The RACIAL ANATOMY of the
PHILIPPINE ISLANDERS

FIG. 1.—The Iberian Filipino. Iberian ears. A sclu
teacher from the Batanes Islands, north of the Island
Luzon.

FKJ. 2.—The Modified Primitive Filipino. Modified
Primitive ears. A muchuvha front the Yisavan Islands, south
of the Island of Luzon.

THE RACIAL ANATOMY
OF THE PHILIPPINE
ISLANDERS
INTRODUCING

NEW METHODS OF ANTHROPOLOGY
AND SHOWING THEIR APPLICATION TO THE
FILIPINOS WITH A CLASSIFICATION OF HUMAN
EARS AND A SCHEME FOR THE HEREDITY OF
ANATOMICAL CHARACTERS IN MAN

BY

ROBERT BENNETT BEAN, B.S., M.D.
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF ANATOMY, THE T U L A N E U N I V E R S I T Y OF L O U I SIANA, N E W ORLEANS, L A . ; FORMERLY ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF
ANATOMY, P H I L I P P I N E MEDICAL SCHOOL, MANILA, P . I .

WITH NINETEEN ILLUSTRATIONS REPRODUCED
FROM ORIGINAL PHOTOGRAPHS
SEVEN FIGURES

PHILADELPHIA & LONDON

J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY
1910

COPYRIGHT, 1910
B Y J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY

Published November, 1910.

Printed by J. B. Lippincott Company
The Washington Square Press, Philadelphia, U. 8. A.

To

MY WIFE

ADELAIDE LEIPER BEAN
TO WHOSE CONSTANT ENCOURAGEMENT, INSPIRATION, AND
ADVICE THIS WORK IS LARGELY DUE

&376>r

PREFACE

T

H I S book represents studies of the
human form rather than the skeleton,
and embodies the results of three years' investigation of the Filipinos. A method of
segregating types is introduced and affords a
ready means of comparing different groups of
men. The omphalic index is established as a
differential factor in racial anatomy, the ear
form becomes an index of type, and other
means of analyzing random samples of mankind are presented for the first time.
The book, therefore, represents a new departure in anthropology, and the term racial
anatomy of the living is not inappropriate as
a title. Approved methods of the Old World
have been utilized, and it is to be hoped that
this contribution from the New World will
be received with due consideration as a striving
after truth.
I owe a great deal to Professor J . Playfair
McMurrick and to Dr. A. Hrdlicka for their
advice and inspiration during the inception of
the studies. Grateful acknowledgment is ex7

PREFACE
tended to the Honorable Dean C. Worcester
for access to his valuable collection of photographs, many of which cannot be duplicated
elsewhere. To Dr. Paul C. Freer I am indebted for constant encouragement, literary
criticism and liberality, and to Dr. It. P .
Strojig for procuring materials for publication. A large share of credit belongs to my
wife, who assisted me in measuring the students, in the computations, in the arrangement
of materials, in the literary product, and who
by her liberality alone made possible the publication of the work.
I wish here to sound a warning to the general reader that the Introduction to this book
need not be read, because it is unnecessary
for the understanding of the remainder of the
book and is technical, although it is to an extent explanatory.
No attempt has been made to give references
to the literature, because references have been
given already in the Philippine Journal of Science, where the original monographs of the
author covering a part of the subject matter
of this book have appeared from time to time
during the past few years.
The object of this book is to establish definite
8

PREFACE
types of man that may be recognized by ear
form, cephalic index, nasal index and other
factors, that such types may be studied in families through several generations to establish
their hereditary characteristics, and this is the
author's reason for the present publication.

CONTENTS
CHAPTER

PAGE

INTRODUCTION
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.

15

T Y P E S OF FILIPINO STUDENTS

25

T H E BENGUET, LEPANTO, AND BONTOC IGOBOTS . .

46

T H E SUBMERGED T E N T H OF MANILA

86

T Y P E S OF M E N AT TAYTAY

108

T Y P E S OF WOMEN AT TAYTAY

125

T H E M E N OF CAINTA

143

T H E RELATION OF MORPHOLOGY TO D I S E A S E . . . .

150

T H E OMPHALIC I N D E X

160

A CLASSIFICATION OF FILIPINO EARS

166

GENERALIZATIONS

199

CONCLUSIONS

220

APPENDIX:
PINES:

PALEOLITHIC

MAN

HOMO PHILIPPINENSIS

IN

THE

PHILIP227

ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG.

PAGE

1. The Iberian Filipino

^
V
2. The Modified Primitive Filipino... J

Frontispiece

3. 4. The Alpine Filipino

25

5. The Iberian Filipino

46

6. Absolute length of the body parts of a Senoi man and an
Igorot man

60

7. MerkeFs standard female European and a typical Igorot 62
8. Fritsch's standard male European and Igorot men

64

9,10. The Australoid Filipino

86

11,12. The Cro-Magnon Filipino

108

13. Fritsch's average European and the average Taytayan... 118
14. Outlines parallel to the sagittal plane in a Taytayan boy 119
15,16. The B. B. B. Filipino

125

17,18. The Modified Primitive or Adriatic Filipino

143

19. Types of Filipino ears

166

20. Diagram representing scheme for heredity

200

21. Homo Philippinensis

227

22. 23, 24, 25. Homo Philippinensis

229

26. Sagittal outline of head of Homo Philippinensis

230

INTRODUCTION
A METHOD OF GROUPING INDIVIDUALS BY THE
USE OF T H R E E MORPHOLOGIC FACTORS

M

A T E R I A L S for the present work began to accumulate in 1905, when the
author measured a few negroes in Baltimore at the Anatomical Laboratory of the
Johns Hopkins University. To these were
added the measurements of about 100 negroes
in the Free Dispensary of the Johns Hopkins
Hospital in 1906, the measurements of more
than 1,000 students at the University of Michigan, and the measurements of 1,500 school
children of Ann Arbor, Michigan, in 1905-7.
After my arrival in the Philippines, in June,
1907, I measured about 800 students of the
Trade and Normal Schools of Manila, more
than 100 Igorots, 500 individuals of Taytay
and Cainta, and about 200 subjects of Malecon Morgue. In addition I examined the ears
of several thousand Filipinos from every part
of the Archipelago. The original copies of all
the above records are on file at the Wistar Institute of Anatomy, Philadelphia, Pa.
15

INTRODUCTION
After having measured the students at the
University of Michigan it seemed essential to
devise a method of classifying the individuals,
because a system of means or averages is a
very inadequate way to determine the composition of a body of people, and because the
usual method of classifying indices does not
always represent natural groups. A t the time
I believed that Deniker's classification of the
people of Europe into six primary and four
secondary races fitted the classes of students
to some extent, although the types of students
found in the University of Michigan were
somewhat different from those of Deniker's
European races. The accumulation of materials necessitated the selection of a method of
treatment that would facilitate a rapid comparison of the groups with each other and with
other groups of individuals, therefore three
cardinal anthropomorphic characters were
selected and treated as if they mingled in
the usual Mendelian proportions with the
formation of types much as if they were the
results of interbreeding trihybrids (see pages
18 and 40).
The three factors used in the segregation of
the types of students are the cephalic index,
stature, and eye color, the latter as represented
16

INTRODUCTION
by Martin's Augenfarbentafel, a box with artificial eyes numbered by decreasing intensity
of pigment from 1 to 16. Each of the three
factors is divided into three grades, and all the
individuals who have any one factor in the
middle grade are classed as intermediates or
blends.
The Cephalic Index (of the head, not the skull index) is:
Dolichocephalic or
longheaded.. . .less than 77.5.
Mesocephalic
from 77.5 to 80 inclusive.
Brachiocephalic or
broad headed.. more than 80.
The Stature is:
Tall
Medium
Small

above 170 centimeters.
from 160 to 170 centimeters inclusive.
below 160 centimeters.

The Eye Color is:
Fair
above number 10.
Medium
from numbers 6 to 10 inclusive.
Dark
below number 6.

To illustrate the method adopted in classifying the types, four groups are utilized. The
first group is that of 127 instructors and advanced students measured at the University
of Michigan in the early part of 1907, published here for the first time; the second group
is that of 90 negroes measured at the Johns
2

17

INTRODUCTION
Hopkins Dispensary in 1906, also published
here for the first time; the third group is that of
the 104 Igorots measured at Baguio in 1908;
and the fourth group is that of the 183 men of
T a y t a y measured in 1909. N o t all the groups
can be treated with the same factors, because
of the absence of fair eyes in the last three
groups. T h e ear form is substituted for the
eye color of the negroes, and the nasal index
is used instead of the eye color for the Igorots
and the men of Taytay.
ADVANCED STUDENTS AND INSTRUCTORS AT THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN

Tall
Dolicho
Fair

Eyes
Number of i n d i v i d u a l s . . . .

Tall
Brachy
Fair

Tall
Dolicho
Dark

Tall
Brachy
Dark

Eyes

23

17

16

4

Small
Brachy
Fair

Small
Dolicho
Fair

Small
Brachy
Dark

Small
Dolicho
Dark

Number of i n d i v i d u a l s . . . .

3

3

Blend

1

3

62

W h e n the number of individuals of each
type is compared with the theoretical results of
crossing trihybrids that obey Mendel's laws,
a striking similarity is noted. The calculated
percentage proportion is as follows:
1
Mendelian trihybrid.
Michigan students...

2

3

4

5

6

7

P.ct.
42
33

P.ct.
14

P.ct.
14

P.ct.
14

P.ct.
5

P.ct.
5

P.ct.
5

25

23

5

4

4

4

18

P.ct.
1

INTRODUCTION
The conformity of the types at the University of Michigan to Mendelian trihybrids is
well marked for a random sample, such as the
students represent, although the conformity
may be only incidental, and the preponderance
of some types over others due to chance rather
than to the dominant or recessive characters.
This is made more emphatic because Davenport and Davenport have recently demonstrated that dark eyes are dominant to fair,
whereas among the students the fair-eyed individuals have the dominant position. I t is,
however, a singular coincidence that the type
with recessive color factors is in the dominant
position and the type with dominant color factors is in the recessive position, numerically.
That the negroes conform to the Mendelian
trihybrids almost as well as the students is
shown in the following table:
Stature
Head
Ears

Tall
Tall
Dolicho
Dolicho
Not negro Negro

Stature

Small
Small
Dolicho
Dolicho
Not negro Negro

16

Ears

2

7

4

Tall
Tall
Brachy
Brachy
Not negro Negro
1

5

Small
Small
Brachy
Brachy
Not negro Negro
0

0

Blend
55

The tall dolichocephalic negro with ears not
negroid is in the dominant position, although
19

INTRODUCTION
the groups with negroid ears appear to be dominant otherwise. This may be only the reflection of the impregnation of the black by the
white, not a real negro ratio, and each alternate group may represent the mulatto.
So far the classification has worked well, but
the men of Taytay and other groups of Filipinos necessitate other standards because their
stature is not so great as that of the negroes
and students and their cephalic index is different. The same standard is used, however,
to demonstrate differences that appear by the
nonconformity of the Filipinos to the standard set for the students and also used for the
negroes.
T H E IGOROTS AND M E N OF TAYTAY

Stature
No. of individuals, Taytay.
No. of individuals, Igorot.

Stature
No.of individuals,Taytay.
No. of individuals, Igorot .

Tall
Dolicho
Narrow

Tall
Dolicho
Wide

Tall
Brachy
Narrow

1
0

0
0

0
0

Small
Dolicho
Narrow

Small
Dolicho
Wide

4
5

5
34

Small
Brachy
Narrow
28
3

Tall
Brachy
Wide
0
0

Small
Brachy
Wide

Blend

18
12

127
50

The types of Filipinos are all small except
for one man that conforms to a European
type, but another method of classification as
20

INTRODUCTION
given on the next page groups the Filipino
into eight types that are similar to the types
of students, except in cephalic index. The difference between the Igorots and men of Taytay is that the small, long-headed, wide-nosed
men predominate among the former and the
small, broad-headed, narrow-nosed men among
the latter.
The four groups, American students, American negroes, Igorots, and men of Taytay may
be contrasted with ease by a casual examination of the tables, and this contrast may be extended indefinitely by the use of factors other
than stature, cephalic index and nasal index,
eye color or ear form. Any three factors may
be utilized in the way these have been used.
For instance, hair form, facial index, and brachial index may be combined and would easily
differentiate the negro from the white, in the
same way that the stature, cephalic index and
nasal index differentiate the Filipino from the
European, and in addition the types that would
be segregated might prove of interest in solving the composition of each body of people
under consideration.
The following scheme is presented for the
segregation of Filipino types; it is used with
slight modifications throughout this book as
21

INTRODUCTION
a working basis, and the types segregated by
its use prove to be true morphologic forms of
men:
The cephalic index of the head (not the
skull index) is made the basis of the classification, the nasal index is secondary and the stature is subsidiary. Those individuals with a
nasal index above 83 are called wide-nosed,
those with an index below, narrow-nosed, and
a stature of 165 centimeters is taken as the
dividing line between the tall and the small.
Those ^individuals are called Blends that have
a cephalic index from 80 to 87 inclusive, when
the nasal index is less than 12 above or below
the cephalic index, regardless of stature.
The individuals with a cephalic index greater
than 87 may be divided into four groups: The
tall, wide-nosed, wide-headed people are called
Adriatic because of their similarity to the people of that name designated by Deniker on the
northern shores of the Adriatic sea; the small,
wide-nosed, wide-headed are called Primitive
because their physical characteristics are infantile, they resemble the Primitive types of other
countries, and they are called Primitive by
Hagen and others; the tall, narrow-nosed and
wide-headed are designated B. B. B. (the big22

INTRODUCTION
cerebellumed, box-headed Bavarian of Ranke,
so-called by Beddoe) because they resemble a
European type with similar characteristics;
the small, narrow-nosed and wide-headed are
called Alpine because they resemble the inhabitants of southern Germany, Switzerland, and
central France, who are known as the Alpine
or Middle European race. The Alpine and the
B. B. B. are closely related types, and so are
the Primitive and Adriatic, stature being the
only differential factor. The four types are
not greatly unlike but they form a group that
is quite different from the four types with a
cephalic index less than 80. The latter are
segregated in a manner similar to that used for
the other four types.
The individuals with small stature, narrow
heads, and narrow noses are called Iberian because they resemble a type of Spaniard in the
Philippines, which is the same as the Mediterranean race or Eurafrican of Sergi. The tall,
narrow-headed, narrow-nosed people would be
the northern European (Nordic), but very few
are found in the Philippines, and as those
found resemble the Mediterranean race they
are included as Iberians. The tall, wide-nosed,
narrow-headed individuals are called Cro-Mag23

INTRODUCTION
non because they have some of the characteristics of that prehistoric people of Europe.
Finally, the small, wide-nosed, narrow-headed
individuals are called Australoid because of
their characteristics that resemble the Australian. The Cro-Magnon and the Australoid,
the Nordic and the Iberian, bear the same relation to each other that is found between the
B. B. B. and the Alpine, the Adriatic and the
Primitive, in which the only difference is stature. The Cro-Magnon and the B. B. B. resemble the Iberian, the Alpine and the Australoid resemble the Primitive.
This scheme is utilized in the segregation of
Filipino types, and although an artificial division of the people is effected thereby, the
groups segregated not only prove to be true
types, but may even be designated as species of
man.
The students of the Colonial Schools located
in Manila will be treated first by this method,
and it will become evident that other characters
besides those used to segregate the types are
found to be differential factors. This is an indication that the types are true and have other
differences besides those used in their segregation—stature, cephalic index and nasal index.
24

FIG. 3.—The Alpine Filipino. Modified Alpine ears. A
muchacho from the Ilocano tribe of Luzon.

FIG. 4.—The same as Fig. 3.

THE RACIAL ANATOMY
OF THE

PHILIPPINE ISLANDERS
CHAPTER

I

TYPES or FILIPINO STUDENTS

T

H E students utilized were measured at
random, taking every individual available at the Philippine Normal School and the
School of Arts and Trades, both located at
Manila, but receiving students from all parts
of the Philippine Islands, chiefly, however,
from the littoral, or coastland population.
The average stature of the 377 students
measured is 163.3 centimeters, the cephalic index is 82.1 and the nasal index is 82.55. The
stature, and the cephalic index are about the
same as that of the Middle European or Alpine stock, as represented by the people of
central France, but the nasal index is greater,
the nose of the students being broad and short.
Montano and others classify the Filipinos by
25

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
physical characters and locality into Negrito,
Indonesian and Malay: the Negrito occupying
the mountain wilds of the islands, the Indonesian the fertile interior, especially of Luzon
and Mindanao, and the Malay occupying the
coastlands. I t is to be supposed that the littoral population is at present largely Malay, to
which have been added Chinese and European
elements, and in which still remains a remnant
of Negrito and Indonesian.
I n this work the students are classified as
types by the method given in the Introduction,
and in addition to the distinctive differences
denoted by the three cardinal anthropomorphic
characters, stature, cephalic index and nasal index, the types are characterized by differences
in the teeth, in the circumference of the forehead, parietal, occipital and frontal regions of
the head, in the dimensions of the face and
other factors.
The first type for consideration is the Iberian, the Filipino mestizo which resembles
closely the Eurafrican or Mediterranean race
of Sergi and Ripley, and is one of the most
distinct types. There are 25 students of this
type, of which 16 are evidently mestizos, and
the students come from the islands of Luzon
26

PHILIPPINE ISLANDERS
and Mindoro, many of them being from the
city of Manila.
T h e Iberian is of medium height, or tall,
with long, narrow head, face, and nose. The
individuals are thin, and the head and face are
small. A notable distinction is the large occipital and the small parietal circumference of
the head. Only one individual has hair that is
not straight; all have black hair, except one
that has fine brown hair; the average age is
less than that of the other types; and the teeth
are badly decayed.
The next type to be considered is the Primitive, and it is presented immediately after the
Iberian, because of the number of contrasts
between the two. The Primitive is one of the
fundamental types of the Orient, a fact that
has been established by the author, and its presence in other parts of the world, as asserted
by H a g e n , cannot be denied. Only nine students of this type occur in 377, a comparatively
small number, but the type is justified by its
distinctive character, and it is more homogeneous than if more latitude were allowed in its
segregation. The head is broad and short, the
nose and face are broad and short, and the stature is small. Two of the nine have wavy hair,
27

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
which may be an indication of Negrito elements; 40 per cent, have no decayed teeth,
and the average number of decayed teeth is 3
less than the Iberian; there are no mestizos
among them; they come largely from Luzon,
and a few are from the island of Leyte. The
cephalic index of this type is about 10 higher
than that of the Iberian, the nasal index is 12.6
higher, and the stature is 13.5 centimeters
lower. The face is 10 millimeters wider than
that of the Iberian, the parietal region of the
head is large, and the occipital region small in
relation to that of the Iberian. The teeth are
notably free from cavities or any irregularities,
and they are the best teeth among the 377
students. The age is a little more than that
of the Iberian; therefore the differences are
not due to less maturity, unless the Iberian
matures early and the Primitive late in life.
The type is believed to be a primary precursor
of the Filipino, and it is related morphologically to the Negrito.
Closely related to the Primitive is the Modified Primitive, which would be included with
the Primitive except for the fact that the average stature of the modified Primitive is 10
centimeters greater than that of the Primitive
28

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
and there is no overlapping of the extremes between them. The type is below the average
stature, however, very broad headed and
broad nosed, and has a short, wide face. The
frontal and parietal regions of the head are
relatively large, and the occipital region is relatively small. The teeth are sound, the individuals are further advanced in age, and the
weight is a little greater in proportion to stature than the average. Forty-six individuals of
this type appear, of whom none are mestizos
and seven have wavy or curly hair. They come
from the islands of Luzon, Negros, Panay,
Masbate, and Homblon, which suggests that
the Primitive type is generally distributed
throughout the Philippine archipelago.
The Australoid type may be considered at
this juncture because it is supposed to represent a mosaic of Iberian and Primitive. The
stature is below medium, the head is narrow,
the nose and face are broad. Thirty students
of this type appear, of whom only one has
wavy hair; the individuals are as young as the
Iberian and equally thin. They were born in
the islands of Luzon, Samar, Leyte, and
Albay.
The characteristics of this type may be em29

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
phasized by contrast with the Iberian, which it
resembles in head shape and stature, although it
is not so tall and long headed. The nasal index
of the Australoid is almost 20 higher than that
of the Iberian, the face index is 5.3 higher,
the number of decayed teeth is 20 per cent, less,
and there are twice the number of individuals
who have no decayed teeth, thus resembling the
iPrimitive in all these attributes. I believe that
this type represents a re-combination of the
characters of the Iberian and Primitive types
after crossing, and that it is one of the primary elements of the Filipino people. I t resembles the Senoi or Sakai of the Malay Peninsula, and similar types are found in many of
the islands adjacent to southeastern Asia.
Similar types are also found among the Negritos of the Philippines and other places.
The Alpine is apparently another mosaic of
the Iberian and Primitive types in which the
broad head of the Primitive and the long nose
of the Iberian are retained. The type is below
the average in stature, very broad headed, narrow nosed, and the face is intermediate in
breadth between that of the Iberian and the
Primitive. The head shape is like that of the
Iberian, except that the occipital circumference
30

PHILIPPINE

ISLANDERS

is 13 centimeters less, in which this type resembles the Primitive. There are 30 students of
this type, of whom eight are mestizos. They
were born in the islands of Luzon, Leyte, Negros, Mindanao, Marinduque, Lubong, and
the father of one is from Spain. Chinese elements are also noted, and the type represents
a mixture of Spaniards, Chinamen, and Filipinos.
The students of the B . B . B . type also have
indications of both Spanish and Chinese characteristics. Five are mestizos, 10 resemble
Chinese, and one has wavy hair. They come
entirely from the island of Luzon. The chief
characteristics of this type are stature above
the average, very wide head, but comparatively
narrow face and nose. The number of decayed
teeth is large and the age is above the average. The circumferences of the head are almost identical with those of the Primitive type,
but the stature is 8.7 centimeters more, and the
nasal index is 20.9 less. This appears to be
another of the mosaics of the Iberian and P r i m itive types, in which the stature and nose form
are Iberian and the head form is Primitive.
The Adriatic type is the last to be considered except the Blends. There are 24 individ31

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
uals of the Adriatic type, of whom 6 show evidence of European characters, one is a Chinese
mestizo, and three others resemble the Chinese.
The individuals come from the islands of
Luzon, Bohol, Panay, and Negros. The notable characteristics of this type are the stature,
which is 2 centimeters less than the average
stature of the white people of Europe and
America, the short, broad head and face, the
broad nose and the large frontal region of the
head. The average number of decayed teeth is
large, although a great many individuals have
no decayed teeth. The Adriatic type is an enlarged Primitive with the addition of European and Chinese characteristics.
The group of Blends is yet to be considered.
This group is analyzed by correlating the cephalic index, nasal index and stature. At one
extreme is found a tall element of 35 students
with mesocephalic heads and relatively narrow
noses who resemble the Cro-Magnon of prehistoric Europe. This race was noted for great
height; long, high, narrow head; prominent
occipital region; and large, square face. This
tall element has a sitting height 10 millimeters
more than the total for the group of Blends, the
head length is 5 millimeters more, the total face
32

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
height is 5 millimeters more, the bizygomatic
breadth is 2 millimeters more, and the circumference of each region of the head is 4 millimeters more; all of which brings this group
nearer to the dimensions of the prehistoric CroMagnon than is any other group of students.
At the other extreme of the blending type
an element is found with small stature, brachycephalic heads and relatively narrow noses,
thus resembling the Alpine type. There is also
an element with small stature, mesocephalic
heads and broad noses, that is intermediate between the Primitive and Australoid types; and
another element with tall stature, moderately
brachycephalic heads, and relatively narrow
noses that simulates both the B. B. B. and
Adriatic types. Finally there is an element
which predominates in numbers that has intermediate stature, moderately brachycephalic
heads, and relatively narrow noses, which appears to be the ultimate Blend of all the types,
and represents the Filipino of the future.
Negrito elements enter into the group of
Blends, as indicated by the curly-haired students of this group, of whom 2 per cent, are
found in the group with the cephalic index
about 80, 10 per cent, in the group with ceph3

33

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
alic index about 83, and 9 per cent, in the
group with cephalic index about 86. The increased percentage of curly hair with increase
of cephalic index points to Negrito rather than
E u r o p e a n influence, although the latter cannot be excluded in accounting for the curly
hair or the broad head.
The group of Blends, taken as a whole, is
below the average stature, the head is brachycephalic, and the nose is moderately broad; the
face is wide and short. The type is apparently molded more in body weight and stature
by the E u r o p e a n types, and more in head, face
and nose form by the Primitive and Australoid
types. This may be due to both natural selection and sexual selection. The most robust,
yet those with Oriental characteristics, have
survived, and these are the most likely ones to
be selected as mates in marriage.
Comparing the Iberian, Alpine, and Adriatic types, as established by Deniker in E u rope, with similar types found by me at the
University of Michigan, and contrasting these
with the types of the same name described
above, it is determined that the stature of each
type is greater in America than in E u r o p e and
greater in E u r o p e than in the Philippines; the
34

PHILIPPINE

ISLANDERS

cephalic index is higher in America than in
Europe, and higher in the Philippines than in
America, except that the Filipino Iberian is
taller than the E u r o p e a n Iberian, is more dolichocephalic than the American, and less so than
the E u r o p e a n ; and, finally, the nasal index of
the Filipino Iberian is notably greater than
that of either the E u r o p e a n or the American.
The greater height and nasal index and the
altered cephalic index of the Iberian type are
no doubt due to the inclusion of tall Iberians,
similar to the Northern type of E u r o p e , many
of whom are of Chinese extraction, and to the
influence of the Oriental types with whom they
have crossed.
I t seems justifiable to believe that types
similar to the E u r o p e a n Iberian, Alpine, Adriatic, B . B . B., Northern and Cro-Magnon
exist among the Filipinos, and that they have
been derived from E u r o p e a n sources in both
recent (Spanish) and remote times. The recent types, the Iberian, the Alpine and the
B . B . B . are more distinct than the remote
types, the Northern, the Adriatic and the CroMagnon, which may be due to greater blending
of the remote types with the Australoid and
Primitive or it may be that the three remote
35

