishes the bull In Ccena Domini, in its
present form.
Seminarium (Collegium) pro Propaganda Fide.
Persecution of Protestants in Bohemia and Moravia.
* In England, the Established Church is employed as a
tool for the support of the arbitrary power of Charles and
his court.
# Arminian tenets now begin to prevail among the
clergy of the Church of England. They are held generally by the dignitaries of the Church.
f Balth. Menzer, L.
Adam Schall succeeds Ricci in China, and carries on
the work of conversion. Many churches; .some accounts
say that more than half a million of the Chinese now bore
the Christian name.
# A declaration prefixed to a new edition of the Thirtynine Articles of Religion in England, forbidding all persons to interpret them in any but the grammatical sense.
t Wolf. Franz, L.
Overwhelming power of the emperor.

Wallenstein.

The emperor publishes an EDICT OF RESTITUTION, by

which the German Protestants were compelled to restore
the property of ecclesiastical foundations originally held
by the Church of Rome; and the " religious peace " was
declared to relate only to those who subscribed the Confession of Augsburg.
Variini burnt, for atheism, at Toulouse.

396

l630i
—
—.

FROM THE REFORMATION

{Seventh

France in alliance with Gustavus Adolphus against
the emperor, in favour of the German Protestants.
Missions to Lapland warmly supported by Sweden and
Denmark.
# Sabbatarian Controversy in England.
Collegiants, or Rhynsburgians, separatists from the
Dutch Remonstrants (now extinct).
f # Robert Browne, Independent.

1631

Gustavus defeats the Imperialists under Tilly at
Leipsic.
Magdeburg destroyed by the Roman Catholic forces
under Tilly.

—

—
—
—

Gustavus Adolphus, after his victory at Leipsic, restores
the Evangelical worship, which had been interrupted in
the South of Germany.
Dominicans arrive in China. Displeased with the
concessions made by the Jesuits to heathen superstition.
Rise of the controversy between the two parties in that
country.
Remonstrants begin to establish themselves in Holland.
Conferences between divisions of the Lutheran and Reformed Churches of Leipsic.
End of the Catholic League.
Order of Priests of the Missions, founded by Vincent
de Paul in 1624, confirmed by the pope. (Home missionaries of the Romish Church, charged especially with the
care of the sick, both bodily and spiritual; Lazarists.)

1632

Gustavus Adolphus defeats Wallenstein at Lutzen;
I but dies in the arms of victory. Sweden continues th t

Period.)

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

397

war on behalf of the Protestants, under the conduct of
the Chancellor Oxenstiern.
#• In England, feoffees of impropriations exchequered,
and the property forfeited to the crown.
Union of the Mennonites at Dort.
University of Dorpat founded (restored in 1802).
Assassination of Wallenstein.
#• The English Baptists, as a distinct church or denomination, now form a considerable body.
* In England, the king (Charles I.) publishes his
Book of Sports, a renewal of the proclamation of James
concerning liberty and amusements on the Lord's
day.
Laud, now Archbishop of Canterbury, zealous in enforcing the observance of ecclesiastical ceremonies, and
in adding to their number. A few alterations made in
the Book of Common Prayer during this reign; but unimportant.
Edmund Richer, R. C.
j" John Crell, a Socinian leader.
Jesuits expelled from Abyssinia.
The plans of Cyril Lucaris, Patriarch of Constantinople,
for an union of the Greek and Protestant Churches, are
thwarted by the influence of Jesuits.
#• Synod of Dublin.
Flourishing period of the Reformed Church in France.

398

FROM THE REFORMATION

(Seventh

Grounds of tlxe Syncretistic Controversy. -— Calixtus,
Professor of Divinity at Helmstadt, maintains that the consent of catholic antiquity, i. e. the agreement of the Primitive Church during the first five centuries, ought to be
regarded as a secondary rule of faith, subordinate only to
the Holy Scriptures. He begins to be suspected of a
leaning towards the Romish doctrine of Tradition.
Order of the Sisters of Charity founded.
University of Tyrnau founded (removed to Pest in
1777).
University of Utrecht founded.
FERDINAND I I I . EMPEROR OF GERMANY.

% Repeated severities in England, with a view to uphold the authority of the Church and court, produce great
dissatisfaction and disgust.
#• Charles endeavours to force a new liturgy upon the
Church of Scotland. Great opposition, and popular
tumults.
t * Nicholas Ferrar.

t John Gerhard, L.

Cyril Lucaris put to death.
#• Scotland. — General Assembly at Glasgow. Dissolved
by the king's commissioner, but continues its sittings, and
rescinds all that had been established since 1605, namely,
Episcopacy, the Articles of Perth, the Canons, and the
Liturgy. T H E COVENANT SIGNED IN EDINBURGH. Civil
war. The king obliged to make peace.
The Convent of Port Royal in great repute. Many
religious and learned men settle near it, and devote themselves to a life of literary and religious pursuits, as laybrethren. It becomes a nursery of Jansenist or Antijesuit principles.

Period.)

lo38i

—

To

THE PRESENT TIME.

399

Some Socinian students at Racow having insulted the
Roman Catholics in the public exercise of their religion,
the latter cause their places of worship to be shut up,
their press stopped, and their schools closed,
| Cornelius Jansenius, R. C.

1639

lUhe of the Syncretistic Controversy in the Lutheran
Church. Busher publishes an attack upon Calixtus, as a
secret papist.

1640

Dispute between the Pope and John IV. of Portugal;
the former refuses to confirm the bishops appointed by
the king.
# The Long Parliament of England meets.

—

* In England, the Convocation frames violent canons,
under Laud, including that enjoining the Et caetera oath
against innovation. There were now three principal
parties in England with reference to Church matters : —
1. The high episcopalians. 2. The moderate episcopalians. 3. The anti-episcopalians, or presbyterians. The
extreme measures of Laud contribute to increase the
ranks of the latter. The Long Parliament makes various
attacks upon the Church.
# Convocation directs that every preacher shall enforce
in his sermons, twice a year, conformity to the rites and
ceremonies of the Established Church.
This year was published the celebrated posthumous
work of Jansenius, entitled AUGUSTINUS, seu Doctrina
Augustini de Humanas Naturae Sanitate, JEgritudine,
Medicina, adversus Pelagianos et Massilienses.
The Jansenist Controversy, henceforth properly so called,
acquires fresh life and bitterness by the publication of
this work. The Jesuits make a violent attack upon the
book.

400

1640,

FROM THE REFORMATION

[Seventh

University of Abo in Finland.
Dutch missionaries labour during this century in Brazil,
and in the East Indies, especially in Ceylon.

1641

# Execution of the Earl of Strafford.
* Massacre of Protestants in Ireland.
# Protest of the English bishops against the proceedings of Parliament. The bishops sent to the Tower on
a charge of high treason. Episcopacy overthrown. Archbishop Usher proposes a plan for combining Episcopacy
with the Presbytery.
Baxter lectures at Kidderminster.
H. Grotius, Annotationes in Vetere et Novo Testamento.
f Francis Gomarus, R.

1642

* August 25.—Commencement of the English rebellion
and civil war. The king's standard raised at Nottingham. October 23.—Battle of EdgehilL Head-quarters of
the Royalists at Oxford. Battle of Brentford.
# The English bishops deprived of their votes and of
their property. The Councils of Star Chamber and Ecclesiastical Commission suppressed.
The pope publishes a bull, repeating his predecessor's
prohibition concerning the Jansenist Controversy', and containing orders for the suppression of the work of Jansenius,
and all defences of the same. Notwithstanding this, a large
and influential party of divines in France undertake a defence of the opinions of Augustin and Jansenius (Ant.
Arnauld).

Period.)

401

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

f Henry Hoepper, L.
Louis XIV. King of France.
$• English Civil War. Parliament take Reading. Hopton takes Bristol. The king besieges Gloucester : siege
raised. Battle of Newbury, The king retires upon
Oxford.
ORTHODOX

CONFESSION

OF THE

GREEK

CHURCH,

drawn up by Peter Mogelas, Metropolitan of Kiev, received by the Church at Constantinople, and subscribed
by the patriarchs of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch,
Jerusalem, and Moscow.
# In England, Assembly of Divines nominated by Parliament met at Westminster. The solemn league and
covenant taken by the Parliament, having been forced
upon them by the Scotch.
The Assembly of Divines consisted chiefly of Presbyterians, with some Episcopalians, and a few Independents.
The works published by the assembly were, a Directory
for Worship and Ordination, a Confession of Faith, and
two Catechisms, the larger and the shorter.
Syncretistic Controversy.—Conrad Horneius, a friend of
Calixtus, affirms the necessity of good works to salvation.
# Antinomian Controversy in England (Crisp's works).
The number of Holy Days abridged by a papal bull.
" Acta Sanctorum " begun at Antwerp by the Jesuits
Bolland, Henschen, and Papebroch, continued by others,
t Nich. Hunnius, L. f John Uytenbogaert, R.
% English Civil War.— Battle of Marston Moor. Surrender of York. Defeat of the Earl of Essex. Second
battle of Newbury.
Dionysius Petavius (Theologica Dogmata),
D n

402

FROM THE REFORMATION

(Seventh

16441

t * William Chillingworth.
f Simon Episcopius, R.

1645

Prince of Conde and Marshal Turenne defeat the Imperialists at Nordlingen.
* English Civil War.— Battle of Naseby.

—

| Henry Alting, R.

Conference at Thorn, between the Polish Roman
Catholics and Dissidents; without effect.
#• Laud beheaded. The Directory introduced.
N.B. The Presbytery was established only in London
and Lancashire, and was always subject to Parliament.
The power of the Presbyterians was quickly superseded
by that of the Independents.
The Syncretistic Controversy receives a fresh impulse in
consequence of some expressions of Calixtus at Thorn, in
which he is thought to favour the doctrines of the Reformed or Calvinistic Church rather than those of the
Evangelical or Lutheran.
The Lutheran Church gradually forms itself into two
parties, violently opposed to each other, namely, on the
one hand, Calixtus and his followers, chiefly at Helmstadt
and Konigsberg; and, on the other, the divines of the Electorate of Saxony, under the lead of Hulsemann of Leipsic,
Weller of Dresden, and the celebrated Abraham Calov of
Wittemberg.
John Muraeus and Salomon Glassius endeavour to
reconcile conflicting opinions.
#• Anabaptists ; Antinomians; Familists; Fifth Monarchy Men; in England.
t Matthew Hoe, L.
1646

* Hugo Grotius, R.

* English Civil War.—The
I Parliament.

king surrenders to the

Period.)

1646

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

403

The Christians of St. Thomas, on the coast of Malabar,
renounce their connection with the Romish Church.
#• Confession of Faith of seven Baptist churches in
London.

—

1647

* English Civil War.—The king seized by Joyce. His
escape from Hampton Court. Imprisonment in Carisbrook Castle.

—

* The Westminster Confession approved by the General
Assembly of the Kirk of Scotland (ratified by an act of
the Scottish Parliament in 1649).
* George Fox begins to preach.
University of Bamberg founded.
Philip IV. recognises the Independence of the Netherlands.
P E A C E 01* W E S T P H A L I A ,

by which the German Protestants are confirmed in the
rights ceded to them by the religious peace of Augsburg,
which are declared to extend alike to the Reformed and
Lutheran Churches; and all things placed upon the footing of the year 1624, with respect to the possessions of
Protestant princes. Edict of Restitution revoked. End of
the Thirty Years' War.
The pope issues a bull declaring the provisions of this
treaty null and void; but his attempts against it prove
abortive.
University of Harder tick founded.
Leo Allatius, De Ecclesise Occiden talis et Oriental is
Perpetua Consensione.
"j* John Quistorp, L.
j" * Lord Herbert, of Cherbury, a deistical writer.
1649
)

* Charles I. King of England, beheaded.
(# Interregnum and Usurpation.)
D D

2

404

FROM THE REFORMATION

{Seventh

% In England, the Parliament ejects many Presbyterian
ministers by imposing the Engagement. Bill passed, " For
the Propagation of the Gospel in Wales."
*• Society of Friends, commonly called Quakers, founded
by George Fox.
Fox imprisoned this year at Nottingham.
| Frederick Spanheim, R. f G. J. Vossius, R. f Stephen
Bauny, a Jesuit.
Jansenist Controversy.
The Jesuits having selected from the works of Jansenius six propositions, which they declare to be heretical,
a body of French bishops, eighty-five in number, petition
the pope this year to define the sense in which those
propositions may really be regarded as such.
Eleven
other bishops protest against this appeal, or reference,
as contrary to the liberties of the Gallican Church. The
pope contents himself with publishing a bull (in 1653)
simply condemning five of the six propositions. The
Jansenists continued to maintain their tenets, on the
ground that the propositions were not contained in the
works of Jansenius in the sense in which they were condemned by the pope.
L. Capellus ; Critica Sacra,
(f Rene des Cartes.)
The Cartesian philosophy begins to exercise a deteriorating
influence on the doctrine of the Heformed Church.
Christianity is now entirely banished from Japan.
* English Civil War.—Charles II. crowned at Scone.
Battle of Worcester.
t Andrew Rivet, R.

f J. Sirmond, R. C.

Period.)

TO THE PRESENT TIME.'

16552]

405

Capuchin Mission to the interior of Africa.
The landgrave of Hesse Rheinfels conforms to the
Romish Church.
# Henry Hammond defends the Anglican doctrine of
Episcopacy against Blondel.
"j* Dionysius Petavius (Denys Petau) R. C.
The Lutheran churches are now distinguished by
barren orthodoxy and futile controversies. Powerful exhibitions and applications of the doctrines and duties of
Christianity, by which the era immediately succeeding
the Reformation was characterised, have given place to
cold or captious accuracy of statement, and jealous defence of received opinions.
#• Controversies relating to Baptism active in England
from 1649 to 1675.
The worship of the Virgin Mary cultivated with peculiar zeal in Spain.

1653

_

* Oliver Cromwell, Protector of England, Scotland, and
Ireland.
During the Usurpation, toleration is not extended to
Roman Catholics and, Jews.
EuxtorPs Anticritica; against Capellus.
f Claud. Salmasius (Sauniaise), R.

1654

Charles X. (Gustavus) King of Sweden.
# In England, the Committee of Triers appointed.
(Church government had hitherto been carried on by
the Assembly under Parliament.)
D D

3

406

16544

FROM THE REFORMATION

[Seventh

* First Meeting of Quakers in London.
f J. V. Andreae, L.
Struggles between the kings of Portugal and the popes
from 1640 to 1670.

1655

The form of Presbyterian Church government and
ordination (agreed upon by the Westminster Assembly in
1649) ratified by the General Assembly of the Kirk of
Scotland.
Abraham Calov, Systema Locorum Theologicorum.
University of Duisburg founded.
f •*• James Usher, Archbishop of Armagh. °j* David
Blondel, R.

,

Syncretistic Controversy. — Consensus Repetitus Fidei
vere Lutheranae prepared, as an antidote against the
opinions of Calixtus; published in 1664. (1656. f G.
Calixtus; controversy continued by his son, Frederic
Calixtus.) Ernest, Duke of Saxe-Gotha, endeavours to
effect a pacification, supported by Seckendorf. He lends
his countenance to a plan for establishing a Collegium
Irenicum or Pacificatorium.
1656
Jansenist Controversy. — Machinations of Jesuits and
Dominicans against the Jansenists. Arnauld expelled
from the Sorbonne. Blaise Pascal begins to attack the
Jesuits. (False moral principles held by the Jesuits in
general-—that a good intention makes a good act; mental
reservation; distinction between philosophical and actual
(or theological) sin; probabilism; efficacy of slight or
even feigned repentance.)
The pope (Alexander VII.) declares that the five
condemned propositions are contained in the works of
Jansenius, and in the sense affixed to them when so condemned. The court of France unites with the pope
I against the Jansenists.

Period.)

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

407

Lettres Provinciales of Blaise Pascal, under the name
of Louis de Montalte.
f * Joseph Hall, Bishop of Norwich, f George Calixtus, L. | J. Feuerborn, L. f Salomon Glass, L.
# During the Usurpation, several individuals were
punished for heterodoxy in England.
LEOPOLD 1. EMPEROR OE GERMANY*

Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg, independent
In France, the Jesuits work upon the mind of Louis X.,
to the disadvantage of the Reformed Church in that
country.
The Patriarchate of Moscow independent of Constantinople.
| J. B, Carpzov, L.
* Declaration of the Faith and Order owned and practised in the Congregational Churches in England; agreed
upon and consented to by their elders and messengers in
their meeting at the Savoy.
Edict against the Socinians in Poland, as being not
dissidentes de religione, but dissidentes a religione. All
Socinians obliged to quit Poland within thiee years*
Some found refuge in Prussia; others associated with the
Arminians in the Low Countries; but, for the most part,
they betook themselves to the Unitarians of Transylvania, who gave them a friendly reception, and with
whom they became incorporated.
t P. Du Moulin, R.
D D 4

408

FROM THE REFORMATION

{Seventh

Controversy of Cocceius with Maresius and Voetius
respecting the Sabbath.
$• Anglo-American missionaries propagate the Gospel
among the North American Indians. John Elliot.
1659
1660

f J. G. Dorsch, L.

f Curcellaeus, a Remonstrant.

# Charles II. King of England (Restoration).
% Episcopacy restored in England. — Petition of the
Nonconformists. Answer of the bishops. Declaration
of the king.
Critici Sacri.
^ * Henry Hammond, "j* Vincent de Paul, R. C.

1661

—

—

#• The English Convocation grants a subsidy to the
king. The last tax of this nature paid by the English
clergy. Convocation henceforth exists merely in name
and form.
Conference at Cassel, for union of Reformed and Evangelical Churches; ineffectual. It was, however, agreed
that the differences between the two churches do not
affect the foundation of faith.
% Savoy Conference. Corporation Act.
Among the Dutch Remonstrants (followers of Grotius
and Episcopius) the distinctive doctrines of Christianity
gradually disappear.
* English Book of Common Prayer. — Last revision of
the Liturgy, by Convocation. After some slight alterations
by Parliament, it was legally authorized, August 24. 1662.
And thus the Book of Common Prayer, as we now use it,
was complete.

Period.)

TO THE PRESENT TIME,

f # Bryan Walton, Bishop of Chester,
mann, L. f J, C. Daunhauer, L.

409

f J. Hiilse-

f Jonas Schlichting, a Socinian leader.
Dispute between the pope and the king of France.
The pope sues for pardon.
# Act of Uniformity. — Two thousand nonconforming
ministers ejected on the 24th of August. Great severity
and injustice on the part of the ruling powers. Calamy
and Baxter imprisoned.
# Episcopacy restored in Scotland.
f J. Weller, L.
Marca, R. C.

f Blaise Pascal, E. C.

f Peter de

f * John Biddle, an English Arian.
Louis XIV. establishes a missionary college in Paris,
especially for China.
* Select Vestry Act.
T Theoph. Raynaud, R. C.
The Reformed Church in France, for the most part,
adheres to the doctrines of Calvin respecting Predestination, &c. But some divines of that communion {e.g.
Amyraldus, and others) had mitigated the doctrine, by
drawing a distinction between general and special grace.
Their positions were opposed by Spanheim; but the Reformed Synods of Alencon (in 1637) and Charenton (in
1644, 1645) refused to condemn them as at variance
with the received doctrines. Their tenets (universalismus hypotheticus) were subsequently adopted by many
members of that Church.

410

16641

FROM THE REFORMATION

{Seventh

* First Conventicle Act.
De Ranee founds the order of La Trappe.
Further divisions among the Waterland Mennonites; relating primarily to the doctrine of absolute predestination. The one party, called Apostoolians, Sonnists, or
Mennonite Baptists; the other, Galenists, Lammists, or
Remonstrant Baptists.
t *• Samuel Fisher, a Quaker.
#• The Society of Friends had lately suffered great
persecution. Its members were exposed to peculiar sufferings under the Conventicle Act.
I John Buxtorf, R.

1665

"j" Moses Amyraldus, R.

Charles II. King of Spain.
#? The Plague breaks out in London.
Consensus Repetitus Fidei Vere Lutheranse.
* Five Mile Act.
Jansenist Controversy. — The pope commands all the
French clergy formally to abjure " the heresy of Jansenius,"
and to subscribe to the assertion, that the five propositions
are contained in the works of Jansenius in the heretical
sense. Many of the clergy protest against recognising
the pope's infallibility as to matters of fact, while they declare themselves ready to yield to it in matters of faith.
Vehement disputes ensue. Attempt to obtain the signatures of the Nuns of Port Royal by compulsion.
Violent persecution of the Waldenses.
University of Kiel founded.

d.)

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

411

# The Fire of London.
P . J". Spener, Senior of the Ministry at Frankfort-onthe-Maine. He makes efforts to restore the study and
practice of scriptural theology in the Lutheran Church.
* William Penn joins the Society of Friends.
A large sect separates from the Russian (Greek) Church,
chiefly on liturgical grounds ; which afterwards subdivides
itself into a number of smaller sects (Raskolnites, —
Separatists). They are at first exposed to violent persecution.
The pope sends vicars into the territories of John Frederick, Duke of Brunswick, who had conformed to the
Romish Church.
Controversy between Claude and Nicole respecting the
doctrine of the Eucharist.
A French translation of the Scriptures by the scholars
of Port Royal (Translation of Mons) published at Amsterdam. Condemned by the pope.
f Samuel Bochart, R. f J. H. Hottinger, R.
Triple alliance between England, Holland, and Sweden,
against Louis XIV. of France.
Jansenist Controversy, — The new pope (Clement IX.),
by allowing an ambiguity of expression, persuades the
greater part of the Jansenists to subscribe the abjuration.
#• William Penn, a prisoner in the Tower, writes his
" N o Cross, No Crown."
University of Lund founded,
t J. Hoornbeck, R.

412

16691

FROM THE REFORMATION

{Seventh

In France, Louis XIV. begins to use efforts for inducing the Protestants in that country to conform to the
Romish Church. Marshal Turenne unexpectedly conforms.
#• About this time various proposals were made for the
toleration and comprehension of English Nonconformists;
but without effect.
Labadists at Amsterdam.
f J. Cocceius, R. f H. Busenbaum, a Jesuit, f Leo
Allatius, a Latinising writer of the Greek Church.

I67O

Treaty between the emperor, Spain, and Holland.
The pope reconciled to Portugal.
nation to bishoprics confirmed.

The king's nomi-

#• Second Conventicle Act.

t J. Daille, R.
Quesnel's Annotations on the Gospels published. Also,
Bossuet's Exposition de la Doctrine de FEglise Catholique sur les Matieres de Controverse.
University of Urbino founded.
1672

The emperor, Spain, Holland, and Brandenburg, declare war against France.
Louis XIV. conquers the greater part of Holland.
William, Stadtholder.
#• Corporation Act.
ration by Charles.)

1673

(Ineffectual declaration of Tole-

* The Test Act.

Period.)

'

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

418

l673i

University of Inspruck founded.

1674

Louis conquers Franche Comte. Victories of the
Prince of Conde and Marshal Turenne in Germany and
Flanders.

—

t Cardinal Bona.

f J. Labadie.
Cocceian Controversy in the Reformed Church, concerning
the principles of scriptural interpretation, and the doctrine of the covenants. Typical and federal theology.
This controversy continued to divide the Reformed Church
during the remainder of this century. Subdivided into
• two sections, the strict (of Utrecht) and the moderate (of
Leyden), the Anticocceians also (Voetians) were distinguished into the old and modern.
1675
Speners " Pi A DESIDERIA."
Attempts at effecting an union between German Pro
testants and the Church of Rome, promoted by Spinola.
FORMULA CONSENSUS HELVETICI.

# Meeting for Sufferings, appointed by the Society of
Friends.
Michael Molinos publishes his " Spiritual Guide."
"* • John Lightfoot. f Samuel Desmarets, R.
J &
I676

The new pope (Innocent XI.) soon became distinguished
by his honest and zealous efforts for promoting the interests of the Church (on papal principles), and forgiving a
wholesome correction to the teaching and morals of the
clergy. At the same time, he strenuously maintained the
supposed rights and honour of the Church against the
claims of temporal potentates.

414

16761

1677

FROM THE REFORMATION

(Seventh

# Continued persecution of the Quakers in England.
Division in the society. Barclay writes his Apology.
Spener publishes his " Spiritual Priesthood."
Quakers endeavour to establish themselves in Holland
and Germany.
j" Gilbert Voetius, R.
(f Benedict Spinosa, a pantheist.)
The Syncretistic Controversy gradually degenerates into
a personal quarrel between the leaders of the opposite
parties, and declines in general interest.
In Switzerland, the strict Calvinistic doctrines respecting Predestination, &c. continue to maintain their ground,
although not without opposition.
Peace of Nimuegen, between France and Holland.
Dispute of the pope with France respecting the appropriation of vacant bishoprics to the king (regale).
#• Plots for the re-establishment of Popery in England
(Titus Oates).
#• Act against Roman Catholics, excluding them from
both Houses of Parliament.
t John Launoi, R. C.
"j" Wissowatius, Socinian.

1679

The Jansenist Controversy. — T h e pope (Innocent XL)
takes part in the argument of the Jansenists against the
Jesuits. He published a bull this year condemning the
Propositiones laxorum moralistarum, —for the most part,
positions maintained by Jesuits).

Period.)

1679|

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

f * Henry Moore,
Alting, R.

415

f Francis Burmann, R. 1 James

* * Thomas Hobbes, a deistical writer.
1680

The pope is still engaged in a contest with the king of
France, respecting the right of nomination to benefices
during the vacancy of a bishopric.
Bossuet, as a controversialist, endeavours to induce a reunion of Protestants with the Romish Church.
f Durseus (John Dury); who spent his life in endeavouring to promote an union of the Protestant churches,
on the ground of their agreement in the essential truths
of Christianity.
I # Earl of Rochester,

f Martin Geier, L.

f Antoinette Bourignon, pretender to inspiration, and
celebrated propagator of mystico-theosophic doctrines in
the Low Countries.
1681

Persecution of the Reformed Church in France.
f J. Musaeus, L.
"j" Christopher Sand, Antitrinitarian.

1682

A National Council of France,
convened by the king, at Paris, embodies certain propositions restrictive of the papal authority in that country,
which, in effect, had been held by a large portion of the
Gallican clergy ever since the Council of Constance.
QUATUOR PROPOSITIONS CLERI GALLICANI.

These are, 1. That the power of the pope extends
only to spiritual matters; and especially that the king
cannot be deposed by the pope. 2. That the spiritual
I authority of the pope is subject to that of a general

416

FROM THE REFORMATION

{Seventh

council, according to the principles promulgated at Constance. 3. That the exercise of the papal power in
judicial matters must be regulated by the ancient ecclesiastical laws. 4. That the pope possesses the power of
deciding in matters of faith, but that his decisions are to
be regarded as infallible only when confirmed by the
voice of the whole church.—Bossuet writes in defence of
these propositions. The pope declares the acts of this
council null and void (see 1693).
* Penn and his colony of Quakers found the State of
Pennsylvania.
Bossuet's Defensio Declarationis Celeberrimae quam de
Potestate Ecclesiastica sanxit Clerus Gallicanus.
Calov's Historia Syncretistica.
John Sobiesky, King of Poland, defeats the Turks at
Vienna.
# English high churchmen proclaim the doctrine of
passive obedience and non-resistance. The Oxford Decree (July 21.)
"* J. A. Schertzer, L.
J
Last Edition of the Racovian Catechism.
# In England, during the reign of Charles II., many
thousand Protestant dissenters were thrown into prison,
and subjected to other severe sufferings.
The Church of Rome obtains ascendancy in the Palatinate.
* James I I . King of England.
REVOCATION OF THE EDICT OF NANTES.

The Reformed Church in France suffers increased per-

Period.)

1685

1686

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

417

secution. Many members seek refuge in flight; many
others murdered; churches destroyed.
# In England, James endeavours to establish arbitrary
power, and the Roman Catholic religion. He publishes
a letter prohibiting the clergy from preaching on controversial subjects.
#• Several heads of colleges in Oxford declare themselves Roman Catholics.
In France, Fenelon labours zealously for the reduction of
the Protestants to the Roman Catholic faith.
* James establishes a court of ecclesiastical commission.
Compton suspended.
Massey, a Roman Catholic, appointed Dean of Christ
Church, Oxford,
Great influence of Spener in the Lutheran Church, in
favour of Biblical Theology and Practical Religion, in opposition to the cold, scholastic, polemico-orthodox divinity tohich
had become prevalent.
Hostile operations against the Waldenses, carrying to
its height a cruel persecution. Extermination of the
greater number (eleven thousand); the rest (three thousand) banished.
Du Pin's Library of Ecclesiastical Writers,
f Abraham Calov, L. f Louis Maimbourg, R. C.

