IL L I N 0 IS UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN PRODUCTION NOTE University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Library Brittle Books Project, 2009. f OF THE UNILVERSITY, OF ILLINOIS 824 J28s sjL NOI'S1S OFTUE LOGIC' AND BELLES LETTRES; READ IN THE U NIVERSITY GLASGOWV. Neque eft omnino ars ulla, in qua onnnia, qut. lia arte ef ici poffunt, a dodlore tradantur : fed qul primarum et certa- rum. rerum genera ipfa didicerunt, reliqua non incommode perfequuntur. CIC. oc RAY G LAS- COWV AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, P~RINTED BY J. AND J. SCIRYMGEOUao -1801� Glafgow College, 1 805. l71IAE Locic, or Firft Philofophy Courfe, in the A. cademical- Curriculum of the Univerfity of Glafgow, is placed immediately after the Rudy of the LATIN and GREEK languages; and the Leotures are general- ly delivered to Rfudents, from fourteen or fifteen, to eighteen years of age. During the reign of the Scholaffic Philofophy,-the preleEtions delivered to ifudents of Logic, were chiefly occupied with an explanation of the Analytics and Metaphyfics of Ariftotle. But the change of public opinion on fubjeas of Literature, and the progrefs of liberal fcience in this country, have occa- foned a correfponding change in the manner of conduding this branch of the Academical Courfe. While the ufeful and curious parts, of the ancient Logic flull occupy their proper place, the bufinefs of the clafs has been extended to the elements of other branches of knowledge ; which,. though not imme. diately conneded with the former, are thought fu). fervicnt to the great ends of general education, in this firf department of philofophical Rludy. Only the out-lines of the Led ures referred to are now publithed ; and, though the whole fubjels. of Ithe courfe, comprehending feveral different b ranches of literature, have certainly not-all the uity of fyfm tem, they will yet be found clofely related in ther point of view-namely, in their fitnefs and tend- ency to unfold progreffively the powers of know- ledge-to begin and to eftablifh that habitual exer cife in the minds of young perfons, upon which the a~qive bufinefs of life, as well as that of fcience, de- pend. The Letures delivered in this Clafs, which are accompanied with copious iliufiration, and great variety of examples, are compofed and adjufed upon the followRinig principles and views. i. That the powers of Knowledge, of Tafe, an Communication, can only be improved by exercifc. 2. That the exercife of thefe powers is called forth, by propofing or prefenting fuch objeas as are heft fuited to promote it----by arranging and dif- pofing them in fuch a manner as may beft facilitate that exercife----by fuggefting and impreffing the Rfudent with fuch motives and inducements as may heft fupport and encourage a regular plan of induf- try and exertion. 3 rThat ledures, or preleElions, delivered to young perfons in thle--circurnftances above Rated, however ingenious t hey may be, cannot reach the great end of education, unlefs they fhiall be aided by a RtridL and regular examination, followed up with a fyftemn iii of effays, or fpecimens of compoftiofm, required from the ftudents, on the moff ufeful and important parts of the lectures. 4. That the firft effays or fpecinens fhould be ac- commodated to the previous attainments and habits of thofe who enter the clafs ; and the fubj cs of them be fuch as to accuftom the fludents-to dif- tinguih -to divide- to define-to analyfe -to feled and arrange if a clcar and luminous manner-to exprefs with plainnefs and perfpic ii .ty. That after the methods of Analyfis and Synthefis, and the rules of condudting. fimple and comple Trheines, fhiall be explained in the courfe of the lec- tures-Subjedls of Reafoning, of Tafte, and Com- pofition, flhould be prefcribcd;� to which the rules of Criticifmn, as they refpc2 dilrrent kinds of co'po fitionl, may be applied. ~.That the method of condur ting and reviewIN g fuch fpecimnens publicly in the clafs, fhould be fitch as to give the rTeacher an opportunity of pointing out defects or furcccfsful tAfforts, in the ma~tter, me- thod, or flyle of fuch compofimos; and, by judi- ciouis apl robation or cenfure, to encourage and promote higher and more fp irited exertionas. In a iv word, the Profefibr, in the difcharge of the duties of his office, muff defcend to the humble occupation of the mjcr in the common arts; and, in the Work done, or fpecimens given, point out to the young artift, wherein the ajay is defeaive, and in -hat re- fpets it may be improved. Einally, The author of thefe out-lines, conceivin that every part of the Academical Courfe fliould be adjufed in fuch a manner as to fit men, not only for the purfuits of Science, but of Bufinefs and of AdtiveLife, has endeavoured, for many years, to pro- mote in his particular department, thofe fundamen- tal habits upon which both Science and Bufinefs de- pend-habits of Thinking, of Reafoning, and of Communication by Speech or Writing. If there be any thing fuitable or ufeful in the plan of Rfudy adopted in the Firft Philofophy Clafs here, the merit of it belongs, in a particular mnarner, to thofe youth who have Rtudied in this Clafs ; for it has been fuggefted by the experience of the indultrious and fpirited efforts of many young adventurers in Science, wvho have left deep impreffions on the mind of the teacher, and have enabled him to mark, with fome accui acy, the natural j7eps and progr rj/ in the acquifition of Knowledge, in the habits of Commu-. ncation, and in the cultivation even of the more delicate powers of Taste. OF THE LECTURES LOGIC AND BELLES LETTRE S BJECT of the courfe, "To explain the "14 methods of improving the powers or "9 faculties of knowledge, of tafte, and of conm "municafion by fpeaking or writing." The courfe confiffs of three parts, each part admitting of two general divifions. PART I. The Powers or Faculties of 'Knowledge. z. AN analyfis of the powers of knowledge, illufirated by the principles of general grammar. A 4- 2. The art or method of improving the powers of knowledge, illuftrated by the hif- tory of logic, and an explanation of the prin- cipal rules of that ancient art. P -ART IT. The Poers of -Thfa I. AN analyfis of the powers of tafte, or reflex fenfes, illuifrated by the principles of the fine arts. 2. The method of improving them, illuf-rat- ed by the principles and rules of criticifm. PA R T III. Thc Power-s of Commuinnication. i. ANALYSIS of the powers of forming and applying figns in communic Lion. 2. The art of improving them, ill-Afrated by the principles of 'Rhetoric and Eloquence. The propriety and ufefulnefs of 'comapre- hending theye fubjeats in the bufinefs Hof a, flrft Philofophy clafs. Their conncEtionwith farther progrefs in the Rudy of Philofophy and Belles lettres. Every plan of improving thefe powers, a- dopted in an academical courfe, fuppofes cer�- tain data on the part of the Teacher, and of his Students. Principles and maxims illufrated, which u ft be adopted, and prahffed, by thofe who defire to profecute their fludies with fuccefs. Falfe and erroneous notions on this fubjed frequently difappoint the expecations of teach. ers and of ftud-ents. -T'he Pythagorean f yftern of trial and difci. pline, undergone 'by_ thofe who entered upoii the Rludy of their philofophy. Q~uin6ailian's marks of improvable difpofiL tions in the charaecrers. of youth, "1 Pzi ii ilkW detur quem3 laus cxcitat, qu mz gloria ;u vat, "quz ViRI.Sfjiqe'at-" A 2 6 PART IL On the Powers of Knowledge. I. ANALYSIS of the powers of knowledge. Every propermethod of improving thepowers of knowledge fhould be preceded by an Analy- fis of thefe powers, and of their Modes of o- peration. The nature of philofophical analyfs.-A- naiyfis is the great inftrument of acquiring and communicatingknowledge.- tt fimplifies the objeds of' knowledge,-adapts them to the power of attention-and acc the fludent to a regular mode of inveftigation. Trhe powcrs and faculties of' the mind are proper fubjedts of philofophical analyfs.--- Pneumnatology is the Centre of the fciences and arts. --The or ioinal conifitution, the growth, progrefs, and dccline of the Human faculties, form an important branch of the phenomena of nature.- Difin& knowledge of Mind cannot be obtained in any other manner, than 'by direfting -and fixing the attention of the mind upon it's own operations The analyfis of the facutdesof the mind may be fuccefsfulLy condudted according to the prin. ciples of the Baconian procefs of inveffigation. Experiments may be made upon mind as well as upon matter.-The method of condu&- ing mental experiments.-The difference, be twixt mental and material experiments.- The obflacles and advantages which attend them. Such an analyfis, fubmitted to the fludents of a firf philofophy clafs, muff be accommodat- ed to the adual fate of the powers of obferva- tion and attention in the ftudents.-The higher branches of any f cience. cannot be in.. grafted upon ignorance, -or imperfedt know-. ledge of its firft principles. Additional know- ledge mutt refit upon fads and knowledge A- ready acquired.-The path from the known; toy the unknown mutt be regular and progref- live, The proper conduct of this analyf s will. nem; A3 ceffarily require a previous explanation of cerd fain Terms, which, though they belong in a par- ticular manner to Pneumatology, belong alfo in fome degree to all the fciences.-The lan- guage ufed in the common intercourfe of fo- ciety is not fuficiently accurate in philofophy. -T he figus or terms made ufe of muff be a faithful interpretation of thought.-Thc following are amnong the number of thofe 'which require explanation: Mind, Matter, Body, Law of Nature, Subf~ance, Qualities, Caufe and Effe&, Powers, Faculties, Phenomenon, Operations, Habits, Hypothefis, Scnfations, Ideas, Notions, System, Theory. Kno-wledge, PhilofophY, P 'ernr whi~ch do not admit of precife defini- tion mucff, be traced to their, origin, and -the circ*umfiances ?ftatcd in which they were. firftL iplied.-Tihe attempt to explain and fix; the meianing of terms, is itfelf a proper and ufeful exercife in a- firfit philofophy clafs. GeeraI d iv'ifio of the powers of the mind 9 into thofe of the Underfianding and the Will. - The powers of the underfanding or of knowledge, may be divided into if, The fimple powers or faculties by which Senfations and Ideas are direayacquired - The Elements of knowledge are direcly and immediately acquired by Perception, Attention, Refleation, Abifra ion. 2dly, The powers by which fenfations and ideas, once received, are preferved and recal. led, viz.. Memory and Imagination. 3dly, The more complex powers, by whofe combined operation the Agreements, Difagre& ments, and. Relations among our ideas are dif. cerned, viz. Powers of Judging, eafoning, Invention, Genius. Analysis of the Simpke Powers f Knowledge. TUHOUGH' the powers of the mind genepala. ly acH in a combined flate, their, refpe~tive o- perations are objedts of Confcioufnefs, and may be feparately obfe ved. .An analyfis of them will prefent To I. The Qualities of each which are con to the general clafs. 2. Their different Offices or Fundions. 3. Their refpeEtive modes of Operation. 4. Their Rank or order in the fyftem, and their mutual dependence, Of Perception. No logical definition can be given of 1t, or of any of the fimpl-e faculties of the m There are ,/rft phenomena, which efcape the niceft analyfis.----From thefe, the philofopher fets out, and begins with eftablifhing firft and immediatefafls; elfe there would be no refting place in riquiry.-Thefe ferve to explain other fadts, when they have, been well and carefully obferved. The Condud of this analyfis requires that the fubjed6 of obfervation be feparated from o- thers.---Let the faculty 'of perception, for ex- ample, be direded to a prefent material ob- jed, a Tree--a Rofe; the following im mediate fads m-ay be obfervedt i. That perception is one of the forms or II modifications of the power of knowledge, and fupplies the firf materials for the operation of the other powers. 2. That the faculty of perception is inde- pendent of the objea perceived; and that there is an important difference betwixt the knowledge of an objeQ, and the object of knowledge. 3. That fome things may be obferved which refer to this modification of the knowing power, and other things which belong to the material objea known. 4. That when the power of perception is direaed to a prefent objet, the firft fep in the procefs of knowledge is an Impreffion made upon the external organ by the material ob- jeet. 5. That this impreffion from the obje& confifts of a variety of individual impreffions from the parts of the objeat; which is the im- mediate caufe of a certain Effel produced up- on the mind, viz.-a Senfation. 6. That the perceiving power conneas and unites the variety of impreflion into one whole -or, in other words, conceives the objec, or forms a.notion or idea of it. 12 7. That to be confcious of a fenfation, and to perceive, are two different things, though they cxit fimultaneoufly.-The mind is paf five in receiving fenfations, but exerts aaivity in conceiving them. 8. That the faculty of perception is exerted by the medium of external organs on which the imprefion is made.-The term Inzr/or here denotes an unknown effe&. 9. hat the external organs, the medium of perception,arrejve in number, and five different claffes of fenfations are received by them. io. That, though the intelleanal at be the fame in all, it is differently modified in each of them,--Oppofite fenfations are received by the fame organ.--Examples and illufrations of the above propofitions-. A particular analyfis of the five external fenfes, or modes of perception, -is neceffary and ufeful in a firft philofophy clafs.-.I-Tey are the firft avenues of knowledge -'The fenfations and ideas received by theme become the fubj-ed of the, other operations of the m id. -The figns or terms, which form the lanii guage of the fenfes, are by analogy applied to Intelleaual and Moral qualities. Analysis of the externalfenfso Smelling, Tafling, Hearing, %Seeing, Touching. This analyfs comprehends an explanation of -. The different qualities of material objefs which imprefs the refpedive fenfes. 2. The Natural hiflory of the Organs or aedi' rs 6f fenfation. 3. The Perceptions and Senfations received /by the refjea'ive fenfes. 4. Singular ph enomena of fom'e of the fenfes. 5. Immediate judgments following aas- of perception-called judgments -of the fenfes. A comparative view ,of the external fenfes. --- The union and correfpondlence which takes place "among them,-The manner in wh ich they aflft each other.-Tr he known '14 diffinguiffied from the unknown in the procefs of perception.- Remarks on certain theories of perception. Analysis of Re/feion. THE power of knowledge, when direted to objets of confcioufnefs, is called Refleion- by fome, an internal fenfe.-By it, notions of the powers, operations, and flates of mind, are acquired.-The power of refletion dif. tinguillhed from Confcioufnefs.---Reflec- tion is a power fufceptible of habit-Confciouf- nefs is not.----Upon the improved habits of refletion depend progrefs in fcience and in art. Aalysis of Attention. ATTENTION is a mental act, and belongs equally to perception and refledion.- It is a power of fixing upon an obje~t, and is eithe-r voluntary or involuntary.-It may be di. re~ted regularly to the feparate parts and quali- ties of objets, till.-the, whole be conceived.- It maybe exerted with more or lefs-force ;--and the notions formed will be more or lefs clear and diPin.&- The acquired habit of exer- cifing this power, extends its influence to all the other powcrs of the mind.--Examples which illuftrate the operations of this power, and their efledts. Analysis f Ab.fra~ion and Generalization. ATTENTION is the foundation of both. The mind can attend feparately to the parts or qualitihs of objeds, infeparable from the ob. jeCts themfelves--ana render them feparate and difiinat objects of thought.---This is ab- Jirac2lion.--Senfible figns or terms are necef- faryto preferve them in their feparate fate. Hence fuch terms are called abftrat terms. The mind can alfo obferve and attend to qualities which are common to many objects. and to qualities in whie~h they differ.- -lfence it proceeds" to' generalize, or formn claffes'-. more or lcfs cormprehenfive. J-Tnce the neceffity of general termns denoting thefe laffes. Children and favages are taught by nature to abftraa and generalize. -Improved minds B exert thefe_ powers to a greater extent, and in more difficult circumnftances.-There is lit- tie or no appearance of abftraaion and gene- ralization in the inferior animals.