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
types have been derived from the Chinese and
were already in a blended condition when they
reached the Philippines. I t is safe to say that
the Iberian, Alpine and B. B. B. represent
modified European types, the Northern, Adriatic and Cro-Magnon represent modified
Chinese types previously derived from Europe,
and the Primitive and Australoid represent
primary Filipino types.
M. Moszkowski, who investigated the physical characteristics of the people of East Sumatra, reports two types not Malays, the
Orang Akett and the Orang Sakei, who correspond in physical measurements with the
Primitive and Australoid students. The
Orang Akett, who are similar to the Primitive,
have woolly hair and resemble the Negrito, and
the Orang Sakei, who are similar to the Australoid, resemble the Veddahs of Ceylon and
the Senoi or Sakai of the Malay Peninsula. I
am therefore convinced that the Primitive and
Australoid students are closely related to these
forms, in spite of the absence of woolly hair
among them. In the Malay Peninsula, in the
Pacific Islands, and in parts of the Philippines,
the Negrito has remained more or less predominant, whereas along the littoral of the
36

PHILIPPINE ISLANDERS
Philippine Islands they have become incorporated in the immigrant population that has
maintained its predominance.
The word Malay has been avoided purposely so far because I have been unable to
decide to my own satisfaction what is the
Malay type, if there is such a type. My opinion is that the Malay is a composite of the Iberian from Europe, the Primitive from Asia, and
the Australoid from its primary center, wherever that may have been. Modified European
types such as the Alpine, Adriatic, B. B. B.,
Northern and Cro-Magnon also form a part
of the Malay population of the Philippines.
If the Australoid and Primitive types represent the original elements of the Filipinos,
and the other types represent modifications
caused by Europeans and Chinese, recent and
remote, then the individuals of the present population are larger than the original in all physical characters. Continued immigration, with
consequent interbreeding of Americans and
Chinese with the Filipinos, will result in further increase of size. With increase of size go
increase in bodily and mental vigor. Advance
on the part of the Filipinos will be coincident
with and incident to the continuation of the
37

THE RACIAL ANATOMY OF THE
amalgamation of the races, although better
nutrition, fewer animal parasites, and improved hygiene may assist in the advance.
The class standing of the students was obtained for the year in which they were measured, and it is treated by grouping the studies
into literature, which includes history, geography, languages and such general subjects;
mathematics, which includes, of course, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, etc.; and science, which
includes physics, chemistry, botany, zoology,
and practical courses necessitating handiwork.
The average of each group of studies is determined first for each type, and to this is added
the number of students of the type with a
grade of 80 or over, and, in addition, the
number of students with a grade of 90 or over;
after which is subtracted the number of students of the type with a grade of 69 or less,
and from this at last is subtracted the number
of students with a grade of 59 or less. I n this
way the high and low grade students are given
an additional count; and the type average may
thereby be altered u p or down if the type contains many good or bad students.
The most striking result of the grading is
that the Australoid has the lowest grade, with
38

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
the Iberian and Blends close seconds, and all
the others have about the same grade. The
Iberian and Australoid have better grades in
Mathematics than in other subjects, although
disregarding the Blend, theirs are the lowest
grades in this subject. The Alpine has the
highest grade in mathematics and this is the
highest grade of any type in any subject. The
Blends have a lower total grade than the types,
and the grade of the Blends is particularly low
in mathematics. I t is high in science, however,
whereas the types have a high grade in mathematics and a low grade in science. The class
standing of only three Primitive individuals
was obtained. Disregarding the average and
considering the individuals only, there is evident high class standing of at least two of these
in mathematics, and one student has a high
mark in all three departments. Whatever the
physical condition of the Primitive type, there
is no evidence of mental deficiency, at least in
the three students whose grades were examined.
It is of interest to note the fact that the types
of students with a large amount of Chinese
admixture have the highest class standing > the
;
types that represent a mixture of Spanish and
39

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
Filipino elements have the lowest class standing; and the types that represent the original
Filipino have a low and intermediate class
standing. I t is also noteworthy that the types
with a well developed frontal region have a
high class standing.
When the relative number of extremely
good and extremely bad students is considered
with the mediocre, it is found that a greater
number of the extremes are represented in
mathematics than in either science or literature; many students are either very good or
very poor in mathematics. Omitting the extremes, the students have a lower grade in
mathematics, where imagination and reason are
important, than in science and literature, where
handiwork and memory are important.
MENDELISM AND STUDENT TYPES

When the types of Manila students are
compared with the polyhybrids resulting from
the crossing of two unlike tomato plants, great
similarity is found between the number of student types and the number of polyhybrids, and
the relative numerical proportion of individuals to each type.
Price and Drinkard obtained eight forms of
40

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
tomato plants upon crossing the Yellow Pear
which is characterized by "pyriform shape and
yellow color of fruit and green foliage" with
the Honor Bright, which possesses "the three
opposite attributes of round or spherical fruit
shape, red fruit color, and yellow foliage
color." "In this cross there was noted complete dominance of green foliage color, red
fruit color, and round fruit shape."
Suppose the green foliage color to represent
the small stature, the red| fruit color the round
head, and the round fruit shape the broad nose;
then the three characters combined represent
the Primitive type. The three opposite characters, tall stature, long head, and narrow nose,
represent the northern type of Europe, which
is not found among the Filipino students. If
two such types have crossed in the production
of the Filipino, then all possible combinations
of the three characters constituting the two
types should be found according to the law of
Mendel relating to polyhybrids as formulated
by Price and Drinkard:
" When parents differing with respect to
more than one pair of characters are crossed
all possible combinations of these characters
will be found in the F 2 generation and these
41

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OP T H E
combinations will occur in a definite numerical
proportion." The following table shows the
theoretical requirements for a Mendelian trihybrid, the actual proportions secured from 40
plants of the tomato as a result of the cross
of the Yellow Pear and the Honor Bright by
Price and Drinkard, and the proportion of
each type found among the 377 students of the
Trade and Normal schools at Manila, with the
proportions previously given of the types of
advanced students and instructors at the University of Michigan.
MENDELISM AND STUDENT TYPES.—PERCENTAGES

Mendelian trihy- Tomato
brid, theoretical hybrid,
forty
(per cent.)
plants
42

37.5

ii
14
14
5
5
5
11

7.5
25.0
17.5
2 5
2.5
5 0
2.5

Filipino types,
Manila students

P r i m i t i v e and
modified
30
Primitive
16
16
Australoid
13
14
Iberian
11
B. B . B
?
Cro-Magnon
0.0
Northern

American types,
students and instructors, University of
Michigan
33
Kelt
Adriatic
Vistulian
Iberian

95
23
5
4
4
4
2

I t is to be noted that the eight European
types are not the same as the eight Filipino
types, although two factors, stature and cephalic index, are the same, therefore the types
are similar but not necessarilv identical. I t is
42

PHILIPPINE

ISLANDERS

further to be noted that the type which predominates in America, the Northern, is absent
in the Philippines, and the type which predominates in the Philippines, the Primitive, is
absent in Ajuerica, or else these types have become modified. This may be an indication of
the breeding out of extraneous elements in a
population that has crossed with a foreign
type. (Cf. Chapter V I I I . )
I t is conceivable that the union of two diverse types, the Primitive and the Northern
(Iberian), miay have produced all of the types
in a manner similar to the production of tomato hybrids by the crossing of the Yellow
P e a r and the Plonor Bright. The facts are
suggestive, although not entirely in accord
with the known composition of the groups of
people examined. I t is known that the E u r o pean, the Chinese and the Negrito enter into
the composition of the Filipino people, indications of which have been presented in this
chapter. The composition of the population
of E u r o p e is diverse, although the most pronounced types are similar to the Primitive (Alpine) and Northern (Iberian).
The types of many groups may represent
by the chance distribution in a random sam43

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
pie, similar types of which the various peoples
of the group are composed. I t may be that
each of the peoples of the earth is composed
of eight types and when the different peoples
are brought together the fusion of the elements
by chance distribution following Mendel's laws
results in only eight types, the preponderance
of one over another depending upon the relative preponderance of similar types among the
peoples who unite. Suppose that the Primitive
and Australoid preponderate among the Negritos, the Alpine, B. B. B., and Adriatic
among the Chinese, and the Iberian, Northern
and Cro-Magnon among the Europeans, then
the relative proportion of these types in any
part of the Filipino population would indicate
the relative proportion of the three peoples in
that part of the population. Among the students, therefore, the Chinese element is large
and the European and Negrito elements are
small.
The study of the students by the method of
grouping reveals types that apparently represent character-complexes composed of unit
characters that obey Mendel's laws in heredity.
A character-complex; is a group of characters,
such as the small stature, broad head and broad
44

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
nose of the Primitive, that hangs together in
heredity or breaks up when crossed with another character-complex, such as the tall stature, long head, and long nose of the Northern,
in the formation of new character-complexes
which are recombinations in all possible ways
of the individual characters, the original character-complexes being also retained.
Additional differentiating factors besides
those used for the students should be utilized in
the analysis of groups of individuals, therefore
the measurement of the body parts in addition
to the head measurements and stature was undertaken in the study of the Igorots, which
follows.

CHAPTER

II

T H E B E N G U E T , L E P A N T O AND BONTOC IGOROTS

P

R E V I O U S to my investigations of the
physical characteristics of the Igorots,
no such study had been made of this people, and I was surprised to find individuals
among them resembling the European, as
shown in the picture on the opposite page
( F i g . 5 ) . The Igorots live in the Mountain
Province of Luzon, which includes not only
the old Provinces of Benguet, Lepanto and
Bontoc, but other sub-provinces have been
added to it, until now it contains all of the most
mountainous region of Northern Luzon. The
mountains of this region are called the Cordillera Central del Norte of the island, some of
the most inaccessible portions of which lie
north of Benguet in Lepanto and Bontoc.
Baguio, the capital of the Mountain Province, is somewhat less than 300 kilometers due
north of Manila, about 30 kilometers east of
the coast, and at an altitude of 1,500 meters
above sea level. I t has a temperate climate
46

FIG. 5.—The Iberian Filipino. Iberian ears, type
A. A head-hunter from the Bontoc Igorot tribe of
northern Luzon.

PHILIPPINE

ISLANDERS

and is located among pine hills on an irregular
plateau southwest of the center of Benguet at
the terminus of one of the most remarkable
highways of the world. T h e latter is to a large
extent carved out of solid rock and suspended
in midair over the deep canon of the Bued
River. The plateau on which Baguio is located rises northward along the west of the
Province in the form of a group of rugged
mountains intersected by small streams that
cut their way through narrow gorges to Lingayan Gulf and the China Sea, passing
through Pangasinan as well as Union Provinces, the latter inhabited by Ilocanos, one of
the most thrifty and energetic people of the
Philippines, and great colonizers. The Ilocanos form the littoral population of the western coast of northern Luzon and have penetrated the mountains to some extent. The
eastern part of Benguet from its extreme
northern end to its southern limit is drained by
the tributaries of the A g h o River, beyond
which are mountains separating it from the
Province of Nueva Viscaya on the east. Benguet is thus divided into mountain and valley,
or highland and lowland, and except over the
Benguet Road, or by rough mountain trails,
47

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
the entire Province is inaccessible. The gorges
of the rivers that pass out of the mountains are
filled with water during the rainy season, their
beds are rough, the sides precipitous and the
mountains steep and rugged, so that both
mountains and rivers form very difficult ways
of entry. The mountains are being riddled with
trails that have a grade of less than 10 per
cent., many of which can be widened and utilized as wagon roads in the future; the most
audacious of these is now nearing completion
and will connect Benguet with Lepanto and
Bontoc.
The inhabitants of this isolated region could
have arrived only by crossing high and rugged
mountains, or by picking their way along the
beds of the rivers during the dry season.
Whether they came of their own accord or
were forced from the coastlands by other peoples may never be known. I believe the Igorots pushed into the mountains as bold pioneers in much the same way that the Puritan,
the Scotch-Irish and the Cavalier crossed the
Appalachians and settled the western part of
the United States. They probably exterminated or absorbed any previous inhabitants and
have built for themselves enduring monuments
48

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
in their rock-ribbed and terraced rice paddies,
and in the rock shelters for their dead. Their
muscular development is phenomenal, due no
doubt to their incessant mountain climbing and
burden bearing, and compares favorably with
that of the world's best athletes. Their laws
and customs are founded on justice and equity,
and measure for measure is the quality of their
execution. Civilization has not yet greatly affected the Igorots and they are being protected from its evil influences as carefully as
sedulous officials can protect them. They are
one of the few uncivilized communities that
civilization has touched but not defiled.
I made excursions to points near Baguio
from time to time, and obtained a few measurements at the Benguet Sanitarium and
among the camps of laborers located in the vicinity of the town. The greater number of the
individuals measured were young men, and
they represent the Igorot population of their
section fairly well. Trips were made to Atok,
Tublay and Capangan for the purpose of making the survey of the people as representative
as possible.
The people of Atok, in the western part of
Benguet, are a characteristic group of Igo4

49

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
rots and represent the mountain or highland
people especially well. Atok is a bold point that
juts out from the surrounding mountains at
an altitude of 2,000 meters above the sea level,
and its precipitous sides furnish a barrier almost impassable in time of attack. The inhabitants of this region were the last to come under
the jurisdiction of the United States of America, and it was only by superior force of arms
that they finally submitted. They live on their
rocky fortress, work the paddy fields of the
valley below, and return to their stronghold
at night. They are a self-reliant and progressive people, with sound judgment and wise deliberation in their councils. * The administration of their affairs is in their own hands under
the guidance of the governor of the Province.
Their chief baknon (old man) has already
roofed his house with galvanized iron for protection from the tremendous downpours of rain
which are so frequent in this region, and others
are following his example.
Men and women are on practically an equal
footing. The men work away from home for
means to provide food, shelter, and draft animals (for working the paddy fields), and when
at home the men care for the children. The
50

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
women work at home raising the small crops
(camoteSj coffee, etc.), prepare the food, and
assist the men in the transportation of surplus
products to distant markets over steep mountain trails, acting with them as common carriers. The women also have a voice in the councils and often exercise a controlling influence.
The life of the Igorots is an existence of ideal
sexual equality in many respects, and civilized
nations might profit by their example.
The physical characteristics of the Igorots
will be presented first by a consideration of the
stature and the length of the body parts, and
second by a consideration of the head form and
physiognomy, with descriptions and actual
measurements. Observations were made of
many hundreds of Igorots, and actual measurements compassed 104 adult males, 16 years
and over, 10 adult females, and 30 boys between the ages of 5 and 15 years, inclusive.
The Igorots may be grouped for convenience
into those from Lepanto and Bontoc, of whom
there are 14 adult males, those from the mountains of western Benguet, of whom there are
46 adult males, and those from the Agno
River valley, including Baguio and vicinity, of
whom there are 44 adult males. The three
51

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
groups will be called Bontoc, Highland and
Lowland for purposes of description, comparison and contrast.
STATURE

The Igorots are a people of small stature
(below 160 centimeters) although many individuals are above the average (165 centimeters) and some are tall (above 170 centimeters). The average or mean stature of 104
adult males and 10 adult females is 154.0 centimeters and 146.7 centimeters, respectively.
The stature varies directly with the altitude,
but probably this variation is not due to the
effects of mountain or river, but to the difference in type of the individuals making up the
population. The accessible parts have been influenced by infusions of blood from outside
the Province, whereas the inhabitants of the
inaccessible regions are more like the original
type. However, it is possible that outsiders
of a bold and daring nature penetrated to the
most inaccessible regions, and these may have
been tall individuals who increased the average stature by their presence and by their
progeny.
The individuals of the three groups, Bontoc,
52

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
Highland and Lowland, may be divided into
those of small, those of intermediate, and those
of tall stature. The stature of the small individuals varies around that of the Negrito (148
centimeters) ; that of the tall individuals
around that of the European (165 centimeters) ; and the stature of the greatest number
of individuals around that of the Malay (154
centimeters). The three groups of Atok are
slightly taller and the three groups of Baguio
and vicinity are slightly smaller than the figures given, but the three groups are represented there as definitely as elsewhere. The
conclusion from the examination of the stature
alone is that at least three groups of people
make up the Igorot population, and these
three groups are represented in each community, although more of the tall men are from
Bontoc, more of the small men are from the
Lowlands and more of the men of intermediate
height are from the Highlands.
Sexual differences cannot be stated fairly,
because so few women were measured, but it
may be of interest to note them. The mean
stature of the ten female Igorots is 146.7 centimeters, which is greater than it should be in
relation to that of the men. The usual sexual
53

THE RACIAL ANATOMY OF THE
difference is seven per cent., the female less
than the male, but the stature of the Igorot
women is 1.8 per cent, nearer that of the men,
the sexual difference of the Igorots is therefore
only 5.2 per cent.
The stature of the Igorots is a racial character and not a local condition, because racial
differences in stature are characteristic and
persistent, although local conditions acting on
the same people for many thousand years may
effect a change in stature that becomes a part
of the inheritance.
The stature of the boys as contrasted with
that of the adult males, and the relation of
growth to age deserve consideration. The ages
given are not exact in every instance, because
the age is determined by the number of rice
harvests since the birth of the individual, but
as the rice harvest is annual, this method of
record is fairly accurate.
The two most significant features of the
relation of stature to age are apparently the
early maturity of the Igorots and their acquisition of their maximum stature at an earlier
age than Europeans. The growth of the Igorot is similar to that of the European, but it
is more rapid. The Igorot male is relatively
54

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
as well developed at the age of 16 years as the
European at 18, and the relative growth of
the Igorot boy is intermediate between that of
the European girl and the European boy. The
maximum height of the Igorot is reached between 20 and ,30, that of the European ten
years later. The stature of the different groups
of Igorots varies directly with the altitude and
inaccessibility of their location, but the rate
of growth, the time of maturity, and the actual
height are characteristics of the stock and not
due to environment.
EXTREMITIES

The Igorots are essentially short-armed, although there are long-armed individuals, and
the three groups show differences in the absolute length as well as the relative length.
The proportions of the body parts may be
discussed by dividing them into groups; the
upper extremity consists of upper arm, forearm and hand; the lower extremity consists of
upper leg, lower leg and ankle; and the body
consists of head, neck and trunk.
According to the absolute and relative
lengths of the upper extremity as a whole, and
of its three parts, the Lowland Igorots corre55

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY O F T H E
spond closely to the Senoi of the Malay Peninsula, and are similar to the Negrito, whereas the Bontoc and Highland Igorots are more
like the other Malays of the Peninsula, and
similar to the European, but unlike the negro.
The relative hand length of the Igorots from
Bontoc is the same as that of the European,
whereas the hand of the Highland, and of the
Lowland as well, is unlike the European, Chinese, or negro, because it is relatively shorter.
The absolute and the relative lengths of the
entire upper extremity, and of each of its parts
are slightly less for the women than for any
group of the men, except that the hands of
the men and women of the Highland group are
exactly the same in relative length.
The absolute and relative length of the lower
extremity is greatest for the Bontoc, least for
the Lowland, and intermediate for the Highland Igorots. The women have absolutely and
relatively shorter legs than the men of the
Highland group, with whom they should always be compared, because they belong to that
group.
The lengths of the integral parts of the lower
extremity are relatively the same as that found
for the entire lower extremity, namely, the
56

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
Bontoc has the longest limb parts, absolutely
and relatively, the Lowland has the shortest,
and the Highland Igorot has an intermediate
length.
The relative length of the upper leg follows
the absolute, as does the relative length of the
entire lower extremity, therefore one may say
the length of the lower extremity is determined
by the length of the upper leg, which in its turn
determines the stature of the individual. In
other words, the correlation of the stature, the
length of the entire lower extremity and the
upper leg length is pronounced. The same is
not true of the lower leg, but rather the opposite. With absolute increase of length of the
lower leg, the relative length decreases, therefore the smallest Igorots have relatively the
longest lower legs. A striking similarity between the forearm and lower leg is noticed.
The smallest individuals have relatively the
longest forearms and lower legs, whereas the
tallest individuals present the reverse.
The dimensions of the extremities of the Igorots, both absolute and relative, rank as low as
any other people that have no Negrito blood,
and they approach closely the Negrito and related peoples, approximating the Senoi or
57

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY O F T H E
Sakai of the Malay Peninsula, the Japanese,
the Ainos, and the Cochin Chinese.
The Bontoc Igorots in general resemble the
European in the dimensions of the limb parts,
the Highland Igorots resemble the Malays,
and the Lowland Igorots resemjble the Negritos.
The shoulder width and the width of the hips
may be compared in this connection, to determine the relationships of the Igorots and their
differences from other peoples. The shoulders
of the men are relatively (to the stature) wider
than those of the womjen and the Lowland men
have the widest shoulders. The hips of the
women are relatively wider than those of the
men. The hip breadth divided by the shoulder
breadth is naturally greater among the women,
but this is much less for the Igorots than for
Europeans. The Bontoc and Highland Igorots approach the European more closely than
do the Lowland. The difference between the
Bontoc and the French men, as given by Topinard, is 5.2 per cent., and the difference between the Igorot women and the French women is 10.6 per cent. The reason for this
disparity on the part of the Igorot women is
not so much in poorly developed hips as in
58

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
well-developed shoulders, due to field work and
burden bearing.
The Igorots are intermediate between the
European and the negro in relative hip
breadth.
T H E BODY PARTS AND THE AUTISTIC CANON

The body length, including the head, neck
and trunk, is inverse to that of the lower extremity; the Lowland has the longest, the Bontoc the shortest, and the Highland is intermediate. The body of the women is relatively
longer than that of the men. The body of the
Igorots is relatively longer than that of the
Europeans, and slightly greater than that of
the Malays of the Peninsula, according to
Martin.
The neck presents unexpected differences,
because presumably the neck of the long man
would be longer than the neck of the short one,
whereas the neck of the Highland Igorot is
the shortest, even shorter than that of the
women, absolutely and relatively; that of the
Lowland is longer than the others, even longer
than that of the Bontoc. The women have relatively as long necks as any of the men; although they are not exactly swanlike, there is
59

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY O F T H E
symmetry and beauty in their lines and; proportions.
When a typical Igorot is compared with the
normal European woman's figure as given by
152.6

153

30.0

28.0
66.1

67.0
21.0

21.3

16.8

16.0
40.2

40.3
80.6

35.2 (?)
34.1

F I G . 6.—Absolute length (in centimeters) of the body parts of a Senoi man
(left figure) and an Igorot man (right figure).