1687

* James II. of England treacherously supports the
cause of the Romish Church. The English Protestants
dread the return of papal usurpation.
Fresh quarrel between the Pope and Louis X I V .
(Right of sanctuary in ambassador's house at Rome.)
#• James issues a Declaration of Liberty of Conscience,
and endeavours to procure the repeal of penal laws
against Nonconformists, with a view to facilitate the r o
establishment of the Roman Catholic religion,
E E

418

FROM THE REFORMATION

(Seventh

He issues a mandatory letter to the Fellows of Magdalen College in Oxford, enjoining them to elect a
Roman Catholic as president. The Fellows resisted,
and were afterwards ejected, together with Hough,
whom they had appointed president. Cambridge also
resisted an illegal act of royal interference concerning
the conferring of a degree on a Roman Catholic, without
taking the oaths. Governors of the Charter House refused
to admit Andrew Popham on the same terms.
The pope's nuncio publicly received at Windsor.
The pope condemns, as heretical and blasphemous,
sixty-eight propositions selected by the Inquisition from
the writings of Molinos. The writer imprisoned for life.
The party attached to the principles and writings of
Molinos begin to be designated by the title of Quietists,
as a term of reproach.
#• James II. compelled to resign the English crown, on
account of his perfidy towards the national church. He
had republished his iniquitous Declaration, with orders
that it should be read in every parish church. Seven
bishops, having petitioned against it, were committed to
the Tower, on charge of a misdemeanour. They were
tried and acquitted. James endeavoured to retrace his
steps when it was too late.
* T H E GLORIOUS REVOLUTION
places William and Mary upon the throne.
Peter the Great, Emperor of Russia.
* Eight bishops and four hundred other clergy, refusing to take the new oaths of supi^emacy and allegiance
(Nonjurors) are ejected.
* The liberties of the British Church are now, for a
time at least, secured.
The praise belongs to God.
May HE evermore defend us from false doctrine, superstition, and ecclesiastical tyranny!

Period.)

1688

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

419

William du Serre, a native of Dauphine, pretends to
the possession of miraculous gifts. Rise of the Camisards.
Bossuefs Histoire des Variations des Eglises Protestantes.
f * John Pearson, Bishop of Chester, f # Ralph Cudworth. | J. A. Quenstedt, L.

1689

#• Act of Toleration. Proposals for an alteration of
the Liturgy, Canons, &c under royal commission, by
Convocation; defeated by the Lower House.
*• Episcopacy abolished in Scotland. The Presbyterian Church established by law.
# Confession of Faith agreed upon by a general Assembly
of the Calvinistic Baptists in London.
Casimir Leszinski, burnt at Warsaw, as an atheist.
Religious liberty in China. Permission to embrace
Christianity.
* The Quakers now enjoy toleration in England and
America.
The banished Waldenses recover their native province.
The Syncretistic Controversy terminates shortly after the
death of Calov (1686) and Strauch (1690).
COLLEGIA PHILOBIBLICA, AT LEIPSIC.

(Aug. Herm. Franke.)
Rise of the Pietistic Controversy.
% English Book of Common Prayer. — An attempt was
made, with the sanction of many bishops and eminent
divines, to effect some useful alterations in the Book of
Common Prayer, by an act of Convocation, under royal
commission. But the attempt was overruled by the Lower
House, assenting to the views of Dr. James, author of the
EE 2

420

FROM THE REFORMATION

(Seventh

Oxford Decree (1683) —"Nolumus leges Anglise mixtari!"
1690

# Battle of the Boyne.
Disputes between the pope and the king of France
continue.
f * John Elliot, Apostle of the North American Indians.
f * Robert Barclay, a Quaker (Apology).
$• Antinomian Controversy in England revived*

1691

#• Renewed persecution of Protestants in Ireland.
% Division,of English Baptists, into Particular Baptists
(Calvinistic), and General Baptists (Arminian). A third
class, Sabbatarians, or Seventh-day Baptists, was also
formed; — always small, — and now almost merged into
the Particular Baptists.
#• Proposed union of the English Presbyterian and Congregational Churches, — Heads of agreement assented to
by the united ministers in and about London, formerly
called Presbyterian and Congregational.
#• At this time, the doctrinal views of the great body of
Dissenters in England were in conformity with those of the
Established Church.
Spener at Berlin ; obnoxious to the " orthodox " Lutheran divines on account of his Scriptural doctrines and
practical Christianity.
Zeal for the recovery of his Church from a barren and
lifeless orthodoxy led him to undervalue the Lutheran
confessions and symbolic books, or at least to speak lightly
of their use and importance. It is probable that the impression which he effected in this way was greater than he

Period,)

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

421

intended; and that it was afterwards employed as an instrument against the cause of scriptural truth itself.
1691

f #• George Fox, a Quaker.
At this period there were Societies of Friends in Holland, Germany, and Prussia, but these were few and
inconsiderable; while those in England and America
were severely persecuted.
f * Richard Baxter,

f Samuel Basnage, R.

* The Boyle Lectures begin.
i Arthur Bury, an Arian.
The popes having resolutely refused to fill up vacant
bishoprics in France during the late disputes, and the
French Church not having dared to supply deficiencies
without his concurrence, the king was at length obliged
to yield. The French clergy beg pardon of the pope
for the acts of the Council of Paris (1682). But the
principles declared on that occasion continued to influence
a large portion of their body*
Baillet writes against the worship of the Virgin.
That superstition had been carried to a great height in
Spain about this time.
# A Statement of Christian Doctrines issued on behalf of
the Society of Friends.
QuesnePs Practical Annotations on the New Testament
completed.
f Charles Blount, a deistical writer.
E E

3

422
1694]

FROM THE REFORMATION

{Seventh

University of Halle founded.
This new university soon becomes the cradle of Scriptural
Theology in Germany. Spener, Franke, and others, labour
with great success.
The Lutheran Church now divides itself into two parties; the one, having Halle for its centre, maintaining
the reformed principles of Luther in spirit and practice,
and endeavouring to spread a living, scriptural, practical
Christianity; the other, having the universities of the
Electorate of Saxony (especially Wittemberg) for its
strong hold, maintaining controversially " a stiff, orthodox,
scholastic dogmatism."
The scriptural doctrine of sanctification, and its inseparable connection with justification, had been generally
neglected by the Lutheran divines before this period.
Spener laboured to bring it into due prominence, but
without falling into the error of confounding justification
and sanctification with each other.

f # John Tillotson, Archbishop of Canterbury. | Christian Kortholt, L. f Antony Arnauld, R. C.

$• George Keith expelled from the Society of Friends.
Madame Guyon and her confessor, Francis de la
Combe, propagate the mystico-theosophic principles of
Molinos in France and Switzerland. Protected by
Fenelon, who became Archbishop of Cambray in 1695.
After the submission of Fenelon to the decision of Rome,
the views which he had advocated find little support, and
gradually decline.
f J. W. Baier, L. | Spinola, R. C.
f Benedict Pictet, R. (System of Theology).
t Molinos, R, C.

Period.)

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

423

Charles X I I . King of Sweden.
Peace of Ryswick.
f Sebastian Schmid, L.

f J. H. Heidegger, R.

Dutch missionaries begin to propagate the Gospel in
Ceylon and Java with great success.
% Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge founded.
ORPHAN HOUSE AT HALLE FOUNDED.

Fresh persecution of French Protestants.
Controversy between Fenelon, Archbishop of Cambray>
and Bossuet, Bishop of Meaux, concerning love to God,
and various points involved in the mystic theology of
Molinos and Guyon.
f A. PfeifFer, L.
Frederick IV. King of Denmark (to 1730).
The pope condemns, as dangerous and erroneous,
twenty-eight propositions selected from Fenelon's Explication des Maximes des Saintes sur la Vie Interieure.
Fenelon submits.
j" J. B. Carpzov, L.
During this century, the Church of Rome maintained
missions in various parts of the world; especially in
the East Indies; Siam, Tonquin, and Cochin China;
Japan; China; Africa; Portuguese, French, and Spanish
America; particularly in Paraguay.
The missionaries were, for the most part, members of
monastic orders, but especially Jesuits: serious misunderE E 4

424

FROM THE REFORMATION

(Seventh

standings and violent disputes often arose between the
Jesuits and the members of other orders.
Missionary zeal now receives an impulse in the Evangelical
(Lutheran) Church —a consequence of the improved tone of
religious feeling to which, through divine blessing, the labours
ofSpener, Franke, and their friends, gave rise.
Frederick I V . K i n g of Denmark, resolves to establish a
mission on the coast of T r a n q u e b a r , in the East Indies.
T h e r e is, at this time, a Christian church in the palace
of the Emperor of China, at Pekin.

Philip V. K i n g of Spain.
War between Russia, Poland, Denmark, and Charles
X I I . of Sweden.

T h e new pope, Clement X I . ( 1 7 0 0 - 1 7 2 1 ) , encouraged by the recent victory over the king and clergy of
France, endeavours to establish the papal dominion in
its former extent. H e n c e the period of his government
included a series of struggles, especially with the emperor
of Germany.
The emperor of Russia becomes head of the (National)
Greek Church in his dominions.
The office of patriarch
abolished.
# The Baptists' Catechism.

Academy at Berlin.

The Camisards numerous in the Cevennes and Lower
Languedoc. Pretensions to inspiration, the power of
working miracles, prophesying, &c.

T h e emperor, England, Holland, Savoy, and Portugal,
declare war against France and Spain.
Frederick I. King 0 f Prussia.

Period.)

17011

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

425

* Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign
Parts founded.
#• Toland writes against Christianity.
Two Lutheran (titular) bishops appointed on occasion
of the coronation of the king of Prussia.
f * Richard Kidder, Bishop of Bath and Wells, t F. IL
Calixtus, L. t F. Spanheim, R.
Terministic Controversy in the Lutheran Church.

1702

* Anne, Queen of Great Britain.

17031

University of Breslau founded.
f F. Bechman, L.
The Prussian government begins to use efforts for effecting an union between the Reformed and Evangelical
Churches.
Conference at Berlin ; fruitless.

1704

Battle of Blenheim.
Stanislaus Lecksinsky, King of Poland.
Disputes between the Jesuits and Dominicans in China
now run very high.
t J. Gousset, R. t H. Noris, R. C. t J. B. Bossuet,
R. C. t Louis Bourdaloue. (f #• John Locke.)
The School of Spener begins to degenerate; pretension
substituted for piety, affectation for humility, irregularity
for zeal; pietism gradually identified with ignorance. —
Enthusiastic, or otherwise erroneous, interpretation and
adoption of Spener's positions.

426

1704]

FROM THE REFORMATION

(Seventh

Petersen, Dippel, and other fanatical teachers, make the
writings of Pietists their starting-point.
But some of the more genuine disciples of this school
continue to propagate pure Christian doctrine and spiritual
religion, with humility, faith, and zeal.
JOSEPH I. EMPEROR OF GERMANY.

ZlEGENBALG AND P L U T S C H A U ,

Danish missionaries to the coast of Tranquebar; recommended to Frederick IV\ by Franke of Halle.
1705|

Jansenist Controversy.—Clement X I . a zealous friend
of the Jesuits, published a bull this year, declaring it
not sufficient to observe an obedient silence upon the
question, whether the five propositions were really contained in the works of Jansenius,— requiring the belief
that he taught them in the heretical sense, — and demanding subscription with this understanding. Many of the
Jansenists had already retired from the contest, and the
bull created little excitement. Port Royal, however, still
adheres to the Jansenist cause.
t P. J. Spener, L.

I7O6

Peace between Sweden and Saxony.
Battle of Ramillies.
The Camisards destroyed, or expelled from their native
country. Some of the surviving " prophets" come to
England, where they obtain a few followers. Pretensions
to inspiration or revelations, power of healing and workingother miracles. The delusion soon passed away.
t P. Mastricht, R.
T * Peter Bayle, a sceptical writer*

Period.)

To

THE PRESENT TIME.

427

# Union of England and Scotland.
J. A. Turretin, a reformed divine, maintains that the
points of difference between the Evangelical and Reformed
are not such as necessarily prevent an union of the two
churches.
t * Simon Patrick,

t J. Mabillon, R. C.

Violent dispute between the Pope and the Emperor
Joseph, respecting the right to the Duchy of Parma. The
pope and emperor are at variance also respecting the
right claimed by the emperor of presenting once, during
his reign, to a vacant place in each of the German ecclesiastical foundations; (Jus primarum precum).
t Herman Witsius, R.
About this time the Franciscans occupy more than
7000 monasteries.
Jansenist Controversy. — The pope (Clement XI.) prohibits the reading of Quesnel's Commentary on the New
Testament, on account of its alleged errors, and its agreement with the Translation of Mons. Noailles, Archbishop
of Paris and Cardinal, had signified his approbation of the
book, after it had been submitted to the inspection of
Bossuet, and received his favourable testimonial. The
present prohibition was procured by the Jesuits, the
enemies of Noailles.
(The Convent of Port Royal des Champs destroyed
by Louis XIV. at the instigation of the Jesuits, in 1709
and 1710.)
Charles X I I . of Sweden, completely defeated by Peter
the Great, at Pultowa.

428
1709

FROM THE REFORMATION

(Seventh

The pope and the emperor come to terms. Emperor's
right to the Duchy of Parma conceded. The jus primarum precum virtually established by the grant of a perpetual license for the exercise of it by the emperor.
Protestants on the Continent now make various struggles
for the preservation of their religious liberty from Romish
aggression.
Violent controversy in Germany between the (socalled) orthodox Lutheran divines and the theologians of
Halle. Extravagancies of some fanatics employed as an
argument against the pious theologians of Halle. Count
Zinzendorf at Halle.
t H. G. Masius, L.

1710

The reigning duke of Brunswick Wolfenbuttel conforms to the Romish Church.
f #• George Bull. T Thomas Ittig, L.
t E. Flechier, R. C.

f J. Braun, R.

J. G. Gichtel, a fanatic, at Amsterdam.
* Leibnitz endeavours to negotiate an union of the German
Protestants with the Episcopal Church of England.
1711

* Act concerning Occasional Conformity repealed.
# Severe laws against the Roman Catholics of Ireland
were enacted during the reign of Anne.
Jansenist Controversy.—The pope, urged by Louis X I V .
at the instigation of his confessor Le Tellier, a Jesuit,
publishes his famous constitution or bull Unigenitus, in
which he strictly forbids the use of the Commentary of
Quesnel, condemning as heretical 101 propositions selected from it, many of which contained the doctrines of

Period.)

TO T H E

p R E S E N T TIME.

429

Scripture or Augustin, and thus, in fact, establishing
Semipelagianism as the doctrine of the Romish Church.
Cardinal Noailles refuses to accept the bull. Hence
arise violent contentions in the French Church, which last
until the death of Louis XIV. in 1715.
1712

* Whiston, Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge,
avowing Arian principles, is deprived of his professorship,
and expelled from the university.
* Dr. Samuel Clarke advocates some Semiarian doctrines about this time. He is opposed by Dr. Waterland.
#• Gale writes against Wall on Infant Baptism.
f * J. E. Grabe. # Henry Dodwell. f N - Gurtler, R.
Congress of Utrecht.
France.

Peace between England and

The English Book of Common Prayer adopted by the
Scottish Episcopalians, with the exception of the communion office, which corresponds to that in the first liturgy
of Edward VI.
I J. F. Mayer, L. f Philip Limborch, R. f R. Simon,
R.C.
1713

Frederick William I. King of Prussia.
Peace of Utrecht.
Charles Alexander, Prince of Wurtemburg, conforms
to the Romish Church,
j * William Cave, t P. Jurieu, R. f S. Till, R.
f # A. Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury, a deistical
writer.

480

FROM THE REFORMATION

[Seventh

* George I. King of Great Britain.
* Many high churchmen in England refuse the oath of
allegiance to the reigning House of Hanover (Nonjurors).

| G. Arnold, L.
* Rebellion in favour of the English Pretender; suppressed.
Louis XV. King of France.
Dispute between the pope and the duke of Savoy respecting the " Sicilian Monarchy," or the rights of the
duke touching ecclesiastical matters in Sicily. The pope
obliged to yield.
A bull against the Jesuits, sanctioning the performance
of certain superstitious ceremonies by the Chinese Christians.
Persecution of Protestants in France.
| * Gilbert Burnet, Bishop of Salisbury, f -* T. Tennison, Archbishop of Canterbury, f G. Olearius, L.
f Francois de Salignac de la Motte Fenelon, R. C.
(f Malebranche.)
Many (Jansenist) divines of the Church of France evince
a desire to effect an union with the Church of England.
* Number of Dissenting Congregations (i. e. Presbyterian, Independent, and Baptist) in England and Wales,
1398.
f J. Fecht, L. f Massuet, R. C.
(t Leibnitz.)
Correspondence between Louis Ellies Du Pin, Doctor of
the Sorbonne, and Wake, Archbishop of Canterbury.
Frederick Augustus II., Elector of Saxony, conforms to
the Romish Church.

Period.)

|
1717

—

TO

THE PRESENT TIME.

431

Oppression of the Dissidents in Poland.
Jansenist Controversy.—Noailles, with many of the French
bishops and clergy, appeal from the pope and the bull
Unigenitus to a general council. Thus the whole French
(R. C.) Church was divided into two parties upon this
question, namely, the Constitutionists or Acceptants, and
the Appellants. In 1718 Clement pronounced sentence
of excommunication against the latter ; for some time
without any effect.
# The Bangorian Controversy begins. Hoadley denies
the divine institution of Episcopacy.
University of Cervera founded.
f * Peter Allix.
f Madame Guyon.

1718

Quadruple alliance between England, France, Austria,
and Holland.
Controversy between Ceillier and Barbeyrac respecting
the morality of the Fathers.
Beausobre and Lenfant's Translation of the New Testament.
t J. La Placette, R. f H. A. Roell, R.
t * William Penn.

1719

"j* Bartholomew Ziegenbalg.
Consultation at Ratisbon concerning an union of the
Lutheran and Reformed Churches.
f J. H. Mai, L.
Quesnel, R. C.

f L. E. Du Pin, R. C.

| Paschasius

Toland advocates the system of Spinoza.

432

1720|

FROM THE REFORMATION

{Seventh

C. M. Pfaff, a Lutheran divine, and J. A. Turretin,
Reformed, strongly recommended the union of their two
churches.
Jansenist Controversy. — Noailles consents to accept the
Constitution conditionally.
J. H. Michaelis (critical edition of the New Testament),
f J. W. Jager, L. f E. Renaudot, R. C.

1721

John Egede goes to Greenland, where he labours for
the conversion of the natives.
Holy Legislative Synod at St. Petersburg; a council
appointed for governing the Russian Church.
* Penal laws against Antitrinitarians in England.
f A. Rechenberg, L. f M. Leydekker, R. | P. D. Huet,
R. C. f F. Pagi, R. C.

1722

The progress of Christianity in China receives a check
by the death of the Emperor Kang He.
Some Moravian Brethren taken under the protection
of Count Zinzendorf.
f G. W. Molanus, L.

f Campegius Vitringa, R.

f * J. Toland, a deistical writer.

1723

Frederick I. King of Sweden, sanctions compulsory
measures for the propagation of Christianity in Lapland.
Peter Francis Le Courayer, a Roman Catholic divine
of Paris, publishes a dissertation in which he declares

Period.)

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

433

ordination of English bishops valid, and maintains the
continuance of the genuine apostolical succession of
bishops in the Church of England (see 1728).

J 723

Jansenist Controversy. — Louis XV. having attained his
majority, the French government, influenced by Cardinal
Fleury, begins to side with the pope in this controversy.
The Appellants are henceforth oppressed and persecuted.
T J, Basnage, R.

1724

f Claude Fleury, R, C.

Catharine, Empress of Russia.
Persecution of Protestants in France.
Attempt to unite the Lutheran and Reformed Churches;
without effect.
Order of the Brethren of Christian Schools, in France,
confirmed by the pope.
Dunkers (Dippers), or Tumblers, a small society of
German Baptists, founded by Conrad Peysel^ near Philadelphia.
f* Humphrey Prideaux, Dean of Norwich, f Benedict
Pictet, R. f Natalis Alexander, R. C.

1725

Dispute of the Pope with John V. King of Portugal,
respecting the papal nuncio (Vincenzio Bicchi).
Benedict holds a Lateran Council "for the Reformation
of the Church." The bull Unigenitus confirmed.
Catharine, Empress of Russia, appropriates the fixed
property of the Church to the use of the crown, and
appoints stipends in exchange.
Jubilee at Rome.
E F

434

FROM THE REFORMATION

17251

(Seventh

Remains of Augustin said to be discovered at Pavia,
T Gamier, R. C,

1726

The king of Prussia appoints a " Vicarius Generalise
in Spiritualibus," for his Roman Catholic subjects.

t * Daniel Whitby,
1727

* George II. King of Great Britain.
Peter II. Emperor of Russia.
Church of the United Brethren at Bertholdsdorf (Herrnhut), established under the auspices of Zinzendorf. (Union
of the Lutheran, Reformed, and Moravian constitution
and discipline.)
* Irish Roman Catholics deprived of the right of voting
at elections.
*• Hutchinsonians in England.
J. F. Buddseus; Isagoge ad Theologiam Universam.
J. Hutchinson ; Moses's Principia.
f * James Abbadie. j" A. H. Franke, L.
t J. W. Petersen, L. (Millenium,—Apocatastasis).

1728

Callenberg, Professor of Divinity at Halle, founds an
institution for the conversion of the Jews and Moham-*
medans, which continued in operation until 1791.
Le Courayer obliged to take refuge in England (Oxford). Here he maintains his former principles, and
publishes his translation of Paul Sarpi's History of the
Council of Trent.
Jansenist Controversy.—Noailles accepts the Constitution
I unconditionally. (N. B. After his death in the following

Period,)

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

435

year, a paper was found, in which he attributed his recantations, &c. to the weakness of old age.)
T J. Lenfant, R.
Canonisation of Gregory VII. (who had already been
honoured as a saint by some monastic orders), attempted
by the pope; but opposed by several of the courts of
Europe, especially by France.
* The Wesleys at Oxford.
f * Samuel Clarke, f J. Fabricius, Li f G. Wernsdorf, L. f J. F. Buddaeus, L. f F. A. Lampe, R. f J. Harduin, R. C.
T * Antony Collins, a deistical writer.
Christian VI. King of Denmark.
Anne Iwanowna, Empress of Russia.
Jansenisi Controversy.— The Constitution Unigenitus is
registered by the Parliament of France as a national law.
The party of the Appellants is still considerable ; they are
now distinguished by peculiar observances of an ascetic
and otherwise fanatical character. —Reported miracles at
the grave of Francis of Paris (Abbe Paris), who died
in 1727 (Convulsionnaires).
Infidelity promoted in France by the rising fanaticism
of the persecuted Jansenists, and, in general, by the controversy in which they took part and suffered.
# Tindal writes against the Christian Religion.
* Origin of the Glassites, or Sandemanians,
f J. Saurin, R.
F F

2

436
1731

FROM THE REFORMATION

[Seventh

The Emperor Charles VI. enacts that all Hungarian
Protestants, in entering upon office, shall take an oath,
" by the Virgin Mary and all saints."
^ By a concordat, the Scotch episcopal clergy are left
at liberty to use either the old communion office, or that
of the Anglican Church.
f J. Marc, R.
% John Wesley and George Whitfield preach in various
parts of England,
Polish Dissidents excluded from office.
# Origin of the Scottish Secession Church.

1732

Order of the Liguorians, or Redemptorists, for the support of the Roman Catholic faith and the instruction of
youth, founded at Naples by Alfonso Maria de Liguori.
t J. J. Breithaupt, L,

1733|

1734

Voltaire begins to scoff at Christianity.
t Thomas Woolston, Matthew Tindal, Mandeville,
deistical writers.
Three missionaries from the Church of the United
Brethren land in Greenland.
f J. C* Dippel, L., theosophist.
Muratori writes against superstition in the worship of
saints.

1735

* John Wesley in America.
University of Gottingen founded.

Period.)

1785\

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

t * William Derham.
Quien, R. C.

f J. J. Rambach, L.

437

f M. Le

Frederick William I., King of Prussia, makes efforts for
effecting an union between the Lutheran and Reformed
Churches.
Missions of the United Brethren to the West Indies,
North American Indians, Esquimaux, Hottentots, and
Surinam.
The Danish Mission in Greenland flourishes.
f J. A Fabricius, L. f J. Clericus (Le Clerc) R, f J.
Fontanini, R. C.
The Church of the United Brethren extends itself in
Germany, Holland, England, Ireland, Denmark, Norway,
Russia, North America.
The constitution and discipline of this Church are now
settled. Its officers are bishops, presbyters, deacons, deaconesses, acolyths.
Gradual amalgamation of theological parties in Germany,— speculative, orthodox, and practical. Corresponding loss of energy and vigilance. The way is being prepared
for the introduction of
A FALSE PHILOSOPHY,

opposed to all former systems of theological doctrines.
t * William Wake, Archbishop of Canterbury. \ J. A.
-Turretin, R.
Warburton's Divine Legation of Moses.
t G. G. Zeltner, L. p . C. Wolf, L. 1 1 . Beausobre, R.
Whitfield in America.
John Wesley forms a society in London, for the promotion of practical piety, retaining communion with the
English Episcopal Church. Whitfield cooperates.
F I R S T METHODIST SOCIETY.
F F 3

438

FROM THE REFORMATION

{Seventh

The University of Paris accepts the bull Unigenitus.
| Edm. Martene, R. C. t Ruseus, R. C.
MARIA THERESA, EMPRESS OF GERMANYF.

Frederick II. the Great, King of Prussia.
Ivan, Emperor of Russia,
Prosper Lambertini, Pope, under the title of Benedict XIV. (1740—1758). A lover of science, and promoter of comparatively moderate and liberal measures.
Zealous in his efforts for the good education, and the
general efficiency, of the clergy.
He maintained, for the most part, a good understanding
with the European governments: he was involved in disputes only with the Republic of Venice.
t S. Werenfels, R.
Wars of the Austrian Succession.
Elizabeth, Empress of Russia.
# Wesley and Whitfield at the head of separate
societies (Wesleyan and Whitfieldite Methodists). The
doctrine of Absolute Predestination forms the ground
of separation.
"f Theophanes Procopowitz, Archbishop of Novogorod,
a reformer of the Russian Church.
t J. G. Reinbeck, L. | D. E. Jablonski, R. f B. Montfaucon, R. C.
(f J. G. Heineccius.)
t * Thomas Morgan, a deistical writer.
f # Thomas Emlyn, Unitarian

Period.)

17421

TO THE PRESENT TIME.
CHARLES VII.

439

EMPEROR OF GERMANY.

France declares war against England, Austria, and
Holland.
The pope obliges all missionaries in China and
Malabar to bind themselves by oath to abstain from
accommodating the Christian religion to the customs
and superstitions of the natives.
A large portion of Silesia is now under the dominion
of Prussia. The Protestants of Prussian Silesia recover
their rights.
*»*
t * Daniel Waterland. f Pet. Sabatier, R. C. f J. B.
Massillon, R, C.
The French government begins to relax its severity
against Protestants in that country*
1743]
* Canons of the Scottish Episcopal Church.
'
University of Erlangen founded.
t K Benzel, L. f Cardinal Fleury.
1744

1745

Failure of an attempt to unite the Greek Christians of
Wallachia with the Church of Rome.
In consequence of the Prussian conquests in Silesia,
the Protestant churches of that country acquire liberty,
and increase in number.
FRANCIS

I. {consort of Maria Theresa)

EMPEROR OF

GERMANY.

# Edward, the English Pretender, in Scotland and
England.
# Associate Synod of the Scottish Secession Church
Benedict XIV. sanctions the celebration of a new fes~
tival;—The Feast of the Seven Joys of the Virgin Mary.
F F 4

440

FROM THE REFORMATION

[Seventh

I But this pontiff applied himself to the task of diminishing
the number of festivals in the Church of Rome; not
without opposition.
1745
1746

t J- Lange, L.

t E. S. Cyprian, L.

Ferdinand IV. King of Spain. Frederick V. King of
Denmark.
# Defeat of the English Pretender at Culloden.
Opposition to Christianity in China.
Diderot propagates atheistic principles.
# POWERFUL PREACHING OF WESLEY AND WHITFIELD
ENGLAND.
The number of itinerant and other
preachers in connection with them increases. Fresh
impulse given to practical religion in England.
Frederick, Count Palatine, conforms to the Church of
Rome.
IN

t B. W. Marpeger, L.
1747

William of Nassau, Prince of Orange, Stadtholder of
Holland.
In Hungary, a society is formed for the extermination
of the Protestant religion. The government forbids Protestants to study in foreign parts, or to restore decayed
churches, without special permission.
* Division in the Scottish Secession Church. Burghers
and Antiburghers. (Re-union in 1820.)
| # John Potter, Archbishop of Canterbury,
Weisman, L,
t Samuel Crell, a Semisocinian.

j* C. E.

Period.)

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

J.7471

f * Thomas Chubb, a deistical writer.

1748

441

Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle.
f # Isaac Watts,

1749

j* A. Driessen, R.

The empress of Russia supports an attempt to propagate Christianity among the Siberians.
#• Hutchinsonian
tention.

Controversy in England excites at-

Order of the Liguorians, or Redemptorists, confirmed
by the pope,
f V. E. Loscher, L.
1750

Dispute between the pope and the Republic of Venice
respecting the Patriarchate of Aquileia.
At this time, the number of Protestants in France is
computed at two millions, notwithstanding all persecutions.
The Jesuits had now become objects of suspicion to
many European governments, on account of their interference in state matters. By their ambition and avarice,
their false principles of morals, and their practice of craft
and fraudulent artifice, they had become odious to the
people at large. Their disputes with the Jansenists had
also contributed to their unpopularity. During the latter
part of this century they were banished from various
countries (Portugal, France, Spain, Naples, Parma).
Swedenborgians.
(1749—1756.) Swedenborg's Arcana Coelestia published.