-Ads of abflradion and generalization are difficult, when the qualities of things are blended to- gether, and cannot be eafily feparated-when the claffes or families are very comprehenfive. Advantages derived from the power of form- ing abftraQt and general ideas.--Upon this power depend Clafification, Science, Theory. -Iflu fition of abftra~t and general ideas. [See Lat. Compend, part I.] Opinions of phiiofophers concerning univer- fal ideas.- -The controverfy on this fubje~l betwixt the Nomninaliffs and Realiffs.-Singup lar cir cumliances attending this controverfy. Such are the powrers of the mind by which fcnfations and ideas are firfi received, and the pr oceffes by which abftrad and general ideas are generated.-Differences may 12e obferv- ed in the notions or fenfations acquired, arifing either from differences in, their obje~ts, or 17 from the different form or modes of exerting the power of knowledge in acquiring them. .-Examples and illuftration of the principal diiintions among ideas.-Clear, obfcure, diflin~t, confufed-fi-mple, complex, abfra&, general. [See Lat. Compend, part I.] The. Powers of Know/edge by which Senfations and Ideas are preferved. .Analysis of Memory. TiN office of Memory is different from that of Percption.---That of the Iac~er is to ac- quire-of the former to preferve kno- ledge.----Their modes of operation are alfo dift'erent.- The one aas by the medium. of -external organs-the other does not require them. Objedts which have once been, prefent, may in their abfence affedt the mind in a niew and different manner. The m-ind has a pow~er of retaining and recognifing its former fenfa- tions and ideas.- This power, of knowledge is called Memory or Reminifcence. B 2 i8 The analyfis of memory prefents the follow- ing immediate fads. I. That ads of m-emory fuppofe certain de- grees of attention given to the objeL vhen prefent-the immediate caufe of memory. - 2. Tha the acd-s of emiry are neceffarily accompanied witll the confcioufnefs of its ob- jeds having been formerly prefent, 3. That memory not only preferves the no- tions of obj"ds, but the order and conneion Which fublfis among them when pbrceived. 4. That the memory is fometimes adive, and at other times paffive in its operations.--- When it is ative, and takes the affiffance of other operations, it is called reeolleion.-Il- luff ration.-,Sin gular, phenomena of memory. 5. That the notions of fenfible objeas are more eafily retained than intelledfual or moral notions-and the objects of fomce of the exter- nal fenfes more eafily retained than thofe of other fenfes. 6. That the power of recalling and recog- fifing is gradually dimniniflied, and is often al- together loft. 7. That the memory is diffinguifhed by dif- 19 ferent degrees of readinefs, difinctnefs, and te- nacity, in the minds of different individuals. 8. That the memory is fufceptible of great improvement. [see part II.] 9. Theories of memory which explain its operations by traces and vibrations, are altoge- ther unfatisfaaory. kalysis of bIagination. The faculties of memory and Ja inatioi are intimately conneded.-Their r fpeciivc o- perations may be diftinguifhed .--Eamples of feparate acts of memory and imagination. The oflice of memory is to preferve the fen- fations and notions received.-- hat of ima- gination to reproduce, or prefent them again. to the mind fromi the field of memory.. The reproduetions of the imagination re- femble the original--but differ from it in pre- f~ice, in reality, and in force.-.-The idea received from the reproduced obje~a is coin- monly called the image of it.-ilence the name of imagination is given to this faculty. 20 The office of this faculty is to reproduce fenfations and notions of every kind received by the mind-intelleCtual and moral, as well as thofe that ire fenfible. Some philofophers have -onfined its office to the reprodution of fenfible images, and call it Phantafy or Fancy. The fmple exercifes of this faculty muff be diftinguihed from thofe that are complex, which include the operations of other powers. -nattention to this has perplexed the ana- lyfis of imagination. The direQt and fimple exercife of this faculty require only previous ats of perception and memory. Its more complex atinclude operations. of. attention, abfration, judging, combination. The procefs of the imagination, in making, up i~moff extenfivc groups or combinations, explained and illuftrated. This faculty is diftinguifhed by different de- grees of flrength or weaknefs.---ACtivity or in- a~ivty. -Regularity or .irregularity in, the minds of different individuals. Though the immediate caufe which deter- mines the reproduaion of objets, when no longer prefent, cannot be explained, the laws of reproduaion may be obferved. x. That the imagination can neither repro- duce nor combine fenfations or ideas, but fuch as have been formerly received by the mind. No at of the will can call up a fenfation al- together new. 2. That the imagination is not confined to the reproduaion of objeds as they were ac- tually perceived--but can reproduce them in wholes or in parts, or in combinations which never adually exifted. The procefs of the imagination in forming extenfive combinations. 3. That the imagination is the inftrument of reproducing ideas in thefe fucceffions, re- gular or irregular--voluntary or involuntary, which form the conftant employment of the mind. 4. That it does not reproduce at random, but is fubjeaed to certain laws of affociation, viz. of contiguity, refemblance, contraft, caufe and effea, and other relations. - Thefe laws explained and illuftrated by exampLs. g. The laws of affociation are affeaed by cuflomz and habit.-Remarks on the pheno- mena of dreaming, and on fome theories of it. Upon the varieties of the faculty of imagi- nation- and the laws of affociation-the intel- ledual charaters of mnen greatly depend, and diverfity of genius in the different depart- ments of fcience or of art. The imagination is fufceptille of improve-- inuent. [See part II.] 23 On the powers of knowledge, by which the agree- nzents, df agreements, and other relations a- mnong objes, are d f cerned and determined. Analysis of thll'e Faculty o j/uding. B the faculty of knowledge in its mdde of perception, notions of obj'ecs, as individuals and wvithout, relation to each other, are ac- quired.----By another of is naodes, they are viewed in conneOdion and Lheir agreements or difagreements, their. differences or their like nefs, and other relations, are difcerned. This mode of the faculty of knowledge is called judgn.-The origin of the term, and the analogy upon which it has been applied to an as of the mind. - A.Es of judging may be faid to be coeval with perception.-Immediate judgments fol- low fenfations. -A fenfation is produced ---its, Connection with- the fentient being is determined .-An objeat is- perceived-its 2 4 external exiflence is determned.-Thefe are judgments of the mind. Other judgments are paffei after a conipari fn of the objects; that is, after an alternate-view of them. Judgments fo pafed are called in- tuitive. A judgment of the mind is the knowledge of a fa&, viz, of an exifting relation betwixt two objeds. The judgments of the mind are as numerd ous and various as the comparifons which may be made among objeas,and the relations which fubfift among them.----Philofophers have in vain attempted to bring them under certain claffes or categories. When the mind difcerns -and determines juncion or agreement betwixt the objeds compared--the judgment is affirmative. When it difcovers and determines feparation or difa- greement-the judgmnent is negative. When it affirms or denies any thing con- cerning claffes, or particulars, or individuals-- 25 the judgments are univerfal, particular, or fingular. When the mind difcerns and determines re- lations among objects which really exiff- the judgment is true. When it difcerns and determines relations among objeas which do not exift--the judgment is falfe. Vhen it affirms abfolutely, or without con- dition or limitation---it is categorical.---'Ex- amples and illufration of thefe clafes ofjudg- ments. Vhen it-affirms and determines with limitation or condition-the judgment is hypo- thetical or conditional. The grounds on which the mind determines agreement or difagreemrent among its ideas, are called evidence.---The nature of evi-. dence, and kinds of it. [See part III.] A judgment of the mind may be a fecret operation, and paffed without the afliftance of language.--A judgment expreffedin words, is called a propofition.--A. propofition is a fentence expreffinig a judgment. .The claf- 26 fes of propofitions are the fame as of jud- ments. The-parts of a propofition muff correfpond to the operation of judging. The fubje6c, predicate, and copula, reprefent the particulars that may be obferved in ,as of judgment. An analyfis of propofitons is an analyfis of judgment. As all judgments imply the exiflence of their objects---the verb denoting exiftence, is necef- fary in the exprion of judgments. Without it, we fhould only have Panies -with it, we form propofitions. [See Latin Compend, part IJ.] Analysis f he ftcully ef Rafoning. T IE oflice of the power of knowledgVe in its modificationj, called Reafoning, is the dif- covery of thefe relations among tIngs which cannot be difcovered. intuitively, or b y immre- diate co rifn-hnthey are difcovered by intermnediate ideas, they are acquired by reafoniw. Tthe faculty of reafon fuppofes the previous exercifes of Perception, Judging, and Memory. ---There muff be granted the notions of the two things to be compared-.--together with that of a third-the medium with which they are compared--before the relation can be difcovered. The new knowledge, or knowledge of the relation, is faid to be inferred-drawn--or to follow, from the former knowledge.----,-The meaning of thefe terms illuifrated. If the relations of things could be known by immediate comparifon, there would be no need of reafoning.-.Beings of a higher or- ler may difcover the relations of things with- out intermediate fteps. The faculty of reafon in man, is a mark of fuperiority -over the inferior, animals, but. a mark of inferiority with refpeEt to fuperior orders of Beings. --W-ee fpeak of the reafon- ings of men--but of the judgments of God. .---The refult of the molt complex aa of veafoning is a judgment. Nature prompts and infruais men to rea- C fon, as it does to perceive and remember. They reafon before they can analyfe the procefs of reafoning. When, from the memory of a former fenfa- tion, and the immediate prefence of the ob- jea which prodtfces it, the child withholds his hand from. the candle -it reafons- It fuppofes the knowledge of a fimilar event. 'There are appearances of fuch a&Is of reafoning in the inferior animals.--Examples Men firft reafon about individual objeds ----It is not till they have acquired lan- guage, and the ufe of abftrad and general terms, that they fan reafon generally. When the relation among things cannot be difcovered by immediate comparifon, the mind falls upon an expedient to obtain that knowledge.-.--.-That expedient isr--The dif- covery -and intervention of clearer and more familiar ideas. When the carpenter applies a common mea- fure to two logs of timber--when' the gold.. fhilith tries two pieces of yellow metal by a, qua fortis -they exert acts of reafoning. When- the relations of things cannot be dif. covered by the comparifon of two things with one ncd'iun--the fame fagacity of mind leads to the, difcovery of a fecond, third, fourth, or an indefinite number of media.- In proportion as mens knowledge increafes in clearnefs and extent---they become more ready and dextrous in the ufe of fuch expedients. This is called a complex a6 of reafoning--. a chain of reafoning.---Illuftration of this -pro cefs of the mind. The nature of fome fubjeas admits of a longer, others of a liorter chain of :reafoning. The fciences. of Geometry and Arith- metic may admit of twenty or more Rleps.- Moral and political reafonings, feldoi of more than three. or four.- Examples. A fentence 'which -expreffes a fimrple a& of reafoning-that is, when the relation is dif. covered by one 'nwdiuin, has been called a C2 30 Syllogifm----a complex ac of reafonig is called a Sorites.-.--Origin of thefe terms, Explanation of the parts and firudure of Syllogifms--and of "the technical terms of Syllogifmn. [See Latin Compend, part 111. The faculty of Reafon is fufceptible of great improvement. [See 2d Divifion.] Analysis of Genius. GENIUS is not a new or different faculty of the Underfianding from thofe which have been analyfed-but certain fuperior degrees of fa- "culties common to all...7--Remarks on vari- ous definitions of _it. Genius .may be heft explained by its effcd1s. VM- Invention and Difrovery are the criteria of genius.--The difcovery of caufes, pr~inciples, laws of nature-----the ,forming new coi- binations--or a newr and happier application. thereof in Science and Art-are the certain marks of genius. 31 Genius has accordingly been uniformly a" fEribed to thofe perfons who are the authors of difcoveries, inventions, or great improve- ments.-Confirmation--from the hiflory of in- ventors and difcoverers in the fcicnces and in the arts. In th progrefs of the arts, thofe who have invented in difficult circumfiances, are entit- led to greater merit than thofc who may af- terwards have brought them to greater per- feaion. --Military and political genius chief- ly depend upon circumfiances and fituation. Genius has an :immediate relation to the fac~ulties of reafon and iragination.-The exercife of thefe faculties illuftrated---which lead to 'difcovery and invention:. Th~e immediate caufes. of diverfity -of genius explained -and illuffrated. -. Advantages aft rifing from the diverfity of genius. Cir cumftances favourable to the produdion and encouragement of genius.-Genius to a certain degree' may be acquired.- Early indications of genius. 03 32 Conclufion.-Review of the powers of knowledge. The Powers of Knowledge illrated by the prin ciples of General Grammar. THE Analyfis of Thought may be traced in that of language.---The powers of the Mind may be known, by ftudying the fenfible figns which reprefent them--The caufe may be amined in the effe. The Power of communication is a branch of Reafon.---Societatis e vinculum ratio et ora io.-..Thefe faculties have a reciprocal de. pendence on each other. -- Reafon direds in forming and applying, figns.----- DiftinaInefs and perfeaion in the figns extend the powers of reafon. The inferior animals are not altogether dem prived of powers of- communication, but they are incapable of forming. a language.- This does not arife fo much from the want of oral organization, as from defedsi in the powers which employ it,. --Without powers of form-, 33 ing a language, man would not be much N' perior to the brutes. Nature prompts men to make ufe of fenfi. ble figns, and teaches them to underftand one another.-------The caufes which produce this mutual intercourfe.. Language, in the moft general fenfe of that term, comprehends 61 all the means of ex. "4 preffing thought." ---The thoughts and feelings of the mind have their correfponding fenfible figns. The fenfibleigns, by which men hold inter- courfe, are either natural or articial. Natural figns are rnodi-fcations of the fea-. tures----variations of gefture-.-----modula- tions of the- voice.---Thefe confitute the original or primitive language of every fociety, and are formed gradually as they are -found neceffary.-d The firft figns are fuch as ferve to reprefent prefent obj e~s, together with the attention di- reed to them. 34 Abfnt fenfible objeas are firfi denoted by imitative figns. -= Mental feelings and opera- tions by figns that are analogical or figurative. The colletion of flgns, made ufe of in ori- ginal or primitive languages, is called Natural Langug-e. Natural language is fuffcient for the ordi- nary purpofes of communication in early and rude focieties, as appears-from the language of favages-of children--of dumb perfons. The figns of Natural language would be multiplied and improved when men had no o- ether mode of intercourfe.- Some of the claffes -of natural fignns are more fufceptible of improvement than others.-T-1he qualities of the different claffes of natural, figns. The Pantomimic art, ancient and modern, lhews what maybe effeaedby natural language. ---Anecdote of Cicero and, Rofcius on this fubjeat. The progrefs 'of :fociety 'and civilization would graduially difcover the bounds and de4. 35 feas of-natural language.