ELEMENTARY EDUCATION.

ELEMENTARY

E D U C A T I O N ;
THE

IMPORTANCE OF ITS EXTENSION
IN

OUR OWN COUNTRY.

WITH A-

SKETCH OF T H E

STATE OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION ON
T H E : CONTINENT,

BY

HENRY EDWARDS, PH. D., D. D.

LONDON;
LONGMAN AND CO., PATERNOSTER ROW.
MDCCCXLIV.

PREFACE.

T H E main object of the writer in the present work, is to interest the reader on behalf of Elemental Education, and thus
to promote its extension, The subject seems at present peculiarly apt and inviting. The debate in the House on the
late Factory Bill, and the warm and enthusiastic opposition
to that measure from without, have given it a happy prominence in the public- mind. The attention which it has
elicited is, however, but of recent date. If /we take Sir Bobert
Peel's speeches in parliament as a correct index of public
opinion, we shall find this fully proved by a reference to the
work of W. T. Haly, esq., entitled, '' Opinions of Sir Robert
Peel, expressed in Parliament and in Public," where we find
the premier rising from hostility to indifference, and from indifference to approbation and support, thus noting the onward
career of opinion on the right and desirableness of popular
education.
We have connected with this plan, the history and state
of education on the continent. Of the history, indeed, we
have said no more than was necessary to elucidate the leading
characteristics of the governmental systems. We have not
proceeded as we might have done, to include the principal
varieties of the system known in the United States, nor yet
the statistics of education in our own country. But we have
shown the lamentable deficiency of means yet to be furnished,
and the necessity of immediate increased exertion. We have

IV

also proposed a plan which seems to us the most desirable*
If we have spoken strongly against government interference,
the remarks thus offered must be principally referred to exclusive or despotic control, rather than protection and assistance, to which we do not feel that settled aversion which
many have vented on any plan that may be proposed connected with the government.
In his letter to the Lords of the committee, the Hon. Baptist Noel very properly suggests, that the public want to be
aroused to the claims of popular education, as one of the
means of furthering its progress. "We are aware that others
more competent than ourselves may undertake to discharge
the same duty, but the same may be asserted of nearly every
sphere of useful literary, as of every sphere of religious
labor. And as manyjuay be justly allowed to devote themselves to the same cause, so may many realize some satisfactory fruits from their labors, and each harmoniously ^contribute
to its advancement.

ELEMENTARY EDUCATION.
CHAPTER I.

I F there be any one great paramount object of
practical inquiry which at this crisis of our history and of the annals of mankind, summons
to its development and application the highest
powers of intellect and the deepest pulsations
of the philanthropic heart, it is that to which
patriotism would here invite to serious discussion, a thinking ptiblic. The once formidable
difficulties which opposed the wise and benevolent efforts and designs of the educationist have
dwindled, and the prospered labors of many an
illustrious deceased, the several agencies now in
operation, and the visible and active moral enlightenment and feeling which distinguish each
social circle, not only fill us with complacent
gratitude, but present cheering prospects and
prompt sanguine exertions for the immediate
future. If ever there was a period when the
great subject of education, as affecting the
humbler classes, demanded a deep reflective
attention, proportionate to its magnitude, it is
the present. That fair and fruitful land, once
but the land of promise, must soon become the
land of possession; the mine has been sprung,
the more toilsome and discouraging amount of
effort to cultivate and adorn the desert intellect
A

2
and heart has been accomplished, and we have
but to improve our present vantage-ground by
a combined, discreet, and zealous consecration
of the means and materials already in hand or
in hope, and we become the honored and happy
fosterfathers of an elevated, enriched, and a
grateful posterity.
The spirit of the age no longer able to brook
delay, demands at once that those fountains
which have been sealed for ages should be
opened, and that treasures, long accumulating,
be unlocked, to satisfy its pressing needs. The
recent Government scheme, though it has proved
abortive, having been urgently resisted by the
many, and cherished, and that but faintly by
the few, has nevertheless wonderfully tended
to lift and raise the public mind to the high
bearings of the subject, and may be hailed by
all the sincere advocates of popular instruction
as a blessed propagation of the movement in
its favor, propelling alike sectarianism and
liberality, the friend and the foe of the untaught populace, to a more extended investigation of its associations with general truth,
with the hope to scan its influence on the
destinies of the future.
This state of the public mind is however but
of recent origin. Though the demand has been
too loudly and extensively echoed throughout
the land to be finally repressed, yet every one
acquainted with the principles which are either
uttered or connived at by the higher and lower
classes, and with the presiding feeling still lin-

3
gering in many a dark isolation, is full taught
in the fact that there yet exists indifference
and even deep-rooted aversion to the accelerated
advance of popular education. It were easy to
multiply abundant illustration of this astounding
fact, alike from influential members of social
and public society, and from many distinguished
authors and popular periodicals, as well as from
the low estimate society at large has formed of
the profession of the educator, of what it might
be and might effect, one of the surest criterions
of the solidity and amplitude of public faith and
feeling as to the importance of education. But
this is not required. The yet unbroken sway of
such sentiments in many a dreary mind is thus
attested by Edward Twisleton, Esq., assistant
poor-law Commissioner. " It is impossible," he
says in his report on the training of pauper
children, 1841, " t o shut ones eyes to the fact,
that a certain portion of the upper and middling
classes harbour a rooted distrust of any plan
for the education of the poor. In discharge
of my ordinary duties I have often had an opportunity of seeing this feeling manifested in
an undisguised form.
Amongst many small
farmers, and some of the gentry, unwillingness
to educate the poor is openly defended by argument, and a merchant of a seaport town
gravely assured me, not long ago, that an agricultural labourer was very little above a brute,
and that to educate him would merely have the
effect of rendering him dissatisfied with his situation in life.3' And not long since a learned

4
reviewer in Blackwood's Magazine, labored to
prove that the introduction of any improved
system of education would almost infallibly tend
to the depression of genius, the inflation of the
popular mind, and social disorganization.
The cautious observer must detect abundant
reasons to believe that the excitement which
has lately been elicited is comparatively superficial and not sufficiently woven in the contexture of the national judgment^ and heart. It
had too much the air of party spirit and mere
legislation instead of enlightened and expansive
principle, and generous patriotism. It appears
desirable, therefore, if not necessary, to devote
some space to the consideration of the claims
of popular education, which though often described as a great platform truth, is yet not so
deeply engrafted on the public mind as to render
such succours needless. Every one, however
feeble his arm, if sincerely earnest, may contribute something valuable towards the erection
of the fair temple of truth and virtue; in the
rectification of public opinion, which when once
complete and determinate, is the most potent
agent for meliorating social character and condition. Public enlightenment and enthusiasm
must ever precede any lasting and extensive
good. Constituted as the government of our
country is, and accustomed tq receive its impulses from without, it would be contrary to
reason and to experience to expect it to originate any great changes. This is not recognised,
either by governors or governed, as any part

5
of its duty. It is to the public mind, therefore,
that those who desire any change must address
themselves. # The necessity of education, therefore, is not brought under consideration to canvass it as though it were a disputed point, but
because it is useful to resume and enforce by
way of recollection the plainest truths ; not so
much with a design to convince the judgment,
as to rouse the unreflecting into a practical feeling of what tljey must in theory allow. Short
and rapid as must be our argument, its discussion shall not close until it be fully established
that in universal education concentre alike our
universal duty, honor, and interest, and that the
objector to its progress is the only true visionary, who antedating himself with the ages of the
world's childhood, would blindly desire to swell
the already onerous arrears of his country's guilt
and folly.
But false and fatal as may be the views of
the anti-educationist, we would not as we disturb and displace them, precipitately rush to
an opposite extreme. We would jealously guard
against extravagant opinions and statements on
this part of the work, as we shall in the other
against Utopian views and fantastic theories.
That education is a direct, speedy, and ever
infallible panacea for all social disorders would
be a distortion of fact, almost equal to the assertion that it was powerless for good. To hail
* "The will of the people when it is determined, peimanent, and
general, almost always at length prevails." Paley's Moral and Political
Philosophy, B. 6, Ch. 6.

6
it as our only friend would be almost as great
a display of weakness as to quail before it as
our only foe. But, however, individuals may
thus err, the public mind will not thus be seduced into extravagance and enthusiasm. There
is this abatement to be made to every great
moral enterprise proposed, that unlike great
scientific inventions or improvements, they are
slow in their growth and progress, and that
even when most vigorously and virtuously pursued, numerous difficulties remain to stagger
faith and intrepidity. Though the few may be
pinioned with an almost apostolic benevolence
and zeal, yet the many will often remain torpid,
and whilst mighty discussion, passion, and activity, characterize the former, the latter will be
excited by mere clamour, and remain impassive
to the weapons of reason and moral persuasion.
The inferior many must, however, follow the
superior few. Such majorities must one day
yield to a minority, and superior wisdom and
piety govern the millennial world.
Every human society is an aggregate of individualities, and the collective whole can never
be greater, better, or more enduring, than its
constituent parts. In order fully and accurately
to understand the character and condition of a
people, so as to regulate their laws and institutions by the rules of wisdom, and direct their
career towards virtue and happiness, it is useful
to refer to the characteristics and history of the
individual, the type of associated bodies, and
from the attentive and earnest consideration of

7
man as man, to descend to the multitude. A
fair, solid, and an ample structure of political
economy or social code, can only be reared as
this fundamental principle is practically acknowledged. It is from a full and faithful investigation of the minute and the particular that
we are alone qualified to ascend and expand to
the great and universal, so as to ascertain fully
and feel deeply its superior claims upon the
understanding, the conscience, and the heart.
Hence the thrilling excitement which every important national move makes to vibrate in the
heart of the philanthropic patriot and christian,
whose comprehensive and intelligent mind guided and sanctified by the impulses of benevolence, can embrace in its thoughts and purposes
an entire community, and who, as they are seen
emerging from darkness, confusion, and wretchedness, into life beauty and enjoyment, feels
stiring in his bosom the hymn of the morning
stars, when they sang for joy over a newly
finished creation, beautiful and glorious without
spot.
The character and history both of individuals
and communities become mutually illustrated,
and grow more important and copious to reflection as they are estimated by their common
similarity, relation, and influence. That mind
must be either weak or ignorant, shrunk in
selfishness or steeled with insensibility, which
can think or speak of aught affecting the destinies of myriads, in the same phlegmatic strain
with that which concerns but a single family.

8
The subject of national or popular education
must be thus realised ere we can attain to a
due appreciation of its vast dimensions and
unspeakable importance. To elicit the sympathies of the educated on behalf of those large
outlying masses in the state, who have been
suffered to remain in that stagnant ignorance
and mental inanition, which our great dramatic
bard justly describes as " the curse of God,"
we must refer them to their own experience
and privileges.
Let the reader pursue the
golden stream of instruction through every amble of its winding, from the fountain-head of
infancy to matured years. Let him reflect on
what he has been and what he has done, of his
associations,, whether more or less intimate and
endeared; of his enjoyments, and his very pains;
let him review each scene and act of private
seclusion, social intercourse, and religious duty,
and then let him ask himself whether he would
endure the thought of being assimilated to that
simplicity, which however embellished by some
false poets or extolled by some false ethic philosophers, scarcely lifts its head above the level
of instinct life, to which it is in many respects
inferior, and he will at once recoil from the
prospect as one oppressive and dismal, like the
divine Plato at the thought of the soul's annihilation.
Let him visit those, to whom the
educator has never come. The multitudes of
the impoverished in body and soul! the masses
of the unnourished, the unapparelled, the uncultivated in all senses of the words, the nom-

9
ades of a too long neglected population! More
rude, more needy, and wretched, because unvisited by that power which can alone evoke
the " moral germ" that is concealed in the
depth of every human heart—"the heart within the heart," in virtue of which man is man,
and without which he were not human, scarcely
bestial. Thou, favored one! visit yon rude
hovel—descend into that dim cellar—thread
that narrow alley—penetrate into that dingy
garret:—in a word
" Expose thyself, to feel what wretches feel,
And show the heavens more just."

It is an obvious truism, that one of our most
excellent possessions is knowledge. So necessary is it to every valuable purpose in life,
that the great Author of the universe did not
leave man indifferent concerning this inestimable
grace and gift of the Father of Lights.
The
desire of knowledge is strongly implanted in
the human breast; and it is agreeable to us,
independently of those advantages by which it
is otherwise attended.
And well may knowledge be looked upon as
a real excellence, since it is one of the grand
points, by which we are distinguished from the
brutes, and hold our honorable rank in the
creation of God.
By this we are allied to
angels—by this we claim kindred with Deity
itself.
The mind of man must be cared for, equally
with the body; and it is as needful to apparel
the one, as it is to clothe the other. Nature
B

10
perfects the brute, but man is made by art.
And so it was said by one of the old philosophers, that we are born but animals; it is
knowledge and education, which make us men.
It is true, that reason is intimately mixed up
with our very nature; but so in the vegetable
world, flowers and fruits lie latent in their several seeds ; yet if these are laid in barren soil, or
be neglected in their growth, they will come
to nothing. It is just so with the mind.
All our knowledge is acquired. It has been
the good pleasure of Him who made us, simply
to give us faculties and capacities, committing us
in other respects to our own guidance and
industry. We are capable of speaking divers
languages; but if left to ourselves, we should
pour forth nothing but confused and inarticulate
noises. We may attain to many wonderful arts
and sciences ; but had we no teaching, we should
(in the language of Job) continue as we were
born, "like the wild ass's colt," as illiterate, and
almost as stupid.
It would be idle to refer to authorities, since
all who consult them know, that however they
may disagree in some particulars, they
unanimously recommend and enforce education,
as a sacred duty, devolving on men of every
country and class, towards the young. Wise
men in every country and age have marked out
the road, the same to individuals and nations,
to all that is truly good and great—and that is
education. "The inquiry of truth/' observes Lord
Bacon, " which is the love-making or wooing

11
of it,—the knowledge of truth, which is the
possession of it,—and the belief of truth, which
is the enjoying of it,—constutute the sovereign
good of human nature—certainly it is heaven upon earth, to have a man's mind move in charity,
rest in Providence, and turn upon the poles of
truth?' 5 And says the great and good John
Locke, who was in mental philosophy what
his friend Sir Isaac Newton was in physical,
" I think I may say, that, of all the men we meet
with, nine parts in ten are what they are, good
or evil, useful or not, by their education. It
is that which makes the great difference in
mankind." But a sacred writer uses language
yet clearer and stronger, in which the promise
is declared to be as certain as the precept,
" Train up a child," says Solomon, "in the way
he should go; and when he is old he will not depart from it."
It would be incompatible with our design to
adduce more than generalities whilst dwelling
on the advantages of a cultivated understanding.
And were we permitted to open at large on the
theme, words would fail to color with the
tint of truth its superiority over mental sterility.
Never could we hold out to the mental eye, in its
full expansion, the wide and rich territorial domain to which it conducts, and of which man,
by nature dark and diminutive in intellect, is
thus alone constituted the high and happy
proprietor. The advantages of knowledge and
the evils of ignorance may be contrasted, as gold
with dross, in physical, in organic, in intelligent

12
and moral nature. True honor and happiness,
scorning mere outward distinctions, are the
legitimate offspring of character—-that which
enables us to love, enjoy, and act—and what
is character but the fruit of which education
is the tree. It is education-—intellectual, moral,
and religious,—that can alone raise man to the
full stature and dignity of his being, dissevering
him from animal and consociating him with
angelic natures ;—that can lead him from his
wanderings to the well-spring of unfading pleasure, and render him the instrument of true and
extensive good; without which he is useful only
by accident, wise only by instinct, and happy
only in mirth or folly. The mind unrestrained
and undirected, becomes a soil prepared for
the growth of every root of bitterness; or
what is more probable, the character is poisoned
in its infancy, by the very means which should
have been its aliment and life. It is education
alone that can evolve all the powers of man,
so as to enable him to secure, enjoy, and improve
all the varied riches of the world within and
the world without; that can hallow and refine
the mind and the manners—shed beauty and
blessing on all the social ties of our nature,
enlarging and expanding the range of duty
and enjoyment to parent and child, consort
and friend; converting the otherwise inevitable
discord, impoverishment, and degradation, conspicuous alike in private, social, and public life,
into consolidation, strength, obedience, peace,
and harmony, and all the varied inviting realities

13
of purity and bliss; rendering poverty rich, loneliness cheerful, and obscurity great. This education is to the mind what light is to the eye,
oxygen to atmospheric air, sculpture to the
block, life to the body, and the sun to the world.
All other human distinctions, however factitiously magnified, are trivial and insignificant,
compared with that immediately obvious and
palpable distinction between the man whose
mind education has endowed and enriched, and
the man whose mind, from its absence, has
remained a blank, or been converted into a
wilderness.
The former contrasted with the
latter is as an orient gem in the midst of worthless feculence, or putrid corruption. It matters
not what may be the quality or extent of the
process through which the mind passes, let there
only be real education, whole and not fractional,
and this superiority is as really, if not equally
remarkable. There is no essential difference
between men on earth and the highest created
beings in any region of the universe, but what
consists in the degree of knowledge, and in the
degree of holiness, or moral perfection, which
they respectively possess.
That education which we would alone sanction, will, with the concurring influence, of
heaven, faithfully promised and ever liberally
added, even to the weakest and meanest effort
of goodness, prepare for all the diversified scenes
of life, adding new charms to each; ennoble
and enrich the experience of mature life, and
sanctify the memory and converse of hoary

14
hairs; guide the energies of youth and soothe the
sorrows of age; and streak with rays of loveliness
and glory, the dark confines of that eternity
which, solemn and awful in itself, becomes intensely dreadful when shrouded in the gloom of
obscurity. It is, therefore, the blessing of all
blessings from the first dawn of the intellect to
the sunset of the soul, when, refined with evangelical virtue, it wings its adventurous flight to
those higher regions, whose sublime scenes and
employments it has thus anticipated, in the
smiles of angels and the benignity of its Creator,
to rove, and bask, and brighten for ever.
These encomiums have been and will be
echoed by all but those whom ignorance incapacitates for an appreciation of its benefits. To
question them would be to bear the sign-manual
of one's own intellectual destitution and degradation. But if what has been declared is true
of individuals, education in its aggregate, or
popular education, must be the same to the
community. The intelligence of the individual
constitutes his chief distinction, power, and
treasure; and as the national intelligence is but
the blended intelligence of individuals, the real
greatness and glory of any nation may be best
estimated by the amount and quality of the
education diffused amongst its people. If good
education gives such a wonderful augmentation
to the importance, comfort, and usefulness of
the individual, national education must produce
the same results, and that on a grander scale,
on a community. For a nation considered in

the light in which we have placed it, as a mighty
assemblage and connexion of unit parts, may
be raised far beyond the individual; the confluence of innumerable streams not only swelling
the ocean tide, but making each separate course,
by the amalgamation, deeper and brighter. The
concurrence of opinion on any subject, adds to
the intelligence and excitement of each member
of the multitude from whom it originates. Owing to the nature of influence, which like sympathy in an audience, increases with numbers,
and the laws which a wise Creator has impressed
upon man, both as an individual and a social
being; the new wants thus created, and the
new stimulus thus imparted by the universal
extension of education, would not only contribute to the stores thus allotted to each of the
befriended, but to the general national intelligence and prosperity.
It has been too frequently assumed that the
humbler classes of society are alone really dependent, borrowing their manners and morals,
and whole tone of character, from the richer
and more aristocratic circles. But a little reflection on the present state of the representation, and the large and numerous organizations
of the working classes; the changes recently
effected, and even the debates in the last few
sessions of parliament, must serve to remove
such an impression. Many great social reforms,
though originating perhaps in some member of
the upper ranks, have been principally supported and pressed forwards in their career of

16
victorious aggression, by obscurity rendered
powerful by multitudinous strength.
Literature, science, and philosophy have also been
principally indebted for their several golden harvests, to the same too long depressed and despised order of the community.
Whatever might once have been their position, it is no longer doubtful that this large class
equally reciprocate influence with the other, and
that the higher ranks are far from being independent of their aid. Hence popular education
would be sure to work upward; it would stimulate to universal improvement, and give new
vigor to all; it would stain the escutcheon of
men too proud of rank and riches, and shame
alike the parent and the child, now unconcerned about the stamina and talent of the education they receive to increased mental exertion,
and raise them to a higher intellectual nobility. #
This is strikingly illustrated in the history of the
highest educated country of antiquity. Never,
perhaps, was education more widely extended
than in august Athena, whose meridian height of
glory, if not thus altogether attained, was certainly thus promoted. The extent and accuracy
of the learning of the lower classes of the Athenians were manifested in various instances; in
none, perhaps, more signally than in the celebrated case of the common soldiers taken in the
* One of the leading Reviews lately strikingly confirms the opinion of
the writer. The Conservative reviewer argues at length, the necessity
of increased intellectual effort and attainment, both on social and political grounds.

17
Peloponesian war, who gained a livelihood by
giving instruction, having saved their lives by
repeating the poems of Euripides to their Sicilian masters.
The middle and higher classes need not fear
degradation by sanctioning and promoting universal education; for with their superior resources, nothing but the stagnation engendered
by a luxury cruel as the maternal fondness that
spoils the child; or else the wilful inertness,
and false pride, and presumption of the hare
in the fable, can prevent their retaining their
present vantage-ground. In improving the subordinate class they will be sure to improve their
own in this as well as in many other ways,
rising as they rise, and growing with their
growth, like the nobler members of the body
in unison with those that are accounted inferior.
The greater the area of the pyramid at its base
the higher its apex may reach towards heaven.
No sooner shall the poor man be privileged
to have allotted him a plot of ground, which
he shall cultivate with profit to himself, and
family, and neighbours, and survey with pride
and pleasure, instead of the barren heath now
before his home ; then the rich shall add to his
garden the hothouse and conservatory, and the
aristocratic convert his extensive grounds into
a princely park. No distinction of God's appointment, none that ought to exist in well
constituted society, none on which Christianity
does not frown, will or can be levelled. Worth
and talent, and even wealth duly regulated, will
c

18
ever continue to distinguish their possessors;
and these will suffer no diminution by the elevation of a once neglected, suffering mass, to a
higher level of temporal enjoyment, and eternal
hope. "The mountain will tower above the sea,
as it towered primevally, although the valley
below, once a noisome swamp, be elevated, purified, and enriched, by the alluvial stream;
and human distinctions, of God's and not man's
creating, will point upwards to their native
heaven, not less than the social region, which
they at once adorn and bless, has risen around
them in all the elevation, and all the sunshine,
and all the verdure of prosperity, of virtue, and
of peace."
The evils resulting from the present partial
diffusion of knowledge, might thus disappear.
Not only would a higher tone be given to the
intellectual character of the superior classes,
but it would mortify and subdue the vanity of
the poor now consequent upon its acquisition.
It is not the positive but the relative amount
of knowledge, that elevates a man above his circumstances in society. It is not because he
knows much, but because he knows more than
his fellows. Educate all, and none will thus
plume himself on the ground that education and
knowledge make him far superior to his own
rank. It would also render the humbler classes
better able to appreciate the advantages of a
more costly education, whilst it furnished the
reasons and motives which would enable them to
comprehend and follow the laws of subordina-

19
tion and the general rights of society in all its departments. Nothing would be more calculated
to correct that vicious ambition on the part of
unqualified aspirants that swell the professions,
or court station and office; requiring means superior to parental resources, or talents superior
to those that can be exerted by the would-be
proficient; for whilst popular education would
encourage talent in every grade, eliciting its
energies for the general good; it must also, by
competition, tend to discourage that weak ambition which would protrude itself, to its own
injury, on those who can only reprove and repel
its abortive attempts.
It has been justly hinted, that elementary or
primary education must always be inferior to a
higher order of instruction for higher classes;
which may be divided into secondary, superior
or university, special, and supplementary education. # But though the former may be imperfect and deficient in degree, it may and must
be perfect in kind. Education is but a relative
term, and it becomes important, therefore, to
attach to it ideas certain and definite, whenever
it is employed. In using this comprehensive
term, then, we imply, that " complete and generous education," as it is styled by Milton,
which will afford alike stimulant and opportunity
for the due well-directed exercise of every valuable physical, intellectual, and moral power of
our nature; in which language and thought, the
apparatus and the end, the machinery and the
* See Central Society's Publications, vol. I, p. 3.

20
production, shall be alike fittest and best. We
speak of that genuine and well-balanced education which imparts the increasing desire of information, and the habit of seeking it, with the
richest information itself; which points out the
means of preserving or restoring the health both
of body and mind ; which forms in the heart
stable and honorable principles, and in the conduct, settled habits of self-control, which shall
alike capacitate and dispose the educated to act
a strenuous and useful part in their allotted
sphere and station, teaching them not only the
laws of morality, but the principles on which
they are founded: which shall impart an ardent
love of civil and religious liberty, and an equal
animosity against lawless disobedience and licentious rule, the feeling of subordination and
respect to authority being exactly equal to that
of self-respect: which shall not only supply the
mind with a competent fund of knowledge,
drawn from the best sources, but tend to create
an unappeasable relish for reading and reflection ; which shall alike excite and gratify not
idle or presuming but profitable curiosity, which
grows by what it feeds, and yet finds a neverfailing repast; which not only gives learning,
which is pastsight, but wisdom, which is foresight : and finally, and above all, education
which shall supply just conceptions of man's
probationary state in this world, and its connexion with the solemn realities of an eternal
future, drawn from the sources of revelation.
This education, however much it may appear

21
to men of cold and unaspiring taste, too finely
drawn for the actual, is certainly attainable;
and is the only education which will preclude
the painful after-thought and reproachful reflection, both in the educator and the educated,
that the generous exertions of the former had
been ill-requited, and the high hopes to which
the latter were invited, disappointed.
It is with justice that a good government is
regarded as sustaining to the governed the duties and relation of paternity. As such it has
been continually pourtrayed and addressed, alike
by the political economist, the literati, and the
religionist of every sect and rank. # Let us not,
however, be misconstrued as intending to draw
conclusions from an analogy which it will not
bear, for it would thus become baseless and
delusive, however plausible. We have shown in
one of our previous publications, that the relation between the two so far as it may be justly
applied, is artificial and self-originated, and that
the governed may in one sense be styled the
parents instead of being regarded as the helpless
babes of the governing. God and nature have
never entrusted that authority to any other
relationship which he has to the parental, to
tolerate which in government, would be to support perfect despotism. But in a limited and
modified sense the analogy is just, as might be
easily shown by referring to the mutual dependence, interests, affection, and duties of the two
* Fenelon in his Telemachus has some beautiful reflections whilst
dwelling on this analogy.