442

17501

1751
—

FROM THE REFORMATION

[Seventh

f * Edward Chandler, Bp. of Durham, f J* Eisner, R.
| A. Sehultens, R. | L - A - Muratori, R. C.
Augustus Frederick, King of Sweden.
William V. Stadtholder of Holland.
Wetstein's edition of the Greek Testament published,
f * Philip Doddridge,
("f Christian Schottgen.)
f * Lord H. JBolinbroke, a deistical writer.

1752

The Danish Missions in the East Indies, from Halle,
continue to be made eminently useful. Many pious ministers, embued with the same spirit which had animated
Spener and Franke, go forth to this field of labour.
Among them is
CHRISTIAN FREDERIC SCHWARTZ,

whose missionary labours, which lasted during a period
of forty-seven years, now begin.
* Origin of the Relief Churchy or Synod of Relief in
Scotland. The principle of this church is to admit to
communion Christians of every denomination, who, " as
far as they can judge, have a competent measure of knowledge, are soun d in the faith, and unblamable in their
lives."
Jansenist Controversy.—Beaumont, Archbishop of Paris,
followed herein by most other French bishops, ordained
that no dying person should receive the eucharist, without producing a certificate from his confessor to the effect
that he received the Constitution (Unigenitus).
The Jansenist Controversy continued to divide the
French Church until the period of the Revolution.
Jansenist Controversy and Schism in Holland. Rise of

Period.)

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

443

the Roman Catholic Jansenist churches in that country,
which still subsist.
T * Thomas Stackhouse. * J» A. Bengel, L.
f * William Whiston.
Papal Concordat with Spain.
"* * Joseph Butler, Bishop of Durham,
J
Borner, L.

t C. F.

Inconsequence of violent opposition by the unconverted
Chinese, the number of Christians in that empire, said to
have amounted at one time to 800,000, is now reduced
to 100,000.
f J. J. Wetstein, R.
(f Christian Wolf.)
The pope (Benedict XIV.) enters into the plan of the
king of Portugal for the suppression of the Jesuits.
Benedict died before he could effect his purpose.
Frederick, hereditary Prince of Hesse Cassel, conforms
to the Church of Rome.
t * Thomas Wilson, Bishop of Sodor and Man. f S.
Deyling, L. t J. L. Mosheim, L. | A. M. Quirini, R. C.
University of Moscow founded.
Confession of faith of the original or strict Mennonites.
The foundation of Pseudo* rationalism begins to be laid
in Germany ;—prevalence of the Leibnitzo- Wolfian Philosophy and its application to Theology by Baumyarten.t
The French philosophers attack Christianity.

444

FROM THE REFORMATION

{Seventh

War declared between England and France.
ning of the Seven Years' War.
f S. J. Baumgarten, L. f P. E. Jablonski, R.
Calmet, R. C.

Begin-

f A.

The new pope (Clement XIII.) comes to terms with
the Republic of Venice.
The pope a friend and supporter of the Jesuits. A
conspiracy against the life of the king of Portugal, discovered this year, was laid to the charge of that body.
The pope refuses to accede to the king's request, that
Jesuits should be put upon their trial; hereupon the
pope's nuncio was sent out of Portugal.
Declaration of the Company of Pastors at Geneva;
containing a weak and insufficient refutation of the charge
of Socinianism, which has now made great and desolating
progress in the Reformed Church at Geneva.
f # Robert Clayton, Bishop of Clogher. t F. W.
Kraft, L. f Prosper Lambertini (Pope Benedict XIV.).
Swedenborg's De Ccelo et Inferno.
Charles III. King of Spain.
Dictionnaire de l'Encyclopedie published.
Kiermander, missionary at Calcutta.
Dispute between the pope and the Republic of Genoa.
f J . X . Frey, R.
# George III. King of Great Britain.
f Count Zinzendorf.

Period.)

17601

TO THE PKESENT TIME.

f F. Wagner, L.

445

t C. M. Pfoff, L.

The pope supports the order of Jesuits against the
courts of Portugal and France.
1761

J. A. Ernesti, Institutio Interprets Novi Testamenti.
f * Benjamin Hoadley, Bp. of Winchester. *j* * Thomas
Sherlock, Bp. of London. •#• f John Taylor, of Norwich.
t J. P . Fresenius, L. t D. Passionei, R. C. f J. A. Orsi,
R . C , t Le Ceillier, R. C.

1762

Peter III. Emperor of Russia; afterwards Catharine II.
Empress.
The separatists from the Russian (Greek) Church ob-^
tain toleration.
f D. Gerdes, R.

1763

j Prud. Marunus, R. C.

Treaty of Hubertsburg; end of the Seven Years' War.
Provincial Synod of Utrecht.
Justinus Febronius (Hontheim), De Statu Ecclesiae et
Legitima Potestate Romani Pontificis;—combating high
notions of papal power, maintaining the supreme authority of general councils, and the independence of bishops,
conceding to the Romish Church only an unimportant
primacy, with a view to the union of Roman Catholic
and Protestant Churches. — The anti-papal principles of
the Council of Constance, maintained by this writer, gain
great attention and acceptance in various countries.

1764

Stanislaus Poniatowski, King of Poland*

446

1764
1765

FROM THE REFORMATION

T C. A. Henmann, L.

(Seventh

f E. Pontoppidan, L.

JOSEPH II. EMPEROR OF GERMANY

(with Maria Theresa).
The Portuguese government opposes itself, in a great
measure, to the papal hierarchy.
The pope isues a bull in commendation and support of
the Jesuits. Publication of the bull in Portugal forbidden. Jesuits expelled from that country.
j* * George Benson.
1766

Christian VII. King of Denmark.
# Many churches of the Methodists in America,
t * John Leland.

1767

f * Samuel Chandler.

f J. C. Edelmann, the first antichristian writer in Protestant Germany.
* Jesuits arrested in Spain, and removed to Italy.
f J. G. Carpzov, L.

1768

The Dissidents in Poland endure continual grievances.
# First Baptist Church in Scotland.
(The number of Scotch Baptist churches in 1836 was
fi%.)
Controversy respecting the active obedience of Christ.
f # Nathaniel Lardner. f * Thomas Seeker, Archbishop
of Canterbury.

Period.)

17691

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

447

Church of Rome.—-Cardinal Ganganelli chosen pope
(Clement XIV.), by the Antijesuit, or more liberal,
party. He pursues the same line of policy as his predecessor, Benedict XIV.
t E. A. Bertling, L.

1770

The pope becomes involved in a dispute with several
of the courts of Europe, in consequence of his edict against
the duke of Parma, who had taken measures for restricting
the power and revenues of the clergy.
A pope's nuncio again received in Portugal.
Annual publication of the bull In Ccena Domini discontinued.
* Shakers, or Shaking Quakers, a fanatical sect, attract
attention in Lancashire.
I * George Whitfield. f J. Brucker, L. j" Urs. Durandus, R. C.

1771

Gustavus III. King of Sweden.
Semler gives rise to a controversy respecting the Canon of
Scripture.
Swedenborg publishes an exposition of his system, entitled " True Christian Religion."
"J" Helvetius — Marquis d'Argens — literary opponents
of Christianity.

1772

Partition of Poland by Austria, Russia, and Prussia.
#- A body of English clergy and laity petition Parliament to abolish the practice of subscription to the Thirtynine Articles. The measure not carried.
t J. C. Kocher, L.

448

FROM THE REFORMATION

{Seventh

1772

"j* Emanuel Swedenborg.

1773

The pope, by concessions, conciliates the duke of Parma,
and, soon after, all other governments which had opposed
the measures of the Romish See.
The order of Jesuits suppressed by Clement XIV. (by a
bull, Dominus ac Redemptor noster), having become
obnoxious at Rome by attempts to erect a politico-hierarchical system, independent of the Papacy. At the time
of its suppression, this order possessed, in 39 provinces,
24 professed houses, 669 colleges, 61 novitiate houses,
176 seminaries, 335 residences, 273 missions, 22,589
members. After this, the order continues to exist, especially under the auspices of Russia and Prussia; with
hopes of a formal restoration.
•fc Bereans, in Scotland.
Louis XVI. King of France.
# Commencement of war between Great Britain and
America.
The French Protestants recover their rights.
# Theophilus Lindsey quits the Church of England,
and advocates Unitarian tenets.
Settlements or Societies of Shakers (Shaking Quakers)
established in America.
f #• Z. Pearce, Bishop of Rochester. T J. G. Tollner, L.
# David Williams endeavours to form a society or fraternity of Deists ; without any permanent result.
The pope, who died this year, was probably poisoned
by Exjesuits. Cardinal Braschi (Pius VI.) succeeds; a
friend of the Jesuits.

Period.)

177*5]

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

* Some concessions made by the British Government
to Roman Catholics.
f C. A. Crusius, L.

1776

449

f F. E. Rambach, L .

* United States of America independent of Great
Britain.
At this time, the number of Dissenting Congregations
in England (alone) is 1509.
Many monasteries suppressed by the king of Sicily.
j* Breilinger, R.
T * David Hume, a sceptical writer.

1777

Maria I. Queen of Portugal.
Upon the accession of Maria I. to the crown of Portugal, the anti-papal measures of that court cease.
The Wolfenbuttel Fragments published by Lessing.
f Zachariae, L.

1778

France declares in favour of the United States of
America. * War with Great Britain.
Church of Rome, — The pope compels Justinus Febronius (J. Nicholas von Hontheim ; see 1763) to retract
his anti-papal propositions.
In Germany, pseudo-philosophical (or rationalistic)
principles are extensively applied to subjects of theology.
The peculiar truths and doctrines of Christianity are
gradually explained away, diluted, and annulled. The pi 0G G

450

FROM THE REFORMATION

(Seventh

I gress of this malady is favoured by the circulation of the
writings of English and French deists, by the influence
of the king of Prussia, and by the weakness of German
apologists*
1778

T C. F. Schmidt, L.
f Voltaire and Rousseau — opponents of Christianity.

1779

Spain acknowledges the United States of America* and
declares war against Great Britain.
-# By an act of Parliament, ministers of dissenting
churches, scrupling to declare and subscribe assent to any
of the Articles of the Church of England as required by
the Act of Toleration, are allowed to make and subscribe,
instead thereof, a declaration of Protestant belief. (Even
this qualification was subsequently (1812) rendered unnecessary.)
f * W. Warburton, Bishop of Gloucester, f J. F. Cotta, L.

1780

Death of the Empress Maria Theresa.
Joseph, Emperor alone.
(He endeavours to restrain the excessive power of the
pope, and to remove ecclesiastical abuses. In his resistance to papal encroachment and usurpation, he enters
upon an extensive plan of reform.)
Rise of societies of Universalists in America;

3781

Great Britain declares war against Holland.
The emperor publishes an Edict of Toleration, and grants
to the Protestants of Hungary their religious liberty, and
restoration of their privileges.
He forbids the publication of papal bulls affecting political matters in Germany, without the imperial sanction.

Period.)

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

451

I German bishops to exercise their original powers, and
made independent of the pope by an oath to the civil
ruler. Appeals to Rome forbidden. Monks made subject to the diocesan bishops. The people permitted to
read the Scriptures. The pope protests against these
proceedings.
1781

Among other reforms effected by the Emperor Joseph
were included, — an improvement of the liturgy — a reduction of the number of monks, and measures for the
greater efficiency and usefulness of monastic institutions
— the prohibition of superstitious pilgrimages and processions — and adoption of means for the improvement of
the clergy.
Images removed from the churches.
to 1794. University of Stuttgart.
t J. A. Ernesti, L. f E. H. D. Stosch, R.
Various refutations of the Wolfenbuttel Fragments ap pear in Germany.

1782

The pope repairs to Vienna, where he is received with
great respect by the people; but fails in his attempt
to divert the emperor from his plans of ecclesiastical
reform.
Sender, Professor of Divinity at Halle, promotes (perhaps beyond his intention) the progress of RATIONALISM
in the Lutheran Church.
f Danov, L.

1'783

_

A society formed for the purpose of printing and circulating the wrorks of Swedenborg.
T * B. Kennicot,
G G

2

452

17831
1784

FROM THE REFORMATION

{Seventh

t D'Alembert, an opponent of Christianity.
t c-

W

- F-

Walch

>

L

-

t * Anne Lee (Stanley), "Mother of the Elect," a
fanatical pretender to inspiration. Her delusions excited
some attention in England and America. She claimed
power to work miracles, and to speak with strange
tongues.
f Diderot, an opponent of Christianity.
1785

American Episcopal Church. — Dr. Seabury, Bishop of
Connecticut, consecrated by five Scotch bishops.
The religious liberty of the Russian (Greek) Raskolnites, or Separatists, is formally recognised, under certain
conditions.
The sect of the Duchohortzi.^ in Russia, is now considerable. Distinguished from the orthodox or dominant
church chiefly by a deeper acquaintance with Holy Scripture, and a more simple and practical reception of its
doctrines.
Bahrdt exercises a pernicious influence in Germany.
Moses Mendelsohn.

1786

Frederick William II. King of Prussia.
Congress at Ems.
Four German archbishops assert their metropolitan rights
against papal usurpation.
The Council of Pistoja, under the influence of Scipio
Ricci, Archbishop of that place, adopts the Four Articles
of the Gallican Church; and decrees various ecclesiastical
improvements in opposition to the papal hierarchy.

Period.)

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

453

The Council of Pistoja asserts the Augustinian doctrine
of grace.
Joseph II. enjoins the use of the vernacular tongue in
the celebration of divine worship.
University of Bonn founded,
t J. M. Gotze, L. t A. F. W. Sack, R.
Beginning of the French Revolution.
Notables.

Meeting of the

The French Government again extends its protection
to Protestants, by granting them civil rights.
In a national council held at Florence, the decrees of
the Council of Pistoja are annulled, and the Romish
party retains the upper hand. The papal party finds
means also to nullify the proceedings of the Congress
at Ems, by exciting the jealousy of the German bishops
against their superiors, the archbishops, who met on that
occasion.
An edict of Louis XVIII. (confirmed by Parliament
in 1788), in favour of the French Protestants.
Bishops of Philadelphia and New York consecrated in
England.
The Existence of God. — Kant and other philosophers
endeavour to establish the knowledge of this fact by
moral proofs, rejecting all others. Many divines, and
others, are dissatisfied with this line of argument.
The followers of Emanuel Swedenborg form themselves into a community, under the title of " The Church
of the New Jerusalem." The sect continues to spread
in Sweden, France, Germany, Poland, and (especially)
England.
G G

3

454
1787|
1788

FROM THE REFORMATION

t * R- Lowth, Bishop of London,

[Seventh

"j* Herm. Venema, R.

Charles IV. King of Spain.
Some Roman Catholic missionaries labour in the East
Indies during this century, apparently without beneficial
results.
Religious Edict of the king of Prussia, in support of
orthodoxy according to the symbolical boohs.,
* Penal laws against Scotch Episcopalians repealed.
* Calvinistic Methodists in Wales become numerous.
f J. A. Cramer, L.
ger, R. C.

1789

t G. J. Zollikoffer, R.

t Felbi-

The States General of France assemble.
Revolt of the Netherlands.
The influence of Kant's philosophy upon theology becomes evident, especially in Germany.
The number of festivals diminished in Spain.
t * Philip Skelton.

1790

LEOPOLD II. EMPEROR OF GERMANY.

Opposition to the Papacy decreased in Germany.
The Reformation in Germany, attempted by Joseph II.,
lost itself in popular tumults, and was counteracted by
papal machinations. Tt was finally crushed by the death
of Joseph this year.
Scipio Ricci, Archbishop of Pistoja and Prato, deposed.
(In 1804 or 1805 he agreed to retract his principles; he
died in 1810.) Reformation in Tuscany suppressed.
The French Assembly adopts measures against the

Period,)

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

455

(R. C.) Church in France, Sale of Church property.
Monastic vows prohibited.
To the Methodists now belong, in England, 295
preachers, 71,668 members; in America, 198 preachers5
43,265 members.
Summary of the History^ Doctrine^ and Discipline of
Friends^ written at the desire of the Meeting for Sufferings, and published this year.
f J. N. von Hontheim, R. C.
Progress of the French Revolution.
The French clergy almost unanimously refuse to take
an oath of allegiance to the new Constitution: expelled
from their benefices.
*• Society of United Irishmen established in Dublin.
New measures for the support of Lutheran orthodoxy
in Berlin. Commission of Examination.
t *John Wesley, f J. S. Sender, L. f J. D. Michaelis, L*
t J. B. Koppe, L.
FRANCIS II. EMPEROR OF GERMANY*

Gustavus Adolphus IV. King of Sweden.
War declared by France against Austria*
National Convention of France.
Church property confiscated in France, Belgium, and
Savoy.
| A. G. Spangenberg, Bishop of the Church of the
United Brethren, a reformer or second founder of the
society.
* Baptist Missionary Society for the East and West
Indies founded.
G G 4

456

17921

FROM THE REFORMATION

{Seventh

# Johanna Southcott, a pretended prophetess, assumes
the character of " The Woman in the Wilderness."
J. F. Schleusner's Lexicon of the New Testament.
t J. C. Doederlein, L. | C. F. Bahrdt, L. f S F. N.
Moms, L.

1793

Louis XVI. King of France, beheaded.
Robespierre. — Reign of Terror.
War declared by France against Great Britain, Spain,
and Holland.
Second partition of Poland by Austria, Russia, and
Prussia.
Temporary suppression of the public profession of Christianity in France.
The Church of Notre Dame at Paris, and many others,
converted into (so called) Temples of Reason. Advocates
of Atheism and Deism persecute the professors of Christianity.
The French Republic excommunicated.
$• Fresh concessions of the British Government to
Roman Catholics. Right of voting at elections restored;
disability to sit in Parliament and to hold civil offices
continued.
j Biisching, L.

f Gerber, R. C.

In Germany, Henke describes Christian doctrine on
rationalistic principles. Storr writes in greater conformity
with Scripture.
# Thomas Paine writes against Christianity."
1794

The pope condemns eighty-five propositions from
among the decrees of the Synod of Pistoja.

Period.)

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

457

17941

f Ildef. Swartz, R. C.

1795|

Louis X V I I I . assumes the title of king of France
upon the death of the dauphin, or Louis X V I I .
Peace between France and Spain.
The French Directory.
# London Missionary Society formed.
t S. Mursinna, R. C.
* In England, the tenets of Socinus gradually prevail
among the Presbyterian churches, which very generally depart from the scriptural faith, as revived and
expounded at the Reformation. But the members of these
churches decline in number; many of those who adhere
to catholic doctrine being merged in Congregational or
Baptist churches. The others are commonly designated
by the title Unitarian.

179t>

Spain declares war against Great Britain.
Buonaparte assumes the command of the army of Italy.
Successes against the Austrians.
Paul I. Emperor of Russia.
In France, a Theophilanthropic Society (of Natural
Religionists) is formed, in contradistinction to the Christian Church.
* Scotch Missionary Society founded.
#• Thirty-five missionaries sent by the London Missionary Society to the South Sea Islands.
T * James Fordyce.

f J. Danzer, R. C.

In Germany, J. W. Schmidt and C. F. Ammon apply
the prevailing philosophy (Rationalism) to Christian doctrine.

458

FROM THE REFORMATION

(Seventh

17971 Peace of Campo Formio, between France and Austria.
—
Frederick William III. King of Prussia.
Dutch Missionary Society founded.
* Rise of Congregationalists, or Independents, in Scotland.
* Formation of the Methodist New Connection in
England.
A community of French Protestants formed at Delft,
entitled Christo Sacrum, with a view to the union of all
Protestant churches, on the basis of one comprehensive
confession of the fundamental articles of faith.
T G. Less, L.
1798

The emperor of Russia, the king of Naples, and the
Ottoman Porte, declare war against the French Government.

—

Berthier enters Rome. Abolishes the papal government. The pope made prisoner, and removed to Sienna.
* Rebellion in Ireland, by disaffected Roman Catholics.
f

1799

CHRISTIAN

FREDERIC

SCHWARTZ.

Successes of Austria and Russia against France.
Buonaparte, First Consul in France,
In the theological schools of the Lutheran Church, Rationalism, or pseudo-philosophy, is now generally erected upon the
ruins of Christian doctrine.
The Church of the United Brethren becomes instrumentally a refuge and nursery of evangelical truth.
This century has been distinguished by the publication

Period.)

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

459

of many new translations of Scripture, — new editions and
revisions of former translations,—and critical revisions
of the original Hebrew and Greek text.
Besides this, the style of the New Testament has been
carefully compared with the works of Greek profane
literature (Raphel); a more accurate acquaintance with
Hebrew has been acquired by the cultivation of other
Oriental languages, especially Arabic (Schultens); andfresh
illustrations of the sacred text have been obtained by an
increased knowledge of the geography and manners of
Eastern nations. Numerous expositions of Scripture,
differing in kind and value, have appeared.
1800

Progress of French arms in Italy and Suabia.
* Union of Great Britain and Ireland.
#• [English) Church Missionary Society established.
Cardinal Chiaramonte elected pope (Pius V I I . ) ; disposed at first to adopt conciliatory and moderate measures.
The moderate Mennonites re-unite, the whole body
having gradually become Antitrinitarian,and having otherwise abandoned the peculiar doctrines of Christianity.
The original or strict Mennonites retain their early
tenets ; but their party is small.

18011

Peace of Luneville, between Austria and France.
Alexander I. Emperor of Russia.
Armed Neutrality of Russia, Sweden, and Denmark.
Union of Lutheran and Reformed Churches in the South
of Russia.
French Concordat with the pope.
Roman Catholic religion restored in France. Gallican
Church placed under the control of government.
Synod of the Church of the United Brethren at
Herrnhut.

460

FROM THE REFORMATION

{Seventh

* Rules of discipline of the Welsh Calvinistic Methodists.
Severe oppression of Protestants in Hungary.
t * Hugh Blair,

f J. C. Lavater, R.

Peace of Amiens.
Buonaparte consul for life; new constitution given to
nnp
France.
The French Theophilanthropic Society at an end.
F. A. Chateaubriand writes in defence of the Christian
Religion.
x
&*
Christo Sacrum. — This society, having increased in
number and influence, is recognised by the Dutch government. A church consecrated this year. The society
afterwards fails to attain its professed object; its doctrine
gradually sinks more and more below the line of Scriptural
truth; and the whole institution appears likely to fall to
the ground.
o

I f S. L. E. de Marees, R. t Alex. Geddes, R. C.
War between Great Britain and France, and between
Great Britain and Holland.
* Methodist Churches. — Wesleyan Methodists now
reckon, in Great Britain and foreign parts, — Old Connection, 819 preachers (besides supernumeraries), 224,774
members; New Connection, 29 preachers, 5280 members.
In England, the Calvinistic Methodists form a portion
of the Congregational churches.
t J. G. Herder, L.
Several universities founded in Russia.

Period.)
1804[

TO T H E P R E S E N T T I M E .

461

BUONAPARTE, E M P E R O R OF FRANCE,

(crowned by the pope).
Francis I I . abandons the title of Emperor of Germany,
and assumes that of Emperor of Austria.
#• T H E B R I T I S H AND F O R E I G N B I B L E SOCIETY founded.

t J . G. Spalding, L . f W. A . Teller, L . f C. C. Storr, L .
( | Immanuel Kant.)
f # Joseph Priestley, Unitarian.
1805)

Alliance between Great Britain, Russia, Austria, a n d
Sweden, against F r a n c e .
T r e a t y of Presburg, between France and Austria, after
the battle of Austerlitz.

1806|

Erection of new kingdoms by Buonaparte.
Confederation of the Rhine.
Successes of F r a n c e against Prussia.
T h e pope now asserts bold hierarchical principles, a n d
strenuously endeavours to maintain pontifical dignity and
power.
I n China, where the ( R . C.) Missionary Church h a d
begun to revive, a violent opposition was excited this
year, in consequence of a dispute among the missionaries.

1807

Peace of Tilsit. T r e a t y of Fontainbleau.
of Portugal by the F r e n c h .
f J . A. Nosselt, L .

1808

Conquest

| J- F . L e Bret, L , t G. F . Seiler, L .

Ferdinand V I I . King of Spain. Buonaparte proclaims
his brother Joseph king. War in Spain.
Frederick V. King of D e n m a r k .

462

18081

FROM THE REFORMATION

{Seventh

* Society for the Conversion of the Jews established in
London.
•#• Unitarian tenets and societies make some progress in
America and England.
t J. M. Schrock, L. (Church History).

1809
—

Charles X I I I . King of Sweden.
Treaty of Presburg, between France and Austria.
The pope having failed to comply with the demands of
Napoleon, is made prisoner and carried to Fontainbleau.
The States of the Church are annexed to the French Empire, and Rome declared free.
#• (Roman) Catholic Association in Ireland, for obtaining removal of all civil disabilities.

——

Universities of Helmstadt and Rinteln suppressed.
f J. Eberhard, L. f GL S. Steinbart, L. f H. P. C.
Henke, L. f Ziegler, L.

1810

War in the Peninsula.
Convocation of the Spanish Cortes. Bernadotte, Crown
Prince of Sweden.

—

Great American Missionary Society founded at Boston.
#- The Reformed Presbyterian Synod of Scotland.
Union of Old Scotch Dissenters, adherents of the First
Reformation in 1560.
University of Berlin founded.

1811

* George, Prince of Wales, Regent of Great Britain.
* New code of canons for the Scottish Episcopal
Church.

Period.)

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

463

# Additional " Regulations " of the Welsh Calvinistic
Methodists.
1811

University of Christiana founded.

J 812|

* War between Great Britain and America.
Alliance of Great Britain and Russia. War between
Russia and France.
Disasters of Buonaparte and the French in Russia.
f * Henry Martyn, Missionary in Persia and the East
Indies.
| Platon, Archbishop of Moscow.
University of Genoa founded,
f J. J. Griesbach, L. f F. V. Reinhard, L.
NOTE CONCERNING PROTESTANT CHURCHES.

Evangelical or Lutheran churches prevail in Saxony,
Prussia, Wurtemburg, Hanover, Northern Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Norway. There are also some in Holland,
Russia, Poland, Hungary, and America.
Reformed or Calvinian churches are found chiefly in
Switzerland, Holland, the Palatinate, France, and Scotland.
Their points of difference relate chiefly to-—the corporeal
presence of Christ in the eucharist, the doctrine of predestination, church government and polity, and certain
rites and ceremonies. These last-named differences exist
principally with respect to — the use of images in churches,
vestments of the clergy, private confession of sins, use of
wafers in the eucharist, use of exorcism at baptism.
About this time, debates are active in the Episcopal
Church of England^ on points connected with justification
by faith, and other fundamental doctrines of the Gospel.
A low and unworthy method of treating these great subjects had prevailed during the latter half of the preceding
century; but when the question came to be fully discussed, it appeared that the great majority of Anglican

464

FROM THE REFORMATION

{Seventh

] divines had not fallen into any irretrievable error; and
their confession of evangelical truth, in conformity with the
unaltered standards of the national church, became more
distinct and prevalent than it had been for some time past.
The beginning of this century brought with it a revival
of Christian doctrine from slumber, rather than a restoration from ruins. For this happy circumstance we are in debted,—under the divine providence of the Great Head
of the Church, — to the Articles and Homilies, which had
been upheld in their integrity, and in their demand to
the assent and consent of all officiating ministers of the
Establishment, — and, more especially, to our invaluable
Liturgy, a form of sound words, full of scriptural doctrine,
breathing the spirit of genuine devotion, and eminently
adapted to discharge the office of an unflinching witness
of divine truth, and a faithful guide in the pursuit of
holiness, peace, and eternal life.
1812
* Number of Dissenting Congregations in England and
Wales. — In England, 252 Presbyterian, 799 Independent, 532 Baptist; in Wales, 18 Presbyterian, 225 Independent, 176 Baptist. — Total 2002.
—
* Congregational Union of Scotland,
(Number of their churches in 1836, 91).
—
* Methodist Churches. The Wesleyan Methodists now
reckon in Great Britain and Foreign Parts, Old Connection, 1401 preachers (besides supernumeraries),
405,073 members; New Connection,
4 preachers,
8067 members.
1813

1814

Alliance of Russia and Prussia.
Successes of the Allies against France.
Leipsic.

Battle of

Continued successes of the Allies. Triumphant entrance
into Paris. Abdication of Buonaparte. Louis X V I I I .
enters Paris.

—

PEACE OF PARIS, BETWEEN THE ALLIES AND FRANCE.

—

Treaty of Ghent, between Great Britain and America.

Period.)

18141

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

465

* Methodist Missionary Society completely organised.
(The foundation of such a society may be considered as
having been laid by John Wesley.)
American Baptist Missionary Society founded.
The pope recovers
Church. H e carries
papal hierarchy, as far
permit. Restores the
Inquisition.

his liberty and the States of the
into effect the principles of the
as the circumstances of the times
order of Jesuits, and the Spanish

The order of Jesuits restored by a bull (Sollicitudo
Omnium) of Pius VII. From this time its influence progressively increased, until it received a check by the
second French Revolution (of 1830).
t * Johanna Southcott. A small sect, professing to
believe in her pretended inspiration, still survives.
t W. Munscher, R.
Buonaparte lands in France from Elba.
Renewal of war. Battle of Waterloo^ and final overthrow of Buonaparte.
Treaty of Paris.
William I. King of the Netherlands.
German League.
Renewed persecution of (R. C.) Christians in China.
(1814—1816.) A sanguinary persecution of French
Protestants in the neighbourhood of Nismes.
Roman Catholics in Switzerland commence efforts for
the organisation of a national church, immediately subject to the pope.
* The bishopric of Calcutta erected, in connection with
the English Episcopal Church.
II H

466

FROM THE REFORMATION

(Seventh

Universities of Wittemberg and Halle united,
f J. G. Rosenmiiller, L.
Evangelical Missionary Society founded at Basle (especially for Mohammedan countries, and Western Africa.)
The king of Prussia nominates two titular bishops of
the Evangelical Church of Prussia.
Universities of Lii thick and Ghent founded,
f J. F. C. Loffler, L.
f Meyer, L.
United Missionary Society founded at New York.
FRENCH CONCORDAT.