-- circunftances and occafions of intercourfe which would lad to the invention of a more perfe mode of in- tercourfe. Caufes which would gradually lead to the multiplication and application of vocal utterance, and to the arrangement of vo- cal founds. The Mind would readily difcover many anlogies -betwixt the qualities of founds and of fenfbok objefs-and the imagination would multiply and apply them. There are no records of Nations which mark the firfi .eps of departure from natural language, and the firt application of arucial figns. -The difference betwixt natural and artificial f g ns. The invention of artificial figns would be flow and gradual.No---Nonation could form a. fyftem of artificial figns all at once. The firft artficial figns were not altogether arbitrary, but muff have had fomce connection, with the things fignitied by them, or with the. 36 natural ig ns.-- Na ral language is the Interpreter of the frft artfcia! figusd The affo'ciation once formed, nenzoy and habit would conirn it.-The ar/rial fgn would be fubftituted in the place of the natural one. Convidions of utility would affift and pron mote this natural progrefs. In procefs of time, the artificial figns would predominate, the natural would be ufed only on particular occafions.----They are infepara- ble in every perf&t mode of communication. ----Even when artificial language has arriv- ed at its moft perfeQl fiate, frequent recourfe muf be had to natural language.-The per fea orator mull be fiilled in both languages. -Thne qualities of natural and of artificial Ji3 ns. The difficulties and embarraffments which would neceffarily occur to the inventors and improvers of artificial language, have appeared to fome philofophers fo infuoperable, as to lad to afcribe it to a miracle.-There is no ne- ceffity, however, to have recourfe to -fuch in- k erpofition.--h 1e invention is withini the 37 reach of the fagacity and ingenuity of man. -The Author of Nature has not only con. ferred the neceffary power, but the difpofition to apply and exercife it. An artificial language is the joint refult of Inftin&, Neceflity, Defire, Sagacity, Labour, Experience, Reafon.- The fuperior genius of fome individuals would overcome obftacles, fuggeft new analogies and modes of applica- tion. - The names of the inventors and im- provers of language buried in oblivion. The progrefs of language keeps pace with the ,progrefs of civilization and refinement. In fobme nations, and in fome advanced pe. riod of their progrefs to civilization, a writ- ten language would come to be invented. It muft always be poflerior in its origin to a fpoken language.- A written language forms a communication between the fenfes of feeing and hearing. Caufes and fituations which would render neceffary figns of thought more permanent than audible figns. The natural pfeps 38 which mark the progrefs of written language, from its rude to its more perfe& ftate.- Illufiration of this progrefs from the hiffory of rude nations. An account of the Egyp- tian and Chinefe mode of writing, probably founded upon the firft rude attempts. The defec's and imperfe&ions of Hiero- glyphical charaters would, in fome nations, lead to one of the nobleft and moff difficult in- ventions, viz. that of an ALPHABET. There are no records of this invention.-----The traditions concerning it.----Rude nations have been difcovered who have no Alphabet. The fieps which would probably precede and accompany this invention.--An Alpha- bet once invented, was adopted by different na- tions.----An account of the origin of Cypher- ing, and of the invention of Printing, and of the eminent advantages derived from them. The original method of placing lines-and the ancient inplements of writing. The Science which explains the Rules and Principles which have direted all nations in 39 forming and accommodating Pgns for the pur. pofes of communication, is called UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR. Caufes which render the bafis or fubflance of- all languages the fame. Caufes which give occaifion to particular Grammar. The whole artificial figns which are necef- fary to exprefs or paint thought, may be ar- ranged into certain claffes.--Univerfal Gram- mar explains, Ift. The different claffes of fgns, and the changes or alterations which they muf- necef- farily undergo. zd. The principles which lead to fuch pofi- tions and combinations of them with refpeSI to one another, as the complete exp-reffionl of thought requires. ft. The d firent claj es of Signs, &c. The claffes of Signs, or Parts of Speech, are not numerous ; but various divifions, more or lef's comprehenfive of them, have been adopted -by D 40 Grammarians.----The firi rammarians re. arked only the important diftinlions of Nouns and Verbs.-- -Attributives and Con neaives were in procefs of time added.----- The differences-in the claffes of figns muff be taken from differences in the things reprefent- ed by them. Every dfi rent fign muff be abfolutely neceffary, and muff perform an office or fundion which no other fign can do for it. The moft common divifion is into Noun, Pronoun, Article, Verb, Participle, Adverb, pofition, Conjunction, Interjecion. Noun. Signs of that clafs which reprefents ful. Jiances are called Subfiantivc Nouns.-- T hefe fubflances may be material oi' mental-=}-finguM lar or general--abftraEt- or abfolute -real or imaginary.--Hence the different kinds of nouns.-Examples.. The names of Q~alities, Relations, Time, Place, Number, &c. are included under the ciafs of fubfiantives.--Whatever fgns re. prefent notions 'which are the bafis of other mental operations are called Nouns. In Univerfal Grammar, a fubifantive noun i whatever may be the fubje o a logical pro" pof tion.Lxamples and illuirations. Nouns Adjehlve are defcriptive of fubfIan- tives.- -They unite with the, and the two form one conception.-They are called Ad- jeaives, becaufe they add to the notion of noun Oba-ta of quality. Some adjealives denote limitations, modi' cations, accidents.-ouns denoting- quali ties and relations may be limited-but not thofe which reprefent individuals.- Com- mnon nouns, or nouns denoting claffes, may be both limited and extended.-The difference betwixt the noun abftra& and the noun ad..a jeaiveL, illufrated. -The clafs of adjectives in- every language muff be very comprehen- five, but they do not admit of a perfedt ciaffi- fication. The qualities common to fubftances adm-it D2 Aid of more or /efS."-.-Thiis difcovered by corn- parifon..-Hence nouns adjedive admit of DEGREES OF COMP ARISON, commonly called Comparative and Superlative. The fuperla- live is itfelf foundedon comparifon.-Excefs, and the greateRft excefs, are marked by com- parative and fuperlative--Definite degrees are marked by particular terms. Some adjedives do not admit of comparifon.-.-Ex- amples. The degrees of Comparifon are marked by changes on the termination, or by additional words. Some adjeives are regular, o- thers are irregular, in. their modes of compari- fon.---Adjedives of the fame clafs, in many different languages, are irregularly compared. Pro-nouns are fo called, becaufe they fuipply the place of nouns-but that is only a part-of their office.'-They denote the prefence of the obje&, which the noun does not.--.They diftinguifh the perfons who take part in dif- courfe, and fuperfede the frequent repeti- 43 tion of the noun.-Examples of perfonal pro- nouns. The ufe of pronouns is poferior to that of nouns. ----Children do not at frft make ufe of pronouns. ------The utility of pronouns illuftrat- ed by examples of fentences, in which the noun is ufed inflead of the pronoun.- The pronouns are more numerous in fome lan- guages than in others. There are different claffes of pronouns which are marked by terms denoting their particular office; E. G.-- -relative----demonftrative--per- fonal, &c Article. ARTICLEs have a reltion to common or ge- neral nouns.--Their office is to mark when the general word reprefents the whole clafs, a few of the clafs, or individuals.----They are ne- ceffary to render the noun definite in its figni- fication.---Proper name.s do not require ar- ticles.---Exceptions. Articles are common to all .languages.-- Their number is different in different, lama D3 44 guages.--""Articles in all languages are ge- nerally monofyllables---or fiort words. The artifice of language, in limiting or ex- tending general nouns, is curious.------Exam- ples and illufiration of this part of fpeech. Gender of Nouns. THE noUnS, or names reprefenting animals, admit of the diftindion of Gender.-Tis diftinion is founded in Nature.-It is not neceffary that the diftmndion of gender be ex- tended to the names of all animals, but chiefly to domeftic animals.----Utility and conve- ence muff regulate the extenfion of them.-- The names of many infeds do not. mark gen- der, nor is, it neceffary. The languages of different nations are. not uniform with refpedr to the extenfion of gen- der to nouns.---It is reflrided to the natural difindtion of fex in fome languages, in others it is extended to all nouns.. The caufes 'which t~he Grammarians have affigned for the ctenfion of gender to all nouns, and the ad- 45 vantages which are faid to be derived from it. The analogies pointed out, on which this extenfion is founded. The'advantages of confining the diftinaion of gender to thofe nouns which denote dif- ference of fex. The gender of nouns is marked by changes in their terination. The diftinction of gender, by a grammatical artifice, is extended to, the names of qualities, or adjeives, in fome languages. Numzber of Nouns. COMMON or general nouns admit the dif- tin~tion. of number.�-The general name calls up the idea of the whole clafs, but not of an individual--or feveral of the clafs.. 'Hence the difiin~tion of fingular and plural --more definite numbers are expreffed by terms called Numeras.----T-ihe diftin 61ion of fingular and plural in nouns is to be found in all languages, but different languages vary in their mode of marking it0. Some lan- guages have. a dual nu mber-By a fimilar 46 analogy they might have a ternaI.- Inon� veniencies arifing from the extenfion of a dual nunb.er to all nouns and verbs. saes of Nouns. In all languages, the ative or paffive flates of the noun, and the circumifances which at- tend the noun, are marked. In fome languages, by variations of the termination called Cafes; in others, by prefixing words called PrepoJitions. - -=The number of cafes is not the fame in, differentianguagc..- The more common and familiar relations are marked by cafes in the ancient languages. .-Modern languages havefew cafes, and make ufe of prepof tions.-Th- e refpe tive advantages of thefe methods. The com- mon names- of the cafes, viz. Nominative, Genitive, &c. mark thefe relations in a vague.. a~nd imperfeaL manner. The Verb. THE verb is an important part of, fpeech. '4-.nouns reprefent objeats a'nd qualities as 47 exitling feparately.-.'The ejelnnts of df- "ourfe muff bo .- united, w -xe>nder' ngu age proper Treprefentative of.-Thou gh# No reciie -,definition caV- , given., which will apply to all thole words called Verbs. When genzeral terms cannot be defined by any thing common in the nature of the par ticulars included under them, they may be de- defined by fomething common in their ufe or end. The office of- the verb is to exprefs JQDG- MENTs--of exj/lencc, aflion, fufering, and re- lations belonging to objes.--The fimpleft and clea-reft notion of the verb may be acquir- e, by attending. toy the operation of judging. '--.-That faculty determines the exilfing relations of jundion, feparation, agreement or d-ifagreement, difeerned among _objeats. The firif judgments which the Mind paffes, are. judgments of exiftence of the objeats of its fenfations. -----ence the fubftantive 'verb 'is the original, radical verb. The other wrords called Verbs, imply in theme the Verb of, 48 Exifence.-With terms denoting attributes or qualities in union with the fubantive verb, judgments may be expreffed. _.xamples of fentences which have in them no other than .fbatanive verbs. Judgments are formned alfo concerning .Ener- gies exifiting in objeats, or aaions exerted or received. - -Hene verbs denote exf/ence and energy, and, according as the energy is com- municated or received, affume an afive, or a pafive form or. voice, as it is called. Ations or energies imparted or received, fuppofe an agent-=and a patient, or obje& of the energy..--Thefe are in nature conneaed, and ought to be conneated in the expreffion of ,the.-They may, however, be feparated. -When, in a, verb, energy is flated as an attribute of the fubjdl, the verb is an ac~ive verb. When the eff'e6 of energy is flated as an attribute of the fubjed (the former obje~t having become the fubjeE), the "verb .is a paf- five verb. When fimple fate or condition is the attribute, -the verb is a neuter verb-Ex- 49 amples-vc'rbero, vapulo, liveo.-PDerence of form not abfolutely neceffary. The words called Verbs, are often rendered Rill farther complex.. The fubjeis of energies are moff frequently perfons; but ac- tion and paffion are, by gure, attributed at times to. inanimate objecis, and perfonality is afcribed to them.-Examples.-Hence the verb becomes ifform more complex, denoting exifience, energy, perfonality, and even numo ber, united; for the fubjef of energy may be one or many. The precifion of fome lay. ,guages in marking numbers. judgments, of contingent exiftence and e- :nergy have a neceffary relation to Time.-.. Notions of time are generated by a variety in fucco'/ion. -Time is property divided into paft and future.-- --The common notion of a prefent time examined.----Paft- and future time admit of fubdivifions ; and in different languages, they are fubdiVided with more. or. lefs_ accuracy.-------On account of the clofe con- neion of energies with the time of their exift- 5o ence, they are conneced alfo in the form of the verb. There is no definite number of imes or Ten- fes.----The ancient languages are more per- fed in their tenfes than the nodern.--The perfeecon of the Greek language in this re- fpe.--A few tenfes only can be marked in %the form of the verb.- -When more accu- racy is required in marking the times of ener- gy, other words muff be employed. Afions and energies have a clofe connec- tion with the mode or mianner of their exiffence, and with other important circumftances.--E- nergies may be fimply firmed or indicated. ----They may be modified by inclination, de- fire, Power, authority, contingence, &c.-Hence the moods of verbs ; indicative, optative, fub- jedive, infinitive, imperative.--There might be other, moods .than thofe commonly enume- rated.-There might be an interrogative-- a prom ifing mood. , The fimple ideas which make up the comr- plex notion of a verb, are marked in the tera mination of the verb. The idea of Energy reprefented by the verb may be ftated, fiript of Affirmation, Perfon- ality, Time, &c.---Hence the nature of the Infinitive-which becomes equivalent to the noun fubftantive-and fometimes to the noun adjeaive. Participles are adjefives denotingTime.--- They exprefs the properties or qualities of fubftances, and admit of comparifon.- 'Grammarians have fuggefted many queftions concerning Participles and Infinitives.-Are participles neceffarily derived from verbs ?-or verbs from participles ? When participles or infinitives are ufed as fubftantives, are they really fubfantive nouns? What is the dif ference betwixt ACTION, ACTING, to ACT? Is the' participle ever ufed as a fubftantive in, the Greek and Latin languages ? General obf ervations on the complex form of the Verb in different lPA fguages. --.The difference in this refpe& betwixt the ancient and modern languages. Modern lan. guages fupply the defet of form by auxiliaries.. E )INOIS LIBRARt,7 s2 --.The nature, ufe, and,, funaons, of auxili- ary verbs. Some languages have a variety of conjuga- tions, or ways of arranging verbs according to termination.-In forne languages, there are forms by which the fignification of the verb is varied., Such are Frequentatives, Defidera- tives, Inceptives, &c.----Verbs called 1mper- fonal, are fo only in forn.- Enumeration of diferent claffes of verbs. Adverbo AaVER s are attributives, and are properly called or natural appendages of verbs, and cannot be underftood without thema. --Some adjed'ives or verbs, denoting quan- tity or quality, have .adverbs joined to them, denoting intenfion or remiffon.-There are adverbs of relation, quality, time,, place,. &c. -The cl affes of a~dverbs varioufly refrid1, ,mo- dify, and abbreviate, expreffion.---The place of the adverb is. near the verb, and, after neu- ter verbs. 53 Prepojition. T HE diflinaion ftated betwixt Adverbs and Prepofitions.--- The office of prepofitions is to exprefs the union of fubftantives, or the manner in which. they coalefe with adjetUves, verbs, participles. The firft prepofitions denoted fenfible and local relations. Examples.----Were afterwards extended to incorporeal fubjeSs.