22
parties. # In this sense, however, it can only
be extended to the lawful powers and province
of government. Admitting this comparison to
rest thus far on a moral basis, national or
governmental education, if interference in the
ruling power is not an invasion of the rights
of the people, is certainly one of the first duties
incumbent on the state. And as in the case
of the decease or incapacity of the parents, the
parental relation and responsibilities become
transferred to the eldest members of the family;
so in default of the interference of the government, from indisposition or inability, the obligation to cultivate that large domain of immortal
mind which must otherwise remain in hopeless
sterility, immediately devolves on the influential
classes, and upon all, in fact, who have any
pittance of time or means which they may usefully devote to this sacred duty of citizenship.
There are often many duties towards children
which a parent cannot discharge, but commits to
others. Such, in many instances, is that of
instruction ; and the same will apply to every
government, and when so, the people are not only
justified but obligated to feel and to act in the
full exercise of that self-reliance and self-responsibility, without which even in the individual,
there can be no earnest thinking, no real feeling,
no genuine action. Education will ever constitute the primary anxiety and object of every
* So far as practicable, a government ought to be to a people, what
a judicious parent is to a family, not merely the ruler, but the instructor
and the guide. Dymond's Principles of Morality, Essay 3, Chap, 9, p. 127.

23
parent in the least intelligent, wise, and virtuous.
Would it not be to cast upon himself the severest stigma—to exhibit ignorance, immoral
neglect, and long-lived cruelty—if any parent
in the possession of ample means, were to withhold education from his rising offspring. How
much would his guilt be enhanced, if we suppose
those for whom he is thus responsible (and we
are all really if not equally responsible, one for
each and each for all), importunately soliciting
the priceless boon, not only by their pernicious
ignorance, their low and limited resources of enjoyment, and their consequent demoralization,
but by their earnest entreaties poured forth in
one strong united voice of eloquent remonstrance. Now this, it must be admitted, is in
miniature, an exact portrait of every government
and people who violate their obligations to their
children; who suffer by their carelessness or
more criminal altercations, the rise and growth
of a spawn of ignorance, corruption, and deformity, to darken and defile the moral atmosphere,
and menace convulsion and blood; a justly merited, because self-inflicted retribution, on the
land of their nativity.
It has been granted even by those who profess
to entertain scruples as to the expediency of
extending education universally, that it is every
man's personal duty to cultivate his own mind.
This is undeniably a sovereign duty which he
owes to himself, to his immediate relatives, to
the country in the benefit of whose institutions
he shares, and to his Creator and heavenly

24
Sovereign, who of his own spontaneous goodwill, has endowed him with mental, moral, and
immortal capacities.
Intellectuality and moral feeling constitute
the only real dignity and worth of human
nature, without the exercise, enjoyment, and
exhibition of which, man may justly be said to
act contrary to the highest bias and noblest
purposes of his being, to sin against the laws
impressed upon his nature, to frustrate the
evident end of his Creator in the gift of rationality, and to neglect and despise that soul
which is destined to immortality. His physical
nature is thus raised up not only as a rival but
as an enemy to the other two higher portions
of his triple being. He is thus but little superior to the lower orders of animated existence,
and often more untameable, ferocious, and destructive, a statement fully supported by scripture authority, in whose language he may truly
exclaim, " Surely I am more brutish than any
man, and have not the understanding of a man."
It is a duty justly demanded of him by his relatives and immediate friends.
Without some
measure of knowledge no man can efficiently
discharge domestic duties any more than he can
enjoy the solid delights of domestic intercourse,
and is as incompetent to fill the magistracy and
priesthood of his own household, as the higher
ones in the church or the state. A certain
amount of knowledge is imperatively required
to enable him to pursue his business or handicraft, or his capital and time will remain unim-

25
proved if not wasted, and his family materially
injured if not irretrievably ruined. He must
have some governing sense of their claims upon
his skill, industry, prudence, and general respectability, for by the ties of relationship his
position and conduct must either add to their
credit arid advantage, or operate to their prejudice and disgrace. But without these qualifications his very zeal and activity on their
behalf will only the sooner involve both himself
and them in serious if not irretrievable difficulties. Out of a thousand families reduced to
beggary, shame, and woe, scarcely ten can ascribe their fall to pure misfortunes, but to some
moral irregularity, or some gross imprudence,
both of which may be generally traced to ignorance or defective education. On the other
hand, few families emerge from poverty or
obscurity, but by that instruction, vigor of
thought, or those moral promptings which have
been induced either by foreign training or selfeducation.
It is also a duty which he owes to his country.
This evidently follows from those just mentioned ; for in improving the character and condition of his family, he acts the patriot; and,
indeed, this is almost the only way in which
many men can serve their country. The same
relation may be observed between private and
public intelligence, as has been declared to be
necessitated between private and public virtue. #
* I cannot reconcile myself to the idea of an immoral patriot, or to
D

26
The national honors and welfare are associatedy
in innumerable ways, with the national intelligence, which is to be estimated not by the
dazzling splendour of the few, but by the united
effulgence of the many. Who would not give
his praise and preference to that nation where
all participated in the common affluence of competence and comfort, rather than to the one
whose every palace was the centre of mean and
wretched hovels, whose glories only dazzled to
offend the eye, and whose riches were the putrid plunder of a vulture's prey? And what
patriot would not rather see all the children
of his father-land unitedly intelligent, virtuous*
and happy, than gaze only to wonder at a few
boasted specimens of erratic genius? As the
governors are dependent upon the governed,
not only for the right to hold, but also for the
administration of their powers, the wisest and
best disposed government can never be expected
to effect anything truly and permanently valuable whilst obstructed by ignorance in the
people. This is especially the case under a free
representative government like ours in which the
governed, rather than the governing, must ultimately direct and decide the laws, and promote
or frustrate the well-being of a nation. " I t is
becoming an undisputed proposition, that no
bad institution can permanently stand against
the distinct opinion of a people. This opinion
is likely to be universal, and to be intelligent
that separation of private from public virtue which some men think to
be possible. Dr. Price's Revolutionary Sermon,

27
only amongst an enlightened community. Now
that reformation of public institutions which
results from public opinion, is the very best in
kind, and is likely to be the best in its mode:—
in its kind, because public opinion is the proper
measure of the needed alteration; and in its
mode, because alterations which result from such
a cause, are likely to be temperately made." #
Partial and momentary changes may be brought
about by superficial and temporary excitements;
but to accomplish a national and permanent
improvement, the force of truth with its logical
acumen and moral obligation, must touch the
spring of actions in the conscience of men.
A breeze will ruffle the surface of a stagnant
pool;—a mountain torrent may give a sudden
and destructive impetuosity to a sluggish rivulet; but the regular impulse of a deep-seated
internal principle, sustains a healthy movement
through the masses of unfathomed ocean, and
extends its pulsations to the farthest shore.
The people require the guidance of correct and
righteous principles, to enable them to treat
men and measures according to their real merits,
without which the most beneficial measures may
be condemned, and the worst be permitted to
have sanction and sway. Ignorance is the great
clog on the wheels of improvement; and it often
proves the destroyer as knowledge always does
the conservator of every thing truly useful,
beautiful, and excellent. " Wisdom," declares
* Dymond's Principles of Morality.

28
an authority eminent for its display, " is better
than weapons of war." And what the same
sacred writer says of the domestic may with
equal justice be extended to the national family.
"Through wisdom is a house builded, and by
understanding it is established. And by knowledge shall the chambers be filled with all
precious and pleasant riches.' 5
The pursuit of knowledge is also a duty required by very piety. This fact may be proved
by a reference to many express injunctions of
the scriptures, as well as their general scope
and design. All their doctrines and precepts,
if they do not positively, yet indirectly, teach
us to strengthen and enrich our minds, otherwise distinguished for their poverty and deformity, as conducing to our own personal good,
the welfare of society, and the glory of God.
In addition to these scripture warrants, there
are other ways of proving the same great truth,
equally satisfactory. Such are the mental capabilities and insatiable curiosity by which we are
moved, and the ample, universal provision made
for the acquisition of knowledge. Who shall
pronounce that such great capacities given by
God, ought to be idle; or exclude the bulk of
mankind from that rich heritage bequeathed,
with no distinction, to the whole of the human
family? Creation equally with revelation, is a
volume whose every page is filled with the legible hand-writing of Deity. It is a prior revelation from Him who is in Himself invisible and
incomprehensible, and only known so fer as

29
he thus pleases to reveal himself; in which we
may gather traits of his character and lessons
of human duty. The seal of a benignity distancing all human benevolence, and the products of power, wisdom, and skill, defying all
parallel, are indelibly stamped on each minutest
part as well as on the stupendous whole; they
may be seen ranging every line and describing
every circle, traversing every angle and intersecting every section. But why is this volume
any more than the other, to be a sealed book,
whose folded leaves none but a small privileged
minority shall be permitted to open, the uninitiated being left entirely dependent upon
their arbitrary pleasure for any interpretation
of its contents? Are not the organs of the
body as well as the faculties of the soul, addressed by ten thousand distinct voices, each
adapted and appealing to each? The character
and designs of the Creator may be seen elaborated in these inferior things; they must,
therefore, be " sought out." We cannot believe that any can truly love and revere the
volume of creation who are indifferent to the
auxiliary communications so richly traceable in
the volume of creation; for if prepared to draw
right impressions from what God says in the
former, they must be disposed and able to learn
from what he does in the latter.
The reasonings just advanced in reference to
the duty of individual man, may with equal
justice be extended to society or congregated
man; for what is the duty of one must, on

30
such grounds, be the duty of all. In addition
to which considerations, it must be observed,
that it is plainly the duty of all men to endeavour to implant and cultivate in others,
those virtues, as well as to extend those blessings, to which they themselves would attain.
The children of the state, without means of instruction, are intellectual orphans and paupers,
and as they have not any resources of their
own, to leave their souls naked is alike cruel
and criminal, since the duty which would otherwise be personal with them, is thus transferred,
and becomes social and public.
None are more decidedly opposed than we are
to those levelling doctrines which have lately
been broached by pride, ignorance, and disaffection. True philosophy, Christianity, and even
the dictates of common sense, alike recognize
and require gradations in the social; attesting
both the wisdom and necessity of the subordinate, superior, and supreme; opposition to
which, must be regarded as offering outrage to
the long established ordinances both of nature
and society, and as direct contravention of the
will of the Great Supreme, who has so far as
our knowledge extends, ordained the same
throughout a crowded immensity, as a type
and teacher to assist us to understand and feel
his own unrivalled, infinite claims upon the
eternal homage and obedience of all creatures.
At the same time it will not be disputed that
both metaphysical, moral, and religious inquiry,
plainly and fully teach the great fact of our

31
common kindred equality considered in reference
to humanity. Hence it follows that wilfully to
exclude any portion of society from education
on the plea of their being unworthy or disqualified to inherit such a boon, is to degrade
humanity and to insult mankind. The soul is
not only a part, but the highest and noblest
part of human nature, and to shut out the perspective of a beautiful, consolatory, or useful
range of thought from the mental eye, for fear
it might dazzle, seduce, or injure, is no more
rational or justifiable than to prevent this despised outcast in the midst of civilized intelligence, from using his natural sight, which
equally admits of perversion. The mental and
visual powers were alike given to be employed,
and to virtuous and useful ends. If early intellectual culture is in itself a blessing to one,
it must be the same to all; if knowledge is the
proper food and the act of acquiring it the
natural exercise of the human mind; if mental
attainment is gain and growth to the soul, it
is certainly adapted to all, and as really necessary to all as aliment to their physical nature.
If education raises a family, rendering them
more comfortable, respected, and useful, it must
have the same delightful effects in the aggregate,
on the character and condition of a nation. It
must prove what a fruitful harvest does in the
natural world after years of scarcity, which
though immediately enriching to the proprietors
and cultivators of the soil, may be hailed by all
as a national bounty. To provide an expensive

32
intellectual education for a people without consulting for their physical wants, must be inconsideration and cruelty, but as the soul is
infinitely superior to the body, and eternity to
time, must not the opposite omission be one of
equal outrage, seeing they are thus estimated
and treated as mere beasts of burden ?

CHAPTER II.

IT has been inadvertently assumed by some as
a sort of self-evident maxim, that education is
not necessary or serviceable to the poor as
compared with the higher orders of society.
But so far is this from being correct, that with
the exception of such as are entrusted with high
official stations, the reverse statement if seriously examined, must appear the most just.
Such is the opinion that appears to have
swayed with those continental governments who
have connected elementary education with the
law of the land. M. Cousin, in his work on
education in Holland, supports this view, and
mentions the same of M. L. Auge, a schoolinspector of the district of Holland. We quote
from his book the words of the inspector, of
whom M. Cousin speaks in the highest terms
of commendation, on the system of mutual instruction. " It is not a system which is calculated for moral and intelligent beings; and
we do not admit the justice of applying it in
a school for the poor; for the poor have especial need of education. " # Although exempted from some few direct taxes yet it has been
proved beyond a doubt, that the laboring classes
though the poorest, are yet the most heavily
burdened by indirect taxation. Have they any
adequate compensation for their contributions
* Vide, page 73.
E

34
to the support of government and society? Unlike the capitalist they have no property of their
own, for it would be idle to mention their
muscular strength, or mechanical skill and
industry, of which they cannot be robbed.
What suitable, sufficient return do they receive
from those who are entirely dependent upon
their exertions, which supply all the physical
wants, and gratify all the numerous and capricious demands of refinement and luxury ?
Surely they are justly entitled to some higher
participation? And what wiser or better provision could be made for this large class, who
constitute the bulwark of the state, than a
suitable and an ample education; the want of
which, is the greatest bane and scourge which
a country can inflict upon this neglected class,
and through them, on the entire national fabric;
as its bestowment is the most valuable if not the
most valued blessing. The reader must refer
to what has already been assumed of education
in this work. It is a false education, that is,
no education at all; or worse than that, either
the extreme of too much or too little, too fine
or too pauper, which has prejudiced many otherwise favorable to popular education. The education for one and for all, which we would
alone support, is thus described by the Westminster Review, in one of its elaborate articles
on education, fNo. 1, Art. 4). The writer says,
" knowledge does not consist in being able to
read books, but in understanding one's business
and duty in life.. .Most writers have considered

35
the subject of education as relative to that portion of it only which applies to learning; but
the first object of all in every nation, is to
make a man a good member of society.. .Education consists in learning what makes a man
useful, respectable, and happy, in the line for
which he is destined." And such an education,
though good and necessary for all, is, we contend, more specially and eminently so for the
poor. In the higher orders polite society, good
breeding, leisure, and competence, combine to
compensate for the deprivation of this first of
all earthly blessings. But this largest class
lie not only exposed to the ordinary ills of
life common to all, but to the penalties and
drudgery of physical toil and privation, harrassing cares, and servile dependence, unmittigated by the assuagements so richly poured
into the lap of affluence. Does not the harshness of the realities around them require the
soothing influence of that instruction which,
gentle, pleasant, and fertilizing as the dew,
affords a delicious oblivion of sorrows ? Whilst
the middle classes are comparatively sheltered
from temptation, its shafts are flying in showers
around the path of their integrity. They are
driven into contact with vice in its most glaring
forms, unrebuked by any of those usages or
laws of refinement or decency, or the emollient
influences of general knowledge, which so often
restrain and correct the otherwise vicious morals
of the upper ranks. They lie daily exposed to
peculiar dangers, and snares, and spiritual foes,

36
from whose furious sieges nothing short of
sound, moralised enlightenment can offer a safe
protection. The purifying excitement of reading
and reflection may displace those stimulants
which now brutalize and degrade; and the alehouse, bowling-green, and pugilistic sport, be
outrivalled and supplanted by the temperance
home and mechanic's institute. Industry, providence, skill, economy, general talent, an enlightened acquiescence in the laws and order of
social subordination, with numerous other qualifications, which are requisite or desirable to render the humbler classes comfortable, respectable,
and useful, are the virtues of education ; without
which, the children of the state can only be
expected to grow up in ignorance and disregard
of all the duties, comforts, and rewards of a
well-regulated life. Habits of decency, cleanliness, temperance, and self-respect, so necessary
to promote not only the comfort and respectabilty, but the morality of the laboring poor,
though to them so difficult of attainment, have
almost invariably resulted from an increased
amount of intelligence; of which, if our space
permitted, we could furnish many very pleasing
and striking illustrations. There is nothing
which so fatally tends to promote idleness,
which is not only a sin itself, but the prime
conductor to all other sins, as that vacuity of
mind which arises from ignorance. And nowhere can idleness exert its influence so extensively and malignantly as in those whose means
oi securing a livelihood are entirely dependent

37
on their industry and honesty. The plebeian is
by nature equally disposed with the patrician to
indolence, self-indulgence, and sensuality, and
nothing can be so well expected to remove
these temptations and restrain these cravings,
as a correct and comprehensive understanding
of the true interests, objects, and duties of life;
and that vigor of mind and prudent forethought,
which will enable them to surmount those difficulties and ills incident to their situation; when
those never inured to reflection, are almost
under the necessity of sinking down into apathy,
wallowing in sensual indulgence or brutal pastimes, and of adopting artful and nefarious
means of subsistence. But in addition to this,
it may be stated that knowledge affords a sure
and ever acceptable relaxation, resource, and
balm, and as such, is a strong barrier against
the seductions of illicit pleasure. The peasant
or artificer, if acquainted with but the elements
of physical science, might find the rugged path
of incessant toil strewed with objects on which
he might gaze with admiration and pleasure;
the sympathies of an approving soul might be
elicited by those exquisite processes of nature
or of art, to whose beauty and utility he is
now insensible, although daily brought into
contact with them; whilst intelligence would
improve those occurrences in nature and those
opportunities in every-day life, for promoting
domestic comfort and wealth, which ignorance
leaves buried in oblivion. Limited as may be
his range of scientific and moral instruction, it

38
would not only serve to raise him above the
character of a mere machine in the workfield
of nature, enduing him with something nobler
than animal cravings and gratifications; but
each idea might prove a link of contemplation
and devotion more closely uniting him with the
great Author of Nature. This fact has been
delightfully shown by the recorded experience
and musings of many, who without foreign aid,
and without resigning, or proudly or carelessly neglecting the duties which attach to their
birth and avocations, have united to the ordinary and wearisome engagements of their humble sphere, those pleasures and profits which
are the spoils of the poet, the philosopher, and
divine. The processes of agriculture are rich in
suggestions—literary, moral, and religious—and
yet, perhaps, with the exception of the mining
population, none are so imbruted by ignorance
as the sons of the soil. A sound education
would prevent many of the injurious effects
resulting from superficial knowledge, as well as
entire ignorance. The people would think more
and not read less. With so little opportunity
for observing nature as many have, with such
limited knowledge of general principles, and so
little taste for true science and philosophy, and
with such a deluge of second-hand literature,
kneaded into endless contortions by mercenary
speculators, the chance intelligence they acquire
can do them little or no good, if it is not
altogether perverted.
So far from lying beyond the range suitable

39
for, and absolutely requiring instruction, the
poorer classes are really the most dependent
in every sense on its salutary supplies and influences. They are so for the protection of their
own just rights, the preservation of their independence, and for their sobriety, temperance,
and comfort. Their usefulness to the state is
equally closely connected with their intelligence
and good moral feeling, to whose wealth they
thus materially contribute by their improved
productive skill and energy, by the diminution
of crime, the prevention of which is more expensive than its punishment, by the greater security of property, and the consequently greater
stimulus to industry, and by their aiding instead
of opposing the general improvement of society.
An operative who brings mechanical skill, ingenuity, general intelligence, and sober habits
to his work, and who feels an interest and a
pride in executing it in the best style, and on
the most approved methods, will prove as valuable a servant to his employer, as two or three
of an opposite character. In proof of this we
cannot do better than refer to the whole evidence
taken by the Secretary to the Poor-Law Commission " on the influence of training and education, on the value of workmen, and on the
comparative eligibility of educated and uneducated workmen for employment," from which
however we can but extract the following evidence of A. G. Escher, esq., employing in
Switzerland, the Tyrol, and the north of Italy,
fifteen hundred workmen of nearly all the nations in Europe.

40
(i

Q. Skilful workmen in England being often
distinguished for their dissolute habits, it has
been supposed that their habits of excess were
only the manifestation of the spirit to which
their superiority as workmen was attributable,
and that any refinement produced by education,
would be injurious to them as workmen. Is
such an opinion conformable to the conclusions
derivable from your own experience or observation?"
"A. My own experience, and my conversation with eminent mechanics in different parts
of Europe, leads me to an entirely opposite
conclusion. In the present state of manufactures, where so much is done by machinery
and tools, and so little is done by mere brute
labor, (and that little is diminishing), mental
superiority, system, order, and punctuality, and
good conduct, qualities all developed and promoted by education, are becoming of the highest
consequence. There are now, I consider, few
enlightened manufacturers who will dissent from
the opinion, that the workshops peopled with
the greatest number of educated and wellinformed workmen will turn out the greatest
quantity of the best work in the best manner.55
Another great advantage thus gained not only
by them, but their employers and the public at
large is this, that when workmen owing either
to local causes or improved machinery are
thrown out of one particular line of employment to which they w7ere used, they would not
then be forced on the parish or driven o'er the

41
country £s mendicants or pilferers, but like thd
intelligent peasantry of Scotland, they would
soon learn to exercise with dexterity, some kindred occupation, if not one alien to the former.
No one, unacquainted with the over-stocked
state of the labor market, can be aware to
what an extent this has been the source of extreme poverty, immorality, and misery.
Of all the means for providing for the permanent improvement of the poor hitherto suggested, there is not probably one that promises
to be so effectual as the establishment of a
really useful system of popular education. It
is no exaggeration to affirm, that nine-tenths
of the misery and crime which afflict and disgrace, or endanger society, have their source
in ignorance. We refer to that education which
we have already described; for a mere knowledge of reading, writings and arithmetic, may>
and indeed ofteri does, exist in company with
the grossest ignorance of all those principles,
with respect to which, it is most for the interest
of the poor themselves, as well as of the
community in general, that they should be
well-informed.
For iiistance, they should be
impressed from their earliest years, with a conviction of the important and undoubted truth,
that they are really the arbiters of their own
fortune—that what others can do for them is
but as the dust of the balance compared with
what they can do for themselves—and that the
most tolerant and liberal government, and the
best institutions, cannot possibly shield them
F

42
from poverty and degradation, without the exercise of a proper degree of prudence, forethought^
frugality, and good conduct on their part.
That the advantages ensuing from this system
of education would be as high as we have rated
them, is, we think, a fact unassailable. Neither
the errors nor the vices of the poor are incurable. They investigate all those practical
questions which affect their own immediate interests, with the greatest sagacity and penetration, and do not fail to trace their remote
consequences. The harvest of a good education
may be late, but in the end it will be most
luxuriant; and will amply reward the patriotic
and christian efforts of those who are not discouraged in their attempts to make it embrace
such objects as we have specified, by the difficulties they may expect to encounter at the
commencement or during the progress of their
labors. Of all the obstacles to their improvement, ignorance is the most formidable, because
the only true secret of assisting the poor, is to
make them agents in bettering their own condition, and to supply them, not with a temporary stimulus, but with a permanent energy. #
* The safest, the wisest, the cheapest way to support any given number of persons, from birth to death, is to teach the young, to encourage
and assist the middle-aged, and to protect the old; to induce the people
to exert themselves to support themselves.... It is vain and idle to say,
it is their own fault, that they are reckless, improvident, dissolute. They
are the children of the circumstances in which they are placed; and these
circumstances speak aloud, and in a tone not to be mistaken, of the error
or neglect of those whose duty and interest it was to have improved their
condition. Mr. Sidney's Reports of the House of Commons on the Education and Health of the Poorer Classes, fyc.p. 11.