Merkel, according to the canon of Fritsch, it
is noticed that there is no great disparity between the two in the relative proportions of
the body parts. The neck and the upper part
60

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
of the head of the woman are longer than those
parts of the Igorot, whereas the body and the
legs of the Igorot are slightly longer than
those of the woman. The abdomen (waist)
of the woman is longer, the umbilicus higher
than in the Igorot.
The canon of Fritsch takes as its standard
the length of the vertebral column, and the
other body measurements are compared with
this. The length of the vertebral column is
equal to the distance from the pubis to the tip
of the nose or the nasal spine. With this basis
photographs may be made an adjunct of anthropometry when interpreting the length relations of the body parts. The artistic modulus, which is the total head height from chin to
vertex in relation to the stature, may be used
in like manner. The modulus of Geyer, which
is the stature equal to 8 total head heights, is
said to be the artistic ideal for the European,
although this may have to be modified slightly.
An average individual Igorot, then, resembles in form the woman of Europe, and represents a protomorph of the nature folk, according to the division of mankind by Stratz into
three groups, protomorphs or nature folk,
archimorphs or highly differentiated people,
61

THE RACIAL ANATOMY OF THE
and metamorphs or mixed racesc The protomorphs are short in stature with relatively long

1- b

2-

4-

F I G . 7.—The left side of the figure (solid lines) is MerkeFs standard
female European according to the canon of Fritsch, and on the right side
(dotted lines) is a typical Igorot (No. 52) according to the same canon, a
and b point to the chin.

total head height, which is in the lower face
and not in the cranium, and their arms are
relatively long, in which they differ from the
62

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
European according to the canon of Fritsch
and the modulus of Geyer. They include the
Australian, Papuan, Hottentot, American Indian, Eskimo, Philippine Negrito, and the African pigmies. The archimorphs are the leukoderma or white, the melanoderm or black and
the xanthoderm or yellow. The melanoderms
are relatively short in stature, long in arm, and
short in upper head height, according to the
European standard by the modulus and canon
given above. By the same standards the xanthoderms are relatively short in stature, in
length of leg and in upper head height. The
metamorphs are mixtures of the other groups,
and are found along the zones between the
black, white and yellow races; principally in
northern Africa, eastern and southern Asia
and in the islands of the Pacific. This classification is artificial or superficial rather than
fundamental, based as it is on linear measurements only, and these largely through the
means of photographs. However, it may serve
in a general way, and by its indications the Igorots belong to the pigmies of the earth. This
may be established more in detail by the examination of the head form, but before this
is presented it may be well to note that the
Igorots are not all protomorphs.
63

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY O F T H E
Igorot No. 60 on the left in figure 8 is tall
and dolichocephalic, and is almost exactly like
the European according to the canon of Fritsch
and the modulus of Geyer, except for the

F I G . 8.—The solid lines are Europeans, the broken lines Igorots. The
figure on the left represents an Igorot man (No. 60), stature 168 centimeters,
from the highlands. The middle figure represents an Igorot man (No. 3),
stature 155 centimeters, from Bontoc. The figure on the right represents an
Igorot man (No. 83), stature 142 centimeters, from the lowlands. The left
half of each figure (solid lines) is the European standard male canon of
Fritsch, modified to the Igorot stature, and the right half of the figure
(broken lines) is the Igorot canon of Fritsch. The horizontal lines numbered
1 to 8 indicate the number of total head heights in the Igorot's stature according to the artistic modulus of Geyer. The lines a and b point to the chin.

slightly longer arm and forearm and the short
hand. The Igorot to the right of this in the
same figure is intermediate in height and is
mesocephalic, and resembles the European ac64

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
cording to the same standards, except in total
head height and the length of the upper extremity, both of which are greater than the
European, and resemble the protomorph. The
Igorot on the right of the figure is small and
brachycephalic, and resembles the European
in total head height, but the stature, body
length, leg length, and arm length with all its
parts are different and resemble the protomorph. The characters which the three Igorots have in common, and in which they differ
from the European, are long bodies, short legs,
long arms, short hands, long lower head height
(chin to nasion), and short upper head height
(nasion to vertex). The tall Igorot from Bontoc and the Highlands is most like the white
man in these characters, and the small man
from the Lowlands is least like him. I t is understood, therefore, that individual Igorots resemble the European, others resemble the protomorph, whereas others represent mosaics,
having characters of both the European and
the protomorph.
Judged by the canon of Fritsch, by the artistic modulus of Geyer, and according to the
classification of Stratz, as well as the normal
woman's figure of Merkel, the Igorot has char5

65

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
acters of the protomorph, the xanthoderm, and
the leukoderm; does not resemble the melanoderm, but is in reality a metamorph. I t may
be presumed, therefore, that the Igorot has
elements of the Negrito, the Mongolian and
the European in his composition, judging by
the linear dimensions of his body parts.
HEAD FORM

The head form may be discussed by considering first the head outlines, afterwards the actual dimensions of the head.
The head outlines utilized represent the contour of the sagittal plane of the head from the
glabella to the inion. They are treated as composites in groups, according to cephalic index
and by locality and will be compared with similar outlines of students' heads taken at the
University of Michigan, and of the negroes'
heads made in Baltimore (see Introduction),
The dolichocephalic heads are the largest, the
brachycephalic are the smallest and the mesocephalic are intermediate in size. The forehead
of the brachycephalic protrudes slightly and
the occipital region is flattened. The head of
the Igorot is tall and short, that of the student
is long and low, and that of the negro is about
66

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
the same length as that of the Igorot, the same
height as that of the student, and lower than
either in the frontal region, except that the brachycephalic negroes have a high frontal area,
and the brachycephalic students have a higher
head outline than the others. I t is suggested
that the generous musculature of the Igorot
causes an increase in the height of the head by
increasing the size of the somaesthetic area of
the brain, and the bearing of heavy burdens in
childhood may cause a hypertrophy of the vertex of the head during the development of the
individual. Other facts, such as the children
sleeping on hard floors and the strapping of
loads on their backs by head bands across the
forehead, cannot be excluded, nor can it be said
that the head height is not a racial character.
The Highland Igorots have longer, higher
heads than the Lowland Igorots, and the Bontoc head is longer than the head of the others,
but not so high as that of the Highland. This
is an additional differentiating factor between
the three groups, and again the Bontoc is more
like the white, whereas the Lowland is less so
than the others.
The cephalic index of the head may be reduced to the cephalic index of the skull by de67

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY O F T H E
ducting 10 millimeters from each diameter of
the head, and the index may then be classified
with advantage by the method of von Torok
according to the diameters of the skull into
small, medium and large, which may be represented by the letters s, m, and 1, respectively.
The symbols may be arranged so that those
above the .line represent the head width and
those below represent the head length, when it
is seen that the heads of the Igorots fall almost entirely in the m/m group or those of
medium size. There are no heads larger than
medium size, but there are 9 small ones, 7 of
which are brachycephalic; the smallest head of
the series, however, is dolichocephalic. There
is a preponderance of dolichocephalic heads
(41) over brachycephalic (18), which indicates
that the Igorots are largely a dolichocephalic
people, with medium sized heads, and that the
brachycephalic portion of the population has
small heads.
A more detailed analysis reveals the relationship of the head form in different localities.
I t is to be seen that the Bontoc group is fundamentally dolichocephalic, the Highland is
largely dolichocephalic and mesocephalic,
whereas the Lowland is for the greater part
68

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
mesocephalic and brachycephalic. The Bontoc group has not only a larger percentage
of dolichocephalic heads and a smaller of mesocephalic and brachycephalic than the other
groups, but there are no small heads in the
Bontoc group.
The Igorots are more dolichocephalic than
the eastern Asiatic people/ but less so than the
tribes of India. The Bontoc and Highland
groups are higher headed than any of the people of the Malay Peninsula or of eastern Asia,
except the southern Perak Malays, who are
four per cent, higher.
As the Lowland Igorots, who are largely
brachycephalic, have low heads, and the Bontoc
Igorots, who are dolichocephalic, have high
heads, it is to be presumed that dolichocephalic,
or long heads, are high, and brachycephalic, or
short heads, are low. The reverse is known to
be true, however, although when I first noticed
the group variation I thought the Igorots
might be different in this respect from other
people. A closer examination of the cephalic
index reveals the fact that the dolichocephalic
heads of the Lowland group are very low,
which influences the average of the group so
as to lower it. There are high long-heads and
69

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
low long-heads, the latter found largely in the
Lowlands, the former in the Highlands.
The widest head breadth compared with the
narrowest forehead breadth gives a great difference between the Bontoc and Lowland
groups. The Bontoc, with the narrowest head,
has the widest forehead, and the Lowland with
a wider head, has the narrowest. The women
have relatively wider foreheads than the men.
The forehead of the Igorots is wider than that
of the inhabitants of the Malay Peninsula, or
of other Malays, as wide as the Northern Chinese, and a little less wide than the Aino.
T H E PHYSIOGNOMY

The morphologic face height is the distance
from the chin to the nasion; and the physiognomic face height is from the chin to the hair
line. The dimensions are practically the same
for the Bontoc and Highland groups, but the
Lowland group is smaller in every particular.
The face width of the Bontoc and Highland is
greater than that of the inhabitants of the
Malay Peninsula, and is nearer that of the
Chinese, Japanese, and Ainos. The physiognomy of the women is less in its dimensions
than that of the men.
70

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
The index of the physiognomy, which indicates the relative face width, is greatest for the
mountain division and least for the Bontoc. I t
is greater for the Igorots than for the Japanese and Malays, but it is less than that
of the Aino. The women's faces are relatively
wider than the men's. The morphologic index which indicates the relative length of
the face below the eyes is greatest for the
Lowland and least for the Bontoc. I t is less
than that of any other Eastern Asiatic peoples,
although the Mantra are about the same.
The Highland has the least lower face, chin
to nasion, the Lowland the greatest, and the
Bontoc and the women are exactly intermediate. The Highland has the greatest total head
height, chin to vertex, the longest physiognomy, and the shortest lower face, therefore his
frontal cranial height is the greatest of all the
Igorots. This is true also of the auricular
bregmatic height, and the head outlines show
the same, therefore the several measurements
corroborate each other. The artistic modulus
of the Bontoc is nearer that of the Europeans
than are the others.
The measurements of the mouth may be dismissed by stating that the lips of the Igorots
71

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY O F T H E
are full, but not thick and protruding like those
of the negro, nor is the mouth so large. The
Bontoc and the women have smaller mouths
than the Highland and Lowland Igorots.
Cunningham gives the nasal index of 23
Australians (native males) which " are ranged
in the immediate vicinity of 94 " with extremes
of 79 and 104. This at once suggests a relationship between the Australian aboriginal and
the Igorot.
The nasal index of the dolichocephalic Lowland Igorots is 99.4, that of the brachycephalic
is 85, indicating that the two types differ in
nasal index as well as cephalic index. The extremes of nasal index found among the Igorots are 72 and 115.
The women of the Malay Peninsula have
narrower noses than the men, the Igorot
women wider.
The eyes of the Bontoc are the narrowest
and they are also more widely separated than
those of the others. Those of the Highland
group are the widest and they are also the closest together; the Lowland is between the other
two in eye width and inter-eye distance. The
eyes of the women are narrower than those of
72

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
the men, but the same distance apart as the
group to which they belong.
iThe artistic conception of the European eye
is that it should be equal in width to the distance between the two eyes, and the artists add
that the mouth should be one and one-half times
the eye in width of opening. The Igorots have
a smaller mouth and greater distance between
the eyes than the artistic ideal for the European.
The relative number of brown individuals increases in the Highland and reaches its limit in
the Lowland. The lightest colored individuals
are found in the Highlands. The one goldenbrown individual of the Lowlands is a young
man who for several years has been a servant
in an American family, where he worked principally indoors and wore the regular European
clothes of the Tropics.
The hair is invariably black, straight, and
coarse. A few individuals with wavy hair were
observed, but not one of those measured had
a noticeable wave in the hair. This is remarkable when one considers how closely the Igorot
resembles the Negrito in other characters. I
can account for the predominance of the
straight hair in one way only—that in the
73

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
course of centuries the kink has disappeared
leaving only an occasional trace, such as the
few wavy-haired individuals I observed casually, and those noticed by Jenks among the
Bontoc Igorots. The wavy-haired individuals
probably belong to the Senoi type of Martin.
The brows of the Igorots are never so beetling, and the brow ridges never so prominent
as among the Filipinos of the coasts and other
parts of the Islands. However, there is a slight
difference of the size of the superciliary ridges
among the Igorots which may be presented in
three groups, small, medium, and large.
S K I N COLOR

The skin of the Igorot is characteristically
light brown, but the tint varies with individuals and it is different in different families.
The influence of light and shade may be noticed; those who work in the sun are darker
than those who serve in the house, and the
women and children are lighter than the men.
The whole family of one chief, including several young men and women who stay indoors
a great deal, is so light brown in color as to be
classed as yellow. I n a few individuals a tinge
of red may be seen, or the face appears
74

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
bronzed, some Igorots strikingly resembling
the North American Indian. The coloring
shows a trend towards lightness rather than the
reverse, and this is manifested most strongly
among the Bontocs.
THREE SELECTED TYPES

When the 104 adult male Igorots are separated into the three groups, dolichocephalic,
mesocephalic, and brachycephalic, and these
groups are subdivided according to the shape
of the head outlines, three types, two dolichocephalic and one brachycephalic, are separated
with ease. The remainder could be subdivided
with difficulty, and they are not so treated
because the individuals resemble one or the
other of the three types, into which they shade
insensibly. The types may be summarized as
follows:
Type M.—The individuals of this type are
petty chiefs, councilors, etc., who reside chiefly
in Bontoc and the highlands of Benguet. They
may be differentiated from other Igorots by
their tallness and occasional light, goldenbrown skin, heavy brows, slightly aquiline nose,
and large ears that have a square lobule, the
lower border of which terminates abruptly
75

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
against the corners of the mandible. Other
distinguishing characters are the head length
and height and the forehead width, which are
greater than those found in any other group
of Igorots. The relatively long leg, and small
brachial index are characteristics to be emphasized. The cephalic index, nasal index, and
ear index are the smallest found. Otherwise
stated, the head, nose, and ears are longer and
narrower than any others. The eyes are also
farther apart, and the upper head is relatively
higher than the lower face, which is broad, but
not long.
Type A.—The members of this type are
laborers (farmers, police, etc.) from all parts
of Benguet and from Bontoc. Their differential descriptive characters are the unusually
small stature, brown or dark brown skin, large,
wide, Australoid nose, rounded or oval ear without lobule, and the relatively broad shoulders.
Their long, low, oval, flat-topped head with
bombe forehead and narrow eyes are distinctive. The arm and forearm are relatively
short, anpl the brachial index is low.
Type N.—This type may be recognized
readily by its small stature, brown skin, delicate brow ridges, small, round head with exces76

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
sively developed parietal and temporal regions,
narrow, retreating forehead, short nose, small
round ears, and projecting jaws. The individuals of this type have relatively long arms and
forearms, short hands, and a high brachial index. The cephalic index is high, the nasal
index high and the ear index high. Especially
to be noted are the relatively high total head
height due to the large lower face, and the
narrow space between the eyes. The characters in which the three types resemble each
other are nasal index, hair, relative shoulder
width, eye width, relative leg length and
relative hand length, and it may be said that
these characters are more representative of
the Igorots than any other, unless it be
eye color which is so uniformly brown in all
Igorots, that no records are made. The differentiating characters are chiefly stature, skin
color, ears, head length, brachial index, cephalic index, total head height, relative lower face
height, and the distance between the eyes.
The three types are designated M A N for
obvious reasons, and because they resemble
types almost always associated with the Malay,
the Australoid and the Negrito. They resemble the Iberian, the Australoid and the Primi77

THE RACIAL ANATOMY OF THE
tive of the students, although type M is more
like the student B. B. B. or Cro-Magnon.
Type N is in many respects like the Negrito,
and is positively identified with the protomorphs of Stratz, and the Primitiven of
Hagen. Type A is not unlike the Negritos,
and the broad nose, smiall stature and long
head place it with similar peoples of the East
that are found associated with the Negritos.
Type M, however, is of different origin and
clearly related to the European, although not
unmixed with other types.
Besides these distinct types the remainder
of the individuals belong to other types that
are not so definite but harmonize with the
blends. Thus a form with intermediate characteristics in stature, cephalic index and nasal
index is the predominant type and may represent that from which the others are derived or
it may be the product of the fusion of the other
types, or such a form may be a distinct type
and its identity is lost because it harmonizes
with the blends of all the types.
To summarize the study of the physical
characteristics of the Igorots it may be said
that actual measurements were made of the
limb and body parts, of the head and face, and
78

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
of the stature. These have been worked over
by obtaining the averages and extremes, calculating indices and relative factors, comparing these among the Igorots by locality, and
with other peoples, directly, and by means of
the canon of Fritsch, the modulus of Geyer,
Meckel's normal woman's figure, and the classification of the cephalic index by von Torok's
method. In addition to this the descriptive
characters have been utilized, and by these
methods and the use of correlations three distinct types have been segregated. Interesting
similarities and differences between the Igorots and other peoples associated with eastern
Asia, as well as the Negritos and Europeans,
have been cited. I t must be acknowledged,
however, after all this has been done, that the
true composition of the Igorots has not been
determined, and it can be determined more exactly by the method of segregating types given
in the Introduction.
By the method used for the segregation of
the American types (p. 15) the Igorots are
found to be composed of 50 Blends, 34 Australoids, 18 Primitives, 5 Iberians, and 3 Alpines. By the method as altered for the Filipinos there are 70 Australoids, 20 Blends, 6
79

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
Iberians, 5 Primitives, and 3 Cro-Magnons,
which is a truer reckoning. The relatively
great number of Australoid and Primitive
men among the Igorots with the few Iberian,
Alpine, B. B. B., and Cro-Magnon, are the
chief differences between them and the Filipino Students, indicating that the students
have a greater proportion of European and
Chinese among them, which is known to be
true. The Igorots have a greater proportion
of the two types of the East that are found
associated with the Negrito, called here the
Primitive and Australoid, although the types
of Europe and of China are not lacking entirely among the Igorots.
The facility with which the method of segregating types may be applied, the verity of
its results and the ease with which different
groups can be compared bespeak for the
method great usefulness. In the next chapter
it will be applied to the bodies measured at
Malecon Morgue and to a few Japanese measured in Baguio at the same time that the Igorots were measured.
One of the characteristics of the Benguet
Igorots is the prettiness of the girls and the
ugliness of the men, a contrast that may be
80

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
seen without difficulty, in the photographs of
the collection at the Bureau of Science of the
Philippine Islands, in Manila. The types of
Benguet Igorots selected by means of the photographs are largely Modified Primitive and
Australoid. The Primitive Benguet Igorot
has the ear of Modified Primitive form resembling the Alpine, and the nose is like that of
the Australoid. The ear is long and oval, with
a shelf where the lobule ought to be, the latter
passing directly downward to the cheek. The
concha is large and somewhat everted, and the
helix rolls in to some extent, therefore both
Iberian and Primitive characteristics exist, although the ear is a modified Alpine ear. The
nose is heavy and straight, and the face is
neither long nor broad, hence again the characteristics are intermediate between those of the
Iberian and the Primitive. A typical Benguet
Igorot may therefore be called a mixed Iberian-Primitive of the Australoid variety.
Modified Iberian forms may also be seen in
almost every part of Benguet, such as the man
Akop, who owns the house half-way between
Baguio and Atok at the extreme northern end
of Benguet. Akop is a genial entertainer and
a friend of the Americans. Iberian characters
6

81

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
are present in the man, who is modified Iberian
in form, and distinctly European in physiognomy. The high head and long face, the moderately high nose, not broad and flat, the nostrils opening downward, and the ears without
lobule, and with everted concha and somewhat
rolled out helix, stamp this man with Iberian
features. Akop is of the modified Iberian
type, but resembles the Filipino form of the
Cro-Magnon, because of his high, narrow head,
large, straight nose, and large face. The nose
is also like that of the Australoid. Indications
are here present that derivative forms have
arisen from the Iberian type by crossing with
the Primitive and probably with the Australoid; the blending of many pure types has
produced various intermediate forms that resemble more than two types, Akop, for instance, having Iberian, Primitive, Cro-Magnon and Australoid characteristics.
The Benguet Igorots are more Primitive
than the Bontoc Igorots, and as the Bontoc
Igorots are more inaccessible one is led to believe that the Primitive element reached Benguet before coming to Bontoc, and this supposition is the more plausible because, as already
determined, the Igorots of the Highlands of
82

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
Benguet are more European (Iberian) than
those of the Lowlands, and the Bontoc Igorots
are more like the European than the Igorots
of the Benguet Highlands. The supposition
is still more plausible from the fact that the
Kalingas, who are on the opposite side of the
Bontoc Igorots from Benguet are yet purer
Iberians than the Bontoc Igorots. There has
been an infiltration of the modified Primitive
from the south, or there has been an infiltration
of the modified Iberian from the north, or both,
or at any rate there has been a mingling of the
types through Benguet and Bontoc, leaving
the Iberian predominant in the latter place and
the Primitive predominant in the former. The
earlier intrusion was probably in the north
where the Hindus (Proto-Malays) entered,
followed in more recent times by the neoMalays coming from the south.
The majority of the photographs of Bontoc
Igorots are Iberian in type. The ears are long,
oval, often without lobule, the concha everted,
the helix rolled out, the face is long and narrow, and the nose is not depressed, but rather
high and straight. These types are purer
Iberians than any seen in Benguet, yet not
so pure as many Kalinga Iberians, which
83

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY O F T H E
means that the process of fusion is more recent in Bontoc than in Benguet, for were it
not so there would be more blending in Bontoc. The Kalingas and Bontoc Igorots represent the Iberian type that came directly from
Europe through India without mingling with
the intervening peoples to any great extent,
whereas the Benguet Igorots represent the
product of generations of the fusing and mingling Iberians and other types.
The Primitive type is to be seen in Bontoc,
as represented by the rounded form, bowlshaped ear, and face that is not long but ovoid,
with the nose short and broad. I n contrast
with this rounded form is the angular pattern
of the Filipino B. B. B. type, found among the
Bontoc Igorots, although different from the
European B. B. B. in degree but not in kind.
The face, head, ear and nose are all rectangular, and the individual is built on the square.
This is in contrast with the pure Iberian, where
the face is a long oval, the nose is straight and
slender, and the ear is long, delicately molded,
often with square lobule, everted concha and
rolled-out helix, as found among the Ifugaos
from northeast of Bontoc, which again indicates that the purest Iberians are to be found
84

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
in northern central Luzon. The startled, openeyed expression is characteristic of the Ifugao
people and of the Kalingas, and is probably
derived from the East Indians, who have the
open-eyed countenance that gives the peculiarly pleasing expression so often seen among
the women of India.

CHAPTER III
T H E SUBMERGED T E N T H or

T

MANILA

H E bodies of the unclaimed dead in the
city of Manila are brought to the Malecon Morgue of the Philippine Medical School,
where they are retained for forty-eight hours
before final disposal. About 100 of these
bodies were measured by me during the school
year 1907-'08 and the measurements of 48
male and 22 female adults will be utilized in
this chapter.
The Filipinos whose bodies reach the Malecon Morgue usually belong to the submerged
tenth, and should be so considered in any discussion or conclusions. However, they form
an integral part of the population of the Philippine Islands, and belong to the series of
investigations included in this book, of the
Filipinos in different culture levels.
Ten Japanese who were measured at Baguio
in 1908 when I measured the Igorots are included in this chapter. The Japanese are probably from the lower middle class, because they
are all day laborers,—carpenters, etc.,—who
86

FIG. 9.—The Australoid Filipino—secondary variety.
Modified Australoid ears. A laborer from the town of Taytav, Province of Ri.zul, Island of Luzon.

FIG. 10.—The same as Fig. 9.

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
came to the Philippines after being dismissed
from the Japanese army following the war
with Russia.
The Japanese and the Morgue subjects will
be compared with the Igorots and the Students, after which the types of each group will
be segregated by the method given in the Introduction.
The characters that differentiate the Japanese from the other groups are: dolichocephalic
head index, which is the same in the Igorots,
but different in the others; long, high head
and wide forehead; narrow nose, relative to the
other groups; face both long and wide, but
relatively longer than that of the other groups;
relatively long ears; wide mouth; wide eyes;
high sternum; relatively short forearm and
lower leg, and relatively long upper arm and
upper leg; and absolutely and relatively wide
shoulders and hips. With a stature about the
same as that of the Iberian and other characters simulating the European, the Japanese
resemble the European more than do the other
groups.
The characters that differentiate the Igorots are: small stature, long, narrow head; exceedingly wide nose; narrow mouth; short
87

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY O F T H E
hand, and wide shoulder. These all indicate
the predominating influence or presence in
great numbers of the Australoid.
The differential characteristics of the
Morgue subjects are: broad head; cephalic index about the same as the Student, large nose,
broader and longer than that of any other
group; narrow eyes; high trochanter (long
lower extremities); high umbilicus; relatively
long lower legs, forearms, ankles and hands;
and narrow shoulders. The discordant composite may be due to the large number of Iberian, Primitive and Australoid of comparatively pure type, although nurture can not be
excluded as a factor.
The Students are characterized by tall stature; large, broad head; and other features that
are more or less intermediate between the other
groups. They probably represent a greater
fusion of the European and Eastern types than
the other groups, with a predominance of relatively tall broad heads. Nurture may have
produced some effect in molding this group.
The broad head may be due to studious habit,
and the greater stature to better nourishment;
but I am inclined to believe that both are due
to the Chinese and European types as exhib88

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
ited in the Alpine, B. B. B., and Adriatic, as
well as in the majority of the Blends.
The percentage proportion of the types
found in Malecon Morgue is: Primitive, 16.6;
Australoid, 10.4; Iberian, 10.4; Cro-Magnon,
6.3; B. B. B., 6.3; Alpine, Adriatic and Modified Primitive, 2.0 each, and the Blend, 43.8.
This is in contrast with the Students, among
whom the Modified Primitive, Alpine and
Australoid predominate, with the Iberian,
Adriatic and B. B. B. not so numerous and the
Primitive only a few. I t is in contrast also
with the Igorots, where the Australoid is predominant, and the Japanese, where the Iberian
predominates.
T H E IBERIAN

The stature of the Iberian type varies around
160 centimeters in the four groups, although
that of the Igorot Iberian is only 155.6 centimeters and that of the Students is 164.3
centimeters, which is less than the stature of
the Mediterranean race in Europe (165 centimeters). The Japanese and Igorot Iberians
are not so tall as the others, although the average stature of the 10 Japanese is greater than
that of the 48 Morgue subjects. From this
89

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
we may infer that the Filipino Iberian is taller
than the Japanese and Igorot Iberian, and to
account for it, the recent infusion of Spanish
in the Filipino during the past few hundred
years may be suggested, as also the inclusion
of Indian Iberians who came to the islands in
the Malay migrations, and more recently during the Spanish occupation of the archipelago.
The Japanese Iberian probably came to Japan
at a much earlier date than the Spanish arrived
in the Philippines, and the Iberian is more
completely amalgamated with the other Japanese types than is the Filipino Iberian with
the other Filipino types, which is also true of
the Igorot Iberian, because in the Filipino the
Iberian is more recent and is also found unmixed in type, as among the Castilian Spanish.
The Iberian predominates among the Japanese, but it does not among the Filipinos. The
smaller stature of the Igorot Iberian is to be
explained by the influence of the Australoid
type, which the Igorot Iberian resembles in
other respects, especially in the nasal index.
The difference between the Students and the
Morgue subjects may be due to nurture, the
former being well nourished and the latter
poorly nourished. All the differences could
90

PHILIPPINE ISLANDERS
be explained by modifications due to environment, but it is better to find the true explanation than to ascribe the differences to unknown
causes. The type is justified also if the group
differences can be explained.
The stature of the Iberian women is less (7.2
per cent.) than that of the Iberian men, but it
is about the usual percentage less, not greater
than it should be as the stature of the women
is among the Igorots.
The heads of this type are moderately narrow, the cephalic index on the living about 75,
except the heads of the women, which are
slightly wider. The Morgue Iberians have
wider heads than the Iberians of the other
groups, and the Iberian women have the widest
heads. The Japanese Iberians have longer,
narrower heads than any other group, which
indicates a condition nearly like the original
dolichocephalic Mediterranean race of Europe.
The nasal index of the Iberians in the four
groups varies around 75, although the Morgue
Iberians have an index of only 68.14 and that
of the Igorot Iberians is 80, the latter due no
doubt to the Australoid type. The index of
the Japanese and Student Iberians is practically the same as that of the Morgue Iberians.
91

THE RACIAL ANATOMY OF THE
The nasal index is a more reliable differential
factor in the racial anatomy of a people than
the cephalic index, because the nose is not so
liable to distortion as the head, and being subject to sexual selection it would become differentiated and established as a permanent nonvariable character while the cephalic index
would not.
The stature, the cephalic index and the nasal
index establish the Iberian type as a homogeneous entity which is found among Filipinos
of extremely different culture levels and
among the Japanese. There are also other
characters that are homogeneous and that differentiate the Iberian from the other types,
some of which will now be given.
The morphologic face index of the Iberian
in the four groups is about 80, although that
of the Japanese Iberian is only 78.32 and that
of the Student is 86.4. This index expresses
the face height relatively; therefore, it may be
said that the face height of the Student Iberian is the greatest and that of the Japanese the
least. There is no great disharmony among
the Iberians of the four groups in face height,
and the face, although not so long and narrow as the original Iberian of Europe, is longer
92

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
and narrower than that of the other types to be
considered.
The brachial index of the Iberian is about
75, although the Japanese Iberians have an
index of only 65.5 and that of the Morgue
Iberians is 77.6. The Japanese have short
forearms and long upper arms, which is characteristic of the Iberian in contrast with the
other types. Other differential characters
might be cited, but enough have been given to
demonstrate that the Iberian is an entity.
T H E PRIMITIVE