-Soe prepofitions are infeparable from verbs, and change their fignification.-Prepofitions, in all languages, fupply the def&l of cafes. Claffes of prepofitions.--llufration.. Conjunfion. THE difference betwixt Prepofitions and C onjunc ions.'-Their office is to connect parts of fentences. Examples.-=Though con- junaions conne&E the parts of fentence�s, they frequently disjoin2 the vwauning-. Examptles. ConjunaUons are either mere copuaives or continuati'vs.-The names of the different claf- fes of prepofitions -eiain their particular of- FJ 2 54 flces.--Copulatives, disjunaives, adverfatives, Interjeeion. INTERJECTIONS are different from all the other parts of fpeech.--Their office is not to exprefs ideas..-but lates or modes of feel- ing, or fentiment. Every different flate, or mode of feeling, has its own interjedion, viz. of Admiration, Fear, Indignation, Contempt, &c. The founds made ufe of are much the fame in all languages.-Jnterjeions are the remnants of natural language-probably the \roots of many other words in every language --There are fewer interjeftions in the, mio- 4ern than in the ancient languages. SECOND PART OF UNIVERSAL. GRAMMAR. Adnalysis of the principles by which the di rent c/afecs f Signs are combined, -in order to ren- der them a complete reprefintation f T hought. LANGUAGE expreffes thought by confecutive figns.--The connections and relations which, 5 fubfift in the elements of thought, muff be ex- preffed by correfponding conneaions and re- lations of the figns. The immediate obje{ of grammar is the compofition of afentence.--A SENTENCE iS the complete expr//on of a complete thought. Remarks on the, definitions of a fentence by Ariftotle, Quinailian, and modern granimaI ruans, A PERIOD is a fentence of a particular kind. -----The definitions of a period by Cicero and Quinilian, vague. Examples of fentences and of periods.----Some fentences are propo- Jitions, others not. In rude languages, one fign would probably exprefs a. whole fentence. As Human thought unfolded, itfelf,, complex figns would be broken down.-The parts of fentences, re prefenting the parts or fraedions of thought, are called Claufes or Members. Remarks- on the length and. fhortnefs of fentences- the number- of claufes, &c.- Illuftration of L'Abb6 GERARD'S fubdiviflon of fentences. --The rules of puneluation ap. plied to fentences. The rules of fyntax and confirulion regulate the order,conne&ion, and dependence, of words in fentences.-The principles which regulate the pofition and arrangement of words in fen fences, are derived from ijf, The Natural arrangement, in which the figns are placed according to the order fug- gefled by the natural inftinl of communication. --This principle prevails in rude languages. 2d, The Philofophical arrangement, in which the words follow the connedions of the natter, under the influence of reafon. 3dly?, The ¢imental arrangement, in which the order of figns is regulated by the defgn of the fpeaker, and the efedl intended to be pro- duced, under the influence of imagination and pafions,.-.Examples of thefe arrangements. Thef'e arrangements are to be found in e. very, language, according as natural inftind, 57 realfon, or imagination, has been predominant in the formation of it. Languages have been called Analogical, Transpoj7tive, or Mixed, according to the pre. valence in them of thefe refpeaive qualities. ---In early periods of fociety, the order of the figns or words, is moft inverted or tranf. pofed, becaufe the imagination chiefly direts in the forming of language. Circumftances may promote or prevent this effea. -Poetry, the firft mode of compofition in every lan- guage, promotes inverfion. The ancient languages, on account of their variety of flexion, are more tranfpofitive than the modern. The Latin language is more tranfpofed than the Greek.- The pro. bable caufe of this. The matter or fubjefl of difcourfe affeas the arrangement.- Some kinds of compofition admit of greater latitude in this refped than others. The general order and arrange- ment of the different claffes of figns in lan. guage.----The preference of particular founds muff affea arrangement. The ct~fonzary arrangement of every Ian- ~giage appears natural to thofe who ufe it, and unnatural to others.-Many different kinds of arrangement are natural.-UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR is the flandBard by which different arrangements are to be tried.--xamples of cufloinary arrangement which are not na- tural. Conclufion of Univerfal Grarmar.-Ad- vantages of the ifudy of Univerfal Grammar. -It illujirates the operations of the Human Mind, and tends to ftrengthen its powers.- It explains the jlructure of Language, and the ,principles of Criticfnz. It ferves as a hiftory of the mofit ancient and ufful art.-.-The knowledge of it is neceffary, in order to write or fpeak with propriety, and elegance. It furniffies principles, examples, methods of analysis; and fuggeffs means of farther-progrefs.-, 59 PART IT, OF FIRSt GENERAL DIVISION. The' Art of iniproing tale Powers of Know/edge; ill ut rated by the Hi!/lory f Logic, and an exl planation of the principal Rules of that Art. THE meaning of the terms culture, iniprove. ment, explained and illuftrated.-The law of culture is general, and extends to the powers of inanimated as well as to thofe of animat ed and rational natures. Man is diftinguiffed from the inferior ani- mals, not only by fuperior original_ powers.. but chiefly by a more extenfive range of im1- Provernent.--The human infant, though in~. ferior in many refpedts to the young of other animals, contains the feeds of higher and no- biler facu lties.-Man can acquire, by culture, what- the higheft of the inferior animals cannot. The principles .in the human mind, which prepare and qualify man for high degrees of 6o improvement; viz. Curiofity, Aaivity, and Habit. The means of bringing the powers of know. ledge from their original to their cultivated flate are either fuch as are natural or artyfcial. Natural Culture. THE natural means are fuch as nature fur- nifies and applies without inftrudion, or the affihfance of art.-- The effeas of natural culture may be traced to the earlieft Hate of man.- -In infancy habits are acquired; which, are effential to_ the future unfolding of the human powers-- t is difficult to draw anl exadl line betwixt what is natural and what is acquired. The. powers both, of body and mind are improved by every thing which gives occafion'( to their exe cife.- The objcS s and circum-m flances which produce pleafan t and painful fenfations in man, are the immediate caufes of the firft exertions of the powers of know-. ledge and, of adion. The chief improvements of men depend upu on fociety-upon the intercourfe and colli' fion of minds--upon the powers of forming and ufrng an-artificial language-the powers of recording fads, and profiting by experience and example----the powers of forming and maintaining a political union. The effedt~s of natural culture upon the powers of knowle-dge, may be illuirated by a view of the.progrcfs of thefe powers, from a rudv and favage ifate to a ftate of civilization. - ----Of the objea s, circumfiances and fitu- ations, which tend gradually to unfold them. .-Of the kinds and degrees of knowledge wich the progreflive conditions of men tend to promote.--Of th-e gradual progrefs of invention and difcovbery, without any bene- fit from artificial culture. Some of the powers of knowledge, in every condition of mnan, receive their chief improve- mnehts from ttoe na nral tnea as of culture.-- The external fey.-Pt-s, Memeory arid 'Imagination, :are unfolded at an early period.-wthe na- 62 ture and means of that improvement which they may receive. The powers of Judging and Reafoning are of lower growth. --Their improvement deu pends upon the progrefs of other powers, viz. of AbfradEion, Generalization, and Language. ."---They may arrive at great degrees of per- fedion by the experience and effeds of the inf dividual, with the affiflance of general rules. The means of improving the powers of judging and reafoning, without the affiftance of general rules, is called Natural Logic. -- Cer- tain favourable difpofitions of objeds and circumflances--th e intereffs, occupations,. and paffions of men, furnifh motives which excite and dire& the rational powers.- In -this refped-the original -powers of fome inif dividuals, and the circumiflances in which they are placed, may be more favourable than o- thers.---The natural Logician may be fu- perior to the artificial one.-------The defedts of natural logic. 6)3 THOUGH the powers of knowledge deriv a their firfi improvement from natural cul- ture, all of them are greatly afifted and pro- moted by artificial culture.- By art!Acial vulture is underitood the art of training the fa- culties of man by the difcipline of rules and :precepts, inftruaion and example. That fyftem of rules and precepts, which ex" perience and fagacity have fuggefted and ap- plied for the improvement of the powers of judging and reafoning, has been, in later times, called LoGic. The povers of external fenfe, memory, and imagination, are lefs under the .direa ion of rules and art. The general end or objed of this art is to fubjecq the powers of knowledge to voluntary, dire ion and methodical procedure, to render =them more aaIive, acute, and comprehenfive, ,in the difcovery of the laws. of nature, and in -the regulation of human condu&t. 64 Remarks on different definitions which have been given of the art of Logic.- The fepa- rate boundaries of Grammar, Logic, and Rhetoric. The affiflance, which the powers of know- ledge may receive from the culture of art, will bet appear from a ihort account of the origin, progrefs, and explanation, of the principal rules --of the ancient art of logic.- This me- thod is better adapted to the purpofes of a firft philofophy clafs, than an abftra6 or metaphy- fical explanation of the principles of this art. The hiftory of logic may be conveniently divided into three periods 1. The hiftory of logic, previous to the pe- riod of Ariftotle. 2. - from the time of Ariftotle till the revival of literature in Europe. 3. --- from the revival of litera- ture till the prefeht time. Firf Period.: T-HE powers of knowledge are exercifed long before men attend to the mode. or man- ner of -their exertion. Principles in hu- man nature, which firft induce men to exer- cife their powers of knowledge. Men muff have frequently applied their powers of knowledge to fubjeas of natural and moral philofophy, before the exillence of an art of improving them. The firfi rules, of this- art, like thofe of e. very other art, muff have arifen from the ob- fervation and experience of individuals- -Rules are not effablilhed till they are found neceffary and ufeful.-Difficulties and obifa- Iles, which occurred in the application of the powers of- knowledge, would fuggeff, the ne.- ceff'ity of rules. Succefs or difappoint- menit,. in the application of thefe powers, would lead the firft phil ofophers to attend. to the, means wvhich facilitated, and to the obfiacles wkrhich- retarded them. F, 66 The rules of individual experience would foon be multiplied.---They would be improved by the number of fhofe who follow- ed them, and by the frequency of application. In procefs of time, they would be car. ried, from individual or particular fubjeas, to fuch as are general. The firif ftep towards an art of reafoning, like that of every other art, is a number of rules, formed, as occafions and circumifances fuggefied, without any bond of connedion a- mong them. T------ he charaaer and genius of thofe, who efitablifhed or recommended them, would give effecE to the application of them. The colleTion, of unconne&ed rules would, in due time, become thenfelves an objea of at- tention to philofophers. Their fubfer- viency to a common end, and their mutual conneiions and relations, would lead to claffifi- cation and arrangement. They would affume the appearance of a regular art. The origin of the art of reafoning muff be 67 fought for in the progrefs of philofophy in Greece.-No peculiar modes of inveftiga tion or analyfis have come down from any of the more ancient nations celebrated for their knowledge.----T he earliet period of Greek philofophy furnifhes us with no fyftem of rules of reafoning. The rules of reafoning were, for a long time, not feparated by the Greek philofophers 'from the other branches of philofophy.. No regular fyftem,. or feparate art, is to be found in- the writings of Plato; but many ufeful rules are interfperfed fur the purzfcation and regulationI of the powers of knowledge. . -he fame degree of progrefs may be ob- ferved in the writings of the ffoical philofophers.. From. the time.-of the feven Wife-men in Greece, a growing attention to the e1Iablifh= menit of an art of reafoning, may -be obferved, ..--Caufes which gave occafion to it. i -The 'attempts then: made .to explain the phenomena of nature,. by eftablifhing hypo9 thefes-t 68 2. The eflablilhment of the Greek fchools of philofophy. 3. The diverfity of opinions among the phi. lofophers of that period. 4. The natural adherence of the fcholars to the opinions of their maffers. 5. The reciprocal attack and defence of their refpe~tive opinions, in their private and public conferences. Their nodes of reafoning, generally in the form of dialogue, would foon difcover the neceflity and utility of general rules in con- duing them. Hence arofe the dialedic art, which, under the dire ion of vain, often- tatious men, foon degenerated into an art of wrangling or of -fophiftry. This falfe and captious art., 'generally prac- tifed by the floical philofophers., and others of that time, was more calculated to conceal than to difcover truth.---Vain -and oftenta- tious difplays of it called forth the indignation and talents of Socrates, who moft fuccefsfully opp1ofed it. He endeavoured to eftablifh, in its place, a familiar, praatical, mode of rea-s 69 foning, founded upon juft views of the paf Bons, prejudices, and underfiandings of ,men - This new and dextrous mode of rea- foning, pradifed by Socrates, has, ever f nce his time, been called The Socratic Dialogue.- Remarks on the principles, condu&, and ten- dency of it, in examples of it recorded by Xenophon and Plato. Upon a review of the fate and progrefs of the art of reafoning, during the firft periodof its/hiftory, it will be found, that the rules, e- ftablifhed and pradifed by philofophers, chief- ly refpe~ted the power of forming notions, and the means of rendering them clear and diftin in the expreffion.----it does not appear, dur- ing this period, that the philofophers taught or pra~tifed any artificial modes of comparifon and inference. Though the notions formed from the im-. preffions which objeds make on the fenfes are neceffary, and cannot be altered, the mind ,is capable- of various acts of attention directed to them, by which they, may be rendered more exact and definite. 70' Clearnefs and diflinlnefs Qf ideas, the firf flep in reafoning, are promoted by analysis, d / poftion, and arrangement.-The inifruments wvhich this art makes ufe of for thefe pur pofes, are rules of Dfnition, Div!/ion, and Clq//j/cation. Explanation of thefe rules, and of the man. ner in which they affift and improve the power of forming notions., Second' Period of the Ilftory of Logic. WHILE,- the rules of reafoning chiefly re= fpeded the firft operation of the mind in rea- foning, much was wanting to give them the form of an-art.. The, clearnefs and certainty of inference de. pends, not only upon diftin&, notions, but upon the previous judgments formed by, the mind, and the modes of comparifon adopted; to difcover the inference. .Arift'otle not onLy pradifed and improved the rules of definition, &c. but firft endea- voured to circumfcribe the more complex op perations of Judging and Reafoning, by e f7ablifhing rules of comparifon and inference, and by inventing a general method of arrange- vient. The invention of the Syllogifm is a proof of the great genius and comprehenfion of A- riftotle. The firfi idea of the fyllogifin has, without jubeen afcribed to a more ancient philofopher than Ariftote The objet of Ariftotle, in the invention of the fyllogifin, was to introduce the fame clear nefs. and certainty into other branches of Phi- lofophy, which had taken place in Geometry from which fcience he probably tooks the idea. of the fyllogifmn The fyllogiftn is a complete analyfis of the operations of reafoning-of the terms ex- preffing the ideas or notins--of the va. rious j udgments of the mind expreffed in pro. pofitions-.-of the claffes and affinities of propofitions which enter into the fyllogifm.