43

As fast as the standard of intelligence is raised
they become more and more able to co-operate
in any plan proposed for their advantage.
Hence it follows, that when gross ignorance is
once removed, and right principles are introduced, a great advantage has been already
gained against squalid poverty. Many avenues
to an improved condition are opened to one
whose faculties are enlarged and exercised; he
sees his own interest more clearly, he pursues
it more steadily, he does not study immediate
gratification at the expense of bitter and late
repentance, or mortgage the labor of his future
life without an adequate return. Indigence,
therefore, will rarely be found in company with
good education. The statistics of extreme poverty are also the statistics of ignorance. More
than one third of the number of paupers are
invariably found unable to read. The money
obtained by poor-rates during the last five years,
cannot be estimated at less than thirty millions
sterling. How much of this expenditure might
have been saved by an improved and extended
system of education, we cannot say; but this
fact will not be disputed, however much it may
hitherto have been practically denied, that the
money devoted and properly applied to educational purposes, is not money wasted, or even
money given without exchange, but money deposited in a sure bank at a very profitable per
centage.
What has been just asserted of poverty, may
be equally extended to the statistics of crim^

44
There is no other effectual plan of suppressing
crime; and consequently, it is evident that the
pecuniary burdens thus forced on the country,,
that might be thus redeemed, would delightfully
tend to compensate for the outlay of education,
The author of "Recent Measures/' declares,
that the expense of the penal administration
for England and Wales alone, amounts to
£1,213,082. The number of juvenile offenders
in the prisons in the previous year, was no less
than twelve thousand. Now the direct and palpable gain to the country by a diminution of
crime, though not equal to its indirect advantages, would almost, if not more than meet the
expenses of education. Mr. Wilderspin stated
before the parliamentary committee, in 1835,
that four schools containing eight hundred children, migbt be supported at no more expense
than that laid out on each transport. To this
may be added the various depredations on
property, which, according to the Constabulary
Report, is no incoiisiderable sum. A late report
states, that those whom the want of education,
or else bad education, leads into courses of
crime, prey upon sopiety to the average amount
of two-hundred and fifty weekly. The amount
of plunder in one year in Liverpool only, according to the accredited statement of a member
of parliament in the House, was nothing short
of £700,000. According to Mr. Grant, and
the author of the " Schoolmaster in Newgate,"
there are some thousands qf youths in the metropolis who have no other education but that

45
in the art of thieving. The latter, speaking
of those families devoted to crime, declares, that
so far from being awed or deterred by the
sentence of the law, that in many cases they
boast of having suffered from its penalties; the
mothers glorying as if their sons had fallen in
the service of their country. One old woman,
he says, when her seventh sou was transported,
declared, " H a ! I know not what I shall do,
my poor Ned is going; he was a good lad to
m e ; and though I say it, he was as good a
hand at his business as any in London," What
a large amount of these crimes, and of the
consequent draught upon the national resources,
is to be ascribed to the want of intellectual and
moral culture, may be seen by the statistics
with which we shall presently furnish the reader.
That the state would be more than repaid for
any outlay in the cause, if thus really advanced,
is universally admitted. Equally certain is it,
that there is no object to which public zeal
and liberality can be so discreetly and effectually
directed as in thus seeking to secure the present and future well-being of millions. It is
these considerations which have urged the government of the United States to render education co-extensive with their empire, as appears
from the following excellent speech, delivered
by Mr. Webster in congress, in 1821. " F o r
the purpose of public instruction," said this
distinguished senator, " we hold every man subject to taxation in proportion to his property;
and we look not to the question, whether he

46
himself have or have not children to be benefitted by the education for which he pays; we
regard it as a wise and liberal system of police,
by which property and life, and the peace of
society, are secured... By general instruction,
we seek, so far as possible, to purify the moral
atmosphere; to keep good sentiments uppermost, and to turn the strong current of feeling
and opinion, as well as the censures of law,
and the denunciations of religion, against immorality and crime. We hope for a security
beyond the law and above the law, in the
prevalence of enlightened and well-principled
moral sentiment. We hope to continue and
to prolong the time, wThen in the villages and
farm-houses of New England, there may be
undisturbed sleep within unbarred doors. We
do not indeed expect all men to be philosophers
or statesmen; but we confidently trust, that by
the diffusion of general knowledge, and good and
virtuous sentiments, the political fabric may be
secure, as well against open violence and overthrow, as against the slow but sure undermining
of licentiousness. We rejoice that every man in
this community may call all property his own,
so far as he has occasion for it, to furnish for
himself and his children, the blessings of religious instruction, and the elements of knowledge. This celestial and this earthly light,
he is entitled to by the fundamental laws. It
is every poor man's undoubted birthright—it
is the great blessing which this constitution has
secured to him—it is his solace in life—and it

47
may well be his consolation in death, that his
country stands pledged, by the faith which it
has plighted to all its citizens, to protect his
children from ignorance, barbarity, and vice/'
Statesmen and patriot citizens have strangely
overlooked the subject of early culture, as it
stands connected with political economy. If it
be the obvious interest of every family to have
their children instructed, and to train them up
in the wTay they should go, it is no less the
interest or true policy of the state to take its
sons and daughters under its fostering care,
and provide the means necessary for the proper
development of their intellectual and moral nature. Every child is, and ought to be regarded
as a component part of the state, liable to punishment, if found violating the laws, but entitled,
at the same time, to instruction and protection.
There seems to be an inconsistency, and even
a sort of injustice, in visiting the offender with
punishment without first placing him in a position to distinguish fairly between right and
wrong. We make ample provision for correction, but little for prevention, like an angry and
cruel mother, who suffers her child to grow up
in neglect, and then punishes him for doing
wrong. As mercy is a more endearing attribute
than justice, the one more loved and desired
by all good men and by the Supremely Good,
so prevention is better than punishment. But
the policy of Government hitherto, appears to
have been to provide millions for punishment
—-not a sovereign for prevention;—a very nar-

48
row and unwise policy, and well calculated to
enhance the expenses of government and increase taxation, It is a wretched economy to
spend our money for the erection of prisons,
instead of school houses. Is it not better, both
for a sufferer, for a culprit, and for a country ^
that a man's purse should remain in his pocket,
than that, when it is taken away, the thief
should be sure of a prison.
Our neglected
children, that are suffered to run wild, exposed
to the blighting influence of corrupt associations^
and to acquire the vagrant habits attendant
upon idleness, form those nurseries which supply
their annual crop, with the same certainty that
the leaves of the forest put forth—to prey upon
the community, and, by a sort of retributive
justice, repay society for the neglect which they
have received. There is neither wisdom, nor
policy, nor economy, in this course, and whilst
it continues, we can have no reason to expect
any remarkable alteration for the better, either
social, political, or religious.
We have already stated that we do not intend
an elaborate education for the poor, we would
make them intelligent, we do not propose to
make them learned—to convert the peasantry
into great scholars and philosophers. It is, in
fact, impossible, as it would be undesirable to
shed the same intellectual light on all, to give
the same staple of education to the manuallabor, as to the professional and leisure classes.
The former from their position in the social
scale, their limited means and physical duties

49
and necessities, will ever be debarred from the
higher and more finished cultivation of the intellectual teacher, as from those of the refined
disciplinarian. The simple fact of an education
originating in the gratuitous support of the
public, is a guarantee against such an education
being too polished and scholastic, so as to
run to waste. Perfect, indeed, it must be of
its kind, equally so with university education.
There is little need, however, of apprehension
of erring in this extreme ; at present it is certain
that we generally offend by omission rather than
transgression, and justly fall under the invectives
of a foreign professor, who sneeringly observes,
that " the inquiry in England has been, not
what must be done to give to every child the
best possible education, but what the best means
of educating the greatest possible number of
children at the smallest expense of capital and
of human labor." The education of the leisure
classes may and ought to be always progressing
as much in mature life, when foreign aid has
been withdrawn, as in childhood and adult
years. But the crowd of mankind must ever
principally rest on the kind assistance and
teachings of others, and on the accumulations
realized before they finally enter on the career
of practical life. They may, they ought to be
adding somewhat to the stores of school learning, but never can they subsequently expect
to have the same advantages, or to make the
same progress; and this should operate with
us as a powerful argument to give them the
G

50
means of education in the spring-time of life;
for the more scanty the hours allotted to them
in after-life, for the cultivation of intellectual
and moral habits and associations, the more
imperatively do they appeal, alike to our charity
and our justice, to exert our influence in the
improvement of that season which Providence
has assigned as the time of training for future
life, as this life is for the eternal future.
Such is evidently the decision of Providence,
which has assigned to the majority of mankind, a state of labor; and who, ere they attain
to a complete education, need redemption from
the slough of untoward circumstances in which
they are settled. The Great Supreme has evidently precluded the recession of cursed man
from the drudgery of manual toil, and the materiality of his present existence, to the purely
intellectual nature and the loftier pursuits of
holy and spiritual intelligences. Had it not
been for the introduction into our world, of
that principle which the man of science, equally
with the moralist, must see and feel to be everywhere and ever conspicuous and active, in constant contrast and opposition to good, mankind
at large would have been far more elevated
above the physical to what they are in their fallen and degraded condition. But though an
intellectual nature thus physically encumbered
and debilitated, and ignorance, its legitimate
offspring, constitute a part of the original curse,
which lights more heavily on some than on
others in the arraignments of Sovereign Provi-

51
dence, it is evident at the same time, that it is
His design to rescue man from this lapsed state
and dreary night, by means of the Gospel—
which may justly be pronounced, intellectually
and morally as well as religiously, " t h e light
of the world;" whose commission to the church
is, to teach all nations; whose every successive
stage of progress has been the result of instruction, and whose divine teaching is indispensable " to mould and quicken all other
teaching, into education." Many parts of the
Bible evidently recognize the connexion between
science and theology; and prescribe duties, and
contain instructions, exclusively adapted for the
present economy; whilst the whole is but a revelation of a system of education, as Providence
is of discipline, alike for time and for eternity.
Our every effort to restore to man that " knowledge" which he has forfeited and lost by the
fall, which is both congenial with and conducive
to the other, must as truly, if not equally, elicit
the divine approval, as our most direct efforts
to restore him to his original " righteousness
and true holiness." The difference between the
most pure and the most corrupt state of Christianity, is in nothing so distinguishable as in
this respect; that while the exertions of the
latter are directed to keep the great mass of
the people in ignorance, those of the former
are employed in freely and benevolently offering
instruction to all. Happily the dark period of
mental and religious slavery and superstition is
past with u s ; the creed originated and so long

52
cherished at Rome and Mecca,—a dangerous
foe, rather than a necessary ally to religion,—
is almost universally abandoned. Princes and
people, bursting the fetters of the feudal age,
are ready to unite in promoting the cause. The
following sentiment expressed by M. Cousin, is
echoed by approving responses from every part
of civilized Europe, " I will take this opportunity," observes this elegant and enlightened
writer, " of expressing what I feel upon this
subject. God forbid that I should ever think
of excluding any one from the benefit of education : so far irom such being my sentiments,
I shall never cease to call upon all those in
easy circumstances, all enlightened men, without
distinction of creed or of system, to unite in
this great work." #
The insinuation which is still alledged by
many, that the education of the lower orders
has a tendency to unsettle their minds, to render
them discontented in their lowly stations, and
thus to interrupt that due equilibrium of mutual
subordination, on which is suspended the peace
and safety of all, is as plainly contradicted by
the considerations just advanced, as it is by
facts. Could it be actually substantiated, which
indeed it never can, that education renders any
hostile or indifferent to family, citizen, or public
obligations, that it is found to suspend the
regular exercise of those acts of obedience and
respect which the child owes to his parent, the
* Cousin's Holland, translated by Horner, p. 114.

53
servant to the master, and the citizen to the
state, it would only prove that good was mixed
with evil; and where is the hand even of benevolence extended, or where are the operations of
wisdom to be discovered, that shall furnish an
exception to this general state of fallen humanity? Should this insinuation be allowed to prevail against extending education to the lower
orders of society, it must also be urged to the
exclusion of education from the higher classes,
since they are surrounded by the same relations
and responsibilities. We must also, on the
same principle, deprecate a superior education
even in aristocratic life, especially in every instance where the highest means of instruction
had not been extended to or improved by the
parent, lest the child be better taught than his
sire; and as the law of primogeniture has such a
sway, this must operate greatly to the disadvantage of younger branches in such families.
Again, under a free government like ours, where
all citizens are allowed to retain and to exercise their respective rights, we may on the
same principle deprecate a superior education
in the aristocracy, as has been actually done
in America, as alike disposing and enabling
them to encroach on the liberties, rights, and
interests of those who, powerless in themselves,
and unrepresented in the legislature, are thus
left without protection or security, to be the
dupes and slaves of men thus fatally endowed
with the formidable weapons of despotism. But
this assumption however specious it may appear,

54
is contradicted by numerous facts recorded in
the chronicles alike of social and public history,
which alike combine to brand ignorance, and
not education, as the seducer from habits of
subordination. Both in the act itself,- as well
as in the eifects resulting from it, the promotion of general education must render both
the rich and poor better acquainted and more
interested in one another, and thus more observant of their respective dependence, and duties, and interests; and would thus tend to
remove those suspicions and animosities, which
mostly have their origin in informality; and
would, above all other means not directly religious, tend to strengthen the bonds and insure
the peace of society. And what reason suggests, facts confirm.
" L e t it not be forgotten," says Mr. Field,
in his Report of the State of Education in the
diocese of Salisbury, " t h a t the persons most
actively employed in the agricultural riots of
1830, were uneducated and ignorant in the last
degree. From two adjoining parishes in Wilts,
fifteen agricultural laborers, I was told, were
at that time, transported for life. It cannot,
I fear, be doubted that the materials for such
an explosion yet remain, in some of the rural
parishes of Dorset and Wilts. Those materials
are poverty and ignorance, which may again,
whenever the match is applied by artful and
designing men, spread waste and terror through
the land."
By whom were the principal atrocities in

55
the sanguinary French Revolution, perpetrated?
Why, by the scum of the populace. But we
need not adduce an array of facts! So strong
and large is the evidence to this point, that a
writer has devoted a whole work of considerable extent, to its exclusive bearings, entitled,
" Sketches of Popular Tumults, illustrative of
the evils of social ignorance."
But facts are quite unnecessary to a wise
man, where reason plainly decides what they
only corroborate. To attempt to vindicate the
insinuation referred to, would be to palm a libel
on the justice and goodness of the great social
system, whose regulations are made to repose
on the fragile pillars of ignorance and delusion,
instead of being respected as the righteous and
beneficial appointment of heaven. It is also
directly contrary to education itself; being
founded on the supposition, that you bestow a
large outlay of pecuniary means, and devote
time and talent to initiate and practise them in
lawlessness and vice, instead of order and virtue.
So far from this, it is evident that such an
education is nothing but the best means to
furnish restraints, instead of incentives, not only
against the plausibilities of error, and the wiles
of vice, but the encroachments of such a spirit.
To suppose that the elementary education of
the many would injure the interests of the few,
is to undervalue education in both, and education altogether; and to make man the rival
and enemy, instead of the brother and fellowlaborer of his fellow.
Did knowledge thus

56
lead to popular discontent and disorganization,
it is not to be supposed that despotic Prussia
and China would have so cordially sanctioned,
and zealously enforced, universal education.
There may be disadvantages ensuing from the
best education, as already hinted; but such,
however, containing their own remedy, may
always be expected to disappear; and let such
be only compared with the great benefits resulting alike to the individual and to society,
from a correct and complete education, and
they will appear as the dust in the balance;
and whilst the former will be anxiously sought
and cordially cherished, the latter will be deemed
undeserving of a single uneasiness.
We have here a powerful argument, which
we wTould urge on the consideration of all, especially on conservatives, as a reason for increasing exertion in the cause of education.
In his letter to Lord Ashley, the Rev. T. Page
truly and forcibly remarks—and we give the
whole as an appeal to the church and conservative reader—"The elements of rebellion and
disruption are in such active operation, as to
have called for the most energetic measures
to repress them; and to awaken in all reflecting minds, the most painful apprehensions
of the issue. A temporary lull has, it is true,
taken place; the threatened tempest may seem
to have passed away; but to expect effectually
to allay the wild spirit of insubordination and
revolution, and secure to our children and our
country, the social blessings of peace and order,

57
so long as large masses of our population are
suffered to grow up in a state of mental inanition and semi-barbarism, which must utterly
disqualify them either to appreciate or to promote those blessings,—is to overlook the divinely-ordained connexion between the means
and the end,—it is to expect to gather where
we have not strawed. Coercive penalties may
possibly act for a time, like the stratagem of
the queen of Babylon, of whom Herodotus relates, that she removed every night, the bridge
over the Euphrates, to prevent the inhabitants
of the opposite shores from passing over to
plunder and disturb each other; but if we would
render that bridge needless, we must diffuse
through all classes, however widely separated
by the allotments of Providence, or the organizations of society, such a cultivation of the
intellectual powers, in connexion with moral
feelings and religious affections, as—>by enabling
each to understand the rule, and compass the
sphere, of individual duty and responsibilitycan alone, in the aggregate, present a sea-wall
of sufficient strength to resist the encroachments of selfish passions, and party interests."
The great truth founded on the reasonings
and statements just advanced, is now almost
universally received, and that by parties adopting opposite extremes in political and religious creed. But it must be remembered, as
stated at the outset of this work, that this apparently pleasing unanimity cannot be safely
relied upon as either a clear intellectual perH

58
eeption, or strong moral sentiment and feeling,
even on the part of those who appear to be
waking up from stupor and indifference, to a
deep sensibility of the paramount claims of this
all-absorbing question; whilst many still regard
the instruction of the poor with coolness and
suspicion, as a moral poison rather than as we
confidently believe it to be, a renovating power;
the means and substance of a nation's true
prosperity, and the great catholicon of its maladies.
It were easy to prove not only that
uncompromising objections are still cherished
by many influential and enlightened citizens,
but that many of its active friends entertain
inadequate views, and place but little confidence
in an extended education, as the master-piece
of an enlightened philanthropy. Even in one of
the publications of the Central Society, the writer, in opposition to what we have been stating,
actually declares that facts alone can justifiably
warrant our confidence in the cause of education. Speaking of its zealous advocates, he
asks, "Are we to take the continually growing
exhibition of crime, shown in the criminal calendars of this kingdom, as proof that their belief
in the restraining influence of education was
nothing but a benevolent dream? that if it be
not the fact, as some have asserted, that instruction has had a malevolent influence on the moral
character, serving only to give power and efficiency to the evil propensities of our nature,
it has at best been without any contrary result,
as exhibited by the moral tone of society ? Up-

59
on the true answer to this question, depends
the solution of one of the most interesting problems that can engage the attention of mankind.
Such a solution is not to be drawn from abstract
reasonings, nor from analogies, nor indeed from
anything save experience; and hitherto, to the
superficial observer, the outward evidence of
facts has presented itself unfavorably to the
cause of education."
But if our previous statements and reasonings
are good, we need not thus be driven to facts,
as scripture testimony and common sense will
declare, that exertion and influence on behalf
of good, must necessarily result in good, in
accordance with the moral constitution and laws
ordained by the Creator, and that not so much
as a single effort in the cause of goodness can
be ultimately lost.
A lurking scepticism still remains with many,
including some perhaps truly intelligent citizens,
who, misled by the shadowy reasonings of sophism so oft unmasked, would waste time and
talent in futile efforts to invalidate the mighty
argument in favor of universal education. Much
of this aversion and opposition, if traced to its
source, will be found brooding in the dark recesses of pride and sordid nature, that could
not brook to see the neglected and destitute
ever so distantly approaching towards their own
elevation and enjoyment. A heart shrunk in
selfishness, or steeled in insensibility—a mind
conscious of cherished error, and ashamed and
afraid of truth, must ever refuse to come to

60
the light, lest its own corruptions should be
reproved. These birds of night can never be
expected to welcome, but only to dread and
attempt, though in vain, to repel the odious
beams of the rising sun. It becomes desirable,
therefore, if not absolutely necessary, to establish
beyond a shade of doubt, the excellent and diffusive patriotism and piety which is called forth
in this inviting field of usefulness ; not so much
for the sake of triumphing over its foes, as of
stimulating the exertions of its friends.
We
have already adverted to one of the common
objections, on the ground of which, the antieducationist justifies his opposition or neglect
of those agencies, which propose both the extension and elevation of education, as the great
means of improving the character and condition
of the lower orders. But this is not the only
argument of the advocate of ignorance ; it is
but one of a group, all of which originate in
mistaken conceptions of the nature of knowledge,
and the principles of the human mind.
Let
every consideration whether direct or inferential,
which has been or which can be urged to discredit zeal in its pursuit, be fairly and fully examined, and as in the case of the controverted
truth of Christianity, they will but augment the
already rich accumulation of evidence in its favor. Whatever particular facts or reasons may
be substantiated, no general fact or principle
will, upon strict examination, be found to militate against our doctrine. It were easy to defend the cause from every minor evil and every

61
supposed social disadvantage, as well as from direct perversion and moral abuse. " T h e general
desire for education," observes a learned prelate,^ "and the general diffusion of it, is working, and partly has worked, a great change in
the habits of the mass of the people. And
though it has been our lot to witness some of
the inconveniences necessarily arising from a
transition state, where gross ignorance has been
superseded by a somewhat too rapid communication of instruction, dazzling the mind, perhaps
rather than enlightening it, yet every day removes something of this evil. Presumption and
self-sufficiency are sobered down by the acquirement of useful knowledge, and men's minds
become less arrogant in proportion as the become better informed.
There cannot be a
doubt, therefore, but that any evils which may
have arisen from opening the floodgates of education, if I may so say, will quickly flow away,
and that a clear and copious stream will succeed,
fertilizing the heretofore barren intellect with its
wholesome and perennial waters."
The great fundamental argument to which
all others, perhaps, however disguised, may be
safely referred, is the inference drawn from the
abuse of education, as evidenced in certain glaring examples. However uneducated men might
have been driven to such a fallacy, it is surprising that any habituated to a rational series
of reading and reflection, could ever allow them* Charge of the Bishop of Lichfield, 1836.

62
selves to entertain any serious objection against
any principle or course of conduct, derived solely
from its possible or occasional perversion. In
order to be true and just to their own forebodings, the advocates of ignorance must despise
or else neglect education in their own families,
whereas many of them often give their children
an extravagant education, beyond their means,
unsuitable for their station, and too generous for
their parentage. Education is either a blessing
or an evil, necessary or superfluous, obligatory
or indifferent; and if it be the former, no perversion, however repeated or gross, can be fairly
brought to sanction, or even tolerate, the wilful
omission of what is in itself good and desirable.
Let this fallacious principle of reasoning be only
extended to its proper bounds, and it will require
us to discontinue every duty, and to resign every
privilege. Under its leadings we shall be compelled to arraign the goodness and justice of the
great Supreme, and that with a far greater show
of reason. In the creation of the highest of his
intelligent creation, he certainly foreknew that
they would fall, that their existence would prove
a curse instead of a blessing—but no one can
predicate the same of education, and the presumption is greatly in favor of the moral and
benevolent tendency of the power thus conferred. Our duty in this particular, is finished
when their education is finished; when the responsibility becomes transferred to the once necessitous and craving, whom we have supplied
with its rich and holy provisions.

63
But let us so far condescend to our opponents
as to argue on their own principle, which is as
untenable as that which once elicited the apostolic censure, namely, of doing evil that good
might come. Will this at all support the views
or apprehensions of such as refuse to accord
adhesion to our sentiments ? No ! it will only
serve to establish our position, which will be
found supported alike by antecedent reason, by
a long array of facts, by testimony, and by direct scripture statements and sentiments. To
each of these convincing considerations, however, as they do but border on the proposed
occasion of the present work, we can only give
a transient survey.
We have already stated that the education
which we advocate, is one embracing moral and
religious, equally with intellectual instruction ;
but we have principally referred, as we shall
continue to do, to mere sound secular instruction, to increase the force of the argument;
because if it can be shown, that such knowledge,
in connexion with correct and healthy discipline,
has a favorable tendency, how much stronger
must the evidence grow when we add, that we
would render intellectual teaching but the instrument, of which moral and religious principle
should be the guide. Now, a sound intellectual
education, excluding of course, every directly
immoral or injurious plan and subject of tuition,
is not only attended with great private and social
advantages, but it evidently has a strong corrective, if not directly impulsive moral tendency,

64
sufficient to recommend it to every man who
bears in his bosom the heart of a friend towards
his fellow-man. Nature and revelation, reason
and religion, intelligence, virtue, and happiness,
are very closely if not inseparably connected.
They are always mutually subservient, if not actually dependent. The physical, intellectual,
and the spiritual, have their common laws,
types, and reciprocities; and though, owing to
the disturbing influences of moral evil, there is
no great central truth to unite all others in harmony, but that of revelation—whose beautiful
and brilliant light dispels the darkness, confusion, and gloom, which must ever otherwise
envelope the whole face of nature, and the entire
map of truth—yet revelation herself employs
nature, as though alike dependent, as her auxiliary and her great Teacher and Subject, the
Lord of Nature, appeals to us in her language.
Meditation is one of the great laws and duties
of the Christian religion; without which, the
sanctuary, with all the plainness and eloquence
that may be infused into its instructions, and
with the greatest possible frequency in its recurring services, can little avail to the soul's
profit. But this is a habit of mind seldom and
with difficulty acquired, without intellectual culture and training in early life. It is granted,
that the influence of mere secular wisdom, as
a moral power or purveyor, is indirect and uncertain ; but this cannot alter the fact of its
inherent tendency to ascend and expand to a
higher wisdom, so that the probability becomes

65
sufficiently hopeful to prompt the cordial and
zealous exertions of all enlightened moralists.
Ere the conscience can be fully developed, we
must store the mind with a certain portion of
knowledge, and in some measure cultivate the
understanding; or conscience will remain dark
and supine from the want of the light of moral
intelligence. There must be the evolution of
the whole man ere there be the evolution of
any part of his nature; and previous acquisition must be preparatory to the attainment of
that ideal character for which his faculties are
to be exercised and improved. It is also necessary in order to gain a thorough acquaintance
with the scriptures. To establish their evidences, and to understand and appreciate their
contents, a knowledge of science and of general
history is indispensable. It is required, also,
for the support and defence of religion, which
can only suffer in the employ of science and
philosophy, "falsely so called/' It is certainly
every man's duty to associate all that is intelligent, amiable, and dignifying, with "the wisdom
which is from above;" and to redeem and protect it from the calumny cast upon it by sectarian blindness and bigotry, false learning, and
popular ignorance.
Let us next refer to the scriptures to ascertain
the mind of the Spirit, and the evidence becomes
stronger, so as to leave us without doubt. If
the advocates of ignorance are justified in their
conclusion, they must be plainly deducible, if not
directly, at least inferentiaily, from its pages,
i

66
But, as just stated, scripture not only sanctions,
but also requires an extensive acquaintance with
the present material economy, with the order,
energies, aud changes of Nature, the growth
of its productions, and the accomplishment of
its results; repudiating none but " vain philosophers," and undervaluing no science but
that which is " falsely so called." To reason
for the contrary, would be to place religion
under the guardianship of ignorance ; an alliance which she indignantly scorns. The scriptures plainly and directly recognize both the
importance and usefulness of secular wisdom.
Though the encomiums heaped upon wisdom
in the Proverbs, refer principally to heavenly
wisdom, yet there are numerous passages which,
with equal certainty, if not with similar force,
commend secular wisdom.
Other parts of
scripture are equally conclusive to the same
effect. What can be more so than the following statements and injunctions, as well as
what more obvious and striking, than the truths
they enforce. "That the soul be without knowledge is not good 5 ' "Wisdom is a defence,
and money is a defence: but the excellency of
knowledge is, that it giveth life to them that
have it." The writer here means to assert the
superior excellency of wisdom over riches.
" T h e n I saw that wisdom excelleth folly, as
far as light excelleth darkness." "Apply thine
heart unto instruction, and thine ears to the
words of knowledge." " Wisdom and knowledge shall be the stability of thy times." And,

67
says one who probably had no written revelation, "Ask now the beasts, and they shall teach
thee; and the fowls of the air, and they will
tell thee; or speak to the earth, and it shall
teach thee; and the fishes of the sea, and they
shall declare to thee—who knoweth not in all
these, that the hand of the Lord hath wrought
this; in whose hand is the soul of every living
thing." And the prophet Daniel, depicting the
Millennial era, declares it to be the prominent characteristic of that blessed period, that
"knowledge shall run to and fro in the earth;"
by which expression, secular rather than religious knowledge, is evidently to be understood.
To scripture authority may be added testimonies innumerable, of the wisest, best, and
most experienced of mankind. Divines, poets,
and philosophers, have alike exerted their noblest powers in praise of the cultivated mind;
and turning prophecy into poetry, have instinctively yearned for that happy and distinguished
era, when every hamlet shall erect its school,
and when the diffusion of secular and religious
knowledge shall be universal, and co-extensive
with liberty and law throughout their fatherland, and throughout the world. It was the
confident hope of moralising and evangelizing,
as well as of enlightening the uninstructed, immoral, degraded, and hapless beings around
them, which prompted the exertions of Raikes
and Lancaster, and their benevolent supporters;
which led Hannah More to found schools, and
to devote the greatness of her mind and of her

68
virtues, to the instruction of the poor; assured
that ignorance was not only the great barrier
to the progress of religion, but the fertile source
of crime; and not only the abettor and pillow
of imposture, superstitious slavery, and every
kind of spurious Christianity, but of those passions and deeds which scripture has justly characterized as works of darkness.
It has been already stated, that we do not
require facts to teach us what is in itself evident. But if we appeal to this source of
evidence, we have numerous and striking facts
to show that education may be justly regarded
as a preserver and promoter of correct moral
principle and feeling, so as to silence every
misgiving, and plead most eloquently in favor
of universal education.
In order to ascertain the respective results
of education and ignorance, the only clear and
certain standard by which we can form a correct judgment is by an examination of criminal returns; in which the previous state of the
criminals as to instruction, shall be fully and
faithfully presented. It would be impossible
to come, as some have endeavoured, to any
certain conclusion from a comparison between
the returns of the population and the criminal
calendar. The changes in the moral code,
punishing misdemeanors formerly suffered to
escape with impunity, the increased numbers
and efficiency of the police, and the nature
of the offence for which they are sentenced,
must be considered; and so leave the result

69
obtained from any such inquiry, vague and
indeterminate. The increased number of committals may be easily accounted for, from the
increased vigilance and exertions of the police. In 1835, of 1,265 charged with assaults,
only 865 were convicted; of the 865 convicted,
the amount of guilt was considered so small,
that
74
174
533
84

were discharged on finding sureties to keep the peace;
were fined and discharged;
were imprisoned for short periods; and
were imprisoned for longer peiiods; and by far the larger
part for six months only.