The Primitive type has features in direct
contrast with the Iberian. The latter has medium stature, long head, long face, long nose,
long hands, and short forearms and lower legs;
the former has small stature, broad head, face
and nose, short hands and long forearms and
lower legs.
The cephalic index of the Primitive ranges
from 84.3 in the Igorots to 89.6 in the Morgue
women, with the others in between.
The stature of the Primitive is about 150
centimeters, although the women of this type
have a stature of 146.3 centimeters. Stature
is one of the most distinct characteristics of the
93

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY O F T H E
Primitive because it is so much less than that
of any other type. The stature of the Primitive Students and Igorots is relatively less
than that of the Iberian in these two groups,
and that of the Primitive Morgue subjects is
relatively greater; and the stature of the P r i m itive women, relative to that of the Primitive
men, is 3.1 per cent, greater than that of the
Iberian women in relation to the Iberian men.
The nasal index of the Primitive is about 90,
although the Morgue women have an index of
101.1 and the Students an index of only 86.5.
The relation of the Morgue to the School is
the reverse for the Primitives, as compared
with the Iberians. The latter among the Students have wider noses, whereas, relatively
speaking, the former have narrower noses.
This may be an indication of the Galton-Pearson law of regression toward the mean, or it
may indicate greater blending of nose type
among the Students, who are largely of
Spanish-Filipino extraction.
The morphologic face index of the Primitive
is about 75, which is almost 10 less than that
of the Iberian, and the same relative difference
exists between the Morgue subjects and the
Students for this type as for the Iberian, which
94

PHILIPPINE

ISLANDERS

is that the Student's face is longer than is that
of the Morgue subjects. The index of the female Primitive is 3 less than that of the male,
whereas that of the female Iberian is about 2
greater than the male; but with so few individuals a slight difference may not be significant,
although it may mean that the women are truer
to type than the men, the Primitive woman
having a wider face than the Primitive man,
and the Iberian woman having a longer face
than the Iberian man.
The brachial index of the Primitive is about
80, which indicates that the Primitive has a
longer forearm and a shorter upper arm than
the Iberian. The difference is 4-5 per cent,
in the Morgue subjects, both male and female;
and the difference is 14.5 per cent, between
the Primitive Igorots and the Japanese Iberians.
T H E AUSTRALOID

The characteristics of the Australoid, in contrast with the Iberian and the Primitive, represent an intermediate condition, or a condition
similar to one or the other of the two types.
The stature of the Australoid is about 160
centimeters for the men, and only 148 centime95

THE RACIAL ANATOMY OF THE
ters for the women, and is practically uniform
in all the groups except the Igorots, where the
stature is less than that of the Morgue females.
Only one Student has a stature as low as that
of the average Australoid Igorot, which indicates that the Student Australoid is different
in stature from the Igorot Australoid. The
difference is probably due to the recent Iberian in the Students. The Igorot Australoid
represents a remote cross of the Primitive and
Iberian, whereas the Student Australoid represents a recent cross, although a few of the
remote persist among the Students. The stature of the Australoid is only a little less than
that of the Iberian, although the Japanese
Australoid is 2.5 centimeters taller than the
Japanese Iberian. Judged by the stature
alone, the Australoid men are more like the
Iberian, whereas the Australoid women are
more like the Primitive.
The cephalic index of the Australoid is about
77, with that of the Igorot Australoid 75.1, that
of the Student Australoid 76.8, and that of the
Morgue woman 78.95. The index is slightly
greater than that of the Iberian, but it is practically the same. The index of the women similar to that of the Iberian is greater than that
96

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
of the men. The small index of the Igorot
Australoid may indicate greater purity of type.
The head of the Japanese Australoid is the
largest, that of the Morgue is the smallest, and
the Student is between the two in head size.
This is true also of the Iberian.
The nasal index of the Australoid is about
95, and it is greater for the Igorot and Morgue
Australoids than for the other Australoids,
who are all alike. The Igorot and Morgue
Australoids are purer than the others, as already indicated by the stature and cephalic index, particularly of the Igorots; the inference,
therefore, is that the broad nose is characteristic of the Australoid type, and the most distinctive character. The nasal index of the Australoid women is less than that of the men,
indicating Primitive affinities for the women,
otherwise the nasal index of the Australoid is
greater than the Primitive.
The morphologic face index of the Australoid is about 77, which is intermediate between
that of the Iberian and the Primitive. This
is practically identical for the Students and
Japanese Australoids, but it is less for the
Morgue Australoids, and in this way the index
resembles that of the Iberian.
7

97

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
I t is evident that the Australoid is related to
the Primitive and the Iberian, if similarity implies relationship, and the Igorot Australoid
represents an earlier impregnation of the
Primitive by the Iberian than is represented by
the Student Australoid. The earlier, or primary Australoid, may have been derived from
the Indo-European migrations, whereas the
later, or secondary Australoid, has been
largely molded by the more recent Spanish
Iberian.
The three types already described seem to be
the fundamental types of the East, and each
has altered the other in a different direction or
amount in the different groups, due to the
relative proportions of each in any group, the
length of time that amalgamation has been
going on, the different environment of each
group and other factors. The Japanese have
a predominance of the Iberian and have been
molded largely by that type, the Igorots have
a predominance of the primary Australoid
which may mean Negrito influence, but probably is an expression of the Hindu influence
on the early Primitive, with nearly complete
amalgamation of the types that make the Australoid; the Students and the Morgue sub98

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
jects have more Primitive and recent Iberian
than the other groups, and these types have
not amalgamated to such an extent as in the
other groups, and the Iberian influence has
been greater among the Students and the
Primitive among the Morgue subjects.
A few of the differential factors of the three
types may be summarized in a table which
includes the Igorot, Japanese, Student and
Morgue males measured by me, the numbers
given being the averages for all the individuals of the four groups. The Primitive type is
not found among the ten Japanese, but it
would no doubt be found if a larger number
were measured.
DIFFERENTIAL FACTORS OF THE IBERIAN, PRIMITIVE AND
AUSTRALOID T Y P E S — A D U L T MALES

Characters.
Stature
Cephalic index
Morphologic face index
Brachial index
Hip-shoulder index 1
Intermembral index
1

Iberian.

Primitive.

Australoid.

163.8
75.3
73.5
84.3
71.6
98.6
83.4
73.7

151.1
86.4
88.7
77.7
80.7
107.1
79.3
72.0

158.1
76.5
93.9
80.2
75.1
102.5
82.6
70.3

Morgue subjects only.

The Filipino Iberian is not exactly the same
as the Mediterranean Race of Sergi, but is
really a Spanish-Filipino mestizo. Two dis99

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY O F T H E
tinct color markings are noted: one is a darkskinned, almost black individual, much darker
than the average Filipino; the other is almost
white and looks more like a European than a
Filipino. The former may be the Indian-Filipino mestizo, and the latter the Spanish-Filipino mestizo; or, if this be not true, then the
pigments of Iberian and Filipino re-act according to Mendel's laws, being intensified in the
one and decreased in the other. The Iberian
is a remarkably pure type, and, in spite of
crossing with the Filipino, remains almost
pure, especially in the characters given above.
The Primitive type is also pure and probably Remains so, but the evidence of crossing
can not be known positively, as it may be for
the Iberian. The two types are extremely different and more distinct than any other types,
as evinced by the differences. The origin of
the Primitive can not be located with • certainty, although accumulated evidence points
to the Negrito as at least a closely related type.
However, either one or both may be only primitive forms due to retarded development. The
stature of the Primitive is small, the head is
small and round, the nose and face are broad,
short and flat. These infantile characters, and
100

PHILIPPINE ISLANDERS
possibly others, may mean only stunted
growth, but, whatever the cause, the type is
none the less a true type. Its distribution
among Igorots, Students and Morgue subjects
indicates that it forms a part of all the Filipino population. As it is the same as the Negrito by physical measurements, with straight
instead of kinky hair, it is present in many of
the Pacific islands as well.
The Australoid is nearly the same as the
Iberian in stature, cephalic index, brachial index and shoulder index; it is nearly the same
as the Primitive in nasal index and morphologic face index, and it is intermediate between
the two in crural index. The nasal index is
the only character that is not between the Iberian and Primitive, and this is the most characteristic trait of the Australoid. The evidence
so far accumulated points directly to the Australoid as a cross between the Iberian and
Primitive. The stature of the Igorot Australoid is, however, less than that of the other
Australoids, and the nasal index is greater.
This is probably the ultimate end result of the
blending process. The others are more recent
blends and, in time, would be like the Igorots
under the same conditions. There may be two
101

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
types fused in the Australoid, one of which is
a blend or mosaic of the Primitive and the
Iberian, and the other is the fundamental Australoid, the two types being so much alike that
they cannot be separated by measurable characters.
REMAINING TYPES

There are so few individuals to represent the
remaining types that they are all discussed together. The Cro-Magnon, B. B. B., Alpine,
and Adriatic are placed in the table which follows, and the Iberian and Blend alongside, in
order that each may be compared with the
other. A glance along the columns of this
table will reveal very slight differences between
the types of the Students and of the Morgue
subjects, a fact that argues for the verity of
the types.
Iberian.
Character.

6

&

1
163.4
76.6
68\.l
Nasal index
Morphologic face i n d e x . . . 79.9
71.6
Brachial index
98.6
73.2
58.3
Ear index
Stature

1

Alpine.
6
w

§

m

ft

164.3
75.2
73.9
86.4

160.0
84.6
65.4
83.3
76.6
85.0
69.8
63.3

102

-p

s
1
w
160.2
86.9
72.9
83.0

B. B . B .

s
o
166.3
82.4
65.7
84.0
74.7
90.0
68.1
61.3

+3

s
1
CQ

168.8
86 2
72.0
82.9

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
Adriatic.
Character.

s

-p

o

B

-p

168.6
88.0
92.9
78.4

6

§

8"

u

o

1

173.0
74.6
92.1
86.4
78.6
99.2
70.6
58.9

170.0
80.5
80.6
82.6

QQ

Stature
165.0
Cephalic index
85.0
Nasal index
100.0
Morphologic face index. . . 82.1
Brachial index
79.7
Crural index
104.0
Intermembral index
70.3
54.6
Ear index

Blend.

Cro-Magnon.

T H E ALPINE AND B. B. B.

O

1
1

159.8 163,8
82 4
82.5
84 8
83.2
82 4
80.0
77.2?
95.2
71.3
59.6

TYPES

The characteristics of the Alpine type are
stature below the average, broad head, narrow
nose, short lower legs, relatively wide ears and
short upper extremities. I t is more like the
Blend than any other type, and is almost identical with the B. B. B. except in stature,
which was arbitrarily chosen. Both have the
highest ear index of all types, the lowest intermembral index of all types, the lowest brachial index except that of the Iberian, and the
lowest nasal index of all types. I t must be
remembered, too, that there is only one Japanese Alpine, and only three B. B. B. Morgue
subjects; therefore, the close approximation
of these to the 30 Alpine students and 21 B.
B. B. students is remarkable and emphasizes
103

THE RACIAL ANATOMY OF THE
the types as real entities. The differences between the Alpine and B. B. B. are not so great
in the characters measured as in the characters
observed, such as the square head of the B. B.
B. and the round head of the Alpine, the
square ear of the B. B. B. and the round ear
of the Alpine, and the general stocky build of
the B. B. B. and the rotundity of the Alpine,
although the head of the student B. B. B. is
5 millimeters longer and 3 millimeters wider
than that of the Alpine, and the head circumferences of the B . B. B. are all larger. The
face of the Student B. B. B. is 4 millimeters
longer and 3 millimeters wider than the face
of the Alpine, and the nose is 2 millimeters
longer and 1 millimeter wider. The cephalic
index is less for the B. B. B. than for the Alpine. The two types would be classed as one
if it were not for the differences mentioned, all
of which are slight, however, and the separation
may prove to be an arbitrary one.
T H E CRO-MAGNON T Y P E

This type is the tallest thus far encountered
in the Philippines, and the cephalic index is the
least of all the types from the Morgue. The
nasal index is high, the morphologic face index
104

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
is also high, as well as the brachial, crural, and
intermembral indices. I n other words, the head
is long and narrow, the nose is short and wide,
the face is long and relatively narrow and the
forearms and lower legs are relatively longer
than those of the other types. The Cro-Magnon students are largely blended with the other
types and partake only to a slight extent of the
Cro-Magnon characteristics.
The Cro-Magnon resembles the Australoid
in cephalic index, nasal index and other characteristics, but is distinctly different in stature,
the Australoid being the smallest of all types,
and the Cro-Magnon the tallest. A relation
between the two, similar to that which exists
between the B. B. B. and Alpine, may be true,
but the relationship is not so intimate.
T H E ADRIATIC T Y P E

This type is tall and has broad head, face,
and nose. The other characters are not distinctive, although the forearm and lower leg
are rather long. The Adriatic is an enlarged
reproduction of the Primitive type, but it is
as far removed from the latter as the CroMagnon is from the Australoid. The Chinese
105

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
element of the Adriatic may account in part
for the difference.
INFERENCES

The Sarasin brothers and Martin have found
in Ceylon, in the Celebes and in the Malay Peninsula, and others have also found elsewhere
in the Pacific islands a type closely simulating
the Australoid, and they look upon this type
as one of the primary types of men from
which have sprung many races. The work that
1 have done adds its mite toward that hypothesis, and illustrates in a more definite way some
of the types that may have resulted from this
primitive precursor. I believe, however, that
my work also demonstrates another type which
I call Primitive, that is antecedent to the Australoid, and has helped to produce the Australoid by its blending in a disharmonious manner with the Iberian, the latter having probably disappeared in other parts of the East as
it has almost disappeared from among the Igorots. The objection to the types selected may
be that too few individuals were observed, and
if 1,000 individuals had been measured, at least
some of the types would fuse by closing of
gaps between them with intermediate forms
106

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
that are necessarily absent when so few are considered. For instance, I have demonstrated
the similarity of the Primitive, Modified Primitive and Adriatic, of the Alpine and B. B. B.,
and of the Australoid and the Cro-Magnon.
There are gaps between the types among the
Students as well as among the Morgue subjects, but if a larger number were measured
these gaps might be bridged over. I f this be
true, then the types selected represent cross
sections of variable species, and this is additional proof that the types are elementary species, and probably represent the separation and
segregation by variation and modification of
new elementary species of man.

CHAPTER

IV

TYPES OF M E N AT TAYTAY

T

H E town of Taytay, which is situated
near the Lake of the Bay (Laguna de
Bay) about ten miles inland from Manila, contains a more mixed population than
the average Filipino town for the following
reasons: I t is near enough to Manila to receive some of the overflow population from
that city; its proximity to the hills and mountains attracts the hill people, and the fisher folk
enter the town on the lake side. Taytay is near
Pasig, the capital of Rizal Province, where a
mixed population of Filipinos, Spaniards,
Chinamen and Americans reside. The annual
pilgrimage of the Filipino people to the statue
and springs of the Virgin at Antipolo, situated on the hills, passes through Taytay during the month of May each year, and the transportation of the pilgrims by cart and hammock
is one of the industries of the place. Finally,
the town of Cainta, which is populated chiefly
by descendants of East Indians, is but a stone's
throw from Taytay, and the Indian element
has drifted into the place to some extent.
108

<"[<;. 11. T h e Cro-Magnon F i l i p i n o . I b e r i a n oars, t y p o 1)
( C r o - M a g n o n ) . A F i l i p i n o official from T a y t a y .

F T C . 1 2 . — T h e s a m e as F i g . 1 1 .

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
The individuals measured were those who
came to the free dispensary to be treated, or
came as friends of the sick, therefore some of
them should be considered as part of a hospital
population, although the majority had no other
affliction than infestation with intestinal parasites. The random sample represented in this
chapter is more nearly the normal average of
the population than recruits or students would
be, because practically the entire population
of the town came to the dispensary and there
was no conscious selection of the individuals
who were measured. Therefore, it may be assumed that the men and women measured at
Taytay are typical of the littoral population
of the Philippines, although a large percentage
belongs to the hospital population, and the
Indian element may be greater than usual.
STATURE

The Taytayans are between the small races
and the races below the medium height, the 183
men measured having an average stature of
159.47 centimeters, with a minimum of 145.7
centimeters and a maximum of 171.0 centimeters. The stature in age groups indicates that
the f astigium is reached about the age of 40,
109

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
although there is a stature at 15 that is as
great as that between 20 and 30. This may be
due to the chance that more individuals of a
certain type were measured at one age than
another, although there may be an early maturity that is premature, and a late ripening that
is real maturity. There is no such regularity
in the increase of stature as found among the
Igorots, which I take to indicate that the Taytayans are not so homogeneous a body of people as the Igorots. The selection of types later
will prove the truth of this statement.
BODY PARTS

A summary of the length of the body parts
is presented here in relation to the lengths of
the same parts among other peoples. The stature of the Taytayan is similar to that of the
other eastern Asiatic and Pacific peoples; the
sitting height is the same as that of the North
American Indian; the body length is the same
as the European's; the total head height resembles that of the negro; the length of the
lower extremity is the same as that of the European; the tibio-femoral index is intermediate
between that of the Asiatic-European and the
Negro-Negrito; and the total length of the
no

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
upper extremity is like both Negro and European. The upper arm length resembles that
of the European and the Sikh, and the forearm length is exactly that of the European,
but different from either the Japanese on the
one hand or the negro on the other; and lastly,
the Taytayan is more like the European than
the negro or Negrito in the brachial index and
the hand length. The inference from the linear
dimensions of the body parts is that the Taytayans are derived from mixtures of Filipinos,
Negritos, Chinamen, Spaniards and East Indians.
T H E TAYTAYAN, THE EUROPEAN, AND THE
NILOTIC NEGRO

I t may be of interest to compare the average linear measurements'of the Taytayans, the
Alpine Europeans measured by Hoffman,
and the Nilotic negroes measured by the late
Dr. Alexander MacTier Pirrie. The stature
of the Taytayans is small, that of the Europeans is above medium, and that of the negroes
ranges from above medium to tall. The lipib
parts of the negroes, except the upper arm
length, are longer than those of the Europeans
or Taytayans, and the relatively great upper
ill

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
arm length of the Taytayans is a distinctive
characteristic of the group, and readily distinguishes them from the negroes, with their relatively great lower arm length. Some groups
of negroes have a high tibio-femoral index
(long lower legs) and other groups have a low
tibio-femoral index (short lower legs); which
is true of the different types of Taytayans,
some having long lower legs and others having short ones. One negro had a lower leg the
exact length of the upper leg, and one or more
Taytayans have the parts of the leg of the
same length. The greatest difference, however, between the people of these groups is
the long forearm of the negro and the long
upper arm of the Taytayan, the European
being intermediate between the other two in
these dimensions.
AUTISTIC CANON

The Canon of Fritsch is used as it was used
for the Igorots, for the purpose of comparing
the Taytayans with the Europeans from the
standpoint of the artist. The total head height,
the length of the upper and the length of the
lower extremities are greater in the Taytayan
than in the European. The protomorphic
112

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
characters of the Taytayan are evident from
the three dimensions and in this way resemble

F I G . 13.—The solid lines on the left represent the average European
according to the canon of Fritsch. The broken lines on the right represent
the average Taytayan according to the same canon. The European stature
is equal to 8 total head heights. The Taytayan stature is equal to 7 total
head heights. A and B point to the chin.

the Normal Benguet Igorot and the Igorot
from Bontoc. The total head height varies
with the stature, according to Stratz, and a
8

113

THE RACIAL ANATOMY OF THE
stature of 160 centimeters corresponds to a
total head height of 23 centimeters. The stature of the Taytayans is 159.47 centimeters and
the total head height is 23 centimeters.
HEAD FORM AND PHYSIOGNOMY

The cephalic index of the Taytayan's head
is 81.79, resulting from an average head
length of 18.3 centimeters and breadth of 14.96
centimeters. The index is 4.19 per cent,
greater than that of the Igorots, and about as
great as the greatest of Martin's Malays of the
inland part of the Malay Peninsula. The Igorots are long headed, the Taytayans are moderately broad headed. The forehead of the
Taytayan is relatively narrower in relation to
the head breadth than is that of the Igorots.
The nasal index of the Taytayans is 85.2, resulting from a nose breadth of 4 centimeters,
and a nose length of 4.7 centimeters. The index is 7.5 per cent, less than that of the Igorots. The morphologic face index of the Taytayans is 82.1, which is 2.1 per cent, greater
than that of the Igorots, indicating that the
Taytayans have longer faces than the Igorots.
The face of the Taytayan is long like that of
114

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
the Sikh, the Northern Chinese and the European.
Lack of time and exact appliances forbade
the measurement of certain characteristics,
such as skin color and minor deformities, but
notes were made of such occurrences and they
are utilized in the following pages for purposes
of description.
SKIN COLOR

The Taytayan has a brown skin, the shade
of which depends largely upon whether the individual is an outdoor or indoor worker. As
the majority of men are fishermen or farmers,
the skin is usually a darker shade than the
average Filipino of Manila, where so many
men work indoors. The skin color is somewhat relative for this reason. However, a few
individuals were so dark in color as to appear
almost black, and a few more individuals were
so light in color as to appear almost white.
Of these there were six of the former and eighteen of the latter. The light-colored individuals invariably exhibited evidences of recent
European extraction, whereas the dark colored
were similar to the Indians of Cainta, from
whom they were probably derived.
115

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY O F T H E
HAIR

The color of the hair is almost uniformly
black and straight, with an occasional fine
brown, but no notes were made in reference to
this factor. Only three individuals had wavy
hair, and these gave evidence of modified European characteristics. No association with the
Negrito can be established from the hair form,
and there is no evidence of any recent Negrito
intermixture.
E Y E COLOR

The average eye color of 179 individuals
determined with Martin's artificial eyes is that
of the intermediate brown No. 3, which occurred 74 times, a greater number than any
other color. I t may be significant that a greater
number of Australoids and Iberians have dark
eyes than light eyes, signifying an intensification of pigment due probably to the Iberian.
I have referred above (see also p. 100) to an
intensification of skin pigment among the Filipino Iberians, and this is hereby confirmed.
The condition of arcus senilis is prevalent,
and is not confined to old men.
Four blind individuals were noted among
183 men.
116

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
T H E MONGOLIAN EYELID

The fold at the inner canthus on the upper
eyelid was well marked in 9 per cent, of the
men, distinct in 37 per cent, and absent in 54
per cent. This is believed to indicate that a
large proportion of the people of Taytay are
of Chinese extraction, a fact that is found to
be true from other considerations set forth
herein, as well as from historic data. The Mongolian fold is not confined to any one type,
but is found more often on the Cro-Magnon,
Alpine and Modified Primitive types than on
the others, which may mean that these three
types are more truly Chinese than, are the other
types, although none of the Primitive or B. B.
B. individuals were examined for lid formation.
HEAD OUTLINES

The sagittal outlines of the head were made
with the cephalograph, an instrument devised
by the author, and a great many heads appeared to be distorted by flattening in the dorsal region, often on one side only. The dorsal
flattening was most marked in the broad
headed, and a portion of the broadheadedness
may be accounted for by the deformity. The
heads of children and of infants are more dis117

THE RACIAL ANATOMY OF THE
torted than the heads of adults, and I attribute
this distortion to the fact that the baby often
sleeps on the hard floors with nothing intervening between the head and the floor except the
petate, a thin matting.
T H E PETATE H A B I T

I have called this the petate habit. When
the baby is placed upon the petate it naturally lies flat upon its back and the head is
either straight or turned slightly to one side.
After a few months a flat space is formed on
that part of the head resting on the petate,
and the child then lies on this flat piece until
the head becomes misshapen and sometimes
badly deformed. If the deformed condition
persists during the life of the individual then
a narrow-headed infant may become a broadheaded adult. The vertical occiput and the
front bombe are probably deformities and not
racial or morphologic characteristics. Because of the presence of such deformities persisting through life, I believe the cephalic index is not the best differential factor, although
it may be of service and should not be discarded entirely, but relegated to a subordinate
position in racial anatomy. Below may be seen
118

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
the head outlines of a boy aged 4, whose head
was flattened more on the left side than on
the right, thus illustrating the deformed condition.

F I G . 14.—Outlines parallel to the sagittal plane in a boy of Taytay
aged 4. The small outline is from the left side of the head over the middle
of the eye. The large outline is from the right side of the head a little nearer
the median line.