----. See Logic Compend, part H1. Explanation of the parts and flru&ure of the fyllogifm-of the fyllogific axiom Dc oni et de-nu/k-of the general rules which re- gulate fyllogifrns-.-- of the fpecial rules of mood and figure----of the redu-tion of fyllogifms.-'-.-.Examples of fyllogif.--See. Lat. Compend, part III. chapters i. ii. &c. In the fyllogifr, it is effential, Ift, That a comparifon be a ually made bT the mind, of each of the extremes, with the middle term. 2d, That, in the difpofition of the extremes and middle term., they -hall be arranged ac- .cording to the- order of their conneajion and- dependence--that the connedlion of the con- clufion with the premiff'es -may be clearly and, certainly difeovered. When. the relations among _the terms are thofe of equaity,, it. is- of little moment how the terms are arranged in the propofitions ; but, if the relations which are the obje& of the reafoning, be thofeaof fimilitude or diffimili- 73 tude, &c. it is then no longer indifferent in what manner the terms are arranged in the propofitions.---Examples and illuftration. Every kind of reafoning may be formed in to a fyllogifm. .----A complex fyllogifm com- prehends finple ones.----The rules effablilh- ed for the latter are applied to the former. After Ariftotle had invented the fyllogifm us a model of reafoning, his next attempt was to- render it more perfe&, by contriving remedies againft its natural imperfedions and defets.---Hence the forms of irregular Syllo. gifms, Enthymeme, Dilemma, &e.--See-Latin Compend, part HI. chap. vi. As th-e truth of the conclufion in the fyllo- gifm depends upon the truth of the premiffes,; hence the attempts of Ariftotle to eflablifh the truth of the premniffes by an analyfis of the nature of evidence, as certain or probable. -Of the principles and rules of demon- flration-direa or indire&ft--a priori or a p/e yriori.-.See .Lat. Compend, part _III. chap. vii, As, notwithflanding the perfeion of this logical inflrum-ent, Ariflotle found that it could not altogether exclude error, his next attempt was to expofe the fources of error-to circ cumfcribe all the poffible modes of reafoning falfely and deceitfully, in the external forms of Paralogifms or Sophifms-.and to eflablifh rules for the detea ion and folution of them. --See Latin Compend., chapteY ix. rfhe books -of Ariftotle, in which he has ex, plained the dorine of fyllogifm, are called Analytics. --The name Logic was io: given to this art by Ariftotle.----It does not a pear that Ari -flotle made ufe of the fyllogifm in his other writings.------ Rules of difputation feem to have been early founded upon it. -The application of the rules of fyllo- gifm, and of method, to the management of fimxple ;or complex themes.-c.-.See Lat. Com" Pend, part III. ,chap. ix. The hiftory -of logic continued--Though Greece was celebrate, for its ph-ilofophy -and arts, yet-, long after, the time of.Ariflotle, the art of -logic perfeated by Ariflotle dloes not Teem to have produced the fruits he expeted from it.- It was not adopted by his imme. diate fucceffors.-Probable caufes of this. --During the reign of philofophy in Greece, the art of Reafoning was not feparated from the other branches of Philofophy. The great admiration of Greek fcience, and the reputation of the celebrated philofophers who taught it, induced the Roman youth to fludy at Athens. ------In procefs of time, the writings of Ariftotle became known at Rome.- Anecdotes concerning the fate of Ariftotle's writings, and the tranfmiflion of them from Greece to Rome. After the writings of Ariftotle became known at Rome, a growing attention may be obferved to the dodrines of the Peripatetic fchool. On account of the various fubjeds of them, and the fuperior acutenefs and ingenuity of their author, they were preferred to the o- ther Greek writings, thofe of Plato except- ed.- In particular, his Analytics and his Rhetoric attra ed much attention. At Rome, Rhetoric was cultivated along with Lo- G 76 gic, as they confidered a knowledge In both requifite in the art of Perfuajion. From the decline of literature at Rome, till the i2th or 13th century, the analytics of Arifitotle fhared the fame fate with the other Greek and Roman authors. During the dark ages, fo called from the general igno- rance and fuperiition of the times, they were negledled, corrupted, and the languages in which they were written were imperfe6Uy known, only to a few perfons in cathedrals and monafferies.*- - Hence fprung the Schoi laftic Philofophy-a -corruption of Greek and Roman learning, mixed with the fuperftia tion and theology of thefe times, The objeEls of the Scholaftic philofophy were ufelefs and frivolous..--The infhitutions and ;plans of fludy, then eftabliflhed, were fuited to the fpirit and ambition- of thefe times.- The writings of- the Scholaftic Philofophers were, in their flyle, barbarous, and altogether devoid of tafte. The Greek philofophy, and particularly the 77 analytics of Ariflotle, wee early cultivated. a mong the Arabians; and Commentaries of fore of the Arabic philofophers have come dow1 to us.- ---By the conquefs of the Arabians in Europe, the progrefs they had made in the Rudy of the Greek philofohy, was united with that which it had previoufly made in Eun roped During -the Scholaflic ages, the art- of logi became feparated from the other branches of phiLofophy. -Caufes of the increafing at- tention to the analytics of Ariflotle, and the fubfequent- high admiration of it. The progrefs of philofophical and-theological con- troverfy promoted the Rudy of them. The fyllogifm was found an ufeful inftrument; for attack and defence,. in, carrying on thefe. controverfies._ 'The analytics of Ariffotle foon became the- foundation of an obfcure and fubtile mode of difputation,. fuited to the fpiirit of thefe tiMes. -The talents of managing, and of excel- ling in 'debate and controverfy, became the chief obj ec~s of learned, ambitio - .- G 2 78 The whole fyftem of academical inifitutions and difcipline, were fo eftablifhed, as to give full ef- fea to the progrefs of the art of Controverfy. ---- A fyfterem- of rules founded upon the analytics, for managing difputes, became the chief object of ftudy. During the reign of the Scholaflic phofa. phy, the art' of ancient logic ingrof ed the, whole attention of the learned. -All 0- ther fciences and arts were negleded as un- wQrthy of notice.- The whole plan of pub lic education- as fo conduaed, as to prepare and qualify for difplays of logical ikill and ad" drefs.-Regular modes of difputation were eft~ablifhed in the fchools, according to the rules of fyllogifM. The authority of A.- riftotle on every fubje~t, previous to the revival of literature, was univerfal and defpotic -- The encomniums beftoxvcd upon his logic are- extravagant and ridiculous. Third Period f the Hi//tory, of Logic. A vIEW of .the caufes which led to the rew floration of true, learning, and to the over 79 throw of the Scholaftic philofopy-The effe~ts thereof tended to dirninifh the authori- ty of Ariflotle, and particulary to withdraw the general attention from his logic.-Radi- cal defeas of that mode of reafoning and in- veftigation . Philofophers foon arofe in different parts of Europe, who difputed the authority of Arifto- tie on every fubjea, An account of the attacks made upon it in France by Ramus, Defcartes.---The difficulties they had to en- counter, and the attempts made by them to re form the ancient- method of reafoning. The art of reafoning received its greateft re- form from the comprehenfive mind of Lord Bacon in England. The -principles on which his reform was -eflablifhied.----The pro- grefs' of his labours, and the refult of them. -H-is obj ed was not to reform the an-. cient fyflem-but to overthrow-it, and to eftw. blifli a better mode of .reafoning in its place. His mode -of inveftigation is -dd ine~ated in his works, "De A-ug~nntis Scienticirumt," and his 4" .Novur Oirgdlnwam-" G,3 8o Lord Bacon was not the inventor of the in duive mode of reafoning,buthfifwo applied it to the interpretation of Nature. It was at all times, and every where, pradifed in the common affairs- of life. He firf taught the regular application of it to fcience and art. The principles and procefs of induive rea- foning explained.--.-The common defeCts of the Induflive Procefs, viz. ift, The drawing a general conclufion from too few inftances. 2d, The overlooking differences in cafes ap- parently fimilar. From, thefe defeds have fprung falfe hypota thefis in philofophy, errors in conduct, vulgar notions of omens, unlucky days, &c.-- Lord Bacon's. rules of eftabliffling- a .legal indudion. -The great d /?deratum is to diftinguifh betwixt. an imperfedt and perfedt indudion. Benefits derived from; Lord Bacon's works,, and particularly from his new Mode of invef. tigation. The few' difcoveries made be. fore his time, and the numerous difcoveries made fince, are the beft proofs of the advanf tages derived from. his writings and example. Sir Ifaac Newton followed the plan Lord Bacon had delineated, and improved His rules of philofophifing are founded on the Novurnz Organm.- ---Succeeding philofophers, in every department, have applied Lord Ba. con's rules, and profited by them, often with- out due acknowledgment.- Imitation of Lord Bacon's genealogical tree of knowledge by foreign philofophers. The experience of near two centuries has convinced the learned, that in Natural Philo- fophy, experiment and jft induetion alone area to be trufted. The induo-ive procefs may be fuccefsfully applied. to the- difcovery of the. laws of alind, as well as of matter.--lluftration. Though, by the efforts of Lord Bacon and, his fucceffors, the logic of Arittotle was laid a- fide as an inftruinent of invefhgation, it fiill kept its ground -in fchools and univerlitie6, as a principal branch of educaton ITc caufes of this explained and illufirated. Various attempts have been made, in later times, to accommodate the logic of Ariflotle to the general improvements in philofophy, by commentaries, abridgments, &c. rThe beft of thefe attempts have not eftablifhed any new principle, but have removed fome defects, and feparated the ufeful from the uclef.- The. principle of the ancient mode of reafoning is radically defecive. A comparative view of-the fyllogiffic and in- dulive modes of reafoning, and their refpec- tive merits and demrnerits fairly fRated. Since the period of Lord Bacon, his method of inveftigation has received. great -impr-ovements_ fromn,. ifi, The more clear and diflind notions of the powers of k-noxledge-their. operations- and ofhices--their extent -and limits, by Locke Hurme, Reid, Condillac, &c. .2dly,. From the. many beautiful and corred 83 fpecmens of Synthefis and Anafyfis to be found in their works, and in thofe of other philofophers. The end and objes of the art of realoning, have of late been greatly promoted, by an al- teration in the manner of teaching it, adopted in the univerfities of this country. The bufinefs of a firft philofophy clafs is not now, as formerly, confined to an explanation of the logic and metaphyfics of Arifiotle. --This was an improper introduaion to the Rudy of philofophy, and calculated to excite prejudices againlt logic.. An art of reafoning cannot be acquired by -the mnol perfeai comlprehenfion. of its rules.. .The fure foundation of progrefs in that art, mnuft be laid in training, -the attention of' the Mind, 1. To a careful -obfervation of' immediate, faEns, the firfl principles of knowledge. 2. To the kinds and degrees of evidence by which truths are fupported.. 84 3. T 'o difin and accurate methods of corn- parifon and inference. 4. To a fimple and regular procefs of analy" fis in the fi dy of every fubjea. Defeds of the rational powers which muff be guarded againft in a courfe of ftudy.--4 Caufes which retard and prevent the improve- ment of the powers of knowledge, Obfla- dies which may be removed, and means which. may be emjployed, to promote their, improve- ment,.- Conjeaures on the high degrees of improvement to which the powers of know. ledge may arrive, under the direajion of natu. ral and regular, modes of, inveftigation ND OF THE SECOND GENE RA L DIVISION SECOND GENERAL DIVISION. On the Powers of Tafe. I. ANAL YSIS of the Powers of Tate. 1I. Ti-in Art or Methods of improving them. PART I. Aalysis of the Powers f Tafte. THE powers of take are original.-The are a compound. of certain powers of know" ledge, and certain capacities of fenfibility. The powers b'f knobwledge exrcifed about objects of tafte, are the fame powers of per~ cepton, judginig, and reafo in g, which ae m ploye4 about obje~ts of Icience, .-There are, howtever, certain modifications of thee powers, whichi may be refpedively adapted to each of thefe obje~cs. ~-That modifica- 86 tion of the powers of knowledge adapted to objeas of taite, the French writers call Beli efprit.- The difference betwixt Genius and Tafte illuitrated. The capacities of Senfibility which are called Powers of Tafte, are in various refpe&s dif- tinguifhed from the other capacities of fenfa- tion, viz. I. By the peculiar qualities in the obje&s which excite them. 2. By the external fenfe through which the impreffion is made. 3. By the emotions being direly and im- mediately agreeable, without reference to any other end. 4. By their being unaccompanied with de- fires or paflions, or the ftronger fenfibilities of our nature. 5. By the peculiar effeas produced by them, orthe faculty of imagination. Illuftration of thefe Particulars. Many definitions have been given by dif& ferent authors 'of the powers of tafte -a 87'' proof that there is no good definition, and that that there are difficulties in the attempt. Definitions of the powers of taffe, and remarks upon them. Every good definition of them muff comprehend both ingredients of the compound, viz, original powers of knowledge, and capacities of Lcnfibilitv. No regular analyfis of the powers of tafe is to be found in any of -the Greek or Roman writers, though there are references to them in Ariftotle, Cicero, and %inffilian..- The abtra terms Tafte, has no equivalent in the Greek or Latin languages. The ancients have left finilhed models of tafte, but "few fpeculations on the powers of tate. Thefe powers were not thought worthy ,of fpeculation during the fcholaftic ages. Since the revival of literature, many effays on the powers ogf tafte have been publifh-ed by Englifh and French writers.--Mr. Addi- fon's'papers, in the 6th vol. of the Spectator, contain the firifl regular analyfis of the powers or tafte in the En~glifh- language.- HJe has H 2 8 been followed by Hutchifon, lume, Burke, Gerard, W~air, Allifon, &c. The powers of tafte have bcen called by 'Dr Hutchifon, internal, reflex, or fubfequent .fenfes.- -Foundation of the analogies by which they have been fo called, and particular y of the analogy betwixt them and the exter nalfne of 2J/6 ~er mm hichthyavboow cd W-h, niame. That branch of the confitution of mind, called Internal Senfes, comprehend not only powers of tafle, ' but alfo thofe of virtue.- The former 'are the reflex fenfes of Novelty, Grandeur, .Beauty, Ridicule, Imitation. The- latter are the moral fenfe, and the fen fe of fympathy, which are intimately connealed with the, former. In condu~ting this analyfis in a Firft Philo- fophy CLafs, fom.L affiftance' may be received from confidering the powers of taffe under the fam iliar notion of fenfese 89 An analyfis of the reflex fenfes will com- prehend an explanation of r. The original power or capacity of re ceiving agreeable emotions. 2. The qualities in objeas of nature or art, which call it forth. 3. The peculiar emotions which are received by the reflex fenfe. 4. The final caufe or purpofe ferved by each of the reflex fenfes. In the explanation of thefe fubjeds, care nuff be taken to avoid the ambiguity of cer- tain terms which are fometires applied to the reflex fenfe, and at other times to its objeas. A naly sis o the eflex Senfe ofNovvelty.. I.. THEi reflex _fenfe of novelty may. be _dif. tinguifhed from the emotions of novelty. - The mind at all times poff'eff'es this power;; the emotions are occafional, as ,thcir objects are prefented.- The term Curiof zy, one of the, firft principles -of motion in the mind, is fometimes applied to this reflex fenfe- H 3 go but it embraces, other objeds than thofe which belong to this reflcx fenfe as one of the-powers of tafte. 11. Novelty is not an inhcrent or poftive quality in objeds like extenfion and folidity. It is relative to the prcvious knowledge and experience of the obferver, and the claffes of objecrts he has been accuftomed to obferve. The objeCts of novelty muf be objets fitted to produce emnotions. -Many new objeCts -that is, obje~cs feen for the frf time, do not produce the emotions of this fenfe,--The proper obje~ts of novelty as a reflex fenfe, are not merely the new, but the uncommon-rare. - -firngular-or unexpedc'ed.