865

We bring this forward, as some men, unfavorable to the education of the poorer class,
have endeavoured to foist in conclusions from
certain statistical statements, as to the increase
of crime compared with the increase of population, which might mislead the incautious. It
is not the number, but the correct classification of the criminal returns, that can prove at
all satisfactory. And these, with scarcely a single exception, give the decision in favor of
education. No better, no surer experimental
trial could have been made, than that many
years back in Scotland; and it has fully decided the question we are discussing. In the
year 1698, Fletcher of Saltoun, declared as follows : "There are at this day, in Scotland, two
hundred thousand people begging from door to
door. And though the number of them be,
perhaps, double to what it wTas formerly, by
reason of this present great distress; yet in all

70
times there have been about one hundred thousand of those vagabonds, who have lived without any regard or subjection either to the laws
of the land, or even those of God and nature."
He goes on to accuse them of incest, robbery,
and murder; and adds, " In years of plenty,
many thousands of them meet together in the
mountains; where they feast and riot for many
days: and at country weddings, markets, burials,
and other public occasions, they are to be seen,
both men and women, perpetually drunk; cursing, blaspheming, and fighting together." This
high-minded statesman—of whom it is said by
a contemporary, " that he would lose his life
readily to save his country, and would not do
a base thing to save it"—thought the evil so
great, that he proposed as a remedy, the revival of domestic slavery, according to the practise of his adored republics, in the classic ages.
A better remedy has been found; which in the
silent lapse of a century, has proved effectual.
The statute of 1696, the noble legacy of the
Scottish parliament to their country, began soon
after this, to operate; and happily, as the minds
of the poor received instruction, the Union
opened new channels of industry, and new fields
of action to their view.
It will thus be seen that Scotland first entered
on the career of education and improvement;
and the results may be learnt in the fact, that,
whereas a few years back, it was far behind what
Ireland now i s ; there is at present no country in
Europe, perhaps, in which, in proportion to its

71
population, so small a number of crimes fall
under the chastisement of the criminal law, as
Scotland. We have the best authority for asserting, that, on an average of thirty years, preceding the year 1797, the executions in that
division of the island, did not amount to six
annually; and one quarter sessions, for the town
of Manchester only, has sent, according to Mr.
Hurne, more felons to the plantations, than all
the judges of Scotland usually do in the space
of a year. #
Some of the American States were the next
to follow the example of Scotland. The result
may be learned from the following unquestioned
testimony. " T h e plan of general religious instruction," says Mr. Livingstone, "embracing
the doctrines common to all christian sects*
and excluding all sectarian doctrine, has been
for years practised in Boston; and such success
has attended it, that although the schools have
been in operation more than ten years, not one
of those educated there has ever been committed
for a crime. In New York a similar effect has
been observed. Of the thousands educated in
the public schools of that city, taken generally
from the poorest classes, but one, it is asserted,
has ever been convicted, and that for a trifling
offence."
It is to be regretted that our criminal statistics
have not furnished that general fumd of information we require; having been hitherto a mere
* Vide, Hume's Commentaries on the Laws of Scotland, Introduction, p. 50.

n
report of the number of offenders. We are.
hence obliged to refer to particular facts and
reports of limited extent, instead of regarding
the entire aggregate returns of the whole criminal calendar. We may, however, satisfactorily
judge of the connection between crime and ignorance, from the number and striking evidence of particular cases ; as a concurrence of
such must establish the general rule. We
give the following as random examples, which
we might easily multiply—" that from certain
returns which he held in his hand, at a late
meeting of the Surrey bench, Sir Peter Laurie,
stated, " that eight per cent only of the prisoners
who were committed during the past year, had
received any kind of education."
It was asserted by Mr. Justice Coleridge, in a
charge to the grand jury of Worcester, that out
of the 627 prisoners committed in 1842, in the
county of Worcester, 275 persons could neither
read nor write, 321 but imperfectly, 20 were
well educated, and but one had received a superior education. The same learned judge also
declared, that of the transported criminals, almost all were entirely ignorant. Thus, in 1840,
out of 4205 persons transported, 8715 could
either not read or wrrite, or could do so but
imperfectly.
" O f the gross number of 155
55
prisoners, says the Gloucester Journal, "tried
at our receMt county and city sessions, only six
could read and write ! All the rest could either
do so only "imperfectly, 55 or had not the least
knowledge of reading. Neither is Gloucester-

73
shire singular in this pitiable exhibition of intense ignorance, in that class from amongst
whom our gaols derive their too great population."
What has been shown of the returns of crime,
may be also proved of the general comparative
intelligence of different districts in the country.
It will be invariably found, that the general tone
of morality amongst the pauper population, is
nearly always in exact proportion to the amount
of intelligence they evince. Thus education is
in the best state in the northern agricultural
district, and in the worst, in the agricultural
parts of the midland district, and in the southern agricultural district.
What has been
stated of crimes in general, is equally true of
political offences. Archdeacon Wilberforce, in
a charge published by him, declares, that of
those who were tried during the late outbreak,
491 had no education, 73 an imperfect, and
only one a superior education. At the last
quarter sessions held at Taunton, the chaplain
of the prison said that no less than 360 prisoners had come under his notice, during the
last three years, who were ignorant of the name
of the Saviour; not that they had never heard
or repeated the name—which they did often, in
their profane oaths—but that they were wholly
unacquainted with Him, and were just as ignorant as the heathen.
In France, the statistics of crime in reference
to instruction, have been within the few past
K

74
years, most carefully and fully observed. From
their criminal tables, we learn that of the average number of persons brought before the courts
of assize, to answer for offences committed, in
each of the seven years ending with 1834, was
7,191, the number among them whose education went beyond reading and writing, was only
163, or not quite one in 44 of the accused; and
if calculated upon the entire population of
France, exactly one in 200,000. If for the accusations, we substitute the number of convictions during the same period, we find that the
annual average number of those convictions,
was 4,238; of whom only 65, or only one in 65,
belonged to the educated class—being 1 in each
501,065 of the entire population of the kingdom. It is further shown, that on the average
of seven years, out of 10,000 persons accused
of crimes against persons, only 309 belonged
to the educated class; and that in an equal
number of persons charged with crimes against
property, only 201 belonged to that class: the
proportion of accusations generally against the
educated, being 227 in 10,000; the remaining
number being supplied from the other three
classes in the following proportions, viz:—Those wholly ignorant
..
Those who read or write badly
Those who read and write well

..
..
..

..
..
..

6,027
2,769
977
9,773

The some mode of calculation applied to convictions, shows the following results :—-

75
Crimes against Crimes against All descriptions
persons.
property.
of crimes.

The wholly ignorant
..
6,124
Those who read or write badly 2,769
Those who read and write well 911
Those superiorly instructed
196

6,351
2,646
860
143

6,305
2,671
871
153

10,000

10,000

10,000

The figures given above, should serve effectually to clear education from a reproach which
has been constantly brought against it,—that it
qualifies men for the commission of one kind
of offence from which the ignorant are necessarily free,—the offence of forgery, which is,
of course, included among offences against
property. The number of persons convicted of
this crime among the well-educated in France,
during each of the following years, was,
In 1828
1829
1830
1831

6
8
8
8

1832
1833
1834

6
9
9

It will be observed, that the comparative absence of criminality among the well-educated,
is not an accidental circumstance,—occurring
one year and disappearing the next,—but a fact
of regular recurrence. The largest number of
convictions in this class in any one of the seven
years, occurred in 1833, when the number amounted to 86. It is to be observed, however,
that among that number wTere several whose
station in life would seem to shew, that the instruction which qualified them for appearing in
the class, was probably not of the most satisfactory kind; thirteen of the number being
known to occupy the station of menial servants.

76
In only three of the seven years were any welleducated persons sentenced to death; and a
considerable proportion of the offences in every
year, were considered deserving of only slight
degrees of punishment.
The nature of the police regulations in France,
enables the officers of justice to trace, much better than can be done in England, the course of
life pursued by persons brought before the tribunals; and considerable pains have been taken in
preparing the criminal returns of that country,
to distinguish those delinquents who have undergone previous punishments. This is a most
important branch of the subject. There is but
too much reason for believing that the man
who has once yielded to temptation, and broken the laws of society, is thenceforth placed
in circumstances unfriendly to right conduct,
and rarely or with difficulty regains the path of
virtue. In England we know there is a numerous class whose time is passed either in the
prosecution of criminal courses, or in paying
the penalty for their offences exacted by justice;
but we have no means of ascertaining the proportion which these professional offenders bear
to the sum of criminality in the community.
In France each individual can be readily traced,
and his previous career correctly ascertained.
The intellectual state of that portion of the offenders who have been subjected to previous
punishments, was not stated in the returns of
the minister of justice, earlier than 1831; but
for that and the three following years, every

77
particular with regard to relapsed criminals, is
given with much minuteness. And out of the
annual average number of 1061 of such convictions, the yearly average of educated persons
so abandoned to criminal actions, is only 14, or
one for every 2,300,000 inhabitants of the kingdom.
Is it possible, with these calculations before
us, to entertain a doubt that instruction, even
under the imperfect system of moral inducements by which it is now too generally accompanied, has yet a preserving virtue in it against
the assaults of vice, amply sufficient to encourage our exertions for its further dissemination and improvement.#*
The influence of education in the repression
or prevention of crimes against property, is
thus forcibly put by Mr. Porter, in his third
volume of the Progress of the Nation.
" In fifteen English counties, with a population of 9,569,064, there were convicted 74
instructed persons, or one to every 129,311
inhabitants; while the twenty-five remaining
counties of England and the whole of Wales,
with a population of 6,342,661, did not among
them, furnish one conviction of a person who
had received more than the elements of instruction. It will be remembered as a most interesting fact, one which speaks irresistably in
favor of a general system of education, that not
one of the rogues was a female!"
We quote the following still stronger evidence
* Central Society's Publications.

78
from the same volume. " The early settlers of
the province of Nova Scotia were so fully impressed with the necessity of imparting instruction to the people, that ample provision was
made by them, and has been continued by
their descendants to the present day, for the
support of schools, so that not a child is
brought up in the province without receiving
a considerable amount of instruction combined
with moral training. The result has been most
gratifying. When conversing with a gentleman
from Halifax, a barrister and member of the
provincial parliament, and a most intelligent
man, # concerning the condition in various repects of the Nova Scotian population, a question was put to him on the state of crime
within the province, to which he gave this
striking answer,—'Crime! we have no crime.'
wThen urged to explain how far this reply was
to be received in a literal sense, he added,—
' I do not mean that people never quarrel in
Nova Scotia; brawls do sometimes occur, although not very frequently; but as to crime,
understanding by the term offences for which
men are brought to the bar of justice in England, I repeat that it does not exist.5 The
cause of this truly enviable state of society was
made apparent when he described the means
employed for imparting universal education, and
added, as a consequence of the high degree of
intelligence thereby developed, that every person could find employment, and could support
* Mr. G. R. Young.

79
himself and his family upon the fruits of his
industry.
" N o r do these facts rest upon individual or
private testimony only. The return made to the
Colonial office in London, of the condition in various respects, of the province in the year 1841,
the latest yet accessible, has been examined,
and fully bears out the above description. In
that portion of the volume (known officially as
'the blue book') in which forms are given for
returns under the head of gaols and prisoners,
all that appears is the following note:—'No account is kept under the heads of this return,
which are wholly inapplicable to the gaols in
Nova Scotia, where crimes are of rare occurrence, and imprisonment for debt is infrequent.
There is at least one gaol in each county, under the jurisdiction of the superior court, superintended by the high sheriff or his gaoler, but
there are not any officers of prisons appointed,5
" T h e population of Nova Scotia, according
to a census taken in 1838, amounted to 178,237
souls, There were in 1841, in public schools,
chiefly in Halifax, 1,902 scholars; in colleges
138 ; but in addition to these there were ' more
than 600 common schools, and thirty combined
common and grammar schools, at which upwards of 20,000 children were instructed.
These schools are supported partly by grants
of the legislature and partly by the subscriptions
of the inhabitants. The total amount contributed by the province in 1841 in promoting
education, exceeded 6,000// The revenues of

80
the province in that year amounted to 93,882Z.
18*. 2d.
" If the contribution of the imperial parliament for the promotion of education in Great
Britain, were on the same scale of liberality as
that adopted in Nova Scotia, taken with reference to population, the yearly vote would
amount to 624,000?.; but if made proportionably to the revenues of the two communities,
it would amount to more than five times that
sum, and even then would not absorb one-half
of the revenue derived in Great Britain from
the consumption of ardent spirits.
u
I n a work of great authority, published several years ago, we find the following passage,
corroborative of the facts and their consequences here brought forward. c It is a matter of
doubt whether more general and useful knowledge among all grades of the population can
be discovered in any country than will be
found to prevail in this province (Nova Scotia).
Many of those born and educated in it have
distinguished themselves not only at home, but
in different parts of the world, and the natives
generally possess a ready power of apprehension,
a remarkably distinct knowledge of the general
affairs of life, and the talent of adapting themselves to the circumstances of such situations
as chance, direction, or necessity may place
them in.' #
" In the island of Iceland there is no such
* "British America," by John M'Gregor, Esq.
Second edition.

Vol. i, p. 405.

81
thing to be found as a man or woman—^not
decidedly deficient in mental capacity—who
cannot read and write well; while the greater
part of all classes of the inhabitants have mastered several of the higher branches of education, including a knowledge of modern languages,
and an acquaintance with classical literature.
''Placed on the verge of the arctic circle,
the Icelanders are subjected to the hardships of
a long and rigorous winter, during which there
are but few hours of the day in which it is
possible for them to pursue out-door occupations. These apparently unfavorable circumstances they have, with the highest degree of
wisdom, rendered productive of the choicest of
human blessings—the enlightenment of their
minds and the raising of their moral characters.
Some part of the long evening is employed in
teaching the children of the family; and so universal is this practice, that in the whole island
there is but one school, which is exclusively
used for the highest branches of professional
education. After this part of the family duty
has been performed, the whole household is
assembled—servants and all—and some book is
read aloud, each person present taking his turn
in reading. After this, there usually follows a
discussion relating to what has been read, and
in which all unreservedly join, and the evening
is not suffered to close without engaging in religious exercises.
"Every account of these people that has been
L

82
published, agrees in describing them as gentle
and peaceable in their dispositions, sober, moral,
and religious, in their habits. Crimes among
them are hardly known. The house of correction at Reickiavich, the capital of the island, after having stood empty for years, was at length
converted into a residence for the governor, by
whom it has since been occupied. The island
is subject to the penal code of Denmark, which
awards the penalty of death to murder and
some other heinous offences. It is said that
only three or four capital convictions have occurred during the last two centuries; the last
of these happened some years before the visit
of Sir G. Mackenzie and Dr. Holland in 1810;
it was of a peasant for the murder of his wife—
and on that occasion it was not possible to
find any one on the island who could be induced to perform the office of executioner, so
that it became necessary to send the man to
Norway, that the sentence might be carried
into effect."
There is no country in Christendom, probably,
where there is so much ignorance as in Spain;
and accordingly there is no country where the
amount of crime, superstition, poverty, and
wretchedness, is so appalling. It would be unnecessary to prove this by any of those illustrations which so painfully abound. We may
refer the reader to a work full of surprising
facts,—which had they been affirmed of any
other country, could never have gained faith,—
viz., " T h e Travels of the Bible in Spain."

83
M. Jounes, author of a statistical work on
Spain, declares that there are not more than
about 40,000 persons receiving education, whilst
the lower classes receive no education whatever.

CHAPTER III.

W E have thus shown, from reasonings and facts,
the great importance and sovereign duty of promoting elementary education.
We shall not
further enlarge on this part of our work, as we
shall be under the necessity of briefly recurring
to it at the conclusion of our volume, when
we shall have laid down what we think to be
the best plans for the realization of our wishes,
Ere we attempt to found any system of education as a model to bear sway over such as
may be proposed by others, it is evidently desirable, if not necessary, to acquire an accurate
acquaintance with those that have already obtained amongst other nations. Comparison is
the great criterion of worth. We may thus
ascertain our true position and attainments,
whilst we judge of our scheme by the aid of
experience as well as theory. So far as those
systems display any wise or noble principle,
whether we feel constrained to imitate them or
not, we may yet hope to prove the truth of
the maxim, that " T h e wise new wisdom from
the wise acquire." Invention and improvement
always presuppose stores of memory and treasures of reflection pre-existent. Ere the author ventures his volume on the public, he
eagerly refers to every preceding work that
treats on the subject to which its pages are to
be devoted, hoping to improve on the labors

85
of his predecessors, so as not to crowd useless
directions in a path already accurately and adequately defined.
Although some nations, such as that of China,
may lie too deep imbedded in the earth and
ore of despotism, or too enslaved by barbarous
ignorance, or inveterate prejudice, to sustain
any but a geographical relation to others; yet
the majority, like neighbours, families, and individuals, will ever be considerably influenced
to good or evil, wisdom or folly, by the opinions,
conduct, and fashions which prevail amongst
other countries, whether near or remote. And
when we consider our common relationship to
one another of universal brotherhood, and to
one common Benefactor and Parent in heaven,
this feeling must be owned alike rational and
virtuous,—a natural and a moral sensibility; for
man was not multiplied upon the earth, nor
human language divided, that man might live in
a state of isolation from his fellow. So far from
regarding his fellow-man, though separated from
him by national or other heaven-appointed barriers, as a foe, or even as an intruder on the
common patrimony of heaven's bounty, he is
bound alike by the ties of self-love, and the
sympathies of a kindred nature, to respect him
as a neighbour, an ally, and a brother, and to
seek to reciprocate holy and happy influence,
alike by counsel, example, and emulation.
National pride, like that which operates in
religious sects, if it leads to a righteous rivalry,
is to be admired and cultivated rather than de-

86

precated. We cannot assent to the proposition
of Soame Jenyns, that patriotism is but the offset of a more refined selfishness; for his agument would, if further extended, bring fraternal
affection, and all the sweet and sacred ties of
consanguinity, to the same impure source of
action. Wise and holy emulation is the object
proposed by Infinite Wisdom, in those alliances
and divisions which He has apportioned to
mankind. Those nations that can neither be
wooed nor warned by the good or evil example
of neighbour states, may be declared deficient in judgment and public spirit, and weak
in wisdom. The nation, like the individual,
that will never learn from the experience of
another, is next in folly to those that never
learn from their own. If imitation is not equal
to originality, and complacency to excellence,
yet directed towards solid wisdom and virtue,
they are the drafts of a beautiful copy, and
the children of honorable parentage. Originality is the gift and grace of bat a few, formed
of celestial mould, and fashioned after divine
models. But let not mediocrity proudly hesitate to rise to the dignity of superior excellence
from the want of creative capacity, on the presumption that she is rendered mean and servile
when indebted to genius. Ere the greatest of
the ancient sages established their systems of
philosophy, and their schools for youth, they
were accustomed to visit the most renowned
lyceums; and it is conjectured, that the divine
Plato obtained his more enlightened theology,

87
not only from Egypt, where lingered the last
faint breathings of divine revelation, but from
the very fountain-head whence flowed the perennial streams of heaven-born science. The
self-partiality of pride is as much the sin of
nations as of individuals; and whatever may
tend to correct its blinding and malignant
operation, should be pursued by the latter with
the same hopefulness as by the former.
It
were to be desired that all nations would cultivate mutual acquaintance and intimacy with
each other and each other's respective institutions. Prejudices and suspicions, jealousies and
antipathies, so mimical to the progress and
welfare of all, might thus be supplanted by
large and liberal sentiments, alike of patriotism
and philanthropy; each country pursue a more
noble and blessed, upward and onward career—
"the confused noise of the battle of the warrior
be heard no more," "and garments be seen no
more rolled in blood,"—whilst self-valuation in
each would be combined with, and fortified by,
sobriety of judgment, and humility of temper.
It is but within the last fifty years that education can lay claims to the rank and dignity
of public history. The pursuits of war and
commerce being more agreeable to national
pride, and deemed more promotive of national
interests, with a complex and cumbrous jurisprudence, have been the restricted objects of
national concern and endeavour. Whilst every
improvement in the science and art of war,
and every aggressive scheme that might gratify

88
national ambition and avarice, have been no
sooner effected in one country than transplanted to another; the attentive and earnest
consideration due to the study of the best systems of furthering the mental and moral greatness of society, have been suspended and thrown
into oblivion by the feats of conquerors, and
the freaks of tyrants, who have spread ruin and
misery. A solitary hero has surreptitiously
gained all the honors and emoluments due to
a thousand philosophic educators; and on the
carnage of a single battle, cost and material
have been expended that would have fashioned
the souls of an entire nation for a century.
We refer to the records of modern Europe,
the history of Christendom. National education had an existence in Persia, and other
states, ages previously; and in that land of
glory, whose poetry, arts, and philosophy are
yet scattered over the world in broken fragments, like the scattered columns of her ruined
temples. As already expressed, Greece, we
have every reason to conclude, would not have
attained to her pre-eminence in these qualifications, had not her educational apparatus been
extensive and elaborate. No available means
of promoting the improvement of the people,
were neglected by the Greeks. All the freeborn males were educated by and for the state.
While in Sparta this continued during life, and
completely destroyed individual rights, and separate interests; in Athens, the most free and
enlightened of all the Grecian states, it con-

89
tinued till the age of twenty. Draco, Solon*
Minos, and Lycurgus, devoted their best attention, and greatest energy, to the laws and institutions regarding the education of youth. At
Athens, fathers were bound by law to have their
sons educated; and not only were all enabled
to read and write, but public instruction comprised grammar, rhetoric, geography, geometry,
history, politics, logic, and ethics. But though
education was thus prescribed by the state, the
where and the how were left entirely optional.
The first and last attempt to interfere with
public liberty in this respect, was made by one
Sophocles, who proposed and carried a decree,
to the effect that no teacher should be allowed
to set up a school without the previous recorded
permission of the Athenian senate and people;
but so indignant were the philosophic instructors
at this measure, that they immediately quitted
the city. This act of infringement on the liberty of teaching was, however, soon revoked,
and the instigater punished by a fine of five
talents (above a thousand pounds of our money),
and that although his cause was ably and eloquently defended by the nephew of Demosthenes.
Less elegant and tasteful than the Greeks, the
Eomans far excelled them in moral energy, and
the cultivation of the social virtues. Education was not with them, the business of the
state. The natural position of parents was fully
recognised. Maternal influence predominated.
In Greece, women were degraded. At Athens,
though it was a disgrace, and considered as a
M

90
brand of barbarism, for any male not to know
how to write, yet no females were allowed to
enjoy any mental culture, except those in whose
case the exception was an insult to morality,
and a disgrace to philosophic man. The authority of mothers over their own sons, ceased
at seven years old; but in Rome boys were left
under maternal care till the age of fifteen years,
and thus full scope was given for the exercise
of that moral influence, which is most potent
when breathed in the accents of a mother's love.
This non-interference of government with educational institutions, continued unbroken up to
the christian era; yea, it appears from two edicts
preserved by Suetone and Aulii Gelle, that they
were more willing to proceed to the opposite
extreme, so as even to interdict the introduction
of any schools and philosophers.
In both of these countries where education
and learning flourished more than in all ancient
countries, from whom we have learnt and borrowed so much, and to whom we so often refer
for precedent, it will be seen that education was
never under the control of government; that
it was entirely free in Rome, and only indirectly
aided by the civil authorities in Greece. As
valid testimony, and for further information,
we refer the reader to Potter's "Grecian Antiquities," Egger's " Studies on the Literary Education of the Romans," Naudet's "Instruction
Publique chez les Anciens," and Dr. Bergmann's pamphlet on the same subject.
What has been stated of the Greeks and

91
Romans, is equally true of the Jewish people;
that they were a comparatively highly-educated
people, is evident both from the scriptures,
from their writings, and the testimony of history. They were repeatedly commanded not
only to hear in public, but to study and meditate on the law in private; which leads us
to conclude that they must have been able to
read its contents; and what is still more convincing, Moses, under the direction of God,
enjoins it as a solemn duty on the head of
every household, to have a written copy of the
law, that himself and family might have it
constantly " before their eyes;" from which
circumstance alone, they would be powerfully
urged to read what was thus always in their
way,—each father being the divinely appointed
schoolmaster of his family. Education appears
to have been much extended and improved
after their return from the Babylonish captivity,
from which period the law was regularly read
in their synagogues on the sabbath-day, and
they never subsequently relapsed into idolatry.
The Bereans, whom the Apostle commended
for daily reading the scriptures, could not have
been all composed of the first class, or Jews
of superior birth and privilege. The history of
this chosen nation, this royal seed, whilst it
shows the importance of education, religiously
considered, equally proves that no system but
that of family instruction was appointed, and
therefore considered necessary, by a supremely
wise legislature, to preserve them from idolatry.

92
It was not until barbarism had swept away
almost every vestige of ancient literature, that
Christianity was fully established in Europe;
when it became associated with so much superstition, that with a few exceptions, it only
served to darken and degrade both the intellectual and moral nature to whom it was addressed.
So gross was this ignorance, that many in the
higher ranks could neither write nor read. The
poor but persecuted Waldenses, however, did
not neglect the instruction of their youth; who
were not only more generally but more highly
educated, for that age, than are now the children of the state in which we proudly boast
to have been born.
About the time of the revival of letters, education was first made compulsory on the nobility
and gentry, # and many public schools were endowed for the benefit of the middle classes.
But the idea of educating the masses, never
appears to have been seriously entertained even
by intelligence and piety. The governments of
that age, so far from originating or even encouraging schools for their peasantry, would
rather have assumed the principle advocated by
the Emperor of Austria, that all they had to
learn, was to study to obey, and acted on that
of the Sardinian edict published in 1825, which
* For example, in the year 1494, it was enacted by the parliament of
Scotland, "that all barons and substantial freeholders throughout the
realm, should send their children to school, from the age of six to nine
years, and then to other seminaries, to be instructed in the laws, that the
country might be possessed of persons properly qualified to discharge the
duties of sheriffs, and other civil offices."