T H E SEGREGATION or TYPES

The species of men at Taytay were selected
by the method presented in the Introduction,
with the result that 3 were Primitive, 37 Australoid, 17 Iberian, 12 Cro-Magnon, 11 Alpine,
2 B. B. B. and 94 Blends.
T H E PRIMITIVE

The Primitive individuals are small, with
small round head, broad, flat, short face and
119

THE RACIAL ANATOMY OF THE
nose, lips full, but mouth small, chin small and
receding, forehead narrow but bombe, with
brow ridge small and flat, a type that is infantile and is readily associated with Hagen's
" infantile Gesichts Bildung": "niederes Gesicht, stumpfe, breite, niedere, nase, breite,
wenig erhebene Nasenwurzel dann Neigung
zur sogenannten mongolenfaltenbildung der
Augenlider, vorwolbte Stirn, die sogenannte
Front bombe"—" so haben wir einen ziemlich
umfangreichen Komplex von Merkmalen,
innerhalb dessen sich die Zusammenhangen
und Gemeinschaftlichkeiten der aus den heutigen Menschenrassen herauszuschalenden Urform bewegen mussten, wenn diese wirklich
auf den Namen einer ' primitiven' anspruch
haben soil."
The Primitiv^.of Taytay conforms in bodily
dimensions to a type of Negrito found in the
Philippines and to types found in other Asiatic
island groups, as well as on the mainland in
the Malay Peninsula. The Kubus of Sumatra, the Taradjas of the Celebes, the Semangs and Senoi of the Malay Peninsula, the
Orang Akett of Sumatra and the Veddahs of
Ceylon, have in their composition a form similar to the Primitive. This form has almost
120

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
invariably associated with it another which I
call the Australoid, the chief differences being
that the latter has a dolichocephalic head and
a wider nose than the Primitive.
T H E AUSTRALOID

This type as found at Taytay differs from
the Australoid among the Igorots, by resembling the Iberian largely, whereas the Igorot
Australoid resembles the Primitive, and it is
easy to conceive that the Iberian would influence the Australoid at Taytay more than the
Australoid among the Igorots by interbreeding and partial blending, because the Iberian
predominates at Taytay, whereas the type has
almost disappeared from among the Igorots;
at least it is present there in comparatively
small numbers.
T H E IBERIAN

The Iberian at Taytay is not unlike the
Iberian elsewhere in the Philippines in stature,
cephalic index, nasal index and other characteristics. The head of the Iberian is unlike
that of the Primitive, but resembles the Australoid head. The forehead of the Iberian is
vertical and flat; the parietal region of the
121

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY O F T H E
Iberian is inconspicuous, that of the Primitive
is large and bulging; and the forehead of the
Iberian is relatively wide, whereas that of the
Primitive is relatively narrow, compared with
the head breadth. The Iberian and the Primitive are by contrast the most distinct and different of all the types.
T H E CRO-MAGNON

The Cro-Magnon of Taytay is an individual
above the average in stature, but not tall, with
mesocephalic head and broad nose, although
the nose is not flat, but straight, long and wide.
The face is large in all dimensions. The limb
parts are long, especially the forearm and
upper leg. This is probably a modified Iberian
or Mediterranean type that has impressed itself
upon Europe and Africa, and Asia as well, because many Chinese are of this type, and some
of the Nilotic negroes represent modified CroMagnon men. I t may be a product of the
union of the Australoid and Iberian.
T H E ALPINE

The characteristics of the Alpine of Taytay
may be emphasized by contrast with the CroMagnon. The Alpine is small, the Cro-Mag122

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
non is almost tall; the Alpine is broad headed,
the Cro-Magnon narrow headed; the Alpine
is narrow nosed, the Cro-Magnon is broad
nosed; the Alpine is short, squat and fat, the
Cro-Magnon is long, lanky and lean; the lower
leg of the Alpine is relatively long, that of the
Cro-Magnon is not; the forearm of the Alpine
is relatively shorter than that of the Cro-Magnon; and the face of the Cro-Magnon is relatively longer than that of the Alpine.
B. B. B.
iThe evident characteristics of the B. B. B.
are stature above the average, relatively short
lower legs and short upper arms, low omphalic
index, very narrow nose, and very long face
with somewhat broad head.
THE

T H E BLEND

The Primitive, Modified Primitive andv
Adriatic are so nearly like the Blend that one
must fconstitute the latter as a definite species,
embodying the others, the whole lot to be designated as the Primitive. Three characteristics of the type, the relatively long forearm,
lower leg and lower extremity, are Negroid or
Negritic, and the inference is that the Negrito
123

RACIAL ANATOMY
enters into the composition of this type, or else
this type enters largely into the Negritos, or
both may be true.
INFERENCES

The Filipinos of Taytay resemble other littoral Filipinos, but are different from the Igorots in stature, cephalic index, and the relative
number of individuals of the different types,
although the Australoid type predominates at
Taytay as well as among the Igorots. The
Igorot Australoid is, however, more like the
Primitive than is the Australoid of Taytay,
which resembles the Iberian more. The other
types are like those found elsewhere in the
Philippines. Evidences of Chinese, East Indian and European (Spanish) influence in the
physical composition of the men of Taytay is
not lacking.

FIG. 15.—The B. B. B. Filipino. B. B. B. ears. An
Igorot woman of Bontoc in northern Luzon.

F I G . Ifi.—The same as Fig. 1/i

CHAPTER V
TYPES or W O M E N AT TAYTAY

C

A S U A L observations lead to the conclusion that the women of Taytay are more
Primitive than the men, which is corroborated
by the present study.
STATURE

The 63 women measured are below medium
stature, and they are relatively smaller than
the men. Several groups of Siberian women
measured by Frau Dina Jochelson-Brodsky
are almost identical in stature, even to the maximum and minimum, but the 63 Taytayans
show greater variability, because their extremes are practically the same as (305 Siberians. The curve of stature for the women of
Taytay is more irregular than that of any
group of the Siberian women, indicating
greater homogeneity for the latter, and a more
complex composition for the Taytayans.
The stature is furthermore treated in groups
by types as in former chapters. The selection
of types has been accomplished by the method
adopted for previous groups of Filipinos,
125

THE RACIAL ANATOMY OF THE
using the.median stature of 153 centimeters
for the women, instead of 165 centimeters
which was used as the median for the men.
I t is noted that the stature of all the types
except the B . B . B . and Adriatic is below
medium, and that of the Primitive is small.
The Iberian is below medium height, whereas
the Iberian of E u r o p e is above medium
height. This indicates that the women of
T a y t a y are Primitive in stature, even when
the type is Iberian. The Blends have a
great extent of variability, as indicated by
the maximum and minimum, and the Primitive and Modified Primitive have the least variation of all. The Iberian, although twice as
numerous, has less distance between the extremes than the Australoid. The Iberian and
Primitive are therefore to be considered more
homogeneous in stature than the other types,
and the Blend and Australoid not so homogeneous.
SITTING H E I G H T

The sitting height of the women is less than
that of the men and the variation of the two
groups as indicated by the extremes is about in
proportion to the number of individuals in each
126

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
group. The sitting height of the women is
greater than that of the men relative to stature, and that of the Taytay women is relatively greater than that of the Siberian.
The mean sitting height of the Taytay
women is nearer the maximum than the minimum, which indicates that a larger number of
the women have a sitting height near the maximum than near the minimum, and as the
greater sitting height is supposed to represent
the Primitive type this is an indication that a
greater number of the Taytay women partake
of the Primitive type than of the Iberian or
the other types. The mean sitting height of
the Siberian women, on the other hand, is almost exactly intermediate between the extremes indicating an even distribution of sitting heights about the mean, therefore more
homogeneity.
The relatively greater length of body in the
women of Taytay seems to be due to the predominance of the Primitive type among the
Blends. The sitting height in general is relatively less for the tall than for the small individuals; taken by type the Blend, with less
stature than some other types, has relatively
greater sitting height, and this difference is
127

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY O F T H E
greater in the females than in the males. The
Primitive types, also with less stature than any
other type, have a greater relative sitting
height among the males than any other type
except the Australoid, and among the females
a greater relative sitting height than any other
type except the modified Primitive, Blend and
B. B. B.
This indicates that the Australoid males and
the modified Primitive, Blend, and B. B. B.
females are influenced in relative sitting height
by the Primitive, provided we accept the conclusion of the author, that the Primitive has a
relatively long body and relatively short legs.
The Australoid type resembles the Primitive
among the females, and the Iberian among the
males, in both stature and relative sitting
height, which may lead us to think that the
primary inhabitants were Primitive and the
secondary Iberian, provided again we accept
the conclusions of the author that the Australoid is a product of the Iberian and Primitive,
with mosaic characteristics, especially the disharmonic physiognomy, and provided we also
accept Pearson's law that males inherit more
from the father, and females more from the
mother.
128

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
LOWER EXTREMITY

Turning now to the length of the lower extremity as expressed by the trochanter height,
we find that the females have shorter legs than
the males, both in absolute measurements and
in relation to stature. The Jakuten of Siberia
have less trochanter height, relatively and absolutely, than the women of Taytay. They
have also less high trochanter than the other
Siberian women measured by the same author,
but all the Siberian women are practically the
same in these dimensions. I t may be of interest to note in this connection that the height
of the pubis is, relatively to stature, 51.3 for
the Taytayan women, 49.4 for the Siberian
women, and 52 for the Russian women measured by Teumin.
When the trochanter height of the types of
the men of Taytay is contrasted with that of
the women, it is noted that the relative trochanter height increases with increase of stature,
but the Primitive, Modified Primitive, Australoid and Blend of the women have a relative height about the same, with varying stature, and the Alpine, Iberian, B. B. B., and
Adriatic also have a relative height about the
9

129

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OP T H E
same, but different from that of the other four
types. The stature varies also, but is higher
in the last four than in the first four, except
the Alpine, which is less than the Modified
Primitive and Blend.
Pfitzner has demonstrated that the relative
body length decreases with increase of stature
in both male and female from a stature of 41
centimeters to that of 180, and the relative
length of the extremities (arm and leg) increases with each increment of stature. This
is corroborated by my findings, and it would
appear that the greater relative leg length is no
more than an additional increment of stature,
or that stature and leg length are highly correlated. This is no doubt true, and as demonstrated by Martin and others the upper leg
length and stature are more highly correlated
than are other parts with the stature. The
cause of the correlation is as yet, however, undefined. If it is a matter of stature, then additional stature causes additional and relatively
longer limbs. If it is a matter of limb development then the long extremities cause greater
height, but not so great in proportion. If it is
a matter of the interplay of factors in development then the undeveloped have small stature
130

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
and relatively less limb length, and the fully
developed or over developed have tall stature
and relatively greater limb length. This is
probably the true cause, and not only is it true
in the development of the individual, but also
in the development of the species. The Primitive and its related types are early species of
man; the form is retained more largely in
women at present, with small stature and relatively short extremities, whereas, the Iberian
and its related types are more recent species of
men and have the form retained more largely
in men, with tall stature and relatively long
extremities. This may be also an exemplification of Pearson's law that males inherit more
from the father and females from the mother,
the original inhabitants having been Primitive and the more recent intrusions were made
by men of the Iberian type.
UPPER EXTREMITY ,

The length of the upper extremity as represented by the distance from the acromion
process to the finger tip may be considered in
this connection.
Men have relatively longer arms than
women and the Taytayans have relatively
131

THE RACIAL ANATOMY OF THE
longer arms than the Siberians. The first statement is confirmed by Frau Jochelson-Brodsky,
who assembles the records of measurements
made by 33 different investigations of related
Siberian peoples, and in only one group does
the relative arm length of the women exceed
that of the men, and in only five groups does
the relative arm length of the women exceed
45.0, in the Lapps, the Ainos, the Jakuten,
the Kirgisen and Sojotinnen, and in each
group the relative length is less than that of
the men of Taytay. There is so little difference, however, that no conclusions may be
drawn safely. There is apparently correlation
of stature and arm length as there is of stature
and leg length.
RELATIVE UPPER ARM

LENGTH

In the previous study of the men of Taytay
it was noted that the relative upper arm length,
the brachial index and the crural index were
factors that differentiated the Taytayan from
other groups such as the Soudanese Negroes,
the Europeans, etc.; therefore it may be well
to examine these factors in the women of Taytay.
The relative upper arm length of the men of
132

PHILIPPINE ISLANDERS
Taytay is greater than that of any other people except the Sikh, Chinese and European,
and since this factor is the same for the women
of Taytay, it may be dismissed. There is also
little difference between the types in this factor, so that its relations are negligible, although the Primitive and its varieties have relatively shorter upper arms than the Iberian and
its varieties, following in this the relative
length of the upper leg. This may be significant as a differential factor of the types, or
only incidental to stature, the types with small
stature having relatively short upper arms and
legs, and the types with medium or tall stature
having relatively long upper arms and legs.
The brachial and crural indices may throw
some light on these conditions.
BRACHIAL INDEX

The brachial index of the women of Taytay
is 70.1, a little less than that of the men. I t
is also less than that of the Russian women
measured by Teumin, 72.4, the Siberian women
measured by Jochelson-Brodsky, 75.0, the
Aino women of Koganei 79.4 and the Japanese
of Balz, 80.5 to 89. The same index is 75.6
for the Igorot women. When this index is ex133

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
amined for the types the results are somewhat
discordant, although the Primitive and related
forms have a higher index than the Iberian and
its related forms. The Australoid has a lower
index than the Iberian, but they are practically
the same, and the low index of the Australoid
may be attributed to Iberian influence. However, the Primitive, Modified Primitive and
Blend have higher indices than the Iberian,
Cro-Magnon and Australoid, which indicates
that the Primitive brachial index is higher
than the Iberian.
If this applies to the Russians, Siberians and
Japanese, then without doubt, the Primitive
elements increase as the Orient is approached
through those three peoples, certainly among
the women. The Taytay women appear to
have more Iberian elements and fewer Primitive than any of the three in brachial index.
Hamy gives the brachial index of infants and
children 88.88 for those aged 2 months, and
72.30 for those aged 5 to 13.5 years, which
would indicate that the Primitive is more infantile than the Iberian, because the brachial
index of the Primitive is greater than that of
the Iberian.
134

PHILIPPINE ISLANDERS
T H E CRURAL INDEX

This index of the women of Taytay is 5 less
than that of the men (95.1 and 90.1), but in
no way can it be compared with the index of
the women of Siberia because of differences in
measurement and computation. Considered
from the standpoint of type, however, differences are found.
The evidence is that the Primitive has a
smaller index than the other types except the
Iberian and Alpine women, but so few as 5 individuals do not constitute a fair number for
an average. The Modified Primitive of the
men has the highest index of all, but the index
of the women is low. Here again, since only
two individuals were measured, this may be disregarded. The crural index of the Primitive
Morgue subjects was calculated to be more
than 100, although only 7 men and 3 women
were measured. I t would be advisable to
measure a greater number of the Primitive
type before the crural index can be determined
absolutely.
There can be no doubt, however, that the
Australoid type has a high crural index, because enough individuals have been measured
to indicate this, and all the measurements are
135

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OP T H E
corroborative. This would make the Australoid like the Negro and Negrito. The Iberian
on the other hand has a lower index, the CroMagnon and Alpine as well. The Blend, too,
has a low index which denotes greater Primitive (?) influence than Australoid.
The crural index of the women in each type
except the Primitive is less than that of the
men, which means that the women have relatively shorter lower legs than the men. They
are thus more Primitive, provided the Primitive is found to have a relatively low index.
To summarize the measurements of the body
parts:-—
The stature of the women of Taytay is small,
identical with that of the Siberian women, although more variable, and relatively less than
the stature of the men of Taytay. The sitting height of the women of Taytay is practically the same absolutely and in relation to
stature as that of the Siberian women, although
the relative sitting height is greater than that
of the Siberian women or of the men of Taytay.
The leg length of the women of Taytay is
absolutely and relatively greater than that of
136

PHILIPPINE ISLANDERS
the Siberian women and less than that of the
men of Taytay.
Leg length is highly correlated with stature,
and this may be due either to ontogeny or phytogeny, or to both.
The arm length is similar to the leg length
in its various relationships.
The pubis of woman is probably lower than
that of man.
The brachial index of the women of Taytay
is a little less than that of the men, which is
less than that of the Russian women.
The crural index increases in the women as
follows:
Taytayan
European
Siberian
Aino
Japanese

70.1
72.4
75.0
79.4
80.5-89.0

The crural index of the women is less than
that of the men.
From the standpoint of type the greatest
differences appear between the Primitive and
the Iberian, and in practically all the measurements the women are more Primitive than the
men, and the men are more Iberian than the
137

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY O F T H E
women. The Australoid type is intermediate
between the Iberian and Primitive, except in
brachial index, in which it is almost exactly the
same as the Iberian, and the crural index in
which it is like neither, but resembles the
Negrito.
There is some discordance in the relative
length of the parts of the extremities, upper
arm and leg and lower arm and leg, and
the brachial and crural indices. As already noted the types with small stature
have relatively shorter upper arms and legs
than the types with tall stature, which should
mean that the former types have higher brachial and crural indices than the latter, but this
is not true. The Australoid, with small
stature, has a high crural index, and a
low brachial index, and the Primitive, with
small stature, has a low crural index and a
high brachial index. More extended observations will be necessary to decide what the true
relationship of these factors may be.
The body parts having been discussed, attention may now be devoted to the head and
face. No detailed comparison will be made,
but only a comparison of the most important
indices.
138

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
CEPHALIC INDEX

The cephalic index is greater for the women
than for the men, and the Siberian women
(Jakuten) have the same index as the women
of Taytay, although this group of Siberian
women, the Jakuten, has a higher cephalic index than the other groups of Siberians given
by Frau Jochelson-Brodsky. I n this as in the
stature and in other measurements, the Jakuten and the women of Taytay are alike.
The cephalic index of the types is distinctive
because it is used as a differential factor in
conjunction with the stature and nasal index
in the segregation of types; therefore it may
be presented without comment.
T H E CEPHALIC I N D E X

Women

Men.
Type.

Primitive
Iberian
Australoid
Alpine
B. B. B
Cro-Magnon
Blend

Number
of
Individuals.

Index.

3
15
35
11
2
12
91

88.5
76.2
78.0
87.7
82.8
78.3
83.3

Number
of
Individuals.

Index.

2
12
7
2
1

86.3
77.9
78.3
92.9
85.5

36

84.2

NASAL INDEX

The women of Taytay have wider noses than
the men, and a great deal wider than those of
139

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
the Siberian women (Jakutinnen). The nasal
index by type is presented without comment
for the same reason that the cephalic index was
so presented.
T H E NASAL INDEX

Men of Taytay.
Type.

Primitive
Iberian
Australoid
Alpine
B . B. B
Cro-Magnon
Blends

Number
of
Individuals.

Index.

3
15
35
11
2
12
91

89.1
78.5
93.3
70.1
67.6
93.4
83.8

Women of Taytay.
Number
of
Individuals.

Index.

2
12
7
2
1

107.4
77.4
97.4
82.0
66.0

36

85.2

The face of the women of Taytay is relatively broader than that of the men, and both
are broader than the face of the Siberian
women.
T H E FACE INDEX

I t is to be noted that in all the head and face
indices there is a greater range of variation,
judging from the extremes, in the women of
Taytay than in the Siberian women.
I n the consideration of face index and type a
combined face index is utilized because this is
a better differentiator than either the morphologic or physiologic face index alone. The
140

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
combined face index is obtained by dividing
the morphologic face index by the physiognomic index. The following table is the result:
T H E COMBINED FACE INDEX

Women of Taytay.
Type.

Primitive
Iberian
Australoid
Alpine
B. B. B . . . . . .
Blends
Adriatic

Number
of
Individuals.
2
12
7
2
1
2
34
1

Max.

Mean.

Min.

86.3
143.9
127.8
117.8

83.3
117.8
113.8
114.3
88.0
91.7
108.8
113.7

80.3
99.8
95.2
110.8

96.4
139.1

87.1
87.8

A high combined face index means a relatively long and a relatively narrow face,
whereas a low combined face index means a
relatively short and a relatively broad face.
The Primitive and the Iberian are more distantly separated than any of the other types,
and the Blends are nearer the Iberian than
the Primitive. The Australoid and the Alpine
also resemble the Iberian. The Modified Primitive is more like the Primitive.
To summarize the head, nose and face:—
The cephalic index, nasal index, morphologic face index, and combined face index demonstrate that the women of Taytay have rela141

RACIAL ANATOMY
tively broader heads, faces and noses than the
men of Taytay, and the latter have the same
characters relatively broader than the Siberian
women, except that the cephalic index of the
men of Taytay is slightly less than that of the
others. The broad head, face and nose characterize the Primitive type, which would indicate that the women of Taytay are more Primitive than the men, or than the Siberian women.

FIG. 17.—The Modified Primitive or Adriatic Filipino. Modified Primitive ears. A man from the inland
tribe of Bogabos of Mindanao.

Fit;. 18.—The same as Fig. 17

CHAPTER VI
T H E M E N OF CAINTA

T

H E town of Cainta, a stone's throw from
Taytay near the Lake of the Bay (Laguna de Bay), is of considerable historic
interest because of the bloody battles fought
in its vicinity during the many insurrections that have characterized the region of
Luzon not distant from Manila. I t is of great
interest to the anthropologist, because it presents a body of people different from the surrounding population.
Cainta was founded before the Spanish
came to the islands, as it is stated in a history
of the Philippines by Jose Montero y Vidal,
volume I, page 1, that Captain Juan Salcedo,
one of the first Spanish officers who came to
the Philippines, in 1571, having subdued the
natives of Cainta and Taytay, went to the
Lake (La, Laguna) pacifying many towns.
There seem to be no data concerning the origin
of the population of Cainta, but one of two
suppositions is plausible. Either they were
derived from settlers of East Indian origin
143

THE RACIAL ANATOMY OF THE
who arrived before the Spanish, or they represent the descendants of a British regiment of
East Indian troops, who remained whei? the
British evacuated the Philippines in 1763. The
history of P . Murillo, written in 1752, volume
V I I , page 33, speaks of some of the inhabitants
of the Philippines when the Spanish arrived as
black people, called for politeness sake Creoles (Criollos or Morenos), who were characterized by being very active politically. Murillo believed that these people came from Malabar or Coromandel, belonging to the British,
and they were probably of East Indian origin.
P . Juan de Salcedo, in his history, page 264,
speaking of those Morenos or Criollos, says
that they have long, straight hair, long noses,
and wide open eyes. H e speaks further of
some similar people from Malabar that he had
known in Manila, who married and settled
nearby in Santo Tomas, and at times came to
Manila on business. H e also says that if they
were not brown they might be regarded as Europeans, P . Martinez makes the statement in
his book "Estadismus de Filipinas," page 264,
that at the beginning of the conquest of the
Philippine Islands by the Spanish there came
144

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
Moors from Hindustan, trading with the natives.
From these statements one may infer that
the people of Cainta were of East Indian origin and occupied the town before the arrival
of the Spanish. Current opinion among
prominent Filipinos differs in regard to
this, and I have been informed by eminent Filipino physicians who have made
a study of their country's history that tradition states their origin to have been from
a company of East Indian soldiers who
were stationed at Cainta during the British
occupation of Manila, which was overlooked
when the British embarked, and these troops
settled there where their descendants at present remain. Both suppositions may be true.
The town of Cainta may have been settled originally by East Indians, and a few men from
among the British troops of East Indian origin may have remained when the British evacuated Manila. Whatever their origin, they are
strikingly like the East Indians, who at present may be seen in considerable numbers about
Manila, and they impressed me by their tall
stature, almost black skin, long nose and openeyed expression as of surprise, a characteristic
10

145

THE RACIAL ANATOMY OF THE
East Indian countenance. Three men I saw
casually in passing were taller than myself
(183 centimeters). The skin is a dark sooty
brown that usually appears to be black, the
face is large and particularly long, the nose
is notably high, long and narrow, and the eyes
have the furtive look of a hunted hare combined with the wide open lids that give the
women of East India their peculiar charm of
expression. Their ultimate origin from Europe cannot be doubted.
In any event they settled in Cainta and married Filipinos. Their descendants therefore
resemble both Indians and Filipinos, individually and collectively, with a preponderance of
the Indian in the mass and in the individual.
At least such is the appearance by casual observation, and such is the actual condition as
determined by measurements.
The measurements of 88 men of Cainta give
average dimensions that are in almost every
part slightly diiFerent from similar dimensions
of the men of Taytay, and the differences are
in the direction of the European. The average differences are slight, but because they are
differences and because they are averages, and
146

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
because the differences all simulate the European they are significant.
I t is to be reckoned that the indices and relative factors also differ between the two
groups of men because the actual measurements are different, and such is the case, all the
indices except one pointing to the European
origin of the inhabitants of Cainta.
In only the brachial index does the Cainta
Indian resemble any other people more than
the European, and this index is like that of the
negro—the most characteristic index of the
negro's body parts.
The individuals more than the average show
distinctive European markings, and a great
number of them appear to be purer Iberians
than were encountered elsewhere in the Philippines, one-third of the total number measured
being of this type. Not only do the individual measurements indicate the pure Iberian,
as in the man numbered 15, with a stature of
163.6 centimeters, a nasal index of 77.7, cephalic index 75.9 and omphalic index of 85.9, the
latter 15 per cent, less than the average Filipino and 15 per cent, greater than the average European women of Russia (Jews?) as
measured by Teumin; not only do the Cainta
147

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
Indians resemble this man in physical measurements, but their ear form is that of the European Iberian. Another indication of the European extraction is the absence of the Primitive
and Modified Primitive types at Cainta. A
few Australoid and Alpine types with the
Blends constitute the Filipino element of the
population.
The presence of the East Indians at Cainta
is evidence that the Indians came to the Philippines and have to some extent helped to form
the present Filipino population. The presence
of similar people throughout the islands, even
among the inland tribes, indicates that this element of the population is of no inconsiderable
extent. Studies in ethnology, such as those by
Doctors Saleeby, Barrows and Pardo de Tavera, prove that the culture of India is to some
extent a part of the culture of the Filipino
people. To what extent the East Indians have
infiltrated the Philippines in times past and
even at present remains as yet unfathomed,
but there can be no doubt that many localities
have a preponderance of the Indian in their
composition. Such at least would be my supposition from casual observations of the inhabitants of several hamlets of fisher folk about
148

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
the Bay of Manila, in such towns as Paranaque
and Malabon, and about the Lake of the Bay,
as well as the study of the inland tribes from
photographs. The Indian element has left its
impress on the Filipino by increased stature,
darker skin, longer head, nose, and face, and
the Iberian ear with everted concha and rolled
out helix, characteristics that a close observer
learns after many years to distinguish readily.