-.--Examples and ill uffration.-Obje(_s not new inl certain cir-. cumft~ances, produce the emotion of novelty. Novelty, in works of art, is the refult of gienius~-and compr ehends new inventions in art-niew diicoveries in fejence-or new views, of obj ets formerly known..-lu ftration. 111. The emotions arif~ng from all the refiex 9' fenfes, have in them, as a principal ingredient, the pleafure of active exertions of underfland. ing, and imnagination. -As new objeas may often poffefs other interefling qualities, it be. comes more difficult to analyfe the emotion of novelty.- The peculiar and appropriate ef motions of novelty, are wonder and furprife. -Thefe emtotions are temporary-not per. manent- -and difcover themfelves by certain external marks. IV. This reflex fenfe is in a great meafure peculiar to man.-It makes its appearance in early years, and continues through life. The period o(-f youth affords the moft complete gratification of it.. - - -The operations of this reflex feni>, are moff beautifully defcribed by Milton,, inl the 8~th. Book of Paradife Loft. The agree hle emotions of novelty, are the caufes 'of thofe exe.rtionas of mind and body on whic 1 future i-,npr ovcments depend. -- They are wifely inten ded, to excite to action, indulf- try, and difcove-Ty. 92 AXnalysis of the Reflex Senfe of Grandeur. I. The reflex fenfe of grandeur may be difin guiffied from the emotions of grandeur.- The original capacity of difcerning grandeur, and of receiving agreeable emotions from it, exiffs in the mind at all times, though it is only exercifed when great objecs are prefented. -To the former, we afcribe notions of ac- tive power-to the latter, paffive effeds. I1I Greatnefs and littlenefs-are relative terms, and derive their meaning from comparifon. - Greatnefsm-the objed of this fenfe mu t be relative to the different claffes of objeds, and to the degrees of greatnefs that are familiar to the obf erver..-A fmaller objq& of one clafis may produce the em otions of this fenfe, when much gr eater obj eds of canlother_ clafis do not produtce. them.. rrhe qualities.. in fenfible objects which af- fed this fenfe, are, I. V.-Utnef s of Climenfion in extent, breadth, or thickinefs ' p.er in fingle objcds, or in group of objcds having a variety of parts 93 clofely united or related.-Exampes. 2. Loudnefs or f rength of found, proceed. ing from natural or artificial bodies.-Exam, ples. T . -a f1fthe e ets of thefe are fentions. They become emotions of tafte, in fo far as by affociation they afe& the imagiation, and lead to the notyLus of that power and inte11i gence which produces them. 3. From fome analogy or refemblance to the great, in inanimate objets, great charac- ters, great virtues, great genius, are contemhplat .ed with fimilar emotions. I1. The peculiar and appropriate emotions of this fenfe, are admiration-kv ain--- ex- a/tcztion of mind. -Though the new and the great mnay be both united in the fame objeEa, and the, emotions may be blended, they are. fpeciflcally different.- -~The agreeablc emo- tions of novelty foon ft blide, and the object is defected.- The- emotions of grandeur are in-6 creafed and enhanced by frequent furveys of this obje&, and new impulfes given, to the imagination.* 94 On Sublimity. THE great and the Jublime are nearly allied, .-any writers on tafte do not attempt to feparate them.------ Some ades of differ ence may be obferve1 in the qualities and in the enwtions. --- Sblimity may belong to different claffes of great ob cannot be meafured by the'- fenfes.-It is greatnefs ,abjolute, v hich does not admit of conzpari/on. Examples of fublimity. Sublimity is afcribed metaphorically to cha- raders and virtues, and to a certain kind of ftyle.----Illuf tration. The emotions produced by f'ublime objeds may be diftinguiffied from thofe of grandeur. ---Sublime objeas mingle with, admiration and elevation of mind, emotions of awe, ap- prehenfion approaching to terror.- ---The fublime and the terrible difigihd---e marks on fome theories of the fub lime and 9S IV. The final caufe of grandeur, or the pure pofe. ferved by this reflex fenfe, is, to train the mind by the contemplation of fenfible and intelledual grandeur, to greatnefs that is fpi- ritual and divine. The early direaion of this fenfe is of great importance to youth. R eylex Senfe of Beauty. THE analyfis of this reflex fenfe is more dif. ficult than that of the other refx fenfes.- The caufes thereof explained. I. This reflex fenfe, or power of 4ife ing and relifhing beauty, may be diftinguifh- ed from the emotions of beauty. This pow'er, though original in the human conftitu- tion, does not appear fo early, as fomie of the other reflex fenfes. - Young children feemn to have little perception of beauty. II.- Beauty is an inherent quality in 'fome objeds. Trhe emotions produced by it, are always accompanied with a judgment of fomething excellent in the object..-No com-k mon feature can be afeertained in all the dif~ fereat objedls called BeautifuLo -.Exam~q 96 pees of a variety of different objects, called Beautiful. The term was probably fift applied to ceno tain qualities of vifible objects, and afterwards extended to other objes. -Analyfis of vifim ble beauty in colour, figure, variety, r egulari ty, proportion Analyfis of audible beauty, melody, harmoa fly, expreflion. Analyfis of metaphorical beauty-of virtue charater, adion. Analyis of intelledural beauty in fcience works of genius. Analyfis of the effreds of cuflom, fafhion' utility, affociation, on the judgments of this fenfe. 1II. The a greeable cmotions of this fenfe are different from thofe -which are produced by- the new, or great, or fuLblitnle.- The ap- propriate emotions of this fenfe, are certain 97 modifications of love, and maintain one uni- form tenor of fweetnefs and gaiety.---The moft powerfuil emotions of this fenfe are pro- duced by beauty in the human countenance. 4. The final caufe of beauty.-Remarks upon fome theories of the beautiful. Reflex Senfe qf Ridicule. 1. The reflex fenfe of ridicule is the power by which we difcern, and ate affeaed by the ridiculous, in actions and opinions.-.- It is pe- culiar to man. -.---" Smiles from recfyn flow." This reflex fenfe is different from the power or talent of ridicule.--AII perfons in fome degree poffef's the former ; the latter is a rare talent. --Their refpectve boundaries fet- tled. II. Analyfis of the qualities in objects which affed this reflex fenfe. JAL iaiculous aaions are adions of intelli- gent beings, 93 No qualities of inanimate objets affea this fenfe; None of the ations of inferior animals Nor of infants, idiots, or madmen. All ridiculous actions are palpable deviat tions from the Jiandards of Reafon and Common Senfe. Not criminal deviations which excite horror; but flighter, though not lefs ob- vious deviations, from the above tandard. Ridiculous actions arc inconfent with the exercife of reafQn, and cannot-be fupported by argument. Specimens or examples of the kinds and de� grees, of faulty exceffes, or defects in action, which fall-within the range of this fenfe.-- Various reifrictions and qualifications of themr. The ridiculous in opinion, are f milar pal- pable deviations from the common fiandards of belief and evidcnce.-Specimens and ex~ amp _les of the- ridiculous in opinion. 99 I1 The nature and qualities of the emo. tions which arife from this reflex fenfe, di& tinguifhed from the emotions of the other fen- fes.s Tlhefe emotions have a peculiar ex- preflion in the human countenance, from which this fellle takes its name. The general expreffion of emotion in the human face, to which the term Laughter is given, admits of- great variety and diftinaion, according to the qualities in obj eas from which it proceeds. The rifible is altogether different from the ridiculous, and may be diftinguifhed from it, x. By the qualities in obj ecs which produce laughter. 2. By the very different emotions produced in the mind. 3. By Inicer differences in the general ex- preffion of laughter. Wit and humour are allied to ridicule.- The analyfis of them is difficult. Wit is foinetimxes applied to the effe~ts,, but oftener 10-0 to the caufe or powers which produce them. -----Philofophers have endeavoured to cir" cumfcribe the talent of wit within two or three modes of exertion, and have condefcended on the various fpecies and claffes of wit.-Ma. fy difplays of wit are not reducible to thee claffes.--------They chiefly confift in prefent- ing contrafts----in difcovering fimilarity in objets that are different, and differences in fim milar objets----in bringing together things unconneaed. , Caufes and effeas difpropor. tioned to each other. The talent of wit confiffs in readinefs, quick- nefs, and vivacity of imagination, and in cor- refponding powers of expreffion.--Shake- fpear's defcription of the Witty Mtan. The emotions- excited by wit, are various ---are fifrongeft in perfons of quick appre- henfion and lively imagination. -Surprife fuddenly excited or checked.-Gaiety-. brilk aaivity of mind-quick fucceffion -of thought, -&c. Humnou~r may .be diffinguiffied from ridi . I0 cule, though the fubjeas of them are nearly allied.'-----Inconfifencies, incongruities, od- dities, difproportions in charaaers and condu&, not inconfiftent with good and amiable difpo. fitions, and even good abilities, are the fubjens of humour.--Specimens of fuch caprices, weak anxieties, chldifhnefs, vanities, &C. The talent of Humour, confifts in aptnefs or quicknefs in difcovering fuch peculiarities,.to- gether with fuch exercifes of imagination, and powers of imitation and defcription, as may give them proper colouring. References to authors diftinguifhed by their talents of Ridicule, Wit, or Humour, as- the befl method of. afcertaining their, boundaries.. --Remarks on Cicero's diftinajons of Wit- and Humour.. The final' caufe- of ridicule--The pur- pofes ferved by it.-In what fenfe ridicule mray be confidered as a teft of Truth.--Defeats and:' imperfeaions- of this flandard., 1'3 102. Initation. IMIATION has been confidered as one of the reflex fenfes.-= 'Man is endowed with a pronenefs and a power to imitate, and receives much: pleafure from it.------- He imitates be fore he can difcover any end or utility in imi- tation. Imitation is not a dire6t, but 'a feondary fource of the pleafures of tafle..--.-The plea- fure is not received immediately from the obw jeEt-but from a reprefentation of it. Thefine arts, or the arts of tafle, viz. Poe. try, Painting, Mufic, Sculpture, Eloquence, &ic. are all fo many different ways of imitating Nature. rfhe obje~ts imitated. - The mode of their imitation.--Thie 'inf-r-uments by which it, is Oeelted, are different, in--the different arts.. Some of the fine arts are diretly and immedi. ately imitative ; others of them are fo, mndi-. redly.--- Exam ples--lluflration. 103 Though Nature be the fole flandard of imi. tation in the fine arts, principles are admitted in them, by which the lines and features of Beauty, taken from a variety of objeas, are formed into one whole, and produce a great- er effea.-. Imitation not confined to beau- tiful objets.- Mean, difagreeable, offenfive objeas, may be imitated, and give pleafure. Perfeaion of imitation is not the ftandard, but approximation to it. The objea muff be perceived as an imitation, not as a prefent real objet. The emotion of pleafurereceived from imi tation in the arts, may be diftinguifhed from the emotions arifing from the real objeas.--- Were they the fame, the pleafure from the ori- ginal would never fall fhort of the copy.- This is not the cafe. There may be per. fea imitation without pleafure. Examples. The emotions of pleafure received from imi- tation, are chiefly intelleaual, and arife, x. From the aaivity of the imagination in 104 'comparing the imiation with the original. 2. From the perception and admiration of ikill, and defign in the imitation. 3. This is enhanced ,by the difficulty of the imitation-from the difparity between the imitating and. imitated objed.--from every circumfnface which increafes the difficulty. '4. The final caufe of imitation. -----The im, portant purpofes ferved by it as the inftrument of utility, or of pleafure and improvement Remarks. on the moral' fenfe, andfenfe of' fympathy.----Their connedion and affinity with-the dire& fenfes of tafte.- Their influ- ence, and.- authority over them. PA RT ILe. The Arts or Methods of Improving thej Powers~ of Tafte. THE powers of tafte are- capable of culture.. -The progrefs of, taffk in individuals and in nationls, affords fuffici ent proof of 1 05 their improvable nature. The nature of that improvement of which they are fuf ceptible. Though the original powers of tafte be pofw feffed by all, yet all do not poffefs them in the fame degree-nor does any one indivi- dual poffefs all of them in their highet degree of perfe&ion. The powers of tafte are a compound of cer- tain modes and varieties of the powers of knowledge, and of capacities of fenfibility. ..Each of thefe claffes of powers are im- provable--though not in the fame degree, nor by the fame means. The nature of that improvement- which belongs to each. ----That happy union, or combination of thofe flimple 'powers, which c onftitute a good tafte. The improvement of the -powers of .know,. ledge, direted to the objedts of tafte,. con. ft itute 'a corref tafte-r---of the, powers of fenfibility, conftitute, a delicate tafte.--The: union of thefe in the fame individual, and ia; io6 their higheff degrees, conflitutes the moft per- k-t tafte. Though the fine arts be the chief province of the powers of tafte, they extend their influ- ence to every branch of fcience or of art -- t~o condut and manners-to anufements as- -vrvll as to ferious purfuits. The original powers of tafte are the fame in all.-- Diverfity of tafte arifes from-different modifications and proportions of them in dif- ferent individuals---from the predominance of fome of them over others, and from the un- equal improvement of them. T'hough there be great dixrerflity of tafte, there 'are general principles about -which- men are as much agreed as in morals. There- is, therefore, a fl andard of tafte, though it be not a perfet one.-It is ereated on original fimilarity in the powers of tafe---on fimi- lar laws to which the imagination is fubjeatedl --confirmed by the general confent and ap- probation of all thofe who are qualified to judge in matters of tafte. The fiandard of tafle is a fandard of apa proximation-.---The things to which this fandard is applied, do not admit of an exaL or accurate meafure.-----t determines, ex cellence, but cannot. fettle competition. Difference of taffe is not a proof of a wrong taffe. -- R-emarks on the common maxim "D eguftibus non difputandun." The original powers of tafle are indireily improved by every thing in the fituation of man, which has a tendency to produce clear and difindt apprehenfion-to refine and re6 gulate fenfibility----by fituations and circum- flances favourable to correanefs and delicacy of moral feeling. They aire direfi ly improved-by furnifh~ ing proper objeds, and. occafioiis for their ex"~ ercife---by prefenting the beft models, and promoting a familiar acquaintance with them -by rules and infirudions, founded upon experience, applied, to them The rimprovement of the" powers of tafle oc- cupy too f'mall a proportion, of the Academical 08 Courfe.---They are not only fufceptlble of early culture, but of early corruption and wrong direion.-They are not only fources -of elegant pleafure, but they promote and -encourage thofe habits of inveftigation and analyfis, upon which progrefs in fcience depends. The fine arts, or the arts of tafle, Were con fidered by the ancients as an important branch of education. They were found to prow duce powerful effeds upon the minds of men, -..The ancient views of the dignity of thefe arts hinted by Plato, Strabo, and Plu- tarch, were entirely overlooked in the fucceed- ing periods-rand were loft in the Gothic and Scholaftic ages..- _-Some -of the fine arts then fell into the hands o�f ignorant artifts, and have not yet altogether efcaped from fuch degrada-* tion. An Academical Courfe of Education cannot embraee the whole of the- fine -arts.----- The models. of Painting, Sculpture, Mufic, arnd Architedture, cannot, be prefented or a- nalyfed in a Courfe of Academical Lealuress 109 ----In proportion as any of the fine arts depart from" their cdmmoi origin] and depend upon mechanical habits, they become the lefs proper fubjecs of general (peculation, The departments of tafte bet accommodated to the ends of Academical Education, are Hif tory, Poetry, and Eloquence. The mo. dels thereof can be prefented and analyfed. ----The claims of Hiftory to be ranked a, nong the fine arts. w , An Academical Courfe of Lecures on the meas oinProving the Powers f Tafie -Jhould com-. prehend, L. AN explanation of the Principles and Rules of the Art of Criticifml. II. AN application of them in an Analyfis of the principal models of Compofition in U1if- tory, Poetry, and Eloquence. X 1 I. TVie Art of Criticl/n. TIHE object of this art is to furnifh rules for judging in the fine arts.