BAVARIAN CONCORDAT.

Ecclesiastical Constitution of Poland.
Tercentenary of the Beginning of the Reformation,
U N I O N OF THE LUTHERAN AND REFORMED CHURCHES
IN PRUSSIA.

The Prussian government begins to adopt active, and
even oppressive, measures for the introduction of episcopacy, and the use of a liturgy in the National Protestant
Church. Several titular bishops now created.
f F. S. G. Sack, R.

f J. Jahn, R. C.

Intolerant opposition made by the (Socinian) pastors
of Geneva to the promulgation of Scriptural doctrine.
Mournful prevalence of Infidelity at Geneva.
Congress of Aix-la-Chapel le.
Charles John, King of Sweden.
NEAPOLITAN CONCORDAT.

New constitution of the Lutheran churches in Holland.

Period.)

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

467

1818|

* The British Parliament grants one million pounds
sterling for the building of churches and chapels.

1819

American Methodist Missionary Society established.
Auxiliary Missionary Societies at Frankfort, Bremen,
Tubingen, and Dresden.1
A large portion of the South Sea Islanders have now
embraced Christianity.
Jesuits expelled from Russia.
University of Petersburg founded.

1820

# George IV. King of Great Britain.
Revolutions in Europe.
Missionary Society of the Protestant Episcopal Church
of North America founded.
# The United Associate Synod of the Secession Church
in Scotland.
The order of the Liguorians, or Redemptorists, founded
in 1732, hitherto without much effect, rises to some importance at Vienna.
t K. C. Tittman, L.
In Germany, the credit of nationalism is on the decline ;
the evangelical theology and church awake from their
slumber; fruits of the pious labours of Spener and
Franke begin to re-appear; learning and science again
offer some homage to Scriptural truth and doctrine; there
appears ground for hope that the Holy Spirit of Truth
graciously designs to make a gradual return to his almost
deserted habitations — the Protestant churches of the
Continent.
H H

2

468

18211

FROM THE REFORMATION

{Seventh

Charles X. King of France.
PRUSSIAN CONCORDAT.

f Hanstein, L.
* Since the commencement of this century, various subdivisions of the Methodist Society, besides those already
named, have taken place. The newly detached bodies
are, — the Primitive Methodists, Bryanites, Independent Methodists, Wesleyan Protestant Methodists, and
members of the Wesleyan Association.
1822

* At the fifteenth conference of the members of the
New Jerusalem Church (Swedenborgians) held at Manchester this year, twenty-four congregations were represented. The number of complete members amounted to
nearly 3000. In America the members are estimated at
4000. The peculiar tenets of this sect are a kind of philosophical fanaticism, rather than any modification of
Christian doctrine.
f J. F. Flatt, L. f Bertholdt, L.

1823

Berlin Society for the Promotion of Evangelical Missions among the Heathen founded.
Union of Reformed and Lutheran Churches at Marpurg.
Cardinal della Genga elected pope (Leo X I L ) ; a friend
of science, but a strenuous asserter of papal claims. He
condemns the Bible Society, restores the prisons of the
Inquisition, and proclaims the Jubilee to be celebrated
in 1825.
#• Methodist Churches. — The Wesleyan Methodists in
Great Britain and Foreign Parts now include, Old
Connection, 2000 preachers, 553,937 members ; New
Connection, 48 preachers, 10,972 members,

Period.)

X8231

—

1824

—

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

469

' * Confession of Faith of the Welsh Calvinistic
Methodists.
* Orange Lodges in Ireland.
Conference at the Hague, between the Church of Utrecht
and a papal nuncio, with a view to reconciliation; ineffectual.
(The Church of Utrecht refuses subscription to the
condemnation of Jansenius by Alexander VII.; rejects
the bull Unigenitus; and claims the privilege of electing
its own bishops.)
Continued suppression of (R.C.) Christianity in China.
At this period, reports reckon 47,000 native Christians,
and three European priests, in that country.
Paris Evangelical Missionary Society founded.
HANOVERIAN CONCORDAT.

Edict of the Council of State in the Canton of Vaud
prohibiting all assemblies for religious worship, except
those of the national church, under penalties of fine and
imprisonment. (Efforts of the Rationalists in support of
their peculiar tenets.)
In England some controversy prevails respecting the
doctrine of Baptismal Regeneration. To a great extent, this
is no more than a dispute about words. But there exists
also a substantial difference of opinion, according as parties
adopt or reject the Augustinian doctrine relating to Predestination and Grace.
Differences and controversies relating to the said
Augustinian tenets exist among members of the English
National Church, as well as in the Church of Rome and
other Christian communities. These differences may
long continue, but without necessarily obscuring the
essential doctrines of the Gospel; and, it is to be hoped,
without breach of Christian charity.
1825

t St. Simon.
H H 3

470

1825]

FROM THE REFORMATION

Rise of a small sect of visionaries, or pretended prophets, in New York.
f G. C. Knapp, L.

1826

[Seventh

f J. S. Vater, L.

American Inland Missionary Society founded at New
York.
The Roman Catholic clergy of Silesia petition for
ecclesiastical reform.
# Rise of the Irvingites, a small sect of fanatics,
making pretensions to miraculous gifts, attached to Edward Irving, a Scotch minister.
t K. F. Staudlin, L. f Gabler, L. f Bengel, L. f Caj.
Weiller, R. C.

1827

A Missionary Society founded at Lausanne.
CONCORDAT OF THE PROVINCE OF THE U P P E R R H I N E .

Destructive fire at Abo in Finland. The university
transferred to Helsingfors.
t J. G. Eickhorn, L. f Thadd. Dereser, R. C. f G.
Keller, R. C.
1828|

* Repeal of the Test Act.
General Conference of the (Swedenborgian) New
Church in Great Britain and Ireland.
Catechism of the New Church.
* University of London founded.
t A. H. Niemeyer, L. f H. G. Tzschirner, L.

1829

Rhenish Missionary Society established.

Period.)

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

18291

471

Castiglione elected pope (Pius VIII.).
* Act for the Relief of Roman Catholics of Great
Britain from Civil Disabilities (commonly called Roman
Catholic Emancipation).
#

The English Quakers, following the example of a portion of their body in America (1828) repudiate the idealistic system of the majority of their brethren, who, in
accordance with the teaching of Elias Hicks, virtually
deny the deity of Christ, the inspiration of the Scriptures,
and other positive doctrines of Christianity, and hold
various opinions tending to a rationalistic nullification of
the Gospel. Divisions and secessions.
* The number of Friends in England, Wales, and Ireland, is computed at about 30,000. In the United States
of America, the Society reckons 220,000 members.
St. Simonians in Paris.
1830]

* William IV. King of Great Britain.
Revolution in France and Belgium.
Louis Philippe, King of the French.
In France, the Revolutionary Charter gives to Protestants equal rights and privileges with Roman Catholics.
t F. Munter, L.
Christian doctrine, as embodied in the Confession of
Augsburg and other symbolical books, is now more generally received by members of the Protestant churches in
Germany and other parts of the Continent. But the
amount of error which still remains in those communities
is so great, and the inclination to false philosoplry so
strong, that there is some cause to fear lest the modern
admixture of truth may not serve to strengthen and perpetuate false doctrines, which often retain a more permanent hold upon men's minds when modified and
HH 4

472

FROM THE

REFORMATION

(Seventh

I adorned, than when presented in all their baldness and
deformity.
The state of foreign churches, at this moment, calls for
our Christian sympathy and prayers; and ought to serve
as a warning against the admission of false principles into
our own creed; against the insidious influence of superstition, wiJl-worship, and deference to human authority
on the one hand, and the no less pernicious effect of false
philosophy and the pride of reason on the other. T H E
BIBLE, THE BIBLE ALONE, IS THE RELIGION OF P R O TESTANTS.

1831

Leopold I. King of the Belgians.
Otho, King of Greece.
Mauro Cappellari elected pope (Gregory XVI.).
The Abbe Chatel excommunicated, on account of his
attempts to erect a French National Church, independent
of Rome.
Union of the Roman Catholic clergy of Wurtemburg
for the abolition of the law of celibacy.
t J. F. Schleusner, L.
Stange, R.

| J- E. C. Schmidt, L.

t T. F.

Partial revival of Christianity at Geneva.
1832

Gregory XVI. addresses a letter to the bishops of
Bavaria against mixed marriages, and concerning the
danger of familiar intercourse with Protestants.
The impostor Matthias at New York,
t J. A. H. Tittman, L.

1833

f E. Zimmerman, L.

* A- commission for the better distribution of Church
property in England.
-#• Ten bishoprics in Ireland suppressed, with a view
I to an improved application of their revenues.

Period.)

TO THE PRESENT TIME.

473

I

#• Declaration of Faith and Order, adopted and put forth
by the Congregational Union of England and Wales; but
not as a test or creed for subscription.
1838
* Methodist Churches. — The Wesleyan Methodists, in
Great Britain and Foreign Parts, now amount to, Old
Connection, 3410 preachers, 914,131 members; New
Connection, 63 preachers, 14,784 members. (More than
one half in the United States of America.)
% Fanatical pretensions of the Irvingites excite increased
attention. Edward Irving suspended by the Presbytery,
t G. J. Planck, L.
1834

f Colin, L.

PRUSSIAN AGENDA,

a code of regulations for government of the churches,
and conduct of divine worship, issued by the Prussian
government. Many of the pastors refusing to adopt
this code, the government afterwards had recourse to
compulsory measures. Recusants suspended and deprived.
—

f #• Edward Irving.

1836

University of Brussels founded.
f F. E. D. Schleiermacher, L.
t * Edward Burton.

1837

* Victoria, Queen of Great Britain.
Protestant Churches of France. — At this time, France
possesses 366 pastors of the Reformed Church, and 230
of the Lutheran.
The Protestant churches of France have not altogether
escaped those errors of a false philosophy, by which Christian truth has been undermined in Germany and Switzerland. But there is reason to hope for an extensive

474

FROM THE REFORMATION

(Seventh

revival of the doctrines and spirit of the Gospel among
them.
Restless efforts of the Romish party to restore papal
ascendancy in Prussia. The king imprisons some Roman
Catholic bishops for contempt of the laws and breach of
their engagement with reference to mixed marriages.
The dispute between the government and the Romish See
continues.
Roman Catholics acquire a great increase of political
power in Great Britain.
In England, some influential divines of the Episcopal
Church declare their adherence to certain erroneous doctrines and false pretensions, which lie at the foundation of
ecclesiastical superstition and tyranny. Thus we are
threatened with a revival of errors and fables which were
(more or less) exploded at the Reformation. In the meantime, the Bible is a great and unflinching Protestant.
Truth must prevail at last. — " It is the Lord, let Him
do what seemeth Him good !"
Some remains of ancient Oriental sects, or Christian
communities, exist to the present day, without having
been merged in the Church of Rome. These are
I. Nestorian or Chaldean Christians, — a part of the
church settled on^the coast of Malabar (the other part
having conformed to the Church of Rome).
II. Monophysites ; namely,
1. Syrian Jacobites, under a patriarch at Antioch
(a small portion of their body having been
united to the Church of Rome, under a patriarch at Aleppo).
2. Copts, in Egypt, under a patriarch at Alexandria.
3. Armenians, under their own catholicos, resident
in Persia (part of this body only having joined
the Romish Church).

Period.)

TO T H E P R E S E N T T I M E .

475

4. Abyssinians, under a head subordinate to the
Coptic patriarch (subject to the Romish yoke
only for a short period, at the beginning of the
seventeenth century).
I I I . Monothelites ; i. e. the Maronites of M o u n t Lebanon.
Although nominally united to the Romish Church, they r e tian a considerable degree of independence, under their
own patriarchs, and some ancient institutions a n d customs,
e.g. marriage of their clergy, divine service in the vernacular*
tongue, administration of the communion in both kinds.

LIST

OF

POPES,

PATRIARCHS,

AND A R C H B I S H O P S

C A N T E R B U R Y , F R O M T H E Y E A R 1556

1556. * Cardinal Pole.
1559.

1572. GREGORY XIII.

—

Jeremiah II.
Metrophanes deposed.

1575. * Edmund Grindal.
1579. Metrophanes III.
restored.

1580. Jeremiah I.
restored.

1583. * John Whitgift.
— Pachomius II. and
Theolepttcs II.
during a second temporary deposition
of Jeremiah.
1585. SIXTUS V.
1590. URBAN VII.
—
GREGORY XIV.
1591. INNOCENT IX.

—

CLEMENT VIII.

1594. Matthew II.
—
Gabriel I.
after the abdication of Matthew.

OF

1837.

1594? Theophanes
succeeded Gabriel.

P I U S IV.

— * Matthew Parker.
1565. Metrophanes III.
1566. P i u s V .

TO

1595. Matthew II.
restored.

1600 Neophytus I
Matthew deposed.

1601. Matthew

II

•restored/

1602. Raphael II
1604. * Richard Bancroft.
1605. L E O XL
—

1606.

P A U L V.

Neophytus
restored.

1610. Timothy II.
— * George Abbot.
1621.

GREGORY XV.

—

Cyril Lucaris

frequently deposed and restored.

(Gregory IV.
Anthymius II
Cyril II.
Athanasius II.
Neophytus II).
1623. URBAN VIII.

1633. * William Laud.

476

FROM T H E REFORMATION, ETC.

1639. Parthenius I.
1644.

—

INNOCENT X.

Parthenius

1645.

Athanasius III.
James.
Callinicus II.
Neophytus III
Gabriel III.
Neophytus IV.
Cyprian.
Athanasius IV.
Cyril V.
Comus II.
Jeremiah III.
Paisius II.
Seraphim (1733).

II.
II,

Parthenius I I . deposed.

1647. Parthenius

II

restored.

1650. Joannicus
restored.

II.

Continual changes.

{Cyril III.
Paisius I.
Parthenius III.
Gabriel II).
1655. ALEXANDER VII.
1657. Parthenius IV.
frequently deposed and restored.

Dionysius III.
Clement.
Methodius III.
Dionysius IV.
Gerasimus II).
1660. * William Juxon.
1663. * Gilbert Sheldon.
1667. CLEMENT IX.
1670. CLEMENT X.
1676.

INNOCENT XI.

1677. * William Saner oft.
1689. ALEXANDER VIII.
1691. INNOCENT XII.
* John Tillotson.
1694. * Thomas Tenison.
Perpetual changes in the See of Constantinople, and confusion in the succession.
The names of the Patriarchs who

Period.)

succeeded Parthenius are the following:—

^ L a u d beheaded.
See of Canterbury vacant.

1646. Joannicus

{Seventh

1700.

CLEMENT XL

1715. * William Wake.
1721. INNOCENT XIII.
1724. BENEDICT XIII.
1730.

CLEMENT

XII.

1737 * John Potter.
1740.

BENEDICT

XIV.

1747 * Thomas Herring.
1757. * Matthew Hutton.
1758. CLEMENT XIII.

— * Thomas Seeker.
1768. * Frederic Cornwallis.
1769.

CLEMENT

1775.
1783.
1800.
1805.
1823.
1828.
1829.

Pius VI.
* J o h n Moore.
Pius VII.
*C.M.Sutton.
L E O XII.
* William Howley.
Pius VIII.

XIV.

1831. GREGORY XVI.

N . B . COUNCILS possess comparatively little importance after the close of the
Council of Trent, in 1563. Such of them as are worthy of note, as effecting the
interests of the Church to any extent, are recorded in the General Chronology.

E N D O F T H E SEVENTH P E R I O D .

INDEX.
The numbers denote the years under which the several articles are described or mentioned.
A
ABBADIE, James, 1727.
Abelard, 1 1 2 5 ; 1142.
Abulpharagius, Gregory, 1286.
Acacius, Bp. of Ceesarea, 358.
Acacius, Patriarch of Constantinople,
4 7 2 ; 4 7 8 ; 4 8 4 ; 489.
Acceptants, 1717.
Achillas, 282.
Act of the Six Articles, 1539 ; 1546.
Act of Uniformity, 1662.
Act of Toleration, 1689; 1779.
Acta Sanctorum, 1643.
Acts of Pilate, 3 3 ; 3 1 1 .
Acts of the Apostles, 64.
Adalbert of Prague, 997.
Adamnan, 695.
Adiaphoristic Controversy, 1548.
Admonition to Parliament, 1572.
Ado, 875.
Adolphus of Nassau, E m p . Ger., 1291.
Adoptian Controversy, 7 8 7 ; 7 9 2 ; 7 9 4 ;
7 9 9 ; 817.
A-drian, E m p . , 1 1 7 ; at Alexandria, 1 2 0 ;
at Athens, 122; at Rome, 1 2 5 ; letters of, 1 2 6 ; 129.
Advertisements, 1565 ; 1566.
JElia Capitolina, 135.
iEneas of Gaza, 485.
iEneas Sylvius Piccolomini, 1439; 1447;
1 4 5 6 ; 1458.
JEpinus, John, 1548.
Aerius, 368.
Aetius, 358.
Agapetus, 536.
Agenda, Prussian, 1834.
Agnoetae, 521.
Agobard, 8 1 5 ; 8 3 3 ; 834.
Agricola, John, 1566.
Alan of Lille, 1294.
Alban, 303.
Albert the Great, 1280.
Albert of Austria, E m p . Germ., 1438.
Albigenses, 1 1 9 8 ; 1208.
Albinus, 62.
Alciato, Paul, 1565.
Alcimus Avitus, 525.
Alcuin, 7 3 5 ; 7 6 0 ; 7 6 8 ; 7 8 2 ; 7 9 3 ;
7 9 4 ; 7 9 9 ; 804.
Alexander, Bp. of Jerusalem, 214.
Alexander Severus, E m p . , 222.

Alexander, E m p . E . , 911.
Alexander of Hales, 1245.
Alexander, Natalis, 1724.
Alexandria, Catechetical School of, 1 7 5 ;
180; 188; 220; 2 3 1 ; 2 3 2 ; 247;
261 ; 282.
Alexius T. (Comnenus), E m p . E . ,
1081.
Alexius I I . , E m p . E . , 1180.
Alexius I I I . , E m p . E . , 1195.
Alexius I V . , E m p . E . , 1204.
Alexius V.
(Ducas
Murzuphilus),
E m p . E . , 1204.
Alfred, 8 7 8 ; 8 8 0 ; 884.
Alliance, Catholic or Holy, 1538.
All Saints, Festival of, 611 ; 830.
All Souls, Festival of, 998.
Allix, Peter, 1717.
Alogi, 203.
Alombrades, 1575 ; 1623.
Alp Arslan, 1 0 6 3 ; 1 0 6 5 ; 1071.
Alting, Henry, 1644.
Alting, James, 1679.
Amalrie of Bene, 1200 ; 1209.
Ambrose,Bp. of Milan, 3 7 4 ; 3 8 0 ; 3 8 8 ;
3 9 0 ; 397.
Ammon, C. F . , 1796.
Ammonius Saccas, 204 ; 226 ; 232.
Amphilochius, 394.
Amyraldus, Moses, 1664.
Anabaptists, 1 5 2 2 ; 1528, 1 5 2 9 ; 1534;
1 5 3 7 ; 1601 ; 1612; 1645.
Anastasius I., E m p . E . , 4 9 1 .
Anastasius I I . , E m p . E . , 7 1 3 .
Anastasius, monk, 686.
Anastasius, librarian at Rome, 864.
Ancyra, Council of, 358 /
Andrea?, James, 1590.
Andrese, J . V., 1615; 1654.
Andreas, of Cassarea, 491.
Andreas, Antony, 1320.
Andronicus I. (Comnenus), E m p . E . ,
1183.
Andronicus I I . , E m p . Const., 1283.
Andronicus I I I . , E m p . Const., 1328.
Anglo-Saxons, 4 5 0 ; 4 6 0 ; 5 2 1 ; 5 2 7 ;
547 ; 678 ; 826.
Anomoeans. See Arianism.
Ansegius, 871.
Anselm, 1 0 8 9 ; 1 0 9 7 ; 1106.
Ansgar, 8 2 6 ; 828 ; 8 3 1 ; 834 ; 855; 864*

478

INDEX.

Anthemius, E m p . W., 467.
Anthimus, 536.
Anthropomorphites, 93 9.
Antiburghers, 1747.
Anticocceians. See Cocceian Controversy.
Antidicomarianites, 380.
Antinomians, 1643 ; 1645 ; 1690.
Antinomistian Controversy, 1539.
Antioch, Church of, 4 0 ; 41 ; 47 ; 48.
Antioch, Councils of, 2 6 5 ; 2 6 9 ; 341 ;
358.
Antioch, School o^ 297.
Antoninus Pius, E m p . , 138.
Antony, 309 ; 356.
Antony, Monks of, 1095.
Aphthartodocetse, 5 2 1 .
Apocrisiarii, 596 ; end of 7th cent.
Apocryphal Gospels, &c. 155.
Apollinaris, elder and younger, 3 6 2 ;
378.
Apollonius, 180.
Apollonius of Tyana, 303.
Apologies of Quadratus and Aristides,
122.
Apology of J u s t i n Martyr, first, 148 ;
second, 163.
Apology of Melito, 1 7 0 ; of Miltiades
and Claudius Apollinaris, 170.
Apology of Athenagoras, 176.
Apology of Tertullian, 198.
Apostles, 33 ; 35 ; 44 ; 49 ; 8 1 .
Apostolical Constitutions and Canons,
286.
Apostolicals, 1 2 6 0 ; 1 2 8 0 ; 1 2 8 6 ; 1 2 9 0 ;
1300.
Apostoolians, 1664.
Appellants, 1 7 1 7 ; 1 7 2 3 ; 1730.
Aquila, 119.
Aquinas. See Thomas.
Arator, 556.
Arcadius and Honorius, E m p . , 395.
Arcadius, Edict of, 398.
Archbishop, 5 8 1 .
Archdeacons, 4 0 0 ; 1072.
Arianism; A r i u s ; 3 1 8 ; 3 2 1 ; 3 2 5 ;
327; 3 3 1 ; 335; 337; 342; 345;
3 5 1 ; 3 5 7 ; 358; 3 5 9 ; 3 6 3 ; 3 8 0 ;
484; 485; 517; 518; 524; 525;
5 3 6 ; 5 5 3 ; 558; 5 6 8 ; 5 8 9 ; 6 0 2 ;
670.
Aristides, Apology of, 122.
Aristotelian Philosophy, 4 3 9 ; 5 1 0 ; 5 2 9 ;
7 3 0 ; 7 5 0 ; 7 9 4 ; 1209.
Aries, Councils of, 314 ; 353.
A r m i n i a n s ; Arminius, 1 5 8 7 ; 1 6 0 0 ;
1 6 0 3 ; 1 6 0 9 ; 1 6 1 0 ; 1 6 2 2 ; 1627.
Arnauld, Antony, 1 6 4 2 ; 1 6 5 5 ; 1694.
Arndt, John, 1 6 1 5 ; 1621.
Arnobius, 307.

Arnold of Brescia, 1 1 3 4 ; 1 1 3 9 ; 1 1 4 5 ;
1155.
Arnold, G., 1714.
Arnulph, 991 ; 997.
Arsenius Autorianus, 1257.
Artemon, Artemonites, 193.
Articles of Torgau, 1530.
Articles concerning Faith and Ceremonies, 1536.
Articles of Smalcald, 1537.
Articles and Interrogatories, ex officio
mero, 1584.
Articles, Lambeth, 1595.
Articles of Perth, 1 6 1 8 ; 1638.
Articles of Religion, forty-two, 1553 ;
thirty-eight, 1 5 6 3 ; thirty-nine, 1 5 7 1 ;
1 6 2 8 ; 1772.
Ascetics, 178.
Assembly at Jerusalem, 49.
Assembly of Divines at Westminster,
1 6 4 3 ; 1654.
Asylum, Right of, 378 ; 3 9 8 ; 431 ; 4 3 2 ;
441 ; 585.
Athanasian Creed, 434 ; 485 ; 670.
Athanasius, 325 ; 326 ; 331 ; 335; 3 3 7 ;
340 ; 341 ; 346 ; 347 ; 3 5 1 ; 356 ;
3 6 2 ; 3 6 3 ; 3 6 7 ; 373.
Athenagoras, 1 7 5 ; 176.
Athens, Church of, 150.
Attila, 453.
Atto, 960.
Augsburg, Confession of, 1530.
Augsburg, Peace of, 1555.
Augustin, Bp. of Hippo, 3 9 0 ; 3 9 1 ; 3 9 5 ;
400; 405; 407; 412; 419; 420;
426 ; 428 ; 430.
Augustin, Hermits of, 1 2 5 6 ; 1274.
Augustin, Abp. of Cant., 5 9 6 ; 5 9 8 ;
601 ; 6 0 2 ; 6 0 6 ; 613.
Aurelian, E m p . , 270.
Auto-da-Fe, 1556.
Avignon, 3 3 0 8 ; 1 3 7 0 ; 1 3 7 7 ; 1 3 7 8 ;
1 3 8 5 ; 1398.
Avitus, E m p . W . , 455.
B. .
Bacon, Roger, 1294.
Bacon, John, 1346.
Bahrdt, C. F . , 1792.
Baier, J . W., 1695.
Baius, 1 5 6 7 ; 1 5 6 9 ; 1 5 7 9 ; 1587; 1589.
Bajazet, 13891; 1396 ; 1402.
Bangor, Monks of, 613.
Bangorian Controversy, 1717.
Baptism, 3 3 ; 1 7 6 ; 2 0 4 ; 2 1 5 ; 2 5 5 ;
2 5 6 ; end of 3d cent. ; end of 4th
cent.; 4 4 7 ; 4 5 0 ; 585; 1 6 5 2 ; 1712.
Baptist Churches, 1608 ; 1616 ; 1620 ;
1 6 3 3 ; 1 6 4 6 ; 1689; 1 6 9 1 ; 1 7 0 0 ;
1 7 6 7 ; 1 7 9 2 ; 1795.

INDEX.
Baradseus (Jacobus), 545.
Barbarism of the Middle Ages, 510.
Barclay, Robert, 1690.
Bardesanesof Edessa, 1 4 0 ; 1 6 5 ; 175.
Barlaam, 1 3 3 9 ; 1 3 4 0 ; 1341.
Barnabas, St., 40 ; 4 4 ; 45 ; 47 ; 48 ; 4 9 ;
50.
Barnabas, St., (spurious) Epistle of, 122.
Barnabites, Order of, 1530.
Barnes, Martyrdom of, 1540.
Baronius, Csesar, 1588 ; 1607.
Barsymas, 4 5 1 ; 485.
Basil, of Neocsesarea, 363 ; 3 7 0 ; 378.
Basil I . , E m p . E . , 867 ; 871.
Basil I I . and Constantine I X . , E m p . E . ,
976.
Basilicus, E m p . E . , 476.
Basilides, 122.
Basle, General Council of, 1431 ; 1439.
Basnage, Samuel, 1691.
Basnage, J . , 1723.
Baumgarten, S. J., 1757.
Bauny, Stephen, 1649.
Baxter, Richard, 1641 ; 1662; 1691.
Bayle, Peter, 1706.
Beaton, Cardinal, 1 5 2 9 ; 1539; 1 5 4 2 ;
1546.
Beausobre, J . , 1738.
Beccus (or Veccus), John, 1 2 7 4 ; 1282;
1298.
Bechmann, F . , 1703.
Becket, Thomas a, 1 1 6 2 ; 1 1 6 4 ; 1166;
1 1 6 9 ; 1173,
Bede, 7 1 6 ; 7 3 1 ; 7 3 4 ; 735
Beghards, Beguines, 1210; 1245; 1292;
1 3 4 1 ; 1349.
Belgic Confession, 1 5 6 1 ; 1 5 8 2 ; 1 6 0 5 ;
1618.
Belisarius, 5 3 4 ; 538 ; 552.
Bellarrain, Cardinal, 1621.
Benedict, of Nursia, 4 8 0 ; 529.
Benedict, of Aniane, 817 ; 8 2 1 .
Benedictines, 5 6 1 ; 615 ; 817.
Bengel, J . A. 1752.
Benson, George, 1765.
Bereans, 1773.
Berenger I., K i n g of Italy, 916.
Berenger I I . , K i n g of Italy, 9 4 5 ; 951 ;
961.
Berenger of Tours, 1048 ; 1 0 5 0 ; 1054;
1 0 5 9 ; 1 0 7 8 ; 1088.
Berlin, Conference at, 1702.
Bernard, 1 1 1 3 ; 1 1 1 5 ; 1 1 2 5 ; 1 1 4 5 :
1153.
Berno, 9 1 0 ; 927.
Berthold, 1150.
Bertholdt, 1822.
Bertling, E . A., 1769.
Berulle, 1613.
Beryllus, 240.