93
enjoins 'that henceforth no person shall learn to
read or write, who cannot prove the possession
of property above the value of 1500 livres,' or
about 62L 10s. sterling.
From this new era in literature and religion,
education which was rendered more accessible
by the invention of printing, has been gradually
ascending to a higher number, and descending
to a lower grade. But until the last century,
universal apathy seems to have prevailed in
regard to the education of the great mass of
society, and even now there are but few governments in whose administration it forms a
prominent and specific branch of legislation.
It can, however, be no longer questioned, that
the day is not far distant when general education under the auspices of either the government, the more influential classes, or popular
associations amongst the body of the people,
will distinguish every region of civilization.
The greater powers, Catholic and Protestant,
free and despotic, have all with the exception
of England, devoted a greater or less amount
of attention and means for this great object.
Even Russia, once as intellectually cold and
barren as her frozen plains, has been making
provision for supplying its not long since barbarous people with instruction, and Egypt has
begun to gain tuition in the elementary schools
established by Mehemet Ali.
It was not to be supposed that our government could thus be the last in the field, without any consultation and effort on her part, or

94
serious thought as to the duty and desirableness
of establishing some national system of education, especially since its general prevalence is inevitable, and as knowledge thus universal, must
become a new and untried power, great either
for good or ill. We stop not to inquire either
into the certain or probable suggestions which
have influenced either foreign governments or
our own, in the recent measures they have adopted or proposed, to impart elementary knowledge to all the rising members of the state.
We have only to do with the merits or demerits
of their respective plans of aggression or popular ignorance; for it is not motives, but actions,
about which true reason and charity, in love
only with goodness and truth, will be conversant.
The truth of what we have been stating, was
thus alluded to by Lord Brougham in his speech
on the temporary withdrawal of his Bill, at the
close of the Session in 1837. " I t cannot be
doubted," says the noble and learned lord, "that
some legislative effort must at length be made
to remove from this country the opprobrium of
having done less for the education of the people,
than any one of the more civilized nations of
the earth." The Bill here referred to, was entitled, "An Act for promoting Education and
regulating Charities." After pointing out the
grand desideratum for a sound and healthy education, as evinced by the number of those who
remained without means of instruction, and the
defective state, the mockery of education, imparted in elementary schools, he adds, " N o w

95
the remedy with which I purpose to meet this
unhappy state of things, is one to which I verily
believe, there is hardly any reflecting man in the
community, that has not at some time or other,
turned his thoughts—I mean, the formation of
a department in the state, which shall have
the superintendence of education in all its
branches," &c.
Previous to the Bill of Lord Brougham's,
efforts had been made both by members of the
legislature, especially by Mr. Roebuck in 1833,
and many respectable and influential public
characters amongst the higher and middle ranks,
and above all, by several leading organs of the
press, either for a judicious and complete system, as the petitioners assumed it must be, of
national education, or else for the appropriation
of a large sum from the public treasury, either
for the support of old or the erection of new
schools.
That the late government contemplated some great, comprehensive, and we believe catholic-spirited measure is certain, from
the well-known and avowed opinions of the
principal members that composed their administration, and their express declarations to
that effect; which they would also have exerted
their influence to have passed, had it not been
for the difficulties with which both the question
itself, and themselves as ministers, were surrounded.
The present government made an
additional grant of 10,000Z. in 1842, and in
the past session brought forward the Factory
J3ill3 which was to be eventually extended from

96
the manufacturing and mining districts, to the
whole country. This they felt constrained to
withdraw, after vainly attempting an amendment; not from a want of ministerial influence or serious opposition in the House of
Commons, but from the deep and universal
hostility excited by all classes of Dissenters and
others, from their unqualified disapprobation of
the leading clauses of the Bill. During the
recess, the subject of education, thus forced
upon the public attention, has continued to
agitate all parties; and the leading Dissenting
bodies, with the exception of the Baptists, have
determined on establishing schools, in connection with their places of worship, and have
opened a general fund for its immediate accomplishment. The Wesleyans have resolved
on raising at least 200,000/., and the Independents, 100,000/. The first list of contributions
to the former, amounted to the sum of 6,000/.,
and to the latter, no less than 17,795/. was
subscribed. The National (Established Church)
Education Society, has also been making the
most strenuous efforts, and have decided on
raising 200,000/.; the contributions to which,
exceeded at the close of the past year, 132,000/.
To each subsequent list the names of many
other donors have been added, so that each
party is in possession of ample means to commence their educational efforts on a somewhat
large extent of operation.
From the present posture of parties, and the
general excitement felt and manifested, there

97
can be no doubt, but that an extended education forms the avenir for which society is now
in transitu. The same may indeed be affirmed,
though not with equal force of truth, of nearly
the whole of European society. Every event
of importance in its recent annals, has been
an index in this direction. Each nation, and
each party in each nation, is impelled in opposite directions towards a crisis, which must
either prove formidable in evil, or rich in blessings, according to the preparations made for
its appproach. The only remedy for the unsettled, anarchical, or rather, the armed peace,
which distinguishes European society, may be
summed up in two words—Industry, and Education. These, united by a scientific organization, which shall give the greatest individual
liberty, and harmonize it with security and order, which shall protect both by the diffusion
of morality and religion, and which shall also
economise the distributive arrangements of society by a wise and comprehensive combination,
form the great desideratum to which society is
now directing her hopes and her progress.
But urgent as may be the necessity, deep the
conviction, and loud the call for an extended
education, it must be abundantly clear, that a
minute and careful, a calm and impartial investigation, as to the best mode of procedure,
should precede the active and zealous interference of either government or people. Owing
to the variety, the excited state, and collision
of parties, the best mode of advancing educaM

98
tion is a subject crowded with difficulties,
though not untraceable or impracticable. Rash
precipitancy, or a step in the wrong direction,
may be attended with far greater evil than
delay. Mischief may brood in the noble efforts
of liberality and zeal, which may not be easily
repaired. The labyrinth of the whole argument
must be pursued until we arrive at a right settlement of the question. Ere we hope to reach
the bower of truth, we shall labor to understand the nature of the different systems that
have been established in other countries, their
ascertained or probable results, the educational
attainments already effected in our own country, the extent of the existing need and demand
for further and improved elementary instruction,
the resources of society that may yield to the
summons of duty, the best modes in which
wisdom and benevolence may exert their activities, in what department educational labor
shall earn the surest and richest reward, whether
we should court or reject the control or assistance of the state ? These are questions which
must receive grave and repeated examination,
ere we finally deliberate and decide on any
systematic plan. In a steady uniform endeavour and determination to obtain and communicate enlightened views, we must shade and
protect ourselves from the glare of prepossessions and party-spirit. The farthest and faintest
echo of truth must reach the ear, and be welcomed by the heart, before the mightiest intonations of party. Retiring from its equally

99
vitiating and unsatisfactory bustle, turmoil, and
bombastic recitals, the mind must yearn for a
green and sunny resting-place in the peaceful
and unclouded regions of truth. The partyman engirts himself in a narrow enclosure, out
of whose consecrated confines he dares not venture a step, though it were to tread on roses,
though it were to walk in Eden; for all out of
that is, to him, forbidden ground, the land of
the shadow of death. In vain must it be for
the partial and prejudiced, who have been siezed
and sworn into the service of party, to be just
either to their subject, or to the public.
In full accordance with this spirit, as the partisan of truth alone, we shall commence our
attempts by describing the nature, extent, and
results of education on the continent, reserving
our own plans; to which we have been led by
subsequent general reflections on the influence,
capabilities, or probable results of the different
systems in operation. Solid judgment and pure
truth, unfavorable to the secret assaults of error,
because too widely extended on a stable basis,
can alone result from comparison. Ere we feel
passionately, and still more, ere we express
ourselves vehemently and act energetically, we
should deeply and coolly reflect, until the intellect is saturated in the pure element of rational
inquiry. Then only may we confidently pass
strictures of approval or condemnation on creeds
or systems, and hope to conduct an approving
multitude to the summit of a mount, lofty in
elevation, but far more transporting in the
beauty, verdure, and fertility of its prospects.

SECTION II.
EDUCATION I N PRUSSIA,,

CHAPTER I.

country first claims our attention, both on
account of the extensive and elaborate structure
it has reared, and the deep interest and admiration with which it has been regarded. As many
readers may be unacquainted with the progress
and present state of the national system of education it has established, it will be desirable to
furnish the information necessary to the formamation of a correct estimate. The limits pre
scribed by the general subject, will not allow a
large and copious description, though not prohibiting such a summary as shall be accurate
and faithful.
Although national education in its present
state, has been of recent origin, the attention
of the Prussian government was directed to the
subject as long back as 1736; in which year
the " Principia Regulativa," the oldest edict in
the educational code of the country, ordains the
erection and maintenance of school-houses, applies a certain portion of church revenue for
the support of teachers, and appropriates a fund
of 50,000 nixthalers for the extraordinary support of the schools. The Catholic School Regulation Act, for the province of Silesia, which
was soon extended to the whole of Prussia,
THIS

101
was subsequently added. It was not, however,
until 1770 that Prussia could lay any claims to
her distinguished superior^. The low state of
elementary instruction at that time, may be
gathered from the low character and meagre
attainments of the educator, whose discipline
and instruction were alike crude and imperfect.
The writer of the article on Education in the
Edinburgh Review, appears to contradict this,
when he states that Normal Schools had been
some years previously in existence. But these
were seminaries for the teachers of classic
learning; and it was not until a considerably
later date that there were any schools established for training teachers for the simply elementary schools.
But about the period referred to, that equally
philosophic and warlike monarch, Frederick the
Great, conscious of the low state of education,
directed his earnest attention to the subject.
Although his efforts for improving elementary
education was not immediately crowned with
any great success, yet these gave rise to many
private schools, whilst in the larger towns the
course of instruction was enlarged by the addition of other valuable branches of learning.
Frederick, in the edict just mentioned, imposed
the obligation (schulpfiichtigkeit), by which all
children from five to fourteen years of age, were
required to attend schools; at the same time
fixing the school-fee at four kreutzers per week.
This was to be paid by all; but if the parents
were too poor, it was then defrayed by the

102
church, commune, (gemeinde # ), or some local
charitable institution, the object of the enactment being, to secure certain remuneration for
the teacher, and equally good instruction for
the poorer children. To enforce attendance, a
complete list was made out, of all the children
capable of attending in each parish, and parents
and guardians who detained the children, were
subject to heavy fines. All particulars connected with the proceedings of each school, were
obliged to be wrritten and given to the schoolinspector, who reported them with his own observations, to the government-circle; by whom
they were collected, arranged, and laid by for
future reference and guidance, with a view to
further improvement. This edict, which is the
ground-work of the whole Prussian system, was
greatly improved in 1801. The teacher was
then raised both in salary and public estimation.
The schools were to be more diligently inspected
by the clergy, to whom this duty was committed, and the instructions rendered more effective.
Industrial schools, in which the mechanical arts
were to be taught, were also established..
In 1819,t a Minister of Public Instruction
was exalted, to whom was assigned, also, the
* A geminde is the administrative unit of Prussia, as the commune is
of France, and the parish or township of England. The chief magistrate
of each gemeinde is the Schulze, whose functions are in some degree
similar to those of the French Maire. Mrs. Austin.
f M. Cousin says, that it was not until 1819 that a specific department
was consecrated to this head; but Mr. Wyse says that the ordinance to
that effect was instituted in 1810, immediately after the peace of Tilsit.
We should judge the latter a misprint.

103
departments of Public Worship and Medicine,
with whom is associated a board, composed of
a director and a number of counsellors. M.
Cousin states, that when in Prussia, their number and salaries were as follows. The director
has 5000 thalers, (750Z.) ; four have 3000 dialers, (450/.) ; seven, from 2000 to 3600, (300Z.
to 375Z.). The whole of the central administration, costs about 12,000Z.
Subordinate to
this, there is a Consistory in each of the provinces, to wThich body is entrusted the direction
of the middle and elementary schools. Subordinate to the Provincial Consistory are the government-circles, each of which has its board
of Church and School Commissioners; and with
the exception of the capital circle, superintend
those affairs which demand immediate care; and
communicate by their head once a year, with
the government of the province.
Such is a brief outline of the rise, progress,
and present state of the general organization
of public instruction in this kingdom, It will
be seen that it is alike state, departmental, and
parochial, each of which have a share in its
administration. We shall now proceed to particularize some of its more prominent features.
Education is in Prussia, compulsory, but not
despotic in its regulations.
It is not only
undertaken by the government, and supported
in part out of the public treasury, but it is
compulsory in respect to the commune, who
have to support it, and the parents, who are
obliged to send their children to school. Bat

104
however obnoxious it may at first sight appear
to us, as being opposed to the liberty of the
citizen, yet it does not, we think, amount to
such an encroachment on the rights of the citizen as to be justly chargeable with tyranny. #
It is vain, indeed, to plead, as Mr. Wyse does,
in its defence, mere examples drawn from the
past history of our country, or any of our institutions, much less such as prevail elsewhere,
—for many of such are either the creatures or
relics of a comparative despotism ; and even if
the offspring of the most free government, they
must still be tested by their real character in
connexion with the principles of civil and religious liberty.
That the system is open to
abuse, is certain, but from the past history of
Prussia, it does not appear to have been used
to any extent for the purposes of despotism. In
the new provinces, great reluctance was shown
on the part of the parents to send their children ; a feeling the very reverse of what is
elsewhere manifested. In consequence of this,
the government, by no means disposed harshly
* In fact, the system is neither despotic nor democratic,—any more
than the judicial system, public force system, charity system, or any other
system, taken by itself, is despotic or democratic; but it may be either,
01 between both, according to its application and exercise, according to
the constitution under which it is in operation; in other words, according
to the moving and regulating powers by which it is applied. The mode
in which it is applied in Prussia, may not be consonant in some particulars, to our habits and opinions, but it does not thence follow that the
system itself is bad; nay, it may be questioned whether even the mode is
so objectionable as has been described. The objections taken against it,
for the most part seem founded on inadequate examination, or on a gross
if not wilful misconception or misrepresentation of facts. Wyse.
Cential Society, vol. iii, p. 377.

105
to enforce what they believe to be for the good
of all, government and people, parents and children, suspended its operation for a time; during
which, they endeavoured to bring them over by
reason and conciliation. Having thus wisely
prepared the way, by imparting a taste for instruction, the law was finally rendered obligatory
in 1825, from which period, they have not been
enforced without several relaxations. The same
spirit and conduct have marked their general
administration. There is no good reason, much
less charity, for believing that the government
have any other object than that set forth in the
framing of the ordinance, which, as it is well
deserving of our approval and imitation, as well
as corroborative of the above statement, we shall
extract. " Institutions for the public instruction,
have a right to claim from all, even those who
do not send their children to them, assistance
and support wherever or whenever needed. The
authorities, the clergy, and the masters, shall
unite their efforts to strengthen the ties of respect and attachment between the people and the
school, so that the people may accustom themselves, more and more, to regard education as
one of the essential conditions of public life, and
may daily take a deeper interest in its progress.' 9
If we turn from the conduct of the government to the temper of the people, we shall find
it equally testifying in favor of the system.
Not only do those who have visited Prussia,
but also the inhabitants of that country who
come to England, almost uniformly represent
N

106
the people at large, not even as indifferent,
much less inimical, but as strongly favorable.
So far are the parents from being averse to
these public schools, that they frequently anticipate the proper legal age for sending their
children; and the population at large, are evidently eagerly disposed to avail themselves of
their advantages. Although the principal expense of the primary schools falls on the parish,
it is scarcely ever eluded or restricted. One of
the latest reports says, "Every commune should
consider that, as it is its duty to provide for
its lighting and watering, so far more is it an
obligation to attend to its churches and schools :
it must be admitted, that the desire to fulfil such
obligation, is every day becoming more general
amongst the communes." No institutions rank
higher in the estimation of the Germans, than
those which have reference to education. Hence
the management is through committees, placed
under the direction of the municipal body, who
are elected by the people. The government, so
far from interfering with, approves of this control, though derived from a free municipal organization. The general feeling is, that their
system is a national honor and blessing, imperative on all, for the sake of all. We are aware»
indeed, that this has been questioned, but exceptions only establish the general rule; and
though certain tourists have labored to place the
subject in a somewhat dark light, yet others, as
above observed, speak very favorably, both of
the system, and of the intelligence and morality
that distinguish the great mass of the people.

107
In order to assist the reader to obtain a full and
accurate knowledge, the leading regulations from
the published ordinance will be given.
"Parents or guardians are bound to send their children or
wards to the public school; or to provide in some other
manner that they receive a competent education.
"Parents, or those on whom children are dependent, (and
under this head are comprehended masters or manufacturers
who have children as servants or as apprentices, at an age
when they should go to school,) shall be bound to give
them a suitable education, from their seventh year to their
fourteenth inclusive.* The schoolmaster shall judge whether
a child gives proof of sufficient precocity to enter the school
before that age, and the school-committee (schulvorstandf)
shall grant an authority for its an admission. A child who
shall have gone through the whole course of elementary instruction before the age of fourteen, cannot be taken away
from school by its parents without the permission of the
committee, nor till after the members of the committee charged
with the inspection of the school, J shall have proceeded to
an examination of the pupil, which must be fully satisfactory
as to morals and health. It is desirable that children who
have quitted school, and have been confirmed and admitted
to the communion, should attend the catechising on Sundays
at church, for at least a year. This custom, which was formerly general, must be re-established wherever it has fallen
into disuse.
"Parents and masters who do not send their children, or
those entrusted to their care, to a public school, must point
out to the municipal authorities or school-committees, whenever they are required, what means they provide for the
education of such children.
"Every year after Easter or Michaelmas, the committees
* Five is the age fixed by the fundamental law; but seven is that
at which education is rigidly enforced.
f See "General Organization of Public Instruction,'' p. 18; and further, title v. "Government of Primary Instruction," pt 83.
t Ibid, p. 84.

108
and the municipal authorities, shall make an inquiry concerning all the families lying within their jurisdiction, who
have notoriously not provided for their children that private
education which they are bound to give them, in default of
public education. For this purpose they shall make a census
of all the children of age to go to school. The baptismal
registers, and those of the civil authorities, shall be open to
them at the commencement of every year, and the police
must afford them every possible facility and assistance.
" I t is recognised as a principle, that in the country every
child shall be sent to the school of the parish (gemeindej,
village, or school-association fschulverein), to which its parents
belong. If the parents wish to send their children to any
other school, or to give them a private education, they must
declare the same to the school-committee; and the permission cannot be refused them; provided always, that they pay
the charges imposed on them for the support of the school
to wdiich they would naturally belong.
"Parents and masters are bound to see that the children
under their care, regularly follow the school courses for the
time prescribed by law. On the other hand, schoolmasters
shall keep lists of attendance, according to a prescribed formula, which must be submitted to the school-committee every
fortnight.
" In order to facilitate to parents the execution of this law,
and, at the same time, not to deprive them entirely of the
assistance which their children might afford them in their
labors, the hours of lessons in the elementary schools, shall
be arranged in such a manner as to leave the children several
hours daily for domestic work.
"Schoolmasters are forbidden, under very heavy penalties,
to employ their scholars in the work of their own household,
"All schools shall be shut on Sundays. The afternoons,
between divine service and the catechism, may be devoted to
gymnastic exercises.
" Care is everywhere to be taken to furnish necessitous parents with the means of sending their children to school, by
providing them with the things necessary for their instruction,
or with such clothes as they stand in need of.
" It is to be hoped that these facilities and helps, the moral

109
and religious influence of the clergy, the wise counsels of members of the school-committees and of the municipal authorities,
will gradually lead the people to appreciate the benefits of a
good elementary education, and will spread among the young
that wish and thirst for knowledge, which will lead them to
seek every means of acquiring it.
"If, however, parents and masters neglect sending their
children punctually to school, the clergymen must first explain
to them the heavy responsibility which rests upon them; after
that, the school-committee must summon them to appear before it, and address severe remonstrances to them. No excuse
whatever shall be deemed valid (exclusive of the proof that the
education of the child is otherwise provided for), except certificates of illness signed by the medical man or the clergyman ; the absence of the parents and masters which had occasioned that of the children; or, lastly, the want of the
necessary clothing, funds for providing which had not been
forthcoming.
" I f these remonstrances are not sufficient, coercive measures are then to be resorted to against the parents, guardians,
or masters. The children are to be taken to school by an
officer of the police, or the parents are to be sentenced to
graduated punishments or fines; and in case they are unable
to pay, to imprisonment or labor, for the benefit of the parish.
These punishments may be successively increased, but are
never to exceed the maximum of punishment of correctional
police.
" T h e fines are to be awarded by the school-committee;
to be collected, if necessary, with the aid of the police, and
paid into the funds of the committee. The execution of the
other punishments rests with the police.
"Whenever it shall be necessary to pass sentence of imprisonment, or of forced labor for the benefit of the parish,
care shall be taken that the children of the persons so condemned are not neglected while their parents are undergoing
the penalty of the law.
" The parents who shall have incurred such sentences may,
on the request of the school-committees, and as an augmentation of punishment, be deprived of all participation in the
public funds for the relief of the poor.

110
" Nevertheless, that part of the public relief which is given
for the education of children, shall not he withdrawn from
them; though it shall cease to pass through their hands.
"They can have no share of any public relief, so long as
they persist in not fulfilling the duties of christian and conscientious parents towards their children.
"They shall be equally incapable of taking any part in
the administration of the parish, or of holding any office
connected with the church or the school.
" I f all these punishments are found ineffectual, a guardian shall be appointed specially to watch over the education
of the children, or, in case they are wards, a co-guardian.
"Jewish parents, who obstinately refuse obedience to the
competent authorities, may be deprived of their civil rights
in the provinces in which the edict of the 11th of May, 1812,
is in force.
" Cases of marked negligence on the part of entire parishes,
or of particular families, may be mentioned, in the published
reports, without, however, naming individuals.
"The protestant or catholic pastors are to judge for themselves how far to use their influence, according to the circumstances of the case. But they are earnestly to endeavour,
especially in their sermons at the opening of schools, to persuade parents to give great attention to the education of their
children, and to send them regularly to school; they may
even make allusion to any striking instances of a neglect of
these duties. Lastly, they shall admit no children to the
conferences preparatory to confirmation and communion, who
do not present certificates, attesting that they have completed
their time at school; or that they are still in punctual attendance upon it; or that they are receiving, or have received,
a private education."—(Entwurf, tit. iv., art. 33—43, pp.
32—37).

From what has now been completed, even the
general reader will be able to judge of the nature
and extent of the interference of the government
with education. In no country, much less in
any monarchy, is national education, or, as it
is styled on the continent, public instruction,

Ill
so extended and elaborate. That there are obnoxious features in the system, we admit, but
if it were so despotic in its nature, working, or
tendency, as some have asserted, would foreigners be so readily allowed to inspect all its secrets, or would their own writers boldly challenge
investigation and comparison. Converse with
any German, and he will on this topic discourse
in disparaging terms of our elementary education, and bless himself that he was born in a
land, where education is co-extensive with population, protecting and protected by society, and
law, justice, and benevolent exertion. Government authority, though the principal, is not the
only one that exercises control. Every class
has a share of influence; every interest is represented; different functions are proposed by
different boards and agencies, lay, clerical, civic,
professional, and private; and the parents of
the poorest children, are allowed to complain
to obtain justice, if refused by the masters.
This harmonious division of labor and responsibility, will be further seen in the means by
which the public or national schools are established and supported.

CHAPTER II.
THE next question that claims our attention, ig
the way in which the necessary school-funds
are raised and applied. These are supplied
alike by the state, the province, the commune,
and the parents of the children. Every commune, or small district, is obliged to maintain
a primary or public elementary school. In case
of extreme poverty, it is assisted from the provincial fund, but even then it is still forced to
contribute according to its means. In addition
to this elementary school, every town is required
to support a school for a superior course of instruction, intended for a somewhat higher class,
and therefore called burgher, and also middle
schools, because they stand between the elementary schools and the gymnasia and universities;
the former schools are principally supported by
the communes, but the normal schools and universities by the state.
All the children are obliged to contribute the
same sum ; which, in case of the extreme poverty of the parents, is supplied by the commune.
The charge is two-pence half-penny a week; a
trifling sum, but considering the number of
scholars, there being on an average eighty-eight
children in each school, it proves a valuable
addition towards the fund for universal instruction.
That but a small part of the outlay is fur-

113
nished by the government, will be evident from
the following calculation. The number of elementary schools is about 2,910. Now the expense incurred by government in the year 1838,
was about 2,817,000 thalers, whereas the real
outlay of these schools, according to correct official calculation, must amount to about 3,436,
But subtracting the sums appropriated to the
gymnasia and other objects, dependent on the
department of Public Instruction, and it is probable that not one half of the sum mentioned
above, was allotted to elementary education,
The funds devoted to the poorer districts, are
raised either from endowments by proprietors,
the special school-fund of the province, private
benevolence, or from state grants. In cases of
emergency like this, the present king has uniformly shown every readiness to order extraordinary assistance from the treasury.
Religion how and to what extent taught.
It is but recently that much attention has
been devoted to religion, either in Prussia or
Germany. This was owing to the comparative
indifference felt and manifested by that people,
to all but dry metaphysical theology, and to
the great number of the branches of knowledge
taught in the public schools. But this indifference having been displaced by better sentiments and feelings, that branch of universal
truth which is the highest and best, the purifier,
preservative, and key of all other, has been more
fully taught. The following regulations in the
o

114
law of 1819, shows the highly moral and religious character which pervades the present enlarged and improved system of elementary instruction, and also the ample recognition of the
great principles of religious liberty. The sentiment in which they are framed is deserving
of our special attention.
" The first vocation of every school is, to train up the young
in such a manner, as to implant in their minds a knowledge of
the relation of man to God; and at the same time, to excite
and foster both the will and the strength, to govern their lives
after the spirit and the precepts of Christianity. Schools must
early train children to piety, and must, therefore, strive to
second and complete the early instructions of the parents. In
every school, therefore, the occupations of the day shall begin
and end with a short prayer and some pious reflections, which
the master must contrive to render so varied and impressive,
that a moral exercise shall never degenerate into an affair of
habit. Moreover, the masters shall take care that the children punctually attend divine service on Sundays and holidays.
All the solemnities of schools shall be interspersed with
songs of a religious character. Lastly, the admission of the
scholars to the communion, should be made an occasion for
strengthening the ties which ought to unite master and pupil, and of opening their minds to the most generous and
sublime sentiments of religion."