- There mufl be compofitions and models before critics.--Men of genius form rules to themfelves, which o� thers follow. The rules of this art, like thofe of every o4 ther, are founded upon obfervation and expec rience. Men of judgment and fagacity obferve what gives, and has always given pleam fure, in all ages, in the produdion of the fine arts.-F--Trom obfervation of the effels, they proceeded to inquire into the caufes ofthem. -From this they -concluded what' ought to pleafe, and ellablifhed rules of pleafing, The rules of the ancient critics were follow- ed implicitly till the reftoration. of literature. -After this period, critics arofe, who lhooked beyond the ancient rules--------to the na-. ture of man--his capacities of receiving -plea. fure--- to the general. principles of the arts Ito the end -which the artills have in view L-to the means by which that end may be belt effeated. The office of the critic is not to praife or to cenfure-but to difcover what deferves praife or cenfure. 1k- W who judges of the produc. tions of others, ihould know not only what they are, but what they ought to be. There are fpecial rules of criticifmn which be- long to the refpehve departments of the fine arts.. The rules of eriticifin are ufeful. -They dirst and improve thefaculty of judging.- They "lead to the caufes or fources of plea fure. --Thy determine the kinds and de- grees "of pleafuire which the objels of tafte are qualified to give*.-.--hey furnifhi reafons for- approbation or difapprobation.--They pro- mnote the improve ment of the _intelleanual powers. Objeaions againf[ -the rules of criticifin,- an- fwered.-Rules do not cramp, or reftraia genius.-They can take nothing from, ge. nius, but may prevent errors and miftakes. K 2 T -Men of the greateft genius-have often er- red by transgreling rules.-Defeds in ge,. nius are improperly afcribed to the ftrkt ob. fervation of rules. Illiberal, capricious crkicifn1, may be occaf fionally hurtful, II. Analysis fhe Principal Models o f Coznprtiono INTRoDucTIoN.-PreviouS to an analyfis in the Englifh language of compofitions in Hif- tory, Poetry, and Eloquence, it will be ufeful to explain, 1. The origin, progrefs, and peculiar -Qua- lities, of the Engliffi Language.. 2. The' Elements -of Englifh Compofition- .-V.ords--S entences-Idiom-Style. 1. Origin and Progrefs of the Eng4Jh Language.. rThe principles of Univerfal Grammar form the bafis of all: particular languages...- II3 Caufes which give occafion to particular lan guages, and their different modifications, though from a common fource.- The pro- grefs of language in every nation muff keep pace with the progrefs of civilization, of fcience and art, and of intercourfe with other nations. --The language of no one nation has arriv- ed at its moft perfet fiate, without receiving affiftance from other languages... The modern lknguages of Europe feem to have been 'derived from three or four more ancient languages, which have been called Mother Languages.-- They are o called, becaufe there is no record of more ancient lan- guages from which they are derived. Origin of the Englifh language.---The primitive language of Britain, previous to the Roman invafion, was probably a dialet of the ancient Celtic.-Changes upon the original language would be produced at different pe- riods by the the conquefts of the Romans, Saxons, Danes, Normans. The Bafis of the prefent language of Bri- K 3 " 4 tamn, is Saxon, Greek, Latin, and French. It has undergone many alterations and fn- provements, from the introduaion and iudy of Greek and Roman literature-from the progrefs of philofophy and the arts -of ci- vilization and intercourfe 'with other nations -and particularly from the extraordinary ex- tent of its commerc, and the adoption of new terms- from cvery quarter of the world. The progreflive alterations and improve- ments in the Englifh language, will be beft ob- ferved in the progrefs of Englifh compofitions, and particularly from the progrefs of poetical compoition).s.-Illluftraion. Every ,language mnuff have its own grain- mnar. -The rules of gramm ar are- der ived from the principles and cuftom of the lan- wuage, and do not produce the.-In the Ir{[ flages of a language, there are no gram- rnars. -Grammar is a colledion of rules founded' upon an analyfis ,of a formned lan- guage. Remrarks upon the grammar of the Engiifh hii<;uaage, and _on thofe parts which demand particular attention from the fludcnt of Engliflh compofition, viz, the Auxiliary Verbs, Prepofiions-M. Horne Tooke's theoy of Propofitions and Conjunions. A comparifon of the Englifh language with the ancient languages, and- with tme of the modern languages with the itandard properties of a perfect langiage, viz. Clear nefs, Diftinftnefs, Energy, and revity. 2. On the Elements of E' Go?? ztion. On words-their fignification, literal or fi- gurative.-G-----On fynonimes-thcir ori in and ufe. Idrsioms or forms of expreflion pe- culiar to the Englifh language. ..'he power of ufe and. cuftom in language. Sentences are fimple or complex -T'he members or claufes of fentences.-The length or fhortnefs of 'fentences.-.-The ge- neral ftruwaure of Englilh: fentences, and ar- rangement of the parts or members of feinm tences.--.-The relative pofition of the differ- ent parts of fpeech in Englifh fentences..- The reqjuifites of u~nity, firength, and har - ii6 vzony in fenteces.-Examples of fentences, which have and have not thefe requifites. On Style, Style is that peculiar choice of words, and of their arrangement, by which compofitions on the fame fubjea are diflinguifhed from each other. _ The term Style,-from the ancient Stylus, was tirif applied to the comparative clearnefs, brightnefs, or elegance, of engraved letters.-.The caufes of fuch differences were afcribed to the ftylus, or infrument. It was afterwards transferred to the modes of ufing language, which produced analogous ef- fees. Suech different effedts may be obferved in e4. very mode of comnmunication.- Dumb men may -be faid to differ! in their ftyle. --In rude and favage nations, their chiefs, or leaders, addrefs their followers with fimilar diftinc- tions, as the poliffied orators of Greece or Rome. Every perf'on who fpeaks or w"rites, may be 'flid to hav e a (lyle of his own; but, like differ. ences of characer, thofe only of prominent feam tures can be particularly marked. A riters of great genius are as eafily diftinguilhed by their pecliar ityle, as perfons of great beauty by the features of the face. Inquiry into the caufes of the great dverfity in ftyle.- On account of the intimate con- nexion betwixt thought and language, differ- ences of (Lyle muff be afcribed to original dif- ferences of intelligence and fenfibility in the charalers of men---to certain predominant varieties- of the powers of imagination, difcern- ment, and of the paffions.-Style depends nore upon differences of fenfibility than of intelligence.-JllIuftration of the. caufes of diverfity of (Lyle, by their effease The ancient critics made little p rogrefs ini the analyfis of (yle.--Accordinig to their o0 pinions, differences of flyle chiefly depended upon the diff'erent qualities of lang uage, as plain or flgurative--and of the fubjeaa.OMNMO The Greek and Roman di(LinaSions of (Lyle. The qualities of ftyle- may be diftinguifhed into thofe that are ential, and fuch as are chiefly ornanzental.- The effential qualities, Perfpicuity, Propriety, Purity, Simplicity, Energy.--The ornamental qualities are Inverfion, Figure, and Harmony. # The requifites. of Perf'picuity, Propriety, Pum rity, and Energy of Style.-Examples from writers difiinguiihed by thefe qualities of tyles. -.--The want of thefe requifites will render flyle obfcure, affefled, and feeble.-Example of thefe defec's and imperfeaions in Ilyle. Analyfs of the ornamnental qualities of ffyle [See the Synopsis of Rhetoric.] Rules for- acquiring a good ftyle.-Immr provemnent in flyle fuppofes a critical know.. ledg of anguge--The ifyle muff be fuit.. ed to the charader and to the fubje-- The effential qualities of fty-le fhould be the firft objed of the fludent.a---The peculiar ex-. cellencies of the flyle of diflinguifhed writer miuff be fludied and imitated.m-The nature of that imitation of ft'yle, which is ufeful and " 9 laudable... --Frequent el'ays in compofition M.O- MRepeated corre~fions. Analysis of Eng/h Compotion. THE term Compofition, may be applied ei ther to the external form, or to the matter or fubfiance of compofition. As the words are bound together by certain laws, fo is the matter by certain conneIting principles. Compofitions have been divided by Lord Bacon, according to the faculties of the mind chiefly employed in them, viz. Memory, Ima= :gination, and Reafon. A view of the different departments of human knowledge according to the above principle of divifion. Compofitions may alfo be divided according to the ends which -the comPofer has in view; ...-Thefe ends are, I. To prove fome propofition , _or to cone vince the judgment. 2. To narrate faaCs.-.for information, or inflruaion. I26 T To excite emotions and paffons-t perfuade. 'According to this principle of divifion, com. pofitions are either Philofophical, Hiftorical, or Rhetorical.-.Under this lafi head, are in- tlu;dd all poetical compofition . Philofophical or Didaflic C'ornptioC. Thefe. affume different forms-Effays, Dia logues, Syflems of Science-which have each their refpedive rules and form. Thy rules of conduLting philofophical difcourfes be- long to Logic. -{See Latin Compend, De hea viatibus.] In the following analyfis of Hift orical and Poetical Compofitions, the attention- of -the Etudlent will be particularly direaed, i. To, the particular end which the corn- pofer -has in view xin the different kinds of coin- pofition. 2. To the nature and qualiies of thefe na~ terials. I Y 3. To the means or methods by which the compofer effets the end, viz. by Seleajon, Arrangement, and Style. Hiforical Coipofitions. The origin of hifforical compofitions.--- - There is a natural propenfity in man to tranf mit to pofterity the memory of great events. Rude nations, prior to the invention of letters, have their hifforical memorials, viz. Mounds of Earth, Pillars, Traditions, Pefiivals, &c. The poets are the firft hiftorians in the cha- rader of Bards, Scalds, Minfrels.-.The re- mains of this form of hiftory-have come down in this country, almoft to the( prefent times. iliftory is a narrative of fads and events, and is either, i%. Civil, relative to the conduct of men in fociety. 2. Natural, relative to the, produEdions of niature in the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdomse 122 3. Sacred, relative to religion and the goA vernment of the Church. ihis analyfis is confined to civil hifforyA i. The end which the hifiorian has in view, is information and inflru&ion, 2. The nZaterials upon which he works, are, Fit fi, The counfels, enterprizes, sand anions of men, relative to the great interefls of Socie- ty, Peace, War, Government, Laws, Religion, Manners, Arts. Secondly, The immediate caufes of events, and motives of the a~tors. Thirdly, The charaters of the principal ag gents. .Fourth/y, Important and pertinent refleaions eccafi onally fuggefled in the narrative, and concif ely .expreffed. 3. The hifizorian attains his end by his powvers and fkill in the arts of Sele~tion, Nara. ration, Defcription, Arrangement, and Style. Firfi, His powers. of feleEtion are employed 123 in the choice of fuch naterials as are adapted to the end he has in view, and in applying the rules of evidence to them. Secondly, 'The proper qualities of hiflorical narrative, viz. Simplicity, Intereft, Brevity. ----Examples of Iiifturicai narrative pofin -thefe qualities. Thirdly, Defcription may be diftinuifhed from Narration, and from Defnition. e-I luftration, The obojeas which the hiforian has to de- fcribe, are fenfibl. objes.-4 nternalobjcase ----Seitimenlets.--Emotions.-Objeds, fenfi ble and internal.-Extraordinary events. C har ateIrs. The manner of condu &ing defcriptions is two-fold, dircl and indire.--A direct de- fcription delineates the object, by an enunmera-. tion and felea'ion of the parts or qualities of the objeac defcribed.- -An' indireet defcrip- tion delineates the fe:eling s and cmnotions pro-, dcdby the object& on the min-d of the fpec-. tator.----Exam!ples of direst and indire t de-M feription. 1 24 A comparifon of the dire and ndirefld.- frription.----Some objeds are beff defcribed directly-others, with more fuccefs, _ndi- recly. The defcription of great and in- terefting events partake of both--The hif. torian is moft fuccefsful by indireli defcription of mournful or calamitous events. Characters may be defcribed direfly or indirely.-Examples from celebrated au- thors, who defcribe the fame charaters di- retly and indirely.----Rules of defcription applied to the defcription of charaaers. Difference betwixt ancient and modern hif. torians in their mode of condufting hifforical compofitions, particularly relative to the Speeches of the Adors.--Ancient hillorians difcover but little political knowledge. Modern hiftorians have availed -themfelves of the great progrefs which has been, made in the fcience of Politics. 4. Analyfis of the principles of Hiflorical Arrangement. ---The order of nature-.or the order of tinme and la-ce--is the moft gene" 125 ral principle of arrangement.-But that principle muft fornetimes give way to the or- der of cazife and effef. Tranfitions and digreffions in hiflorical compofition, require found judgment and good tafte. The rules of hifforical compofition are ap- plicable, with confiderable modification, to Annals, Memoirs, Biography, &c.-Each of thefe have their fpecial rules. g: The qualities of ifyle adapted to hiflori- cal compofition,. area Perfpicuity, Simplicity, Dignity, and Elegance.-Some kinds of iyle, and fome kinds of figures, are altogether infuitable. in hiftorical compofition.--..-The ifyle of hiftory muff rife or fall with the fub- jed~-Remarks upon the excellencies or- faults of the principal ancient and modern hif- torians. _ The proper talents of the hifto- nian. The utility of the f udy of .Civil Hiffory..- The advantages which it dcrivcs from the flu-. dry of geography and c'hronology.-.---The efA fe s of hiftorical knowledge on other branches L 3 126; of Pcience.---w-.A juft talk for real hiftory, early acquired, is the bell prefervative againft the enticements of fi~titious hiftory. Poetical Conpo ftion Poetry is the art of painting objeas in mea- fured language or rhyme.--The meaning of the term Poem in the Englifh language. Poetry is diflinguifhed from Proe, both by the matter and the forma--- by the operations of thofe powers of mind which are employed in thefe different kinds of compofition. The general end of poetry is to pleafe--that is, to excite agreeable fentimnents and, paffions, or ative and awakened ftates of mind. The means -by which this end is effeCted, are Fi~tion,' Imnitation---arbitrary Arrangement, -meafured Language or Rhyme-a Style inverted-Energetic-Figurative. The origin of Poetical compofitions. --- Poetry is the firft mnod of compofition, and is 127 -prior to the invention of letters. Caufes which promote or retard the progrefs of Poet- ical compofitions. Early and urcultivat. ed periods of fociety, are favourable to orig. nal genius in poetry. Poetical coipofi. tions are affeCted by the prevailing lpirit and paflions of the times. The connection betwixt Poetry and Mufic in the fl-t ftages of their progrefs.-Advan- tages of their union..-Effeas of their fepa. ration.----The love of fong is natural to man. - - -Illufration. from the hiftonies of rude na- tions. Though the general end of poetry be to pleafe, that end may be affected by great di- verfity in poetical. compofitions. -All. poet.. ical compofi-tions may be included in thefe three claffes, viz. Defcriptive, Narrative, and Re prefentative. x . Def criptive Poems. Defcriptive poems are thofe in which the poet affeals his end, chiefly by raifing piatures 12 or images of pleafing obje s. --'The chief claffes of Defcriptive Poems, are Odes, Paf- torals, Elegies, Satirics, &c.Of each of thefe, there are varieties. The Ode is probably the firf form of cor- pofition in every country. The Lyric Poets, Alcaus, Tyrtmus, and Pindar, appearedfirfi in. Greece.