479

Bessarion, 1 4 3 8 ; 1472.
Beza, Theodore, 1553 ; 1556 ; 1605.
Bianchi, 1399.
Biddle, John, 1662.
Biel, Gabriel, 1495.
Bishops' Bible, the, 1568.
Bishops' Book, 1537.
Blair, H u g h , 1801.
Blandrata, G., 1 5 7 8 ; 1590.
Blastus, 170.
Blondel, David, 1655.
Blount, Charles, 1693.
Bochart, Samuel, 1667.
Bocher, Joan, 1549.
Bockhold, 1534.
Bodin, J . 1596.
Boethius, 480 ; 5 1 0 ; 525.
Bogomili, 1 1 0 3 ; 1 1 1 8 ; 1 1 4 0 ; 1143.
Bohme, J., 1624.
Boleslas I . , of Bohemia, 938 ; 945.
Boleslas I I . , of Bohemia, 967.
Boleslas I . , of Poland, 1002.
Bolland, 1643.
Bona, Cardinal, 1674.
Bonaventura, 1245; 1253; 1256; 1260;
1274; 1482.
Boniface, Patr. of Rome, 5 3 0 ; 532.
Boniface, Apostle of Germany, 7 1 5 ; 7 1 8 ;
722; 7 2 3 ; 732; 7 4 3 ; 7 4 5 ; > 5 3 ; 755.
Bonner, 1 5 4 7 ; 1549; 1 5 5 3 ; 1557.
Bonosns, 388.
Borgia, 1492.
Borner, C. F . , 1753.
Borromeo, 1583.
Bossuet, J . B . , 1 6 7 0 ; 1680; 1682; 1 6 8 8 ;
1 6 9 8 ; 1704.
Bourdaloue, Louis, 1704.
Bourignon, Antoinette, 1680.
Boyle Lectures, 1692.
Bradwardine, 1325; 1347.
Braschi, Cardinal, 1775.
Braun, J „ 1710.
Breithaupt, J . J . , 1732.
Breitinger, 1776.
Brentz, John, 1570.
Bret, Le, J . F . , 1807.
Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit,
1311.
Brethren, Bohemian, Moravian, United,
Church of the, 1457; 1467; 1 5 0 3 ;
1548; 1 6 1 6 ; 1 7 2 2 ; 1 7 2 7 ; 1 7 3 6 ;
1 7 9 2 ; 1 7 9 9 ; 1801.
Brethren of Mercy, Order of, 1540.
Breviarium Romanum, 1568.
Brigitta, 1 3 5 9 ; 1 3 7 3 ; 1377.
Bruno, Apostle of Prussia, 1007.
Bruno, B p . of W urtzburg, 1045.
Bruno, founder of the Carthusian Order,
1101.
Bruno, Giordano, 1600.

480

INI3EX.

Britain, introduction of the Gospel into,
204.
Browne, Robert, 1630.
Brucker, J . , 1770.
Bryanites. See Methodists.
Bucer, Martin, 1524; 1543; 1548;
1551.
Buddams, J . R , 1727; 1728.
Budnaeus, Simon, 1584.
Bugenhagen, John (Pomeranus), 1525;
1558.
Bulgaria, 680; 855; 866; 870; 877; 959.
Bull, the Golden, 1536 ; against Luther,
1520; In Ccena Domini, 1 5 3 6 ; 1568;
1610; 1627; 1770; Unigenitus, 1711 ;
1717; 1720; 1725; 1728; 1730;
1 7 3 9 ; 1752; Dominus ac Redemptor
Noster, 1 7 7 3 ; Sollieitudo Omnium,
1814.
Bull, George, 1710.
Bullinger, 1531 ; 1549 ; 1575.
Burghers, 1747.
Burchard, J o h n (of Wesel), 1479.
Burkard, Bp. of Worms, 1026.
Burleigh, Walter, 1337.
Burmann, Francis, 1679.
Burnet, Gilbert, 1715.
Burton, Edward, 1836.
B u r y Arthur, 1692.
Buscher, Statius, 1639.
Biisching, 1793.
Busenbaum, H . , 1660.
Butler, Joseph, 1753.
Buxtorf, 1 6 2 0 ; 1 6 5 3 ; 1664.
C.
Csecilian, B p . of Carthage, 311.
Csesenas, Michael, 1343.
Cainites, 140.
Cajetan, Cardinal, 1518; 1534.
Calcutta, Bishopric of, 1815.
Caligula, E m p . , 37.
Caliphs, Caliphate, 6 3 2 ; 6 3 4 ; 6 3 7 ; 638;
6 3 9 ; 6 4 0 ; 6 4 4 ; 655; 6 6 1 ; 6 8 2 ; 7 1 1 ;
712; 750; 753; 755; 766; 786; 800;
8 1 3 ; 8 4 0 ; 9 0 3 ; 9 3 5 ; 9 6 5 ; 9 6 8 ; 1027;
1 0 5 0 ; 1054; 1 1 5 2 ; 1260.
Calixtines, 1420; 1 4 3 3 ; 1 4 3 4 ; 1 4 3 6 ;
1462.
Calixtus, George, 1 6 1 3 ; 1 6 3 4 ; 1639;
1 6 4 3 ; 1 6 4 5 ; 1 6 5 5 ; 1656.
Calixtus, Frederic, 1 6 5 5 ; 1701.
Callenberg, 1728.
Calmet, A. 1757.
Calov, Abraham, 1 6 4 5 ; 1 6 5 5 ; 1 6 8 2 ;
1686.
Calvin, John, 1 5 3 2 ; 1535, 1536; 1539;
1 5 4 1 ; 1549; 1552; 1553; 1554; 1556;
1559; 1564.
Camaldulensian Order, 1016.
Camisards, 1 6 8 8 ; 1 7 0 0 ; 1706.

Campanus, John, 1532 ; 1574.
Campeggio, 1 5 2 4 ; 1526.
Campian, 1 5 8 0 ; 1581.
Canisius, Peter, 1551.
Canon of Scripture, 1 5 0 ; 1 7 0 ; 3 5 0 ;
4 9 4 ; 1771.
Canon Law, 2 6 2 ; 1234.
Canonici,— Canons and Chapters, 7 5 0 ;
8 1 3 ; 815; 960; 976; 1059; 1121;
1126.
Cantores, 370.
Capellus, 1 6 2 4 ; 1 6 5 0 ; 1653.
Capito Wolfgang Fabricius, 1524.
Capuchins, Order of, 1 5 2 5 ; 1528.
Caracalla, E m p . , 212.
Carlstadt, 1 5 1 9 ; 1 5 2 4 ; 1 5 2 8 ; 1541.
Carmelites, Order of, 1150; 1238; 1245;
1274.
Caroline Books, 790.
Carpocrates, 145.
Carpzov, J . B. (the elder), 1657.
Carpzov, J . B . (the younger), 1699.
Carpzov, J . G., 1767.
Cartesian Philosophy, 1650.
Carthusians, 1081.
Cartwright, 1 5 7 0 ; 1589.
Cams, E m p . , 282.
Casino, Mount, Monastery of, 529.
*
Cassander, George, 1566.
Cassel, Conference at, 1661.
Cassian, 3 9 5 ; 4 1 1 ; 4 2 5 ; 4 3 4 ; 435.
Cassiodorus, 493 ; 536 ; 539 ; 563.
Castellio, 1551 ; 1563.
Cataphrygians. See Montanists.
Catechism of the Council of Trent, 1566.
Catechisms, Assembly's, 1643.
Cathari, 1179.
Catharine of Sienna, 1377.
Catholic (or H o l y ) Alliance, 1538.
Catholic League, 1609; 1 6 2 0 ; 1631.
Catholics, Poor, Order of, 1201.
Cave, William, 1713.
Ceillier, L e , 1761.
Celestines, Order of, 1294.
Celibacy, 1 7 8 ; 2 7 0 ; 3 7 8 ; 388.
Celibacy of the Clergy, 3 2 5 ; 3 8 8 ; 4 5 0 ;
5 0 4 ; 5 3 8 ; 5 5 0 ; 5 9 8 ; 6 4 9 ; 680 ;
6 9 2 ; 721 ; 868 ; end of 9th cent. ;
9 5 2 ; 9 6 9 ; 1000; 1 0 7 3 ; 1081; 1 1 0 1 ;
1 5 3 8 ; 1 5 4 9 ; 1831. See also Marriage of the Clergy.
Celidonius, 444.
Celsus, 140.
Cerinthus, 96.
Chamier, Daniel, 1621.
Chandler, Edward, 1750.
Chandler, Samuel, 1766.
Chapters of Clergy. See Canonici.
Charisius, 499.
Charlemagne, 7 6 8 ; 7 7 1 ; 7 7 8 ; 7 8 2 ;
7 8 7 ; 7 9 0 ; 7 9 4 ; 8 0 3 ; 813.

INDEX.
Charles the Bald, 8 6 9 ; 8 7 0 ; 8 7 1 ; 877.
Charles the Fat, 884.
Charles I V . , E m p . Ger., 1347.
Charles V., E m p . Ger., 1 5 1 9 ; 1 5 2 3 ;
1 5 5 6 ; 1558.
Charles V I . , E m p . Ger., 1711.
Charles V I I . , E m p . Ger., 1742.
Chartophylaces, end of 7th cent.
Chateaubriand, F . A., 1802.
Chatel, Abbe, 1831.
Chemnitz, Martin, 1 5 6 5 ; 1586.
Cheregati, 1522.
Chillingworth, William, 1644*
Christo Sacrum, 1797 ; 1802.
Christopher, E m p . E . , 919.
Chrodegang, 750.
Chrysostom, 3 7 0 ; 380 ; 386 ; 398 ; 401 ;
4 0 3 ; 4 0 4 ; 407.
Chubb, Thomas, 1747.
Church, constitution and government of
the, 9 8 ; 1 0 0 ; 1 5 5 ; 176; 1 8 8 ; 2 1 4 ;
2 1 5 ; 2 4 0 ; 2 4 4 ; 2 5 2 ; end of 3d
century ; 323 ; 325 ; 331 ; 343 ; 347
3 5 0 ; 3 8 3 ; 4 0 0 ; 5 1 6 ; 5 1 8 ; 528
534 ; 536 ; 541 ; 545 ; 549 ; 557
6 0 4 ; 6 3 5 ; 6 7 8 ; 6 9 2 ; 7 6 7 ; 1046,
Church, discipline of the, 81 ; 98 ; 155
1 8 0 ; 2 1 5 ; 2 2 2 ; 2 4 9 ; 2 5 5 ; 256
end of 3d. cent. ; 328 ; 4 5 0 ; 469
5 0 6 ; 5 1 7 ; 5 3 4 ; 5 3 8 ; 5 3 9 ; 692
end of 7th c e n t . ; 7 4 1 ; 7 4 7 ; 813
1 0 5 0 ; 1 0 8 1 ; 1 0 8 6 ; 1 1 5 0 ; 1164
1 2 1 5 ; 1275.
Church, doctrine and teaching of the, 35 ;
1 2 9 ; 1 5 5 ; 1 8 0 ; end of 2d c e n t . ;
2 1 5 ; 2 4 0 ; 2 4 4 ; 2 5 2 ; 2 5 4 ; end of
3d cent. ; 3 5 0 ; 4 0 7 ; 439 ; 442 ; 4 5 0 ;
4 5 7 ; end of 5th cent. ; 5 1 0 ; 5 5 0 ;
6 5 0 ; 732 ; 750 ; 877 ; end of 9th
c e n t . ; 1 0 4 6 ; 1072; 1 0 9 8 ; 1 1 2 9 ;
1 1 5 0 : 1 2 2 9 ; 1260; 1 2 6 4 ; 1 2 8 6 ;
1 2 9 9 ; 1 3 3 3 ; end of 14th c e n t . ;
1 4 2 0 ; end of 15th c e n t . ; 1 6 5 9 ;
1 7 8 7 ; 1830.
Church, ministers of the, end of 3d cent. ;
323; 326; 370; 390; 400; 457;
472 ; 489 ; 529 ; 541 ; 550 ; 558 ;
572 ; 581 ; 585 ; 589 ; 596 ; 604 ;
6 7 5 ; end of 7th cent. ; 771 ; 7 9 4 ;
8 4 4 ; 8 5 0 ; 9 5 0 ; 9 6 9 ; 1 0 4 6 ; 1072.
Church, rites and ceremonies of the, 33 ;
4 2 ; 1 0 0 ; end of 2d cent.; 2 1 5 ;
222 ; 2 4 0 ; 256 ; end of 3d cent. ;
325 ; 343.; 350 ; 370 ; end of 4th
cent. ; 441 ; 447 ; 450 ; end of 5th
c e n t . ; 5 4 9 ; 5 6 1 ; 5 7 2 ; 5 9 8 ; 611
6 5 0 ; 6 6 3 ; 6 7 5 ; 7 8 7 ; 800; 1050
1 0 6 0 ; 1 0 8 1 ; 1 1 3 0 ; 1140; 1325
1351.
Church and State, 3 2 0 ; 3 5 0 ; 655

481

7 5 0 ; 7 5 9 ; 8 1 3 ; 8 2 8 ; 8 5 0 ; end of
9th cent. ; 9 6 0 ; 965; 9 6 9 ; 1 0 5 4 ;
1059; 1 0 6 6 ; 1 0 7 2 ; 1 0 7 6 ; 1 0 8 7 ;
1094; 1097; 1106; 1139; 1 1 6 1 ;
1162; 1164; 1302; 1307; 1613;
1 6 2 6 ; 1 7 0 0 ; 1 7 0 8 ; : 1 7 2 1 ; 1725.
Church property, 425 ; 467 ; 536 ; 549 ;
5 5 7 ; 5 7 2 ; 5 8 5 ; 655; 6 7 5 ; 7 4 0 ;
7 8 7 ; 7 9 1 ; 8 1 3 ; 8 5 0 ; 8 5 5 ; end of
9th cent.; 9 6 9 ; 9 9 9 ; 1 0 5 4 ; 1 0 6 6 ;
1073; 1143; 1265; 1279; 1292;
1296; 1570; 1605; 1725; 1790;
1 7 9 2 ; 1833.
Churches of the East and West, disputes
between, 345 ; 347 ; 407 ; 484 ; 544 ;
553; 589; 653; 768; 813; 867;
8 9 1 ; 9 5 0 ; 1 0 4 6 ; 1 0 5 3 ; 1 0 5 4 ; 1098;
1199; 1 2 3 0 ; 1 2 7 4 ; 1 3 3 9 ; 1 3 6 7 ;
1 4 3 8 ; 1 5 5 6 ; 1 5 7 6 ; 1 6 2 1 ; 1634.
Churches, Evangelical and Reformed,
1612; 1615; 1631; 1661; 1702;
1 7 0 7 ; 1 7 1 9 ; 1720; 1 7 2 4 ; 1 7 3 6 ;
1 8 0 1 ; 1 8 1 7 ; 1823.
Chytraeus, David, 1600.
Circumcelliones, 342.
Circumcision, question concerning, 49.
Cistercians, 1098 ; 1113.
Civil War, English, 1642 ; 1643 ; 1644 ;
1 6 4 5 ; 1 6 4 6 ; 1 6 4 7 ; 1650.
Clarendon, Constitutions of, 1164; 1166.
Clarke, Samuel, 1 7 1 2 ; 1728.
Claude, of Turin, 831 ; 840.
Claudian, 394.
Claudius, Felix, 5 3 .
Claudius (Tiberius), E m p . , 4 1 .
Claudius ( M . Aurelius), E m p . , 268.
Claudius, poet, 442.
Clayton, Robert, 1758.
Clement of Rome, Epistle ofj 9 8 ; death
of, about 100.
Clement of Alexandria, 188 ; 193 ; 202 ;
218.
Clement V I I . , Pope, 1378.
Clergy. See Ministers of the Church.
Clerici Regulares S. Majoli, 1543.
Clericus, J . , 1736.
Clovis, 4 8 1 ; 486 ; 496 ; 504 ; 507 ; 5 1 1 .
Clugny, Monastery of, 9 1 0 ; 9 2 7 ; 998.
Cocceius, John, Cocceian Controversy,
1 6 5 8 ; 1 6 6 9 ; 1624.
Coelestius, 4 0 4 ; 411 ; 417.
Collegia Philobiblica, 1689.
Collegiants, 1630.
Colin, 1833.
Colossians, Epistle to the, 62.
Columba, 561.
Columban, 6 0 4 ; 6 0 6 ; 615.
Commission, Court of H i g h , 1559.
Commission of Examinations, 1791.
Committee of Triers, 1654.
I I

482

INDEX.

Commodian, poet, 270.
Commodus, E m p . , 180.
Common Prayer, English Book of, 1 5 4 5 ;
1 5 4 8 ; 1549; 1 5 5 0 ; 1 5 5 1 ; 1 5 5 2 ;
1 5 5 3 ; 1 5 5 5 ; 1560; 1 6 0 4 ; 1 6 3 3 ;
1 6 6 1 ; 1 6 8 9 ; 1 7 1 2 ; 1731.
Communion. See Lord's Supper.
Complutensian Bible, 1520.
Conclave, 1 2 7 4 ; 1276.
Concord, Form of, 1580.
Concordat of Worms, 1 1 2 2 ; of Vienna,
1447; of Francis and Leo, 1 5 1 6 ;
Papal, with Spain, 1 7 5 3 ; French,
1 8 0 1 ; 1817; Bavarian, 1 8 1 7 ; N e apolitan, 1 8 1 8 ;
Prussian, 1 8 2 1 ;
Hanoverian, 1 8 2 4 ; of the province of
the Upper Rhine, 1827.
Confession, private, 457 ; 1215.
Confession, Belgic, 1 5 6 1 ; 1 5 8 2 ; 1 6 0 5 ;
1618.
Confession of Augsburg, 1530.
Confession, Tetrapolitan, 1530.
Confession, Helvetic, first, 1536; second,
1566.
Confession des Eglises Reformees de
France, 1559.
Confession of the Mennonites, 1 5 8 0 ;
1755.
Confession, Arminian, 1622.
Confession, Orthodox, of the Greek
Church, 1643.
Confession, Baptist, 1646.
Confession, Westminster, 1647.
Confession of Calvinistic Baptists, 1689.
Congregatio de Auxiliis, 1598.
Congregatio de Propaganda Fide, 1622.
Congregational Union of Scotland,
1812.
Congregationalists. See Independents.
Conrad I., E m p . Ger., 912.
Conrad I I . , E m p . Ger., 1 0 2 4 ; 1032.
Conrad I I I . , E m p . Ger., 1138.
Conrad I V . , E m p . Ger., 1250.
Conrad of Marpurg, 1232.
Consensus Tigurinus, 1549.
Consensus
Pastorum
Genevensium,
1551 ; 1554.
Consensus Dresdensis, 1571.
Consensus Repetitus Fidei Vere L u theranae, 1655.
Consent of Faith at Sendomir, 1568\
Constance, Council of, 1414.
Constans and Constantine I I . , E m p . W . ,
337.
Constans I I . , E m p . E . 641.
Constantine, conversion of, 311 ; sole
emperor, 3 2 3 ; baptism and death of,
337.
Constantine I I . and Constans, E m p . W.
337.
Constantine I I I . , E m p . E . , 641.

Constantine I V . (Pogonatus), E m p . E . ,
6 6 8 ; 680,
ConstantineV. ( Copronymus), E m p . E . ,
741.
Constantine V I . , E m p . E . , 780.
Constantine V I I . , (Porphyrogenitus),
E m p . E . , 9 1 2 ; 945.
Constantine V I I I . , E m p . E . , 9 1 9 .
Constantine I X . , E m p . E . , 1025.
Constantine X . (Monomachus), E m p .
E . , 1042
Constantine X I . ( D u c a s ) , E m p . E . ,
1059.
Constantine X I I . (Palaeologus), E m p .
E . , 1448.
Constantinople, first Council of, 381 ;
second, 553 ; third, 680.
Constantius and Galerian, E m p . , 305.
Constantius, E m p . E . , 337.
Constitutionists, 1717.
Constitutions of Clarendon, 1164 ; 1166.
Constitutum, 553.
Consubstantiation.
See Lord's Supper.
Contareni, Cardinal, 1542.
Contraremonstrants, 1 6 1 0 ; 1611 ; 161S ;
1618.
Controversies, early, 8 1 ; 155 ; 167.
Conventicle Act, first, 1664; second,
1670.
Convocation, English, 1661.
Convulsionn aires, 1730.
Corbinian, 730.
Corinthians, First Epistle to the, 56;
Second Epistle, 58.
Cornelius, conversion of, 4 1 .
Corporation Act, 1661 ; 1670.
Corpus Juris Civilis Ilomanae, 558.
Corpus Domini, Festival of, 1 2 6 4 ;
1311.
Corpus Doctrinse Misnicum or Philippicum, 1558.
Correspondents, 596.
Corruption of Christianity, early, 129.
Cosmas Indicopleustes, 5 3 3 .
Cosmas of Constantinople, 1143.
Cotta, J . F . , 1779.
Councils, 1 6 4 ; 1 9 6 ; 2 0 4 ; 2 6 2 ; end of
3d cent. ; end of 4th cent. ; 5 4 4 ; end
of 7th cent. ; 7 4 3 ; 7 5 0 ; 1431.
Councils, General, I., 3 2 5 ; I I . . 381 ;
I I I . , 4 3 1 . ; I V . , 4 5 1 ; V., 553 ; V I . ,
6 8 0 ; V I I . , 787.
Courayer Le, 1 7 2 3 ; 1728.
Covenant, 1638.
Coverdale's Bible, 1535.
Cramer, J . A., 1788.
Cranmer, Abp. of Canterbury, 1533 ;
1 5 3 9 ; 1542; 1 5 4 3 ; 1 5 4 8 ; 1 5 4 9 ;
1552; 1 5 5 3 ; 1 5 5 4 ; 1 5 5 5 ; 1556.
Cranmer's Bible, 1539.

INDEX.

483

Didius Julianus, E m p . , 192.
Creeds, 4 9 ; 1 5 0 ; 325 ; 3 5 1 ; 358 ; 359 ;
Didymus of Alexandria, 375 ; 396.
380; 4 3 4 ; 5 8 9 ; 796.
Diocletian, E m p . , 284.
Crell, John, 1633.
Diodorus of Tarsus, 395.
Crell, Samuel, 1747.
Dionysius of Corinth, Epistles of, 163.
Crescens, 161.
Dionysius of Alexandria, 232 ; 261 ;
Crusades, 999; 1 0 7 3 ; 1094; 1 0 9 5 ;
262.
1096; 1099; 1147; 1187; 1190;
Dionysius the Less (Canons and Decre1200; 1202; 1215; 1217; 1225;
tals), 525 ; 545 ; 635.
1228; 1248; 1270; 1 2 7 4 ; 1 3 0 4 ;
Dionysius the Areopagite, pretended
1456; 1 4 5 8 ; 1487.
writings of, 5 3 3 ; 6 0 6 ; 6 6 2 ; 8 1 7 ;
Crusius, C. A., 1775.
827 ; 840 ; 845 ; end of 9th century.
Crypto-Calvinistic Controversy, 1 5 5 8 ;
Dioscurus, 444 ; 446 ; 448 ; 4 5 1 .
1570; 1 5 7 4 ; 1 5 7 6 ; 1 5 8 0 ; 1 5 8 7 ; 1 5 9 2 .
Dippel, J . C , 1734.
Cudworth, Ralph, 1688.
Directory, the, 1 6 4 3 ; 1645.
Cumanus and Felix, 48.
Dissenting Congregations in England
Curcellasus, 1659.
and Wales, number of, 1 7 1 6 ; 1776;
Cuspius Fadus, 44.
1812.
Cyprian of Carthage, 2 4 8 ; 2 5 0 ; 251 ;
2 5 4 ; 2 5 6 ; 2 5 7 ; 258.
i Dissidents, Polish, 1731 ; 1767.
Cyprian, E . S., 1745.
j Docetae, 96.
Doddridge, Philip, 1751.
Cyriacus, 596.
Dodwell, Henry, 1711.
Cyril of Jerusalem, 3 5 0 ; 386.
Doederlein, J . C , 1792.
Cyril of Alexandria, 428 ; 430 ; 445.
Dolcino, 1300; 1304.
Cyril, Apostle of the Slavi, 855 ; 863 ;
Dominicans, 1 2 1 5 ; 1 2 2 0 ; 1 2 3 0 ; 1 2 3 1 ;
868.
1256; 1260; 1274; 1350; 1494;
Cyril Lucaris, 1 6 2 1 ; 1 6 3 4 ; 1638
1 5 1 7 ; 1 6 1 5 ; 1 6 3 1 ; 1704.
Cyrus, Patriarch of Alexandria, 633.
Dominus ac Redemptor noster, Bull entitled, 1773.
D.
Domitian, E m p . , 8 1 .
Daille, J . , 1670.
Donation of Constantine, forged, 794.
D'Ailly, Peter, 1 3 8 1 ; 1 4 1 2 ; 1 4 1 4 ;
Donatists, 311 ; 3 1 3 ; 3 1 4 ; 3 1 6 ; 3 1 7 ;
1 4 2 0 ; 1425.
321; 330; 342; 362; 390; 405;
D'Alembert, 1783.
411 ; 602.
Damasus, 366.
Dorsch, J . G., 1659.
Damian (of Alexandria), Damianites,
Dort, Synod of, 1618.
565.
Douay Version, 1609.
Damian, Peter, 1072.
Dracontius, poet, 442.
Dancers, 1374.
Driessen, A., 1748.
Danov, E . J., 1782.
Druthmar, 8 4 4 ; 850.
Daunhauer, J . , 1661.
Dublin, Synod of, 1634.
Danzer, J . , 1796.
Duchobortzi, 1745.
David of Dinanto, 1200.
Dudith, A., 1589.
Davidis, 1578.
Dunkers, 1724.
Deacons, 34.
Dunstan, 950 ; 962 ; 9 6 9 ; 988.
Decius, E m p . , 249.
Duperron, J . D . , 1618.
Declaration of Faith and Order (ConDurand, William, 1 2 7 6 ; (ob. 1296).
gregational), 1 6 5 8 ; 1833.
Durand, William (de St. Pourcain),
Decretals, 5 2 5 ; 6 3 5 ; 7 9 4 ; 8 3 4 ; 8 5 8 ;
1333.
8 6 4 ; 871 ; 1073.
Durand, Urs., 1770.
D e Dominis, Marcus Antonius, 1 6 1 6 ;
Dury, John, 1680.
1622.
Dzengis K h a n 1 2 0 6 ; 1221.
Defensores, 503.
Delft, Conference at, 1613.
E.
Demetrius, B p . of Alexandria, 215,
Easter, time of. See Paschal Controversy.
Demophilus, 379.
Ebbo, 822 ; 8 3 3 ; 834.
Dereser, Thadd., 1827.
Eberhard, J . , 1809.
Derham, William, 1735.
Ebionites, 66.
Desiderius, 7 5 6 ; 7 7 1 .
Eclectic Philosophy, 204 ; 232.
Devay, Matthias, 1549.
Eck, 1519; 1520"; 1543.
Deyling, S., 1755,
.
Diderot, 1784.
j Edelmann, J C, 1767.
I 1 2

484
Edessa, Church at, 81.
Edict of Adrian, 1 2 5 ; of Antoninus
Pius, 158.
Edict of Decius, 249.
Edict of Gallienus, 259.
Edicts of Galerius, 304.
Edict of Toleration, by Constantine and
Licinius, 312.
Edict of Milan, 313.
Edict against the Manichees, 372.
E d i c t of Arcadius, 398.
Edict of Worms, 1 5 2 1 ; 1 5 2 2 ; 1 5 2 4 ;
1529.
Edict of Nantes, 1597 ; 1685.
E d i c t of Restitution, 1629 ; 1648.
Edict of Toleration, by the E m p . Joseph,
1781,
Edict, Religious (Prussian), 1788.
Egede, John, 1721.
Eickhorn, J . G., 1827.
Elcesaites, 104.
Elipandus, 787.
Elliot, John, 1621 ; 1 6 5 8 ; 1690,
Eisner, J., 1750.
Elvira, Council of, 305.
E m l y n , Thomas, 1741.
Emmeran, 651.
E m s , Congress at, 1 7 8 6 ; 1787.
Emser, Jerome, 1527.
Encratites, 165.
Engagement, the, 1649.
Ennodius, 5 0 3 ; 521.
Ephesians, Epistle to the, 6 1 .
Ephesus, Council of, Third 4 General, 4 3 1 .
Ephesus, Council of (Synod of Robbers), 449.
E p h r a i m the Syrian, 378.
Epiphanius, 367 ; 375 ; 3 8 0 ; 402 ; 403.
Episcopius, Simon, 1 6 0 9 ; 1622; 1644.
Erasmus, 1 4 6 7 ; 1509; 1 5 1 6 ; 1 5 1 7 ;
1 5 2 0 ; 1 5 2 1 ; .1523; 1 5 2 4 ; 1536.
Erimbert, 855.
Ernesti, J. A., 1760; 1781.
Erpenius, 1624.
E t castera oath, 1640.
Eucharist. See Lord's Supper.
Eucherius, 450.
Eudocia, E m p . E . , 1067,
E u d o n de Stella, 1145.
Eudoxius, 358.
Eugenius, Usurper, 392.
Eunomius, 358.
Eusebius of Ccesarea, 307 ; 3 1 0 ; 314 ;
321 ; 3 2 5 ; 3 3 1 ; 340.
Eusebius of Nicomedia, 3 2 5 ; 3 3 7 ; 339.
Eusebius, Bp. of Emisa, 360.
Eustathians; Eustathius, 331 ; 355.
Eutyches ; Eutychians, 4 4 6 ; 4 4 8 ; 449 ;
451 ; 655.
See also Monophysites.
Eutychius of Alexandria, 950.
Evangelical Union, 1 6 0 8 ; 1621.