Every complete elementary school necessarily
comprehends the following objects :—
"Religious instruction, as a means of forming the moral
character of children, according to the positive truths of
Christianity;" and,
^'Difference of religion in christian schools, necessarily produces some differences in the religious instruction. This instruction shall always be adapted to the spirit and the dogmas
of the church to which the school belongs. But as, in every
school of a christian state, the dominant spirit, common to

115
all modes of faith, ought to he piety and a profound reverence for God, every school may receive children of another
communion. Masters and inspectors must most carefully
avoid every kind of constraint or annoyance to the children
on account of their particular creed. No school shall he
made abusively instrumental to any views of proselytism; and
the children of a persuasion different from that of the school,
shall not be obliged, against the will of their parents, or their
own, to attend the religious instruction or exercises in it.
Private masters, of their own creed, shall be charged with
their religious instruction; and in any place where it would
be impossible to have as many masters as there are forms
of belief, parents must the more sedulously perform those
duties themselves, if they do not wish their children to follow
the religious instructions given in the school.
"Christian schools may admit children of the Jewish persuasion, on precisely the same terms as children of all other
religions; but Jewish schools may not receive any child of
christian parents."

Thus it will be seen that Prussia, though a despotic government, dared not here contradict the
great laws of religious liberty, by any partiality
insufferable to conscience.
The teachers are
trained in the normal seminaries on the same
principle of excluding all approach to religious
intolerance. The utmost civil liberty is also
given to the parents, the only thing required
of them being, that their children shall not
growT up to maturity uneducated, the particular
school in which they shall receive instruction,
being left to their own option and means. And
if education is, as we have shown, a blessing,
what is this but a declaration, that the child
shall not be suffered to forfeit the first and
best of earthly blessings, nor society be exposed
to that pernicious ignorance which is, as we

116
have shown, the prolific source of crime, as
well as a great disqualification to the duties
and privileges of citizenship. Were attendance
on any particular school to be compulsory, the
people would, as Mr. Wyse observes, immediately prove refractory and rebellious. But if
any infraction of this nature would thus be resisted, how far more any measure of coercive
religious intolerance, such as was attempted to
be enforced on us during the last session, which
called forth such prompt, simultaneous, and resolute opposition. There are no principles which
exercise such deep and extensive influence in the
soul, or which possess such inextinguishable vitality, or display such undying, never-yielding
endurance, determination, and conflict, as those
of a religious complexion. Hence, there are no
jealousies and feuds so easily kindled, and when
once aroused, so unappeasable, no wars so cruel
and impious, no usurpation so presuming, no
tyranny so detestable and destructive, as ecclesiastical.
Alas! for the peace-breathing and
peace-bringing religion of the Prince of Peace!
His professed church has been at war, when all
the world has been at peace ; and whilst nations,
such as France and England, from being deadly
rivals and foes, have become friends, and only
spoke and thought of war to deprecate and deplore, these christian or rather unchristian belligerents, have continued to assail each rival sect
with dogmatic assumption of infallibility, and
with a spirit of unrelenting fury. Not content
with accumulating censures, and excommunica-

117
tions. and execrations, they have determined to
outvie in hatred and hostility, the most bloodthirsty of warriors, who have but sought the
destruction of the body; and with wrath more
burning than ^Etna's lava, with infinite malediction and malevolence, and with imprecations
that might put to shame the common swearer,
they consigned their superiors in piety and angelic and divine esteem, to the ever-increasing
torments of damnation. Let every government,
however really insensible to the true spirit of
Christianity, be governed by rules of policy, and
beware of lighting such fires, lest they spread
and scorch; or of calling from the misty deep
such a gust, lest it swell into a hurricane, and
scatter universal desolation. Every species of
persecution has always involved in it an element of self-defeat. "They that take the sword
shall perish by the sword." Though victors
and spoilers even for centuries, that sword
which they have sacrilegiously dared to wrrest
out of the hands of the King of Zion, has
eventually pierced their own flesh; and however blunt its edge has appeared, or has actually been in the hands of those by whom it
has been thus wielded, it has ever proved sharp
and severe when whetted and edged by avenging Omnipotence, and returned into their own
quivering bosom.
We shall but just mention the course and
method of instruction common to the elementary schools. Each child is obliged to remain
between seven and eight years; during wdiich

118
he passes through four courses or classes, which
are uniformly the same in all the schools. At
the expiration of the first, which like the other
three, extend to about two years, and during
which he studies only three hours a day; he
is expected to be acquainted with the historical
parts of the bible, the first four rules of arithmetic, to be able to sing by ear, many songs
and hymns, and to be familiar with some of
the ordinary occurrences of nature and of life.
This course completed, they gradually ascend to
the higher and more difficult ground-work of
elementary education, devoting additional time
to their studies in each course, until their fourteenth year, when each scholar is required to
obtain a certificate of education and good behaviour. The system of instruction is that introduced by Pestalozzi, De Fellenberg, and Pere
Girard,—the Lancastrian system of mutual instruction being never introduced. The teacher,
who does not confine himself to the desk, alternately visits every part of the school, and
instructs, viva voce, adopting the simultaneous
and catechetical, and occasionally, the elliptical
method. It is not the mere repletion of the
memory, nor instruction too elaborate and unfit
for juvenile minds. In no country, probably,
are there so many excellent elementary works
to assist both the teacher and the scholar, in
the toilsome pursuits of education. The entire
course embraces the fundamental principles of
Christianity, the German language, writing, arithmetic, the elements of geometry, natural science,

119
history, particularly that of their own country,
geography, drawing, singing, gymnastic exercises, and the simplest forms of manual labor.
It only remains that we give an account of
the institutions for training teachers, the normal
schools. No system of education can be good
or effective, in which the teacher is neglected.
Accordingly, the Prussian government have paid
great attention to their normal schools,, These
are in number thirty-three, containing in all,
about 2,000 students; of whom, the numbei
annually qualified to fill the office of schoolmaster, is about 800. They are open for ail
classes; some, like those of Lastidie, being
for youths of humbler rank, and others for
burgher students. Strict inquiries are instituted as to the moral character and mental attainments of applicants, who are far more
numerous than the vacancies; a fact that proves
the high estimation in which the educator is
held by the public; and which shows, also,
that the national schools cannot be unpopular,
as, in such a case, the office would be shunned
rather than courted. The age at which they
usually enter, is about eighteen, and they remain about two or three years. The buildings
are invariably large and commodious. In the
normal school at Potsdam, each pupil cost the
establishment 100 thalers (15Z.) annually; out
of which the pupil pays 48. The annual income of the whole establishment amounts to
8,400 thalers (1,260/.), including salaries of
masters, repairs, &c, of which the revenue

120
from the state funds is 5,400 thalers (810Z).
The matter of instruction includes, of course,
all that we have just mentioned as taught in
the schools, which forms the chief part of their
studies as they first enter. The most approved
methods of teaching subsequently engage a
greater part of their time. The strictest discipline is maintained. Ere the pupil leaves, he
is carefully examined, and if approved, a testimonial is presented him, stating the precise
degree of his proficiency. In order to secure
good masters, every step is taken to render the
office honorable and comfortable, though not
lucrative. Promotion is open to all, and merit
alone is permitted to rise, so that the lowest
may ascend to the highest, and the modest
village schoolmaster become a minister of state,
The schoolmaster is not only pensioned, but
has a provision for old age, and for his family,
should they survive him, while yet in the prime
of life.
We shall not enter into a description of the
other and higher schools, which are equally under the control of the government. We conclude our account with the statistics of the
state of elementary education in Prussia, at
the beginning of the year 1838. At this
period, the population including the military,
was 14,098,125, The number of public schools
was 22,910; the number of scholars in the elementary schools, 2,171,745; of scholars in other
public schools, 117,982; making the total number to be 2,289,727. The number of children

121
at an age to attend school, viz, from six to
fourteen years of age, was, 2,830,328, which,
subtracted from the number actually at school,
will make the children not at public schools,
no more than 540,601 ; and the centesimal proportion of children at public schools to children
of an age to go to school, will be 80.9.
It will be seen from the above, that education
may be said to be, with truth, almost as universal as it is governmental. The great trial of
national education, has been fairly and fully
made. And what are its results? why, we have
every reason to believe favorable. It is true, as
Mr. Wyse remarks, that these are not so direct
as to enable us to decide peremptorily; yet the
population has been evidently progressing, not
only in intelligence, but in industry, morality,
virtue, and happiness. "To this evidence in favor of education," observes the above gentleman,
who visited Prussia with a view to acquire information on the subject, "many are the witnesses;
from all classes I heard but one voice. As long,
then, as such is the social state,-—as long as
those who are best entitled to speak, and so
found to speak,—one thing is certain, that Prussian education cannot have done much ill. If,
on the other hand, it can be shown that to Prussian education any one of those benefits can
legitimately be attributed, there is no one surely
so rash or so unjust as not to admit that it
has done some good." This testimony is not
very strong or flattering, it merely gives a preponderance of good; and we believe that none
R

122
who have resided in Germany, and made themselves acquainted with the system, will feel
disposed, after the example of some writers on
education, to rise into eulogy. To this, as
already observed, may be added the testimony
of many others, who like the above gentleman,
profess liberal sentiments; and though we have
not met with many altogether respectable testimonies, yet the opinions of the few given to
us, as being impartial, are valuable; and they
have all assured us, that the evils are slight
compared with the great and general good.
That it has dark, equally with inviting traits
and tendencies, we admit; both of which have
been exaggerated. Although it must be folly
to condemn any system merely because it has
its origin in a government so opposite to our
own; yet ere we seriously think of imitating
it, as some of the leaders of the liberal press
and party have lately staunchly recommended,
we shall, if we have any respect to the principles of civil and religious liberty, carefully
anticipate its probable as well as its actual results. Let us not be influenced in our estimate,
by mere appearances, much less by epithets;
but investigate its pretensions, separated from
those accompaniments with which it has no
other relation than that of contiguity and arbitrary association. Let us pause to reflect ere
we rise into eulogy, or frown contempt or suspicion. True modesty and consideration will
lead us to this, when we think of the many
different opinions that have been expressed,

123
alike by those who have visited Prussia, as well
as by deep and wise thinkers at home.
Amongst these, the most widely known and
celebrated, is M. Cousin; and we shall, therefore, consider the claims his testimony has to
our respect. In doing this, we think we shall be
compelled to place little reliance on his plausible and flattering statements, though we dare
not impugn his general veracity. It is to be
remembered that he was an agent of a monarch
whose regard for civil and religious liberty,—
although the citizen, the revolutionary king,—
is generally, and that justly, suspected. We
should, therefore, place more dependance on
the decisions of private authorities; many of
whom are as unfavorable to the system, such
as Laing, a very intelligent writer, as he is
strenuous in its recommendation. This is confirmed by intimations and opinions which M.
Cousin expresses in both of his works. Thus,
when speaking of the Lancasterian system, he
denounces it as one favoring democracy, and
lowering to the clergy; a statement which we
conceive to be as absurd as it is untrue. He
declares himself, also, a warm advocate for the
interference of the clergy in the schools, # and
appears throughout rather prejudiced in favor
of the subjugation of all schools to government
control.
The principal evil in the system is, the extent of the government authority lodged in the
* Vide, Horner's " Cousin on Education in Holland," pp. 33, 42.

124
minister of Instruction and the Board.
It is
true, as previously stated, that every class has
some share of influence; but as they are all
subordinate to this supreme power, they can
only exercise a limited influence in matters of
detail. The course of instruction, the works
that are to be used, are not optional, but are
all under the inspection of the government, who
would be sure not to instil that freedom of
thought, that self-respect as citizens, that true
public spirit and vital patriotism, on which so
much of what is good and great in the national
character must ever depend. Their studies, and
consequently, their feelings and thoughts, come
under the superintendence and sovereign pleasure of the authorities : a formidable power is
vested in their hands, derived from this early,
this pre-occupation of the youthful mind of the
country, on whose susceptible judgments and
imaginations, they may impose sentiments inimical to freedom. One of the regulations of
the ordinance is to this effect. "Care shall likewise be taken to inculcate on youth, the duty
of obedience to the laws, fidelity and attachment to the sovereign and state." One of the
qualifications of the teacher is, that, "he should
be unshaken in his loyalty to the state." Again,
the choice of the masters, and the validity of
their brevets or testimonial of appointment, are
too much under the control of the ministerial
authorities, instead of being restricted entirely
to the municipal body of each town. Another
of the regulations relative to teachers is thus

125
expressed, " Those teachers who give scandal
to their pupils, and to the inhabitants of their
neighbourhood, by their principles or conduct
in a moral, religious, or political point of view,
shall be deprived, as unworthy of office."*
There is evident in the system too much license
given to the civil functionaries, chief and subordinate, to employ sinister influence.
The
complete jurisdiction over the natural intelligence, seems an enthrallment of the mind, a
uniform prescription of study, unhealthy aliment and exercise, and the intelligence of a
people so educated, must be less benign and
less brilliant than where there existed more
freedom, and the regeneration and progress of
society be better promoted by spontaneous combination. As in the individual, the best and
richest means of instruction will be lavished in
vain, where there is no stimulus to self-education ; so a nation whose youths are thus provided for, may want that completion and stimulus which education left to its own resources,
might create. Self-education in a nation is like
that charity which
" Droppeth like the gentle rain from heaven
Upon the place beneath. It is twice blessedIt blesseth Him that gives, and Him that takes."

A distinguished writer who spent some time
in Germany, gives the following as the result
of his experience and reflections. " Since nowhere in the world exist such ample and easily
* Vide, Austin's "Cousin," p. 79.

126
accessible institutions for education as in Germany, we are naturally led to inquire into the
influence which they exert upon the well-being
of society. There is no science, and there are
very few arts which may not there most easily
and very cheaply be studied by all who are
desirous; the means of a decent education are
open to all, and the facilities of acquiring a
most complete education are denied to none.
What, then, are the fruits which this deeplyrooted and widely-spreading tree are found to
produce ? the answer is most difficult; we are
anxious to afford it impartially. It lies in a
simple fact, which is too often excluded from the
argument of education; whatsoever education
may be given to mankind, one half of the
number who nominally receive it, will scarcely
be found to have derived much permanent and
final advantage from it, or to retain much in
their memory. Lecture-rooms may be opened
gratuitously, books may be accumulated, but
early impressions, accidents, indolence, and bad
dispositions, will defeat our expectations. It is
a melancholy truth, but it must be told. Although a small knot of individuals in Germany,
is more learned than a similar number to be
found in any other country, who create and devour more books than any others, yet it will
hardly be asserted that the bulk of the German
nation are more virtuous, more wise, more agreeable, more temperate in the enjoyments of
life, more useful in their generations, than the
corresponding mass of some other European

127
communities, which possess the opportunities
of mental improvement in a more limited extent. It is one thing to learn, and another to
retain and to practise; when the studious and
practical combine in the same individual, then
alone is the higher character of man developed;
but such an union occurs rarely anywhere, and
not often in Germany. We admit, with pleasure,
one distinguished result of education in Germany—the respect which is paid to the literary
and scientific character. On the other hand, it
must be confessed, that the most favorable position with regard to mental cultivation, conducts
there more frequently to a refined taste in the
fine arts, or to a barren condition, than to
those pursuits which have for their aim, the
general improvement of humanity. The German will reply, that his exclusion from active
political life is the source; but a wide field is
still open for all the best energies of his nature,
in the cultivation of the christian character,
and one in which there are few competitors;
and a surer recompense, than in the chamber
of deputies, or in the columns of a newspaper.
Unsettled principles of action are too often his
blemish."
But whatever truth there may be in the above
statements, yet, if we study the late history of
Prussia, or examine into the natural, probable
bearings of the instruction imparted, we shall
own, that whatever evil may lurk in the system,
it is still, especially for a country so governed,
a national blessing, and that more good than

128
harm is likely to accrue from its operation.
The process of self-formation, considering the
national character and government, must have
been tardy in its growth, and imperfect in its results. Could this, indeed, have been ever approximated, it would appear preferable, for the
same reason as we have assigned for the necessity of the intervention of the state, as the act
itself would, perhaps, almost tend to throw as
much intellectual energy into a character naturally dormant as its results. A nation thus dependent for instruction, and liberally supplied
from other resources than its own direct and
instinctive agency, cannot be expected to put
forth the same energies, and cherish the same
high promptings, with another, left to its own
independence, intelligence, and virtue. Accordingly, there are not those numerous institutions
for the adult population, nor that vitality and
ardour in the communication and reception of
instruction for maturity, which constitute one
of the intellectual virtues and glories of our
people. And we have abundant evidence, that
the most excellent and elaborate school-education, unless exercised and evoked after the age
of fourteen, may prove of comparative little
utility; so that the mind may, through subsequent inactivity and apathy, appear to have
been thus rendered feeble instead of vigorous.
Schools may quicken the intellect, and give rise
to a love of things noble and humanizing, and
form habits in harmony with them: but the
current of association with such things requires

129
keeping up, in order that they should not become rather a dream of things that have been,
than such as have an actual existence. Knowledge requires to be continually resuscitated and
pursued, or it passes away. We cannot repose
upon the self-satisfying cushion of attainment,
without retrograding. Life is action ; and if we
cease to act, some of its most valuable constituents will perish. Who knows not the difference between the forced studies of youth and
the voluntary studies of mature and reflective
manhood; or even the same course of study
arbitrarily framed for you by another, and that
chosen by yourself? Has not genius slumbered,
sickened, and died, in universities; and been
equally educed by its own undirected readings
and reflections, and native aspirations?
But admitting that a nation self-educated, reflects greater credit on its people, and that it
promotes more powerfully, and refines more
beautifully, the intellectual growth and produce
of instruction, is such attainable? That much
may be done we readily grant; in proof of
which we would appeal to our sunday schools,
a machinery as humble and little costly as could
be put into activity. But what is the organization, or means of combination, possessed by
any religious sect compared with those entrusted to government? Society at large is
always far below the government.
However
some politicians may smile at the assertion, the
ruling authorities in a free representative state
like ours, are, or ought to be, " t h e collective
s

130
wisdom of the nation," the public embodiment
of enlightened public opinion, the most educated of the educated classes. They ought to
sustain the relation of a parent, not only in
power, good-will, and blessing, but in experience and wisdom. They are expected to feel
that deep interest for the public good, as also
to devote that time and talent to its cause,
which the mass of the people, from their situation, are unable to do. If we would have,
therefore, the most improved system of instruction generally and simultaneously adopted, or
any primary instruction universally diffused amongst the population, the aid and influence of
government, in some form or other, appear desirable, if not necessary, or there must be considerable delay, and ignorance with all its injujurious consequences, be longer suffered, ere
intelligence sits enthroned on the public mind,
guarding and guiding the destinies of an ever
rapidly progressing people.
The excitement felt and displayed in our own
country at this period, may, as already stated,
be greatly traced to party-spirit; or not to use
a somewhat obnoxious term, to the resistance
offered by liberty and conscience, and a sense
of injured justice, which have been provoked
by the late goverment measure. But can we
expect that it will continue, we would not say
grow stronger and purer, as is required ere it
shall extend its operations to limits commensurate with the wants of society ? The present
state of society is characterised, indeed, by life

131
and energy compared with any past period, but
it is still the few and not the many, that are
vigilant and stirring. Supineness, rather than
agitation, is the natural tendency, even of the
individual, and still more of the public mind.
It is not a German but a French writer, who
declares, that " it is an error to believe that the
vehement passions, alone, triumph over the rest.
Indolence, nerveless as it may be, is generally
master of every other; it steals dominion over
every action of life, and stealthily paralyses
alike all passions and all virtues'^
Difficult
as it is to excite even one man, so as to draw
him from his own little self—for his family, his
business, and the concerns of his church or
parish, with a thousand other et-ceeteras, are
almost sure, without extraordinary stimulants,
to divert him from even thinking, much less
feeling concern about the public and philanthropic ; it is yet more difficult to arouse large
masses, cumbrous and unweildy, to the voice
of instruction, and correct and guide them by
the hand of discipline. The apathy of parents
is, in many instances, greater than that of the
public, and numbers of the poor are as averse
to the education of their children, as are those
in the upper classes who decry its extension,
regarding it as a magazine of evih
When speaking of the results of the present
universality of education established in Prussia
and Germany, some writers have labored to
* De la Rochefoucault.

132
represent the people as being thus stupified
rather than rendered more thoughtful, wakeful,
and alert. But the question is not what is,
but what would have been the present state
of that country in the absence of the present
system of education. Would Germany have
been more forward in the career of improvement, more indisposed to connive at the form
and working of despotic rule, less enslaved by
antiquated customs, and more public-spirited,
had education been left to itself? We venture
to say that it would not. The German character is naturally of a torpid temperament, and
when, in addition to this, we refer to its government, and the restrictions on the press,—the
latter of which is far more calculated to prevent
the beneficial results that might be anticipated
as ensuing from education, in the support and
extension of liberal sentiments,—we shall not
accuse the system as mere policy and trammels
of despotism, as if the people were thus folded
in its lap, and lulled to an inglorious security
and never-murmuring content. It is true that
we cannot expect a despotic government to include in its prescribed branches of knowledge,
those principles which embody the knowledge
of the natural, just, and unalienable rights of
man, such as the following:-—That all men are
born equally free; that no social institutions can
destroy or interfere with the original rights of
man; that governments are, or ought to be,
as much from the people as for the people;
and that, accordingly, the people, including

133
equally every class, have an indefeasible right
to reform or even to destroy any government,
if injurious or obnoxious, as government power
is as much delegated, derived, and dependent,
after the continuance of ages, as w7hen at the
first moment bestowed, and what is connected
with these unquestionable rights; that it is an act
of supreme injustice, intolerance, and impiety,
to force a person of one creed to pay the
teachers of another, of which they disapprove.
But though not directly taught, yea, though
directly denounced, all truth is so connected,
so collateral, that an enlightenment of the body
of the people on subjects of no immediate reference, and still more, in general morals, may
guide to a correct political morality, where self
is not interested in a class. We have even met
with works strongly advocating despotism, which
have still had their sunshine gleams, and conversed with fanaticism of the same principle,
which has had its lucid intervals. No one acquainted with the present state of Germany, especially with the opinions and proceedings of the
new sect, as lately described in the Times newspaper, which has now overspread that empire,
can bring such a charge. Nor will any who have
studied the history of that country for the last
ten years, feel disposed to arraign the system at
the bar of liberty, as though it stifled all thought
and feeling, but that arbitrarily directed and
forced into one channel. The following is an extract from the Cabinet Annual Register of 1833.
" In June, the despotic governments of Ger-

134
many appear to have been again alarmed at the
spread of liberal opinions among their subjects.
. . . . An affray between the soldiery and the inhabitants of Newstadt, took place at the festival at Hamback in Rhenish Bavaria; upwards
of a hundred persons were killed, and one of
the cavalry regiments refused to fire upon the
people. Doctors Wirth and Siebenpfeffer (accused of sedition), were tried on the 16th of
August, by the tribunal of Landau, and acquitted. The trial and result caused a strong sensation throughout G e r m a n y . . . . The three sovereigns of Prussia, Austria, and Russia, having
resolved on meeting for the purpose, as stated,
of taking into consideration the present political
state of Europe; it was finally determined that
the place of meeting should be at Mancheng r a n t z . . . . The Nuremburgh Correspondent assured its readers, the object of the meeting was
to agree to such measures as should put a
complete stop to the ' revolutionary spirit/
which was gaining ground."
From the conversation we have had with
Germans, as well as the accounts given by recent continental visitors, and our daily press, we
feel confident that in less than ten years, there
will scarcely remain a single despotic government in that vast confederation.
We shall not further state our views of the
machinery of the Prussian system, as these will
be expressed in the sequel, when we discuss the
best plans that may be recommended for the
promotion of education in our own country.

SECTION III.
CHAPTER I.

THE same organization that distinguishes Prussia, has been spread over the whole of Germany.
The following is the proportion of the scholars
in the common schools, to the whole population
of the principal states.
Bavaria
Saxony

1 to 8.
1 to 6.

Wirtemberg 1 to 6.
Austria
1 to 3.

The good results that have ensued from the
introduction of national education in the former
state, are most remarkable. No people, probably, ever made a more pleasing progress, alike
in social and public intelligence and civilization,
than the Bavarians in so short a period. The
government, formerly distinguished for corruption and abuses without number, has been remodelled on the representative plan. Like the
Scotch, prior to the existence of their present
system of instruction, the Bavarians were considered the most ignorant, slovenly, and debauched people between the Gulf of Genoa and
the Baltic; but within forty years, their character and condition have been thus delightfully
reversed, and both government and people may
now challenge comparison, not only with any
members of the Germanic body, but with almost
any countries of civilized Europe.
Mr. Loudon, the late talented editor of the

136
''Gardener's Magazine/' who visited a great part
of Germany in 1828, speaks strongly in favor
both of the efficiency of the system, and the
benefits it has been instrumental in effecting.
Describing its happy results in Wirtemberg, he
says, " From what I have seen, I am inclined
to regard it as one of the most civilized countries in Europe. I am convinced that the great
object of government is more perfectly attained
here, than even in Great Britain; because, with
an almost equal degree of individual liberty,
there are incomparably fewer crimes, as well as
less poverty and misery. Every individual in
Wirtemberg reads and thinks ; and to satisfy
one's self that this is case, he has only to enter into conversation with the first peasant he
meets; to observe the number and state of the
journals that are everywhere circulated, and the
multitude of libraries in the towns and villages.
I did not meet with a single beggar in Wirtemberg, and with only one or two in Bavaria
and Baden. The dress of the inhabitants of
Wirtemberg, as well as those of a great part
of Bavaria and Baden, appeared to me to indicate a greater degree of comfort, than I had
ever observed in any other country, with the
exception, perhaps, of Sweden, and the Lowlands of Scotland.55
Catholic Austria, which we should have expected to have halted behind the other nations
that compose the German empire, has long
made ample provisions for public instruction.
The Edinburgh Review quotes the following

137
from a leading Austrian newspaper, so far back
as in 1820; which though it has thus been previously before the public, is deserving of attention, because indicating the popularity of
their national system, as well as its effects so
accordant with our late national experience.
" I n all that regards the education of the lower
orders of the people, through national establishments of instruction, there is hardly a country
in Europe, that, in this respect, has the advantage of the Austrian states. The peasant
in the country, the artizan in the town, must,
throughout these dominions, have given due attendance at a school. Without a certificate of
education and adequate proficiency, no apprentice is declared free of his craft; and without
examination on the more important doctrines
of religion, no marriage is solemnized. Even
the military receive all competent instruction in
the elementary branches of knowledge, through
members who, for this purpose, are trained in
the normal schools, to the business of teaching.
In proportion as education is diffused, is the
possibility diminished of the outbreaks of a rude
ferocity; the more universal the instruction of
the lower orders, the more harmless becomes
the influence which the ill-educated can exert
upon the sound judgment of those who thus
virtually cease to be any longer a part of the
populace."
The supreme jurisdiction in all that concerns
education, is lodged in the Imperial Board of
Studies in Vienna, excepting the Hungarian and
T

138
Transylvanian provinces, which is under the control and direction of a special board at Ofen.
The number of national schools is 24,931, which
are under the supervision of 845 district inspectors. These are divided into 15,967 elementary
schools, containing about 1,454,000 boys and
girls; and 8,964 repetition and Sunday schools,
with about 540,500 pupils. The number of teachers attending these schools, is 32,053, which
will make the average of two to each school.
Of these teachers, 10,252 are catechists or candidates for holy orders, who are under the immediate direction of 14,011 beneficed ecclesiastics and other clergymen. Milan or Lombardy,
in 1830, had 152,592 children of both sexes
in its national schools.
The effects resulting from education, or the
positive and unquestionable good for which it
can claim credit, if fairly and fully examined,
will not be of a very satisfactory nature, but
rather the reverse. Here, still more than in
Prussia, there is an inanition in social and public life; and not only the absence of those
virtues which adorn and bless our country, enlarging reciprocally each circle of usefulness and
enjoyment, but a laxity of morals, especially in
those relations between the sexes, which constitute the main-spring of social virtue, which, if
undermined, can never be repaired by ever so
exact an obedience to other duties, or abstinence
from other deviations from her salutary precepts.
The reader may suppose what this must be,
when we state, that in the former kingdom, for a
female to be the mother of an illegitimate child,

139
is an occurrence so frequent, and that, even
amongst the middle classes, that so far from
marking with indelible disgrace both the guilty
party and her family, as with us, it is almost
deemed a mere matter of gallantry. This may
perhaps be ascribed to the three years military
life obligatory on every young man; but it
should be remembered, that these are all educated by the government, and that the term is
but limited. Their honesty also has been questioned by one not likely to bring an unwarranted
charge, who would not go far from assorting
them in this particular, with the worst educated
country in Europe. A religious sect, which
numbered many educated and respectable disciples in this country, has actually taught immoralities the most flagrant; whilst the political sect
already referred to as covering Germany, has
advanced other opinions almost equally at variance with the spirit and doctrine of a holy Christianity. It must be remembered, however, that
comparing the past and the present state both of
Austria and Prussia, there has been some considerable improvement. It would not be just
to judge of the effects of their educational system by comparing the population with that of
other countries, long in the possession of greater
means and advantages, as well as previous attainments, but by a comparison of their present
state, taking into account the average of population, with that they presented prior to its
introduction, and judging from the authorities
to which we have referred, it will appear that
the evidence they afford is that of improvement.