-The name LTric, given to this fpecies of Poetry, is a proof of the early con- nelion between Poetry and Mufic. No exact definition can be given of the Ode, which w~ill apply to-every poem that goes by that name.---- t is a poetical ex- preffionn of high and animated emotions of fen- fibility ; and is lefs fubjedced than any: other fpecies of poetry, to the r ules of method, or, of language Odes have been brought un- der thefe three claffes, according to the emo- tions which are expreffed.- The Sublimre j the Tender, and the Gay or- Sprightly~- According to the fubjeasin, they have been di- vided into the Sacred-Heroic--Moral.--- B3old beginnings, unexpe6ted excurfions, and poetic ardour and enthufiafrn, are the charac- 129 teriflics of this rpecies of compof ton.-The form of odes is different.-Exaples of the different kinds of odes.-Charmer of the principal lyric poets.----Remarks on the form and obje~ls of thefe poetic compofitions, called Madrigals, Sonnets, Epigrams, &c.-all of which belong to the defcriptive clafs. Patoral or Rural Poetry. The end which the paftoral poet has in view, is, to excite emotions of the gentler paffions --,-Sentiments of Love, Innocence, and Tranquillity. This end the poet effes by an imitation of rural life--. --by a defcription of the moft pleafing objeats to be found in it,, viz, the beauties of External Nature-.-.the fimplicity and ingenuity -of Rural -Charaaers, and Man.- ners, and Arts. The paftoral _or rural poet, like other poets, does not confine himfelf to an exa(t imitation, but feledts and embellilhes fuch objeas as. are fuited to his end. Not only the external 130 objeis but the characters and paflions which are deferibed, muff be fuch as tray be found in rural life -icious and violent charac- ters and- pafions, are altogether unfuitablee --Coar fe and grofs manners cannot leafe in the defcription. Pafloral poetry admits of a conflderable range with regard to its fubjeis.-Some paftorals are confidered of a higher, others of an inferior order.-Critics are not agreed about the extent or limits of pafforals. MM The conditions of fhepherds in-countries and _ages truly paftoral, admit of confiderable dif- tinaions in their character, with refpea to knowledge ahd improvement in fome of the arts.---Some have been clifpofcd to bring within the range of pafloral poetry, all poems- written i a- f mple and artlefs manner. The form of- paflora] compofitions may be d ffrlptive, narrative, reprefntative-in the form of dia/ogue---Examp'le of thefe dif.. ferent forms.-..-The ftyle---natural, f mple, elegant....--A particular fpecies of verfifica- 1t tion, in diff erent languages, is accommodate to it. Remarks on the origin ofpfoa oty -t nrModern paftorals are formed after the model of the ancient paforals.-The fcenes of the ancient paftorals were not laid in the age or countries in which the poets wrote.- The charaaters are taken from the Shepherds of the Golden Age.----Notions of a golden age ftripped of the embellifhments of the poet. .- -=There is a- middle period in the progrefs of civilization, equally removed from the ex- tremes of rudenefs and refinement, to which the ideas of a golden age have referenc. - The tafle for rural objeacs and pleafures is na- tural and general. The narmes of Eclogue and Idyllium have been given to the ancient paftorals.------The names of the ancient fhepherds are (ftill affo- ciated with the paftoral chara~ters---3ur notions of the ancient- fhepherds are takren from their condition in Arcadia and Sicily.- The condition of Ihepherds in northern climes is unfavourable to paftoral defcription. r An account of the principal ancient and modern paflorals, and the application of the rules of criticifm to them. FkPgiac Compotions. f eLegy is nearly allied to paftoral poetry, both in the matter and in the form. The end which the elegiac poet has in view is to excite thofe melancholy pleafing Rates of mind, with which there is a general difpofi& lion to fympathifeb This end- the poet "effeds by defeription of the death of friends, and other occafions of :grief, and- melancholy.--He hais extended the bounds of this fpecies of compofition, to defcriptions -of tender fenfations of any kind- to the. comptlnts and 'lainentation s of Love'i and even to the emotions of Joy arid Cheer" fulnefs..--His defcriptions of Grief muft be manly, dignified- without the appearance of ,art or refinement-. 133 The poems which have got the name of Elegy, may be brought under three claffes: i. Defcriptions of events and occafions, in which the poet is highly interefted.-This neceffarily gives unity to the poem. 2. Defcriptions of refleaions arifing from fome one objed or occaiion, in which the poet is not particularly concerned. 3. Defcriptions of a melancholy train of re- fle&ions, of one uniform tenor or tendency, without much of chara&er or manners.- Examples and illuftration of thefe differences in the elegy. The form of elegiac poems is defcriptive and narrative, or in the form of dialogue. .---A particular kind of verfe, in moff languages, is affociated with the elegy. S-In Greek and Latin, an alternative of hexameter and pentameter. The Englifh poets have imitated this, by employing the heroic verfe with alternate lines. This fpe- cies of verfe is fo clofely affociated with the elegy, that it is cuftomary to call poems Ele. -1 3 4 giac, if conpofed in that kind of flanza.- Examples--Ovidls Fafti, Dr Louth's Poems. Remarks on the ancient and modern elegiac poems.---rTThe application of the rules of cri* ticifm to them. .Didalic Poetry. Dida&ic poetry is allied to the Defcriptivei ---This fpecies of poetry made its appearp ance early.-The firf precepts of morality wivere delivered in verfe, if not in poetry, The obje& of didaaic, is inffruction and conviction relative to pradical operations.,----. Some critics do not admit didadtic poems in. to the clafs of poetical compofitions, becaufe the materials are not fupplied by fidi1on, but by truth and reafon.-But though not ftrialy poetical in the matter--it is fo with re. fpedt to the form. --It admits *of verfificab tion and number--the flyle, and many of the ornaments of poetical comnpofition. The matter of didaetic poetry may be Lifto- rical and philofophical, each of which kid are fubjeaed to particular. rules.�-llufration of this fpecies of poetry, by referenes to the works of the priincipal didatic poets, Virgil, Hlorace, Lucan, Pope, Boileau, Young, &c. The objet of didadlic poetry, may not only be general infrulion.- It may inftrut alfo, by inveighing againt certain vices.- Hence, that form of it called Satire.-The name given to this fpecies of compofition, gives little aflifance in determining its nature or boundaries.-- l1ihe general objed of it, is an invedive again ft vices and follies, obliquely conveyed in a poetic form and with certain poetical embellifhents.-The fpirit of this fpecies of compofition muft be fludied in the principal writers of fatire.-.here are great differences to be obferved in the fpirit and (tyle of the different fatyrifs.-The form' of Sa- tire may be Epic, or Dramnatic.---Remarks on. the works of the principal fatirical poets. 2. arrati ve Poetry. The E lpic is the principal fpecies of narra-. M 2 136 tive poetry.-.The epic poet is, in his own charader, chiefly employed in narrations, but interfperfed with defcription and imitation. --The name Epic is derived from the Greek verb, which fignifies to tell, or narrate. As the general end of poetry is to pleafe, or excite agreeable emotions-the end of epic poetry is to excite the pleafing emotions offur- prife, ,wonder, admiration, and elevation of mind. The means by which it effeds that end, is by narration and defcription of fublime objeds in the external world-of every thing grand and dignified in the chara1ters and ations of men. But thefe in real life being mixed with many imperfeions-it employs fi6tion in creating or forming higher or more perfe& chara~lers. ---Fi~ion pervades every part of epic compofitions.--T'he nature and bounds of poetic fiiion, and the principles by which it ought to be regulated. Remarks on different definitions that have been given of epic poetry. No definition can properly include all the poems that have been called by that name. Every epic 137 poem is, in its nature, arbitrary; and its-confti- tution depends upon the genius, imagination, and tafle of the author.-The grand model of epic compofitions depended upon the ima- gination and tafte of Homer. The com- mon definition is as good as any of them-" A " narrative in verfe, of ations and events, " Probable, Heroic, Marvellous."-Illuftra, tion of this definition.., In the propofed analyfis of-epic compofition, the important obje&s of it will be brought in- to view, in the order in which they arife in the poet's, mind, in the formation and compc- fition of the poem. The mind of the poet muff be firff occupied with the fbjed of the poem.- To it, his imagination and tafte muffhave made frequent excurfions.- A fubjea proper for an epic poem, muff be in itfelf interefing.-A fufficient ground-work for important events, muff admit of the embellifhments of poetry. - It will affift the introduation of. the mar- vellous, if it be taken from remote or fabu- lous periods. M3 138 Upon the nature and qualities of the fubje&, .depend the defign or fcheme of the poet.--- The deign muff fuppofe a remote or difiant end to be accomplifhed. It muff compre- hend fuch difficulties and obftacles, as give room for great adivity, refolution, ad addrefi in the removal of them..- ----A mean, or nar- row defign, vili cramp and contraa the ta- lents of the poet. The defign of the poet muff be accomplil-- ed by a courfe or tenor of alion fuited to it. ---The nature and qualities of an epic ac- tion.-It muff be one-that is, in its tenor and tendency, and relation to a general end. I--Jt may confiff of many feparate aaions, 'and thefe performed by muany different pe-r- fons-The epic a6LUon muff alfo be great, and poffefs in itfeif various fources of intereft, private and public.- -The duration or time which the action requires, muff be as long as the natural. courfe of fuchzs anai~ion requires. The unity of epic a~tion is not inconfuflent xvith certain digreffions, or inferifor as-ions, called Epifodes.-Epifodes muff be fubfer@. '39 vient to the principal a~ion, and illftratei ---Occafions of introducing them, and rules for the condua of them. Great and heroic adlons muff be performed by charaters fuited to- the.-The confti- tution and predominate qualities of epic charac- ters.------Each of the principal charaaers muff be marked by prominent features, and be diflinguifhed by words and ations which na- turally proceed from them.-Virtues and vices, talents and defe~ts, muff be blended and varied. There muff be a preponderance on the fide of virtue.- -The epic aaion muff be diffributed with judgment and tafe a- mong the charaaers.--Trhe charaElers iuf ben inroduced on fuch occafions, and in fuch circumftances, as tend to fupport each other. Epic Poets have generally made =choice of one principal Aator or Hero, to whom they give the charge of the enterprize---There are forme advantages in doing it-but no good reafon for a very ftri~t adherence to this rule. According~ to the ancient moldls, there muff be parts of the antion which require the interpofition of divine perfonages.-Though fichon muff pervade every part of epic poetry, there are fome parts of it in which it is predo minant. S--Such parts are called the Machi- nrly of the poem. R Mules which the critics have effablilhed for the introduaion and con- duQt of divine interpofition in the epic poem.. Some critics have confidered fuch parts of the epic poem as blemifhes.---.They are con- fiflent with ancient mythology, and furnifh occafions of grand and fublime defcriptions, ...-It may be doubted whether they are ef- fential to epic poetry.----The bef refutation would be, an epic poem perfeet without them. -Modern epic poets cannot have the fame advantages from the introduction' of machi-, nery. Epic Charaaters, muff be diftinguifhed by their manners and fcntiients.-The Manners are the -modifications of the original di fpofi- tions, by various caufes, -in the-various in-ter- cour fes of fociety, and in the cuffomary forms of- behaviour. The Sentiments are the. 14 1 judgments expreff'ed in language. The .proper qualities of epic manners.-Brutal and profligate manners could not pleafe by any def'cription.-.There muff be a natural and ftri& correfpondence betwixt the charaaers and manners. Epic Compofitions differ from others. alo in their form.--- They are not conduaed in the regular method of hiflory.-To excite inte- reft-the poet, having invoked his divinity, may begin in the middle of the acion, and take a proper opportunity of explaining what is neceffary to be underflood. --He may de- part from narrative, and introduce the charac- ters as delivering their own fentiments. In epic compofitions, much depends upon the ftyle.-The epic poet has the command of language, proper and figurative ; and muff be qualified to vary his ityle, according to the variety, of matter.---His flyle, as occafions may require, muff be, fimple,, energetic, fub- lime, elegant, harmonious--and muft be al- ways accommodated to the fubje.--The verfification of epic compofitions is hexameter, or blank verfe. 14 2 Origin of Epic Poetry-- Circumances favourable to poetic genius, in early and un- cultivated periods of fociety Analyfis of the principal epic poets, ancient and modern. --.Comparifon of them, in thofe points in which they can be direly or indiredly com pared.-T--The rules of criticifin applied in fettling their refpec'live inerits.-A particuo lar analyfis of The Paradi Left. 3. Repreetative Poetry. The different manner of acquiring know- ledge by the fenfes of fight and hearing, lays a foundation for one of the chief diffindions in poetry.-The one Epic, where we nei- thler fee the obj eds, nor hear any thing di- rely of ourfelves.---The other Dramnatic, where we fee the actions performed, and hear the converfations of the adtors. The Drama, in fome fhiape or other, feems to have taken place in every period of _fociety. .*.~=---Jn every condition, imitation is natural to mans--human paflions and adions are al- ways the mroft interefting objedts of imitation. X43 Origin of' Dramatic Poetry in Greece. Succeffive improvements of the drama.------ Dramatic poetry was cultivated with more fuc= cefs than the epic.-----It was early feparated into two kinds, Tragedy and Comedy. Trgedy. Tragedy has many things in common with epic poetry. The end which the poet has in view in Tragedy, is to fubdue or moderate the exceffes of irregular and impetuous paflions, by exciting -Pity and Compafion. This end is effeaed, by the proper choice of a fubje& which will afford a fucceffion of firik. ing circumifances, and interefting events.- By the imitation of an action that is in itfelf ,complete, and capable of a perfe& reprefenta- tion, and which terminates in danger or death. -T his adion is fubje~ted to the unities m an -p ce lh a io *m ff b fof condudted as to form a plot, and the unfolding of it.-The diftribution of the aaion into Acts, Scenes, &C. 144 The ation' muff be carried on by charaders taken generally from the higher ranks.- 'Their manners and fentiments muft he fuited to the charaters; and, they muffpeak the Ian guage of paflion, and not defcribe it.--Dif- ference betwixt the ancient and modern tra- gedies.- Inquiry into the caufes of the plea. fure received from tragical reprefentation. Comedy. The difference betwixt tragedy and comedy. ---The fame rules apply to both.-The end of comedy is to correl vices and foibles) by the dread of ridicule or laughter. This end is effeded, by imitation of -characp ters and adions taken. from common 'life and of manners and ~fentinients fuited to them. -The plot of comedy turns chiefly on mar& riage., though this is not effential. Comedy is divided according to. the fubjed, and is high or dignified, or lowr and familiar. VYerfif ication is not effential to comnedy. -The pr oper ftyle of, comedy--=-Rez- 145 marks on the ancient and modern comedies, and inferiority of the former, illuftrated by exa -amples. Inquiry into the effe~ts of Dramatic repre- .fentation on charader "and manners, aid the .purpofes ferved by it. Conclufion.-On the advantages to be de. rived from the fludy of the Belles Lettresb P A R T 11 On #hc Poers of Comncain I N i o P w -f. A NALYSIS of the Pow ers of C omm uni- y cation by -Speech or Writing. II. TH Art of improving them-or the Art of Rhetoric. T'hefe heads form the fubjedsi of the LC_ tures of a Separate Courfe.-.--[Ssc Sy nopsis of Rhetoric.]j. 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