Ewald, 723.
Examinations, Commission of, 1791.
Exposition of the Faith, 638 ; 648.
F.
Faber of Constance, 1523.
Fabricius, X , 1728.
Fabricius, J . A., 1736.
Facundus, 548.
Fagius, Paul, 1548 ; 1550.
Familists, 1571 ; 1645. «"
Farel, William, 1 5 2 4 ; ' 1 5 2 8 ; 1 5 3 2 ;
1 5 3 9 ; 1565.
F a s t i n g ; Fasts, 111 ; 2 2 2 ; 388.
Faustus (Manichee), 400.
Faustus, B p . of Rhegium, 4 5 4 ; 4 6 9 ;
4 7 5 ; 484.
Feast of All Souls, 998.
Feasts of Charity, 35 ; 215.
Febronius. See Hontheim.
Fecht, J . , 1716.
Felbiger, 1788.
Felix, Patriarch of Rome, 483 ; 484.
Felix of Urgella, 787 ; 792 ; 793 ; 7 9 4 ;
799.
Fenelon, F . de Salignac de la Motte,
1685; 1 6 9 5 ; 1 6 9 8 ; 1699.
Ferdinand I., E m p . Ger., 1 5 5 6 ; 1558.
Ferdinand I I . , E m p . Ger., 1619; 1620.
Ferdinand I I I . , E m p . Ger., 1637.
Ferrar, Nicholas, 1637.
Festivals, early ; end of 2d, 3d, and 4th
centuries.
Festival of the Nativity, 386.
Festival of the Purification, 526.
Festival of All Martyrs ( A l l Saints),
611.
Festival of Orthodoxy, 842.
Festival of Corpus Domini, 1264; 1311.
Festival of the Holy Trinity, 1 3 2 0 ;
1405.
Festival of the Spear and Nails, 1354.
Festival of the Visitation, 1389.
Festival of the Immaculate Conception,
1431.
Festival of the Transfiguration, 1456.
Festival of the Seven J o y s of the Virgin
Mary, 1745,
Festus, 55.
Feuerborn, J . , 1656,
Fifth Monarchy Men, 1645.
Filioque, 589 ; 796 ; 809.
Firmilian, 232 ; 269.
Fisher, Bp. of Rochester, 1 5 3 4 ; 1535.
Fisher, Samuel, 1664.
Fitzralph, Richard, 1356.
Five Mile Act, 1665.
Flacian Controversy, 1581 ; 1605.
Flaeius, 1 5 6 1 ; 1575.
Flagellants, 1334; 1 3 4 1 ; 1 3 4 9 ; 1414;
1419.

>EX.

i
Flatt, J . F.j 1822,
Flechier, E . , 1710.
Fleury, Claude, 1723.
Fleury, Cardinal, 1743.
Flodoard of Rheims, 966.
Florinus, 170.
Florus Magister, 853.
Fontanini, J . , 1736.
Fontevraud, Order of, 1106.
Fordyce, James, 1796.
Form of the Faith, 648.
Form of Concord, 1580.
Formula Consensus Helvetici, 1675.
Fox, George, 1 6 4 7 ; 1649; 1691.
Francis, St. See Franciscans.
Francis, St.,Hermits of. See Franciscans.
Francis of Paris, 1730.
Franciscans, 1207; 1219; 1 2 2 3 ; 1 2 2 6 ;
1 2 3 1 ; 1 2 4 5 ; 1 2 4 9 ; 1256; 1 2 7 4 ;
1 2 7 9 ; 1282; 1294; 1 3 1 1 ; 1 3 2 3 ;
1 3 2 4 ; 1340; 1 S 4 1 ; 1 3 5 0 ; 1 4 3 4 ;
1 4 7 4 ; 1 5 2 5 ; 1 6 2 5 ; 1708.
Francis, I . , E m p . Ger., 1741.
Francis I I . , E m p . Ger., 1792; 1804.
Franke, A. H . , 1 6 8 9 ; 1 6 9 4 ; 1700;
1 7 0 4 ; 1727.
Frankfort Recess, 1558.
Franks, 4 3 0 ; 486 ; 4 9 6 ; 504; 5 0 7 ; 5 1 1 ;
527; 534; 534; 5 6 1 ; 771.
Franz, Wolf., 1628.
Fratres Militias Christi, or Gladiferi,
1202.
Fratres Communis Vitas, 1375.
Fratricelli, 1341.
Frederic I., E m p . Ger., 1 1 5 2 ; 1 1 5 4 ;
1 1 5 5 ; 1 1 5 7 ; 1158; 1160; 1 1 6 5 ;
1174; 1189.
Frederic I I . , E m p . Ger., 1 2 1 8 ; 1239;
1 2 4 1 ; 1 2 4 4 ; 1245.
Frederic I I I . , E m p . Ger., 1440.
Frederic the Wise, Elector of Saxony,
1520; 1525.
Free Spirit, Brethren and Sisters of the,
131J.
Fresenius, J . P . , 176L
Frey, J . L . , 1759.
Friars Minor, Tertiary. See Franciscans.
Friends, Society of, 1 6 4 9 ; 1 6 6 4 ; 1 6 6 6 ;
1675; 1676; 1677; 1682; 1689;
1 6 9 1 ; 1693; 1 6 9 5 ; 1 7 9 0 ; 1829.
Fulbert, 1007 ; 1028.
Fulgentius Ferrandus, 549.
F u n k , J., 1 5 5 5 ; 1556.
G.
Gabler, 1826.
Galatians, Epistle to the, 52.
Galba, E m p . , 68.
Galenists, 1664.
Galerius and Maximian, E m p . , 306.
Gallienus, E m p . , 259.

I I

485

Gall us, E m p . , 251.
Gallus (St. Gall.), 6 0 4 ; 606.
Gangra, Council of, 365.
Gardiner, 1547 ; 1548 ; 1550 ; 1553 ;
1555.
Gaston, 1095.
Geddes, Alex., 1802.
Geier, Martin, 1680.
Gelasius of Cyzicum, 478.
Gelasius, Patriarch of Rome, 4 9 4 ; 496.
Geneva Bible, 1560.
Gennadius, 491 ; 4 9 3 .
Genseric, 455.
Gentilis, J . Valentin, 1566.
George of Trapezond, 1486.
Georgius Acropolita Logothetes, 1282.
Gerald Lubbert, 1580.
Gerber, 1793.
Gerbert, 991 ; 997 ; 999 ; 1003.
Gerdes, D . , 1762.
Gerhard, X , 1 6 1 0 ; 1 6 1 5 ; 1637.
Germanus and Lupus, 442.
Gerson, 1 3 7 7 ; 1 3 9 5 ; 1 4 0 6 ; 1 4 1 2 ; 1 4 2 0 ;
1429.
Gessius Florus, 65.
Ghibelines, 1 1 5 5 ; 1198.
Gichtel, J . G., 1710.
Gilbert of Poitiers, 1154.
Gladiferi, 1202; 1 2 3 0 ; 1237.
Glassites, 1730.
Glassius, Salomon, 1 6 4 5 ; 1656.
Glycerius, E m p . W., 473.
Gnosticism, Gnostics, 4 9 ; 5 5 ; 81 ; 9 7 ;
1 0 4 ; 1 2 2 ; 1 4 0 ; 1 4 5 ; 1 5 0 ; 156; 1 6 3 ;
198; 215; 390.
Goar, 604.
Gomarus, 1603 ; 1609; 1641.
Gordian, E m p . , 238.
Gorm, 934.
Gothofred, 1208.
Goths, 309 ; 370.
Gottschalk, 8 2 9 ; 8 4 7 ; 848 ; 853 ; 855 ;
869.
Gbtze, J . M., 1786.
Gousset, J., 1704.
Grabe, J . E . , 1711.
Gratias Exspectativae, 1215.
Gratian, 1 1 5 1 ; 1158.
Great Bible, 1539.
Gregory Thaumaturgus, 232; 2 3 5 ;
239 ; 240 ; 270.
Gregory Nazianzen, 356; 3 6 1 ; 3 6 3 ;
3 7 2 ; 3 7 6 ; 3 7 9 ; 3 8 0 ; 389.
Gregory Nyssen, 3 6 3 ; 3 7 2 ; 3 7 6 ; 3 7 8 ;
381 ; 395.
Gregory of Tours, 595.
Gregory I., or the Great, 5 9 0 ; 591 ;
5 9 6 ; 5 9 8 ; 6 0 2 ; 604.
Gregory of Utrecht, 756.
Gregory V I I . , Pope. See Hildebrand.
Gregory of Valentia, 1603.

3

486

INDEX.

Gretser, J., 1624.
Gribaldi, Matthew, 1564.
Griesbach, J . X , 1812.
Griraoald, 6 6 2 , 670.
Grindal, 1 5 7 7 ; 1581.
Groot, Gerard, 1375.
Grostete (Capito), Robert, 2 3 5 ; 1253.
Grotius, H . , 1 6 4 1 ; 1645.
Guelphs, 1 1 5 5 ; 1198.
Guibert of Nogent, 1260.
Guiscard, Robert, 1059.
Gunpowder Plot, 1605.
Gurtler, N . , 1712.
Gustavus Vasa, 1523.
Guyon, Madame, 1 6 9 5 ; 1717.
Gylas, 945.

H.
Hague, Conferences at the, 1610 ; 1823 ;
H a i m o , 8 4 0 ; 853.
Hakon, 938.
H a l l , Joseph, Bp. of Norwich, 1656.
Halle, University of, 1 6 9 4 ; Orphan
House at, 1698.
Haller, 1528.
H a m b u r g , Conference at, 1526.
Hamel, 1587.
Hamilton, Patrick, 1528.
Hammond, Henry, 1652; 1660.
H a m p t o n Court, Conference at, 1604.
Hanseatic League, 1250.
Hanstein, 1821.
Harald, K i n g of Denmark, 945 ; 972 ;
9 7 5 ; 991.
Harduin, J . , 1728.
Hebrews, Epistle to the, 62 or 63.
Hegesippus, 175.
Heidegger, J . H . , 1697.
Heidelberg Catechism, 1 5 6 2 ; 1 5 8 2 ;
1 6 0 5 ; 1618.
Heineccius, J . G., 1741.
Helena, 326.
Heliodorus, 394.
Heliogabalus, E m p . , 218.
Helvetic Confession, 1536 ; 1566.
Helvetius, 1771.
Helvidius, 388.
Helvius Pertinax, E m p . , 192.
Henke, H . P . C , 1809.
Henoticon, 4 8 2 ; 485 ; end of 5th cent. ;
518.
Henricians, 1124 ; 1147.
H e n r y of Lausanne, 1116; 1 1 2 4 ; 1134.
H e n r y I. (the Fowler), E m p . G e r , 919.
H e n r y I I . , E m p . Ger., 1002.
H e n r y I I I , E m p . Ger., 1039.
H e n r y I V . , E m p . Ger., 1 0 5 6 ; 1 0 7 6 ;
1 0 7 7 ; 1 0 7 8 ; 1 0 8 0 ; 1084.
H e n r y V., E m p . Ger., 1 1 0 6 ; 1 1 1 0 ;
1111 ; 1 1 1 2 ; 1 1 1 6 ; 1118.
Henry V I . , E m p . Ger., 1190.

H e n r y V I I . , E m p . Ger., 1303.
H e n r y V I I I . , K i n g of England, 1509 ;
1521; 1522; 1527; 1529; 1530;
1 5 3 3 ; 1534; 1 5 3 5 ; 1 5 3 6 ; 1 5 3 9 ;
1540; 1 5 4 2 ; 1547.
Henry, D u k e of Saxony, 1539.
Heraclas, 2 3 1 .
Heracleon of Alexandria, 140.
Heracleonas, E m p . E . , 6 4 1 .
Heraclius, E m p . E., 6 1 0 ; 6 2 5 ; 638.
Herbert, Lord, 1648.
Herder, J . G., 1803.
H e r m a n n , Abp. of Cologne, 1539; 1 5 4 3 ;
1 5 4 4 ; 1 5 4 5 ; 1546; 1552.
Hermas, 145.
Hermes Trismegistus, 122.
Hermits of Augustin. See Augustin,
Hermits of St. Francis. See Franciscans.
Hermogenes, 203.
Herod Agrippa, king of Galilee, 3 7 ;
king of all Palestine, 4 1 ; his death, 44.
Hervaeus Natalis, 1323.
Heshusius, 1588.
H e u m a n n , C. A., 1764.
Hicks, Elias, 1829.
Hierarchical System, rise of the, 204.
Hierax, 296.
Hierocles, 300.
H i g h Commission, Court of, 1559.
Hilary of Poitiers, 368.
Hilary the Deacon, 384.
Hilary of Aries, 429 ; 449.
Hilary, Patriarch of Rome, 4 6 1 ; 463 ;
465.
Hildebrand, 1 0 5 4 ; 1 0 7 3 ; 1 0 7 7 ; 1078;
1080; 1 0 8 4 ; 1085.
Hilduin, 840.
Hincmar of Rheims, 848 ; 8 5 3 ; 859 ;
8 6 2 ; 8 6 4 ; 8 6 9 ; 8 7 0 ; 8 7 1 ; 882.
Hippolytus, 220, 250.
Hirschau, Congregation of, 1069.
Hoadley, Benjamin, 1761.
Hobbes, Thomas, 1678.
H o e , Matthew, 1645.
Hoepper, Henry, 1642.
Hohenstaufen, House of, 1 1 3 8 ; 1 1 5 5 ;
1 1 9 8 ; 1 2 1 5 ; 1 2 5 3 ; 1268.
H o l y Ghost, Procession of the, 1098.
H o l y Legislative Synod, 1721,
Homiliarium, 794.
Homilies, Book of, 1 5 4 7 ; 1563.
Homceousians, See Arianism.
Homunciones, 346.
Honorius of Autun, 1130.
Hontheim von, J . N., 1 7 6 3 ; 1 7 7 8 ;
1790.
Hooker, Richard, 1585.
Hoornbeck, J., 1668.
Horneius, Conrad, 1643.
Hosius, 321 ; 357 ; 361.

INDEX*

487

Hospitalers of St. J o h n of Jerusalem, I Irene, 775 ; 7 8 0 ; 784 ; 797 ; 802.
Irving, E d w a r d ; Irvingites; 1826;
1099; 1291; 1309; 1509; 1523;
1 8 3 3 ; 1834.
1530.
Isaac Comnenus, E m p . E . , 1057.
Hottinger, J . H . , 1667.
Isaac Angelus, E m p . E . , 1185.
H u e t , P . D . , 1721.
Isaac and Alexius I V . , E m p . E . , 1204.
H u g h of St. Victor, 1140.
Isidore (Gnostic), 122.
H u g h of St. Cher, 1263.
Isidore of Pelusium, 449.
Huguenots, 1560; 1562; 1572; 1575.
Isidore of Seville, 602 ; 633 ; 635.
See also Wars in France.
Ittig, Thomas, 1710.
Hulsemann, J . , 1 6 4 5 ; 1661.
Ivo, 1115.
Humbert, Cardinal, 1059 ; 1065.
H u m b e r t of Romans, 1260.
J.
H u m e , David, 1776.
Jablonski, D . E . , 1741.
Hunnius, JEgidius, 1603.
Jablonski, P . E „ 1757.
Hunnius, Nicholas, 1643.
Jacobellus de Misa, 1414.
Huss, John, 1373 ; 1398 ; 1400 ; 1402 ;
Jacobites, 545 ; 1837.
1409; 1 4 1 0 ; 1 4 1 2 ; 1 4 1 3 ; 1414.
Jacobus Baradseus, 545.
Hussites, the, W a r of, 1417; 1420; 1424;
1433.
Jagello, 1385.
Hutchinson, Hutchinsonians, 1727; 1749.
Jager, J . W., 1720.
H u t t e n , 1521.
Jahn, J., 1817.
H u t t e r , Leonard, 1616.
James St., the Elder, 4 3 .
Hydroparastata?, 165.
James St., the Just, Epistle of, 61 ;
Hyperius, 1564.
death of, 62.
Hypsistarians, 310.
Jansenist Controversy, 1567 ; 1569 ;
1 5 7 9 ; 1587; 1 5 9 7 ; 1 6 0 7 ; 1 6 1 1 ;
1638; 1640; 1642; 1650; 1655;
I.
1665; 1668; 1679; 1705; 1708;
Ibas, Bp. of Edessa, 457.
1711; 1717; 1720; 1723; 1728;
Iberia, 3 2 8 ; 350.
1 7 3 0 ; 1752. ^
Iconoclasts, Iconomachi.
See Images.
Jansenius Cornelius, 1638.
Ignatius, death of, 107 (al. 1 1 6 ) ;
Jerome, 3 6 3 ; 3 7 5 ; 3 7 8 ; 3 8 0 ; 3 8 6 ;
Epistles of, ib.
3 9 0 ; 3 9 4 ; 4 0 4 ; 4 1 2 ; 42&
Ignatius, Patriarch of Constantinople,
Jerome of Prague, 1 4 0 0 ; 1 4 0 2 ; 1409;
858 ; 863 ; 8 6 7 ; 878.
1 4 1 2 ; 1 4 1 4 ; 1416.
Ildefonsus, 6 6 1 .
Jerome Savoranola, 1498.
Images, use of, 5 9 8 ; 6 0 6 ; 6 9 2 ; 7 2 6 ;
Jerusalem, Assembly at, 49 (al. 5 2 ) ;
730; 7 4 1 ; 754; 775; 778; 784; 786;
Destruction of, 70 (al. 72).
7 8 7 ; 7 9 0 ; 7 9 4 ; 800; 8 1 4 ; 8 1 5 ; 8 2 0 ;
Jesuits, 1540; 1 5 4 1 ; 1549; 1550; 1 5 5 1 ;
8 2 4 ; 8 2 5 ; 830; 8 3 1 ; 842; 8 4 3 ; 8 7 8 ;
1 5 5 2 ; 1 5 5 4 ; 1556; 1 5 6 1 ; 1 5 7 1 ;
1 5 2 5 ; 1 5 4 8 ; 1781,
1575; 1585; 1600; 1604; 1606;
Immaculate Conception, Feast of, 1431.
1610; 1616; 1620; 1 6 3 1 ; 1634;
I n Coena Domini, Bull entitled, 1 5 3 6 ;
1 6 4 0 ; 1655; 1657; 1699; 1 7 0 4 ;
1568; 1610; 1 6 2 7 ; 1770.
1705; 1708; 1715; 1750; 1755;
I nas, 728.
1 7 5 8 ; 1760; 1 7 6 5 ; 1 7 6 7 ; 1 7 7 3 ;
Incense, 370.
Independents, 1 5 8 1 ; 1610; 1 6 2 1 ; 1645;
1775; 1 8 1 4 ; 1819.
Jewel's Apology, 1562.
1 6 5 8 ; 1 6 9 1 ; 1 7 9 7 ; 1812; 1833.
Jewish War, 66 ; 7 0 ; 135.
Index Tridentinus, 1595.
Jews, 33 ; 34 ; 37 ; 4 1 ; 42 ; 4 5 ; 46 ;
Indulgences, 1 1 5 0 ; 1 1 6 4 ; 1 2 7 5 ; 1299;
55; 66; 1 1 4 ; 132; 135; 175; 1 7 8 ;
1343; 1412; 1 5 1 7 ; 1 5 1 8 ; 1 5 1 9 ; 1 5 3 2 .
2 2 0 ; 279; 3 0 0 ; 3 2 5 ; 4 1 5 ; 4 2 4 ; 4 2 9 ;
Infralapsarians, 1590.
431; 433; 450; 510; 533; 536; 538;
Inquisition, 1 2 0 6 ; 1 2 2 9 ; 1232; 1 4 8 0 ;
540; 541; 550; 567; 573; 5 8 1 ; 586;
1 5 2 6 ; 1 5 5 6 : 1 5 6 5 ; 1 6 2 3 ; 1814.
6 5 3 ; 1450; 1495; 1513; 1728.
Institution of a Christian Man, 1537.
Joachites, 1210.
Intercessio Episcoporum, 323.
Joan, 850.
Interim of Ratisbon, 1541 ; of AugsJohannes Scholasticus, 578,
burg, 1548 ; of Leipsic, 1548 ; 1552.
Johannes Presbyter, 1133.
Investiture, 6 8 2 ; 9 6 7 ; 1059; 1 0 7 5 ;
John, St., Epistles of, 68 or 69; Re7 0 9 7 ; 1 1 0 6 ; 1 1 0 7 ; 1 1 1 1 ; 1112;
velation of, 96 or 97 ; Gospel of, 97
1 1 1 5 ; 1 1 1 9 ; 1122.
|
or 98 ; death of, about 100.
Iremeus, 1 7 6 ; 1 8 0 ; 1 9 6 ; 202,
1 i 4

488

INDEX.

J o h n the Faster, 582 ; 587 ; 596.
J o h n of Damascus, 730 ; 750.
J o h n Scotus Erigena, 8 1 7 ; 8 4 5 ; 8 5 3 ;
886.
J o h n of Salisbury, 1181.
J o h n de Monte Corvino, 1289; 1307.
John of Janduno, 1327.
J o h n a Lasco, 1 5 5 6 ; 1560.
John, Elector of Saxony, 1 5 2 5 ; 1 5 2 6 ;
1527; 1528.
J o h n Frederic, Elector of Saxony, 1531.
J o h n Zimisces, E m p . E., 9 6 9 ; 970.
J o h n I I . (Comnenus), E m p . E . , 1118.
J o h n I I I . (Vatazes), Greek E m p . ,
1222.
J o h n I V . (Pala?ologus), E m p . Const.,
1341.
J o h n V. (Cantacuzenus), E m p . C o n s t ,
1347.
J o h n V I . , E m p . Const., 1396.
J o h n V I I . (Pakeologus), E m p . Const.,
1425.
Jonas, B p . of Orleans, 843.
Jonas, Justus, 1555.
Joris, David, 1556.
Jornandes, 544.
Joseph I., E m p . Ger., 1704.
Joseph I I . , E m p . Ger., 1 7 6 5 ; 1780>,
1781 ; 1786.
Jovian, E m p . , 363.
Jovinian, 388.
Jovius, Paul, 1552.
Jubilees, 1 3 0 0 ; 1 3 5 0 ; 1 3 9 0 ; 1 4 5 0 ;
1 4 7 5 ; 1 6 0 0 ; 1725.
J u d e , St., Epistle of, 64 or 65.
Judicatum, 5 4 6 ; 548.
Julian, E m p . , 351 ; 355 ; 3 6 1 ; 362.
Julian, Pelagian B p . , 419.
Julianists, 5 2 1 .
J u l i u s Cassian, 196.
Julius, Nepos, E m p . W., 474.
J u n i u s , Francis, 1602.
J u r i e u , P . , 1713.
J u s P r i m a r u m Precum, 1708 ; 1709.
Justin I . , E m p . E . , 518 ; 524.
Justin I I . , E m p . E . , 565; 572.
J u s t i n Martyr, 148 ; 1 5 8 ; 1 6 3 ; 165.
Justinian I., E m p . E . , 5 2 7 ; 528 ; 5 2 9 ;
531 ; 532 ; 534 ; 535 ; 538 ; 539 ;
. 5 4 0 ; 5 4 1 ; 5 4 7 ; 5 5 0 ; 5 5 3 ; 556;
563.
Justinian I I . , E m p . E . , 6 8 5 ; restored,
705.
Juvencus, 3 3 1 .
K.
Kant, Immanuel, 1804.
Keith, George, 1695.
Keller, G., 1827.
Kennicott, B., 1783.
Kidder, Richard, 1701.

Kiermander, 1759s
Kilian, 690.
King's Book, the, 1543.
Knapp, G. C , 1825.
Knights of St. J o h n of Jerusalem, 1180*
See also Hospitalers.
Knights Templar, 1 1 2 0 ; 1128"; 1291 ;
1 3 0 4 ; 1 3 0 7 ; 1 3 1 0 ; 1 3 1 1 ; 1314.
Knights Teutonic. See Teutonic.
Knipperdolling, 1534.
Knox, John, 1 5 4 7 ; 1555; 157&>
Kocher, J . C , 1772.
Koppe, J . B . , 1791.
Koitholt, Christian, 1694.
Kraft, F . W . , 1758.
L.
Labadie, J . , 1674.
Labadists, 1669.
Lactantius, 3 2 0 ; 326.
Lambertini, Prosper, 1740 ; 1758.
Lambeth Articles, 1595.
Lammists, 1664.
Lampe, F . A., 1728.
Lanfranc, 1 0 4 2 ; 1 0 5 9 ; 1062; 1 0 7 0 ;
1088.
Lange, J . , 1745.
Langton, Stephen, 1228.
Lapsed, Restoration of the, 203 ; 251 ;
253; 304.
Lardner, Nathanael, 1768.
Latimer, 1 5 5 4 ; 1555.
Latin E m p i r e in the East, 1204 —
1261.
L a Trappe, Order of, 1664.
Laud, William, 1633*, 1 6 4 0 ; 1645.
Launoi, John, 1677.
Laurentius, 498.
Laurentius Valla, 1465.
Lavater, J . C , 1801.
Laymann, Paul, 1625.
Lazarists, 1631.
Lee, Ann, 1784.
L e Fevre, James, 1537.
Leipsic, Disputation at, 1519.
Leland, J o h n , 1766.
Lenfant, J . , 1728.
Leo I. (the Thracian), E m p . E„, 457.
Leo I I . , E m p E . , 474.
Leo I I I , (Isauricus), E m p . E . , 7 1 7 ;
7 2 6 ; 730.
Leo I V . , E m p . E . , 775.
Leo V. (the Armenian), E m p , E . , 813 ;
814.
Leo V I . (the Philosopher), E m p . E . ,
886.
Leo I . , or the Great, Pope, 4 4 0 ; 4 4 7 ;
4 5 1 ; 4 5 2 ; 4 5 5 ; 457.
Leo X., Pope, 1513; 1520.
Leo Allatius, 1 6 4 8 ; 1669.
Leonides, 202.

INDEX.
Leontius, E m p . E . , 695.
Leopold I., E m p . Ger., 1657.
Leopold I I . , E m p . Ger., 1790.
Less, L., 1587.
Less, G., 1797.
Lessing, 1777.
Leszinsky, Casimir, 1689.
Leydekker, M., 1721.
Libanius, 396.
Licinius, 3 1 2 ; 3 1 4 ; 323.
Lightfoot, John, 1675.
Liguorians, 1 7 3 2 ; 1 7 4 9 ; 1820.
Limborch, Philip, 1712.
Lindsey, Theophilus, 1774.
Litanies, 469.
Loftier, J . H . C , 1816.
Lollards, 1 3 0 0 ; 1379; 1 3 8 8 ; 1 3 9 5 ;
1 4 0 0 ; 1414.
Lombard, Peter, 1 1 5 9 ; 1164.
Lombards, 5 6 8 ; 5 7 8 ; 5 8 6 ; 7 1 2 ; 7 5 1 ;
7 5 6 ; 774.
Lord's Day, 321.
Lord's Supper, 3 3 ; 3 5 ; 2 1 5 ; 256
end of 3d cent. ; end of 4th cent.
4 9 4 ; end of 5th cent. ; 5 0 6 ; 604
7 5 0 ; 7 8 7 ; 8 1 3 ; 8 3 1 ; 8 4 4 ; 993
1 0 4 8 ; 1 0 5 0 ; 1 0 5 4 ; 1 0 5 9 ; 1078
1 1 4 0 ; 1 1 8 5 ; 1204
1 1 0 6 ; 1120
1264; 1 3 8 1 ; 1414
1 2 1 5 ; 1260
1528; 1 5 2 9 ; 1537
1 5 2 4 ; 1525
1 5 4 9 ; 1 5 5 2 ; 1558
1 5 3 9 ; 1548
1667.
Loscher, V. E . , 1749.
Lothaire I . , E m p . W., 843.
Lothaire I I . , E m p . Ger., 1125.
Louis the Pious, E m p . W . , 8 1 4 ; 822 ;
8 2 8 ; 8 3 1 ; 8 3 3 ; 834.
Louis of Bavaria, E m p . Ger., 1327.
Lowth, R., 1787.
Loyola, Ignatius, 1 5 2 1 ; 1 5 2 3 ; 1 5 2 4 ;
1 5 2 6 ; 1534; 1537; 1 5 4 0 ; 1 5 5 6 ;
1623.
Lucian the Martyr, 312.
Lucifer, Luciferians, 370.
Lucius, 178.
Luitprand, 968.
L u k e , St., 46 ; 5 0 ; Gospel by, 63 or 64.
Lull, 753.
Lully, Raymond, 1315.
Luther, Martin, 1483 1501 ; 1505
1512; 1517
1508; 1509; 1510
1521; 1522
1518; 1519; 1520
1526; 1527
1523; 1524; 1525
1534; 1535
1529; 1530; 1533
1537; 1539; 1540 1541 ; 1543
1545; 1546.
M.
Macarius the Elder, 390.
Macarius the Younger, 395.