CHAPTER II.
EDUCATION

IN

HOLLAND,

FRANCE,

SWITZER-

LAND, AND OTHER PARTS OF EUROPE.

THE system of national education in Holland,
very nearly resembles that of Germany. It may
be traced from the impetus given by the example of Prussia, to a philanthropic society,
which is called, " For the general good;" influenced by whom, the government, under the
direction of Mr. Van der Palen, passed the first
great law in 1801.
Owing to the limited population they have
no Minister of Public Instruction, but this department is under the charge of the Minister
of the Interior. Under him is a high functionary, who communicates with the minister,
and also an inspector of the Latin and the
primary schools; this last functionary is the
main-spring of the public instruction. There is
no central board, council, or inspectors-general,
as in Prussia, except the one just mentioned.
There is, however, a council occasionally held,
composed of the Minister of the Interior, and
the president of the provincial school-inspectors.
Each province has its own departmental commission, consisting of all the inspectors of the
several school-districts into which the province
is divided; each of whom has the jurisdiction
over the primary schools of every grade, within

141
his own district, which he is bound to inspect
at least twice a year. No one can become
either a public or private teacher, and no
teacher be promoted, without his consent. All
the authorities connected with education, are
paid and responsible officers, unless it be the
gratuitous committees, which are under the control of the * local inspector, with whom they
consult, as in Prussia; all of whom are mutually responsible to the Inspector General and
the Minister of the Interior. The school books
are selected by the government, as in Prussia;
each provincial board having liberty to select
from the government assortment, those that
they deem best adapted to suit the peculiar
character of the inhabitants of their province:
and in the same way, the teacher may select
from the provincial list. Education is not altogether compulsory, as in Germany. Every
expedient, however, has been adopted by the
authorities, to stimulate and encourage the parents to send their children to the national
schools. Amongst others, for instance, education is required on the part of the poor who
seek relief from the charity funds; so that although not equal to Prussia, the number of
those who remain uneducated is small.
Numerous normal schools are not as in Prussia, maintained by the state. There are but
two; one of which is supported by the government. The course of instruction embraces numeration, moral duties, history of the laws of
their country, with sacred and profane history,

142
gymnastic exercises, and singing. Boys and
girls are admitted into the same school without
any evil resulting from the practice. The time
allotted to school, is two hours, both in the
morning and afternoon.
Those who are intended for trades are allowed to attend, after
completing their studies, the evening classes;
which latter are unknown in Prussia. The
system of instruction is similar to that followed in Prussia; which, after mature deliberation and a prize offered for the best essay on
the comparative merits of the two systems, wras
preferred to the Lancasterian.
Every school
establishment on the counts, is under the control of the government as in Prussia. In the
latter country, every town containing 1500 inhabitants, is obliged to support a higher primary school, but these in Holland are only
private speculations. The teachers though respectable, are not so well remunerated as in
Prussia. The classification of the schools also
is not so good as in that country.
In reference to religion, which is to us of the
most importance, all sectarian instruction is excluded as in Prussia. There is a less intimate
alliance between the church and the school, in
this country; all doctrinal religion is prohibited,
though the general principles of religion are
taught, so fearful was the Batavian government
of trespassing on the high, the holy, and inviolable domain of conscience. Not that religion is thus overlooked, since it is declared
to be the end of all primary instruction, nothing

143
being declared so important, to use the words
of the twenty-second article, as " t h e exercise
of all social and christian virtues." The master has the same course of religious instruction
for all,—for example, the historical parts of
the bible, with moral and religious duties ; in
teaching which, he explains and enforces those
great, unvaried, universal, and eternal principles of religious verity, those solar truths common to all, as distinguished from those stellary
sentiments which are the cherished dogmas of
different sects. But though doctrinal religion
is excluded from the schools, arrangements are
made to provide religious instruction for the
children elsewhere, according to their respective creeds.
The replies given by the Catholic and Lutheran churches to the government circular, are
well deserving of our special attention, at a
time when a plan so opposed to their dictates,
has been attempted. The first, signed by the
chief priest of Friesland, has the following expressions.
" Sir,—The letter of your excellency, of the
30th of May last, reached me on the 10th of
this month.
" I t is, in my opinion, very necessary that
schoolmasters should abstain from teaching the
doctrinal points of different sects, in order that
harmony, friendship, and charity, may reign
among them. I would only except the case
of a master, of well-known probity and ability,
whose pupils all belong to one persuasion.

144
Unless this course be followed, the children
will find out but too soon, that they are not
all of one religious faith; mutual reproaches
will take place, and many teachers will be at
no pains to repress that spirit. It will be at
first only a childish dispute, but as the children
grow up, alienation will increase more and
more; rancour will take root in their hearts;
and the whole sum of their religion will be a
false zeal, which a truly religious mind, and
christian charity, condemn and abhor."
The kingdom is divided into seventy districts,
which contain 2,123 district schools, 127 specially destined to the education of poor children,
and 630 wholly supported and conducted by individuals; making altogether 2,880. The population is two millions and a half. In 1809, it
was reckoned that the number of pupils attending all the schools, was 190,000; a tenth
of the population. In 1826, it was raised to
280,517; and in 1835, to 304,450.*
Speaking of the effects of education, in his
journey, M. Cousin observes, " I was surprised
to learn, that this central prison for boys, the
only one in all Holland, did not then contain
more than from 60 to 80 prisoners; so that,
adding 70 who were expected from a depot at
Leyden, there were, at most, only 150,f out
* This we obtain from Chambers' "Tour in the countries on the
Rhine; ,; a work full of information on the other parts of our general
subject.
f Many of these juvenile offenders were mere vagabonds, whom the
tribunals do not hesitate to commit to prison, because they know the

345
of a population of 2,500,000! To find a solution of this phenomenon, I had only to reflect
upon the excellent schools I had everywhere
met with. The charges upon the towns for the
support of the schools, produce, then, this result, that there are fewer offences and fewer
crimes; and consequently, less to pay for police,
and for the prevention and punishment of crime.
In Rotterdam, a commercial town of nearly
100,000 inhabitants, filled with merchandize,
and where the number of canals and bridges
afford great facilities to depredators, robberies
are rare; and burglaries, accompanied by acts
of violence so much so, that the gentlemen who
accompanied us, assured me that it would be
very difficult for them to mention any.
The following extract from Nicholl's Reports,
will give the reader correct information as to
the state of sects, the harmony subsisting between them, and the probable effects of education in this country.
" T h e Lutherans are the smallest in number,
the Calvinists the largest, and the Catholics
about midway between the two; but all appear
to live together in perfect amity, without the
slightest distinction in the common intercourse
of life; and this circumstance, so extremely interesting in itself, no doubt facilitated the establishment of the general system of education
here described, the effects of which are so appains that will be bestowed on their moral education in the penitentiary.
Note by L. Homer, esq.
U

146
parent in the highly moral and intellectual
condition of the Dutch people."
"A sense of the importance of education,
pervades the entire community.
In all (the
schools), the same principle seems to prevail;
that is, to impart the highest degree of intellectual attainment applicable to each class. In
this respect, the institutions of Holland greatly
resemble those of Scotland; and to its effects
in both countries, may be traced, one of the
chief sources of the moral strength of the laboring population in each."
BELGIUM.

In this country, lately severed from Holland,
the system of education is the same, with some
trifling modifications. The number of schools
is 6,388, containing 356,432 scholars. The
population of the country is 4,082,427; and, accordingly, the proportion of children attending
school, to the whole population, is 1 in 11.5.
The number of schools has nearly doubled within the last ten years. There is every reason
to believe, that the minds of the people have
been expanded and set free, and their morals
improved, though not the latter to any considerable extent.
FRANCE.

The present system of education in this country, owes its origin to the present king, who
was once a schoolmaster in our country, and
who appears to take a lively interest in all that

147
concerns the universities and schools. Compulsory attendance, though so highly approved
by M. Cousin, is not enforced; but the ecclesiastical superintendence is the same as in
Prussia. It appears that the same rivalry exists
in many places, between the schools patronised
and inspected by different ecclesiastics, as between our British and National Schools. " I n
both/' observes Mr. Symonds, in his valuable
work, # " t h e priesthood strive to subject education to their exclusive control/' As the present
system has only been in existence since the late
Revolution, and as there is no legal compulsion,
the number of children in course of education,
is far short of that in Holland. In 1838, the
number attending primary schools, amounted to
2,650,000; a considerable increase on 1830,
when they were not more than 1,642,000. This
does not include the secondary schools, who
had, in 1833, 767,827 pupils. The number of
schoolmasters in the same year, was 39,000,
being 1 in 860 of the whole population. The
government has also established several adult
and infant schools, having about 40,000 in the
former, and 30,000 in the latter.
This is but a small proportion out of the
population, which, in the last census, was
33,540,908. Almost one third of the children
in the large towns, excepting Paris, are unable to
read; so that, according to the progress hitherto made, some years must elapse before France
* Arts and Artisans at Home and Abroad.

148
can approach in the extent, and still more,
judging from the present instructions imparted,
in the excellence of her elementary education,
the country by wrhose example she has been
stimulated to the experiment.
It would be impossible to gather anything certain, from any perceptible change in the character and condition of the people, under these
circumstances. Persons who have lately visited
that country, state, that within the last few
years, there has been a purer tone of morality,
and a higher respect for religion. But this improvement, they state, is mostly confined to the
middle classes. In reference to this part of the
population, Paris, which is France has long been,
like England, self-educated;^ which is a greater
distinction, if not a greater positive good, than
any more extended system, forced without solicitation, on a people careless about its reception.
It is certain, that gross ignorance still prevails
amongst her peasantry, as there are many large
villages where only two or three are able to
write their names. Professor Lorain, who has
gathered his information from the report of the
inspectors which M. Guizot sent out to furnish
him with evidence of the state of education,
gives the most degrading account of the schools
and the schoolmasters, and the instruction, prior
to the accession of the present king, in 1830.
A new order of things has since appeared, and
* The writer, who was partly educated in France, states this on his
own authority alone. Many youths whose parents are but poor tradespeople, receive a far higher education than the same class in England.

149
a wonderful reformation taken place in these
schools. But notwithstanding this revival, the
evidence furnished, as to the state of the primary schools, the instruction given, as well as
of the whole system of centralization, is anything but favorable.
SWITZERLAND.

This land, so celebrated for the sublimity of
its mountain scenery, the fertility of its vales,
and the beauty of its expansive lakes, ranks
next to Germany for the extent and excellence
of its educational means. In the Pays de Vaud,
—the richest in cultivation,—the proportion of
inhabitants undergoing the process of instruction, amounts to one eighth of the population.
The celebrated school of Pestallozzi, at Yverdun, the first seminary in which the intellectual
system was introduced, and the rationale of
every subject explained, has been visited by
nearly every traveller who has approached that
celebrated spot.
The following is a summary of the regulations
by which education is promoted in one of the
cantons, all of which have nearly the same
educational code. Each parish, in which there
is a sufficient number of children, is required
by law, to have two schools,—a " Commencement School," for boys and girls, and a " Continuation School," for boys; and also, if possible,
a School of Industry for girls. The canton has
130 elementary schools, and 17 schools of industry for girls. Each parish in the canton is

150
obliged to furnish 330Z. for the support of these
schools. The children are obliged to enter as
soon as they have reached their seventh year,
and remain until their fourteenth; if but little
progress is made, until their eighteenth year.
In the continuation schools the boys remain to
the same age. The number of the children
attending school, in 1834, compared with the
population, was more than 1 to every 9 inhabitants.
In the canton of Zurich, about 8,500/. is
devoted by government, to the school department. The salaries of the national schoolmasters, though lately raised, are still small.
In the canton of Berne is the celebrated school
of industry of M. Fellenberg; the object of
which is to combine intellectual and moral instruction in general knowledge, with the cultivation of skill and science in the principles and
practice of mechanics, agriculture, and manufactures. In this establishment there are now
more than 6,000 pupils; little more than thirty
years back, its illustrious founder commenced
his career of usefulness, with but six. The
same system has been since extensively introduced in America.
RUSSIA.

Little has been yet achieved for education in
this vast empire. In the beginning of 1830,
the late emperor, who had previously established
Lancasterian schools in different parts of European Russia, gave his sanction to certain regula-

151
tions, providing for the establishment of primary
schools, in the several villages appertaining to
the crown. These schools afford instruction to
youths of not less than eight years of age, in
the catechism, reading books and written documents, writing, and the first four operations of
arithmetic. The lessons are to open after their
return from labor, and to continue until it be
resumed; with the exception of Sundays and
festivals, they are to occupy four hours a-day.
The expenses of these schools are to be defrayed
out of the territorial income of the villages. #
Since this period, however, Russia has been
entering on the same course as Prussia, and
large means have been provided by government
for this purpose.
DENMARK, SWEDEN, AND

NORWAY.

From the report of the committee for revising
the elementary schools of Sweden, delivered December, 1832, it is stated that the number of
secondary schools was 6 6 ; the teachers, 2 8 2 ;
the scholars, 4,320: consequently, at each school
there were four teachers with 65 scholars, and
on an average, 16 scholars for every teacher.
In the elementary schools restricted to the lower
orders, the system of mutual instruction is extensively adopted; there were in 1834, 223 of
these schools on the Lancasterian plan, containing 19,682 children. The population of
Sweden is 2,888,082.
Quarterly Journal of Education, vol, i,

152
Denmark has 4,600 elementary schools, attended by 270,500 pupils; averaging 60 children
to each school: and 27 grammar schools, containing 1,400 pupils. The population of the
kingdom is 2,000,000, out of which it is estimated, there are 300,000 children of an age for
instruction; therefore there are only 200 children not under instruction in Denmark,
In Norway, containing a population of not
more than 1,051,312, there are 1,877 public
schools of different descriptions, in which about
154,232 infants and youths, from seven to
seventeen years of age, are instructed, not including the university schools of arts, and Sunday schools; averaging 1 in 6.8 of the whole
population, under instruction.

CHAPTER III.

W E have now given the reader an outline of the
organization of public instruction on the continent. It remains for us, therefore, to consider
whether any of their systems present such a
promising aspect as to demand and justify its
application on the part of our legislature; or
whether any happy combination of the materials
that constitute governmental education at large,
on the continent, should be extended to our
own population. Judging from the experimental facts which are thus furnished, we cannot,
even when putting a somewhat flattering construction on the nature and effects of the centralised plan, perceive any sufficient argument
or arguments, that might countervail those of
an opposite nature, to favor its adoption. We
have not yet said anything definite of the effects
of centralization in the sister country. The
following statements, which we obtain from a
new, respectable religious periodical, under the
superintendence of the Congregational Union,
and which may, therefore, be relied on, holds
up France as a warning, not as a model, to
our country. "Guizot, Villemain, and Cousin
have long been receiving praise which they illdeserved. Two-thirds of the French population
are in a state of gross ignorance! Seventeen
millions of them can neither read nor write !
Seven millions can read but imperfectly, and
x

154
cannot write! Seven millions can read and
write but imperfectly; and only three millions
of the great nation are well-educated. This is
the fruit of government interference with education.
" T h u s the government obtained an entire
monopoly of education, and the enlistment of
an army of 34,000 schoolmasters, at the expense of the communes. It was anticipated by
those, who thus "framed mischief by a law,"
that the communes and general councils would
not tax themselves to support a system of despotism, under the mask of education ; and hence
the law gave power to tax both the reluctant
departments of the communes. No fewer than
26,000, out of the 37,187 communes, and many
general councils, refused submission to the law;
the cruel law was put in force, and they were
compelled to pay the enormous sum of 3,300,000
francs, in addition to other taxes. To lighten
this burden a little, the government came with
a grant in favor of education, amounting to
half the sum granted to the "encouragement"
of the opera; one-third of the "encouragement"
granted to the studs; and one-fifth of the "encouragement" granted to the secret police!
This was Louis Philippe's freedom of public
instruction! Such, too, is Guizot's title to the
gratitude of France, and the admiration of Europe as Minister of Public Instruction!
" B u t there is another view of the subject,
which further tends to illustrate the wickedness of the king and his government. No less

155
a sum than 9,580,000 francs, public money,
is devoted to different classes of instruction,
while only 1,600,000 go to educate the masses,
and this sum chiefly spent on useless inspectors
and sinecurists; while nearly 8,000,000, paid
by the country, are expended on the education
of the rich, of the placemen, of the sons of
electors, and jurymen! Read the result in the
fact, that in forty-eight departments, from 50
to 80 per cent of the people can neither read
nor write!
"Englishmen! these are facts. The writer,
who is known to us, is a Frenchman, a man of
high talent and high honor, a distinguished patriot, and a writer most intimately acquainted
with his subject. Be instructed by his mournful history, and read your duty in the misfortunes of his devoted country."
It may be urged, indeed, that we cannot fairly
argue from the abuse of any institution; but
then we may and must, from its probable tendencies to be thus abused, and these are so
numerous and weighty, as to make a wise and
free people regard with no small suspicion, any
enactment that would interfere with educational
freedom. The power thus entrusted to government is certainly something more than that
already conferred on them for the protection of
social rights, or the advancement of social privileges and comforts. It is a power at which,
when even faithfully devoted to its duties, the
intelligent advocate of civil and religious liberty
cannot but look with disquietude and apprehen-

3 56
siori. It lays manacles, also, on the activities
and sympathies of the people, which it is so
important and useful to stimulate. There are
so many obstacles in the way of any system
that can be proposed, being consistent with the
great principles of civil and religious liberty,
being equally free and good to all and irksome
to none, in such a country as ours, where,
though the government may be one, there are
so many sects, and parties, and opinions, that
we cannot but distrust any such scheme. It
has also been warmly abetted both by governments and men in our own country and on the
continent, who have again and again affixed
their seal to principles and practises that would
tend to crush, not only popular liberties, but
even social intelligence. It has not been productive of any such intellectual or moral results
as would constrain us to its adoption, either in
the state-educated countries on the continent,
or in our own. Notwithstanding the millions
that have been expended for educational purposes on Ireland, we may safely venture to affirm, that Father Matthew has accomplished
more for the promotion of the intelligence and
morality of its people, than all the grants from
the government.
We are not, in the terms and arguments just
employed, decrying all government assistance,
or popular parochial instruction such as prevails
in Scotland and the United States, but government supremacy, as in France and Prussia.
Some of them, however, must be seen to apply

157
almost equally to any direct, compulsory enactments on education. We do not, however,
think that the goverment might not, or even
that it ought not to encourage education, both
directly and indirectly. Leaving the people to
their own free option as to the means of education, the existing authorities might justly and
wisely, we think, adopt the following methods.
First,—Enact that each parish should see that
all the children of the poor have imparted to
them, the simple elements of secular and moral
education. We do not think, however, if what
we are about to recommend were strenuously
supported by the public at large, that there
would be, after a time, much necessity for such
a law; as such an educational society as we propose, would soon receive them in its embrace.
Secondly,—That all who are unable to read,
write, and cast accounts, be denied the right of
setting up any trade or business, and the liberty
of marrying. Such a law might effect much
for self-education on the part of adults, as well
as make many poor parents successfully ingenious and wise in contriving means and finding
opportunities to educate their children, who
otherwise might have thought themselves justly
excused for its neglect, or have congratulated
themselves on being released from the burden
and expense of such a charge.
Thirdly,—That all taxes on knowledge be removed. This last might extend to all elementary schools, and would be almost the same as

158
a liberal (as it is styled) grant of several thousands from the treasury.
We would have education, then, carried on
and controlled by the people instead of the
government. And this we believe to be, not
only the safest, but the most, yea, the only
effective plan to extend true, enlightened secular and religious education throughout our
country. As there are about seventy different
sects, it will surely be impossible to please all
by any one sectarian system; and if we would
accomodate it to all, forcing bigoted churchmen
to support a system in which the bible shall be
severed from its only true expositor and equal,
the church catechism, wTe shall be offering as
real, though not as great an injury to their consciences as they would to us, in forcing their
catechism on our children. For believing that
no elementary education can be truly religious
in which it is excluded, they have not only a
right, but it becomes their duty to act upon
their principles, and never to sanction education
apart from the church, as surely tending to popery, dissent, socinianism, and socialism. The
British and Foreign Schools are thus generally
styled Dissenting Schools, though not more so
than they are Church, many of them having
a larger number of children whose parents belong to the establishment than to dissenters.
Thus there are two large and influential parties
in the state; one of whom would never consent
to any education in which the church catechism
was taught, regarding it as a badge of odious

159
sectarianism, and as, therefore, offering an insult to their own consciences; and another
equally determined to carry out a system of
sectarian exclusiveness. The bishops have frequently declared, both in and out of their upper
house, that they could never consent for a moment, to any system of national education which
was not under the sole supremacy of the Church
of England. It must be remembered, however,
there is a very large and growing party in the
Church, who would be quite contented with
the Bible.
We are hence led to consider what combined
agency on the part of the people, might prove
most conducive to the spread of education.
The following appears to us, after considerable
thought on the subject, the best calculated
both to develop, concentrate, and strengthen
the energies and exertions of the great majority
of the moving party; and though, as just stated,
we cannot expect universal co-operation, yet
we think ail,—with the exception of the party
just mentioned, which we believe would soon
dwindle,—would, if the plan approved itself to
their judgments, also give it their best feelings.
The best society at present in existence, in our
judgment, is the British and Foreign School.
And what recommends itself to our judgment
as the most effective method of uniting and
prospering the efforts of all who are sincerely
desirous of furthering education as opposed to
sectarianism, is to carry out, with some new
arrangements, the same system. I would have

160
a regular metropolitan general fund, and a
committee formed of so many of the most distinguished ministers, members of the five leading religious denominations, including the Free
Church, giving twice the number of any other to
the Church of England,-—somewhat as at present
amongst the Independents and Wesleyans,—under whose direction and influence the movement
should be carried on, as amongst our religious
societies. I would have the same followed out
in the leading cities and towns where schools
are formed or about to be formed. The sums
and property now in the possession of the
British School and the religious denominations,
would be under the direction of the metropolitan
managing committee and secretaries, who would
devote the several items of the great general
annual revenue, to places where the money
might be most prudently and effectively bestowed, as well as to general purposes favorable
to education. Of course, I would still have
each district and school locally free; the central committee and general fund being an assistant and impetus to, rather than controller'over
each school, whether almost entirely originated
by them, or by the locality in which it is situated,—as with the associations and boards amongst congregationalists. The several religious
boards or authorities would, as at present, set
their respective bodies in motion in favor of
the movement, as if it were denominational. In
addition to the London secretaries, there should
be, according to the society's means, travelling

161
secretaries, as with the bible or tract societies,
the most efficient men of different denominations, who should hold public meetings, preach,
collect, and assist in forming schools all over the
country, or in rendering those already in existence, more extensive and effective, enkindling
a spirit of enlightened, well-directed enthusiasm
in favor of the society and of education.
We
have not sketched out a formal plan, but the
reader will readily understand and fill up, in his
own mind, what we have omitted. The advantages resulting from such a society, uniting in
itself, so far as allowed and just, all other societies and schools now in existence, appear to
us greatly to outbalance the present denominational and divided efforts, combining with so
much increased effect and usefulness, every
other society and agency now in operation.
In the first place, if there were no immediate
accession of means and energy thus accumulated,
there is one great moral argument which might
well urge all catholic-spirited men to make solicitations and efforts on its behalf, and this is
the influence it would have in promoting union
and good feeling amongst divers persuasions.
One of the greatest obstacles to the progress
of truth and the triumphs of principle, alike in
every branch of knowledge, is to be traced to
the suspicions, jealousies, and feuds of sectarianism. It is said, that familiarity breeds contempt. The converse of this, in the present
instance, is equally true. The contempt felt
by many sectarian spirits of opposite creeds,
y

162
has originated in their knowing one another but
by name and sign, and from not reciprocating
friendly intercourse. We do not by any means
disapprove of denominational partiality and zeal,
but this should ever be combined with catholicity of spirit. The scriptures know of no piety
without charity, and of no charity that has not
the word of God for its rule, and truth for its
object. It was when a false liberality began
to operate upon the professors of a religion,
every portion of whose doctrines and directions
they are bound to regard,—being enforced by
divine authority and emanating from divine wisdom,—as plain, important, and indispensable,—
that they began to temporize with it duties and
doctrines, to meet the prejudices and pride of
worldly-minded men, and they thus opened the
floodgates of error, and contaminated all the
churches in Christendom. But zeal without
love is worse than zeal without knowledge; and
there is great danger, even in the case of comparatively great, noble-minded men, whom we
should expect to find above this littleness,—the
reverse of the character of Burke, whom Goldsmith declared, "gave up to party what was
meant for mankind,"—owing to the imperfections alike of our intellectual and moral nature,
that everything which might urge to philanthropy on philosophic principles, ought to be
hailed with the strongest approbation. The advantages, the imperious importance and happy
results of union, have been of late so clearly
and forcibly pointed out that it would be super-