CHAPTER VII
T H E RELATION or MORPHOLOGY TO DISEASE

I

N T H E first chapter I designated the
types selected as new or elementary species, and suggested that some of the types
might be true, systematic, or old species,
from which the new elementary species
had been derived. Later investigations not
only confirmed this idea, but enable the
two kinds of species bo be differentiated.
The Primitive and the Iberian are old or
systematic species, whereas the Alpine, B.
B. B., Modified Primitive, and Adriatic are
new or elementary species which are at present in the process of formation and are
therefore not so stable and definite as the other
two. The Australoid and the Cro-Magnon are
intermediate between the old and the new, but
they are fairly stable, and may be called systematic species. The Blends represent what
will be the elementary Filipino species, or the
Filipino race of the future.
Great interest attaches to this classification
because of the association of tuberculosis and
other diseases with the Iberian type. Suf150

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
ficient numbers of individuals of the other species were not found to justify conclusions. Of
the 70 individuals examined in Malecon
Morgue the majority of deaths were caused
by chronic affections. Tuberculosis heads the
list with 41 per cent, of deaths, beriberi follows
with 14 per cent., and then, in the order given,
come senile debility, 6 per cent.; chronic enteritis, 5 per cent.; septicaemia, 5 per cent.; accident, 5 per cent.; carcinoma, 2 per cent.; pyaemia, 2 per cent.; chronic nephritis, 2 per cent.;
and other diseases, 18 per cent. The other diseases include 1 case each of heart disease,
uraemia, diabetes, asthma, meningitis, chronic
rheumatism, hemorrhagic purpura, typhoid
fever, influenza, myocarditis, bronchitis,
chronic cystitis, liver abscess, and insanity.
The clinical diagnosis was confirmed by autopsy in only 23 cases.
The most significant facts are that 70 per
cent, of the Iberians, 56 per cent, of the Blends,
and 33 per cent, of the other types died of tuberculosis, whereas only one Primitive and not
a single Australoid died of it. However, 33
per cent, of the Primitive, 30 per cent, of the
Australoid, and but one Iberian died of beriberi. This would indicate that the Iberian is
151

THE RACIAL ANATOMY OF THE
more susceptible to tuberculosis than the
Blends and other types, and the Primitive and
Australoid are comparatively free from the disease.
Pursuing this investigation further to include the living, it was found at Taytay that
the Iberian was afflicted not only with tuberculosis, but with all other diseases to a greater
extent than the Primitive. Only 9 comparatively pure Iberians were examined and found
diseased, and of these 5 had lung affections, 4
of which were tuberculosis. The two comparatively pure Primitives examined had an acute
infection and pleurisy. The Australoid was
affected in 6 cases with tuberculosis, 2 with
lung or pleural trouble, 2 with heart or arterial disease, 1 with neurasthenia, and 3 had
the kidneys or genito-urinary organs affected.
Among the Blends were 12 cases of tuberculosis, 8 cases of other lung or pleural affections,
38 cases of alimentary disease, 5 heart and
arterial diseases, 4 cases of fever, 5 of acute
infections, 3 with skin diseases including 1
case of leprosy, 3 with diseases of the kidneys
and genito-urinary organs, 1 case of rheumatism and 1 of splenic disease.
The Iberian and the Primitive were next
152

PHILIPPINE ISLANDERS
compared by taking every individual in which
either type of ear occurs, be it pure or not,
there being 59 in the Iberian group and 29
in the Primitive. The diseases were then
found to be as follows:
Number
of
individuals.

Primitive...

59
29

Tu- AliIntestinal Lung ber- men- Circu- Mala- Other Beri- Total
disladisculo- tary. tory. ria. eases. beri. eases.
parasites.
sis.

48
19

18
3

12
1

10
2

8
1

4
0

7
3

0
1

107
29

This again corroborates previous findings,
and signifies that by the ear alone the susceptibility to tuberculosis may be indicated. There
are also indications that malaria is more frequent among the Iberian Filipinos, and that
the heart and arteries are affected more often
than in the Primitive. Indeed, all diseases are
associated more frequently with the Iberian
than the Primitive, except beriberi, and only
one case of this disease is reported among the
men measured.
No absolute conclusions would be justified
from the facts exposed, but the inference is
strong that the Iberian is more susceptible to
all diseases but especially to tuberculosis than
the Primitive. This may be indicative that the
153

THE RACIAL ANATOMY OF THE
European and Filipino offspring of the Iberian type is less resistant to disease in the tropics
than is the aboriginal type on its own soil
and in its natural environment.
The records of disease may be found in the
statistics of the Medical Survey of the town of
Taytay in the Biological Laboratory, Bureau
of Science, from which the data are drawn.
Following the study of the living another investigation of the Morgue Subjects was made
with particular regard to. their ears, the result
of which is that the association of the Iberian
with tuberculosis is more firmly established.
The incidence of disease and ear type is as follows:
Ear type.

Tuberculosis.

Beriberi.

Other
diseases.

17
1
4

0
6
5

13
5
40

Iberian
Other ear types

The number of diseased persons among the
women of Taytay was so small that a fair comparison would be impossible, but the data corroborate previous findings, therefore they may
be taken as substantiating former deductions.
Fifty per cent, of the Iberian women examined were diseased, whereas only 20 per cent.
154

PHILIPPINE ISLANDERS
of the Primitive, and about 30 per cent, of the
Blend had diseases. Fifteen per cent, of the
Iberians had tuberculosis, whereas none of the
Primitive were so affected, and only one Blend
and one Australoid had the disease. I t is obvious from the above that the Iberian women
of Taytay are more diseased than the Primiitive, and they seem to be especially liable to
tuberculosis.
I t was observed both at Taytay and in the
Morgue that the Iberian ear type A, the one
without lobule, is the ear more than all others
associated with tuberculosis. Not only is this
ear always found with tuberculosis, but the tuberculosis is always of an aggravated form,
pulmonary, with cavity formation, etc.
Finally the ears of the tuberculosis patients
of Bilibid Prison were examined, and 107
Iberian, 2 Primitive, and 70 mixed ear types
were noted among 180 patients with pulmonary tuberculosis—1 patient was not seen. Of
the Iberian ears 45 per cent, were type A, 25
per cent, type B, 20 per cent, type C, and 10
per cent, type D, indicating, as mentioned
above, that individuals with the Iberian ear
type A are more liable to tuberculosis than is
any other form.
155

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
The lepers in San Lazaro Hospital have
also a preponderance of Iberian ears, but the
most prevalent form of ear with leprosy is the
Iberian type D and not the Iberian type A, although many lepers have ears that are so distorted by the disease as to be unrecognizable
in so far as type is concerned.
The foregoing demonstrates the incidence
of the Iberian with tuberculosis, whatever may
be the reason for it. The Iberian is found
not only to be afflicted with tuberculosis to a
larger extent than is the Primitive, but the
Primitive is comparatively free from the disease, and the other types, including the Blend,
have not so much tuberculosis as the Iberian.
The large number of Australoids and Blends
with tuberculosis may be due to the Iberian in
their composition. I t may be said that the
reason Iberians have more tuberculosis than
the other types is because they are more numerous in the population, but the relation of 107
Iberians to 2 Primitives as found in Bilibid
Prison is out of all proportion to the relative
number of the two types in the Filipino population. The Primitive predominates in some
localities, and the Iberian in others, but the
total population is without doubt more Primitive than Iberian.
156

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
It is a noteworthy fact that the Filipino of
the Iberian type presents a very unfavorable
picture as seen from the results of my studies,
whereas Filipinos of the Alpine, B. B. B., and
Adriatic types give a very favorable impression. The Iberians are small, delicate looking
individuals with long, thin chests of the "habitus phthisicus;" a large per cent, die of tuberculosis; they form a greater per cent, of the
Morgue subjects than of the Students; they
have the worst teeth and the lowest class standing of all the types; and they have practically
disappeared from among the Igorots, either by
absorption or by elimination through disease
or otherwise. On the other hand, the Alpine,
B, B. B., and Adriatic are the most robust
looking individuals; their stature is greater
than that of any other types; they form a large
part of the Students and practically never
are found in the Morgue, probably because
they are of the better classes and are cared for
by friends; they have good teeth and their class
standing is the best. These differences may
be due to environment, but type is also a factor.
The inference to be drawn from this study is
that a process of breeding out an alien stock
is in progress. The Iberian is undoubtedly of
157

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
European origin and has been grafted on the
East through repeated migrations, but the
type does not retain its stamina when strained
through a different people in a new environment, therefore it succumbs more quickly to
tuberculosis and other diseases than the original inhabitants on their own soil and with their
accustomed environment. What is lost by
breeding out the Iberian, is gained in other
ways, by adding size and vigor to the native
stock, and in the formation of other types
such as the Alpine and B. B. B., which are
derived from the combination of the Primitive
and the Iberian. The Blend is also freer from
tuberculosis than the Iberian, and may be another element of value in the population of the
future.
Professor D. Hansemann, in his book, " Descendenz und Pathologie," introduces the idea
that variability is normal, and extreme variation favors extinction. By external influences
variation is hindered, and by other external influences extinction is accomplished. Epidemics, such as unusual abundance of food, or absence of adverse circumstances, cause a rapid
increase in numbers of individuals, therefore
an increase of varieties and of variation, or,
158

PHILIPPINE ISLANDERS
on the other hand, epidemics, such as unusual
abundance of disease germs or absence of protective agents on the part of the host, cause
extinction.
At present in the Philippine Islands there is
an epidemic of tuberculosis, and this epidemic
is largely confined to the type I have designated Iberian.
We have, in conclusion, the following inferences :
The Filipinos were originally composed
largely of two systematic species of men, which
I have termed Primitive and Australoid. To
these have been added Chinese and European
elementary species, chiefly Iberian, especially
in the cities and along the littoral of the islands.
The elementary species represented by the Europeans and Chinese are now in greater abundance than the systematic species, and the
Blends constitute about one-half of the littoral
population. The Iberians apparently are more
liable to tuberculosis, whereas the original Filipinos are comparatively free from the disease.
The Iberian will ultimately disappear, leaving
new combinations and Blends unlike the original types.

CHAPTER

VIII

T H E OMPHALIC INDEX

T

H E position of the umbilicus in relation
to the pubis and the suprasternal notch,
although it is more variable than the two points
last mentioned, is of importance in the differentiation of the species of men. Its importance
embryologically cannot be denied, but whether
its position is due to developmental phenomena or not, remains to be determined. I present for the first time the index of the umbilicus, and emphasize its significance.
The index is found by dividing the distance
of the umbilicus from the pubic spine by its
distance from the suprasternal notch. This
indicates its relative position on the body. I f
the index is high, the umbilicus is relatively
near the suprasternal notch, but if low, it is
relatively near the pubic spine.
I propose the name of Omphalic Index for
the index of the umbilicus. Divisions into
hyper-, meso-, and hypo-omphalic would
follow naturally for the high, intermediate,
and low umbilicus, and these might be termed
160

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
Omphalites of a high, intermediate, or low
order. I t is inexpedient at this time to attempt
a definition of the limits of the three classes,
although I believe the Filipinos are omphalites
of a high order.
When the Igorots were examined the position of the umbilicus was determined, and the
omphalic index proves to be 41.1, whereas that
of the women is 50. The Lowland Igorots
have a higher index than either the Highland
or Bontoc Igorots, and as the Lowland men are
not so tall as the others it may be concluded
that tall men have a low index and the small
men a high index. The Igorot boys have a
high index similar to that of the women, and
this is especially true of the boys below the
age of ten. After that age the index is about
the same as that of the adult.
Afterwards the measurements of the
Morgue subjects confirmed the findings in regard to the Igorots, which is that the women
have a higher omphalic index than the men.
The men and women of Taytay exhibit the
same differences, and when their omphalic indices are compared with the indices of the
women of Siberia measured by Frau Jochelxi
xax

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY O F T H E
son-Brodsky, three classes of omphalites are
distinguished:
OMPHALIC

THE

INDEX

No.

Mean.

Min.

Author.

180
63
64

Men of Taytay
Women of Taytay
Jakuten (women)

Max.
60.26
73.20

42.25
48.20
42.00

20.36
32.30

Bean.
Bean.
JochelsonBrodsky.

Russian women and Russian
Jewesses

33.00

Teumin.

The navel of the men is lower than that of
the women, which has been demonstrated already for the Igorots and Morgue subjects;
the navel of the women of Siberia is about the
same as that of the men of Taytay.
The Jewish and Russian women have lower
navels than any other group under consideration. This is of interest when the Omphalic
index is considered in relation to type as follows:
T H E OMPHALIC INDEX
MEN OF TAYTAY

No.

Type.

Max.

Omphalic
Index.
Mean.

Australoid
Cro-Magnon

.

....

Blend
Modified Primitive. .

162

3
32
15
11
10
88
6

56 5
55.9
52.8
51.6
52.2
57.6
46.2

Min.

44.1
41.4
42.9
42.9
42.6
42.2
43.1

37.0
26.2
33.5
38.6
36.3
20.4
35.2

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
W O M E N O F TAYTAY

Max.
2
7
12
2
1
1
36
2

B. B. B
Blend
Mod. Primitive

Mean.

Min.

47.7
63.6
54.6
45.4

47.6
48.4
46.4
39.2
38.8
37.6
49.9
46.2

47.5
36.8
38.4
33.0

73.2
47.8

32.3
44.6

Among the men the Primitive and Modified
Primitive types have a higher omphalic index
than the others and the Australoid has the
lowest of all. Among the women the Australoid, the Blend and the Primitive types have
the highest indices, and the Alpine, Adriatic
and B. B. B. have the lowest, but only
4 individuals of the latter type were observed. The significant facts are that the
Iberian and its related types have a lower
index than the Primitive and its related
types in both men and women, with
slight exceptions. The Blend among the men
has a low index (42.2) and the Blend among
the women a high index (49.9), which indicates that the female Blend is largely Primitive and the male Blend largely Iberian. I t
is to be supposed from the above that the
women of Europe, particularly the Russian
163

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY O F T H E
and Jewish women, are largely Iberian and
the Siberian women are largely Primitive.
The Cainta Indians measured while I was
working at Taytay have an index of 39.5,
which is 2.75 per cent, less than that of the
men of Taytay, and indicates a preponderance
of the Iberian type. By actual measurements
and the observation of the ear type the majority of the men of Cainta who were measured
prove to be Iberians. To summarize:
By the use of the Omphalic Index the relative amount of Iberian and Primitive stock in
a people composed of. the two stocks may be
determined with a fair degree of accuracy.
Judged by this standard the Russian women
(Jewesses?) measured by Teumin are 34 per
cent, less Primitive than the Igorot women,
30 per cent, less Primitive than the women of
Taytay, 25 per cent, less Primitive than the
men of Taytay and the women of Siberia
(Jakuten), and 16 per cent, less Primitive r
than the Cainta Indians, or the other way
around they are more Iberian than the other
peoples mentioned. This is not the exact percentage of difference between the groups, but
I believe it represents an inexact relative difference. Other features, such as stature, ceph164

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
alic index, nasal index, and ear type substantiate the assertion.
The sexual differentiation by the omphalic
index is great; the women have an index that
is higher than that of the men. Child-bearing
in women may have some influence on the position of the umbilicus. So may the protrusion
of the abdomen from any cause, such as obesity, ascites, rice feeding, etc., but type seems
to be the most important factor.
The index is high before the age of ten and
decreases thereafter. The position of the umbilicus in the small male child is similar to that
of the women.

CHAPTER IX
A

CLASSIFICATION OF FILIPINO EARS

T

H E cosmopolitan population of Manila
affords abundant material for the
study of ears of all kinds. Here, if anywhere
in the world, all races and many types of mankind are represented; the white, the yellow,
the red, the brown, and the black. * I had previously observed ears in America and Europe
for several years, and after my arrival in the
Philippines, in 1907, I gave particular attention to the ears of the Filipinos and the other
inhabitants of these islands.
The study of Filipino ears began by a close
inspection and sketching of ears, on the streets
leading into Manila, including the suburbs as
well as the city proper, in the Assembly, and
among other collections of Filipinos, such as
the prisoners of Bilibid, where the criminals
from all parts of the Philippines are incarcerated. Following this I made a more detailed
study of the ears of the bodies received at
Malecon Morgue, examined critically the ears
of the people of the town of Taytay, and the
166

Austral oid
FIG. 19.—Type? of Filipino ear?. The Cro-Magnon is the Iberian type D and the
Iberian in the central picture i? the type C.

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
ears of the inland tribes of the Philippines,
the last largely by means of photographs.
Not having any preconceived ideas of the
types of Filipino ears, I was led to select the
European types with which I was familiar as
the basis on which to begin my observations. I
was surprised to find that the ears of Filipinos
resemble those of Europeans, although the
types at first selected were only the most general. The first 844 Filipinos examined were
assigned to the groups as follows:
EARS OF ADULT M A L E FILIPINOS

Long (Northern and Cro-Magnon)
Oval, shelf, no lobule (Alpine or French)
Round,
flaring
No lobule
Others
Total

345
86
84
122
207
844

Five types for a new grouping are established by notes and sketches made during my
preliminary observations; two from the longeared group and one from each of the others.
Type 1 is a long, slender ear, with a straight
posterior border and square lobule, the outline
a parallelogram with rounded corners, which
presents itself on long, lean individuals with
167

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
long heads and faces, prominent cheek bones,
and usually with dark eyes and hair. This ear
is designated Cro-Magnon because the type of
man resembles my conception of the cave man
of Europe, although since the preliminary observations were completed this type has been
classed definitely as Iberian type D.
Type 2 is long and flat, with a straight posterior border, and square lower helix without
lobule. This exists on medium-sized individuals of stocky build, and as it is found frequently on the Igorots it was designated as
Igorot, although later detailed study reveals
Iberian characteristics. Two types are found
similar to it, which are classed as Iberian type
B and B. B. B.
Type 3 is large and oval, with a shelf where
the lobule is attached to the cheek. Type 3 is
found throughout middle Europe (southern
Germany, Switzerland, central France) and
in America along the Ohio River, in Canada,
and on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, or
wherever the inhabitants of central Europe
have settled. This ear is termed Alpine, from
Ripley's designation of the middle European.
I t is associated with persons of adipose ten168

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
dencies, with dark hair and eyes, and broad
heads.
Type 4 is a small, round, flaring ear, in which
the lobule and superior part of the helix are
symmetrical. Type 4 is called Iberian because
it is found on small, dark, long-headed individuals representing the Eurafrican or Mediterranean race of southern Europe, and it is
later designated as Iberian type C, because the
form of the lobule is intermediate between that
of the Iberian types B and D.
Type 5 is long and oval, with large helix and
small lobule, and it is designated Northern because it occurs most frequently on tall blondes
of the Nordic type of Northern Europe. This
type is also believed to be an Iberian type that
has become considerably modified. Ears that
resemble any one type more than another, but
are not exactly identical with it, are put into
groups, six of which are differentiated. The
groups are subordinate to the types and each
contains only ears that resemble the type, for
example: the ears of group 1 resemble those
of type 1. Ears unlike any of the five types
of the groups are included under the heading
" Others."
169

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY O F T H E
EARS OF ADULT MALE FILIPINOS

Number
of individuals.

Type.

2. Iberian B
3. Alpine
4. Iberian C

Total

....

6
25
12
20
3
148
214

Group.

1
2
3
4
5

Number
of individuals.

Total.

101
282
120
83
91

107
307
132
103
94

677

891

Type 2 is predominant and the others are
each present in about equal proportions. All
ear types so far considered are European and
characteristic of definite somatologic types of
European men. At this time, after the second
thousand observations have been completed,
at least two additional types appear to be predominantly Filipino. These I have designated Malay and Negroid. The Malay E a r
has since been termed the Primitive because
almost invariably found on the Primitive type,
and the Negroid ear has been analyzed into
a composite of Primitive and Iberian, which
probably represents the Australoid type. One
more type is selected in addition; a large, wellrounded ear with heavy lobule and broad helix;
distinctive of a European type that may be
designated as the box-headed, big-cerebel170

PHILIPPINE ISLANDERS
lumed Bavarian of Ranke, which I call the
B. B. B. Another Iberian ear, called Iberian
type A also occurs; this has no lobule, flares
upward, and has an everted concha at its outer
border (anthelix), especially below.
After the above classifications were completed, the haunts of the average Filipino were
again invaded and a third set of observations
recorded. This time an endeavor was made to
separate the masses into classes by registering
pedestrians in one list and those seen in street
cars and carriages (not the common street
cart) in another. Only pure-type ears are
recorded; no ears that show mere resemblances
are tabulated; those that are not of one type or
another are put under " Others."
The records of this third classification indicate four ear types as characterizing the Filipino, two of which are European, the Iberian type B '(Igorot) and the B. B. B., and
two of which are not, the Australoid and the
Primitive. Four other types, all European,
are found, therefore the inference can be
drawn that the Filipinos of Manila and vicinity are more European than otherwise. The
two groups,'pedestrians and riders, separate
the poorer classes from the well-to-do, and a
171

THE RACIAL ANATOMY OF THE
notable difference in the relative number of
ears of the different types in the two groups
is observed. Among the pedestrians the -Australoid and Primitive are most numerous,
whereas among the riders the B. B. B. and
Iberian type B predominate, an indication
that the European types of Filipinos are more
prosperous than the others.
INDIVIDUAL TYPES

Having determined that European ear types
with characteristic morphology pertaining to
definite somatologic types of men are present
to a large extent among Filipinos, and that
other morphologic ear forms belonging intrinsically to the Filipinos are also present, material is at hand to enable us to find the type of
Filipino to which each ear type appertains.
This is done by confining observations to one
type at a time, noting the characteristics of
each individual on whom the particular ear
type under consideration is found.
Individuals of all nationalities are included
in the observations and the relative number of
the types is somewhat altered, the European
types being increased by the inclusion of
172

PHILIPPINE

ISLANDERS

Americans, Spanish and English.
the individual types follow.

Details of

T H E AUSTRALOID E A R

The Australoid ear is irregular in shape,
although frequently somewhat pentagonoid,
and without lobule or with a very small one.
One form of the ear closely resembles the
Primitive with a somewhat bowl-shaped helix
that has a square lobule, sloping gently forward. The ear is large and heavy in structure,
with rough, velvety surface. I t is a distinctive
negro ear type. I t often presents a wrinkled
helix, which folds over almost to the concha;
the superior border passes abruptly from the
head in a horizontal direction and often joins
the posterior border in the formation of a
blunt point. The posterior border is often
straight and appears as if it had been amputated and healed, leaving a scar that has drawn
the ear while contracting. The lobule is
usually absent or minute in size, the inferior
border of the helix passing diagonally downward and inward to the jaw. The ear resembles in some respects the ear depicted by H r d licka as the Negro ear. The individuals on
whom this type of ear is found are almost in173

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
variably small, wide-nosed, with oval head,
straight black hair, brown eyes, and brown
skin, although three tall Filipinos and four
short, stocky Filipinos are noted with Australoid ears.
T H E PRIMITIVE E A R

The Primitive ear is small and round, with
small lobule, double rolled helix, and a slight
flare at the top and at the bottom. The inversion of the concha and the rolling in of the
helix are the essential features of this ear.
The superior part of the helix often slants
downward from where it joins the head, and
the lower part of it terminates in a small, flat
lobule which is horizontal. The concha is large
and its edge (anthelix) frequently runs parallel to the helix, which gives the appearance
of a double roll. The Primitive ear appears
on at least four groups of Filipinos, all of
whom are similar in physical attributes. The
individuals are usually small, round headed,
wide nosed, and dark skinned, the hair being
straight in 84 instances and curled or wavy in
26, a Mendelian proportion that indicates the
kinky hair of the Negrito to be recessive to the
straight hair of the Primitive; the ear resem174

PHILIPPINE ISLANDERS
bles a form of Negrito ear, which form is that
of the Primitive.
THE

B. B. B.

EAR

This type of ear, the B. B. B., is smooth,
well rounded at the corners, clear cut, and
even in shape. The helix is rolled above, but
flat below, the lobule is flat and broad, although it may be round or pointed. The
concha is open, large and oval, without
rounded rim, and the area between the concha
and helix is smooth and flat. The ear usually
lies close to the head, without any evidence of
flaring; it is often square, with rounded corners. The individuals on whom it is most frequently found are medium sized or large,
square set, stocky, with a tendency to obesity.
The heads are large and oblong in shape. This
is one of the most characteristic Spanish types,
but it is also seen among Americans, Englishmen, Chinese, Filipinos and Mestizos. I t was
seen on twelve blonde Americans, one of whom
is redheaded, and on 23 brunette Americans,
some of whom had dark hair and light eyes.
All the Filipinos of this type have light brown
or yellow skins, and straight, coarse, black hair,
brown eyes, and large, straight, high noses.
175

THE RACIAL ANATOMY OF THE
T H E ALPINE EAR

The Alpine ear is the ear of the fat man.
I t is large, round, or oval and without lobule.
The helix is continuous around the ear to the
lower margin, where it turns forward to terminate in the anthelix and cheek, and thus
forms a shelf which is supported by the p a r t
of the ear that should be the lobule, but is
firmly attached to the cheek. The concha is
large and open.
The Alpine ear is related to the B . B . B . on
the one hand and to the Primitive on the
other. The three types shade insensibly into
each other. The individuals also resemble each
other in size, head shape, and general appearance, which may mean that blending has taken
place by continual contact of the types, or
that the one is developed from the other, the
B . B . B . from the Alpine, which in t u r n is derived from the Primitive.
Individuals with Alpine ears are usually
portly, though not above medium height. They
have round heads, flat and broad behind.
Their features are full, with especially welldeveloped parotid glands that may influence
the appearance of the ear by everting the
lower portion of it. They walk largely along
176

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
the easy ways of life and frequent the sunny
paths.
The Alpine ear is found equally among mestizos and the dark-skinned Filipinos.
The jolly, fat, Spanish friar, the American
salesman, the French good fellow, the charming Celestial, all have ears of this type. Music
and oratory live in their souls and they constitute to a great extent members of orchestras, bands, and legislative bodies.
T H E IBERIAN EAR,

The essential characteristics of the Iberian
ear are the eversion of the concha and the
rolling out of the helix, two characteristics that
are ascribed- by Schwalbe to the ear of the
foetus after the fourth month of intrauterine
life, and that differentiate it from the Primitive ear. A feature of the Iberian ear that is
especially worthy of note is the spiral effect of
the helix rim when viewed from behind. The
effect is like the Italic f or the Old English s9
and the ear looks as if it had been twisted
backward at the upper corner. The type A
ear is probably the most like that of the foetus,
therefore it is given first.
This ear is somewhat long and slender, the
12

177

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
crest of the helix projects upward and backward; there is no lobule, the lower border of
the helix passing diagonally to be joined
firmly to the cheek. The eversion of the antitragus and inferior concha is one of the most
characteristic features of the ear. The edge
of the helix is usually small, thin, and round,
and the space between the helix and anthelix
is broad above and narrow below, where they
come almost into contact.
The men of the Iberian type are almost
invariably thin and slender, with medium
stature, long head, face and nose, straight hair
and dark eyes, but among Americans as well
as Europeans, some are blonde and some are
brunette, some are tall and some are small.
The type B ear resembles the B. B. B. except that it is not so coarse and heavy and the
lobule is smaller, more slender and square, attached as it is at right angles to the cheek.
This ear may be seen on Igorots, Japanese,
Chinese, Spaniards, Aonericans, Europeans
and Filipinos, including mestizos.
The type C ear is a little different from the
other types, principally because it has a different shaped lobule.
This ear is round or slightly elongated and
178

PHILIPPINE ISLANDERS
stands out from the head. The crest of the
helix (superior border) is symmetrical with the
lobule; and the whole of the helix is a large,
round roll.
The men of this type have Roman noses
and are almost invariably small and slender;
otherwise they resemble the other Iberians.
The type D ear is different from the other
types, and has been called by me the Cro-Magnon ear.
This ear is the true long ear. I t is symmetrical around the base and has a helix and lobule
that are equal in size and shape at the two
extremities. The descending part of the helix
or dorsal border of the ear is straight or gently
curved, and is a narrow, round roll, neither
broad nor flat. The lobule is large and hangs
low to a rounded point. The concha is oval,
elongated, and often reaches almost to the helix.
The ear stands out well from the head, often
at right angles. The individuals to whom this
ear is attached are tall brunettes with disharmonic physiognomy (long head and broad
face). They often have a peculiar, wrinkled
appearance as if they had dried up and their
skin had been left in loose folds. The nose is
large and heavy looking. Occasionally an in179

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY O F T H E
dividual with all the appearance of this type,
except the tall stature may be seen, particularly among the Filipino women.
All types of the Iberian ear may be seen
not only on Europeans, where they are pure,
but also on Chinese, Japanese, Americans,
E a s t Indians, and Filipinos; as well as on N e gritos and African negroes from America.
The spread of the Mediterranean race has been
phenomenal, j u d g i n g from this distribution of
the ear types.
T H E NORTHERN E A R

T h e Northern ear is seldom seen upon a
Filipino, but is often found on Chinamen, as
noted later.
The Northern is a long, oval, flaring ear
with slender helix and small lobule. The distance between the helix and anthelix is great
above and small below. The concha is irregularly oval in shape and the antitragus is
sometimes slightly everted, thus resembling the
Iberian ear. Europeans with this ear are tall
and blonde with long heads, and these characteristics, except the coloring, impress themselves upon the Chinese and the Filipinos who
have the Northern ear.
180

.