489

Macedonians, Macedonius, 360 ; 3 6 1 .
Macrinus, E m p . , 217.
Magdeburg Centuries, 1 5 6 0 ; 1574.
Mai, J . H . , 1719.
Maimbourg, Louis, 1686.
Maine, Cuthbert, 1577.
Major, George, 1574.
Majorian, E m p . W.} 457.
Majorinus, 3 1 1 .
Majoristic Controversy, 1 5 5 1 ; 155.3;
1 5 5 6 ; 1562.
Mamertus, Bp. of Vienne, 463 ; 469.
Mamertus, Claudianus, Presbyter, 4 7 3 .
Mandates, Provisional, 1215.
Mandeville, 1733.
Manes, 240 ; 276.
Manichees, Manicheism, 2 7 4 ;
276;
2 9 6 ; 3 7 2 ; 3 9 0 ; 4 0 0 ; 4 4 5 ; 602.
Manuel I., E m p . E . , 1143.
Manuel I I . , E m p . Const., 1391.
Marc, J . , 1731.
Marca, Peter de, 1662.
Marcella, 1 6 3 .
Marcellus of Ancyra, 336 ; 341 ; 3 5 1 .
Marcia, 180.
Marcian, E m p . E . , 450.
Marcianus Capella, 4 9 1 .
Marcion, 1 7 5 ; 207,.
Marcus of Palestine, 140.
Marcus Eugenicus, 1438.
Maresius (Desmarets), Samuel, 1 6 5 8 ;
1675.
Maresius, S. L . E . , 1802.
Maria Theresa, Empress Ger., 1740.
Marius Mercator, 420.
Marius Victor, poet, 442.
Mark, St., 5 0 ; 6 1 ; Gospel by, 6 1 .
Maronites, end of 7th cent. ; 1 1 8 2 ;
1837.
Marpeger, B . W . , 1746.
Marpurg, Conferences at, 1527 ; 1529.
Marriage of the Clergy, 3 0 5 ; 3 8 8 ; 450.
See also Celibacy.
Marsilius of Padua, 1327.
Marsilius Ficinus, 1499.
Martene, Edmund, 1739.
Martin of Tours, 375 ; 400.
Martin of Braga, 563.
Martin, Pope, 6 4 9 ; 653.
Martin, Raymond, 1285.
Martina, 226.
Martyn, Henry, 1812.
Martyr, Peter, 1 5 3 9 ; 1548 ; 1552 ;
1562.
Martyrologium Romanum, 1586.
Martyrs, Commemoration of, 1 6 7 ; 256 ;
end of 4th cent. ; end of 5th cent.
Masius, H . G., 1709.
Masora, 510.
Mass. See Lord's Supper,
Massilians, 425.

490

INDEX.

I Michael Palseologus, Greek E m p . , 1 2 6 1 ;
Massillon, J . B . , 1742.
1274.
Massuet, R., 1716,
Michael de Bay. See Baius.
Mastricht, P . , 1706.
Michaelis, J . H . , 1720.
Matthew, St., Gospel by, 37 ; 6 1 .
Michaelis, J . D . , 1791.
Matthew's Bible, 1537.
Micislaus, 966 ; 997,
Matthias of Jannow, 1394.
Middle Ages, barbarism of, 510.
Matthias at Munster, 1534.
Middleton, Richard, 1304.
Matthias, E m p . Ger., 1612.
Milan, Edict of, 313.
Matthias, at New York, 1832.
Milicz, John, 1360 ; 1367.
Maur, St., Congregation of, 1618.
Millenary Petition, 1603.
Maurice, Peter, Abbot of Clugny, 1122;
Millenium, 155 ; 157 ; 262.
1156.
Miltitz, 1 5 1 9 ; 1520.
Maurice, D u k e of Saxony, 1 5 4 1 ; 1543.
Ministers of the Church, 4 4 ; 55; 7 0 ;
Mauritius, E m p . East, 582; 591 ; 593.
97 ; end of 2d cent. ; 252.
Maximilian I., E m p , Ger., 1493 ; 1510 ;
Minimi. See Franciscans.
1519.
Minucius Felix, 208 ; 220.
Maximilian, I I . , E m p . Ger., 1 5 6 4 ;
Missale Romanura, 1570.
1569.
Missionary Societies. See Society.
Maximinus, E m p . , 235.
Missions, Priests of the, 1631.
Maximus, Usurper, 383.
Mogelas, Peter, 1643.
Maximus, E m p . W., 455.
Moguls, 1 2 0 6 ; 1 2 2 1 ; 1 2 4 1 ; 1 2 4 5 ;
Maximus, Confessor, 646 ; 65S ; 662.
1249; 1251'; 1258; 1289; 1307 ; 1369.
Mayer, J . F . , 1712.
Mohammed, 5 7 0 ; 6 1 1 ; 6 2 2 ; 6 3 0 ; 632.
Mayronius, Francis, 1325.
Molanus, G. M . , 1722.
Meisner, Balth., 1626.
Molina, 1588.
Melanchthon,1497; 1514; 1518; 1519;
Molinistic Controversies, 1508.
1521; 1524; 1527; 1530; 1535;
Molinos, Michael, 1 6 7 5 ; 1 6 8 7 ; 1 6 9 5 ;
1539; 1543; 1548; 1553; 1558;
1696.
1560.
Monachism, 1 9 3 ; 2 5 0 ; 309 ; 3 2 5 ; 3 4 0 ;
Meletian Schism, first, 3 0 6 ; 3 2 5 ; second,
355; 3 6 5 ; 368 ; 3 7 8 ; 3 9 0 ; 4 0 7 ; 4 5 0 ;
361 ; 362 ; 400.
463; 504; 506; 536; 5 9 1 ; 598; 6 0 1 ;
Melito, 170.
610; 6 7 5 ; end of 7th cent.; 7 4 5 ; 8 1 3 ;
Menander, 96.
829; 9 1 0 ; 9 6 9 ; 1 0 7 2 ; 1 0 7 3 ; 1 2 1 5 ;
Mendelsohn, Moses, 1785.
1350; 1494; 1524; 1 5 3 6 ; 1539.
Mendicants, 1 2 0 7 ; 1 2 2 0 ; 1221 ; 1 2 2 3 ;
Mongus, Peter, 452 ; 478 ; 482.
1231; 1 2 3 2 ; 1245; 1256; 1274;
Monophysites, 4 4 6 ; 4 4 9 ; 4 5 2 ; 4 5 7 ;
1 3 5 5 ; 1360.
459; 463; 475; 476; 477; 478; 482;
Menno Simonis, 1 5 3 7 ; 1561.
4 8 8 ; 5 1 2 ; 5 2 1 ; 529; 5 3 5 ; 5 3 6 ; 5 3 8 ;
Mennonites, 1561 ; 1581 ; 1 6 2 6 ; 1632 ;
5 4 1 ; 5 4 5 ; 5 4 7 ; 5 5 3 ; 565; 6 2 5 ; end
1664 ; 1 7 5 5 ; 1800.
of 9th cent.; 1837. See also Eutyches.
Menzer, Balth., 1627.
Monothelites, 6 2 5 ; 6 3 3 ; 6 4 8 ; 656; 6 4 8 ;
Messalians, 370.
6 4 9 ; 653-, 6 8 0 ; end of 7th cent.;
Methodists, Methodist Churches, 1739 ;
7 1 2 ; 1837.
1741; 1766; 1788; 1790; 1797;
Montanism ; Montanists; Montanus,
1801; 1803; 1810; 1812: 1814;
157; 188; 2 0 3 ; 2 1 5 ; 232.
1 8 2 1 ; 1 8 2 3 ; 1833.
Montanus, Benedict Arias, 1598.
Methodius, 855 ; 863 ; 868 ; 8 7 9 ; 880 ;
Montfaucon, B., 1741.
894.
Moore, Henry, 1679,
Metropolitans, 3 3 1 ; 343.
Moravians, 863 ; 868 ; 875 ; end of 9th
Meyer, 1816.
cent.
Michael L , E m p . E . , 8 1 1 .
More, Sir Thomas, 1 5 3 4 ; 1535.
Michael I I . (Balbus), E m p . E., 8 2 0 ;
Morgan, Thomas, 1741.
827.
Morus, S. F. N . , 1792.
Michael I I I . , E m p . E., 842.
Moschus, 610.
Michael I V . , E m p . E „ 1034.
Moscow, Patriarchate of, 1700.
Michael V., E m p . E . , 1041.
Mosheim, J . L., 1755.
Michael V I . (Stratioticus), E m p . E.,
Moulin, P . Du, 1658.
1055.
Miinscher, W . , 1814.
Michael V I I . , E m p . E . , 1071.
Munster, Anabaptists of, 1534.
Michael Psellius, 1050.
Michael Cerularius, 1046 ; 1053 ; 1054. I Miinter, F . , 1830.

I N D E x.
Munzer, 1523; 1525.
Muratori, L . A., 1734; 1750.
Mursinna, S., 1795.
Musams, John, 1645; 1681.
Musculus, Andreas, 1563.
Mystics, 1 1 6 0 ; 1 2 7 4 ; 1350.
N.
Nantes, Edict of, 1597 ; 1685.
Natalius, 203.
Nativity, Festival of the, 350.
Nazarenes, 66,
Necessary Doctrine and Erudition, 1543.
Nemesius, 399.
Nepos, 262.
Nerva, E m p . , 96.
Nestorians, Nestorian Controversy, 4 2 8 ;
430; 4 3 1 ; 432; 433; 451; 499; 529;
6 0 2 ; 655; 7 8 7 ; 7 9 9 ; 1025; 1380;
1 5 9 9 ; 1837.
Nestorius, 428.
New Jerusalem Church. See Swedenborgians.
Nicaja, Council of, L , 3 2 5 ; I I . , 787.
Nicephorus I . (Logotheta), E m p . E . ,
802.
Nicephorus I I . (Phocas), E m p . E.,
9 6 3 ; 965.
Nicephorus I I I . , E m p . E . , 1078.
Nicephorus, Patriarch of Const., 8 1 4 ;
8 1 5 ; 827.
Nicephorus Blemmidas, 1253.
Nicetas Pectoratus, 1050 ; 1054.
Nicephorus Callistus, 1333.
Nicephorus Gregoras, 1 3 4 0 ; 1353.
Nicholas I., Pope, 858 ; 863.
Nicholas de Clemangis, 1 3 9 4 ; 1 4 2 0 ;
1441.
Nicholas of Hussinetz, 1417.
Nicholas de Cusa, 1464.
Nicholas, Henry, 1 5 4 ; 1555.
Nicolaitans, 1 0 4 ; 188,
Nicolas de Lyra, 1325 ; 1339.
Niemeyer, A. H . , 1828.
Nilus Doxipatrius, 1042.
Niobes, Niobites, 565,
Niphon, 1143.
Noailles, Abp. of Paris, 1 7 0 8 ; 1 7 1 1 ;
1 7 1 7 ; 1 7 2 0 ; 1728.
Noel's Catechism, 1563.
Noetus, 230.
Nonconformists, 1565; 1 5 7 2 ; 1 5 7 3 ;
1 6 6 9 ; 1686.
Nonjurors, 1 6 8 8 ; 1714.
Nonnus, 3 9 4 ; 410.
Norbert, 1 1 1 8 ; 1 1 2 1 ; 1126.
Noris, H . , 1704.
Nosselt, J . A., 1807.
Notker Labeo, 1022.
Novatianism, 2 5 1 ; 254.
Novatus and Felicissimus, 251.

491

Novels, 1130.
Nuremberg, Diets of, 1 5 2 2 ; 1524.
Nuremberg, Pacification of, 1531.
O.
Occam, William, 1 3 2 4 ; 1347.
Occhino, Bernardino, 1540 ; 1564.
Odenatus, 264.
Odo, 927.
Odoacer, 4 7 5 ; 476.
CEcolampadius, 1 4 8 2 ; 1 5 1 9 ; 1 5 2 4 ;
1 5 2 5 ; 1531.
Olaf Trygvesen, 997.
Olearius Caspar, 1587.
Olearius, G., 1715.
Olga, 955.
Olivetan, Robert, 1535.
Olybrius, E m p . W . , 472.
Onkelos, 46.
Ophites, 140.
Optatus of Milevi, 384.
Oratory, Priests of the (at Rome),
1 5 4 8 ; 1 5 7 4 ; (in France), 1613.
Ordeals, 829.
Organs, 800.
Origen, 2 0 4 ; 2 1 3 ; 2 1 4 ; 2 1 5 ; 2 2 0 ; 228;
2 2 9 ; 2 3 0 ; 2 3 1 ; 232; 2 3 5 ; 238, 2 3 9 ;
2 4 0 ; 2 5 0 ; 252; 2 5 4 ; SS©.
Origenist Controversy, 2 9 6 ; 3 7 8 ; 3 9 5 ;
3 9 9 ; 4 0 1 ; 4 0 7 ; 541.
Orleans, Brethren of, 1016.
Orosius, Paul, 418 ; 4 7 1 .
Orsi, J . A., 1761.
Orthodox Confession of the Greek
Church, 1643.
Orthodoxy, Festival of, 842.
Osianier, 1552.
Osiandrian Controversy, 1 5 4 9 ; 1555,
1556.
Ostrogoths, 397.
O t h o l . (the Great),Emp. W., 9 3 6 ; 9 5 1 ;
9 5 5 ; 9 6 0 ; 9 6 1 ; 9 6 3 ; 969.
Otho I I . , E m p . W . , 973,
Otho I I I . , E m p . W . , 983.
Otho I V . , E m p , Ger., 1208.
Otho, B p . of Bamberg, 1 1 2 4 ; 1 1 2 8 ;
1139.
Ottoman Empire, 1 2 9 9 ; 1352.
Oxford Decree, 1683.
P.
Pachomius, 325.
Pachy meres, 1307.
Pagani, 368.
Pagi, F . , 1721.
Pagninus, 1541.
Paine, Thomas, 1793.
Palamas, Gregory, 1 3 4 0 ; 1355.
Palladius, 407.
Paludanus, Peter, 1342.
Pamphilus, 3 0 7 ; 309.

492

INDEX.

Pantasnus, 1 8 0 ; 1 8 8 ; 193.
Papacy. See Rome, Church of.
Paphnutius, 325.
Papias, 119; 163.
Pareus, David, 1622.
Parker's Bible, 1568.
Parsons, 1 5 8 0 ; 1581.
Pascal, Blaise, 1656 ; 1662.
Paschal Controversy, 1 5 8 ; 1 9 6 ; 3 2 5 ;
326 ; 602 ; 628 ; 664 ; end of 7th
cent.
Passau, Treaty of, 1552.
Passionei, D . , 1761.
Paterini, 1179.
Patriarchate, 4 0 0 ; 430.
Patrick, 432 ; 454 ; 460.
Patripassians, 193.
Paul, St., 35 ; 4 2 ; 4 4 ; 45 ; 46 ; 47 ;
48; 49; 50; 54; 58; 60; 6 3 ; 64;
65; 66.
P a u l of Samosata, 2 6 0 ; 265 ; 269 ;
2 7 2 ; 274.
P a u l the Hermit, 250 ; 34Q.
Paula, 404.
Paulicians, 6 5 0 ; 6 8 0 ; 6 8 5 ; 7 1 7 ; 7 8 0 ;
811 ; 8 4 5 ; 8 7 1 ; 9 7 0 ; 1010.
Paulinus (of Nola), 409 ; 4 3 1 .
Paulinus (of Aquileia), 804.
Pearce, Z., 1774.
Pearson, John, 1688.
Peasants, War of the, 1 5 2 3 ; 1525.
Pecock, Reginald, 1458.
Pelagianism, Pelagius, 4 0 4 ;
410;
411 ; 4 1 5 ; 4 1 6 ; 4 1 7 ; 4 1 8 ; 4 1 9 ;
420 ; 425 ; 432 ; 442 ; 446 ; 452 ;
4 6 9 ; 529.
Pelagius, Patriarch of Rome, 587.
Penance.
See Discipline of the
Church.
Penitentiary Presbyters, 256.
Penitents, White, 1399.
Penn, William, 1 6 6 6 ; 1 6 6 8 ; 1 6 8 2 ;
1718.
Pepin the Short, 7 5 2 ; 7 5 6 ; 759.
Peregrinus, death of, 165.
Perkins, William, 1602.
Perpetual Edict, 130.
Persecutions, 3 3 ; 3 4 ; 3 6 ; 6 4 ; 7 0 ; 81 ;
1 0 0 ; 107 ; 111 ; 114 ; 1 1 7 ; 1 2 2 ;
138; 150; 163; 180; 2 0 1 ; 2 0 3 ;
212; 222; 235; 248; 249; 250;
252; 257; 274; 296; 303; 314;
342; 420; 4 3 3 ; 476; 527; 540;
6 9 7 ; 820.
See also H u g u e n o t s ;
Propagation of the Gospel; Reformation; Waldenses.
Perth, Articles of, 1618 ; 1638.
Petavius, Dionysius, 1 6 4 4 ; 1652.
Peter, St., 35 ; 4 3 ; 66; First Epistle
of, 6 4 ; Second Epistle, 65; P a t r i mony of, 1220.

Peter Chrysologus, 456.
Peter Mongus, 452 ; 478 ; 482,
Peter the Fuller, 4 6 3 ; 4 7 1 ; 4 8 5 ;
488.
Peter the Hermit. See Crusades.
Peter of Bruys, 1103 ; 1124.
Peter the Venerable. See Maurice,
Peter Cantor, 1197.
Peter Comestor, 1198.
Peter of Blois, 1200.
Peter of Corbeil, 1222.
Peter Aureolus, 1343;
Peter Martyr, 1 5 3 9 ; 1 5 4 8 ; 1 5 5 2 ;
1562.
Peter's Pence, 792.
Petersen, J . W . , 1727.
Petrarch, 1 3 6 3 ; 1374.
Petrobrusians, 1124.
Peucer, 1 5 7 0 ; 1574.
Peysel, Conrad, 1724.
Pfaff, C. M . , 1 7 2 0 ; 1760.
Pfeffinger, 1555.
Pfeiffer, A., 1698.
Phantasiasts, 521.
Philastrius, 3 7 4 ; 387.
Philemon, Epistle to, 62 or 6 3 .
Philip, E m p . , 244.
Philip, Landgrave of Hesse, 1 5 2 6 ;
1527.
Philip of Neri, 1548.
Philippians, Epistle to the, 62 or 6 3 .
Philippicus, E m p . E . , 710.
Philippppolis, Council of, 347.
Philoponus, 565.
Philostorgius, History of, 425.
Philostratus, 218.
Philoxenus, 4 4 9 ; 488.
Phocas, E m p . E . , 602 ; 606.
Phoebadius, 359.
Photinus, 346 ; 351 ; 357.
Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople,
858; 861; 863; 867; 878; 879;
8 8 6 ; 891.
Phthartolatras, 521.
Piarists, Order of, 1616.
Pictet, Benedict, 1 6 9 6 ; 1724.
Pictures and Images in Churches, 3 0 5 ;
370. See also Images.
Picus, John, of Mirandola, 1494.
Pierius, 247.
Pilate, Pontius, 33 ; 36 ; Acts of, 3 1 1 .
Pilgrimages, 745 ; 1 0 4 6 ; 1064.
Pin, D u , L. E . , 1686; 1 7 1 7 ; 1719.
Pinkzovians, 1563.
Pisa, General Council of, 1409 ; 1511.
Piscator, John, 1603.
Pistoja, Council of, 1 7 8 6 ; 1787; 1794.
Pistorius, 1543.
Pius I I . , Pope, 1 4 5 8 ; 1462.
Placette, La, J., 1718.
Planck, G. J., 1833.

493

INDEX.
Platon, 1812. Platonism, Platonists, 4 9 ; 2 0 4 ; 226 ;
2 3 2 ; 4 3 9 ; 451 ; 529.
Pliny to Trajan, and Trajan to Pliny,
Epistles of, 111.
Plotinus, 232 ; 262 ; 270.
Plutshau, 1704.
Pneumatomachi. See Macedonians.
Poissy, Conference at, 1561.
Pole, Cardinal, 1 5 5 4 ; 1 5 5 5 ; 1 5 5 6 ;
1558.
Polycarp, 158 ; 167.
Pomeranus. See Bugenhagen.
Pontius of Aries, 1016.
Pontoppidan, E . , 1764.
Pope, 655.
Porphyry, 262 ; 268 ; 304.
P o r t Royal, 1 2 3 3 ; 1 6 2 6 ; 1 6 3 8 ; 1 6 6 5 ;
1 7 0 5 ; 1708.
Possevin, Antony, 1 5 8 0 ; 1611*
Pothinus, 176.
Potter, John, 1747.
Praemonstratensian Canons, 1121 ; 1126.
Praxeas, 193 ; 203.
Prayers for the Dead, 215.
Prayers to Saints, 800.
Precentors, 370.
Predestination, Predestinarian Controversies, 4 4 2 ; 4 6 9 ; 4 7 5 ; 5 1 0 ; 5 2 9 ;
847 ; 853 ; 855 ; 1551 ; 1554; 1 5 5 5 ;
1 5 5 8 ; 1 5 6 7 ; 1590; 1 5 9 5 ; 1 6 0 0 ;
1 6 0 3 ; 1 6 1 8 ; 1 6 6 3 ; 1 6 7 7 ; 1824.
Presbyter.
See Ministers; Constitution and Government of the Church.
Presbyter Penitentiarius, 390.
Presbyterians, 1 5 6 6 ; 1 5 7 2 ; 1 5 7 3 ;
1 5 7 7 ; 1592; 1 6 3 8 ; 1647; 1 6 5 5 ;
1 6 8 9 ; 1 6 9 1 ; 1 7 9 5 ; 1 8 1 0 ; 1812.
Presbytery (English), 1645.
Prideaux, Humphrey, 1724.
Priestley, Joseph, 1804.
Priscillianists, 3 7 2 ; 3 8 0 ; 3 8 3 ; 4 0 0 ;
561.
Proba Falconia, 394.
Probus, E m p . , 276.
Procession of the Holy Ghost, Controversy concerning the, 589 ; 768 ; 796 ;
8 0 9 ; 867.
Procopius (of Gaza), 527.
Procopius (historian), 563.
Procopowitz, Theophanes, 1741.
Professio Fidei Tridentina, 1564.
Propagation of the Gospel, 33 ; 34 ; 37
4 0 ; 41 ; 4 5 ; 65; 8 1 ; 1 8 8 ; 193
end of 2d cent.; 204; 2 3 1 ; 248
2 5 2 ; 2 5 3 ; 2 5 9 ; 2 8 2 ; end of 3d
cent,; 314; 319; 3 2 3 ; 328; 3 4 1 ;
350; 3 6 1 ; 370; 388; 394; 397;
400; 425; 431; 433; 451; 454;
4 6 7 ; 4 7 7 ; 504; 514; 527; 533;
,561; 596; 598; 602: 604; 606;

627; 630; 631; 634; 635; 640
648 ; 651 ; 678 ; 690 ; 696 ; end of
7th cent.; 715; 730; 735; 739
755; 768; 799; 809; 814; 820
826; 828; 830j 831; 834; 848
855; 861 ; 862; 865; 877 ; 878
894; end of 9th cent.; 900; 911
924; 934; 938; 939; 945; 951
955; 965; 966; 967; 972; 982
988; 997 ; 999 ; 1003 ; 1007 ; 1008
1016; 1065; 1076 11203 1124;
1125; 1133, 1156 1157 1162;
1169; 1186; 1208 1215 1230;
1258; 1275; 1289 1307 1311 ;
1325; 1343; 1385
end of 15th
cent.; 1517; 1522 1529 1556;
1 5 7 0 ; 1576; 1603 1616 1621 ;
1 6 2 7 ; 1 6 3 0 ; 1640 1650 ; 1652;
1 6 5 8 ; 1 6 6 3 ; 1698 1699 1700;
1 7 0 4 ; 1 7 2 1 ; 1723 1728 1736;
1 7 4 9 ; 1 7 5 1 ; 1753 1792 1793;
1 7 9 5 ; 1 7 9 6 ; 1797 1800 1804;
1 8 0 8 ; 1 8 1 0 ; 1814 1815 1816;
1 8 1 9 ; 1 8 2 3 ; 1 8 2 4 ; 1826; 1827 ;
1828.
Prophesyings, 1574 ; 1577.
Prosper of Aquitaine, 4 6 1 .
Proterius, 452 ; 457 ;
Protest and Appeal, 1529.
Protestants, origin of the, name, 1529.
See Reformation.
Protestant Churches, Notes concerning,
1 8 1 2 ; 1837.
Protevangelion, 37.
Protosyncelli; end of 7th cent.
Prudentius, poet, 399.
Prudentius of Troyes, 849 ; 853.
Prussian Agenda, 1834.
Ptolemy, 140.
Publicani, 1179.
Pulleyn, Robert, 1150.
Purgatory, Doctrine of, 240 ; 4 0 7 ; 6 0 4 ;
6 1 5 ; 950; 1000; 1164; 1439;
1547.
Purification, Festival of the, 526.
Puritans, 1 5 6 4 ; 1 5 7 3 ; 1 5 7 5 ; 1 5 8 5 ;
1 5 8 9 ; 1 5 9 3 ; , 1 6 0 3 ; 1604.
Pyrrhus, Patriarch of Constantinople,
646.
Q.
Quadratus, Apology of, 122.
Quakers. See Friends.
Quartodecimani, 326.
Quatuor Propositiones Cleri Gallicani,
1682.
Quenstedt, J . A., 1688.
Quesnel, Paschasius, 1670; 1 6 9 3 ; 1708;
1711 ; 1719.
Quien, Le, M., 1735.

494

INDEX.

Quietists of M o u n t Athos, 1340; 1 3 4 1 ;
1 3 4 7 ; 1350.
Quietists (Mplinist), 1 6 8 7 ; 1695.
Quinisextum, 692.
Quirini, A . M . , 1755.
Quistorp, John, 1648.
R.
Rabanus Maurus, 8 2 2 ; 8 2 9 ; 831 ;
8 4 5 ; 8 4 7 ; 856.
Racovian Catechism, 1 6 0 5 ; 1684.
Radbert, Paschasius, 831 ; 8 4 4 ; 865.
Rambach, J. J., 1735.
Rambach, F . E., 1775.
Ranee, De, 1664.
Raskolnites, 1666 ; 1 7 6 2 ; 1785.
Ratherius, 974.
Rationalism, 1755 ; 1 7 7 8 ; 1782 ; 1793 ;
1796; 1 7 9 9 ; 1 8 2 0 ; 1 8 2 4 : 1 8 3 0 ; 1 8 3 7 .
Ratisbon, Interim of, 1541.
Ratisbon, Consultation at, 1719.
Ratramn, 8 4 4 ; 8 5 0 ; 868.
Raymond of Toulouse, 1198; 1325.
Raymond de Penna forti, 1 2 3 4 ; 1238.
Raynaud, Theoph., 1663.
Realists and Nominalists, 1072.
Reccared, 589.
Rechenberg, A., 1721.
Redemptorists, 1 7 3 2 ; 1 7 4 9 ; 1820.
Reformation, 1 3 0 9 ; 1 3 1 1 ; 1 3 6 0 ; 1392;
1 3 9 4 ; 1 4 0 6 ; 1414; 1 4 3 1 ; 1 4 7 9 ;
1 4 8 9 ; 1 4 9 8 ; 1 5 0 5 ; 1517; 1 5 1 9 ;
3520; 1521; 1523; 1524; 1525;
1 5 2 6 ; 1 5 2 7 ; 1 5 2 8 ; 1529; 1 5 3 2 ;
1533; 1534; 1535; 1536; 1537;
1 5 3 8 ; 1539; 1 5 4 1 ; 1542; 1 5 4 4 ;
1 5 4 5 ; 1 5 4 6 ; 1 5 4 7 ; 1549; 1 5 5 0 ;
1553; 1 5 5 5 ; 1556; 1558; 1560;
1563; 1564; 1570; 1606; 1614;
1 6 4 8 ; 1 6 8 6 ; 1688.
Reinbeck, J . G., 1741.
Reinhard, F . V., 1812.
Relics, 360.
Relief Church, 1752.
Religion, state of, at the beginning of
the Christian Era, 49.
Religious Edict (Prussian), 1788.
Religious Schools, Fathers of. See
Piarists.
Remigius of Rheims, 469.
R e m i g i u s o f Lyons, 8 5 3 ; 8 5 5 ; 859.
Remonstrants, 1610,1611; 1 6 1 3 ; 1618;
1 6 3 0 , 1 6 3 1 ; 1 6 6 1 ; 1664.
Renaudot, E., 1720.
Restitution, Edict of, 1629, 1648.
Reuchlin, 1513, 1 5 1 4 ; 1516; 1522.
Rhynsburgians, 1630.
Ricci, Matthew, 1 6 0 3 ; 1610.
Ricci, Scipio, 1786; 1790.
Richard of St. Victor, 1173.
Richer, E d m u n d , 1633.