163
iluous for me to do more than mention them,
and the danger of a false liberality,—an expression ever on the tongue of the weak, wrongminded, destructive bigot,—on the part of those
who regard truth as important, is so small, that
we have little fear of urging with too great
stress, the duty and useful tendencies of such
exhibitions of sentiment and feeling.
The increased efficiency and larger sphere of
operation thus given to their common exertions
in the cause of education, appears to us, another
strong argument for combination.
There are many places which, of all others,
most need the establishment of a school, in
which, if the different bodies were united, a
school might be soon raised and easily supported, but where this would be impossible if undertaken by one party alone. There might also
be superior teachers and a better system of instruction. In a late report on British Schools
in London, Seymour Tremenheere, esq. observes, "The difficulty of securing proper teachers, by holding out a due remuneration for the
acquirement of the requisite skill, and the application of their time and talents to this line
of employment, seems to be felt in the case of
girls' and infants' schools, even more than in
that of boys. Taking the salary to be provided for such a master to be 100Z. a year, and
reckoning the school-times, of three hours each,
at ten per week, then three schools could avail
themselves of his services for nine hoars per
week, and one for three, with the addition of

164
his attendance at their Sunday-school, where
his aid would be of great value. The cost to
each would therefore be about 2 5 / . ; a sum requiring no formidable addition to the exertions
already made by the supporters of these institutions, and a great part of which would, in all
probability, be replaced by the increased numbers attracted by the greater efficiency of the
schools. No mistress or master now employed,
would be displaced; each would have the opportunity of improvement, and would be stimulated to take advantage of it. Combinations of
schools for the purpose here indicated, might
be readily formed in large towns, or in the
smaller rural parishes, no one of which could
support out of its own resources, a properly
paid master." It is true that denominational
schools might open their gates to the reception
of the members of other denominations; but
then, could such be expected to feel the same
affection, or take the same interest in what belonged to another denomination? The spirit
of rivalry may do something, but will not the
spirit of catholicity effect much more? Is it
not a better motive to which to make the appeal, and one more certain of the blessing of
God? But if this be required, there would
still be the same ardour invoked between the
sectarian and the catholic,—the schools for edu~
tion, and those for the education of a sect.
It is evident that the local must be moved to
action by the general, and that centralization,
parochial combination, and individualism, are

165
both desirable to aid and stimulate each other,
Though some seem to conclude that all now
deprived of the means of instruction, would immediately hail the proffered boon; experience
teaches that in many cases it is quite otherwise,
and that the people must be prepared to receive a prepared blessing. Appliances and inducements are clearly needed, as impulses to
both parties. Create a taste for knowledge and
it will seek knowledge, and grow by the seeds
of which it partakes.
Mr. Ashley's statement, (master of the Lancasterian school in Sheffield), not only shows the
deplorable ignorance still prevailing, but also
attributes this as one of its causes.
" Their education," says he, " I have no hesitation at all in saying, is wretchedly defective,
and arises, in the great majority of cases, from
the circumstance that their parents themselves
have not the slightest notion of the benefits
resulting from the mental and moral training
under which it is sought to bring the children.
The average time they stay in the Lancasterian
school is not twelve months; and the state of
the case in other schools, I am told, is precisely the same."
It is needless to add that many other authorities to the same effect, might be produced.
In his report of the state of elementary education, the Hon. Baptist Noel observes, " T h a t ,
as many uneducated parents are unconcerned
about the education of their children, it wTould,
perhaps, serve the cause of education, if the

166
government should offer prizes for the best
tracts on this subject, adapted for general circulation among the parents, and should enable
the friends of education to circulate them at a
cheap rate through the country."
"That as the public are not well informed respecting popular education, just views might
be widely diffused, if the government should
offer a prize or prizes for the best essay or essays on the subject."
Such a society might also, with the approbation of government and the consent of private
patrons, or by purchase, obtain possession of
many endowed charities, or other schools half
endowed and half supported by themselves or
voluntary contributions. Many endowed schools
have not only trespassed on their original rights
and on the intentions of the proprietary founders, but also are of very limited usefulness proportionate to their means. Many provide wholly
for the children of the poor, who are thus taken
entirely away from their parents, and are often
only injured instead of being benefitted, being
thus raised above or disqualified for the stations they have subsequently to fill. The same
charity, differently bestowed, might often educate three or four times the number, and be
productive alike of more intellectual, moral, and
social good to the instructed.
We shall not insist further either on the plan
of operation which we would recommend, or
the advantages that we think must result from
its operation, as such will directly suggest them-

167
selves to the mind of the reader; but conclude
by enforcing on the general reader, the duty
and desirableness of immediately assisting in
carrying on in the best way now open to exertion, this great and good work.
It would be needless for me to bring forward
a long array of quotations and statements, as
I might easily do. Despite of Sir Robert Peel's
assertion some years since, which has been
subsequently as broadly contradicted as it was
then broadly asserted by himself, none will feel
disposed to deny that there is yet an appalling
amount of ignorance in this enlightened, benevolent, and christian country, and that consequently, much remains to be done, and that
charity bestowed becomes double to that which
is delayed. Like medical attendance or prescription in the hospital, in the case of the diseased poor, so here, the longer the remedy is
deferred the more ill and danger to the parties
neglected, as well as to the country. Though
Lord Ashley is wrong whilst endeavouring to
overcharge the comparative state and character
of the manufacturing districts, his statements
are no doubt mostly founded on fact, and might
be supported by a large proportion of similar evidence from the agricultural population. Many
writers, amongst whom is the editor of the
Leeds Mercury, have endeavoured to discredit
the statements of the factory inspectors, who
have not only asserted, but labored to prove
the truth of this alleged deficiency of education;
but we need only refer such to the tables of

168
the registrar-general. From an account kept of
the number of marriages in which the marriageregister is duly signed with the names of the
parties united, in their own hand writing, or
signed only with a mark; the following is the
startling result.
" In the whole of England and Wales, among
367,894 couples married during three years,
it appears that there were 122,458 men, and
181,378 women, who either could not write
at all, or who had attained so little proficiency
in penmanship, that they were averse to the
exposure of their proficiency. The numbers so
subscribing the marriage-register in each year,
were,—
Year ending
30th June.

Number of
marriages.

; Persons

1839
1840
1841

121,083
124,329
122,482

40,587
41,812
40,059

58,959
62,523
59,896

367,894

122,458

181,378."

Men.

affixing marks.
Women.

It was stated at the late anniversary meeting
of the British Society, by its secretary, amongst
many other similar facts, that at Yarmouth
alone, there were no less than 4,000 entirely
destitute of the means of instruction. It must
also be remembered, that in many instances,
the instruction received is of little or no value.
Now it will be granted that London, as the
centre of civilization, as the resort of wealth,
and the sphere of so many charities, must be
expected to be much before the other parts of
the population. The following returns, compri-

169
sing a population of about one million, will
shew the truth of our statements. There are
1,3 54 private schools, and 280 charity schools,
the former containing 22,933, and the latter
35,928 scholars. Now of the teachers of the
poorer classes, the majority are most incompetent for the office; some of these pedagogues
being about as ridiculous and offensive specimens as some of those filling the late government primary schools in France. Out of 500
who were asked whether they had been brought
up to the employment of teacher, only 128
answered in the affirmative; and of 540 who
were asked whether they had any other occupation than their school, 280 answered that
they kept a shop, or took in washing or needlework. Of these schools kept by parties who
by misfortune or imprudence have been compelled to have recourse to this really high and
responsible, however degraded and despised office, there are no less than 1,154 schools, containing 22,933 scholars. The average weekly
payment in the dame-schools is not more than
five-pence.
Thus it will be seen that there
are about 23,000 children in the heart of the
empire, receiving a most inferior education from
men and women devoid of all qualification, and
at least twice that number receiving no education at all.
The same order of things prevails throughout the country. Let us examine the state of
factory instruction. In the reports of the facz

170
tory inspectors, for 1843, Mr. Horner, speaking
of the Lancashire district, says;—
"Of the 117 factory schools, sixteen are good,
attended by 860 children, or about twenty-seven
per cent, of those educated in such schools.
There are other factory schools, and some of
the private schools, in which some little instruction is imparted; but in the majority of
both there is a mere nominal compliance with
the law, and it is an entire misapplication of
the term to call such places schools. The inspectors have no power to interfere to put a
stop to this discreditable mockery of education.
I believe that I am understating the case to a
considerable extent, when I say, that of these
6,872 children, for whom certificates of school
attendance are obtained, 4,500 are getting no
education whatever at these schools."
The Hon. and Rev. Baptist Noel gives the
following report to the committee.
" T h e common schools, which are attended
by children between the ages of five and fourteen, are represented in the Reports to be very
little superior to the dame-schools with respect
to instruction; and, with respect to ventilation,
to be often worse. The Birmingham Report
thus speaks of those which are in that town :—
'Ventilation is very little attended to in these
schools, and, in some, cleanliness is equally
neglected. There is generally a much greater
number of children crowded together than in
dame-schools, and the effluvia, arising from the
mass of the scholars mingled with the close

171
air exhausted of its oxygen, and unfit for the
purpose of comfortable or healthy respiration,
under any long continuance in the school, intolerable to a person unaccustomed to it. The
systems of instruction adopted are of the most
imperfect kind ; the general principle of by far
the largest number, is that of requiring the
child to commit to memory a certain quantity
of matter, without any attempt being made to
reach the understanding . . . . In only twentynine out of the whole 177 schools out of this
class, do the teachers profess to interrogate the
children on what they read and learn; . . . .
eight out of the twenty-nine who do interrogate
their children, admit that it is only done occasionally, when time and opportunity permit.
As in the dame-schools, corporal punishments
form almost the whole of the moral training in
these establishments/
" T h e Manchester schools are described thus:
—' In the great majority of these schools there
seems to be a complete want of order and system. The confusion arising from this defect,
added to the low qualifications of the master,
the number of scholars under the superintendence of one teacher, the irregularity of attendance, the great deficiency of books, and the
injudicious plan of instruction, or rather the
want of any plan, render them nearly inefficient
for any purposes of real instruction.' According
to the Reports, the schools of the same class
in Liverpool, Salford, and Bury, are very similar to those of Birmingham and Manchester.

172
" From the answers uniformly made to my inquiries on this subject among persons acquainted
with the poor, I judge that the great majority,
both of dame and common schools, in the Lancashire towns, answer to these descriptions ; and
the very few which my time enabled me to
visit, did not contradict that conclusion.
In
one of these dame-schools I found thirty-one
children, from two to seven years of age. The
room w'as a cellar of about ten feet square and
about seven feet high. The only window was
less than eighteen inches square, and not made
to open. Although it was a warm day, towards
the close of August, there was a fire burning;
and the door, through which alone any air could
be admitted, was shut. Of course, therefore,
the room was close and hot; but there was
no remedy.
The damp subterraneous walls
required, as the old woman assured us, a fire
throughout the year. If she opened the door
the children would rush out to light and liberty*
while the cold blast rushing in would torment
her aged bones with rheumatism. Still further to restrain their vagrant propensities, and
to save them from the danger of tumbling into
the fire, she had crammed the children as
closely as possible into a dark corner at the
foot of her bed. Here they sat in pestiferous
obscurity, totally destitute of books, and without light enough to enable them to read, had
books been placed in their hands. Six children, indeed, out of the thirty, had brought
some twopenny books, but these also having

173
been made to circulate through sixty little
hands, were now so well soiled and tattered, as
to be rather the memorials of past achievements than the means of leading the children
to fresh exertions. The only remaining instruments of instruction possessed by the dame,
who lamented her hard lot, to be obliged at
so advanced an age to tenant a damp cellar,
and to raise the means of paying her rent by
such scholastic toils, were a glassful of sugar
plums, near the tattered leaves on the table in
the centre of the room and a cane by its side :
every point in instruction being thus secured
by the good old rule of mingling the useful
with the the sweet."
The number who are left totally without instruction in five of the chief manufacturing
towns, he computes at 74,267.
In a late Report of the British Society, the
following statement is given of one of our
richest as well as finest agricultural counties.
"From a canvass made by the Herefordshire
Auxiliary Bible Society, it appears that out of
41,017 individuals visited, only 24,222 were
able to read." Descriptions to the same effect
might be cited from the Reports both of the
rural and mining districts, almost indefinitely.
The Report given by the late Government
Inspectors is, in many instances, anything but
favorable both of the National and British
Schools. In the system we would propose we
would leave little or no room for inspection,

174
that being undertaken principally by local directors and the agents of the society.
The improvement as well as the enlargement
of the present means of elementary education,
demands, therefore, the most extended and combined co-operation. With a view to this, acting
on the advice given to the committee by the
Hon. Baptist Noel, we have devoted our opening chapter, and would, in conclusion, again
return to the same subject. We must, if necessary, waive the way best approved by our
own judgment,—so imperious is the necessity,
so urgent the demands of the times,—and employ all the means and influence we can afford,
in aiding those existent plans of operation which
command our preference. If there be any social duty more strictly binding than another,
on any society, it is to afford suitable and sufficient means of instruction to its entire population. All other wise and benevolent agencies
are here included. To neglect this for any
one or more spheres of usefulness, is to begin
at the end instead, as here, at the beginning.
A nation's intelligence, morality, and greatness,
are dependent on its educational appliances and
influence. It is the fountain-head, the meliorating principle in all social improvement.
Though by no means a substitute, it is the
most efficient auxiliary that can be brought to
the support of each good enterprise that engage
the hands and warm the heart of the patriot,
the philanthropist, or the christian, collecting
and uniting all the rays of benevolence in one

175
great life-giving luminary. Many societies now
painfully protruded on a benevolent public,
obliged to defer, if not to deny them the
support they deserve, owing to limited or defective education, would thus, we have reason
to conclude, soon become defunct, from the
salutary corrections and restraints of sound
moralised enlightenment, whilst many societies
now cramped in their arrangements or limited
in their objects, would thus enlarge their resources and extend their usefulness. Our Sunday schools, now principally devoted to the
mere drudgery of secular learning, and almost
converted by necessity into weekly day-schools,
would thus, no longer converting the Book of
Life into a mere school-primer, rise into the
superior importance and sacred dignity of spiritual nurseries, where sectarianism, elsewhere
debarred, would have free scope to expound
and enforce its own peculiar views of scripture.
Nothing would so tend to allay the bitterness
and to disturb the prejudices of party-spirit,
now often as cruel and injurious as they are
irrational, converting an otherwise destructive
warfare of sect and sentiment into a harmless,
yea, a most pleasing and profitable campaign
of logic and love. And considering the fact,
that there is a Sunday school attached to nearly
every church or chapel, in which myriads are
weekly instructed by teachers of their own denomination, as well as the multiplied agencies,
lay and clerical, compulsory and voluntary, of
which sectarianism is already possessed, and

176
which it has the power of extending to the
utmost extent of its zeal and ability, it ought
surely to rest content, without tyrannically and
avariciously grasping at all. The ministrations
of the pulpit would thus become, wThat they seldom are now by the majority of congregations,
both understood and appreciated, and one of
the greatest obstructions to the progress of true
religion be removed. Next to the character of
the government and laws by which himself and
fellow citizens are ruled, no subject makes equal
demands on the patriot; and next to the direct
promulgation of the gospel, with which this is
intimately and inseparably associated, no interest can prove itself equally important and
inviting to the christian.
Elementary education is, in our estimation,
and we speak the sentiments of many thousands,—embracing as it does so many myriads,
and having religious instruction for one of its
constituent elements,—of far greater importance
than university education. " I have been the
tutor of princes/' said Henry Mayer, esq., of
Rome, at the meeting of the British Society,
" l a m now ambitious to rise to the elevation
of a schoolmaster to the poor." We are speaking now of education as a benevolent power,
as a common free boon in opposition to a monopoly; and as such, may we not justly regard
it as the moral lever of the world ? Yes! and
in so doing, we have not only the authority of
reason and fact, but of governments, wise legislators, and great philosophers. The importance

177
of elementary education may be learnt in the
brief sketch of its history we have now furnished ; and the Chinese government has felt
and acted on the same principles. And shall
not the patriot, philanthropist, and christian,
jealously watch over this engine of power, and
endeavour to improve it to their own good purposes, instead of allowing it to degenerate into
a mould of selfishness, and a tool of party?
That was a just exclamation of Napoleon, at
St. Helena,*—"Ah! my good university,—she
was an excellent arsenal of ideas !'? And the
great Leibnitz asserted what was equally true,
when he declared, " Whoever can get possession of popular education, may change the face
of the world.7'
We have, therefore, to urge on our readers
and on the public, the duty of doing their utmost in the promotion of education. Next to
personal and family duty, social obligation is
imperative on all. Even reason, and reason is
here wonderfully strengthened by scripture, pronounces society a community constituted alike
for the benefit of each class and each individual, and superior influence as only conferring
superior responsibility; and it will be vain for
us to say that we are compassing the sphere of
individual responsibility, if violating this comprehensive law, of which it forms an essential
part.
We are not only socially and individually responsible for all the misery around us which
A A

178
we might have removed or alleviated, for all the
stumbling-blocks we have opposed to the progress of true religion, but for all the ignorance
which we could have dispelled ; which, indeed,
as we have before observed, is one of the principal causes of the others. Of all monopolies,
that of knowledge is, perhaps, the most calculated to excite disapprobation. If the mechanic,
philosopher, or physician, are bound to communicate their discoveries for the purposes of
human life, it is a far greater crime to suffer
such palpable ignorance to grow like unsightly
noxious weeds, around our very footsteps. It
matters not whether it be owing to our careless, cold-hearted attempts to facilitate its progress, or to our dogmatisms and bigotry that
will not suffer good to be effected unless it be
according to the formulary of our creed, and
unless subject to the discretionary power of our
church. In thus tolerating it, we may be said
to be the authors of all this ignorance and its
pernicious fruits, and so far as we are not employing active and persevering measures, to be
defective in our duty, and regardless of the
right and interests of our brethren; manifesting
towards them, in a certain sense, a selfish malignity.
This sacred duty, which we need not say is
supported alike by the entire spirit and precepts
of the gospel, which, if neglecting, we are thus
disobeying, with all its awful motives and additional obligations, evidently arises out of that
state of mutual dependence in which we are

179
found. For whatever our rank in the social
scale, we are all mutually helpless, and daily
dependent on, and receiving from, the labors
and stores of our fellow-citizens. We are all
debtors to society, and if we make no return
we ought not to receive; and the Apostle, indeed, would have all such to starve. And the
more society advances in civilization, as its
wants are thus increased and its energies stimulated, whilst our own personal comforts are
enhanced, the greater is the obligation, both
from gratitude, and general social responsibility,
to make even considerable personal sacrifices,
if required, for the social weal.
It is true that there may be a sort of apparent, or an assumed philanthropy, that would
serve its fellow-man at the expense of the domestic affections. But this can only be assumed; as
the latter are only valuable and virtuous in subservience to the former, by which its limits are
prescribed, and to which, in fact, its energies
are devoted. Society must otherwise exist in
a state of selfish antagonism. To regard either
one or the other as a mere cipher in affection
or action, is equally to compromise duty in
both, and nullify them altogether. The capacity
of doing good must ever be the rule, the least
deviation from which is so much sinful selfishness. It were easy to show the unreasonableness, injuriousness, injustice, and impiety of the
principle and passion we are now deprecating;
how it robs both the individual and society, of
comfort and usefulness, being alike destructive

180
to both ; how it offers violence, not only to the
plainest commands of scripture, but to the dictates of conscience, and the unsophisticated
feelings of humanity. It is an oblique reflection upon Providence, as well as a plain contradiction of scripture statements, to suppose
that some are rich or influential for themselves
alone, or that any continue in gross ignorance
without means of instruction, for other reason
than that God has placed them there as a test of
the principle of their more privileged brethren.
If what we have asserted is true, ignorance
or carelessness can be no valid excuse for the
neglect of this solemn duty, but rather the reverse. And we must, therefore, seriously urge
upon all, to consider the claims, and then exert
themselves in favor of elementary education.
Let them not wait for better plans, but having
suggested what they think most just and beneficial, let them assist the British School Society,
or their own denominational efforts; though as
we do not approve of the National Society, so
neither can we altogether approve of those that
have adopted a too kindred principle of action0
Our Sabbath Schools, also, may and must be
both extended and rendered more efficient for
good, Though it were easy, if the late Government Report be in the least founded on fact, to
rebut the charge of the secretary of the British
Society, on some of their own schools, it is
certain that in too many, there is nothing to
be recognised but a formal system and crude instruction, But there are provisions, both from

181
the press, our societies, and from the pulpit,
that might wonderfully tend, if carried out, to
improve their plans, succeed their efforts, and
raise, in every sense, both those that give, and
those that receive, instruction. The field is
large. There must be Normal Schools, Infant
Schools, Adult Schools, and Industrial Schools,
as well as general primary schools for boys and
girls. Ministers, church officers, christian societies, and influential gentlemen, are those to
whom we look as the first movers, as well as
the staunchest supporters, of this great object.
But let not the man who can give but a mite,
think himself excused. Though his responsibility is not so great, it is equally his duty
to do his best in this as in every other good
cause; and in assisting this, containing as it
does the seminal principle of all others, he will
certainly promote their prosperity. The fact of
himself being educated is an appeal to his principles and feelings, to which none but the hardened heart can offer objection or resistance.
For, in the words of Bishop Jeremy Taylor,
with which we would conclude, appealing as
they do to all who have been thus privileged, on behalf of these hapless ones, now
prostrate and helpless in this most dreary and
desolate wilderness of ignorance, this night of
the soul,—"The duty of man hath great variety; wre may perceive that men generally need
knowledge to overpower their passions and to
master their prejudices; and therefore to see
thy brother in ignorance is to see him unfur-

182
nished for all good works—if the people die for
want of knowledge, they who are set over them
will also die for want of charity."
" Do something, do it soon, with all thy might;
An angel's wing would droop if long at rest,
And God Himself inactive, were no longer blest."

THE

PEESTEIGN:

END.

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,,

Date
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..
Index to Reports
of C m r s . ...
1840...
.. , 4
6
D i g e s t of d i t t o
H . C . 63t ...
1831-2
. . 7
6
Analytical Digest
of 6 3 , C . 66
1836...
. . 4
9
Analytical Digest
C 433, 8/6 ; C 434, 8/6 ;
27 6
C 435, 7/- ; C 436, 3/6 ;
..

JOHN DAVIS (successor to Thomas Laurie), 13, Paternoster Row, London.

PARLIAMENTARY PAPERS ON vDVk.
Religious Teaching in Board Schools, 1895, folio
Revised Instructions to H.M. Inspectors, 1901, 4d. ; 1902, 4d, j 1899,
4d. ; 1897, 5d. ; 1894
..
..
...
School Inquiry Commission, volumes 1 to 21, except 6 and 20
...
Secondary Education Commission, 1895, 9 volumes. 1, 1/11; 2, 2/5 5
3, 2/3; 4, 2/3; 5,2/9; 6, 2/3; 7, 2/7; 8, l i d . ; 9, 1/9;
,
Scientific Instruction Report, 1868, (432)
»
Royal Commission, 1871-5, 8 parts
...
State of Education in the Municipal Boroughs of Manchester and
Salford, 2 volumes, 1852-3. Complete Report
...
State of Popular Education in England and Wales, 1861, volume 1, 5/-;
2 , 3 / 6 ; 3 , 3 / 6 ; (4 O.P.) 5, 2/6; 6, 3/-.
.
Special Reports on the Schools for the Poorer Classes in Birmingham,
Leeds, Liverpool and Manchester, by J. G. Fitch and D. R.
Fearon, 1870
...
...
..
..
...
...
...
...
Special Reports on Education. Volume 2, 6/2 ; 3, 3/3 ; 4, 4/8 ; 5, 4/-;
6, 2/6; 7, 1/4; 8, 3/5; 9, 2/7; 10, 2/3; 11, 2/6; 12, 2/-; 13, 1/8;
14,1/8; i 5 , l / 9 ; i 6 , l / 6 ; 17, 8d.; 18, 1/-; 19, 8 d . ; 21,6d.; 22, 1/3
Scotland—Elementary Education in Scotland, 1867
...
...
...
Rosebery Commission Scottish Universites, 1831 ...
...
...
Education Returns—Papers. Answers made by Schoolmasters
in Scotland to queries circulated in 1838 by order of the Select
Committee on Education in Scotland, 1841, thick volume ...
Report of the Select Committee on the State of Education in
Scotland, 1838, (715)
,..
School Houses—An Account of Expenditure of £10,000 in 1839..,
University Commission of Scotland (Lord Inglis), 4 volumes,
paper covers, 1858
Endowed Schools and Hospitals of Scotland. Royal Commission
on, in 4 volumes, 1873-5
Universities of Scotland Commission, 1837. University of St.
Andrew, 1837, 440 pages, half calf folio
Commission to Inquire into the Schools of Scotland, 1865-7, in
10 volumes ..
...
..
...
Scottish Universities Commission, 1837. Edinburgh, 10/-;
St
Glasgow, 6/6 ; St. Andrews, 5/- ; Aberdeen, 9/-; 1845, Andrews, 5/-; 1839, Glasgow, 1/6; Aberdeen, 1857,
Endowed Institution Acts. Scotland, 1880, 3 parts
..
...
Scottish Universities Commission. 1900 Report ...
...
...
Technical Education—Lord Stanley Circular to Her Majesty's Representatives abroad, with their Replies respecting Technical
and Primary Education, 1868
...
Report of Commission appointed by the French Government to
inquire into the subject of Technical Instruction, 1868, 2 parts
Report on Technical Instruction in Germany and Switzerland,
1869
...
Royal Commission on Technical Instruction, 1882-84, 6 volumes
in paper covers
...
...
..
...
...
...
...
Jnited States—Reports of the Commissioners of Education 1882-1906
in 44 volumes, publishers, binding, clean, good condition (4/6
per volume) for
..
£10
Also Reports for 1873 and 1878, each...
.
...
.
...
University Colleges, Great Britam Grants in Aid of, 1907, (267)
...
Voluntary Schools, England and Wales Education Return, 1907, (231)
Wales—State of Education in Wales 1847. Reports of the Commissioners on the, 3 parts in one volume, 536 pages, cloth ...
Intermediate and Higher Education in Wales and Monmouthshire
I 8 3 I , 2 volumes

0 3
65 0
19 0
5 ~
20 "
10 6
17 6
4 6
45 3
3 0
10 0
10 0
1 0
1 0
12 6
11 0
10 6
18 0
2 6
6 6
3 3
3

6

2

3

2

9

32 6
0
5
1
2

0
0
2
3

6

0

10 10

JOHN DAVIS (successor to Thomas Laurie), 13, P a t e r n o s t e r ROW, London.