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
Blends of infinite variety are continually noticed, and many ears are of such a nondescript
character as to be difficult of classification.
The European types of ears found upon the
Filipinos resemble closely the corresponding
European types, although the skin of the Filipino with European ears may be brown, and
other characters of the Filipinos are not so
truly European as the ears. This indicates
that pure types of ears do not blend so readily
as other characters, such as skin color, and the
European ears grafted on the Filipino remain
true to type, but slowly taking on the characteristics of the native as generations pass.
CHINESE EARS

The Chinaman's ears are more largely European than those of the Filipino, and the same
European ear types appear among the Chinese
as among the Filipinos, although among the
Chinese the European ear types are not so distinctly European as among the Filipinos.
Judged by ear types the Chinese are more completely amalgamated than the Filipino, and
they have a larger proportion of European elements fused into their composition. The majority of the Chinese noted are in the shops
along both sides of Calle Rosario and vicinity.
181

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
Among the Chinese, as among the Filipinos,
the Australoid ear predominates, which points
to a common origin for a portion of the two
peoples. The Northern and Sub-Northern
types appear frequently among the Chinese,
but are rare among the Filipinos. The SubNorthern ear is a characteristic Chinese ear
and it is called Sub-Northern because it occurs
on tall, long-headed Chinamen, with long, narrow faces. I t stands almost at right angles to
the head in its lower half, which is oblong and
similar to the lobe of the Iberian type B ear or
of the B. B. B., except that these two are
usually parallel to the head, or at a more acute
angle than 90 degrees.
The types of Chinamen corresponding to
the ear types are in all particulars (with slight
differences) like the types described under
Filipino ears. A greater number of Chinese
than of Filipinos are tall, and not so many of
the Chinese are stocky. The relative proportion of each type among the two peoples may
be of interest.
The Chinese have a greater percentage of
Australoid, Alpine, Iberian type A, Northern
and Sub-Northern ears, and ears without lobules; the Filipinos have a greater percentage
182

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
of B. B. B., Primitive, and Iberian types C
and D, and each people have an equal number
of Iberian type B ears. The number of long
ears is great among both people, but slightly
less among the Filipinos. I t is impossible to
know from a random sample of the population
that the types are present in the exact proportions designated, but the presence of the Primitive, B. B. B., and Iberian among the inland
tribes of the Philippines leads me to believe
that the three types are to be found more frequently among the Filipinos than among the
Chinese.
SPANISH EARS

The ears of the Spaniards in Manila are
largely of two types, the Iberian and the B.
B. B., although the Alpine ear is of frequent
occurrence, but partakes of the characteristics
of the B. B. B., with which it is blended so
that the line of demarkation is slight. The
Iberian type D ear must claim attention also
because of its frequent occurrence.
The individual physical characteristics of the
men agree with previous descriptions of the
physical types; the ear type and the physical
type coincide more nearly than among the Filipinos. The types of ears and of individuals
183

THE RACIAL ANATOMY OF THE
are purer among the Spanish than among the
Chinese or the Filipinos because there is no
confusion of Australoid and Primitive among
the Spanish. There is more or less blending
of the different types so that an Iberian ear
may resemble the B . B . B . or Alpine, or one
of the other types, but is none the less distinctly
Iberian in character.
So with the other types. The Iberian types
C and D are more like each other than like
other ears, and the Alpine and B . B . B . are in
the same category. The Northern ears are not
found among the Spanish on blondes, but on
brunettes.
EAST INDIAN EARS

The ears of a few Indian merchants on the
Escolta were examined, also the ears of a few
Sikh night watchmen. The latter are all except two (7-2 = 5) Iberian T y p e D ears. The
two are one B . B . B . and one belonging to the
class termed " others."
One important feature of the Indian ears
is the remarkably pure E u r o p e a n types among
them, purer than the Chinese or the Filipino.
The skin of the Indians is usually darker than
that of the other two peoples, but their features
are more like the E u r o p e a n than are those of
184

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
the Chinese or Filipinos. I t is to be noted
that only four European types occur among
the Indians, but a larger number might reveal
more of other types. If one may reason from
so small a number, and the purity of ear type
and physical type make it justifiable, there appear to be Europeans under . brown skins
among the Indians, and occasionally a Primitive is found. The brown skin could be due to
implantation of the European on the Negrito
and persistence of the brown color by selection aided by the tropical sun; the European
traits to early prehistoric migrations of white
men from Europe. The mingling of the European and Negrito resulted in the retention of
useful characters, the color of the Negrito and
the form of the European.
T H E EARS or THE W O M E N or MANILA

The difficulty of observing the ears of the
women because of the hair renders the collection of data limited and not easy, therefore
only 144 individuals are noted.
The female ear is essentially long, longer
than that of the male, and the lobe is more
pendent. There are 56 long ears and 25 short
185

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
ears among the women, besides the Australoid
ears which are longer for the women than for
the men. Absence of the Iberian type A and
B ears may be significant, or it may be because so few individuals were observed. The
accumulated evidence indicates that some of
the precursors of the present Filipinos were
long-eared and the long-eared precursors were
Mongolians and Europeans. The Iberian
type D, the Sub-Northern, the Iberian type
B, the B. B. B. ears are long ears; the Primitive and the Iberian types A and C are short
ears, also the Alpine and Australoid. If the
women represent the primary stocks and the
men represent the invaders, then the primary
stocks had less Iberian and Alpine, more Australoid and Primitive than the invaders, and
Iberian and Alpine ears are more recent grafts
on the Filipino than are the Australoid and
Primitive. In other words, there were more
Australoid and Primitive elements among the
peoples of the Philippines before the East
Indian and Spanish came, and the Spanish
introduced among the Filipinos a greater proportion of Alpine and Iberian than had previously existed.
186

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
T H E MORPHOLOGY OF THE FILIPINO E A R

The morphological differences in the types
of Filipino ears are of significance if our present knowledge of the developmental history of
the ear is accepted to indicate that the human
ear is undergoing retrograde metamorphosis.
Schwalbe demonstrates the similarity of the
ear of human embryos at 4 to 6 months' intrauterine life to the ear of Macacus rhesus and
Cercopithecus engythita, one of the chief points
of resemblance being the absence of the inrolled rim of the helix. This author further
states (p. 188) : " Vom 8 Monat an beginnt
ein Reduktionsprozess der Ohrfalte, welcher
sich im wesentlichen in Einrollung des Oberrandes und stdrkerer Aushildung des Anthelioo
Systems auspragt"
When the adult human
ear has attained its full maturity, the rim of
the helix has rolled inward and forward, and
the tip of the ear forms Darwin's tubercle.
The extent of inrolling of the helix marks the
grade of development and evolution of the ear,
hence the age in the world's time of the ear
type.
The types of ears under observation may be
grouped conveniently into three classes:
187

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY O F T H E
1. Old types which have the inrolled helix.
2. Intermediate types which have rolled helices but not so marked as in old types, and
3. New types with slightly rolled helices,
resembling the ear of the embryo.
The Australoid and Primitive ears are old
types, the Iberian type D , A and C ears are
intermediate, the Iberian type B and B . B . B .
ears are new types. The others are mixed, intermediate, and new. B y this criterion the
Filipinos are older than the Chinese, Indians,
or Spanish because they have older ear types,
at least a greater proportion of the Filipinos
than of the other peoples have old ear types.
Portions of the Filipino, Chinese, and Indian
populations have old ears, and portions have
new and intermediate forms, therefore, the
three peoples were originally of the same stock,
and have since received similar infusions of
new stocks, although in varying proportions
as regards type.
BILIBID TYPES

The inmates of Bilibid Prison are of two
kinds—local, short-term prisoners, or those
from the neighborhood of Manila who are serving terms of less than five years; and general,
188

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
long-term prisoners, or those from all parts of
the Philippine Islands except a part of the
Moro dominions, who are serving terms of five
years or over. The latter are representative
Filipinos of the lower class, and for that reason I examined a large number of their ears.
The Bilibid types should be compared by
percentages with the pedestrians of a previous
classification (page 171) since they both represent Filipinos of the lowly walks of life.
EARS OF BILIBID PRISONERS AND MANILA PEDESTRIANS, BY PERCENTAGES

Type.
Australoid
Primitive
Iberian type
B.B.B
Iberian type
Iberian type
Alpine
Iberian type
Others

Pedestrians.

Prisoners.

18
15
10
8
5
5
4
2
33

D
C
A

Total

11
18
3
5
7
4
6
1
45

100

B

100

The significant feature of this comparison is
that the percentages are nearly equal in the
two groups, although there is a greater per
cent, of Primitive and others and a smaller
per cent, of Australoid, Iberian and B. B. B.
among the prisoners than among the pedestrians. When the prisoners are contrasted
189

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY O F T H E
with the riders of a previous classification
(page 171) the similarity is not so great.
E A E S OF BILIBID PRISONERS AND MANILA R I D E R S , BY PERCENTAGES

Type.

Riders.
24
17
12
7
7
6
4
1
22

Primitive
Iberian type A . . .
Others
Total

5
3
6
7
11
4
18
1
45

100

B. B . B
Iberian type B . . .
Alpine

Prisoners.

100

The difference between these two groups is
that the European types of Filipino constitute 65 per cent, of the riders, whereas the
Primitive, Australoid and others constitute
74 per cent, of the prisoners. The Filipino
prisoners of Bilibid are less European in their
composition than the riders of Manila, and
more like the pedestrians, but they have even
less European than the pedestrians.
SUMMARY

The Chinese, the Indian, the Manila rider,
the Manila pedestrian, and the long-term Bilibid prisoners are groups of men undergoing
the process of fusion of similar elements, and
each group represents a different stage of
190

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
transition in the fusion process. The longterm Bilibid prisoners have less European elements than the other groups, and the European
is more obscurely mixed; the Chinese have less
Primitive than the other groups, and the European elements predominate, obscuring the remainder. Between the Chinese and the longterm Bilibid prisoners the other groups have
variable proportions of the different elements,
but the Indians, the Manila riders and pedestrians represent more recent minglings of the
types than the Chinese and Bilibid prisoners.
Among the first three groups the engrafting
of European is more recent than in the last
two, therefore the blending has not advanced
so far and more definite European types are
encountered, but in the last two groups it is
more difficult to detect pure European types,
although the majority of the Chinese resemble
Europeans more than do the majority of the
prisoners.
Among the prisoners there is evidence of at
least three old types besides the new European
types. The three are the Primitive, the Australoid, and the Iberian type D (Cro-Magnon).
The following scheme seems plausible:
First the early European types (Iberian
191

THE RACIAL ANATOMY OF THE
probably by way of India) mingled with the
Primitive and Australoid, forming the ProtoMalays, and peopled the Philippines to some
extent, and their representatives are the inland
tribes, exclusive of the Negrito. Later another infusion of fused Europeans (Iberian,
Alpine and B. B. B.) with the Australoid and
Primitive forming the Neo-Malays, came into
the Islands, and these mingling types produced
the littoral Filipinos found here when the
Spanish came. In more recent times the modern European has impressed the Filipino, especially in the large towns along the coast, and
the mingling of the three fusions has produced
the present littoral population.
According to my scheme for heredity in
Chapter X the three groups of Filipinos,
riders, pedestrians, and Bilibid prisoners, represent three successive stages in the blending
of the Iberian and the Primitive and Australoid. The riders are in the stage of beginning
blending, where the pure types persist; the pedestrians are in a stage farther advanced, although a few pure types still appear; and the
Bilibid prisoners are in the stage of a variable
blend with all shades of intervening variations
between the types, but no pure types.
192

PHILIPPINE

ISLANDERS

The Indians are in a stage close to that of
the riders where the blend is progressing, but
the pure types persist, whereas the Chinese
are more advanced than are the Bilibid prisoners toward a complete blend, with a much
larger proportion of Iberian than any of the
Filipino groups, and probably more than the
Indians; but the Chinese are composed of
Iberian types some of which are different from
those that have blended in the Indian and Filipino.
INFERENCES

Types of human ears are established for the
first time, and each ear type is associated with
a physical type of man.
The majority of Filipino ears examined in
Manila and vicinity are similar to E u r o p e a n
ears, but the majority of Filipino ears examined in Bilibid Prison on long-term inmates
from all parts of the Islands except the Moro
Province are not so much like E u r o p e a n ears.
The types of ears not of E u r o p e a n origin
are morphologically older than the E u r o p e a n
ears.
The Spanish population of Manila has ear
types which are closely simulated by the E u r o pean types among the Filipinos.
13

193

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY O F T H E
The Chinese influence on the Filipino is evident in ear form as in other characters.
Prehistoric Europeans have probably affected the Filipino ears to some extent.
Chinese and Indian ears exhibit types similar to those of the Filipino, but different from
them because of the difference in time during
which the amalgamation has progressed, and
because some of the types entering into the
composition of one people are not found in
the other.
The Chinese ears are longer than the European, Filipino, or Indian, probably because the
Chinese population is composed more largely
of the long-eared European types (Northern,
Sub-Northern, Cro-Magnon).
Ear type seems to be independent of pigmentation to some extent, because the same
type of ear is found on blonde and brunette
Europeans, on dark-skinned and light-skinned
Filipinos, and on dark-skinned Indians and
light-skinned Chinese.
Subsequent studies of the ears of the Filipinos of Taytay and the East Indians of
Cainta, besides intricate studies of the ears
of the morgue subjects indicate that the Iberian and the Primitive ears are very dissimilar.
194

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
The Iberian ears are marked essentially by
the eversion of the concha and the consequent
turning back of the helix, particularly in its
lower part. The margin of the helix for this
reason presents the shape of a letter s stretched
until almost straight, and it resembles an imperfect spiral, as if the upper part of the
dorsal margin of the helix had been pulled
upward and backward with a twist. The
lobule is absent in type A, square in type B,
small and rounded in type C, or long and pendent in type D ; in the first two it is attached
at its lower end directly to the cheek; in all it
is everted, the lobule alone being enough to distinguish the ear in the majority of individuals. The Iberian ears are usually thin in
structure, with fine, clear-cut details.
The Primitive ears are almost the reverse
of the Iberian in every respect. The concha
is inverted and the helix is rolled in. This
gives the appearance of a hollow bowl with
the front of the rim removed, and the depression of the rim at the middle of the helix behind looks as if a bite had been taken out and
it had healed. A shelf is thus formed by the
helix both above and below, the upper shelf
being formed by the dorsal border of the helix
195

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
and the lower shelf by the ventral border, this
being seen well from in front or behind. The
Primitive ears are small, round, and thick.
The structure is coarse, and the details are
smoothed by the rounded edges, and not clearcut as in the Iberian.
EARS AT CAINTA

Very -few ears were examined at Cainta
(less than 100), but those studied were by far
the purest Iberian ears yet seen in the Philippines, and the majority of the ears examined
in Cainta were of the Iberian type. This substantiates the results of the physical measurements, and denotes that the people of Cainta
are of European type, probably by way of
India.
When the ear form and morphologic type of
individual are correlated it becomes evident
that the Iberian ear is frequently seen on
broad headed individuals, who otherwise have
Iberian characteristics. This may be due to
the distortion of the long Iberian head by flattening in infancy by the petate habit. The ear
form is established beyond doubt as a differential factor in racial anatomy, and among the
Filipinos of the littoral it should be placed
196

PHILIPPINE

ISLANDERS

above the cephalic index in importance, because of the distortion of the head in many
individuals. B y the ear alone, the derivation
of the majority of people may be determined,
and in conjunction with the omphalic index,
the nasal index, and stature assisted by the
cephalic index, more definite species can be
segregated than by using the last three without
the ear.
E A R S AT T A Y T A Y

I would alter the terminology of the species
of some individuals measured at T a y t a y where
the ear type is significant. T h e number of individuals in the species of men as selected by
the three factors, cephalic index, nasal index,
and stature, becomes altered as shown in the
following table by the use of the ear as a
factor.

a

12
13

Adr.

12
11

o'
U
Q

Prim

17 94 37
50 41 39

Blen

Aust

fn"

Alp.

Iberi
Altered classification

c3

T5

Mod. Pri

&
h

§

?, 3
4 14

4
9

1
1

«

The altered classification reduces the Blends
more than one-half by placing a large number
of them with the Iberian, Primitive, and Modi197

RACIAL ANATOMY
fied Primitive. The other species remain practically unaltered except the B. B. B., which
is increased by two individuals, thus doubling
the number.
When the species of women, also selected by
physical measurements, is corrected by the ear
type as a factor, and removing from among the
Blends those individuals that resemble the
Iberian or the Primitive, the following changes
occur: Eight Blends become Iberians, six
Blends become Primitive, and one Blend becomes an Australoid. I t is to be noted that
the extracted Iberians are more like the Primitive than are the extracted Primitives like the
Iberian and as the Blends that remain are also
more like the Primitive than the Iberian, this
is evidence that the Blends partake more of
the Primitive than of the Iberian in characteristics (see pp. 33 and 163).

CHAPTER X
GENERALIZATIONS

E

F F O R T S to reconcile Mendel's laws
with the prevailing views of blended
effects in heredity need not be unavailing, if
the two may be considered as phases of the
same process acting at different times during
the life history of an elementary species.
Heredity represents all the changes of organic life by three factors:
1. Determinants, which are in the germ
plasm.
2. Modifiers, which are all influences
through time and space that act on the germ
plasm, and
3. Laws of change, which are the rules of
conduct by which the determinants and the
modifiers interact.
These factors are variable when looked at
through all space and during all time, but for
any elementary species in a given space and
for a limited time they are fixed. A simple
diagram inserted here may serve to explain
199

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY O F T H E
the relation of Mendel's laws to blended heredity (see Figure 20).
D

R

F I G . 20.—Diagram representing scheme for heredity-

Let D and R represent the homozygotes of
an allelomorphic pair that meet at 1 in sexual
union, begin to blend at 2, present the picture
200

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
of a variable blend at 3, and fuse completely
into a perfect blend at 4. The width of the
diagram, exclusive of the spaces B 3 (solid
lines), indicates the amount of variation at any
time. D=homozygous dominants; R = homozygous recessives; D R = heterozygotes;
B 1 (inside the solid lines) = a variable blend
ever increasing in number with each successive
generation; while D, R, and D R decrease to
disappear entirely at 3. B 2 (inside the solid
lines) represents the continuation of the blend
without either of the originals of the allelomorphic pair, but with all shades of intervening
characters blending in various ways as influenced by ancestry and by environment, until a
homozygote is formed at 4. B 3 represents the
increasing purity of the blend until at 4 a perfect blend or an elementary species is formed.
From i to 2 True Mendelism exists, Spurious
Mendelism is found from 2 to 3, and from 3
to 4 No Mendelism is present, but two tendencies prevail (a) the reversion to type, and
(b) the tendency to blend.
Davenport and Davenport have established
true Mendelian heredity for eye color in man;
Bateson has designated many conditions in
man which indicate spurious Mendelism; and
201

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
Boas has suggested the two heredity tendencies
above mentioned, when broad-headed and longheaded, or wide-faced and long-faced individuals are united in marriage.
This scheme represents the individual characters, but it may also apply to the type composite, although characters that are nearly alike
may blend at once when crossed, without intervening Mendelism, and the condition represented between 3 and 4 is reached immediately, or if the characters are somewhat more
different there may be a variable result as represented by Spurious Mendelism between 2
and 3.
The ultimate result of a process where many
types are blending will depend upon factors
such as environment, natural and sexual selection, the relative number of each type which
enters into the amalgamated product, the dominance of one type over another, the time during which amalgamation has taken place, etc.;
and the elementary species formed may be
unlike the original types, yet not a perfect
blend, but a kind of mosaic. For example, the
Australoid, as a result of crossing the Iberian
and the Primitive.
The scheme presented may be applied to the
202

PHILIPPINE ISLANDERS
Igorots, Morgue Subjects and Students, to
calculate somewhat inexactly the relative extent of amalgamation or homogeneity represented by each group of measured individuals.
The calculation is somewhat inexact because
more than two types have mingled in each
group, the types that mingled have not been
pure, i. e.; perfect blends, or homozygotes of
Mendelian characters, and the minglings have
been many. In spite of these and other disturbing factors, the degree of homogeneity or
the extent of fusion may be determined approximately.
The relative number of Blends in proportion to the types is to be considered, also the
number of individuals in each type present,
and, finally, the condition of the types as to
purity. Malecon Morgue receives a larger
proportion of the Primitive, Australoid, Iberian and Cro-Magnon types than is found
among the Igorots or the Students, and there
are fewer Modified Primitive, Alpine, Adriatic and Blends than among the Students. The
greatest number of Blends is represented
among the Japanese, which would indicate
that the Igorots are more completely amalgamated than the Japanese, but the number of
203

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
Japanese is too few for generalization. There
are more Blends among the Students than
among the Morgue Subjects, yet the number
of Blends is less than among the Igorots, therefore the Morgue Subjects represent the least
blended group, the Igorots the most blended.
As determined by the relative proportion of
the Blends without reference to the purity of
the types, the Igorots are the most completely
amalgamated of the three Philippine groups,
and the Students are more completely amalgamated than the Morgue Subjects. The
types selected from among the Igorots are not
pure types, but show resemblances to the European and the Asiatic and but one type, the
Australoid (type A ) , is distinct. This is additional evidence in favor of the nearly complete
amalgamation of the types that make the Igorot. The broken line I - I represents their position. Between I and a' are the Australoids,
between a' and a" are the relatively pure
Blends, and between a" and a" are the impure
or variable Blends (represented by types M
and A and the Iberian).
The Manila Students are composed of at
least three comparatively pure types: Iberian,
Primitive and Australoid, and of several other
204

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
types that are not so definite: the Alpine, B.
B. B., Modified Primitive, Cro-Magnon, and
Adriatic. The purest of types are the Iberian
and Primitive, the Iberian the purest of all, the
Australoid not so pure, because it is a mixture
of the two, a mixture that has had two successive stages; one remote in time and one recent;
the former well represented among the Igorots, the latter better among the Students. If
the types are considered in connection with the
Blends, there is an equal number of the two,
and the line S-S would represent the position
of the Students in the scheme for heredity.
The Morgue Subjects are in a condition of
amalgamation similar to that of the Students,
although the actual number of Blends, which
would place them at M-M, is less.
To summarize: The Igorots are in a condition of No Mendelism and by actual calculation they are nearer 4 than 3; the Manila
Students and the Morgue Subjects are less
fused than are the Igorots, therefore they
would be placed under No Mendelism, nearer
3 than 4, although some individuals of the
Iberian or Primitive types may exhibit Pure
or Spurious Mendelism and would be placed
between 1 and 2 or between 2 and 3. The re205

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
suits of the calculations are in accord with recognized differences between the Igorots, who
are isolated and have been free for a long
time from outside influence to any great extent, and the littoral Filipinos, represented by
the Students and Morgue Subjects, who have
been in the line of many migrations.
Recent observations in the study of heredity
indicate that, in some cases at least, heredity
is neither exclusively alternate (Mendelian)
nor exclusively blended, but may be neither or
both. In any study of heredity, at least two
kinds of variation must be considered: The
variation due to environment, and that due to
heredity or to crossing opposite extremes of
the same character, such as black and white
coat color in animals. When these two varieties of variation do not overlap there is no confusion, but when they do, endless confusion
may result. With this in mind, we may consider the physical characteristics of the Filipinos in the light of the recent work of Spillman, who, in reviewing the work of SchuU in
hybridizing corn says that SchuU " looks upon
a cornfield as simply a heterogeneous collection of elementary species and hybrids between
them," and Spillman accounts for these ele206

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
mentary species on the " old Darwinian idea
of gradual evolution/' which he represents by
a scheme of letters and exponents, with A representing a Mendelian character that is variable and the differences of which are hereditary,
and B and C representing similar characters.
Exponents of these from 1 to 10 represent the
difference between the characters, any two adjacent ones being so slightly different from
each other as to appear exactly alike, but the
difference between alternates, as A 3 and A 5 ,
is sufficient to be recognized and those that are
far apart, as A 1 and A 10 , are extremely different. Some of the intermediates may- have disappeared, leaving gaps not bridged over by
living forms. The differences may have accumulated gradually throughout the time of
the evolution of the structure, and each one
of the series now existing is fixed within the
limits of environmental variation. The Filipino types suggest the cornfield of SchuU with
its " heterogeneous collection of elementary
species and hybrids between them." The selection of types is not an attempt to prove or disprove the application of this scheme to man,
but is an earnest effort to find the exact composition of a mixed population. That the
207