Ricimer, 4 6 5 ; 472.
Ridley, 1550; 1553'; 1 5 5 4 ; 1555.
Ries, John, 1580.
Rivet, Andrew, 1651.
Robbers, Synod of, 449.
Robert, E m p . Ger., 1400.
Robinson, John, 1626.
Rochester, Earl of, 1680.
Rodolph I. (of Hapsburg), E m p . Ger.,
1273.
Rodolph I I . , E m p .
Ger., 1 5 7 6 ;
1 5 7 8 ; 1601.
Roell, H . A., 1718.
Rogations, 469.
Roman Catechism, 1566.
Romans, Epistle to the, 57.
R o m a n u s l . (Lecapenus), E m p . E . , 919.
Roman us I I . , E m p . E . , 959.
Romanus I I I . , E m p . E . , 1028.
Romanus I V . (Diogenes), E m p . E . ,
1068; 1071.
Rome, Church of, 9 8 ; 196,; 3 8 5 ; 405
4 1 6 ; 4 1 8 ; 4 1 9 ; 4 4 0 ; 4 4 1 ; 4 4 4 ; 445
4 4 6 ; 4 6 1 ; 4 6 3 ; 4 6 5 ; 4 7 2 ; 4 8 0 ; 483
4 9 4 ; 4 9 6 ; 5 0 2 ; 5 0 3 ; 5 2 1 ; 5 3 1 ; 538'
5 6 7 ; 5 8 7 ; 5 9 1 ; 596; 6 0 6 ; 6 1 3 ; 628
6 4 1 ; 655; 6 6 3 ; 6 7 5 ; 6 8 2 ; 6 9 5 ; end of
7th cent. ; 7 1 0 ; 7 1 8 ; 7 2 8 ; 7 3 2 ; 741
756; 7 8 7 ; 7 9 2 ; 7 9 4 ; 8 1 3 ; 8 1 4 ; 822
8 3 4 ; 844; 8 5 8 ; 8 6 4 ; 8 6 6 ; 871 ;^875
8 7 9 ; 8 8 8 ; end of 9th cent. ; 960;*963
9 9 1 ; 997; 1009; 1046; 1054; 1059
1 0 6 6 ; 1072, 1 0 7 3 ; 1 0 7 5 ; 1077
1 0 8 4 ; 1 0 8 5 ; 1 0 9 4 ; 1 0 9 6 ; 1106
1 1 4 3 ; 1 1 4 5 ; 1 1 5 5 ; 1 1 5 7 ; 1159
1 1 9 8 ; 1 2 0 4 ; 1 2 0 8 ; 1 2 1 2 ; 1213
1 2 1 5 ; 1 2 2 0 ; 1 2 2 3 ; 1 2 4 4 ; 1245
1 2 6 5 ; 1 2 6 8 ; 1 2 7 3 ; 1 2 9 6 ; 1302
1 3 0 8 ; 1 3 1 7 ; 1 3 2 2 ; 1323; 1324
1 3 2 7 ; 1 3 4 8 ; 1 3 5 0 ; 1389; 1414
1 4 2 2 ; 1 4 3 1 ; 1 4 4 5 ; 1 4 4 7 ; 1456
1 4 5 8 ; 1 4 5 9 ; 1 4 6 0 ; 1 4 9 5 ; 1517
1540;1564;1590;1593;endof16th
cent.; 1 6 0 2 ; 1 6 0 4 ; 1 6 0 6 ; 1629
1646; 1 6 4 8 ; 1 6 5 2 ; 1 6 5 4 ; 1666
1 6 6 9 ; 1 6 7 6 ; 1 6 8 2 ; 1684, 1685
1687; 1 6 9 3 ; 1 6 9 9 ; 1700; 1708
1 7 0 9 ; 1 7 1 0 ; 1 7 1 3 ; 1 7 1 5 ; 1717
1 7 2 5 ; 1 7 2 6 ; 1 7 4 6 ; 1 7 5 5 ; 1765
1 7 6 9 ; 1 7 7 5 ; 1 7 8 1 ; 1 7 8 2 ; 1787
1 7 9 0 ; 1 7 9 3 ; 1 7 9 8 ; 1 8 0 1 ; 1806
1 8 0 9 ; 1 8 1 4 ; 1823; 1829; 1832
1837.
Romulus Augustulus, E m p . W . , 475. '
Rosenmuller, J . G., 1815.
Rosicrucians, 1611.
Roswitha, 984.
Rousseau, J . J . , 1778.
Ruams, 1739.
lluffin, 378 ; 410.
Ruysbrock, John, 1381.

INDEX.

s.
Sabatier, P . , 1752.
Sabbatarian Controversy, 1630.
Sabbatarians, 1691.
Sabellians, Sabellus, 258.
Sack, A. F . W., 1786.
Sack, F. S. G., 1817.
Sacramental Controversy. See Lord's
Supper.
Sacramentaries, 1 5 3 7 ; 1538.
Sacramentum, 204.
Sacrum Rescriptum, 418.
Saints' Days, 343.
Saints, Worship of, 909.
Saladin Tax, 1200.
Sales, Francis de, 1 6 1 8 ; 1622.
Salesianerins, Order of, 1618.
Salmasius, Claudius, 1653.
Salvian, 4 3 9 ; 450 ; 484.
Samson, Bernardin, 1519.
Sanchez, Thomas, 1610.
Sand, Christopher, 1681.
Sandemanians, 1730.
Saracens, 647, 6 4 8 ; 651; 655 ; 669 ;
697; 706; 707; 7 1 1 ; 714; 717; 732;
8 2 3 ; 826.
Sardica, Council of, 347.
Sarpi, Paul, 1 6 0 5 ; 1623.
Saturninus, 122.
Saunier, Antony, 1532.
Saurin, J . , 1730.
Savoy Conference, 166.
Sawtrey, William, 1400.
Sbinco, 1409, 1410.
Sceuophylaces, end of 7th cent.
Schall, Adam, 1627.
Schertzer, J . A., 1683.
Schism. See Meletian ; Novatian.
Schism, the Great Western, 1378; 1380;
1389;1394;1398;1403;1404;1406;
1407;140S;1409;1414;1429.
Schleiermacher, F. E , , 1834.
Schleusner, J . F . , 1 7 9 2 ; 1831.
Schlichting, Jonas, 1661.
Schmid, Sebastian, 1697.
Schmidt, C. F . , 1778.
Schmidt, J . W., 1796.
Schmidt, J . E . C , 1831.
Scholastic Theology, 604 ; 817 ; 1073 ;
1086; 1088; 1106; 1125; 1150;
1 2 7 4 ; 1 2 8 6 ; 1308; 1325; 1 3 3 3 ;
1464.
Schottgen, Christian, 1751.
Schrock, J . M., 1808.
Schultens, A., 1750.
Schwartz, Valentine, 1622.
Schwartz, C. F . , 1 7 5 1 ; 1798.
Schwenkfeld, Caspar, 1561.
Scotists. See Thomists and Scotists.
Scriptures in English, use of the, 1536;
1539; 1 5 4 0 ; 1 5 4 6 ; 1 5 4 7 ; 1 5 5 9 ; 1 6 1 1 .

495

Secession Church, Scottish, 1 7 3 1 ; 1 7 4 5 ;
1 7 4 7 ; 1820.
Seeker, Thomas, 1768.
Secundus, 325.
Sedulius, 442.
Segarelli, Gerard, 1 2 6 0 ; 1 2 8 0 ; 1 2 8 6 ;
1 2 9 0 ; 1300.
Seiler, G. F . , 1807.
Select Vestry Act, 1663.
Seljukians, 1 0 0 0 ; 1038; 1 0 5 5 ; 1 0 6 3 ;
1072; 1075; 1 0 7 6 ; 1086; 1092;
1103.
Selnecker, Nicholas, 1592.
Semiarians. See Arianism.
Seminarium P r o Propaganda Fide,
1627.
Seminary Priests, Act against, 1585.
Semipelagians, 4 2 5 ; 434 ; 475 ; 529.
Semler, J . S., 1 7 7 1 ; 1 7 8 2 ; 1791.
Sendomir, Council of Faith at, 1570.
Septimius Severus, E m p . , 192.
Sergius, Patriarch of Constantinople,
633, 634.
Servatus Lupus, 853.
Servetus, Michael, 1531 ; 1553.
Servites, Order of, 1232.
Sethites, 140.
Seven Sleepers, 447.
Severians, 5 2 1 .
Severinus, 482.
Severus, follower of Tatian, 170.
Severus Septimius, E m p . , 193.
Severus, E m p . W., 4 6 1 .
Severus of Constantinople, 488 ; 510 ;
512.
Shaftesbury, E a r l of, 1713.
Shakers, 1 7 7 0 ; 1774.
Sherlock, Thomas, 1761.
Sibylline Books, 135.
Sicilian Vespers, 1282.
Sidonius Apollinaris, 471 ; 488.
Sigismund, E m p . Ger., 1411.
Silas, 46 ; 50.
Silverius, 537.
Simeon Metaphrastes, 9 1 2 ; 976.
Simeon Stylites, 4 2 5 ; 4 6 1 .
Simon Magus, 35 ; 42.
Simon, R., 1712.
Simon, St.; Simonians, St., 1 8 2 5 ; 1829.
Simony, 596; 675.
Simplicius, Patriarch of Rome, 480.
Singers, 370.
Sirmium, Councils and Creeds of, 3 5 1 ;
357 ; 358 ; 359.
Sirmond, X , 1651.
Sisters of Charity, Order of, 1634.
Six Articles, Act of the, 1 5 3 9 ; 1546.
Skelton, Philip, 1789.
Slavi, 514.
Sleidan, 1556.
Smalcald, Articles of, 1537.

496

INDEX.

Smalcald, League of, 1 5 3 1 ; 1 5 3 5 ; I Spires, Diet of, 1529.
Spirituals. See Franciscans.
1 5 3 6 ; 1 5 3 8 ; 1539.
Sports, Book of, 1618 ; 1633.
Smalcaldic War, 1546.
Stackhouse, Thomas, 1752.
Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1698.
Stancaristic Controversy, 1551.
Society for the Propagation of the Gospel
Stange, T. F . , 1831.
in Foreign Parts, 1701.
Staudlin, K. F . , 1826.
Society, Baptist Missionary, 1792.
Staupitz, John, 1505 ; 1524.
Society, London Missionary, 1795.
Stedingians, 1235.
Society, Scotch Missionary, 1796.
Steinbart, G. S., 1809.
Society, Dutch Missionary, 1797.
Stephen, St., 34.
Society, ( E n g l i s h ) Church Missionary,
Stephen, E m p . E . , 919.
Stickna, Conrad, 1367.
1800.
Stobaeus, 499.
Society, British and Foreign Bible,
Stoics, 49.
1804.
Storr, C. C , 1804.
Society for Conversion of the Jews,
Stosch, E . H . D . , 1781.
1808.
Sturmio, 745.
Society, Great American Missionary,
Suarez, Francis, 1 6 1 3 ; 1616.
1810.
Sulpicius Severus (historian), 404.
Society, Methodist Missionary, 1814.
Sulpicius Severus ( B p . ) , 5 9 1 .
Society, American Baptist Missionary,
Superstition; end of 4th cent. ; 439 ;
1814.
Society, United Missionary, 1816.
534; 550; 558; 572; 675; 831;
Society, Evangelical Missionary, 1816.
871; 909; 9 3 1 ; 950; 993; 1001;
Society, North American Protestant
end of 11th c e n t . ; 1 1 7 7 ; 1 2 0 1 ;
Episcopal Church, 1820.
1220; 1250; 1299; 1652; 1693;
Societies, Auxiliary Missionary, 1819.
1734.
Society, American Methodist MissionSupralapsarians, 1590.
ary, 1819.
Supremacy, Oath of, 1 5 5 9 ; 1563.
Society, Berlin, for Evangelical MisSutry, Council of, 1046.
sions, 1823.
Swartz, Ildef., 1794.
Society, Paris Evangelical Missionary,
Swedenborg, Swedenborgians, 1 7 5 0 ;
1758; 1 7 7 1 ; 1772; 1783; 1787;
1824.
1 8 2 2 ; 1828.
Society, American Inland Missionary,
Sylvestrians, Order of the, 1231.
1826.
Symeon of Jerusalem, death of, 104 or
Society, Missionary, at Lausanne, 1827.
107.
Society, Rhenish Missionary, 1828.
Symmachus, translator of the Old
Socinians, 1 5 4 6 ; 1 5 6 3 ; 1 6 2 0 ; 1 6 3 8 ;
Testament, 1 9 3 ; 202.
1 6 5 8 ; 1 7 5 8 ; 1 7 9 5 ; 1817.
Symmachus, Roman Patriarch, 4 9 8 ;
Socinus, Laelius, 1 5 4 7 ; 1 5 5 1 ; 1562.
503.
Socinus, Faustus, 1 5 7 4 ; 1 5 7 8 ; 1 5 9 2 ;
Symphorosa, 121.
1604.
Syncelli* end of 7th cent.
Socrates, History of, 439.
Syncellus, George, 800.
Sollicitudo Omnium, Bull entitled,
Syncretistic Controversy, 1634 ; 1639 ;
1814. ^
* 2 6 4 3 ; 1 6 4 5 ; 1 6 5 5 ; 1677; 1689.
Somaschi, 1528.
Synergistic Controversy, 1 5 5 5 ; 1560.
Sonnists, 1664.
Synesius, 410 ; 430.
Sophronius, 633 ; 634.
Synod of Robbers, 449.
Southcott, Johanna, 1 7 9 2 ; 1814.
Synodus Palmaris, 503.
Sozomen, History of, 439.
Spalatin, George, 1548.
T.
Spalding, J. G., 1804.
Taborites, 1 4 2 0 ; 1 4 3 3 ; 1434.
Spangenberg, A. G., 1792.
Tacitus, Emperor, 275.
Spanheim, Frederic (the Elder), 1649.
Tanchelin, 1115.
Spanheim, Frederic (the Younger),
Talmud, Babylonian, 450.
1701.
Tapers, 370.
Spener, P . J . , 1666; 1675 ; 1677 ;
Tatian, 1 5 8 ; 1 6 5 ; 176.
1686; 1 6 9 1 ; 1694; 1700; 1704;
Tatianists, 165.
1705.
Tauler, John, 1361.
Spinola, 1695.
J Taverner's Bible, 1539.
Spinosa, Benedict, 1677.

INDEX.
Taylor, John, 1761.
Teller, W. A., 1804.
Templars. See Knights.
Tenison, T., 1715.
Terministic Controversy, 1701.
Tertiary Friars. See Franciscans.
Tertullian, 1 9 6 ; 198 ; 2 0 3 ; 2 0 4 ; 2 0 7 ;
218.
Test Act, 1 6 7 3 ; 1827.
Tetrapolitan Confession, 1530.
Tetzel, 1517.
Teutonic Knights, 1 1 9 2 ; 1 2 3 0 ; 1237.
Theatines, Order of, 1524.
Theban Legion, 286.
Thebuthis, 104.
Themistians, 5 2 1 .
Theoctistus, Bp. of Caesarea, 215.
Theodahat, 534 ; 536.
Theodora, 5 3 5 ; 5 3 7 ; 556.
Theodora, Empress E . , 1054.
Theodore Ascidas, 538 ; 541.
Theodore Balsamon, 1215.
Theodore, Abp. of Canterbury, 6 6 8 ;
675.
Theodore Cassiteras, 815.
Theodore Lascaris I., Greek E m p . , 1207.
Theodore Lascaris I I . , Greek E m p . ,
1259.
Theodore Metochita, 1332.
Theodore of Mopsuestia, 428.
Theodore, Patriarch of Rome, 646.
Theodore Studites, 8 1 4 ; 8 1 5 ; 826.
Theodore of Tarsus, 376.
Theodoret, 4 2 9 ; 456.
Theodoric, 4 9 3 ; 518,
Theodosian Code, 438.
Theodosius I., E m p . E . , 3 7 9 ; 380 v ;
3 8 8 ; 3 9 0 ; sole emp., 394.
Theodosius I I . , E m p . E . , 4 0 8 ; 4 1 5 ;
429 ; 4 3 1 ; 433 ; 434 ; 442 ; 448.
Theodosius I I I . , E m p . E . , 716.
Theodotian, 178.
Theodotians, Theodotus, 1 9 3 ; 2 0 3 .
Theodulph, 820.
Theognostus, 2 6 1 .
Theology. See Doctrine of the Church.
Theonas, 325.
Theophanes, historian, 817.
Theophanes Ceramius, 1042.
Theophanes, Abp. of Nicaea, 1343.
Theophilanthropic Society, 1796; 1802.
Theophilus of Alexandria, 4 0 1 ; 403 ;
4 0 4 ; 412.
Theophilus of Antioch, 178.
Theophilus, E m p . E . , 829 ; 830.
Theophylact, 1078.
Thessalonians, Epistles to the, 52.
Theudas, 44.
Thomas Aquinas, 1245; 1 2 5 3 ; 1 2 6 0 ;
1274.
Thomas of Cantinpre, 1261.

497

Thomas a Kempis, 1471.
Thomists and Scotists, 1299.
Thirty Years' War, 1 6 1 8 ; 1648.
Thorn, Conference at, 1645.
Thundering Legion, 170.
Tiberius Alexander, 4 5 .
Tiberius L , E m p . , 33.
Tiberius I I . , E m p . E . , 578.
Tiberius I I I . , E m p . E . , 6 9 8 .
Tichonius, 362.
Till, S., 1713.
Tillotson, John, 1694.
Timothy -3Elurus, 4 5 2 ; 4 5 7 ; 4 5 9 ;
476,
Timothy, St., 46 ; 5 0 ; First Epistle to,
6 4 ; Second Epistle, 65.
Timour, or Tamerlane, 1 3 6 9 ; 1 3 8 0 ;
1 4 0 0 ; 1 4 0 2 ; 1404.
Tindal, Matthew, 1 7 3 0 ; 1733.
Tithes, end of 2d cent. ; end of 4th
cent.; 6 7 5 ; 740; 7 7 8 ; 7 9 1 ; 7 9 4 ;
9 0 9 ; 1 1 8 5 ; 1215. See also Church
Property.
Tittman, J . A. H . , 1832.
Tittmann, K . C , 1820.
Titus, E m p . , 79.
Titus, Epistle to, 64.
Togrul Beg, 1038 ; 1054.
Toland, X , 1722.
Toleration, Act of, 1779.
Toleration, Edict of, by Constantine
and Licinius, 312.
Toleration, Edict of, by the Emperor
Joseph, 1781.
Toletus, 1596.
Tollner, J . G., 1774.
Torgau, Articles of, 1530.
Torgau, Book of, 1576.
Torgau, League of, 1526.
Torgau, Visitation Articles of, 1592.
Tostatus, Alphonso, 1454.
Totila, 5 4 1 ; 547.
Trajan, E m p . , 98.
Transfiguration, Feast of the, 1456.
Transubstantiation. See Lord's Supper.
Travers and Hooker, 1585.
Tremellius, 1548.
Trent, Council of, 1544, 1545, 1546 ;
1547; 1 5 5 1 ; 1562; 1563.
Treuga Dei, 1 0 3 3 ; 1041.
Tria Capitula, Controversy concerning
the, 5 4 4 ; 5 4 6 ; 5 4 8 ; 551 ; 553.
Tribonianus, 545.
Triers, Committee of, 1654.
Trinity, Holy, Festival of the, 1 3 2 0 ;
1405.
Trinity, Holy, Order of the, 1198.
Trisagium, 4 6 3 ; 512.
Trullan Council, 690.
Tumblers, 1724.
Turlupins, 1 2 1 0 ; 1372.
K K

498

INDEX.

Turretin, J . A., 1 7 0 7 ; 1 7 2 p ; 1737.
Tyndal, 1526.
Tzschirner, H . G., 1828.
U.
Uniformity, Act of, 1559 ; 1662.
Ulpian, 222.
Ulphilas, 3 7 0 ; 375.
Unigenitus, the Bull, 1 7 1 1 ; 1717;
1720; 1725; 1728; 1730; 1739;
1752.
Union of Natures in Christ, 378 ; 446 ;
4 5 1 . See also Monophysites.
Unitarians, 1 5 6 5 ; 1568; 1578; 1 5 9 2 ;
1620; 1 6 5 8 ; 1 7 7 4 ; 1 7 9 5 ; 1808.
Unitas Fatrum. See Brethren.
Universalists, 1780.
Universities, 1158; 1206; 1 2 2 2 ; 1228
1 2 4 5 ; 1 2 4 9 ; 1 2 5 7 ; 1 2 6 0 ; 1289
1 2 9 8 ; 1 3 0 0 ; 1 3 0 3 ; 1 3 0 7 ; 1308
1 3 1 1 ; 1 3 3 9 ; 1 3 4 3 ; 1 3 4 6 ; 1348
1 3 6 1 ; 1 3 6 5 ; 1 3 8 2 ; 1 3 8 8 ; 1391
1 3 9 2 ; 1 3 9 8 ; 1 4 0 0 ; 1 4 0 3 ; 1409
1 4 1 0 ; 1 4 1 1 ; 1 4 1 9 ; 1 4 2 6 ; 1430
! 1 4 3 1 ; 1 4 3 3 ; 1 4 4 1 ; 1 4 4 5 ; 1450
1 4 5 4 ; 1 4 5 6 ; 1 4 6 0 ; 1 4 6 3 ; 1472
1474 ; 1477 ; 1479 ; 1499 ; 1502
1506 ; 1521 ; 1 5 2 7 ; 1532 ; 1540
1 5 4 4 ; 1 5 4 7 ; 1 5 4 8 ; 1 5 5 1 ; 1552
1563'; 1 5 6 4 ; 1 5 6 5 ; 1 5 6 6 ; 1571
1575) 1 5 7 6 ; 1 5 7 8 ; 1 5 8 2 ; 1585
1 5 9 1 ; 1 5 9 2 ; 1 5 9 3 ; 1 5 9 6 ; 1600
1 6 0 7 ; 1 6 1 4 ; 1 6 2 1 ; 1 6 2 5 ; 1632
1635 ; 1636 ; 1600 ; 1647; 1648
1 6 5 5 ; 1 6 6 5 ; 1 6 6 8 ; 1 6 7 0 ; 1673
1 6 9 4 ; 1 7 0 2 ; 1 7 1 7 ; 1 7 3 5 ; 1743
1755 ; 1781 ; 1786 ; 1803 ; 1809
1 8 1 0 ; 1811 ; 1 8 1 2 ; 1 8 1 5 ; 1816
1 8 1 9 ; 1 8 2 7 ; 1 8 2 8 ; 1834.
Unni, 939.
Ursicinus, 366.
Ursinus, Z., 1583.
Ursulines, Order of, 1537.
Urban V I . , Pope., 1378.
Usher, Abp., 1641 ; 1655.
Utraquists, 1420.
Utrecht, Church of, 1823.
Utrecht, Synod of, 1763.
Uytenbogaert, John, 1 6 0 9 ; 1643.
V.
Valens, E m p . E . , 364.
Valentinian I., E m p . W., 364.
Valentinian and Gratian, E m p . W . ,
375.
Valentinian I I . , E m p . s W . , 388.
Valentinian I I I . , E m p . W . , 424.
Valentinus, 140.
Valerian, E m p . , 253.
Vallombrosa, Order of, 1038.
Vanini, 1629.

Vasquez, Gabriel, 1604.
Vater, J . S., 1825.
Veccus (orBeccus), John, 1724; 1282";
1298.
Venantius Fortunatus, 600.
Venema, H e r m . 1787.
Verger, Peter Paul, 1 5 4 8 ; 1565.
Vespasian, E m p . , 69.
Vespers, Sicilian, 1282.
Vigilantius, 404.
Vigilius, Patriarch of Rome, 546 ; 5 4 8 ;
551 ; 553.
Vigilius of Thapsus, 485.
Vincent of Beauvais, 1256.
Vincent of Lerins, 434 ; 448.
Vincent de Paula, 1 6 3 1 ; 1660.
Vincentius Ferrarius, 1419.
Viret, Peter, 1528 ; 1536 ; 1539 ; 1571.
Visitation, Feast of the, 1389.
Vitalian, 5 1 2 ; 514.
Vitellius, E m p . , 69.
Vitiges, 536.
Vitringa, Campegius, 1722.
Vives, John Ludovicus, 1541.
Voetians. See Cocceian Controversy.
Voetius, Gisbert, 1658 ; 1677.
Volket, J . , 1618.
Voltaire, 1 7 3 2 ; 1778.
Vossius, G. J . , 1649.
W.
Wagner, F . , 1760.
Wake, William, 1717 ; 1737.
Walafried Strabo, 849.
Walch, C. W . F . , 1784.
Waldenses, 1 1 7 0 ; 1 1 7 8 ; 1 1 8 4 ; 1 1 9 0 ;
1206; 1210; 1309; 1375; 1487;
1 5 4 5 ; 1559; 1665; 1 6 8 6 ; 1689.
Waldo, Peter, 1170; 1197.
Walton, Bryan, 1661.
Wandsworth, Presbytery of, 1572.
Warburton, William, 1 7 3 8 ; 1779.
Warnefried, Paul, 7 9 4 ; 799.
Wars in France, religious, 1562; 1567;
1 5 6 8 ; 1572; 1 5 7 4 ; 1 5 7 7 ; 1 5 8 4 ;
1627.
Waterland, Daniel, 1 7 1 2 ; 1742.
Watts, Isaac, 1748.
Weigel, Valentine, 1588.
Weiller, Caj., 1826.
Weisman, C. E . , 1747.
Weller, J . , 1 6 4 5 ; 1662.
Wenceslaus, E . G., 1378.
Werenfels, S., 1740.
Wernsdorf, G., 1728.
Wesel, J o h n of, 1479.
Wesley, John, 1 7 2 8 ; 1 7 3 1 ; 1735 £
1 7 3 8 ; 1 7 4 1 ; 1746; 1791.
Wessel, John, 1489.
Westphal, Joachim, 1552 ; 1554.
Westphalia, Peace of, 1684.

INDEX.
Wetstein, J . J . , 1754.
Whiston, William, 1 7 1 2 ; 1752.
Whitaker, William, 1595.
Whitby, Daniel, 1726.
White Penitents, 1399. '
Whitfield, George, 1 7 3 1 ; 1 7 3 8 ; 1 7 4 1 ;
1 7 4 6 ; 1770.
Whitgift, 1 5 7 0 ; 1583.
WicklifFe, John, 1 3 5 6 ; 1 3 6 0 ; 1 3 6 5 ;
1 3 7 0 ; 1 3 7 2 ; 1 3 7 4 ; 1 3 7 6 ; 1378,
1379; 1380; 1 3 8 1 ; 1 3 8 2 ; 1384.
WicklifFe, doctrines and followers of,
1396; 1402; 1404; 1408; 1409;
1410; 1 4 1 3 ; 1 4 1 4 ; 1458.
Wilfrid, 675.
William de St. Amour, 1 2 3 1 ; 1 2 5 6 ;
1260.
William de Nogaret, 1303.
Williams, David, 1775.
Willibrod, 6 9 0 ; 6 9 6 ; 7 1 8 ; 739.
Wilson, Thomas, 1755.
Winfried.
See Boniface.
Wissowatius, 1677.
Witsius, Hermann, 1708.
Wittemberg, Concord of, 1536.
Wolf, Christian, 1754.
Wolf, J.- C , 1738.
Wolfenbuttel Fragments, 1 7 7 7 ; 1781.
Wolsey, Cardinal, 1509 ; 1529.

499

Woolston, Thomas, 1733.
Worms, Concordat of, 1122.
Worms, Edict of, 1521,' 1522 ; 1524 ;
1529.
X.
Xavier, Francis, 1 5 4 1 ; 1549,; 1552.
Ximenes, Cardinal, 1 4 9 5 ; 1520*
Xiphilin, J o h n , 1078.
Z.
Zachariae, 1777.
Zacharias Scholasticus, 518.
Zanchius Jerome, 1590.
Zeltner, G. G., 1738.
Zeno, E . E . , 474 ; 4 7 6 ; 4 7 7 ; 4 7 8 ; 482
Zenobia, 2 6 7 ; 272.
Zerawitz, Synod of, 1616.
Ziegenbalg, Bartholomew, 1 7 0 4 ; 1719.
Ziegler, W. K. L . , 1809.
Zimmerman, E . , 1832.
Zinzendorf, Count, 1 7 0 9 ; 1 7 2 2 ; 1 7 2 7 ;
1760.
Ziska, 1417; 1424.
Zollikoffer, G. J . , 1788.
Zuiicb, Disputation at, 1523.
Zwickaw, fanatics of, 1522.
Zwingle, Ulric, 1 4 8 4 ; 1 5 1 9 ; 1 5 2 3 ;
1 5 2 5 ; 1531.

THE END,

CORRECTIONS.
Page 83.
111.
143.
155.
—
158.
164.
169.
195.

216.
221.
223.
265.
270.
272.
288.
302.
313.
379.
393.
402.
414.
429.
446.

line 20., and page 84. line 13., for " — and 380," read " 3 8 1 . "
line 6. for « 777." read " 77."
line 27. for " 4 0 9 , " read " 4 0 7 . "
line 7. for " Cyrrhus," read " P y r r h u s . "
line 11. for " 4 6 7 , " read " 6 4 7 . "
line 17. for «XIV?
read "IF."
line 14. for " 777." read " 77."
line 2. insert "j* before " J o h n of Damascus."
lines 27, 28. for " Olaf Trygvesen — without effect," read " Iceland was
discovered about this time, and received some superficial knowledge
of Christianity."
line 2 1 . for " 77." read "III."
line 1. for "IX." read "XL ; " and transpose " 1059, Order, fyc." to
" 1095."
line 4. for " III." read " IF."
line 13. for " II." read
"III."
line 15. for < Berghards," read " Beghards."
*
line 18. for "IF." read " 7 1 . "
line 4. for " o n , " read " o r . "
line 1. for " 1494," read " 1404."
line 2 1 . for " XL" read " JT77."
line 27. for " Budams," read " Budnaeus."
line 11. for " Chamer," read " Chamier."
line 25. for " Muraeus," read " Musseus."
line 6. for " Gilbert," read " Gisbert."
Transpose line 12. to line 6.
line 1. for " Henmann," read " H e u m a n n . "

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