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
types fall somewhat into Spillman's scheme
goes without saying. The gametic constitution of the types of Students, for instance, is
as follows, in fulfilment of Spillman's scheme,
where A 1 represents a stature of 145 centimeters, and A 10 a stature of 190 centimeters, with
the other powers of A equivalent to the intervening statures at intervals of 5 centimeters
for each power; B 1 represents a cephalic index of 72.5 and B 10 one of 95.0, and C 1 repreresents a nasal index of 55 and C10 one of
100, with intervening indices accordingly, represented by intervening powers of B and C:
A5 B 2 C5
A2 B 6 C7
A4 B 3 C9
A4 B 7 C 5
A6 B6 C4
A6 B7 C9
A 4 B 6 C9
A5 B 5 C7

Iberian
Primitive
Australoid
Alpine
B. B. B
Adriatic
Modified Primitive
Blend

Many possible forms are missing and those
present are near the median or below, except
in the nasal index, where the highest extreme
is almost reached. Individual forms probably
bridge over the majority of the gaps, and a
perfect series could be constructed from them.
208

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
If plants and animals may be designated as
elementary species by the aid of Spillman's
scheme, on the " old Darwinian idea of gradual evolution," with equal propriety and verity
that scheme may apply to man and the types
selected above represent elementary species of
men which have been formed by the blending
of diverse types, as well as by gradual evolution.
Professor W . Johannsen, in his recent book
entitled "Elemente der Exakten Erblichkeitslehre," embodies in a working hypothesis the
fundamental principle that an ordinary frequency polygon, such as that represented by
the stature of 100 individuals, of whom 10 are
about 155 centimeters tall, 25 are about 160,
30 are about 165, 25 are about 170 and 10 are
about 175, and in which there is an even distribution of stature from the smallest to the tallest, making a normal Gaussian curve; that
such a polygon is usually made up of several
elementary masses, each of which has a frequency polygon of its own. In any polygon
that has characteristics due to modifications
of environment, the selection and breeding of
extremes of the same polygon results in blending; but the selection and breeding of mem14

209

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
bers of different polygons results in an isolation
of elementary polygons, the constituent members of which reproduce as elementary species.
Thus quantitative as well as qualitative differences may constitute elementary species.
There may be phaenotypes or false types,
which do not become isolated as elementary
species, and genotypes or genetic types, which
are true elementary species, according to Professor Johannsen. This has been my contention for years, and upon this idea I have based
my classification into types of various groups
of men.
The time has come when the types of men
found in the Philippine Islands may be designated without doubt as elementary and systematic species. I t is not within the province
of anthropology to define these terms so that
they will apply to all zoological forms, but the
studies among the negroes, the students, and
the school children in America, among the Igorots, the Manila students from all parts of the
Philippine Islands, the morgue subjects and
the people of Taytay, as well as a study of
Filipino ears, justifies a classification of the
types of mankind into two definite groups.
One contains the types that are stable and
210

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
have been stable for many hundreds if not
thousands of years, and that do not blend readily when crossed with other stable types; these
are called systematic species. The other group
contains the types that are unstable, that have
not been in existence so great a time, and that
blend readily, especially with nearly related
types; these are called elementary species.
Each species may have subspecies or varieties. The elementary species are cross sections
of variable species which have been formed by
the union of two diverse species, whereas subspecies or varieties are cross sections of systematic species that are variable through inherent changes not due to actual crossing but
to the interplay of heredity and environment.
Elementary species and subspecies or varieties
may sometimes be the same, and ultimately
may prove to be synonymous terms. Varieties
may become systematic species when they shall
be sufficiently differentiated, and shall have
become stable. Elementary species may become systematic species when the blending elements have reached a stage of slight variability
and have become a pure blend. The difference
between elementary species and variety is that
the first is the beginning formation of a sys211

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
tematic species by the blending of two others,
whereas the second is the beginning formation
of a systematic species by the differentiation
and disintegration of an old systematic species.
The proper use of the terms, systematic species, elementary species and variety, may be
illustrated by the Filipino types of this and
previous chapters.
The Iberian type became isolated many hundreds of years ago and became a systematic
species of man, and, in the course of time, developed varieties which Sergi, under the title
of the Eurafrican or Mediterranean Race, has
differentiated and designated by their skull
form, and which I have differentiated and designated by their ear form. The varieties of
this type spread over the face of the earth, and
as they came to the Orient they encountered
an entirely different type, another systematic
species, the Primitive with its varieties. The
commingling of the varied forms resulted in
several new types which are elementary species or variable blends of the varieties of the
two original systematic species. This willprobably account for every people of the East
except the Negrito, and it may prove useful in
212

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
unravelling their varied forms, because the
Negritos are not homogeneous, as will be evident in a forthcoming study.
The previous chapter revealed at least four
types of Iberian ears, which differentiate the
Iberian varieties, and to this extent the division of the Mediterranean Race by Sergi is
corroborated. The Primitive may also be subdivided into at least three types; the Primitive
proper, the Modified Primitive, and the Adriatic, and also the Blends, all of which have ears
of similar form that have not yet been differentiated, but the varieties of men are none the
less evident.
The union of the Iberian and Primitive species as constituted by their varieties, has produced in the Philippines the Australoid, Alpine, and B. B. B., if not the Cro-Magnon.
Their union to form the Australoid had resulted in the type A of the Igorots,—the primary Australoid—at the time the Spaniards
came to the Islands, after which a new infusion of modified Iberians caused an alteration
of the primary Australoid and the formation
of the secondary Australoid. The primary
Australoid is an elementary species, and the
213

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
secondary Australoid is also an elementary species but different from the primary.
The Alpine represents the union of the Iberian and Primitive as a complementary form
to the Australoid but without subdivision, although the B. B. B. probably stands in the
same relation to the Alpine as the secondary
Australoid to the primary.
The Cro-Magnon has Iberian qualities and
also Primitive and Australoid, but not so definite as the Iberian. This form is probably the
result of recent and remote Cro-Magnon elements which came with the Iberian from Europe. Its relation to the Australoid is similar
to the relationship of the B. B. B. to the Alpine.
The question of race naturally suggests
itself here and may be considered in relation to
the varied forms that constitute the Filipino
people.
The definitions of species, variety and race
are given by Quatref ages as clearly as one may
hope to have them:
" Species is a collection of individuals more
or less resembling each other, which may be
regarded as having descended from a single
214

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
primitive pair by an uninterrupted and natural succession of families."
Variety is "An individual or a number of
individuals belonging to the same sexual generation, which is distinguished from the other
representatives of the same species by one or
more exceptional characters."
Race is "A number of individuals resembling each other, belonging to one species, having received and transmitting, by means of
sexual generation, the characters of a primitive variety."
There is nothing in the above definitions that
is incompatible with the ideas formulated and
expressed in the preceding pages as to systematic species and varieties, but Quatrefages
gives no definition of a type that is formed by
the union of two other types, therefore room
is left for the term elementary species as defined above.
The use of the word race may well apply as
indicated by Quatrefages, except that such an
entity becomes again a species as soon as it
is established as a race. Derivatives of the primary races are termed secondary races, and
derivatives of these tertiary races by Quatrefages, but when many of these become fused
215

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
the term race is used no longer. Would it not
be better to continue the terms species and
variety,, or to give the name type to the primary, secondary, tertiary, etc., races of Quatrefages, and to dignify each nationality that
has developed characteristics that differentiate
it from other nationalities by the term race,
as the German race, the French race, the Filipino race? Otherwise, the word race becomes
lost or relegated to designate remnants of
humanity such as the Esquimo and the Negrito, which are only types or varieties.
The teriji race should apply to any composite body of individuals who are becoming
or may have become a distinct type by natural
or artificial processes. A race may contain
systematic species, varieties and elementary
species in profusion. A Filipino race at present exists under this terminology but not under
that of Quatref ages, nor would more than a
few of the world's living peoples be races according to his definition. Race would apply
also to the Cro-Magnon of early Europe, the
Mediterranean of Sergi and to other forms
that have become dispersed and diffused or remain as fragments such as the Basque, the Es~
216

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
quimo and the Negrito. There would be a
German race and an English race, a Dutch
race and a Spanish race, but not a white race
or a black race or a yellow race, because elements of each color are fusing in different
ways in various places, and the color markings
do not constitute a definite factor of differentiation, although color may be useful as an adjunct. Color markings have been of no value
in the differentiation of Filipino types. Hair
form has been of little avail in the study of
the Filipinos, because they all have straight
black hair, with an occasional wave. The
cephalic index has been found unreliable because of possible distortion of the head. In
the place of this, however, the ear form has
been found a better indicator, and by this alone
much can be known as to the individuals' component elements. I n conjunction with the
other physical factors, omphalic index, nasal
index, facial index, stature, brachial and crural
indices, etc., the ear form is of great service.
By means of these factors the Filipinos have
been separated into groups that are called species and varieties in the following classification:
217

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY O F T H E
Systematic species.

Iberian

1 Iberian B
] 1 Iberian C
I Iberian D

Australoid ( ? ) . . . . [

Elementary species.

Varieties.

1
[
J

Primary Australoid

Cro-Magnon (?)
B. B . B . (?)

1
Australoid.
Alpine.

Primitive

J J Modified Primitive
1 Blend (?)

1

Two processes are supposed to have been
active, a differentiation of the Iberian and
Primitive into diverse forms, producing varieties, and a fusion of the varieties to make the
elementary species. I t can not be determined
absolutely that the Primitive and Iberian did
not arise by the fusion of other forms, but if
so, they have so completely fused as to be true
systematic species, unless the varieties represent the forms that previously fused. The
Australoid furnishes an interesting example
of the fusion of two forms, and at the same
time the production of two different forms.
Fusion of the mass of Filipinos throughout
is evident in the formation of a blend that will
probably be largely Primitive, or between that
and the Adriatic, because in the course of time
218

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
the Iberian elements will be eliminated to a
great extent by disease, especially tuberculosis.
The Filipinos are therefore in the blending
period, but at the same time some of the types
may exhibit alternate heredity, some are in a
condition of stability, and others are undergoing differentiation. There is, no doubt, an
exemplification of Galton and Pearson's ancestral heredity and reversion to mediocrity, Mendel's laws hold true to some extent, alternate
heredity as demonstrated by Boas undoubtedly
prevails, yet fusion of all the elements seems
to be the ultimate goal.

CHAPTER

XI

CONCLUSIONS

T

H E Generalizations of the previous chapter are not conclusions, but tentative
hypotheses upon which a theory may be based
by subsequent investigations that shall involve
the study of the ear form and other characteristics through at least three generations in a
great many families.
N o positive conclusions can be drawn from
the studies in the previous chapters of this book
except that the ear form has been established
for the first time as a differential factor in
racial anatomy. Associated with the ear form
are certain types of mankind the differential
characteristics of which are the usual anthropometric standards, stature, nasal index, cephalic index, etc., the three most distinct types
being the Iberian, Primitive, and Australoid.
The Iberian is the Eurafrican or Mediterranean race of Sergi, the fundamental type
of E u r o p e , and is characterized particularly
by delicately moulded ears with the concha
everted and the helix rolled out. The individ220

PHILIPPINE ISLANDERS
uals are of the classical Greek mold, with long
heads, faces and noses. The Primitive is similar to the Eurasiatic of Sergi, and is characterized by coarse ears with the concha inverted
and the helix rolled in. The individuals are
stockily built, with broad heads, faces and
noses. The Australoid is the fundamental
type of the Philippine Archipelago, and is
characterized by an ear that is large, oval and
slightly bowl shaped. The individuals are
heavily built, neither slender nor stocky, and
have long heads, ovoid faces and large, straight
noses.
The three types represent the three fundamental units of mankind, the Iberian being the
fundamental European type, the Primitive
being the type of the Orient, and the Australoid the primary Negroid element. The other
types, such as the Cro-Magnon, Alpine and
B. B. B., are modifications and combinations
of the three fundamental types. Other observations of many groups of individuals among
European and African peoples lead me to
believe that the three fundamental types are
present in varying proportions among the peoples derived from the two continents, Europe
and Africa. In Europe and America the
221

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
Primitive type has become modified, and the
Australoid exists rarely, the Iberian is the predominant type. Among Negroes the Primitive is also modified, the Iberian exists in great
numbers, but the true negro type is the Australoid. In the Orient the Iberian has been
modified, the Australoid is present in great
numbers, but the Primitive is the fundamental
and predominant type. The proportion of any
one of the types in different populations varies
depending upon the relative proportion of each
that has entered into the composition of the
population, and upon other factors. The
studies of Filipinos from all parts of the Archipelago show that a large proportion of the
population, probably more than a third, is
Iberian. A part of this element is due to the
Spanish interbreeding of the past few hundred
years, but there can be no doubt that the people
of India have swarmed through the Philippines for many more hundreds of years than
the Spanish. The earlier infiltrations penetrated the interior and are now well represented in such tribes as the Subanuns of Mindanao, the Mangyans of Mindoro, and the
Kalingas of Northern Luzon, who have large
numbers of comparatively pure Iberians with
222

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
very dark skins among them. I have studied
these three tribes as well as others by means
of photographs from Mr. Worcester's collection and from the collection at the Bureau of
Science, at Manila, and find that many more
pure Iberians exist among them than among
the neighboring tribes of the interior, and the
Kalingas are all comparatively pure Iberians.
Other evidences of the East Indian influence
may be found at Cainta, where the majority of
the individuals are apparently pure Indians.
The town of Paranaque on the bay shore, not
far distant from Manila, is another place where
the population is of the East Indian Iberian
type. The evidences are conclusive that the
East Indians have assisted largely in peopling
certain sections of the Philippine Islands, and
in no part of the population can they be positively excluded. Even among the Negritos
may be seen the pure Iberian, although the
kinky hair, dark skin and small stature class
them as Negritos, but the everted concha,
rolled out helix and spiral shaped rim of the
ear, the long narrow nose, the " hatchet " face
with pointed chin, and the long head are sufficient evidence that certain individuals are Iberians. The presence of the Negrito in many
223

RACIAL ANATOMY
parts of the islands at this time, and evidences
of their former presence over a greater area
may account for the presence of the Australoid
type throughout the Archipelago, but the primary Australoid, Homo Philippinensis, may
have originated from a stock other than the
Negrito or Negro, and, wherever found, is
there only by impregnation at a previous time.
The presence of the Primitive is natural because the locus of its origin is in the Orient,
but a large part of this element may be due to
the Chinese and Japanese who are fundamentally of the Primitive type, as inclusive of the
Adriatic, Blend, Modified Primitive and Primitive types previously described.
The Filipino peoples, exclusive of the Moros,
are derived principally from East Indian
sources, the southern Pacific Islands, China,
and Japan, and Europe. Continual intermingling has failed to eradicate, or fuse, or blend
the three fundamental types, Iberian, Primitive and Australoid, which continue in comparative purity throughout the Philippine
Islands.

NOTE

T

H E materials for this book were derived
through the generosity of the Government of the Philippine Islands, and studies
based on the materials have been published in
the Philippine Journal of Science. The studies have been overhauled and re-written, with
the addition of considerable new material, and
with the additional knowledge gained by experience slight alterations have been made in
the conclusions. This book brings my views
up to date, systematizes the ideas of previous
studies, and makes a homogeneous compilation
that is readily accessible, instead of leaving the
materials in scattered studies. This is a reason
for the present publication. The figures in
the text and the reproductions from photographs are here published by permission from
the Philippine Journal of Science, in which the
originals appeared.
The original records on which this book is
based are on file at the Wistar Institute of
Anatomy, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, where
they are accessible to any one who may be interested in the sources of information.
15

225

F I G . 21.— Homo PhiHppinensis. A hillman from near Taytay of
the Australoid type.

APPENDIX
PALEOLITHIC

MAN

IN

THE

PHILIPPINES:

HOMO PHILIPPINENSIS

T

H E discovery of a lower j a w at Mauer,
near Heidelberg, by D r . Otto Schoetensack, on October 21, 1907, marks the earliest form of man yet found in E u r o p e . This
man has been called Homo
Heidelbergensis,
and the j a w is peculiar in that it unites two
seemingly contradictory qualities: massiveness
of jaw, with absence of chin (" negative chin
formation "—Klaatsch), and a specially square
ascending ramus, qualities that are called pithecoid. Homo Heidelbergensis belongs to the
earliest paleolithic age, or to the transition
period from Diluvium to late Tertiary (Pliocene) .
Another early paleolithic form was recently
discovered in the lower grotto of L e Moustier
(Dordogne), where a skeleton was unearthed
bearing the marks of the old Diluvial race, resembling the Neanderthal type. The massive
proportions of the chinless lower j a w are remarkable. The femur is extraordinarily short,
the length is estimated at 19.5 centimeters, and
the lower extremities were necessarily short.
227

THE RACIAL ANATOMY OF THE
Another find of great importance occurred
in France near La Chapelle-aux-Saints (Correze), on August 3, 1908, in the form of a
skeleton in an absolutely undisturbed stratum,
by the Abbes A. and J . Bouyssonie and L.
Bardon. The subject is an old man of about
160 centimeters stature. The skull is dolichocephalic, with an index of 75, the height of the
skull is small, the huge round orbits and wide
nasal apertures resemble the Neanderthal
skulls. The face is prognathous, and the mandible is very large, with absence of chin.
The cultural and fossil findings in connection with the remains place them in three succeeding periods of time, Homo Heidelbergensis being older, and the other two more recent
and of about the same date, but all of great
antiquity.
In the Philippines to-day men of similar
form may be seen, rarely, it is true, but the
close observer who lives among the people of
different parts of the archipelago for years can
hardly fail to notice such types. I t was my
good fortune to make observations and measurements of such a man at Taytay, in the Province of Bizal, Island of Luzon, on April 5th,
1909, during my anthropometric survey of the
town. The man came to the clinic of the Free
228

FIG.

FIG.

22.

24.

FIG.

FIG.

Homo Philippinensis. (The same as Fig. 21.)

23.

25.

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
Dispensary which was being operated during
the survey of the town, and was treated for sexual neurasthenia. The man disappeared as
quietly as he came, and I was unable to find
him again. H e did not live in the town, and
some of the people there said that he came in
from the hills that lie immediately back of Taytay. I endeavored to obtain a photograph, but
unfortunately the Government photographer
was absent that day, and the only camera available was a No. 2 A Brownie pocket kodak.
This was utilized, and the resulting photographs are reproduced here for the first time.
(See Figures 21 to 25).
The features of this man are large and
heavy, the lower jaw is heavy, long, square,
narrow, with " negative chin formation." The
brow ridges protrude, the cheeks are large and
prominent, the nose is massive, wide, straight,
and depressed at the nasion, and the lips are
full and thick. The brow ridges are noticeably
prominent. The upper lip is broad from its
border to the nasal spine, a distance of 2.7 centimeters, and the peculiarity of it is the
rounded contour between the nasal spine and
lip margin as seen in profile. The face is prognathous, the facial angle 70°—glabella, nasal
spine, external auditory meatus—is not greater
229

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
nor less than that of many other Filipinos, although it is 7° to 8° less than that of the Igorots measured in the same way. Nevertheless,
about 30 per cent, of the Igorots have the
same index, and 4 per cent, an index less than
70°. The nasal index is 102.2, the cephalic
index is 73.68, and the stature is 156.8 centi-

F I Q . 26.—Sagittal outline from glabella to inion of Homo Philippinensis.
A—Anterior. P—Posterior.

meters. The head height from the upper part
of the external auditory meatus to the bregma
is 12.5 centimeters. The ear is a combination
of Primitive and Iberian, and should be called
the Australoid ear. The orbits are large and
round, the forehead is low and the glabella is
prominent. The sagittal head outline is low,
long, and somewhat flat over the lambda, and
230

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
might very well represent the combined Primitive and Iberian head outline in the form of
the Australoid (see Figure 26). The type
falls within the group I have designated as
Australoid, because it is long headed, broad
nosed and small in stature, but this man is a
form somewhat apart, typical of neither the
primary nor the secondary Australoid. The
following actual dimensions are given to complete the description:
Name
Age
Stature
Sitting height
Heel to umbilicus
Heel to sternum
Heel to pubis
Heel to ankle
Heel to knee
Heel to trochanter
Heel to finger tip
Heel to wrist
Heel to elbow
Heel to acromion
Head length, glabella-maximum occipital.
Head breadth
Head height.
Bizygomatic diameter
Narrowest forehead
Chin to nasion
231

Alejandro Mesa.
55? years.
156.8 centimeters.
84.5 centimeters.
95.5 centimeters.
125.7 centimeters.
81.2 centimeters.
6.7 centimeters.
44.0 centimeters.
80.1 centimeters.
54.0 ? centimeters.
73.4 centimeters.
95.0 centimeters.
125.6 centimeters.
19.0
14.0
12.5
14.1
10.0
10.6

centimeters.
centimeters.
centimeters.
centimeters.
centimeters.
centimeters.

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY O F T H E
Nasion to hair line
6.0 centimeters.
Bimastoid diameter
13.0 centimeters.
Bigoniac diameter
10.2 centimeters.
Naso-buccal distance
7.2 centimeters.
Naso-alveolar distance
5.8 centimeters.
Nose height
2.3 centimeters.
Nose breadth
4.6 centimeters.
Nose length
4.5 centimeters.
Lip width (2)
1.8 centimeters.
Lip length
1.9? centimeters.
Ear breadth
3.6 centimeters.
Ear length
6.2 centimeters.
Distance between the eyes. . . .
3.5 centimeters.
Distance between the outer
corners
9.7 centimeters.
Eye color by Martin's artificial eyes No. 3.
Right handed.

The upper leg length, or approximately the
femur length, is less than that of the lower leg
or tibia, which would give a high crural index,
a characteristic of the Australoid type.
A fair consideration of the physical characteristics of this man will show necessarily his
close relationship to the Neanderthal type. The
massive lower jaw, with its square ramus and
receding chin; the low cephalic index, heavy
brow ridges, rounded orbits, large nasal apertures and high nasal index; the small stature,
but muscular frame, and the short upper leg
or femur, all betoken a form similar to that
232

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
of the antediluvial man of Europe, Homo Heidelbergensis.
I believe this is the fundamental type of the
Philippines, and it is closely allied to the Australoid type, which I have found in groups of
individuals from all parts of the archipelago.
Whether this form originated there or elsewhere may not be known, but the probability
is that it is a production of the East rather
than of Europe, although it may have wandered away from Europe during the ages of
ice and cold, coming to the East for a ,more
equable climate. The presence of a form resembling the Australoid that has been found
in the great islands of the Pacific Ocean, Borneo, Java, Sumatra, Ceylon, Celebes, and in
the Malay Peninsula, indicates that the original home may have been south of Asia, and
they were cradled in the Pacific Ocean.
Whatever the origin of this type there can
be no doubt of its presence in considerable
numbers in the Philippine Islands, therefore I
propose the name Homo Philippinensis for
this form. The description and measurements
given above serve to characterize the type.
Recent studies of paleolithic man in Europe
and living man in the region about southeastern Asia indicate that a form similar to that
233

T H E RACIAL ANATOMY OF T H E
of Homo Philippinensis was the primordial
form of man. Europeans are modified products of various forms that have evolved from
the primordial. I t is conceivable that a form
similar to this primordial type produced Homo
Philippinensis.
I t is also conceivable that the primary and
secondary Australoid types described among
the Igorots, Manila Students, Morgue Subjects and the men of Taytay originated from
Homo Philippinensis.
I will go even further and say that the Negrito and Negro Australoid types are nearly
related to the primordial man.
I t is even not inconceivable that the Primitive and Iberian types have become segregated as the two opposite end results of the
differentiation of primordial man, the former
in Asia, the latter around the Mediterranean
basin. The subsequent union of the two diverse types, Primitive and Iberian, could very
well produce the primary and secondary Australoid, the Alpine and the other types described among the different Filipino peoples;
the Primitive and the Iberian acting as hybrids
in their cross mating according to the laws of
Mendel. The following outline of the evolution of modern races seems plausible:
234

P H I L I P P I N E ISLANDERS
Primordial man with a form similar to
Homo Heidelbergensis, Mousteriensis and
Philippinensis spread into Europe, Asia and
Africa, in each place changing form. In
Africa conditions were such that the original
form became only slightly altered, and is now
found as the Negro Australoid type, but the
hair became kinky and the color black.
In Asia the original form persisted to some
extent, but developed into the Primitive
largely, with only slight pigmentation, and
with straight hair. At a very early period the
American Indian branched from the Asiatic,
at a time when primordial man was beginning
to differentiate into Iberian and Primitive.
Conditions were such in America that little
change has occurred since that time, and at
present the American Indian is a conglomerate
of the primordial form and the early Primitive and Iberian, with recent Iberian intrusions from Europe before the fifteenth century. In Europe the primordial man developed into the Iberian type, which afterwards
spread into Asia, Africa and the Pacific Ocean.
The Primitive has penetrated into Europe
and modified the Iberian. Forms resembling
primordial man persist, and the three types in
235

RACIAL ANATOMY
Europe, as elsewhere, form by interbreeding
various composite and blended types. The
Primitive is physically sluggish, therefore the
frontal region of the brain with its motor activities has not developed to the extent that
the frontal region of the Iberian with intense
motor activity has developed.
The sequence of events in the Philippines
has been something like the following: The
Negritos and Homo Philippinensis inhabited
the islands when the Malays came, although
Homo Philippinensis may have come with the
Malays. The earliest migrations into the archipelago brought the Hindus, largely of the
Iberian type. Later came the Neo-Malays,
who were largely of the Primitive type. The
Moros or Mohammedans, also of the Iberian
type, came afterwards, and more recently the
Spaniards (Iberians) settled. The union of
the Primitive with Homo Philippinensis and
the Iberian produced the Australoid Igorot,
or the primary Australoid. The union of the
Primitive or the primary Australoid with the
Indian and Spanish Iberian produced the secondary Australoid as found at Taytay. The
other types represent re-combinations in various ways of the Primitive, Iberian and
Australoid.
236